BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY 3 9999 06317 657 0 rF t ~7 % g^QAAif "3i ^J^cit Given By IIS.SU'- :xMEN.lS 3^ gJiJIMillfcriTP. ABSTRACT INFORMATION is compiled for use in conserving and man- aging the band-tailed pigeon, largest native member of the family Columbidae in the United States. The report deals with the discovery of the bird and its appearance, distribution, migration, life history, nesting, habits, and game status, and contains a discussion of factors governing its abundance. Original information is presented on food habits, based on the laboratory analyses of 691 stomachs and/or crops of these birds. Mast (acorns and pine nuts) vsras found in 268 of the specimens and constituted 50.1 percent of the annual food. The availability of mast for food largely determines the migra- tion routes and wintering habitat, and indirectly determines the nature and extent of damage inflicted by these birds upon crops. The fondness of the bandtail for cultivated cherries and small green prunes forms the basis for many agricultural com- plaints. These ftuits were found in 98 birds and made up 11 percent of the diet. Other fruits tff the rose family taken by the birds included those of blackberry, salmonberry, service- berry, toyon, and hawthorn, together making up 13.6 percent of the annual food. Cultivated grains formed 12.8 percent of the diet, showing the adaptability of the bird to modern conditions. Cultivated peas made up nearly 5 percent of the food. Although both grain and peas are frequently waste gleaned from harvested fields, many complaints of depredations arise. Other vegetable items found very acceptable by the bandtail include fruits of huckleberry, salal, elderberry, dogwood, cas- cara, and hackberry. The foods identified included 76 in- dividual items, representing 26 plant families. Animal food of the adult bandtail comprises less than one- fourth of one percent and appears to be taken only accidentally. Th'e bird is a voracious feeder and when large flocks attack a farm crop, severe damage may result. A summary of the bandtail's economic status is compiled from records of the Fish and Wildlife Service, and is followed by suggestions for crop protection. In winter, California harbors most of the West Coast popu- lation of bandtails which constitutes the greater part of the total, as birds from the Northwest commonly concentrate there. As a species, the band-tailed pigeon is little more than holding its own, with local increases in some States, local decreases in others. As it lays only one egg, its reproductive potential is low, and careful attention must be directed toward every practice that might cause further decreases. Shooting seasons and bag limits should not be liberalized. As to management, breeding stock must be carefully con- served over the entire range; the accepted principles and practices of forestry that will preserve or even increase the supply of oaks and pines, and the wild fTuits and berries that supplement mast as food, must be kept in operation; and suit- able nesting habitat must be maintained. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR J. A. Kiiifc. Secretary FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Albert M. Day, Director North American Fauna 58 HABITS, FOOD, AND ECONOMIC STATUS OF THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON BY JOHNSON A. NEFF UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1947 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing OfBce Washington 25, D. C. — Price 20 cents it. S. SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS JUN 19 1947 CONTENTS Page Introduction 1 History of knowledge of ttie species.... 2 Natural history 4 Description 4 Size 4 Plumages 5 Courtship 5 Calls 5 Behavior 6 Nesting 6 Nesting season 6 Nest location and structure .... 9 Communal nature in nesting 11 Eggs 12 Incubation 12 Growth of the young 13 Natural enemies and disease 17 Distribution 17 General range 17 Summer range 18 Winter range 24 Migration 2fi Spring 2fi Autumn 27 Routes of migration 29 Page Value as a game bird 29 Present status 33 Management possibilities 36 Agricultural relationships 37 Depredations 37 Cherries, grapes, and prunes.... 39 Grain crops 43 Walnuts 45 Methods of crop protection 4.5 Food habits 51 General 51 Use of mineral salts 54 Results of laboratory examinations.. 54 Seasonal food preferences 63 Winter 63 Spring 64 Summer 6 1 Autumn 6.') Discussion 6.t Use of gravel 68 Influence of age or sex 68 Feeding mannerisms 68 Quantity of food taken 68 Summary 69 Bibliography 71 HABITS, FOOD, AND ECONOMIC STATUS OF THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON By Johnson A. Xefj-, BiologLst. Economic liivcstiffations. Division of Wildlife Research, Fish and Wildlife Service INTRODUCTION For many years the band-tailed pigeon {Columha fasciatci fasciata) has pleasurably interested sportsmen and ornithologists of the western United States, but at times it has aroused the ire of agriculturalists. Pursued as a game bird in some parts of its range for more than 70 years (except for a period of complete protection from 1913 to 1932) , the band-tailed pigeon has, through its wariness and powers of flight, survived in sufficient numbers to be treated as a game species in a few far-scattered localities. Bandtails, blue pigeons, blue rocks, or wild pigeons, as they are called in different parts of their range, are discussed in many pages of the ornithological literature of the past 75 years, yet informa- tion is still inadequate for determination of the exact status of the species and for definition of practical methods for its management. Food and cover are the primary essentials for the welfare of any species. In few instances, however, does the availability of an ample food supply influence the habits, range, and distribution of a species as extensively as it does those of the band-tailed pigeon. This report summarizes, for practical use, the available information on the range, life history, habits, food, and game status of this bird, and records the findings from the examination of 691 stomachs and crops. Prior to 1937 the Food Habits Laboratory, of the Bureau of Bio- logical Survey (now part of the Fish and Wildlife Service) , had ac- cumulated 142 stomachs and gullets of the band-tailed pigeon, and ^0 of these had been examined by Sterling Bunnell, E. R. Kalmbach, and Alexander Wetmore. Early in 1937 continuation of this study was assigned to the writer. The remaining 62 stomachs and crops were examined, 549 additional crops and /or stomachs were ac- quired and examined, and field observations were carried on in 5 States. studv of th^^n, f- tni.t^^i '^^'^?'"^"*, °i services rendered and of interest shown in this fnflhifhfnUv T ",;; f '^^*'°" ',* '"■'-'''' .*° ^ ^'"°"P o*^ cooperators too numerous to ,nention assisteH bvVniW^ ''"^^ present employees of the Fish and Wildlife Se.-vice have ftPn, ,.^L ^""^'St'ns: specimens, analyzing crop and stomach contents, identifying food ilvi-^n^ Tnd'"fdiHn°'' of Vr '" official reports or by letter, and assisting in thl writing re\ising, and editing of this report. Valued ass stance has been given also bv virinns employees of the Forest Service and the Soil Conservation SeVvce^of the Un ted Sates s!rvtTTti,fv^ffZ%'Z^' n"'' °/ "'? °.^.l" ?^ ^"d'^" Aff'-^'^-s '-^"d the National Park service ot tlie United States Department of the Interior. Most of the western State Game Sens and" in ?n,^ni"]fin^ of their wardens individually, have cooperated In collecting ?peci r^dn \inl,^ ^ V ", u?'7"''*'°'?- Certain scientific institutions, among them the Colo- Northern ri^onn'nV/n^S^n^^^^^^^ *^' California Academy of Sciences, and the Museum of h=,\^-f !^ Arizona, and biologists of many of tJie universities within the ran-e of the banatail, as well as many bird students, have also contributed freely. " 2 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE HISTORY OF KNOWLEDGE OF THE SPECIES The type specimen of the band-tailed pigeon was obtained on Plum Creek, near Castle Rock, Douglas County, Colo., by members of Long's expedition to the PfOcky Mountains, and described for the first time by Say in 1823. Eggs were first collected by Lieuten- ant Benson (Bendire 1892)1 near Fort Huachuca, Ariz., on September 25, 1885. It is impracticable, if not impossible, to compare the present numbers of the pigeons with those of any year in the early history of the West. The variation in degree of concentration in response to changing food supplies and the widespread wilderness range of the species make it difficult now to draw satisfactory conclusions from the scattered reports on abundance. Prior to 1913 small notice had been taken of the species as game in most States and little protection was afforded it. In the North- west most of the shooting was done during the spring months when the pigeons were concentrated in grainfields. In California, however, pigeon hunting, including market shooting, was de- veloped to a high degree. During the period before the automo- bile became a great factor in hunter transportation, gunning had occurred locally wherever pigeons concentrated. Although the number of hunters increased annually as the West became more densely settled, lack of transportation limited the hunters to rela- tively small areas. Ornithologists were few in number and widely scattered, hence there is no estimate of early-day pigeon abun- dance that would make possible comparison with present numbers. Early writers use such terms as "quite numerous," "common but never abundant," "very abundant," "common," "occasionally quite plentiful," and "fairly abundant." Only one instance has been noted that specified truly great num- bers. Bendire (1892) quotes Carpenter as follows : ". . . this species is most numerous near the mouth of the Columbia River, where immense flocks were to be seen from May to October 1865, which fairly rivaled those of the Passenger Pigeon." During the winter of 1911-12 there was an enormous ffight of band-tailed pigeons along the California coast from Paso Robles to Nordhoff", and sport and market hunting flourished. Chambers (1912) described conditions in that area, stating that one market hunter shipped some 2,000 pigeons to city hotels, that the morning train from San Luis Obispo to Los Olivos carried about 100 hunt- ers each Sunday morning, and that frequently the hunters took an average of 30 birds each. The number of pigeons killed in the large area covered by that winter concentration must have been enormous, for hunters came from long distances. Apparently the birds remained in the area until shot out. This unusual congrega- tion of birds and of hunters brought the dangers of the bandtail's situation to public notice, and in 1913 Grinnell in furthering the drive for protection published an excellent summary of the status of the species. As practically the entire band-tailed pigeon population of the 1 Publications referred to parentlietically by date are listed in the Bibliography, p. 71. THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 3 West Coast wintered in a relatively small area in central and southern California, it was possible for concentrated shooting to decimate the numbers of the species. The instance described by Chambers aroused ornithologists to the great need of the birds for protection. The first action came in 1913 when in the appropriation act for the United States Department of Agriculture there was embodied what was commonly known as the Migratory Bird Law of 1913. This act asserted the authority of the United States Government over those birds, both game and nongame, that in the course of their northern and southern migrations passed through any of the States or that did not remain permanently within the borders of any State or Territory. Under this legislation the Department of Agriculture was directed to adopt suitable regulations to give ef- fect to the act, and when the regulations were approved and pro- claimed by the President on October 1, 1913, they embodied a closed season on certain species, including the band-tailed pigeon, until September 1, 1918. This act served its purpose though there was doubt that it could stand the test of constitutionality. Therefore the treaty with Great Britain for the protection of birds migrating between the United States and Canada was negotiated and was made effective by the adoption of the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, of July 3, 1918. Un- der this unquestionably constitutional act the closed seasons on certain species prescribed in 1913 were continued, and the band- tailed pigeon was afforded complete protection until 1932, during which period the birds gained slowly but consistently in numbers. Owing to the growing numbers of complaints by farmers in Cal- ifornia that pigeons were seriously damaging their cherries, the Secretary of Agriculture, pursuant to authority granted in the Mi- gratory Bird Treaty Act, issued an order on April 30, 1924, allow- ing the granting of permits for the destruction of band-tailed pi- geons that were attacking cherry crops in that State. In June 1930 an amended order extended the same privilege to Arizona and Washington. Permits were issuable covering the period from May 15 to July 31, and the grounds for giving them included dam- age to cherries and other small fruits. It was provided also that the birds killed in protecting crops could be used as food by the landowner or lessee. Complaints of alleged depredations on agri- cultural products continued to increase, and the demand for per- mits grew until it was apparent that soon in some sections they would in effect create almost an open season and that during the breeding season of the birds. The pigeons continued to increase slowly but steadily in num- bers, and in 1932 an open shooting season was permitted in Ari- zona, California, New Mexico, Oregon, and Washington. In Colo- rado no open season was permitted until 1944, and that only in 12 southwesterly counties. In Texas and Utah the birds are so sparse- ly distributed that no open shooting has been permitted. The open season in each State in which band-tailed pigeons are present in shootable numbers was limited to 15 days annually until 1942, 4 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE when the period was extended to 30 days ; the possession bag limit in all localities has remained at 10 birds. NATURAL HISTOR\ DESCRIPTION The band-tailed pigeon is described by Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer (1918) as follows: Adults, both sexes. — Head pinkish brown or vinaceoiis (exact tint varying greatly among different individuals), darlcest and more purplisii on top and back of liead, more asliy on chiin and cheeics; Ijase of bill straw yellow, and black; naked eyelids, coral red; narrow collar around hind neck, white, averaging more conspicuous in males; broad area on sides and back of neck (below white collar), iridescent bronzy green; back, dark olive brown; rump and bases of tail feathers, dark bluish gray; ill-defmed band across middle of tail, dull black; terminal portions of tail feathers, drab, lightest on outer ones; outer surface of closed wing, chiefly light gray, the coverts narrowly margined with white; ilight feathers, brownish black; lining of wing and axillars, gray; under surface of flight feathers, dull brown; under surface of body, pinkish brown or vinaccous, deepest on breast and sides, paling to almost white on belly; under tail coverts, white; under surface of terminal portion of tail, whitish, distinctly lighter than upper surface of same; feet straw yellow. In some females the tone of coloration verges towards grayish rather than pinkish brown. Juvenile plumage. — Similar to that of adult, but vinaceous tinge wholly lacking; neck without white collar or iridescent bronzing; under surface dark brownish, with feather tippings of lighter color, giving a faintly scaled effect. Marks for field identification. — Largest of our wild pigeons (about the bulk of a domestic pigeon); general bluish coloration; distinct dark band across middle of square-ended tail; wings without white patches. SIZE Of 320 band-tailed pigeons examined by John C. Knox near Mountain Park, N. Mex., in June 1941, the heaviest adult weighed 151/2 ounces, the smallest 8% ounces. D. M. Gorsuch, of the Unit- ed States Forest Service, weighed 6 birds collected at Williams, Ariz., between September 26 and November 8, 1941. Two adults weighed, respectively, 345 and 359 grams (or 12.16 and 12.31 ounc- es), and four young, respectively, 270, 270, 290, and 290 grams (or 9.52 and io.23 ounces). United States Game Management Agent Frank F. Foley and the writer examined 22 bandtails shot in Colorado between September 17 and 19, 1945; the average weight of 17 adults was 338 grams (or 11.2 ounces), the largest bird weighing 372 grams (or 13.1 ounces) , the smallest 292 grams (or 10.3 ounces), and the average weight of 5 young was 270 grams (or 9.52 ounces) . A 17-day-old nestling in Colorado weighed 140 grams (or 4.9 ounces). Ridgway (1916) gives the following measurements for the band-tailed pigeon as taken from skins, the figures representing in millimeters respectively the smallest and the largest measure- ments of the birds he examined, and, in parentheses, the average (25.4 mm.=l inch) : Adult males, 38 specimens.— Length, 342-400 (363) ; wing, 195-221 (208.6) ; tail, 122-151 (139.4); culmen, 16-20 (18); tarsus, 24.5-29.5 (27); middle toe. 27.5-34 (30.4). THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 5 Adult foiinles, 28 specimens.— hengtlh ;:!34-3!t5 (338) ; wing, 193-218 (204) ; tail, 121-149 (134.1); culmen, 15.5-19.5 (17.G) ; tarsus, 24-28.5 (2(1); middle toe, 26.5-33 (29.6). PLUMAGES In addition to features mentioned in the technical description quoted, it is stated in the literature that the nestling has a yellow skin covered with sparse, cottony, white down. The nestling stud- ied in Colorado in 1945, however, was covered with cottony down of a peculiar shade of yellow and the skin was not noticeably yel- low. According to Bendire, juvenile birds apparently molt during their first fall. The molt of the adults is not well known. Among specimens collected for the present study some birds were identi- fied by the field collectors as juvenile, but on laboratory examina- tion their crops were found to contain active milk glands. Study of September-collected birds in Colorado in 1945 showed consid- erable molt under way. Several adult birds had lost most of their crown and face feathers and presented a quilled hedgehog appear- ance. It was also apparent that soon after the close of nesting activity there is a rather speedy reduction in the prominence of the white neck-ring, especially in the male birds. COURTSHIP Apparently little is recorded concerning the courtship of the bandtail. Bent (1932), quoting Swarth, indicates that cooing and other calls and spectacular circling glides by the male from a perch are among the details of courtship. Pearse (1935) describes an- other activity, apparently part of the courting behavior. Short flights in a hesitant, quivering manner, during which the bird seems almost to float, form the basis of this display. The tail is fully spread, and Pearse says that the tips of the wings appear to be held down. The display is accompanied by two separate very low calls, one of which he describes as being very like the modified chirping of a cricket. CALLS The deep, cooing notes of the band-tailed pigeon are distinctive. Once heard as they ring through the depths of some mountain canyon they will never be forgotten. Mrs. Florence Merriam Bail- ey (1902) terms the calls "owl-like." They are most often heard during the courting period, and Wales (1926) describes the tilt- ing of the head downward to horizontal, the inflation of the neck, and other actions incident to the display of that particular period. After nesting has begun, the cooing is more subdued and less fre- quent. A variety of low guttural call notes may be heard when the par- ents are together at or near the nest ; these are similar to the notes of the domestic pigeon at such times. The squab, when hungry, utters a thin, piping note. Neither of these latter calls can be heard for more than a few yards. 6 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE BEHAVIOR Band-tailed pigeons are very gregarious, consorting in flocks at all seasons except during nesting ; even then communal tendencies are exhibited. They are fond of perching for long periods in the tops of tall dead or partially dead trees, but when approached drop quickly away to better concealment. The flight is strong and swift, and in descending mountain sides the birds may dive with wings partially or completely shut. During such swoops the noise of the wind through the rigidly held wing feathers is often audible for a long distance. When the bird takes flight, the wings may be clapped together over the back producing a sound that may be heard for some distance. This seems to be a form of signal, and not the result merely of intense exertion. NESTING NESTING SEASON The nesting period of the band-tailed pigeon is lengthy. During practically all the months pigeons may be noted in flocks. Even in the nesting season bands of 5 to 50 birds have been observed. These flocks were once considered to be nonbreeders, but it is now thought that they may be nesting birds. This habit, combined with the usual remote nesting habitat, makes it difficult to obtain accurate information on the number of broods a season and other nesting phenomena. Observers have recorded successive broods from the same nest, without proof, however, that the same adults were concerned. The long nesting period alone has led some observ- ers to believe that at least in the South some bandtails may rear two or possibly three broods. In the northern part of the bird's range it seems that normally only one brood is produced. In California, Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer (1918) list nests con- taining eggs or young from March 5 to August 23, and A. C. Ober- le (letter of April 15, 1935) says that nesting has been observed on the Laurette Ranch north of San Dimas, Calif., and in Brown's Flat, the first nesting starting about April 1. Eggs were observed into May. Apparently each nest contained but one egg at a time. Abbott (1927) quoted Bushnell's observation of a nest that con- tained one egg on March 8, 1925, and later a second egg that hatched in mid-May. Moran (1919) relates finding a nest with one well incubated egg on March 30, 1895, at the head of Lopez Canyon, San Luis Obispo County. Grinnell (1928) watched a squab being fed in a nest on September 29, 1927. Stillman (1928) describes a young bird that left its nest in San Diego County on October 2. Kloppenburg (1922) noted a nest in the Plumas Na- tional Forest that contained one egg in mid-September. Derby (1920) recorded one containing a naked squab on September 1, 1920, at 6,500 feet elevation on the headwaters of Deer Creek, Se- quoia National Forest. Davis (1938) wrote of the nesting season near Eureka, and Michael (1928) of that in Yosemite National Park. These records seem to bound the outer limits for California. THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 7 Kitchin (Bent 1932) said that the nesting season in Washington lasted from April through June. Einarsen (letter of December 15, 1939) reported a nest near Triton Cove, Hood's Canal High- way, that on August 24, 1939, contained a squab about a week old. Hagenstein (193(5) observed a nest containing a squab near Seattle on October 17, 1935. Gabrielson and Jewett (1940) report that in Oregon egg-laying is at its height late in May and in June, and give May 3 and July 12 as the known extremes of the season. Later, Jewett (1941) re- corded a nest with two eggs in Yamhill County on September 30, 1940. In Arizona, according to Bendire's correspondents, nesting oc- curred in nearly every month of the year. Poling, writing to him from Fort Huachuca of various nests, said, "I have taken young two or three months old in February, and since that time young and eggs enough to show that they lay and nest from December to August." Benson reported nesting of the bandtails in the Hua- chuca Mountains from early July to late October; Willard (1913) noted an October nest; and Vorhies (1928) one in September. On Pinal Mountain south of Globe, Ariz., Carlos Stannard reported nests as follows : August 18, 1940, one egg ; August 19, 1940, squab ready to fly ; August 23, 1940, a squab about 4 days old which was still in the nest on August 30 ; and on August 14, 1941, four nests, one with eggs, three with squabs between 1 and 3 w^eeks old. Con- siderable field work by the writer, accompanied by State game wardens, leads to the conclusion that in southern Arizona nesting most commonly begins early in May, though occasionally earlier. For New Mexico, Mrs. Florence Merriam Bailey (1928) lists a number of interesting records, chief among them being that of a nest containing one wellincubated egg on April 23, 1922, 16 miles northeast of Santa Fe, at 10,500 feet elevation, well above the snow line. There are also records for the Animas Mountains, Guad- alupe Mountains, Monument Pass, Black Mountains, and the Pe- cos, Sacramento, Sandia, Taos, Sangre de Cristo, Jemez, and Mo- gollon Ranges, the dates extending from June 3 to mid-August, and the elevations from 5,800 to 8,000 feet. Of 280 adult band- tails examined by John C. Knox at Mountain Park between June 25 and July 10, 1941, 235 were males, 151 of them with testes in- dicating active breeding condition, and 45 wxre females, 22 of which contained well developed eggs. In Utah, Lee Griner records a bandtail nesting in June, and Clarence Cottam (1941) saw a juvenile recently out of the nest on July 24. In Texas, Ray Williams, State Game Warden, ob- served a pair of pigeons building a nest on April 22, 1933, in the Davis Mountains, and saw a nest containing an egg in the Chisos Mountains in July of that year. For Colorado there was until 1945 no definite breeding record substantiated by collection of eggs or young or by photographs of nests. The presence of the birds over a wide range, however, made it certain that they did nest. R. J. Niedrach (Niedrach and Rock- well 1929) of the Colorado Museum of Natural History collected a bird near Kittredge on June 20, 1928, that contained a fully 8 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE formed egg, and in Jarre Canyon near Sedalia on September 11, 1938, he took several birds that contained active milk cells in their crops. Several State game wardens and woodsmen relate having seen nests in earlier seasons, but none were reported at the time and hence are not verified. Warden Hall, of Montrose, re- ported that in 1943 on Tabeguache Creek in the Uncompahgre Na- tional Forest he saw a number of juvenile birds that were so imma- ture they could not have been long out of the nest. B-62847 Figure 1.— Nest and day-old yomig of the band-tailed pigeon in a lodgepole pine on the Rampart Range, Pike National Forest, Colo., August li2, 11J45, the first recorded and authenticated nest of this species for the State. THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 9 On August 22, 1945, the writer found the first recorded and au- thenticated nest for the State. It was in a lodgepole pine on the summit of the Rampart Range, Pike National Forest, some 55 miles south of Denver, and contained a day-old squab (fig. 1). On August 31, R. J. Niedrach found a second nest nearby contain- ing an older squab. On the basis of information available at the end of 1945 it seems that the major nesting season for Colorado covers the period July 1 to August 30, with a few pairs of band- tails nesting earlier or later. NEST LOCATION AND STRUCTURE The location of band-tailed pigeon nests varies greatly. 0. B. Johnson (1880), Irene G. Wheelock (1904), and Cooper (1880) report ground nests, but no other similar nestings have been re- corded. Johnson observed in the Willamette Valley, Oreg., nests ranging from the top of a stump 8 feet high to the dense branches of a fir at about 180 feet. C. E. Bendire (1892) quotes Ankeny as describing nesting in the Rogue River Valley, Oreg., on limbs of small firs, generally in dense thickets. William Lloyd wrote Ben- dire that in Texas and in Mexico nests were largely in oaks, and Stephens told him that in Arizona nests were usually in pines at heights of 8 to 20 feet from the ground. Benson and Poling report- ed nests in Arizona in pines, oaks, and mulberries, at heights of 15 to 70 feet, and from 5,000 to 8,000 feet elevation in the moun- tains. E. A. Kitchin, in correspondence with Bent, said that nesting sites in Washington were mainly in dark fir trees, in the lower branches near the trunk, and averaged about 20 feet from the ground. Occasionally nests were found in alder or birch on hill- sides. Leo K. Couch informed the writer that around Willapa Harbor, Wash., the bandtails nest in Sitka spruce (Piccci sitchcn- sis) . Ira N, Gabrielson and Stanley G. Jewett (1940) report that in Oregon the nest is usually high in a coniferous tree. Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer wrote that most of the California nests were in oaks, at heights of 8 to 30 feet. One was reported in a Douglas fir and one in a California lilac (Ceanothus thyrsiflor- us). Fowler (1903) reported live oaks as favored locations for nests in the Huachuca Mountains of Arizona, the nests being built on low, horizontal limbs from 9 to 12 feet from the ground. In July 1939 the writer, with George Peterson, Deputy State Game War- den, of Nogales, Ariz., visited several of the high oak canyons in the Tumacacori and Washington Camp Mountains near Nogales in search of bandtail nests. About 10 nests, deserted but of the cur- rent season, were inspected . All were in oak trees at heights of 12 to 25 feet, in dense woods near the canyon floors. David 0. Scott, of the United States Forest Service, describes a nest found near Williams, Ariz., as being 15 feet up in a yellow pine and very loosely constructed of coarse oak sticks. The two occupied nests found in 1945 in Colorado, and several unused nests found nearby, were all in lodgenole pine forest at ele- 10 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE vations of approximately 8,400 feet. One nest was in a fork against the trunk, the others one to two feet out on flat Hmbs ; all were 14 to 16 feet above the ground. All were in trees on rims or slopes, with lower vegetation downhill, so that the adults had room for a downward dive upon leaving the nest as they picked up momentum. The nests (figs. 2 and 3), typical of those of the pigeon family, B87I4M Figure 2. — Band-tailed pigeon on a typical nest in a pine tree on Maverick Mountain, Prescott National Forest, Ariz. (Photographed hy Floyil Schroeder, Fnited States Forest Service.) are usually frail platforms of dead twigs of oak, pine, or other plant stems. The ground nest reported by Johnson (1880) in the Willamette Valley was made of leaves and moss. A nest measured by Grinnell (Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer 1918) was 8% inches by 4 inches, exclusive of several protruding twigs. Frequently there are numerous gaps in their structure, the frailty of the nests being generally commented on in the literature. Nests observed by the w^riter near Nogales, Ariz., in 1939 and 1940 were thin platforms of oak twigs, so fragile as to cause one to wonder how eggs and young could remain on them. Willard (1916) , describing nest building in the Huachuca Moun- tains of Arizona, says that it was carried on only in the morning hours from sunrise to about 8 a. m., almost entirely by the female, and that she proceeded in a most lackadaisical manner. The peri- od from the placing of the first stick to the laying of the first egg was 6 days. THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 11 FiGiTRE 3. — Nest aud young of the band-tailed pigeon in the humid coastal area of Tillamook County, Oreg., June 25, 1931. (Photographed by Alex Walker.) Bent quotes Kitchin as stating that bandtails are very fond of their old nesting sites and that they come back year after year to the same limb even though the previous nest has been disturbed. Kitchin records second nests built on the same spot where an earli- er nest of the current season had been robbed or destroyed, and cites one instance of a nest from which he collected the egg being followed by a second nest on the same site from which he again took the egg ; later in the season he found in the same place a third nest that he left intact. Noack (1916) describes the breeding of the band-tailed pigeon in captivity. The first egg laid was removed from the nest and was hatched by a domestic pigeon. Within a few days the bandtail laid another egg, which was hatched and the young bird raised. Then a third egg was laid and a second squab reared to maturity. COMMUNAL NATURE IN NESTING Usually the band-tailed pigeon nests in widely separated pairs. Fowler (1903), however, describes a community breeding ground near Fort Huachuca, Ariz., where some 35 pairs nested in a loose rookery ; in the area most thickly populated there was one nest to each 3 or 4 acres. Observations by George Peterson, Deputy State Game Warden, of Nogales, in 1936 in the Tumacacori Mountain range northwest of Nogales, Ariz., were of the same purport. The community nesting ground was in dense vegetation along the bot- 12 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE torn of a steep canyon at an elevation of about 6,000 feet. Inspec- tion of recently deserted nests in that canyon and others by Peter- son and the writer in 1939 and 1940 showed that nests were irregu- larly spaced along the bottom of the canyon, sometimes within a few yards of each other, but usually fairly widely separated. Surprising examples of community nesting are contained in two notes transmitted by H. Garvin Smith, of the United States Forest Service, Tucson, Ariz. He says that in 1933, while camping in the Magdalena Mountains of New Mexico he found 14 bandtail nests in one large Douglas fir near a spring, and that in 1934 in the same tree he found 17 nests, one of which contained two eggs, the others one each. Fred Herman, of Sanborn Park, Montrose County, Colo., relates that a former Forest Service employee described a number of "colony trees" that he had seen among the thick, bushy conifers along the rimrock above Horsefly Creek Canyon north of Sanborn Park, and that he had also found the pigeons nesting in blowholes and on ledges in the sandstone rimrock along Big Red Creek Can- yon nearby. Several other Colorado game wardens have reported bandtail activity about similar rimrock areas and they feel sure that pigeons nest there. EGGS The usual, or normal, deposition is one egg to a nest, but in the literature are a number of records of two eggs. In a tabulation covering 18 nests in California, Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer (1918) report one nest containing two eggs and one containing two squabs. 0. B. Johnson (1880) observed two nests in the Willa- mette Valley, Oreg., that contained two eggs each. Bendire quotes Ankeny as saying that two eggs were laid in nests in the Rogue River Valley, and Lloyd as describing two-egg sets in Texas and in the Sierra Madre of Mexico. Cooper (1880) also said that the set was two eggs. On the other hand, Bendire quotes Benson, Stephens, and Poling as stating that only one egg to a nest was laid in the Huachuca Mountains of Arizona. Jewett (1941) re- ports a two-egg nest in Yamhill County, Oreg., on September 30, 1940, and H. Garvin Smith writes that he has seen several two- egg nests in New Mexico. Ralph Morrow, Deputy State Game Warden, of Hilltop, Ariz., observed "several" nests in the Chiricahua Mountains, in each of which w^ere a half-grown squab and one egg. G. W. Peterson, Deputy State Game Warden, of Nogales, Ariz., said that during June 1936 in canyons of the Tumacacori Range northwest of No- gales he inspected 56 bandtail nests, 11 of which contained two eggs. The eggs of the band-tailed pigeon are elliptical-ovate, somewhat pointed, smooth, pure white, and with a slight gloss. A series re- ported by Bent averaged 39.7 by 27.9 millimeters in dimensions. (25.4 millimeters^l inch.) INCUBATION According to Bendire (1892), incubation lasts 15 to 18 days; THE BAxND-TAlLED PIGEON 13 even longer periods should not be exceptional in some of the early- season nests at high altitudes where the weather is still very cold. GROWTH OF THE YOUNG Doves and pigeons differ from all other birds in feeding their nestlings a substance, usually called "pigeon milk," that is devel- oped in the crops of both the male and the female adult. It is creamy-colored and somewhat similar in appearance and consist- ency to curd. Feeding is by regurgitation, and for the first few days after the nestlings are hatched this "milk" is their only food. Little is known of the development of this secretion in the band- tail. Even in regard to the domestic pigeon the literature lacks in- formation on some phases that are of interest ; but since the domes- tic pigeon incubates for 18 days and the young remain in the nest for at least 30 days, it seems probable that the development of the pigeon milk and the duration of the supply may be similar in the two species. The most detailed discussion of the phenomenon of pigeon milk that the writer has found is one that is contained in the literature on the domestic pigeon, and is here briefly summa- rized. About the 8th day of incubation the lobes of the pigeon's crop begin to increase in size through multiplication of the cells of the outer, or proliferating, layer ; by the 12th day the walls of the lobes are obviously thickened and enlarged and on the 18th day they are at their greatest development. The inner layer of each lobe has been pushed farther away from the source of blood in the outer layer, and it begins to degenerate ; globules of fat develop in the cells, and whitish masses of dead cells begin to peel off. By the time the eggs hatch on the 18th day these greasy masses are sufficient to furnish the entire food of the squabs during their first few days of life. After the first few days the regurgitated ma- terial begins to contain some quantity of seeds and other solids that have been softened in the crop of the adults. If is said that the duration of the milk supply varies considerably in the different families of the domestic pigeon, and that in some it has ceased to form by the time the young are 7 days old, w^hereas in others ap- proximately half of the food is still "milk" when the young have reached 10 days of age. Bendire (1892) states that both sexes assist in the care of the young. "The young grow rapidly and are able to leave the nest when about a month old." Mrs. Wheelock (1904) says that the squab is "fed on a thin milky fluid, by regurgitation, for 20 days." Considerable food must be administered at a feeding, as the squabs maintain continued rapid growth with a minimum of pa- rental visits. Abbott (1927) published notes from A. E. Stillman, of San Diego County, Calif., dated September 17, 1922, as follows : "That day the female left the oak tree in the early morning and returned at twilight ; after quickly feeding the young she left again. Next day she left at daybreak and returned at sundown." This squab, according to Abbott, left the nest and tree on October 2. Under date of November 9, 1939, Carlos Stannard, of Phoenix, Ariz., wrote : 14 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE We camped near the top of Pinal Peak, about eight miles south of Globe, Ariz., at about 7,500 feet. In a small yellow pine just over our tent was a band-tailed pigeon's nest with one young. It was about a week old on August 13. I watched the nest pretty steadily for a number of days; we were in that camp until August 31. No adult stayed on the nest during the day after we went there. And after the 16th no adult stayed on the nest during the night. The young left the nest on the 25th but did not leave the tree; it was still in the tree on the morning of the 31st. During the time we were there the young was fed once each day by the female, usually shortly after sunrise, and once by the male about 8 or 9 a.m. I banded all three. The adults seemed to pay no more attention to us than if we were cattle. After the discovery of the two nests in Colorado in August 1945, the writer made every effort to recheck existing information on the growth of the young. As R. J. Niedrach was making a photo- graphic record of these first Colorado nests, the adults were not disturbed as frequently as would have been desirable to obtain full data on growth, but some observations were made on the two nests. At one day of age the squab was a tiny helpless creature about 2 inches long, unable to hold up its head for more than a few seconds. The female parent was on the nest when it was found at 2 p. m. on August 22, and she remained on the nest dur- ing the daylight hours of August 24. The male was on the nest during most of the day of August 23. During the remainder of the study the adults followed this routine : The male returned to the nest between 8:45 and 9:30 a.m. each day and brooded the young bird during the day (fig. 4). The female returned to the Figure 4.— Male band-tailed pigeon on nest hovering a ten-day-old scpiab. Kanipart Range, Pike Xationul Forest, Colo. August 31, 1945. (Photo graphed by R. J. Niedrach.) THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 15 nest at any time between 3 :45 and 5 :15 p. m. She was not observed feeding the youngster, though she undoubtedly must have fed it. Watched from davv^n until dark, the tiny squab appeared to sleep until after the return of the male. During the first week about three feedings, all between noon and 3 p.m., seemed to be the schedule. As the youngster's food capacity grew, the number of feedings was reduced to two, and the period of regurgitation indi- cated that a large quantity of food was taken. Both feedings were about midday. Contrary to Stannard's observation, the adults continued to hover the squab, both day and night, until it was 20 days old. On that date they stopped abruptly and did not return to the nest during either the day or the night except to feed the squab. Each parent came to the nest once daily, between 10 and 11 a. m., fed the squab, and departed. Occasionally during the day one of the par- ents would visit the vicinity, scan the nest and its surroundings carefully, and then depart. During the first 10 days the young squab did not grow very rapidly. It slept most of the day and increased in size, but the feather development seemed to be slow. After about 12 days feather development began visibly to progress. At 17 days of age one of the squabs was well covered with feathers, the body feathers being about 15 mm. out of the sheath and the first primary 30 mm. out of the sheath; the tail feathers measured 28 mm. from the tip of the tail flesh to the tip of the feathers; the head was heavily pinfeathered but had no open feathers, and the sides were quite bare. The yellowish brown down adhered to the tips of the feathers, giving the squab a peculiar fuzzy appearance. At this age the youngster crawled clumsily about over the nest and snapped its beak furiously at the intruder. It weighed 140 grams, or 4.9 ounces. External examination indicated that the crop was well filled with pigeon milk. When the squab was 20 days old the tail feathers measured 42 mm. in length and the first primary was 40 mm. out of the sheath ; the pinfeathers on the head were opening but the sides were still quite bare. When it was 23 days of age its outward appearance had changed little (fig. 5), but when the writer's hand approached, the young bird snapped its beak vigorously, struck with bent wing, and danced awkwardly about over the nest. When the squab was 26 days old it weighed 243 grams and its tail measured 75 mm. For the first time it spent much time preening, apparently picking off the down that still adhered to the tips of the feathers. On that day also, one of the squabs began to exercise and spent much of the day walking about, for the first time venturing off the nest onto the nest branch, waving and flapping its wings, and craning and peering about with interest. This was repeated on the 27th day, and on the 30th day the bird was gone from the nest, tree, and immediate area. The other squab was not observed between its 20th and 26th day, but on the latter day it was sitting quietly on the nest without apparent interest in exercising. The nest was not again visited. Nowhere in the literature examined has the writer found any 695766°— 47— 2 16 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE FiGUKE 5. — Young hand-tailed pigeon about 24 days old on nest. Note the higli degree of eaniontiage alTorded hy the nest, trunk and branches of the tree, and the low-sitting, quiet habits of the young bird. Rampart Range, Pike Naticnial Forest, Colo. September 3. 194:1. (Photograplied by R. J. Niedrach.) information on how long the lobes of the crops of the adult band- tails remain enlarged and thickened, with easily distinguishable milk cells, after the period of active feeding of 'milk' to the young. Knowledge of the length of time that the young bandtail is fed 'milk' is incomplete, but one squab examined in 1945 appeared to have its crop well filled with the soft curdlike 'milk' on the 17th day. Just how long this material, alone or in combination with softened seeds and grains, makes up a part of the food of the squab and how long thereafter the thickened, whitish milk-cell pads remain easily distinguishable in the lobes of the crop of the adult after the 'milk' has ceased to be an item of food for the young are not yet known. On numerous occasions adult pigeons collected for study or shot by hunters on dates well outside the normal nesting season have carried weW defined milk pads in their crops ; others have contained variable remnants of the thickened crop-lobe walls. In some instances observations indicated that the birds still had young in nearby nests ; in others that they apparently were mi- grants. Among such late-season records of bandtails containing well defined milk pads in their crops are those of birds taken in Washington, September 22 and 26 and October 2; in Oregon, September 8 and October 3 ; in Arizona, September 29 ; in New Mexico, September 23 ; and in Colorado, September 15 to 20. In southwestern Colorado in 1944 a majority of the birds examined by United States Game Management Agent Frank F. Foley from THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 17 September 16 to 20 contained this evidence of recent feeding of young, and in New Mexico as late as September 23, 9 out of 34 birds examined showed a similar condition. Until the correlation between disappearance of the milk-cell pads and the 'weaning' of the squab by its parents is definitely established, accurate analy- sis of these observations is impossible. NATURAL ENEMIES AND DISEASE The few instances of molestation of bandtails recorded in the available literature are those by Willard (1916), who said that in Arizona "the Prairie Falcon and Cooper Hawk take considerable toll from the flocks;" by Kitchin (Bent 1932), who remarked that in Washington a gray squirrel occasionally took possession of a pigeon nest, using it as a foundation and adding to it to suit itself ; and S. D. Durrant, whose Hanna, Utah, specimen was struck from a flock by a sharp-shinned hawk (Cottam, letter of May 6, 1940). McLean (1925) reports that a western goshawk pursued bandtails in Yosemite National Park. No doubt there is some pre- dation upon eggs and squabs, but no data are available. One adult pigeon collected near Durango, Colo., in July 1945 was found to contain at least 12 flatworms in its abdominal cavity. Sick pigeons were reported from Whidby Island, Wash., be- tween September 8 and 21, 1939. All were found close about wa- terholes. Reports from United States Game Management Agent Bach mention six birds found dead by Washington State game protectors and three still able to fly weakly, which were shot. Six specimens were sent to Dr. Karl F. Meyer, Hooper Foundation, University of California, who found no evidence of poisoning or of bacterial disease. Dr. Meyer reported hemorrhages in the giz- zard and evidence of acute irritation in the intestinal lining, but the causes were unknown. The band-tailed pigeon seems to be relatively free from natural enemies ; the birds feed on the ground with little apparent fear, and perch conspicuously in the tops of dead trees. One beneficial result of their flocking habit is that individual safety is enhanced by the combined watchfulness of all the birds of the flock. Man through shooting the birds and clearing and destroying their nest- ing range, appears to be the only enemy of importance. DISTRIBUTION GENERAL RANGE As recorded in the American Ornithologists' Union Check-List of North American Birds, fourth edition, 1931, the range of Co- lumha fasciata fasciata is as follows: Breeds in the Transition Zone from southwestern British Columbia, Mon- tana, and north-central Colorado south through the southwestern United States and Mexico to Guatemala, and east to western Texas. Winters from the southwestern United States southward. Accidental in North Dakota. Library research and correspondence have been undertaken to 18 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE obtain a concept of the bird's range at the present time. The re- sults are here presented, beginning in the northwest and moving southward and eastward. SUMMER RANGE The summer range of the band-tailed pigeon is shown in figure 6. Seal 200 Figure 6. — The snmiiier raii.ce of the band-tailed pigeon. (In Canada, north to Bella Coola and Graham Island.) In Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, and Utah, large expanses of range grassland and semi-arid dessert may separate the monutain ranges in which pigeons are found. The range as shown in tJie map covers the extreme distribution as known from existing records. THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 19 In British Columbia, Taverner (1934) says that the species is found west of the Coast Range, north at least to Bella Coola on the mainland and Tow Hill, Graham Island, and Queen Charlotte group along the coast. According to Bent (1932), Courtenay and Chilliwack are the normal limits of range, hence the southern half of Vancouver Island may be considered the area normally in- habited by the birds. In Washington, as in Oregon, bandtails breed locally in varying density west of the Cascades, and probably erratically in the Tran- sition and Upper Sonoran Zones of the eastern slopes. The coast- al belt and the area adjacent to Puget Sound seems to be the cen- ter of their abundance in the State. John Finley, of the Fish and Wildlife Service, at Olympia, says that the most easterly record he has obtained w^as near Bingen, Klickitat County, on the Colum- bia River. In Oregon, Gabrielson and Jewett (1940) report that the spe- cies is common in the western part of the State, its greatest abun- dance being reached on the coast (fig. 7). Breeding in Oregon, B87I0IV1 FiGUKE 7. — Typical band-tailod pisi'Oii habitat in a ■'burn'" in the Ort'j^dii coastal mountains, in Tillamook County, where the luxuriant vegetation offers both food and nesting cover. (Photographed by A. S. Einarsen, September 10, 1940. ) as elsewhere, is erratic. Pigeons may rarely be seen on the east- ern slopes of the Cascades, and the only record for the State at any distance east of this range is of a lone, immature bird col- lected by Jew^ett in the Steens Mountains in Harney County on October 19, 1928. In California band-tailed pigeons nest locally and erratically in Transition and Upper Sonoran Zone areas west of the Sierra Ne- vada divide, chiefly in mountainous areas from Del Norte and Siski- you Counties in the north to the Laguna Mountains of San Diego 20 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE County, Their choice of nesting habitat apparently depends to a considerable degree on temperature. In the southern mountains, in the Sierras, and in the more northerly interior mountains nesting areas are usually at high elevations, but near the coast and in the coastal mountains they are scattered widely at much lower elevations, including the coastal redwood belt. According to Captain W. J. Harp, California Division of Fish and Game, the pigeons nest locally in fair numbers near the small ranches of Humboldt and Del Norte Counties in northwestern California. Bandtails have been listed in so many publications on California birds that it is unnecessary to mention them all; Grinnell and Wythe (1927) describe the species as a summer resident locally in the coastal belt just north of San Francisco Bay; George Wil- lett (1933) says that in southern California it breeds in moderate numbers in the oaks of the Transition Zone, mostly above 3,000 feet, south to southern San Diego County; Grinnell and Storer (1924) record it as being in Yosemite Valley during the nesting season; Derby (1920) describes a nest in the Sequoia National Forest; and Kloppenburg (1922) reports one in the Plumas Na- tional Forest. These records outline roughly the outer limits of the range within which band-tailed pigeons may be observed dur- ing the summer where habitat is favorable. On October 4, 1941, Luther C. Goldman, of the Fish and Wild- life Service, collected a migrating band-tailed pigeon at a point 7 miles east of Calexico, 3 miles north of the Mexican line. This constitutes, so far as the writer knows, the first record of the spe- cies from the floor of the Imperial Valley. In Nevada, Leo K. Couch reported observing a mature band- tail near Success Divide, Duck Creek Range, Nevada National Forest, on November 4, 1943. In Utah, band-tailed pigeons have been observed at several points during the breeding season, and nests have been found in at least one district. Benson (1935) collected a pigeon in the Navajo Mountains on June 20, 1935, and Presnall (1935) described the bird as uncommon on the western rim of Zion National Park. Ac- cording to Cottam (letter of May 6, 1940), S. D. Durrant obtained a specimen killed by a hawk near Hanna, Utah, in 1930 ; the speci- men is now in the collection of the University of Utah. Cottam (1941) summarized the status of the species in Utah, stating that apparently the birds were annual, summer residents in the moun- tains of southern Utah although probably never abundant any- where in the State. He reported 20 bandtails seen on July 24, 1940, at Oak Grove and Bitter Creek Canyon, on the south slope of Pine Valley Mountain, one of them believed to be a juvenile only recently out of the nest. He said that W. G. MacFarland saw a flock at Buckboard Flat, Blue Mountains, in June 1939 at about 8,000 feet elevation. Lee Griner is reported to have observed two flocks totaling 32 birds in the same mountain range 8 miles west of La Sal, Utah, on August 18, 1937, at 8,200 feet elevation, and a flock of 57 birds the same day a mile east of North Creek, at 7,800 feet. Griner also saw the birds and found their nests in June 1937 at Oak Grove, Pine Valley Mountain. Evidence obtained by THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 21 Griner from local observers indicated that the birds had occurred there each summer for at least the last 6 years. In June 1931 and 1932, Cottam reported that flocks of bandtails caused damage to fruit in a small cherry orchard at New Harmony on the east slope of Pine Mountain Valley, and Oscar Deming stated that in 1937 the birds frequented this same mountain from mid-May to Octo- ber. In Colorado the bandtail has been found in suitable foothill and mountain environment in the Transition and Upper Sonoran life zones on both sides of the Continental Divide. Numerous rec- ords obtained from the Colorado Museum of Natural History, the Colorado State Game and Fish Commission, and the field person- nel of the Forest Service and the Fish and Wildlife Service, and reports from farmers and sportmen show that pigeons have been seen at some time in 42 counties. Those counties in which the pigeon population is considered as moderate to large include Archuleta, Conejos, Dolores, Douglas, Eagle, Gunnison, Huerfano, La Plata, Las Animas, Montrose, Ouray, Pitkin, Pueblo, Rio Grande, and San Miguel. Counties with small to moderate populations include Alamosa, Bent, Boul- der, Chaffee, Clear Creek, Costilla, Custer, Delta, El Paso, Fre- mont, Garfield, Gilpin, Grand, Hinsdale, Jefferson, Mesa, Mineral, Montezuma, Park, Pt-io Blanco, Saguache, San Juan, Summit, and Teller. In several other counties pigeons have been seen occasion- ally and intermittently ; these include Elbert, Jackson, Lake, Lari- mer, and Weld Counties. Reports indicate extreme erraticism in much of the Colorado range ; in some counties pigeons are more numerous now than for some years, while in others none has been seen for several sea- sons, and in others there is a noticeable fluctuation in numbers from year to year. Occasional reports from old residents indicate that fifty years ago large numbers of pigeons existed in some parts of Colorado. Food conditions undoubtedly explain many of these var- iations. The bulk of the birds at the present time seems to occur south of a line drawn from Montrose to Pueblo along United States Highway 50. A Forest Service report for the year 1942 shows that pigeons were observed during that year on the Cochetopa, Holy Cross. Montezuma, Rio Grande, Roosevelt, San Isabel, San Juan, and Uncompahgre National Forests. The total reported as actually counted was 3,032. The San Juan Forest led with 1,200 pigeons. Colorado is the northeastward margin of range for the species, and for that reason variations would be expected to occur, espe- cially in counties along the east base of the mountains and at the north. Extensive field work is necessary before the status and range of the bandtails can be definitely outlined for Colorado. In Arizona, Swarth (1914) gave the range of the species as follows : A common summer resident in suitable localities throushout the S'tate; that is, in the higher mountain ranges, breeding usually above 6,000 feet. Has been found in summer on San Francisco Mountain, Mount Graham, and the White, Mogollon, Santa Catalina, Huachuca, and Carmelita Moun- tains. 22 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Specimens were collected north of Williams, and a nest was found south of that town, in 1937, and specimens were also col- lected in 1941. South and southeast of Williams bandtails are seen in fair numbers annually at many places in the Prescott Na- tional Forest. They also occur in some numbers in Oak Creek Can- yon south of Flagstaff. They have been observed on numerous occasions in the Coconino, Tonto, and Sitgreaves National For- ests. In June 1941 Charles C. Sperry found them abundant near Jacob's Lake in the northern end of the Kaibab National Forest. Clifford C. Fresnall noted several pairs near Hilltop, San Carlos Indian Reservation, on May 15, 1941, and in June of the same year saw paired pigeons at several places in the Fort Apache In- dian Reservation. The birds are also frequently observed near McNary and Springerville, and in many places in Greenlee Coun- ty. They nest in the higher elevations of the Crook National For- est near Globe, on Pinal Peak, in the Pinaleno Mountains of Gra- ham County (fig. 8), and in the Santa Catalina, Chiricahua, and B87091VI FiGrRE S. — Band-tniled pijieon range in the oak-and-pine-coverecl Pinaleno Moun- tains of Arizona. Huachuca ranges to the southward. Large numbers of them were seen on numerous occasions in the mountains between Patagonia and Nogales and in the ranges to the west of Nogales. Mrs. Florence Merriam Bailey (1928) says that in New Mexico "the occurrence of the Band-tailed Pigeon at any given place seems to vary in different years according to the food supply. This is especially true of the oak-covered mountain slopes which may swarm with the birds when there is a heavy crop of acorns and be entirely deserted during a whole year when the acorn crop is a failure." She adds that the birds usually occurred at 6,000 to 8,000 feet, but frequently ranged much higher in the autumn, and THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 23 gives examples of observations in the Mimbres Range at 9,000 feet and on Pecos Baldy and in the Jemez Mountains at 10,000 feet. L. W. Simmons, Deputy State Game Warden, informed L. J. Merovka, United States Game Management Agent, that he saw bandtails near Tererro on June 25 and July 7, 1940. He estimated that there were 250 of the birds, and said that they remained in the area until September 12. He also reported 115 on Cow Creek near Upper Colomas and 100 near Lower Colomas on July 15, 1940. W. M. Wilson wrote Merovka on October 2, 1940, that pigeons came into the Burro Mountains early in May 1939, nested, and left early in October. The birds concentrated well up the mountains. In 1940 pigeons were again present but widely scat- tered. Fred Sherman, of Deming, also reported to Merovka many past observations of bandtails in the Burro Mountains and the Black Range, and in 1940 some observations near White Signal in the Burro Mountains, and in the Black Range near Mimbres, Finos Altos, and Kingston. H. Garvin Smith, of the United States Forest Service, has sup- plied from his notes records ranging back to 1919, when he stat- ed that bandtails in large flocks almost ruined the cherry crop at High Rolls and Orchard Park. In 1925 he said that in the Black Range pigeons were everywhere, gorging on pifion nuts; that thousands passed over his camp flying to roost ; and that they were also reported from the San Mateo Mountains. By contrast, in 1926 his notes record that pigeons were very scarce in the Mogo- llons and on the west side of the Black Range. He also observed nesting birds in the Magdalena Mountains in 1933 and 1934. David 0. Scott, ranger in the Carson National Forest, Penasco, wrote that he saw his first pigeon for the year on May 19, 1941 ; he concluded that bandtails were relatively scarce in that area, though there w^ere at times small groups of them in Santa Bar- bara Canyon and near Rio Pueblo. Dean M. Earl, of Carlsbad, reported that the only time he saw pigeons on the Lincoln Nation- al Forest was in the fall. Cliff'ord C. Presnall and other employees of the Fish and Wild- life Service saw about 400 bandtails on May 30, 1941, near White- tail School, on the Mescalero Indian Reservation, and single birds at other places on the reservation. D. Wood, Jr., one of the ob- servers, said that during previous employment on that reserva- tion, between 1931 and 1933, he saw many pigeons in small flocks, and that he believed they nested near Carizzo Springs. They have been reported from Sarca Canyon, Capulin Springs, and other places in the Sandia Mountains near Albuquerque. L. J. Merovka said that band-tailed pigeons are usually fairly numerous around Bland, Senorita, and La Jara Canyons in the Jemez Mountains, and that he saw 500 in the latter place in Sep- tember 1943. He also reported a flock from Stone Canyon in the Black Range, and on June 13, 1944, he noted a flock near Amalia, on the Costilla River, a few miles south of the Colorado State line. Few early references to the range of the species in western Tex- as were found. One specimen from Uvalde was examined : Van Tyne and Sutton (1937) listed the birds from Presidio and Brew- 24 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE ster Counties; and Oberholser (1902) reported them from the Chisos, Guadahipe, and Davis Mountains. Ray Williams, State Warden, of Alpine, Texas, wrote Merovka that in the Trans- Pecos area bandtails ranged from 5,700 to 8,700 feet elevation in the Sierra Madre and the Glass Mountains of Pecos and Brewster Counties, in the Eagle Mountains of Hudspeth County, in the Di- ablo and Guadalupe Mountains, and in the Davis and Chisos rang- es. Casual records are listed by Carter and Trentoon (Nice 1924), including that of one bandtail killed near Crescent, Logan County, Okla., in 1905. Schufeldt (1912) reported the taking of a single specimen near Englevale, N. Dak., on June 2, 1912. Alcorn (1941) reported the collecting of the first specimen from Nevada near Fallon on October 17, 1940. In Mexico, according to information furnished by Frederick C. Lincoln, bandtails nest as far south as Durango (Otmapa Ranch), Puebla (Las Vegas), probably Vera Cruz (Jalapa), and the San Jose Mountains in Sonora. They are also found in Baja Califor- nia. Bandtails were seen by the writer in considerable numbers in June and July 1942 along the Rio de Los Alamos south of No- gales, Sonora, and near Cananea, and along the Rio Babasac near Cocospera. American sportsmen report them widely distributed in the mountains of northern Sonora. WINTER RANGE In the northern part of their range band-tailed pigeons are largely migratory, only a few scattered birds remaining during the winter in sheltered locations. An Audubon Society Christmas Bird Census in the Puget Sound area in 1935 tallied 30 pigeons, and W, H. Ransom, in a letter of April 15, 1939, said that "small bunches quite regularly winter around Medina and Bellevue, Wash., along the east side of Lake Washington." On January 18, 1928, near Agnes, Oreg., a flock of about 150 pigeons feeding on madrona berries was reported to S. G. Jewett, and a few days later he found pigeon feathers along a trail in that vicinity. Jewett also observed a large flock feeding in stubble near Wolf Creek, Oreg., March 20, 1925, and A. W. Moore saw two birds on the Ne- halem River in Oregon on February 22, 1940. In California relatively few pigeons winter in the Sierras north of Yosemite National Park or in the coastal mountains north of San Francisco Bay. Hence the great majority of the bandtails breed from San Francisco Bay northward and concentrate in win- ter in west-central and southern California. The chief wintering area lies in the Sierras from Yosemite southward to Mexico, and in the coastal mountains from Santa Cruz and Santa Clara Coun- ties southward to the Tehachapi range and Los Angeles, usually centering in Monterey, San Luis Obispo, and Santa Barbara Coun- ties. In some years, the major wintering grounds may be from Los Angeles and San Bernardino Counties southward. Moderate but irregular numbers of pigeons occasionally winter in the counties just north of San Francisco Bay, and casual winter THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 25 resident bands may at times frequent the slopes on either side of the Sacramento Valley to Redding. The wintering range in California is closely correlated with food supply, but concentrated shooting during any one season un- doubtedly causes the population of the area affected to diminish during succeeding seasons even though food is abundant. Mrs. Mary Bartol (1940) described the (to her) immense population of the Mount Pinos area in Ventura County in 1933, and remarked that only one year since then had been characterized by a crop of pihon nuts and a consequent large population of pigeons ; she also said that in one of the intervening seasons the shooting area for southern California was in the oak country of the Santa Ynez Valley of Santa Barbara County. Fred H. Post, State Game Warden, of Salinas, Calif., told the writer that in the winter of 1932-33 the birds had been very abun- dant in the mountains of that county. In 1933 food was scarce in the high areas and the birds scattered everywhere. In 1934 food was again plentiful and the pigeons were abundant in De- cember. Other State game wardens in California have described to the writer large midwinter concentrations in areas of abun- dant food and have told of the annual fluctuation in abundance and distribution occasioned by variation in the food supply. Grinnell and Wythe (1927) list the bandtail as a winter resi- dent in the San Francisco Bay region, irregular but sometimes occurring in large numbers and in widespread areas. Willett (1933) records it as sporadically plentiful in southern California in foothills and mountains up to snow line, and also as having been observed on Catalina Island in 1932. In Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas band-tailed pigeons from the northward and from the mountain ranges of those States move toward their southern boundaries or on into Mexico to winter. Variable numbers, however, remain in mountain ranges near the border as food supply and weather conditions permit. Mrs. Bailey (1928) reports them as resident some winters below the 5,000 foot elevation near Clifi", N. Mex., and quotes Stokley Ligon as having observed them on Haut Creek, Socorro County, at 7,500 feet during the winter of 1912-13. Ligon (1927) says that a heavy crop of pihon nuts has in a few instances held them throughout the winter in the Black Range. Fred Pickens, Deputy State Game Warden, and William Wood, of the United States Forest Service, saw 35 bandtails in the San- dia Mountains near Albuquerque, N. Mex., on December 30, 1940, and on the same day Fred Johnson of the same Service saw fully 100 in a neighboring canyon. In Texas, Ray Williams, of Alpine, reports, "I have seen them stay in the Chisos Mountains all winter when there is plenty of food," and on March 22, 1941, G. W. Peterson, Deputy State Ward- en, of Nogales, Ariz., wrote that "band-tailed pigeons stayed with us all winter . . . Acorn crop was very good last year." South of the Mexican border, according to Frederick C. Lincoln, the band-tailed pigeon winters south to Guatemala and Chiapas. A subspecies, Viosca's pigeon (Columba fasciatu vioscae), appar- 26 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE ently nonmigratory, is restricted to southern Baja California, and other subspecies occur in Central America. MIGRATION Periods and routes of migration of the bandtails are strongly influenced by availability of food and by weather phenomena, es- pecially temperature and rainfall. Owing to the vast areas of wilderness through which the birds pass, it is difficult to trace their movements, and over much of their range they appear to move in small flocks which often may pass unnoticed. SPRING Search of the literature gives the following "earliest" dates for the appearance of the bandtail in the northerly parts of its range : Colorado, Beulah, May 7 ; Oregon, Mercer, March 5 ; Washington, Clallam Bay, April 9; British Columbia, Courtenay, May 31. Leaving the wintering grounds in west-central and southern California late in winter, the northward-bound pigeons move slowly along the foothills of the Sierras and along the coast moun- tains. Frequently enormous flocks concentrate in areas of abun- dant food supply. The date of appearance at various California points varies with the season, but often large flights appear in the live-oak-covered foothills east of Sacramento late in February or early in March. Food supplies to a marked degree seem to con- trol the dates and routes of movement. Grinnell (1898) observed a large flock that remained until mid- June 1895 feeding on acorns near Pasadena, and Van Denburgh (1899) reported the birds as frequently remaining in large bands until mid-May near Palo Alto. Evidently migration is erratic and influenced by a number of factors which in few instances are well understood. R. J. Little, State Game Warden, reported in 1935 that the pi- geons usually arrived in Butte and Sutter Counties, Calif., in Feb- ruary. On February 15 he saw about 4,000 birds near Bangor, and on February 20 about 9,000 arrived at the small mountain uplift known as the Sutter Buttes, where they fed on acorns or on grain stubble in the adjacent valley fields. Nelson Poole, State Warden, described a large flight of pigeons, which late in Feb- ruary and early in March 1935 invaded the oak-covered hills be- tween Sacramento, Folsom, and Auburn. These were feeding as they made their way northward, and soon left the Sacramento area. Near Auburn, however, although the numbers diminished, pigeons were numerous until late in April. Just as the cherry growers began to worry about their presence they suddenly moved on, and no more than normal numbers remained. In the border States of Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas, it is more difficult to record the spring migration, as in favorable areas some of the birds frequently spend the winter. Ralph Morrow, Deputy State Game Warden, reported his first 1940 bandtail late in February in the Chiricahua Mountains. The usual spring rec- ords, however, are of birds observed late in April or early in May. THE BAND-TAir.ED PIGEON 27 The autumn migration also is strongly influenced by weather conditions and availability of food. After the major breeding season, pigeons flock together and move about locally following successions of food crops. There is also a definite vertical move- ment from the mountains to foothill or valley lands. This verti- cal migration varies greatly in season and in the Sierras of Cali- fornia seems to be stimulated by snow, storm, and cold weather at the higher elevations as well as by local food diminution, some- times not occurring until December or January. The latest fall records in the North found in the literature (Bent 1932) are for British Columbia, October 29, and for Wash- ington, October 29. For Oregon, Bent (1932) lists the "latest" record as Newport, October 28. Jewett, in a letter of June 10, 1937, gives the following dates : Harney County, October 19 ; Mult- nomah County, October 11 ; Tillamook County, September 17; and Jackson County, October 6. In 1937 the writer spent the period of September 10 to September 25 in western Washington. During that time moderate concentrations of pigeons were observed feed- ing in the area immediately adjacent to Puget Sound from Blaine and Sumas in Whatcom County southward to Olympia, and north- ward to Dungeness in Clallam County. Local game wardens in those areas, however, said that there had been a considerable dim- inution in the population of the bandtails late in August and in the early days of September. South of Hoquiam and west of Olym- pia in the area between the Cascades and the ocean almost no pi- geons were remaining on September 15, and local authorities stat- ed that the mass of the population had departed by September 1 to 10. The southward migration in Oregon normally begins during the last days of August and is M^ell completed by September 20. Along the coastal mountains definite flyways exist, and from stations on them during the period of major migration it is possible for an observer to note band after band of pigeons passing south from daylight until dark. According to a number of observers, these birds "feed" their way along, the roosting place each evening lying farther south than that of the night before. A. S. Einarsen, in a letter of October 3, 1944, described a Wash- ington pigeon migration as follows : On a trip to the State of Washington on September 25, I ran into a migration, and at one point on the Cowlitz River north of Castle Rock, counted 960 birds which came to a point, settling in a few roosting trees and, incidentally, dropping down for a drink of water in a backwater pool before continuing their migration southward almost immediately. In my experience I had never before seen such a steady drift of bandtails at any one point as large or continuous. And in a brief special report dated March 30, 1943, Einarsen describes another migratory concentration point in Oregon thus : They may pause for seA'eral weeks at some gravel bar or watering hole, and often other flocks join them. These facts have been confirmed by field observations at Pigeon Butte in Oregon, 12 miles south of Corvallis and 3 miles west of Bruce Station, one of many such points. Here an annual con- 28 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE centration exists from about August 25 to October 10, enlarged by migra- tions from areas far to the north. Pigeons come into this area to drinli at a source of water supply and fly through a pass in great numbers. From reports of local observers and from personal field obser- vations the writer traced the 1937 migration from Benton and Tillamook Counties southward. From late August to mid-Septem- ber the bulk of the bandtail population ranged from Corvallis to the vicinity of Coquille and Myrtle Point. The writer followed the flight from September 29 to October 4, and in the northern part of the area found only scattered small groups. In the Myrtle Point-Powers district a light population was found, where 20 days earlier several cooperators had reported enormous numbers. From the Roseburg-Coquille highway in Oregon south to north- central California stretches a wilderness that is so large and so sparsely traversed with modern highways that proper analysis of the bandtail migration through it is difficult. At numerous places within this great district the south-bound pigeons are reported almost annually as congregating in great numbers. In the 1937 field trip the writer continued southward along the coastal route. At Brookings, Oreg., ranchers along the Chetco River reported on October 4 that pigeons had been very abundant in their stubble- fields until the onset of a v^ind and rain storm on September 29 and 30. Later Einarsen wrote that from October 19 to 23, 1937, there had been a heavy concentration of pigeons feeding on ma- drona berries in the Applegate section of the PvOgue River Valley. In California it appears that the band-tailed pigeons on the coastal side of the northwest coast mountains congregate in flocks and commence to move south almost concurrently with the begin- ning of the movement in northwestern Washington and Oregon. State game wardens in Humboldt County, Calif., reported that late in August 1937 there had been a large population of pigeons in the area south of Fortuna and west of Garberville that had moved on southward down the coast prior to the arrival of the northern birds. Captain Harp, State Warden, said that in coastal Humboldt County the autumn withdrawal usually had begun by September 1 and that by mid-October of normal years none of the birds were to be found. In 1937 the flights of bandtails from Oregon and Washington were apparently reaching northeastern Mendocino, eastern Hum- boldt, and Trinity Counties by early October, as during that month predatory animal hunters at various localities in the area reported pigeons in great numbers, and by late October considerable flocks were observed in southern Mendocino, Lake, and Napa Counties. In the Sierras the autumnal flights appear to remain normally at high elevations, hence study of them is difficult. Deer hunters and State game wardens often report moderate concentrations in the area near Mount Shasta and west of Mount Lassen, and at times fairly large feeding concentrations are noted farther south along the range. In many seasons, however, the Sierra pigeon pop- ulation remains at from 3,000 to 7,000 feet elevations until Decem- ber. In 1939 the autumn on the West Coast was very mild, and the THE BANU-TAILED PIGEON 29 band-tailed pigeon migration was delayed considerably in com- parison with average seasons. Pigeons were present in central Oregon in fairly large numbers all through September and into October, and a few yet remained in early November. Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer (1918) said that "in event of continued favor- able weather, the birds will often continue in their summer haunts until October or even November . . ." if food is available in these haunts. Mrs. Bailey (1928) compiled from the reports of several ob- servers a number of autumn records for New Mexico, among which were the following: September 15 and 16, 1914, Upper Blue River Canyon; September 17, 1915, Diamond Creek; and November 10, 1914, 20 miles east of Silver City. W. M. Wilson, of Silver City, informed Lawrence J. Merovka that in 1940 pigeons remained in the area near Tyrone, N. Mex., until November 10, and that others were reported in the Black Range ; this, he said, was fully a month later than the noi'mal date of departure. ROUTES OF MIGRATION Except for evidence accumulated through observation of large flocks of band-tailed pigeons, there is little direct information con- cerning the routes of migration used by these birds. They appear to be very erratic, following those routes that offer satisfactory food for the migrating flocks. Extensive banding of these birds is needed to furnish more ex- plicit evidence relative to their migrations and to determine def- initely the winter range of the pigeons produced in the major breeding areas. Reed Ferris, of Beaver, Oreg., discovered that bandtails are readily trapped when feeding on the ground, and he has banded more pigeons than any one else. Banders in pigeon country should make every effort to mark these birds. Up to May 1, 1940, only 185 band-tailed pigeons had been band- ed, and only 5 return records were in the files of the Fish and Wildlife Service. Three of these were of birds that had been band- ed by Ferris at Beaver, Oreg., late in May 1932. One was shot at China Camp (Calaboose Canyon), Monterey County, Calif., in December 1932 ; another in the "Monterey Hills" on December 10, 1933 ; and the third, 15 miles east of Gonzales, Monterey Coun- ty, on the same date. A pigeon banded at Carmel, Calif., in July 1937 was shot on December 14, 1937, near Atascadero, Calif., and one banded at the State Game Farm, at Chino, Calif., in June 1937 was found dead near Cucamonga, Calif., during the same month. VALUE AS A GAME BIRD Grinnell (1913) stated that "the value of the band-tailed pigeon as a true game bird is to be conceded without argument. Its pur- suit is of a different type from that offered by any other game spe- cies." "Stillhunter" (1907), an anonymous writer in southern Cal- ifornia, said that the best place for hunting pigeons was near a 30 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE dead tree where the birds ahght, and that a .22 or .25-20 rifle should be used so that single birds could be procured without scar- ing the flock ; but that for sneaking up on the flocks a "duck gun" was used. Ten pigeons were considered a good day's bag. If the flesh was strong, owing to an acorn diet, soaking it in brine fla- vored with vinegar or lemon would remove the disagreeable taste. Mrs. Mary Bartol (1940) describes the hunting of bandtails in southern California, noting the long-range shooting and conse- quent wasting of ammunition and crippling of birds. She men- tions also the diff"erence in flavor of the flesh caused by the birds eating different foods. Since shooting seasons were resumed in 1932 after 20 years of total protection, several changes have occurred in the annual reg- ulations, each tending toward permitting shooting at a period when more pigeons might be killed. The history of these seasons from 1932 to 1945 is abstracted. Arizona.— 19S2-1^M, December 1-15; 1935-1938, October 16- 30 ; 1939, October 1-15 ; 1940-1941, September 16-30 ; 1942-1945, September 16-October 15. California.— 19S2-ld41, December 1-15; 1942-1945, December 1-30. Colorado. — 1944-1945, Counties of Archuleta, Dolores, Huerfano, La Plata, Las Animas, Montrose, Montezuma, Ouray, San Juan, San Miguel ; and the drainage of the North Fork of the Gunnison River in Delta and Gunnison Counties, September 16-October 15. New Mf'.T/co.— 1932-1934, November 1-15; 1935-1939, October 1-15; 1940-1941, September 16-30; 1942-1945, September 16-Oc- tober 15. Oregon.— 19S2-19S8, October 16-30; 1939-1941, September 1- 15 ; 1942-1945, September 1-30. Washington.— 19Z2-19M, October 16-30; 1935-1941, September 16-30 ; 1942-1945, September 16-October 15. The very slow rate of increase of this pigeon was apparently sufficient to maintain its population under early conditions, but it is amazing that the species has stood up so well and so long against the combination of modern firearms, good roads into wilderness areas, speedy automobile transportation, and the continued trend toward shooting seasons during the period when the birds are most abundant. In winter, California is largely responsible for the fate of the bulk of the present band-tailed pigeon population of the Pacific Coast. The first open shooting season after 20 years of protection in that State occurred in 1932, continuing from December 1 for 15 days. The writer was not afield during that period but has re- ceived numerous verbal reports from hunters. In the Santa Lucia range of Monterey County, Calif., in the Monterey division of the Los Padres National Forest, there was, on December 1, 1932, a heavy wintering population of pigeons. The road leading to Tassa- jara Hot Springs resort, at a place close to 5,000 feet elevation, crosses a narrow saddle locally called China Camp, which sep- arates two deep canyons, Miller and Calaboose. Oak and pine trees THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 31 are abundant on the slopes near the summit of the mountains, and a short distance north of the saddle several wide and fairly open oak flats occur. Madrona and manzanita are abundant along the canyons, and water is available in at least one of the canyons. According to sportsmen, on the first day of the 1932 open sea- son countless pigeons flew across China Camp saddle from Miller to Calaboose Canyons and back again. Hunters quickly congre- gated and band-tailed pigeon shooting became once again a lead- ing sport. Owing to the roughness of the terrain it was extreme- ly difficult for the game officers properly to patrol the pigeon area and no criticism of them is implied. Certain hunters told the writ- er of watching gunners who shot all day long, assisting others to obtain their limits, and left piles of birds on the ground. In 1934 there was again an ample food supply in the area ad- jacent to China Camp saddle, and a large flight of pigeons gath- ered there and in the adjacent flats known as Chews Ridge and White Oak Flat. The shooting season opened on December 1, and the writer visited the area on December 7, viewing the flight and methods of hunting and conferring with wardens and hunters. Since the birds flew to and fro continuously, it was prac- tically impossible to estimate the numbers present, but the flight on December 7, after 6 days of shooting, was not unusually large. When there was little shooting at China Camp saddle, the birds flew up and down the two canyons ; when numbers of hunters oc- cupied the saddle, the birds scattered out and flew widely over the mountain-top flats. On December 9 (Sunday) the writer again went to the shooting area. The entire mountain abounded with hunters, automobiles, and guns. Gunners covered every opening in the forest and shots poured into the pigeon flight from all directions and elevations. At China Camp saddle the picture was not pleasant, as ten men shot where one would have been enough. Sportsmanship was vir- tually absent. In the continued fusillade of long-range shots, many wounded pigeons plunged to earth or fluttered down to alight in shrubbery or trees. Owing to the steepness of the slopes and their dense vegetation, the loss of birds was very high, possibly as many as five pigeons being lost or mortally wounded for every bird picked up by a hunter. State game wardens made partial surveys of the kill during this 1934 season, usuafly counting only the full-limit bags taken off" the area. On December 9, however, the writer assisted three State Tat.le 1. — Data on pigeon kill, Tasmjara District, Monterey County, Calif.. 19S'i Date lypQ of count Number of hunters checked Number of ba? limits checked Recorded kill Deo 1 185 412 •123 60 143 830 1.5(1 28lt 60 30 85 445 1.500 Dec. 2 do 2.800 Dee 5 do 600 Dec. 7. .. . . .do 300 Dec 8 do 850 Dec. 9 6,404 695766°— 47— 3 32 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE game wardens in a complete roadside inspection at the foot of the mountain. The record of kill on the various days is given in table 1, the figures for December 1 to 8 being generously furnished by the State game wardens covering the district. In conversation with wardens and several scores of hunters, December 7 to 10, 1937, the writer learned the reactions of the gunners of this district. The vast majority denounced the reckless shooting and the wastage of birds. Numerous hunters expressed the opinion that the band-tailed pigeon could not maintain its ex- istence in the face of such shooting as occurred in the China Camp area in 1932 and 1934. Fully 20 percent voluntarily declared for regulations to reduce the kill. Since 1934 there has been no such large concentration of birds at that place. In some seasons there has been a shortage of food, but to the writer it seems that some of the scarcity of birds can be attributed to the terrific shooting of 1932 and 1934. It is for the welfare of the species, therefore, that usually the winter pop- ulation in California has not concentrated in any such small areas. The writer observed shooting practices on Whidby Island, in the Snohomish River delta area, and at other places in Washing- ton in 1937. There was no parallel to the California situation, the shooters being widely scattered. The most frequently observed method of shooting, however, left much to be desired in the matter of "sport," as hunters lay in wait and shot at pigeons that perched in the tops of tall Douglas fir snags. The food of the pigeons during the general period of shooting greatly aff'ects the flavor of the flesh of the birds. In the Puget Sound area during the September open season the major food is peas from the stubblefields, and the birds are said to be of fine flavor. Mrs. Bartol (1940) pointed out the difference in flavor of California birds that fed on pihon nuts from those that ate acorns. By far the majority of pigeons killed in California have fed on acorns or on the fruits of the madrona. Their flesh is fla- vored by those foods, and old birds are very tough. Entirely too Table 2. — Baml-tailrd i)if/eo» kiU iv CaJipirnia, 193'/ and 1935: State ami thir- teen Jeadiiiff counties; I State and county CALIFORNIA (ENTIRE STATE) Counties: Monterey Santa Cruz San Luis Obispo Santa Clara Calaveras Tulare Santa Barbara ■ Los Angeles Sonoma Fresno San Diego Humboldt Riverside 51.05fi 21,961 5,81!) 1,216 1,075 567 528 520 515 512 506 19.35 3 34.136 10.855 1,439 608 542 454 678 1.048 405 405 ^ Compiled from hunting'-license application blanks by the California Division of Fish and Game. = Published in the California Conservationist 1 (8): 3. August 1936. 8 Published in the California Conservationist 2 (8): 20. August 1937. THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 33 many of the birds killed are destined ultimately for the garbage can ; no specific evidence can be given, but at numerous times the writer has heard statements that could have no other meaning. A relatively small percentage of the gunners hunt pigeons be- cause they like to eat the birds; the majority are in the field for the sport of shooting, the thrill of killing game, and the enjoy- ment of the high wild country. In table 2, based on data compiled by the California Division of Fish and Game, is given the band-tailed pigeon kill for the sea- sons of 1934 and 1935, as reported on applications for hunting li- censes for the ensuing year. The table gives the total for the en- tire State and for each of the 13 leading counties. The figures are conservative, for few hunters will report more than they actually kill and some make no report at all. Table 3, based on data from the same source, shows the 1934 and the 1935 kill of each of Cal- ifornia's game birds. Tables. — (lame bird kill in. Valifoniia, I'JS'i and 1935^ Game bird Band-tailed pj^eoii .... Western nuniinin^ dove. Quails, all species Pheasant Ducks, all species Geese, all species 51,(156 34,136 580,110 539,722 500,481 916,589 25,220 40,616 389,247 304,882 40,278 35,096 • Compiled from hunting license application hlanks by tlie California Division of Fish and Game; published in the California Consei-vationist 2 (s) : 20, Aujrust li»37. Writing of Pigeon Butte, near Corvallis, Oreg., Einarsen says : For years this pass has been popular with hunters. Because of the ter- rain and the usual eagerness of the hunter, most of the shots are at long distances, which results in a crippling loss averaging more than 60 per- cent of the pigeons bagged. When the number of birds killed (at each pass) is more than 600, as in 1942 at this pass, the seriousness of the slaughter can be recognized. The band-tailed pigeon will never have wide abundance. It is hunted on uneven ground, where a high percentage of crippled birds are lost and little effort is made to recover them. Five months after the season it was still possible to pick up birds which had died of injuries in large numbers around Pigeon Butte. Far too few hunters know that band-tailed pigeons decoy well, and in many localities far better sport could thus be obtained with an accompanying great reduction in the number of crippled or dead birds lost. Decoying the bandtails into forest openings or fields is far preferable to shooting them at waterholes or gravel bars, pot-shooting perched birds out of dead snags, or to the aver- age mountain-pass shooting in rough, brushy terrain. PRESENT STATUS Under conditions that prevailed between 1932 and 1942 it ap- peared that the band-tailed pigeon held its own under the 15-day 34 xXORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE shooting season and low (10-bird) possession bag limit; there are those who state emphatically that in certain localities it was not maintaining itself, but was slowly decreasing. It is too soon to analyze the effect of the 30-day shooting season established in 1942, as wartime conditions of ammunition shortage and gasoline and tire rationing markedly affected pigeon shooting. Where num- bers of the birds are to be found not far from hunting centers there may have been some reduction, but in other districts pigeon concentrations occur only in wilderness areas where during the war period few hunters could reach them. In several States where there is an open season, it is set at a period when many of the birds have already moved southward, and there has been local clamor for a change of the season to co- incide with the presence of peak populations. Such requests for changes in shooting seasons should be closely scrutinized for, if granted, they may lead to great increases in the kill in States in which the pigeon population is too low. Seasons of good shoot- ing result in a great increase in the number of shooters afield ; re- ports of poor shooting soon result in decreased hunting. Earlier summaries of the status of the band-tailed pigeon are those of Chambers (1912), Grinnell (1913). and Taylor (1924). Owing to the extreme erratic nature of the species, accurate appraisal of its status over all the range is extremely difficult. The writer's own observations and reports of others are summarized for their interest in this connection. A. S. Einarsen in a report, dated January 6, 1936, stated that "regardless of what may be said to the contrary, the population of band-tailed pigeons in the Eraser Valley, the Puget Sound coun- try, the islands of Puget Sound, the river valleys west of the Cas- cade Mountains in Washington State, and in the favored nesting areas west of the Cascades in Oregon shows a tremendous de- crease from that of the 1934 season . . ." Pearse (1940) said that bandtails were reduced to a precarious state on Vancouver Island and blamed overshooting in the winter habitat. Miller, Lumley, and Hall (1935), writing of San Juan in Puget Sound, state that numbers are decreasing rapidly, Einarsen. in a letter of October 3, 1944, reported that "the mi- gration in Oregon, generally speaking, has not been as great as in previous years, but there have been a few birds passing through throughout the entire month." Eield investigations in the Puget Sound area between Septem- ber 13 and 25, 1937, indicated that the population of bandtails was from 50 percent to less than 10 percent of what it had been at the same date in 1936. This means little, however, in the ab- sence of correlated data on weather and food conditions for the period concerned. In Whatcom County the 1936 population was reported as hea\T, that of the spring of 1937 as normal, and that of the autumn of 1937 as very light. Snohomish County estimates placed the 1937 population at about 10 percent of that of 1936. In Skagit County, although scattered groups of birds were present, no pigeon concentrations were observed in September 1937. San Juan reports indicated a normal 1937 season, except that THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 35 the autumn migration had occurred earlier than usual. Similar reports were obtained from Thurston, Grays Harbor, and Mason Counties. Pacific County reported an increased population in the spring of 1937 and an early autumn departure. Pierce County had a very large spring population, which dispersed to nest and did not reassemble. Lewis County experienced a marked increase during the 10 years previous. In Clallam County there were large spring concentrations during 1935, 1936, and 1937, and in some arf;as an abundant summer population also. Officials agreed that there was an increase in the area known as the Black Hills dis- trict near Elma, Shelton, and Olympia. Game protectors in all the counties named (except two) reported annually increasing shooting. On September 27, 1937, United States Game Management Agent Gerow said that although numerous complaints of crop depreda- tions had been received, the consensus of opinion was that pigeons were decreasing in numbers in Oregon. Alex Walker, of Beaver, Oreg., reported on September 30, 1937, that at best the pigeon population in Tillamook County was standing still and on March 30, 1940, he was of the opinion that the birds were definitely de- creasing. Coincident with the late 1939 autumn migration in Or- egon, a considerable increase in hunting was reported in some parts of the State. Allen C. Oberle, of La Verne, Calif., wrote on February 15, 1935, that in the San Dimas district of Los Angeles County there was a flock of about 350 pigeons where in 1926 there had been only three pairs. Lawrence W. Saylor (formerly with the Fish and Wildlife Service) wrote on January 15, 1940, that bandtails did not become at all common in the Ben Lomond section of the Santa Cruz Mountains of California until about 1932, when in a few seasons the flocks increased from a dozen birds to a hundred or more. Warden C. E. Holladay, of San Jose, Calif., said in 1934 that the pigeon population of Santa Clara County had doubled in 6 years. From these and numerous recent reports it appears that the breeding population of band-tailed pigeons in California is hold- ing its own in all sections ; each year there are reports of pigeons nesting in areas where they had not been known to nest for years, and these seem to indicate that the California breeding population is slowly increasing and extending its range. In Colorado, Bergtold (1928) called the bandtail an Infrequent summer resident, and in the Denver area Niedrach (Niedrach and Rockwell 1929) reported the birds as regular summer resi- dents in small numbers. Studies of the past two or three seasons substantiate a statement by E. R. Kalmbach to the effect that these birds seem to have decreased in numbers in northern Colo- rado, for few birds have been observed in the northern half of the State. On the other hand, in the southern part of the State and in a few more northerly localities, the birds seem slowly to have increased. Frank F. Foley, United States Game Management Agent, believes that there has been a constant but small annual increase for the past 10 years, especially in southern Colorado; 36 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE and Barry C. Park, of the United States Forest Service, says that the pigeon in Colorado is increasing slowly but constantly and is extending its range each year. Inquiry among game officials and sportsmen in Arizona from 1938 to 1941 leads the writer to believe that the pigeon population of that State is slowly increasing. Recent seasons of drought caused food failure in many parts of Arizona, and this resulted in very erratic movements of the birds. Very few birds are shot in this State as the season opens after the bulk of the pigeons of the southern part of Arizona have moved into Mexico, and the birds are widely scattered. Ligon (1927) said that the bandtails did not appear to increase in New Mexico but remained at about a constant level, and that the population was insufficient to justify an open shooting season. No recent general statement is available, but the reports from various localities in New Mexico indicate that the bandtail there, as in Arizona, may locally be slowly increasing. From Texas, Ray Williams, of Alpine, wrote in November 1940 : "For 25 years I have observed them in this territory and I do not see any increase in their numbers. They will never be too plentiful . . . They . . . just about hold their own." Winter populations are most difficult to appraise owing to the wandering habits of the birds and to the wide range of country in which concentrations may occur. No recent information from wintering range indicates a decrease, nor is there any reliable evidence of any marked increase. Considering actual pigeon populations alone, without reference to any other phase, it is felt that only in the Pacific Coast States are there sufficient numbers of birds to justify hunting. In Ari- zona, New Mexico, Colorado, Texas, and Utah, the habitats and habits of the birds may be such that few birds are killed and little damage results from open shooting ; yet there is danger of again decimating the species. Shooting must be rigidly controlled. Local increases may easily be decimated by concentrated shooting in more southerly migratory or wintering areas. It is of the utmost importance that Federal and State wildlife officials proceed with caution in liberalizing shooting privileges on this species in any part of its range. It is even more important that they carefully note the year to year status of the species over its entire range so that the need for reduction in numbers made necessary by local conditions may be anticipated and hunting con- trol measures applied in sufficient time to prevent gross destruc- tion that would require a total closing of the season such as was necessary in 1913. MANAGEMENT POSSIBILITIES It is inevitable that during a study such as this many questions that relate directly to management of the species should be raised. From a few sources have come direct inquiries concerning meth- ods that might permit development of a sufficient population of band-tailed pigeons so that more shooting might be allowed. THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 37 Most important of all management practices must be the care- ful guarding of the species through continued stringent protec- tion, with short shooting seasons and small bag limits. Crop dep- redations must be controlled or prevented with the minimum destruction of the pigeons. The species cannot withstand liber- alized shooting in more than a few districts, and because of its restricted range, excessive liberalization at any point is undesir- able. Through cooperation of the local agencies concerned, most of- ten the United States Forest Service and the State Game Depart- ments, shooting should not be permitted at all in places where large concentrations of the birds are exposed to highly destruc- tive hunting, examples of which have been mentioned (p. 31). Normally, the bandtail is a native of the primitive forest and rough, wild country, usually at fairly high elevations. Manage- ment practices that in any manner assist in maintaining primitive areas in this country aid the bandtail ; among these are fire pro- tection, erosion control, restriction of human intrusion, and re- forestation. Few birds are controlled so completely by available food sup- plies as is the bandtail. Hence, management of food supplies might be expected to form part of any management program. Full study of the food habits of the bird, however, fails to elicit opti- mism as to the possibilities in that direction. If any area is to attract and hold a winter population of band- tails, it must afford a bountiful supply of acorns or piiion nuts. Although the pigeons feed upon wild fruits and berries, in part, throughout the winter, mast is necessary as winter food. Hence any program looking toward increasing the winter population of pigeons must include increases in the mast supply. During summer the food of the bandtail includes a wide range of wild and cultivated fruits and in some districts, acorns and grains. The use of cultivated fruits and grains may be largely eliminated from consideration as a practice intended to increase pigeon populations, for, except in local areas, an increase in plant- ing of these would entail reduction in the forest or would increase the depredation problem. In brief, it seems that only three practices are of real value in the management of the band-tailed pigeon : conservation of our present population ; preservation of primitive and marginal wil- dernesses and woodland to offer habitat ; and forestry, including fire protection and reforestation of already denuded lands, using wherever practicable species of plants that are of known value as bandtail foods. There are strong possibilities in the planting of wild fruits, such as mulberry, in high mountain park areas where these trees might thrive and where food is now scarce. AGRICULTURAL RELATIONSHIPS DEPREDATIONS Depredations on agricultural crops by band-tailed pigeons al- though sporadic may be serious. They are generally local and vary 38 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE greatly from season to season. They sometimes involve numbers of birds so large as to be amazing, and again may concern only a few pairs. Their occurrence is so erratic as to be impossible to forecast, although in some areas slight to moderate damage may be done annually. The supply of natural wild foods is a determin- ing factor in the occurrence of crop damage because of its effects on both pigeon concentrations and routes of migration. With nat- ural foods plentiful in the mountains and wilderness there is less necessity for the pigeons to feed extensively on cultivated crops. Many of the complaints against band-tailed pigeons come from ranchers whose production is relatively small, or they may con- cern only the loss of garden or orchard crops destined for home consumption. Noticeable attack on the products of large-scale farming operations is infrequent. Depredations on small acre- ages are more quickly noticed, have more vital importance, and concern a far greater number of individuals. Very frequently even a moderate loss in a cash crop like cherries may be keenly felt by the farmer concerned, and if the loss is heavy, it may mean financial disaster even though only a few trees are damaged. Even so, far too great a percentage of the complaints against the pigeons, as against other game birds, upon close analysis, are found to be unjustified. In many instances the desire to shoot pigeons for food will be found to be the underlying motive for the complaint. In the literature are a number of records of band-tailed pigeons feeding on agricultural crops or their residues but only a few can be mentioned here. Fisher (1893) reported bandtails foraging in barley stubble in 1891, and Oilman (1903) noted large flocks of them in barley stubble in Riverside County, Calif., in March 1901. Grinnell (1913) mentions good-sized flocks on newly sown barley fields near Palo Alto in January 1901 and near Santa Mon- ica in February and March of that year, and Barnes (1916) dis- cusses alleged damage to grain. Anonymous news notes in 1924 and 1930 reported damage to cherries and grapes. Burtch (1930) discussed damage to grapes, and McAtee (1932) abstracted com- plaints against the species. Taverner (1926) writes that "they are especially partial to peas and are said to pull up the sprouting seeds ... As they are large birds, each one intent on filling a capacious crop, their pow- er for damage is not small. In the autumn they alight upon the stooked grain and may take a considerable toll of it." Grinnell and Storer (1924) describe bandtails feeding near the edge of a newly planted grainfield on the floor of Yosemite Val- ley in April 1916. Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer (1918) cite a single bird taken near Crescent City, Calif., on May 15, 1916, whose crop contained 509 kernels of barley, 23 of oats, 6 of corn, and fragments of acorn. Jewett reported depredations on newly planted fields of oats in Tillamook County, Oreg. Grinnell, Dixon, and Linsdale (1930) record a few bandtails coming in pairs or in small groups to cherry trees near Manton, Tehama County, Calif. (June 4, 1936). Kobbe (1900) said that they fed in wheatfields in Pacific County, Wash. THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 39 Munro (1924) reported on an investig-ation of band-tailed pi- geon damage in British Columbia as follows : On June 9, 1923, I had occasion to investigate a report that band-tailed pigeons were causing damage to sprouted wheat on a small bush farm in the Sooke district. The farm in question was found to include a portion of a large beaver meadow — one of the few open areas in this heavily wooded region — the balance comprising rough timbered hillside, and a wooded ra- vine through which flows a small stream. About eight acres of the meadow had been seeded to wheat and oats by hand and as always is the case with this method of sowing, a large percentage of the seed was on the surface. This exposed seed had germinated. Pigeons commenced feeding on the wheat field shortly after my arrival, so, in order to study them at close quarters — for they are invariably wild when in the open — I made a careful stalk through the wooded ravine and reached, unobserved, a suitable hiding place at the edge of the field. From this position it was seen that 53 pigeons were feeding. Usually in flocks of this size small detachments from the rear keep flying over the main flock to alight in front of the foremost birds, but on this particular day the birds kept their formation — ■ an undulating blue ribbon — and slowly moved across the field in my direction until a scant 60 yards distant, when they suddenly arose, circled several times, and then dropped on another part of the field — there to spread out immediately and commen-ce feeding as be- fore. From the several dead trees amongst the green timber behind me came other birds, singly as a rule, and joined the feeding band. Close ob- servation with binoculars showed that only surface seed was being taken, the young plants from buried seed were not pulled up. Mrs. Florence Merriam Bailey (1928) writes: On the west side of Moreno Valley, on July 4, 1919, Mr. S. E. Piper dis- covered that two or three thousand Pigeons had congregated along the bor- ders of a deep cove. He was attracted to the place by heavy shooting on the part of the ranchmen — mainly foreigners who said that the birds destroyed their young grain, especially barley. On examining several areas from which the birds rose, Mr. Piper could find no indication that they were either dig- ging or pulling the young grain: and barley found in the gizzard of one was old stained grain evidently gathered from the surface or about old stack or shock stands. It was evident tliat the hunters were seeking justification for sliooting them, though several averred that they found them unfit to eat. The following accounts of band-tailed pigeon depredations were reported by ranchers, State game wardens, United States game management agents and other representatives of the Fish and Wildlife Service (formerly the Bureau of Biological Survey), and other persons. These reports include in some instances not only the original complaint but also a statement of the results of in- vestigations by officials. A few of them have appeared in print, but most of them have never before been published. CHERRIES, GR.4PES, AND PRUNES On August 20, 1920, E. R. Kalmbach, of the Bureau of Biologi- cal Survey (now the Fish and Wildlife Service), recorded that ranchers near Lookingglass, Oreg., reported severe damage to cher- ries by band-tailed pigeons. Forest Supervisor Blair, writing from Glenwood Springs, Colo., May 29, 1920, transmitted reports of pigeon damage to cherries on several ranches in that area. One rancher w^ho complained of very severe losses said that scarecrows were a failure and that 40 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE men without guns could not keep the birds out. Mr. Blair quoted several other small ranchers as saying that the tops of the cher- ry trees were completely stripped of fruit. On June 27, 1921, W. F. Kubichek, of the then Bureau of Bio- logical Survey, made a study of the situation as reported in 1920. He described the area concerned as a narrow belt between the Col- orado River and the mountains beginning 10 miles east of the town and widening to the west. After a thorough inspection Ku- bichek reported (unpublished manuscript) that bandtails were seriously destructive in only a few orchards and in general were doing less damage than were other species of birds. In an orchard where severe damage had been reported he found a few pigeons feeding and was greatly surprised at their fearlessness and the extreme difficulty he had in driving them from the trees. His con- clusions were that in most instances it was the size and conspicu- ousness of the pigeons that alarmed the owners and that actual damage by the birds was not great. In May 1921, Charles C. Sperry, of the Biological Survey, in- vestigated complaints of depredations on fruits by birds in Oregon. In his report (unpublished manuscript) several complaints against bandtails are included. In Lane County, Oreg., three fruit grow- ers claimed measurable loss of cherries through damage by pi- geons, and in Douglas County, Oreg., two out of four growers in- terviewed made the same report. From Multnomah, Benton, Linn, Marion, Polk, Yamhill, Clackamas, Columbia, Washington, Was- co, Umatilla, and Jackson Counties no reports of damages were received. On June 25, 1923, Ray C. Steele, United States Game Warden, wrote of a visit to a cherry orchard near Riddle, Oreg. Pigeons were abundant, some trees being literally filled with them. They were very shy and flew when approached, preventing the collect- ing of specimens. The ground was covered with cherries, about 10 percent of them showing bill marks, the remainder having been knocked from the trees as the birds alighted or fed in the branches. On July 20, 1923, B. R. Britton, United States Game Warden, reported damage to cherries in the Teseque Valley on the west- ern slopes of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains of New Mexico. On July 12 on the Williams ranch, he saw trees that appeared bluish because of the many pigeons in them. On some trees the fruit was completely devoured, on others the tops were stripped. On this 84-acre ranch Britton estimated a loss of 20 to 30 percent of the cherry crop. Thirty trees near the margin were completely stripped. One bird was watched as it picked 20 cherries and dropped about one-third of them as it attempted to swallow them. On March 7, 1924, a fruit grower of Paradise, Calif., wrote to the Biological Survey regarding pigeon depredations : "My cher- ry season lasts six or seven weeks . . . Last season I spent forty dollars for ammunition and had to hire a guard for four weeks ; at that I lost over 1,500 pounds of cherries." Another orchardist of Paradise, also in 1924, reported : "For the last three years our cherry crop in this section has been destroyed by wild pigeons . . . THE BAiND-TAILED PIGEON 41 I speak for about 20 growers who estimate their losses at from one-fifth to three-fourths of the crop." In a letter of June 24, 1925, an orchardist of Fortuna, Calif., said that pigeons had taken be- tween 1 and IVi- tons of cherries that year. In a letter of June 19, 1925, George Tonkin, United States Game Warden, reported several complaints against pigeons. The fol- lowing comments are abstracted from his letter: In the Paradise district, 80 miles almost due north of Sacramento, there are many pigeons. There is said to be a roost and breeding ground in the vicinity of this district and the pigeons are there nearly the entire year. I found only three farmers in this district who complained about the birds to any extent. . . . These ranchers have frightened the birds away even though they had, up to the time of my visit, been unable to get any old- fashioned black powder. One of them told me that a bullet from his 30-3 0 rifle fired across the orchards had a very good effect. At another nearby ranch Tonkin found pigeons feeding in cher- ry trees close to the ranch house, and it was apparent no effort had been made to frighten them away. Five shots from his revolver drove fully 75 birds from the orchard. Upon investigating the complaint of a rancher near Inwood, Calif., in June 1925, Tonkin found the small cherry orchard in a wooded section completely surrounded by heavy forests. Near Mount Shasta a tenant re- ported pigeons attacking his strawberries. Here Tonkin saw many pigeons flying about, but as the ranch chickens had free access to the strawberry patch, he did not feel that the pigeons should be held responsible for the alleged damage. An orchardist of Dunsmuir, Calif., on May 7, 1926, wrote of the bandtails: "They are in this section by the thousands, and you can stand and shoot and they will fly away a few feet and circle right back. We have lost our entire crop of cherries but about 60 pounds out of 1,000 this year." On June 21, 1928, United States Game Warden Tonkin reported his investigations of several pigeon complaints. Near Garberville, Mendocino County, Calif., he inspected a small orchard of fine cherries completely surrounded by heavy redwood forests. The rancher was shooting at, and killing a few of the pigeons to pro- tect the crop. Near Fortuna, Scotia, and Carlotta, in Humboldt County, Tonkin visited other similar orchards. In one of them the rancher or his sons maintained constant patrol with a .410 gage shotgun. Pigeons were numerous ; wild berry patches in the tim- ber attracted large numbers, which at times invaded the cherry orchards. Recommending that an open season on band-tailed pigeons be permitted in California, Tonkin said : "It seems reasonable to be- lieve that the wild band-tailed pigeons have been (and are now) a serious menace to the cherry and grain crops in Humboldt Coun- ty. Under present conditions I do not believe that the killing of wild pigeons in the cherry orchards can be stopped so long as the farmers feel that it is impossible to drive them out by other means." A fruit grower of Gilroy, Calif., wrote on August 27, 1930 : "This spring they (the bandtails) came in here by the hundreds 42 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE and fed on green primes, stripping some trees before we realized what they were doing. The State game warden estimated that in 6 miles along the foothills they did damage amounting to from $2,000 to $2,500 to the prune orchards." The superintendent of a ranch near Arvin, Kern County, Calif., reported on March 18, 1930, that wild pigeons were damaging the extensive vineyards on the ranch. The local State game warden, county agricultural agents, and Biological Survey officials were notified. In 1929, a heavy tonnage of grapes had not been har- vested. These had dried to raisins on the vines, and in March were on the ground as the result both of natural fall and of the seasonal pruning of the vines. On March 21, 1930, deciduous fruit trees on the property were in full blossom and the grapevines had al- ready put out tender shoots that were from 2 to 4 inches long; these shoots carry both the leaf and the blossom for the current season. The pigeons frequenting the vineyards were so numerous as to arouse great interest. Capt. E. P. Brownlow and Lester Ar- nold, Warden, of the California Division of Fish and Game, made a detailed study of the flight and estimated that 200,000 pigeons were involved. Investigation disclosed that the birds roosted on Bear Mountain, some 6 miles to the eastward, and that the acorns and other wild foods in the foothill area had been almost entirely cleaned up. In the vineyard the enormous flocks of bandtails would alight on the trellised grapevines, then drop to the ground to feed on the waste raisins ; in doing this they broke ofi" the ten- der new growth carrying the current season's crop. In the near- by deciduous fruit trees they alighted at times in such numbers as to break branches and to knock off the blossoms. The defense measures undertaken are discussed under Methods of Crop Pro- tection (p. 46). The situation was described by Burtch (1930). The depredations of the pigeons continued from March 18 to and including April 2. Officials of the ranch estimated the loss of Malaga grapes alone at 500 pounds a day, and the loss of peaches and plums at 300 pounds a day. They estimated a total loss of $5,000 for the grapes and $1,000 for peaches and plums. In addi- tion, it was said the owners of the ranch and the State Division of Fish and Game together expended about $2,000 in attempting to drive the pigeons from the vineyards. County Game Warden Fredericksen, of Gilroy, Calif., reported that during May 1934 five prune orchards near Gilroy were dam- aged. In one of these the pigeons flew across nearly 2 miles of almost solid prune orchard and virtually destroyed the crop in a 10-acre block of sugar prunes. For many years pigeons have attacked cherry crops in the vi- cinity of Mountain Park, Otero County, N. Mex., and during June and July 1939 J. S. Ligon, of the Fish and Wildlife Service, inves- tigated conditions there. He reported that the pigeons were not so abundant as during some other years, but that damage was even heavier than usual owing apparently to a food scarcity in the Sacramento Mountains. Because of drought, less grain had been produced in the lower altitudes, and the pigeons concentrated on THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 43 the cherries, which, in that locality, ripen before most of the nat- ural wild foods. At intervals late in June and early July of 1940 and 1941, J. C. Knox, United States Game Management Agent, of Albuquerque, inspected the Mountain Park cherry orchards. He reported dam- age to about 20 orchards, totaling about 2,500 trees, scattered about in narrow mountain canyons. During his 1940 investiga- tions he estimated that he did not see more than 250 pigeons, but "when 50 to 100 of them alight in one tree at a time, they either eat or bruise all the cherries in a very short time, and some of these cherries sell for 25 to 30 cents a pound." In 1941 there was a great increase in the number of pigeons attacking the cherry orchards. Knox estimated that there were 1,000 bandtails. GRAIN CROPS In August 1921, Webb Toms, Assistant Warden, of the Califor- nia Division of Fish and Game, reported depredations by band- tailed pigeons on wheat in the San Luis Rey Valley of San Diego County. One rancher claimed that wheat enough to fill 20 sacks had been taken. Damage was inflicted only while the wheat was in the shock, and pigeons covered the shocks so densely as to break ofi" many of the heads which dropped to the ground and were wast- ed. In contrast, 16 years later (1937), E. H. Glidden, State Game Warden, of San Diego, Calif., said that "depredations by wild pigeons are unknown here." On July 22, 1923, B. R. Britton, United States Game Warden, investigated a complaint of pigeon damage near the top of the White Mountains of New Mexico. Thirty acres of winter wheat were ready to harvest. The surrounding country was in a wild state, covered with scrub oak and scattered pines ; the elevation was about 8,000 feet. Britton estimated a 5-percent loss of the grain, mostly in small patches near the edges of the field close to large pine trees. In these places the stalks were beaten down, the heads broken away, and the grain stripped off. The owner later said that as soon as the grain was shocked the bandtails came in even greater numbers and stripped the shocks. On September 26, 1924, an agriculturist of Sumas, Wash., re- ported that he had 7 acres of fall wheat planted, that the pigeons had been eating there since planting time, and that they were even pulling up sprouted plants. During April 1932, the writer recorded two instances in which migrating flocks of bandtails crossing the Sacramento Valley, Cal- if., alighted in a newly seeded rice field and ate the broadcast seed until driven out. In January 1934, a large flight of pigeons invaded the Pacheco Pass district of California. Ranches there are more or less marginal in nature, and complaints of severe damage to grain were received. Permits for killing the pigeons committing the depredations were issued, and local wardens reported 3,300 pigeons killed, a far greater number than was justified by the damage. Frank Poley, United States Game Management Agent, on Sep- 44 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE tember 26, 1941, investigated complaints of depredations on wheat in the Sanborn Park area near Norwood, Colo. On one ranch he estimated a loss of about one-third of the shocked wheat. Similar losses were noted on several adjacent ranches. From April 28 to May 15, 1925, Ira N. Gabrielson investigated alleged depredations by band-tailed pigeons in two Washington Counties, San Juan Island and the mainland areas in Whatcom County. Both areas were extensive pea-growing districts, total- ing from three to four thousand acres. Of the Sumas district of Whatcom County, Gabrielson wrote : "Whatever the condition may have been at other seasons, there was no damage at all in this dis- trict in the spring of 1925. There were no pigeons in the district nor had there been any up to the date of my departure (May 11). Testimony agreed that when the pigeons came in, they ate all the peas left on top of the ground. The claim was made that these peas on top of the ground M'ould grow if left there. Most of the farmers refuted this, saying that the peas on top of the ground, while they might sprout, would never make good plants." During his study Gabrielson observed a field in which there were many peas on top of the ground ; because of favorable weather, these had sprouted, but on the day of his inspection the sun shone brightly and the ends of the sprouts were blackening and shriveling. Residents of the Sumas area told Gabrielson that pigeons had been exceedingly abundant in the spring of 1924, and that this had led to numerous complaints. On the islands Gabrielson found a more difficult situation. Most of the peas were grown on San Juan Island, and only a few on Or- cas and Lopez Islands. The industry there had developed rapidly after its start in 1922, and in 1925, 1,000 acres of peas were being grown for the cannery. The soil was largely moisture-retaining, stiff clay, hence hard to work and cloddy, and the drills left more peas exposed than on lighter soils. This condition led to the nu- merous complaints against pigeons. It was the practice of most of the farmers to run a clod-masher over the fields after seeding was completed. The only loss attribut- able to the pigeons was the eating of peas from among the clods in the interval between seeding and clod-mashing. Farmers al- most unanimously agreed that peas left on top after the masher passed were valueless. Farmers on those islands who grew grain or peas for seed told Gabrielson that the bandtails did considerable damage at harvest time through alighting on the shocks and eating all the seed they could reach. An orchardist of Sequim, Wash., on April 17, 1935, said that in 1933 he had sufi'ered a total loss of five acres of peas and that he had a thin stand on the remainder of his planting ; also that many bandtails were present at the time of his reporting and severe damage would probably occur. When a Biological Survey investi- gator inspected the property the pigeons had already departed, but there was evidence that large patches of peas had been cleaned up. The orchardist told the investigator that he grew peas for seed and that the greatest damage was inflicted on the ripening THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 45 seed crop in August when the birds alighted on shocks, bent the curing plants, and shelled them onto the ground. S. J. Handron, State Game Protector, of Hoquiam, Wash., re- ported on May 24, 1937, that between two and three thousand pigeons were feeding on pea plantings near Elma, Wash., and on September 21, 1937, Fred Rice, State Game Protector, of Port Angeles, Wash., told the writer that for the past 3 years the spring concentration of bandtails had been exceptionally heavy and that severe damage to oats and peas had been sustained. WALNUTS In February and March 1932, a large concentration of pigeons near Exeter, Calif., caused unusual damage. The birds gathered at dusk in an English walnut grove in such numbers as to break branches from the trees. By counting pigeons in several of the trees Capt. 0. P. Brownlow, in charge of the State Game Patrol in that area, estimated that at one time there were in excess of 25,000 bandtails in that grove. METHODS OF CROP PROTECTION Methods of effectively and economically protecting crops from damage by band-tailed pigeons have been more or less extensively studied by certain farmers and by conservation officials. In the re- ports of field men of the Fish and Wildlife Service are numerous notes on this phase of the pigeon problem. Gabrielson in his 1925 report wrote of a rancher near Belling- ham, Wash.: He stated that the issuing of permits would not help any as the average farmer did not have the time to stand around and shoot these birds, and that they could not kill enough of them to make any difference. His belief was that some sort of frightening device would be of much greater value. He found that firing a gun from his front porch frightened the pigeons for an hour or two. He started in with a 12-gage shotgun . . . [he] found the 22 rifle just as effective. In 1926, George Tonkin, United States Game Warden, reported on a method of driving pigeons from cherry orchards : On the morning of May 16 I arrived at an orchard at Paradise [Calif.] before 5:30 a. m. I had a 10-gage shotgun and some shells loaded with 8 drams of black powder, known as the yacht cannon load. I demonstrated to several ranchers that day that a shot flred from this gun, loaded with black powder and without shot, would frighten the pigeons from their orchards and from the roosting places in the oak groves for a distance of one-third to one-half mile from the place where the gun was fired. But the birds either returned in a short time or another flock took their place, probably the latter case. At any rate, it is necessary for a rancher to keep a guard in his orchard from daylight until dark. On some days the pigeons appear to have left the country; perhaps on the following day a flock will visit the orchard every few minutes. It is a great hardship for farmers who have a large orchard some distance from their residence, as a few minutes' absence from the orchard may mean the stripping of cherries from several trees. B. R. Britton, United States Game Warden, thus described his attempts at protecting grainfields from pigeons in the Teseque Valley, near Santa Fe, N. Mex., in 1923 : I purchased some black powder shells and returned to the Williams farm, arriving about 2:30 p. m. I took the shotgun shells and cut the shot 46 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE portion of them away, and began patrolling the orchard, firing on the pigeons whenever I was close to them, but found this had little effect. Continuous patrol by myself and hired men had the effect of keeping the birds moving. At daylight on Friday morning I found the birds roosting in the cotton- woods adjoining the orchard, and slipping under these trees I fired blank charges up through them. This was continued all day, and I found that when I could get close enough to the trees in which the birds were roosting or feeding to get the smoke and report of the gun practically among them that it had a terrifying effect. I found that the pigeons would avoid a tree in which they had been disturbed in this manner. Constant patrol was maintained from 5 a. m. to 7 p. m.. someone being in the orchard all the time. I mysel'i gave particular attention to the resting places of the birds along the edge of the orchard. Part of the time I used a revolver and part of the time a 30-4 0 rifle, simply discharging them into the air. I found that the report of the rifle or revolver had a more terrifying effect on the birds owing possibly to the sharper report. I also tried fluting or cutting the revolver bullets, which resulted in a screeching sound as they passed through the air. By Monday the birds had practically deserted the Cottonwood trees adjacent to the orchard as resting places (except in the very early morning) and rested in the scrub cedar and pifion trees on the hillsides. Prom there they were routed by firing the rifle into the dry hillside in the vicinity of the roosting trees; this caused a cloud of dust which kept the birds moving. The birds then moved into a canyon behind a hill, and I followed them there and finally succeeded in driving them out of there. By Wednesday morning there apparently remained only about 30 or 40 birds and these were very wild, flying high, and if they dropped into the orchard, would rise on the approach of any one. On Wednesday after- noon there was a violent thunder storm accompanied by a high wind, and about 5 p.m. a flock of about 2 00 pigeons appeared and were persistent in settling in the orchard, acting in the same manner as those found in the orchard at first, having to be driven 'from the trees in which they settled to feed. I might state that the orchard as viewed from the hillsides ap- peared like the madrone woods in California, which were favorite feeding places for the wild pigeons; and in my opinion it was this bright coloring that attracted passing birds. Thursday morning there appeared only the remnants of the flocks that were at first jtresent, the flock of birds that had appeared on Wednesday evening apparently having passed on. In July 1937, the writer was collecting specimens of bandtails in the mountains near Santa Cruz, Calif. One mountain ranch visited contained about 20 fine trees of sweet cherries, all loaded with a heavy crop of good fruit. Among the birds, of six species, noted feeding on the cherries were approximately 30 to 50 pigeons. In one instance about a half dozen of these birds alighted in the top of a tree on which two fruit pickers on short ladders were work- ing. They fed until one of the pickers, after drumming on his pail and yelling, descended to the ground and threw clods at them. Shooting incident to collecting specimens continued intermittently for an hour, and the pigeons at no time retreated farther than the tops of some tall sequoias and other conifers adjacent to the cleared farm land. James A. Blair, Forest Supervisor, at Glenwood Springs, Colo., writing on May 29, 1920, quoted a rancher in that area as having tested the effectiveness of scarecrows in preventing damage by pigeons. The rancher said that his cherry pickers tried to frighten away the pigeons, but that no method except the use of a shotgun would cause them to do more than circle to another part of the orchard. In attempts to frighten away the enormous flocks of pigeons that were damaging the vineyard on the ranch in Kern County, Calif., THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 47 in 1930, previously mentioned (p. 42), various methods were tested. Among these was that of trying to feed the pigeons in the mountains near their roosting grounds. There 1,000 pounds of barley and 500 pounds of raisins were scattered. The pigeons are said to have taken this food, but they were so numerous as to make the method ineffective. An airplane was then used in an attempt to drive the birds from the vineyard, but without success. The California Division of Fish and Game and the owners of the ranch cooperated in hiring 16 men to patrol the vineyards and in furnish- ing the necessary ammunition. After a week's trial, the flocks appeared to be little diminished in numbers and the damage was said to be increasing, owing to the increasing length of the grape shoots and the budding out of later varieties of grapes. On March 30, fifty sportsmen were invited to assist in the drive. A number of pigeons were killed and although the rest were kept stirred up, they were not discouraged but kept alighting in the vineyard. As a result of publicity some 300 sportsmen assembled on March 31 and April 1 ; yet the birds continued to come in by the thousands. On April 2, about 500 men appeared at the vineyard with about 200 rounds of ammunition each, and it was said that "a bombardment such as has not been heard since the First World War took place from daylight to about noon." Not a pigeon was given a chance to alight. On April 3, hundreds of hunters appeared but no pigeons came. A survey of the vineyard by officials revealed fewer than a dozen birds during the entire forenoon, and inspection of the roost indi- cated that they had deserted the area. It was estimated that be- tween 5,000 and 7,000 pigeons were killed. These reports indicate the problems that develop in herding off pigeons by gunfire when they range in numbers from a few birds to almost a quarter million. As intimated by Tonkin and Britton, and fully substantiated by the experience of countless farmers and game officials, timing the protective effort is most important. Control work should be started at the first evidence of crop loss, not after the pigeons have fed long enough to become accustomed to the area. It is far easier to discourage the birds at the begin- ning of an attack than after the flight has developed to large proportions. Herding off pigeons with gunfire remains the standby, with advantages and disadvantages as herein pointed out. It is costly ; it requires a large quantity of black-powder ammunition and con- stant patrol by gunners whose numbers depend on the size of the area to be patrolled. Rifle fire, although effective, is too danger- ous in most localities. As already reported, scarecrows appear to have no effect on the pigeons. Airplane herding was of no avail. Feeding the pi- geons in their mountain haunts proved possible, but was so costly that it was impracticable. John C. Knox, United States Game Management Agent, in June and July of 1940 and 1941, made extensive and fairly successful tests of frightening devices in the cherry orchards of Mountain Park, N. Mex. He described the results obtained with the use of 695766°^7— 4 48 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE the automatic acetylene flash gim2 known to be of vaKie in pre- venting- depredations by various species of birds. One of these "guns" was operated near High Rolls in an or- chard of 30 cherry trees. Before its installation 40 pigeons had fed in these trees morning and evening for more than 10 days. When the exploder was timed so that explosions occurred at 10- minute intervals, the pigeons were kept away from the trees, and when it was regulated so that explosions occurred every 3 minutes the jays, robins, orioles, and grosbeaks were controlled to an esti- mated 80 percent. At the end of the 1941 test, Knox concluded that the use of 10 or 12 acetylene flash guns together with a limited amount of concurrent shotgun shooting would effectively solve the problem in that area. An adaptation of the "flagging" system commonly used against horned larks in truck crops in California^ was tested. In 1940, in an orchard of 150 trees a cord was stretched over the tops of the trees in each row. Between and near each tree streamers made of white wrapping paper were tied to the cord so that they waved in the rather constant breeze and made considerable noise. For 7 days after the installation of this device, no pigeons fed in the orchard. Then a severe rain and wind storm destroyed the papers. In 1941 streamers made from a durable kraft crepe paper with an asphalt inner binding were tested. This paper proved very successful during dry weather in frightening the pigeons. It with- stood rain and wind, but when wet it made no noise. Apparently it was the crackling and popping of the streamers rather than their motion that frightened the pigeons, for when the crepe paper streamers ceased to make noise, they lost their effectiveness and the pigeons returned. A spotlight beacon useful in frightening away night-feeding ducks^was tested against the day-feeding pigeons, but proved in- effective, as did also strips of paper, cloth, and bright tin hanging in the trees. Knox demonstrated that tree covers made of tobacco cloth were both effective and economical. Cover for trees of various sizes were made at costs ranging from 50 cents to $3 each. Because pigeons prefer the higher branches, the covers were so constructed as to cover only the upper parts of the tree, but where other birds are plentiful extension of the covers to protect the entire tree might " The acetylene flash gun is a commercially manufactured device consisting of a carbide, water, combustion, and flash chambers. A controlled flow of water entering the carbide chamber forms acetylene gas. Wlien pressure forces release of the gas. it is ignited by a pilot light and explodes with a report similar to that of a shotgun, and with a blinding flash of light. By means of the valve controlling the water flow, the apparatus can be set to explode at almost any desired frequency. Information on where this and other bird- frightening devices can be obtained can be furnished by the Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior, Chicago 54, 111. 3 Protecting crops from damage by horned larks in California. By Johnson A. Neff, Biologist. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Biological Survey Wildlife Research and Manage- ment Leaflet BS-61, lO pp., illus., September 1936. [Processed.] * Protecting field crops from waterfowl damage by means of reflectors and revolving beacons. By F. M. Uhler, Biologist, and Stephen Creech. Game Management Agent. U. S. Dept. Int., Bureau of Biological Survey Wildlife Leaflet BS-149, 6 pp., illus. November 1939. [Processed.] THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 49 be well worth while. As the covers would be in use only about 30 days of each year, if carefully handled they should last for several seasons. The writer on many occasions has observed similar covers used to protect vines and fruit trees, the most elaborate being a gas-pipe-chicken-wire structure covering large sweet cherry trees. Near Hermosa, Colo., in 1942, Game Management Agent Foley found the acetylene flash gun very ineffective unless it was moved about the orchard several times daily and was accompanied by liberal gunfire. Pigeons were seen feeding in the tree adjoining the flash gun after it had been operating for almost an hour. In the same area, in 1943, white Very signal flares were tested and proved most efi'ective in frightening pigeons from the orchard. Their use was restricted by the great fire hazard in all places where the ground cover was inflammable. Pyrotechnic 3-inch flash bombs such as are widely used for frightening ducks were also tested in cherry orchards and proved to be very satisfactory, hav- ing greater value than gunfire. Studying the depredations on cherries at Cloudcroft, N. Mex., Frank C. Knox, Game Agent, found that a small number of wild mulberry trees grew in the mountain canyons near the cherry orchards. The fruit on these trees normally ripened about 2 weeks after the earliest cherries were ripe, but before the late cherries ripened. He first noticed that the pigeons were more easily driven from the cherry orchards after the mulberries began to ripen. Then, in 1943, weather conditions caused the early cherries and the mulberries to ripen at the same time; a large part of the pi- geons remained in the canyons feeding on mulberries and did not come to the cherry orchards until the mulberry crop was exhausted, at a time when most of the cherry crop had been harvested. Simi- lar conditions existed near Paonia, Colo., in 1945. Knox's observations led him to believe that the planting of early ripening mulberries in the canyons of the Cloudcroft area would go far toward reducing the cherry damage there. Such a method of prevention might well be practicable in districts in which the pigeon population is moderate to small, but it is the writer's opin- ion that it would not prove eff'ective in areas in which the pigeon population is very large, for severe crop depredations have been noted in many instances in areas where pigeons were abundant and where the native wild food supply was far greater than was necessary for the birds. The effectiveness of the method prob- ably depends largely on local conditions. Studies of methods of crop protection by means of deterrent and frightening devices have not kept pace with field needs, and further extensive experimentation is desirable. Man's ingenuity in devising noise-makers and frightening devices has scarcely been tapped, and much can doubtless be accomplished along this line. Each complaint of pigeon depredations should be carefully in- vestigated by either State or Federal officials, and when damage is found to have occurred, the victims should be given every prac- ticable assistance. Because of the fondness of band-tailed pigeons for agricultural crops, good management decrees that the pigeon population should 50 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE not be permitted to increase unreasonably; therefore carefully planned open seasons should be continued so that shooting will act as a population control, particularly in areas in which pigeons are abundant and depredations severe. Open shooting seasons, how- ever, are not the remedy for specific instances of depredation for because of the habits of these birds control of depredations by hunting could be realized only through general and widespread population reduction, which is undesirable. The issuance of permits to kill pigeons that are damaging crops has never been completely successful. Earlier authorizations al- lowed the owner or lessee to use the birds so killed for food, and as a result a great demand for permits developed, the desire to hunt being the primary motive. Hence permits no longer include the privilege of utilizing the birds killed as food, and significantly there has been a great decrease in the number of complaints. Dur- ing recent seasons it has been possible in some areas through agree- ment between Federal and State officials to require the permit- tee to preserve the pigeons killed for delivery to charitable institu- tions or hospitals. This has effected further decrease in the num- ber of requests for permits. Another defect of the permit system is that shooting usually is allowed only on the area on which damage is occurring; but, as has been pointed out by Britton in New Mexico, shooting the pi- geons at their roosting and perching sites may aid greatly in reduc- ing the damage. These roosts and da^'time perching trees may be near the crop attacked or may be miles distant. Where important crop losses occur, it would often facilitate pro- tection if the owner were permitted to shoot the birds on his prop- erty while at the same time game wardens or men under their im- mediate and close supervision traced the flight of the pigeons and continued the frightening process at perching and roosting places until a change in flight lines or the habits of the birds brought re- lief. This procedure, however, would require a large personnel and a great expenditure of funds. There can be no question that serious agricultural losses sus- tained by persons on account of depredations by band-tailed pi- geons must be controlled. On the other hand, conservation sentiment demands that there be no excessive or unwarranted destruction of the birds. Pigeon depredations affect a large number of persons, especially in mountain, valley, or wilderness areas close to abun- dant bandtail populations. In many cases there is a distinct loss, but in many others the damage is magnified. Regardless of the degree of damage incurred or of the justification for control of the birds on the individual farm, studies of methods of prevention of damage have lagged, and there are few economical, practicable, and highly successful methods that can be recommended. Where the farmer will get out with his gun at daylight and keep the pigeons from feeding in his field until dark usually only one to three days are required to break up even the worst of the normal pigeon attacks. THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 51 FOOD HABITS GENERAL The literature on the band-tailed pigeons contains many refer- ences to their feeding habits, mostly based on field observations. Huey (1913) describes their feeding on manzanita berries in Cali- fornia, Willard (1916) on acorns of Querctis eiyioryi in Arizona, Oilman (1903) in grain stubble in California, and Taverner (1934) on peas and grain in British Columbia. Bendire (1892) quotes Carpenter relative to the feeding of the pigeons on the salm- onberry (Rubus nidkanus) along the Columbia River, and Kobbe (1900) confirms the report. Belding comments on their feeding on acorns and oak buds in California, Ankeny on their eating acorns in the Rogue River Valley of Oregon, and Lloyd on their consumption of wild grapes in western Texas and of acorns there and in Mexico. From Arizona Benson reported to Bendire that acorns were taken after July 15, and Poling mentioned mulber- ries, although not definitely stating that the fruits were eaten. Dawson (1923) said the bandtails fed on elderberries (Sambu- cus), cascara {Rhamnus pursJiiana) , cofleeberries (Rhamnus cali- fornicus), huckleberries (Vuccinium), salal (Gaultheria) , salm- onberries (Ritbiis), madrona berries (Arbutus), and Christmas- berries (Photinia), but that acorns were their favorite food. Gabrielson and Jewett (1940) summarize the food of the birds in Oregon as consisting of acorns, mountain ash berries, berries of various species of Rubus, elderberries, and currants ; kinnikinnick, dogwood, and other fruits ; grains ; and peas and other legumes. They mention that after nesting time, when the birds flock to- gether, they feed on the fruits of salal, salmonberry, blackberry, and other wild fruits ; Jewett has stated that they are particularly fond of the cascara berry (Rhamnus purshiana) ; and Gabrielson frequently observed them apparently feeding on the seeds of Lu- pinus lyalli. Mrs. Bailey (1928) summarizes the food of the species as fol- lows : "Mainly nuts, especially acorns, and berries, including wild currant, chokecherry, wild cherry, juniper, madrone, manzanita, raspberry, blackberry, elderberry, huckleberry, salmonberry, cof- feeberry (Rhamnus calif ornica) , Christmasberry, and black goose- berry; wild grapes, flowers and leaf buds, sycamore balls, pine buds, seeds, and needles, and grain (mostly waste) ; together with grasshoppers and other insects." Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer (1918), in Game Birds of Califor- nia, say that "the amount of food available to the pigeon appears to be the main controlling factor in its distribution. This is more particularly true in winter, though probably to some extent in sum- mer also." They pointed out that the food consisted mainly of nuts and berries, and that the plants that bear these are frequent- ly alternate-year, or intermittent, crop-bearers. Of 22 food records summarized by these authors, 10 give acorns as the chief item. Specifically, these included the acorns of Quer- cus Kigrifolia, Q. ivislizenii, Q. kelloggii, and Q. cknjsolepis. Ber- ries of the madrona (Arbuttcs menzies'ii) were said to be an at- 52 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE tractive autumn food. Fruits of certain species of manzanita(Ar'c- tostaphylos) were reported as taken from the time they were first formed until very late in the season when fully ripe. During the autumn, fruits of the coffeeberry, elderberry (Sambucus glauca) , and chokecherry {Prunus demissa) were mentioned as favored foods, and in the winter, berries of the toyon (Photinia cLrbutifo- Ha) were taken. Buds and blossoms also were taken. Dean (1904) reported the bandtails feeding on manzanita buds, and there are many records of their eating oak buds and flowers. Evermann (1886) found 35 of the ball-like flowers of the sycamore in the crop of a single pigeon. Pine seeds were recorded as bandtail food by Belding (1890) and Grinnell (1905). Cultivated grains, including wheat, barley, oats, milo maize, and field corn, have been listed in nu- merous instances. Many miscellaneous items are recorded, includ- ing wild peas, dogwood berries, hazelnuts, alder seeds, and juni- per berries. In New Mexico, H. W. Henshaw (1886) observed the pigeons feeding on fruits of the elder {Sambucus racemosa) and acorns of the scrub oak {Quercus undulata) . J. A. Munro, Chief Federal Migratory Bird Officer, of British Columbia, reported in 1941 on the examination of the food of 13 bandtails collected in British Columbia between 1923 and 1933. The crop of a bird collected in June contained approximately 346 kernels of wheat. Of 12 birds collected in September, the crops of 6 contained field peas, and those of the others such items as acorns of Quercus garryana, seeds of Conius nuttalli, Sambucus glauca, Gaultho ia shallon, and oats. Several writers have commented on the great volume of food that can be taken by a single pigeon. Grinnell, Bryant, and Storer mention an acorn dropped by a flying pigeon that measured nearly 1 by IV2 inches, and also record a pigeon killed in Del Norte Coun- ty, Calif., whose crop contained 534 kernels of barley, oats, and corn. Van Rossem (1914) reported finding pigeons in a dying condi- tion, their crops pierced by acorns that they had swallowed. John G. Traub, of the Fish and Wildlife Service, who ranched for a time in San Luis Obispo County, Calif., told the writer of killing apparently healthy pigeons that upon examination were found to have points of acorns protruding through the crop wall ; the feath- ers were matted with crop juices, an indication that this condition had existed for several days, yet the pigeons had apparently con- tinued to feed and fly vigorously and normally. E. H. Glidden, State Game Warden, of San Diego, Calif., wrote on December 10, 1937, "You will find the chief diet of wild pigeons at this time of the year in this district to be acorns ; however, one may at times find the young shoots of pines in their crop, especial- ly on Palomar and the Mesa Grande Mountain. During the spring they feed almost entirely on elderberries." W. H. Ransom, United States Game Management Agent, said in 1937 that madrona and mountain ash berries were supposed to be choice winter foods for the small number of pigeons that wintered about Seattle, Wash., and that in June the bandtails fed on ripened THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 53 wild strawberries in great numbers, especially on Sand Island near Willapa Harbor. Lawrence W. Saylor wrote: "I once kept an injured bandtail for two weeks . . . and it w^ould eat as many as 30 madrona berries a day ; it also accepted and ate huckleberries ( Vaccinium ovatwni ) , coffeeberries, cultivated currants, and strawberries, and on several occasions readily took grasshoppers when offered. . . . Apparently the tips of Douglas fir branches are eaten (by the wild birds), as I have stood under the trees and watched the birds pick at and swallow the tender tips of the twigs." There is frequent mention of insects as food of these pigeons, but it would seem that most of these references trace to a field examination made by Vernon Bailey, on July 29, 1903, of a pigeon killed by him at Pecos Baldy, N, Mex., of which he said, "The giz- zard was full of insects, mainly grasshoppers and the larvae of a wasplike insect." Despite this observation, and those of Saylor just mentioned, pigeons as a group eat little animal food. Several writers have described feeding mannerisms of band- tails. Oilman (1903) says that "instead of spreading out they kept together alternately walking and flying. Those behind would fly a few feet ahead of the advance line, alight, and walk along picking up grain until other rear ones would fly ahead and it came their turn again." Huey (1913) stated that a flock observed feeding on manzanita in San Diego County arrived a little after sunrise and left be- tween eight and nine o'clock in the morning ; in the afternoon the birds returned about four and left again at dusk. Willard (1916) described the bandtails feeding on acorns in Arizona : "They would walk out on the slender branches till they tipped down, then, hang- ing by their feet, would secure an acorn, and drop off to alight on a branch lower down." In mid-June 1941, pigeons numbering possibly 12 to 20 came from the Pinaleno Mountains to a group of mulberry trees on a ranch 7 miles south of Pima, Ariz., to feed upon the ripening fruits. The distance from the mulberry trees to the oak-pine zone high up the side of Mount Graham must be at least 10 miles. Two specimens of bandtails were obtained here, giving the first rep- resentation of mulberries in stomachs in the entire study although this fruit was known to be well accepted. In May 1932, the writer saw two migrating bands of pigeons flying across the broad Sacramento Valley of California stop to feed upon seed rice in two newly planted fields. During the course of intermittent field work on band-tailed pi- geons extending from 1936 through 1941, the writer has personally observed, or has received reports from cooperators who have ob- served, the birds feeding on most of the food already mentioned in the abstract of the literature on pigeon foods. In some instances no specimens of bandtails were obtained, hence the particular item does not appear in the tabulations of the result of stomach exami- nation ; in other cases the item may be represented in unnaturally small ratio owing to lack of adequate collecting in a habitat pro- viding that particular food. 54 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE USE OF MINERAL SALTS In 1937, many Puget Sound observers noted that the pigeons frequently flew to mud flats at the margin of the Sound to drink salt water even though fresh-water streams were available. In this connection W. H. Ransom (in a letter of April 15, 1939) writes : "Near Cathlamet, Wash,, along the Columbia River there is a cliff containing saline deposits of some sort, and the game protector stationed there a few years ago told me of seeing scores of pigeons gathered there in late summer, while groups of them fluttered in the air as close to the vertical clifl" as they could get, all the while picking at the salt-bearing earth." Frank B. Wire, of the Oregon Game Commission, told the writ- er that many years ago he had frequently hunted pigeons at a salt spring that attracted the birds in considerable numbers. Ben- dire (1892) quotes Anthony relative to a large salt spring south of Beaverton, Oreg., where pigeons were always to be found in large numbers, Kloppenburg (1922) writing of the bandtails in the Plumas National Forest in California says that "they can usu- ally be found near mineral springs, especially soda and sulphur springs." This habit may be analogous to that of the mourning doves that are attracted to salt in the Southeastern States to such extent that the use of salt is included as a prohibited method of baiting. In Arizona the writer has observed western white-winged doves picking at salt blocks in cattle feed lots. Salt was used as bait also in connection with the shooting of the now extinct passenger pi- geon. RESULTS OF LABORATORY EXAMINATIONS The following report covers the laboratory examination of 691 band-tailed pigeon crops and/or stomachs. This material admittedly is inadequate, some States being represented by only a few speci- mens. In California, the pigeons occur at some time of year in most of the more than 50 counties, but only 18 of them are repre- sented in this study, and 194 out of 267 stomachs were salvaged from the bags of hunters during the 15-day December open season ; likewise, 113 of the Washington specimens were procured from hunters during the 15-day September open season, in 1937. For the purpose of this report the crop and stomach, or the crop or stomach-, of an individual bird is considered a unit specimen. Every efl'ort was made to obtain both crop and stomach, but since many specimens were obtained from hunters, it was found diflS- cult to obtain both, and in many instances only the crop or the stomach was obtained. Regularly cooperating observers, how- ever, sent in both crop and stomach. The food percentages in this report have been computed by the standard volumetric method described by Cottam,-"^ each item be- ^ Economic ornithology and the correlation of laboratory and field methods. By Oarence Cottam, Biologist. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Biological Survey Wildlife Research and Management Leaflet BS-30, 13 pp., illus. January 1936. [Processed.] THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 55 s "a o 00 t- O -rt< IN ^ t- IM ^ ^ on CO 6 a> Q lOS 1 1 1 1 2 > o 'Z ^co 1 1^ I lO o t-'H t^^ 1 ^ 01 a t-^O it- ICO 00 OO'-l '(NCT> 100 oo 3 COM i t- 5 CO T-l^ : t- & S 01 i 1 iO '-* 1 1 llf 1 a oq i ICO iTf CT) c3 it- t- J3 0) lO " i-s ^ - Arizona (6) ' California (18) Colorado (3) New Mexico (3) Texas ( 1 ) "5 o 56 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE s C3 c &^ c 3 o o C]C-3 0^^C^t^'M'MC^'OO^^^IMC<]aiOiOC^IMiMt-CM CO —ICO O -* ^ CO IM rH-l -H CJiMiMiONCOM Annual average by volume oo IM CO... COT.. CO ...C^'-O.CO.-^ L^ t^ t! U U L^ t^ o Q CO 1 lO 1 O 1 a> 1 t- t lO 1 lO u t;Mt;iiiiit^' ;^ HHH ; : ; ; ;h ; lO 1 L^ C H H :^ ': > o .n 00 o OJ 1 t- T - 6 IM to tr- CO '• J ICC 1 1 O 1 CO H m 00 lO O CO CO !!i(MCOii iMi tOiiOtOi : ; ',TT : '.^^ i^ ;=^^ '; o •* d ^ 00 o o 1 lOOOO w 1 1 1- in— i-H ! 1 ! CO O i 1 O O O 1 I 1 1 1 iOOtJ^ 1 iCOlOOS 1 1 1 1 1 1 T 1 . ca III CD 1 CO CD CD lO >-5 lO T '00 1 lO lO ^ 1 ;0 i«5 T IM -f lO ' 1 —1 —1 1 1 1 1 i|JC>][-CO 1 1^*0 1 I 1 1 H "^ i : '^ ; ; ; ; lO lO ^ a) C 3 o • 1 ilO KM 1 i t~ i; iio ' O 105 ^ 1 1" ! ! I(M 1 1 1 1 C- CD CO fc^ -^ 1 & S lo O ! 1 t; ic- 1 1 l!!Toliiiiiiio 1 c4 1 01 0) as •• s s SCO- 'S n-r^" bo V g 3 CD Ji 0 c 2' 5) 3< 1 s S S ^ ' ' ' s H S c 1 01 1 c« U CJ a ft 5 a i_aj 1 0) 1 be 1 ^ ' 3 D O U OJ : c II 1 c J" 'S < U CO i.s u c« (U'X 0- S f -Ip! : ft ° 01 THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 57 ing measured after drying. Although representation varies greatly, the month is used as the period for the computations. For plant names the most recent publication on taxonomic botany for each of the States has been used. Of the specimens available, 25 had such incomplete data that they were useless, although information obtained from them may be mentioned ; 27 others were so nearly empty that they were eliminated from the tabulations. Hence the percentages of food volume and frequency of occurrence are based on the remaining 639 specimens. In the examination of these, 76 separate classes of plant food items were listed, including unidentified mosses, vegetable debris, unidentifiable vegetable fragments, and rodent scats composed en- tirely of vegetable debris. The identified plant-food items repre- sent 26 plant families. In addition, 10 occurrences of insect frag- ments, comprising only a trace of the whole food, were recorded. Hence the species may be considered almost wholly vegetarian. Gravel in stomachs is figured in its ratio to the total content, while food item percentages are calculated after the grit has been re- moved. In table 4 is summarized by States the material available for each month ; the number in parentheses following the name of the State refers to the number of counties represented by the stom- achs collected. In table 5 are listed the general classes or families of food items represented, by months, with the composite percentage by volume of all species within the family, based on a total of 639 stomachs and crops. An added column gives the percentage of frequency of occurrence of the combined species of each family. The percentages by volume and frequency of occurrence of the Table 6. — Percentage by volume and frequency of occurrence of the food items that totaled one percent or more of the annual food of 639 bandtails, based OH the examination of their stonutciis and crops Food item Quercus agri folia, live oak acorns Que)-cus sp.. uniflentifled acorns Avena sativd. cultivated oats Prmiiis, cultivated cherries Pisinn sativmn. g'arden peas Triliciim aestir)iiii. wlieat Pin us edulis, pinon nuts Quercus kelloggii, California black oak acorns. Quercus sp., blossoms of oak Rhamnvs purshiana, cascara fruits Arbutus menziesii, madrona berries Prunus domesficus, cultivated prunes Cornus nuttrdlii, dogwood fruits Arctostaphylos, sp., inanzanita seeds and tlowei Quercus wislizenii, interior live oak acorns... Pinus ponderosa, yellow pine seeds Srnnbucus glrnicrt, elderberry fruits Quercus garrynmi. Orejjon white oak acorns. . Prunus sp., wild cherry fruits Miscellaneous vejietable debris Qaultheria sfioUon, salal fruits Quercus emoryi, Emory oalc acorns I'ercentage by Percenta ge by frequency volume of occurrence 17.5 11.1 13.4 18.2 7.4 5.8 7.1 12.4 4.8 7.4 5.(1 10.3 4.0 1.9 3.9 1.6 3.5 1.3 3.0 2.8 3.0 6.1 3.0 3.0 2.8 11.7 2.6 3.1 2.2 2.0 2.(1 .5 l.S 6.4 1.7 .8 1.5 6.0 1.5 4.4 1.0 3.8 1.0 1.7 58 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE food items that totaled 1 percent or more of the annual food of the bandtails, as based on the examination of the 639 stomachs and crops, are shown in table 6. Pinaceae (6.4 poxent). — Buds of the Sitka spruce (Picea sit- chensis) were found in a May-killed Oregon bird, and staminate aments of an unidentified conifer in another. Unidentified pine seeds were found in one California bird killed in December. Seeds of the yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) were found in two Califor- nia birds collected in June and December, respectively. One bird obtained in July in the Kaibab National Forest, Ariz., contained 625 seeds of this pine, measuring 47 cubic centimeters (4 cubic centimeters=l teaspoonful) . Nuts of the pinon (Pinus edulis) were found in 12 Arizona birds collected in September, October, and November. These nuts were the only food in 11 of the birds and composed 94 percent of the food of the other. Nuts of the single-leaf piiion (Pinus mono- phyUa) composed the entire food of 9 pigeons and 90 pertent of the food of a tenth collected in California in December. One bird had taken 60 of the nuts which displaced 45 cubic centimeters. Ciipressaceae (trace). — One pigeon killed in Arizona in Sep- tember contained 270 staminate buds of an unidentified juniper (Junipe7'us) . Gramincac (12.8 percent). — Cultivated grains make up a mod- erate portion of the food of the band-tailed pigeon in or near farm- ing areas. Wheat occurred in 66 birds collected during 7 months of the year in 4 States and averaged 5.0 percent of the annual food. Oats were found in 37 birds collected in 3 States during 5 months and formed 7.4 percent of the annual food. Barley oc- curred in 12 birds collected in 2 States during 4 months and formed 0.4 percent of the annual food. Field corn was found in only 2 September birds from Colorado. Unusual quantities of grain were found in a few crops ; one contained 725 kernels of wheat, one 200 kernels of barley, and another 660 whole kernels of oats. Seeds of Poa sp., wild oats (Avenci fatua), darnell (Lolhim temidentmu), and needlegrass (Stipa sp.) were each found in single stomachs of birds taken in April, May, and June in Oregon and California. The family Gramineae contributed 12.8 percent of the annual food. Liliaceae (0.5 of 1 percent). — Seeds of an unidentified yucca were found in one California bird collected in June, and seeds of sotol (Dasjilivion wheeleri) (fig. 9) in three August and two Sep- tember birds from southeastern Arizona. Combined they made up one-half of 1 percent of the annual food. AmcuiiUidaceae (0.8 of 1 percent). — Ten birds collected in July and August in southern New Mexico contained the anthers of an agave (Agave parryi) (fig. 10), aggregating 0.8 of 1 percent of the annual food, and one Arizona bird killed in August contained 125 seeds of a Smilacina, probably stellaria. Fagaceae (US. 7 percent). — The acorns and flowers of oaks con- stitute the major food of the band-tailed pigeon. Staminate flow- ers of oak were found in four January and four March birds from THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 59 FiGiUiE 9.— Pi.iieous from the oak canyons of the Southwest often feed on the seeds of the sotol {Dasi/Iirion whecleri), which grows in the adjacent high desert. Pinal County, Ariz. (Photographed by H. L. Croclvett, July 1941.) California. Acorns or fragments of acorns were found in 233 birds collected during 10 months and from every State represented except Texas. Oak products totaled 43.7 percent of the annual food. Acorns of the California live oaks were most frequently taken ; those of the coast live oak (Quorns agrifoUa) occurred in 71 stomachs and averaged 17.5 percent of the year's food, and those of the interior live oak (Q. ivislizenii) were found in 13 birds col- 60 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE B87I2M FiGTTRE 10. — The flowers of this tree-like agave (Agave parri/i) furnish summer food for iiigeons in the Southwest. The agaves grow in the higher desert mountains, sometimes very close to pigeon-nesting habitat. Head of Mills Canyon, Pinal Mountains, Ariz. (Photographed by H. L. and Ruth Crock- ett, July 26, 1936.) lected during the period November to March. Other species repre- sented were the California black oak (Q. kclloggii), blue oak (Q. douglasii) , Oregon white oak {Q. garryana) , Emory oak (Q. em- oriji), white-leaf oak (Q. hypoleuca) , and the valley oak (Q. lo- bata ) . Fragments of acorns not further identified were found in 116 birds and averaged 13.4 percent of the annual food. The abil- THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 61 ity of these birds to consume quantities of acorns has been de- scribed. The crop of one specimen examined contained 22 acorns of the coast Uve oak, displacing 38 cubic centimeters. Juglandaccae (trace). — One California bird killed in January contained flowers of the walnut (Juglans). Mijricaceae (trace). — Parts of the seeds of the wax myrtle (My- rica californica) occurred in one California specimen. Ulmaceae (trace). — Seeds of an unidentified hackberry (Cel- tis) were taken from the stomach of a bird collected at Uvalde, Texas, in December. Pigeons collected in the Capitan Mountains of New Mexico had eaten fruits of Celt is reticulata. Loranthaceue (0.2 of 1 percent). — The pine mistletoe (Arceuth- obium) was represented in nine December stomachs from Cali- fornia and three July stomachs from New Mexico by fragments of both fruiting and vegetative parts. Moraceae (0.1 of 1 percent). — Fruits of the mulberry (Morus alba) occurred in two June birds from Arizona, and seeds of an unidentified mulberry in one July bird from New Mexico. Rosaceae (13.6 percent). — This family, producing many famil- iar wild fruits and berries, is well represented in the bandtail's diet. Seeds of wild blackberries or raspberries were found in 14 birds; eight were unidentified; and salmonberry (Rubus specto/- bilis) occurred in four, and a wild blackberry (Riibus macrope- talus) in two birds. Rose hips were found in one stomach. Wild cherries, including Primus emarglnata and P. melunocar- pa, were found in 44 specimens collected in Washington, Oregon, Colorado, and New Mexico. Fruits of Prunus ewarghiata oc- curred in 38 Washington specimens taken in July, August, and September, and averaged 1.5 percent of the annual food. Seeds of the serviceberry (Amelanchier aluifolia) occurred in five September birds, and those of the hawthorn (Crataegus doug- lasii) in four July birds from Oregon. Seeds of the wild straw- berry (Fragaria) were found in two May specimens, and fruits of the toyon (Photinia arbutifolia) in four December birds. Cultivated prunes were found in 19 birds collected in May in the Willamette Valley of Oregon, and averaged 3 percent of the annual food. Cultivated cherries occurred in 79 birds collected from May to August in Washington, Oregon, California, New Mexico, and Colorado, and formed 7.1 percent of the total food. Both the sweet cherry (Prunus avium) and sour cherry (P. cer- asus) were represented. The Pacific coast fruits were entirely sweet cherries, but in Colorado and New Mexico both varieties were included in the food of the pigeons. The combined products of the Rosaceae family averaged 13.6 percent of the annual food. Leguminosae (If.8 percent). — Seeds of clover (Trifolium),\\x- pine (Lupinus), and trefoil (Lotus), and leaves of TrifoUum were all found in the crop of a single California bird. Cultivated peas had been taken by 44 bandtails collected in Washington. Those found in seven April and May stomachs had been gleaned from freshly seeded fields and averaged slightly more than 2 percent of the annual food; the significance of such feed- ing has already been discussed (p. 44). During July, August, and 62 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE September peas are taken mostly from the stubble of harvested fields. Occasionally the birds may attack a field that is to be har- vested for seed, causing severe losses. For the entire year, culti- vated peas, waste or valuable, averaged 4.8 percent of the food. Geraniaceae {trcice) . — A few tiny leaves of the alfilaria (Er odi- um) had been eaten by one California bird. Euphorbiaceae (trace). — Seeds of the turkey mullein (Eremo- carpus setigerus) were found in one specim.en. Anacardiaceae (0.5 of 1 percent). — Seeds of two species of su- mac were found. Those of Rhus emoryii occurred in the stomachs of five specimens from New Mexico, and those of R. trilobata in one bird from Arizona, making up 0.5 of one percent of the an- nual food. Rhanmaceae (3.1 percent). — The berries of the cascara (Rham- nus purshiana) are a favorite food in Oregon; these fruits were taken from 18 Oregon specimens collected from June to Septem- ber and averaged 3 percent of the annual food. Seeds of the coffee- berry (R. calif ornwa) occurred in one California stomach. Fruits and seeds of the lote bush (Condalia lycioides) were identified from a single Arizona specimen. Products of this family averaged 3.1 percent of the annual food. Vitaceae (0.7 of 1 percent) . — Fruits and seeds of the wild grape (Vitis arizonica) composed the major food of three August speci- mens collected in the Huachuca Mountains of Arizona, and formed 0.7 of one percent of the annual food. Malvaceae (trace). — A single seed, determined as Sidalacea sp., was found in one Oregon specimen. Araliaceae (trace). — A number of green berries of Aralia hu- milis were identified from the stomach of a single Arizona bird. Umhelliferae (trace). — Seeds of the gambleweed (Sanicula menziesH) occurred in one California specimen taken in Decem- ber. Cornaceae (2.8 percent). — The fruits of the dogwood are a highly favored food, being found in 75 stomachs from Washing- ton and Oregon, and averaged 2.8 percent of the annual food. Those of the mountain dogwood (Cornus nuttallii) are the most commonly taken. Ericaceae (6.7 percent). — The heath family includes four groups, the fruits of which are relished by band-tailed pigeons and averaged 6.7 percent of the annual food. In the Pacific Northwest the fruits of the salal (Gaultheria shal- lon) were taken by 24 birds from Washington and Oregon and averaged just 1 percent of the annual food. Fruits of the madrona (Arbutus menziesli) were eaten by 39 California birds and com- posed 3 percent of the annual food. Flowers and fruits of the manzanita (Arctostaq)hylos) occurred in 20 specimens taken during every month from March to August in Oregon, California, and Arizona, and furnished 2.6 percent of the annual food. Fruits of two species of huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatuni and V. delicosum) were identified, the first from a single Oregon bird, the second from two Washington birds. Sokmaceae (trace). — Seeds of Solarium sp., were found in one THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 63 Colorado specimen. Caprifoliaccue {3.2 percent). — Fruits and flowers of the elder- berry (Sanibucus) were found in 70 stomachs and averaged 3.2 percent of the annual food. Of these, the fruits in 41 specimens were identified as those of the blue elderberry {Satnhucus glauca) and averaged 1.8 percent of the food; fruits in seven other speci- mens were identified as red elderberries (Scvmbucus callicarpa) . Compo^itae {trace). — One pigeon collected in California in De- cember contained seeds of the tarweed {Madia). Miscellaneous {1.5 percent). — Bits of moss were taken from one specimen. Fragments of oak galls were often found in pigeons that had been feeding on acorns. Unidentifiable vegetable frag- ments and debris were recorded from 17 specimens and averaged 1.3 percent of the annual food. One Oregon bird contained 12 whole rodent scats ; the scats were entirely vegetable in compo- sition and were tentatively identified as those of the wood rat {Neotoma) . Animal Foods. — All the insect material in the stomachs appeared to have been accidentally or incidentally taken ; it was present in only 10 stomachs or crops. One oak twig gall very similar to an acorn in size and appear- ance was found to contain larvae of gall flies {Cynipidue). A staphylinid larva (rove-beetle) and an adult Anthrenus (skin beetle), each in single stomachs, might have been taken inciden- tally in feeding on other items. One stomach contained 7 honey ants {Prenolepis iTnparis) and a quantity of tiny leaflets of clover, and it is reasonable to assume that the ants were upon the leaflets when they were taken. One fire ant {Solenopsis) occurred in a crop otherwise filled with wild berries, and one acrobat ant {Cremastogaster) was also identi- fied : both are frequently found about ripe fruits. The larvae of a Tineid moth were found in one crop, traces of cocoon silk in two, and fragments of the elytra of a beetle in one. With all confidence the conclusion may be drawn that the band- tailed pigeon feeds only rarely upon insects. SEASONAL FOOD PREFERENCES In order to set forth more clearly the relation of foods to band- tailed pigeon migration and distribution, food items identified in the present study have been segregated and tabulated in four seasonal classifications: winter, spring, summer, and autumn. The seasons, arbitrarily designated, are most nearly accurate for the California district. WINTER The period designated as winter includes the months of Novem- ber, December, and January. Normally, by November most of the pigeons of the Pacific coast have reached California and are settled in their winter habitat, except for descent from higher to lower elevations caused by snowfall. Soon after the end of Janu- ary a movement northward includes part of the wintering popu- 695766°— 47— 5 64 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE lation. The stomachs and crops of 214 birds collected in four States during this period were available for examination. Acorns were taken by 172 of the 214 birds and averaged 77.2 percent of the winter food, with oak blossoms adding another 2.2 percent. Pine nuts also played an important part, contributing 8.5 percent to the winter food. Fruits of the madrona (Arbutus menziesii) were found in 37 of the birds and formed 4.8 percent of the season's food. Christmasberries, or toyon berries (Photinia arbutifolia) , made up 3.4 percent, and wheat from stubblefields 2.3 percent, of the winter food. These were the only foods that averaged more than 1 percent. Consideration of all data, both field and laboratory, leads to the conclusion that mast, acorns, and pine nuts are the basic foods necessary to maintain a population of band-tailed pigeons through the winter, and that these birds will not remain in numbers in areas that do not provide these foods. SPRING The period designated as the spring season covers February, March, and April. Beginning usually during February, the con- centrations of bandtails that winter in central or southern Cali- fornia start to move slowly northward, and by the end of the pe- riod the majority of the pigeons of the west have reached their breeding range or are close to it. Only 21 specimens were available for this period, collected in three States. Oak products, chiefly acorns, led in the spring foods ; they were found in 13 specimens and averaged 62.2 percent of the season's food. Cultivated grain, including wheat, oats, and barley, and cultivated peas made up 25.4 percent of the food. This season covers at least part of the seeding period for certain of these crops, and in other areas winter wheat and barley is ripening by the end of the spring. Other foods that averaged more than 1 percent during this peri- od included fruits of the manzanita (Arctostaphi/los) , 4.8 percent, and of the madrona (Arbutus menziesii), 7.4 percent, the latter being found in only two stomachs. SUMMER During the summer period (May, June, and July) the majority of the pigeons are nesting, though some may not begin to nest until June, and may continue brooding until well after the end of July. Others may begin nesting before May and may be away from the nest and moving about before the end of July. Examination of 197 specimens collected in six States furnished the data for the calculations for the summer period. Cultivated grains—wheat, oats, and barley—ranked high, averaging 25.7 per- cent, and were found in 80 specimens. It is certain that much of the grain was gleaned from stubblefields after harvest, and was therefore of little economic value. Cultivated cherries and prunes averaging 40.2 percent, led the summer food items, and occurred THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 65 in 95 specimens; domestic prunes were taken during May while still very small; the cultivated cherries included both sweet and sour varieties and were taken at ripening season. Complaints agamst pigeons arise most frequently from their pilfering in cher- ry and prune trees. Wild fruits of many kinds ripen during this period, and they are taken in wide variety. These include blackberries, raspberries, wild cherries, strawberries, elderberries, and fruits of the dog- wood, hawthorn, lote-bush {Condalia) , and others. Individually they composed from 1 to as high as 3 percent, and collectively 16.9 percent, of the summer food. The blossoms and berries of the man- zanita and the berries of the sumac form an additional 5.8 percent. Acorns comprise 5.6 percent of the summer food ; some of these are gleaned from the ground under the oaks, but in the southern part of the range the acorns of the Emory oak and other species are reaching maturity and are taken from the trees. Pine nuts also enter the diet again as the new crop becomes available. AUTUMN During August, September, and October, the arbitrarily desig- nated autumn period, migration on the Pacific coast is under way and m many cases is completed ; to considerable extent the same is true m the Rocky Mountain States and the Southwest. The crops and stomachs of 207 specimens collected in six States were available for this period. With the ripening of the new acorn crop, these nuts rose in im- portance once more to 26.5 percent of the food and were found in 35 birds. Pine nuts made a further advance in the diet, averag- mg 9.2 percent and being found in 11 birds. Cultivated grains (wheat, oats, and barley) and cultivated peas were found in 71 specimens and averaged 13.7 percent of the food; most of this gram is taken from stubblefields. Wild fruits of many varieties continued to play an important part in the pigeon's diet. Fruits of the dogwood (Cornus) rose to 11.3 percent, elderberries to 7 percent, cascara (Rhamnus) to 8.2 percent, salal (Grmlthcna) to 3.3 percent, wild grape (Vitis) to 2.8 percent, wild cherries to 6.0 percent, and a number of others ranked above 1 percent. DISCUSSION The seasonal food preferences of band-tailed pigeons as deter- mined by the examination of 639 stomachs and crops are shown m table 7. The table lists the items that totaled 1 percent or more of the food for each of the four seasons and gives the percentage of their frequency of occurrence. The number in parentheses aft- er the designation of the season refers to the number of specimens examined. It will be noted that during three of the four seasons, oak prod- ucts, largely acorns, and pine nuts, combined, led all other food items by a considerable margin. The availability of these nuts to a very large degree determines the distribution of the band- tailed pigeon ; a number of the oaks bear acorns only at two-year in- 66 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE cc OlOO lOt- o t t-t- IOOOOOt-i 0> tJ< T^ 0> com t->-i 00 (M-HN •y iss ►^ O Ci ™ ■3 "^"^ "" °^ S o S •Sgo !r> .H •>* »H 00 -^eooN 'H 'H ° J! m cii ^-r 0^ X .^ ^ »• ; ~ §S . » D-r, C) g 3 <5 S S e aw-i' •• C S 0.-S Ji S VQf d&2 o * « aS5 '^ „ m ? S e " * w o <^ •• M rt g = n! c o ■ ~ m £; « gOi g;;;^ go J <; p; > o THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 67 I 7 c 2 cc t F. 1920. Band-tailed pigeon nests in Sequoia National Forest. Calif. Fish and Game 6: 182. Evermann, Barton Warpen. 1886. A list of the birds observed in Ventura Countv, California Auk 3: 86-94. Fisher, Albert Kfndkuk. 1893. Birds of the Death Valley expedition. North Anier. Fauna 7, 158 pp. Fowler, Fredkhick Hall. 1903. Stray notes from southern Arizona. Condor 5: 68, 71. Gabeie2,son, Ii!a Noel, and Je^vett. Stanley GoitnoN. 1940. Birds of Oregon. 650 pp., illus. Portland, Oreg. Oilman, Marshall French. 1903. More ahout the Imiid-tailed pigeon (Culiimba fanciatd). Condor 5: 134-135, Gbinnell, Joseph. 1898. Birds of the Pacific slo])o of Los Angeles County. Pasadena Acad. Sci. Pub. 2, 52 pp. 1905. Siummer biids of Mount Pinos, California. Auk 22: 378-391. 1913. The outlook on conserving the band-tailed pigeon as a game bird of California. Condor 15: 25-40. 1915. A distributional list of the birds of California. Pacific Coast Avifauna 11, 217 pp. 1928. September nesting of the band-t.-iilod jjigeon. Condor 3(1: 126. Bryant, Harold Child: and Storei:. Thacy Iiiwin. 1918. The game birds of California. 642 pp. Berkeley. DixoN. Joseph ScattT':rgood : and Linsdale, .Tean ^Iyi:on. 1930. Vertebrate natural history of a section of northern California through the Lassen Peak region. Univ. Calif. Pub. Zool. 35. 59 4 pp. illus. Berkeley. and Stouek. Ti;a( y Irwin. 1924. Animal life in the Yosemite . . . 741 pp., illus. Berkeley. and Wythe. IMargaket Wilhel:mina. 19 2 7. Directory to the bird life of the San Francisco Bay region. Pacific Coast Avifauna 18, 160 pp.. illus. Hagen stein, Walter M. 1936. Late nesting of the band-tailed pigeon. Murrelet 17: 21-22. Henshaw, Henry Wktherbee. 1886. Birds of the Upper Pecos River, New Mexico. Auk 3: 80. HuEry, I>awrence Markham. 1913. With the band-tailed pigeon in San Diego County. Condor 15: 151-153. THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 73 Hunter, Joseph Sr.AVTdN. 1936. Kill of game in State is compiled (1934-35 fiscal vear). Calif. Conserv. 1 (8): 3. 1937. Kill of game in State is compiled (1935-36 fiscal year). Calif. Conserv. 2 (8): 20. JEWETT, STANT.ET GoIDON. 1941. Late nesting of the band-tailed pigeon. Condor 43: 78. and Gahkielson, Ira Noel. 1929. Birds of the rortlaiid, Orcjion, area. I'licific Cojisl Avifauna 19. 55 pp., illus. Johnson, O. R. 1880. List of the birds of the Willamette Valley, Oiegon. Amei-. Nat. July, pp. 638-639. KL0PPENBri;G, H. A. 1922. Band-tailed pigeons abundant in Phimas National Forest. Calif. Fish and Game 8: 57. KOBBE, WiT.LlAM HOFF>rAN. 1900. The birds of Cape Disappointment, Washington. Auk 17: 349-358 LiGON, JAMKS S'KIKET.Y. 1927. Wildlife of New Mexico: its conservation and management. 212 pp., illus. Santa Fe. McAtee, Waedo I>ek. 1932. The need for studies in bird control in California. Calif. Dept. Agr. Monthly Bull. (4-5-0) : 2G9-28t). McLean, Donald Dudley. 192.J. A western goshawk scatters Yosemite's band-tailed pigeon colony. Yosemite Nature Notes 4: 103. MiCHAEX, Charles Wilso.x. 1928. Nesting time of band-tailed pigeons in Yosemite Valley. Condor 30: 127. Mili.er, Robekt ('T'XNiN(jnA.\r ; Lumley, Ellswouth L. ; and Hall. F. S. 1935. Birds of the 3an Juan Islands, Washington. Murrelet 16 (3): 51-65. MoRAN, Nathan. 1919. Nesting of the band-tailed pigeon. Calif. Fish and Game 5: 160. MuNRO, James Aibxander. 1922. The band-tailed pigeon in British Columbia. Canadian Field-Nat. 36: 1-4. 1924. Miscellaneous bird notes from Vancouver Island, 1923. Canadian Field-Nat. Ss : 149-l.m Nice, Margaret ]\Iorse, and Nice. Leonard Blaine. 1924. The birds of Oklahoma. Univ. Oklahoma Bull., new series 20, Univ. studies 286, 122 pp., illus. May 15. Norman, Okla. NiEDRACH. Robert J., and Rof kwell. TiOhfrt B. 1929. Birds of Denver and Mountain Parks. Colo. Mus. Nat. Hist. Pop. Ser. 5, p. 89. NoACK, H. K. 1916. Band-tailed pigeons bred in captivity. Calif. Fish and Game 2: 212. Oblrholsee. Harry Chui-.ch. 1902. Some notes from west Texas. Auk 19: 300. Pearse, Theed. 1935. Display of the band-tailed pigeon. Murrelet 16 (3): 71-72. 1940. Precarious status of the band-tailed pigeon on Vancouver Island. Murrelet 21: 10-11. Presnall, Cltbtord Charles. 19 35. Birds of Zion National Park. Utah Acad. Sci. 12: 201. RiDGWAY, Robert. 1916. The birds of North and Middle America. U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 50, part 7, pp. 288-291. 74 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Shufei.dt, Robert Wilson. 1912. The band-tailed pigeon in North Dakota. Auk 29: 539-540. Stillhuntee. 19 07. South coast shooting. IX: The band-tailed pigeon. Western Field 11: 200-202. Stilljian, a. E. 1928. Nesting of the band-tailed pigeon. Amer. Forests. May, pp. :^(J7-208. SwAKTH, Harry Schelwaldt. 1904. Birds of the Hnachuca Mountains. Arizona. Pacific Coast Avi- fauna 4, 70 pp. 1914. A distributional list of the birds of Arizona. Pacltic Coast Avifauna 10, 133 pp. Taverner, Pexcy Algernon. 1926. Birds of western Canada. Canada Dept. Mines, Victoria Memorial Mus. Bull. 41 (Biol. Ser. 10), 380 pp., illus. Ottawa. 1934. Birds of Canada. Canada Dept. Mines. Nat. Mus. Bull. 72 (Biol. Ser. 19), 445 pp., iUus. Ottawa. Taylor, Walter Penn. 19 2 4. The present status of the band-tailed pigeon on the Pacific coast. Calif. Fish and Game 10: 1-9. Van DenbL'EGH, .John. 1899. Notes on some birds of S^anta Clara County, California. Amer. Philos. Soc. Proc. 38: 157-180. Van Rossem, Adrian Joseph. 1914. Notes from the San Bernardino Mountains. Condor 16: 145-146. Van Tyne, Jocelyn, and Sutton, George Misch. 193 7. The birds of Brewster County, Texas. Univ. Michigan Mus. Zool. Misc. Pub. 37, illus. VoRHiES, Charles Taylor. 1928. Band-tailed pigeons nesting in Arizona in September. Condor 30: 253. Wales, Joseph Howe. 1926. The coo of the band-tailed pigeon. Condor 28: 42. Wheelock, Irene Grosvenor. 1904. Birds of California. 578 pp. illus. Chicago. Willard, Frances Cottt.e. 1913. Some late nesting notes from the Huachuca Mountains, Arizona. Condor 15: 41. 1916. Nesting of the band-tailed pigeon in southern Arizona. Condor 18: 110-112. Willet, George. 1933. A revised list of the birds of southwestern California. Pacific Coast Avifauna 21, 204 pp. THE BAND-TAILED PIGEON 75 INDEX Abundance, early day, 2. present status, 33. Acetylene flash finn, 4S. 49. Agricultural relationships, 3, 37-45. Belmvior, 6. calls. 5. courtship, 5. flight, 6. flocking, 6. perching, 6. Berries as food, 38-43, 51-53, 55-63. Calls, 5. Care of young, 13-15. Colunibd fasciota fnxrinfa. 1. Communal nesting, 11, 12. Control of Damage, 45-50. by acetylene flash gun, 48, 49. by flash bombs, 49. by paper streamers, 48. by shooting, 45^7. by signal flares, 49. by tree covers, 48, 49. permits for. 3. 49, 50. proper timing, 47. Cooper's hawk, 17. Courtship, 5. I Decoys, use of. 33. Depredations, cherries, 3, 38-43. grains. 38. 43^5. grapes. 42. prunes, 42. walnuts, 45. Description, adult, 4. nestling. 5. Development, feather, 15. Disease, 17. Distribution, general, 17. map, 18. summer, 18. winter, 24. Eggs, 12. description, 12. discovery, 2. number, 6, 12. size, 12. Enemies, 17. Falcon, prairie, 17. fasciala fa.sriafa. Cohimha, 1. Feather development, 15. Feeding mannerisms, 68. Flash bombs, 49. Flight, 6. Flocking, 6. Food, autumn, 65. berries, 38-13, 51-53, 55-68. general, 51-71. grains, 43-45, 51-53, 55-58, G3-68. insect, 53, 63. mast, 37, 38-i3, 51-53. 55-59, 63-68. quantity taken, 68, 69. seasonal preferences, 63. spring, 64. summer. 64. winter, 63. Grains as food, 43-45. 51-53, 55-58, 63-68. Gravel, use of, 68. Growth of young, 13-15. Hawk. Cooper's. 17. goshawk, 17. l)rairie falcon. 17. sharp-shinned, 17. Hunting, 2. 30, 31, 32. 33. bag limit, 3. effects of, 2, 31. 32. 33. practices, 2. 3. 30-33. seascm trends, 34, 36. seasons, 3, 30. wastage In, 31-33. Incubation period, 12. Kill, records of, 31-33. Location of nests, 9. Management, 36. tire prevention, 37. increasing food supply, 37, 49. reforestation, 37. stringent protection. 37. wilderness maintenance, 37. Mast as food. 37-43, 51-53, 5;5-59, 63-68. Measurements. 4, 5. Migration, autumn, 27. routes of, 29. spring, 26. Molts. 5. Nesting, 6-12. seasons. 6-7. Nest location, 9. structure, 9-10. Paper streamers, 48. Parasites, internal, 17. Perching, 6. Permits for control, 3. 49, 50. Pigeon, band-tailed, 1. discovery of, 2. blue. 1. " blue rock, 1. history, 2. milk, 13, 16. wild, 1. Plumages, adult, 4. nestling. 5. Prairie falcon, 17. Predators, 17. Protection, 3, 30. 36. Quantity of food taken, 68. 69. Range, summer. 18. winter, 24. Records, banding, 29. 76 NORTH AMP:RICAN FAUNA 58, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Routes of migration. 29. Salt, use of. r>4. Season of nesting. ."> 7. Sharp-.shinned hawk. 17. Shooting, control hy. 4"— 47. Signal flares, 49. Squirrel, gray. 17. Streamers, paper. 48. Structure of nests. 9, 10. Tree covers. 48. 49. Use of decoys. '.'3. gravel, 68. .salt, -j4. Value as game. 29. Weights. 4. In. Western goshawk. 17. Young, 13-16. activity of. l-"*. brooding of, 15. care of. 13-16. feather grow^th, 15. food of, 13. growth of. 13-16. we:'ght of, 4. 15. * U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1947-695766 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE THE POCKET GOPHERS (GENUS THOMOMYS) OF ARIZONA NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 59 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR J. A. Krug, Secretary FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Albert M. Day, Director North American Fauna 59 THE POCKET GOPHERS (GENUS THOMOMYS) OF ARIZONA BY EDWARD A. GOLDMAN UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1947 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D. C. — Price 15 cents U. S. SUPtRlMTENBENT Of OOCUMEMl* JUL 17 1941 CONTENTS Page Introduction 1 Groups of Arizona pocket gophers 1 Economic status 6 Species and subspecies of Thomomys bottae group 7 Page Subspecies of Thomomys baileyi group.. 31 Subspecies of Thomomys talpoides group 32 Subspecies of Thomomys umbrinus group 33 THE POCKET GOPHERS (GENUS THOMOMYS) OF ARIZONA By Edward A. Goldman, formerly Senior Blohxji.st, Biological Surveys, Division of Wildlife Research, Fish and Wildlife Service INTRODUCTION Pocket gophers of the genus Thomomys inhabit practically ev- ery part of Arizona, from the desert lowlands near the Delta of the Colorado River to near the tops of the highest mountains, in- cluding San Francisco Mountains at timber line, where the alti- tude is approximately 11,500 feet. Between these extremes in altitude the sedentary pocket gophers occupy every sort of habitat in which it is possible to burrow. In general, soft or sandy soil is preferred, but in some places there is so little soil that the exca- vated material consists almost entirely of small stones.. In the desert regions some soils are so hard and compact that excavation is difficult, and with plants widely spaced the food supply is ev- idently precarious. The following review of the pocket gophers of Arizona is pri- marily a distributional study, based mainly on the collections in the United States National Museum, including the extensive Bio- logical Surveys collection. For the loan of specimens in their charge, however, the writer is indebted to Laurence M. Huey, Nat- ural History Museum, San Diego, Calif. ; the late Dr. Joseph Grinnell and Dr. E. Raymond Hall, then of the Museum of Ver- tebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. ; and to Dr. W. H. Burt, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. The maps were drawn by Mrs. Katheryne C. Tabb, of the Fish and Wildlife Service. No effort has been made to in- clude the many published references to pocket gophers in the State, most of which would add little or nothing to present knowl- edge of distribution as determined by specimens examined. Col- ors mentioned are mainly from Robert Ridgway, "Color Standards and Color Nomenclature," 1912. GROUPS OF ARIZONA POCKET GOPHERS The pocket gophers of Arizona are assignable to four appar- ently distinct groups, as follows: (1) The Thomomys bottae group, (2) the Thomomys baileyi group, (3) the Thomomys talpoides group, and (4) the Thomomys umbrinus group. 2 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 5i(il. S(wc. Wnsh. 14: 107, July 19, 1901. Type from Tanner Crossing, about 'A miles above Cameron, Little Colorado River, Coconino County, Ariz. Type. — From Bluff, San Juan County, Utah; collected by Charles P. Rowley, May 12, 1892. General characters. — A large, cinnamon-buff or golden-colored subspecies. Closely allied to and probably intergrading with per- amplus of the higher mountains of the northeast corner of Ari- zona. Measurements. — Average of four adult male topotypes : Total length, 241 (232-252) ; tail, 73 (69-80) ; hind foot, 31 (30-32) milli- meters. Average of four adult female topotypes: 222 (215-229) ; 66 (64-72; 30 (30-31) millimeters. Distribution and habitat. — The range of aureus extends from the San Juan Valley, Utah, into northeastern Arizona, along the valley of Chin Lee Creek, and embraces as a whole the major part of the Painted Desert region to the Little Colorado River. Over this area, however, the pocket gophers are very irregularly dis- tributed in more or less isolated colonies that favor the more fer- tile ground, usually in the valleys, in the Upper Sonoran Zone. Specimens have been obtained at localities varying in altitude from about 4,000 feet along the Little Colorado River to 6,500 feet in the Pueblo Colorado Valley at Ganado. The dominant veg- etation of the region occupied consists largely of Atriplex bushes or sagebrush (Artemisia tiidentata) , with a scattered growth of nut pines and junipers along the valley borders. Thomomys lutirostris was based on a single specimen from Tanner Crossing, near Cameron, on the Little Colorado River. Efforts to obtain topotypes, made by various collectors including the writer, have been unsuccessful. The locality is a very barren one, made more so by overgrazing by domestic stock in recent years, and if pocket gophers still occur they must be rare as we found no trace of them. The skull of the type specimen of latirostris, an old male, has a very broad rostral portion and is believed to be abnormal, as no such character appears in specimens from Tuba City, Wins- low, and Oraibi, which are in the same general faunal area. Be- tween the range of aureus along the valley of the Little Colorado River and that of the widely different subspecies fulvus of the 12 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 59, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Mogollon Plateau is an arid belt in which pocket gophers have noi j been detected. THOMOMYS BOTTAE PBRAMPLUS Goldman TuNiTCHA Mountain Pocket Gopher Thomomys fulvus peramplus Goldman, Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. 21 (17): 423 October 19, 1931. Type. — From Wheatfields Creek, west slope of Tunitcha Moun-il tains, Apache County, northeastern Arizona (altitude 7,000 feet) j collected by Paul Trapier, June 23, 1927. 1 General characters. — A large, dark-colored subspecies, closeljl: resembling apache of northern New Mexico, but upper parts dull er, the sides vinaceous-buff instead of ochraceous-buff ; skull mon elongated; nasals longer and broader, less wedge-shaped poste- riorly. Contrasting strongly with the lighter cinnamon or cinna- mon-buff tones of aureus, which inhabits parts of the neighbor- ing desert region, in dark, dull coloration, but cranial characters indicate close relationship and the two probably intergrade in places along the basal slopes of the mountains. Measurements. — ^Average of four adult male topotypes: Tota' length, 246 (240-255) ; tail, 80 (60-90) ; hind foot, 35 (34-37) millimeters. Average of six adult female topotypes : 230 (225-240) 75 (65-88) ; 32 (31-33) millimeters. Distribution unci habitat — The Tunitcha Mountain pocket go- pher is known from 7,000 feet altitude on Wheatfields Creek up to 8,000 feet on the upper slope of the range. It also occurs at 7,000 feet altitude in the valley at St. Michaels on the easternni side of the Defiance Plateau. This pocket gopher probably occurs irregularly in suitable places throughout this high mountainous section of the State. It gives way, however, at the higher eleva-^'j tions in the Tunitcha Mountains to Thomomys talpoides fossor, which tends toward chestnut color, with large, conspicuous, black ear patches. The general habitat of peramplus is in the yellow pine belt of the Transition Zone. THOMOMYS BOTTAE DESERTORUM Mebriam Detrital Vallett Pocket Gopher Thomomys desertorum Merriam, Biol. Soc. Wash. Proc. 14: 114, .Tuly 19, 1901, Type. — From Mud Spring, Detrital Valley, Mohave County^ Ariz. ; collected by Vernon Bailey, February 21, 1889. General characters. — A small, tawny subspecies, similar in color and closely allied to desitus of the Big Sandy River Valley, but smaller. Measurements. — An adult male : Total length, 200 ; tail verte- THE POCKET GOPHERS 13 3rae, 68 ; hind foot, 26 millimeters. Average of four females : 190 ; 30 ; 25.5 millimeters. Distribution and habitat. — This little pocket gopher occupies the Lower Sonoran desert region of the broad Detrital Valley and neighboring areas lying mainly at about 3,500 feet altitude in the angle" formed by the bend of the Colorado River north and west of the Hualpai Mountains in the northwestern part of the State. It ranges to a somewhat higher elevation in the Upper Sonoran Zone, however, near its southern limit in the Chemehuevis or Mo- have Mountains. East of the northern end of the Hualpai Moun- tains it doubtless intergrades with desitus. The burrows are lo- cated in hard upland soil among tree yuccas and a varied assort- ment of other desert vegetation, including cactuses. THOMOMYS BOTTAE FULVUS (Woodhouse) Fulvous Pocket Gopher ileoDii/.s ftilvus Woodhouse, Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. Proc. 6: 201, 1852. Thoniomys bottae nasutus Hall, Biol. Soc. Wash. Proc. 45: 96, June 21, 1932. Type from West Fork of Black River, Apache County, Ariz, (altitude 7,550 feet) ; collected by Annie M. Alexander, June 14, 1931. Type. — From San Francisco Mountains, Coconino County, Ariz. ; collected by S. W. Woodhouse, October 1851. Genend cJia.racters. — Pocket gophers of medium size, distin- guished in the region south of the Grand Canyon by dark, rusty brown coloration associated with that of the dark lava soil they inhabit. Skull with wide-spreading zygomata and small auditory bullae. Closely allied to mutabilis of the Verde Valley, but dark- er, the upper parts more extensively mixed with black; skull less massive ; basicranial region narrower ; auditory bullae smaller. Measurements. — Average of five males : Total length, 219 ; tail vertebrae, 70 ; hind foot, 30 millimeters. Average of five females : 209 ; 66 ; 29.2 millimeters. Distribution and habitat. — The fulvous pocket gopher is the most widely dispersed of the numerous representatives of the Thomomys bottae group found within the State. Its distribution area occupies the whole of the elevated Coconino and Mogollon Plateau regions, extending from the southern rim of the Grand Canyon southeastward to the White Mountains and on far into New Mexico. A spur from the main range reaches south through the high country to the Bradshaw Mountains west of the Verde River Valley. This pocket gopher ranges mainly in the yellow pine forests of the Transition Zone above 5,000 feet altitude, but ascends into the Canadian Zone on San Francisco Mountains and the White Mountains. The general region is marked by cinder 14 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 59, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE cones and old lava beds, indicating volcanic activity in the past The decomposing cinders and lava produce dark-colored soils thaii are reflected in the color tones not only of the pocket gophers bui of many of the other small mammals. Along the southern side of the Mogollon Plateau fulvvs intergrades with mutabilis, which ranges at lower levels. On the long gradual desert slope from th( top of the plateau toward the Little Colorado River pocket gophen are generally absent, and no direct connection with aureus, which inhabits parts of the Little Colorado Valley and Painted Desert ' is apparent. In the yellow pine forests the pocket gophers occur irregularlj in colonies wherever there is sufficient soil for their excavations but they favor the soft soil of open grassy meadows. THOMOMYS BOTTAE HUALPAIENSIS Goldman HuALPAi Mountains Pocket GoPHEa? Thnmomys hottae hualpaicnsis Goldman, Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. 26 (3): 114 March 15, 1936. Type. — From Hualpai Peak, Hualpai Mountains, Mohave Coun- ty, Ariz, (altitude 7,000 feet) ; collected by E. A. Goldman, Oc- tober 6, 1917. General characters. — A light ochraceous buffy subspecies oil medium size. Allied to desitus of the adjoining valley of the Bigi Sandy River; similar in size but paler; brain case lower, nasals more wedge-shaped. Compared with desertor'um of the Detrital Valley: considerably larger and paler. Measurements. — The type, an adult male: Total length, 245; tail, 78 ; hind foot, 31.5 millimeters. Distribution and habitat. — Known only from 6,500 to about 7,500 feet altitude in the Transition Zone on the slopes of the Hualpai Mountains. The burrows occur in soft spots in yellow pine and oak timber. THOMOMYS BOTTAE DESITUS Goldman Big Sandy Rivek Poc'Kp:t Gophek Tho})i(»inis hottae dcsitiis Goldman, Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. 26 (3) : 113, March 15, 1936. j Type. — From Big Sandy River, near Owen, Mohave County, Ariz, (altitude 2,000 feet) ; collected by E. A. Goldman, Septem- ber 21, 1917. I General characters. — A medium-sized, tawny subspecies ; color' about as in desertorum of the neighboring Detrital Valley region, but size much larger. Size about as in fulvus of the Mogollon Pla- THE POCKET GOPHERS 15 :eau, but color lighter, clearer tawny, the back less mixed with 3lack. Measwements. — An adult male : Total length, 230 ; tail verte- brae, 70; hind foot, 30.5 millimeters. An adult female: 210; 62; 29.5 millimeters. Distribution and habitat. — This pocket gopher occupies the Big Sandy River Valley. Thence it ranges east to Kirkland, Yavapai County. Its distribution area is in the Lower Sonoran Zone at 2,000 to 4,000 feet altitude. In the Big Sandy River Valley desitus is confined mainly to the loose sand along the broad alluvial river bottom, the excavated mounds of earth often appearing close to the edge of the water where the stream is bordered by willows and Baccharis bushes. THOMOMYS BOTTAE OPEROSUS Hatfield Peeples Valley Pocket Gopher Thomornvs hottae opcroxus Hatfield, Chicago Acad. Sci. Bull. 6 (8) : 151, .Tan- iiary 12, 1942. Type. — From Peeples Valley, 6 miles north of Yarnell, Yavapai County, Ariz, (altitude 4,400 feet) ; collected by Roy Komarek, May 30, 1937. Gene7'al characters. — From original description : Size large ; tips of hairs on back cinnamon to middorsal area which is blackish; sides pinkish buff; top of head blackish; ears surrounded by black ; skull broad, with widely spreading zygomata. Differs from fulvus in larger size, more widely spreading zygomata, greater mastoid breadth, and heavier dentition. Differs from mutabilis in darker color, with more black on nose, occiput, and back. Dif- fers from patulus and desitus in darker color, longer tail, and more widely spreading zygomata. Measurements. — From original description: Average of three adult males: Total length, 232.3 (228-237); tail, 81.3 (80-82); hind foot, 29 millimeters. Average of eight adult females: 216.5 (202-234) ; 71.4 (65-79) ; 27.4 (26-29) millimeters. Distribution and habitat. — No specimens of this subspecies have been examined by the writer. It is known only from the type lo- cality and appears to be a local race, perhaps restricted to Peeples Valley, which is somewhat isolated, midway between the desert country of southern Arizona and the high plateau to the north- ward. THOMOMYS BOTTAE CHRYSONOTUS Grinitoll Golden Pocket Gophex Thomomys chrysonotus Grinnell, Univ. Calif. Pub. Zool. 10: 174, June 7, 1912. Thomomys fulvus flavidus Goldman, .Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. 21 (17) : 417, October 19, 1931. Tyi>e from Parker, Yuma County, Ariz, (altitude 350 feet). 696493°— 47— 3 16 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 59, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Type. — From Ehrenberg, Yuma County, Ariz.; collected by Frank Stephens, March 27, 1910. General characters. — A large ochraceous-buff or golden yellow- ish subspecies with an angular massive skull. Similar to albntus. but upper parts ochraceous-buff instead of pinkish buff; skulls much alike; auditory bullae larger, more inflated in chrysonotus. Measurements. — An adult male: Total length, 249; tail verte- brae, 83; hind foot, 33 millimeters. An adult female: 224; 67 ;i 31.5 millimeters. Distribution and habitat. — The golden pocket gopher occupies the alluvial bottomlands along the east side of the Colorado Rive» from near Ehrenberg north to Parker, and invades the adjoiningi gravelly mesa overgrown with creosotebush (Covillea glutinosa){ to some extent. The opposite, or western, side of the Colorado River Valley is inhabited by Thomomys bottae riparius, the rivei serving as a barrier between the two forms. Within the main range of the golden pocket gopher on the bottomlands the bur- rows are numerous in the soft alluvial soil and extend down in places into the arrowweed {Pluchea sericea) belt near the edge of the water. THOMOMYS BOTTAE SUBSIMILIS Goldman Harquahala Mountain Pocket (Jopher Thomomys fulvus subsimilis Goldman, Biol. Soc. Wash. Proc. 46: 71, Apri" 27, 1933. Type. — From Harquahala Mountains, Yuma County, Ariz, (al- titude 3,000 feet) ; collected by E. A. Goldman, October 14, 1917. General characters. — A very small cinnamon-buff animal with a weakly developed skull. Similar to desertorum of the Detrital. Valley region, but still smaller and paler; skull more delicate ini structure. Measurements.— The type, an adult female: Total length, 186 ;• tail vertebrae, 60 ; hind foot, 25 millimeters. Distribution and habitat. — This tiny pocket gopher is knowni only from a single specimen from 3,000 feet altitude in the Har quahala Mountains. The mountain slopes are rocky, with little( soil, but the animal is likely to be found in the softer spots up tci near the summit at about 5,000 feet altitude. The mountains arei Lower Sonoran in faunal character up to near the top, where ai few Upper Sonoran Zone elements appear. THOMOMYS BOTTAE PATULUS Goldman Hassayampa Valley Pocket Gopher Thomomys bottae patulus Goldman, Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. 28 (7): 341 July 15, 1938. THE POCKET GOPHERS 17 Type. — From bottomland along Hassayampa River, 2 miles be- low Wickenburg, Maricopa County, Ariz, (altitude 2,000 feet) ; collected by Luther C. Goldman, September 16, 1937. General characters. — A large subspecies, similar to cervinus of the Salt River Valley, but upper parts more vivid in color, near cinnamon or cinnamon-bufF instead of vinaceous-buff or fawn; skull shorter, less angular. Somewhat resembling mutabilis of the Verde River Valley and desitus of the Big Sandy River Valley, but larger and paler than either. Measurements. — An adult male and an adult female topotype, respectively: Total length, 240, 215; tail, 80, 60; hind foot, 31, 29 millimeters. Distribution and habitat. — Known only from the type locality, but probably has an extensive range in alluvial soil along the val- ley of the Hassayampa River. The subspecies patidus is abun- dant in alfalfa fields, where it becomes somewhat troublesome to farmers. The distribution of pocket gophers appears to be dis- continuous in the arid areas bordering the Hassayampa River Valley. THOMOMYS BOTTAE MUTABILIS Goldman m Vebde Valley Pocket Gopher Thomomys fuhms mufabirni Goldman, Biol. Soc. Wash. Proc. 46: 75, April 27. 1933. Type.- — From Camp Verde, Yavapai County, Ariz, (altitude 3,200 feet) ; collected by Walter P. Taylor, July 25, 1916. General characters. — A medium-sized, cinnamon-buff subspecies. Closely allied to fulvus, but paler, the upper parts less mixed with black; skull more massive; basicranial region broader; auditory bullae larger. Measurements. — An adult male: Total length, 236; tail verte- brae, 71 ; hind foot, 31 millimeters. Average of 7 adult females : 216 ; 68 ; 29 millimeters. Distribution and habitat. — The Verde Valley pocket gopher in- habits the valleys and lower slopes of the mountains in the Verde and Salt River drainages along the southern side of the Mogollon Plateau from Camp»Verde east to the Gila Mountains, Graham County. Vertical range from about 2,500 to 4,500 feet. This sub- species inhabiting a region arid in general character favors the softer soils along streams. THOMOMYS BOTTAE CERVINUS Allen Fawn-colored Pocket Gopher; Phoenix Pocket Gophek Thomomys cervinus Allen, Amei-. Miis. Nat. Hist. Bull. 7: 208, June 29, 1895. 18 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 59, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Type. — From Phoenix, Maricopa County, Ariz, (altitude 1,000 feet) ; collected by J. Diefenbach, October 20, 1894. General chamcters. — A large vinaceous-buff or light fawn-col- ored subspecies. Similar to albatus of the lower Colorado River Valley, but larger; color darker (upper parts near pale pinkish buff or pinkish buff in albatus) ; skull more elongated, with rela- tively narrower brain case ; auditory bullae relatively larger. Al- • lied to modicus of the Altar and Santa Cruz Valleys, but larger; color paler (near wood brown, varying to tawny in modicus) ; skull of similar proportions, but much larger, more massive. Measurements. — Average of three adult male topotypes: Total length, 253 (251-255) ; tail, 84 (77-90) ; hind foot, 34.5 (34-36) millimeters. Average of three adult female topotypes: 246 (239- 255); 78 (73-81); 34 (33-34.5) millimeters. Distribution and habitat. — The range of this large pocket go- pher is in the Salt River and Gila River Valleys, near Phoenix, and southwest along the latter watercourse to Gila Bend, where it in- tergrades with the desert subspecies, aridicola. The general area is in the Lower Sonoran Zone at from 700 to 1,000 feet altitude.. The fawn-colored pocket gopher is associated with such native vegetation as the mesquite {Proso^is juliflora), catsclaw {Aca- cia greggii), and paloverde {Cercidium torreyanum), but with the rapid development of agriculture it has invaded the fields and multiplied greatly in numbers. Owing to the extent of its depre- dations in an important agricultural area, this pocket gopher should probably be rated as the most destructive of the numerous geographic races that occur within the State. THOMOMYS BOTTAE PINALENSIS Goldman Pinal Mountains Pocket Gopher Thomomys bottae pinalensis Goldman, Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. 28 (7): 342", July 15, 1938. Type. — From Oak Flat, 5 miles east of Superior, Pinal Moun- tains, Ariz. ; collected by Walter P. Taylor, May 22, 1924. General characters. — A very small cinnamon subspecies, with a narrow, slenderly formed skull. Most closely allied to mutabilis of the adjoining region to the north, but much smaller and dark- er ; skull smaller, narrower, less massive. Measurements. — The type, an adult female : Total length, 195 ; tail, 56 ; hind foot, 24 millimeters. Distribution and habitat. — The burrows of this small subspecies were noted in numbers in various places along the highway be- tween Superior and Globe across the upper slopes of the Pinal THE POCKET GOPHERS 19 Mountains. The animal favors the softer soil in small openings in the oak woods of the Upper Sonoran Zone. THOMOMYS BOTTAB ALIENUS Goldman Upper Gila Valley Pockett Gopher Thnviomys Imttae alienus Goldman, Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. 28 (7): 338, July 15, 1938. Type. — From Mammoth, San Pedro River, Pinal County, Ariz. (altitude 2,400 feet) ; collected by E. A. Goldman, November 4, 1936. Geneml charncters. — A large, rich rufescent subspecies, allied to cervinus of the Salt River Valley, but smaller ; upper parts near cinnamon instead of vinaceous-buff. Similar to toltecus of the Casas Grandes Valley, northwestern Chihuahua, but color more vivid ; skull with lower brain case ; upper incisors less projecting forward. Larger, less distinctly tawny than mutabilis of the Rio Verde and Salt River drainages. Measurements. — Average of four adult male topotypes: Total length, 240 (230-254) ; tail, 68 (58-80) ; hind foot, 32 (30-33.5) millimeters. Average of four adult female topotypes: 212 (207- 218) ; 58 (57-59) ; 28 (27.5-28.5) millimeters. Distribution and h^ibitat. — The general range of this large sub- species is along the bottoms of the lower San Pedro River Valley near Mammoth, and the bottoms of the Gila River Valley above the confluence of the Gila and San Pedro as far as Redrock, New Mex. The area is in the Lower Sonoran Zone from about 2,000 to 3,500 feet or a little more in altitude. These pocket gophers are re- stricted rather closely to the fertile, alluvial lands along the rivers, overgrown in the natural state with a heavy stand of mesquite (Prosopis juliflo7^a) timber. Economic status.^— MMoh of the alluvial land along the San Pe- dro and Gila Rivers is cultivated under irrigation, alfalfa being one of the principal crops. The pocket gophers feed upon both the roots and tops of alfalfa and tend to increase in number where a bountiful supply of food is thus provided. Where they become very numerous the alfalfa crop is materially reduced. At Safford the farmers complained of damages to alfalfa, and also of breaks in irrigation ditchbanks caused by gopher tunneling. THOMOMYS BOTTAE ALBATUS Grinnell Whitish Pocket Gopher Thomomys alhatus Grinnell, Univ. Calif. Pub. Zool. 10: 172. June 7, 1912. Tijpe. — From west side of the Colorado River at old Hanlon Ranch near Pilot Knob, Imperial County, Calif. ; collected by Jo^ seph Dixon, May 7, 1910. 20 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 59, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE General chm-acters. — Distinguished by extremely pallid color- ation and rather large size. Upper parts nearly uniform pale pink- ish buff, in some specimens appearing almost white. Closely al- lied to phasmIl, Jour. Mainmal. 15 (2) : 150, May 15, 1934. Type. — From Pena Blanca Spring, Pajarito Mountains, Ariz. (altitude 4,500 feet, near Mexican Boundary, north of Monu- ment 128) ; collected by Berry Campbell, July 15, 1933. General characters. — A small, cinnamon subspecies ; mammae, pectoral one pair, inguinal two pairs. Closely allied to proximus, but still smaller ; coloration of the same pattern and general tones ; skull smaller, more delicate in structure; nasals slightly shorter, reaching anterior plane of zygomata. Measurements. — An adult male topotype : Total length, 198 ; tail, 60 ; hind foot, 27 millimeters. Type, female, and an adult fe- male topotype, respectively: 193, 182; 61, 56; 25, 25 millimeters. Distribution and habitat. — The known range of this close rela- tive of proximus is from 4,500 feet altitude at the type locality in the Pajarito Mountains to about 6,000 feet in the pass over the summit of the Patagonia Mountains. Both localities are in the oak belt in the Upper Sonoran Zone. At Pena Blanca Spring burrows indicating a small colony were found in gravelly soil along a broad wash. At the time of the writer's visit in June the ground was very dry, no fresh gopher excavations were in evi- dence, and specimens were difficult to obtain. In the pass over the Patagonia Mountains, where the slopes are steep and brush-cover- ed, considerable search failed to reveal the excavations of any gophers except those of the single individual taken. THOMOMYS UMBRINUS INTERMEDIUS Mearns HuACHUcA Mountain I'ocket Gopher Thomomys fulvus intermedius Mearns, U. S. Nat. Mus. Free. 10: 719, July 30, 1897. Type. — From summit of the Huachuca Mountains, southern Arizona (altitude 9,000 feet) ; collected by F. X. Holzner, Sep- tember 6, 1893. General characters. — A small, dark subspecies, closely allied to burti of the Santa Rita Mountains ; color slightly darker ; skull very similar, but nasals longer; dentition lighter. Measurements. — Type: Total length, 200; tail, 66; hind foot, 26 millimeters. 36 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 59, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Distribution and hubitat.—The type, from 9,000 feet altitudJ near the summit of the Huachuca Mountains, is the only speci-^ men examined and definitely assigned to this form. Specimensi from Fort Huachuca, near the north base of the mountains, arei referred to proximiis. 4 THE POCKET GOPHERS INDEX 37 [Principal pag-e references to a spec absonns, Thomomys l)ottae, '.i. 8, 10. Thomomys perpdJlidii.s, 10. nlhfttiis, Thoi)iomi/s, 19. Thomomys bottae, 2, 3, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21. alexandrae, Thomomys, 3, 28. alienus, Thomomys hottae, 3 19, 24. apache, Thomomys bottae, 12. aridicohi, Thomomys bottae, 3, 21. Arivaca pocket gopher, 33. aureus, Thomomys, 11. Thomomys bottae, 3, 11, 12, 14, 20. baileyi, Thomomys, 1, 4, 5. Big Saudy River pocket gopher, 14. bottae, Thomomys, 1, 2, 6. bnrti, Thomomys, 34. Thomomys umbrinus, 5, 33, 34. catalinae, Thomomys bottae, 3, 24, 25, 26, 27. Thomomys fulvus, 25. centralis, Thomomys bottae, 7, 30. cervhius, Thomomys, 17. Thomomys bottae, 3, 17, 21, 28. Characters, 2. Chiricahiia Mountain pocket gopher. 27. chiricahuae, Thomomys iinihrimis. 27. chrysonotns, Thomomys, 15. Thomomys bottae", 3, 15, 31. coUinus, Thomomys bottae, 3, 23, 24, 27. Thomomys fulvus, 27. Comobabl pocket gopher, 22. comobableusis, Thomomys bottae, 3, 22. Coyote Mountain pocket gopher, 23. depauperatus, Thomomys liottae, 3, 20. Thomomys perpaUidus. 20. desertorum, Thomomys, 12. Thomomys bottae, 3, 12, 14, 16, 29, 30. desitus, Thomomys bottae, 3, 12, 14, l;!, 17. Detrital Valley pocket gopher, 12. Economic status, 6. extenuatus, Thomomys bottae, 3, 24, 25, 27, 31, 32. Fawn-colored pocket gopher, 17. flavidns, Thomomys fulvus. 15. fossor. Thomomys. 33. Thomomys "talpoides, 5, 12, 33. Fulvous pocket gopher, 13. fulvus. Gcomys. 13. Thomomys bottae, 3, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 23, 30. Qeomys fulvus, 13. Gila Bend pocket gopher, 21. Oolden pocket gopher, 15. Uraham Mountains pocket gopher, 23. ies in Itoldfaoe; synonyms in ifalir] grahamensis, Thomomys bottae, 3, 23, 24, 27. Thomomys fulvus. 23. Grand Canyon pocket gopher, 30. Group, Thomomys baileyi, 1, 4, 5 (dis- trib. map), 31. Thomomys bottae, 1, 2, 3 (distrib. map), 7. Thomomys talpoides, 1, 5 (disliib map), 32. Thomomvs umbrinus, 1, 5 (distrib, map), 6, 33. Growler Valley pocket gopher, 22. growlerensis, Thomomys l)ottae, 3, 22. Harquahala Mountain pocket gopher, 16. harquahalae, Thomomys, 3, 31. Hassayampa Valley pocket gopher, 16. House Rock Valley pocket gopher, 10. Huachuca Mountain pocket gopher, 35 Hualpal Mountains pocket gopher, 14. hualpaiensis, Thomomys bottae, 3, 14. hueyl, Thomomys bottae, 3, 24, 26. intermrdius, Thomomys fulvus. 35. Thomomys umbrinus. 5, 34, 35. Intermountain pocket gopher, 26. Kaibab Plateau pocket gopher, 32. kaihabrnsis. Thomomys fossor. 32. Thomomys talpoides, 5, 32. Infirostris, Thom,om,ys, 11. Mearns pocket gopher, 31. mrnrusi, Thomom,ys, 31. Thomomys baileyi, 5, 24, 25, 31. modicus, Thomomvs bottae, 3, 18, 22, 23, 25. 28, 33, 34. Tho-momys fulvus, 28. Mount Trumbull pocket gopher, 9. muralis, Thomomys, 3, 4, 30. mutabilis, Thomomys bottae, 3, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19. nasutus, Thomomys "bottae. 13. Xava.io pocket gopher, 28. nicholi, Thomomys bottae, 3, 7. 9. operosus, Thomomys bottae, 3, 15. Painted Desert pocket gopher, 11. Pa.1arito Mountain pocket gopher, 34. parvulus, Thomomys bottae, 3. 26. 27, patulus, Thomomys bottae, 3, 15, 16. Peeples Valley pocket gopher, 15. peramplus, Thomomys bottae, 3, 11, 12, 33. Thomomys fuhrus, 12. phasma, Thomomys bottae, 3, 20, 22. Thomomys fulvus, 20. Phoenix pocket gopher, 17. I'inal Mountains pocket gopher, 18. 38 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 59, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE pinalensis, Thomomys bottae. 3, 18. planirostris, Tliomomys bottae, 3, 8, 9 10. Thomomys perpallidus, 8. Pocket gopher, Arivaca, 33. Big Sandy River, 14. Chirieahua Mountain, 27. Comobabi, 22. Coyote Mountain, 23. Detrital Valley, 12. fawn -colored, 17. fulvous, 13. Gila Bend, 21. golden, 15. Graham Mountains, 23. Grand Canyon, 30. Growler Valley, 22. Harquahala IMountain, 16. Hassayampa Valley, 16. House Rock Valley, 10. Huachuca Mountain, 35. Hualpai Mountains, 14. intermountain, 26. Kaibab Plateau, 32. Mearns, 31. Mount Trumbull, 9, Navajo, 28. Painted Desert, 11. Pajarito Mountain, 35. Peeples Valley, 15. Phoenix, 17. Pinal Mountains, 18. Ranegras Plain, 31. Rincon Mountains, 26. Rocky Mountain, 33. Santa Catalina, 25. Santa Rita Mountain. 34. Searchlight Ferry, 29. Shivwits Plateau, 7. Sulphur Springs Valley, 24. Tinajas Altas, 20. Tule Desert, 20. Tunitcha Mountain, 12. Upper Gila Valley, 19. Verde Valley, 17. Virgin Valley. 7. whitish, 19. Zion Park, 8. proximns, Thomomi/s hurti, 33. Thomomys umitrinus, 5, 33. 34, 35. pusillus, Thomomys bottae, 3, 23. Thomomys fillvus, 23. qverichms, Thomomys iurti, 3n. Thomomys umbrinus, 5, 35. Ranegras Plain pocket gopher, 31. Rincon Mountains pocket gopher, 26 nparius, Thomomys bottae, 16. Rocky Mountain pocket gopher, 32. Santa Catalina pocket gopher, 25 ^34^ ^ita Mountain pocket gopher, Searchlight Ferry pocket gopher, 29 fehivwits Plateau pocket gopher 7 suboles, Thomomys, 3, 29. suboles, Thomomy.s — Continued. Thomomys fiilvus, 29. subsimilis, Thomomys bottae, 3, 16. Thomomys fiilvus, 16. Sulphur Springs Valley pocket gophei talpoides, Thomomys, 1, 5, 6. Thomomys alhatus, 19. 4 alexandrae, 3, 28. i aureus, 11. baileyi, 1, 4, 5. baileyi mearnsi, 5, 24, 25, 31. bottae, 1, 3 (distrib. map), 6. bottae absonus, 3, 8 10. bottae albatus, 2, 16, 18. 19. 20, 21 bottae alienus, 3, 19, 24. bottae apache, 12. bottae aridicola, 3, 21. bottae aureus, 3, 11, 12, 14, 29. bottae catalinae, 3, 24, 25, 26, 27. bottae centralis, 7, 30. bottae cervinus, 3, 17, 21, 28. bottae chrysonotus, 3, 15, 31. bottae collinus, 3, 23, 24, 27. bottae comobabiensis, 3, 22. bottae depauperatus, 3, 20. bottae desertorum, 3, 12, 14, 16 29 30. bottae desitus, 3, 12, 14, 15, 17. bottae extenuatus, 3, 24, 25, 27 31 32. bottae fulvus, 3, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17 23, 30. bottae grahamensis, 3, 23, 24, 27. bottae growlerensis, 3, 22. bottae hualpaiensis, 3, 14. bottae hueyi, 3, 24, 26. bottae modicus, 3, 18, 22 23 ''5 28, 33, 34. ' " ' bottae mutabilis, 3, 14, 15, 17, 18 19. bottae nasutus, 13. bottae nicholi, 3. 7, 9. bottae operosus, 3, 15. bottae parvulus, 3, 26, 27. bottae patulus, 3, 15, 16. bottae peramplus, 3, 11, 12, 33. bottae phasma, 3, 20, 22. bottae pinalensis, 3, 18. bottae planirostris, 3, 8, 9, 10. bottae pusillus, 3, 23. bottae riparius, 16. bottae subsimilis, 3, 16. bottae toltecus, 19. bottae trumbullensis, 3, S, 9. bottae virgineus, 3, 7, 8. burti. 34. burti proximus, 33. burti queschius, 35, cervinus, 17. chrysonotus, 15. desertorum, 12. fossor, 32. fossor kaibabensis, 32. fulvus catalinae, 25. fulvus collinus, 27. fulvus flavidus, 15. THE POCKET GOPHERS 59 rhomomys — Oontinned. fulvns grahamensi^<. 23. fuli'iis intermedins, 35. fulvns modicns, 2.S. fnJvHS nnitabiUs, 17. fiilriis peraiiipJus. 12. fulvns phasDia, 20. fulvns pnsillns, 23. fulvns snboles. 29. fulvus snhsimilis, 16. liarquahalae, 3, 31. latirostris, 11. mearnsi, 31. muralis, 3, 4, 30. perpaUidus ahsoiius, 10. perpallidiis depanpcratus, 20. perpallidns planirostris, 8. snboles, 3, 29. talpoides, 1, 5, 6. talpoides fossor, 5, 6, 12, 33. talix)icles kaibabensis, 5, 32. umbrinus, 1, 5, 6. umbrinus bnrti, 5, 33, 34. umhriiius chiricnhunr, 27. umbrinn.s intermedins, 5, 34, 35. nnihiinns proximns. 5, 33, 34, 35. iniibrinns qnercinns, 5, 35, Tinajas Altas pocket gopher, 20. toltecns, Thomomys bottae, 10. Tnle Desert pocket gopher, 20. Tunitcha Monntain pocket goiilier. 12. trumbnllensis, Thomomys bottae, 3, 8, 9. nmbrinns, Thomomys, 1, 5, 6. Upper Gila Valley pocket gopher, 19. Verde Valley pocket gopher, 17. Virgin Valley pocket gopher, 7. vii'ginens, Thomomys bottae, 3, 7, 8. Whitish pocket gopher, 19. Ziou Park pocket gopher, 8. U. S. GOVERMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1947-696493 -!( Sfo :{, Gj UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 60 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTEKIOR Oscar L. Chapman, Secretary FISH AND VilLDLIFE SERVICE Albert M. Day, Director North American Fauna 60 RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA BY EDWARD A. GOLDMAN With Foreword, Appendix, and Revision of Bibliography By Hartley H. T. Jackson UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1950 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D. C. - Price 45 cents U. S. SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENT^ MOV 8 1950 FOREWORD The present monograph, The Raccoons of North and Middle Amer- ica, was completed by its author, P^dward Alphonso Cioldman, in December 1940, and earh' in 1941 was submitted for pul)lication in the North American Fauna series. Advent of World War II delayed its printing, and at the time of the death of Major Goldman, September 2, 1946, he had been so engrossed in the preparation of his manuscript on Biological Investigations in Mexico tliat he had not revised the raccoon manuscript. In the meantime one new subsj)ecies Procyon lotor niegalodous Lowery had lieen descril)ed and several papers relating to raccoons had been published. Since Major Goldman's death another subspecific name Procyon lotor man'tiniits Dozier has aj^peared and a few other papers have l)een pul)lished. In tliis hnal review and analysis of the manuscript it is believed de- sirable to leave Goldman's views and expressions as little changed as possible. Accordingly all editing has been done with this in view and only such changes made as would clarify and collate the text, or make consistent abbreviations and citations. Some important items to be noted have been indicated and explainefl in footnotes. No deletions of pertinent matter have tieeii made. The bibliography (p. 87) has been extended to include literature published to date. The two subspecies, Procyon lotor niegolodous Lowery (1943, p. 225) and Procyon lotor ninritiinus Dozier (1948, p. 286), descriptions of which may be -found in the appendix (p. 84), have been included in the distributional map of species and subspecies of the subgenus Procyon (fig. 1) but have not been included in the list of North American species and subspecies, with type localities (p. 27') , in the key to species and subspecies (p. 29), or in the general discussion throughout the text. ILLUSTRATIONS Plate Page 1. Pacific Northwest Raccoon (Frocyon lotor pacificus) Frontispiece 2. Skins (dorsal view) Procyon lotor lotor, Procyon cancrivorus pcniainensis^ 109 W. Skulls (lateral view) Procyon lotor lotor, P. I. hirtus 11] 4. Skulls (lateral view) Procyon lotor litoreus, P. I. elucus 113 5. Skulls (lateral view) Procyon lotor incautus, P. maynardi 115 6. Skulls (lateral view) Procyon lotor excelsus, P. I. psora 117 7. Skulls (lateral view) Procyon lotor hernandezii, P. I. pintiilns 119 8. Skulls (lateral view) Procyon pygmaeus, P. insulari.s insularis 121 9. Skulls (dorsal view) Procyon lotor lotor, P. I. hirtus 123 10. Skulls (dorsal view) Procyon lotor litoreus, P. I. elucus 125 11. Skulls (dorsal view) Procyon lotor incautus, P. maynardi 127 12. Skulls (dorsal view) Procyon lotor excelsus, P. I. psora 129 13. Skulls (dorsal view) Procyon lotor hernandezii, P. I. puniilus 131 14. Skulls (dorsal view) Procyon pygmaeus, P. insularis insularis 133 15. Skulls (ventral view) Procyon lotor lotor, P. 1. hirtus 135 16. Skulls (ventral view) Procyon lotor litoreus, P. I. elucus 137 17. Skulls (ventral view) Procyon lotor incautus, P. maynardi 139 18. Skulls (ventral view) Procyon lotor excelsus, P. I. psora 141 19. Skulls (ventral view) Procyon lotor hernandezii, P. I. pumilus 143 20. Skulls (ventral view) Procyon pygmaeus, P. insularis insularis 145 21. Skulls (dorsal view) Procyon lotor elucus (male), P. I. elucus (female) P. I. lotor (lateral view of mandibular ramus) ^ _ 147 22. Skulls (dorsal and ventral views) Procyon cancrivorus panamensis 149 Figure 1. Map, showing distribution of species and subspecies of subgeiuis Procyon. 24 2. Map, showing distribution of subgenus Euprocyon (Procyon cancrivorus panamensis) in Panama 81 VI fN .^/^ N .^. THE RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AIMERICA By EDWARD A. GOLDMAN, Senior Biologist, Biological Surveys, Branch of Wildlife Research INTRODICTION The raccoons, genus Procyon, colloquially known as ''coons," belonji: to the carnivorous family Procyonidae, which also includes the Ameri- can genera Na^^ua, Nasuella, Bassaricyon, and Potos, and the Old World genera Ailurus and Ailuro'poda of the sul)faniily Ailiuinae. The members of the Procyon lotor group (subgenus Procyon), with a transcontinental range from southern Canada to Panama, except in parts of the Rocky Mountain region, and including those inhabiting several distant islands, are among the most familiar and characteristic of North American mammals. This group is not known to occur south of Panama. It is overlapped in the Isthmian region by the so-called crab-eating raccoons of the subgenus Euprocyoii, which range from that northern limit as far south as Paraguay in South America. The raccoons have been greatly reduced in numbers or have disappeared in many formerly wooded sections, owing to clearing and intensive human occupation. Despite adverse conditions, how- ever, they have maintained themselves in many places with remarkable tenacity. Trapping for other fur bearers may have reduced the northern fringe to some extent, btit the general range of the group has been little diminished. At the present time raccoons reach their northern limit in regular occurrence on Vancouver Island, B. C. The continental forms of the subgenus Procyon constitute a com- pact assemblage of closely allied geographic races all assignable to Procyon lotor. Complete intergradation is evident in numerous cases and the relative value and combination of characters presented indi- cate such close relationships that it can safely be assumed where lack of material leaves gaps in the known ranges. In the present revision of the raccoons are treated the North Amer- ican continental species as far as the eastern border of Panama and the PLATE 1 Pacific Northwest Raccoon {Procyon lotor pacijicus). 2 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 60, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE species on outlying islands along- both the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts. Thirty species and sul)species are recognized. Twenty-nine of these are assigned to the sul^genus Procy(yn and one to the subgenus Euprocyon. The revision is based mainly on a study of raccoon material in the collection of Biological Surveys, Fish and Wildlife Service, and in other collections in the United States National Museum. These and 358 specimens borrowed from other museums make a total of 1,337 examined. The assemblage included the types or topotypes of most of the known species and subspecies. For the loan of specimens the writer is especially indebted to Dr. Thomas Barbour, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass.; the late Dr. Joseph Grinnell, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, Berkeley, Calif.; Dr. W. H. Osgood, Chicago Natural History Mu- seum, Chicago, 111.; Dr. H. E. Anthony, American Museum of Natural History, New York City; Di-. R. M. Anderson, National Museum of Canada, Ottawa, Canada; the late Oldfield Thomas of the British Museum (Natural History) ; Francis Kermode, Provincial Museum, Vancouver, British Columbia; Dr. L. R. Dice, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.; and the late D. R. Dickey, Pasadena, Calif. Grateful acknowledgment is also due to Percy Shu- feldt, La Cueva, N. Mex., for the generous donation of specimens collected by him in Campeche, Mexico. Notes on his examination of specimens in the British Museum have been kindly furnished by Dr. Remington Kellogg, United States National Museum, Washington, D. C. Stanley P. Young, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D. C, generously supplied the photograph for the frontispiece. Dr. E. W. Nelson became keenly interested in the raccoons, as shown by his work on those inhabiting the Florida Keys (1930a). ^ During the same time and in the following year new sul)species were described jointly by Nelson and the wi-iter in preparation for a revision of the group; but other projects claimed attention and our collaboration could not be carried beyond this preliminary stage. HISTORY The raccoons represent a highly successful i)ranch of a well-developed phylogenetic tree. Their ancestry has been traced far back to the genera Phlaocyon and Cynodictis of the Lower Miocene or Oligocene periods. Early progenitors of these animals probably also gave rise to such divergent modern families as the Canidae, the LTrsidae, and the Ylustelidae. For detailed discussion of the phylogenetic relation- ships of the raccoons see the authors listed in the Bibliography (p. 87), especially Wortman and Matthew (1899, p. 109), Matthew (1930, p. ' Publications referred to parenthetically by date are listed in the Bibliography, pp. 87-106. RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA 3 129), and Gregory (1933, p. 83). The genus Procyon was well repre- sented in the early Pleistocene of North America, when it already ranged across the present United States from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Among Pleistocene species described were Procyon priscus Le Conte (1848, p. lOG) from Illinois, Procyon simus Gidley (1906, p. 553) from California, and Pi'ocyon nanus Simpson (1929, p. 575) from Florida. The name "raccoon" is derived from Indian appellations of the animal, which have been variously rendered as "aroughcun," "arathkone," and "arakun." The familial* abbreviation "coon" is in general colloquial use in the United States. An animal as common and conspicuous and possessing such peculiar and interesting traits as the raccoon could not remain long unobserved by explorers and set- tlers in its country, and as it became better known it was accorded a prominent place in the folkloi-e of the United States. The earliest reference to a raccoon fouml in the literature is by Captain John Smith (1612, p. 13), who in describing the animals of Virginia says: '^Tlwre is a beast they call AnnKjIicun, much like a haehjer, but vseth to live on trees as Squirrels doe." This reference was closely followed by that of Purchas (1614, p. 761) in describing the same region. Under the name "Mapach," and apparently as "Tepe Maxtlaton," and perhaps under others, tlie raccoon was recorded by Hernandez (1651, tract 1, pp. 1, 9) in southern Mexico. The voyager around the world, Dampier (1729, p. 276), mentions the abun(hince of these animals on the Tres Marias Islands, off western Mexico, which he visited in 1686. The early systematic term Vulpi affiiiis Americana was applied by Ray (1693, p. 179), in connection with a generalized description of animals probably representing both the subgenera Procyon and Euprocyon then undifferentiated and very imperfectly known from both North and South America. Quaint descriptions of the raccoon in the Carolinas were pul)lished by Lawson (1718, p. 121), and by Catesby (1743, p. XXIX). Hans Sloane (1725, p. 329) credits the animal to Jamaica as follows: "The Racoons are commonly here in the mountains, and live in hollow fiddlewood Trees, from whence they make Paths to go to seek Sugar Canes, which is their chief, if not only Sustenance." No specimens are available from Jamaica, and if this record was well founded it seems strange that it has not been supplemented by others. Evidently noting the general resemblances, Linnaeus closely asso- ciated the raccoon with the bear in the 1740 edition of his Systema Naturae (p. 35) as Ursus cauda eloiKjata in contradistinction to the true bear, Ursus cauda abrupta. Under the same name in 1747 (pp. 277-289, table 9, figs. 1 and 2) he pubUshed a lengthy description of 4 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 60, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE the raccoon accompanied by the earhest ilhistrations seen by the author. Of these, figure 1 is a sketch of the entire animal. In figure 2 attention is directed to the strongly developed and peculiarly formed os penis, or baculum. The accounts of the raccoon in Pennsylvania and New Jersey by Peter Kalm in 1753 (Benson 1937, pp. 52-53, 111, 242-243) formed a part of the basis for Linnaeus' short description of Ursus lotor in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae (1758, p. 48). Recognizing distinctive characters, Storr (1780, p. 35) used Procyon as the generic name for the group typifted by Ursus lotor Linnaeus. G. Cuvier (1798, p. 113) described Ursus cancrivorus, the crab-eating raccoon from Cayenne which later became the type of the subgenus Euprocyon Gray (1864, p. 705). Only a few new North American species or subspecies were added during the nineteenth century by Wagler (1831, p. 514), Gray (1842, p. 261), Baird (1857, p. 215), Bangs (1898a, p. 219; 1898b, p. 92), and Merriam (1898, p. 17; 1899, p. 107). Short papers descrip- tive of new forms by Merriam (1900, p. 151; 1901, p. 101), ALller (1911, p. 3), Meanis (1914, pp. 63-66), Hollister (1914, p. 142), Goldman (1913, p. 15), Nelson (1930a, pp. 7-10), and Nelson and Goldman (1930a, p. 82; 1930b, pp. 453-459; 1931a, pp. 17-20; 1931b, p. 308) have since appeared. RACCOON NAMES NOT CLEARLY ASSIGNABLE The following names that have been proposed for species of the raccoon are unrecognized or unassigned owing to the author's inal)ility to associate them with any particular region, or because of some obvious defect in status. If the type specimens of any of these are extant, it is possible that any such accompanied by skulls, may afford clues to their identity; because of the range of individual variation in subspecies, however, there is likely to be considerable uncertainty. Skins subject to fading over a period of many years are of very limited value for comparative purposes, beyond the determination of the subgenus. Procijon nivea Gray, Charlesworth's Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. 1, p. 580, 1837. "In- habits North America, Texas." "Fur soft, silky, white. Tail one-colored." No type specimen designated. Doubtless based upon an albino, as suggested in the original description. At least two subspecies occur in Texas. Name unidentifiable. Procyon hrachipirus Wiegmann, Archiv fiir Naturgesch., dritter jahrgang, erster band, p. 369, 1837. "Patria: Antillae?" Based on two specimens said to have come from the West Indies (see pp. 354-355), but their place of origin was regarded as uncertain by the describer, as shown by the notation. Figured by Wagner in Schreber's Saugthiere (p. 143 C). The plate illustration is of two brownish animals, the tail shown in one as quite short. RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA 5 Procyon obscurus Wiegmann, Archiv fiir Naturgesch., dritter jahrgang, erster band, p. 370, 1837. "Patria ignota." Figured by Wagner in Schreber's Saugthiere (p. 143 D). The plate illustration is of a very dark-colored animal. This seems to be unidentifiable. [Procyon brachyurus] var. fusca Burmeister, Verzeichniss Zool. Mus. Univ. Halle- Wittenberg Saugeth., Vogel Amphib., 1850, p. 13. Based on Procyon obscurus Wiegmann and Procyon obscurus Wagner, in Schreber's Saugthiere, SuppL, vol. 2, p. 159, 1841, without description. [Procyon lotor] var. melanus Gra.y, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1864, p. 704. No type locality indicated. No type specimen designated. "Nearly black." Unidentifiable. [Procyon lotor] var. albina Gray, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1864, p. 704. (Nomen nudum.) Pr[ocyon] hernandezi castaneus de Beaux, Zool. Anzeiger, vol. 35, p. 624, April 26, 1910. From Mexico. Based on a specimen (No. 357) which had been in the Royal Zoological Museum, Florence, Italy, since 1857. According to the description in part (p. 621), "Die Korperfarbe ist ein echtes und rechtes Kastanienbraun mit prachtvoU silbrigem Glanze." The color of raccoons is so variable that a single specimen does not afford reliable differential char- acters. The color described is unusual for a raccoon and might be due to fading or to erythrism. If the skin is accompanied by a skull, comparison of the latter with those of the several geographic races known to occur in Mexico might afford a clue to identity. Pr[ocyon] lotor rufescens de Beaux, Zool. Anzeiger, vol. 35, p. 625, April 26, 1910. Type locality unknown ("?Heimat"). Type specimen not designated. About 10 specimens said to have been examined. Body color inore or less suffused with rich red brown. Apparently not identifiable. Pr[ocyon] l[otor] flavidus de Beaux, Zool. Anzeiger, vol. 35, p. 626, April 26, 1910. Type locality "Southern United States?" Type specimen not designated. Only one skin examined. Color dirty yellow. Hairs of back neither ringed nor tipped with black. Apparently not identifiable. Pr[ocyon] hudsonicus Brass, Aus dem Reiche der Pelze, p. 564, April 1911. No type designated. Described as "sehr gross und granbraun.". Apparently based upon commercial skins assumed by the describer to be from Hudson Bay where no raccoons occur. The name is therefore unidentifiable. HABITS Few North American animals are endo^ved with more interesting or attractive ways than the raccoons. The general habits, as recorded by many observers, seem everywhere to be very similar for the mem- bers of each of the two subgenera. In Panama, Procyon and Euprocyon share to some extent the same local habitat, both favoring the vicinity of swamps and streams and both being addicted to the crab-eating habit as shown by stomachs examined. But Procyon seems to be more arboreal than Euprocyon, and the two probably depart materially in general behavior. Dr. Thomas Barboin* informed the author that the local representatives of both sidjgenera have been kept in captivity at the biological station on Barro Colorado Island 6 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 6 0, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE in Gatiin Lake, Canal Zone, and that he has noted that Procyon "washes" its food in the characteristic manner while Euprocyon does not. The writer's own general observations indicate that under natural conditions Procyon does not regularly wash its food and suggest that washing may be limited mainly to food supplied to animals in captivity. As Euyrocyon has a very restricted range in North America, the present discussion is limited chielly to the mem- bers of the typical subgenus Procyon. Much has been written on the life history of the raccoon of the eastern United States which may be assumed to apply, with some reservations, to all members of the Procyon lotor group. The peculiar habits of the raccoon began to attract the attention of the settlers during the early colonial period, as is shown by the following cpiaint and somewhat fantastic account of this animal in the Carolinas by Lawson (1718, p. 121): The Raccoon is of a dark-gray Colour; if taken young, is easily made tame, but is the drunkenest Creature living, if he can get any Liquor that is sweet and strong. They are rather more unlucky than a Monkey. When wild, they are very subtle in catching their Prey. Those that live in the Salt-Water, feed much on Oysters which they love. They watch the Oyster when it opens, and nimbly put in their Paw, and pluck out the Fish. Sometimes the Oyster shuts, and holds fast their Paw till the Tide comes in, that they are drown'd, tho' they swim very well. The way that this Animal catches Crabs, which he greatly admires, and which are plenty in Carolina, is worthy of Remark. When he intends to make a Prey of these Fish, he goes to a Marsh, where standing on the Land, he lets his Tail hang in the Water. This the Crab takes for a Bait, and fastens his Claws therein, which as soon as the Raccoon perceives, he, of a sudden, springs forward, a coiisideral)le way, on the Land, and brings the Crab along with him. As soon as the Fish finds himself out of his Element, he presently lets go his hold; and then 1h(» Raccoon encounters him, by getting him cross-wise in his Mouth, and devours him. There is a sort of small Land-Crab, which we call a Fiddler, that runs into a Hole when any thing pursues him. This Crab the Raccoon takes by putting his Fore-Foot in the Hole, and pulling him out. With a tame Raccoon, this Sport is very diverting. The Chief of his other Food is all sorts of wild Fruits, green Corn, and such as the Bear delights in. This and the Possum are much of a Bigness. The Fur makes good Hats and Linings. The Skin dress'd makes fine Womens Shooes. More accurate early descriptions of the animal in Pennsylvania and New Jersey are those of Kalm (Benson 1937, pp. 52-53): The quadruped, which ])r. Linnc in the memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences has descrilied by the name of Ursus cauda elongata, and which he calls Ursiis Lotor, in his Systema Naturae, is here called a raccoon. It is found very frequently and destroys many chickens. It is hunted by dogs, and when it runs up a tree to save itself a man climbs up after it and shakes it down to the ground, where the dogs kill it. The flesh is eaten and is reputed to taste well. The bone of its male parts is used for a pipe cleaner. The hatters purchase their skins and make hats of them, which are next in quality to those of beavers. The tail is worn round the neck in winter and therefore is likewise valuable. RACCOONS OF XORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA 7 And quoting Kalm further (Benson 1937, pp. 242-243): I have already mentioned something of the raccoon; I shall here add more of the nature of this animal and its mode of living in its habitat, in a place which is properly its native country [vicinity of the then village of Raccoon at or near the present town of Swedesboro, N. J.]. The English call it everywhere by the name of raccoon, which name they have undoubtedly taken from one of the Indian nations: the Dutch call it hespan, the Swedes, espan, and the Iroquois, attigbro. It commonly lodges in hollow trees, lies close in the daytime, never going out except on a dark, cloudy day; but at night it rambles and seeks its food. I have been told by several people that in bad weather, especially when it snows and blows a storm, the raccoon lies in its hole for a week without coming out once; during that time it lives by sucking and licking its paws. Its food consists of the several sorts of fruit, and corn, while the ears are soft. In gardens it often does a great deal of damage to the apples, chestnuts, plums, and wild grapes, which are its favorite food; to the poultry it is very cruel. When it finds the hens on their eggs, it first kills them, and then eats the eggs. It is caught by dogs, which trace it back to its nest in hollow trees, or by snares and traps, in which a chicken, some other bird, or a fish is put for bait. It generally brings forth its two or three young in May when it prepares its nest. Some people eat its flesh. It leaps with all its feet at once; on account of this and of several other qualities many people here reckoned that it belonged to the genus of bears. The skin is sold for eighteen pence at Philadelphia. I was told that the raccoons were not nearly so numerous as they were formerly; yet in the more inland parts they were abundant. I have mentioned before the use which the hatters make of their furs, that they are easily tamed, and that they like sweetmeats, etc. Of all the North American wild quadrupeds none can be tamed so easily as this one. In regard to th(> duration of life in the raccoons under natm-al conditions, no information is no\v at hand. Such data shoidd become avaihibh' in the futtn-e through the tagging or otherwise marking of animals cajjtiu'ed and liberated. According to Flower (1931, p. 177), a male raccoon lived in the Rotterdam Zoological Garden from Sep- tember 30, 1890 to May 6, 1900, 9 years, 7 months, and 6 days, and an albino was in the London Zoological Garden from May 6, 1884, to February 27, 1898, 13 years, 9 months, and 21 days. He also mentions a crab-eating raccoon that lived in the London Zoo 1.5 years, 10 months, and 5 days. Lowery (1936, p. 19) quotes Clauitat, the raccoons occasionally make raids on the farmer's poultry. A complete list of the miscellaneous items composing the diet of raccoons would be exceedingly long and would vary in accordance with the season and with local conditions. On Key I^argo, Fla., E. W. Nelson found the raccoons feeding extensively on the ripening fruit of the marlberry (Icacorea paniculata) in March. The taking of dry l)erries may be resorted to when more acceptable food supplies are insufficient. Examination of stomach contents has revealed the hard seeds of the hackberry and juniper berries in Texas raccoons and Vernon Bail(\y found these animals feeding upon manzanita {Arcto- stajjhylos) berries in California. The eating of grasshoppers has been reported in Texas. Although raccoons enter the water freely, much time is spent in patrolling the muddy shores. Closely crowded tracks, suggesting the imprints of human baby hands and feet, often mark the lines of least resistance up and down the banks of streams or through swamps, and well worn trails are gradually formed, disappearing in places at the edge of the water where it was necessary for the animals to wade or swim, and reappearing again on the farther side. In addition to water, trees, especially hollow ones affording shelter, are almost indis- pensable for the well-being of most raccoons. There seems to be evi- dence that the clearing of timber, especially the cutting of the large shelter trees needed for refuge and hibernation, has been an important factor in reducing the numbers of these animals in the northern part of their range. In the warmer southern territory, where hibenuition does not occur, shelter trees are evidently not so essential. Mangiove RACCOONS OF NORTH AND :^11DDLE AAIERICA 9 swamps, with no large trees within many miles, are regularly inhabited by large mmibers of raccoons that seem able to forego supplies of fresh water. Although hollow trees are favored for the shelter afforded, holes in banks and rocky ledges are also occupied, especially in locali- ties where such trees are few or absent. Raccoons are mainly noc- turnal in their search for food, but they sometimes come out during the day, and are especially fond of sunning tliemselves, usually sprawled in a variety of postures on the larger upper liml)s of trees. SENSES AND INSTINCTS The sensory organs in raccoons are evidently highly developed. Many observers accord these animals a reputation for great curiosity and cunning, and a cleverness or adroitness, involving a high order of general intelligence. As a result of experiments Cole (1907, p. 261) concluded that "in the rapidity with which it forms associations the raccoon seems to stand midway between the monkey and the cat. In the complexity of the associations it is able to form it stands nearer the monkey." It is remarkable, as pointed out by Stock (1929, p. 288), that although Procyon occurred in California during the Pleistocene, no member of the family has been found in the Rancho La Brea deposits. This is probably due to the caution of raccoons in approaching and investigating water holes or such natural traps as the miry, sticky tar pits presented. The senses and instincts of raccoons, as exhibited by animals in captivity, have been carefully studied and well described by Cole (1912), who concluded that although most of the senses are strongly developed, that of smell is less utilized than the others. His results seem worth quoting at length: The most conspicuous behavior of the raccoon seetns to be associated with the sense of touch, which is liighly developed in the pahn of the forepaw and the tip of the nose. During their hours of activity the animals were most often busy in exploring with their paws the floor and objects on the floor of the room in which they were kept. . . . Dark places, as your pocket or a knothole, are explored by touch hundreds of times. . . . Notwithstanding the strength of the raccoon in clinging and climbing, no touch is softer or more gentle than that of his forepaw'S when engaged in this investigating activity. An evidence that the nose is sometimes used for pure touch is the fact that these animals frequently investigated the experimenter's hands, and even his face, with the nose. This also seemed to be an affair of pure curiosity and quite breathless. . . . Occasionally thej' would both touch a strange object with the nose and sniff at it also. . . . The raccoon's taste for sweets is especially marked. All other foods were promptly deserted for cane sugar by my animals. . . . My raccoons avoided all food which had a purely sour taste, yet ripe apples and peaches were eaten which have for human taste a slightly acid tang along with the sweet flavor. Unlike herbivorous animals the raccoon refuses to taste salt. . . . 876119° — 50 2 10 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 60, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Next to sugar the raccoons preferred boiled beef and they were ahnost equally fond of uncooked apples, peaches, plums, and cherries. My animals never ate the raw lieef which we offered them a few times. Some raccoons have been forced to eat it but they do not appear to thrive on such food. My raccoons were often seen to catch and eat flies. They would eat grains of corn, even when dry and hard, if they were hungry. Bread made of either corn-meal or flour was readily accepted. It seems evident, therefore, that the raccoon in his native haunts lives upon forest fruits and buds, and upon flies, beetles, minnows, etc. . . . So far as I could observe the raccoons did not often employ the sense of smell, though this may have been due to their captive condition. In no case did they seem to find pieces of meat on the floor by means of smell. If one of them saw a small piece of meat dropped in the hay on the floor he would search for it care- fully but beyond a distance of a few inches he did not seem to smell it. They found small pieces of loaf sugar on the floor ciuite as promptly as they did meat, yet from the standpoint of the human sense of smell sugar has no odor. In one case smell was evident. When the animals were to be fed the basin of food was usually placed on the step while the door was being unlocked. During this time all of the raccoons sniffed noisily at the crack beneath the door. When it was opened, however, they looked for the food basin. So in this case smell was evident only when sight could not be used. The studies of Cole indicated that the raccoon has a keen sense of sight. In regard to hearing he says: This appears to be the special protective sense of the raccoon. The slightest sound produced (1st) perfect immobility, and (2d) fear and scurrying to the highest part of their place of confinement. . . . Every sound at a distance was listened to intently for several seconds after the experimenter had ceased to hear it. On one occasion all the raccoons became still and yet the observers could hear no sound. Investigation showed that a man was trundling a wheelbarrow over the grass plot at least 100 yards distant from the house in which the raccoons were kept. The sound caused by dropping on the floor a piece of meat, one-half the size of a grain of corn, was often heard by each of the animals. They turned directly toward the source of the sound. Hence they not only hear faint sounds but localize them well. Localization was further tested by putting raccoon No. 3 in a large box with a solid back. The experimenter then scratched on the outside of the back of the box with a small stick. The raccoon turned directly to the spot. The place was changed some two feet. He tiu-ned instantly to the new place and grasped with both forepaws at the exact spot. He did this repeatedly. His behavior suggests that localization of sound is much more definite than that of the human ear. His grasping at the spot might indicate that the raccoon catches some small prey partly by the aid of hearing. . . . On the principle that animals which make souTids hear sounds we may, in con- nection with hearing, mention the sounds which the raccoon is capable of making. A warning growl always accompanied eating when they were fed. When hungry they sometimes emit a sound about midway between a whine and a purr, "a whimpering cry." This sound is well-known to woodsmen and is far more char- acteristic of the young than of the adult animal. . . . When forcibly held their whining and growling is somewhat similar to that of a dog. In fighting the animal gives short, sharp barks as he snaps. Turning once more to the whining-purr, there is less and less of it (in captivity) as the animals grow older and only long waiting for food produces it. In the RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA 11 forest it may be used as a call to others. A very young raccoon, making this cry from loneliness or in search of its mother, will cease to make it if gently stroked or scratched. Of the climbing- habit Cole says: This instinct involves the sense of support, which is present before the raccoon ):)ossesses either the strength or the muscular co-ordination necessary for climbing, and the impulse to cling to any support. The sense of support is best described by an example. When raccoon No. 5 was probably not more than two weeks old I placed him one day upon the top of a small closed bo.x six inches high. He groped o^•er the top of this box . . . with his forepaws extended, feeling the way. But 1 he moment his paws felt the edge of the box the animal shrank back and began to grope in another direction. Again he would find the edge and again shrink back and start anew. Apparently at this age vision did not serve to show him that he might safely droj) to the floor. It seems likely that this impulse enables the young raccoon to remain safely in a high nest, even though it were not enclosed. . . . When the raccoon is a month old it is able to sustain its weight by clinging to a support by any one of its paws and this it does instinctively. ... As soon as the young raccoon can walk well any bush or free arouses his impulse to climb. At first there is some awkwardness and two of our animals were seen to fall from a small tree, when al)out eight weeks old. A little later they could hardly be dislodged at all. . . . As Brehm states, the raccoon often climbs along a branch with his back down "like a sloth or an ape"". . . . My raccoons always laid hold of one l)ough before releasing the other. They go from one bough to another very ciuickly yet they rely much more on their strength than on their agilit}^ Cole agrees with other observers in the conclusion that raccoons are very playful: One would sit for a long time and play with his hind feet or the tip of his tail. Three were ol)served to play in this fashion for one and a ciuarter hours, with almost no pause. While my animals had to work twice a day for their food I observed only momentary play, or perhaps curiosity, as the tendency to pick up a straw or bit of cornhusk and roll it for a moment between their forepaws. In some degree, therefore, their play seems to depend on the possession of surplus energy. When well rested they played roughly with each other in mock fights, running and seizing each other gently with the teeth, rolling over and over in their tussles. In this play they would often climb to the shoulder of the observer, whereby he may learn both the strength of their grip and the sharpness of their claws. They also make a pretense of biting your hand in play, a characteristic reaction of the pet raccoon. In this connection Cole quotes Beckmann, as follows: "In the munberless leisure hours which every captive raccoon has he does thousands of things in order to dispel the tedium. Now, he sits upright in a secluded corner, and with a most earnest expression he is busied in trying to tie a straw around his nose. Now, he plays thoughtfully with the toes of his hind foot, or snatches after the wagging end of his long tail. At another time he lies on his l)ack and has a whole heap of hay or dry leaves hugged against his belly and he tries to tie down this loose mass by drawing his tail tightly over it with his forepaws." 12 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 6 0, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE The impulse to follow which seems to be inherent in young animals of many kinds was noted by Cole, who says: After learning to walk, the raccoons would all follow me, or anyone else, with the utmost eagerness. If I ran they struggled through the grass at their best rate, giving the instinctive cry more and more shrilly as I got further away from them, and ceasing to give it when they overtook me. In the middle of the seventh month this instinct to follow began to wane. When released from their place of confinement each one tended to go on an exploring tour of his own and to make for a nearby tree. At this time they would still follow if called. A month later no one of the four would follow at all, and their period of infancy was past. Althoug-h Cole regards the raccoon as especially good-natured, ". . . yet anger or ferocity was observed in these animals at about the twelfth week of their age. Though scrupulous care was taken to keep the animals tame they became fierce if they were left without being handled for a few days. In the fighting attitude the ears are laid back, the head lowered and the posterior portion of the body sharply humped up. Growling and luifleshing the teeth accompany this fighting attitude and, when provoked the raccoon is an ugly fighter." He found that his raccoons showed fear by starting at sounds, and the sudden darkening of the room caused by the door blowing shut produced in young animals a panic for a moment. Indifference to each other's behavior was marked. No certain evidence of the sexual instinct was noted by Cole until the twelfth month. In regard to the practice of washing food that caused Linnaeu§ to apply the name l(>f<»\ and the Germans Waschbdr, Cole says: "My raccoons did not always dip their food in water. No doubt this was partly due to their being fed together so that they formed the habit of eating rapidly. . . . Nevertheless, I do not believe that the raccoon in his native state will carry food very far for the purpose of 'washing it'." Whitney (1931, p. 35) comments on this point as follows: "Unquestionably the most common error into which writers have fallen in regard to the habits of raccoons is that the raccoon washes most of the food that he eats ... in the wild state the raccoon washes almost nothing that he eats." He regards the error as due to observations made on animals in confinement. It is obvious that the washing of many kinds of food taken by raccoons, especially at a distance from water, would be impracticable. It is probable that under natin-al conditions raccoons wash only shellfish and other food gathered in or aljout water, the washing being often necessary to remove sand or other gritty matter. Concerning the sleep of raccoons, Cole writes: There are two rather characteristic positions in sleeping. In one the animal lies on his back with his forepaws placed over his eyes. A young raccoon, when RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA 13 held and somewhat frightened, also puts both forepaws over his eyes, thus giving a somewhat comical appearance, suggestive of "hiding its face in its hands." Another position in sleep consists in rolling the body almost into a ball with the lop of the head placed flat on the floor between the forelegs. In this position even I he ears are hardly visible. Though the animal does sleep in other positions ihese two are most common. It would seem that the raccoon sleeps best, there- fore, with his eyes not only closed but covered, and for protection he depends most upon his lofty nest and its concealment from enemies. Among mental attributes of the raccoon, both Davis (1907, p. 486) and Whitney (1933, p. 112) regard curiosity as an outstanding characteristic. BREEDING The period of gestation in Procyon loior, at k^ast in the northern part of its range, has l)een (k^termined by various authorities to be al)out 9 or 10 weeks. One of the more definite records is that of Gan(k>r (1928), rehiting in a singk instance to Procyon lotor psora in southern Cahfornia. An animal kept in captivity was mated January 27 to 29 and the yoimg w^ere born April 3. Another record is that of Brow^n (1936) of 69 days from first coition. A litter of small yoimg was collected l)y E. A. Preble at Tuckerton, N. J., Jinie 23; one taken by B. V. Lilly at iVbbeville, La., suggests that in sotithern localities the season may be more irregidar. Rac- coons breed btit once a year and four yoimg are usually produced at a birth, but the nimiber may vary from two to six. In regard to breeding in the Adirondacks of northern New York, Merriam (1884, p. 94) says: The Raccoon makes its home high up in a hollow of some large tree, preferring a dead limb to the trunk itself. It does little in the way of constructing a nest, and from four to six young are commonly born at a time, generally early in April in this region. The young remain with the mother about a year. The act of copidation, rarely recorded in raccoons under natm'al conditions, was witnessed by the author on Blackbeard Island, Ga., April 19, 1939. From a point of vantage on high groimd in the woods a mated pair, imconscious of his presence, was observed in short grass in the open marsh about 75 yards away. With a pair of field glasses a very clear view of the animals in bright sunshine was obtained at short range. When first seen at 2 :05 p. m., the female, surmoimted hy the male, was in a standing position and sexual conjunction appeared to be already complete. Rhythmical movements of the hind qiutrters of the male were interrupted by periods of qinet. Several times he shifted position slightly from one side to the other, but remained most of the time w^ith his head resting near the median line of the back of the female. The latter remained passive imtil at the end of about half an hour by the watch she laid her ears back and tin-ned 14 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 60, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE her head, showing her teeth and apparently snarhng at the male, although even at the short distance no sound was heard. The male quietly slipped from her, and both animals moving only a few feet immediately resumed their search for small crabs that were numerous in the marshy ground. The fur on the lower part of the back of the female had become considerably rumpled, but this was ignored by her in the search for food. hibp:knation The winter activities of raccoon vary in southern and northern latitudes. In the southern United States and southward the raccoons are active thi-oughout the year. In the North these animals become torpid, and there is a kind of hibernation or partially suspended animation, similar to that of the bears and only approximating the deep lethargic winter sleep of some other northern animals. In describing behavior in winter in Canada, Wesley Mills (1892, sec. 4, p. 50) refers to W. Yates, of Hatchly, Ontario, and says: "This observer has made some very interesting observations on a tame rac- coon (Procyon lofor). This creature lived in a hollow log lined with straw and drowsed away the greater part of December and January, leaving any food placed before him unnoticed. The raccoon is known to spend the greater part of the winter in hollow elm trees in this part of the country, and Mr. Yates points out that the cutting down of most of these trees resulted in the raccoons betaking them- selves to underground burrows including those once occupied by foxes." According to Seton (1929, p. 252): "In the Red River Valley [Canada], the sleep lasts from mid-November to early March." Concerning hibernation in the Adirondacks of northern New York, Merriam (1884, p. 93) writes: "The Raccoon hibernates during the severest part of the winter, retiring to his nest rather early, and appearing again in February or March, according to the earliness or lateness of the season. Disliking to wade through deep snow he does not come out much till the alternate thawing and freezing of the surface, suggestive of coming spring, makes a crust upon which he can run with ease." ECONOMIC STATUS Raccoons are naturally prolific, and owing to very extensive geo.- graphic range and adaptability the forms of Procyon lotor constitute a wildlife asset of major recreational and economic importance. In the extreme scarcity of money in pioneer days raccoon skins supplied an important element in helping the people to maintain their existence. In 1788 (Chase 1911) the residents of a mountain section in Tennessee organized the local "State of Franklin." Money was scarce, and the RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA 15 salaries of public officials were paid in animal skins, including the following: "... secretary to his excellency, the governor, 500 rac- coon [skins] ; . . . clerk of the house of commons, 200 raccoon [skins] ; members of assembly, per diem, 3 raccoon [skins]; . . ." Through- out the pioneer days raccoon slvins were regular articles of barter. 'I'he slvins were especially popular for making caps and coats, the latter use extending to the present time as garments for both men and women. Although their original numbers have greatly decreased, owing to the reduction or elimination of suitable habitat incident to human encroachment, raccoons have persisted where many other native animals have become extinct. Aside from the fur produced, iheir value in providing excellent nocturnal sport for an army of hunters and exercise for the "coon" dogs nearly throughout the forested sections of the country is well known. This hunting asset is becoming better appreciated by vState game commissions and sportsmen's associations, and the lil)eration of raccoons in suitable places is a regular part of the annual program of wildlife management. The meat, especially of young raccoons, is an accepted article of food in some parts of the country and is very palatable. During the early days in California, according to Newberry (1855, p. 47), raccoons in considerable numl>ers were sold in the San Francisco market, commanding a price of one to three dollars each. Raccoons are destructive to human interests in some places to a limited extent. Of the economic status of the animal in its typical region, Pennsylvania and New Jersey, Rhoads (1903, p. 182) says: Dr. Warren reports answers from correspondents which condenin this animal as a stealer of fish, especially trout. Others say it does not catch many of these but is after crayfish chiefly. His raids on nesting turkeys I can vouch for, the eggs being sucked. His destruction of poultry is occasionally severe and he likes green maize ears dearly. No doubt he is a destroyer of birds' nests, eggs and young, both terrestrial and arboreal. He catches some mice, but being a slow sort of fellow, prefers more leisurely employment. On this account, he is quite a vegetarian, grapes, nuts, fruits and certain vegetables falling to his share. His furs for warmth and his carcass for food about compensate for the direct losses sustained by humanity in his depredations. In the Gulf Coast Region, where raccoons still al)oini(l, conditions are described by Kopman (1921, p. 28) thus: One of the principal foods of the raccoon in Louisiana is crayfish. Among vegetable foods, corn in the milk, persimmons, wild grapes, and palmetto berries are very acceptable to the "coon." As a destroyer of poultry the raccoon is often a great nuisance, and it takes many wild birds. These animals are estab- lished on many of the bushy islands of the coast, and they eat the eggs and young of the seabirds and other aquatic species breeding there. On Marsh Island and other bird and game preserves on the coast owned by the State, the Department of Conservation has had to provide for systematic trapping of the raccoon. . . . 16 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 60, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE In considering the natural enemies of birds, Forbiish (1916, pp. 24-25) discusses the raccoon as follows: There is some evidence to the effect that the raccoon robs birds' nests, but it is not numerous enough now in settled regions to be very destructive. Its fond- ness for green corn has not endeared it to the farmer, and the sportsman and angler believe that it destroys game and fish. Add to these alleged reasons for its destruction the increasing price for its skin in the market and we can see why the "coon" is not destined long to be a great factor as an enemy of birds, except possibly on lands where all animals are protected. An early mention of the raccoon in New England is by Josselyn (1672), who says: "The Raccoon liveth in hollow trees, and is about the size of a Gib Cat; they feed upon Mass, and do infest our Indian Corn very much; they will be exceeding fat in Autumn; their flesh is some- what dark, but good food roasted." Corn is grown extensively throughout much of the range of the raccoon, and perhaps more complaints are lodged against the animal for damages to this staple crop than to any other human interest. Cornfields adjoining woodland inhal)ited by raccoons may be in- vaded, usually for only a short distance, about the time that the ears reach the "milk" stage. The stalks are pulled down, or the ears stripped oft" and partly eaten and left scattered over the ground. In some of the most serious instances noted by the writer more than one-half of the corn was destroyed on areas several acres in extent. Other grain crops (as, for example, kafir corn) and fruits and vege- tables of many kinds are also subject to some injury. Personal observations have shown that raccoons sometimes become nocturnal despoilers of the nests of waterfowl. General observations over a wide range indicate that the depre- dations of raccoons are sporadic in relation to himian interests, involve few individuals, and are usually so limited and local in extent that they are quite negligible. The removal of one or two oft'enders by trapping or shooting will put a stop to the raids in most cases. In a very few instances systematic trapping may be necessary to reduce a local raccoon population that has l)ecome too numerous and destruc- tive. The isolated cases of damages sustained are, in general, far outweighed by the asset value of the species. The northern subspecies of Procyon lotor are among the most important fur bearers, but pelts of the forms of the crab-eating raccoon, Procyon (Euprocyon) cancrivorus, are of little value, owing to the short, thin, bristly character of the pelage. Some idea of the numbers of raccoon {Procyon lotor) pelts that have been handled as furs may be gained from estimates based upon sta- tistical studies made in 1925 by Frank G. Ashbrook of the then Bureau of Biological Survey, United States Department of Agriculture (now part of the Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the In- RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA 17 terior), and Horace J. McMiillen, of the then National Association of the Fur Industry (Ashbrook and McMullen 1925). The data gatliered from the principal fur auctions in the United States and in London, and from raw fur receiving houses indicated that the average yearly production of raccoon pelts for the 10 years preceding 1925 was 600,000 to 1,000,000. These figures were also taken to represent the average yearly consumption for the period stated. [The most recent (1948) information compiled by the Fish and Wildlife Service indicates an annual take of from 1 to IK million pelts in the United States.! The raccoon has an assured place as one of the more important American fur-bearing animals and will continue to hold this position so long as it can be maintained in suitable numbers. [It is outnum- bered only by the muskrat, opossum, and skunk in pelts taken.] The natural supply of raccoon furs is being gradually reduced through the general encroachment of civilization upon the range of the animal. Aside from trapping for the fur, hunting for sport with- out adequate regulations, and harassment by dogs, the drainage of water areas and the cutting of timber, especially the older trees afford- ing convenient sheltering hollows, have resulted in conditions unfa- vorable for raccoons. Displaying wonderful adaptability, raccoons still maintain themselves even in many well-settled areas, often in the viciuity of human habitations or even large cities, with a persistence truly remarkable. Experiments have been conducted on raising raccoons in captivity. Much should be done, however, to further better management of the raccoon in the wild, not only as an important fur bearer and for the sport afforded in its chase, but as a characteristic American animal of outstanding general interest owing to its peculiar and attractive habits. GENERAL CHARACTERS The raccoons as a whole present a narrow range of variation in external appearance. The general color pattern, including the black facial mask and the barred tail, is everywhere very similar, even for the two subgenera. The subgenus Procyon, embracing the nmnerous forms of the typical North American group, is, however, easily dis- tinguished by the normal, or backward direction of the hair on the nape, by the presence of underfur, and by the grayish forearms and thighs. In Euprocyon, on the other hand, the pelage of the nape is reversed, undei'fur is absent, and the forearms and thighs are usuall}^ blackish instead of grayish. The normal number of mammae seems to be six in both Procyon and Euprocyon, but has been found to vary to eight in the latter subgenus. Cranial and dental subgeneric distinctions are pointed out in the treatment of subgeneric characters. 18 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 60, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE In both siibgenera the plantigrade structure of the feet is an out- standing feature. The fore feet somewhat resemble tiny hands, with long fingers opposable to a high degree, possessed of great strength, and yet capable, in Procyon at least, of being used with a remarkable deftness and delicacy of touch. The digits of the hind feet are much less opposable, and the imprints of the broad flattened soles along muddy shores may be likened to those of a small child's feet. Al- though the favorite haunts of the members of both subgenera are in the vicinity of water and much time is spent upon the ground, Procyon, as compared with Ewprocyon, is provided with claws that are narrower, sharper, more compressed laterally, and strengthened by greater ver- tical depth at the base, better adapting this subgenus for climbing and a more arboreal life. In Panama, where the two subgenera occur together, the crab-eating habit is shared in common, but may be in- dulged in to a greater extent by Euprocyon than by Procyon. The broader, less trenchant cusps in the molariform teeth of Euprocyon, as compared with those of Procyon, are better fitted for crushing hard substances. Along the coast of Salvador, mangrove swamps are in- habited by a local form, Procyon lotor dickeyi, which feeds extensively, perhaps principally, upon crabs. The abrasive effect of such a diet on the teeth of a member of the typical subgenus is there strikingly shown by the early wear and ra])id shearing off of the crowns of the molars, leaving the premolars comparatively little affected. In some of the older specimens of dickeyi the molar crowns are reduced until a mere shell remains near the roots. This may, however, be due to some unusual local condition as such rapid or extensive wear has not been observed anywhere else. The l)lack mask varies somewhat in extent, and some forms are ])aler than others, but owing to general uniformity in pattern of color- ation in each subgenus, recourse must usually be had to size and to cranial and dental modifications in tracing the relationships of species and subspecies. In the subgenus Procyon most of the sutures of the skull ar(^ easily traced at birth. Among the earliest sutures to close are those of the basicranial segment surrounding the foramen magnum. The supra- occipital, exoccipitals, and basioccipital are all firmly united, and the sutures have disappeared before the permanent dentition is fully in place. The union between these bones and the remainder of the sivull, however, remains distinctly visible until finally closed later with ad- vancing age. The jugals unite with the maxillae earlier than with the squamosals. Progressive obliteration extends to the maxillo- premaxillary sutures and to the median line between the frontals, while the parietal sutures remain e locality. — Hilton Head Island, Beaufort County, S. C. Ty2)e. — No. 256027, male adult, skin and skull. United States National Museum; collected by W. L. Brown, December 10, 1930. Distributtoii. — Coast region and islands of South Carolina. Lower Austral Zone. General characters. — Size rather small; color grayish; black mask uninterrupted across face in two of every three individuals; winter pelage rather long and dense. Similar, in general to P. I. litoreus of Saint Simon Island and the coast region of Georgia, but color clearer gray, less inclining toward ])uflFy or brownish; skull characters, espe- cially the much lighter dentition, distinctive. Dilfering from P. I. lotor in more gra^dsh general coloration, less elongated skull, and other cranial details. Color. — Upper parts in general grayish, rather heavily overlaid with black, especially on median dorsal area ; rather small nape patch suffused with ochraceous buff; top of head mixed black and gray, the gray pi-edominant; black mask usually continuous across middle of face, prolonged upward along median line to middle of forehead and downward over middle of muzzle to nose; sides of muzzle, lips, and chin white; under parts in general thinly overlaid with silvery gray, the dark l)rownish under color showing through; throat patch black- ish; ears gray, with l)lack ])atches at posterior base; limbs similar to under parts, becoming brownish gray on feet, the hind legs with pure black areas on outer side above heels; tail with about six black rings, narrowest near base, and a black tip, alternating with light ochra- ceous buffy rings. Cranial characters. — Skull of medium size, rather broad, short, and light in structure. Similar in general to that of P. I. litoreus but smaller; dentition very much lighter. Compared with that of P. I. lotor the skull is shorter and relatively broader; frontal region usually broader and flatter; ])alatal shelf shorter; dentition usually somewhat heavier, but maxillary tooth row shorter as a rule, the premolars more closely crowded. Measurements. — An adult male from Bulls Island, S. C. : Total length, 803 mm.; tail vertebrae, 244; hind foot, 117. Two adult females from Bulls Island, S. C, respectively: 635, 749; 193, 260; 105, 107. Skull: Type: Greatest length, 111.7; condylobasal length, 108.2; zygomatic breadth, 75.1; interorbital breadth, 24.1; least width of palatal shelf, 16.4; maxillary tooth row (alveoli), 42.1; upper carnassial, crown length, 8.8, crown width, 9.2. 87r>110°— 50 4 42 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 60, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Remarks. — The raccoon of Hilton Head Island and neighboring islands, and the adjacent mainland is readily distinguished from P. /. litoreus by much lighter dentition. Differentiation of this insular form is apparently due to isolation, its typical habitat being separated from the mainland by a broad and rather deep channel. Some skulls of this form closely resemble some of those of P. I. varius, the general size and dentition being very similar. Closely compared with those of varius, however, the skulls are usually shorter and broader, the frontal region broader and flatter, the brain case more rounded and inflated, and the cheek teeth somewhat larger. In addition, the longer pelage, grayer coloration, and more complete black facial mask appear to be distinctive. Sj^ecimens examined. — Total number, 31, as follows: South Carolina: Bulls Island, Charleston County, 11 (8 skins without skulls); EddinKs Island, 1; Edisto Island, Charleston County, 5; ^^ Hilton Head Island (type locality), 9 (6 skulls without skins); Hunting Island, 1; Saint Helena Island, 1; Santee, 2; Yeniassee, Hampton County, 1 (skull only).!^ PROCYON LOTOR ELUCUS Bangs Florida Raccoon Procyon lotor elucvs Bangs, Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Proc. 28 (7) : 219, March, 1898. Tyi:)e locality. — Oak Lodge, on a peninsula opposite Micco, Brevard County, Fla. Type. — No. 3502, old male adult, skin and skidl. Museum of Com- parative Zoology (Bangs collection) ; collected by Outram Bangs, February 15, 1895. Distrihiffion. — Peninsular Florida, except southwestern part in- habited by P. I. 7narinus, north to extreme southern Georgia; grading into P. I. varius in northwest Florida. Tropical and Austroriparian division of Lower Austral Zone. General characters. — A medium-sized, generally dark-colored sub- species, with a deep, rusty rufous nuchal patch prominent in many typical examples; skull characterized especially by greatly inflated frontal vactiities usually giving the upper outline a decidedly "humped" appearance. Much like P. I. litoreus of Saint Simon Island, Ga.; general size, color, length and texture of pelage about the same; skull differing in detail, especially the much lighter dentition. Similar to P. I. varius of Alabama, but color usually darker, size decidedly larger, and cranial characters distinctive. Differing from P. I. marinus of the Mus. Conip. Zool. RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA 43 Ten Thousand Islands and P. I. inesperatus of Upper Matecumhe Key in larger size, and the more elevated frontal re(2,'ion of skull. Color. — About as in P. I. litor-eus. Very similar to P. I. lofor but averag'ino- somewhat paler, the hairs over median dorsal area with shorter black tips and the nape more regularly and deeply suffused with rusty or orange rufous. Cranial characters. — Skull similar to that of P. I. litoreus, but frontal region broader, higher arched, or more "humped"; sides of frontals usually less compressed or abruptly indented behind orbits, leaving the brain case tapering more gradually anteriorly, instead of bulging laterally as in liforeus; dentition much lighter, the difference most noticeable in the molariform teeth. Decidedly larger than those of P. I. lofor, P. I. varius, P. I. marinus, or P. I. inesjjeratuSjWith brain case broader, and frontal region more ''humped"; postorbital processes of frontals obsolescent or small as in other eastern forms. Measurenieti.ts. — Type (from original description): Total length, 892 mm.; tail vertebrae, 286; hind foot, 125. An adult male topotype: 800; 244; 120. Average of five adult males from Saw Grass Island, Catfish Creek, Polk County, Fla. : 812 (790-850); 259 (240-280); 126 (125-129); weight (pounds), 11 (10-12). Average of three adult females from same locality: 758 (745-770); 245 (235-255); 121 (117-123); weight (pounds), 9 (7.7-10). Skull: Average of five adult males from Saw Grass Island, Catfish Creek, Polk County, Fla.: Greatest length, 119.4 (113.7-123); condylobasal length, 114.5 (110.3-117.1); zygomatic breadth, 74.1 (72-76.6); interorbital breadth, 23.7 (22.3-24.8); least width of palatal shelf, 16 (14.9-17.3); maxillary tooth row (alveoli), 43.2 (41.7-44.6): upper carnassial, crown length, 8.7 (8.4-9.1), crown width, 8.9 (8.8-9.2). Average of three adult females from same locality: Greatest length, 113.6 (112.1-115.2); condylobasal length, 108.8 (106.8-110.4); zygomatic breadth, 68.4 (66.6-70); interorbital Ijreadth, 24 (23.3-24.5); least width of palatal shelf, 16.4 (15.4-17.6); maxillary tooth row, 41.9 (41.3-42.7); upper carnassial, crown length, 8.8 (8.7-9), crown width, 8.8 (8.6-9). Remarks. — In P. I. elucus the inflation of the frontal sinuses reaches its extreme development giving the skidl a "humjicd" appearance in outline, a character shared to some extent with other forms including P. I. lofor. Typical examples of elucus are quite dark in color, and the rusty rufous suffusion of the nape, appearing irregularly in many sul)species, is more prevalent and of a deeper and richer tone than is usual in the group. Intergradation with litoreus, imrius, and marinus is evident, and while not clearly indicated probably occurs with in- €sj)erafus which is known only from the mangrove-fringed islands along the southeast coast of the peninsula of Florida. Specimens from as far south as Naples on the west coast and Cutler, Dade County, are clearlv referable to elucus. 44 XORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 6 0, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Specimens examined. — Total number, 127, as follows: Florida: Allenhurst, 1 (skull only); Aiicilla River, G (skulls only); Black Point, Dade County, 1; Blue Cypress Lake, Osceola County, 1 (skull only); Blue Springs, 1 (skin only) ; !•* Buena Vista, 1 (skull only); Citronelle, 4; ^^ Cutler, Dade County, 9 (1 skull without skin) ; '< Englewood, Sarasota County, 1; Enterprise, 1 (skin only) ; i« Fort Kissimmee, 18 (14 skulls without skins) ; Gainesville, 3;is Homosassa, 1 (skull only); Kissimmee, 1; Kissimmee River, 1; Lake Cypress, 1; Lake Harney, 5 (1 skin without skull); Lake Hatch-ne- haw, 15 (skulls only): Lake Kissimmee, 8 (7 skulls without skins); Lake Monroe, 1; Matanzas Lilet, 1 (skull only); Miami, 1; Micco, 1 (skull only); Naples, 3 (skulls only); New Berlin, 5; '» Oak Lodge (type locality on penin- sula opposite Micco), 2 (1 skull without skin) ; '^ Orlando, 1 (skin only); is Royal Palm Hammock, 1 (skull only); San Mateo (5 miles northeast), 1 (skin only); Saw Grass Island, Catfish Creek, Polk County, 12; Snapper Creek, Dade County, 2; Tarpon Springs, 3 (2 skins without skulls; 1 skull without skin);'^ Taylor Creek, 2 (skins only) ; ^^ Wilson, 1; Welaka, 1 (skin only).i< Georgia: Fargo, 8 (5 skulls without skins) ; Okefenokee Swamp, 2 (1 skull without skin) . PROCYON LOTOR MARINUS Xelson Tex Thousaxd Islands Raccoon Procyon lotor mariniis Nelson, Smithsn. Misc. Collect. 82 (8): 7, July 10, 1930. TyjJe locality. — Near Chokoloskee, Collier County, Fla. Type.—^o. 254989, male adult, skin and skull. United States Na- tional Museum; collected by E. W. Nelson, February 28, 1930. Distribution. — Keys of the Ten Thousand Islands Group, and ad- joining mainland of southwestern Florida from Cape Sable north through the Everglades to Lake Okeechobee (Ritta). Tropical Zone. General characters. — A very small subspecies with heavy dentition. Not very unlike P. I. elucus and P. /. inesperatus in color, but smaller than either, and cranial characters, especially the relatively larger posterior upper premolar and carnassial, distinctive. Decidedly darker than P. I. auspicatus or P. I. incautus and cranial characters quite different. Color. — Similar to that of P. I. elucus, but somewhat grayer, especi- ally on the head, the back usually less heavily overlaid with black; rusty nape patch averaging less strongly marked, often obsolescent; under parts and light rings on tail paler, less ochraceous bulTy; black mask more restricted. Cranial characters. — Skull much smaller and more delicately propor- tioned than in P. I. elucus, frontal area much more depressed; brain case more rounded; posterior upper premolar and carnassial relatively, and sometimes actually, larger; palatal shelf about the same. Very similar in general form to that of P. I. inesperaius, but smaller, witli '■I Mus. Comp. Zool. '■' Amer. Mns. Nat. Hist. 16 Four in Chicago Mus. Nat. Hist.; one in Mus. Comp Zool. RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA 45 relatively and often actually larger (especially broader) posterior upper premolar and carnassial. Differing from those of P. I. auspicatus and P. I. incautus mainly in usually broader frontal region and much larger posterior upper premolar and carnassial. Measurements. — Type: Total length, 665 mm.; tail vertebrae, 222; hind foot, 105; weight (pounds), 7. Two adult male topotypes, respectively: 642, 655; 214, 200; 100, 98; weight (pounds), 7, 8. Two adult female topotypes: 610, 613; 200, 192; 93, 93; weight (pounds), 5, 5.5. Skull: Type: Greatest length, 105.9; condylobasal length, 101.8; zygomatic breadth, 64.8; interorbital breadth, 22.3; least width of palatal shelf, 13.9; maxillary tooth row (alveoli), 40; upper carnas- sial, crown length, 9, crown width, 9.1. Two adidt male topotypes: Greatest length, 101.3, 106.7; condylobasal length, 98, 101.8; zygo- matic breadth, 65.5, 69.5; interorbital breadth, 20.4 23.3; least width of palatal shelf, 14.9, 15; maxillary tooth row, 39.8, 40.5; upper carnas- sial, crown length, 8.9, 8.7, crown width, 9.7, 9.5. Two adult female topotypes: Greatest length, 93.7, 94.7; condylobasal length, 90.1, 91.8; zygomatic breadth, 58.3, 60.6; interorbital breadth, 20.5, 20.3; least width of palatal shelf, 14.2, 14.1; maxiUary tooth row, 36.4, 38; upper carnassial, crown length, 8, 8.8, crown width, 9.2, 9.1. Remarks. — P. I. marinus is one of the smaller sul)species of raccoons that have developed neai- the southern end of the peninsula of Florida, not dift'ering much in size from P. I. auspicatus and P. I. incautus. It appears to be limited to the great maze of mangrove- covered or -bordered islands, or keys, known as the "Ten Thousand Islands" where raccoons are present in great numl:)ers, and to parts of the adjoining Everglades region. Specimens from Ritta at the southern end of Lake Okeechobee appear to be referable to marinus. Most of the islets mentioned are covered by the sea to a depth of from 3 to 4 feet at each high tide, and are totally devoid of fresh water. As most of these keys have no large trees to afford hollows and no dry land the raccoons must make their homes on top of the mangrove roots where they are forced to retreat by the incoming tide. Specimens from Cape Sable show gradation toward P. I. elucus, which ranges south to the eastern part of Dade County along the eastern side of the peninsula. Although evidently closely related to elucus, which occupies a different, but adjoining habitat, marinus maintains its distinctive characters with remarkable constancy. Specimens examined. — Total number, 49, as follows: Florida: Cape Sable, 3; Chokoloskee (type locality), 138; Coon Key, Ten Thousand Islands, l;i" Flamingo, Monroe County (skulls only), 3; ''* Ritta, 4 (skulls oiilv). •" Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 1' Mus. Comp. Zool. 46 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 60, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE PROCYON LOTOR INESPERATUS Nelson Matecumbe Key Raccoon Frori/on Intor inesperatiis Xelsoii, Smithsn. Misc. Collect. 82 (8): 8, July 10, 1930. Ty2)e locality. — Upper Matecumbe Key, Monroe County, Fla. Type. — No. 255037, male adult, skin and skull. United States National Museum; collected by E. W. Nelson, March 19, 1930. Distribution. — Key Largo Group, embracing fringing keys along the southeast coast of Florida, from Virginia Key south to Lower Matecumbe Key. Tro]3ical Zone. General characters. — Closely allied to P. I. elucus of adjacent main- land, but averaging smaller and grayer; skull flatter. Differs from P. I. marinus, P. /. auspicaius, and P. I. incautus, representatives of neighboring groups of Florida keys, in its larger, more robust form, and in the combination of color and cranial characters. Color. — Much as in P. I. elucus but usually somewhat grayer, especially on head and face; black mask more restricted, the upper surface of muzzle paler; dorsum rather heavily washed with black, and rusty rufous nuchal patch well marked as in elucus; dark rings on tail distinct, and light rings often strongly buffy. Cranial characters. — Skull similar to that of P. I. elucus, but frontal area markedly depressed, instead of highly arched, or "humped." Differing from those of P. I. marinus, P. I. auspicaius, and P. I. incautus in larger size and more massive proportions; posterior upper premolar and carnassial actually, and therefore relatively, decidedly smaller than in P. I. marinus. Compared further with those of auspicaius and incautus, the palatal shelf extends farther behind the posterior molars than in the former and the frontal region is usually broader than in either. Measuretiients. — Type: Total length, 730 mm.: tail vertebrae, 250; hind foot, 115; weight (pounds), 8.5. Adult male from Key Largo: 795; 222; 124; weight (pounds), 12. Adult female from Lower Matecumbe Key: 648; 228; 102; weight (pounds), 5. Skull: Type: Greatest length, 114; condylobasal length, 108.1; zygomatic breadth, 68.2; interorbital breadth, 23.1; least width of palatal shelf, 15.2; maxillary tooth row (alveoli), 41; upper carnassial, crown length, 9.1, crown width, 9.6. Remarks. — Only a short distance separates the insular habitat of the present subspecies from the adjacent Florida mainland which is occupied by P. I. elucus. Nevertheless specimens from the various keys of the Key Largo Group differ somewhat in color as pointed out, and the skulls may at once be recognized by appreciably smaller size and more flattened frontals. The skulls of those from Key Largo and Virginia Key are larger than those from the more distant Upper and Lower Matecumbe Keys, and in this respect grade toward the RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA 47 mainland animal. The motor highway from Miami to Key West, connecting keys by fills or viadncts enabling raccoons to pass from one key to another will doubtless result, through interbreeding, in the blending and obliteration of the interesting cbai'acters that now distinguish the various races of the island chain. Specimens examined. — Total number, 25, as follows: Florida (Key Largo Group): Elliotts Key, 7;" Key Largo, 5;^° Lignum Vitae Key, 1; Lower Matecumbe Key, 7; Plantation Key, 2; Upper Matecunibe Key, 1 (type); Virginia Key, 2. PROCYON LOTOR AUSPTCATUS Nelson Key Vaca Raccoon Procijon lotor (luspiratus Nelson, Sniithsn. Misc. Collect. 82 (8): 9, July 10, 1930. Tyj)e locality. — Marathon, Key Vaca, Monroe Cotnity, Fla. Tyj^e.—'No. 255080, male adult, skin and skull. United States National Musetmt; collected by E. W. Nelson, March 28, 1930. Distribution. — Key Vaca and doubtless closely adjoining keys of the Key Vaca Group, a central section of the main chain off the sotithern coast of Florida. Tro])ical Zone. General characters. — A very small, pale sid)species; skull with a narrow, but rounded brain case. Similar in size to P. /. marinus of the Ten Thousand Islands and P. I. incautus of the Big Pine Key Groui), btit decid(>dly paler than the former and differing in cranial details from both. Distinguished from P. I. inesperatus of Upper Matectmibe Key, by smaller size, much paler color, and by cranial characters. Color. — Very pale, similar to that of P. I. incautus, but not qtiite so extreme, much paler throughotit than P. I. inesperatus or P. I. marinus, the u])])er parts tistially thinly overlaid with rusty brownish, and the underfur of a lighter brownish tone than in inesperatus or marinus; black facial mask more restricted ; dark rings on tail narrower, more brownish, but usually distinct all aroimd. Cranial characters. — Skull very small, with a short palatal shelf and moderately heavy dentition. Similar to that of P. I. marinus, but somewhat smaller, with shorter palatal shelf, and lighter dentition. Smaller than that of P. I. inesperatus, with brain case relatively nar- rower, palatal shelf shorter, pterygoids less divergent posteriorly. Compared with that of P. I. incautus the skull is smaller, with shorter palatal shelf and narrower zygomata. Measurements. — Type: Total length, 644 mm.; tail vertebrae, 214; hind foot, 99; weight (pounds), 5.5. Average of five adult male topotypes: 657 (634-700); 236 (214-275); 100 (96-107); weight (pounds), 5.3 (4-6). Two adult 1^ Mus. Comi). Zool. -" Two in Mus. Comp. Zool. 48 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 60, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE female topotypes, respectively: 603, 620; 212, 232; 83, 97; weight (pounds), 4, 5. Skull: Type: Greatest length, 100; condylobasal length, 94.7; zygomatic breadth, 64.5; interorbital breadth, 19.4; least width of palatal shelf, 13.9; maxillary tooth row (alveoli), 37.4; upper carnassial, crown length, 7.8, crown width, 8.6. Aver- age of five adult male topotypes: Greatest length, 102.1 (99.9-105.9); condylo- basal length, 97 (94.3-101); zygomatic breadth, 63.5 (60.2-66.2); interorbital breadth, 20 (18.8-22.7); least width of palatal shelf, 14 (13.4-15); maxillary tooth row, 38 (36.4-38.9); upper carnassial, crown length, 7.8 (7.6-8.1), crown width, 9 (8.7-9.3). Two adult female topotypes: Greatest length, 93.6, 97.5; condylobasal length, 89.4, 94; zygomatic breadth, 59.8, 58.7; interorbital breadth, 18.8, 19; least width of palatal shelf, 14, 13.8; maxillary tooth row, 35, 36.6; upper carnassial, crown length, 7.4, 7.7, crown width, 8.3, 8.6. I\e7ym)'ks. — The Key Vaca raccoon is one of the most salient in characters of the subspecies inhabiting the Florichi Keys. It re- seni])les P. I. hiccmtux in pale coloration, but departs from all in combination of cranial features. Its range is the most restricted of any of the Florida races. SpecimenK examined. — Thirteen, from ty])e locality. rKOC'YOX LOTOR INCAUTUS Xelson ToR( 11 Kky Raccoon Prorynn Ininr iitcaiitiis Xelsoii, Sinithsn. Misc. Collect. S2 (8): 10, .July 10, 19.30. Type locality. — Toi-ch Key, Big Pine Key Oi'oup, Monroe County, Fla. Type.— No. 2550()0, male a(hdt. skin and skull, United States National Museum; collected by El. W. Nelson, March 24, 1930. Disfribufion. — Big Pine Key Group, near southwestern end of chain of Flori(hi keys. Tropical Zone. General characfers. — A small, very pale std)species, palest of the Florida forms, with skull highly arched, and narrow l)etween orbits. Closely resembling P. I. auspicafus of Key Vaca in color, but cranial chai-acters, especially the nari'ower, high frontal region, distinctive. Decidedly paler than P. J. mnrirnis or P. 1. ineKperatus of Upper Matecumbe Key, and skull (hirering in important (U'tails. Color. — Very pale, similar to that of P. I. auspieatw'<, but averaging- even paler, especially on head and face, the black mask more restricted, more distinctly interrupted between eyes, the whitish areas cor- i'es])ondingly extenchHl and more compl(>tely isolating the dusky median streak; upj^er surface of muzzle light buffy; rusty nuchal patch conspicuous, inclining toward yellowish in worn pelages; dark rings on tail rusty brown, as in auspicatus, but usually broader. Cranial character.^. — Cranium small, with narrow, highly arched frontal region and light dentition. Averaging larger than that of P. I. auspicafu.s, with frontal region narrower, usually more highly arched; palatal shelf extending farther behind plane of last molars; RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA 49 pterygoids more divergent posteriorly; molariform teeth smaller. Similar in general to those of P. I. marinus and P. I. inesperafus, but distinguished by narrower frontal region and smaller molariform teeth. Measurements. — Type: Total length, 694 mm.; tail vertebrae, 263; hind foot, 118; weight (pofinds), 8.5. Average of five adult males from Big Pine Key and No Name Key: 710 (656-738): 247 (216-273); 111 (108-113); weight (pounds), 8 (7.5-9.5). Average of four adult females from Torch Key (type locality), Boca Chica Key, and No Name Key: 688 (660-720); 240 (226-253); 105 (103- 110); weight (pounds), 6.1 (5.5-6.5). Skull: Type: Greatest length, 111; condylobasal length, 104.7; zygomatic breadth, 66.7; interorbital breadth, 19.8: least width of palatal shelf, 14.9; maxillary tooth row (alveoli), 38.8; upper carnassial, crown length, 7.8, crown width, 8.5. Average of seven adult males from Big Pine Key and No Name Key: Greatest length, 109.8 (105-113.8) condylobasal length, 102.9 (97.8-106.2); zygomatic breadth, 69.4 (62.5-78.1) interorbital breadth, 21.8 (19.6-23.9); least width of palatal shelf, 14.8 (13.9-16) maxillary tooth row, 39.2 (38.1-40.4); upper carnassial, crown length, 7.8 (7.6-8), crown width, 8.6 (8-9). Average of four adult females from Torch Key, Boca Chica Key, and No Name Key: Greatest length, 104.9 (101-107.7); condylobasal length, 94 (96.5-100.5); zygomatic breadth, 61.9 (60.7-64.2); interorbital breadth, 21.1 (20-22.2); least width of palatal shelf, 14.4 (14-15); maxillary tooth row, 38 (37.4-38.5); upper carnassial, crown length, 7.5 (7.3-7.8), crown width, 8.3 (7.8-8.8). Remarks. — The home of this race of raccoons is on the group of Florida Keys farthest from the mainland. As is the case with the other Florida Key raccoons they live mainly, and sometimes entirely, in mangrove swamps without access to fresh water except during rains. The brilliant light of their environment may have affected their general color more than the others, as suggested by their pale, faded tints. In general form and proportions the skull resembles that of P. I. elucus rather more closely than those of its geographically nearer insular relatives. It is much smaller, however, and suggests a minia- ture of that of the mainland animal. Specimens examined. — Total number, 33, as follows: Florida: Big Pine Key, 16; ^i Boca Chica Key, 2; Geiger's Key, 2; 22 Key West, 3 (1 skull without skin); ^3 No Name Key, 5; Stock Island, 3; ^3 Torch Key (type locality), 2. PROCYON LOTOR FUSCIPES Mearns Texas Raccoon Procijon lotorfiiscipes Mearns, Biol. Soc. Washington Proc. 27: 63, March 20, 1914. Type locality. — Las Moras Creek, Fort Clark, Kinney County, Tex. (altitude 1,011 feet). -' Ten in Mus. Coiiip. Zool. " Mus. Comp. Zool. -' One iu Mus. Comp. Zool. 50 NORTH AAIERICAN FAUNA 60, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Type. — No. 63055. male achilt. skin and skull, United States Na- tional Museum; collected by Edgar A. Mearns, February 6, 1893. Original number 2273. Distribution. — Texas, except extreme northern and western parts, southern Arkansas, Louisiana, except delta region of Mississippi, and south into northeastern Mexico, including Coahuila and Nuevo Leon, to southern Tamaulipas, Austroriparian and Lower Sonoran divisions of Lower Austral Zone. General characters. — A large, dark grayish subspecies, with pelage of medium length and texture; skidl with high, moderately broad frontal region and weakly developed postorbital processes. Size about as in P. /. hirtus; of Minnesota, but color grayer, less suffused with buff; mask more uniformly black and continuous across face and on upper surface of muzzle; pelage much shorter and less dense. Similar to P. I. mexicanus of Chihuahua, but decidedly darker, and cranial characters distinctive. Resembling P. I. varius of Alabama in general color, but somewhat grayer and much larger, with a different skull. Similar in size to P. I. hernandezii of the Valley of Mexico, but less grayish, the postauricular spots larger, more conspicuous; skull less flattened and differing in detail. Color. — Similar to that of P. I. varius, but averaging somewhat grayer, less suft'used with buff; mask usually more uniformly black and continuous across middle of face and on upper surface of muzzle to nasal pad. Cranial characters. — Size and general proportions of skull nearly as in P. I. hirtu.s, but interorbital and ])ostorbital regions usually l)roader; frontal region similarly high, but usually flatter, with a less distinct, V-shaped, median depression. vSimilar in size to that of P. I. mexi- canus; frontal region similarly high behind plane of postorbital processes, but more elevated anteriorly, the upper outline more convex; brain case more depressed near fronto-parietal suture; interorbital and postorbital regions usually narrower; postorbital processes of frontals shorter, the upper margin of orbit less deeply concave. Compared with that of P. I. varius the skuU is much larger and heavier, with broader frontal region. Not very unlike that of P. I. hernandezii, but less flattened, the frontal region more elevated; brain case usually more depressed near fronto-parietal suture; postorbital processes of frontals less prominent, the upper margin of orbit less deeply concave; posterior upper premolar and upper carnassial usually smaller. Measurements. — Type: Total length, 900 inin.; tail verteV>rae, 290; hind foot, 132. Two adult males from Laredo, Tex., respectively: 860, 850: 298, 275; 136, 131. An adult male and female from Sabinas, Coahuila: 922, 760; 330, 260; 136, 116. Skull: Type: Total length, 130.2; condylobasal length, 125; zygomatic RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMKHICA 51 breadth, 84.4; interorbital breadth, 26.9; least width of palatal shelf, 16.2; maxil- lary tooth row (alveoli), 47.4; upper carnassial, crown length, 8.5, crown width, 9.6. An adult male and female from Sabinas, Coahuila: Greatest length, 130.6, 117.7; condylobasal length, 123.9, 112.1; zygomatic breadth, 82.8, 75.5; inter- orbital breadth, 24.4, 24; least width of palatal shelf, 18.1, 15.9; maxillary tooth row, 46.9, 43.3; upper carnassial, crown length, 8.9, 8.7, crown width, 10, 9.4. Remarks. — P. I. fuscipes requires rather close comparison with P. I. hliius to the north and P. I. hernandezii to the south, but typical specimens difrer in combination of characters as pointed out. It is readily distinguished from P. I. varius by much larger size and from P. I. mexicanus by darker color. Intergradation with all of these may safely be assumed. In typical fuscipes, however, the facial mask usually extends as a broad, uniformly black area across the face as in P. I. mexicanus and western subspecies in general, instead of being more or less distinctly interrupted by whitish longitudinal lines, one on each side near inner angle of eye, tending to isolate a narrow, elongated black median patch as in hirtus, varius and other eastern continental forms. In fuscipes the brain case, on the other hand, is somewhat depressed near the fronto-parietal suture and the postorbital processes of the frontals are veiy" short or obsolescent, characters shared with hirtus, varius and the eastern subspecies in contrast with mexicanus and the more western and southern continental forms in which the depres- sion of the brain case is less evident, and the postorbital processes of the frontals are well developed. Specimens examined. — Total numljer, 100, as follows: Coahuila: Muzquiz, 1; opposite Langtry, Texas, 3; Sabinas, 3. Louisiana: Abbeville, 8 (3 skins without skulls); Abbeville (24 miles southwest), 3; Iowa, 1 (skull only); Lake Ridge, 1; Morgan City, 1; Tallulah, 12 (10 skulls without skins). [All specimens except those from Lake Ridge and Tallulah probably are referable to P. I. megalodous.] NuevoLeon: Monterrey, 1. Tamaulipas: Alta Mira, 1 (skull only); Bagdad, 1; Camargo, 3; Marmolejo, 1;-* Matamoros, 3 (2 skulls only). Texas: Angleton, 1; Aransas National Wildlife Refuge, Refugio County, 2; Aransas County, 2 (skulls only) ; Broome, 1 (skin only) ; Brownsville, 1 ; Canyon, 2; Carlsbad (10 miles east), 3; Columbia, 1 (skull only); Corpus Christi, 2; Dickinson Bayou (opposite Galveston), 1; Eagle Pass, 1; Fort Clark, 2 (including type); Cirady, 1 (skull only); Kerrville, 2 (skulls only); Kountze, 1; Langtry, 1; Laredo, 5 (3 skins without skulls); Liberty, 1 (skull only) ; Lomita Ranch, 2 (skulls only) ; Long Point, 1 (skull only) ; Los Ratones, Zapata County, 1; Mason, 4; Matagorda, 6 (5 skulls without skins); Padre Island, 1 (skull only); Port Lavaca, 1 (skull only); Rankin, 2; Sour Lake, 4 (3 skulls without skins); Texarkana (10 miles northwest), 2; Washington County, 1 (skull only); Water Valley, 2 (skuUs only). 2^ Univ. Michigan Mus. Zool. 52 jS'ORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 60. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE PROCYOX LOTOR MEXICAXUS Baird Mexican Raccoon Procyon lotor, variete mexicaine I. Geoffroy-Saint Hilaire, Voy. sur la Venus, Zoologie, p. 125, pL VI, 1855. From Mazatlan, Sinaloa, Mexico. Procyon hernandezii var. mexicana Baird, Mammal. Xorth Amer., p. 215, 1857. Procyon lotor mexicanus Mearns, Biol. Soc. Washington Proc. 27: 65, Mar. 20, 1914. Tyi^e locality. — Espia, northwestern Chihuahua, Mexico. Tyjie. — No. 2018, probably female, adult, skull only (originally ac- companied by skin which cannot now be found), United States National Museum; collected by C. B. R. Kennerly, April 1855. Disfribution. — New Mexico, except northeastern and northwestern parts, southeastern Arizona, western Texas, and south through Chihuahua, eastern Sonora, Sinaloa and Durango to northern Nayarit, Mexico. Lower Sonoran to Transition Zone. General characiers. — One of the palest subspecies of the group; skull with broad frontal area highly arched behind plane of well-developed postorbital processes. Color and general size about as in P. I. ■pallidus of the Colorado River Valley, but skull usually broader, especially betw^een orbits, and differing in other slight details. Decidedly paler than P. I. fiiscipes of Texas, or P. I. hirtus of Minnesota, and combina- tion of cranial characters quite different. Similar in general to P. I. hernandizn of the Valley of Mexico but paler, the upper parts less extensively overlaid with black; skull more highly arched and presenting other distinctive features. Color. — Upper parts in general coarsely grizzled iron grayish and under parts light buffy about as in P. I. jmUuIus; black mask broad and uninterrupted across face; rusty nuchal patch usually absent, but faintly incHcated in occasional specimens. Cranial characters. — Skull most closely resembling that of P. I. imllidus, Ijut brain case, frontal area and palatal shelf usually broader; front als rather high behind plane of postorbital processes as in pallidus; tooth rows usually shorter. Compared with those of P. I. fuscipes and P. I. hirtus the frontal region is similarly high behind plane of postorbital processes, but less elevated anteriorly, the frontal outline descending in a more nearly straight line with nasals; brain case less depressed near frontoparietal suture; interorbital and postorbital areas usually broader; postorbital processes of front als longer, the upper margin of orbit more deeply concave. Contrasted with that of P. I. hernandezii the skull is of similar size, but less flattened, the frontal region more elevated behind plane of postorbital processes; RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA 53 interorbital and postorbital areas usually broader; maxillary tooth row shorter; posterior upper premolar and carnassial smaller. Measurements. — Adult male from Loehiel, Santa Cruz River, Ariz.: Total length, 895 mm.; tail vertebrae, 365; hind foot, 121. Adult female from Deming, N. Mex. : 840; 305; 125. Adult male and female from Fort Lowell (near Tucson), Ariz., respectively: 890, 820; 325, 305; 131, 125. Skull: Adult male from Loehiel, Ariz., and adult female from Deming, N. Mex.: Greatest length, 121.1, 120.6; condylobasal length, 114.6, 115.4; zygomatic breadth, 77, 78; interorbital breadth, 24.2, 24.2: least width of palatal shelf, 55.7, 55.9; maxillar,y tooth row (alveoli), 42.5, 42.7; upper carnassial, crown length, 8.7, 8.6, crown width, 9.7, 9.7. Adult male and female from Fort Lowell, xAriz.: Greatest length, 123.3, 116.2; condylobasal length, 115.6, 110.9; zygomatic breadth, 83.5, 78.8; interorbital breadth, 28.8, 25.3; least width of palatal shelf, 17.6, 16.4; maxillary tooth row, 42.7, 43.6; upper carnassial, crown length, 8.5, 8.8, crown width, 9.5, 9.6. Remarks. — P. I. mexicanus shares extremely pale coloration with P. I. palluhis of the Colorado River Valley, typical examples of the two being externally indistinguishable. They are evidently very closely allied, some specimens being practically identical, but the combination of cranial characters pointed out usually serves to separate them as geographic races. The specimen described by Baird and regarded as the type of mexicanus is a fully adult, but undersized in(livi(Uial, probably a female (greatest length of skull, 113) which does not properly reflect the true characters of the sub- species as shown by other specimens from the type region. The type locality was originally given as Espia, Sonora. Examination of Boundary Survey reports and statements by C. B. R. Kennerly, the collector, show that it was taken at Espia, shown on modern maps in extreme northwestern Chihuahua. The error was doubtless due to lack of infoi-mation in regard to the exact location of the Sonora-Chihuahua boundary. To this subspecies are referred speci- mens from Mazatlan, Sinaloa. A specimen from Mazatlan formed the basis of the detailed description by Geoffroy-Saint Hilaire (1855, p. 125) of a Mexican raccoon, "variete mexicaine," which, however, he did not name. A specimen from northern Nayarit is referred to mexicanus^ but those from localities farther south seem more properly assignable to P. I. hernandezii. Specimens from the upper part of the Gila River Valley grade toward and might be referred to paUidus. The series of 47 specimens from Escuinapa, Sinaloa, affords an unusual opportunity for the study of individual variation. Specimens examined. — Total number, 87, as follows: Arizona: Fort Huachuca, 1; Fort Lowell, 2; Loehiel, 1; San Bernardino Ranch, Cochise County, 1; Santa Catalina Mountains, 1 (skull only); Santa Rita Mountains (McCleary's Ranch), 1. Chihuahua: Casas Grandes, 1; Colonia Diaz, 1; E.spia, 1 (type, skull only); San Luis Mountains, 1. 54 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 60, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Durango: Rancho Saiituario (northwestern Durango), 1 (skull only).^^ Nayarit: Acaponeta, 1. New Mexico: Alcalde, 7 (skulls only): Central, Grant County, 1 (skull only) ; Chloride, 1; Deming, 1; Gila National Forest, 2 (skulls only); Magdalena Mountains, 1; Redrock, 1; Rinconada, 1; Santa Rosa, 2; Velarde, 3 (skulls only). Sinaloa: Escuinapa, 47 (12 skins without skulls; 10 skulls without skins) ; ^sMazat- lan, 2; Rosario, 1. Sonora: "N. Sonora, Lumholtz Expedition", 1 (skin only); ^s Oputo, 2. Texas: El Paso, 1 (skull only). PROCYON LOTOR PALLIDUS Merriam Colorado Desert Raccoon Procyon paUidus Merriam, Biol. Soc. Washington Proc. 13: 151, June 13, 1900. Procyon lotor ochraceus Mearns, Biol. Soc. Washington Proc. 27: 64, Alar. 20, 1914. Type from Sonoyta River, Sonora, Mexico, near Quitobaquito, Pima Co., Ariz., No. 59900, male subadult, U. S. Natl. Mus. ; collected by Edgar A. Mearns, February 7, 1894. Ty2)e locality. — New River, Colorado Desert, Imperial County, Calif. Tyjje. — No. 99272, female adult, skin and skull. United States National Museum (Biological Surveys collection) ; collected by Frank Stephens, October 16, 1899. Dlsfribufion. — Colorado and Gila River Valleys and adjoining territory from tlu> delta north to northeastern Utah, and east to western Colorado and northwestern New Mexico. Mainly Lower Sonoran division of Lower Austral Zone, but ranging up along streams into Transition Zone. General characters. — One of the palest subspecies of the group; skull with narrow frontal area highly arched behind plane of postorbi- tal processes. Color and general size about as in P. I. mexlcanus of Chihuahua, but skull usually narrower, especially between orbits, and differing in other slight details. Decidedly paler, more ashy gray than P. /. psora of the Sacramento Valley; skidl with upper outline rising more prominently behind plane of postoi'])ital processes. Similar to P. I. (jrinnelli, l)ut slightly paler, and cranial characters, especially the more abruptly sloping frontal profile from apex behind plane of postorbital processes, distinctive. Color.- — About as in P. I. mexicanus. Cranial characters. — Skull closely resembles those of P. I. mexicanus and P. I. j^sora but brain case, frontal area and palatal shelf usually narrower; frontals high behind posterior plane of postorbital processes as in mexicanus (flatter and rising less prominently in psora) ; tooth -' AnuT. Mus. Nat. Hist. RACCOONS OF NORTH AND AIIDDLE AMERICA 55 rows usually loniixn- than in mexicanus. Compared with P. I. grinnelli the brain case and interorbital region are narrower, and the anterior frontal outline descends in a more nearly straight line from apex innncdiately behind the postorbital processes — upper outline of frontals a more evenly convex curve in grinnelli. Measurements. — Type: Total length, 855 iiiiii.; tail vertebrae, 295: hind foot, 128. Two adult males from Colorado liiver, Mexican Boundary, Ariz., respec- tively: 950, 875: 405, 340; 135, 126. An adult female from same locality: 845; 305; 128. Skull: Type: Greatest length, 117.6; condylobasal length, 111.1: zygomatic breadth, 77.8; interorbital breadth, 25.5; least width of palatal shelf, 13.5; maxillary tooth row (alveoli), 43.4: upper carnassial, crown length, 8.8, crown width, 9.6. Two adult males from Colorado River, Mexican Boundary, Ariz.: Greatest length, 133, 126.6; condylobasal length, 122.4, 120.6; zygomatic breadth, 79.1, 78.6; interorbital breadth, 25.3, 24.8; least width of palatal shelf, 15.4, 16.8: maxillary tooth row, 46.6, 43.7; upper carnassial, crown length, 9.7, 8.6, crown width, 10.4, 9.5 An adult female from same locality: Greatest length, 119.6; condylobasal length, 114.1; zygomatic breadth, 77.1; interorbital breadth, 23.4; least width of palatal shelf, 14.6; maxillary tooth row, 41.7; upper carnassial, crown length, 8.7, crown width, 9.3 Remarks;. — As the name indicates the present subspecies is charac- terized by light coloration, a feature shared with P. I. mexicanus. The close alliance of P. I. pallidus and P. I. mexicanus is obvious but differing combinations of cranial characters seem to warrant their recognition as distinct, but not strongly marked forms. The type of paUidus is an unusually pale specimen as shown by comparison with others from localities so near that they must be regarded as typical. The type of P. I. ochraceus is a subadult male in rather faded pelage to which the name is doubtless due. It is not satisfactorily separable from P. I. pallidus. Specimens examined. — Total nmnber, 29, as follows: Arizona: Colorado River, Mexican Boundary, 3; Fort Apache (25 miles south- east), 1; Lakeside, 1 (skull only); Mellen, 1 ; ^e Phoenix, 1; Springerville (3 miles northwest), 2; Tempe, 1; Topock, 1; Wupatki National Monument, Coconino County, 1. Baja California: Calexico (11 miles southeast), 1; Cocopah Mountains, 3 (skulls only); New River (5 miles south of Mexicali), 1 (skin only); Pascualitos Laguiia, 1; exact locality unknown, 1 (skull onl}-). California: Colorado River (5 miles below Needles), 1;-'' Colorado River (near Pilot Knob) , 1 ; -^ Colorado River (20 miles north of Picacho) , 1 ; -'' New River, Colorado Desert, 1 (type); Pilot Knob, 1; Potholes, 1. -^ Colorado: Navajo River, Archuleta County, 1 (skin only). Sonora: Sonoyta River, near Quitobaquito (type of ochraceus), 1. Utah: Pine Valley, 1 (skull only); Saint George, 1. 26 Mus. Vert. Zool. 56 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 6 0, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE PROCYON LOTOR PSORA Gray California Raccoon Procyon psora Gray, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 10 : 261, Dec. 1842. Procj/on lotor cah'fornicus Mearns, Biol. Soc. Washington Proc. 27: 66, Mar. 20, 1914. Type from ocean beach near last Mexican Boundary Monument (No. 258), San Diego County, Calif.. Xo. 60675, female subadult, U. S. Natl. Mus.; collected by Frank Xavier Holzner, July 16, 1894. Type locality. — Sacramento, Sacramento County, Calif. Type. — Perhaps in British ■Museum; collected by Captain Belcher. Distnbution. — California, except extreme northwest coastal strip, the northeastern corner and southeastern desert region, ranging south through northwestern Baja California to San Quintin; extreme west- central Nevada (Wilson Canyon, east slope of Sierra Nevada). Lower Austral, Upper Austral, and Transition Zones. General characters. — A large, moderately dark form with a broad, rather flat skull. Very similar to P. I. pacificus of Washington, but averaging paler; skull usually more elongated and differing in detail. Decidedly darker, less ashy gray than P. /. paUidus of the Colorado River Valley, and cranial characters distinctive. Similar in general to P. I. excel sus of the Snake River Valley, but much smaller and usually darker; skull relatively narrower. Color. — Similar in general to that of P. I. lotor, but upper parts grayer, less suffused with buff under the overlying black-tipped hairs; light rings on tail less buffy; rusty nuchal patch usually absent or less prominent; black mask continuous across face, as in western forms in general, instead of more or less distinctly interi'upted on either side of median line as in lotor. Cranial characters. — Skull closely resembles that of P. I. pacificus but usually more elongated, the brain case less fully expanded, especially anteroexternally ; interorbital region narrower; upper profile rather flat and postorl)ital processes of frontals well developed as in pacificus. Similar to that of P. I. excelsus, but smaller, relatively narrower. Compared with that of P. I. pallirlus, the skull is of similar size, but relatively broader, with flatter frontal region. Measurement. — Adult male from Tehama, Calif.: Total length, 880 mm.; tail vertebrae, 277; hind foot, 138. Adult female from Wheatland, Cahf.: 870; 300; 120. Adult male and female from Nicasio, Calif., respectively: 901, 820; 348, 312; 132, 121. Skull: Adult male from Tehama and adult female from Wheat- land, Calif.: Greatest length, 124.8, 120.4; condylobasal length. 120, 113; zygo- matic breadth, 82.6, 79.2; interorbital breadth, 26.3, 26.8; least width of palatal shelf, 17.6, 16.2; maxillary tooth row (alveoli), 44.2, 43.9; upper carnassial, crown length, 8, 8.6, crown width, 9.3, 9.6. Adult male and female from Nicasio, Calif.: Greatest length, 124.5, 1 18.7; condylobasal length, 116.6, 1 14.2; zygomatic breadth, 82, 78.4; interorbital breadth, 24.2, 25.8; least width of palatal shelf, 16.4, 16.1; maxillary tooth row, 43.2, 41.8; upper carnassial, crown length, 8.8, 8.6, crown width, 9.7, 9.3. RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA 57 Remarks. — P. I. psora has commonly been treated by authors as specifically distinct from P. I. lotor of the eastern United States. This is not so surprising as direct comparison of the skulls of these widely separated subspecies reveals rather striking differences, especi- ally the much larger general size, and broader, flatter frontal region with much more prominent postorbital processes of psora. These differences, however, are completely bridged by the intervening forms. P. I. psora passes gradually into P. I. pacijicus in northern California and southwestern Oregon, and some specimens from those regions might with similar propriety be referred to either form. Some specimens from near the type locality of P. I. callfornicus suggest gradation toward P. I. pallidus, but general comparisons indicate that calif ornicus cannot satisfactorily be separated from psora. Specirnens examined. — Total number, 198, as follows: Baja California: Laguna Hansen, 1; -^ San Quintin, 1; San Ramon (mouth of Santo Domingo River), 2; '-" San Telmo, 1 (skin only) ; '-" Valle de las Palmas, 1 (skin only).-' California: Areata, 2; ^7 Baird, 1; Bakersfield, 1; -" Banta, 1 (skull only); Berkeley, 4; 2" Bodfish, 1; Bradley, 3 (1 skull without skin, 2 skins without skulls); Camp Meeker, 1; Carbondale, 1;-" Carlotta, 1;-" Cassel, 4 (skulls only); Cazadero, 1 (skull only); ^' Chico, 4; Colusa, 2 (1 skull without skin); Covelo, 1 (skull only) ; Cuddeback, Humboldt County, 2 (skulls only) ; -" Cuyamaca Mountains, 1;-' Cypress Point, Monterey County, 1;-" Dyerville (5 miles south), 1; Eel River (southwest of South Yollo Bolly Mountain), 2; El Portal, 2; ^^ Eureka, 1; 2' Fort Tejon, 2 (1 skull only); Gazelle (5 miles east), 2 (skulls only) ; Glen Ellen, 1; Grass Valley, 3; ^^ Grizzly Island, 1; -' Gualala, 1; 27 Hay Fork, Trinity County, 1; 27 Helena, 3; '-' Hoopa Valley, 1; Hum- boldt Bay (Carson's Camp, Mad River), 1; Inverness, 1 (skull only); Isa- bella, 1; -" Jolon, 3; Julian, 2; 27 Kern River (25 miles above Kernville), I; Klamath River, Siskiyou County, 1 (skull only); Knight's Landing (near type locality), 1; La Jolla, 1; -' Lake Merced, 1; 27 Lassen Creek, 1; Layton- ville, 2; Lierly's Ranch, Mendocino County, 1; Little Browns Creek, Trinity County, 2 (skulls only); Little Shasta, 3; Lockwood, 2; Marysville Buttes, 2; 27 McCloud River (near Baird), 3 (2 skulls without skins); 27 Mendota, 1; Menlo Park, 1 ; ~~ Mission, Santa Inez, 1 ; Mohave River, 1 (skull only) ; Monterey, 2; Mount Diablo, 1; 27 Mount Saint Helena, 2; Mount Sanhedrin, 2 (1 skull without skin); 27 National City, 2; Nelson, 1 (skull only); Nicasio, 10 (5 skulls without skins) ; Orland, 1 (skin only) ; Ornbaun Spring, Hum- boldt County, 1 (skull only) ; -' Pacific Ocean beach, near Monument 258, Mexican Boundary, 1 (type of californicus) ; Paine Creek (Dale's Ranch), Tehama County, 4 (2 skins without skulls); 27 Pescadero, 5; 27 Pine City, 2 (skulls only) ; Pitt River, Shasta County, 1 (skull only) : Placerville, 2 (skulls only); 27 Pleyto, 2 (skulls only); Point Pinois, 1; Point Reyes, 4 (2 skulls without skins); Portola, 2; 27 Portola Lake, San Mateo County, 1: 27 Posts, 1; Red BluflF, 1 (skin only); Rio Dell, 1 (skull only); Rockport, 1 (skull only): Round Mountain, 3 (skull only); Rumsey, 1; 27 Saint John, Glenn County, 2; San Emigdio, 3; San Francisco, 1 (skin only); San Luis Obispo, 3; Sausalito, 1 (skull only) ; 27 Shasta County, 1 ; Shasta Valley (6 miles east of Edgewood) , 27 Mus. Vert. Zool. 876119°— .50- 58 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 60, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 1; Siielling, 3; ^^ Soqiiel Mill (40 miles east of Raymond), 1; South YoUo Bolly Mountain, 1; Spalding, Eagle Lake, 3; ^^ Spenceville, 1;-^ Stockton, 14; -'" Suisun Marsh, 1; ^^ Tehama, 1; Three Rivers, 1; Tower House, Shasta County, 1; -^ Trinidad, 1; " Union Island, 1; Vacaville, 1; ^7 Victorville, 1; 2? Wawona, 1 (skull only); Weaverville, 2 (skulls only); " Wheatland, 1; Willow Lake, Plumas County, I; "-'' Winthrop, 1 (skull only); Wolf, 1.27 Nevada: Wilson Canyon, east slope of Sierra Nevada, 1. PROCYON LOTOR PACIFICUS Merriam Pacib'ic Northwest Raccoon Procyon psora pacifica Merriam, North Amer. Fauna 16: 107, Oct. 28, 1899. Proei/oti proteus Brass, Aus dem Reiche der Pelze, p. 564, 1911. West coast from Puget Sound to the Cascade Mountains. (Not Procyon proteus Allen, 1904.) Type locality. — Lake Keechelus, Kittitas County, Wash, (altitude 8,000 feet). Type. — No. 93137, adult [female], skin and skull, United States National Museum (Biological Surveys collection) ; collected by C. Hansen, January 15, 1898. Distribution. — Southwestern British Columbia, except Vancouver Island, northern, central, and western Washington, western Oregon, and extreme northwestern California. Upper Austral and Transition Zones. General characters. — A dark subspecies with a relatively broad, flat skull. Most closely resend)ling P. I. psora of the Sacramento Valley, Calif., but darker; skull relatively shorter and broader. Similar to P. I. excelsus of the Snake River Valley, southeastern Oregon, but much smaller, darker, and cranial characters distinctive. Decidedly larger than P. I. vancouverensis of Vancouver Island, and skidl tliffering in detail. Color. — As in P. I. vancouverensis. Much as in P. I. psora, but darker, the top of head and long guard hairs over upper parts in general more extensively black; subapical light bands of hairs somewhat narrower, tending to permit the basal color, which is of a darker tone (near dark cinnamon brown), to show through; mask unmixed black continuous across face and over upper surface of muzzle; rusty nuchal patch usually absent or inconspicuous. Cranial characters. — Skull comparatively short, broad and flat; interorbital space very broad; postorl)ital processes of frontals well developed. Resembling that of P. I. psora, but usually less elongated, the brain case more fully expanded, especially anteroexternally; inter- orbital region broader. Similar to that of P. I. excelsus, but smaller, with brain case more rounded. Very similar in general form to that of P. I. vancouverensis, but much smaller throughout; brain case Mus. Vert. Zool. RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA 59 I'clatively larger, more inflated; nasals broader, narrowing more al)ni])tiy to a point posteriorly; pterygoids longer, more diverging l)osteriorly; maxillary tooth rows longer, the individual teeth much larger. Measurements. — Adult female from Steilacoom, Wash.: Total length, 830 mm.; tail vertebrae, 270; hind foot, 129. Skull: Type (9) and an adult female from Steilacoom, Wash., respectively: Greatest length, 11.3.8, 114.2; condylobasal length, 106.8, 109.2; zygomatic breadth, 79.9, 81.2; interorbital breadth, 2(3.8, 27.3; least width of palatal shelf, 14.9, 1().9; maxillary tooth row (alveoli), 41.4, 41.3: upper carnassial, crown length, 8.G, 7.9, crown width, 9.4, 10. Average of five adult males from Lake Cushman, Wash.: Greatest length, 119.5 (116.1-123.1) ; condylobasal length, 112.6 (109.5-116.5); zygomatic breadth, 81.7 (78.8-84.7); interorbital breadth, 26 (25.1-27.1); least width of palatal shelf, 16.8 (16.2-17.6); maxillary tooth row, 43.6 (42.8-44); upper carnassial, crown length, 9.1 (8.8-9.4), crown width, 9.8 (9.5-10). Remarks. — The j^resent subspecies is the raccoon of the Pacific Northwest coastal and Cascade Range regions, extending in small nimibers into the interior along the Columbia River Valley to north- eastern Washington. Like the regional representatives of other groups of mammals it is characterized by dark coloration. Compared with P. I. lotor of the eastern United States, which is also dark in color, the upper parts in pacijicus are more heavily overlaid with black, the light subterminal bands of the longer hairs and the light rings of the tail are grayer, less buffy or yellowish, the top of the head is blacker, and the mask is more uniformly black and continuous across the face. P. I. jxtcijicus intergrades with P. I. psora in southwestern Oregon and northwestern California, and with P. I. excelsus east of the Cascade Mountains in Washington and Oregon. Procyon proteus Brass was assigned to the raccoon of the west coast from Puget Sound to the Cascade Moimtains, which is within the range of typical P. I. pacificus. The name is also preoccupied by Procyon proteus Allen, applied to a crab-eating raccoon in South America. Specimens examined. — Total number, 82, as follows: British Columbia: Hastings, 1; Port Moody, 3 (skulls only). California: Crescent City, 5 (4 skulls without skins). Oregon: Big Summit Prairie, Ochoco National Forest, 1 (skull only); Blue River, 1 (skull only); Bridge, 1; Colly wash Burn, 1; Estacada, 3 (2 skulls without skins); Glendale, 3 (skulls only); Glide (24 miles east), 1; Glide (14 miles northeast), 1; Grant's Pass, 7 (32 miles south, 5 [1 skull without skin]; 43 miles northeast, 2 [1 skin without skull]); Hardman, 2; Pistol River (North Fork), Curry County, 1; Port Orford, 5 (skulls only); Remote, 1 (skull only); Riverside, 2. Washington: Easton, 1; Hoodsport, 4 (skulls only); Lake Cushman, 10 (skulls only) ; Lake Keechelus, 1 (type) ; Mount Vernon, 2 (skulls only) ; Orcas Island, 1 (skull only); Skokomish River, Olympic Mountains, 2 (skulls only); Steilacoom, 5 (1 skin without skull): Tieton, 1; Toppenish, 3; Trout Lake, south base of Mount Adams, 5 (skulls only); Whidby Island, 1 (skull only). 60 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 6 0. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE PROCYON LOTOR EXCELSUS Nelsox and Goldman Snake River Valley Raccoon Procyon lotor excehvfi Nelson and Goldman, Jour. Mammal. 11 (4): 458, Nov. 11, 1930. Type locality. — Owyhee River, Oreg., 10 miles west of Fairylawn, Owyhee County, Idaho. Type. — No. 236214, old male adult, skin and skull, United States National Museum (Biological Surveys collection) ; collected by J. W. Fisk, April 15, 1920. Distribution. — Snake River drainage in southeastern Washington, eastern Oregon, and southern Idaho, the Humboldt River Valley, Nev., and river valleys of northeastern California. Mainly Upper Sonoran Zone. General characters. — Size largest of the group; color rather pale, similar in color to P. I. psora of California, but usually paler, and much larger, with skull differing in detail. Closely allied to P. I. pacijicus of Washington, but much larger, decidedly paler, top of head much grayer, and cranial characters distinctive. Color. — Upper parts of body in general very light buffy grayish, with a light ochraceous buffy suffusion along median dorsal area, becoming pronounced on nape, moderately overlaid with black; sides clearer gray, the overlying black-tipped hairs less numerous than on dorsum; top of head a grizzled mixture of black and gray; face with the usual black mask and white markings; under parts in general thinly overlaid with buft'y grayish, the light brownish undertone showing through; throat patch dark brownish; ears grayish with black patches at posterior base; limbs grayish, the hind legs with small, unmixed brownish areas on outer sides near heels; tail above with about six black annulations and a black tip, alternating with somewhat broader, light buffy rings, the dark rings usually becoming indistinct below. Cranial characters. — Skull similar to that of P. I. psora, but larger and more angular; frontal region broader, generally flattened, and postorbital processes well developed, as in psora. Compared with that of P. I. pacijicus the skull is larger, with brain case relatively more elongated; frontal region broad as in pacijicus. Measurements. — No skin inea.surements available. Skull: Type: Greatest length, 136.5 mm.; condylobasal length, 125.8: zygomatic breadth, 89.1; inter- orbital breadth, 30.1; least width of palatal shelf, 17.2; maxillary tooth row (alveoli), 47; upper carnassial, crown length, 9, crown width, 10.6. Bemarks. — The present form is easily distinguished from all others of the group by the large size and massive development of the skull. No close cranial comparisons with forms east of the Rocky Mountains are necessary as this race differs notably in the much larger size, and RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA 61 broad, flat frontal region, with prominent postorbital processes — frontal region generally high and narrow, and postorbital processes weak, or obsolescent, in forms east of Rocky Mountains. Specimens examined. — Total number, 32, as follows: California: Parker Creek, Modoc County, 1.^** Idaho: Bruneaii. 1 (skull only); Emmett, Gem County, 1; Forest (Deer Creek), 1 (skin only); Hagerman, 4 (1 skull without skin); Lost Valley Reservoir, head of Wieser River (altitude 5,000 feet), Adams County, 1 (skin only); Preuss Mountains, 1 (skull only) ; Stanley Lake, Custer County (altitude 8,500 feet), 1 (skin only); Three Creek, 2 (1 skin without skull; 1 skull without skin) . Nevada: Golconda, 1 (skull only); Montello, L Oregon: Adel, 2; Dry Creek, Malheur County, 1 (skull only); Enterprise, 1 (skin only); Harper (8 miles east), 1 (skull only); Huntington, 1 (skull only); Imnaha, 1 (skull onhO ; Owyhee River (type locality, 10 miles west of Fairy- lawn, Idaho), 2; Rome, 1; Tupper, 1 (skull only); VaTisycle, 1 (skull only). Washington: Alpowa, 1 (skull only); Garfield County, 1; Touchet, 1; Wallula, 1; Washtucna, 1. PROCYON LOTOR VANCOUVERENSIS NelsoxX and Goldman Vancouver Island Raccoon Frocyon lotor rancouverensis Nelson and Goldman, Jour. Mammal. 11 (4): 458, Nov. 11, 1930. Tyi^e localiiy. — Quatsino Sound, Vancouver Island, British Colum- bia, Canada. Transition and Canadian Zones. Tyije. — No. 135457, male adult, skull only, United States National Museum (Biological Surveys collection); collected by Charles Sheldon, November 1904. Distribution. — Known only from Vancouver Island. General characters. — A dark subspecies most closely allied to P. I. pacijicus of Washington, but decidedly smaller, and cranial details distinctive. Color. — An adult (winter pelage) from Beecher Bay, Vancouver Island: Upper parts in general grayish, heavily overlaid with black; small nape patch sufi'used with ochraceous buff; top of head mixed black and gray, the black predominating; face with brownish black mask, the dark color extending down along middle of muzzle to nose; sides of muzzle, lips, and chin white; under parts, in general, thinly overlaid with btiff gray, the dense brown underfur showing through; throat patch brownish, mixed with gray along median line; ears gray- ish, with black patches at posterior base; limbs similar to under parts, becoming soiled whitish on feet, but hind legs with unmixed, dark brownish areas on outer sides above heels; tail with six narrow black rings and a black tip, alternating with broader grayish rings, the black rings interrupted on under side near base. 2s Mus. Vert. Zool. 62 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 60, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Cranial characters. — Skull rather small, short, low, broad, and flat, with well-developed postorbital processes. Very similar in general form to that of P. /. pacjjicux, Init much smaller throughout; brain case relatively smaller and less inflated; nasals narrower and more attenuate posteriorly; pterygoids shorter, less diverging posteriorly; maxillary tooth rows shorter, the individual teeth much smaller. Measurements. — An adult from Beecher Bay, Vancouver Island: Hind foot (dry skin), 112 mm. Skull: Type: Cireatest length, 116; condylobasal length, 108.9; zygomatic breadth, 77.5; interorbital breadth, 25.4; least width of palatal shelf, 16.5; maxillary tooth row (alveoli), 40.2; upper carnassial, crown length, 8.3, crown width, 8.9. Remarks. — The Vancouver Island raccoon is a well-marked sub- species. It requires close comparison only with P. I. pacijicus of the adjacent mainland. S])ecimens examined. — Total numl)er, 40, as follows: Vancouver Island, B. C: Alberni Valley (Hall's Eanch), 1; 29 Beecher Bay, 3 (2 skulls without skins) ; ^o Cadboro Bay, 1 (skull only) ; ^ Errington, 1 ; ^^ Fort Rupert, 1 (skull only):" French Creek, 1 ; -s Little QuaHcum River, 1 ; ^9 Mount Tolmie, 1 (skull only) ; ^o Parksville, 2; -'» Quatsino Sound (type locality), 21 (skulls only): San Josef River Valley, 1 (skull only); Sooke, 2 (skulls only) ; 3" Victoria, 1 (skull only) ; ^o exact locality unknown, 3 (skulls only).3« PROCYON LOTOR GRINNKLLI Nelson and Goldman Baja California Raccoon Prncyon lotor (/rinnelli Nelson and Goldman, Jour. \\'ashington Acad. Sci. 20 (5): 82, Mar. 4, 1930. Type locality. — La Paz, Baja California, Mexico. Type. — No. 147181, male adult, skin and skidl. United States National Museum (Biological Surveys collection); collected by E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman, February 15, 1906. Distribution. — Southern Baja California from the Cape region north at least to San Ignacio. Tropical and Lower Sonoran Zones. General characters. — A large, pale sid^species with a rather broad, high, evenly arched skull. Similar to P. I. pallidus of the Colorado Desert, but slightly darker and cranial characters, especially the more evenly arched profile of s*lvull, distinctive. Compared with P. I. psora of the Sacramento Valley, general color paler, more grayish, less deeply suft'used with huft", the long black guard hairs over dorsum less in evidence; top of head grayer, less heavily mixed with black; black areas at posterior base of ears smaller; skull with frontal region more highlv arched. -* Mus. Vert. Zool. 3fi Provincial Mus., Britisli Columbia. 31 Anier. Mus. Xat. Hist. RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA 63 Color. — Upper parts in general coarsely grizzled iron grayish, the median dorsal area faintly suffused with pale buff, becoming pro- nounced on back of neck, rather thinly overlaid with black; top of head gray, mixed with black, prochicing a grizzled effect; face with solid black mask; white facial markings as usual in the group; under parts in general overlaid with very pale buffy grayish, the brown undertone showing through; ibi'oat patch blackish; ears gi-ayish, with rather small black patches at posterior base; limbs similar to under parts, but becoming whitish on feet; hind legs with small, pure brownish areas on outer side near heels; tail with the usual annulations and black tip, the light rings pale cream buff and the narrower dark rings (6 to 7) consisting of black-tipped hairs with an underlying buffy suffusion; dark rings less evident on under side of tail and scarcely complete, tending to fade out on median line, except near tip. Cranial characters. — Skull similar to that of P. I. palluius, but brain case and interorbital region broader; frontals rising higher anteriorly, the upper outline a more evenly convex curve — anterior frontal outline descending in a more nearly straight line from apex immediately behind postorl)ital processes in pallidus] dentition about the same. Compared with that of P. I. psora the skull is less flattened, the frontal region more highly arched; brain case rather broad and other cranial details much as in psora. Measurements. — Type: Total length, 913 mm.; tail vertebrae, 335; hind foot, 132. Skull: Type: Greatest length, 122.1 ; condylobasal length, 115.5; zygomatic lireadth, 77.9; interorbital breadth, 24.3; least width of palatal shelf, 16.7; maxil- lary tooth row (alveoli), 44.1 ; upper carnassial, crown length, 8.8, crown width, 9.3. Remarks. — Raccoons are dependent upon water for existence, and owing to exceedingly arid concHtions in the central section of Baja California their general range is interrupted for consideral)le distances. The form here described, which occupies the southern half of the peninsula, differs rather markedly in coml)ination of characters from both of the more northern stil)species, P. I. psora and P. I. pallidus. It recpiires no very close comparison with P. I. mexicanus of the adjacent mainland of Mexico, which in general, is paler, with the black postain-icular spots obsolescent, and sktdl notably (k'pressed in frontal region. Specimens examined. — Total nimiber, 11, as follows: Baja California, Mexico: La Paz (type locality), 3;^- Mount Miraflores, 3; ^^ San Ignacio, 5. 32 One (skull only) in Mus. Vert. Zool. 33 Two in Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 64 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 60, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE PROCYON LOTOR HERNANDEZII Wagler Mexican Plateau Raccoon Pr[ocyon] hernandezii Wagler, Isis 24: 514, 1831. Procyon lotor hernandezii Allen, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. Bull. 3: 176, Dec. 10, 1890. Type locality. — Valley of Mexico, Mexico (specimens from Tlalpam regarded as typical). ^^ Type. — Not designated. Distribution. — Southern part of tableland or plateau region of Mexico and adjoining coasts, from Nayarit, Jalisco, and San Luis Potosi, south to near the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Altitudinal range from sea level to about 8,000 feet. Tropical to Transition Zone. General characters. — A large, dark grayish subspecies; skull some- what flattened, with narrow frontal region and slender, wide spreading zygomata; dentition heavy. vSimilar in general to P. I. fuscipes of Texas, but upper parts grayer; skull flatter and differing in detail. Decidedly darker than P. I. mexicanus of Chihuahua, the upper parts more extensively overlaid with l)lack, and cranial characters distinc- tive. Differing from P. I. shuj'eldti of Campeche in longer pelage; top of head darker and back more heavily overlaid with black ; skull more slender. Color.- — Very similar to that of P. I. fuscipes but still grayer, less buffy beneath overlying black; black postauricular spots smaller. Young (in first pelage) : Similar to lotor of corresponding age, but top of head and postauricular areas less extensively brownish black, and black mask continuous across face (mask more or less interrupted between eyes in lotor) ; feet dark brownish instead of buffy. Cranial characters. — Skull size about as in P. I. fuscipes but more flattened above, the frontal region less elevated, and brain case less depressed near fronto-parietal suture; postorbital processes of frontals usually longer, narrower, more acutely pointed; upper margin of orbit usually more deeply concave; posterior upper premolar and upper carnassial usually larger. Similar to that of P. I. mexicanus, but flatter, the frontal region less elevated; interorbital and postorbital regions usually narrower; maxillary tooth rows longer; posterior upper premolar and upper carnassial larger. Compared with that of P. I. shufeldti the skull is more slender, less massive; interorbital and postorbital regions narrower; dentition about the same. Measurements. — Adult male from Tlalpam, Valley of Mexico, Mexico: Total length, 905 mm.; tail vertebrae, 283; hind foot, 122. Two adult males from Jalpan, Queretaro, and Patzcuaro, Michoacan, respectively: 894, 872; 340, 308; 129, 127. Two adult females, Tetela del Volcan, Morelos, and El Chico, Hidalgo: 860,825; 300, 264; 120, 122. Skull: Adult male from Tlalpam, Mexico: Greatest 3* Type locality fixed by Nelson and Goldman, Biol. Soc. Washington Proc. 44: 17, Feb. 21, 19.31. RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA 65 length, 122.9; condylobasal length, 116.9; zygomatic breadth, 86; intororbital breadth, 25.2; least width of palatal shelf, 16.8; maxillary tooth row (alveoli), 45.7; upper carnassial, crown length, 9.2, crown width, 10.3. Two adult males from Acambaro, Michoacan, and Jalpan, Queretaro: Greatest length, 128.3, 123.7; condylobasal length, 124.8, 116; zygomatic breadth, 86.2, 83.1; interorbital breadth, 24.2, 23.9; least width of palatal shelf, 16.4, 16.4; maxillary tooth row, 45.2, 44.2; upper carnassial, crown length, 9.3, 9.1, crown width, 10, 9.3. Two adult females from Tetela del Volcan, Morelos, and El Chico, Hidalgo: Greatest length, 118.1, 114; condylobasal length, 114.8, 109.3; zygomatic breadth, 79.3, 76.8; interorbital breadth, 24.7, 22.1; least width of palatal shelf, 16.4, 15.8; max- illary tooth row, 44.2, 42.3; upper carnassial, crown length, 9.4, 8.2, crown width, 10, 9.4. Jiemarks. — The range of P. I. hernandezii in southern Mexico is tiaiiscontineiital, and while mainly at 4,000 to 6,000 feet on the table- land of the interior it extends from sea level along the tropical coasts to 8,000 feet altitude on the slopes of the mountains bordering the Valley of Mexico. It intergrades on the north in eastern Mexico with P. I. fusci/pes and in western Mexico with P. I. mexicanus. Toward the southeast its range meets that of P. I. ■•■ Chicago Mus. Nat. Hist. " Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. ^* Mus. Comp. Zool. 72 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 60, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Color. — Upper parts in general light cream buff, the dorsal area thinly overlaid with black; nuchal patch undifferentiated or faintly indicated by a very pale buffy line ; sides lighter, the black-tipped hairs inconspicuous; top of head grizzled gray and black; black mask extending across face and along median line from nasal pad to middle of forehead; white supraorbital lines continuous to sides of neck; sides of muzzle, lips, and chin white; under parts, in general, thinly overlaid with very pale creamy buff", the light brown underfur show- ing through; throat patch brownish flecked with gray; ears grayish, the black patches at posterior base, usual in the group, obsolescent; limbs about like sides, becoming dull whitish on feet; hind legs brownish on outer sides near ankles; tail above with about seven black rings and a black tip, alternating with broader cream buffy or light ochraceous buffy rings, the dark rings interrupted below. Cranial characters. — Skull large, angular, and massive, with remark- ably heavy zygomata, the squamosal arm, especially, very broad anteriorly and extended vertically (as apparent when viewed from <^he side). Similar in general to that of P. lotor, especially , P. I. mexicanus and P. I. hernandezii, but more angular; zygomata broader and heavier, the squamosal arm broader anteriorly, more extended vertically; transverse squamosal portion of zygoma bearing a more conspicuous process on anterior border near posterior end of jugal; palatal shelf relatively narrower, the lateral borders more deeply concave; postorbital processes of frontals well developed as in mexi- canus and hernandezii; large molariform teeth narrower; crown of second upper molar subquadrate, instead of subtriangular, the inner border more evenly rounded. Remarks. — P. insularis is clearly allied to P. I. mexicanus and P. I. hernandezii of the adjacent mainland and was regarded by its describer as a subspecies of the widely ranging continental animal. The characters pointed out are so trenchant, however, that its position in the group is better expressed by according it specific rank. It is subdivisible into two closely related insular forms. PROCYON INSULARIS INSULARIS Merriam MARfA Madre Island Raccoon Procyon lotor insularis Merriam, Biol. Soc. Washington Proc. 12: 17, Jan. 27, 1898. Type locality. — Maria Madre Island, Tres Marias Islands, off west coast of Nayarit, Mexico. Type. — No. 88978, old male, skin and skull, United States National Museum (Biological Surveys collection) ; collected by E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman, May 10, 1897. RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMERICA 73 Distribution. — Known only from Maria Madre Island. Tropical Zone. General characters. — Closely resembling P. i. vicinus of Maria Mag- dalena Island, but dorsum less conspicuously overlaid with black, and top of head grayer; cranial characters distinctive. Color. — About as set forth for the species as a whole, differing only slightly from P. i. ricinus in the somewhat lesser amount of overlying black. Cranial characters. — Skull very similar to that of P. i. vicinus, but brain case less highly arched; lambdoid crest more broadly spreading, not rising so high over foramen magnum; basioccipital, basisphenoid, and palatal shelf broader; palatal ridges (extending posteriorly to ]iterygoids) more widely separated; pterygoids thicker, the posterior ends more strongly everted and knob-like; maxillary arm of zygoma with lower external border projecting as a distinct process separated from outer alveolar border of molars by a deep notch (process absent in vicinus) ; zygomata very broad and heavy as in vicinus; foramen magnum more decidedly wider than high (more nearly circular in vicinus); dentition about the same. Measurcment.s. — Type: Total length, 854 mm.; tail vertebrae, 286; hind foot, 132. An adult male topotype: 840; 264; 128. Sktdl: Type and an adult male topotype, respectively: Greatest length, 121.8, 119; condylobasal length, 114.6, 114; zygomatic breadth, 86.4, 82.5; interorbital breadth, 27.8, 27.2; least width of palatal shelf, 15.4, 14.3; maxillary tooth row, 43.6, 42.2 (alveoli): upper carnas- sial, crown length, 8.6, 8.6, crown width, 9.3, 9.1. Reiriarks. — P. i. insularis requires close comparison only with P. i. vicinus of Maria Magdalena Island. Whil(> cranial details appear to be cpiite distinctive these insular forms are much alike in external appearance. In the few specimens available, however, the black over- lying the dorsum — rather thin in nicinu'^ — is further reduced in insulari'^, leaving a coarsely grizzled effect. Specimens examined. — Six, all from the type locality. PROCYON INSULARIS VICINUS Nelso.\ and Goldman Maria Magdalena Island Raccoon Procyon insulans iiciniis Nelson and (Joldinan, Biol. Soc. Washington Proc. 44: 20, Feb. 21, 1931. Tyjje locality. — Maria Magdalena Island, Tres Marias Islands, Nayarit, Mexico (altitude 250 feet). Tyjje.—Ko. 88982, male adtdt, skin and skull. United States National Museum (Biological Surveys collection) ; collected by E. W. Nelson and E. A. Goldman, May 27, 1897. Distribution. — Known only from Maria Magdalena Island. Trop- ical Zone. 876119°— 50 6 74 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 60, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE General character.^. — A pale subspecies with short, coarse pelage. Closely reseinl)ling Procyon i. inxvlaris of Maria Madre Island, but dorsum more conspicuously overlaid with black, and top of head some- what darker; cranial characters distinctive. Color. — Upper parts in general light cream buff, the dorsal area rather thinly overlaid with black; sides lighter, the black-tipped hairs inconspicuous; top of head gray mi.xed with l)lack, giving a grizzled effect ; black mask across face extending downward to nose and up- ward on median line to middle of forehead; white supraorbital mark- ings normal; sides of muzzle, lips, and chin white; under parts in gen- eral thinly overlaid with very pale creamy buff', the light brown under- fur showing through; throat patch brownish flecked with gray; ears grayish, the black patches at posterior base, usual in the group, obso- lescent; legs about like sides, becoming dull whitish on feet; hind legs brownish on outer sides near ankles; tail above with seven black rings and a black tip, alternating with broader cream buff' rings, the dark rings interrupted below. Cranial characters. — Skull very similar to that of P. i. insularis, but brain case more highly arched; lam])doid crest rising higher over fora- men magnum; basioccipital, basisphenoid, and palatal shelf narrower; palatal ridges (extending posteriorly to pterygoids) less widely sep- arated; pterygoids thinner, the posterior ends less everted; maxillary arm of zygoma normal, the lower external border not projecting and forming a distinct process separated from outer alveolar border of molars by a deep notch; zygomata very bioad and heavy, as in insu- laris; foramen magnum more nearly circular (more decidedly wider than high in insularis); dentition about the same. Mrannrenientfi. — Type: Total length, 904 mm.; tail vertebrae, 313; hind foot, 135. Skull: Type: Greate.st length, 120; coiidyloba.sal length, 115.2; zygomatic breadth, 84.6; interorbital breadth, 27.7; least width of palatal shelf, 14.1; ma.xil- lary tooth row (alveoli), 42.6; upper carnassial, crown length, 8.7, crown width, 9.2. Remarks. — As might be expected P. i. ricinus is closely allied to its near geographic neighbor, P. i. insularis of Maria Madre Island, and requires no very close comparison with any other form. It is distin- guished externally from adjacent mainland forms, P. I. mexicanus and P. I. hernandesii, by shorter, coarser pelage, the general color inclining toward buffy instead of grayish, and the black postauricular spots obsolescent; the skidl dift'ers in numerous important details, especially the higher arched brain case, much broader, heavier, zygomata, nar- rower palatal shelf, and narrower carnassials. Si^ecimens examined. — Two, from the type locality. RACCOONS OF NORTH AND MIDDLE AMP]RICA 75 PROCYON MAYNARDI Bangs Bahama Raccoon Procijon inaynardi Bangs, Biol. Soc. Washington Proc. 12: 92, Apr. 30, 1898. Type locality. — New Providence Island, Bahamas. Type. — No. 7750, male young, skin and skull, Museum of Com- parative Zoology (collection of E. A. and O. Bangs); collected by Herbert L. Claridge, August 1897. Distribution. — Known only from New Providence Island, Bahamas. Tropical Zone. General characters. — A small, medium (hirk-colored species with a slender, delicate skull, narrow palatal shelf, and light dentition. J^imilar in general to P. I. incautus of the extreme southern Florida l': f I) % Skulls of Procijoii, subgenus Procijon. 119 PLATE 8 [Five-sixtlis natural size] A. Procyon [Procyon] pygmaeus Merriani; type; male voung adult; Cozumel Island, Yucatan, INIexico. (No. 108511, "U. S. Natl. Mus., Biological Surveys collection.) B. Procyon [Procyon] insiilaria insidaris Merriam; male adult; Man'a Aladre Island, Nayarit, :\Iexico. (No. 88978, U. S. Natl. Mus., Biological Surveys collection.) Note heavy zygomatic arch. 120 North American Fauna 60, Fish and wildlife Service plate f^'^ Skulls of Procijon, subgenus Procyon. 121 876119°— .")() 9 [Five-si'VfUths natural size] A. Proci/on [Proei/on] lotor lolor (Liimaevis) ; [male] adult; SiiiK Sing, X. Y. (No. 121) 146. r. S. XaM. Mus., Biological Surveys oollectioii.) B. Procyon [Prociion] lotor hirtiis Nelson and Goldman; male adult: Klk River, Minn. (No. 187".»2(), V . S. Natl. Mus., Merriam collection.) 122 North American Fauna 60, Fish and Wildlife Service PLATE 9 V '^•p^/^/^i Skulls of Procijon, subgenus Procyou. 123 PLATE 10 (Throe-fourths natural sizoj A. Frocijon [Frocqo)i] lutor litoreus Nelson and Goldman: Ivpc; [male] adult: Saint Simon Islaiid, Ga. (No. 2450, U. S. Natl. Mns.) B. Procyon [Procyon] lotor elucus Bangs; male adult: Fort Kissimmee, Fla. (No. 64b02, U. S". Natl. Mu.s., Biological Surveys collection.) 124 North American Fauna 60. Fish and Wildlife Service PLATE 10 ^^-^M^ ^''M Skulls of Procyon, subgenus Procyon. 125 .sT0li0''--r)U 10 PLATE 11 |Tlii-eo-fourths+ natural size] A. Procyon [Procyon] lotor incautus Nelson; tvpe; male adult; Torch Kev, Fla. (No. 255060, U. S. Natl. Mus., Biological Surveys collection.) B. Proci/on [Procijon] uiat/nardi Bangs; male adult; New Providence Island, Bahamas. (No. 121905, U. S. Natl. Mus.) 126 North American Fauna 60, Fish and Wildlife Service plate 11 'm-.H t -J59i Skulls of Piocyon, subgenus Frocijon. 127 PLATK 12 [About three-fourths natural size] Procijon [Procf/on] lator excelsus Nelson and Goldman; type; male adult; Owy- hee River, Oreg., 10 miles west of Fairylawn, Idaho. (No. 236214, U. S. Natl. Mus., Biological Surveys collection.) Distinguished by very large size. Procyon [Pi-oci/on] lotor -psora Gray; male adult; Nicasio, Calif. (No. 187936, U.S. Natl. Mus., Merriam collection.) 128 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 60, FlSH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE PLATE 12 # * Skulls of Procijon, subgenus Pr ocyon. 129 PLATE 13 [About three-foui'ths natural size] A. Proci/on [Froci/o/i] lotor hernandezii Wagler; male adult; Tlalpam, Vallev of Mexico, Mexico. (No. 51151, U. S. Natl. Mas., Biological Surveys collec- tion.) B. Procyon [Procyon] lotor putiiilus Miller; male adult; Porto Bello, Panama. (No. 171484, U. S. Natl. Mus., Biological Surveys collection.) 130 NORTH American Fauna 60, Fish and Wildlife Service PLATE 13 ^ •^**# ;§»• Cji "-sr ."i ■^fS^ .;sJ£»* '*Hi # Skulls of Procijon, subgenus Procyon. 131 PLATE 14 IThree-fourths natural size] A. Procyon [Procyo/i] pyginaeus Merriam; type; male young adult ; Cozumel Island, Yucatan, Mexico. (No. 108511, U. S. Natl. Mus., Biological Surveys collection.) B. Procyon [Procyon] insularis insularis Merriam; male adult; Maria Madre Island, Nayarit, Mexico. (No. 88978, U. S. Natl. Mus., Biological Surveys collection.) 132 North American Fauna 60, Fish and Wildlife Service PLATE 14 ,j^ ***"■'' ■f% i^- ^ iS.^ C^i Skulls of Procyon, subgenus Procyon. 133 PLATE 15 [Seven-tenths natural size] A. Proci/on [Procyon] lotor lotor (Linnaeus); [male] adult; Sing Sinn, X. Y. (No. 12'9146, U. S. Natl. Mus., Biological Surveys collection.) B. Procyon [Procyon] lotor hirtus Nelson and Goldman; male adult; Elk River, Minn. (No. 187926, U. S. Natl. Mus., Merriam collection.) 134 North American Fauna 60, Fish and Wildlife Service PLATE 15 ^^^ ■■\y Skulls of Frocyon, subgenus Procyon. 135 PLATE 16 [About (linT-fourths natural sizf] A. Procyon [Proctjon] lotor litoreus Nelson and Goldman; type; [male] adult; Saint Simon Island, Ga. (No. 2450, U. S. Natl. Mus.) "Note heavy denti- tion. B. Proci/on [Proci/on] lotor elucas Bangs; male adult; Fort Kissimmee, Fla. (No. 64002, U. S". Natl. Mus., Biological Surveys collection.) 136 North American Fauna 60. Fish and Wildlife Service PLATE 16 0 ^^' §" 'k ■■/ 't; fit ^9sSLL^^ Skulls of Procijon, subgenus Procyon. 137 PLATE 17 '.bout tlirce-fourths natural size] A. Frocyon [Procyon] lotor incuutiis Nelson; tvpe; male adult; Torch Key Fla (No. 255060, U. S. Natl. Mus., Biological Surveys collection.) B. Procyon [Procyon] maynardi Bangs; male adult; New Providence Island, Bahamas. (No. 121905, U. S. Natl. Mus.) 138 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 60, FiSH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE PLATE 17 r f^< 7' • ■>■' Skulls of Frocyon, subgenus Prociion. 139 PLATE 18 [About three-fourths natural size] A. ProcyoN [Proctioii] lotor excelsus Nelson and Goldman; type; male adult : Owyhee River, Oreg., 10 miles west of Fairylawn, Idaho. (No. 236214, U. S. Natl. Mus., Biological Surveys collection.) Distinguished by very large size. B. Procijon [Procyon] lotor psora Gray; male adult: Nicasio, Calif. (No. 187936, U. S. Natl. Mus., Merriam collection.) 140 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 60, FlSH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE PLATE 18 ^>. Skulls of Procyon, subgenus Procyon. 141 S7C119°— 50 11 PLATE 19- [Five-sixths natui'al size] A. Procyon [Procyon] lotor hernandezii Wagler; male adult; Tlalpain, Valley of Mexico, Mexico. (No. 51151, U. S. Natl. Mus., Biological Surveys collec- tion.) B. Procyon [Procyon] lotor pumilus Miller; male adult ; Porto Bello, Panama. (No. 171484, U. S. Natl. Mus., Biological Surveys collection.) 142 North American Fauna 60. Fish and Wildlife Service PLATE 19 >? iT-^ ,- i.* f*^ '>^ ^ r jsit^rA. / 10- 1/ ...^,^ Skulls of Proci/on, suljgeims Procyon. 143 PLATE 20 [About two-thirds natui'al size] Procyon [Procyon] pi/gmaeus Merriam ; tvpe; male voung adult ; Cozumel Island, Yucatan, Mexico! (No. 108511, U. S." Natl. Mus., Biological Surveys collec- tion.) Procyon [Procyon] insularis insularis Merriam; male adult; Maria Madre Island, Nayarit, Mexico. (No. 88978, U. S. Natl. Mus., Biological Surveys collection.) 144 North American Fauna 60. Fish and Wildlife Service PLATE 20 ■ i '-^ i '"> >.| ., r: >: •SS^'jr-' t ^ * Skulls of Frocijun, subgenus Procyon. 145 PLATl'l 21 [.Six-si'vcnths naliiml size] Procyon [Proci/nn] lotor eluais Baiig.s; male adult: Fort Kissinunee, P'la. (No. 64002, U. S. Natl. Mus., Biological Surveys collection.) Note larger size and greater angularity of male. Prociion [Procyon] lotor elucus Bangs: female adult; Fort Kissimmee, Fla. (No. 64012, U. S. Natl. Mus., Biological Surveys collection.) Note smaller size and lesser angularity of female. Proci/o)! [Prort/on] lotor lotor (Linnaeus): female adult; Schroon Lake, N. Y. (No. ilSSDvO, r. S. Natl. Mus., liiological Surveys collection.) Lateral view of tyi:)ical mandibular ramus. 146 North American fauna 60, Fish and Wildlife Service PLATE 21 c >v5^'r Skulls, including a mandiliular ramus, of Procyon, subgenus J'roryon. 147 PLATE 22 [ Vbout flvt'-sixths natural size] A. Procyon [Euprocyon] cancrivorus panamensis Goldman; type; female adult; Gatun, Canal Zone, Panama. (No. 171669, U. S. Natl. Mus., Biological Surveys collection.) Upper surface of cranium. B. Procyon [Euprocyon] cancrivorus panamensis Goldman; tvpe; female adult; Gatun, Canal Zone, Panama. (No. 171669, U. S. Natl. Mus., Biological Surveys collection.) Under surface of cranium. Note molar crowns with rounded cusps adai)ted for crushing food; and compare with more trenchant cusps in subgenus Procyon. 148 North American Fauna 60. Fish and Wildlife Service PLATE 22 Skulls of Procijon, subgenus Eaprocyon. 149 INDEX [Pago numbers in boldface rcftT to principal entries; those in italic to synonyms abru])t.a, Ursus cauda, 3. Ailuropoda, 1. Ailurus, 1. Alabama raccoon, 38. albina, Procyon lotor, 5. aiimilatiis, Procyon, 33, 35. aiispicatus, Procyon lotor, 22, 24, 2S, 44, 46, 47. 48. Haliania raccoon, 75. Paja California raccoon, 62. Barl)ados raccoon, 79. Bassaricyon, 1, 26. lirachyurus, Procyon, 4. breeding, 13. California raccoon, 56. calif ornicns, Procyon lotor, 56, 57. Canij^eche raccoon, 65. Cani])siurus, 25. cancrivonis, Euprocyon, 16. Procyon, 16, 31, 80, 81. Procyon cancrivorns, 82, 83. Ursus, 4, 25, 81. castaneus, Procyon hernandezi, 5. coastal marsh raccoon, 85. Colorado Desert raccoon, 54. Costa Rican raccoon, 69. Cozumel Island raccoon, 76. crab-eating raccoon, 4. crassidens, Procyon lotor, 24, 28, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71. Cynodictis, 2. dickeyi, Procyon lotor, IS, 24, 28, 66, 67, 69, 70. eastern raccoon, 33. economic status, 14. elongata, Ursus cauda, 3, 6. elucus, Procyon lotor, 22, 24, 27, 38, 39, 40, 42, 44, 46, 49, 113, 125, 137, 147. Euprocyon, 1, 2, 3, 4, 25, 27, 28, 29, 80. cancrivorus, 16. cancrivorus panamensis, 28, 82. excelsus, Procyon lotor, 20, 24, 28, 33, 56, 58, 59, 60, 86, 117, 129, 141. flavidus, Procyon lotor, 5. Florida raccoon, 42. food, 7. fusca, Procyon brachyurus, 5. fuscipes, Procyon lotor, 24, 28, 37, 38, 39, 49, .52, 64, 65, 84. general activities, 7. gloveralleni, Procyon, 22, 24, 28, 79. grinnelli, Procyon lotor, 24, 2S, 54, 55, 62. Guadeloupe Island raccoon, 77. gularis, Procyon, 33, 35. hernandezii, Procyon, 64. hernandezii, Procyon lotor, 22, 24, 28, .50, .52, 53, 64, 66, 67, 72, 74, 119, 131, 143. hit)ernation, 14. Hilton Head Island raccoon, 41. hirtus, Procyon lotor, 22, 24, 27. 33, 34, 35, 37, 50, 52, 111, 123, 135. hudsonicus, Procyon, 5. incautus, Procyon lotor, 24, 28, 44, 46, 47, 48, 75, 115, 127, 139. ines])eratus, Procyon lotor, 24, 28, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48. instincts, 9. insularis, Procyon, 20, 71. Procyon insularis, 24, 28, 72,74, 121, 133, 145. Isthmian raccoon, 70. key to suligenera, 27. to species and subspecies of svibgenus Procyon, 29. Key Vaca raccoon, 47. litoreus, Procyon lotor, 22, 24, 27, 33, 34, 35, 40, 41, 42, 43, 80, 85, 86, 109, 111, 113, 123, 12.5, 135, 137, 147. longevity, 7. Lotor, 25. 151 152 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA GO, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE lotor, Meles, 33, 35. Procyon, 1, 31, 33, 52. Procyon lotor, 21, 24, 27, 33, 35, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 56, 57, 75. Ursus, 4, 6, 25, 83. Lotor vulgaris, 33, 35. Mamprocyonus, 25. Mapachiu, 82. Maria Madre Island raccoon, 72. Maria Magdalena Island raccoon, 73. marinus, Procyon lotor, 24, 27, 42, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48. maritimus, Procyon lotor, 24, 36, 85. Matecumbe Key raccoon, 46. maynardi, Procyon, 24, 28, 75. 78. 79, 115, 127, 139. megalodous, Procyon lotor, 24, 39, 51, 84. melanus, Procyon lotor, 5. Meles lotor, 33, 35. Mexican Plateau raccoon, 64. Mexican raccoon, 52. mexicana, Procyon hernandezii, 52. mexicanus, Procyon lotor, 24, 28, 50, 52, 54, 55, 63, 64, 65, 72, 74, 85, 86. minor, Procyon, 24, 28, 75, 77, 79. Mississippi Delta raccoon, 84. molt, 19. nanus, Procyon, 3. Nasua, 1. Nasuella, 1. nivea, Procyon, 4. nomenclature, 3. obscurus, Procyon, 5. ochraceus, Procyon lotor, 54, 55. Pacific Northwest raccoon, 58. pacifica, Procyon lotor, 28. Procyon psora, 58. pacificus, Procyon lotor, 24, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 86. pallidus, Procyon, 54. Procyon lotor, 20, 24, 28, 52, 54, 56, 57^ 62, 63. Panama crab-eating raccoon, 82. panamensis, Euprocyon cancrivorus, 28, 82. Procyon cancrivorus, 28, 81, 82, 109, 149. pelage, 19. Phlaocyon, 2. Potos, 1, 27. ])riscus, Procyon, 3. Procyon, 25, 27, 28, 29. ' annulatus, 33, 35. l)rachyurus, 4. brachyurus fusca, 5. cancrivorus, 16, 31, 80, 81. cancrivorus cancrivorus, 82, 83. cancrivorus panamensis, 28, 81, 82, 109, 149. cancrivorus proteus, 82, 83. gloveralleni, 22, 24, 28, 79. gularis, 33, 35. hernandezi castaneus, 5. hernandezli, 6Ji. hernandezii mexicana, 52. hudsonicus, 5. insularis, 20, 71. insularis insularis, 24, 28, 72. 74, 121, 133, 145. insularis vicinus, 24, 28, 73. lotor, 1, 31, 32, 33, 52. lotor all)ina, 5. lotor auspicatus, 22, 24, 28, 44, 46, 47, 48. lotor calif ornicus, 56, 57. lotor crassidens, 24, 28, 66, 67, 68, 69, 71. lotor dickeyi, 18, 24, 28, 66, 67, 69, 70. lotor elucvis, 22, 24, 27, 38, 39, 40, 42, 44, 46, 49, 113, 125, 137, 147. lotor excelsus, 20, 24, 28, 33, 56, 58, 59, 60, 86, 117, 129, 141. lotor flavidus, 5. lotor fuscipes, 24, 28, 37, 38, 39, 49. 52, 64, 65, 84. lotor grinnelli, 24, 28, 54, 55, 62. lotor hernandezii, 22, 24, 28, 50, 52, 53, 64, 66, 67, 72, 74, 119, 131, 143. lotor hirtus, 22, 24, 27, 33, 34, 35, 37, 50, 52, 111, 123, 135. lotor incautus, 24, 28, 44, 46, 47, 48, 75, 115, 127, 139. lotor inesperatus, 24, 28, 43, 44, 46, 47, 48. lotor insularis, 72. lotor litoreus, 22, 24, 27, 33, 34, 35, 40, 41, 42, 43, 80, 113, 125, 137 lotor lotor, 21, 24, 27, 33, 35, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43, 56, 57, 75, 85, 86, 109, 111, 123, 135, 147. lotor marinus, 24, 27, 42, 43, 44. 46, 47, 48. lotor maritimus, 24, 36, 85. lotor megalodous, 24, 39, 51, 84. INDEX 153 Procyon — Continued lotor melanus, 5. lotor mexicanus, 24, 28, 50, 52, 54, 55, 63, 64, 65, 72, 74, 85, 86. lotor ocbraceus, 51^, 55. lotor pacificus, 24, 28, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 86. lotor imllidus, 20, 24, 28, 52, 54, 56, 57, 62, 63. lotor psora, 13, 24, 28, 54, 56, 58, 60, 62, 63, 86, 117, 129, 141. lotor pumiliis, 24, 28, 69, 70, 80, 83, 118, 131, 143. lotor rufeseens, 5. lotor shufeldti, 24, 28, 64, 65, 67, 68, 70, 76. lotor solutus, 24, 27, 33, 34, 35, 40, 41. lotor vancouverensis, 24, 28, 58, 61. lotor varius, 24, 27, 33, 34, 35, 38, 42, 43, 50, 84. mayuardi, 24, 28, 75, 78, 79, 115, 127, 139. minor, 24, 28, 75, 77, 79. nanus, 3. nivea, 4. obscunis, 5. pallidus, 54* priscus, 3. proteus, 58, 59, psora, 56. psora pacifica, 58. pumilus, 70. pygmaeus, 20, 24, 28, 76, 121, 133, 145. simus, 3. proteus, Procyon, 58, 59. Procyon cancrivorus, 82, 83. psora, Procyon, 56. Procyon lotor, 13, 24, 28, 54, 56, 58, 60, 62, 63, 86, 117, 129, 141. pumilus, Procyon, 70. Procyon lotor, 24, 28, 69, 70, 80, 83, 118, 131, 143. pygmaeus, Procyon, 20, 24, 28, 76, 121, 133, 145. raccoon, Alabama, 38. Bahama, 75. Baja California, 62. Barbados, 79. California, 56. Campeche, 65. coastal marsh, 85. Colorado Desert, 54. Costa Rican, 69. ra ccoon — continued Cozumel Island, 76. crab-eating, 4. eastern, 33. Florida, 42. (Juadeloupe Island, 77. Hilton Head Island, 41. Isthmian, 70. Key Vaca, 47. Maria Madre Island, 72, Maria Magdalena Island, 73. Matecumbe Key, 46. Mexican, 52. Mexican Plateau, 64. Mississippi Delta, 84. Pacific Northwest, 58. Panama ci-ab-eating, 82. Saint Simon Island, 40. Salvador, 67. Snake River Valley, 60. Ten Thousand Islands, 44. Texas, 49. Torch Key, 48. Upper Mississippi Valley, 37. Vancouver Island, 61. rufescens, Procyon lotor, 5. Saint Simon Island raccoon, 40. Salvador raccoon, 67. senses, 9. shufeldti, Procyon lotor, 24, 28, 64, 65, 67, 68, 70, 76. simus, Procyon, 3. Snake River Valley raccoon, 60. solutus, Procyon lotor, 24, 27, 33, 34, 35, 40, 41. Ten Thousand Islands raccoon, 44. Texas raccoon, 49. Torch Key raccoon, 48. Upper Mississippi Valley raccoon, 37. Ursus cancrivorus, 4, 25, 81. Cauda abrupta, 3. Cauda elongata, 3, 6. lotor, 4, 6, 25, 33. Vancouver Island raccoon, 61. vancouverensis, Procyon lotor, 24, 28, 58, 61. varius, Procyon lotor, 24, 27, 33, 34, 35, 38, 42, 43, 50, 84. vicinus, Procyon insularis, 24, 28, 73. vulgaris, Lotor, 33, 35. weights, 22. o FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA WITH NOTES ON INVERTEBRATES AND FISHES COLLECTED IN THE ALEUTIANS. 1936-38 NUMBER 61 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE FAUNA OF ^A UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA NO. 61 Fauna of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska Peninsula CORRECTION A report on so great an area as the Aleutian Islands and the Alaska Peninsula, to be comprehensive, must include data col- lected by many persons. While I was preparing this report, at a time when Ira N. Gabrielson and Frederick C. Lincoln were preparing their comprehensive work, Birds of Alaska, Dr. Gabrielson kindly lent me his field notes of Alaska trips. With his own notes Dr. Gabrielson also suppHed field notes of Frank Beals, who was in the Aleutians in the 1940's for the Fish and Wildhfe Service, and a few notes of Douglas Gray, who made some fine observations in the Aleutians. Immediately after issue of this Fauna, Dr. Gabrielson noted that several observations were attributed to his notes whereas they should have been credited to Frank Beals; somehow, in the compilation of many observations the original sources of the field notes were confused. Dr. Gabrielson points out that his field work in the areas concerned covered the following periods: June and July of 1940 ; late September and early October of 1941 ; August of 1943; late July to mid-August of 1945; and June, July, and August of 1946. Where records outside these periods are attributed to Gabrielson's field notes, they should be cred- ited to Frank Beals. In correcting this misplaced credit, I join Dr. Gabrielson in thus giving recognition to the splendid biological notes made by Beals (as well as the excellent photographs of his, which I have seen). Boston Public Library m tat c • * J ^ Olaus J. MURIE February 1960 i^'ipenntendent of Documents DEPOSITORY •;r/, FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA By Olaus J. Miirie, Biologist INVERTEBRATES AND FISHES COLLECTED IN THE ALEUTIANS, 1936-38 By Victor B. Sclieffer, Biologist FAUNA NUMBER 61 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Fred A. Seatoii, Secretary FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Arnie J. Suomela, Commissioner Boston Public Library Superintendent of Documents JAN 18 1960 DEPOSITORY PIBLISHKD BY V. S. FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE • WASHINGTON • 1959 PRINTED AT V. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, I'. S. Government Printing Office, \^'ashington 23, D. C. Price $1.23 cent?. CONTENTS FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA, by Olaus J. Murie Page Foreword ^iii Introduction l Geography and geolog-y 3 Climate 10 Environment and biotic distribution 11 Geographic and geologic influences 12 Asiatic immigrants 12 Bering Sea avifauna 14 Fauna of wider northern distribution . , 15 Southern and southeastern birds 16 Environmental influence 17 Ecological classification 18 Vegetation 22 Birds 27 Family Gaviidae 28 Gavia uhdio-, Common loon 28 Gavia adaynsii, Yellow-billed loon 29 Gavia a)cUca, Arctic loon 29 Gavia stellata, Red-thioated loon 31 Family Podicipedidae 32 Podiceps grisegena, Red-necked grebe 32 Podiceps a}(7'itHs, Horned grebe 33 Family Diomedeidae 34 Diomedca nigripes, Black-footed albatross 34 Diomedea albati'us, Short-tailed albatross 36 Diomedea immutahilis, Laysan albatross 39 Family Procellariidae 41 Puffinns tenuirostris, Slender-billed shearwater 41 Puffinus gnseiis, Sooty shearwater 44 Pterodroma inexpectata, Scaled petrel 44 Pterodroma cookii, Cook's petrel 45 Fulmarus glaciali!^, Fulmar 45 Family Hydrobatidae 48 Oceanodvoma fnrcata, Fork-tailed petrel 48 Oceanodroma leiworhoa, Leach's petrel 51 Family Phalacrocoracidae 52 Phalacrocorax au)-it}is, Double-crested cormorant 52 Phalacrocorax pelagicus, Pelagic cormorant 55 Phalacrocorax ^rile, Red-faced cormorant 57 Family Ardeidae 59 Ardea hcrodias, Great blue heron 59 iii Page Family Anatidae 59 Olor columbiamis, Whistling swan 59 Olor buccinator, Trumpeter swan 61 Branta cayiadensis, Canada goose 61 Branta nigricans. Black brant 67 Philacte cayiagica, Emperor goose 69 Anse7- albifrons, White-fronted goose 73 Chen hyperborea. Snow goose 74 Anas platyrhynchos, Mallard 74 Atias strepera, Gadwall 76 Anas acuta. Pintail 77 Anas falcata, Falcated teal 78 Anas crecca. Common teal 79 Arias Caroline tisis, Green-winged teal 80 Mareca penelope, European widgeon 82 Ma/reca americana, American widgeon 82 Spatula clypeata, Shoveler 83 Aythya americana, Redhead 83 Aythya valisineria, Canvasback 84 Aythija maiila, Greater scaup 84 Aythya affinis, Lesser scaup 86 Aythya fuligula, Tufted duck 86 Bucephala clangula. Common goldeneye 86 Bucephula islandica, Barrow's goldeneye 87 Bucephala albeola, Bufflehead 88 Clangula hyemalis, Oldsquaw 89 Histrionicus histrionicus, Harlequin duck 90 Polysticta stelleri, Steller's eider 92 Somateria mollissima, Common eider 94 Sotnateria spectabilis. King eider 97 Lampronetta fischeri. Spectacled eider 98 Melanitta deglandi, White-winged scoter 99 Melanitta perspicillata, Surf scoter 101 Oidemia nigra, Common scoter 102 Mergus merganser, Common merganser 104 Mergus serrator, Red-breasted merganser 105 Family Accipitridae 106 Accipiter gentilis. Goshawk 106 Accipiter striatus. Sharp-shinned hawk 107 Buteo lagopus. Rough-legged hawk 107 Aquila chrysaetos. Golden eagle 109 Haliaeetus albicilla. Gray sea eagle 110 Haliaeetus leucocephalus, Bald eagle Ill Haliaeetus pelagicus, Steller's sea eagle 117 Circus cyaneus. Marsh hawk 117 Pandion haliaetus, Osprey 118 Family Falconidae 118 Falco nisticolus, Gyrfalcon 118 Falco peregrinus, Peregrine falcon 119 Falco columbarius. Pigeon hawk 120 Falco sparverius. Sparrow hawk 121 Family Tetraonidae 121 Canachites canadensis, Spruce grouse 121 IV Page Lagopus lagopus, Willow ptarmigan 122 Lagopiis miitns. Rock ptarmigan 123 Family Gruidae 129 Grus canadensis, Sandhill crane 129 Family Rallidae 130 Fulica ainericana, American coot 130 Family Haematopodidae 130 Haematopus hachmani, Black oystercatcher 130 Family Charadriidae 132 Charadrius dtibius, Little ringed plover 132 Charadrius semipalmatus, Semipalmated plover 132 Phivialis dominica, American golden plover 133 Squatarola squatarola, Black-bellied plover 134 Aphriza virgata, Surf bird , 135 Arenaria interpres, Ruddy turnstone 135 Areyiaria melanocephala, Black turnstone 136 Family Scolopacidae 137 Capella gallinago, Common snipe 137 Numenius phaeopus, Whimbrel 138 Numenius tahiticnsis, Bristle-thighed curlew 138 Actitis viacularia, Spotted sandpiper 138 Tringa glareola, Wood sandpiper 139 Heteroscelns incanum, Wandering tattler 139 Totanus ruelanoleucus, Greater yellowlegs 140 Totanus flavipes, Lesser yellowlegs 141 Calidris canutus, Knot 141 Erolia ptilocnemis, Rock sandpiper 141 Erolia acu^niyiata, Sharp-tailed sandpiper 146 Erolia melanotos, Pectoral sandpiper 146 Erolia bairdii, Baird's sandpiper 147 Erolia minutilla, Least sandpiper 147 Erolia alpina, Dunlin 150 Limnodromus griseiis, Short-billed dowitcher 150 Ereunetes pusillus, Semipalmated sandpiper 152 Ereunetes maun, Western sandpiper 152 Limosa fedoa, Marbled godwit 153 Limosa lapponica, Bar-tailed godwit 153 Limosa haemastica, Hudsonian godwit 154 Crocethia alba, Sanderling 154 Family Phalaropodidae 155 Phalaropus fuliearins. Red phalarope 155 Lobipes lobatus, Northern phalarope 156 Family Stercorariidae 157 Stercorarius pomarinus, Pomarine jaeger 157 Stercorarius parasiticus, Parasitic jaeger 159 Stercorarius longicaudus. Long-tailed jaeger 161 Family Laridae 162 Larus hyperboreus, Glaucous gull 162 Larus glaucescens, Glaucous-winged gull 165 Larus schistisagus, Slaty-backed gull 171 Lams argentatus, Herring gull 171 Larus delaivarensis, Ring-billed gull 172 Larus canus, Mew gull 172 V Page Lams Philadelphia, Bonaparte's gull 174 La7-us ridibundus, Black-headed gull 175 Rissa tridactyla, Black-legged kittiwake 175 Rissa hrevirostris, Red-legged kittiwake 176 Xema sabini, Sabine's gull 178 Steryia hirundo, Common tern 178 Sterna paradisaea, Arctic tern 179 Sterna aleutica, Aleutian tern 180 Family Alcidae 182 Uria aalge, Common murre 182 Uria lomvia, Thick-billed murre 182 Cepphus columba, Pigeon guillemot 186 Brachyramphus marmoratum, Marbled murrelet 187 Brachyramphus brevirostre, Kittlitz's murrelet 188 Synthliboratnphus ayitiquum, Ancient murrelet 189 Ptychoramphus aleutica, Cassin's auklet 191 Cyclorrhynchus psittacida, Parakeet auklet 193 Aethia cnstatella. Crested auklet 194 Aethia pusilla, Least auklet 197 Aethia pygmaea. Whiskered auklet 200 Cerorhdnca nionocerata, Rhinoceros auklet 202 Fratercula cornicnlata, Horned puflfin 202 Lunda cirrhata. Tufted puffin 204 Family Cuculidae 205 Cucubis saturatns, Oriental cuckoo 205 Family Strigidae 205 Bubo virginianus. Horned owl 205 Nyceta scandiaca. Snowy owl 206 Surnia ulula. Hawk owl 207 Asio flammeus, Short-eared owl 207 Aegolius funereus. Boreal owl 209 Family Trochilidae 210 Selasphorus rufus, Rufous hummingbird 210 Family Alcedinidae 210 Megaceryle alcyon, Belted kingfisher 210 Family Picidae 211 Dendrocopos pubescens, Downy woodpecker 211 Picoides arcticus, Black-backed three-toed woodpecker .... 211 Pico'ides tridactylus. Northern three-toed woodpecker .... 212 Family Tyrannidae 212 Sayomis saya, Say's phoebe 212 Family Alaudidae 212 Eremophdla alpestris. Horned lark 212 Family Hirundinidae 212 Tachycineta thalassina, Violet-green swallow 212 Iridoprocne bicolor. Tree swallow 213 Riparia riparia, Bank swallow 213 Hinindo rustica, Barn swallow 214 Family Corvidae 214 Perisoreus canadensis, Gray jay 214 Pica pica, Black-billed magpie 215 VI Page Corvus corax, Common raven 216 Corvus caiiriuus, Northwestei'n crow 217 Nucifraga columhiana, Clark's nutcracker 217 Family Paridae 217 Pariis atricapillus, Black-capped chickadee 217 Parus hndsoniciift, Boreal chickadee 218 Family Certhiidae 219 Certhia fatniliaris, Brown creeper 219 Family Cinclidae 220 Cinchis mexicaniis, Dipper 220 Family Troglodytidae 221 Troglodytes troglodytes, Winter wren 221 Family Turdidae 225 Turdus migratorius, Robin 225 Ixoreus yiaevius, Varied thrush 225 Hylocichla guttata, Hermit thrush 226 Hylocichla ustulata, Swainson's thrush 228 Hylocichla mhiima, Gray-cheeked thrush 228 Luscinia calliope, Siberian ruby throat 228 Family Sylviidae 229 Phylloscopus borealis, Arctic warbler 229 Regulus satrapa, Golden-crowned kinglet 229 Regnhis calendula, Ruby-crowned kinglet 229 Family Motacillidae 230 Motacilla alba. White wagtail 230 Motacilla flava, Yellow wagtail 230 Anthus spinoletta. Water pipit 231 Anth}(s ceriunus, Red-throated pipit 233 Family Laniidae 233 Lanius exeubitor, Northern shrike 233 Family Parulidae 234 Vermivora celata, Orange-crowned warbler 234 Dendroica petechia, Yellow warbler 234 Dendroica coronata. Myrtle warbler 235 Dendroica striata, Blackpoll warbler 235 Seiurus noveboracensis, Northern water thrush 236 Wilsonia pussila, Wilson's warbler 236 Family Icteridae 236 Euphagus carolinus, Rusty blackbird 236 Family Fringillidae 237 Pinicola enucleator, Pine grosbeak 237 Leucosticte tephrocotis, Gray-crowned rosy finch 237 Acanthis hornem-anni, Hoary redpoll 240 Acanthis flammea. Common redpoll 240 Spinus pinus, Pine siskin 242 Loxia curvirostra. Red crossbill 242 Loxia lencoptera. White-winged crossbill 242 Passer cuius sandwichen^is, Savannah sparrow 243 J unco hyernalis. Slate-colored junco 246 Junco oregayius, Oregon junco 246 Spizella arborea. Tree sparrow 247 Zonotrichia leucophrys. White-crowned sparrow 247 Zonotrichia atricapiUa, Golden-crowned sparrow 248 vii Page Passerella iliaca, Fox sparrow 249 Melospiza Uncolnii, Lincoln's sparrow 254 Melospiza melodia, Song sparrow 254 CalcariuH lapponicus, Lapland long-spur 257 Plectrophenax nivalis. Snow bunting 258 Plectrophenax hyperboreiis, McKay's bunting 260 EmbeHza nisfica, Rustic bunting 260 Mammals 262 Family Soricidae 262 Sorex cinereus. Cinereous shrew 262 Sorex Uindrensis, Tundra saddle-backed shrew 263 Sorex hydrodromus, Unalaska saddle-backed shrew 263 Sorex obscurus, Dusky shrew 265 Microsorex hoyi, Pigmy shrew 266 Family Vespertilionidae 266 Myotis lucifugus, Little brown bat 266 Family Ursidae 266 Euarctos americaniis, Black bear 266 Ui'sus arctos, Brown bear 267 Thalarctos mainti^mis, Polar bear 274 Family Procyonidae 274 Procyon lotor, Raccoon 274 Family Mustelidae 275 Maries americana, Marten 275 Mustela erminea, Weasel 275 Mustela rixosa, Least weasel 276 Mustela vision, Mink 276 Gulo liiscus, Wolverine 277 Lutra canadensis, Otter 278 Enhydra lutris. Sea otter 278 Family Canidae 287 Vulpes fiilva, Red fox 287 Alopex lagopus, Blue fox 292 Canis lupus, Wolf 304 Family Felidae 305 Lynx canadensis, Canada lynx 305 Family Otariidae 305 Eumetopias jubata, Steller sea lion 305 Callorhinus lirsinus, Northern fur seal 306 Family Phocidae 307 Phoca vitulina. Harbor seal 307 Pusa hispida. Ringed seal 309 Pagophilus groenlandicus. Harp seal 309 Histriophoca fasciata. Ribbon seal 310 Erignathus barbatus, Bearded seal 310 Family Odobenidae 311 Odobenus rosmarus, Walrus 311 Family Sciuridae 314 Marmota caligata. Hoary marmot 314 Citellus parryii. Ground squirrel 314 Citellus kodiacensis. Ground squirrel 316 Tamiasciurus hudsonicus. Red squirred 316 viii Pasre Family Castoridae 317 Castor canadensis, Beaver 317 Family Cricetidae 317 Synaptomys borealis, Lemming mouse 317 Letnmns trimucronatiis, Lemming- 318 Dicrostonyx groenlandicus. Collared lemming 318 Clethrionomys riitilus, Red-backed mouse 320 Microtus oeconomus, Meadow mouse 320 Microtus pennsylvanicKs, Meadow mouse 324 Ondatra zibethicus, Muskrat 324 Family Muridae 324 Mus musciilus, House mouse 324 Rattus norvegicus, House rat 325 Family Zapodidae 326 Zapus hudsonius, Jumping mouse 326 Family Erethizontidae 327 Erethizon dorsatnm, American porcupine 327 Family Ochotonidae 327 Ochotona coUaris, Collared pika 327 Family Leporidae 327 Lcpus americaniis, Varying hare 327 Lcpus otiius, Arctic hare 328 Family Cervidae 328 Cervus canadensis, Elk (Wapiti) 328 Odocoilexis hemiomis, Black-tailed deer 328 Alces alces. Moose 329 Rangifer arcticus. Barren ground caribou 329 Rangifer sp., Reindeer 331 Family Bovidae 332 Ovis dalli, Dall sheep (White sheep) 332 Family Hydrodamalidae 332 Hydrodamalis gigas, Steller sea cow 332 Family Balaenidae 333 Eubalaena siebokli, Pacific right whale 333 Balaena mysticetiis, Bowhead whale 333 Family Eschrichtidae 334 Eschrichti)is ghaicus, Gray whale 334 Family Balaenopteridae 334 Balaenoptera physalus. Finback whale 334 Balaenoptera borealis, Sei whale 334 Sibbaldus musculus, Blue whale 335 Megaptera yiovaeangliae, Humpback whale 335 Family Physeteridae : . . 335 Physeter catodon, Sperm whale 335 Family Delphinidae 335 Gi-atnpus reciipinna. Pacific killer whale 335 Globicephala scammonii, Pacific blackfish 337 Lissodelphis borealis, Right-whale porpoise 337 Lagenorhynch^is obliqnidcns. Pacific striped porpoise 337 Phocoena vomerina, Pacific harbor porpoise 337 Phocoenoides dalli, Dall porpoise 338 Family Monodontidae 338 Delphinapterus leucas. White whale (Beluga) 338 ix Page Famib'- Ziphiidae 339 1 t7-adius hairdii, Baird beaked whale 339 Mesoplodon stejnegeri, Stejneger beaked whale 339 Ziphius cavirostri.^, Cuvier beaked whale 339 References 34o ILLUSTRATIONS Figure Page Frontispiece: The Brown Bear in the Aleutians xiv 1. Aleutian Islands 4 2. Semichi Islands 6 3. Sketch elevation of Agattu Island 6 4. Sketch elevation of Buldir Island 6 5. Sketch elevation of several Aleutian Islands 6 6. Sketch elevation of three Aleutian Islands 7 7. Little Sitkin Island 7 8. Sketch elevation of Rat Island 7 9. West end of Rat Island 7 10. West end of Rat Island 8 11. Southeast end of Rat Island 8 12. Sketch elevation of Semisopochnoi Island 8 13. Sketch elevation of West Unalaga Island 8 14. Sketch elevation of Ilak Island 9 15. Sketch elevation of Kavalga Island 9 16. Sadatanak I^^land 9 17. Sag-chudak Island 9 18. Sketch elevation of Bobrof Island 9 19. Anag-aksik Island 9 20. Sketch elevations of Kasatochi Island and Koniuji Island 9 21. Seg:uam Island 10 22. Sketch elevation of Ananiuliak Island 10 23. Mounds on Kavalga Island 26 24. Red-faced cormorant 57 25. Rough-legged hawk 108 26. Black oystercatcher 131 27. Aleutian rock sandpiper 143 28. Least sandpiper 148 29. Least sandpipers 149 30. Glaucous-wing-ed g'ulls 166 31. Black-legged kittiwakes 176 32. Colony of Pallas's thick-billed murres on Bogoslof Island 184 33. Pallas's thick-billed murres 185 34. Kittlitz's murrelet 189 35. Ancient murrelet 190 36. Crested auklets 196 37. Least auklets 197 38. Least auklet 199 39. Horned puffins 203 40. Tufted puffins 204 41. Aleutian song- sparrow 255 42. Sea otter 279 43. Blue fox 294 NVERTEBRATES AND FISHES COLLECTED IN THE ALEUTIANS, 1936-38, by Victor B. Scheffer Page Introduction 365 Marine algae 367 Marine invertebrates 370 Sponges 370 Coelenterates 370 Hydroids 370 Jellyfishes 370 Flatworms 371 RoundwoiTns 371 Nemertean worms 371 Brachiopods 371 Annelid worms 371 Echinoderms 372 Brittle stars 372 Starfishes 372 Sea urchins 373 Sea cucumbers 375 Crustaceans 375 Copepods 375 Barnacles 376 Amphipods 377 Isopods 379 Shrimps 379 Hermit crabs 379 Anomuran crabs 381 Other crabs 381 Mollusks 381 Bivalves 381 Snails and sea slugs 383 Chitons 385 Devilfishes 386 Fresh-water invertebrates 387 Crustaceans 391 Cladocerans 391 Copepods 391 Ostracods 391 Mollusks 391 Land invertebrates 392 Mollusks 392 Beetles 392 Bird lice 393 Diptera 393 Spiders 393 Fishes 395 Literature cited 406 ILLUSTRATIONS FiRure Pagf 1. Fucus, a brown seaweed 368 2. Calcareous algae of the Lithothamnion group 368 3. The 5-rayed starfish Asterias amurensis 373 ' 4. Twenty-rayed starfish, Pycnopodia helianthoides 374 5. Green sea urchin Strongylocentrotiis drobachiensis 375 6. Rock barnacles, Balanns sp 376 7. Two species of barnacles 377 8. Parasitic amphipod Paracyamus boopis 378 9. Common crab. Cancer tnagister 380 10. King crab, Paralithodes sp 380 11. Mussels, Mytilus edulis 382 12. Limpets, Acynaea sp 384 13. Periwinkles, Littorina sp 385 14. Fresh-water pool, type 1 (small and clear) 387 15. Fresh-water pool, type 2 (small and weedy) 388 16. Fresh-water pool, type 3 (large and barren) 389 17. Alaska cod, Gadiis macrocephaltis 396 18. Red sculpin, Hemilepidotns hemilepidotus 397 19. Irish lord, Hemilepidotus jordani 398 20. Halibut, Hippoglossus stenolepis 399 21. Pogie, Lebius superciliosus 400 22. Pink salmon, Oncorhynchns gorbuscha 401 23. Native boy netting sockeye salmon 402 24. Red or sockeye salmon, Oyicorhynchiis nerka 402 25. Atka mackerel, Pleurogrammus monopterygixis 403 26. Silver hake, Tneragra chalcogranuna 404 Foreword This report is based on a biological survey of most of the Aleutian Islands and the Alaska Peninsula in 1936 and 1937. The report was largely prepared soon after the survey, but for various reasons it has not been practical to publish it until now. Even in manuscript form, this material has been con- sulted frequently, and it is issued now in the North American Fauna series so as to make more accessible information on one of North America's most significant biogeographic regions. While the report was being readied for publication, the fifth edition of the Check-List of North American Birds ap- peared (American Ornithologists' Union 1957). Throughout the report, scientific and common names of birds have been made to conform to the new Check-List, but generally refer- ences to "the A. 0. U. Check-List," without specification, are to the fourth (1931) edition. Scientific names of mammals have been made to conform in general to the List of North American Recent Mammals (Miller and Kellogg 1955) ; com- mon names of mammals for the most part follow Hall (1957) . The Pinnipeds conform to the nomenclature of Scheffer (1958). No attempt has been made to include references to all recent publications on the Aleutian and Alaskan fauna ; references included are those from which data were obtained for this report. 0. J. MURIE May 1959 The Broivyi Bear in the Aleutians. Carlisle Island rising above the fog FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA By Olaus J. Murie, Biologist Introduction The Aleutian Islands, treeless, fog-bound, and volcanic, extend westward from the tip of the Alaska Peninsula for about 1,100 miles to Attu, which is less than 600 miles from the Kamchatka Peninsula of Asia. The Aleutian Islands Wildlife Reserva- tion, now a National Wildlife Refuge, was established on this chain in 1913. This reservation embraces the islands of the Aleu- tian chain between the North Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea. These islands were set apart as a preserve and breeding ground for native birds, for the propagation of reindeer and fur-bearing animals, and for the encouragement and development of fisheries. In 1920, the United States Bureau of Biological Survey ^ was given the responsibility of enforcement of the Alaska fur laws and administration of the blue-fox industry in the Aleutians. As time went on, it became apparent that proper supervision of this important wildlife refuge would necessitate an extensive inven- tory of the resources of these islands. In 1936, assisted by Cecil S. Williams of the Bureau of Biologi- cal Survey, I was assigned to make the necessary investiga- tions. The motorship Brown Bear was placed at our disposal, and H. Douglas Gray and Homer Jewell, both of the Alaska Game Commission, joined us at Juneau. A second season was required for the work, and, in 1937, Victor B. Scheffer, John H. Steenis, H. Douglas Gray, and I made up the scientific party. During these two seasons we visited every Aleutian island of any size, as well as many islands south of the Alaska Peninsula and several points on the Peninsula, including Bristol Bay and the Nelson Island region of the Bering Sea coast. In 1938, Scheffer returned 1 Now a part of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE with the Brown Beai- for another season's work. He made limitec studies of the lesser forms of animal life that inhabit the sub arctic waters of the North Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea an<( those that occupy the shores and slopes of the islands. Our work, and the work of Scheffer, expanded upon informai tion obtained by biologists who visited the area late in the lOth century and early in the 20th century. In 1902, W. H. Osgood for the Bureau of Biological Survey, conducted an expeditioi to the base of the Alaska Peninsula. Results of his field worl were published as "A Biological Reconnaissance of the Base o: the Alaska Peninsula" (North American Fauna Series No. 24 1904). In 1911, Alexander Wetmore and A. C. Bent investigatec the western end of the Alaska Peninsula and some of the Aleutiai> Islands (Wetmore's field report was never published). In thd summer of 1925, assisted by Fur Warden Donald H. Stevensonc I was assigned to field work at the western end of the Alaska Peninsula. Additional investigators who visited the Aleutians include Lucien M. Turner and William H. Dall (in the 19th cen tury), and Ira N. Gabrielson (in the 20th century). In the present report, references are made to all individuals who are known to have contributed to the knowledge of the fauns of the Aleutian Islands. These individual contributions total intc a considerable volume of data that have been of inestimable helpi in evaluating the Aleutian fauna. In view of this assemblage oli data, and for a better understanding of the fauna of this pari* of Alaska, the present report embraces all of the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands. In compiling the material presented here, and in gathering the field data, I am indebted to my colleagues in the field on all three^ expeditions — 1925, 1936, and 1937. These colleagues, already mentioned — Stevenson, Williams, Scheffer, Steenis, Gray, and Jewell — are men whose zeal for research and loyalty to the joint undertaking must ensure success of an expedition. John Selle- vold, veteran seaman and captain of the Broion Bear, went beyond the requirements of his duty to help us in many ways. John W. Aldrich and Allen J. Duvall, both of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, have been especially helpful with advice , and assistance in working with specimens. Herbert Friedmann,ij of the National Museum, has also helped considerably, and Ira N Gabrielson, who has made many trips to the Aleutian district,] has been especially generous with his field notes. Many others,^ both in Washington and in the field, assisted in many ways. Also, I must pay tribute to those original inhabitants of tnej FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 3 A.leutian3, the Aleuts, who as a race have suffered many vicissi- :udes through earlier contacts with white men. Those with whom i-ve associated were eager to help with information. It is with special affection that I recall the friendly cooperation of Mike Hodikoff, Chief of Attu village, who was ready to do anything to further the work of our expeditions and to add to our knowl- ?dge. He, with his village, was captured by Japanese invasion forces during World War II ; there is no knowledge of his fate. GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY The Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands (see fig. 1) form a great arc that swings across the northern seas for about 1,500 miles, almost to Siberia. The Aleutian chain alone is about 1,100 miles long. This arc, together with the Commander Islands, forms a barrier that separates the Bering Sea from the North Pacific Ocean. The Alaska Peninsula extends southwestward from about latitude 59° N., and Amatignak Island, the southernmost of the Aleutians, lies nearly as far south as latitude 51° N. — the same latitude as the north end of Vancouver Island. The north shore of the Alaska Peninsula shelves off gradually into the shallow waters of Bering Sea, forming a low coastal plain with a comparatively even coastline. However, farther in- land the land rises to the rugged volcanic Aleutian Range, which runs the length of the Peninsula, and, on the south side, breaks off into the deeper water of the North Pacific. Accordingly, the south shore is irregular and rugged with bays and headlands and offshore rocks and is fringed by offshore islands — notably the Kodiak-Afognak, Semidi, Shumagin, and Sanak Island groups, as well as a number of smaller ones. The eastern Aleutians retain some of the characteristics of the Alaska Peninsula. This is most pronounced on Unimak Island, which has a low coastal plain, lagoons, and rugged interior moun- tains that extend southward to the Pacific Ocean. In fact, Unimak Island is separated from the Peninsula by only a narrow strait. Numerous eruptions have been recorded since the discovery of these islands, and the Aleutian chain proper consists of over 70 named islands, some small, others large ; Unimak is about 70 miles long. The chain is irregular and is bordered on the north and south sides by deep oceanic troughs. In other words, the soutli border of the shallow Bering Sea bottom, which is virtually a continental shelf, veers off northwestward so as to leave deep waters north of the Aleutian chain. As Stephen R. Capps (1934, p. 143) has stated. NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 5 A line of soundings taken by the fathometer on the Gannet in 1932, ex- ending along an irregular course from a point north of Amukta Pass to Vttu Island, at varying distances from the intervening islands, shows hat north of the islands the 1,000 fathom line lies close to the island "estoon and that at a distance of 50 miles or more from them there is a ■emarkably smooth-floored depression at a depth of 2,000 to 2,200 fathoms. The shape of this depression between the islands and the continental mass, vhich includes much of Bering Sea, is not known, but it is significant .hat the island arc rises as a sharp ridge separating deeps of 2,000 fathoms )r more both to the north and south. The volcanic nature of this region is well known. Capps (1934, D. 142) says. Throughout the Alaska Peninsula the volcanoes have broken out through )lder sedimentary or igneous rocks, by which they are now flanked. In ;he Aleutian Islands there are few if any exposures of the basement •ocks, and the islands are largely constructional, having been built up 0 and above sea level by the accumulation of lavas and volcanic fragmental naterial ejected from below. Many volcanoes along this remarkable arc are still in an active 5tate. The eruption of Katmai Volcano, on the Alaska Peninsula, n 1912 was one of the great volcanic spectacles of modern times (see Griggs 1922). The activities of Bogoslof Island and Mount Shishaldin on Unimak Island are well known, and in 1930 there tvas an eruption on Gareloi Island. On our visit there in 1937 \xe examined some of the small craters, from which were issuing 5team and other gases, and we noted many lava bombs on the ower slopes. We found several typical hot thermal springs that *vere rimmed with algae. On Kagamil Island, noisy steam jets ssued from a rocky bluff, and rumblings could be heard under :he boulder beach. After our return from the expedition of 1937, we learned that there had been an eruption on Yunaska Island while we had been exploring other areas. Many of the mountains have plumes of steam issuing from the top. Mount Cleveland, on Chuginadak Island, erupted in 1944, and Okmok and Umnak Islands erupted in 1945. As would be expected, most of the islands are mountainous. There are a few relatively flat islands, such as Amchitka, Agattu, and Semichi. However, there is a low mountain range along 3ne side of Agattu, and there is a small mountain at one end of A.laid Island, in the Semichis. Most of the larger islands have lakes and streams, and several, such as Amchitka, Agattu, and the Semichis, are dotted with lakes. In keeping with their volcanic origin, some of these islands liave notable lava beds that furnish nesting crevices for petrels and auklets, as on Amukta and Gareloi. Other islands, notably Ogliuga and part of Kavalga, 6 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE have been covered with volcanic ash in recent times. 'The shore- j lines are irregular, with offshore islets, rocks, and undersurfac€i reefs, and there are boulder beaches, sandy beaches, and abrupt cliffs in great variety. The accompanying field sketches, (see figs. 2-22) showing a few of the islands in profile, suggest the variety of configuration. Figure 2. — Semichi Islands from mountain on Alaid Island (June 1937). Note that a narrow spit connects Alaid, in foreground, with the middle* island ; Shemya, the easternmost, is in the distance. Figure 3. — Sketch elevation of Agattu Island, seen from west end of Alaid Island, looking southwesterly. Figure 4. — Sketch elevation of Buldir Island, looking southeast. AMCHITKA (WEST end) KISKA (N. END) CHUGUL DAVIDOF LITTLE SITKIN Figure 5. — Sketch elevation of several Aleutian Islands, looking west. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 7 'IGURE 6.— Sketch elevation of three Aleutian Islands from Gunner Cove on Rat Island, looking northerly. 'IGURE 7. — Little Sitkin Island from Gunner Cove on Rat Island, looking northeasterly. 'IGURE 8. — Sketch elevation of Rat Island from southeast end of Khvostof Island, looking southerly. 'IGURE 9. — West end of Rat Island (July 1937). Kiska Island in distance. 8 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Figure 10. — West end of Rat Island (July 1937) from beach on south shore Figure 11. — Southeast end of Rat Island (June 1937). Figure 12. — Sketch elevation of Semisopochnoi Island seen from west end of Amchitka, looking northeasterly. Low fog bank on horizon. .^ m. Figure 13. — Sketch elevation of West Unalaga Island, looking westward. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 9 Figure 14. — Sketch elevation of Ilak Island, looking- southerly. 'IGURE 15. — Sketch elevation of Kavalfi:a Island from West Unalg-a Island, looking easterly. Figure 16. — Sadatanak Island looking easterly. ^iSSisS^^JMBSm^lllim^^^^^^ Figure 17. — Sagchudak Island looking easterly. Figure 18. — Sketch elevation of Bobrof Island, looking southwesterly. Figure 19. — Anagaksik Island, looking southeasterly. 'igure 20.— Sketch elevations of Kasatochi Island and Koniuji Island, looking west. 10 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE ii'"Hiiiiii u,'. .iiMi"" iMMi '."',": '.'ij|»u'^> ...1 M..;,7' .J^i>)ffm> Figure 21. — Seguam Island, looking south-southwest. Figure 22. — Sketch elevation of Ananiuliak Island, looking southerly. Umn? Island in background. CLIMATE The Aleutian Islands and Alaska Peninsula are south of tl severe low winter temperatures of interior and northern Alask, and the surrounding waters are generally free of sea ice. ^^ characterize winter conditions briefly: temperatures go well b low freezing, fresh-water ponds freeze over at times, and sno sometimes piles knee deep. But the snow is likely to be w and slushy, and there will be some bare ground. At high( elevations, hjwever, snow is heavier, and the higher mountaii are snowcapped in winter. A few temperature records from Turner (1886), with notes C( clear days, are of interest: Month Temperature (°F.) Mean Maximum Minimum Number of- Clear days UN ALASKA, 1878-79 September October. __ November December. January _ _ Februarj-. March April May June July August 48.02 40.77 33,50 35.12 33.97 29.25 32.16 33.07 55 49 48 45 48 44 49 52 ATKA, 1879 39 . 90 42.08 48.96 50.31 65 64 65 69 36 26 21 19 20 7 15 21 30 30 38 45 Fair day FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 11 ATTLl, 18S0-81 July August September October November December. January. - Fel)ruary. March April Mav 52.35 CO 51 5f) 6() 47.75 58 41.12 49 35 45 4(i 33 i)l 44 31.17 42 31.!)5 41 29.02 41 36.70 52 39.55 49 42 38 36 30 25 22 17 17 11 20 31 Sutton and Wilson (1946) observed birds on Attu Island from ebruary 20 to March 18, 1945. They report, he air temperatures at sea level did not vary much from freezing as rule. During the daylight hours it sank somewhat below 32° F. on 20 ' the 27 days, climbed as high as 38" during the day on March 4, sank 5 low as 15° during the night on March 15, and averaged 31°. On March i the greatest temperature variation (15° to 31°), as well as the lowest mperature, was recorded. The general aspect was wintry: the sky over- ist, the wind raw, the sea turbulent. Highlands and lowlands alike were )vered with snow. Along the shore, tufts of rank grass and coarse stalks ' wild parsnip protruded from the drifts, and boulders, turfy mounds and irrow gray beaches were always bare. Elsewhere, save for an occasional iff or exposed slope, everything was white. A striking feature of the Aleutian climate is the prevalence f foggj' or cloudy weather, the abundance of rain in summer, nd the frequent violent winds that arise suddenly and un- ^pectedly. On western Alaska Peninsula, in 1925, we built a indbreak of alder brush to protect our tent, and, on the beach, ^ht gravel occasionally would be blown into our faces. Briefly, len, one might say that although the temperature is mild — 9ither very low in winter nor very high in summer — there a minimum of sunshine and a maximum of fog, rain, and orm. ENVIRONMENT AND BIOTIC DISTRIBUTION The Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands, stretching as a nd bridge between two continents, present a most interesting stribution of plant and animal life. There are, of course, a imber of physical facts that bear on the distribution of animals id plants — including the location of the area with relation to at of other significant areas, the geologic history, the physio- 'aphic conformation of the land, the ocean currents, and the mperature, humidity, and other climatic influences. 12 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE GEOGRAPHIC AND GEOLOGIC INFLUENCES The Aleutian district lies within the Boreal region, and it mj be identified as the southern fringe of this great circumpoli area throughout which life has so much in common. It significant that the Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands li in a sense, almost isolated from the mainland of Alaska ai extend westward a tremendous distance toward Kamchatk thus, in some respects, serving as a "bridge" between Asia ai North America. It is also significant that they are near tl other intercontinental bridge at Bering Strait, which is recognizi as having an important influence on our biota. The Aleutian Islands and Alaska Peninsula are of comparative recent geologic origin. Volcanic activity is still prevalent, ai changes in the surface of the land are still taking place. F this reason, and for reasons mentioned later, the area has new and changing environment that has not yet been ful occupied by flora or fauna to the extent of its potential capacit Thus, the area presents an opportunity to see immigration st taking place and to note the changes imposed on the newcome by an unusual environment. As the following sections show, the Aleutian biota is drawii its members from several directions. As would be expected, sor have come directly from Asia ; some have come from the nor on the Alaskan side; others have come from the southeast aloi the Pacific coast; and still others are part of the fauna th appears to have developed in the Bering Sea region — an ar roughly bounded by Siberia, mainland Alaska, and the Aleuti; Islands. Many others are drawn from biotic populations th at present are so widely distributed in the Palaearctic regi( that it is impossible to judge the direction from which th entered the Aleutian area. Following, are some of these grou that have contributed to the Aleutian biota : ASIATIC IMMIGRANTS BIRDS SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME Branta nigricans Black br; Mareca penelope European widge Anas crecca ssp Common td Haliaetus albicilla White-tailed sea eajli Haliaetus pclagicus Steller's sea eaj 1 Faico rusticolus uralensis Asiatic gyrfalc \ Charadriiis dubiiis curonicus Little ringed plo\ i FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 13 haradrius semipabnatus Semipalmated plover luvialis dominica, fulva American golden plover renaria interpres interpres Ruddy turnstone ringa glareola Wood sandpiper rolia acuminata Sharp-tailed sandpiper ams hyperboretts hyperboreus Glaucous gull arus schistisagiis Slaty-backed gull anis argentatus vegae Herring gull arus ridibundus sibiricus Black-headed gull terna aleutica Aleutian tern ethia pygmaea Whiskered auklet uculus saturatus hursfieldi Oriental cuckoo 'iscinia calliope camtschatkensis Siberian rubythroat roglodytes troglodytes ssp. (in part) Winter wrens otacilla alba lugens White wagtail mbenza i-ustica latifascia Rustic bunting MAMMALS SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME lopex lagojnis Blue fox rsiis arctos gyas Brown bear rsus arctos middendorffi Brown bear Some of these are only occasional visitors, such as the two igles mentioned, and Larus schistisagus (slaty-backed gull), arus ridibundus sibiricus (black-headed gull), Cuculus saturatus orsfieldi (oriental cockoo), and some others. Some have become ;tablished in the Aleutians, such as Anas crecca (common teal), ethia pygmaea (whiskered auklet), and Sterna aleutica (Aleu- an tern), and Alopex lagopus (blue fox). Others have reached le Alaskan coast in general, including the Aleutian district, but >t necessarily by the Aleutian route, such as Falco nisticolus ''alensis (Asiatic gyrfalcon), Pluvialis dominica fulva (Ameri- m golden plover), and the big brown bears. Some, such as haradrius seniipalmatus (semipalmated plover) and Branta igricans (black brant), have extended eastward considerably ?yond the Alaskan Peninsula but show greater affinity with siatic populations than with those farther east in North Ameri- i. In the case of the winter wrens. Troglodytes troglodytes, the •igin appears to have been from Asia and from the southeast. if course, the bears came by the more remote northern route. Plants, too, have begun the long traverse over from Asia. L the case of plants which occur widely on both sides of Bering Lrait, and which have become established all the way through je Aleutian chain, it is difficult to know the direction from hich their immigration took place. There are some plants that, cording to Hulten's distribution maps (1937a), have obtained 14 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE a foothold in the western Aleutians but have not been observed the east, even though some of them also occur on the Alaskj mainland. Concerning the plant distribution, Hulten (1937a, 44) stated, If Commander Islands and westernmost Alaska Penin. are included, as this flora, 92 America species reach that area, but 47 of them do not further westward than to Umnak. 49 species reach the Aleutians frc the west but not other parts of southern Alaska. 40 of them do not rea. further eastwards than to the westernmost g'roup of the Aleutians. Some of the prominent Asiatic forms that we observed in tl westernmost Aleutians are Cirsium kamtschaticum, Veratru album oxysepalum, Cacalia aricuhxta, and Sorbus sambucifolii These are confined to the Near Islands, though some are thoug to have reached as far east as Buldir. Hulten says further, "The flora of the middle Aleutians very depauperated, probably due to the relatively short tin elapsed since the glacial period, when most of their plants we exterminated." Only the more obvious Asiatic elements are mentioned hen Other animal and plant forms probably originated in Siber' at a more remote time. BERING SEA AVIFAUNA The following birds represent a group largely confined to t; coastal parts of Bering Sea, although some of them range farth north or south. They appear to be characteristic of all shor of the Bering Sea, instead of the Siberian side exclusively. I SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME Phalacrocorax pelagiciis pelagicus Pelagic cormorai Phalacrocorax urile Red-faced cormoral Branta canadensis minima Canada goc^ Philacte eanagica Emperor goc Anas crecca nimia Common t( Polysticta stelleri Steller's eic Arenaria melanocephala Black turnstc Numenius tahitiensis Bristle-thighed curl Erolia ptilocnemis ssp Rock sandpii Limosa lapponica baiieri Bar- tailed god\ Rissa tndactyla pollicaris Black-legged kittiwai Rissa brevirostris Red-legged kittiwai Xema sabini woznesenskii Sabine's g< Uria lomvia arra Thick-billed mui( Brachyramphus brevirostre Kittlitz's murre( Cyclorrhynchus psittacula Parakeet auki Aethia crwtatella, , , Crested auW FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 15 ethia pusilla Least auklet 'ratercula coryiiculata Horned puffin 'hylloscopus borealis kennicotti Arctic warbler lotacilla fiava tschutschensis Yellow wagtail lectrophenux hyperhoreus McKay's bunting AUNA OF WIDER NORTHERN DISTRIBUTION BIRDS SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME avia arctica pacifica Arctic loon avia stellata Red-throated loon lor columbianus Whistling swan ranta canadensis leucopareia Canada goose nse7- albifroyis frontalis White-fronted goose langula hyemalis Oldsquaw omateria inollissima v. nigra Common eider uteo lagopus s-johannis Rough-legged hawk alcQ rusticolus obsoleteus Gyrfalcon agopus lagopus ssp Willow ptarmigan agopus mutus ssp Rock ptarmigan rolia alpina pacifica Dunlin reunetus sp Sandpipers halaropus fulicarius Red phalarope obipes lobatus Northern phalarope ^.ercorarius sp Jaegers arus hyperboreus barrovianus Glaucous gull tema paradisaea Arctic tern %rus atncapillus turneri Black-capped chickadee df-us hudsonicus hudsonicus Boreal chickadee Urdus ynigratorius migratorius American robin ylocichla minima fninima Gray-cheeked thrush "'''*^''' sp Redpolls inco hyemalis hyemalis Slate-colored junco isserella iliaca zaboria jTqx sparrow ilcarius lapponicus alascensis Lapland longspur ectrophenax nivalis ssp Snow bunting MAMMALS SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME >rex tundrensis Tundra saddle-backed shrew ^^""« sp Ground squirrels icrostonyx sp Collared lemmings icrotus oeconomus ssp Meadow mice •pus othiis poadromus Arctic hare mgifer arcticus grayiti Barren ground caribou 'Iphinaptenis leiicas Beluga These are some of the more northern birds and mammals whose stribution with relation to the Alaska Peninsula is such that 16 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE they probably immigrated southward or southwestward to t Aleutian district. There are, of course, a great many oth€ of northerly distribution whose general range is such that t route of the population movement is uncertain. In the gro here listed it will be seen that the Aleutian district has dra^ heavily from the fauna that characterizes the northern porti of the continent from northern Alaska across to Hudson B£ Lemmings, Arctic hares, the jaegers, Sabine's gull, and othe came straight down the Bering Sea coastal strip. It will be noted that not all of the birds just listed actua. nest in the Aleutian district. SOUTHERN AND SOUTHEASTERN AVIFAUNA SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME Phalacrocorax auritus cincinatus Double-crested cormorf Olor buccinator Trumpeter sv( Anas strepera Gadw Larus glaucescens Glaucous-winged g\ Brachyramphus fnarmoratum marmoratuyn Marbled murre Synthliboramphus antiquu^n Ancient murrfi Ptychoramphus aleutica Cassin's auW Cerorhinca monocerata Rhinoceros auW Megaco-yle alcyon caurina Belted kingfisi Troglodytes troglodytes ssp. (in part) Winter wr Ixoreus naevius Varied thri Vermivora celata lutescens Orange-crowned warfc Pinicola enucleator flamnuila Pine grosbc Leucosticte tephrocotis ssp Gray-crowned rosy fii Loxia curvirostris sitkensis Red cross Passerculns sandwiohensis ssp Savannah span' Passerella iliaca ssp Fox span Melospiza melodia ssp Song sparr Some of these listings give us a clear demonstration of 1 1 route of influx into the Aleutian district, by way of closely relal i subspecies in a series extending along the coastal strip of southe : and southeastern Alaska. Such examples are the song sparrov fox sparrows, and winter wrens in particular. The fox sparro ' present an interesting distributional picture. It is the dark coas unalaschcensis group that has worked along the coast and fui occupied the suitable habitats as far as the eastern Aleutia i But the bright-colored eastern type has come down from 11 northeast and, at the base of Alaska Peninsula, this type has m^ ( contact with the coastal forms. Naturally, there could be error in the interpretation of faun immigration just cited, because complexities may have interverE FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 17 nee the territory in question was "opened for settlement" ; how- er, the conclusions submitted are based on strong probability at ast. It will be seen that the coastal mountain masses of southern laska and the Alaska Range form a barrier. Although this is »t an absolute barrier, presumably it is enough of an obstacle at the way of least resistance would be north and west along e coast for some species. Similarly, there is an easy avenue uthward along the open Bering Sea coast for tundra-loving rms. And the Aleutian chain, reaching out close to Siberia, an inviting route, nIvironmental influence There are some striking environmental influences operative in e Aleutian district. We know, of course, that humid regions id to produce dark pigmentation, and this fact holds true for is area. The rosy finches reach their darker hues in the Aleu- Ln area, with the darkest in the Pribilofs, The fox sparrows ow the same tendency, exceeded in dark tones only by the pulations of the excessively humid Pacific rain-forest zone that tends from the coast and islands of southeastern Alaska, south- ird to the northwest coast of the United States, Except for 3 aberrant yellow types in the middle Aleutians, the darkest :k ptarmigans are found in the Aleutian area, especially on tu and the Commanders. Here, parasitic jaegers are, and the ctic foxes are, almost entirely in the dark-color phase. In imitive times, silver foxes were unusually plentiful somewhere this district, judging by the cargoes of the first Russian traders, e lemmings, Dicrostonyx, of Unalaska and Umnak do not ac- ire a white pelage in winter. This is also a region of giantism. Note the huge size of the ig sparrows, Savannah sparrows, and rosy finches, which, as lera, reach their greatest size in the Aleutians and Commander ands. Here, the Aleutian winter wrens, as a group, have de- oped unusually long bills. Here, too, we may include the Alaska )wn bear, which achieves its greatest size on the Alaska Penin- a, Unimak Island, and Kodiak Island. Marine biologists have found that in many instances the in- •tebrate subspecies in the northern Pacific waters, and even ther north, are strikingly larger than forms of the same cies farther to the south. This invites interesting speculation, pointed out later, the Aleutian waters are unusually rich in nkton, and there is an abundant and varied marine inverte- 18 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE brate fauna. An exceptionally nutritious marine food sour should influence the vigor and size of the terrestrial vertebrat of that region. The song sparrow's habitat in the Aleutians is the beach, ai ( it is probable that its food is largely of marine origin — the smi, beach crustaceans, for example. Some other land birds, such ;i winter wrens and pipits, feed to some extent on the beach. Tl! blue foxes feed chiefly on marine life. The case of the Alaska brown bears is not so clear, though f(t a part of the summer they comb the beaches and live extensive on salmon, which are nourished in the sea. One wonders, alsi if a certain type of food may, with other factors, help to encouraj. melanism (as in the jaeger), or darker shades of color, as in son j of the other birds. It is generally accepted that a humid habit i produces dark coloration. It is not certain that this tendenci/ as well as melanism, is encouraged by rich food. This is, of course, pure speculation, yet the significance of ; food chain from the sea to the higher vertebrates on the adjacei land may be worthy of earnest study. There are many birds th i have not responded to environmental influence. The Aleutian soii] sparrow has not developed dark pigmentation to an unusual d^ gree. The northern form of the fork-tailed petrel, though avera; : ing larger in the Aleutians, apparently is paler than those i southeastern Alaska. Also, it must be considered that the ii terior Alaska and Yukon caribou, as well as the Alaskan moos; which have no direct connection with the sea, are the largest (j this continent. But these examples suggest that there is somE thing in the environment — favorable food, humidity, or otb stimuli— that tends to produce dark pigmentation and large si2 ; This is an important challenge to future investigation ai < understanding. ECOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION By the usual standards of life-zone allocation, the Alaska Pej insula and Aleutian Islands would fall chiefly in the Arctic Zors A part of the Kodiak-Af ognak Island group supports tree growt ' and forests encroach on the base of Alaska Peninsula to tii vicinity of Mount Katmai. Therefore, these locations would ma: the limit of the Hudsonian Zone. However, we find the life-zoM classification here to be far from simple. There are probably number of physiographic and oceanic reasons for this situatiof There are serious difficulties in the interpretation of life zonk in the Aleutians that should be considered. The lack of tre4, FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 19 resumably would indicate some form of Arctic or Alpine Life one. So far as latitude is concerned, the southernmost island of le Aleutian chain, Amatignak, lies not far north of 51° N,, ^hich is the latitude of heavily timbered, coastal British Columbia 1 the vicinity of Vancouver Island ; however, the treeless Aleu- ians lie hundreds of miles south of the tree limit in the Brooks lange of interior Alaska. Some of the lowest temperatures in ilaska are recorded from the timbered interior, while the emperatures in the Aleutians are uniformly higher in winter, nd the adjacent seas are not frozen over. From the standpoint f vegetation growth, summer tempoi^tures are probably of reater significance than winter temperatures, and probably do jot show so great a variation. Certainly the temperatures aver- age much lower and have a lower maximum in summer than emperatures found in the forested continental areas. Wind is another factor that generally accompanies treelessness t high altitudes and latitudes. There is a treeless coastal strip I ordering the Bering Sea, with few interruptions, from Alaska peninsula to Bering Strait, continuing around to the treeless i^rctic coast. This coastal area is characterized by strong winds, is contrasted with the comparative stillness of the interior. We I now the effect of wind on tree growth at timberline in moun- jains. In the Aleutians, I found many instances where the wind lad scoured out the soil, exposing the roots of such ground- jiUgging plants as crowberry and dwarf willow. If wind is one f the factors that establish the edge of forests, it is operative to j,n unusual degree in the Aleutians. ! Forest growth is another important factor to be considered in (he Aleutian district. Attention is invited to the series of pub- ications on Alaskan flora by Robert F. Griggs (see bibliog- aphy) — particularly his 1934 report on the edge of the forest, 'n which he has assembled numerous data to show that the edge if the forest has been advancing in Alaska. This was particu- larly evident on Kodiak Island and in the Katmai region, where l)r. Griggs worked intensively. According to Griggs' studies, we nay reason that, since the last glaciation, climate or a combina- ion of other factors has been gradually improving the area oward suitability for forest growth. The forest, however, has lot been able to migrate fast enough to keep pace with favorable limatic conditions and has not reached its potential limit. Where, then, is the limit of the potential climax forest growth? Vt the end of the Alaska Peninsula? Farther west? On Mer- •iam's life zone map, the Hudsonian Zone is shown extending the 20 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE length of Alaska Peninsula. Spruce trees that were planted c Unalaska Island grew, but did not spread. It may be significai that tall willows, alders, and tall salmonberry have extendt^ westward as far as Unimak Island in heavy thicket form. Her salmonberry thickets are similar to those seen in southeastei 7\.laska. These facts may be indicative of a territory ripe for forest. And such an advance line, based on climatic limitatioi rather than on the present position of the forest edge, may 1: considered to be the boundary of the Hudsonian Life Zone. T? biome concept, to rely strictly on the climax end product, woul: have the same difficulty here, and published maps of the Tundri Biome and the Tundra-Coniferous Forest Ecotone for this are: would simply substitute these terms for Arctic and Hudsonia: Zones. There is the same potential boundary difficulty. Granted that in the Boreal Zone, at least, tree growth is d ■ rectly affected by the climatic factors usually associated with th : life-zone concept, to what extent is the rest of the biota affecte ] by the same influences? To what extent is it influenced by the mere presence of trees? It is reasonable to believe that the wood; plants that comprise the understory of the Alaskan forest an, to a large extent, dependent on association with trees. Som: forms, such as blueberries, often extend from open country inti scattered forest. But there is a plant association that coincide! with forest growth. Similarly, there is a fauna that has become specialized fo forest habitat — woodpeckers, certain grouse, certain warblers jays, squirrels, black bear, and many others. These appear to bi limited by the mere presence of trees. There is good reason tl believe that wapiti and other deer would have a much mon northern distribution if it were not for the physical barrier o< deep snow in winter. On the other hand, the red-backed mousq the hermit thrush, and the chickadee have inhabited the lengtl of Alaska Peninsula. It is possible to assume that these mobil woodland forms simply would not wait for the slow-moving fori est and thus have adapted themselves to more-open habitat! than is nonnal for the species. Also, this would imply a lessi specialized response to habitat than some of the other forest species, as well as a greater sensitivity to direct climatic stimuli Birds and mammals are more or less adaptive and vary between wide extremes in tolerance of adverse elements in their environ i ment. However, there is a strong tendency for the majority 0:1 any population to be associated with the distribution of certair: major vegetation types. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 21 One cannot escape the conviction that if we grant a certain degree of cHmatic influence on distribution of vegetation to cause it to fall into broad life zones, many of the birds and mammals that have become adapted to vegetation types will also tend to fall into these same life zones. These birds and mammals may be affected to a lesser extent by the life-zone climatic influences than by the indirect eff"ects of these influences — the vegetation type of the habitat. It should be kept in mind that, in boreal regions, biotic units are not so clearly defined as in desert or semidesert areas. Griggs (1934c), writing on Arctic vegetation, says, In short every feature of Arctic vegetation, the anomalies in the geographi- cal distribution of arctic species, the occurrence of many species in all sorts of habitats, and their apparent indifference to the diverse conditions thereof, the lack of definiteness to the composition of the plant cover in any particular habitat, the physical instability of the ground itself, the general ruderal character of arctic vegetation, the lai'ge number of our weeds which are native to the arctic — all these testify to an instability in arctic vegetation very different from the relatively stable plant forma- tions of the temperate zone. He states further that — First, combined with the demonstrated active migration of the Alaskan forest into the arctic, it gives definite support to the supposition that vegeta- tion there has not yet recovered from the glacial period but is still in process of active readjustment. This statement is applicable to the fauna as well, especially in the Aleutian district. Native rodents have only begun to en- croach on the Aleutian Islands. Savannah sparrows have gone only part way. Song sparrows have reached Attn, but fox spar- rows have gone only as far as Unimak. Foxes had started to enter the Aleutian chain from Alaska, as well as from Siberia, before man intentionally affected their distribution. Minute organisms that thrive unusually well in the cold waters of the northern seas have set up a food chain that developed a rich marine biota. This accounts for the presence of the fish, pinnipeds, whales, and sea otters that once inhabited these wa- ters so abundantly. Given such a good supply of food, with an abundance of ideal cliffs and lava beds and boulder beaches for nesting sites, it is logical that the present swarming seabird colonies have assembled in the Aleutians. There is much of the Arctic element in the Aleutians. In- deed, the Arctic and Alpine merge on these islands. The moun- tain-loving rosy finches and the Arctic snow bunting nest practically side by side, close to sea level. Alpine vegetation types 22 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE are not far above the level of the sea. But if we apply the terij "Arctic" here, it must denote the "Low Arctic." The Aleutian district is unique. For animal life, it combimj favorable climatic factors and unusual food resources. It is focal point to which animal life has been coming from norti and south, and east and west, and it is a melting pot for faunj elements from two continents that have not yet reached equilil rium. It is necessary to keep in mind the fluid nature of th. Aleutian biota in arriving at any system of zonal delineation. From a purely descriptive standpoint, the fauna of the Alei tian district stands apart, and it may well merit distinction a the "Aleutian Fauna." There may be good reason to consider ij as a unit of a more comprehensive Bering Sea fauna. I 1 VEGETATION In 1937, Eric Hulten published (in Stockholm, Sweden) "Flor; of the Aleutian Islands and Westernmost Alaska Peninsula wit' notes on the flora of Commander Islands." The same author ha^ also published "Flora of Alaska and Yukon," in 10 parts, issuer from 1941 to 1950. This work covers the botany of the Aleutiai district so thoroughly that no detailed account of the vegetatioi need be attempted here, except for mention of some prominen plant associations and their distribution. The first consideration is the distribution of forests. Th spruce-forest edge is found midway on Kodiak Island and i] the general vicinity of Becharof Lake on Alaska Peninsula. W find elements of the flora, as well as some of the birds, converg ing on the base of Alaska Peninsula from two directions. Fror the east, the Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) of southern Alask; has made its way to Kodiak Island at the base of Alaska Penin sula, out to the region about Becharof Lake, and now it consti tutes the principal forest growth in this area. The status of thi white spruce (Picea glauca) is less certain, but this interior! Alaska tree has come down from the north to at least as far as Bristol Bay, near Nushagak, and it may be considered to havi barely reached the border of Alaska Peninsula, inland from thi coast. The birch (Betula kenaica) is associated with the conif erous growth in all this forested area. With the exception of this meager forest, in all lowland por tions of Alaska Peninsula and Unimak Island, and to some exten' as far west as Unalaska, tall vegetation is in the form of shrul: thickets — dwarf birch (Betula nana exilis), willow, and alder Alder (Alnus crispa sinuata) is particularly prevalent and forms FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 23 heavy thickets. Hulten described a new foiTn (Alnus crispa laciniata) from Kodiak Island, and mentions Alnus incana as occurring in the Katmai district. Shrubby salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis) is found in suitable places along the Alaska Penin- sula, and in the eastern Aleutians it is found as far as Unalaska Island. Beyond Unalaska, the vegetation is of the low type ; the willows are of the dwarf species, close to the ground, and we find no appreciable high-shrub growth until at the very end, on Attn Island. Attu Island possesses moderate shrubby and tall plants — largely those with Siberian affinities. Hulten (1937a) states: In the westernmost Aleutians, on Attu I., are found fragments of a high-grown vegetation similar to that growing in the upper subalpine belt on the open spots between the Alnus shrubs in Kamtchatka and along the Kamtchatka west coast. It is largely built up of Asiatic elements, which occur only on the westernmost islands, such as Cirsiiim kamtschaticum , Veratrum oxysepalum, Cacalia auriculata, Senecio palustris, and Sorbus sambucifolia, but it also includes elements occurring all over our area, such as Geranhan erianthuni, Streptojnis amplexifolius, Calamagrostis Langsdorffii and others. Some plant communities may be distinguished readily. Through- out all the coastal areas of southwestern Alaska the sandy beaches are bordered with a rank growth of wild rye. In the Aleutian district, other members of the Ehjyyius arenarius, or wild rye, association are Senecio pseudoarnican, (a groundsel), Lathyrus maritimus (beach pea), Honckenya peploides, and Mertensia ma7'itima (sea bluebell). Within this association we found the low-to-ground Honckenya peploides generally pushing out near- est the water. In many places the leafy, bulky Senecio pseu- doaimica formed vigorous patches that virtually left no room for other plants. The Aleuts used the tall, coarse beach rye, Elymus arenarius, for weaving the exquisite "Attu" baskets. Near the beach, but clinging to rocky sites, is Potentilla villosa, a herbaceous cinquefoil, which is associated with other plants. It is separate from the wild rye, or Elymus, association, though it is close to the tide, because its habitat is rock, not sand. Behind this beach-line association, on a somewhat drier area farther from the tide, was another zone of miscellaneous grasses, with some other plants. Here, we noted a dense stand of Poa, (blue grass), Calamagrostis (brown top), Bromus (brome), and other grasses that we did not observe closely ; however, we noted the demarcation between outer beach Elymus association and the adjacent inner zone of other grasses. The dividing line was not always located by a given distance 24 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE from the beach. I recall a striking instance where a sloping banii arose from the beach to a height of about 30 feet. Elymus, ex- posed to the sands of the sea, clung to the open face of this slope to the crest. At the exact point where the ground levelled] off toward the interior, the other, more inland, grass formation began with a dense growth. The plants of this inner group bor- dering the Elymus association are by no means confined to the vicinity of the beach; instead, they become diffused among othei plants farther inland. I Farther in the interior, and at higher elevations, we find what Hulten refers to as a "mosaic" of Alpine heath and meadow. Meadow formations have an abundance of Car ex (sedge), to- gether with many other species, though sedges occur elsewhere' as well. In these meadows are found Artemisia unalaschensis (a herbaceous sage), Epilobium angustifolium (fireweed), Calamagrostis larulsdorffl (a brown top). Geranium erianthum (geranium), Anaphalis margaritacea (pearly everlasting), Aconi- tum kam.tschaticu7n (aconite). Polygonum viviyarum (viviparous knotweed), T7ientalis (star flower), Bromus aleuticus (brome), Castilleja unalaschensis (paint brush), Arnica chamissonis (arnica), and Aster peregrinus (aster). Such a meadow asso- ciation, as defined by Hulten, is more characteristic of the east- ern Aleutians. Prominent patches of the characteristic cottons grass, Eriophorum, and Ranunculus (bitterroot) , were found im many wet areas. Here and there, were found Geum (avens), Caltha (marsh marigold), Habenaria (rein orchis), Lupinusi (lupine), Geranium (geranium), and a botanical list too long tO' enumerate. In the more exposed situations above the meadows, scattered in accordance with the character of the terrain, are the heaths. Here, are lichens, mosses, crowberry (Empetrum nigrum), and cranberry, (Vaccinium uliginosum). Numerous other plants are distributed rather indiscriminately. The showy anemone (Anem- one narcissi flora) , so prominent when in bloom, is very common. Mention should be made of Heracleum lanatum (cow parsnip) and Coelopleurum gmelini (seacoast angelica). These robust plants grow throughout the Aleutian district, apparently where soil is rich. They are particularly conspicuous, together with other plants, on old Aleut village sites where the soil has been enriched by refuse from human habitation. Such village sites, seen at a distance, were recognizable by the deep-green, heavy vegetation. On some occasions we would note a particularly green high FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 25 mountain slope where we would find a colony of auklets nesting among rock crevices. We came to the tentative conclusion that vegetation grew more luxuriantly on the site of such bird colonies as a result of fertilization by bird guano and waste food. This vegetation was not necessarily of the same species as those grow- ing on the Aleut village sites ; however, the reasons for its pres- ence in the two instances may have been related. We did not have opportunity to study in detail the recovery of vegetation on islands recently covered by volcanic ash, as Griggs (1936) has done at Katmai and at Kodiak. However, little flat Ogliuga Island would furnish such an opportunity. In 1930, there was an eruption on Gareloi, and the ash from the erup- tion covered Ogliuga. At the time of our visits in 1936 and 1937, vegetation was just beginning to recover. Tall vigorous clumps of coarse sedges, Carex, and some Juncus, had pushed up through the ash here and there. These clumps had caught some of the drifting ash driven by the wind, had pushed up higher to clear the ash, and in turn had caught more wind-driven ash, until mounds had been created which were similar to sand dunes. In the north are found the so-called bird mounds, whose origin has caused much speculation. One theory is that birds such as gulls and jaegers, repeatedly alighting on a small prominence, fertilize the spot, thus causing exuberant vegetative growth — a process that continues until a tall mound is formed. On nearby Kavalga Island, I found that a part of the area nearest to Ogliuga evidently also had been in the path of an ash fall from a volcanic eruption, probably not so heavy a fall as that which covered Ogliuga. Some typical "bird mounds" on Kavalga were carefully dis- sected, with the result shown in the accompanying diagram. In figure 23, parts a and b, two such mounds show (by dark spots) the wearing away, or undercutting, by wind erosion. Also, note the wind erosion on the side in the diagrammatic section of an- other mound, as shown in part c. Part c shows, in cross section, the layers of materials in one of these bird mounds. Note that the first layer under the vegeta- tion consists of lava sand, or ash. Beneath the first layer are the alternating layers, in increasing width toward the center, of black soil and rotted moss. This was, of course, a fairly crude field examination, with no opportunity for more precise analysis of materials. But the drifting volcanic ash on nearby Ogliuga, pil- ing up in mounds around the pioneering clumps of vegetation, suggested a process that may also have operated on Kavalga 26 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE ./■.'JM'-.''.. wk b !■ ^|i //^'w Figure 23. — Mounds on Kavalga Island (July 1937). a and b, undisturbed mounds, c, cross-section of a mound: 1, wind erosion to black soil; 2, vegetation on surface; 3, lava sand 21/4 inches; 4, black earth % inch; 5, rotted moss 1^/4 inches; 6, black earth V4. inch; 7, rotted moss 2 inches; 8, black earth 1 inch; 9, rotted moss 21/2 inches; 10, black earth 41/2 inches; 11, rotted moss 12 inches plus. to initiate the formation of the so-called bird mounds. Possibly, the creation by the wind of these miniature dunes, together with the perching of birds thereon, are both involved in the formation of these mounds. Wind erosion is very severe on some exposures. In places, the wind had eroded the soil in troughs, undermining the vegetative turf to form a crude type of terracing. The woody roots of crow- berry had been exposed and were already supporting a thin coat- ing of lichens. With such constant wind action, one wonders how the vegetation became established in the first place. As shown in part c, wind erosion apparently had affected only the outer layer. Marine vegetation is well represented by the kelp beds, which consist of a considerable variety of seaweeds that are prevalent throughout the Aleutian district. The kelp is, of course, the habitat of numerous marine organisms, and during the summer it furnishes a favorite habitat for the sea otter. These kelp beds disappear in the winter. The oceanic climate of this region, the high humidity and pre- cipitation, and the prevalence of strong winds have combined to shape the vegetative complex that we find in the Aleutian dis- trict. In turn, this complex, together with climatic conditions, topography, and the rich marine fauna, has influenced the compo- sition of the indigenous fauna. Bird An effort was made to ascertain the Aleut names for birds and nammals. There are difficulties in such an undertaking, because )ne must be certain that both investigator and native informant are talking about the same bird. To make sure of this, a de- 5cription of the bird and its calls and habits was supplemented ,vith a colored illustration by Allan Brooks, which was obtained Tom the National Geographic Magazme, and in numerous in- stances actual specimens were used for identification. In spite of jill these precautions, it was necessary to guard against confu- l^ion in the minds of the natives because not all of them know i;heir birds perfectly. This is particularly true of the more east- ern communities, which are farthest removed from a primitive itvay of life. The most accurate information was obtained from |:he Attn people living at the extreme western end of the island l?hain. j There also is difficulty both in accurately hearing names spoken !3y natives, and in ivriting them adequately. Not being familiar jkvith the technique of the ethnologist, I have used the English jilphabet to represent the sounds of Aleut words as closely as loossible. The endings of Aleut words, or syllables, are also a oroblem, because they are very soft, often somewhere between h and ch, and sometimes have a soft r sound included. Final ch, as used here, is the same as in the German Buck. R is guttural, [glided over, and sometimes is accompanied by an h to emphasize i:his quality. /, as in "it." E, as in "let," unless marked long. A, 'is in "Ah." ; There are at least three Aleut dialects, which are indicated jiere as Attn, Atka, and Unalaska. When available, names from Alaska Peninsula, recorded by Wetmore or others, are included. Stejneger's names from the Commander Islands are also given (most of these names are Russian, but some are Aleut). Jochel- 5on has listed a few names, but usually he did not designate the dialect or the exact species. Some of his names cannot be dentified; however, only names that are generally accepted are ased here. A few names in Russian and Chukchi, from the nainland of Siberia, are also given. 27 28 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Without doubt, the Aleut language will disappear, and it ii worthwhile to record the names that these people applied to th( species in their native fauna. Too often, the professional ethnolo- gist obtains only the obvious and generalized terms applied to £ fauna; however, primitive societies clearly distinguish various species, almost as precisely as the scientist. Family GAVIIDAE Gav'ia immer: Common Loon Attu: Kah-goo-gich Atka: Kri-giich Qigux (Jochelson) The common loon, often observed on salt water in winter andi in migration, usually is found nesting in interior lakes and pondsi rather than in coastal marshes, but it also breeds throughout the^ Aleutian district. In this connection it is interesting to note that it does not occur in the Pribilofs. Bones of this loon have been identified from Kodiak Island and^ from Little Kiska (Friedmann, 1935, 1937). A specimen was taken by Bretherton on Kodiak (1896), and the bird was re- ported by Chapman at Seldovia (June 30, 1903). Ball (1873) reports a "ColymMis torquatus" at Simeonof Island, in the Shumagins, on September 2, 1873, and further reports (1874) that it breeds on Kiska and is abundant on Amchitka. On July 23, 1925, I noted a pair of common loons, probably nesting, on a pond near Izembek Bay, near the west end of Alaska Peninsula. In 1936, our party saw one of these birds (probably a migrant) on May 11, near Ushagat Island of the Barren Islands group, and on May 23, in Nushagak Bay, we saw six or more. The greatest number of these loons was found on Adak Island, though we also saw them on Amchitka, Kanaga, and Kiska. In 1937, at least 3 pairs were found on Agattu, and on June 17 of that year we found at least 2 pairs on Semichi Islands, each with 2 small downy young. In this instance, when we disturbed the adults, a glaucous- winged gull swooped down and carried off one of the young. Dall reported that the common loon does not winter in the Aleutians, and Mike Hodikoff, chief of Attu Village, stated that it arrives at Attu Island in April and departs in October. How- ever, during the years 1940 and 1946, Gabrielson found these loons on various islands as far west as Atka in midwinter, and in early spring and summer they were "common" or "plentiful' in numerous localities throughout the entire Aleutian district. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 29 Also, Cahn (1947) found this loon "not uncommon in winter in Captains and Makushin Bays" of Unalaska Island, and he noted it also in Iliuliuk Bay; the latest date was March 3. Gavia adamsii: Yellow-billed Loon Russian, Commander Islands: Bolschoj gagara (Stejneger) Russian, latitudes of Yana : Gagara Bolschaja gagara (Pleske) Chukchi: Uvanketsjouku (Palmen) It is extremely rare in this district. Herbert Friedmann (1934, 1935, 1937) has recorded bones of the yellow-billed loon from middens on Kodiak Island, on Amaknak (near Unalaska), and on Little Kiska Island in the western Aleutians. A specimen was collected at Kodiak by Bischoff in 1868, and Fisher obtained an adult male in 1881. We did not observe this species on our expeditions, but the -"hief of Attn seemed to recognize pictures of the bird and said it occurs in his home area occasionally. Stejneger (1885, 1887) considered it to oe a rare winter visitor in the Commander Is- lands, where he obtained one specimen and saw another. The bird he obtained was found on glare ice. unable to rise; evidently, it had mistaken the ice for water. According to published accounts, this loon migrates along the Alaskan coast, from southeastern Alaska, west and north through Bering Strait. Presumably, the fall migration is the reverse of this. Several specimens are recorded from the Pribilofs (in May and August) as transients. In the spring of 1924, I obtained a specimen from an Eskimo at Hooper Bay and was informed that these loons pass that point in migration. It is likely, however, that the yellow-billed loon migration is not confined to the Alaskan coastline. In the autumn of 1924, several natives along the Koyukuk River in interior Alaska assured me that the yellow- billed loon passes through there in migration, though it does not nest there. They seemed well acquainted with the species as it was described to them, having particularly noted the light-colored bill. Therefore, the yellow-billed loon, nesting in the far north, is widely scattered in migration and occurs as a transient in the Aleutian, Commander, and Pribilof Islands. Gov/o arcfica: Arctic Loon Gavia arcfica pacifica Russian: Gagara We could obtain no Aleut name for this species. The Russsian name for loon in the general sense seems to have been adopted 30 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE by the Aleuts, so that we find Bretherton (1896) and Turner reporting different forms of this word as the Aleut name for loon in general, and Nelson applying it to the red-throated loon. The Arctic loon is widely distributed, nesting commonly on parts of the coastal plains of Bering Sea and the Arctic Ocean, as well as in many inland localities. It is quite common on the east- ern portion of Alaska Peninsula, but it becomes exceedingly rare to the westward, as the following records show, Bretherton and Bent report them nesting on Kodiak Island, and Cahalane (1943) found them to be common in the Kodiak- Afognak group in 1941. Friedmann (1935) records bones at various levels in archeological diggings on Kodiak, this indicating a regular occurrence over a long period. Writing of his observations on the Alaska Peninsula in 1940, Cahalane (1944) says. We found this species common on the Naknek River September 3, and at Brooks Lake September 9. . . . On the western shore of Shelikof Strait, I recorded loons as "common" between Amalik and Katmai Bays, October 4, and "abundant" on the following day in Amalik and Kinak Bays and Geo- graphic Harbor. He also observed them off Cape Nushagak, October 7, but he adds, "They were absent from the interior of the Alaska Penin- sula, even where suitable habitats existed." These observations were made chiefly in the migration period, when Arctic loons are strikingly abundant along the Alaskan coast. On May 18, 1937, as we were approaching Valdez, Pacific loons were scattered widely over the water of the fjord. We counted at least 75 at one time. One loose flock contained 50 loons. In 1940, Gabrielson observed 30 or more pairs, as well as scat- tered individuals, on Kvichak River, July 23, and he noted 2 of these birds at the upper end of Iliamna Lake on July 24. On July 7, 1946, he noted a loon at Port Moller. Jaques (1930) found them to be common near Port Moller, June 1-23, 1928. On May 29, 1936, I noted at least eight pairs, apparently preparing to nest, among the ponds bordering the lower reaches of Ugashik River, but they are scarce at the west end of the peninsula. Farther west, these loons are less numerous. Among the Aleu- tians proper, we did not identify a single Arctic loon during two seasons of extensive field work and a third season of hasty recon- naissance. The chief of Attn Village did not recognize pictures of the bird and declared that no such bird occurs there. Donald H. Stevenson, former warden in the Aleutian Islands National Wildlife Refuge, reported them as "not common." His only spe- FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 31 cific record is the mention of two birds that he saw at Unalaska Harbor, October 15, 1920, which he thought were of this species. Austin H. Clark (1910) mentions only one bird, which was seen on a lake on Agattu Island in 1906. Turner, however, reported this loon, under the name of Uri- nator pacificus, as a common lareeding bird in the Near Islands (1885), and, later (1886), he specifically reported one at Attu in the winter of 1880-81 and said that they nested commonly on Semichi Islands. Using the name Urinator ai^cticus, he said that this species was to be found among the Aleutians at any time of year, and he mentions seeing one at Amchitka Island in June. These reports of Turner are rather surprising, and certainly they are not in accord with more recent findings. We had abun- dant opportunity to examine Agattu, Semichi, and Amchitka Is- lands, which were specifically mentioned by Turner, and though we found the common loon and red-throated loon, we did not see an Arctic loon. Stejneger did not record it for the Commander Islands, and it has not been recorded for the Pribilofs. Gavia arctica viridigularis is known to be an occasional Old World straggler from Siberia to Alaska, and it has been recorded on the Pribilofs. Turner recorded two forms for the Aleutians, therefore it might be expected that viridigularis has occurred among those islands. However, in view of the confusion that has existed over the identity of the American forms of this loon, and because of its complete absence from the Aleutians, in recent years at least, a reported occurrence should be well authenti- cated before being accepted, Gavia stellafa: Red-throated Loon Attu: Ka-ka-dra-cha or Ka-da-dra-ka Atka: Ka-kach Russian, Commander Islands: Gargara (Stejneger) Russian, latitude of Yana: Gagara (Birula) ; Malaja gagara (Birula) Chukchi: Jouku (Palmen) As previously mentioned, the Russian word "gagara" is used by natives in various parts of coastal western Alaska. This, and the Aleut names, are imitations of the call of this loon. The red-throated loon is the most abundant and widespread loon in the North, especially on coastal areas, and it occurs on both shores of Bering Sea. On the basal portion of Alaska Penin- sula it appears to be less abundant. Neither Gabrielson nor Cahalane reported seeing it there, although they observed the 32 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Pacific loon. We did not observe them there on our expeditions Osgood (1904) records a pair on Chulitna River, August 12 1902, and he observed a few others "at comparatively long in- tervals" on the Chulitna and Kakhtul Rivers; however, he add{ that "they were far exceeded in numbers by the Pacific loon.' McKay had collected specimens at Nushagak, and Friedmann haj recorded the bird from Kodiak Island. At the western end of Alaska Peninsula, however, red-throatec loons were abundant. They were noted in some numbers on Izem- bek Bay in 1925. Turner (1886) found them to be abundant ir the Aleutians and records them nesting on Atka, Semichi, anc Agattu. We found these loons to be plentiful on Semichi, Agattu and Amchitka, and we noted them on Sanak, Adak, Tanaga Kiska, and Attu. Gabrielson records them on Attn, Amchitka and Izembek Bay. Friedmann and Cahn also recorded the bird from Unalaska. They are present on all islands that bear suit- able nesting ponds, and many of these red-throated loons spend the winter in the Aleutians. Stejneger and Hartert report this loon as "abundant" and breeding "frequently" in the Commander Islands. Clark also noted a pair on Bering Island in 1906. Family PODICIPEDIDAE Pod'iceps gr'isegena: Red-necked Grebe Podiceps grisegena holbolUi Friedmann (1935) records a bone, as well as several skins, from Kodiak Island. Cahalane (1943) recorded these birds as numerous in Uyak Bay and recorded a few in Kupreanof Strait. He also observed 2 birds on Brooks Lake, in the Katmai region,, on September 9, and he observed 4 or 5 on the lower Naknek River on September 28. He stated, "On Shelikof Strait, the species was abundant between Katmai and Kinak Bays on Oc- tober 4 and 5, and off Cape Nukshak on the 7th." On May 29, 1936, we found one of these birds in a pond, ap- parently nesting, near lower Ugashik River, and another was swimming in the river. A little farther west, in ponds near Port Moller, Jaques (1930), reports several, June 4 and 20, 1928, and Gianini (1917) observed several at Stepovak Bay in June 1916. On April 28, 1925, I obtained a specimen at False Pass, at the extreme tip of Alaska Peninsula, and on July 21, 1925, I found an adult with two young in a pond near Moffet Cove, at FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 33 the east end of Izembek Bay, thus positively establishing the species as a nesting bird that far west. The bird was heard call- ing in the evenings. In 1942, Gabrielson observed this grebe at Cold Bay, and on October 20, 1943, he obtained a specimen at Kodiak and obtained two more in September and October 1946. There are a number of records for Unalaska. Turner mentions two specimens from there. There is a specimen in the Natioixal Museum that was taken by Dall at Unalaska, December 14, 1871, and Donald H. Stevenson inforaied me that this grebe occurred on the salt water at Unalaska, chiefly in the fall. Laing (1925) also reports it at Unalaska and at Atka. More recently, Cahn (1947) reported this grebe as not un- common at Atka in November, December, and January. There are a few records of the red-necked grebe west of Unalaska, though we have no positive data on nesting. Taber (1946) observed a flock of about 50 at Adak Island on November 25 and observed another large group December 16 — this group disappeared by December 25, These sightings were on the salt water of Bering Sea. On June 18, 1936, we observed a pair as they arose from the salt water near the northeast shore of Seguam Island. We have no record of its occurrence west of Adak, but Stejneger (1885) described it as a rare straggler in the Commander Islands, where he obtained a specimen. Hartert also (1920) considered it a straggler in the Commander Islands, where he obtained three specimens. Podiceps aurifus: Horned Grebe This little grebe is found sparingly in the Aleutian district, and there is no evidence that it nests there. Friedmann (1935) found osseous remains in a collection of bones from Kodiak Island and lists nine specimens taken there, most of which were taken in the winter months. On October 1, 1940, Cahalane (1943) recorded several grebes in Viekoda and Terror Bays, Kodiak Island. Referring to the Katmai region of the Alaska Peninsula, he reports one horned grebe on Brooks Lake, September 9, 1940; he found them scarce west of the Aleutian Range. On the east side, however, he found them abundant and observed "great numbers" in early October along the Shelikof Strait coast of Katmai National Monument, as well as in most of the inlets from Katmai to Kinak Bay. Osgood (1904) recorded several small grebes, assumed to be this species, at Becharof Lake, October 34 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 6-7, 1902, and McKay obtained a specimen at Nushagak, June] 21, 1881. Gabrielson noted two specimens at King Cove, March 25,J 1942. He obtained a specimen at Kodiak in October 1944 and obtained three more in 1946. On our expeditions we saw no horned grebes in the Aleutian] Islands, but we observed several at Port Chatham, Kenai Penin- sula, on May 6, 1936, and observed two at Ushagat Island, of the Barren Islands group, 5 days later. However, there are a few records for the Aleutian chain.! Laing (1925) saw about a dozen horned grebes at Unalaska,] presumably in early spring judging from his itinerary. Bailey I (1925) records two specimens taken by Hendee at Unalaska, September 21, 1922. Cahn (1947) reports on this bird at Un- alaska: ''Seen sparingly in any of the bays during December and January, always solitary and rather shy. December 2, 1943, and February 21, 1946 are the extreme dates of record." Turner; (1886) reports seeing a grebe at Attn that he suspected wasi auritus, but states that he did not observe it in the Aleutians in the summer, "and at no time to the westward of Unalaskai Island." However, on July 1, 1946, Gabrielson noted one hornedi grebe on Amukta. Taber (1946) noted them in small numbersi on the salt-water lagoons at Adak Island throughout the period of his observations and mentions specifically the dates November 22 and January 9. The bird noted by Turner at Attu might well have beeni auritus, because Stejneger (1885) obtained a skeleton of one ini the Commander Islands, though he considered it rare. Hartert (1920) also records two horned grebes wintering on the Com-i mander Islands. There is no evidence that the horned grebe nests in the Aleutian district, but, according to these records of its occurrence, it evidently winters in those waters. Family DIOMEDEIDAE Diomedea n'igripes: Black-footed Alba+ross Attu: A-la-gri-gich or Ah-la-gri-gich Atka: A-ga-lig-ahh or Ah-ga-lig-ach Agligax (Jochelson) This is the albatross common in the North Pacific during our summer season, at least from May to October. The earliest dates that I have noted this bird were April 20-23, 1925, in the open FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 35 sea from Ketchikan to the western part of Alaska Peninsula. The black-footed albatross occurs commonly in the Gulf of Alaska ; it was observed in the vicinity of Kodiak, and frequently along the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian chain, though it rarely was observed near land. This albatross also was seen in the waters of Bering Sea, just north of Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutians. We found these birds particulary plentiful at the Petrel Banks, north of Semisopochnoi Island. Laing (1925) re- ports them "about 100 miles north of Kyska Island." Though these birds were usually far offshore, there are two places where they came near land — Seguam and Kiska Islands. Nelson (1887) was of the opinion that the northern limit of distribution was considerably south of the Aleutians and quotes T. H. Bean to the effect that latitude 51° marked the northern limit. Turner (1886), on the other hand, stated that the species is quite a common bird in some localities north of the Aleutian Islands. In Bristol Bay in June. 1878, I saw numbers of them in the vicinity of Cape Newenhani . . . Toward the western Aleutian Islands they are not common but are frequently met. It is not certain that this albatross ranged beyond latitude 51° N, in the past, nevertheless it does so today, and, at least in the Bristol Bay region, it reaches nearly to latitude 58° N. Further consideration of albatross distribution will be found in the dis- cussion of the short-tailed albatross. An interesting story was told to me by several old natives at Atka Island. They insisted that albatrosses used to nest in small numbers on Bobrof Island, on top of the mountain, in ivinter. Judging by the descriptive gestures of one informant, icicles formed on their beaks while the birds were incubating. This is indeed a strange legend. It seems unbelievable that any of these albatrosses could have tried to nest in the Aleutians, but at least these Aleuts were talking about the proper nesting season. If I correctly understood the information given me by the Aleuts, they do not distinguish two species of albatrosses in the islands, possibly assuming that nigripes is the young of albatrus, in which case this story might more properly apply to albatnis. A female D. nigripes collected June 17, 1936, near Seguam Island weighed 614 pounds and had a wingspread of 85 inches. The black-footed albatross is said to feed on whatever be- comes available at the surface of the water, including refuse from ships — this is true for our experience in the Aleutians. On one occasion, a dozen were following our ship; they were attracted by fish offal thrown overboard by the sailors, who 36 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE were cleaning codfish, At times, we saw the albatrosses, ac- companied by shearwaters and auklets, feeding in tide rips. Cottam and Knappen (1939) reported on two stomachs of the black-footed albatross from the Aleutians. One stomach contained fish (mostly Scorpaenidae) , 35 percent; remains of 6 or more squids, 55 percent; sea urchin, 2 percent; brown algae, 8 percent. The other stomach contained fish (mostly Scorpaenidae) 92 per- cent; Gammaridae, 1 percent; brown algae, 7 percent. In 1941, Loye Miller (1942) found, in the course of experi- mental food studies off the coast of southern California, that "the greatest gooney appeal was provided by bacon drippings which had congealed to semisolid state." For better handling of this bait material, it was mixed with puffed rice before cooling. He remarked further that "Bacon grease seems to throw the birds almost into a frenzy. Some of them rushed right up under the overhang of the poop." Miller summed up his findings as follows: The most attractive bait discovered is animal fat. Bacon fat was superior to beef suet. The semisolid gelatin settling out from roast beef drippings was of no interest at all and was neglected after the first taste. Taste buds in the tip of the bill appear to be highly sensitive and discriminative. The turpentine-linseed flux of paints used in marking is very repugnant and seemed to be recognizable by odor before actual contact was made. I was repeatedly impressed by their seeming acuity of olfactory perception. He noted, further, that in subsurface feeding the albatross would tip up, or actually submerge to a depth of at least 2 feet with wings partially spread. This suggests a trait similar to that of the slender-billed shearwater, though the latter is capable of descending to a depth of many fathoms, Diomedea albafrui>: Short-tailed Albatross Kodiak : Kay-mah-rye-erk (Nelson) As mentioned above, the Aleuts apparently do not have separate names for the two species of albatross. At least one Aleut identified albatrus as the adult bird, nigripes the young. Thus, the Aleut nomenclature is confusing, and the names already given for the black-footed albatross might apply equally well to the short-tailed albatross. We are concerned here with what appears to be an extinct bird. We had thought that a few remained in the Aleutiar district, but when the one specimen we collected in 1937 proved to be imniutabilis, serious doubt was thrown on the possibility that any of the light-colored birds were albatnis. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 37 Bering Sea appeared to be the particular domain of the short- tailed albatross in summer. Nelson (1887) defined its summer range from 50° N. latitude northward through Bering Sea as far as Bering Strait. He reported them in the Aleutians and quotes T. H. Bean as having found them around the Gulf of Alaska, but he considered the mouth of Cook Inlet and the vicinity of the Barren Islands as their favorite resort. Nelson "found them very common between the islands east of Unalaska" during May 1877. Turner also found them plentiful among the Aleutians, as well as at Cape Newenham in the Bristol Bay region. Friedmann, who has examined bones unearthed from ancient village sites on Kodiak, Amaknak, Unalaska, Little Kiska, Atka, and Attu Islands, found numerous remains of this alba- tross, but he found no remains of nigripes. They are reported to have been abundant in the vicinity of the Pribilofs when whalers were active there, and they became scarce when whaling was abandoned. Austin H. Clark (1910), writing of his expedition in 1906, reported that — We first saw this species about 100 miles east of Unalaska on the day before our arrival at Dutch Harbor. On the next day, two were seen near the Aleutian chain, one of them within five miles of the islands. Two more were seen between Attu and Copper Island, on June 12; on the 20th one was observed about 20 miles off the Kamchatka coast, and the next day another in the Okhotsk Sea, near the mouth of the Aangan River. On October 1 this species was very common about the southern end of the Kurils, on both the inside and outside of the chain. Clark believed that the birds were more abundant than these notes indicate, because they are very shy and not readily observed. Stejneger (1885) reported that the species is not a rare visitor to the Commander Islands, and he, too, considered them "re- markably shyer than D. nigripes." Nelson (1887) also considered them shy, though "natives of Alexandrovak sometimes spear them from their kayaks." According to Otto Geist (in Murie 1936), in earlier days, near St. Lawrence Island, these birds "... were often caught on the pack ice near the island. This was often easy because the birds were very fat and could hardly make their way in the air." Today, the short-tailed albatross is rare, or extinct. Although Nelson had reported it as common in Bering Strait and noted it at St. Lawrence Island, in 1887, Otto Geist, in the course of archeological work on St. Lawrence Island from 1926 to 193'5, did not see this bird. However, bones were found in excavations, 38 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE and natives stated that it had been present in considerable num- ber^ at one time (Murie 1936). Bent (19^2) reports that he did not observe this bird during a cruise along the Aleutian chain in June 1911. Laing (1925) obsei-ved two whitish albatrosses at a distance in the Kuriles in 1924, but he saw no others during two crossings of the North Pacific. In the course of many voyages across the Gulf of Alaska after 1920, I never saw a short- tailed albatross. In 1936 and 1937, we cruised about the Barren Islands several times and saw none, although this had been considered to be a favorite area for them by T. H. Bean. It appears, then, that at one time the short-tailed albatross was plentiful in the Aleutian district and Bering Sea region in general, but that the population had suffered a drastic reduction in numbers, probably about 1900 or a little later. Austin (1949) has indicated that Japanese fishei*men and plume hunters were responsible for the destruction of this species on its nesting grounds. But it seems that the decline began long ago. Did the plume trade affect this species, as it affected the Laysan albatross ? Whatever the facts might be, the concentrated nesting of a species on one or on a few small islands constitutes a serious hazard to its perpetuation. There is a puzzling problem in distribution revealed by Fried- mann's work on bones found in ancient village sites. All bones found on the Aleutian Islands proved to be those of D. albatrus, and not those of D. nigripes. This indicates that in earlier times D. alhatrus was the common bird of the region and that D. nigripes was scarce or absent, at least close to the coast. Even at Kodiak Island, though there were some bones of D. nigripes, Friedmann found numerous bones of D. albatrus, thus confirming early reports of this bird's abundance in those more easterly waters. Friedmann's findings from midden material, therefore, lend some support to Bean's designation of 51° N. latitude as the northern limit of range of D. nigripes, even though Turner states that he saw this bird as far north as Bristol Bay. Otherwise, at least a few bones of this bird would have appeared in middens. In his study of the distribution of these two forms off the California coast, Loye Miller (1940) did not find nigripes in channel waters near the coast, but found them farther out; how- ever, there is evidence that albatrus did occupy the channel waters chiefly. He quotes Willett to that effect, and remarks: "The two birds seem to have divided the territory between them, as it were." He states, "I have taken from the channel Indian FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 39 mounds great number of their [D. aJbatrms] bones, but never any of D. nigripes." Here, we have a parallel with the situation in the Aleutians. In both areas (California and the Aleutian district), only the short-tailed albatross occurs in middens, except for some over- lapping of the two species at Kodiak. Is it possible that in early times D. alhaUnis was the species that came closer to land and was therefore more available? Apparently, in the north, too, these two species had "divided the territory between them." We need to know more about the whitish birds being seen today in the Aleutian district. Are some of these birds the remnants of the vanishing short-tailed albatross, or are they all Laysan albatrosses? If they are the latter, will that species eventually take over the range of albatms ? Turner, in writing of the short-tailed albatross, mentions two birds that were killed at Attn in the latter part of March, 1881. He claimed that "this species passes the winter in this locality and may be found, during very severe weather, about the western end of Attu." And he believed that it nested somewhere in that region, which also was the belief of the Attu chief at the time of our visit there. Nelson mentions a specimen, obtained by Dr. Bean, that had a wing spread of 88 inches. Diomedea immufabilis: Laysan Albatross We had not suspected that this bird occupied the Aleutian district until a specimen, collected near Ulak island, July 31, 1937, eventually proved to be of this species. On the field trip, we had assumed this specimen to be D. albatrus, and on the basis of that assumption we had recorded our observations on white albatrosses as albatrus. However, because Oliver Austin has pointed out the extreme scarcity of specimens ©r certain records of the short- tailed albatross in recent years, and suggests its probable extinc- tion, there must remain doubt about the records on our expedition. This, of course, throws much doubt on the possible existence of albatrus in the Aleutians today, but I shall record our observations for what they are worth, keeping in mind that the species ob- served was in doubt in each instance. In these seasons of field work, we occasionally saw white- colored albatrosses throughout the Aleutian islands. In 1936, we saw one between Seguam and Chagulak Islands on June 21. On July 31, we saw another sitting on the water between Buldir and 40 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Kiska Islands, and, later in the evening, we saw one nearer to Kiska Island. In 1937, we saw them oftener: On May 31, 1 north of Seguam; on June 2, at least 3 west of Atka; on June 3, several near the Petrel Banks and 2 between Kiska and Segula ; on June 17, 1 east of Semichi Islands; on June 18, 1 east of Buldir; and, on July 31, 1 specimen was taken at Ulak Island, 178° W. longitude. In 1938, Scheffer reported the following: On August 11, 4 were seen south of Atka, 3 of these in 1 group ; August 14, 1 was seen south of Khwostof; August 17, 1 was seen northwest of Semichi ; August 25, 1 was seen south of Tanaga ; and, on Septem- ber 23, 1 was seen in the Gulf of Alaska off Cape Hinchinbrook. On June 9, 1940, Gabrielson observed a white albatross fol- lowing the ship in the Gulf of Alaska. In 1941, he saw the following: February 3, 1 was sighted near Amchitka, and on February 7, 2 were seen near Amchitka Pass; June 24, 1 was seen at Tanaga Bay ; June 27, 1 was seen near Amchitka ; and on July 22, 2 were seen near Attu. Were all these birds the Laysan albatross, the same as the one specimen collected, or were some, or most, of them albatr-us? The specimen collected weighed 4 pounds 6 ounces. Its length was 301/2 inches, and wingspread was 77%, inches. During 1947, 1948, and 1949, on crusies for the Fish and Wildlife Serice in North Pacific waters, Karl W. Kenyon (1950) made noteworthy observations on albatross distribution. Alert to the confusion in sight identifications of light-colored birds, he gave close attention to field characteristics. On October 13, 1948, Kenyon saw a Laysan albatross about 230 miles east of Kodiak, and Captain Carlson said that during 5 round trips to the Pribilofs he often saw 1 or 2 of the white albatrosses with the black wings and back at about this same place while crossing the Gulf between Kodiak and Cape Spencer but not in the Bering Sea. Kenyon records a number of other sightings in the North Pacific, but south of the Aleutian chain. He received parts sal- vaged by Elmer C. Hanson from two dead birds at the Army air base at Amchitka, June 5, 1948, which were sufficient for identification as Laysan albatrosses. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 41 Family PROCELLARIIDAE Puffinus tenuirosfris: Slender-billed Shearwater Attu: A-la-mach Kussian, Commander Islands: "Tschornij Glupisch" (Stejneger) In summer, the slender-billed shearwater is distributed widely- over the North Pacific and throughout the Bering Sea. On the Gulf of Alaska, we observed them often, singly or in small groups. Some of the birds that we thought to be slender-billed shearwaters may have been the sooty shearwater, P. griseus. At Kodiak Island, however, P. tenuirostris has been identified, and we obtained a specimen there in 1936. Shearwaters, believed to be this form, were noted May 10, 1936, near the entrance to Cook Inlet; one was noted near Barren Islands on May 11; they were numerous between Sutwik Island and Cape Kumlik on May 14, and there was a flock at the entrance to Chignik Bay. On May 15, a few were seen near Nagai Island, in the Shumagins; on August 29, some were noted near Simeonof Island in this group, and some were noted between that point and the main- land; next day, between Kupreanof Harbor and Chignik, more were sighted. Again, on September 1, we passed through dense masses of shearwaters north of Karluk, in Shelikof Strait. These birds occur also on the north side of Alaska Peninsula and were seen as far east as the entrance to Bristol Bay. Slender-billed shearwaters occur all through the Aleutian Islands, with their center of abundance apparently at the eastern end of the chain, among the Fox Islands. Unimak Pass is a favorite feeding place, with large concentrations also observed in other places as far as the western end of Umnak Island. Many published accounts describe the hordes of shearwaters observed at various times. Arnold (1948), during an hour and a half, June 9, 1944, recorded 160,000 shearwaters in Unimak Pass. Probably the most outstanding was the flock noted by Scheffer in Umnak Pass on September 3, 1938. He says, in his field report: In the Pass we saw the greatest concentration of shearwaters that we have ever seen in the Aleutians. Captain Sellevold remarked that it was the greatest in his experience. The Pass is 3 miles wide. We estimated that the raft of birds extended for 25 miles by 2 miles wide, or an area of 50 square miles. From 5:30 a. m. to 8:00 a. m. the ship passed through dense masses of the birds, about half of them on the water and half flying back and forth ... At 5 p. m. the birds had thinned out by more than half. Apparently this bird is much less abundant to the westward, though in 1941 Gabrielson saw "thousands" at Attu and "several 42 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE thousands" at Atka. Stejneger (1885) considered it rather scarce in the Commander Islands. It appears to be relatively scarce in Bering Sea north of the Aleutian chain, though it does range far northward. In 1944, Gabrielson saw "thousands" between St. Matthew and Nunivak Islands and a "scattering of birds" be- tween St. Matthew and Adak. Nelson (1887) mentions a specimen obtained by Dall in Kotzebue Sound in 1899 and adds, "just northwest of the straits, the last of August, 1881, quite a number of dark-plumaged birds v/ere seen, with many Rodgers's fulmars, which appeared to differ m size and appearance from the latter, and which I am inclined to think belonged to this species," Nelson records the Eskimo name for the slender-billed shearwater in Kotzebue Sound, thus showing that it must habitually occur there. A number of specimens have been taken at St. Lawrence Island in recent years (Murie 1936). The Eskimos of this island have certain taboos in connection with eating the bird. A specimen is recorded from the Pribilofs. According to Bent (1922), the northward migration is mainly in the western Pacific-, and the southward migration is in the eastern Pacific. He says they occur in the Okhotsk Sea, as well as in Bering Sea. Slender-billed shearwaters will feed on refuse from a ship's galley. On August 10, 1937, three of these birds came up to the stern of our ship as we drifted in the fog. They readily ate bits of beef and fish thrown overboard. They would dive for pieces that sank, keeping wings half opened, but propelling them- selves entirely by their feet under water. Apparently they can go to a considerable depth ; they would sometimes pursue a baited fishhook thrown in for cod and remain underneath for a considerable length of time. On two occasions we watched a shearwater pursue an injured codfish that had been discarded by the sailors as being wormy; as the fish wiggled feebly through the water, the bird pursued it and snipped out pieces of the gills from the still-living fish. But probably the most important food of the shearwater con- sists of crustaceans and other small invertebrates. On numerous occasions they joined with fulmars and auklets in the turbulent tide rips, where all were busy feeding. Sample tows taken in such places revealed a greater quantity of plankton than in adjacent areas unoccupied by birds. In this connection, it may be significant that the center of abundance of shearwaters in the Aleutians today coincides fairly well with localities where whales were once particularly abundant — in the Fox Island group. Per- FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 43 haps both birds and whales were attracted by the swarming in- vertebrate life. Cottam and Knappen (1939) reported on 10 stomachs of this species that were collected in Alaska. They tabulated the total contents as follows : Amphipods, 13%; schizopods, 15%; undetermined crustaceans, 20.8%; squid (Loligo sp.) 16.1% ; undetermined marine invertebrate flesh, possibly squid, 29.4% ; and fish, 5.7%. Gravel was found in each stomach and averaged only slightly less than 40% of the contents. In their summer range, the only foe of the shearwater that we could discover is the northern bald eagle. The shearwater fur- nishes one of the principal items of the eagle's diet, probably because of its great numbers. These birds also perish in storms, perhaps the storm mortality rate is higher than that caused by natural enemies. Early in September 1937 a heavy rain- storm was raging for several days about Unimak Island. While the storm was still at its height, we began to find dead shear- waters on a strip of beach. They finally totaled over 30 ; one bird was still alive. The birds from this one sample beach may have been representative of the destruction of birds over a large area. In 1925, I frequently found dead shearwaters on the beaches of Alaska Peninsula. On May 31, 1936, as we approached Cave Point on Unimak Island, a lone shearwater was sitting on the water. C. S. Williams shot it for a specimen, and it was found to be poor in flesh. On June 30, 1937, Scheffer shot one that was in a similar condition near Rat Island. As it sat on the water, we noticed that it appeared to be "dumpy." Grinnell (1900) says, "On July 4th, 1899, I secured a single speciment about 4 miles off Cape Blossom. It was resting on the water not far from a small icefloe and was in an emaciated condition." Certainly, there is a mortality element of some sort operating on the shearwater, as on other sea birds. Occasionally, shearwaters come close to land. At least 1 was seen in Nelson Lagoon, and in 1925 they were noticed at the entrances to Izembek Bay, on the Alaska Peninsula, and at least 1 flew over the shallow bay. Some of the large flocks noted in the turbulent waters of various island passes are not far from the rocky points. Chief Hodikoff, of Attu Island, declared that shearwaters formerly nested abundantly on Agattu Island and that a few were seen on Semichi Island in 1932. He said there were "not many" now since the introduction of blue foxes. He stated that 44 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE they nested "on level ground, some in clumps of grass" and that as soon as the young were able to fly they left their nesting grounds. It is interesting to note that, about 1879, Turner was on Amchitka Island with some Attn natives, when they picked up a dead shearwater. The natives told him that the birds "breed plentifully in the Semichi Islands." Though the breeding range of shearwaters is now well established, perhaps we should not entirely ignore native information of this kind. PuffJnus gr'iseus: Sooty Shearwater According to the fourth edition of the Check List of NorthI American Birds, of the American Ornithologists' Union, thei sooty shearwater occurs in the Aleutian and Kurile Islands. Oni all of our expeditions, we scrutinized flocks of shearwaters in am attempt to identify this species among the predominent slender- billed shearwaters. Although we thought that we could seei differences in some instances, positive identification was doubtful.l But, in the series of specimens of shearwaters collected in thei Aleutian district, a single specimen proved to be P. griseus. Nichols (1927), speaking of his voyage between Seattle and the Aleutian Islands, says : Of the sooty shearwater I have no satisfactory identification, but am of thei impression that it replaced the generally common slender bill farthest offi shore at a point midway between the islands and the coast, and to somei extent at least on the east side of the Gulf of Alaska. Pferodroma inexpecfafa: Scaled Petrel Attu: Le-vi-dre-che This petrel has a wide range, but we have little informa- tion on it in the southern Alaskan waters. There is a record for Kodiak Island, a specimen collected by Fisher, June 11, 1882, that served as the type of Ridgway's Aestrelata fisheri. Wetmore collected a specimen at the Alaska Peninsula, August 6, 1911, and while crossing from Cape Muzon to Unimak Pass he ob- served a number of birds that appeared to be of this form. On the same expedition, A. C. Bent also observed the bird in the North Pacific, while sailing to the Aleutian Islands, and Rollo H. Beck, who was a member of the expedition, took a specimen at Kiska Island on June 17. Nichols (1927), speaking of seeing this petrel on his trip from Seattle to Nome, Alaska, says : Seen in the Pacific on 1 day only, August 5, when midway between the islands and the west coast, noon position 53° 36' N., 145° 37' W. They were FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 45 frequent all day, singly and in small groups, a conservative estimate for the total number, 30. We did not see this bird on our expeditions, but at Attu Island the native chief insisted that there was a third petrel, calling it le-vi-dre-che. He said that it is gray in color — if we understood him correctly — but that it is distinct from the forked-tailed and the Leach's petrels, with which he was also familiar and for which he had names. The chief provided some native guides, and we visited two small islets. Cooper and Gibson Islands, which are adjacent to Attu. We searched diligently and hopefully, but we found only the other two species. Inasmuch as it is known to breed in New Zealand, and because the egg dates are "December 24 to January 7" according to Bent, one would not expect to find it nesting in the Aleutians. But in view of the Attu chief's confidence in the matter, there was a possibility that the bird may enter burrows to roost. Pferodroma coo/://; Cook's Petrel Pferodroma cook'ii or'ienfalis A. W. Anthony (1934, p. 77) recorded a specimen of this petrel, postively identified, which was taken at Adak Island by members of the crew of the U. S. S. Kingfisher. It was 1 of 2 such birds that came aboard the ship, and the specimen saved had been sent to the San Diego Zoo in California, where it was placed in the collection of Louis B. Bishop. Fulmarus glacialis: Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis rodgersii Attu : Kil-u-gho6-kin Atka: Ah-ga-luch Probably Russian Commander Islands: Glupisch (Stejneger) The Atka name for fulmar should not be confused with their name for killer whale, which was recorded as A-ga-loh, with shorter syllables. Fulmars are common in the North Pacific and Bering Sea region, though in varying numbers. They are seen on the Gulf of Alaska, in small groups, in company with the black-footed albatross and shearwaters. We found them in Shelikof Strait, between Kodiak-Afognak Islands and the mainland, and farther west near the Shumagins. A few were seen north of the Alaska Peninsula, east to Bristol Bay, and north to Nunivak and Nelson Islands. They were more abundant among the eastern Aleutians, 46 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE and they are fairly prevalent throughout the chain, some having been noted at Wrangell Cape on the west side of Attu Island. Arnold (1948) recorded a concentration of about 38,000 fulmars in Unimak Pass on June 9, 1944. Throughout the Aleutian district, the dark color phase predominates, though some con- centrations of the light phase were encountered. On May 21, 1936, Cecil Williams estimated that 50 percent of the fulmars seen in Unimak Pass were light colored, and that most of those sighted on the north side of Unimak Island were whitish, though there were entire bands of dark ones. It is interesting to recall that Nichols (1927) found "the dark phase to light phase about as 99 to 1" in Shelikof Strait; else- where in the Pacific, it was about 9 to 1 ; near Unimak Pass, the pale and dark birds "were in .about equal numbers ;" and in Bering Sea, they were almost all pale. Nesting Nesting fulmar colonies have been known in the Bering Sea region, on the Pribilofs, where light-colored birds are in the majority; on the Siberian coast opposite St. Lawrence Island; and at Copper Island, where light-colored birds are rare. Nesting places in the Aleutians had been suspected, but they had not been found. It was gratifying, therefore, to find several such colonies in 1936 and 1937, and in 1940 Gabrielson found other colonies east of the Aleutian chain. In 1940 Dr. Gabrielson learned that Sea Otter Island, near Afognak, supports a colony of fulmars. This nesting colony would account for the fulmar flocks so often observed in Shelikof Strait. In the same year, on June 18, he found nesting colonies in the Semidi Islands, and says, "The enormous concentrations of Fulmars, for example, was a great surprise to us, as the colony apparently has developed since the previous exploration." In the Semidi group, he found the fulmars in "huge colonies" on Aghik and Choweit Islands, and there were fulmars also on Kateekuk, Anowik, Kiliktagik, and Suklik Islands. They were mostly of the dark color phase, with an occasional light-colored one. In the Aleutians proper, we had found at least four nesting places. Among these, Chagulak Island is outstanding. As we approached this island on June 15, 1936, it loomed as a peaked mountain top rising sheer from the water. It affords nesting sites for a variety of sea birds, and a swarm of fulmars swirled above its top and milled about its slopes. On the cliffs of the south side there were small recesses in the red crumbly rock FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 47 strata. Each of these recesses was occupied by a fulmar, nesting with a single egg. They nested also on other types of ledges and on the grassy slopes all the way to the snow line. On the same day, we found another large fulmar colony on the neighboring island of Amukta. These two islands have the largest and the principal nesting colonies of fulmars in the Aleutian chain. In 1937, we found fulmars nesting in considerable numbers on the reddish cliffs of Segula Island (also known as Chugul), though this group was not nearly so large as those on Amukta and Chagulak. Another nesting place is Gareloi Island. Natives had assured us that fulmars nest there, though we did not find the birds on the first trip. In 1937, however, we found them in limited num- bers on the south side of the island. According to the natives, their numbers had been decimated, at least on all accessible ledges, since the introduction of the blue foxes. The volcanic eruption of 1930 also disturbed them; however, if the foxes were re- moved, this colony should increase. Natives told us that the fulmars nest on outlying rocks at Unalga Island, southwest of Gareloi, but we found none there in August. They are also reported to nest on Agattu, but we failed to find them. It is highly probable that a nesting colony will eventually be discovered in the general vicinity of Unimak Pass, perhaps on some isolated cliff or islet at Unimak Island, because fulmars are common in that area. A full schedule and bad weather prevented us from exploring that part of the Aleutian chain as thoroughly as we wished. Food Habits We had assumed that fulmars feed to a large extent on plank- ton, for we often found them congregated in tide rips, busily feeding. And Arnold (1948), observing a huge concentration of fulmars and shearwaters in Unimak Pass, found that they — evidently were feeding on a type of reddish-orange water life. On occason, when one of the birds was hard-pressed to leave the area in the immediate vicinity of the ship, it would turn its head down and to one side and regurgitate a reddish-orange liquid substance. However, records show a great variety in fulmar diet, including refuse from ships. A. W. Anthony (1895) has pointed out an interesting feeding habit of the fulmar off the California coast. Speaking of a large jellyfish that is abundant along that coast, he says. 48 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE I have often seen a fulmar sitting on the water by the side of a jellj fish, part of which it had eaten, so filled that it could scarcely move oul of the way of the boat. Specimens shot while these Medusae are commor I have always found with the stomach filled with these alone, and a hali pint of the slimy mass will often run from their mouths when lifted froir the water by their feet. I think the fulmars enjoy a monopoly of this diet, for I have nevei seen other species eating it, nor will gulls, nor any sea birds that I have observed, pay any attention to a fulmar that is eating a jelly fish though they all claim their share if the food is of a kind that they care for. The abundance of the fulmars off this coast would seem to have some relation to the abundance of Medusae, since the winter of 1893-94 was noted for the almost if not entire absence of fulmars as well as jelly fish until some time in late February or March, when both jelly fish and fulmars appeared in small numbers. This is quoted at some length because it reveals an important habit of the fulmar, which also was noted among the Aleutians, where a large brown jellyfish, Cyanea capillata, often proved an; attraction to fulmars. Mortality Factors Aside from the danger from foxes on accessible nesting sites, the only other natural enemy on which we have information is the northern bald eagle. The fulmar appears to furnish an important item in the eagle's diet throughout the Aleutian Islands as a whole, though murres and other species may dominate the^ diet of individual eagle pairs. The drain on the fulmar population by eagles could not be significant, in view of the great variety of birds on which the eagle preys. More important are man's activities, such as the raising of blue foxes. Dead fulmars are found on beaches, but, at present, it is hard to estimate the results of storms or disease. At any rate, we have several large flourishing colonies of fulmars, and those that have been depleted should increase again owing to the protection now being given. Family HYDROBATIDAE Oceanodroma furcafa: Fork-tailed Petrel Oceanodroma furcafa furcafa Attn : A -la-via- go Ke-kech Atka :Ki-ki-tich-noch Russian, Commander Islands: Sturmofka (Stejneger) The Atka name is applied to both this petrel and to Leach's petrel. In 1939, Grinnell and Test separated the forked-tailed petrel into two races, designating the southern form O.f. plumbea, whose range is said to extend northward to "the Alexander FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 49 Archipelago, just short of Cross Sound." Sitka birds proved to be intermediate, but closer to plumbea. In looking over material from the Aleutian district, it is obvious that there is variation in the characters used by Grinnell and Test — size and color (light or dark) — and many Aleutian speci- mens are puzzling in this respect. A specimen from Kodiak is similar to the Aleutian group. One from Ugashik, on the north side of Alaska Peninsula, obviously is furcata. This also is true for two from Nushagak. But a series from Belkofski, on the Alaska Peninsula, are darker than other Aleutian specimens — fully as dark as a series from Forrester Island, Stephen's Passage, Sitka, and Icy Strait — though the Belkofski petrels are larger. Since we are dealing with average characters, it is clear that the birds from the Aleutian district, from Kodiak and Nushagak west to Attu Island, should be called O.f. furcata. It is of interest to note that birds from the Commander Islands and Kamchatka are paler and (on the average) larger than those from the Aleutian Islands. A few from the Aleutians are squally large and pale, and one from as far east as Nushagak is identical with many of the Kamchatka birds. These birds bear Dut Grinnell and Test's statement of an increase in size and a 3olor transition from dark to pale, in the populations from south to north and west. Probably, we should consider the Siberian 3irds as the culmination of this trend toward larger size and paler coloration, and, for the present at least, we should class :hem with furcata of the Aleutian district. The forked-tailed petrel ranges widely over the North Pacific md Bering Sea and is the dominant species among petrels there. From May 29 to June 4, 1911, Wetmore found these birds common )n the Gulf of Alaska. Friedmann (1935) records several speci- mens and eggs from Kodiak. Specimens have been taken at N'ushagak by Hanna and Johnson and have been taken at Ugashik 3y McKay. We observed them in the Shumagin Islands and 'ound them to be abundant throughout the Aleutian chain. ?tejneger (1887) found them nesting in the Commander Islands. Nesting of this species in Bering Sea proper has not been re- Dorted, though the bird occurs far northward. Nelson (1887) 'ound the birds off Nunivak Island in June 1877, but he speaks )f them chiefly as autumnal visitors, as far north as St. Lawrence [sland, Bering Strait, and Plover Bay, Siberia. Two specimens vere secured from Kotzebue Sound. According to Nelson, they ingered in Bering Sea even after the formation of ice, and the Eskimos told him that they were captured on the ice, near air 50 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE holes, in a weakened condition. He saj^s that they were founc on the lower Yukon, and that one was found about 75 miles up the Tanana River, near an air hole in the ice, late in November, These petrels are also recorded from the Pribilofs (Preble anc McAtee 1923). Cahn (1947) reports from Unalaska: "Seen abundantly in the fall and winter far out in Bering Sea." The Aleutians must be considered to be the stronghold of thisi petrel. We found them on most of the islands. Experience taughti us that wherever we found petrel wings left by blue foxes, ori petrel remains in fox droppings, it was safe to assume that the birds nested on the island. The following islands were specifically noted as being nesting places for these petrels: Sanak group. Egg Island (in Akutanl Pass), Uliaga, Kagamil, Chuginadak, Herbert, Yunaska, ChagulakJ Amukta, Amlia (reported by natives), Atka (on Korovin Volcano, reported by L. M. Turner), Salt (until destroyed by fox raising), Kasatochi, Igitkin, Ulak, Bobrof, Tanaga, Ilak (re- ported by natives, but now destroyed by blue foxes), Gareloi, Semisopochnoi, Little Sitkin, Chugul (reported by natives), Kiska, Buldir, Agattu, and Attu, It is almost certain that the birds nest also on most of the other islands — on the Shumagins, and probably on other islands off the Alaska Peninsula. This list serves to show the uniform distribution of these birds. It is well known that the forked-tailed petrel nests underground.^ It may make its own burrow, often as a side tunnel from the wall of the tufted puffin's burrow, or it may nest in natural cavities, such as those found in lava beds. Amukta Island fur- nishes a typical example, where the moss-covered lava formation had neat round holes through the vegetative crust leading in to irregular cavities beneath. Food Habits The forked-tailed petrel is said to skim the oil from the surface of the water near a wounded seal or whale, but we do not have extensive data on its food habits. Preble and McAtee (1923) record one stomach from the Pribilofs that contained a few fish bones. Scheffer made interesting observations at Kagamil Island on August 30, 1938, when about 25 forked-tailed petrels and 3 Leach's petrels were picked up on the deck of the ship. Six piles of regurgitated material on the deck contained broken remains of small fish — the largest was about the size of a man's little finger Mortality Factors The principal enemy of the petrel, so far as our observations) FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 51 go, is the introduced blue fox. Petrels appeared to be especially palatable to these carnivores, or perhaps they are easy prey at their burrows. On Salt Island the species had been entirely elimi- nated by foxes, and this appeared to be true of Ilak, also. Petrels are attracted by ship's lights at night. They flock around the ship, chirping and chattering incessantly, striking the rigging and fluttering about the deck. Often, they get into staterooms, the galley, or other portions of the ship, and some- times in the excitement an egg or two may be dropped on the deck. Joseph Mailliard (1898), writing of the petrels on St. Lazaria Island, Sitka Bay, quotes Grinnell as saying that it was impossible to keep a fire alight in the middle of the night be- cause the petrels flew into it in such numbers that they ex- tinguished it. Oceonodroma leucorhoa: Leach's Petrel Oceanodroma leucorhoa leucorhoa Attn : Ke-Kech Atka : Ki-ki-tich-noch Russian, Commander Islands: Malinka tschornaja sUirmofka (Stejneger) The Russian name given by Stejneger means a small black petrel. Leach's petrel has a more southern distribution than O. furcata and does not range far into Bering Sea. Though it nests throughout the Aleutian chain and on Copper Island, ac- cording to Stejneger, it is much less abundant than the other species. Farther south, it becomes much more abundant. Bent (1922) states that on St. Lazaria Island, at Sitka Bay of Baranof Island, Grinnell and Mailliard estimated that 0. leucorhoa out- numbered O. furcata four to one. They also are extremely nu- merous on Forrester Island. On the Aleutians we found this ratio reversed. Among the remains of petrels left by foxes, those of O. leucorhoa were scarce. The petrel colonies of any size were O. furcata. When flocks of petrels fluttered about the ship's lights at night they were usually furcata, though sometimes there were a few leu- corhoa. It is interesting to note that in 1941 Gabrielson found Leach's petrel outnumbering furcata at Kasatochi Island. There may have been a nesting colony nearby. Thus, we find that these two species more or less inteiTningle in their ranges. But 0. furcata has a more northerly center of abundance, and ranges farther north, while 0. leucorhoa is more concentrated somewhat farther south, and does not reach far into Bering Sea. 52 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE The natives declared that these petrels (probably referring to both species) nest "everywhere," but the following islands are the only ones for which we have precise evidence of nesting of Leach's petrel: Sanak Island group. Egg Island (McGregor, 1906), Amchitka (reported by Dall), Davidof, Kiska, Buldir, Agattu, and Attu. Dr. Gabrielson noted evidence of their presence on Amatuli Island, of the Barren Islands group, June 13, 1940. They were especially numerous on Buldir Island, where we found the greatest number of nesting burrows. No doubt they occur on a great many other islands, as the natives intimated, but probably in such small numbers that they are not easily detected. On Buldir Island, where we had the best opportunity for examination, their burrows were found in the sandy banks above the beach and along a stream, as well as on high grassy slopes, well up on the higher part of the mountain. The burrows extended about arm's length, often with a very small entrance so that it was difficult to insert the hand, but generally there was an en- larged chamber at the end. In sandy soil, the burrows were larger in diameter; in sod, they were much smaller and the en- trance was more obscure. There was a flat nest of dried grass in the end chamber. Usually, there was a single bird in the nest, but in at least 1 burrow there were 2 birds. Food Habits Leach's petrels have been observed following whales for food fragments, and they have been seen picking fish refuse in the vicinity of fishing boats. We obtained no additional data on their food habits. Mortality Factors Foxes prey on these birds where nesting colonies are available. Family PHALACROCORACIDAE Phalacrocorax aur'ifus: Double-cres+ed Cormorant Phalacrocorax aur'ifus cinc'inatus Attu: Ki'ich-tirch Unalaska: T'chung-ahh Of the three species of cormorants nesting throughout the Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands, the double-crested is much less common than the pelagic or the red-faced. It nests on Kodiak Island. Cahalane (1943) reported it to be abundant in the Kodiak-Afognak group, and Gabrielson noted a few at Whale Island and four in Uyak Bay. Probably it nests in the Barren Islands also. Several were seen at Ushagat Island of this group. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 53 on May 11, 1936. On May 7, 1936, we had seen several of these birds on Chisik Island, in Tuxedni Bay, Cook Inlet, obviously preparing to nest. C. J. Rhode noted a colony of about 50 cormorants on islands of Skilak Lake, Kenai Peninsula. Identifica- tion was uncertain, but it is probable that these were double- crested cormorants. Osgood (1904) recorded this cormorant nesting on islands of Iliamna Lake. He saw them flying up and down Nogheling River, and several were seen on Lake Clark (one specimen taken) ; however, he believed few, if any, nested on that lake. He states that from the Mulchatna River near the mouth of the Tikchick to Nushagak these cormorants were seen daily, but not in great numbers. Again, he saw several on Becharof Lake, October 4 to 7, 1902. Cahalane (1944) observed coraiorants, "presumably all of this species" (double-crested), rather commonly in the Katmai region of the Alaska Peninsula in 1940, and he reported them in September on Naknek River, on Naknek Lake, at the south shore of Iliuk Arm, at the mouth of Savanoski River, on Brooks River, and on Brooks Lake. By September 27 and 28, they were relatively scarce on Naknek Lake and River. On the Pacific side, he reported them to be much more numerous and recorded them as "common to abundant" in the bays of the Katmai coast, October 4 to 7. On July 23, 1940, Gabrielson noted 1 or 2 double-crested cormorants on the Kvichak River, and on July 25, he reported 2 more on Iliamna Lake. In the same season, he also noted them at the Semidi Islands. On August 29, 1936, we saw at least two double-crested cor- morants near Simeonof Island, in the Shumagin group. They probably nest among those islands. On May 16 and 17, 1928, F. L. Jaques (1930) saw cormorants, which he thought to be this species, near the Shumagins and near Belkofski. The largest colony of this connorant was found by the writer in 1925, in Isanotski Strait, at the extreme tip of Alaska Penin- sula. On the larger of the two Isanotski Islands, which was not over 150 yards long, there were at least 25 nests in a close group on a grassy slope. On July 27 the nests contained from 2 to 5 eggs, but usually there were 4 or 5. A specimen was collected. It is interesting to note that Beals and Longworth, on June 10, 1941, 16 years later, stated in their field report that "Small colony of 50 or more birds nesting on the most northerly of the two Isanotski Islands." 54 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Donald H. Stevenson, who accompanied me' in 1925, described cormorants nesting on a small island in Swanson Lagoon, on the north part of Unimak Island. His description, and the location of the nesting site, leaves little doubt that a colony of double-crested cormorants were nesting in Swanson Lagoon at that time. Among the eastern Aleutians we found several nesting groups, though they were small in number. On July 16, 1936, we observed five of these cormorants perched on low rocks at one of the little islands (which we designated "Puffin Island") in Trident Bay, Akun Island. On June 7, we had seen about a dozen at the west end of Umnak Island; a specimen was taken here. Nesting was not actually observed in these instances. But on June 8, we found several of these cormorants nesting on Kagamil Island. Some also were found on Uliaga Island near by, and two small colonies were found on Carlisle Island. Seven nests, and a number of birds, were located on Herbert Island. The nests among the Islands of the Four Mountains were on ledges of sheer cliffs and in the walls of high caverns (sometimes very high), which was in great contrast to the nesting on the low Isanotski Islands, observed in 1925. In some cases, these cor- morants were nesting in close proximity to red-faced and pelagic coiTnorants. We observed no double-crested cormorants west of these islands. The natives of Atka assured us that this cormorant does not occur in that part of the Aleutians, We are fairly confident that today this species does not nest west of the Islands of the Four Mountains. Yet, the Chief of Attu appeared to be familiar with this bird; he gave us the native name and declared that formerly it was abundant, though it has become scarce in recent years. Austin H. Clark (1910), writing of his expedition of 1906, said "I have a note of a few [double-crested cormorants] being seen in Unalga Pass near Unalaska, and I found them at Atka, Attu, and Agattu." Turner (1885) also, writing of the Near Islands, reported double-crested cormorants to be abundant, resident, and breeding. Clearly there has been a drastic change in distribution of this species since about 1906, (the time of Clark's notes). The cause of this restriction of range has not been determined. The species P. auritus as a whole is quite versatile in nesting habits. Many of the prominent nesting sites in the northern part of the continental range are on low islands. Elsewhere, cormorants nest in trees and on cliffs as well as on low islands. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 55 Therefore, there must be adaptability in the species. The in- troduction of blue foxes on a large scale in the Aleutians dis- couraged the low-ground type of nesting; therefore, the birds nested in the cliffs in greater numbers. This change in nesting locale of the double-crested cormorant may have resulted in competition with the more agile red-faced and pelagic cormorants. It may be pointed out that in the absence of blue foxes, the double-crested cormorant would nest on low flat ground, away from cliffs — a habitat not usually desired by the other two species. What the human factor might have been in the ecological picture is hard to say, but, under conditions prevailing in recent years, cormorants could hardly succeed in nesting except on well-protected cliffs. Whatever the factors, it is a fact that the double-crested cor- morant has virtually disappeared from the Aleutians west of the group known as the Islands of the Four Mountains. Phalacrocorax pelag'icus: Pelagic Cormorant Phalacrocorax pelag'icus pelag'icus Attu: Kri-li-ti-kch or Kri-li-ti-kich; TiV-i-toch (1-year-old young) Atka: AgW-i-uh (possibly referring to any cormorant species) Agayi'ix (Jochelson) Russian, Commander Islands: Malmky Uril (Stejneger) This is the most abundant cormorant in the North Pacific and Bering Sea region. We found them in the Barren Islands, the Ko- diak-Afognak group, Chisik Island in Cook Inlet, Sutwik Island, Chignik Bay, Shumagin Islands, and along the north side of Alaska Peninsula to Bristol Bay. Hine (1919) said, "Colonies of this cormorant nested on the shelves of the sea wall along Katmai and Kashvik bays during the 1919 season." Osgood (1904) found these birds on Becharof Lake. Gabriel- son found them to be common in the Semidi Islands. We found the pelagic cormorant to be numerous throughout the Aleutian Islands, and they are common in the Commander Islands (Stejneger 1885). This bird has a more northerly distribution than other species, for it occurs on both sides of Bering Sea and as far as the Arctic coast. Ordinarily, this species was the more common in the waters about the Aleutian Islands, though among the birds actually nesting P. urile outnumbered P. pelagicus. There appeared to be a considerable number of nonbreeding P. pelagicus, in subadult plumages. In some cases we found no nests, though the birds were present in considerable numbers. 56 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Usually, the nests were placed on ledges of steep cliffs, thougl- sometimes they were on overhanging walls of caverns well ou1 of reach of the surging water. Only once was a differeni nesting site noted. In 1925, I found an unusual nesting situatior near Izembek Bay at the west end of Alaska Peninsula. On Gler Island, at this bay, on May 20, there was a considerable colonj of P. p. pelagicus in a compact group on a low point. Some oi the birds had white flank patches at this time. On June 1, Steven- son reported that the birds were sitting on nests. On June 26, about 30 nests were counted, but there were no eggs. On July 27, the cormorants were still plentiful at Glen Island, but there had been no success in nesting. The interesting fact in this instance is the unusual nesting site, which was a low sandy point above tidewater. While there had been a few birds in breeding plumage, the majority seemed to be immature birds. Amak Island, with immense cliffs occupied by large numbers of P. urile and only a few P. p. pelagicus, is about 12 to 14 miles out to sea. It was not determined whether this was an abortive attempt at nesting on Glen Island by cor- morants crowded off Amak Island, or whether the birds were immature. Throughout the Aleutian chain, both P. urile and P. p. pelagicus are found nesting on the same cliffs. While the pelagic cormorant is a salt-water bird almost ex- clusively, Osgood found it on Becharof Lake, as noted previously, and natives of Atka Island said these birds will go to the lakes of Amchitka Island in winter. Cahn (1947) reports them at Unalaska as "abundant every- where along the rocky shores from September to May," and Taber (1946) says the species was present at Adak in winter, where they continuously lived in salt water, never in fresh-water lakes. Sutton and Wilson (1946) found them at Attu in the summer and in the winter. Food Habits The food of this cormorant is assumed to be fish, but, according to Preble and McAfee (1923), a considerable percentage consists of various Crustacea, at least in the Pribilofs. Sutton and Wilson, at Attu, obtained a specimen on February 28, and report: "Its stomach and crop were packed with small sculpins which it had caught in water about 15 feet deep along the west side of Casco Cove." I FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 57 Pbalacrocorax urile: Red-faced Cormorant Attu: Ing-a-tohh or Ing-a-torh Atka: Ing-a-tohh Russian, Commander Islands: Bolschoj Uril (Stejneger) Walrus Island, in Bering Sea, has been considered the chief nesting place of the red-faced cormorant in Alaskan waters. It was a surprise, therefore, to find that the red-faced cormorant is the dominant nesting cormorant throughout the Aleutian chain. */ ■ *.' .'' V ^*M Figure 24. — Red-faced cormorant. 58 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE On May 16, 1936, while anchored at Unga, in the Shumagin Islands, we discovered a good-sized colony of red-faced cor- morants on the precipitous cliffs of a rocky point. There were about 300 birds beginning to nest. Some of them were carrying nesting material; many had no nest at all. In our experience, this is the easternmost colony of this species. In 1925, I found a colony on Amak Island, a small conelike island off the west end of Alaska Peninsula in Bering Sea. It was estimated that there were between 4,000 and 5,000 birds nesting on the high cliffs — by far the largest colony known south of the Pribilofs. When visited again in 1936, these birds were still nesting on the same cliffs, many of them carrying nesting material (on May 31). On May 22, 1928, Jaques (1930) ob- served this species near Port Moller. Bogoslof Island is also occupied by .od-faced cormorants, mostly in the form of individuals scattered among a large number of murres. While most of the Aleutian colonies of the red-faced cormorants are very small, there are a few sizable concentrations. On Adokt Island, one of the Baby Islands group in Unimak Pass, we esti- mated 500 nests. There were also large concentrations on certain islets in the Bay of Islands of Adak Island. But in many instances there were small groups, sometimes six or less. Following are the islands, east to west, on which the red- faced cormorant was found nesting: Unga (Shumagins), Amak, Adokt and Excelsior of the Baby Islands group. Egg (probably), Poa, Tangik, Bogoslof, Ananiuliak near Umnak (not certain), Uliaga, Kagamil, Carlisle, Herbert, Yunaska, Chagulak, Amukta, Seguam, Ulak, Kasatochi, Igitkin (probably), Adak, Gareloi, West Unalga, Semisopochnoi, Amchitka, Little Sitkin, Davidof, Kwhostof, Kiska, Agattu, Semichi, and Attn. These birds were identified at other islands, though nests were not actually obseiwed. This gives the red-faced cormorant a fairly uniform distribution as a nesting bird from Unga and Amak Islands, and Port Moller, all the way to Attn, and they are known to nest still farther west, in the Commander Islands. The red-faced cormorant also winters in the Aleutian waters. Mortality Factors Birds which prey on the cormorants are the bald eagle, pere- grine falcon, and glaucous-winged gull. In a study of the food habits of the bald eagle in the Aleutians it was found that cormorants had been taken for food frequently; however, the species of cormorants was not determined. It seemed likely FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 59 that most of the remains that were examined were those of the pelagic cormorant, but no doubt the red-faced cormorant would be taken also where it is available. We found no remains of the double-crested species, but that form is relatively scarce. On Amak Island, several carcasses of red-faced cormorants, probably killed by peregrine falcons that nested nearby, were found beneath the nesting ledges. Falcons are indicated as the predator because eagles would have carried their prey away to their feeding places. Glaucous-winged gulls persistently seek the cormorant's eggs, and they are most successful when the parents are frightened off the nests, thus exposing the eggs to predation. Family ARDEIDAE Ardea herod'ias: Great Blue Heron Ardea herodias fann'ini The heron seldom enters the territory with which we are concerned. Osgood (1901) reports, "A great blue heron was seen at Hope by E. Heller." In the same general vicinity, May 8, 1936, the first mate of our ship reported seeing a heron early in the morning, as we were approaching Anchorage. It was recorded at Portage Bay (Nelson, 1887). So far as we know, then, this heron reaches the western part of its range at about the head of Cook Inlet. Family ANATIDAE Olor columbianus: Whistling Swan Attu : Kon-kirch Qumqix (Jochelson — dialect not given) Atka: Ko-kin-yeh (or ko-kin-e-rech ?) Whistling swans nest on Kodiak Island and in suitable areas along the Alaska Peninsula. Osgood (1904) specifically mentions Swan Lake, Chulitna River, and "upper waters of the Nushagak system, and near the Ugaguk River and Becharof Lake." Einarsen (1922) observed a swan with four young near Ugashik on June 26, 1922, and Jaques (1930) observed eight swans near Port Moller from May 24 to June 14, 1928. While in the Katmai region in September 1940, Cahalane (1944) observed swans "from Kwichak River to Naknek," on tundra pools, on Lake Grosvenor, mouth of Savanoski River, between Iliuk Arm and Mount Katolinat and above New Savanoski Village, 60 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE On July 19, 1940, Gabrielson noted three pairs of swans be- tween Naknek and Brooks Lake, and on July 21, while flying over the country from Becharof Lake to Egagik, by way of Ruth, Ugashik, and Mother Goose Lakes, he saw numerous pairs of swans with 1 to 5 young among the many tundra pools and lakes of this area. According to local residents (1936) , swans nest on small islands in ponds near Ugashik River, and up the river from Nelson Lagoon, At Chignik I was informed that swans nest in Black Lake, the "second lake up Chignik River." Gabrielson was told that they nest in the King Cove-Cold Bay area. In 1925, though none were found nesting, a swan was seen flying over Hazen Point in Izembek Bay on June 13, and on July 23 there was a group of three in a lake near the sand dunes there. In the same year, on April 29 and on several subsequent dates, two were seen at Urilia Bay, on Unimak Island, and a trapper said that he saw a few swans in that locality each year. More recently, we have precise information that swans nest on Unimak Island, for in 1936 we obtained an egg, which, we were told, had rolled out of a nest on Ikatan Flats. The following year we learned that a pair had returned to the same flats. In 1941, Beals and Longworth noted several swans at Unimak Island, and they reported that on August 31 a trapper observed 3 pairs near Swanson Lagoon — eacli pair with 2 young. It is also reported that a pair nested on Ikatan Flats in 1940. Chase Littlejohn (manuscript notes) says, "Only a few seen at Morzhovoi Bay, where I know at least one pair reared their young in 1879. I found them with their parents in a lake still unable to fly on August 29." Swans are not known to nest west of Unimak Island. Dall (1874) reports the killing of three swans at Sanak Island in September 1872 by a sea-otter hunter, who said they were not uncommon there in the fall. Apparently, swans have not been considered a part of the fauna of the Aleutian chain proper. Dall stated that they did not occur there, though Turner said a few wintered on Attu Island. It is possible that conditions have changed, for there is. ample evidence that swans occur on many of the islands — at least in winter. At Atka Island, the natives assured us that swans winter in the Aleutians, and they specifically mentioned Kanaga and Amchitka, where swans had been observed on the lakes. On Amchitka, we found swan remains among the native buildings. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 61 and we learned that about 20 had been killed there the previous winter. We also found swan wings on Semisopochnoi Island, thus show- ing that some had been killed there in winter by native fox trappers. Friedmann (1937) found four swan bones in midden material from Little Kiska. The native chief on Attn Island assured us that swans winter abundantly among the lakes on the south side of that island, occurring in flocks of "eight, ten, to twenty-six." In 1924, the swans were said to have walked among the houses of the village, and, in 1932, "hundreds and hundreds" were seen among the lakes on the south side. Now, they occur only in small numbers. According to the natives, the swans arrive at Attn Island late in October, and they leave late in April. Mortality Factors It is probable that man has been the greatest enemy of the swan, for, under ordinary circumstances, the swan probably is able to protect itself against natural enemies. A trapper at Port Moller, on the Alaska Peninsula, told me that he had seen a swan defend itself against a red fox, and he doubted whether foxes were much of a hazard. Olor buccinator: Trumpeter Swan Quoting Friedmann (1937) on Kodiak Island: "A synsacrum and 2 tarsometatarsi were found in the superficial levels and another tarsometatarsus in the intermediate depths in 1935; in 1936 a metacarpal and the head of a humerus were collected." There are no other records. Branfa canadensis: Canada Goose Branfa canadensis leucopareia Branfa canadensis minima Attu : Legch Atka: Luch or lug-ach, or lagix (Jochelson) Resident whites: layid geese The white-cheeked geese were formerly common migrants throughout the Aleutian Islands area and nested on many of the islands. These populations now (1936, 1937, and 1938) have been universally reduced. The forms of the white-cheeked groups of geese that nest in the Aleutian district is a question that has led to endless confusion. Our latest findings show that leucopareia and minima are so in- extricably associated throughout the Aleutians that it is desir- 62 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE able to discuss them together. As far as we were able to learn, the Aleuts have only one name for this general type of goose. However, the Eskimos at Hooper Bay distinguish between these two forms, and they have a distinctive name for each form. It should be noted here that in much of the previous work with these birds, the name hutchinsi was used to identify the form that we now call leucopareia (A.O.U. Check List) ; and this change has resulted in considerable confusion and misunderstand- ing of the literature. It is certain that 2 forms of the white-cheeked geese nest in the Aleutians, but there is a question about the taxonomic rank to accord these 2 forms. As to considering them races of the same species, I agree with Bent (1925) that "Both the cackling goose [minima] and the Hutchins goose [leucopareia'] are said to breed on the Aleutian Islands, but it seems hardly likely that these two subspecies should occupy the same breeding range." The situation we find here supports Taverner's conclusion (1931) and the findings of Aldrich (1946) that we have two species. Aldrich has proposed that the smaller species includes three subspecies: true hutchinsii (not leucopareia), minima, and asiatica, and that B. canadensis includes the other subspecies of this group. On June 23, 1911, a female was collected on Attu Island by R. H. Beck, which Bent (1925) recorded as minima. On June 13, 1937, John H. Steenis collected a male goose of this group on Agattu Island. These specimens were studied by Aldrich, and he agreed that the Attu specimen was true minima, and that the one from Agattu was equally typical of leucopareia. At Hooper Bay (south of Yukon Delta), we found the Alaskan cackling goose {minima) nesting nearest the sea, while the lesser Canada goose {leucopareia) nested farther inland, though the two nesting ranges were adjacent. Two groups of Eskimos, an inland group and a coastal group, with slightly differing dialects, both recognized these two species of geese as different and had a name for each. With two geese populations nesting in such close proximity, without space for "intergrades," it would be illogical to consider them subspecies, aside from the facts shown by examination of characters. In the Aleutian district, these two species occupy ranges similar to the kinds in the Hooper Bay district. Former numbers — Turner found "thousands" of geese on the Near Islands, of which Agattu and Semichi were the chief breed- ing grounds. They nested on Unaska, Amlia, Atka, Adak, Kanaga, Tanaga, Kiska, Buldir, Semichi, and Agattu. On some FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 63 of these islands, the foxes had forced the birds to nest on offshore islets, and on Attn the natives hunted them extensively and do- mesticated them, clipping- the wings of young birds. Jochelson (1933) says: "Some of them breed on the Four Mountain Is- lands." Bill Dirks, Atka chief, mentioned as former nesting grounds: Tanadak, Unak, and Tanaklak (all near Great Sitkin), as well as Amchitka, Ulak, Tanadak (the one near Kavalga), and Kiska. He also stated that at one time there had been a native village on Buldir, and that the villagers used to pinion young geese to prevent them from migrating in the fall so that they would be available later in winter. Dirks recalled that his father once obtained 50 goslings on Buldir, and brought them to Atka, where he fattened them for food. Nelson (1887) saw a flock of do- mesticated geese at Unalaska, which had been obtained in the western Aleutians. We must include Attn in the breeding range, for it was on that island that Beck collected the nesting goose examined by Aldrich and identified as minima. Evidently a few geese have been able to nest in spite of foxes, and in primitive times undoubtedly a great many nested there. As late as 1911, Wetmore reported at Kiska "Two flocks of rather good-sized geese were seen flying over high up June 18. One of the officers reported seeing two on an inland lake. None were taken." And, again at Atka, he reported, "a flock of geese seen flying high up June 13." Austin H. Clark (1910) has presented a striking picture of geese in abundance : This goose is the most abundant bird on Agattu, where it breeds by thousands. When we approached the shore we saw a number of geese fly- ing about the cliffs and bluffs, and soaring in circles high in air. On landing I walked up the beach to the left and soon came to a small stream which enters the sea through a gap in the high bluffs, when I saw fifty or more of these birds along the bank preening their feathers. From this point I walked inland over the rough pasture-like country toward a lake where this stream rises. Geese were seen on all sides in great abundance, walking about the grassy hillsides in companies of six or eight to a dozen, or flying about from one place to another. Migration As would be expected, in the days when the lesser Canada goose and the Alaskan cackling goose flourished there was an east and a west migration along the Aleutian chain. In 1925, Donald Stevenson, former reservation warden, said that geese from the western Aleutians came eastward in the fall to join the throngs 64 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE concentrated about Isanotski Strait. Atka natives said that geese passed eastward at Isanotski in August. Chief Ermeloff, of Umnak, said that geese passed there "in the fall." Nick Kristensen, who has lived many years on Unimak Island, said geese arrived at Urilia Bay before they reached St. Catherine Cove, and he wondered, because Urilia Bay lies west of St. Catherine Cove, if this meant they "came from Siberia somewhere." Jochelson (1933) says: "In April it flies to the west, in October to the east, resting on the islands." It is evident that there was an annual fall migration eastward along the Aleutians. When the Aleutian birds arrived at the west end of the Alaska Peninsula, they undoubtedly joined the throngs of cackling geese that came down from the north. On August 14, 1936, we noted six cackling geese' flying south- ward over Nunivak Island. We were told that they linger a bit on the south side of Nunivak Island before continuing farther south. According to local information, they generally arrive at Unimak and the Alaska Peninsula about September 1, but they do not become numerous until 1 or 2 weeks later. Then, they assemble in surprising numbers and congregate at Urilia Bay, Swanson Lagoon, and St. Catherine Cove, all on Unimak Island, and at Izembek Bay, head of Morzhovoi Bay, Nelson Lagoon, and Port Moller on the Peninsula. In 1942, Gabrielson reported the first fall migrant at Izembek Bay as early as "late in July." In 1925, accounts of the coming of the geese in "countless thousands" and "millions" testified to unusual concentrations, and it is safe to say that this area is the prinicpal gathering place for geese nesting along the shore of Bering Sea northward, as well as those from the Aleutians proper. The emperor goose and the 2 forms of the Canada goose all assemble here — of the two, the Canada geese are in the majority. This area seems to be a place where the geese can fatten in the fall before continuing to their wintering grounds. They are said to feed to some extent on eelgrass; yninima and leuco- pareia feed mostly on crowberry (Empetrum nigrum) and other berries and spend so much time on the slopes seeking these foods that they are known locally as "land geese" — distinguishing them from the "beach goose," which is the local name for the emperor goose. The geese become very fat and leave for the south about November 1, though according to some reports it is as late as November 15 or 20. Probably, the earlier date is the more FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 65 usual one. In 1942, according to Gabrielson, the geese departed rather suddenly, eastward, on November 20. This situation is quite comparable to that on the other side of the continent at the head of James Bay, a southern extension of Hudson Bay, where the blue geese spend more than 2 months fattening, and then continue south about November 1. As the lesser Canada geese and the Alaskan cackling geese move south, they are noted in many other places, such as Metrofane and Mallard Bays in the Chignik area, at Simeonof Island in the Shumagins, and the Sanak Island group. Chase Littlejohn (manuscript notes) said: "A large number are seen annually at Sanakh in the fall where they remain for a short time at this season; they are very fat and toothsome . . . They are also numerous on the peninsula where they feed entirely on berries." Our information on the white-cheeked group of geese for the more eastern parts of the Alaska Peninsula is, at this time, not as complete as the information that we have for other parts of this group's range. Osgood (1904) reported a flock of the birds at the mouth of the Chulitna River on August 5, 1902. Others were seen later on the Mulchatna and were seen between the Mulchatna and Nushagak. On July 6, 1925, I saw a pair of geese, not specifically identified, on the tide flats of Izembek Bay ; it is possible that they were nesting birds. In August 1911, Wet- more repeatedly saw "a small goose" on the marshes back of Thin Point. On July 28, 1911, he saw another at Morzhovoi Bay and saw three more on July 30. All of these, he provisionally identi- fied as cackling geese. The spring migration is much less noticeable, no doubt be- cause the birds are intent on reaching the nesting grounds and therefore do not gather in large concentrations, and also because their numbers have been greatly reduced since the previous autumn. Residents at False Pass were undecided whether the geese pass through there in the spring. We were told that they also pass through the Chignik area, and at Simeonof Island in the Shumagins, and at Sanak Island farther west. At Sanak, we learned that the geese gather on the water enclosed by Sanak, Elma, and Caton Islands, though they do not linger there in the fall. This suggests that in the spring they have completed a lengthy flight over the ocean, thus needing both food and rest. Chase Littlejohn, writing of the migration at Sanak in 1887-88, said, "They used to stop here on their way north a few years ago, but they rarely if ever do now, for what reason I do not know." 66 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Evidently, the geese have resumed the practice in view of our information for more recent years. Jaques (1930) reported that "Three flocks of what were probably cackling geese were migrating to the southwest May 16, inside the Shumagin Islands." They may have been headed for the Aleutians, judging by the direction they were taking. It is evident, from information at hand, that the spring migra- tion took place in April and part of May, but it was not so spectacular as the fall migration. Nesting Habits Agattu, in the Near Islands group, is the most favorable for geese. Most of the island is a lowland, liberally dotted with lakes. This makes it easy to understand why such islands as Semichi, Amchitka, Tanaga, and Kanaga were at one time a goose para- dise— all of them have extensive lowlands with lakes. There is another type of nesting habitat which is typified by Buldir Island — a domelike island rising sheer from the sea. Buldir possesses beaches and a small grassy valley cut by a stream. In this valley, where the grasses and sedges are heavy and rank, there were no geese. High on the mountain there are little depressions, benches, and valleys, which are cut by water courses. In this terrain, where the grasses and sedges are short and tender, there were geese — even though there is fog much of the time. So, on Buldir, the geese apparently have found an en- vironment that is suited to them. It is interesting to note that these geese do not hesitate to take to salt water. One, with two downy young, was seen in a bay at Agattu, and another was seen in the water near Chagulak, an island at Amukta Pass. The presence of a goose at Chagulak suggests another high-mountain habitat, because that island is extremely precipitous. Present numbers — We have just enumerated the early accounts of "thousands" of geese, including Turner's "thousands" in the Near Islands, and Clarke's tale of abundance on Agattu. Today, the Aleutian district presents a striking example of the rapid de- cline of a species; the general opinion is that the fall concentra- tions in the False Pass area have greatly declined, apparently involving to some extent the geese from the more northerly nest- ing grounds. We were surprised to find no sign of these geese on the lake- dotted flats around the lower part of the Ugashik River, and in 1937 we observed only a few pairs of geese on Agattu Island — probably less than 6 pairs in 4 days of traveling over the island. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 67 One pair had 2 young, and another had 5 young. In the Semichis, we found feathers and a few droppings on Alaid Island. On June 15, 1936, the captain and the mate of our ship saw a "small goose" of the canadensis type near the shore of Chagulak Island, and we found signs of geese on Buldir. However, they had disappeared on most of the islands, and our total observa- tions indicated that only a few pairs remained in the Aleutians. In fact, these geese are so scarce that the migration is no longer noticeable, and some of the younger Aleuts didn't seem to know about it. When the remaining geese that go to the Aleutians are killed, it will be a long time for a migration to become rees- tablished, and consequently an extensive habitat for minima and leucopareia will lie vacant. Causes for decline — The natives, as well as several writers, have assumed that the disappearance of these geese from many islands was due to the introduction of blue foxes. Undoubtedly, this is true, yet on Buidir where there are no foxes, the geese are not plentiful. Undoubtedly, another important cause for their decline is increased hunting along the migration route and on the wintering grounds in the south. Administrative action has already been taken to free certain favorable islands, including Agattu, from foxes. Further, to preserve these geese, it remains for sportsmen to protect the birds on the wintering grounds. With such a combination of protection, it is still possible to prevent these geese from losing their present tenuous hold in the Aleutians, and perhaps it would be possible for them to build up to a point where they will be safe from extinction. Branfa nigricans: Black Brant Attu: Agru-ge la-ghe Nelson Island Eskimo: NiiV:-hla-ra-nak Hooper Bay Eskimo: Nuk-lu-nnK- Hooper Bay, a more inland dialect: NuJ:-Iu-gu-nuk Nelson (Eskimo dialect) : Luk-hhig-u-huk Russian, Yana district: Njemok (Pleske) Chukchi: Ncdljuitti (Palmen) The black brant is only a migrant in the Aleutian district, but it occurs in considerable numbers. In 1936, we w^ere told at Port Moller that the brant appear there in April, and we re- ceived the same information for the Chignik area. We had seen them on northward migration near Seymour Narrows, British Columbia, on April 24, and on Queen Charlotte Sound on April 68 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 25. Donald Stevenson, in 1925, said that he had seen them at King Cove "late in April." Apparently, the many bays at the western end of Alaska Peninsula are favorite gathering places for black brant in migra- tion. In 1925, Stevenson and I observed them on Izembek Bay, where they were present on May 20 in small flocks, on the water and flying from point to point. However, some flocks contained as many as 200 birds, and about 5,000 black brant were estimated for the entire bay. The following day, at the east end of the bay, there were only a few groups. Stevenson arrived at this bay on June 2 and found the brant to be plentiful. As he passed Applegate Cove, he saw a "swarm" of brant up the bay, rising and settling in a funnel-shaped mass. There were other groups of 50 to 75 brant flying up the bay, some of these joining the large flock. The following day he saw more of them, and, in each instance, they seemed inclined to move in a northeasterly direction. On June 16, we saw a small flock and a single bird; next day we saw several small flocks near the outer sand islands. This was their last appearance. In 1943, Gabrielson found black brant on the Sanak Islands on April 30, and the next day, at King Cove, he saw 100, or more, heading toward Cold Bay. In 1944, residents at Port Moller reported the first spring flight on April 26. A. C. Bent (1925) quotes Chase Littlejohn as saying that the brant move westward along the Alaska Peninsula, 1 or 2 miles offshore, turn into Morzhovoi Bay, and thence go into the Bering Sea. This probably outlines the spring migration fairly ac- curately. While we were at Nunivak Island on August 14, 1936, black brant had arrived from the north. Eskimo said that these brant remain on the inland lakes of that island for about 2 months, or until sometime in October, before continuing south. In the meantime, many others have gone farther south, because at Port Moller, on August 29, the residents said that the brant were due at that time and that they would remain there until about November 1, before continuing south. They also return to Izembek Bay during their migration. Dall reported that black brant were nesting on some of the western Aleutians, but Nelson was undoubtedly correct when he assumed that these birds must have been small geese of the canadensis group. Friedmann (1937) records the following re- mains from native middens: One skull and 2 sterna from Little FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 69 Kiska; 1 humerus from Atka; and 4 humeri from Attu. In 1936, the Attu natives told us that black brant appear there occasionally in the fall, sometimes in company with the emperor goose. Stejneger (1885) reported the species occuring sparingly in the Commander Islands in migration. Philacfe canagica: Emperor Goose Attu: Il-d-ghir-bch Atka: Kd-ghu-miing Qdmgdn (Jochelson) The emperor goose apparently does not commonly nest in the Aleutian Islands, nor on the Alaska Peninsula, but at least one record of nesting was established. During June 1925, a Bureau of Fisheries boat had stopped for a short time at Amak Island, on the way to Port Moller. The pilot informed me that during that stop at least three pairs of emperor geese were seen. On July 10, 1925, during a visit to Amak, I found the remains of a young emperor goose in a bald eagle nest. The feet, stomach, and numerous pinfeathers were present in the nest, and were collected. This appears to be the southernmost nesting locality. The Aleutian district is certainly the prmcipal wintering place for emperor geese. We noted evidence of such occurrence and obtained statements of natives and others who were familiar with specific localities, and in 1941 and 1942 Gabrielson noted them as plentiful at a number of the islands he visited in the winter months. They are reported as spending at least a part of the winter as far east as Port Moller, on the north side of the peninsula, leaving when the ice formed but returning when the water opened again. Some of these geese winter at Urilia Bay on Unimak Island and on Izembek Bay; a few geese winter near Chignik on the south side of Alaska Peninsula, and some of them winter at Simeonof Island in the Shumagins. A banded bird was recorded at King Cove in the fall of 1926. Turner (1886) makes the sweeping statement that these birds winter on the south side of Alaska Peninsula and on offshore islands as far east as Cook Inlet. Friedmann recorded bones of this goose in all layers of Kodiak middens. Today, they are less numerous along those shores, possibly because of the advent of white men and an increased kill resulting from modern weapons. Emperor geese are known to winter in some numbers in the Sanak group. We found recent remains at Unalaska, June 3, 1936, and on Bogoslof Island, June 5, 1936. Eyerdam (1936) 70 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH A.ND WILDLIFE SERVICE obtained two specimens at Unalaska on June 20 and on August 7, 1932. These geese are known to winter on the following islands: Unimak, Unalaska, Sanak, Umnak, Amukta, Seguam, Atka, Adak, Tanaga, Kanaga (abundant), Amchitka, Ulak (longi- tude 178^ W.), Ogliuga, Kavalga, Semisopochnoi, Kiska, and Attu. The chief of Attu declared that they were in that locality in "millions." These are the islands on which we have specific information. Undoubtedly, emperor geese occur on many, if not all, of the other islands ; almost certainly they occur on Agattu and Semichi, for example. As may be expected, there are many records of. winter oc- currences farther south, in Washington, Oregon, and California. These records are numerous enough to suggest that some strag- glers find their way into those southern localities quite regularly ; however, the regular wintering area is confined to portions of Alaska Peninsula, the Shumagin and Sanak Islands, and the Aleutian chain. Apparently, they are rare on the west side of Bering Sea during the winter. Stejneger (1887) records two specimens taken at Bering Island, April 6, 1886. The spring migration varies according to the locality and the age class. Natives declare that emperor geese leave Attu Island in April; Turner (1886) gave the date as the "latter part of March." He also stated that after the middle of April considerable numbers of geese begin to arrive on the north side of Alaska Peninsula, particularly in the neighborhood of Ugashik. In 1924, I observed the spring migration at the nesting grounds at Hooper Bay. The first migratory wave began about the middle of May and continued to the end of the month. There was another notable flight about June 5 and 6, which appeared to end the migration of breeding birds. Nesting had begun at that time. A second distinct migration at Hooper Bay took place from June 21 to July 1. These were immature birds, probably all nonbreeders. It was my good fortune to observe the other end of such migration in 1925, at Izembek Bay and Unimak Island. On April 29, 1925, and for several days following, flocks of emperor geese were noted at Urilia Bay, on the north side of Unimak Island, many of them flying northeastward. On May 17, a flock of 250 was seen standing on an exposed sand bar in St. Catherine Cove. On May 20, they were common in Izembek Bay, and Donald Stevenson noted a flock of 300 there on June 2. We saw a similar-sized flock on June 8, at Mofl'et Cove, where they FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 71 were noted throughout June in diminishing numbers. The last flock was seen on July 7. The time of gradual disappearance on Alaska Peninsula corresponds very well with the time of the late migration noted at Hooper Bay the previous year. The lingering flocks in Izembek Bay were mostly immature birds. One bird, which was collected in adult plumage, proved to be a nonbreeder. A few late occurrences were noted farther west. C. S. Williams noted a group of about six emperor geese on Uliaga Island on June 8, 1936 ; and a bald eagle's nest on Kavalga Island con- tained remains that were fresh enough to indicate a kill in July. Apparently, there is an eastward movement of emperor geese along the Aleutian chain, and a consequent "piling up" at favorite locations on the Alaska Peninsula, until the northern flights are well under way. The exact reversal of this process occurs in the fall. Some time early in September, the emperor geese begin to arrive from the north in the vicinity of Izembek Bay. And, according to the enthusiastic accounts of local residents, these emperor geese are almost as numerous as the cackling geese before the latter de- clined in numbers. At Port Moller, emperors are said to arrive as early as the latter part of August. They congregate on Nelson Lagoon, Izembek Bay, head of Morzhovoi Bay, locally in Isanotski Strait, St. Catherine Cove, Swanson Lagoon, and Urilia Bay. Most of these geese move westward some time in November. Incidentally, Swarth (1934) states that emperor geese were present on Nunivak Island, to the north, as late as October 29, 1927. The Attn chief said that they arrive at that westernmost point in the Aleutians late in October. Apparently, in fall migration the immature birds again lag behind their elders. According to Swarth, the first arrivals on Nunivak Island, observed by Cyril G. Harrold, August 20 to the middle of September, were white-headed adults. "On September 15 the first young birds (dusky headed) were seen and they were common thereafter." Food Habits It is well known that the emperor guose is largely a beach feeder; in fact, it has earned the local name "beach goose." Yet, it is reported as occasionaly feeding on the berries of the tundra, notably Empefrum nigrum. Swarth (1934) sums it up thus. The emperor geese fed mostly upon the sea shore, but occasional flocks were encountered on the tundra, feeding upon berries. The one adult male 72 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE of the series had its face stained and the throat and entire intestinal tract dyed blue from a diet of berries. In the spring of 1925, these birds were feeding at low tide on tide flats in Izembek Bay. The tide is about an hour later at the head of Izembek Bay than at the entrance; the same situation exists between the two sides of the long Hazen Point. The emperor geese were well aware of this, and when their feeding grounds were flooded by the incoming tide they simply flew up to Hazen Point, crossed over a few hundred yards to the east side, where the flats were still exposed, and continued feeding. The narrower parts of this point were favorite flyways. In this area, the principal food was thought to be eel grass. On June 14, at the margin of a pond, it was noted that the grass was grazed off short ; the area was trampled and was littered with droppings. However, the stomach of an immature bird found in a bald eagle's nest on Amak Island on July 10 contained remains of small crabs. Emperor geese are often reported as feeding on some kind of kelp in winter. At Kanaga Island, we were told that they feed on kelp and the green shoots of Elymus, which, even in winter, may be found under the dead vegetation. One informant stated that the geese probed into the ground and pulled out the horizon- tal rhyzomes of Equisetum. We had noted droppings on Ogliuga Island consisting of the herbaceous parts of Equisetum arvense; but these droppings could not be positively identified. Several observers in the Aleutians reported that emperor geese feed extensively on green "sea lettuce," as well as Fucus, and the "exposed roots" of Elymus. Chase Littlejohn, apparently referring to Sanak Island and Morzhovoi Bay, says: "Here they live almost entirely on a bright green seaweed, locally known as sea lettuce, but at times eating small mussels." Cottam and Knappen (1939) have presented a comprehensive statement on the food habits of the emperor goose, based on analyses of 35 stomachs. Few, if any, of these stomachs were obtained in the Aleutian Islands, yet the data agree fairly well with observations made in this area. Their findings (based on the contents of 33 stomachs) show 91.58 percent vegetable matter, and 8.42 percent animal matter. Their findings are further sum- marized as follows: Algae, 30.73 percent; eel grass and other pond weeds, 13.91 percent; grasses and sedges, 24.94 percent; undetermined and miscellaneous plant fiber, 22 percent; bivalve mollusks (Pelecypoda), 3.66 percent; crabs and other crustaceans, 2.18 percent; rodents and fishes, 1.76 percent; and miscellaneous animal life, 0.82 percent. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 73 Mortality Factors At Sanak Island, a resident declared that one winter he found 15 dead emperor geese on the beach. Although he thought that the deaths were caused by the frozen condition of the fresh- water creeks, the precise mortality factor here must remain unknown. Among the natural enemies of the emperor goose is the bald eagle. However, there is no evidence that the eagle materially affects the goose population. Anser albifrons: Whl+e-fronted goose Anser albifrons frontalis Attu : Kog-a-la-gich Russian, latitudes of the Yana: Kasorka (Pleske) Bones of white-fronted geese are recorded by Friedmann in middens on Kodiak, Amaknak, Little Kiska, and Attu Islands. The Attu natives informed us that they have seen these geese in September; but they stated that the sightings are rare and that these geese do not winter there. Ste.ineger (1887) stated that occasionally these geese visit Bering Island in spring migra- tion. Turner did not observe this species in the Aleutian Islands. In 1925, I learned of a trapper at False Pass who had a white- fronted goose in captivity; he had caught the goose at St. Cath- erine Cove during the previous autumn. Residents of the area stated that this goose is very scarce around the west end of Alaska Peninsula. The white-fronted goose is a rare migrant in the Aleutian chain; therefore, Turner (1886) no doubt was partly right when he said, "They probably never visit the islands lying west of the mainland, as that region does not contain their particular food in sufficient quantity to induce them to visit it." His further statement that the Russians at St. Michaels referred to it as the ^un-dri-na goose, or lowland goose, is further explanation of its scarcity in the Aleutians, where most of the land is rugged. Farther east along the Alaska Peninsula, however, suitable ground is available, and we found nesting birds on the tide flats at Ugashik River. On May 27-29, 1936, at least six pairs were noted in that area. Osgood (1904) records that he saw these birds at the base of Alaska Peninsula in 1902 ; he frequently saw them on the Chulitna River in early August, saw one on the Mulchatna River on September 3, and on the trip from the Mulchatna River to Nushagak he saw a considerable number of these birds each day. 74 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE On July 23, 1940, Gabrielson observed three pairs of white- fronted geese along Kvichak River, above Naknek, and he was informed by natives that this is the common nesting goose at the base of Alaska Peninsula. He estimated that he saw 500 birds along the Chulitna River on July 26. To sum up, the white-fronted goose nests on the eastern por- tions of Alaska Peninsula, at least as far west as Ugashik River; farther westward throughout the Aleutian district it is only a rare visitor, Chen hyperborea: Snow Goose On October 1, 1942, Gabrielson noted two snow geese with a flock of Canada-type geese at Cold Bay. Again, on October 20, 1944, he saw 4 large flocks flying over Olga Bay at Kodiak Island, and, on the same day, he stated that 1,000 to 1,500 birds settled near Kodiak village, where several were shot by the townspeople. He comments: "They are seldom seen here, though more fre- quently at the south end of the island." This is the only information available for this goose. There are no records concerning the area to the west. Anas plafyrbynchos: Mallard Anas platyrhynchos plafyrhynchos Attu : Argh'-ich Atka: Ag-ich (apparently the same word in both dialects) Russian, Commander Islands: Selesenn (Stejneger) The mallard is widespread throughout the length of the Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian Islands, both as a breeding species and as a winter resident. Stejneger (1887) reported also that it was "resident, breeding numerously in Bering Island; comparatively rare on Copper Island." In 1886, Turner reported that the mallard was plentiful in the Aleutians in winter, and stated that it breeds sparingly on Agattu and Semichi Islands and that a few pairs were seen on Amchitka Island in the latter part of May 1881 — which indicates nesting. Our expeditions verify this in- formation. In 1936, Attu natives stated that they had observed these birds nesting near streams, and stated that they winter there. The following season, on June 9, which was during the nesting season, we saw several mallards along the shore of Attu Island. Wilson (1948) observed them at Attu in the breeding season when some of them were paired. The last ones observed were on August 28. We found a number of mallards among the lakes of Agattu Island, and on June 13 we found FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 75 a female with eight downy young. On June 21, 1937, a pair was seen among the lakes on the southeast part of Kiska Island, and another pair was seen in a lake at the South Harbor. On July 5, we flushed two males and a female from a pond on Amchitka Island. The natives of Atka also assured us that mallards are found there both summer and winter, which suggests nesting. June 20, 1941, Gabrielson saw a female with four young at Unalaska Island. The islands mentioned here are the principal ones that contain ponds and lakes. However, Calm found this bird nesting at Unalaska Island. Farther east, we obtained additional nesting data. On May 7, 1925, I found a nest of 11 eggs at Urilia Bay, Unimak Island. On June 6, a nest of 5 fresh eggs was found in a stream valley below Aghileen Pinnacles, western Alaska Peninsula, and on June 23 a nest of 10 eggs was observed on the tide flat at Hazen Point, Izembek Bay. In 1936, residents at Port Moller assured us that mallards nest around Nelson Lagoon, and in 1928 Jaques (1930) found it a ''common breeder in the Port Moller region." On May 29, 1936, we saw a single male at Ugashik River. We had seen a pair at Chisik Island, Tuxedni Bay, in Cook Inlet on May 6, and, on May 9, another pair was observed at Anchor- age. According to Osgood (1904), "McKay found the species breeding at Nushagak and took a number of specimens there in May and June, 1881." Gabrielson noted a few along Kvichak River July 23, 1940, including one brood of young. He also noted a male in the Barren Islands on June 13. Mallards undoubtedly nest on various islands south of the Alaska Peninsula. On August 29, 1936, I saw two mallards on a pond on Simeonof Island, in the Shumagins, and the local rancher said they nest there. On Afognak Island, September 2, 1936, 14 mallards were seen in a lily pond. These could have been migrants, yet mallards undoubtedly nest there because they are known to nest on Kodiak, nearby. As stated above, mallards winter throughout the territory under discussion. Localities where considerable numbers have been reported are Unalaska, Kanaga, and Unimak. We were told by natives of Unimak that when the bays and lakes freeze over, the mallards move to the unfrozen streams in the interior of the island and return to the lowlands only when the ice has disappeared. In the summer and fall of 1936 there was an unusually large run of salmon up the streams of Unimak Island ; at that time, mallards and other ducks, we were told, assembled there to feed on free-floating salmon eggs. 76 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Anas strepera: Gadwall The gadwall has been considered to be "accidental" in Alaska, on the strength of two records for the Pribilof Islands. It was, therefore, of particular interest to find that this bird nests regularlj^ in parts of Alaska. On Maj' 16 and 17, 1937, several pairs of gadwalls were found on the Copper River Flats, near Cordova, not far from the mouth of Eyak River. Evidently, these were paired birds that were preparing to nest. Alfred M. Bailey (1927) reports a pair at Bartlett Cove, Glacier Bay, on August 9, and "felt sure" he had identified a band at Holkham Bay on September 25, though the light was poor. Cahalane (1943) reports that two gadwalls were shot on Oc- tober 2, 1940, at the head of Terror Bay, Kodiak Island. Chase Littlejohn says "A few of these ducks were shot by me while on their way north in the spring at Dolgoi Island, near Belkofski. They were the only ones seen." On the north side of Alaska Peninsula, where suitable marsh- lands are present, the gadwall is fairly common. On May 27 to 29, 1936, they were common on the tidal marsh and on numerous ponds adjacent to Ugashik River where they were courting and preparing to nest. Generally, a female would be seen flying about, pursued by two or more males. On May 28, this species was recorded as "the principal duck seen," and on May 29 "they and the scaups made up most of the duck population." A pair was collected for specimens. At Port Moller, residents assured us that gadwalls nest plenti- fully in the lakes upriver from Nelson Lagoon. On May 8, 1925, I observed 4 gadwalls near the shore of a lagoon at Urilia Bay, Unimak Island; 2 of these were taken for specimens. On May 21, five gadwalls were seen among the ponds on Hazen Point in Izembek Bay; gadwalls were seen repeatedly as late as July 25. Beals and Longworth, in a field report, mention that they saw 4 gadwalls on Unimak Island, March 19, 1941, 1 of which was collected. Local residents considered it to be uncommon. Gabrielson reports a male and female on a lake at Izembek Bay, June 4, 1942. During the fall and winter periods of 1943 and 1944, he found them to be common among the Kodiak- Afognak Islands. Turner (1886) records a specimen taken at Unalaska Island in December, 1878, and states that they are "abundant" along the Yukon Delta district in summer. Nelson does not mention it. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 77 however, and we did not see this duck in the Hooper Bay district in 1924. Taber found 5 males and 4 females at Adak Island during the winter of 1945-46. Stejneger says (1887), "Reported by Dybowski as taken on Bering Island." Hartert (1920) mentions a specimen shot on Copper Island on May 13, 1911. Thus, we find (as is the case with a number of species that re- quire lowland marsh) that this duck nests along the lowlands on the north side of Alaska Peninsula, possibly also on Unimak Is- land, but it occurs only as a straggler in the Aleutians to the west. Anas acuta: Pintail Russian, Commander Islands: Vostrochvost (Stejneger) This widely distributed bird is not common in the Aleutian district, but it does occur here and there throughout the entire area. It is known to occur on Kodiak Island (Friedmann 1935; Howell 1948), where Gabrielson found it plentiful in fall and winter. Cahalane (1944) observed pintails in several localities in the Katmai region in the autumn of 1940, but his report implies that this species is not plentiful. Gabrielson noted a female on Naknek River on July 19, 1940, and on July 23 several females, evidently with broods, were noted on Kvichak River. He also found it at Unimak, Cold Bay, Izembek Bay, Shumagin Islands, and Kodiak-Afognak Islands; they were rather plentiful in the last-mentioned localities in fall and winter. Einarsen (1922) found pintails nesting near Ugashik in 1922, and Jaques (1930) found it to be a common breeding bird around Port Moller in June 1928. On May 23, 1936, we saw 2 pintails near Dillingham, Bristol Bay, and, on May 26, 2 more pintails were seen near Snag Point. On May 27 to 29, an occasional pair was seen on the flats near Ugashik River, where they evidently were nesting. Residents on Unimak Island stated that pintails nest there, and this was verified by my observations in 1925. In that year, they were first seen at Urilia Bay on April 30. On May 4, Donald Stevenson saw 10 males flying about, and on May 17 a pair was seen at St. Catherine Cove. Pintails were also present on Izembek Bay, and on June 30, near Point Grant, in the midst of nesting Arctic terns and Pacific eiders, a nest of eight eggs was found. Near Frosty Peak, a female that obviously had eggs, or young, nearby was observed. Turner did not observe the pintail in the Aleutians during the 78 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE nesting season, and we found that the natives 'did not recognize pictures of the bird, yet the bird assuredly occurs in these is- lands. We noted pintails on a lake on Umnak Island May 30, 1937, and on August 23, 1937, Steenis obtained a specimen there. On June 16, 1936, C. S. Williams reported a pair on Amukta Is- land. Laing (1925) saw a small flock at Kuluk Bay, Adak Island, April 13, 1924. We noted a pair among the lakes at the south- east point of Kiska Island on June 5, 1937, and, in the same vicin- ity, on June 21 we saw two males and a female. Remains of a pintail were found in a bald eagle's nest on the north side of Little Sitkin Island, and, on June 17, 1937, a pair was observed on Alaid Island, of the Semichi group, which is near the western end of the chain. On Attu Island, Wilson (1948) found three pairs that he thought to be nesting. Undoubtedly, all these records denote nesting throughout the Aleutian chain, though successful nesting in recent years may be adversely affected by the blue-fox industry. Stejneger (1887) says pintails are very numerous on Bering Island, but less common on Copper Island. Turner did not think pintails wintered in the Aleutians; how- ever, he recorded them at Unalaska as late as November. More- over, Beals and Longworth (field report) state that pintails are plentiful in winter in the vicinity of Unimak Island. On March 1, a flock of 25 was recorded; on March 16, 2 were noted; on March 26, a flock of 23 was noted. Moreover, Taber observed a flock of 48 that were wintering at Adak, in 1945-46. Anas falcafa: Falcated Teal Rowland Wilson (1948) reports an unusual observation, in part, as follows: On May 23 and 24, 1945, Lt. C. L. Stone and I observed a male and female of this handsome species, together with two Tufted Ducks and three male and four female Greater Scaups, on a little "pothole" pond inland from Murder Point [Attu Island]. We had abundant opportunity to watch the teals, for they were not shy. On the 24th we saw the male diving several times. He went under rather awkwardly, giving us the impression that he was not used to such activity. The female did not dive while we watched her. . . . Possibly they had been blown in from the west by a recent storm. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 79 Anas crecca: Common Teal Anas crecca nim'ia Attu: CheerrJi-ooU (obviously the Russian name) Atka: Krech-cheer-tha (derivation from Russian is at least suggested by the middle syllable) Ataxciyax (Jochelson — probably the true Aleut name) Russian, Commander Islands: Tschirok (Stejneger) It is now well established that the breeding species of teal throughout the Aleutian chain is Anas crecca. During our expedi- tions, with only one exception, when a close view of males was possible, or when specimens were collected,- the bird proved to be the common teal. Beals and Longworth collected a male at Uni- mak Island, June 11, 1941, This is the easternmost point for which we have a record of this bird. Swarth (1934) records 3 specimens, 2 males and 1 female, taken on Akutan Island, May 24, 1927. We found these teals common throughout the Aleutian chain, and they are to be found on most of the islands where suitable habitat is available. Bent lists a specimen collected by Lucien M. Turner on Atka Island, June 28, 1879, and one taken by J. Hobart Egbert on Kiska Island, July 14, 1904. He also states that in 1911 his party collected "quite a series" of speci- mens in the western and central islands, and every male proved to be this form. Laing (1925) records two males taken at Adak Island, April 13, 1924. On our own expeditions, several specimens were taken, including males on Kagalaska, July 4, 1936, and on Amchitka, July 24, 1936. Gabrielson noted a pair of common teals on Amukta Island, June 25, 1940; he saw about a dozen on Amchitka, June 28, and saw others at Tanaga, Ogliuga, Atka, Ulak, Kavalga, Segula, and Adak. These teals are the most abundant fresh-water ducks in the Aleutians. Broods of young were seen on the small islands, Ogliuga and Skagul, and two broods were seen on Kanaga. On July 7, 1937, we found a nest of seven fresh eggs on Amchitka. On July 3, 1936, a female with two downy young were seen in a shallow grassy pond on Adak Island. The natives said that teals nest on Attu, and a male was seen on Agattu, June 15, 1937. On August 23, 1937, I counted at least 42 teals on a lake near Nikol- ski Village, Umnak Island, and Steenis, on the same day, saw a greater number. Pairs were seen on various other islands, and it is certain that they nest throughout the length of the Aleutian chain. Stejneger (1887) reported the European (common) teal as an 80 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE abundant visitor on Bering Island, but less common on Copper Island. The species also occurs in the Pribilof Islands. Apparently, while nesting, the teals are less susceptible to the predations of the blue fox than are most other waterfowl, though the chief of Atka Village declared that they were much more numerous in early days. They generally occupy shallow, weedy ponds, though they also spend much time on the beaches — some- times on boulder beaches. They feed extensively along the beach margin and are often found on salt water. This was noted par- ticularly on Ogliuga Island. The nest found on Amchitka Island, July 7, 1937, was situated in the dense stand of Elymus border- ing the ocean beach, and the female repeatedly was observed feeding on this open beach. Cottam and Knappen (1939) have reported on the contents of five stomachs of this species, and say that "three out of four birds taken in coastal Alaska had fed almost exclusively on soft- bodied crustaceans." The authors felt that the high percentage of animal matter (80.2 percent) was probably not typical and would not be maintained in a larger series of stomachs. However, our observations on the feeding habits of these teals in the Aleu- tians are in accord with these findings from the stomach analyses. Evidently, the common teal winters in the Aleutians. We were assured of this by the natives of Attn and Kanaga, and residents of Unimak also stated that teals winter there. Furthermore, Donald Stevenson, who spent several winters in the Aleutians, furnished positive evidence of it, for in his field reports he said, in part (referring to Unalaska Island), They were again noted here Nov. 2, 1920, and at intervals in the month of November until November 21. Then again here January 7, 1921, to January 31, 1921. Being often observed feeding in small pools of salt water along the beach after the cold weather had set in and had frozen the fresh water streams. . . . Existed in great numbers at Umnak Island, near Otter Point November 22, 1920, in small fresh water pond, and in large fresh water stream. . . . Observed about five hundred here Dec. 13, also noted here Dec. 18, 1920. Specimens taken were in a fine fat condition. In 1943, Cahn noted 1 common teal at Unalaska Island on Oc- tober 14, and 2 on December 2. Taber noted a flock of 47 at Clam Lagoon, Adak Island, from November 1945 to late January 1946. Sutton and Wilson saw a male at Attn, March 5, 1945. Anas caroUnensis: Green-winged Teal The common teal occupies the Aleutian Islands, and the green- winged teal occupies the Alaska Peninsula. There is some over- FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 81 lapping in range. On June 5, 1937, Steenis and I observed 3 teals at a small pond on Kiska Island — at least 2 were males in bright plumage. One was clearly A. crecca, with a plain breast and a light-colored scapular streak. The other bird lacked the scapular streak, and plainly showed the crescent on the side of the breast. We both saw these markings, but we failed to note the markings of the third bird. It may have been a female. It is interesting to note that both species of teals occur on the Pribilofs. Cahn, writing of his observations at Unalaska Island during the war years, says of the green-winged teal : "Observed in every month of the year except August in four years of observations; inhabits the same area as A. crecca, but more common." Taber did not record it as being present in winter at Adak. Because of the difficulty of identification in the field, and be- cause females of the two forms are indistinguishable, even with specimens, there is confusion about their ranges and the extent of territorial overlapping. Until more collecting is done, and be- cause specimens of nimia east of Unimak are lacking, we may assume for the present that the birds of Alaska Peninsula are chiefly carolinensis. They occur in suitable locations along the peninsula. In 1925, they were noted on Unimak Island and Izembek Bay. In 1936, we were informed by residents that teals nest up the river from Nelson Lagoon, and we saw at least two teals at Ugashik River on May 29, 1936. Osgood (1904), how- ever, found teals scarce in the interior of the base of Alaska Peninsula, and says, One old female was seen on the Nogheling River July 21, and no more appeared until we neared the coast on the lower Nushagak River. Immense flocks were seen in late September in the vicinity of Nushagak. McKay obtained several specimens at Nushagak and at Ugashik. The National Museum has a male green-winged teal that was taken at Nushagak, May 6, 1883, by Paul J. Kojevnikoff. Cahalane (1944) has observed the green-winged teal on the mainland only once positively : a flock of 12 was seen September 24, 1940, near the mouth of Savanoski River. Gabrielson saw several green-winged teals, obviously with broods, up the Kvichak River, July 23, 1940. On April 27, 1942, he positively identified 21 of these birds at King Cove, and later he saw many more at Cold Bay. Green-winged teals occur on Kodiak Island, according to Fried- mann (1935) and Howell (1948). Cahalane and Gabrielson found them to be numerous in the Kodiak- Afognak area, but there are no records for the rest of the territory under discussion. 82 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Teals winter at Unimak Island, according to residents, and, according to Cahn, they winter as far west as Unalaska Island. Mareca penelope: European Widqeon Russian, Commander Islands: Svistsch or Svistun (Stejneger) Four specimens have been collected on the Pribilof Islands, and Dall (1873) records a specimen taken at Unalaska, October 12, 1871. He says it is "not uncommon among the ducks brought in by the native hunters of that locality." He considered it to be a winter visitor, "migrating about May 1st." On June 21, 1937, we found a pair at a lake back from the beach at the more southerly harbor on Kiska Island. As the two birds flew by, I clearly saw the buffy coloration on the head of the male. At that season of the year, a pair suggests nesting. Stejneger (1887) records this bird as being a visitor to the Commander Islands in migration. Mareca americana: American Widgeon The Am.erican widgeon, or baldpate, is rare in the Aleutian district. On May 27, 1936, 2 or 3 were observed on the flat marshes near Ugashik River, and 2 males were seen May 29. We saw none to the westward, though Gabrielson records seeing a male and a female on a pond near Izembek Bay on June 6, 1942, and saw others at Port Moller, July 7, 1946. Osgood (1904) mentions specimens taken by McKay at Cape Constantine and Ugashik in Septeml)er 1881. Hine (1919) observed this duck occasionally in the Katmai Region in 1919, and he obtained specimens near the mouth of Katmai River. Friedmann (1935) records seeing the baldpate at Kodiak, and a specimen was taken. He also (1937) reports that bones of this duck were found in middens on Little Kiska Island. Gabrielson records that the species was "common" in the Kodiak-Afognak Islands in the fall and winter months of 1943 and 1944. Howell (1948) reports as follows for Kodiak: "Two were seen May 31, at Middle Bay, and one on June 16, at Bell's Flats," in 1944. Turner states that it is rarely seen on Attn Island. Finally, Stejneger (1887) found a dead bird of this species among the sand dunes of Bering Island. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 83 Spatula clypeafa: Shoveler Attu: Koo-chii-tuh or Koo-chu-thoh Eussian, Commander Islands: Soksiin (Stejneger^ The natives of Attu Island seemed to know this duck and had a name for it — if their identification is correct. They recognized a picture, agreed on the spoon-shaped beak, and claimed that the shoveler nests on Attu Island. Stejneger (1887) considered it to be one of the rarer ducks on Bering Island, but he thought that it breeds there — hence, it would not be surprising to find it among the Near Islands. We did not find the shoveler in the Aleutians, but on May 29, 1936, a male was seen among some other ducks in a pond near Ugashik River on the peninsula. Two specimens were taken by McKay near Nushagak, on August 14, 1881, and on September 24, 1882. Cahalane (1944) records 1 bird seen by him, September 7, 1940, on Brooks River, and Gabrielson observed 2 at Morzhovoi Bay, June 21, 1940 — the westernmost point for which we have precise record. The shoveler is scarce in the Aleutians and Alaska Peninsula, and it is comparatively scarce on other parts of the Bering Sea coast. The only place where we found them in considerable num- bers was in the vicinity of Cordova, on the Copper River flats near the mouth of Eyak River. There, on May 16 and 17, 1937, we saw many of them engaged in courtship, evidently preparing to nest. Ayfhya americana: Redhead Attu: Ka-ve ini'-much The A. 0. U. Check-List states that the redhead is a casual visitor on Kodiak Island, Alaska, and Friedmann (1935) men- tions a specimen taken there by Rutter. On June 16, 1936, I had a glimpse of a pair of ducks, identified as redheads, rising from a pond near the beach on Amukta Island. Upon arrival at Attu, Chief Hodikoff declared that a few ducks (like those in the picture of redheads that we showed him) nest on Attu and remain in winter. He gave us the native name, Ka-ve (head) im-much (round). He was certain of his identification. At the time, we were concerned only with the redhead, but be- cause of its similarity to the pochard, which occurs on the Pribi- lofs, it is possible that the Aleut chief was really referring to the Old World species, Nyroca ferina, and conceivably the birds that we noted on Amukta were also of that species. 84 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Aythya vallsineria: Canvasback In 1925, I was told by a trapper that canvasbacks had been seeni on Urilia Bay, on Unimak Island. It was thought at the time that he had confused the birds with some other canvas-backed^ type of duck. But the report is more plausible since Friedmanni (1937) referred to this species — five humeri found in old middensi at Dutch Harbor. The bird has also been recorded for the Pribi- lofs. No other records for canvasbacks were obtained. Ayfhya marila: Greater Scaup Ayfhya marila nearcfica Attu: Han-o ka-ve-too Russian, Commander Islands: Tschernik (Stejneger) Four specimens of ihis species, which were breeding birds, werei collected by Donald Stevenson at Izembek Bay in June 1925. On' geographic grounds, also, the scaup of this region should be A. marila nearctica, rather than A. affinis. The American greater scaup was recorded from Kodiak Island by Friedmann (1935). Concerning this bird, Osgood (1904) says, "Scaup ducks, doubt- less this species, were seen in small flocks along the Nushagak River September 4 to 9. McKay took them in May and July at Nushagak and Ugashik." And again, he says (1901), "a flock of six scaup ducks were seen on a pond near Tyonek September 17." Cahalane records this duck on the Naknek River, where it was abundant, on September 28, 1940, and he found it to be common on Brooks Lake, September 9, though he did not see it in the more interior portions of the Katmai National Monument. He also said that they were fairly common in the Kodiak-Afognak area. On July 23, 1940, Gabrielson observed four broods of greater scaups on the Kvichak River. In later years, he saw them in num- bers at Unimak, Atka, Kanaga, Umnak, Unalaska, Amchitka, Shumagin, Sanak, and Kodiak-Afognak Islands. We saw two greater scaups near Chisik Island, Cook Inlet, May 7, 1936. On May 27-29, 1936, scaups were common, flying about in pairs, near Ugashik River. In June 1928, Jaques found them to be common near Port Moller. They were reported to be common near Chignik, maintaining their numbers better than other ducks in that vicinity. In 1925, I found scaups nesting in Izembek Bay. About the middle of May of that year, there were small bands in St. Catherine Cove, at Unimak Island, swimming on the salt water or on the small ponds on the shore, sometimes segregating in pairs. In the middle of June, they were particularly common FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 85 about Hazen Point, and they were seen elsewhere in Izembek Bay. On June 20, they were still flying about in pairs. On that date, a female was seen standing near a recently constructed nest cavity. On June 30, 3 nests were found on small islands near Point Grant; 2 of these nests contained 9 and 10 eggs respectively. The number of eggs in the third nest was not recorded. On July 26, a nest of seven eggs was found on a gull island. Residents stated that scaups nest on Unimak Island. Scaups were noted at intervals throughout the Aleutian chain. Four or five were seen near Nikolski, Umnak Island, on May 30, 1937; 7, mostly males, were seen on Corwin Lake on Atka, June 22, 1936 ; several were noted on Amchitka, July 1937 ; a flock of 30 was seen on a lake on Kiska, July 26, 1936 (where half a dozen were seen on June 4, 1937) ; and several pairs were seen on Agattu Island in the middle of June 1937. Steenis observed four pairs and a female there, and other members of the party observed paired scaups. On June 15, 1937, on Agattu, I found a scooped- out nest cavity with a little down and some white breast feathers, which I thought to be a scaup nest. Austin H. Clark (1910) found this species to be rather common at Attn and Agattu. Chase Littlejohn (manuscript notes) says, "Found breeding at Sanak, Ukamuk [Chirikof Island], and Morzhovoi Bay, each nest contained nine eggs. They congregate in large flocks in winter at Sanakh and remain so until spring, when they pair off and begin nesting." The Attn chief assured us that scaups nest on Attn and winter there. On Kanaga Island, also, we were assured that scaups are plentiful in winter, and that they become very tame around the dock. Taber found them wintering at Adak, and for Unalaska Island Cahn reports — An abundant winter inhabi:-;.t of all the larger bays, in common with the Harlequin ducks and white-winged scoters. The greatest numbers occur in December and January, and the species disappears entirely in April as a rule; May 3, 1946 is the latest recorded date. It returns again a few at a time, in September and October, gradually increasing in abundance. Sutton and Wilson found scaups wintering at Attn Island. At Unimak Island, March 1, 1941, Beals and Longworth ob- served two rafts, of at least 1,500 scaups each, on Swanson Lagoon, and a trapper assured them that these ducks spend the winter there. In several localities, mention was made of the scaup's habit of assembling near docks. In some cases, at least, fish offal appears 86 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE to be the attraction. This was definitely reported to be the case at False Pass, where the ducks gather at the cannery docks during the fishing season. Ayfhya affin'is: Lesser Scaup Friedmann (1935) lists the lesser scaup in the avifauna of Kodiak Island on the basis of osseous remains found in middens. We did not identify this duck on our expeditions, and we as- sumed that the scaups observed were of the larger form. Ayfhya ful'igula: Tufted Duck Rowland Wilson (1948) added this species to the list of Aleu- tian birds, bearing out our assumption that it could easily occur among the western islands. He reports seeing 2 males and 2 fe- males in a little pothole, inland from Murder Point on Attu Is- land on May 23 and 24, 1945; he watched them for some time, and the "tufts of long, loose feathers which streamed down from the nape of each male" were noted in detail. Bucephala clangula: Common Goldeneye Bucephala clangula americana Attu: Ha-no sakh-oi-a Russian, Commander Islands: Gogol (Stejneger, referring to the closely related European form). This may be the "whistler" amtdtux, given by Jochelson, for which no dia- lect was mentioned. Friedmann (1935) lists bones found in Kodiak middens, which he assigned to this subspecies on geographic grounds, and he mentions two specimens collected there by Fisher. On March 21, 1924, Laing (1925) observed three of these ducks at Uyak Bay of Kodiak Island. Gabrielson noted that this duck is plentiful in the Kodiak- Afognak area in fall and winter; he found it in the winter at Unalaska, Umnak, Kanaga, and Atka, and at King Cove and Cold Bay in spring and fall. I observed the goldeneyes in 1925 at Unimak Island. On April 29, 1925, I saw a pair flying over a lagoon at Urilia Bay, and on May 1, 1925, I saw a flock of about 10. On May 4, 1925, Donald Stevenson reported at least 200 on Peterson Lagoon. Identifica- tion could not be positive on all of these instances, but they were assumed to be americana on the basis of known distribution. Friedmann identified a goldeneye humerus in middens of Dutch Harbor, and Laing (1925) observed nine goldeneyes at Unalaska, FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 87 March 21 and 22, 1924 ; however, those were immature birds, or females, and identification of the species was doubtful. Turner, also, records this duck for Unalaska in December, and he says that it winters there. Cahn reports the goldeneye for Unalaska Island, saying. Strictly a winter visitor, present in considerable numbers but never in large flocks. Goldeneyes drift in by one's and two's in late October (October 24, 1943), and are common in the larger bays during the period of December through February, at which time they disappear far more abruptly than they arrive. April 11, 1946, is the latest recorded date; this is unusually late. Laing observed an unidentified goldeneye at Adak Island, and at Attn Island he positively identified two adult males that "were found ardently courting in a flock of six." Taber found goldeneyes wintering at Adak Island in 1945-46. When shown colored illustrations, the Attn chief picked out the common goldeneye and said it was plentiful there in winter, arriving in November and (he thought) leaving early in March. Sutton and Wilson found them wintering at Attu. Stejneger (1885) reported that the European common goldeneye occurred at the Commander Islands in winter in small numbers. Because there are so few specimens, and because racial identi- fication cannot be ascertained in the field, it would be possible that the Old World form (keeping in mind that it is recorded from the Pribilofs) occurs in the western Aleutians and has not been detected. In the case of this form, we are leaning heavily on assumed geographical distribution. Bucephala islandica: Barrow's Goldeneye We saw several Barrow's goldeneyes at Seward, May 5, 1936; at least 12 at Port Chatham, Kenai Peninsula, on May 6; 2 at Chisik Island, Cook Inlet, May 7; and 1 male at Kodiak Island, May 13. Friedmann (1935) has given a number of records for Kodiak Island, and Gabrielson noted them in winter and fall at Unalaska and Kodiak-Afognak Islands. With regard to the base of Alaska Peninsula, Osgood (1904) reported — One was seen on the Nogheling River July 20, and one was killed there some days later; another was shot by W. L. Fleming on a small pond near the head of Lake Clark July 28. Several immature birds were killed at the mouth of the Chulitna River August 4. Rather common at intervals along the Chulitna River August 12 to 17; generally seen in family parties of 6 to 10. Near Swan Lake a flock of about 15 was seen feeding on a shal- low lake in company with a flock of 10 swans. Seen almost daily in pairs or small flocks along the Malchatna and upper Nushagak September 3 to 6. 88 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Cahalane (1944) found this duck "numerous in the upper por- tion of the Naknek River, September 4." They were also abundant in Amalik, Kaflia, and Kukak Bays on October 5 and 7. Hine (1919) considered it to be a common species in the Katmai Bay area, and he obtained a specimen there. Thus, it would appear that the Barrow's goldeneye is confined pretty much to the basal part of Alaska Peninsula, adjacent is- land groups, and mainland areas as a breeding bird. The Ameri- can common goldeneye, on the other hand, is the form generally encountered to the westward, as a migrant. There are no data to show that any goldeneye nests west of the more or less tree- covered base of Alaska Peninsula. Bucephala albeola: Bufflehead Attu : Chirr-u-num Sakh-oi-a Atka : Mith-i-me-thruh The bufflehead occurs sparsely throughout the Aleutian district. Friedmann's data (1935) show that this duck is rather common on Kodiak Island, and that it nests there. Osgood (1904) reportsi that "two specimens were seen at Cold Bay October 17 among f some ducks killed on the bay by natives. One was taken at Nushagak by McKay, May 2, 1882." We noted at least six buffleheads at Port Chatham, Kenai Penin- sula, May 6, 1936, At Chignik, we were told that buffleheads are seen there in autumn. Gabrielson has seen them at Cold Bay, at the Shumagin Islands, and at Sanak Island. We found two females in a pond at Ikatan Peninsula, Unimak Island, May 19, 1936. Beals and Longworth noted one at False Pass, March 7, 1941, and four on Ikatan Peninsula on April 15, 1941. Turner (1888) says that this duck occurs in winter at Unalaska, where he obtained specimens, and he adds that they are rare to the westward, where they are present only in winter. Gabriel- son found them in winter at Unalaska, Atka, Amchitka, and Umnak. Over a period of 4 years, Cahn saw only one bufflehead at Unalaska Island (on February 22, 1944). Ray Clark, storekeeper on Umnak Island, said that butterballs (buffleheads) remain there in winter. Wetmore (manuscript notes) says that R. H. Beck saw a pair of buffleheads in a pond back of Atka village on June 13, 1911; Laing (1925) saw "fully thirty-five" in a small lagoon on Adak Island on April 11, 1924. And Taber found the species wintering at Adak, where there were 32 birds noted in a census on January 13, 1946. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 89 The Attu chief stated that his island is within the wintering range of the bufflehead, but he insisted that they also nest on Attu, "up high." Stejneger (1887) reports the bufflehead as "an accidental visi- tor during the winter of 1882-83" in the Commander Islands. Incidentally, this bird is mentioned in a number of records for the Pribilof Islands. Clangula byemalis: Oldsquaw Attu: Ang-lach Atka: A-lang-ach Unimak: Alg-nach' Russian, Commander Islands: Sofka (Stejneger) Russian, Yana region : Savka (Birula) Chukchi: Pojgochek, male Achak, female (Palmen) The oldsquaw is fairly common, especially in migration, and has been reported by most writers on southwestern Alaska. It occurs on Kodiak, and Osgood (1904) reports it from various places at the base of Alaska Peninsula and the Bristol Bay region. Einarsen (1922) reports several of these birds nesting near Ugashik in 1922. Laing (1924) counted as many as 200 at Dolgoi Island, March 23, 1924, and apparently he saw it in many other unidentified localities. He collected a specimen at Kodiak, March 21, 1924. Dall (1873) considered it to be abundant east of Unalaska. We noted the bird at various points : 2 migrating flocks on the Gulf of Alaska, May 2, 1936; 150 birds at Chisik Island, Cook Inlet, May 7 ; a flock of 30 in Shelikof Strait, May 13 ; 1 bird in Nushagak Bay, May 23; and 2 birds on the flats at Ugashik River, May 27. They are said to arrive at Chignik "late in the fall." The oldsquaw is common in migration along the Alaska Penin- sula and adjacent islands, but we were unable to establish nesting records. They are rather common in the Aleutians at certain seasons, especially in winter. In 1925, I found them to be numerous about False Pass in the latter part of April and in May. One was seen in St. Catherine Cove as late as May 20, but none was seen after that date. Beals and Longworth (field report) re- corded them at False Pass and neighboring points on January 12, 13, and 19, 1941, and they observed them daily through March and as late as April 10. Wetmore (manuscript notes) saw 2 birds at Unalaska Island 90 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE on June 7 and 11, 1911, and McGregor (1906) collected 1 female in worn plumage on July 20, 1901, at Tigalda Island. Cahn often found them wintering at Unalaska Island; the| earliest date was November 3, 1943, and the latest date was April 19, 1946. Taber found them wintering at Adak. We did not see many oldsquaws in the Aleutians; however, at Atka Island we were told by the natives that they formerly had nested on that island, but not "since the foxes came." The natives said that these birds winter on Atka and Kanaga in large num- bers. The Atka chief assured us that these ducks nest on Amchitka — he stated that although he had seen the young, he, had not seen any nests. Kiska Island appears to be one of the favorite localities for the oldsquaw. This island was mentioned by Dall as the western limit of its range. We saw several birds there as late as June 4 and 5, 1937, and Wetmore reported them to be fairly common near the entrance to Kiska Harbor, June 17 to 21, 1911. We also found oldsquaw remains in two bald-eagle nests on that island; oldsquaw remains were also found on West Unalga, and in eagle nests on Rat and Little Sitkin Islands. Dall (1874) said that the oldsquaw was resident as far west as Kiska, but that it was not abundant. We learned from thei Attu natives that it nests on Agattu and is abundant in the Neari Islands in winter. This is substantiated by the report by Suttonr and Wilson on Attu. The oldsquaws wintered there, and after March 4 they were observed courting. Turner (1886) said that few of these birds nested in the Aleutians, but that many of them wintered there. In 1887, Stejneger reported oldsquaws "breeding numerously on Bering Island." Gabrielson also ob- served them wintering as far west as Atka. To sum up. Turner's statement (see above) applies very well to the Aleutian district as a whole. Hisfrionicus hJstrionJcus: Harlequin Duck Attu: Kagh'-i-ach Atka: Kagh'-a-thi-ga Unalaska : Kang-a-rich Unimak: Kang-ath'-a-gich Russian, Commander Islands: Kameymschka (Stejneger) This is the most abundant duck in the Aleutian Islands. We found harlequin ducks at practically every island that we visited, singly sometimes, generally in small groups, and occasionally in larger flocks. It is safe to say that, at one time or another, harlequin ducks occur at every island, large or small, from Uni- FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 91 nak to Attu. Stejneger has reported them to be common in the Commander Islands. They were also found east of the Aleutians — at Amak Island, at Izembek Bay, and at False Pass. In the Shumagin group, we observed them at Unga, Nagai, and Simeonof Islands. They ^vere at King Cove, the Barren Islands, Afognak, Port Chatham m Kenai Peninsula, and at Seward. Osgood (1904) observed them along the Egegik River and "about the mouths of the larger streams that empty into Becharof Lake." He found them to be common at Kanatak and Cold Bay, and he mentions specimens taken by McKay and Johnson at Igushik and Nushagak. Cahalane (1944) reported harlequins in large numbers in the general region of Katmai National Monument in the fall of 1940, and Hine (1919) considered them to be one of the most common ducks in the Katmai Bay area in the summer of 1919. Cahalane ialso recorded them as being abundant in the Kodiak-Afognak igroup in the fall of 1940, where Gabrielson noted 200 on June 16, ,1940. W. Sprague Brooks (1915) observed them on April 19, 1913, at the Semidi Islands, and on April 22, 1913, he saw them at King Cove. Although these birds occur on the north side of Alaska Penin- sula, they are more common on the south side, which is more Irugged. Evidently, these birds nest on Alaska Peninsula. On I July 19, 1940, Gabrielson noted a pair flying along Kittiwake iCreek, between Brooks and Naknek Lakes, and Friedmann (1935) [states that Bretherton found them breeding in June on Kodiak Island. In the spring of 1925, I often observed two pairs along a stream just north of Aghileen Pinnacles, near the western end of Alaska Peninsula. Eventually, on June 3, only the males were seen; presumably, the females were nesting. On July 16, 1911, Wetmore (manuscript notes) observed a fe- male and a group of young in King Cove. It is difficult to determine the status of the harlequin ducks in the Aleutians. The natives insisted that they nest along streams and that their nests are very hard to find. In way of substantia- tion, we found no nests and no broods of young. However, we found these birds on islands that had no suitable nesting streams. On the other hand, Austin H. Clark (1910) reported: "It was common about Atka, where 1 or 2 were seen inland on a small stream ; on Attu and Agattu it was also numerous on the streams as well as along the coast." Turner (1886) described a deserted nest on Unalaska Island, in a hollow formed by two blocks of rock. A native assured him 92 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE that it was the nest of a harlequin duck. Here, again, our own] experience was baffling. Though there were numerous cKffs andj many available sites for nesting along the rocky shores, we saw no young brood throughout the two summers of observations. ' Wetmore, however, had pertinent observations at Kiska Island in 1911, when he says (manuscript notes) that | some of them were already nesting along the base of a high rocky cliff, asi they seemed very anxious while I was along there, those on the water.- whistling and swimming in small circles. I saw one or two females slipping quietly away from shore ahead of me, but flushed none from the beach itself. Beals and Longworth found harlequin ducks wintering at Unimak Island, and stated that they nest there. Elsewhere in the Aleutians, natives said that they are more numerous in winter than in summer. Stejneger (1885) found no evidence of nesting in the Com- mander Islands, and stated that the natives knew of no nesting. From these various observations, it can be concluded that the harlequin ducks nest on the Alaska Peninsula, possibly rather commonly; that they also nest in numbers unknown in the Aleu- tian Islands; that immature birds, various nonbreeders, and males gather for the summer in these waters; and that they winter there in great numbers. We had little opportunity to study food habits, and it must be assumed that, in the salt water, it consists of marine inverte- brates. The teacher of the native school at Atka informed us that in the autumn of 1936, when there was a large run of salmon up the streams of Atka Island, harlequin ducks were seen on the streams, presumably feeding on salmon eggs. However, we have no certain data on this subject. PolysHcfa steller'i: S+eller's Eider Chukchi: Kataadlin (Palmen) This little eider of the Bering Sea region occurs abundantly along the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian chain at certain seasons — particularly in winter. It is recorded as far east as Kodiak, where Friedmann (1935) lists many specimens and ob- servational records, including some bones from middens. Dall (1873) says it was observed in the Shumagins "in March, and in the summer months." The same writer (Dall 1874) reports them as wintering at Sanak Island, but he considered Unalaska to be the center of abundance for this species. He remarked upon the irregularity of their occurrence, because he had found Steller's eider, together with the Pacific eider, to be numerous at Unalaska FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 93 in May 1872, however in May 1873 he did not see a single one of either species in that locality. Osgood (1904) considered the Steller's eider to be common about Bristol Bay, and he mentions specimens collected by McKay and Johnson at Nushagak and Ugashik. On October 4, 1940, Cahalane (1944) observed a group of 6 in Amalik Bay, and he saw 6 again (perhaps the same group) the next day. Gabriel- son noted 2 males at Morzhovoi Bay June 21, 1940, and collected 1, which was not in breeding condition. In 1936, we observed several sizable flocks in Nelson Lagoon. In 1925, I found this duck to be rather common in Izembek Bay. On May 17, 1925, there were small groups at St. Catherine Cove, Unimak Island, and on May 20 about 200 were seen there, as well as several bands offshore in Bering Sea. Several flocks, totaling at least 300 birds, were spending the summer in Izembek Bay; they used Glen Island, near its entrance, as their home- ground. These were immature birds of both sexes, though there was an occasional one in adult male plumage. One male in adult plumage was collected on June 17. The testes were very small. None of the birds were seen on the adjacent marshlands, and there was no evidence of nesting. Turner (1886) testifies to the presence of the Steller's eider among the Aleutians in winter, even to the western end of the chain. Stejneger (1887) said that they wintered in the Com- mander Islands in "countless numbers," arriving early in Novem- ber and remaining until after the middle of May. Friedmann (1937) has recorded five humeri of this duck from middens on Little Kiska Island. Beals and Longworth observed them often in January, March, and April, 1941, and saw them as late as April 25, at False Pass. Although we did not find the Steller's eider nesting, older rec- ords furnish rather good evidence of nesting on the Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian chain. A. C. Bent (1925) records some notes sent to Major Bendire in 1892 by Chase Littlejohn, which in- cluded a statement that "a few were nesting at Morzhovoi Bay in June." Dall (1873) writes of the pairing of these ducks at Unalaska and describes a nest found on Amaknak Island, May 18, 1872. It contained a single egg. Turner (1886) saw a few of these ducks at the western end of Attu Island in July 1880, and the natives told him that the species nested sparingly on Agattu Island. Judging by the information available to us, we must recognize the strong probability that at one time the Steller's eider nested 94 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE on Alaska Peninsula and Aleutian chain (though undoubtedly in small numbers), and that it wintered there in great numbers. It is also clear that there has been a great diminution in num- bers. On our two expeditions in 1936 and 1937, we were in the general region early enough to have observed these ducks before all of them had left their wintering grounds. We saw very few, and those that we saw were on the north side of Alaska Penin- sula. We saw none in the Aleutian chain. We found the natives of Attn Island — who have had only limited contact with the white man — to be well versed in their local fauna, much more so than natives farther east. These Attn natives did not recognize pic- tures of the Steller's eider and declared that it does not occur there, even in winter. They could be mistaken; however, if we accept their testimony there must have been a great decline in numbers since 1880, when natives told Turner that these birds nest "sparingly" on Agattu Island. A. C. Bent (1925) considers the principal migration route in the fall "southward along the Siberian coast of Bering Sea to their winter homes in the Kurile, Commander and Aleutian islands." It is probable that the migration along the Siberian coast is the greater one, but if the information furnished by the Attu Islanders proves correct (and since we know these birds do winter in the eastern Aleutians), it is unlikely that the Siberian birds go to the Aleu- tians. On the other hand, we now know that there are large nesting populations on the American shores — at Hooper Bay and Nelson Island — and we have observations pointing out that the eastern Aleutians and parts of Alaska Peninsula, even Kodiak Island, are the principal concentration points in winter. In view of these facts, we must conclude that there is also a southward migration down the Alaskan coast of Bering Sea to the eastern Aleutians and Alaska Peninsula, and that the majority of the birds wintering in the Aleutians nest on the Alaskan coast. Somaferia mollissima: Common Eider Somo/er/o mollissima v. nigra Attu: Kaf-segh'-ich, male Chd-is, female Ku-ku-toch, young Atka: Ka-smn'-ich, adult (sex?) Ku-ku-toch, young Kasimax (Jochelson — dialect not given) Russian (?), Copper Island: Pistrak (Stejneger) Chukchi : Kupuken, male Emngi, female (Palmen) Common eiders were observed at practically eveiy island of the FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 95 Aleutian chain and are as universally distributed as the western harlequin duck, though not so abundant. Apparently, they are not plentiful on the Commander Islands, for Stejneger (1887) says that they breed in "very limited numbers in a few places on Copper Island, only occasionally flying over to Bering Island, round the shore of which a few may be seen in winter." In the Aleutians, we saw these birds in small groups, generally paired, and they nest, or try to nest, throughout the Aleutian chain. Blue-fox raising has seriously interfered with nesting, on certain islands. Nesting of common eiders was determined for the following islands: Attn — quite a number nesting on rocky islets in Massacre Bay. Agattu — preparing to nest. Semichi — nesting on islets in a lake. Buldir — nesting on the beach (no foxes present). Chugul, Little Kiska, Kiska — nesting reported by Wetmore in 1911. Amchitka — nesting on offshore rocks and preparing to nest on beach. Ogliuga — plentiful, many young birds seen. Aiktak, Kavalga, Ulak, and Tanaga — nesting reported by Gab- rielson. Little Tanaga, Kanaga, Adak, Aso, Igitkin, Salt, Atka, Chu- ginadak. Baby Islands — nesting on Adokt and Excelsior (no foxes pres- ent). These are the nestings actually observed. The birds were ob- served at many other islands, where they were probably nesting. Were it not for the predations of introduced blue foxes, they undoubtedly would nest on practically all islands. In 1925, I found nesting groups in Izembek Bay, Alaska Penin- sula (particularly on Glen Island and islets near Point Grant), as well as on a gull island far out in the bay. On May 22, 1936, we found flocks of common eiders in Nelson Lagoon, and in one place I counted 111 males on the beach. Residents said that they nest abundantly on some grass-covered sand islands there. Os- good (1901) mentions a young bird and a set of eggs secured by T. H. Bean in July 1880 at Chugachik Bay (Kachemak Bay). In 1936, we saw them in Ugashik River, but we did not remain long enough to determine their nesting status. Thus, we have a fairly accurate and continuous record of nesting from Bristol Bay westward to Attu Island. 96 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE On the south side of Alaska Peninsula, our observations arej more scattered. Common eiders are known to nest as far east as I Kodiak, and at Chisik Island, in Cook Inlet, we observed at least 12 pairs in the spring of 1936. The local game warden assured | us that they nest on Duck Island nearby, and on May 13, 1937, j several common eiders were seen in Icy Straits — the farthest east that we had observed this species. Mrs. Frank C. Hibben (1942, p. 182) found them nesting in Glacier Bay, the most easterly nesting record for southern Alaska. Gabrielson observed about 12 common eiders at Kodiak on June 14, 1940 ; at least 40 birds and 1 nest were seen in the Semidi Is- lands on June 18; and a few were seen at Morzhovoi Bay on June 21. As might be expected, companies of immature birds (nonbreed- ers) spend the summer in the waters along Alaska Peninsulai and the Aleutians. Furthermore, this is the principal wintering ground for the species; they do not venture farther south in any great numbers. Nesting Habitat These eiders utilize a variety of nesting sites. Probably they would prefer low islands of gentle slopes (such as the sand is- lands of Izembek Bay) , where they can nest in the grass. In such places, they nest both on the slopes and on the beach. Similar situations may be found in the Aleutians — the beach of Buldir Island is an example. There are few places in the Aleutians where they can nest with safety on the principal shorelines be- cause of the introduced blue fox. We found a few birds nesting on the shores at Amchitka and Agattu, but, being adaptable, they now seek the grassy tops of offshore rocks and pinnacles, or islands in lakes, where they are protected by water. The natives assured us that they also nest on ledges of sheer cliffs, where foxes are unable to climb. Mortality Factors The blue fox is probably the most potent predator that the eiders face in the Aleutians. In addition to this introduced enemy, the northern bald eagle also obtains an occasional eider, but ap- parently it does not prey extensively on the species. In a total (taken during three seasons) of 466 food items that were identi- fied in 32 eagle nests and at a few perching places, only 8 common eiders are represented. In one of these instances, the eider had a nest within 10 feet of an eagle's perch, and it was to be expected that the eagle would eventually seize the bird. It is surprising that so few eiders are taken by the eagle, because this duck does not FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 97 appear to be agile on the wing and is present everywhere. Prob- ably the great variety of "sea birds" attract the eagle's attention more readily. Gulls and ravens are another potent factor in stabilizing the eider population, because they prey on the eggs and young. The raven is included here solely on the basis of fragmentary ob- servations elsewhere. But the glaucous-winged gull was observed at times to be active in raiding eider nests. There is an interest- ing relationship here that has been noted frequently. Gulls and eiders often nest on the same area. Presumably, this should give the gulls a better chance to rob the nests of their duck neighbors ; however, it does not appear to be that simple, and the situation deserves careful study. Assuredly, upon entering such a mixed nesting colony, one finds a number of eider nests already rifled; yet, many others have not been disturbed. It is noticeable that human intrusion, which forces the eiders to leave hurriedly with- out covering the eggs, gives a splendid opportunity to the first passing gull, and the gulls readily take advantage of it. In 1925, in Izembek Bay, I found eiders nesting in the midst of a gull colony and found others nesting in a colony of terns. All these birds seek the same type of nesting terrain, regard- less of neighborly problems. During that season, an effort was made to reduce the hazard for nesting eiders by carefully cover- ing the disturbed nest with down, just as the bird would have done. So far as the results could be observed, this method was effective. One will sometimes find gull and eider nests in amaz- ingly close proximity, apparently with no detriment to the eider. After being hatched, the small duckling still faces danger from the gulls. A number of decimated broods were seen, and sometimes, as observed at Ogliuga Island, several families then join together in a band. But in spite of all these nesting hazards, the eiders hold their own — they occupy the entire Aleutian district in fair numbers and are plentiful enough to utilize whatever nesting sites are available to them. Somaferia specfabilis: King Eider Attu: Sakh'-uch Sdkux (Jochelson) Russian and Yukat, latitudes of the Yana: Turkan (Pleske) Chukchi: Jekadlin (Palmen) Information on the king eider is incomplete. We know that it spends the winter among the Aleutian Islands, the Shumagins, along the Alaska Peninsula, and as far east as Kodiak, where 98 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Friedmann (1935) has recorded specimens taken and many bones found in middens. He also found many bones in middens of Dutch Harbor and Little Kiska. In the wintering season, Gabriel- son found this eider at various points from Kodiak to Unalaska, and Hine (1919) obtained specimens near the mouth of Katmai River on June 25, 1919. Though we have relatively few published reports of king eiders from the winter range, these ducks must occur along the Aleutians and Alaska Peninsula and the ad- jacent seas in large numbers, judging by the striking northward migration we observed at Hooper Bay in the spring of 1924. The Attu chief appeared to recognize this duck; he gave us a name for it and stated that a few of them nest at Attu Island and that a few winter there. Judging by the relatively large number of bones found by Herbert Friedmann in the middens at Dutch Harbor and Kodiak, and considering the statement of the Attu chief that only "a few" winter there, the king eider evidently assembles in the greatest numbers among the eastern Aleutians and along the Alaska Peninsula. In 1925, I was told by local residents that many of these ducks winter at Isanotski Strait and at Wide Bay. Beals and Longworth (field report) observed king eiders at Isanotski Strait, Ikatan Peninsula, and at neighboring areas at intervals from early January to the latter part of May 1941 ; their numbers began to diminish in May, and at the end of May practically none were left. Four specimens were collected on January 13 and 24 and March 6. In winter, Cahn found the king eider to be more common than the common eider at Unalaska Island, and he says, present from early December to early March, usually in small flocks of three to six, or solitarily. Dec. 2, 1945, is the earliest record; April 3, 1944, the latest. The gizzard of a female found dead contained two specimens of the snail Callistoma. Though we do not have nesting records for the Aleutians — the Attu chief's statement about their nesting on that island may properly be questioned — a number of king eiders spend the sum- mer near Alaska Peninsula. In 1925, I observed a flock of about 200 birds (females and immature males) that spent the summer at Glen Island in Izembek Bay. Lampronetfa fischer'i: Spectacled Eider Information on this eider is disappointingly meager for the area under discussion. We saw none during the course of our expeditions to the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutians. They are FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 99 considered to be winter residents there, and A. C. Bent (1925) says they occur sparingly east to Sanak Island. Friedmann (1934) records a humerus froiri native-village middens on Kodiak Is- land. Dall (1873) records it as rare at Unalaska as a winter visitor, leaving there in May for northern nesting grounds. Surprisingly enough, Turner (1886) says "This species occurs among all the Aleutian Islands, where it breeds and is a constant resident, but extremely shy." This certainly is not the case today. Ball's statement, above, would seem to be more credible, Melaniffa deglandi: White-winged Scoter Melaniffa deglandi d'lxon'i Attu: Tru-pan-ach (obviously of Russian origin) Atka : Ta-mu-ghci-luh Russian, Commander Islands: Turpan (Stejneger) The Kanddgix of Jochelson (dialect not indicated) may possibly refer to this duck. White-winged scoters have always been common along the southern Alaskan coasts in spring migration, and in the course of several voyages they have been noted regularly in late April and early May along the southeastern Alaskan waters, as well as farther west. In 1936, we noted a few at Seward on May 5; at least 20 were noted at Port Chatham, Kenai Peninsula, on May 6; a few individuals were seen among the Barren Islands, May 10 and 11; and several were noted at Kodiak. They were common in Kupreanof Strait on May 13. In the fall of 1940, Cahalane found that scoters were numerous in the Kodiak-Afognak area. Early in September, he found them to be abundant in Naknek River, but none were seen by the end of September, He says (1944), "On the Pacific side of the area scoters were very numerous during the first half of October. They were 'abundant to very abundant' along the entire main- land coast from Katmai Bay to Point Nukshak." On June 16, 1940, Gabrielson noted 100 scoters near Whale Island. Osgood (1904) observed a flock of six scoters on Neekahweena Lake, about halfway up the Chulitna River on August 14, Chase Littlejohn, referring to the area between Kodiak Island and the west end of Alaska Peninsula in 1887-88, wrote, "Seen often during winter, I saw a number of birds at Ukanuk in summer where I am sure they breed but for want of time I did not succeed in finding their nests," In 1936, we found these ducks to be abundant in Nushagak 100 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 6 1 , FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Bay on May 26, and we observed several on lower Ugashik River on May 27 to 29. Jaques (1930) noted them as abundant in southeastern Alaska, May 1 to 9, 1928, and saw a few about Port Moller, May 22 to June 2, 1928. In 1925, I found them about the western end of Alaska Peninsula: At King Cove, April 25; plentiful at False Pass, April 28; a flock in Bering Sea near St. Catherine Cove (Unimak Island), May 17; and a few near Izembek Bay, May 20. As late as July 27 a few (possibly nonbreeders) were found along the coast in the vicinity of Izembek Bay. We did not observe white-winged scoters in the Aleutians west of Unimak Island, but Wetmore (manuscript notes) re- ported "a great raft" of these birds at Tanaga Island, June 25, 1911, and he noted small flocks in Kiska Harbor, June 17-21, 1911 ; Gabrielson noted a few at Akun, July 9, 1941. A. C. Bent (1925) suggests that the species may possibly breed in the Aleutians, basing his conjecture on these summer observations. This is possible, not only in the Aleutians but also on the peninsula, especially before the introduction of blue foxes on the islands. However, we have no nesting records for this entire district. According to general information and statements of natives, white-winged scoters winter in large numbers in the Aleutians and along the Alaska Peninsula. In 1941, Beals and Long\vorth (field report) recorded these ducks at intervals from January 12 to June 12 in the region about eastern Unimak and the adjacent Alaska Peninsula, and Gabrielson recorded wintering birds from Kodiak to Unimak. Cahn (1947) writing of Unalaska Island, says: "An abundant fall and winter visitor, especially from December to February." And Taber (1946) found a few of these birds wintering at Adak. Sutton and Wilson (1946) observed one scoter at Attu, March 17, 1945. G. H. Mackay in 1891 (quoted in Bent 1925) gave an interesting account of a mass migration of white-winged scoters to their nesting grounds, as observed in Rhode Island. He stated that it generally took place about the middle of May and that the daily flight was begun in the afternoon. We observed a similar occurrence on the other side of the continent when we visited Nushagak Bay in 1936. As we went up this bay on May 23, we saw large numbers of white-winged scoters assembled there, some of them flying about in pairs. The following is quoted from our field report; FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 101 On the evening of May 26, as we were going back out through Nushagak Bay, we observed flock after flock of white-winged scoters flying high in the air in goose-like formation, all heading up the bay in a general 'inland' direction. Some flocks contained 75 or 100 birds. It appeared that we were witnessing a movement, en masse, from a temporary salt-water meeting place to the inland nesting grounds. Melaniffa persp'icillafa: Surf Scoter We observed this bird in considerable numbers in the spring, on the way to the Aleutians, along the coast of southeastern Alaska. They (apparently all males) were particularly numerous on the south side of Millbank Sound on April 25, 1936. One large flock arose from the water and strung out for a mile. It must have contained at least 1,000 birds. There were other smaller flocks. We saw 4 or 5 of these birds at Port Chatham, Kenai Peninsula, on May 6, which was the last sighting. Surf scoters are known to occur at Kodiak Island. Cahalane (1944) says: '*A11 of the surf scoters seen were on the Shelikof Strait coast of Katmai National Monument, Oct. 4 to 7. They were 'common' in Kinak Bay, but were abundant from Katmai to Amalik Bay and in Kaflia and Kukak Bays." Gabrielson also observed them at Kodiak in early spring and fall. Laing (1925) observed these birds in spring as far west as Dolgoi Island, south side of Alaska Peninsula, but he saw none west of there. On July 23, 1940, Gabrielson noted four old males up the Kvichak River, and in winter he saw a few at Unimak. Wetmore (manuscript notes) reported, "A small flock of scoters, that I took to be this species, was seen June 4 in Lost Harbor, on Akun Island, and others were seen June 10 and 11, in Chernofski Harbor (Unalaska Island)." He reported none west of that point. Dall (1873), referring to the surf scoter under the name Melanitta velvetina, says: "Killed Oct 27th, 1871, at Unalaska, and noticed at intervals there during the winter. It was not seen at the Shumagins, though it may occur there. A winter visitor." Beals and Longworth reported a single male as False Pass on March 1, 1941, remarking that they saw this bird on several occasions. Cahn observed 3 scoters at Captain's Bay, Unalaska Island, April 3, 1943, and saw 1 on March 16, 1945 ; Taber saw 1 at Adak, December 14, 16, and 23, 1945. 102 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Austin Clark (1910) reports that "A few were seen at Attu and Agattu." Turner is the only observer who states that the surf scoter is "common among the Aleutian Islands," and is "abundant" in winter. He also says that "The surf duck is the svestu'n or whistler, of the Russians." There is much confusion in Turner's account. While the surf scoter does make a whistling sound with its wings, the vocal whistling is so characteristic of the common scoter that if any 1 of the 3 scoters should be so designated, it should be Oidemia n. americana. If sound of wings is the criter- ion, then deglandi is outstanding. Furthermore, Tunier (1886) says of 0. n. americana, "The male is noted for the gibbosity of pinkish-white near base of bill ; the lower edge of the swelling is deep red, gradually blending with the black of the rest of the bill." Assuredly, this fits perspicillata and not americana, and testifies to Turner's confusion on these species. In any case, the surf scoter is comparatively scarce today in the Aleutians, Oidemia nigra: Common Scoter Oidemia nigra americana Attu : Hoo-vai-ach Atka: Koo-ghang-ach Russian (reported at Unimak) : Swiss-toon (No doubt the svestun applied by Turner to perspicillata.) Laing (1925) observed the common scoter at Kodiak, March 21, 1924, and Friedmann (1935) has recorded a number of specimens from Kcdiak Island, though we do not have nesting records from there. Cahalane (1943) noted a small number of these birds in Viekoda Bay in the fall of 1940, and he saw a larger number in Uyak Bay. He also reported that this scoter was numerous in the fall of 1940, along the coast from Katmai to Amalik Bay, but he reported that noticeably fewer birds were seen north of this area. A few were noted in Kaflia and Kukak Bays. Osgood (1904) reported a few broods of young on ponds near Lake Clark, and he adds "Females with young were also seen occasionally along the more sluggish courses of the Chulitna River." On July 19, 1940, Gabrielson noted adults on Naknek River, and he saw a female with three young on a small lake at Egegik. On July 23, he noted three broods up Kvichak River and noted the species again near Iliamna Lake on July 24 to 26. On May 23, 1936, we noted 15 or 20 males among large numbers FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 103 of white-winged scoters in Nushagak Bay. These probably were migrants. On May 29, several flocks were flying about at the mouth of Ugashik River, and on the adjacent marshes two pairs were discovered among the ponds, the males whistling. Ap- parently, these birds were preparing to nest. Jaques (1930) observed them "about Moller Bay and on fresh- water pools on the tundra. May 23 to June 20 — not common." This, too, suggests nesting. In 1925, I saw this species at the western end of Alaska Penin- sula— a flock of both sexes at King Cove, April 25, and a few at False Pass on April 28. On June 13, small bands were flying about on Izembek Bay, whistling. By June 20, the birds were generally paired; on June 13, a female, taken for a specimen, contained a perfectly formed, hard-shelled egg. There can be no question about these birds nesting at Izembek Bay, chiefly at Ilazen Point. At Unimak Island we were told that this duck nests at Swanson Lagoon, which would be expected. Laing (1925) observed this duck at Dolgoi Bay, March 23, and says: "From Unalaska, where twenty-five were seen on March 26, the species was present in most of the harbors as far as Hitokappu in the southern Kurils, May 7. It was noted at Copper Island, Oest, Kamchatka, or Petropavlovsk." This statement indicates that it was noted along the Aleutian chain. Bishop (1900) recorded a number of these ducks off Unalaska, October 5, 1899. The Atka natives stated that this scoter winters sparingly in the Aleutians, while the Attu natives said that it was abundant there in winter. This is also borne out by Gabrielson's observa- tions on wintering birds from Kodiak to Atka. Beals and Longworth noted common scoters quite often in vari- ous places about the east end of Unimak Island from January 19 to June 12, 1941. Cahn (1947) reported for Unalaska Island: "Common in very large flocks in all the major bays from December to February, inclusive." Taber (1946), writing of Adak for the winter of 1945-46, states, "This was the most common bird of the area; it was seen in groups of 2 to 70 on the salt lagoon and the open sea." Sutton and Wilson (1946) found it wintering commonly at Attu. Bent (1925) records this bird as nesting in the Aleutian Islands; this is verified by the A.O.U. Check-List (fourth edition). It is possible that both statements are based on Turner's account. 104 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE But, considering (1) the apparent confusion of the three scoters by Turner (shown by his description and misplacement of the Russian names) ; (2) that Bent and his party did not observe it nesting there in 1911; (3) that we did not find any evidence of it nesting there on expeditions throughout the chain, when all islands were examined; and (4) that none of the Aleuts re- ported it nesting; then we must conclude that nesting of the common scoter in the Aleutian Islands as a whole must remain in doubt. Mergus merganser: Common Merganser Mergus merganser amer'icanus Attu: Chu-vai-ach, Siss-uch Tan-nnm-aJi-tiim sak-oi-a Chung-ung-e-koo-loo-ghearch Ha-Ka chai-u-too Russian, Commander Islands: Bolschoj Krachal (Stejneger) Friedmann (1935) records a number of specimens from Kodiak, as well as a number of eggs, which he said to be those of the common merganser, and he quotes Brethei*ton as saying that this duck nests on Kodiak. Osgood (1904) had very little information on this merganser for the base of the Alaska Peninsula, but he mentions an adult male killed at Becharof Lake. Cahalane (1944) observed several on the Naknek River on September 4, 1940. Jaques (1930) found flocks of these ducks (most were males) near Port Moller in late May and June, but he saw no sign of nesting. In 1936, we were informed by residents at Chignik that two kinds of mergansers occur there. A number of records of occurrence are available for Unalaska, probably because it has always been a prominent port where vessels put in during voyages through that region. Dall (1873) said several specimens were taken there on December 20, 1873, and he adds that none were seen in the Shumagins. Turner says they winter at Unalaska, but do not breed there. Eyerdam (1936a) reports that two birds were collected at Unalaska on June 10 and August 6, 1932. We saw no common mergansers in the Aleutians. The chief of Attu Island, who furnished the series of names for this bird, said that a few common mergansers nest there but that they are more numerous in winter. To sum up, the common merganser occurs sparingly from FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 105 Kodiak to Attu ; the best evidence of nesting comes from Kodiak Island; and (possibly) it nests on Attu Island. We know that it is an inland form — more so than M. serrator. Mergus serrafor: Red-breasted Merganser Mergus serrafor serrator Attu: Cruch-ah'-lich Atka: A-ga-lai-ahh Agldyax (given by Jochelson as applying to two species) Russian, Commander Islands: Krakhal (Stejneger) (The Attu name is undoubtedly a corruption of the Russian.) This is the commoner merganser of the Aleutian district. It breeds on Kodiak Island (Friedmann, 1935) , and Cahalane (1943) found it generally very abundant in the Kodiak-Afognak group in 1940. He also observed it in various places in the Katmai region, where Hine (1919) also reported it to be common. Osgood (1904) found it "exceedingly abundant on all the lakes and rivers" visited at the base of Alaska Peninsula, and he mentions seeing broods of young on Iliamna, Chulitna, Kakhtul, and Nushagak Rivers. He remarks, "From start to finish probably more mergansers were seen than any other species of water bird, with the exception of the large gulls." Gabrielson also noted this duck in 1940 on the rivers tributary to Bristol Bay. There were at least 50 broods of young, in all ages, on the Kvichak River, July 23. This merganser was reported as common at Chignik, and Jaques (1930) found it paired on King Salmon Creek, near Port Moller after June 11, "possibly breeding." On May 26, 1936, we saw two females in Nushagak River at Snag Point, and a pair was seen back on the marshes among the lakes near Ugashik River, where they probably nest. In 1925, I found this merganser nesting about Izembek Bay, and, on May 25, 1925, 4 were seen on a mountain stream below Aghileen Pinnacles. (On May 4, and on several subsequent days, red-breasted mergansers were noted at Urilia Bay, on Unimak Island.) On July 5, a nest with six eggs was found on a small island near Point Grant, and another nest was found on a little island far out in Izembek Bay, in the midst of a colony of glacous-winged gulls. Red-breasted mergansers with molting wing feathers were seen late in July. Chase Littlejohn, in 1887-88, said that this duck breeds at Sanak and at Morzhovoi Bay, where they remained all winter. McGregor (1906) found three nests on Round Island, Beaver Inlet, Unalaska Island, July 4, 1901. On June 3, 1936, we saw 106 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE six of these mergansers at Unalaska — Wetmore also had observed I them here on June 6 and 7, 1911, and had collected a specimen. At Unalaska Island, Cahn (1947) found a brood of 9 young | in the Makushin Valley swamp, June 23, 1944, and he observed a brood of 11 downy young on Coxcomb Lake, July 4, 1945. On August 15, 1937, we flushed a female from a grass-topped islet off the shore of Amlia Island. We had found 3 pairs oni Kiska Island, June 4 and 5, where Wetmore had seen 1 pair in June 1911. We found a foot of red-breasted mxerganser in an eagle's nest on Buldir. On June 17, we saw a flock of 7 at Semichi Islands; 6 were noted on Amchitka Island. Incidentally, Dall (1874) had reported that Amchitka was the only place in the western Aleutians where this species had been observed. In 1936, we noted a flock of seven red-breasted mergansers on Corwin Lake, Atka Island, June 22. Several were seen on Kanaga, June 29, and eight were seen in a lake on Kiska, July 26. At Adak Island, July 3, two were seen in Bay of Islands, and three or four in Kuluk Bay. June 26-27, 1911, Wetmore found them to be fairly common in the small lakes back of Bay Water- falls, Adak Island, where he found a brood of nine downy young about a week old — he suspected that there was a brood in another lake. And on September 3, 1944, Gabrielson found a brood on Amchitka, thus definitely establishing a nesting record for that part of the Aleutian chain. The Attu chief said that these ducks nest on Attu, and Atka natives reported them nesting on their island. Turner also re- ported them nesting on Atka. We can definitely state that the red-breasted merganser nests from Kodiak to Attu, and, according to Stejneger (1885), it is a very common breeding bird in the Commander Islands. Apparently, it winters in the Aleutians also (though perhaps in small numbers), because Taber (1946) observed them at Adak from December 9, 1945, to January 13, 1946. Family ACCIPITRIDAE Accipifer gen f His: Goshawk Acc'ip'ifer gentilis africapillus The goshawk occurs on Kodiak Island, as shown by specimens recorded by Friedmann (1935). Harrold saw one on Sitkalidak Island, near Kodiak, in May 1927 (Swarth 1934). Howell (1948) found a goshawk nest July 9, 1944, located in a 35-foot spruce at Middle Bay, Kodiak Island — there was a single young, which- flew FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 107 from the nest. Osgood (1901) saw goshawks frequently near Tyonek, and two immature birds were collected. Osgood (1904) again reported a goshawk at Iliamna Pass, July 13, 1902, and several immature birds were observed repeatedly at the mouth of Chulitna River. Later, he observed the species at Nushagak. This sums up normal distribution of the goshawk in the region under discussion, though on August 15, 1946, Gabrielson recorded one at Dutch Harbor, and, on August 20, he noted another at Simeonof Island in the Shumagins. Ordinarily, the goshawk is confined to the Kodiak-Afognak area and the base of the Alaska Peninsula — the regions that contain the forested areas. AcdpHer sfrJafus: Sharp-shinned Hawk Accip'iter striatus velox Friedmann (1935) records a specimen collected by Bischoff on Kodiak Island, March 10, 1869. Osgood (1904) reports seeing a sharp-shinned hawk on the Mulchatna River, September 3, 1902 ; apparently, these are the only records for the area here con- sidered— this bird sharing the forested areas with the goshawk. But Swarth (1934) reports a specimen taken on Nunivak Island, north of the area here considered, on September 14, 1927. This bird was found among the boulders on the shore, far from any forest, which is a most unusual occurrence. Bufeo lagopus: Rough-legged Hawk Buteo lagopus s.johannis We observed the rough-legged hawk at Kodiak and Afognak Islands. Friedmann (1935) has recorded a number of specimens in both light and dark color phases from Kodiak, and he mentions Bretherton's statement that this species nests there. Osgood (1904) reports a nesting pair on an islet in Lake Clark, and he observed one bird near the mouth of Chulitna River and another on the lower Nushagak. McKay took a specimen in 1881 on the Aleknagik River. Cahalane observed these hawks on the wxst side of Alaska Peninsula, on Naknek River and Three Forks, in September 1940, and, in the same year, Gabrielson noted one at Kodiak, June 14, and one at Dillingham, July 17. Gianini (1917) observed these hawks nesting in "fair num- bers," in Stepovak Bay, in 1917. In 1911, Wetmore found them to be fairly common near Frosty Peak, and he noted one at Un- alaska. In 1925, I found a number of nests on cliffs about Izembek 108 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Bay and at least 4 nests on Amak Island, and I noted five or si t hav/ks on Unimak Island. In 1936, when our party visited Ama f Island very briefly, two rough-legged hawks were noted ther[ again. They occur also in the Shumagins, because we saw on| at Unga Island. Rough-legged hawks have been noted by various ornithologist! in the Fox Islands group. We saw them on East Unalga, Ur Figure 25. — Rough-legged hawk. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 109 alaska, Umnak, and Ananiuliak (the last is a smaller island off the west end of Umnak). Swarth (1934) reports that these hawks were seen almost daily on Akutan from May 17 to June 13, 1927, by Harrold, nesting and in both color phases. He also found this species nesting at Unalaska. Our own observations, and the published record, show that rough-legged hawks nest along the Alaska Peninsula and on suitable offshore islands, and westward in the Aleutians as far as Ananiuliak Island — but no farther. It is significant that this breeding range coincides exactly with the distribution of rodents, for no rodents originally occupied the Aleutian Islands west of Ananiuliak. Rats and ground squirrels have been introduced on a few islands to the westward, but evidently these introductions have not yet affected the original distribution of the rough- legged hawk. Rodents constitute the chief item in the diet of these hawks, as was verified by a number of observations. Speaking of the area about Frosty Peak, Alaska Peninsula, Wetmore reported in 1911: "The thousands of ground squirrels (Citellus) here fur- nished them an abundant food supply as the crops of those taken testified." On Amak Island, in 1925, I found a quantity of mouse fur, three Microtus, and the wing of a Savannah sparrow in a rough- legged hawk's nest. Microtus amakensis is the only rodent there. The stomach of a female hawk collected by Harrold on Akutan Island contained two field mice Microtus. Stejneger (1885), speaking of Archibuteo kigopus, said that it was occasionally seen in the Commander Islands, and he thought that it might become established there, because mice had been introduced. Aquila chrysaefos: Golden Eagle Aqu'ila chrysaefos canadensis Both Turner and Dall reported the golden eagle to be abundant in the Aleutians. Austin H. Clark (1910) reported: "I observed this species once on Unalaska and several times on Atka, where it appears to be rather common." Chase Littlejohn (manuscript notes), speaking of the area from the southwest end of Kodiak Island to the end of Alaska Peninsula, including adjacent islands, says. Saw quite a number of these fine birds but only obtained one, which was unavoidably lost to my collection. He was caught in a steel trap. A couple 110 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE of days before, he had killed and eaten a silver fox whii^h was in a trap. It seems he returned to pick up the fragments and was himself caught. He measured nine feet from tip to tip. The exact locality was not given. In 1936, Douglas Gray and C. S. Williams saw an eagle at Unalaska, which they described as having considerable white on the tail, but with a temiinal dark band. This assuredly suggests that the bird was a golden eagle. At Chignik we were told that one had been killed there, but we did not see the specimen. Cahn (1947) writes, "While probably not rare in the higher and wilder parts of Unalaska Island, this species is uncommon around Dutch Harbor, Two records in four years: June 17, 1944, over Mt. Ballyhoo, and August 7, 1944, sitting atop a mast on a ship anchored at a dock." Osgood (1904) refers to a specimen that was supposed to have been collected by McKay at Nushagak, but he was unable to find it in the National Museum collection. Friedmann (1937) found a sternum of this species in midden material from Kodiak Island — the only record for that locality. Thus, we have quite a number of records (mostly based on observations) ; however, authentic specimens are rare. It is a little difficult to conceive of the golden eagle as abundant in the Aleutians, in view of observations dating back to the time of Turner and Dall, but there seems to be ample evidence to conclude that at one time the bird was more common that it is today. It is now only an occasional straggler in the Aleutian Peninsula region. Haliaeefus albicilla: Gray Sea Eagle Friedmann (1935) records osseous remains of the gray sea eagle from village middens on Kodiak Island. Bishop (1900) re- ported the first record of this bird for North America — a young female that was found dead at Unalaska, October 5, 1899. Again, in 1905, he records a specimen that was taken at Van- couver Island, March 18, 1898. Eyerdam (1936) says, "Several of these birds were seen on Unalaska Island on May 25th and May 30th, One was killed near Dutch Harbor by a seaman from one of the coast guard cutters, who kept the claws, tail and wing feathers for souvenirs." It is unfortunate that a specimen was not saved, since it is rather remarkable to casually see "several" of a species so rare in North America. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 111 Cahn (1947) reports seeing one of these birds at Dutch Harbor on May 16, 1945, and he reports that he watched it under favorable circumstances for 10 minutes. Sutton and Wilson, at Attu, watched two dark-headed, white-tailed eagles, identified as this species, on March 15, 1945. We did not see this bird on any of our expeditions. A number of times we thought that we had sighted one, but each time it proved to be a bald eagle in one of its immature plumages. These plumages can be confusing, and we felt that records of the gray sea eagle should be based on specimens. Haliaeetus leucocephalus: Bald Eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus alascanus Attu : Tirrgh-hich Atka : Tig-a-lach A-waich'-7-ich (immature) Alaska Peninsula: Tikh-lukh (Wetmore) The bald eagle is commonly distributed throughout the length of Alaska Peninsula and adjacent island groups, and the Aleutian chain. It is numerous in some places. In the Aleutians, nearly every island that we visited had at least 1, often 2 or more, pairs, nesting. They are numerous about the larger islands. Williams noted 15 eagles in Bay of Islands, Adak Island, July 2, 1936, and more were found on other parts of the island. On June 29, we saw several at Kanaga Island. The caretaker of a fox- ranching establishment there had killed 14 of these eagles for the bounty, and he planned on raiding 20 more nests later. For some reason, the bald eagle is scarce in the Near Islands — including Attu, Agattu, and Semichi. We observed a single pair on Agattu in 1937, but we saw none at Attu or Semichi and the natives assured us they were very scarce. However, we found a nest on Buldir Island, and from that point eastward bald eagles were common. Not only do eagles occur along the Alaska Peninsula, they also occur on the ofi'shore island groups. In 1940, Gabrielson observed them in several places at the base of Alaska Peninsula. At Kodiak, in 1936, one merchant erected a sign advertising the fact that eagle feet were acceptable as cash (bounty could be collected for them). Plumage and Other Color Changes Too few specimens were handled to obtain precise information on plumage changes. A. C. Bent (1937) states that he believes the bald eagle assumes the adult plumage in the fourth year. 112 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE , Field observations on numerous immature birds in Alaska were' confusing, and we were unable to correlate some plumage patterns with age. The downy-young plumages are well known and are well de>- scribed by Bent. However, the color of beak, eyes, and other soft parts is not so well known. A young bird in the dark-down stage on Ananiuliak Island had a slate-colored upper mandible, the cere was of a similar color, but it was of a little lighter shade. The tip of the lower mandible was similar to the upper in color, but posteriorly the margin of the gape was flesh color, becoming paler posteriorly and shading into a near-yellow at thei corner of the mouth. The lores were dull bluish. The iris wasi dusky brown, and the pupil was blue. The eyelids were pale plumbeous. The feet were a yellowish-clay color, and the claws were slaty. The flrst-year plumage is dark; as Bent says, "uniformly dark 'bone-brown' to 'clove brown' above and below; the flight feathers are nearly black, but there is usually a slight sprinkling of grayish white in the tail." In the first year, both the bill and cere are of a blackish-slate color. The iris is brown, and the pupil is black. At this stage, the eyelids are still plumbeous. The plumages preceding the final adult stage are hard to define. There appears to be much variation, probably over a 2- year period. Assuming a 2-year period for the postjuvenal phases, the plumage varies in the degree of white mottling. The essential feature is a pattern that includes patches of dull- white mottling on scapulars and back (which, in flight, show as three distinct areas), and light-colored upper tail coverts and considerable white in under parts. In one phase of this plumage, which must be in the second year, the bill and cere are still blackish and the eye is still a rich brown. The preocular area is essentially white, the eyelid is plumbeous, and the gape is dull yellowish. The feet are yellow. A later phase, which possibly may represent the third year, still includes the dark bill, with a dull-yellowish hue appearing on the lower mandible and the margin of the cere. The eye is dull yellow also, and a yellowish tinge is encroaching upon the preocular area. The eyelid is gray, and the gape is yellow. There is much light speckling on the head, though the head is chiefly brownish. The specimen on which this description is based did not have the light mottling on upper parts falling into a pattern of three light patches, as was seen on many birds; instead, it was more scattered. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 113 In still another phase, which is quite advanced, the head is white, speckled with a blackish hue. The beak is a dull-yellowish tone — perhaps best designated as tan, somewhat streaked with a slaty tone. The lower mandible is bright yellow at the base. The cere is a mixture of gray black and yellow. The eye is yellow (as in the adult), the eyelid is a brighter yellow, the preocular area is pale yellow, and the gape is a rich, bright yellow. These are the advancing stages in development, the transition from dark "soft parts" to the characteristic yellow of the adult, but it was not possible to allocate all of these plumages to age groups. Nesting Trees are absent in the area except in a limited portion of the base of Alaska Peninsula, therefore nests are placed on cliffs or pinnacles, or on low ground. Many nests are inaccessible to man by ordinary means of climbing. Frequently, a nest is placed on the top of a pinnacle, which sometimes is separated from an adjacent cliff by a narrow chasm, and which is surrounded by water, at least at high tide. At times, the nest is placed on a cliff, where it may be fairly accessible to man. In one case, on Buldir Island in 1936, a nest was found on a small rock outcrop on a slope, where one could walk to it without climbing. The same place was visited the following year; the former nesting site was abandoned, and the eagles (probably the sam.e pair) had made their nest on the flat grassy valley bottom below. There was not even a hummock at the nest location. In 1925, on Unimak Island, a nest containing eggs was placed on the top of a smooth sand dune. It is interesting to note that on June 9, 1941 (16 years later), Beals and Longworth re- ported finding an eagle's nest on a sand dune in the same locality. As a rule, eagles seek inaccessible locations on cliffs and obviously prefer pinnacles. Nests are generally built by assembling a layer of dried grasses, mosses, and other vegetable debris. Sometimes kelp is used. Kelp nests are rimmed with the dried stems of Heracleum and Ligusticum, which are the largest material available in lieu of twigs from trees. In some cases, however, the eagles use sticks from the driftwood on the beach. Eagles build various types of nests. The nest on the sand dune, already mentioned, consisted of a cavity that was 360 mm. wide and 130 mm. deep, heavily lined with dry grass, bits of moss, and a small amount of dead eelgrass from the beach. 114 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE A number of large dry stalks of Heracleum lanatum lay around the rim, though these were not used in the construction of the nest proper. Another nest was on a rock mass rising from a slope on Amak Island. A few dried plant stems were the only evidence of nest ! construction, and the single young sat on a bare spot, well trampled, on top of the rock, surrounded by a fringe of green grass. Another nest on the same island was somewhat similar. It was on the grassy top of a high cliff. Two well-feathered young j perched in a bare trampled spot about 8 feet long, which wasi crescent-shaped because of a hump in the middle of the space. There were the usual dry cow parsnip stems around the edge, but there was practically no nesting material in the center. A third nest on this island was more substantial, consisting of dry grass with dry cow parsnip stems around the rim. These scanty nests contrast sharply with a nest found at Amukta Island, June 16, 1936. This nest, on top of a pinnacle, was built of kelp, grasses, and driftwood to a height of 4 feet. A nest observed at Kanaga Island, June 29, 1936, was on the grassy top of a pinnacle ; it was made mostly of moss and had a wide platform rimmed with dry stems of Heracleum and Ligusticum and a few driftwood sticks. A nest on the grassy top of a columnar rock on the shore of Kiska Island was in the form of a bulky mass, consisting mostly of kelp. Still another nest, on a rocky point of Little Sitkin, was built largely of dry stems of Heracleum and Ligusticum and willow roots, with a lining of finer vegetation. The willow there is a prostrate form, whose roots often are partly exposed by wind erosion. These examples illustrate the general type and the variations of bald eagle nests. Some of the bulky nests resulted from an accumulation of material over a long period — a typical example was found at Amchitka Island, July 11, 1937. This nest — a shallow affair — was made mostly of moss on the grass-topped point of a pinnacle rising from the beach. It rested on a mass of old sod and soil to a depth of about 6 feet. This accumulation was filled with bird bones. Evidently, this accumulation had been built up by annual increment of debris left by nesting eagles for many seasons. Our various expeditions were usually too late in the season to observe eggs — there were young in nearly every case. The FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 115 number of young, in a series of 34 nests, varied from 1 to 3 per nest, though in 1941 Beals and Longworth reported a nest with 4 young. In 1 nest, there was 1 live youngster and 1 partly eaten dead youngster; in 2 other nests, there was 1 young and 1 rotten egg containing an embryo. All of these must be con- sidered as having had two fertile eggs originally. On that basis, there were 12 nests with 1 young, 17 nests with 2 young or eggs, and 5 nests with 3 young. In every nest that we observed, the nesting birds were white- headed adults. One report, from Cecil Williams in 1936, indicated a nesting pair, in immature plumage, on TJliaga Island. Food Habits I have discussed the food of this eagle in detail in "Food habits of the northern bald eagle in the Aleutian Islands, Alaska" (Condor, 1940, vol. 42, No. 4, pp. 198-202). The data presented were based on examination of 28 nests. In addition to this published material, data from 4 other nests are available, com- prising 21 more food items. This additional material agrees with the published percentages. In the Aleutian district, birds constitute the major part of the bald eagle's diet — 58.9 percent on the basis of material obtained in 1936; 86 percent for 1937. As would be expected, most of the birds taken are the so-called sea birds, chiefly shearwaters, fulmars, cormorants, glaucous-winged gulls, murres, ancient murrelets, paroquet auklets, crested auklets, and horned and tufted puffins. Fulmars and shearwaters head the list. Two ravens had been eaten. Others taken included : Petrels, kitti- wakes, pigeon guillemots, ptarmigan, least auklets, and ducks, though none of these are taken in great numbers. Ducks were not preyed on extensively, probably because of the abundance of other birds, although harlequin ducks, oldsquaws, European teals, pintails, common eiders, red-breasted mergansers, and three emperor geese were identified in food remains. Mammals are not universally available to eagles in this district and are seldom found in the diet. Tlie ground squirrel is by far the most common mammal captured. Others, which occasionally are taken, are the house rat, the field mouse, the blue fox, and, possibly, the domestic sheep at Umnak Island. In 1938, Scheff'er reported that one of the men in charge of the sheep on Umnak Island declared that he had never seen eagles bothering live sheep, though they will eat carrion. Another informant, a sheep herder at Unalaska, said that eagles will not bother healthy sheep, but they will attack dying ones and will feed on dead ones. 116 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE He had seen both ravens and eagles feeding on carcasses of winter-killed sheep, Beals and Longworth, in 1941, reported that local residents on Unimak Island believed that the bald eagle kills caribou fawns. However, this would need verification. It is known, of course, that eagles feed on dead whales and seals. It has been thought that bald eagles kill many blue foxes. But, according to the evidence we obtained, this is not the case in the Aleutian district. The remains of only one fox were found in an eagle nest, and these remains could have been carrion because we found a few dead foxes on the beaches. To further refute this theory, many blue fox families were being raised successfully in the vicinity of eagle nests. A moderate percentage of fish and invertebrates is eaten by the bald eagle. To what extent this eagle feeds on dead or spawning salmon on the Alaska Peninsula was not determined. In July 1911, at Morzhovoi Bay, Wetmore observed them feeding on dog salmon taken from shallow rapids. Edward D. Crabb (1923) apparently found fish remains to be prominent in nests examined along Alaska Peninsula; there were parts of seven Dolly Varden trout in one nest. Edward J. Reimann (1938) observed a bald eagle taking a mullet out of the water, reaching for it with one foot. Beals and Longworth found two sockeye salmon and the head of a sea gull in a nest on Unimak Island, June 9, 1941. We did not see bald eagles capture live fish, but Atka mackerel were often observed near the surface of the water, where an eagle could very easily seize one. In the Aleutian chain proper, the main food of the bald eagle consists of sea birds. There are some indications that fish of various kinds are more prominent in the diet along the Alaska Peninsula, where we did less work on this bird. At any rate, there is abundant evidence that the eagle is not a serious detri- ment to man's interests throughout the Aleutian district. Banding A number of nestling bald eagles were banded in the Aleutian Islands in 1937. Of these, six returns were obtained. All six had been banded in June ; 1 on Little Kiska Island, 2 at Little Sitkin, and 3 (all in one nest) on Rat Island. The following winter, all of these were killed by natives on Attn Island. This shows a westward drift of immature eagles, at least in the western part of the Aleutian chain. These eagles are permanent residents in the Aleutian district, summer and winter. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 117 Haliaeefus pelagicus: Steller's Sea Eagle In the course of all our expeditions to the Aleutians, a Steller's sea eagle was never observed, though we scrutinized all eagles closely for such a possibility. Charles H. Gilbert's specimen from Kodiak Island (1922) is the only record of a specimen obtained from the Aleutian district; however, more recently, Friedmann (1935) has recorded several bones of this species from middens on Kodiak Island. G. Dallas Hanna (1919, 1920) has recorded a specimen taken in the Pribilofs in December 1917. These are the only records for North America based on actual specimens. Austin H. Clark (1910) reported seeing one of these eagles near Unalaska on May 26, 1906. Leonard Stejneger (1885) says of this eagle: "The habitat is especially the mainland of Kamschatka, where it is abundant, but also all the countries bordering the Okotsk Sea. On Bering Island it is only an occasional visitor, being chiefly an inland bird preferring the quiet rivers and lakes surrounded by dense forests." Circus cyaneus: Marsh Hawk Circus cyaneus hudsonius Friedmann (1935) records a specimen taken on Kodiak Island by Bretherton on April 2, 1894. Osgood (1901) reports the marsh hawk near Homer and Hope, in the Cook Inlet region, and again, in August 1902, he found them at intervals along the Kakhtul River and occasionally, all the way to Nushagak. Caha- lane (1914) observed 4 marsh hawks in Katmai National Monu- ment in September and October 1940; 2 of these were males. We did not see any of these hawks west of Kodiak Island during three expeditions, nor does Wetmore record any west of Kodiak Island in his field report for 1911. But Turner (1886) records a flock of 10 of these hawks at Unalaska, and he remarks that it is a rare summer visitor to Attn Island ; however, this statement is surprising in view of present-day information. Those observed at Unalaska must have been a migrant group. But Cahn (1947) contributes the valuable information that he ob- served a male in Makushin Swamp, Unalaska Island, June 7, 1943, and saw a female over the swamp at the end of Captain's Bay on July 7, 1944. Although the marsh hawk may occasionally appear to the westward, it certainly prefers the meadows and marshes of the more wooded parts of Alaska, including the base of Alaska Peninsula and the Kodiak-Afognak group. Along the north side 118 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE of Alaska Peninsula all the way to the west end, and on Unimal^ Island, numerous marshy areas with an abundance of mice and birds may be found ; yet, this treeless region generally is avoided by the marsh hawk. Family PANDIONIDAE Pand'ion haUaefus: Osprey Pandion hal'iaefus carolinensJs This bird has not been recorded from the Kodiak-Afognak Islands, but Osgood (1904) reports it to be quite common on nearly all watercourses that he has traveled, and he specifically mentions the Nogheling, Chulitna, and Kakhtul Rivers — all these are north of Lake Iliamna. Cahalane (1944) saw 2 American ospreys — 1 at Naknek River, September 4, 1940, and the other at the outlet of Brooks Lake, September 7. In 1940, Gabrielson saw 1 osprey at Wood River Lakes, July 18; he observed 1 at Brooks Lake, July 19, and he saw another near the upper end of Iliamna Lake on July 25, There are no records of sighting the American osprey farther west, but Stejneger (1885) said that it is an occasional visitor in the Commander Islands and that is is very abundant in Kam- chatka. This is another bird that does not venture out into the treeless areas to nest. Family FALCONIDAE Faico rusficolus: Gyrfalcon Faico rusficolus uralensis Attu : Kns-SHm Ah'-ghu-Uch The Attu chief described a bird larger than the peregrine falcon, and gave us the above name. (If it were different from the peregrine falcon, and larger, it could hardly be anything but a gyrfalcon.) The chief declared that it nests and winters on Attu Island. Austin Clark (Collins et al. 1945, p. 37) says "Lieutenant Nelson, an experienced falconer, believes he saw gyrfalcons on Kiska, though only one, in the white phase, was identified with certainty." We did not identify this bird on any of our expeditions, noi did Wetmore record it. Nelson (1887), using the name FaJcc rusticolus gyr faico, said that it was very common along the Bering Sea coast, but less common in the Aleutian Islands. Swarth FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 119 (1934), using the name Falco rusticolus candlcans, records a pair seen on Akutan and several on Unalaska by Cyril G. Harrold. Beals and Longworth report — March 2, False Pass: 1 falcon, very light, almost grey, on a cliff approxi- mately 1500 feet elevation. March 14, False Pass: 2 at elevation of 1800 feet, color white. March 24, False Pass: 1 with color predominantly white, flying over alders back of cannery. May 13, False Pass: 2 almost pure white falcons at 1500 feet. These are all sight records, and one cannot be sure which form of gyrfalcon was represented. But there are several speci- mens in the National Museum that are referable to iiralensis: Three were taken at Nushagak, September 1, 1881, October 20, 1881, and December 5, 1882; and a juvenile specimen was ob- tained from Herendeen Bay, taken July 15, 1890, by C. H. Townsend, and marked by Friedmann as "Prob. uralensis." Fried- mann has also recorded 2 from Kodiak Island, 1 taken by Fisher, September 18, 1882, and the other (no longer extant) by Panshin in 1871. On September 21, 1942, Beal obtained a specimen at Cold Bay, on Alaska Peninsula. Stejneger (1885) listed Falco rusticolus and Falco islandus for the Commander Islands. The former, he says, is not uncommon in winter — feeding chiefly on "the numerous field mice which now infest that island," — and possibly nests there. He states that F. islandus breeds there in limited numbers. Hartert (1920) records 4 white and 4 dark immature birds and 1 white and 3 dark adults from the Commander Islands, all taken in winter ; he lists them all under Falco rusticolus canclicans. Falco rusficolus obsoletus In the National Museum there is a specimen taken by McKay at Ugashik in 1881 ; it was identified by Friedmann as obsoletus. To what extent this bird occurs in the Aleutian district is un- known, nor do we know how many of this form were represented in the sight records listed under uralensis. Bond (1949) has thrown some doubt on the classification of western American gyrfalcons, but I have not had an opportunity to evaluate the situation. Falco peregrinus: Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus anatum We did not obtain specimens of anatum in the Aleutian district, though Friedmann (1935) records a specimen from Kodiak Is- 120 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA fil, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE land, which he suggests may possibly have been a migrant or vagrant. Likewise, the duck hawks reported by Captain Ammann and Lieutenant Nelson on Kiska (Clark 1945, p. 36) would have to be migrants or vagrants if we are to retain the subspecificj status of these forms. There is, of course, the possibility that' these birds were wanderers from Siberia (F. p. calidus). Faico peregrinus peale'i Attu: Ah'-ghu-lich Atka: Ah'-ghu-lich Commander Islands: Agulekh (Stejneger) Russian, Commander Islands: Tschornij Jastrip, black hawk (Stejneger) The Aleuts of the Commander Islands speak the language of the Aleutian Islands, and, evidently, the name for this falcon is the same in all dialects. It is pretty well established that the nesting birds of the Aleutian chain are pealei, and that this form also nests in the Commander Islands. Probably the same form occupies the Alaska Peninsula and adjacent island groups. However, there is a specif men of F. p. anatum recorded by Friedmann from Kodiak Island,! and we did not collect specimens of F. p. pealei east of the Aleutian chain. We found this falcon to be common throughout the Aleutians. It nests on nearly all the islands, usually on high inaccessible ledges. It is a resident breeding bird and also winters in the Aleutians. As would be expected, the peregrine falcon feeds chiefly oni birds. Casual observations revealed that the least auklet and the crested auklet are taken — one falcon was seen carrying a crested auklet. It has been reported as capturing ptarmigan and shorebirds, but it is believed that sea birds furnish a large portion of its food. FaIco columbarius: Pigeon Hawk FaIco columbarius bendirei Friedmann (1935) records a number of specimens of bendirei from Kodiak Island, though, as he points out, Peters states in his check-list of the birds of the world that suckleyi is the breeding bird of Kodiak Island. The 1931 A.O.U. Check-List considers the Kodiak birds to be bendirei. Two specimens were obtained from Kodiak by Gabrielson, August 8, 1945. Osgood (1904) records specimens from the Nogheling and Chulitna Rivers, Nushagak Village, and Aleknagik Lake, and he observed others on the Kakhtul and Nushagak Rivers. He also FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 121 reported them common in the Cook Inlet region — specifically men- tioning Hope and Tyonek (1901). Cahalane (1944) observed a pigeon hawk on lower Ukak River, September 9, 1940, and saw another on Windy Creek, September 16. Hine (1919) also found these little hawks to be common in the region of Katmai Bay in the summer of 1919. The pigeon hawk is exceedingly rare farther west, but there are a few records available. Turner (1886) mentions a specimen taken at Unalaska in 1879. Bailey (1926) says "Hendee collected one at Unalaska Sept. 25, 1922, and saw another the next day." Captain G. A. Amman reported a pigeon hawk, not positively identified, on Kiska Island. Taber had an opportunity to observe a pigeon hawk rather closely at the military establishment on Adak Island on De- cember 9, 1945. It must be considered rare in the Aleutians, however. Hartert (1920) records a female Falco columbarius insignis collected on Bering Island, June 10, 1915. Falco sparverius: Sparrow Hawk Falco sparverius sparverius The only record of the sparrow hawk is the statement by Dall (1873) that one was killed at Unalaska in the fall of 1871, but it was not preserved. There are no other records of this species in the entire area under discussion ; therefore. Ball's inability to preserve the specimen is unfortunate. Family TETRAONIDAE Canachifes canadensis: Spruce Grouse Osgood (1901, 1904) found spruce grouse to be plentiful in the wooded portions of the base of the Alaska Peninsula and the Cook Inlet region. Friedmann (1935) refers to a specimen from Kodiak Island, which was mentioned by Baird, Brewer, and Ridg- way. Cahalane (1944) found this bird to be abundant in the spruce forests north of Mount Katolinat, in the fall of 1940, and saw evidence of its presence north of Savanoski River. The Kodiak Island record had been referred to the Valdez spruce grouse, C. c. atratus, by Friedmann, but it is not known what the Alaskan Peninsula birds would be referable to. This bird could not be expected to occur west of the forested portions of Alaska Peninsula. 122 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Lagopus lagopus: Willow Ptarmigan Lagopus lagopus alascensis Aleut: Alladek (Wetmore) The willow ptarmigan, distributed throughout the Alaska Pen insula, is represented by two races, L. I. alascensis and L. I. murieh Gabrielson and Lincoln (1949) referred the subspecies on thi] Alaska Peninsula proper to alascensis, as distinct from the race; on nearby islands. Alaska willow ptarmigan were observed at the west end o: the Alaska Peninsula in 1925. About the middle of May, th( males were strutting and crowing in a lively fashion at Izembel Bay. On June 14, very few females were seen. Evidently, thej were incubating, because on June 22 I found a nest of nine eggs pipped, ready to hatch, and late in July there were broods o] young on the marsh at Moffet Bay. Concerning the boldness of males at this time, I find the follow- ing in my field notes for June 3 : The female was sulking among the alder stems on the shore of a ponci and I stood on a rise nearby. The male rushed between me and his mate growling, puffing out his chest, and elevating his combs. He was a splendic bird as he strutted, following his mate as she sneaked along in the brusl but keeping out in the open himself, evidently to attract attention awaj from the female. I was within 15 feet of him at times. On July 3, Donald Stevenson watched a pair of ptarmigan pro- testing the approach of a brown bear. The bear had been walk- ing across a gentle slope toward the mountains and evidently haci disturbed a brood of young birds. Both parents were pretending^ to be crippled before the huge intruder. The bear made several lunges at the birds, but finally continued on its way. Lagopus lagopus mur'ie'i Aleut: Alladak (Wetmore) This ptarmigan occurs on Kodiak Island, Unga, Nagai, Little^ Koniuji, Simeonof, and Popof Islands of the Shumagins, and Atka, Unalaska, and Unimak of the Aleutians. This willow ptarmigan was described by Gabrielson and Lincoln in 1949, as follows: "As compared with L. /. alascensis, this race is much redder and darker when skins in comparable plumages are compared. L. I. alascensis is buffy; the new race, muriei, more reddish and darker, near walnut brown, while alexandrae [of Baranof and adjacent islands] is dark brown to bister." As to distribution, they commented: "Somewhat to our sur- FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 123 rise, all birds from Morzhovoi Bay, only a few miles across from 'alse Pass, certainly belonged to alascensis, while those from Jnimak Island just as definitely belonged to the island group muriei) ." Beals and Long^vorth (field report, 1941) reported numerous tarmigans on Unimak from February 26 to April 10, in flocks of 5 to 300 birds. They noted, on March 6, at False Pass as fol- )ws: "Large flocks of 300 or more birds each flew about the Iders back of the cannery. We saw several flocks of 75 to 100 irds in Sourdough Flats and vicinity the same day." On March 4, they reported "ptarmigan by the hundreds" in the valley back f False Pass. On March 31, at Ikatan Valley, they saw 3 flocks f 100 birds each, and saw numerous groups of 10 to 15 birds. )n April 2, at Sourdough Flats, they reported, "Flock after lock of 100 to 150 or more each all through this area. The flocks ept moving ahead of us until several thousand ptarmigans were :athered in one large brood across the valley floor. It looked nd sounded like a gigantic chicken ranch." On April 10, at :'alse Pass, a flock of "several hundred" were noted ; the males /ere "reddish brown about the head and shoulders." During field work on Unimak Island in May, 1925, I found hese ptarmigan common in the lowlands and on the middle lopes of the mountains. On April 30, I saw three males that had .cquired much of the brown plumage, but on May 4 the females hat I observed were still mostly white, though speckled with >rown. On May 5, I saw one male in almost complete summer )lumage. An interesting incident occurred on May 19, 1925, at St. Catherine Cove. I was about ready to leave my cabin, when the lattering call of a male willow ptarmigan sounded close by. The all was followed by a light patter on the floor of an adjoining hed. Before going into the shed to investigate, I glanced out he window and saw a peregrine falcon. In the shed, I found a ock ptarmigan that ran out through the open door, only to return ilmost at once. But my presence proved too much for him, and le finally bolted out through the open door and, with lusty crow- ng, took flight and disappeared over a rise. By this time, the "alcon was some distance away. .agopus mufus: Rock Ptarmigan The rock ptarmigan occurs on the Alaska Peninsula, on the ■astern Aleutian Islands as far west as Yunaska, on the middle md western Aleutians from Atka Island as far west as Kiska 124 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE and, on the extreme western end of the chain, Attu Island. It i i represented by eight subspecies: neUoni, yunaskensis, atkhensi chamberlaini, sanfordi, gabrielsoni, iotonsendi, and evermann As reported elsewhere (Murie 1944, p. 122), the rock ptai migan of the Aleutian Islands-Alaska Peninsula district fall int two groups : A dark, more or less blackish group (in summe plumage) , and a yellowish group (also in summer plumage) . Th dark group, comprising nelsoni, yunaskensis, and evermanni, 0( cupies the Alaska Peninsula and the eastern Aleutians as fa west as Yunaska, with the representative subspecies evermani on the extreme western end of the chain, Attu Island. The yello'w ish group, comprising the other five forms, occupies the middl and western Aleutians from Atka Island as far west as Kiska. The five so-called yellowish ptarmigan races in the middl Aleutians are actually very similar in appearance and are hard t: distinguish without a series for comparison purposes. The fa( that so many forms can be separated within such a comparativel limited area can be explained only by the partial isolation al forded by island habitat, though a given race is not necessaril confined to a single island, but may occupy a group of island; Close knit as these five "yellowish" races are, it is still possibl to separate them. The three eastern forms, atkhensis, chamber laini, and sanfordi (the most difficult to distinguish one from an other), form a group characterized by pale coloration, and, moi; particularly, by finer barring in the plumage. The two wester forms, gabrielsoni and townsendi, have much heavier barring. As Bent has pointed out, middle-Aleutian ptaraiigan occup lowland areas, comparatively speaking, in contrast with the higl mountain habitat of rock ptarmigan farther east. This does m mean that the middle-Aleutian races avoid highlands; they 0(; cur on relatively high ground on Atka and Kiska, and elsewhere But the terrain of these islands is not particularly rugged, nci of the high-mountain type. Amchitka, for instance, is a low ii land. It is true, as Bent has said, that these rock ptarmigan li\ to a large extent in grassy areas, but it does not necessarily fo low that they have responded directly to environment by takin on colors that blend with the color of dead grass. This is possibility, but at present we do not have sufficient facts for conclusive decision. Lagopus mutus nelsoni Nelson's rock ptarmigan is a dark race that occurs throughoii the Alaska Peninsula area, including Kodiak and Afognak in FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 125 ands, the Shumagins, and other neighboring island groups, and v'est in the Aleutians as far as the Islands of the Four Mountains. We had suspected that birds from the Islands of the Four /[ountains might have developed new characteristics due to iso- ation. Ground color of the plumage of birds taken on these is- ands in early summei differs in tone from that of evermanni or idgwayi (of the Commander Islands) — although there is a slight livaceous cast, the predominating shade is yellow-brown. The Tound color also differs from that of specimens of nelsoni from Jnalaska and farther east, tending to gray rather than to red n overall effect. Such differences, if real, are too insignificant 0 warrant naming a new form. They can best be referred to a light deviation from the usual in nelsoni. There is a similar situa- ion at Kodiak and neighboring localities, where nelsoni shows an pproach to dixoni (of southeastern Alaska), because the ground olor of nelsoni has a slightly grayish cast. The females of each Aleutian form cannot readily be distin- ;uished, but there is a discernible difference between females of i.elsoni (which represent the darker forms) and the females if the middle Aleutians (which represent the pale forms). On emale nelsoni, barring is black, broad, and in contrast ; whereas, •n the pale forms, the barring is less sharp, and the bars tend to )e discontinuous with a softer effect. Spring-plumage changes in Nelson's rock ptarmigan come much ater than the changes in willow ptarmigan. A 1-pound speci- nen, collected on Ushagat of the Barren Islands group on May 1, 1936, was still mostly white. On May 7, 1925, I found, on Jnimak Island, that the plumage was still nearly all white. On day 14, 1925, males were seen with well-speckled plumage, but t was a long time before these birds attained full summer dress. )n June 6, in the Izembek Bay region on Alaska Peninsula, nales still had considerable white in the plumage, but the females lad changed completely into summer plumage. A female taken m Dolgoi Island, May 24, 1937, contained well-developed eggs. Nelson's rock ptarmigans are largely inhabitants of the high nountains, though they are not confined to the steeper parts. ?hey are often found on gentler middle slopes — in this respect, hey resemble the rock ptarmigan of interior Alaska. agopus mutus yunaskensis The Yunaska rock ptarmigan was described by Gabrielson and Jncoln (1951) on the basis of a specimen collected by Gabriel- on on Yunaska. As might be suspected, although it is grayer 126 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE than nelsoni, it seems to be more nearly .allied to this darkei group to the east. Although its range is thought to be confinec to Yunaska, this is not certain, Lagopus mufus afkhensis Atka: A-gha-de-gach, or A-gha-de-gah Agdikax (Jochelson) Although native names seem to apply to rock ptarmigan ir general, it seems appropriate to apply the Atka dialect name tc this form found on Atka Island. Turner's rock ptarmigan maj possibly occur on Amlia Island (separated from Atka by onlj a narrow pass) , though no specimens were collected on Amlia Whether this form occurs eastward as far as Seguam is unknown but it is logical to assume that it does. It may be expected thai atkhensis also occurs westward to the next group of islands, anc that it intergrades with the neighboring form, chamherlaini, oJ Adak. One is struck by the grayish color of atkhensis, even in flight as compared with nelsoni. This color is generally more rufesceni than chamherlaini, though both birds have the characteristic variegation of gray and rufescent patches. In fact, atkhensis anc chamherlaini are hard to distinguish, though, when a good series of each is laid out for comparison, the difference can be seen. On April 4, 1924, Laing obtained a series of 15 birds on Atka — a few of these birds were still in full white plumage. The birds were just beginning to molt into summer dress, a change that appears to be slightly earlier in atkhensis than in nelsoni on Unimak Island. Rock ptarmigan have always been abundant on Atka, as manj visiting collectors have testified. They are able to maintain theii numbers in spite of the blue foxes. It was on Great Sitkin — £ neighboring island — that I obtained the only direct evidence oi cyclic behaviour among the Aleutian ptarmigan. John Taylor, whc had a lease on Great Sitkin to raise blue foxes, said that he hac placed 14 foxes on the island in 1934. At that time ptarmigar were numerous — "Thousands of them" was the way he expressec it. When Taylor returned to Great Sitkin the following year ptarmigan were scarce. He did not think that the blue foxes or this large island could have been responsible for such a swifl and marked decrease. There had been red foxes on the islanc before the planting of the blues. This sudden decrease in the ptarmigan population appears to have been a case of the char- acteristic "die-off" of ptarmigan. Similar fluctuations were no1 reported for Atka Island. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 127 Lagopus mufu.s chamberlain} Chamberlain's rock ptarmigan is known only from Adak Is- land, but it undoubtedly occurs on neighboring islands. It is somewhat grayer than atkhensis, and is darker on the top of the head and upper neck — an effect, not particularly striking, that results from a greater number of black markings. No doubt chamherlaini and atkhensis intergrade on some of the intermedi- ate islands. Laing (1925) found rock ptarmigan on Adak "even more nu- merous" than on Atka. He collected five males on Adak, April 13, 1924, that had started to molt into summer plumage. The date, like that for the molt into summer plumage by atkhensis, is un- usually early for ptarmigan. Lagopus mufus sanfordi Sanford's rock ptarmigan is abundant on Kanaga, Tanaga, and neighboring islands. Bent (1932), speaking of Tanaga, says: "The ptarmigan were tamer and more abundant here than on any of the other islands that we visited ; we shot more than 40 in one afternoon." The two specimens we obtained on Kanaga Is- land are referable to sanfordi, showing that this race occupies Tanaga and Kanaga, at least. As Bent said, Sanford's rock ptarmigan is paler than chamher- laini, and is somewhat more ochraceous than either chamherlaini or atkhensis. Bent (1932) says: Although I described and named this race myself (1912), in honor of my friend Dr. Leonard C. Sanford, who cooperated with me in organizing our expedition to the Aleutian Islands, I must confess that it is only slightly differentiated from the Adak ptarmigan. We all noticed a diiference when our birds were collected, and when we laid our series of about 40 specimens of sanfordi beside nearly as many of chamberlaini, it was easy to see that the Tanaga birds were appreciably paler than the Adak birds. The Tanaga birds ai'e therefore the lightest in color of any of the Aleutian ptarmigan, and have the finest vermiculations. Lagopus mufus gabr'ielsoni Gabrielson's rock ptarmigan occurs on Amchitka Island, the type locality, as well as on Little Sitkin Island and Rat Island. We have no specimens from Semisopochnoi Island, where this form may occur also. In 1938, Scheffer obtained, on Amchitka, a specimen whose crop was filled with berries of Empetrum nigrum, no doubt a favorite food of all these rock ptarmigan. In summer plumage, the male gahrielsoni differs from sanfordi 128 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE in that the ground color is more uniformly dark, and the bars are broader and extend farther down the flanks and back; it differs from townsendi in that the coarse barring is not restricted to the anterior part of the body, and the ground color is paler and less ochraceous. Lagopus mufus fownsendi Differences between toivnsendi and gabrielsoni have just beer given. Townsend's rock ptaraiigan is found on Kiska and on Little Kiska Islands. We have no specimens to prove that it oc- cupies Chugul Island. It is possible, but unlikely, that toivyisendi is found on Buldir Island, far to the west ; in any event, we found no ptarmigan there on several visits. Lagopus mufus evermanni Attu: A-ti-ka-tooJi-ach Russian, Commander Islands: Kuroptka or Kuro-paschka (Stejneger) Russian, Yana River region: Mala Kuropatka (Pleske) (The Attu and Russian names undoubtedly refer to all rock ptarmigan.) Evermann's rock ptarmigan occupies Attu Island. Apparently, ptarmigan have always been scarce on Attu, even before the in- troduction of blue foxes. According to Turner (1886) , the natives reported ptarmigan on Agattu Island, but we did not obtain specimens there on our visit in 1936. Comparison of evermanni with 7%dgwayi (of the Commander Islands) shows that evermanni, darkest of the rock ptarmigan series, is closely related to the Commander Islands form. In ridgwayi, the ground color shades from dark buckthorn to hazel This ground color varies with different specimens and on differ- ent parts of the body; it is heavily overlaid with a close pattern ol fine black vermiculation and is spotted with blackish feathers, In the Attu evermanni, the ground color suggests buckthorn brown, as in ridgivayi; but it is duskier and less rufescent, and the black vermiculations are more closely woven and the black: feathers are more prevalent. The plumage characteristics in, evermanni give the effect of a darker bird than ridgwayi. Com- paring evermanni and ridgwayi with nelsoni from the Islands of the Four Mountains in the eastern part of the Aleutian chain, we find that there is a general resemblance among the three, but that ridgwayi and evermanni show the closest affinity, while, in ground color, nelsoni tends to be more olivaceous with an abun-' dance of Dresden brown. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 129 Family GRUIDAE Grus canadensis: Sandhill Crane Grus canadensis canadensis This sandhill crane nests on practically the entire length of Alaska Peninsula, so it is not surprising that Friedmann (1935) includes this species in the avifauna of Kodiak Island also, on the basis of a reported specimen as well as on bones found in middens. On May 26, 1936, a crane was heard calling on the tundra at Snag Point, Nushagak River ; cranes were heard several times on the flats about Ugashik River, and, on May 27, one was observed flying high in the air. On May 29, there was a pair and a group of three, on the tide flats. Curiously enough, 1 bird in this group of 3 appeared to be much larger than the others, giving the ap- pearance of an adult with 2 immature birds. It is believed that cranes nest on the flats along Ugashik River. A local trapper said that cranes commonly nest upriver from Nelson Lagoon, and Gabrielson received reports of cranes in the Cold Bay district. In 1925, I found cranes on Unimak Island and adjacent parts of Alaska Peninsula, and, on May 1, 1925, two cranes were seen at Urilia Bay. On May 21 and 22, 1925, at Moffet Cove, on Izembek Bay, a pair, or a group of 3, were noted on several occasions, and on June 14, 1925, Donald Stevenson saw 1 bird. This bird (seen by Stevenson) was very fearless, and we thought that its mate probably was on a nest not far away. On July 18, on a marsh in another part of Moffet Cove, a pair of cranes tried to decoy us away — evidently they had their young nearby. Thus, it is clear that the crane nests in suitable areas along the Alaska Peninsula, probably also at Urilia Bay, Unimak Island. If it nests at Unimak Island, this point probably is the western limit of its breeding range. On August 24, 1937, I found the decomposed remains of a crane (evidently a migrant straggler) on the beach of Bogoslof Island. Turner (1886) states that the natives reported killing a crane on Attu in October. In Turner's opinion, this bird was a storm-driven straggler. But Austin H. Clark (1910) gives us a more significant ob- servation when he says — On the morning of June 8 while ashore on Agattu Island I encountered a pair of these birds, but could not succeed in getting anywhere near them. On being flushed, they never flew for any great distance, but always alighted far out in the open pasture-like areas, out of reach from any rocks or other suitable cover. 130 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE It is not impossible that cranes nested occasionally on flat, lake-strewn Agattu Island. Hartert (1920) records two adult specimens, a male and a fe- male, from the Commander Islands, and states that they probably visit that area from time to time. Family RALLIDAE Fulica americana: American Coot Fulica americana americana The only record of this bird was obtained by Gabrielson. On December 10, 1943, John Gardner, of False Pass, observed this bird in a small stream near his home. It remained for several days and appeared to be sick; on December 15, it was killed by a dog. The head, wings, and feet were saved for identification. Residents of the community had never seen a coot there before. Family HAEMATOPODIDAE Haemafopus bachmanJ: Black Oysterca+cher Attu: He-gich Hekh (Turner) Atka: Hech Hegis (Turner) Unalaska: Hekh (Turner) Hekli (Clark) Russian: Morskoi Ptookh, "Sea Cock" (Turner) (The variations in native names are unquestionably due to individual speech mannerisms, and represent the same name in all dialects.) Speaking of Haematopus osculans, Stejneger (1885) says. The Russians of Kamtschatka apply to this bird especially the name Ptuschok (pi. "Petuschki") , a chicken, a term used for Simorhynchus pygmaeus by the natives of Bering Island, for Leucosticte griseonucha by those living on the Prybilof Islands (according to H. W. Elliott), and to other birds in different parts of the vast empire where the Russian tongue is spoken. It would not be surprising, then, to have this name appear, var- iously applied, in western Alaska. The black oystercatcher breeds commonly from Kodiak Island westward for the length of Alaska Peninsula, especially on islands. We recorded one at Chignik, but we did not record the species on the shore of Alaska Peninsula. On May 11, 1936, one was found on Ushagat (Barren Islands), and we observed them also on Kodiak Island. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 131 Figure 26. — Black oystercatcher. In 1940, Gabrielson noted 6 of these birds at Whale Island, and he saw 15 or 20 in the Semidi Islands. On May 16, 1936, we obtained a specimen of the black oyster- catcher on Nagai Island, in the Shuinagins. Chase Littlejohn (manuscript notes, 1887-88) wrote: "Found from Sanakh to Kodiak in limited numbers. Their warning cry at the approach of man if heard by the sea otter causes the latter to make off at once, for this reason they are much hated by otter hunters." Turner also mentions the reactions of sea- otter hunters. The north side of Alaska Peninsula is not suitable for this bird because it lacks a rocky-shore habitat. But the bird nests on Amak Island, near the west end of the Peninsula, which is probably the eastern limit of its nesting range in Bering Sea. In the Aleutian Islands proper, the black oystercatcher occurs on nearly every island and is a fairly constant feature of the rocky-shore fauna. On Attn Island, however, we saw none, and we were assured by the native chief that they do not occur there. This probably is true of all the Near Islands. We have no record of this bird west of Kiska. Turner points out (1886) that the distance between Kiska and the next island, Buldir, may be too much of an over-water flight for this bird. Strangely enough, in 1885, Turner had reported it as a rare visitor to Attn, occur- ring oftener on Semichi and Agattu. 132 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE In this connection, it is interesting to note Stejneger's remarks on Haematopus osculans, of Siberia (1885) : "This bird comes only as a rare visitor to the [Commander] islands during the migration seasons. This is rather strange, as it inhabits the nearest coast of the mainland." Perhaps the oystercatchers are merely conservative — lacking the exploratory tendency of some other species — and have not yet had time to extend their range to the end of the Aleutian chain. However, if we believe Turner's report of 1885, rather than his report of 1886, the oystercatchers had reached Attu in 1885. Apparently, oystercatchers do not exceed a certain popula- tion density and are scattered rather thinly along rocky shores. Usually, there were only a few pairs on an island (about six), although more birds can be found on the larger islands. But sometimes, in summer, they gather in loose flocks. On Ogliuga Island, August 6, 1936, at least 25 or 30 were seen. On tiny Salt Island, off the shore of Atka, on July 8, 1936, a flock of 13 was noted. A nest was found June 28, 1936, on a small islet off Little Tanaga Island. The nest was in the grass — merely a shallow depression lined with a few bits of barnacle shells — and con- tained two eggs. Gabrielson (1941) found a nest on Tanaga Island that contained 2 young and 1 pipped egg. Family CHARADRIIDAE Charadrius dub'ius: Litrle Ringed Plover Charadrlus dub'ius curonicus The only record of the little ringed plover is the one by Schalow (1891, p. 259), for Kodiak Island, which originally was recorded as Charadrius alexcindrinus Pallas. Oberholser (1919) concluded that this record should be identified under Charadrius dubiu^ curonicus, and it was so listed in the 1931 A. 0. U. Check List. This record is considered doubtful, and has been dropped from the 5th edition of the A. 0. U. Check List. Charadrius semipalmafus: Semipalmated Plover The semipalmated plover is recorded from Kodiak Island (Friedmann 1935) , and we observed two on the beach of Ushagat, Barren Islands, May 11, 1936. Howell (1948) found a nest with eggs at Kodiak Island, May 31, 1944. It occurs through- out the length of Alaska Peninsula. G. D. Hanna collected a FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 133 specimen, May 23, 1911, at Nushagak. Gianini (1917) found them to be common about Stepovak Bay on the south side of Alaska Peninsula, where they appeared to be nesting, in May and June 1916. Jaques (1930) recorded them on the north side near Port Moller. We saw three at False Piss, Unimak Island, August 23, 1936. In 1925, I observed the species at False Pass and at St. Catherine Cove, May 16 and 17. In the latter part of May 1925 they were found again in a valley below Aghileen Pinnacles, near Izembek Bay, and at Applegate Cove. At the time, it was believed that they were nesting. Wetmore found a few of these Kirds at Thin Point, near Cold Bay, in August 1911, and he obtained two immature specimens at the east base of Frosty Peak on August 6. Beals and Longworth, reporting on False Pass, in 1941, noted one on a gravel bar of an old stream bed May 9, and remarked that "2 are seen on this gravel bar every time we pass. They were not observed after the 25th of May." In 1940, Gabrielson also noted three of these birds at Morzhovoi Bay. Donald Stevenson obtained a specimen on Uni- mak Island, May 25, 1922, and made this notation: "Arrived about May 1st. Rather common along glacial stream beds. Breeds." McGregor (1906) obtained a male and a female in English Bay, Unalaska Island, May 27, 1901, and he obtained two imma- ture birds on Unimak Island, August 14. In view of all these observations, the evidence is rather con- clusive that the semipalmated plover nests as far west as Unalaska Island. PluviaUs dominica: American Golden Plover Pluvia'is dominica fulva Attu : Svegch Smix (Jochelson) (Probably refers to this bird; no dialect given) Osgood (1904) says of this species at the base of Alaska Penin- sula: A few small flocks were seen on the tide marshes and along the mud flats about Nushagak September 12 to 26. Several were seen at Igagik and others occasionally along the Ugaguk River, as far up as the mouth of Becharof Lake. Specimens were taken at Nushagak by McKay in June, 1881. Hine (1919) observed these birds at Kashvik Bay in 1919, and he collected a specimen on August 24. Friedmann (1935) records a number of specimens and obser- vations of this bird at Kodiak, where it is no doubt a regular migrant. 134 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Farther westward, records are available all the way to Attu. On May 16, 1925, Donald Stevenson saw a bird at False Pass, which he thought was the golden plover. Eyerdam (1936) saysl "Frequently seen and collected at Unalaska and Unimak Island." Dall (1873) reports a specimen of '^Charadrius virginicus, Borck" taken June 22, 1872, at Popof Island, in the Shumagins. Turner (1886) observed a golden plover at Sanak in July 1878, and on May 17, 1879, at Atka Island, he identified the plucked body of a^ golden plover. Again, in the early part of October 1880, he saw^ two golden plovers on the beach at Massacre Bay, on the south' side of Attu Island. ,,^^ Gabrielson obtained specimens at Cold Bay and in the Shu- magins, in 1943 and 1944 respectively. On June 3, 1937, we observed a golden plover circling over thei stormy sea between Segula and Semisopochnoi Islands. The chief of Attu village declared that he knew of the golden| plover; he recognized a colored picture of it, gave us the Aleut' name, and referred to it as the "gold snipe." He insisted that this plover nests commonly on Attu Island, and that it remains until October. The reported nesting on Attu requires verification, but it is safe to say that the golden plover may appear anywhere — as ai migrant or nonbreeder, at least, from Kodiak Island to Attui Island, though it does not appear to have been observed in great numbers. Stejneger (1885) remarked that "The individuals of fulvusi breeding in America migrate in winter along the Asiatic coasts, i thus giving evidence of the way in which the species once im- migrated into Alaska." The records here given, however, are proof of a migration along the Alaskan coast. Conover (1945) has shown that both the American and Asiatic forms occur in Alaska, and that fulva predominates on the Bering Sea coast ot Alaska. Thus, both forms could occur in the Aleutian district. Squafarola squafarola: Black-bellied Plover Friedmann (1935) says of the black-bellied plover, "The only.! Kodiak record I have found is a specimen referred to by Salvim and Godman in their description of this species in their great! work on Central American birds." Osgood (1904) says "Two black-bellied plover were collectedi by McKay at Nushagak Aug. 8 to 14, 1881." Turner (1886) says "They occasionally occur in the spring migrations on the Aleutian Islands, the more abundantly on the FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 135 western islands than those in the vicinity of Unalaska. I saw several on Sanakh Island in the spring of 1878, and also in late August of 1879." Stejneger (1885) says that they occur on the Commander Is- lands in fall migration only. We saw none of these birds on any of our expeditions. Apbriia virgafa: Surfbird Turner (1886) says of the surfbird "At Sannakh Island in 1878, and at Kodiak in 1881, I saw several individuals of this species, but under circumstances which rendered it an impossi- bility to collect them." Friedmann (1934) records a specimen to the northward at Goodnews Bay on the Bering Sea coasts taken August 12, 1933. The Attn chief, who is well versed in his native avifauna, did not recognize a picture of this bird. -'^' Arenar'ia inferpres: Ruddy Turnstone Arenaria inferpres inferpres Commander Islands (native) : Kidmalgikh (Stejneger) Russian, Commander Islands: Kasnonogoj Kidik, i.e., red-legged sand snipe (Stejneger) A series of specimens was available for study : 2 from Nusha- gak, 1 from King's Cove, 2 from Unimak Island, 1 from Unalaska, 2 from Umnak Island, 1 from Ogliuga Island, and 1 from "Aleu- tians." In addition to these (which we examined), McKay ob- tained a turnstone at Nushagak, August 12, 1881. We carefully compared the above-mentioned specimens with series of A. i. morineUa from eastern localities and with speci- mens of A. i. interpres. The relationship between these two forms did not seem to justify the insertion of an intermediate sub- species, such as A. i. oaJmensis, as has been proposed. More- over, the present series from the Aleutian district agrees with the characters of A. i. interpres. One specimen. No. 118845 of the U. S. National Museum, taken by William Palmer, at Unalaska, May 19, 1890, is much like morineUa and perhaps could pass for that race, especially because of the coloration of the head. But, when the extensive black on upper parts and the restricted brown areas and paleness on the wings is considered, it seems best to refer it to interpres. On May 22, 1936, we observed a small flock of turnstones, believed to be of this species, at Nelson Lagoon. On August 20, 2 or 3 ruddy turnstones were seen at Port Moller, where they wei'e feeding on the beach with Aleutian sandpipers. 136 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE In 1925, I took three specimens of ruddy, turnstones at St. Catherine Cove, Unimak Island — others were seen, including one at False Pass, Wetmore observed them at King's Cove in August 1911; Mc- Gregor (1906) noted them on Unimak Island, August 14, 1901, and he obtained two specimens on Amaknak Island, August 17. Laing (1925) found 10 of these birds at Unalaska on August 8, 1924, and collected 3. Cahn (1947) saw one ruddy turnstone, in company with other sandpipers, at Summer Bay, Unalaska Is- land, July 18, 1944. Gabrielson found small groups of ruddy turnstones at Amchitka in September 1944. Littlejohn (1887-88) wrote "Plentiful in the fall at Sanakh where some remain during winter. They are very fat and tooth- some. Also numerous at Morzhovoi Bay." We found small flocks at Ogliuga and Skagul Islands, on July 23 and August 5, 1936, and the following year they were seen again at the same place on July 27 and on August 4. One speci- men was taken. On June 5, 1937, we saw 1 on Kiska Island; on July 31, w-e saw 1 on West Unalga; and on August 2, we saw 12 on Ilak Island. Turner (1886) says "The turnstone is of more frequent occur- rence in the region about the shores of Bristol Bay, the Alaska Peninsula, and the Aleutian Islands ; perhaps more common on the western islands of that chain than to the eastward. I saw indi- viduals at Attn, Amchitka, Atkha, and in the vicinity of Belkov- sky village." And he adds : "They do not arrive on the Aleutian Islands until the middle of May, and none were observed any- where after the 1st, of October." Nesting throughout this region was not established. Stejneger (1885) states, concerning the Commander Islands, that they are at least migrants, and that possibly some of them breed. Arenaria melanocephala: Black Turnstone Bretherton (1896) found the black turnstone breeding on Kodiak Island, and Friedmann (1935) lists a number of other records for that island. Osgood (1904) collected one bl5.ck turn- stone at Lake Clark, base of Alaska Peninsula, July 23, 1902, and observed others at Nushagak. He also mentions specimens taken in June, July, and August, at and near Nushagak and Ugashik, by McKay and Johnson. During August, Hine (1919) found these birds at Kashvik Bay in increasing numbers ; by August 25, they were one of the most FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 137 abundant shorebirds, being observed in flocks of at least 100. Specimens were taken. Evidently, this is in the migration route. July 23, 1940, Gabrielson found this turnstone to be common along Kvichak River, above Naknek. We frequently saw the black turnstone on the tide flats at Ugashik River, May 27 to 29, 1936. One day, I noted 8 pairs, and found a deserted nest containing 3 eggs. Evidently, the birds were on their nesting grounds, which were confined to the tide flats rather than to the somewhat higher mossy areas farther back. Littlejohn (notes) wrote "Saw one flock in the spring at Sanakh. Tried hard to obtain a specimen but failed. They were very wild." Turner (1886) saw one of these turnstones at Belkovsky, south side of Alaska Peninsula, in the early part of August 1881. He says that they were reported to be plentiful on Unga and Sanak Islands, where natives claimed this bird interfered with hunting of marine mammals by making its characteristic outcries. The natives had stated that the black turnstone is not found on "Unalashka and other islands west of the mainland." Family SCOLOPACIDAE Capella gallinago: Common Snipe Capella gallinago delicafa Attu: Goo-lech' -arch (?) The Attu chief insisted that he recognized a picture of a Wil- son's snipe and gave us the native name, adding that the bird nests on Attu as well as on other islands. Since this is at vari- ance with all other information, one must seriously question it. There is the possibility that the chief was referring to an allied form from Siberia, which resembles the Wilson's snipe, and which may occur sometimes in the Near Islands. On May 12, 1936, a Wilson's snipe Mas performing high in the air over Kodiak Island, evidently on its nesting ground. Again, on May 25 and 26, several of these snipe were performing at Snag Point, Nushagak River. Osgood observed this species at various parts of the base of Alaska Peninsula, and, he records a specimen taken by McKay, April 25, 1882 (1904). Hanna also obtained a specimen at Nushagak, May 16, 1911. Cahalane (1944) observed the common snipe in several places within the Katmai National Monument in 1940, and on July 17, 1940, Gabrielson saw two snipe at Dillingham. 138 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Jaques (1930) found these birds in the Port Moller region in June, and Bent (1927) includes the Shumagin Islands in the breeding range. In 1925, I noted one common snipe at Urilia Bay, Unimak Is- land, on May 3, and another was heard several times at Moffet Cove, Izembek Bay, on July 22. Undoubtedly these were nesting birds, so there is good evidence that the nesting range reaches westward at least as far as the Shumagins and Unimak Island. Numenius phaeopus: Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus hudson'icus The occurrence of curlews or whimbrels was rather sketchy and none was found breeding. Osgood (1904) reported three specimens collected by McKay at Nushagak in August 1881. Cahalane observed a flock of seven flying in an easterly direction about 5 miles above Naknek village, on Naknek River, September 2, 1940. On July 23, 1925, I observed a flock of six curlews flying over the marsh at Moffet Cove, Izembek Bay. On June 5, 1937, 2 curlews were seen at Kiska Island in company with 16 Pacific godwits and a ruddy turnstone. Again, on July 30, a curlew was seen on Kavalga Island. These were thought to be phaeopus, but specimens were not taken, and it is possible that some, or all, were tahitiensis. Stejneger (1885) reports the eastern whimbrel as a migrant on Bering Island. Numenius fah'if'iensis: Bris+le-thighed Curlew On July 23, 1940, Gabrielson recorded in his field notes, for the Kvichak River, above Naknek, "Flock of 20 flew over. Dufresne has seen as many as 200 in the past 3 days around Naknek." This is the only record we have, but, in 1924, we had observed migrating flocks of immature birds at Hooper Bay, and it is logical that bristle-thighed curlews should pass over the basal part of Alaska Peninsula in migration. Actifis macularia: Spotted Sandpiper Friedmann (1935) lists the spotted sandpiper in the Kodiak avifauna on the basis of four specimens collected by Wosnes- sensky during 1842-43. Speaking of the base of Alaska Penin- sula, Osgood (1904) says — When we arrived at Lakes Iliamna and Clark, in the latter part of July, the majority of the spotted sandpipers, which doubtless breed in the region, FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 139 had migrated, and only scattering stragglers remained. One small flock 3f 8 or 10 hornotines was seen nervously flitting from point to point along the gravelly beaches of Lake Clark July 25. Some days later a few belated individuals were found along the lower part of the Chulitna River. Prac- ticably all were gone before August 10. We found none of these birds farther west. Tr'inga glareola: Wood Sandpiper There is a single record of this bird for Sanak Island — a speci- men taken by Chase Littlejohn on May 27, 1894 (Littlejohn, 1904). The bird was found among some Aleutian sandpipers, and another, thought to be of this same species, was seen. Stejneger (1885) reported it rather common and breeding in the Commander Islands. Heferoscelus incanum: Wandering Tattler Russian, Commander Islands: Tschornij Kidik (Stejneger) A wandering tattler was seen on Kodiak Island, May 12, 1936, and 6 or 7 were seen on the beach at Karluk, Kodiak Island, September 1. Hine (1919) collected two specimens at Katmai Bay in 1919. Gabrielson noted a wandering tattler near Iliamna Lake on July 24 and 26, 1940, and he noted the species at Cold Bay, King Cove (with specimens), and Kodiak, as well as at Dutch Harbor and Amchitka. We obtained a specimen on Nagai Island, Shumagin group. May 16, 1936, and we saw one at False Pass, August 23. Scheffer saw one on Sanak Island, August 28, 1937. Nelson (1887) had seen one on Sanak Island, May 15, 1877. The wandering tattler has frequently been reported in the east- ern Aleutians. Bishop (1900) obtained 2 at Unalaska, October 5, 1899; McGregor (1906) recorded 2 specimens from English Bay, Unalaska Island, June 2, 1901; Laing (1925) saw 4 at Unalaska, where Turner also recorded 1; and Swarth (1934) reports 6 at Akutan, which includes 3 specimens taken. On July 16, 1911, Wetmore obtained a breeding female at King Cove, Alaska Peninsula, and said he judged that she had young in the vicinity. He found the birds to be common there in August. In 1925, I observed wandering tattlers at False Pass and Izembek Bay. On May 21, there was a pair on the beach, calling and perching on various boulders. On July 19 and 23, there was a pair and a single bird on a small gravelly stream flowing out of the marsh at Moffet Cove. August 8 and 9, there were several on the gravelly stream at False Pass, and, the next day, five 140 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE were collected on the rocky beach at Ikatan Peninsula. Thes(i last-mentioned were extremely fat. Local residents said thai these birds occur on streams in the vicinity of Becharof Lake. Undoubtedly, the wandering tattler nests along the gravel bordered streams in this region. It was on such a habitat tha Adolph Murie and I found a nest in Mount McKinley Nationaj Park in 1923, and, considering the available evidence, it is monj than likely that the wandering tattler nests along the Alaska | Peninsula, on Kodiak Island, and probably on other suitable j adjacent islands. It is possible that it nests on many of the I Aleutian Islands farther west also. Turner (1886) said: "Amongj the Aleutian Islands it was observed once on Unalaska, severaj on Atkha, and twice on Attu." Clark (1910) reported it a1 Unalaska, Agattu, and Attu Islands, but it was not common Scheffer saw one at Atka, June 1, 1937. We also noted one or Kiska Island, June 5, 1937, and obtained a specimen on Herberl Island, August 22. Stejneger (1885) reported this bird to be common in the Com-; mander Islands, and he suspected that it nested there. While visiting those islands, he also obtained a specimen of Meter osceluf brevipes. It is possible that some of our sight records in the Aleutians represent the latter form. It can be expected in the Aleutians, for it has been found on the Pribilofs. Tofanus melanoleucus: Greater Yellowlegs Osgood (1904) described a pair that evidently was nesting all a small pond on the portage trail between Lake Clark and Lak€( Iliamna. He found the species again at Swan Lake and Mulchatna^ River, and he mentions two specimens taken by McKay at Nushagak, August 14 to 28, 1881. Hine reported that it com- monly nested along the shore of Katmai Bay (1919). We ob- served two of these birds at Anchorage in 1936, and we were informed by local people that the species nests there. Bretherton said that it occurs on Kodiak Island and that it probably breeds there. Howell reports seemg two birds at Kodiak on May 9, 1944. In 1940, Gabrielson found this bird to be common on Alaska Peninsula; he obtained a specimen, and saw others, at Cold Bay in September 1942. We observed three greater yellowlegs on the beach at Port Moller, August 20, 1936. On July 7, 1925, I observed one of these birds circling about on Amak Island, and from July 18 to 24 they were common on the marsh at Moffet Cove, Izembek Bay. Evidently, this bird nests at the base of Alaska Peninsula, FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 141 and it is possible that it nests as far west as the end; however, this is not certain, Totanus flavipes: Less3r Yellowlegs We did not encounter this species on our expeditions to the Aleutian Islands, and records are few. Friedmann (1935) men- tions a specimen (not available) collected by Bischoff on Kodiak Island; its occurrence at Karluk River was reported by Bean in 1889. Cahalane reported (1943) that he saw "considerable numbers of these birds September [1940] on mud flats exposed by falling tide on the Naknek River below the rapids." Calidris canufus: Knot This species is mentioned here on the strength of Turner's re- mark (1886) : "I have not observed this bird west of Ugasik, on the eastern end of Aliaska, where it was quite plentiful in the latter part of June 1878." Presumably, it migrates through the Aleutian district, but we do not know the subspecies that are involved. Erolia pfilocnemis: Rock Sandpiper Erolia pfilocnemis pfilocnemis Using material that is available in the U. S. National Museum, ptilocnemis, couesi, quarta, and maritima were carefully com- pared. The last-named species appeared to be more stable in characters than the forms from Bering Sea. In some instances there was a close similarity, shown, for instance, between cer- tain specimens of couesi from the Aleutians and specimens of maritima; winter plumages are quite similar. There seemed good reason to include them all as forms of one species — maritima. However, Conover (1944) studied a much greater series — more than 500 specimens — and concluded that two basic species exist. His conclusion is followed here. E. p. ptilocnemis is larger than the other Bering Sea forms, and it is paler, both in summer and winter plumages. Compared with couesi, there is more tan color in the plumage of the back (less of the rusty brown and less of the black admixture). Even the primaries and tail are of a lighter color. In immature plumage, the feathers of the back are dark and narrowly edged with rusty brown in a smooth regular pattern, thus being distinguished from the broadly edged feathers of the adult at that time of year. In this immature plumage, the differ- 142 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE ence in color of upper parts between ptilocnemis and couesi is not striking. The under parts of ptilocnemis are much paler with a pale buffy and gray area across the breast, the throat is nearly white and finely spotted, and the streaks on the breast and up- per flanks are narrow and pale. In contrast, the under parts of couesi in the same plumage are heavily and boldly streaked and spotted, thus giving the bird a darker appearance. In the winter plumage also, ptilocnemis is markedly paler than couesi. In all races, the measurements of wing and exposed culmen average greater in the female than in the male. Measurements, in millimeters, of 13 males and 19 females of ptilocnemis are as follows : Males: wing, 118 to 132 (125.6); exposed culmen, 27 to 32 (29.3) Females: wing, 125 to, 136 (129.5) ; exposed culmen, 29.5 to 37.5 (33.4) , . ,: The Pribilof sandpiper nests on St. Matthew and the Pribilof Islands, but, as would be expected, it occurs on Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands in migration. Probably, it winters in this area to some extent. At any rate, among the specimens ex- amined there are at least four from the Bristol Bay region that are referable to ptilocneynis. One of these, a female, was taken by C. L. McKay, at Point Etolin, April 8, 1883. Three others were collected by J. W. Johnson, at Nushagak, April 1 and April 18, 1885. McGregor (1906) records that this species was collected on Unimak Island, August 14, 1901, and on Tigalda Island, Au- gust 5, 1901. Erolia pfilocnemis couesi Attu : Too-loo-goo-yuch Atka: Chu-Iich'-tah Alaska Peninsula: Tsoo-gooch (Wetmore) Russian, Commander Islands: Lajdinij kulik (Stejneger) In measurements, couesi is quite comparable to maritima and quarta, but all three are definitely smaller than ptilocnemis. The Aleutian sandpiper is decidedly darker than the Pribilof sand- piper— the markings on the under parts are bolder and heavier; the upper parts contain more black and a greater proportion of rusty brown. In this respect, couesi approaches quarta. Measurements, in millimeters, of 29 males and 24 females of couesi are as follows : Males: wing, 110 to 123 (117.1); exposed culmen, 25 to 34 (27) FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 143 Females: wing, 113.5 to 127 (120.5) ; exposed culmen, 27 to 33 (30.7) The Aleutian sandpiper nests throughout the Aleutian Islands, where it is the common shorebird ; it also nests along the Alaska Peninsula and adjacent islands — at least as far east as Port Moller (Jaques 1930), and undoubtedly all the way to the base of the Peninsula. Hme (1919) observed it at Katmai Bay in 1919. At least two specimens in immature plumage were taken by Johnson, at Nushagak, July 11 and 18, 1884, and another was taken April 18, 1885 — all these specimens appear to be couesi. There may be some question in regard to the breeding status of this bird on Kodiak Island ; however, it winters there. FiGUBE 27. — Aleutian rock sandpiper. The winter range includes all of the Alaska Peninsula-Aleutian district. The Nesting Period Extensive observations on the nesting of the Aleutian sand- piper were possible in 1925, when I spent a season on Unimak Island and the adjacent part of Alaska Peninsula. On April 29, flocks of Aleutian sandpipers (as many as 20 birds) were feed- ing along the lagoon at Urilia Bay. The first mated pairs were noted on May 3 ; these mated birds had left the shorelines and were nesting on the mossy tundra. By May 7, they had become 144 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE more plentiful, and mating was in full swing. At this time, : flocks were still common on the beaches — several flocks were I noted at St. Catherine Cove on May 17. A flock of 150 to 200 birds, feeding on the tide flat, occasionally would rise, maneuver, wheel, and turn in the air (in characteristic sandpiper fashion), then settle back on the beach. Thereupon, a great babel of chattering would arise, as they all dabbled busily in the wet sand and mud. On May 18, a single bird was collected on the beach. It proved to be a female with an egg almost ready for the shell. The next day, a flock of 400 was seen. The significance of seeing these large flocks at the same time that others were nesting is hard to determine. They must have been nonbreeders or late nesters. On May 23, these sandpipers were common on the higher tundra back of Moffet Cove, Izembek Bay trilling and calling, evidently nesting or still making preparations. Some had ob- viously selected the nesting place or had eggs. By May 28, egg laying was definitely under way. A nest containing four eggs, found June 5, was a cavity in the ground lined with a few tiny leaves — diameter was 100 mm.; depth was 53 mm. These nesting habits were verified on later expeditions (in 1936 and 1937) throughout the Aleutian chain. Some sandpipers nested close to tidewater, others nested back in the hills — some- times a considerable distance from a body of water. On June 1, 1937, on Atka Island, I found 2 nests, each containing 4 eggs. They were shallow depressions in a mass of low vegetation, lined with bits of lichens, straws, and dwarf-willow leaves. Another nest, with four eggs, was found June 4, high up on Kiska Island. It was a depression in the moss beside a rock ; the cavity was 3 by 4 inches wide, and li/o inches deep. On June 22, 1936, on Atka Island, I found a dead, newly hatched young. On June 22, 1937, Scheff'er found a brood of 4 recently hatched young on Little Kiska Island. Another brood of 4, several days old, was found on Little Sitkin Island on June 27 ; and, on June 29, a brood of 3 was found on Rat Island. I heard the mating song of the Aleutian sandpiper at Izembek Bay in 1925. Quoting from my field report, the song suggested — the droning trill of toads, varied by a repetition of "per-deerrrr, per-deerrrr" . . . very much like the red-backed sandpiper's call, but shorter. Later on, vi'hen frightened from their nests, they had a variety of alarm calls. As they flew away, they would call "Ka-deer, ka-deer, ka-deer," similar to the notes of mating time, but shorter and sharper, and they also uttered a very rapid "uh-uh-uh-uh-uh-uh-uh." FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 145 Wetmore, in his field report for 1911, says: "The males have a trilling note, almost a whinny that is hard to describe. Also a quick musical whistled turdle turdle, on the Carolina wren order." The first signs of flocking were noted early in July. On July 5, 1937, a group of 3 adults was observed flying along the beach on Amchitka Island, and, from July 10 to July 20, 5 or 6 were seen in groups several times. On July 24, 1925, two immature birds were collected at Izembek Bay, and several flocks were seen. On July 29, 1937, flocks of 40 or more were seen on Ogliuga Is- land ; after July 29, they generally were seen in flocks. Erolia pfilocnemis quarfa Russian, Commander Islands: Lajdinij kulik (Stejneger) Ernst Hartert (1920) described quarta from the Commander Islands and said — The purple sandpiper of the Commander Islands differs from E.m.couesi from Alaska and the Aleutian Islands as follows: 'In the winter plumage the foreneck and jugulum are darker slate-colour and less mixed with white. In the full summer plumage the edges to the feathers of the upperside are much wider and of a brighter ferruginous, so that the upperside looks quite rust-red, with mostly concealed black centers to the feathers. The wings measure 121-127, in one female even 130 mm.' In the series from the Commander Islands (in the U. S. Na- tion Museum), 6 males and 5 females measure, in millimeters, as follows : Males: wing, 117-129 (121) ; exposed culmen, 25.5-28.5 (27). Females: wing, 120-126.5 (122.8); exposed culmen, 27.5-33 (29.5) These measurements easily fall within the size range of couesi. While it is true that quarta is essentially a Siberian form, there are a number of records for Alaska. A. C. Bent (1927) reported these birds, at least one of which was a breeding bird, from Attn Island. Two specimens in the U. S. National Museum, Nos. 131763 and 131764 (probably the ones mentioned by Bent), as- suredly are qimrta. Another Attu specimen. No. 201468, is very similar to the less brightly colored specimens from the Com- mander Islands. There is another specimen, No. 298506, from Izembek Bay, Alaska Peninsula, that is very similar to quarta and is practically identical with a specimen from St. Lawrence Island, No. 165056. Another specimen, No. 230608, from Morzho- voi Bay, has the coloration of quarta. Moreover, Bailey (1943) records two specimens from Cape Prince of Wales, taken June 6, 1922, that were identified as quarta. 146 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Four specimens were collected by F. L. Beals on Unimak Is- land in January 1941. One of these is very dark, thus agreeing with the description of quarta in winter plumage, and another is nearly as dark as quarta. These specimens have not been identi- fied definitely. It should be pointed out that in the series from Bering Island (the type locality), there are several specimens that lack the extreme of bright ruf escence which characterizes quarta ; in fact, these specimens are very similar to average couesi. One speci- men from Bering Island, No. 89037, is as pale as some ptilocnemis. In the light of this circumstance, it is diflScult to evaluate the Alaskan records. Are these stragglers of quarta, or are they ex- tremes in variation within the population of couesil Until more Siberian material is obtained, and until a more extensive knowl- edge of quarta is at hand, it may be best to accept our records as stragglers of the Old World forai. Since the above studies were made, Conover (1944) reviewed the group and referred the mainland birds north of Alaska Peninsula to tschuktschorum. Erolia acuminata: Sharp-tailed Sandpiper Specimens of this sandpiper have been obtained in various parts of Alaska, including St. Lawrence, St. Michael, and Nuni- vak Islands, the Pribilofs and the Russian-held Commander Is- lands. We saw none of these birds on our expeditions to the Aleutian Islands, but Bailey (1925) reported the capture of a specimen (a young of that year) by Hendee, on Unalaska Island, on September 27; and Bishop (1900) obtained a specimen at Unalaska, on October 5, 1899. Undoubtedly, this species occurs in the Aleutian district during migration more often than is shown by published records. Erolia melanofos: Pectoral Sandpiper The pectoral sandpiper proved to be exceedingly rare. Osgood (1904) says "One was taken by Johnson at Nushagak October 15, 1884. The species was not seen by our party." Gabrielson saw three of these birds up the Kvichak River, July 23, 1940. On July 23, 1925, I observed two birds in the grassy marsh at Moflfet Cove, Izembek Bay, which were believed to be imma- ture pectoral sandpipers, but, unfortunately, specimens were not obtained. The Alaska Peninsula should be in the migration route. Bishop (1900) obtained a specimen at Unalaska October 5, FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 147 1899; Turner (1886) reports taking 3 specimens on Attu Is- land; and Hartert (1920) reports taking 2 specimens from Ber- ing Island. Eventually, this bird may be found nesting on some of the fa- vorable habitats on the north side of Alaska Peninsula, such as those near Ugashik River, but at present the nearest known nesting locality, reported by Friedmann, is at Goodnews Bay (1933). Erolia bairdil: Baird's Sandpiper Friedmann (1935) records a number of specimens from Kodiak Island ; only one of these specimens is now available for verifica- tion. This specimen was taken by Townsend, August 15, 1888. According to Nelson (1887), Dall recorded Baird's sandpiper from Kodiak and from Amak Island, north of Alaska Peninsula, but there are no specimens to support these records. More recently, August 7, 1945, Gabrielson obtained a specimen at Wide Bay, Alaska Peninsula. Furthermore, he recorded them at Togalak Island, August 5, 1941 ; at Unalaska, Adak, Amchitka, Shemya, Agattu, and Kodiak in 1943; and at Amchitka, Adak, and Kodiak in 1944. These records reveal that this bird is more numerous in ^^he Aleutian district than was formerly supposed. Erolia minufilla: Least Sandpiper Attu : Kre-a-via-ghre — choo ( ?) The chief of Attu village said that he recognized a colored pic- ture of the least sandpiper, and he gave us the native name for it. But because the lack of striking markings makes identifica- tion difficult, and because we have no records for the western Aleutians, the chief's statement needs verification. During our brief stops at Kodiak Island we did not see this bird, but Friedmann (1935) records 6 adults and 9 downy young from Kodiak in the Thayer collection. We observed least sand- pipers at Port Chatham, Kenai Peninsula, May 6, 1936, and we observed it again on Ushagat Island, Barren Islands, May 10, where two specimens were taken. Several of these birds were noted at Chignik on May 14, and, on May 24, 1937, a pair was seen on Dolgoi Island. Hine (1919) observed a few least sandpipers, and took a speci- men, near the mouth of Katmai River, July 23, 1919. Dall (1873) reported it to be rather abundant along the beaches of Popof Island, in the Shumagins, June 20, 1872, and he obtained specimens at that time. 148 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Figure 28. — Least sandpiper. On May 25, 1936, six, or more, least sandpipers were found in the marshy vegetation at Snag Point, Nushagak River, where they were evidently nesting; the following day, a male, with in- cubation patches, was collected. The flight song was heard here also. Jaques (1930) reported that after May 25 this bird was abun- dant about Port Moller in the vicinity of tundra pools. In 1911, Wetmore observed the species in August at King Cove near Thin Point. Late in July, he saw them at Morzhovoi Bay under circumstances that suggested they had just finished nesting. He also mentions seeing them on August 25 between King Cove and Little Koniuji Island, and on August 26 he saw them off Chignik Bay. Gabrielson, on June 21, 1940, found 6 or 8 in a high meadow at Frosty Peak, and he took specimens there and at Unalaska, Alaska Peninsula, and the Shumagins. Gianini (1917) reported them to be common and breeding at Stepovak Bay, where he found a nest with four eggs. In May 1925, I observed these sandpipers about Urilia Bay and St. Catherine Cove, Unimak Island, where they were common by May 19. At Hazen Point, Izembok Bay, a pair was seen on May 21, and, on May 29, birds were observed going through their mat- ing performance in the valley below Aghileen Pinnacles. Evi- dently these birds were nesting in the marshy valley bottom. Least sandpipers were found nesting commonly at Hazen Point, where a nest was found on June 22. The nest consisted of a slight cavity in the matted vegetation, with a few small round leaves in the bottom, and it contained four well-incubated eggs. On June FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 149 10, a small flock, probably nonbreeders, was noted at Hazen Point. During July, this sandpiper was common near Frosty Peak and the islands near Point Grant, and, on July 24, a number Df flocks, probably immature birds, were feeding on the tide flats. Chase Littlejohn (notes) wrote that he "Found [it] breed- ing from Kodiak to Sanakh, but not in great numbers, a few remain during winter." McGregor (1906) obtained a specimen on Amaknak Island, May 17, 1901, and obtained another on Tigalda, August 5. Eyer- dam (1936) obtained a specimen at Unalaska on May 17, 1932, and Gabrielson collected one there on July 4, 1946. Swarth (1934) records two specimens taken on Akutan Island on May 19 and 31, by Cyril G. Harrold, who had remarked that "Several pairs were observed on the flats on Akutan Island. The male has a strange flight song consisting of a repetition of several low notes uttered while the bird is alternately gliding and hovering." On May 30, 1937, a pair of least sandpipers was seen by our party at Nikolski Village, Umnak Island. We have no records beyond Umnak, but the data indicate that the least sandpiper nests as far west as Akutan — very probably as far as Umnak. Figure 29. — Least sandpipers. 150 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Erolia alpina: Dunlin Erolia alpina pacifica The red-backed dunlin, or sandpiper, occurs in some localitie on the Alaska Peninsula. Osgood (1904) observed several flock flying up and down the Egegik River on September 29. He men tions several specimens taken by McKay at Ugashik in May an( July 1881. G. D. Hanna obtained three specimens at Nushagal on May 31, 1911, and Hine obtained a specimen near the moutl of Katmai River, August 23, 1919. The specimens taken by McKay suggest nesting. Certainly in 1936 we found good evidence of nesting at Ugashik River these sandpipers were common on the tide flats on May 27 an( 29. They were paired and evidently breeding. One was obvioush flushed from a nest, though the nest was not found. On April 29, 1925, I saw a red-backed dunlin feeding on th< shore of a lagoon at Urilia Bay, Unimak Island, in company witl some Aleutian sandpipers. This may have been a migrant be cause none were found nesting on the marshes about Izembel Bay. The dunlin's westernmost nesting locality on Alaska Penin- sula is, so far as we know, the tidal marshes about Ugashil River. Taber (1946) noted a few red-backed dunlins wintering or Adak Island. Stejneger (1885) reported this bird as a migrant in the Com- mander Islands. LJmnodromus grheus: Short-billed Dowitcher L'imnodromus griseus caurinus A series of specimens from various parts of the Alaska Penin- sula is available, and comparison of these birds with those in other series from differing localities brings up the question ol the subspecific status among the dowitchers. Specimens from Point Barrow, St. Michael, Hooper Bay, Fort Yukon, Nushagak, Ugashik, and the west end of Alaska Peninsula were examined and compared with numerous specimens from eastern localities. At the time that these comparisons were made, it appeared that the Alaska Peninsula birds should properly be included with scolopaceus. Since then, Pitelka (1950) has studied this genus intensively with nearly 3,000 specimens. On the basis of this study, he concluded that scolopaceus and griseus are distinct species, and that griseus includes three forms — griseus, hender- soni, and a new subspecies, caurinus. Previously, Aldrich (1948) had concluded that intergradation between populations could be FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 151 lemonstrated among North American dowitchers and, therefore, )nly one species was involved. The designation of L. g. caurinus as the breeding form for ;oiithern Alaska would tend to solve some of the classification Droblems of Alaska Peninsula specimens. However, it still seems difficult to visualize specific status for scolopaceus, as proposed by :^itelka. As one example, a female from Nushagak, with the spot- ing of the underparts characteristic of the griseus group, was nated with a male, that was heavily barred on the underparts, ypical of scolopaceus. Should we consider this to be a case of hy- )ridization between two ordinarily isolated species, or should it be considered a case of intergradation between two races of the same species? A parallel situation exists in the case of the fox spar- rows at the base of Alaska Peninsula. A specimen from Ugashik River, Alaska Peninsula, was com- pared with one from La Saline, Athabaska River, which, pre- sumably, is the range of the proposed race hendersoni. Both are nales — the Canadian specimen was taken May 12, 1920, and the Alaskan specimen was taken May 27, 1936, from a mated pair, rhese two specimens are almost identical. The longer bill is on he Canadian bird, 60.5 mm., while the bill of the Alaskan bird s 54.5 mm. The wing of the Canadian bird is smaller than that )f the Alaskan bird (144 mm. and 147 mm.). Both birds are leep buff, with very little spotting, the round spots occurring on ;he sides of the breast and on the flanks. The Alaskan bird has I little more white on the belly than the Canadian bird, though he latter has a pale, noticeably whitish edging on the feathers )f the under parts. On the upper parts, the Canadian bird is somewhat darker buff than the Alaskan one. If a mixed series 3f these birds were laid, it would be most difficult to separate them. Another specimen from Nushagak River is mostly white un- ierneath and rather heavily spotted. This is a female; the wing measures 145.5 mm., and the bill measures 62 mm. Neither of [hese two Alaskan specimens has barring on the side of the Dreast. Without knowledge of the locality, one would place these ;wo, both breeding birds, with the Canadian group ; however, other 3irds from Nushagak show plumage associated with typical scolopacens. Indeed, most significant of all, the female from Nushagak, lacking the bars, was mated with a male that was heavily barred. Other birds from the Bering Sea coast vary greatly in degree of spotting, in amount of barring, in amount of white underneath, and in shade of solid buff color. Length of bill also varies greatly — even within each sex group. 152 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE In view of so much variation, obvious in sny series from given locality, and because of the extreme overlapping show here, it would seem that subspecific variation best expresses th nature of the forms. Friedmann (1935) reports one record for Kodiak Island, "tw specimens collected by Wosnessensky in 1842-1843, now in th Zoological Museum of the Academy of Sciences at Leningrad." As mentioned above, we found several breeding birds on a lo^ marshy area near Snag Point, Nushagak River, in 1936, and female, collected there on May 25, contained two eggs almos ready for deposition of the shell. Several pairs M^ere seen on th tide marshes at Ugashik River, May 27 and 29. Jaques (1930) observed several of these birds, and collectei one at Port Moller, June 12, 1928. At Izembek Bay, near the west end of Alaska Peninsula, Donal( Stevenson collected an immature female, July 2, 1925, and obtained another immature female there, July 24, 1925. Thes( birds possibly could have been migrants, but we believe the: were on their nesting grounds. The locality is excellent habita for this bird. Cecil Williams, a member of our party in 1936, reported seeing a long-billed dowitcher on Bogoslof Island, June 5, at the little "sulphur lake." On such a barren island, this sighting is a mosl surprising occurrence. Ereunefes puslllus: Semipalmated Sandpiper Eyerdam (1936) reports that this bird was collected at Una- laska and Unimak— the only report of this species for the Aleu- tion district. I have not had an opportunity to see these speci- mens. Ereunefes maun: Western Sandpiper Friedmann (1935) mentions that specimens were collected on Kodiak by Bischoff, August 10 to 15, 1868. These are the only positive records based on specimens. This bird should occur there in migration more commonly than these meager records show. On May 10, 1936, C. S. Williams obtained a specimen on Ushagat, one of the Barren Islands, which are not far from Kodiak. Osgood (1904) mentions two specimens collected by McKay at Nushagak, and Hine (1919) observed them commonly in the Katmai-Kashvik Bay area, where he collected specimens. Wetmore found these birds to be common near Thin Point, on the Alaska Peninsula, August 3 to 13, 1911, and back of King FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 153 Cove, July 12 to 20, 1911. Eyerdam (1936) reported that he collected specimens at Unalaska and Unimak, and Gabrielson obtained a specimen at Cold Bay, July 20, 1942. Turner (1886) stated that "This sandpiper is abundant in all the Aleutians. At Atkah and Amchitka it is extremely abundant." Turner's observations must have been made during certain mi- gration periods. Certainly, his statement does not fit present- day conditions, because, except for Eyerdam's records, no one else appears to have seen these birds in the Aleutians. Limosa fedoa: Marbled Godwit Osgood (1904) says of this species that "Two immature speci- mens of the marbled godwit were taken by McKay at Ugashik July 16-18, 1881." This is 1 of the 3 unusual records of this species for Alaska. Limosa lapponica: Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa lapponica baueri Attu: Mi-ii-keegh Atka: Chu-ee-gech Dall obtained a specimen on an islet in Akutan Pass, June 2, 1872, and he noted it at Unalaska, June 9. He stated that it breeds there. Nelson (1887) said "On May 26, 1877, while I was at Unalaska, a native brought in half a dozen of these birds, and on June 3 I obtained three others from the sandy beach of a small inner bay." He said that they appeared to be migrating. Cahn observed one of these birds near Unalaska Island, on the beach of Hog Island, May 21, 1946. Turner (1886) said that— This godwit is found on the Aleutian Islands in the latter part of May as it is on its way to the northward. On Atkah Island I obtained three specimens. They were on the sandy beach of the west side of Nazan Bay. They re- main but a few days, and are probably stragglers from the m^in body of their kind. At Amchitka I saw four of this species on May 24, 1881. They were in Constantine Harbor of this Island. I do not think they breed on any of the Aleutian Islands. Joseph Grinnell (1910) has also recorded two specimens taken at Unalaska by C. L. Hall on May 29 and June 4, 1894. Donald Stevenson obtained a male bird on Unimak Island, June 3, 1922, and noted that "A few observed, this one only taken. Was very thin and weak. Sex organs swollen." 154 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Chase Littlejohn (manuscript notes for 1887-88) noted that- Many of these seen in the spring going north at Morzhovoi Bay but thej | do not stop, they take almost the same route as the black brant but do not! bother about flying around the sand bar. As they are not seen in the fall! they must take some other route. A. C. Bent (1927) said— On its spring migration the Pacific godwit passes through the Aleutian Islands and the Pribilof Islands on its way to its breeding grounds in northwestern Alaska. I saw two birds on Atka Island on June 13, 1911, probably belated migrants; it has been said to breed near Unalaska, but this seems hardly likely. On our own expeditions, we met with this bird only once. On June 5, 1937, we found a flock of 16 Pacific godwits, 2 Hudsonian curlews, and a European turnstone at the south end of Kiskai Island. Two specimens of the godwit were taken. We have no records for the Alaska Peninsula, and we have no proof of nesting in the Aleutians. According to Stejneger (1885), this bird is a regular migrant in the Commander Islands. Limosa haemasfica: Hudsonian Godwit Osgood (1901) wrote "Nine specimens were taken by Bischoff at Fort Kenai. At least two of these are still in the National Museum — one an adult in breeding plumage, the other in fall plumage." A. C. Bent (1927) wrote that "It has been reported from Alaska (Kenai, Nulato, Ugashik, mouth of the Yukon River, and Point Barrow) ." These observations show that this godwit rarely appeared near the base of Alaska Peninsula. Crocefh'ia alba: Sanderling Chase Littlejohn (manuscript notes for 1887-88) says "Only three seen during my stay, and these were seen during very cold weather. Twice alone and once with Aleutian sandpipers." He does not mention localities here, but his observations covered the general region from Kodiak to Sanak Island. On February 7, 1941, F. L. Beals obtained a male specimen on Amchitka Island. Stejneger (1885) reports the sanderling to be a rare migrant in the Commander Islands. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 155 Family PHALAROPODIDAE ^halaropus fulicarius: Red Phalarope Attu : A-clii-li-rhd-uch Russian, Yana River region: Plavounetz, more often Petouschok (Pleske) We observed flocks of red phalarope in spring migration as well as later in the summer, when some of them may have been re- suming from the north. On May 22, 1937, several flocks were seen in Shelikof Strait, many in the red plumage, and the next .lay, they were common all the way between Sutwik Island and the Shumagins. These were chiefly in the red plumage. On Au- gust 26, as we approached East Unalga Island from Unalaska, flocks were seen, this time in whitish winter plumage. On the evening of May 21, 1936, while passing off"shore from Unimak Is- land in Bering Sea, we saw bands of red phalaropes, totaling nearly 100, flying over the water. On July 15, over 100 were fly- ing near the Baby Islands in Akutan Pass, and near Rootok Is- land, Next day, more of these birds were seen near Rootok Island. On two occasions, they were seen feeding along a line of dead kelp. Cahalane (1943) says "N. J. Benson told me that in August 1940 he had seen a flock of 'at least five thousand' of the 'whale birds' in Shelikof Strait." Turner (1886) wrote that he "saw but few of these birds at Nushagak. At the mouth of Ugasik River, and the low grounds surrounding it, I saw hundreds of these birds." Jaques (1930) says that the red phalarope was "First seen near the Shumagin Islands May 15 and 16, at Moller Bay, and throughout Bering Sea on the northward voyage." And again, "Only one bird (at Port Moller) was seen on or near the shore." There is a strong probability that a few red phalaropes nest on parts of Alaska Peninsula. Turner's observations at Nushagak and Ugashik, and the bird noted by Jaques at Port Moller, suggest nesting, because these are birds of the open sea when on migration. Furthermore, on May 25, 1925, I found a female along the stream flowing northwesterward from Aghileen Pin- nacles, on the north side of Alaska Peninsula, and on May 29 another female was flushed from a pond in the upper end of the same valley. On June 22 Donald Stevenson shot a female at Hazen Point; he thought that this bird had incubation patches. Nelson (1887) says "It is an abundant summer visitant on the Near Islands, .and breeds abundantly on some of the Com- mander group." Turner, on the other hand, (1886) says "I have no record 156 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE of their occurrence in the Aleutian Islands. They may occasionally occur there with other species." Stejneger (1885) merely reports a flock seen at sea, near the Commander Islands, Hartert (1920) records five specimens taken on the Commander Islands, and he remarks that the late dates, May 25 to June 16, suggest breeding. Clark (1910) reports that when he approached Unalaska "thousands of these birds were seen, mostly in flocks of from fifty to a hundred or more, but many singly or in small com- panies." The chief of Attu Village said that the red phalarope does not nest in the Aleutians, but he stated that it is plentiful there in winter. This probably is true, though the above data gives good evidence of nesting along the Alaska Peninsula. Lobipes lobafus: Northern Phalarope Attu: Chirr-teg-ech Chimt-khukh (according to Turner) Atka: Chir-riz-ing-ah Large numbers of the northern phalarope migrate along the southern Alaskan coast. On May 8, 1937, while passing through Snow Pass in southeastern Alaska, we enjoyed the impressive spectacle of several thousands of northern phalaropes resting on the water. There was much dead kelp, which apparently afforded good feeding. On May 16 and 17, northern phalaropes were abundant on the tide flats at Eyak River, near Cordova, and local residents declared that they nest there. On May 11, 1936, we observed a small group between the Barren Islands and Afognak Island, and on May 13 we saw a flock of about 25 in Kupreanof Strait as well as smaller groups near Kodiak Island. All of these flocks were seen over open water, where they sometimes alighted and swam about. Cahalane (1944) observed two northern phalaropes in the Katmai region in September 1940, and Hine (1919) noted them on a number of occasions near the mouth of Katmai River where he obtained specimens. Littlejohn wrote : "Seen often at sea in large flocks and found nesting at Kodiak and Sanakh in April 1888." On May 25, 1936, two were seen near a pond on the tide flat at Snag Point, Nushagak River, evidently preparing to nest, and, on May 27 and 29, on the tide flats at Ugashik River, many more seemed to be preparing to nest. Some were seen in small flocks, others in twos and threes. Jaques (1930) found this bird "abundant about the Port FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 157 /Toller region in all sorts of pools on the tundra after June 1 ntil our departure on June 22." Gianini (1917) noted the species at Stepovak Bay as "one of he most common and interesting of the smaller birds. Every lond had a pair or more ... I found no nests nor saw any young, et these birds breed there." In 1911, Wetmore found these phalaropes evidently breeding n the Morzhovoi Bay region. In 1925, I observed many northern phalaropes, obviously ireeding, in the wet valley bottom below Aghileen Pinnacles, on lazen Point, and on the marshes at Moffet Cove. Two males hat were collected June 15 had incubation patches, and, on July .9, Donald Stevenson saw a young bird. Turner (1886) says: "Hundreds of them were seen on the ow grounds on the northern side of Alaska." The northern phalarope also nests on many of the Aleutian slands. We found them on Unimak, Unalaska, Atka, Little ?anaga, Adak, Amchitka, Ogliuga, Little Sitkin, Kiska, Little Ciska, Buldir, Semichi, and Agattu. Swarth (1934) reports a )air taken on Akutan. Wetmore found them nesting on Adak, Tanaga, and Kiska, and le believed that they nested on Atka. Turner (1886) says that they are abundant on the western slands in the Aleutian chain, and he adds that many of them )reed on Atka, Amchitka, Semichi, and Agattu. On Buldir Island, we were much interested to find two of these )irds high on the mountain, in the area occupied by nesting leese. Stejneger reported the northern phalarope to be a common )reeding bird in the Commander Islands. Family STERCORARIIDAE Ifercorar'ius pomarinus: Pomarine Jaeger Russian, Yana and Indigirka regions: Terbei (Pleske) Chukchi: Aunuklinuadr-ukanodliyi (Palmen) According to Pleske, the Russian name "Terbei" applies to jaegers in general. He states that in northern Siberia, people 3f various languages use one name for all jaegers, adding "large" 3r "small" for the different kinds. Similarly, among some Eskimos I found that the same name was applied to parasiticus and longicaiulu-s. 158 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE ! The pomarine jaeger proved to be a rare bird in the AleutiaiJ district, and there was no evidence of nesting. I On the evening of May 21, 1936, several miles off Urilia Baj, Unimak Island, 3 pomarine jaegers passed the ship — 2 wer s together, followed by a single bird that Cecil Williams identifieii at close range. On May 22, another pomarine jaeger was seeii offshore from Nelson Lagoon, Alaska Peninsula, and several others were seen farther east later in the day. On two occasions, we noticed a jaeger trying to rob an Arctic tern. On May 23 three or four jaegers were seen in outer Nushagak Bay. Farther west, on July 4, three jaegers were observed between LittL Tanaga and Kagalaska Islands. They probably were pomarinus because they were large and were light underneath; however' positive identification was impossiblq. Another was seen at Wes Unalga Island on August 3. Pomarine jaegers were seen again in 1937. One was seei near Resurrection Bay on May 20; 1 was observed near th Shumagins, May 23, and several were seen near Deer Island May 24; 1 was seen near Unimak Island, May 25; and 1 wa sighted west of Kiska Island, June 6. One June 17, the captain o our ship counted 7 of these birds off Semichi Islands — I verifie( 4 of them. Later in the day, another was seen at sea, farthe eastward. On August 19, at Cape Cheerful, near Unalaska, ther were quite a number of these jaegers among the shearwaters and on August 24 one was seen near Bogoslof, among gulls anc shearwaters. Austin H. Clark (1910) saw a pomarine jaeger at Bower's Ban] in Bering Sea on June 3 — this is the only one that he noted. Pomarine jaegers were always found either at sea or weJ offshore, they never were seen on land. Apparently, the water about the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutians afford excellen foraging for nonnesting individuals. Jaegers probably parasitize gulls and shearwaters in this area, though no doubt they are als^ capable of feeding directly from the water, where marine organ isms are so abundant. In 1924, we found the pomarine jaeger nesting commonly a Hooper Bay, and no doubt the nonbreeding individuals would b attracted to the Aleutian area, which must lie in their migratioi path. Hartert (1920) records two specimens taken on the Commande: Islands. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 159 Sfercorar'ius parasiticus: Parasitic Jaeger Attu: Klu-pa-soch Atka: Ke-uch Russian, Commander Islands: Rasbojn.ik (Stejneger) Chukchi: UacW Ukangodlin (Palmen) The parasitic jaeger nests on Kodiak Island (Friedmann 1935; Bent 1921), throughout the Alaska Peninsula, and along the Aleutian chain. On May 23, 1936, 2 of these birds were seen in outer Nushagak Bay; on May 25, 3 were seen, and, the next day, 2 were observed over the marshy tide iiats at Snag Point, Nushagak River. On May 27 and 29, a number of these birds were seen flying about over the tide flats at Ugashik River — both the light- and dark-color phases v/ere noted. C. S. Williams collected one in the light-color phase. On August 26, there were five (all of which were in the light-colored phase) over the marsh at Sand Point, Popof Island. On June 18, 1940, Gabrielson saw a pair at the Semidi Islands, and on July 17, he saw three birds at Dillingham. On July 19, he saw 12 parasitic jaegers on Naknek River. Jaques (1930) says the parasitic jaeger was "Common along shore and over the tundra north of Port Moller, where it was breeding in June." In 1925, I found these jaegers to be numerous about Izembek Bay during the nesting season, and I suspected that they were nesting, though proof was lacking. Wetmore reported these birds "tolerably common" about Morzhovoi Bay, and Gianini (1917) found them quite common about Stepovak Bay. We saw this bird frequently throughout the Aleutian chain. They were in pairs, on characteristic tundra habitat, and they acted in a manner typical of nesting. Unfortunately, we had no time to hunt for nests. On June 12, 1936, 4 pairs of jaegers were found on Chuginadak Island ; June 14, 1 was seen on Herbert ; June 18, a pair was seen on Seguam; June 29, 3 were seen on Kanaga; July 23, 2 were seen on Ogliuga; July 26, several were observed on Kiska; July 30, 3 were sighted on Attu; July 31, at least 21 were seen high up on Buldir ; August 4, 5 were seen on Kavalga and 3 were seen on Skagul Island. In 1937, they were noted again : June 4 and 5, 6 were seen on Kiska ; June 7 and 10, 4 were seen on Attu ; June 11 to 15, common on Agattu; June 17, 6 were seen on Semichi; June 18, abundant on Buldir; June 21, common on Kiska; June 22, a pair was seen on Little Kiska; June 23, 3 were seen on Chugul; June 27, a pair was seen on Little Sitkin; June 30, at least 2 pairs were 160 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE seen on Rat Island; July 4, 3 were seen on Semisopochnoi ; July 5 and 11, about 7 were sighted on Amchitka; July 29, at least 4 were seen on Ogliuga; July 30, three or four were observed on Kavalga; July 31, 2 were seen on West Unalga; and on August 2, 2 were seen on Ilak. On the Alaska Peninsula, the black-color phase of the parasitic jaeger is particularly common, though the light phase probably predominates. In the Shumagins, all five birds seen were light colored. Among the Aleutian Islands, however, the light-color phase is a rarity. More than 100 parasitic jaegers were recorded, and, of this number, only 4 were specifically mentioned in our field notes as being light colored; nearly all the rest were mentioned as being definitely dark. Possibly in no other area is the parasitic jaeger population so uniformly dark. Stejneger (1885) says of the color phase that "On the Com- mander Islands the dark form is the most common. A few only with white lower surface were seen and one secured." Hartert (1920) obtained 4 adults in the Commander Islands with white underparts, and he obtained 3 of the dark phase. Dall (1874) noted the same tendency, believing, however, that the dark color was in the immature plumage ; this becomes obvious when he says "nor have we ever obtained any in completely adult plumage. All our specimens are of a nearly uniform dark slate color." Bent (1921) has suggested that the dark color phase may be a distinct species. That appears doubtful, however. Bent quotes Grinnell as saying that he found a light and a dark bird mated. On two occasions in the Aleutians we observed trios, one of which was white. Unless we can show that normally the two color types keep segregated in breeding, with only an occasional crossbreeding that may be construed as hybridization, it will be better to consider that they are color phases. A dark-color phase, becoming dominant or very prominent locally, is known among other animal species — for example, in the case of the marmot in parts of the Rocky Mountains, the ground squirrel in eastern Alaska, and the Arctic fox in the Aleutians. Food Habifs The name of this bird suggests its food habits. It is known to rob gulls and terns of their food. The Arctic tern and European turnstone were seen pursuing parasitic jaegers, evidently rec- ognizing them as foes. On Alaska Peninsula, there was evidence FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 161 hat these jaegers were seeking fragments of salmon left on he banks by brown bears. On Buldir Island, where parasitic aegers were so numerous, a colony of nesting glaucous-winged rulls probably furnished a food supply for the jaegers. On Agattu Island, 24 pellets were obtained ; these pellets con- ;ained the remains of 17 forked-tailed petrels, 3 murres, and 5 midentified birds. Of the last mentioned, 2 were possibly paroquet luklets and 1 was a small, sparrow-sized bird. Some of these items, especially the murres, were undoubtedly carrion. A nesting colony of forked-tailed petrels, near the perch where the pellets were obtained obviously was the source Df the items found in the pellets — however, the method of capture was not ascertained. It is, of course, possible that the jaegers found parts of petrel carcasses left by blue foxes. Certain observations suggest that the parasitic jaeger is not solely a carrion eater and robber, but that it hunts part of the time in the manner of a hawk. On Semisopochnoi Island, Douglas Gray and I sat on a slope in the midst of a least auklet colony and watched the performance of a parasitic jaeger. For over an hour, we watched the bird repeatedly pursue these little auklets as the flocks came in from the sea. It did not stoop from a height, but it would single out a bird and follow it as swiftly as possible on the level or at various angles, in irregular flight. There are two possible interpretations. It may have been trying to capture an auklet, or it may have been trying to make it disgorge. So far as we could see, in spite of its persistence, it did not succeed in either purpose. Stejneger (1885) says, of the Commander Islands: "In the autumn they seem to feed to a great extent on the berries of Empetrum nignim, and their excreta at that time are colored dark blue." Sfercorar'ius longJcaudus: Long-tailed Jaeger Chukchi: A7ikakenuadl'-nkangodlin (Palmen) The long-tailed jaeger is rare in the Aleutian district. Fried- mann (1935) records a few bones found in middens on Kodiak Island. Osgood (1904) reports one on Iliamna Lake, July 16, 1902, and he records specimens taken by McKay at Nushagak and Ugashik in July and August 1881. On July 17, Gabrielson recorded a long-tailed jaeger at Dilling- ham; and, on July 19, he noted three on Naknek River. Gianini (1917) is the only observer who has reported these jaegers to be common; his observations were made at Stepovak 162 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Bay, where he collected a specimen. Apparently, Wetmore did not observe them on Alaska Peninsula in 1911, and I did no1 positively identify this jaeger at Izembek Bay in 1925. Turner (1886) says "The Long-tailed Jaeger is rarely seer on the Eastern Aleutian Islands. I saw one on Sannakh Island ir July, 1878. I saw a few at Atkah Island in 1879, and two a1 Attn Island in 1880 . . . This species is reported to breed at the Semichi Islands." Friedmann (1934) reports a number of bones of this jaegei found in middens on Amaknak Island. Stevenson obtained a specimen on Ilak Island, September 8, 1921. We observed it only once in the Aleutians. On June 13, 1937, I watched a bird in the normal light-colored plumage, flying about with three parasitic jaegers. Clark (1910) reports seeing one on Bower's Bank, Bering Sea. Hartert (1920) records two specimens from Commander Is- lands. Stejneger (1885) stated that they do not nest there. Family LARIDAE Larus hyperboreus: Glaucous Gull Larus hyperboreus hyperboreus Russian, Murman coast: Kluscha (Pleske) Chukchi: Yttak, tchikerga (Palmen) Though the glaucous gull normally nests north of the Aleutiani district, it reaches this area in considerable numbers in winter! and in migration to more southern localities. As Friedmann' suggested (1935), it is practically certain that Turner was in error when he reported "countless thousands" of these gulls on cliffs at Kodiak. Friedmann records several bones found in middens on Kodiak, adding, "Macoun mentions a bird in the Hen- shaw collection, and 3 eggs taken in June, 1880, now in thei Mailliard collection, [which] are the only other records I have found." While these are recorded under the name Larus h. hyperboreus,\ they could possibly refer to L. h. harrovianus. We do, however, have at least one undoubted specimen of L. h. hyperboreus — a male taken at Unalaska Island by Wetmore on June 9, 1911. Though this specimen was listed by Oberholser (1918) under L. h. harrovianus, examination of the speciman shows that it has the massive beak that characterizes L. h. hyperboreus, the measurements being greater than in barrovmnus. Since it is FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 163 [nown that the eastern glaucous gull nests on St. Matthew and /Valrus Islands, we would expect it to visit the Aleutian district it times, though the western glaucous gull would be most pre- valent. Oberholser (1918) also mentions Diomede Islands for ;his form. .arus hyperboreus barrovianus Though the status of barrovianus has been belabored repeatedly 3y able ornithologists, certain specimens obtained in the Aleutians nduced me to examine the whole question again. More than 200 specimens were examined in the U. S. National Museum and in ;he American Museum of Natural History in New York. It is useless to deny the difficulties in recognizing barrovianus is a distinct form. In studying series from a given locality, one is confronted with specimens that do not fit a given description. Gulls are variable, and one must be cautious in arriving at con- :lusions. On the other hand, if one is careful to give due weight to breeding territory, and to allow for migration to explain cer- tain irregularities, many of these difficulties disappear. All gulls of the species hyperboreus are pale mantled, but true hyperboreus is noticeably paler than barrovianus. Furthermore, hyperboreus is definitely larger and has a decidedly larger and more massive beak. Listed measurements do not adequately ex- press the difference. Depth of bill of the two forms overlaps, or meets, at about 23 mm., though most of them are above, or below, this figure, and a difi'erence of even 2 mm. makes a considerable diff'erence in appearance. A good series of specimens from Point Barrow and the east shore of Bering Sea are remarkably uniform in the characters assigned to barrovianus — the darker mantle, the smaller size, and especially the smaller bill. Available specimens from eastern North America are confusing, but it is notable that when winter specimens are eliminated, and apparent breeding birds are used, they fall more generally into the group of hyperboreus. This was especially true of Greenland, where a good series of breeding birds presented a clear picture of Larus h. hyperboreus, diS here described. The confusing aspect of the distribution of these two forms is the considerable number of small-sized birds found along the Atlantic coast in winter, which apparently agree with barro- vianus, but which are far from the type locality. Possibly we should expect this. Oberholser gave the breeding range as extending along the Arctic coast as far east as "the territories of 164 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Yukon and western Mackenzie." It is entirely possible that the breeding range extends much farther east. Among specimens examined, L. h. hyperboreus was found to the westward across northern Eurasia, Greenland, and northeastern North America! as far west as Baffin and Ellesmere Islands. In any case, it may be expected that many of the birds can find their way from Arctic Canada to the Atlantic coast in winter. The gulls are far- ranging birds. Steller's eider has been recorded from the Gulf of St. Lawrence (Fisher 1900). It seems logical to consider Larus h. hyperboreus as breeding throughout the Arctic regions of Siberia and Europe, traveling as far west as Baffin and Ellesmere Islands (and probably neighbor- ing areas) and, from the west, traveling eastward to the Beringi Sea coast of Siberia. In Bering Sea, the birds obviously have' come eastward as far as St. Matthew and Walrus Islands. There is a specimen from St. Matthew taken by G. D. Hanna on July 9, 1916. Gabrielson obtained a breeding specimen on St. Matthew Island in the summer of 1940. He noted particularly that the breeding colony consisted of birds obviously larger than the' glaucous-winged gulls. It may be remarked that the size of the average barrovianus is not far different from glaucescens, includ- ing the size of bill. Therefore, the birds noted on St. Matthew Island by Gabrielson would be the larger hyperboreus. Thus, L. h. barrovianus has a breeding range that includes the Bering Sea coast of Alaska and the Arctic coast of Alaska and Canada eastward, possibly across most of the Northwest Terri- tory. Collections of breeding specimens would aid in this determi- nation. There are indications that the two forms meet in the Pribilofs, for there is an immature bird from St. Paul Island that agrees with barrovianus, and another that seems to be inter- mediate. (No. 118716, U. S. National Museum) There are a number of records of the smaller barrovianus in the Aleutian district. The records that are not supported by specimens, or specimens that were not examined, are included here on geographic grounds. Oberholser (1918) listed specimens from the following places: Unalaska, November 1, 1903; November 12, 1904; July 4, 1901 (nestling) ; Amak Island, July 18, 1911 (nestling.) Wetmore reported seeing a "finely marked" glaucous gull in Unimak Pass on June 4, 1911. (The specimen that he collected on June 9, at Unalaska, proved to be hyperboreus.) Swarth (1934) records two immature specimens taken on Akutan, May 18 and 21, 1927. Laing (1925) obtained two im- mature specimens at Unalaska, March 26 and 28, 1924. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 165 Friedmann (1934) reports two bones from middens on Amak- nak Island, and (1937) a bone from Dutch Harbor middens, a skull and a femur from Little Kiska, and two skulls from Attu. Undoubtedly these were not subspecifically determined. In 1937, in the dirt foundation of a bald eagle's nest on Amchitka Island, I obtained two humeri that appeared large enough to be a glaucous gull. This identification was later supported by Friedmann, who thought the bones were slightly undersized (which would indicate barrovianus.) Bishop (1900) reported seeing several of this species at Una- laska October 4, 1899. Another specimen collected at False Pass by Donald Steven- son, April 28, 1925, is an immature bird typical of barrovianus. Still another, similar to the above, was taken on Unimak Island by F. L. Beals, April 5, 1941, and another one at Unalaska, March 5, 1942. Cahn (1947), under heading of Lanis hyperboreus, reports seeing a few at Unalaska, and Taber (1946) reports a few winter- ing at Adak. It would be difficult to determine the subspecies- without specimens, but Sutton and Wilson (1946) observed im- mature glaucous gulls wintering at Attu. On March 17, when they made a count, there was a glaucous gull for every 25 glaucous-winged gulls. It is significant that they noted that the size was similar to that of glaucous-winged gulls, suggesting bar- rovianus. We did not find nesting birds of this species on either Una- laska or Amak Islands, therefore it is surprising to recall that Oberholser had listed his two specimens as "nestlings." Larus glaucescens: Glaucous-winged Gull Attu : Hlu-ka Chd-larch, immature Atka: Shlii-ka Slukax (Jochelson) Chid-li-arch, immature Culugidax, immature (Jochelson) Russian, Commander Islands: Tschaika, gull in general (Stejneger) The Aleut names given the glaucous-winged gull are obviously the same in both dialects and resemble the Russian. This is the common breeding gull throughout the length of Alaska Peninsula, the Aleutians, and other islands, including the Kodiak-Afognak group. Osgood (1904) reported them nesting on islands in Iliamna Lake and at Becharof Lake, and he observed them at Nushagak. On July 24 and 27, 1940, Gabrielson found 166 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE glaucous-winged gulls common about the upper end of Iliamna Lake, and he found a nesting colony on some small rocky islets. In flying over the tundra between Egegik cannery and Becharof Lake, he found these gulls to be common everywhere. The species is the nesting gull on the Commander Islands; also it nests in Kamchatka, the Pribilofs, and as far north as St.: Lawrence Island (Murie 1936). j Nesting I Glaucous-winged gulls nest in a great variety of sites — on higH ledges on cliffs (as near False Pass), on high grassy slopes of islands (a favorite site) , on low rock islets, or on the sandy shores Figure 30. — Glaucous-winged gulls. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 167 .midst the rank growth of Elyynus. The most important require- aents seem to be a handy source of food, and protection from aammalian intrusion. As in the case of many other birds, if blue oxes inhabit an island, the gulls nest on offshore rocks. Size of colonies varies from a few individuals to as many as 1,000 birds— this is an estimated count of birds that I observed lesting on Glen Island, at the entrance to Izembek Bay in 1925. \ colony on a high green slope above the cliffs on Amak Island lumbered about 2,000, and, on Amagat Island, there were at least i,000. Throughout the Aleutian chain to the westward, however, :he colonies numbered from 50 to 150, rarely more than 400. rhe large numbers in the colonies (mentioned above) may be iue to the large food supply provided by the refuse at the cannery it False Pass, the salmon fragments left by brown bears on the A^laska Peninsula, and the fish that the gulls are able to obtain in the salmon-filled streams. Nests are usually the typical gull structure— a mass of vegeta- tion consisting of grasses, dry kelp or eel grass rolled up by the tide, with dry sponges and other debris mixed in. Frequently, however, the nest is a depression with a scanty lining of grass or other material, and in some instances the gulls had merely formed a depression in a windrow of kelp and eel grass above the usual high-tide mark. The eggs are of the well-known large gull type, but considerable varir.tion was found. The color tone (speaking in general terms) varied from brownish to greenish. One unusual set of two eggs were a plain light-blue color without brown markings. Curiously enough, a corresponding variation in color was noted also among the downy young. The majority had a buffy color tone, but a few were blue gray with no buffy color. The downy young gull is precocious and is wonderfully adept at hiding at an early age, and therefore it is hard to find where vegetation is rank. On open sandy nesting grounds, the young are likely to run, and they take to the ^vater fearlessly, swimming out a considerable distance. When once started in flight over open ground, these youngsters go headlong and do not stop until they think a safe distance has been attained, even though pursuit has stopped. One young bird, with its gullet bulging with food, presented an ungainly and ludicrous sight running across the beach. It stopped to spew up food several times until its throat had re- gained its normal proportions, then it took flight. This action was observed repeatedly. Was the bird consciously lightening its 168 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE cargo to quicken its speed, or was it a peace offering, an earlj manifestation of the adult reaction to jaegers' attack? Possiblj it is only a nervous reaction and may be common to the youn^ of several species, such as cormorants and pelicans, whictj promptly spew up their food when disturbed. Food Habits The omnivorous habit of the glaucous-winged gull is well known ; it is a glutton in the presence of an abundant food supply. Wetmore (manuscript notes, 1911) wrote of the gulls near thei cannery at False Pass that — Everything is gobbled up greedily, and some of the birds can hardly rise in the air when gorged. I have seen one of them choke down two full-sized dog salmon heads entire, and stand gasping and choking for several min- utes with an enormous lump in the throat. Gulls congregate in large numbers at the cannery docks to feed on the refuse, and are accepted as welcome scavengers. For the same purpose they follow the ships, and they gather to feed on the carcasses of stranded whales or seals or on dead fish thrown up by the tide. They found abundant food at the whaling station at Akutan. On Alaska Peninsula and Unimak Island, where Alaska brown bears feed on salmon, the gulls gather to pick up the leavings. The natural food taken by the glaucous-winged gulls depends on the environment. In 1925, at Izembek Bay and at St. Catherine Cove on Unimak Island, I found these gulls feeding chiefly on crabs. A small yellow-brown, hairy variety is very common in these waters, and the gulls consistently hunt for it. On the ocean beach, they stalk about at low tide and eat crabs. As the tide ebbs, many crabs are left on the beach, covered with a layer of sand so that they present only a slight lump on the smooth beach surface, however the gulls are expert in finding them. In Izembek Bay, parts of which run nearly dry at low tide, the gulls find a good crab-hunting ground. Food remains on nesting grounds of Glen Island and other points in the bay consisted almost entirely of crab remains, and many empty carapaces were strewn along the beaches, picked clean by the gulls. The smaller crabs are swallowed whole. The gulls manage to find an occasional clam, and there also is an occasional dead murre or codfish on the beach — additional items in the gull's diet. On Amak and Bogoslof Islands, the glaucous-winged gull specializes in murres' eggs and young. Nesting gull colonies were situated at a convenient distance from murre cliffs, and the FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 169 gulls flew along the ledges boldly, hunting eggs in a business- like manner. The murres cackled and presented a pointed beak, but the gull usually managed to snatch the egg of an absent neighbor. Common-eider and gull colonies are often closely associated, because of similar habitat preferences — an islet safe from blue foxes. An eider nest and a gull nest are sometimes situated only a few feet apart, apparently in good neighborly relations. Yet the gulls seize the eggs or the downy young of the Pacific eider when they have an opportunity. In fact, it appears that the gulls manage to devour an appreciable percentage of eider increase, both in eggs and young. Other nesting birds may be thus preyed upon under favorable circumstances. On Semichi Island, Scheffer and I were passing a lake, when a common loon swam off at our approach, leaving two downy young. A glaucous-winged gull swooped down, picked up a young loon and flew off with it, pursued by another gull. Certain adult birds are also taken by gulls. On Semisopochnoi Island, in a least auklet rookery, 137 glaucous-winged gull pellets were collected and analyzed, with the following results: Least auklet 116 pellets Forked-tailed petrels 3 pellets Small fish 7 pellets Sea urchin 8 pellets Limpet 3 pellets On Gareloi Island we found gull pellets that contained both least and crested auklets, and two fulmar eggs. Some of the bird material, especially that of the crested auklets, probably was carrion left by blue foxes ; however, our observations were not conclusive. The sea urchin is another important item in this gull's diet throughout the entire Aleutian district. At Unalaska, on May 27, 1937, we saw a large flock of these gulls, chiefly immature birds, feeding back in the hills ; apparently they were pulling up small clumps of grass. Regurgitated ma- terial consisted mainly of seeds, but we did not have time to make a thorough study of this incident. Where the gulls depend on the tides for their food, they naturally adapt their foraging periods to the time of ebb tide. This was noted particularly in Izembek Bay. At Glen Island, it was noted that fewer birds were present at the colony during low tide; when the tide came in, the colony was in full force. Incidentally, it seemed that by means of a division of labor, the nests remained guarded while a part of the colony fed. 170 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE On Hazen Point, June 13, 1925, I watched large flocks of gray, immature gulls resting 400 yards inland from shore during ebb tide. This area was covered with numerous oval pellets com- posed of crab fragments. I also found clam shells, which were partly overgrown with vegetation. Obviously, this was a favorite, perhaps an ancestral, resting area, where nonbreeding glaucous- winged gulls had rested and digested food gleaned from the last ebb tide. Ecological Relations It is clear that the clever, adaptable glaucous-winged gull finds its living in a great variety of ways, effectively filling the ecological niche in which it happens to find itself. What is the effect on its environment? The gull is a scavenger, and the effect of its food habits may be somewhat beneficial to man. Gleanings from the beach, which include crabs, clams, sea urchins and other "shellfish" probably do not upset any balance and, so far as we know, have no bearing on human interests in the area considered here. As for depredations in murre and eider colonies, we did not work out the ecological problem in any systematic way, yet certain observations may be significant. Perhaps nowhere are depredations more severe than in a murre colony. However, on Bogoslof Island, where such gull depredations on eggs and young have continued for a long time, the murres were present in great numbers and were utilizing all the available nesting sites. The same situation seemed to prevail on other islands. For more detailed consideration of this matter, the reader is referred to the discussion of the murre. Likewise, the Pacific eider, which also is preyed upon by these gulls, appears able to produce a satisfactory increase in population , by the end of the summer. It should be remembered that thisi eider is not preyed upon by man to any appreciable extent, except for the robbing of nests for fresh eggs in a few localities. View- ing the situation as a whole, it appears that, at least in the Alaska Peninsula-Aleutian Islands district, the Pacific eider and the murre, as well as other species, survive in satisfactory num- bers in spite of the gulls. The glaucous-winged gull is believed to feed on salmon eggs and to prey upon the spawning salmon in shallow streams. This question would require special study, with attention given to the breeding habits and ecological requirements of salmon and the percentage of loss occasioned by the gulls. Naturally, such de- FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 171 tailed work could not be attempted in the course of our general investigation. Larus schisfisagus: Sla+y-backed Gull This bird is seldom seen on the Alaskan coastline, though it is common on the Siberian side of Bering Sea. Nelson (1887) records a specimen taken by Bean, October 1, 1880, at the head of Chernofski Bay, Unalaska, saying, "the birds were abundant there at the time." He adds: "Further work in this region may show that this specimen is of regular and common occurrence at many points on the Alaskan coast, although it was not noted by myself nor by any previous explorer there." The slaty-backed gull has continued to be rare, however, and has seldom been seen. Swarth (1934) wrote "None collected but several identified in life [by C. G. Harrold] from time to time. An adult was shot from the ship but lost, between Kodiak and Akutan, May 16, and others were seen at Cape Etolin [Nunivak Island] on August 27 and 29." Gianini (1917), speaking of Stepovak Bay, Alaska Peninsula, says "I noted but one or two here." Clark (1910) observed a few in Unalga Pass, near Unalaska, but saw no more until he reached the Commander Islands. In the course of three expeditions to the Aleutians I saw a dark-mantled gull only once — at Bogoslof Island, August 24, 1937, when a single gull of this kind was noted among some glaucous- winged gulls. The specimen was collected and proved to be schistisagus. On February 14, 1941, F. L. Beals obtained a good specimen of a female at Atka Island, and on March 15, 1942, he obtained parts of another at Sanak. Gabrielson saw 1 at False Pass on March 16, 1942, and was told of 1 at Unalaska, March 20. Larus argenfafus: Herring Gull Larus argenfafus smifbsonianus Friedmann (1935) says "The only definite Kodiak specimens known to me are two birds collected by Wosnessensky in 1842 or 1843, another taken on August 30, 1906 and a number of bones unearthed from old Eskimo middens by Hrdlicka in 1934." He also recorded (1937) bones of this gull from middens at Dutch Harbor, Little Kiska, and Attu. Jaques (1930) reports "One immature near the Shumagin Islands." Cahalane (1944) observed a number of gulls on Naknek River, 172 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Naknek Lake, and Brooks Lake in 1940, which he believed were of this species, and Gabrielson, in 1940, observed the species at various points along the base of Alaska Peninsula. Taber reports Larus argentatus wintering at Adak Island, but specimens were not obtained. Sutton and Wilson observed a few among the gulls wintering on Attu Island. j We saw no herring gulls on any of our expeditions. Larus argentatus vegae According to the 1931 Check-List, this gull "occurs casually in Bering Sea and on the coast of Alaska to the Aleutian Islands." Swarth (1934) obtained three gulls of the argentatus type from Nunivak Island, which could not be satisfactorily identified. Many of the sight records of herring gulls centered around the base of Alaska Peninsula, where they appeared to be too common to be the Siberian-ranging vegae; all such records are here in- cluded under smithsonia,nus. Clark (1910), referring to Larus vegae, says: "This gull was rather common in Unalga Pass, near Unalaska, and was seen again, though not in any numbers in Avacha Bay, Kamchatka." There is at least one specimen of this gull — a female collected by F. L. Beals at Unalaska on February 14, 1942. Larus delawarensis: Ring-billed Gull In 1911, Wetmore recorded in his field notes: "In August T noted a few ring-billed gulls about the head of the lagoon back, of King Cove, where they were feeding on dead dog salmon, that lay in a creek bed. I shot one for identification but did not preserve it." This is the only record of this species west of Prince William Sound. Larus canus: Mew Gull Larus canus brachyrhynchus Turner (1886) makes the surprising statement that "Among' the Aleutian Islands these birds congregate in many thousands on the cliffs to breed." Obviously, this is an error, since he describes very well the nesting habitat of kittiwakes, and not the marsh or lake habitat chosen by the short-billed gull. In view of this, it is hard to credit his further remarks on the food habits of this gull at Atka and Amchitka. Nelson (1887) states the situation more in keeping with the FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 173 isual findings when he says "Although perhaps occurring as a .traggler on the Eastern Aleutian Islands during the migrations, t is nearly or quite unknown on the other islands of Bering 5ea, except those closely bordering the shoreline." On September 7, 1938, Scheffer noted a few of these gulls 'ceding on scraps at the Akutan whaling station, and, on Septem- )er 8, he noted them with glaucous-winged gulls feeding on .^efuse behind the ship. Friedmann (1937) has recorded two humeri of this gull from niddens on Attn Island. Aside from Friedmann's find, there are no records west of A.kutan. In 1925, I noted this species at the cannery at False Pass, and, on May 25, 1937, a few were seen at Ikatan Peninsula. There are suitable lowland nesting places on Unimak Island. Nests and eggs were found among some small ponds on Dolgoi Island on May 25, 1937. Evidently, nesting was just beginning, for only one of the nests contained eggs. These gulls were observed also at Sand Point and Unga, in the Shumagins, August 29, 1936. In 1911, Wetmore observed short-billed gulls at Thin Point Bay and King Cove, and Gianini (1917) reports them at Step- ovak Bay. On May 17, 1936, we found a widely scattered colony of short-billed gulls on a wide marshy flat at Belkofski ; this colony consisted of fifty to several hundred pairs. This was the largest "colony" discovered. In 1925, I found these gulls nesting about Izembek Bay in moderate numbers, Jaques (1930) found them to be common in June in the Port Moller region, where they nest, and, at Snag Point, Nushagak River, we found them to be common on May 23 to 26, 1936. They also were numerous on the tide flats near Ugashik River, where they were preparing to nest. Hine (1919) noted the species at Kashvik Bay and obtained a specimen. We saw one on May 12, 1936, at Kodiak, and we saw three or four at Nagai, one of the Barren Islands, on May 16, We had found them to be common at Seward on May 5 ; we saw a few at Chisik Island, Cook Inlet, May 7; and we saw some that appeared to be preparing to nest at Anchorage on May 9. This fairly well outlines the nesting range — from Unimak Island to Kodiak, Seward, and Bristol Bay — which contains the marshland that this gull desires. Taber (1946) reports four of these gulls at Adak Island, January 12, 1946. 174 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Food Habifs Little was learned about the food habits of the short-billec gull. In 1925, I found these gulls on the tundra back of Izembel Bay, among the salmon streams. No doubt they feed on fisl scraps left by the Alaska brown bears, but they also eat salmoi eggs. Where the water was a little deep, the gulls would dro] headfirst and partly submerge in order to reach the salmoi eggs on the bottom. The stomach of a bird taken for a specimei was crammed full of salmon eggs, Larus Philadelphia: Bonaparte's Gull This little gull is found only sparingly in most of the area hen considered, though it is abundant in southeastern Alaska. A Petersburg, a favorite gathering place, flocks assemble at thi docks of the shrimp cannery and feed on the refuse. At Juneau they were eating herring roe attached to fish nets, and we fount them again at Cordova. They are reported to be a plentifu summer bird, and they nest at Yakutat (Shortt 1939). Though they might be expected on Kodiak, such records havi not been found. On May 5, 1936, several were noted at Seward and one was seen there on May 21, 1937. On May 9, 1936, severa were seen at Anchorage, and a pair seemed to be preparing to nest at a small marsh, near town. Osgood (1904) reports a pair of these gulls, evidently nesting on Lake Iliamna, July 16, 1902, and he mentions specimens takei by McKay and Johnson at Nushagak, at Lake Aleknagik, an( at Ugashik. Jaques (1930) found about 40 near Port Moller oi June 10, and Hine observed large flocks and took specimens ii Kashvik Bay about August 1, 1919. Cahalane found them commoi on Naknek River, September 3 and 4, 1940, and saw one oi Savanoski River, September 20. In 1940, Gabrielson observe( these gulls in the Bristol Bay region, and, in 1945, he obtaine( two specimens at Chignik, McGregor (1906) found this species among the Krenitzin grou] of the Aleutians as follows : a bird and a wing found at Tigaldj Bay on August 6; about 30 seen off Ugamak on August 12; ] seen off Tigalda, and 4 seen off Poa, on August 15. He states tha' they were abundant at Dutch Harbor, August 17. Bishop (1900) reported these gulls common at Unalaska October 4-5, 1899. The base of Alaska Peninsula and the Cook Inlet region li( within the normal breeding range of this gull. Occurrence; westward on Alaska Peninsula can hardly be considered nesting FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 175 records without further proof, and certainly this would be true also of those seen in the Aleutians. Larus ridibundus: Black-headed Gull Larus ridibundus sibiricus On June 4, 1937, Douglas Gray noted 3 strange gulls among the glaucous-winged gulls in Kiska Harbor, at Kiska Island, and took 1 for a specimen. This was at first hastily identified as a Bona- parte's Gull, but, on later examination, it proved to be L. r. sibiricus, which is the only positive record for North America (Murie 1945). Rissa fridacfyla: Black-legged Kittiwake Rissa fridacfyla pcHicaris Attn: Teegle-ah'-g.ircli Atka: Teegle-gd-gha Russian: Commander Islands: Gavarnschka, "on account of its loquacity" (Stejneger) Chukchi: Kakyttack (Palmen) The Pacific kittiwake can truly be said to occur throughout the entire length of the Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian chain ; however, it nests only in suitable places. Gabrielson (1940) has described the large colony at Resurrection Point, near Seward, and he recorded two large colonies on Whale Island, near Kodiak. The largest colony we observed was on Chisik Island, Cook Inlet. Some estimates of the number of birds on Chisik Island ran as high as 25,000 birds. At any rate, we judged this to be the largest kittiwake colony that we observed on our trip, though it may be rivaled by the Resurrection Bay and Whale Island rookeries. We observed groups of these birds along both sides of Alaska Peninsula, as far east as Bristol Bay on the north side. Cahalane found them in some numbers in the Katmai region, and Hine observed them at Katmai Bay in 1919 — though they did not appear there until about August 10. Gianini (1917) reports a small colony on a rocky islet in Stepovak Bay. Gabrielson found them to be common in the Semidi Islands, and we found them in the Shumagins. There is a colony on a rocky headland on Unga Island. They nest in large numbers on Amak Island, and there is a small colony on some cliffs at Cave Point, on the north side of Unimak Island. We found the Pacific kittiwake in moderate numbers, with occasional concentrations, throughout the Aleutian chain. There 176 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Figure 31.— Black-legged kittiwakes. are nesting colonies on Chagulak, Amukta, Koniuji, Buldir, Unalga, Alaid (of the Semichi group), Agattu, and Attn. There were at least 2 colonies on Attu Island ; 1 of them was on Wrangell Cape, which is the westernmost point in the Aleutians. There were at least 3 colonies on Agattu, 1 of which contained 300 to 400 birds. An interesting observation was made in regard to the colonies on Attu and Agattu, where we noticed a number of birds in immature plumage perching on points near the nesting pairs. Because of the time of year (too early for full-grown young), these birds must have been 1-year-olds that were lingering about their birthplace. RJssa brevirosfris: Red-legged Kit+Iwake Aleut: Gagdyax (Larus brevirostris Jochelson) Russian, Commander Islands: Krasno-nogaja gavaruschka (Stejneger) Clark (1910) reported that "The red-legged kittiwake was seen in small numbers at sea near Unalaska, but became more FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 177 common in the western part of the Aleutian chain and about ;he Commander Islands. It was not found in Kamchatka nor :n the Kurils." Bishop (1900) says "One was seen by Osgood at Unalaska (Dutch Harbor) Oct. 5, 1899." Nelson (1887) found them "in considerable numbers" at Un- alaska on May 26 and Friedmann (1937) has recorded two humeri from middens on Kodiak Island. We have no nesting records based on specimens. Nelson (1887) says it is an "abundant summer resident in both the Near and Commander islands." He had never been there and obviously was quoting Turner. In 1885, Turner stated, writing of the Near Islands, that the Pacific kittiwake was not abundant and was not known to breed there, while brevirostris was an abundant breeding bird. No specimens were taken. In 1886, speaking of the Aleutians as a whole, he said, The Aleutian Islands and the Pribylof group are its home. On Akutan quite a number were observed on a high cliff near the village on that island. In the same year (1878) I saw a few at Sannakh, and in later years I frequently saw them passing the vessel which I was on. To the westward this kittiwake occurs more plentifully than tridactyla, with which it asso- ciates. It is true that Clark reported the red-legged kittiwake becom- ing "more common in the western part of the Aleutian chain," but, on the whole, the situation today appears to be the reverse of what Turner reported. Certainly we cannot say that the Aleu- tians "are its home." We found that pollicaris was the abundant bird in the Near Islands — based on careful examination of speci- mens and of birds on nesting cliffs — while Turner stated that it did not breed there. Wetmore, in 1911, and Gabrielson, in 1940, failed to note the red-legged kittiwake in the Aleutians ; Bent does not report any nesting records, but he assumes that it nests there on the strength of the records mentioned above. On our expeditions we observed kittiwakes closely at all times, but we never identified brevirostris. All of the birds that we col- lected proved to be the Pacific kittiwake. Turner (1886) obviously confused the short-billed gull with the kittiwake, and it is possible that he was in error in his account of the nesting of brevirostris. At any rate, we can be assured that the red-legged kittiwake appears in the Aleutians as a migrant, because the observations listed above probably involve migrants. The bird may also nest in the Aleutians, but, in view of the uncertainties, any such claim 178 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE should be based on a precise observation, or on specimens o: breeding birds. Hartert (1920) and Stejneger (1885) reported both species nesting on the Commander Islands, usually in separate colonies according to Stejneger, though he once found both species nest ing on the same cliff. Xema sabini: Sabine's Gull Xema sabini woznesensk'i'i Friedmann (1935) reports a specimen from Kodiak, taken bj Bischoff, July 25, 1868, and Gabrielson observed one there or August 10, 1945. Osgood (1904) apparently did not observe it a1 the base of Alaska Peninsula, but he records a specimen taker by McKay at Lake Aleknagik. Hanna obtained a specimen at Nushagak, May 31, 1911. These birds undoubtedly nest on Alaska Peninsula, however At Ugashik River, May 27 to 29, 1936, they were common or! the tide flats, in pairs, obviously preparing to nest. This area is identical in character with the nesting habitat of this species noted at Hooper Bay in 1924. It is probable that Sabine's gull nests farther west — at Port Heiden and Port Moller for example, We could not examine those areas thoroughly, but, on May 22, at least one bird, in immature plumage, was seen offshore opposite Nelson Lagoon, and Jaques (1930) reports an adult at Port! Moller on May 23, 1928. There is no evidence that these birds nest to the west of Nelson Lagoon, although they have been observed much farther west. On May 18, 1936, one was seen at False Pass, Unimak Island. On May 11, 1925, I saw one at Urilia Bay, and McGregor (1906) obtained a specimen on Unimak Island, August 14, 1901. In June 1937, the natives of Atka Island obtained a specimen, which they presented to us — this specimen is the westernmost record in the Aleutians. Hartert (1920) records a specimen of an adult male from the Commander Islands, which apparently is the only record for those islands. Sterna hirundo: Common Tern Sterna hirundo hirundo The only record of this bird is a brief statement by Wetmore in his field report of 1911 : "I saw several common terns 50 miles off Tigalda Island, June 4." FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 179 ass in the autumn of 1924, probably in October. He stated that .e had seen one there in the previous autumn, but that they did lot summer there. On August 23, 1936, these 10-year-old reports were verified s^hen we saw a kingfisher at False Pass. Again, in 1938, Scheffer aw one at False Pass, back of the cannery buildings. In 1941, ^eals and Longworth reported that, as of January 13, "one bird een daily for several weeks," and later reported "one bird seen .bout the cannery buildings all through March and April." jabrielson also noted them at False Pass in winter. Cahn reports from Unalaska Island that — have three records for this species, all in the area of Captain's Bay: On August 17, 1943, a male and female were seen flying over the tip of that )ay; on August 21 a single individual was seen near the village of Unalaska; md on July 27, 1944 a male was seen and heard near the mouth of the ihaishnikof River. This suggests possible nesting as far west as Unalaska, though t has not been verified. Gabrielson observed the kingfisher in winter as far west as Unalaska, and he reported that one was killed at Nikolski Village, m Umnak Island, and was identified by the village school teacher. Family PICIDAE Dendrocopos pubescens: Downy Woodpecker Oendrocopos pubescens nelson'i Friedmann (1935) has summarized what we know of this bird's occurrence on Kodiak Island, listing a number of specimens taken there. Swarth (1934) had referred to the Kodiak bird as leucunis, but, after comparing a number of specimens from this island with mainland forms, Friedmann concluded that it should be referred to the interior-Alaska nelsoni. We saw none elsewhere, and Osgood did not mention the species in his report on the base of the Alaska Peninsula. Cahalane, however (1944), records that a male was observed between Iliuk Bay and Mount Katolinat on September 19, 1940. P'ico'ides arcficus: Black-backed Three-toed Woodpecker Osgood (1904) records a single specimen taken by McKay on the Mulchatna River in March 1883. No other data have been secured on this species for the territory here considered. 212 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Picoldes frJdactylus: Northern Three-toed Woodpecker P'lco'ides fridacfylus fasc'iafus || H I saw one, and heard another, of these birds at Kodiak, May 1 1 1936. Friedmann (1935) lists at least four specimens taken ther 3 Osgood (1904) noted this species at Iliamna Village, at Keej 1 Village on Lake Clark, on the Chulitna River, and near the heu of Lake Clark, where he took two specimens. He also mentioi j a specimen taken by McKay on Nushagak River, January 1 ) 1882. Cahalane (1944) observed one at the outlet of Ukak RiveJ September 12, 1940. Family TYRANNIDAE Sayornis saya: Say's Phoebe SayornJs saya yukonensis Osgood (1904) took a specimen of this bird at the mouth Chulitna River, August 6, 1902, which was the only one seei We have no other records for this area. 1 Family ALAUDIDAE Eremophila alpesfris: Horned Lark EremopMla alpesfris arcficola Osgood (1904) says ''A small flock of 10 or 15 was seen flyinj about the summit of 'Portage Mountain,' between the head oi the Chulitna River and Swan Lake, August 19." The Alaska Peninsula should offer satisfactory nesting habita: for horned larks, but we have no records of their presence. Har rold Etolin saw one among the sandhills 2 miles south of Cap^ Etolin, Nunivak Island, on August 28, 1927 (Swarth 1934). Family HIRUNDINIDAE Tachycinefa fhalassina: Violet-green Swallow Tachyc'ineta fhalassina lepida A violet-green swallow was seen flying over the tide flats a' Point Gustavus, Icy Strait, on May 12, 1937, and several wen noted at Seward on May 21. We saw none west of Seward, bu1 Osgood (1904) found them in considerable numbers at Iliamm Village, and he saw a few on Iliamna and Clark lakes. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 213 Iridoprocne bicolor: Tree Swallow On May 13, 1937, we saw two of these birds at Point Gustavus, Icy Strait. Friedmann (1935) mentions a reported sight record of a family group on the northern part of Kodiak Island on July 27, 1929. Osgood (1904) identified a few at Iliamna Village. On May 25 and 26, 1936, we observed at least six at Snag Point, Nushagak River. Turner, also, observed these birds on Nushagak River (1886). On July 17, 1940, Gabrielson found these swallows common at Dillingham; he saw some at Brooks Lake, July 20, and noted one at Iliamna Lake, July 24. There is a specimen in the National Museum taken by G. D. Hanna at Lake Aleknagik, June 17, 1911. As would be expected, the tree swallows are confined to the wooded basal part of Alaska Peninsula. Riparia ripar'ia: Bank Swallow Ripar'ia riparia r'ipar'ia Aleut (dialect uncertain) : Agdnidax' (Jochelson, for "the swallow") In his work at the base of Alaska Peninsula, Osgood found that, on the Nushagak River between the mouth of the Tikchik and Kakwok, most of the high banks "were drilled along the upper edges with their characteristic holes," and he mentions that specimens of the bank swallow were taken at Nushagak by Mc- Kay. Osgood obtained a specimen at Lake Iliamna, July 17, 1902. Turner (1886) found them "quite plentiful on Nushagak River." On June 17, 1940, Gabrielson observed two bank swallows at Karluk weir on Kodiak Island. On June 19, he noted 5 of these birds at Chignik Bay; on June 21, he saw at least 12 at Morzhovoi Bay; on July 17, he saw several at Dillingham; on the next day they were common at Wood River Lakes; on July 21, they were noted at Brooks Lake; and on July 21, they were common in the tundra region between Becharof Lake and Egegik cannery. On May 30 and June 4, 1925, I found several bank swallows along the upper part of the stream flowing into Izembek Bay from Aghileen Pinnacles. Near Point Grant, in Izembek Bay, there was a nesting colony on a steep bank of one of the islands. A bank swallow was seen on Amak Island, July 7, and, on August 9, several were seen at False Pass. In 1911, Wetmore collected specimens of bank swallows nest- ing in small numbers at some sandy cutbanks at the head of Morzhovoi Bay. Gianini (1917) saw one at Stepovak Bay. Beals and Longworth reported. May 22, 1941, at False Pass that "First 214 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE swallows seen today. They were flying about a small pond u; Lee's valley." Twenty-five or thirty were seen there until th observers left in June. It was reported that the swallows nestei in banks. Gabrielson found them at False Pass, Chignik, CoL Bay, and in the Shumagins, and he obtained specimens at Wid Bay and Cold Bay. We have no records of bank swallows west of Unimak. Hirundo rusfica: Barn Swallow Hirundo rusfica eryfbrogasfer A specimen from Kodiak was collected by Bischoff in 1888 and Friedmann (1935) mentions other observations there. Os good (1904) found them breeding .commonly in the vicinity o Lake Iliamna and Lake Clark, and he observed them at thi mouth of Chulitna River. Turner (1886) found the barn swallov in considerable numbers at Nushagak, where it nested. On July 21, 1940, Gabrielson recorded two or three of these birds a Ugashik Lake, and, on July 24, he saw at least 12 about som( buildings at the upper end of Iliamna Lake. Gianini (1917) found a pair nesting on a house at Stepoval| Bay, and, in 1925, I observed several barn swallows among thii cannery buildings at Ikatan Peninsula, Unimak Island, wherti they evidently were nesting. At Unalaska, the barn swallow ha;i been observed by many naturalists, including Turner, Dall, Nel! son, Wetmore, Clark, and McGregor. The last-named observe]! (McGregor 1906) found a pair nesting "on a rocky shelf in t\n\\ face of a sea cliff." There is no satisfactory evidence as yet that the barn swallov occurs west of Unalaska Island — Turner stated that, in his opin ion, it does not. There is a series of specimens in the National Museum. Amonj these, at least three are from Unalaska, and others are from Lak( Iliamna and Nushagak. These were carefully examined anc show that the bird of the Aleutian district is typical erythrogaster Family CORVIDAE Perisoreus canadensis: Gray Jay Perlsoreus canadensis pacificus Osgood (1904) found this jay to be common from Iliamna Pasa to Nushagak. Speaking of the Cook Inlet region (1901) he sayi "Occasionally seen. One morning, after a light fall of snow, i FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 215 ;mall party of jays visited our camp in the mountains near Hope. \ few were also seen at Tyonek. A large series was taken by Sischoff at Fort Kenai." Nelson (1887) speaks of this bird occurring throughout "the 3itkan and Kodiak region." It is not clear whether he had spe- cific reference to Kodiak Island. Cahalane (1944) found them "common in the spruce-aspen forest', and wherever scattered trees occurred," in the Katmai 'egion. Normally, this bird would, of course, be confined to the wooded region, though Gianini (1917) reports that he saw 4 of these Dirds one day at Stepovak Bay, a surprising record. No speci- mens were taken. ^ica pica: Black-billed Magpie "/CO pica hudsonia Turner and Nelson both reported the magpie as common on Kodiak Island, and Friedmann (1935) has listed many specimens taken there. In 1940, Cahalane observed several on Kodiak Is- land and found them in many places in the Katmai region. We noted magpie feathers at Port Chatham, Kenai Peninsula, in 1936. On May 10, 1936, we saw a magpie on Ushagat, Barren Islands; on May 13, we saw one on Afognak; on May 16, we saw several birds and a nest with eight eggs on Nagai Island, Shumagins; and, on August 26, we saw several at Sand Point, Popof Island, in the Shumagins. We also noted one on Dolgoi Is- land, May 24, 1937. In 1940, Gabrielson observed the magpie at Kodiak, Sand Point (in the Shumagins), and Brooks Lake. Turner (1886) heard of its presence at Belkofski, and he saw one on Unga, in the Shumagins. Gianini (1917) found magpies and nests at Stepovak Bay, and Wetmore found them nesting at King Cove and saw them at Belkofski. Ball had stated (1873) that magpies do not occur on the north side of Alaska Peninsula, but, in 1925, I found them nesting at Moffet Cove, Izembek Bay. Undoubtedly, magpies are more plentiful on the Pacific side. Curiously enough, we did not find any on Unimak Island, and local residents said that they do not occur there, nor on other Aleutian Islands. 216 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Corvus corax: Common Raven Corvus corax principalis Attu: Kd-ga-lach Atka: Kang-lach' Russian: Woron (Pleske) Voron (Stejneg-er) Chukchi: Uedlje (Palmen) Pleske applies the Russian name to Corvus corax cormi Stejneger applies it to Corvus behringiayius, but, of course, th i Russian common name has a general application. The raven is universally distributed throughout this entire dis trict, from Bristol Bay, Seward, and the Kodiak-Afognak grou] westward to Attu Island. We noted them at the Barren Islands Shumagins, Amak Island, and throughout the Aleutians, where at least one or two were found at nearly every island. Gabrielsoi observed them in the Semidis. In his field notes for 1911, Wetmore described the actions o: numerous ravens at the village on Unalaska Island, where thej were very tame and acted as scavengers. Turner also (1886) found this bird to be a scavenger about villages in the Aleutiar Islands. In 1925, when I collected several specimens of th( Alaska brown bear in the mountains west of Pavlof Volcano ravens gathered in large numbers to feed on the carcasses. The> also were seen along salmon streams, where they probably fine fragments of salmon left by bears, just as the gulls do. And the> join the gulls in gleaning food, dead or alive, on reefs or beaches at low tide. During the war, the military establishments from Dutch Harboi to Attu furnished abundant garbage for ravens and sea gulls. Ravens are by no means exclusively carrion eaters. Pellets found on Amak Island contained remains of field mice, Microtus, and sea urchins. At St. Catherine Cove, Unimak Island, a raven was flushed from the partly eaten body of a female willow ptarmigan. They have been reported as killing incubating birds on their nests, and this may have been an example of that oc- currence, though the evidence was not conclusive, Cahn, at Dutch Harbor, says "Twice I have watched a raven kill a rat, the second time a young Bald Eagle was also watch- ing, and when the rat was dead, the eagle took it away from the raven without argument." At Kanaga Island, the caretaker of fox-raising operations said he had trapped about 150 ravens in the previous winter. He stated that ravens will kill blue foxes in traps and that he has found remains of blue-fox pups in raven nests. Whether adult FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 217 blue foxes are killed in traps by ravens, and whether the raven will seize and carry off blue-fox pups, and, if so, the frequency 3f such an occurrence, are facts that should be established by accurate observation. The ecological status of the raven should oe determined by a comprehensive study. In 1938, Scheffer was informed by someone at Umnak Island :hat ravens will "gang up" and kill full-grown sheep. "Four or five birds peck at the head until the sheep stands still with head jowed and allows the birds to pick off flesh." Another sheep lierder said that ravens will pick the eyes out of weak sheep. This last habit has been observed elsewhere, when ravens have oegun to pick at the eyes of a dying animal. In all such cases, it is important to know the condition of the animal preyed upon, as well as other attendant circumstances. In turn, the raven itself is preyed upon occasionally, as shown by remains sometimes found in northern bald eagle nests. Zorvus caurinus: Northwestern Crow The crow is common at Seward, where it patrols the beaches, and it is abundant in the Kodiak-Afognak Islands group. At Afognak Village, on September 2, 1936, we found a flock of 50 to 75 birds. We did not see this bird anywhere to the westward, and I was unable to find any record of its occurrence on the base of Alaska Peninsula. Nudfraga columbiana: Clark's Nutcracker There is a specimen in the National Museum of a Clark's nut- cracker, which was taken by J. W. Johnson at Nushagak, Novem- ber 5, 1885. This is the only information on this bird for the Alaska Peninsula, and of course it is not found west of there. Family PARIDAE °arus africapJllus: Black-capped Chickadee "orus africapillus furneri The black-capped chickadee is widespread ; it occurs from the 3ase of Alaska Peninsula and Kodiak to the Shumagins, though :oo little work has been done in intermediate localities to de- termine relative abundance. Both Osgood (1904a), who found this bird sparingly throughout portions of the base of Alaska Peninsula and Friedmann (1935), who examined the speci- 218 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE mens from Kodiak, concluded that the bird of this region i turneri. Subsequently, Duvall (1945) reviewed the black-capped chick? - dees of North America and assigned turneri to "The coast cf Alaska north to St. Michael; tvest to the Aleutian Islands (Shi- magins etc.), Kodiak Island; south to southeastern Alaskij (Haines), northern British Columbia (Atlin), southern YukoiJ and central-southern Mackenzie; and east to Great Bear Lake in west-central Mackenzie." Cahalane (1944) "found them quite frequently and in som^ abundance west of the Aleutian Range" in September 1940. On our expeditions, we heard a chickadee in the woods neal- Afognak Village, September 2, 1936; we heard one in the aiders at Sand Point, Popof Island, August 26; and heard at least 5 pairs on Nagai Island, Shumagins, May 16, where we collects I 2 specimens. Gianini (1917) saw several chickadees at Stepovak Bay on on 5 occasion. He listed them as Penthestes cinctus alascensis and sai 3 they looked much like the eastern black cap. Undoubtedly, thes^ birds were P. a. turneri, judging by his own description and b/ the fact that the Alaska gray-headed chickadee resembles the Hudsonian chickadee. I Gabrielson observed these chickadees at Kodiak, King Gov and the Shumagins. Parus hudsonicus: Boreal Chickadee Parus hudsonicus hudsonicus Osgood (1904) found this chickadee at long intervals in thi timbered portions of the base of Alaska Peninsula and collected several specimens. In 1940, Gabrielson saw them on Nakne< River and Brooks Lake, and he obtained two specimens in tliE latter locality. In 1940, Gabrielson noted two chickadees on Kodiak which hi: called Hudsonian chickadee. Friedmann (1935), under the heaof ing of Penthestes i-ufescens rufescens, says "all that I have bee i able to learn of this chickadee on Kodiak Island is that Finse^ states that Bischoff observed it there. Apparently he collectei no specimens." On geographic grounds, considering Gabrielson : sight identification and the absence of specimens of rufesce%\\ that far west, it is more likely that it is a fonii of the borefl chickadee that occurs there. At least 15 specimens from the Bristol Bay region, and 2 from Brooks Lake, were available and were compared with large s<^ FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 219 ies from interior and southeastern Alaska. In this study, I ^as again impressed with the importance of restricting com- arisons to comparable seasonal plumages. Neglect of this pro- sdure can lead to erroneous conclusions. Of the series available, Osgood obtained 2 from Nushagak on lay 28, 1911, and G. D. Hanna obtained the others in 1912, 2 Tom Doonochchogaweet Mountains, 1 from Kakwok River, 45 liles from its mouth, and 8 from 80 miles up the Kakwok :iver. Gabrielson obtained 2 from Brooks Lake, These all ppear to be P. h. hudsonicus, the form occurring in interior ilaska, though some of these are not typical of true hudsonicus I'om interior Alaska and Canada. At least seven of them, from [ushagak and Kakwok River, appear to be a little paler than ormal, especially on the crown. On the back, too, the general Dne is more plumbeous, rather than the usual olive brown. These re in spring plumage, therefore the differences noted may be sasonal ones. At any rate, the series is referable to typical udsonicus rather than to columbianus, and it furnishes evidence lat the range of hudsonicus extends southward to the base of daska Peninsula. nrus hudsonicus columbianus Although this form has not been identified on the Alaska Penin- Lila proper, there is a specimen taken by Osgood at Tyonek, in 'ook Inlet. Another specimen, taken by Osgood on July 31, 1902, t Lake Clark (though in badly worn plumage and hard to place), 'as referred to columbianus on the basis of some new plumage lat was coming in. Gabrielson (1944) reported specimens of ilumhianus from Kodiak Island and Brooks Lake. Family CERTHIIDAE erfhia familiaris: Brown Creeper At present, the brown c]'eeper has not been recorded from the laska Peninsula proper ; however, it occurs on some parts of the djacent mainland. On February 4, 1922, I obtained a specimen t Susitna. Bischoff obtained a specimen at Fort Kenai, May 6, 369; C. H. Townsend took a specimen in Cook Inlet, April 8, S92 ; and Osgood obtained another specimen from Hope, Cook ilet, August 31, 1900. Then, on June 13, 1944, Howell (1948) iw two brown creepers at Bell's Flats, Kodiak Island. Lack of Decimens from the geographical area covered in this report lakes it impossible to identify the subspecies of brown creeper lat breeds in the eastern portions. 220 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Family CINCLIDAE Cinclus mexicanus: Dipper Cinclus mexicanus unicolor Judging by published records, the dipper occurs from Kodial and Bristol Bay to Attn Island. Osgood (1904) obtained a speci- men near Lake Clark and one at Cold Bay, and he records five specimens taken by McKay at Mulchatna River. On Septembei 5, 1940, Cahalane (1944) saw a northern dipper at Brooks Falls in the Katmai region. The dipper is known to occur on Kodiafe Island (Friedmann 1935), and Cahalane saw several on Afognak Island in 1940. Gianini (1917) saw one at Stepovak Bay, and his guide con- sidered these birds to be very common in the swift streams ir that district. On June 21, 1940, Gabrielson observed the species at Morzhovoi Bay. In 1925, I found several in small streams ir the valley below Aghileen Pinnacles, In that same season, 1 wasi seen at Urilia Bay, Unimak Island, and at False Pass, when Scheffer also saw 1 on September 8, 1938. Eyerdam (1936) has reported the dipper as occurring on Unimak Island and at King Cove. Beals and Long^vorth, in their field report for 1941, sum uj the status of the dipper on Unimak Island, saying — Common on Unimak Island. Every stream seems to have its quota of thes( birds and we often found them four and five to the mile of stream. On Sour dough Flats we enjoyed a concert given by four dippers on the same litth^ bend of the stream. They are well known to everyone on the island. According to residents, the dippers winter on Unimak. Swarth (1934) reported several specimens from Akutan, where it was considered to be common. Dippers have been reported from Unalaska by several ob- servers (Dall, Turner, Bishop, Cahn), and we obtained a speci- men there. We did not find the dipper on any island west of Unalaska though there are many streams that should furnish suitable habitat. Turner (1886) stated that he saw a dipper in a little stream that emptied into Chichagof Harbor, Attn Island; he die not obtain a specimen. He remarked that it was extremely rare and that few natives had any knowledge of the birds. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 221 Family TROGLODYTIDAE 'oglodyfes troglodytes: Winter Wren Attu : Kach-tai-ach Kit-rich Atka: Kat-chrai-iih Russian, Commander Islands: Limaschinka (Stejnegei') The name given by Stejneger is undoubtedly Russian, mean- [g "Little chew of tobacco," which has been adopted by many leuts. This bird is the "limmershin," as reported from the ribilofs. Oberholser (1919) proposed that all of the winter wrens be )mbined under the European species troglodytes. After examin- [g the forms from the Bering Sea region, I found no difficulty . bridging the gap between the Old World and the New World a the Aleutians. Pallescens, of the Commander Islands, and eligerus, of Attu, are not much different; in fact, they have ore characters in common than have meligerus and wrens of e more eastern Aleutians. On the other hand, the most difficult gap to bridge to make lem all conspecific, is the gap between helleri of Kodiak Island id either semidiensis of the Semidis, or petrophilus of the Fox lands group. The Aleutian wrens, and the one on the Semidis, 'e comparatively long billed. Helleri and its nearest relatives, icificus and hieiivaUs, are short billed. In this character, the \vo groups do not intergrade. Coloration may approach more I osely in the two groups, but color comparisons in the winter |rens (in the plumages usually available) are rather complex, ; id it is difficult to know what factor constitutes real inter- i 'adation. It should be pointed out, however, that there is a i ng distance between Kodiak and the end of Alaska Peninsula ; ; fact, there are many hundreds of miles of territory from which I lecimens are not available, and one could assume intergradation i ere. Furthermore, petrophilus from Unalaska, and alascensis I om the Pribilofs, are the closest in color and measurements to ; 'lie?-!, though they do not intergrade. It could be reasonably •gued that these two at least show a trend toward helleri and i at intermediate areas will eventually produce the intergrades. irthermore, helleri has the longest bill of the hiemalis group. st, the Semidi wren, whose habitat is not far from Kodiak ; "elatively speaking) , is decidedly of the long-billed group. The three short-billed wrens, helleri, pacificus, and hiemalis, iturally fall into one group, possibly into one species, and the her forms throughout the Aleutians and the west side of Ber- 222 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE ing Sea fall into another group or species. Some such course wa suggested by Swarth (1931), who wished to regard the "Nort American, the Bering Sea, and the Old World group, each as separate species." There has not been opportunity to review the Old World wreni , and because they have generally been placed in the specie I troglodytes, that name is the most convenient to use for th Aleutian group until the relationships with the Old World grou can be determined. The Aleutian winter wrens are a difficult group to identify b( cause their plumages vary so greatly with wear and we do m always have comparable plumages for study. Giving these fad their due weight, we cannot speak with too much assurance i some cases, nor can we rely too much on island isolation to pre duce new characters. The winter wren is one of the few small land birds foun commonly throughout the Alaska Peninsula-Aleutian distric This is a bird of the rocky shoreline, nesting in rock crevice It was not found far inland; in fact, it apparently prefers tl vicinity of the sea, and it finds its favorite habitat on islands. On Amchitka Island, July 11, 1937, I found a family of youti winter wrens on the beach, and, a few days later, I found a ne« with eggs. This nest had been placed in the timber structure ( an old barabara. On July 17, these eggs hatched. They wei probably a second laying. Troglodytes troglodytes bellerl This is the wren of the Kodiak-Afognak Islands. It has n. been determined if it also occurs on the adjacent parts of Alasl Peninsula. This winter wren is quite similar to pacificus in coloratio when comparable plumages are used. The bill, however, is slight longer. Measurements are as follows : helleri (9 males) 10 to 11.5 mm.; average, 11.1 m pacificus (5 males, chiefly from Alaska) 10 to 11 mm.; average, 10.4 m Troglodytes troglodytes semidiensis This form is confined to the Semidi Islands. According Brooks (1915), it is "similar to N. alascensis, but less rufescei especially above; bill longer." He gave the length of culmen two males, including the type, as 16 mm. This is in contrast wi the average of 11.1 mm. for helleri. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 223 froglodyfes froglodyfes pefrophilus This wren is much like alascensis from the Pribilofs, but, with comparable specimens, the upper parts appear to be somewhat more rufescent and the under parts are definitely paler, or grayer. The bill of petrophilus averages slightly longer than that of ilascensis, though the difference is small, and these two differ from other Aleutian wrens in having somewhat shorter bills. IVIeasurements of the exposed culmen are as follows : oetrophihis (11 males) 13 to 14.5 mm.; average, 13.9 mm. oetrophihis (4 females) 13 to 14 mm.; average, 13.2 mm. %lascensi.s (3 males) 13 to 13.5 mm.; average, 13.3 mm. xlascensis (7 females) 12 to 13.5 mm. ; average, 13 mm. This wren occurs on Unalaska, Amaknak, Unalga, and Akutan Islands. One would expect to find it also on Umnak and Akun Islands, but we do not have specimens from these two islands. troglodytes froglodyfes sfevensoni This wren was described by Oberholser on the basis of speci- mens from Amak and Amagat islands, near the west end of Alaska Peninsula. It was described as being slightly less rufe- scent than petrophilus and with a slightly longer bill and middle toe. I found it very diflScult to distinguish this form from petrophilus by color, though the slightly longer bill was apparent in the four adult specimens available. Most of the birds in the series are young, and the material seems inadequate to determine the status of this small group. The adult Aleutian wrens taken during the nesting season are so irregular in condition of plumage that a very extensive series should be at hand to adequately eval- uate its taxonomic position. For this reason, I can not attempt to ascertain whether these easternmost specimens of the Aleu- tian chain show the slightest trend toward helleri, whose habitat is far to the east, on Kodiak. Stevensoni is known from Amak and Amagat Islands, and it can be expected to occur on adjacent parts of Alaska Peninsula and on Unimak Island. Troglodytes froglodyfes seguamensis Gabrielson and Lincoln (1951) described this form on the basis of specimens from the islands of Seguam, Amukta, and Yunaska. They commented that "This is the palest and grayest of all the Aleutian races," and it appears, logically, to be an intermedi- ate race between petrophilus to the east and tanagensis to the 224 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE west. The wrens from the Islands of the Four Mountains are described as not typical of petrophilus, but somewhat intermedi- ate between it and segnamensis. However, in the present state of I our knowledge, we probably should include the Islands of thej Four Mountains in the range of seguamensis. Troglodytes troglodytes tanagensis After careful study of a series of specimens, tanagensis ap- pears to be slightly less rufescent than petrophilus. In length of bill, it differs significantly, tanagensis having a decidedly longer bill. Measurements of culmen of 12 males and 7 females are asi follows : Males 14 to 16 mm. ; average, 14.9 mm. Females 13.3 to 15.5 mm.; average, 14.8 mm. Since Gabrielson and Lincoln's determination of T. t. segua- mensis, we must confine the range of tanagensis to Tanaga and the immediately adjacent islands. Troglodytes troglodytes kiskensis This wren is paler, but more tawny, than meligerus. It is also more tawny than tanagensis. In length of culmen, it appears to average greater than either of the other two. Measurements of culmen, in millimeters, of 8 males and 8 females are as follows : Males 14,5 to 16 mm. ; average, 15.6 mm. Females 14 to 17 mm. ; average, 15.2 mm. This wren occupies the Rat Islands group, from Kiska to Amchitka. There are specimens from Kiska, Little Kiska, Davidof, Little Sitkin, Semisopochnoi, and Amchitka; and there are three specimens from Ogliuga Island, in the Andreanof group — supposedly in the range of tanagensis, which appeared referable to kiskensis. Troglodytes troglodytes meligerus The wrens of the Aleutian chain fall into two groups that may be distinguished pretty well at the extremes of the total range. The wrens of the westernmost islands, and we may include the Commander Islands, show a marked tendency toward a dusky, grayish cast, while those of the eastern Aleutians, including alascensis, of the Pribilofs, are more rufescent, T. t. meligerus is quite similar to T. t. pallescens of the Com- mander Islands, sharing with that form the general duskiness FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 225 nd the more-extensive barring and spotting of the under parts, /hich separates these forms from kiskensis. The under parts .re noticeably grayer than those of kiskensis, the latter being aore tawny. But meUgerus is the darkest one of the group. There is a single specimen from Agattu Island — a mummified, xtremely dark, immature bird. The fact that this single speci- len is immature makes it impracticable to identify it with cer- ainty, though one would expect it to be nieligerus. Four pecimens from Buldir Island, 2 immature and 2 in worn breed- ng plumage, are referable to meligerus — this is most interesting, >ecause Buldir (the most isolated island in the Aleutian chain) s a lone island, far from either Kiska or Attu. Family TURDIDAE Urdus migratorius: Robin Urdus migratorius migratorius We found robins common at Snag Point, Nushagak River, on klay 25 and 26, 1936. We saw them at Seward on May 21, 1937. )sgood (1904) says — ^ few robins were seen near Iliamna Village, and one specimen was taken here July 15. From this point on to the upper Chulitna River robins were eldom seen, though once in a great while we heard their familiar note, 'hey were quite abundant in small flocks about Swan Lake August 25, and onsiderable numbers were also seen near there in the brush and young imber around the base of the "Portage Mountain." Cahalane (1943) reports — found that robins were numerous in the willow-cottonwood-spruce thickets n Naknek River at Big Creek on the early morning of September 4. They i^^ere probably migrating. I did not see any after leaving the river on that late and passing into the lake region in the National Monument. Gabrielson noted a few robins on Afognak Island on June 15, -940, and he found them to be common at Dillingham on July 17. There are specimens in the National Museum from Nushagak, ut that no other naturalist has observed it there. However, we ound the hermit thrush on such barren islands as Amak and )olgoi, and (apparently) as far west as Unimak; therefore, it is lot at all improbable that a specimen could have been obtained •n Unalaska. But Nelson's thesis remains correct, especially since le demonstrates that the original description was inadequate. 228 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Hyloc'icbia usfulafa: Swainson's Thrush Hylocicbia usfulafa Jncana Osgood (1904) reported finding this thrush in the Lake Clarl and Lake Iliamna region and he obtained a specimen at Lak Clark on July 24. This specimen is in the Fish and Wildlife Serv ice collection at the U. S, National Museum. It is a male ii Juvenal plumage and probably was taken not far from its nest ing area. A. Wetmore (manuscript notes) heard this species sing ing July 12 and 16 at King Cove. We did not identify this forn on any of our trips to the Alaska Peninsula. Hylocichia minima: Gray-cheeked Thrush Hylocichia minima minima Osgood (1904) writes — A gray-cheeked thrush was seen at Swan Lake August 25, and another few days later on the Kakhtul River; a third was collected near the mout of the Kakhtul River September 1. This specimen is more olivaceous tha any other I have seen, which is perhaps due to its being in newly acquire fall plumage. Friedmann (1935) records a number of specimens from Kodiai Island, and the National Museum has a number of specimen from Nushagak, Lake Aleknegik, and Kakwok River. Gabrielso obtained specimens at Dillingham on July 18, 1940, and at Nakne River and Brooks Lake on July 10, 1946. This bird has a wide distribution, occurring on the Pribilofj St. Lawrence Island, and parts of Siberia. Wallace (1939) n marks — One striking feature of the distribution of this form is its apparent pre: erence for coastlines, island, rivers, and lakes. The presence of shelterin thickets of alder and willow bordering the streams and water courses in thes otherwise treeless regions presumably accounts for such a pattern of distr bution. At present, this species has not been recorded west of the bas of Alaska Peninsula, though it could occur somewhat farthe west. Luscinia calliope: Siberian Ruby+hroat Luscinia calliope camfscbafkensis This species was collected on Kiska Island by F. B. McKechni on June 17, 1911, and he saw two others. Still another was see! there on June 19 by Wetmore (Bent 1912). These are the onll records for North America. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 229 Family SYLVIIDAE '^bylloscopus borealis: Arctic Warbler '/>y//oscopus borealis kenn'icofti Osgood (1904) obtained two specimens of this bird near [liamna Village, and he records a specimen taken by McKay lear Aleknegik River on August 24, 1881. Two specimens were :aken by J. W. Johnson at Nushagak on June 19, 1884, and Hanna )btained a specimen at Lake Aleknegik on July 2, 1911. On July 19, 1940, Gabrielson saw 3 of these birds at Brooks Lake and collected 1 of them, and he obtained another at Dilling- lam. According to Parkes and Amadon (1948), the Kennicott arctic varbler "winters commonly in the Philippine Islands and spar- ngly in the Indo-Chinese countries, Malaysia and the East Indies ?ast to the Moluccas ; known to migrate through eastern China (Shantung, Yunnan)." legulus safrapa: Golden-crowned Kinglet legulus safrapa amoenus A number of specimens are in the National Museum that were ',ollected by Bischoff and Townsend on Kodiak Island. Gabriel- ;on noted the species on Afognak in 1940, and he found it to be ;ommon on Kodiak Island in the winters of 1941 to 1944, where le collected two specimens. This bird could be expected in the wooded parts of Alaska i'eninsula, but Osgood did not record it, except for the Cook ^nlet region, where he found it "moderately common." A study )f this species by Aldrich (manuscript notes) indicates that )irds of this region are referable to amoenus, and that olivaceus s restricted to the narrow coastal strip from Sitka, Alaska to )regon. legulus calendula: Ruby-crowned Kinglet legulus calendula calendula Osgood (1901) mentions a male taken by Bischoff at Fort Cenai, and remarks that "Examination of this specimen does lot show any characters that approach those of Regulus calendula irinnelli, which is found on the coast only a short distance arther south." We heard one singing at Port Chatham, Kenai Peninsula, on ^ay 6, 1936, but we saw none west of there, nor did Osgood 230 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE I record any for the base of Alaska Peninsula. However, Turner (1886) reports seeing one at Nushagak on June 28, 1878. On June 14, 1940, Gabrielson noted one on Kodiak Island. The bird from Kenai Peninsula is R. c. calendula, therefore the Kodiak birds would undoubtedly be the same. Family MOTACILUDAE Motacilla alba: White Wagtail Mofac'illa alba lugens During the expedition in 1913 and 1914 on which Joseph Dixon' and W. Sprague Brooks were the zoological collectors, several of these wagtails were seen on the beach of Attu Island early in May 1913, and, on May 4, an adult male was collected. This is the only occurrence known for the Aleutian district; it was re- ported by John E. Thayer and Outram Bangs in 1921. This bird is a regular migrant in the Commander Islands, according to Stejneger (1885). Turner (1886) observed a wagtail at Attu Island on May 18, 1881, which he thought would be M. a. ocularis, though he men- tions the possibility of its being M. a. lugens. The specimen was not secured, and there must remain some doubt about the identity. Turner quotes Seebohm to the effect that a specimen of Motacilla amurensis had been collected by Wosnessensky on April 23, 1845, on Oorogan Island "possibly either one of the Kurile or one of the Aleutian Islands." Oorogan Island cannot be identified, there- fore this record too must remain doubtful. Stejneger (1885) records a specimen from Bering Island. Mo/oc///o ilava: Yellow Wagtail Mofac'illa flava fschufschensis This wagtail is not common in the area here considered, though it has been observed numerous times in the Bristol Bay region, where it is considered to be a breeding species. Osgood (1904) states that McKay and Johnson obtained four breeding birds at Nushagak, and he concludes that "This is doubtless near the southern limit of its breeding range on this continent." Turner also (1886) found this bird at Nushagak in the breeding season. We did not find this bird on the Alaska Peninsula or in the Aleutian chain, but Turner (1886) reports seeing one on Attu Island on October 8, 1880. He adds that the bird does not breed in the Aleutians. The 1931 Check List states that this wagtail migrates through the western Aleutian Islands to eastern Asia. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 231 Anthus spinoleffa: Water Pipit Anfhus spinoleffa paclficus Attu: Assii Ka-vif A series of 13 breeding birds and 2 in winter plumage from Unalaska was available for study, as well as one breeding bird each from Fort Kenai, King Cove, Morzhovoi Bay, Chogiung, Nu- shagak, Sanak, and Unimak Island. There was also a series from Sitka, Hoonah Sound, and Ketchikan, Alaska, and White Pass, Yukon Territory, as well as others from interior Alaska and eastern North America. The series from Unalaska and other parts of western Alaska is grayer on the back than those from Alberta and Mackenzie, and the under parts of the Alaska birds average paler, though the coloration varies from a definite pinkish buff to rather pale in- dividuals. This is not due to wear, because some of the most-worn specimens are the most buffy. Also, the spotting on the breast varies from very sparse to very heavy. In winter plumage, the western Alaskan birds are a little browner, and the Canadian birds are slightly, but noticeably, more olivaceous. When compared with a small series from White Pass, Ketchi- kan, and other southeastern localities, w^hich are presumed to be pacificus as described by Todd (1935), the Aleutian birds cor- respond very well and therefore are referred to pacificus. It was difficult to separate the birds from Alberta, Canada, at least those used in this study, from the birds described as alticokt from Colorado, Idaho, and Wyoming. The pipit occurs from the base of Alaska Peninsula to Attu Island, thcugh it is not equally abundant everywhere. Osgood found them near Kakhtul Pviver, McKay obtained specimens at Nushagak, and Hine observed them, and obtained specimens, at Katmai and Kashvik Bays. We noted the birds at Ugashik River on May 29, 1936. On May 14, we found them at Chignik, and, on May 16, 2 were heard singing at Unga and 2 were heard at Sand Point, Popof Island. Several were heard singing at Unimak Island on May 19 and 20, and, on May 24, 1937, pipits were commonly seen on Dolgoi Is- land. John Steenis obtained a specimen at Sanak Island on Au- gust 28, 1937, and two were seen on Bogoslof on August 24. In 1925, I found pipits to be common on the north side of Alaska Peninsula, mainly in the mountains above the alder growth. There were pipits at False Pass on the mountains near 232 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Aghileen Pinnacles, Frosty Peak, and Amak Island, where young birds were flying about on July 10. In 1911, Wetmore found pipits to be common at the east bas( of Frosty Peak, Morzhovoi Bay, and King Cove, where the>' nested above the alder growth on mountain sides. He also founc them to be common at Unga. Gianini (1917) observed them a1 Stepovak Bay. In 1940, Gabrielson noted a pipit above timberline on Kodiak Island, noted four or five at Morzhovoi Bay, and noted one or Metrofania Island. In subsequent years, he found them to be rather common in many localities, including Akutan and Una- laska. Howell (1948) found the pipits on Kodiak on the open grassy slopes above 1,500 feet. A nest sunk in the ground with its rim flush with the surface, containing four well-incubated eggs, was found on June 17. Nelson (1887) observed pipits on Unalaska Island and says that specimens have been obtained on Kodiak. Laing (1925) col- lected pipits on Unalaska. McGregor (1906) found them at Dutch Harbor, Unimak Island, and Aektok Island. Swarth (1934) re- ports specimens taken by Harrold on Akutan, where it was common. We found pipits to be fairly numerous on Unimak and Una- laska, but they were scarce farther west. One was seen on Amchitka Island on July 24, 1936. The chief of Attu was fa- miliar with the bird and gave us the native name. Turner (1886) reports it throughout the Aleutian Islands and specifically mentions Unalaska, Atka, and Attu. We did not see the species in the Near Islands. Cahn reports for Unalaska that "Pipits arrive in early May (earliest date. May 3, 1944), and remain until mid-September." Nesilng In general, pipits nest chiefly on high ground, above the alder zone where such growth occurs, and on the more or less barren mountain tops or ridges of the western islands. They occasionally occur on lower ground, however, even in the nesting season. After the nesting season, when they begin to form small flocks, they often feed on the beaches, among the tide-rolled masses of dead kelp. Swarth (1934) mentions a nest with six eggs found by Har- rold on Akutan on a "bare wind-swept ridge about 1,000 feet above the sea." Swarth also mentions another nest with six FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 233 fresh eggs, found on June 19, on Unalaska, at an elevation of about 500 feet. On June 10, 1925, in the valley bottom below Aghileen Pin- nacles, I found a nest on mossy ground, almost completely over- hung by vegetation, mostly grass. The nest was made of fine roots in the outer structure, then a layer of old fine grass, dark in color, and an inner lining of fine clean grass. Outer diameter was 110 mm. ; inner diameter was 67 mm. ; and depth was 40 mm. There were six eggs in the nest. Anthus cervinus: Red-throated Pipit This species is credited to the Aleutian Islands on the authority of Zander (1853). Stating its general distribution. Zander says that it is widespread, reaching from Dalmatia and Lapland, through the adjacent part of Asia to the islands near America, and also in Egypt and Nubia ("durch den angrenzenden Theil von Asien bis zu den Inseln bei Amerika verbreitet"). This is a vague reference in a general statement of distribu- tion. It does not specify specimens taken nor type of observa- tions made, nor does it identify the "islands near America" that he mentions. Apparently, subsequent authors have assumed that he meant the Aleutian Islands. Certainly, Zander did not state the case adequately, and, although it is possible that the species occurs on the Aleutians, we should have better evidence. Family LANIIDAE Lanius excubitor: Northern Shrike Lanius excub'ifor invicfus Osgood (1904) records specimens from the mouth of Chulitna River and Swan Lake, and he observed the bird on Kakhtul River and near Nushagak. McKay obtained specimens at Ugashik, and Cahalane (1943) "found shrikes to be fairly common on the west side of the Aleutian Range" in the Katmai region. Friedmann (1935) mentions 2 specimens from Kodiak, and Gabrielson ob- served 3 of these birds at Kodiak also. These records refer to the base of Alaska Peninsula and neighboring localities, where some timber is present, but the bird also occurs far to the west on treeless terrain. In 1936, Petri, who was warden in the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries at Chignik, told us that shrikes occur commonly in that locality. On May 5, 1925, I saw a shrike on a trapper's hut at Urilia Bay, Unimak Island. Arthur Neuman, of Ikatan Peninsula, 234 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE said shrikes occur on Unimak and that on several occasions he had seen them carrying mice, or hanging them in the willows. He had once seen a shrike harrying a ptarmigan. Beals and Longworth reported seeing 10 shrikes near False i Pass, between January 11 and May 15, 1941. Presumably, somei of these sightings may have been duplications. They saw a pair on one occasion. They remarked that "Residents of Unimak Is- land recognize them and their murderous work among the smaller song birds." A more western record for this bird in the Aleutians is ' Gabrielson's observation at Unalaska Island, July 3, 1941. Taber, writing of Adak Island, reports — | On January 9, 1946, a female mallai'd was seen flying along a small stream near Shagak Bay; a shrike struck at her back twice as she flew. The mallard lit in the water and the shrike hovered characteristically over her for a moment and then lit on a barbed wire fence. The ground was snow covered at this time, leading to the supposition that this shrike was extremely hard pressed for food. Family PARULIDAE Vermlvora celafa: Orange-crowned Warbler Verm'iYora celafa celafa The orange-crowned warbler was collected by McKay at Nushagak, where it breeds, and Osgood (1904) observed a few about Lakes Iliamna and Clark, and took specimens. We ob- tained a specimen at Snag Point, Nushagak River, May 25, but we saw none farther west. Vermlvora celafa lufescens This is the form known to inhabit the Cook Inlet region. Nel- son (1887) mentions a specimen taken by Bischoff at Fort Kenai, the type locality, and says that it occurs on Kodiak. Howell reported them to be common on Kodiak, where he found four nests. He considered them "sparsely but regularly distributed in the wooded valleys" of this island. Friedmann (1935) lists three Kodiak specimens. It is interesting to note that it is lutes- cens, from Kenai Peninsula, and not celata, from Alaska Penin- sula, that has reached Kodiak Island. Dendroica petechia: Yellow Warbler Dendroica petechia rubiginosa Aldrich (1942) has presented convincing evidence that the golden and yellow warblers are conspecific, and, because the FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 235 lame petechia has priority, all of them are placed under that species. The Alaska yellow warbler has an extensive distribution. Os- ^•ood (1904) observed the bird, and obtained specimens, at Lake ^lark and Lake lliamna and on the Chulitna River, and he nentions specimens taken by McKay and Johnson at Nushagak. line (1919) obtained a specimen, and observed the species, on zarious occasions about Katmai Bay. Friedmann (1935) re- cords a number of specimens from Kodiak, and it is evident :hat it breeds there. In June 1940, Gabrielson found the yellow varbler to be common on Kodiak and Af ognak Islands ; he noted ;everal on the Semidi Islands, and he recorded the bird as com- non at Chignik Bay. Later, he observed it on Unimak Island, Melson Lagoon, Wide Bay, and Cold Bay. Gianini (1917) obtained a specimen at Stepovak Bay, and he 5aw others, but he remarks that they were not common there. Dn July 3, 1925, I saw one of these warblers below Frosty Peak, md I observed another at False Pass on August 9. Beals and Longworth, in their 1941 field report, reported the rellow warbler to be common on the eastern part of Unimak Is- and. These birds were referred to by residents as "little yellow canaries." One had been seen there May 5, and two were seen )n May 20. The alder brush is the home of the yellow warbler. )enc/ro/co coronata: Myrtle Warbler )enc/ro;co coronata hooverl Osgood (1904) found this warbler to be abundant about Lake ]!lark and took several specimens. He also observed it at the nouth of Chulitna River. McKay took specimens at Nushagak, md Turner (1886) found it to be abundant there in June 1878. jabrielson observed it at Brooks Lake, July 10, 1946. ')endroica striata: Blackpoll Warbler Osgood (1904) considered this to be the most common warbler hat he saw at the base of Alaska Peninsula from July 14 to Au- gust 12. He observed it at lliamna Village, Lake Clark, and ^ogheling River. McKay obtained a specimen 80 miles up Nushagak River and obtained another on Aleknagik Lake. Gabrielson saw this warbler at Dillingham, July 17, 1940. 236 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Seiurus noveboracensis: Northern Waterthrush Selurus noveboracensis nofabilis Osgood (1904) observed a pair of these birds at Iliamna Vil- lage on July 14, and he found them to be quite common at the mouth of Chulitna River on August 3. A specimen was taken by McKay 85 miles up the Nushagak River on June 6, 1881. On May 26, 1936, I repeatedly heard a song in the alders and willows at Snag Point, Nushagak River, that I identified as that of the waterthrush, but I could not get a glimpse of the birds. W'llsonia pusilla: Wilson's Warbler Wilsonia pusilla pileolaia This warbler inhabits the entire length of Alaska Peninsula. Osgood (1904) frequently found it at the base of the Peninsula, Hine (1919) reported it to be common in lower Katmai River valley and secured specimens, and Friedmann (1935) recorded many specimens from Kodiak. On May 23 and 26, 1936, these warblers were heard singing in the willows and alders at Snag Point, Nushagak River. On August 20, as we approached Port Moller (but still several miles offshore), three Wilson's warblers hovered about the ship for some time and occasionally settled on the deck. In June 1940, Gabrielson noted this warbler commonly on Kodiak Island; he saw a few on Semidi Islands, and he noted them as common at Chignik Bay. Howell reported this "the most numerous warbler" on Kodiak. Later, he saw them on Unimak Island, at Cold Bay, at King Cove, at Pavlof Bay, and at Nelson Lagoon. In 1925, I found these birds below Aghileen Pinnacles, near the western end of Alaska Peninsula — the first sighting was on May 29. They were common in the alders at Moffet Cove, Izembek Bay, and two were seen on Hazen Point on June 22. Gianini (1917) found them to be common, and nesting, at Stepovak Bay. In 1911, Wetmore reported this warbler as common at King Cove; he saw one west of Morzhovoi Bay, and he said that they were common at the east base of Frosty Peak. Family ICTERIDAE Euphagus carolinus: Rusty Blackbird Osgood (1904) recorded several occurrences of the rusty black- bird at the base of Alaska Peninsula: A specimen taken near FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 237 Xeejik Village, Lake Clark, July 24 ; observations rffade near the leadwaters of Chulitna River ; and several seen at Ikwok Village, m Nushagak River, September 5. McKay obtained a specimen m Nushagak River and two at Lake Aleknagik. Osgood obtained I specimens at Tyonek, Cook Inlet, and he mentions 2 others taken ;here by Bischoff. Friedmann (1935) records a specimen taken on Kodiak Island )y Reichenow, October 22, 1906. Cahalane (1943) found the 'usty blackbird to be abundant at Kodiak in the fall of 1940. Family FRINGILLIDAE Vn/co/o enucleator: Pine Grosbeak Vn/co/a enucleator alascensis The type specimen of the Alaska pine grosbeak (No. 86510, J. S. National Museum) was taken by McKay near Nushagak on rune 9, 1881, and he obtained others on Nushagak River and ^ake Aleknagik. Hanna obtained two specimens at Ahyoowaytha >eek and two on Kakwok River in 1912. We found the skeleton )f a female at Snag Point, Nushagak River, on May 25, 1936. '/n/co/o enucleator flammula Specimens from Kodiak and other localities along the coast 0 Sitka were compared with a series from Bristol Bay and in- erior Alaska. The colors are confusing, but the coastal birds, ncluding those from Kodiak, have larger bills. Thus we find till another subspecies on Kodiak that apparently has been de- ■ived from the southern Alaskan coast, rather than from the lorth. At least eight specimens from Kodiak were available for study, ollected by Panshin, Ridgway, Osgood, and R. H. Beck. In 1940, zabrielson noted the bird on Kodiak and Afognak Islands. Howell ilso observed this grosbeak on Kodiak, and, on June 9, 1944, he ound a nest with three fresh eggs; he obtained a specimen on Codiak, November 12, 1944. eucosficfe fephrocoiis: Gray-crowned Rosy Finch For a proper understanding of the relationships of the rosy inches of the Alaska Peninsula, Kodiak, and Aleutian Islands, it lecame necessary to examine, as a whole, the group occupying Uaska and the Bering Sea region. As a result of this study, the :roup appears more closely knit than previous taxonomic usage 238 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE has indicated. There appears to be gradation from the smaller birds of the eastern and southeastern part of this territory to the large birds of the Aleutians and Commander Islands. The various forms should be included under the species tephrocotis. This parallels the series of song sparrows, which have shown a similar development. Leucosticte fephrocot'is liftoralis The rosy finches of Kodiak Island have been difficult to identify. Nelson had reported that both g7iseonucha and littoralis occur there together, and Friedmann (1935) listed both forms for Kodiak. Allen J. Duvall (to whom I am indebted for further comparisons with additional material after the initial study had been made) finds that Robert Ridgway had at first designated the Kodiak birds as a new form in his manuscript notes, but that later he changed his mind. In 1901, McGregor named the bird Leucosticte kadiaka and defined it as similar to L. griseonucha, but with a smaller bill and smaller, weaker feet and claws. Grinnell (1901) pointed out that five specimens from Kodiak in the collection of Leland Stanford University indicated that— an almost complete gradation between Leucosticte tephrocotis of the Sierra Nevada and griseonucha of the Aleutian and Pribilof Islands. Such being the case, then the latter form is a subspecies of tephrocotis, as long age contended (L. tephrocotis var. griseonucha Coues Key, 1872, p. 130). It has been difficult to obtain breeding birds from Kodiak, and specimens from there may be migrants. Thus, it would seem that the kadiaka form must be assumed to be merely intergradation between the birds of the Aleutians farther west and littoralis farther east and south, and it is not included in the Fifth Edition of the A. 0. U. Check-List. Leucosticte tephrocotis littoralis is known to occur from White* Pass, Yukon Territory, south to central Oregon. But a speci- men taken by Adolph Murie at Savage River, Mount McKinlej; National Park, September 2, 1923 (298055, U. S. National Mu- seum) , proved to be littoralis, thus extending its range consider- ably northward. In 1926, Joseph Dixon (1938, p. 121) obtained additional specimens there, which also proved to be litt07'alis. On May 28, 1955, Adolph Murie obtained another specimen of littoralis in Mount McKinley National Park. On the other hand, two specimens that I obtained at Settles, Alaska, October 17, 1924 (298085 and 298086, U. S. National Museum) are L. t. tephrocotis. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 239 The specimens just referred to here suggest the following dis- tribution : L. t. tephrocotis is the more-inland form, occurring in eastern Alaska and extending its range chiefly along the Brooks Range ; littoralis is a coastal form, ranging through southeastern Alaska and occupying the more southern mountain ranges, in- cluding the Alaska Range, at least as far west as the Mount Mc- Kinley region; and kadiaka is a form intermediate between littoralis and griseonucha, occupying the Kodiak-Afognak island group. The specimen from Nushagak suggests an influence from the Kodiak form, therefore we may assume that kadiaka also occurs on nearby parts of Alaska Peninsula. Leucosticfe fepbrocofis griseonucha Attu : Kohl-grhd-ghuch Qi'dgax and Ulugdsix (Jochelson) Atka : Chd-ntih This well-known, large-sized rosy finch ranges throughout the Aleutian Islands and probably over a large part of Alaska Penin- sula, We found them to be common, and nesting, on Amak Island on May 31, 1936 (where I had also observed them in 1925), and we saw them among the alders at Chignik on May 15, and at Belkofski on May 17. Laing (1925) also observed them near Chignik, and, in 1911, Wetmore saw them with young at the east base of Frosty Peak and at Unga, in the Shumagins. Schef- fer noted them at Sanak Island in 1938. The distance that this form extends northeastward along the Alaska Peninsula is not known, but Gabrielson obtained four specimens on the Semidi Islands that are referable to griseonucha. For the most part, the Aleutian rosy finch is a beach bird, spending much of its time among the boulders and the coastal bluflfs. But it also is found in the high interior of islands, es- pecially where lava beds are present. It is fond of feeding about buildings and trappers' huts. At Ikatan, Unimak Island, they were common about the cannery buildings, and, on Amchitka Island, these birds used some abandoned houses as roosting places, entering through broken windows. Sometimes a bird is trapped in this way, being unable to find the small hole through which it entered, and, of course, eventually starves. In July, on Amchitka Island, the rosy finches were found to be feeding on plant seeds, including those of Poa sp. and Alsine s'itchana. Reporting on Adak Island, Taber says, "These birds were pres- ent throughout the winter, feeding on the heads of composites which projected above the snow. Even after the heaviest snow- 240 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE storms, some dry vegetation always seemed to be exposed. The Rosy Finch flocks varied from 6 to about 30 individuals." In 1937, the first family of young on the wing was seen on Buldir Island on June 18, and another such family was seen on Little Kiska Island on June 22. Two other forms are of interest here. Leucosticte tephrocotis umbrina, from the Pribilof Islands (Murie 1944, p. 122), hasi become differentiated as a darker bird, about the same size asi griseonucha, and L. t. Tn-axima, the Commander Islands rosy finch, is the largest of the group. The bird of the Commander Islands is of the American type ; the nearest Siberian form, brunneinucha, , from Kamchatka, is of an entirely different group. Thus, the< rosy finches show a gradual increase in size north and west through the Aleutian district — culminating in the largest one being found on the Commander Islands (which is the farthest point reached to the west), and the darkest one being found oni the Pribilof Islands. Acanfhis hornemanni: Hoary Redpoll Acanfhis hornemanni exilipes Chukchi: Kedliptschekadlin (Falmen) Osgood (1904) observed flocks of these birds at Nushagak and lower Nushagak River in September, and they were common at Becharof Lake, Kanatak, and Cold Bay during October. McKay and Johnson have collected specimens in breeding plumage in June and July at Nushagak, and Cahalane (1943) reports a group near the outlet of Katmai River on October 4, 1940. We did not see this bird. Wetmore, however, according to his field notes for 1911, heard a redpoll in the mountains west of Morzhovoi Bay on July 26, and he suspected that it may havei been this species. He felt certain that it was not A. f. flammea. Stejneger (1885) lists this redpoll as a winter visitor in that Commander Islands. Acanfhis flammea: Common Redpoll Acanfhis flammea flammea Osgood (1904) found this redpoll to be common about Lake Iliamna and Lake Clark and the Chulitna River. McKay and Johnson have taken specimens at Nushagak, and Hine (1919) obtained specimens at Katmai Bay, where they began to appear about the middle of July. Gabrielson found several on the Kvichak River on July 23, and they were common at Iliamna Lake on July 24. We observed these birds at Snag Point, Nushagak River, FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 241 May 25 and 26, 1936. Redpolls also occur on Kodiak Island, ap- parently the year round according to the specimens recorded by Friedmann (1935). Howell (1948) observed them frequently on Kodiak, and, on June 19, he found a nest with four eggs in an alder bush. The common redpoll also is found far to the west. In June, 1940, Gabrielson noted this bird at Chignik Bay, at Sand Point on Popof Island, and at Morzhovoi Bay. We noted them at Sand Point on August 26, 1936, and, on May 24, 1937, two or three were heard singing on Dolgoi Island. Arthur Neumann, a resident at Ikatan, Unimak Island, de- scribed a "small brown bird with pink head" that came to feed on crumbs he put out for birds. In May 1925, I found redpolls to be common on Unimak Is- land, in the alders back of False Pass, where the first flock were seen April 27. Late in May, redpolls were trilling and singing among the alder patches below Aghileen Pinnacles. Beals and Longworth found redpolls in flocks at False Pass in the winter and spring of 1941. Specific dates mentioned are: January 19, February 24, March 13 and 18, and May 2, 3, and 23. Flocks, which often were seen in alder thickets, numbered from 10 to 60 birds. McGregor (1906) found redpolls nesting on Unalaska Island. We saw them on Unalaska on July 12, 1936, and Gabrielson saw them nesting on several occasions. Wetmore refers to one of these birds that Bent saw on Amaknak Island on June 7, 1911, and Turner (1886) records the species from Unalaska, adding that it does not occur west of that point. Probably they do not nest farther west, but, on July 28, 1937, we saw 2 redpolls on the beach of Ogliuga Island, and, on July 31, we saw 2 more on West Unalga Island. However, these may have been migrants, Givbrielson saw a flock of nine birds on Atka Island on January 31, 1941. Taber saw a single redpoll on Adak Island on Decem- ber 16 and 30, 1945, and Sutton and Wilson (1946) record one on Attn on February 18, 1945. Stejneger (1885) mentions this species in the Commander Is- lands, but he thought that it probably does not nest there. Acanthis flammea holboelUi This subspecies was taken by McKay and Johnson at Nushagak. We have no other records of it, but redpolls are not always readily identified, and it might be overlooked in mixed flocks un- less a good view is obtained. 242 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Stejneger (1885) considers this to be a resident of the Com- mander Islands. SpJnus p'inus: Pine Siskin Spinas pJnus pinus Apparently, the pine siskin occurs only sparingly at the base of Alaska Peninsula. Osgood (1904) obtained one at Iliamna Village, and he saw a few others there and on the Nogheling River. He saw a large flock at Tyonek and obtained three specimens from it, but he saw the bird nowhere else about Cook Inlet (1901). Friedmann (1935) indicates that the pine siskin occurs regu- larly on Kodiak Island, and Beal obtained a specimen at Kodiak on March 16, 1947. Apparently, however, it is not abundant in this part of Alaska. It is interesting to note that on March 9, 1942, Gabrielson saw a group of about 15 birds, which he thought to be siskins, in a grove of spruce trees at Sand Point in the Shumagin Islands, and on April 20, 1943, Lieutenant Eddy, of the U. S. Navy, positively identified eight or ten siskins in the same spruce grove at Sand Point. Loxia curvirosfra: Red Crossbill LoxJa curvirosfra sifkensis This crossbill occurs on Kodiak Island, which probably is the western limit of its range. Friedmann (1935) records three specimens taken there by Bischoff on May 18 and June 13, 1868, which were the only records he could find. We observed a group of 12 crossbills feeding on spruce cones on Afognak Island, bu1 positive identification of the species was not possible. Osgood (1901) mentions a specimen taken at Graham Harborj in Cook Inlet, in 1892, by C. H. Townsend and B. W. Evermanni Loxia leucopfera: White-winged Crossbill Loxia leucopfera leucopfera This crossbill seems to be more common than sitkensis in thij area. Osgood saw a few at Lake Clark and Iliamna (1904), anc many specimens have come from Kodiak (Friedmann 1935). Or June 15, 1940, Gabrielson obtained a specimen on Afognak Island McKay got a specimen in January, 1883, on Mulchatna River and Osgood (1901) found them to be common in Cook Inlet anc obtained specimens at Hope. We did not observe these birds or our expeditions. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 243 Passerculus sandwJchens'is: Savannah Sparrow Passerculus sandwichensls anfhinus Examination of a fairly large series of specimens revealed that the birds of the Kodiak-Afognak group, Barren Islands, base of Alaska Peninsula, and Cook Inlet average smaller than P. s. sand- wichensis, and therefore they are referred to anthinus. The length of bill usually is 10 mm. instead of 11 mm. The bill of sandwichensls, on the other hand, rarely is less than 11 mm., and it often reaches 12 mm. in length, sometimes more. The length of wing averages less in anthinus. There is some overlapping of characters. Localities represented by specimens are Kodiak, Middleton Island, Barren Islands, Nushagak, Ugashik River, Chogiung, Kakwok, Lake Iliamna, Hooper Bay, and Hope and Tyonek in Cook Inlet. In June 1940, Gabrielson found Savannah sparrows to be com- mon at Amatuli, Barren Islands, Kodiak, Afognak, and Semidi Islands. Allen Duvall, who examined two immature specimens taken in the Semidis by Gabrielson on August 5, 1945, states that these are referable to anthinus on the basis of measure- ments, but that it is not certain that they had reached full develop- ment. There also is a specimen from Wide Bay, on the peninsula, that appears to be anthinus. There are some puzzling specimens. I took a specimen on May 29, 1936, at Ugashik River (original No. 3536) that is larger :han usual, however the beak is not so heavy as most sand- 'vichensis, and it seems referable to anthinus. On May 12 and 13, 1936, we heard Savannah sparrows singing )n Kodiak and Afognak Islands. On May 10 and 11, a number )f these birds were feeding on the gravel beach at Ushagat, Barren Islands, and specimens were obtained. On May 14, a Savannah sparrow passed our ship between Sutwik Island and ]!ape Kumlin ; it is possible that these were migrating. On May 2, lear Yakutat, 1 of these sparrows had settled on our forward leek, and the first mate reported 2 other "sparrows" on the deck. Howell found them to be common on Kodiak. On June 9, 1944, le found a nest, containing 5 fresh eggs, in a swampy area at VTiddle Bay, and, on June 17, he found a nest with 4 half-incu- )ated eggs in an open growth of grass and moss at an elevation >f 1,500 feet. Under the heading of alauilinus [anthinus'], Osgood (1904) ays — breeding abundantly on the treeless slopes and in the small grassy moun- 244 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE tain valleys on the west side of Iliamna Pass, where one specimen was take July 12. Seen in small numbers in open places in the vicinity of Iliamn Village and along the Nogheling River. None were seen about Lake Clar until August 7, when they suddenly appeared in considerable numbers nea the mouth of the Chulitna River, not in the open swamps, but in scatterin twos and threes in the thick willow brush, evidently preparing for migratioi After this date none were seen. McKay and Johnson found the species breec ing at Nushagak. Hine (1919) obtained specimens at Katmai Bay, June 22 ani July 8, 1919, and found the species to be common there. We found these sparrows at Snag Point, Nushagak River, oi May 25, 1936, and on May 27 and 29 they were common a Ugashik River, being the principal passerine bird in that locality Presumably, the birds here recorded would all be anthinus. I is difficult to know where to place the line of demarcation o: Alaska Peninsula between anthinus and sandivichensis, but th Wide Bay specimen suggests that anthinus extends at least tha far southwest. Passerculus sandwichensis sandwicbensis Unalaska: Saksagada (Wetmore) This is the largest of the Savannah sparrows, and it has th longest bill. In a large series from Unalaska, and many mor from other localities, the bill measures from 11 to 12 mm. long- only five specimens in a series of more than 80 had a bill shorte than 11 mm. A few bills were as long as 13 to 13.5 mm. Lengt of wing, in this series, is also greater than that of anthinm There are some, of course, that approach the intermediate statu; One specimen (No. 298534, U. S, National Museum) from Izembe Bay has a fairly small bill, but it does not fit into the series c anthinus very well and has a long wing. Another specime (No. 164927), from Stepovak Bay, has a bill that is 11.5 mm. lonj with a slightly smaller body ; this bird is larger than anthinv and should be placed with sandwichensis. Thus, the range of thi subspecies extends eastward at least as far as Stepovak Bay, anc as there is a specimen of anthinus from Ugashik River, the mee1 ing place for these two subspecies would comprise the arei between Stepovak Bay and Ugashik River. On May 2, 1936, we found Savannah sparrows to be common s Yakutat. They seemed to be large and robust and could have bee:i sandivichensis on westward migration. The bird occurs on Kodiai Island, where it is undoubtedly a migrant. Bischoff collected ai immature bird on Kodiak Island in July 1868, and Brethertd o15tained an adult in July 1893. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 245 In 1941, Beals and Longworth noted the first Savannah spar- ow at False Pass on May 1; they became abundant after this ate. In 1925, I noted the first sparrow at Urilia Bay, Unimak sland, on May 7. They had become common at False Pass by lay 13, 1925. Thus, the migration period can be limited to the first part of lay. After May 13, 1925, Savannah sparrows became common in all he lowlands, including the grassy islands of Izembek Bay and ^e mountain valley to Aghileen Pinnacles. They were common n Amak Island, where young birds were on the wing by July 11, nd, in late summer, they were noted on Amagat Island and at katan. In 1936, we found them to be com.mon on Unimak Island, Lmak, Unalaska, Baby Islands, and Tangik Island, near Akun. n 1937, we saw a considerable number of them on Unalaska, and, n August 29, they were common on Sanak. On May 16, 1936, ley were present on Nagai and Popof, in the Shumagins, where ley were again observed on August 26. We took a specimen on )olgoi, May 24, 1937. Gianini (1917) noted these birds at Stepovak Bay. In 1911, /etmore found them to be common at Morzhovoi Bay, at King 'Ove, at Belkofski, and at the east base of Frosty Peak. In 1940, Gabrielson reported these birds to be common at [orzhovoi Bay, Akutan, Carlisle, and Amukta, and in following masons he found them to be plentiful in numerous places through- ut this area, including Uliaga, Kagamil, Yanaska, and Adak, ut he saw none on Amchitka. McGregor (1906) found this species on Unalaska, Amaknak, nalga, Tigalda, Unimak, Akutan, Akun, Egg, and Aektok Is- olds. He says, "The sandwich sparrow was abundant on every tie of the Krenitzin Islands, and on most of them they fairly ^^armed, outnumbering all other land birds combined." In 1936, we saw them on Ananiuliak (near Umnak Island), agamil, Uliaga, Chuginadak, and Carlisle. In 1937, we noted lem on Ananiuliak and at Nikolski Village on Umnak. On Au- List 22, they were common on Samalga Island, which is low and rassy, and we noted one on Herbert Island. Cahn writes of this sparrow on Unalaska, "Apparently ar- ves in numbers overnight; by late May (earliest date. May 20, M3) or early June they are suddenly everywhere among the mdra grasses, and in full song at once. During June, July and ugust they are extremely abundant and nest in the open tundra." 246 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE In summary, the Aleutian Savannah sparrow is abundant am occupies the western part of Alaska Peninsula, the Fox Islands Islands of the Four Mountains, and has been seen as far west ai Amukta, where Gabrielson collected a specimen on June 25, 1940 and on Adak, where he found many adults and young. Farther west, they are rare, and they were not seen on any o: our expeditions; however, Turner (1886) reported that he sav a few at Atka Island in 1879 and a few on Attu in 1880. Th Attu chief did not seem to know of the bird. Nesting McGregor (1906) obtained several sets of eggs that indicat the nesting period: A nest with 4 slightly incubated eggs wa found on June 27 in Beaver Inlet ; 5 slightly incubated eggs wer found June 28 at English Bay; 5 moderately incubated egg were collected on July 20 on Tigalda; a set of 4 eggs was foum on July 28 on Akun ; and 2 females were collected on July 15 an^ 16 at Dutch Harbor, each of which contained eggs. Some o these data suggest a second laying. Wetmore found a nest of five fresh eggs at Unalaska, June { 1911. By July 7, apparently all the young had been hatched. When Savannah sparrows are flocking, they are prone to fee along the beaches. Junco byemaUs: Slate-colored Junco Junco hyemalh hyemalJs Osgood (1904), writing of his expedition at the base of Alask Peninsula, says, "Up to the second week in August juncos wei seen almost daily from Iliamna Village to the lower Chulitn River." They are not recorded from Nushagak. Osgood found thi junco to be common at Hope and collected specimens there. W saw several of these birds at Seward on May 21, 1937, an Gabrielson found them on Kodiak in November and December. Junco oreganus: Oregon Junco Junco oreganus oreganus Turner (1886) reported that he obtained a specimen of tl Oregon junco at Unalaska Island on April 8, 1879, but I coul not find the specimen in the National Museum. Turner saj further that he saw "numerous individuals" at Karluk, Kodi£ Island, where they were hopping about the village. These identifications must be held in doubt. Miller (1941, FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 247 115) lists the western boundary for the Oregon junco as south- eastern Alaska; it is nonmigratory, and clings to the forest labitat. The nearest junco population is hyemalis, from the base )f Alaska Peninsula and Kenai Peninsula — we have no junco rec- )rds west of this area. tpizella arborea: Tree Sparrow 'n Naknek River, September 4, 1940, and near the outlet of )avanoski River on September 6. In the same year, Gabrielson ound them to be common near Iliamna Lake on July 24. He btained specimens at Iliamna Lake, at Dillingham, and at Nak- lek. On August 7, 1945, he noted the species at Wide Bay, and n August 17, 1946, he saw these birds at Pavlof. onofnch'ia leucophrys: Whi+e-crowned Sparrow onofrlchia leucophrys gambelii Osgood (1904) says — 'irst seen on the portage between lakes Iliamna and Clark, where it was )und in company with Z. coronata [atricapilla'] July 18. Scattered indi- iduals were observed later about Lake Clark and along the Chulitna River, ne specimen was taken and a few others were seen near Swan River August 7. They were quite rare at this time, and the majority that breed in the Bgion had doubtless migrated. One specimen was taken at Nushagak as de as September 18. Specimens were also taken at this locality by McKay line 6 to August 9, 1881. Howell (1948) found these birds on Kodiak "Common in the alleys and on the slopes of the mountains up to 1500 feet." On une 10, he found a nest, containing five well-incubated eggs, ist below the snow line. On June 13, he found a nest with 4 ?gs, and, on June 19, he found a nest with 5 eggs at Bell's Flats. We obtained a specimen at Snag Point, Nushagak River, May 5, and Williams saw a Gambel's sparrow at Sand Point, Popof 5land, May 16. On July 19, 1925, near Moffet Cove, Izembek Bay, I saw a right-plumaged male and heard another. These are the western- lost records of this bird — though specimens were not taken. 248 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE identification was almost certain. This was verified in July 194 when Beals and Gabrielson obtained a specimen, and noted other at Izembek Bay. ZonotrichJa atricapilla: Golden-crowned Sparrow This fine-looking sparrow is perfectly at home throughout tl length of Alaska Peninsula, on Unimak 1 sland, and the Shumagir There are many records of its occurrence. Osgood (1901) four it to be common around the village of Hope, and he saw occasionally in the mountains nearby. On a later expedition, 1 found it to be very common about Iliamna Bay and Iliami Village, and he saw a few at Lake Clark, which he considered be as far as these birds go into the interior (1904). He me tions the fact that these birds are erratic in migration, stra gling along irregularly. He refers to one of these straggle:^ which was taken by McKay and Johnson at Nushagak on Noven ber 5. Cahalane (1944) observed a flock of these sparrows in tK lower Ukak River Valley, September 11, 1940, and Hine (191?' evidently found them to be common in the general region Katmai National Monument. The golden-crowned sparrow is a common nesting bird ( Kodiak Island, where Friedmann (1935) has obtained mai, specimens. In the summer of 1940, Gabrielson noted the specij on the Barren Islands, Kodiak Island, Afognak Island, Semi| Islands, at Chignik Bay, and Dillingham, and he took sever | specimens. Later, he saw this bird at Umnak, the Shumagins, aij other peninsula localities. I Gianini (1917) found them to be fairly common at Stepova Bay, remarking that he heard them first on May 28. In 19]| Wetmore observed them at the east base of Frosty Peak, Kiri Cove, and in the mountains west of Morzhovoi Bay. On the 1936 expedition, we noted this sparrow at Yakuts | May 2; at Ushagat (Barren Islands), May 10; at Kodiak, May i:| at Chignik, May 14 ; at Nagai and Popof Islands, Shumagins, Mi ] 16 (again on Popof Island, August 26) ; and we saw several i Snag Point, Nushagak River, May 25 and 26. A sparrow w; heard singing on Amak Island, May 31, and Williams secur< ( a specimen there. In 1937, w^e saw this bird at Seward, May 21 and on May 24 they were common, singing and evidently nes[ ing, on Dolgoi Island, west of the Shumagins. In 1925, I observed this sparrow about the west end of AlaslJ^ FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 249 i'eninsula and Unimak Island. My field studies were summarized n a report, as follows : May 22, near Moffet Cove on Izembek Bay, I heard the first golden- rowned sparrow. Next day there were many. [In 1941, Beals and Long- vorth reported the first ones at False Pass on May 5.] They were common .mong- the alders, as far as these bushes grow up the valley toward Aghileen 'innacles. They were noted in the alder patches at the base of Frosty Peak, t False Pass, and Ikatan. While not as numerous as some other sparrows, he golden-crown nests commonly throughout the region covered, though 3cal range is naturally governed by the boundaries of the alder patches, ;'hich are by no means universally distributed. This statement, however, aust be subject to some exceptions, for on July 10 and 11 three males were inging and on July 15 a specimen was taken on Amak Island, where there ,re no alders and the largest form of vegetation is the cow parsnip. On one occasion I heard a distinct variation of the song. Instead of three lotes in decending scale, the usual second and third notes were reversed, t was the normal song for this bird, as I heard it day after day in the same lump of alders near camp. 'ossere//o iliaca: Fox Sparrow 'asserella il'iaca zabor'ia The fox sparrows of this region present an interesting distri- )Utional pattern. At the base of Alaska Peninsula there are a lumber of specimens of typical zahoria. G. D. Hanna collected .hree specimens in May and June 1911, at Nushagak (Nos. 131281, 231282, and 231283, U. S. National Museum). He also ibtained an immature male at Kakwok, August 19, 1911 (No. 139707). There is another taken at Nushagak on June 20, 1881 ;No. 86535). And on May 26, 1936, I obtained a specimen on the Nushagak River, at Snag Point (original No. 3528). Osgood ilso mentions a specimen taken at Nushagak, by McKay, June 6, 881, which I have not examined. Furthermore, on July 17, 1940, }abrielson recorded several eastern-type fox sparrows at Dilling- lam (with one specimen) and, the next day, he saw several at Vood River Lakes. At any rate, the birds occupying the base of Alaska Peninsula, n the Nushagak district, apparently are typical zahoria from he interior Alaska fox-sparrow population, which has found lere an outlet to the southwest coast of Alaska. Here, too, it has come in contact with another fox sparrow )opulation — the iinalaschcensis group. There are several interest- ng specimens that have intermediate characters — two immature )irds, (Nos. 239705 and 239706, U. S. National Museum), taken )y Hanna at Kakwok, and another (No. 110105) taken by J. W. Johnson in this general area, July 14, 1885. The streaking on the 250 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE back, so characteristic of iliaca and almost absent in unalc censis or insular is, is much subdued and clouded over by duskiness of the coloration. The spotting on the breast is sli^ bicolored, as in iliaca, but it is more like that in unalaschce Osgood (1904) evidently referred to one of these specimens adult taken by Johnson, and described it as "intermediat character between iliaca and unalaschcensis, but nearer to ili( Swarth (1920), in his revision of this genus, properly rt nized three fox sparrow groups, the iliaca group, the unalc censis group, and the schistacea group. He considered all t to be subspecifically related, but this relationship is complex, not entirely clear. In the same general area occupied by iliaca group, as mentioned above, there are typical specir of the unalaschcensis group. Osgood (1904) reported — One specimen was taken and several were seen in the mountains near Hi Bay July 12; two others, one adult and one immature bird, were tak' Iliamna Village July 14; and another young bird was taken on Lake Hi at the Nogheling portage July 18. These agree well with birds fror Shumagin Islands and localities to the westward on the Alaska Peninsu A specimen of typcial unalaschceyisis in fresh fall plumage was tak Nushagak September 19; another, which is not quite typical, but » referable to uyialasch censis, was taken at the same locality by J. W. Jol October 22, 1884. The last two specimens just mentioned may have been migrants, though they were north of the known breeding ra rather than south of it. But omitting these as possible bree birds, there is hardly room for an area of intergradation bet^ the known breeding ranges of these two well-marked forms. Osgood suggested many years ago, there does not appear t gradual intergradation here. The intermediate specimens scribed above show the abrupt mixtures found in hybrids. Apparently, altivagans is the form in which we may \o6\s complete intergradation with typical iliaca. Specimens of vagans available for this study did not show complete intergr tion. Presumably this may take place somewhere in Alb< On the whole, on the basis of material that is available at i ent, iliaca seems to be a species apart, although it may be pr to assume intergradation with altivagans somewhere in Cana territory. Therefore, granting subspecific status, iliaca is ar ample of a subspecies that intergrades with another subsp< at one part of its range and becomes a species, with hyb where it meets another subspecies of the same group, as at base of Alaska Peninsula. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 251 wserella ///oca unalaschcens'is The three subspecies of the unalaschcensis group that are in- Ived in the present study are unalaschcensis, insularis, and mosa. Minute examination of material available, which was fictly segregated into seasonal lots, brought out general differ- ; ces as follows : All are brown in general coloration, hut unalasch- isis is the palest and grayest of the three. Insularis averages Dwner, sometimes with a slight olivaceous trend, and often a markedly richer brown. Simiosa is the darkest; in some isons it is a deeper, "ruddier," brown, sometimes merely more sky. Probably the chief distinction of sinuosa is the darker, duskier, quality. These forms are very close and are very ficult to distinguish, especially the difference between insularis d simiosa. Incidentally, in some instances it was found that trn July specimens could not be assigned with certainty. Au- st specimens, with their fresh plumage, were very satisfactory, t they were not comparable with spring specimens. Further- )re, it was found that considerable change takes place in the image during the spring from April through June, and ap- rently this change is much greater than the change that takes ice throughout the entire winter period. It was only by a ithful adherence to seasonal segregation of specimens that isonable identification could be made. The Shumagin fox sparrow, as stated above, is characterized a grayer coloration, and some specimens from Unimak Island 3w this to a remarkable degree. In fact, fox sparrows from limak seem to be slightly different from fox sparrows in the umagins and the Peninsula. However, this extreme grayish aracter is not entirely consistent even among Unimak Island ecimens, and it is possible that there is a slight dichromatism this group. At least, there is variation. We heard fox sparrows singing at Chignik, May 14, 1936, and May 16, we saw them in the Shumagins on Unga, Nagai bundant), and Popof (common). Specimens were taken. In igust, they were very common in the alders at False Pass. On ay 24, 1937, we saw several and collected two on Dolgoi Island. Gianini (1917) saw a few at Stepovak Bay. In 1911, Wetmore w them in the mountains west of Morzhovoi Bay, and he Lind them nesting commonly at King Cove and at the east se of Frosty Peak. In 1940, Gabrielson saw the birds on the midis, Chignik Bay, and at Sand Point in the Shumagins. There is an important specimen in the collection of the Museum Vertebrate Zoology, at Berkeley, Calif., which is an adult male 252 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE taken by C, L. Hall at Unalaska, June 4, 1894. It is almost ail gray as the specimens from Unimak Island, though the tail i; slightly more rufescent. Speaking of this specimen, Grinnel (1910) says- No Fox Sparrow has been previously secured from Unalaska 'unless the Aoonalashka Bunting of Latham really came from there' (Ridgway, Bird; of North and Middle America, Vol. I, 1901, p. 389). So that the presen specimen assumes a decided importance. This bird bears out all the char acters of the race called unalaschcensis, as defined by Ridgway, and doubt less indicates the western limit of the range of that form. In view of these uncertainties. Calm (1947) makes an impor- tant contribution when he reports, for Unalaska Island "Onei was seen on June 5, 1944, at the foot of Mt. Ballyhoo." The 1931 Check List gives Unalaska as part of the nesting] range of the Shumagin fox sparrow, and the two records men- tioned above may have been nesting birds. Yet, Harrold (Swarth 1934) says- No fox sparrows were found on Akutan Island. The only cover consists of salmon-berry canes and a few stunted willows here and there, of an average? height of about 18 inches. Unalaska, although having slightly larger bushes.i was just as unfavorable, and none of this species was seen thei-e either. Apparently, the fox sparrow has occurred only sporadically on Unalaska, and actual nesting has not been established. It interesting to note that a specimen was obtained by Hanna onl St. Paul, Pribilofs, May 20, 1919 (which is in the breeding sea- son) and an immature male was taken by Harrold on Nunivak Island on September 9. So far as is known, Unimak Island marks the western limit of the breeding range of the Shumagin fox sparrow, as well as the western limit of a habitat that is typical and fully occupied. I the unique record from Unalaska was a breeding bird, it prob- ably was an accidental occurrence. The regular breeding range extends eastward at least as far as the Shumagins and the Alaska Peninsula opposite these islands. Still farther eastward, on por- tions of the peninsula from which we do not now have specimens, this subspecies must merge so thoroughly with insularis that it would be impractical to separate them. There are two specimens in the National Museum (Nos. 105767 and 184003) that are hard to identify. They are from Nushagak, taken on October 22, 1884, and on September 19, 1902, and may have been migrants. These specimens appear to be iinalaschcensis. (Since these studies were made, Gabrielson has obtained many specimens from Alaska Peninsula, which have not been compared with the series here discussed.) 4 FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 253 esting The following is quoted from my field report for 1925 : On returning to False Pass from Urilia Bay I found the fox sparrow lentiful among the alders. May 13 they were singing everywhere. They re common both on Unimak and the Peninsula, among the alders. Two ests wei'e found in the valley below Aghileen Pinnacles, June 2, constructed s follows: No. 1. Outer structure of old brown coarse vegetation, mostly grass; inner tructure of fine dry grass, a little porcupine hair, and a few feathers. Sunk 1 the ground on the side of a little bank, in moss, completely screened by almonberry stems and grass, 6 feet from edge of alder patch. Outside iameter 140 mm.; inside diameter 70 mm.; depth 68 mm.; five eggs. No. 2. Outer structure of dead grass, inner structure finer grass, with few feathers, the whole sunk evenly in the ground under some large over- anging alder stems. Ferns were just emerging near rim. Outside diameter 00 mm., inside diameter 70 mm., depth 47 mm.; five eggs. asserella iliaca insularh This is the bird of the Kodiak-Afognak Island group, though pecimens have been taken elsewhere. It undoubtedly occurs on djacent parts of Alaska Peninsula and nearby islands, though he limits of its breeding range are unknown. There are two pecimens taken by Osgood at Lake Iliamna on July 12 and July 4, 1902. These are intermediate in character, but probably hould be called insularis. Furthermore, two others taken by Os- :ood at Hope, in Cook Inlet, also appear referable to insularis. Ve obtained two specimens on the Barren Islands on May 10 and 1, 1936, that are referable to insularis in comparable plumage. have not examined a specimen taken by Hine in Katmai River Galley, July 9, 1919, and I have not examined specimens from he Semidi Islands, which also are available. In summary, insularis is the fox sparrow of the Kodiak-Afog- lak Islands, Barren Islands, and (according to a few available pecimens) the adjacent parts of Alaska Peninsula. Probably t extends eastward for an unknown distance to merge with inuosa, and westward to the range of unalaschcensis. We observed many of these birds, singing, on May 12, 1936, m Kodiak Island, and on the next day on Deranof Island near ^fognak; we saw them on Afognak on September 2. Gabriel- on noted the birds on Kodiak and Afognak in June 1940, and on hat occasion he thought that it was the most abundant bird on \.fognak. 254 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE MelospJia lincolni'i: Lincoln's Sparrow Me/osp/zo lincolni'i lincolni'i Birds observed in the Cook Inlet region by Osgood evident! were considered to be the typical form, for he says (1901) An adult male was taken at Hope Augnast 28, and a few others were seei while we were there. The specimen taken shows none of the charactei attributed to Melospiza lincolni striata [gracilis]. On July 27, 1940, Gabrielson collected a Lincoln's sparrow the upper end of Iliamna Lake, the only record we have fc the base of Alaska Peninsula. MelospJia melodia: Song Sparrow Attu : Chu-gu-chigh Atka : Chig-%viach The song sparrows occupy the Aleutian district (as her defined) from Attu Island to Kodiak. Gabrielson and Lincol (1951), who reviewed the Alaskan song sparrows, have chai acterized them as follows, to state the matter very briefly. Melospiia melodia maxima Described as a new form, differing from sanaka in beini browner, with a larger beak. Range extends from Atka to Attn Melospiza melodia sanaka Grayer in color. Range extends from Seguam Island, in th Aleutians, eastward to Stepovak Bay on Alaska Peninsula an to the Semidi Islands, including other islands south of the wester part of the peninsula (Sanak, Shumagins, and many others). Melospiza melodia amaka This is a new race, described by Gabrielson and Lincoln — Resembles viaxinia from the western Aleutians in color and extensive brow markings, but somewhat more heavily marked with brown than that rac both on back and breast; in most available specimens the brown marking: also somewhat brighter. Closer in color to maxima than to the geographical) , closer race sanaka. Bill short and stubby as in sanaka. Range, confined \i Amak Island, a rocky island north of the west end of Alaska Peninsula son ; 15 miles. A distinct subspecies that is confined to a single island, sue i as Amak, may seem incongruous when one considers the exter^ sive ranges of the other forms. However, Amak is somewhgl FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 255 ■'•?*"i Figure 41. — Aleutian song sparrow. lore isolated from other song sparrow range than is suggested y the short distance from the mainland. The adjacent mainland ; not song sparrow habitat. Quoting from my field report for 925— 1 general, the song sparrows occur on ihe Pacific side of the Peninsula id Uniniak and do not occur on the Bering Sea side, which is due to the pography of the country. The Bering Sea shores are low and sandy, while .6 Pacific side, with deeper water, is rocky, with boulder-strewn beaches — e chosen habitat of this bird. An exception is Amak Island, a rugged island Bering Sea. elospiza melodia insignis This bird is somewhat smaller and darker than sanaka "with sooty wash that noticeably obscures the markings and tends to ake the color more uniform." But it is paler and grayer than le next ]'ace to the east. Its range is the Kodiak-Afognak island 'oup, Barren Islands, and generally the adjacent base of Alaska gninsula. There is a long gap to Stepovak Bay from which )ecimens have not been taken. Upon arrival in the Aleutian district, one is impressed with the rge size and the habitat of these sparrows. They are largely 256 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 6 1 , FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE littoral, living in boulders or on cliffs, although they ascend in grassy areas to nest. Here, as elsewhere, the song sparrc seems to delight in finding a mass of driftwood, which it subs1 tutes for the brush heaps of interior country in the south. Song sparrows often frequent buildings, especially unusi barabaras or huts. In a cabin on Herbert Island, August 22, 193 Scheffer found 30 dead adult and immature song sparrows, t gether with several individuals of other species. Evidently, th had entered by a small opening and failed to find a way oi On Segula Island, I found a dead immature song sparrow flo£ ing in a keg of water at a trapper's cabin. On Kasatochi Island, a song sparrow was seen within t crater rim, which rises about 1,000 feet above the beach. He ever, the inner walls of the crater descend abruptly to a crat lake, far below, creating an aspect of a sloping cliff above wat( as on the seashore. These sparrows nest in the grass on slopes adjacent to t beach. We found a nest at East Anchor Cove, Unimak Islar May 19, 1936. It was in ryegrass on a slope a considerable d tance from the beach. The nest was tucked away under a ma of dead grass and was made of fine, smooth, nicely bleached grs stems. There were three downy young. A similar nest, in a similar situation, but abandoned, w found on Unimak Island, June 7, 1936. On Kiska, June 5, 19S Steenis found a nest containing three eggs. It was placed d in the vegetation and was built of fine grass stems. Incidentalj on that same day, Douglas Gray reported a curious perfor ance — a song sparrow followed him along the beach for ab a mile. Cahn (1947) reports that the song sparrow was abundant Unalaska Island from April 7 to September 22, 1945. He foul that the young left the nest by early July; a second nesting w| suggested by observing a nest with newly hatched young August 8, 1945. Although there may be local movements due to the approai of winter, the song sparrows of the Aleutian district are pern nent residents. Cahn reports them to be absent in winter in tj Dutch Harbor area, but Taber found them all winter on Adjf and Sutton and Wilson (1946) found them in winter on At i As this sparrow evidently finds its food on the beach at the tid '■ edge, subsistence is possible year round where the sea ne\; freezes and where the ebb and flow of tide is dependable. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 257 alcarius lapponicus: Lapland Longspun ilcarius lapponicus alascensis Attu: Chir-loch Atka: Chi-loch Unalaska: Chelookh (Wetmore) Commander Islands: TschelutschjeU (Stejneger) Chukchi: Tumkup (Pahnen) This is one of the most common passerine birds throughout e Aleutian chain, the Alaska Peninsula, and adjacent islands, id it also occurs on Nunivak Island and the Pribilofs. The iaska longspurs probably inhabit every island in this district some time of the year. Furthermore, this bird has a well- stributed habitat, ranging from the beach line to the upper ountain sides and lava beds, although it evidently prefers •assy flats and slopes. We saw them on the flat lowlands at gashik River, on the sand dunes at Urilia Bay, as well as on e' slopes of such islands as Amak, Ananiuliak, and Uliaga. The Attu chief stated that longspurs leave Attu in August and turn early in April. This is fairly well verified by Beals and )ngworth, who reported in 1941 that the first longspur was en on Unimak Island on April 16. They further stated that >ne were seen when they returned to the island, August 31. e noted longspurs on Sanak Island as late as August 28. In 1925, I had an opportunity to note the progress of the nest- g season at Unimak Island and Alaska Peninsula. The first agspurs, two small groups, appeared among the sand dunes at rilia Bay on April 30. A few were seen each day afterward; ey were heard singing on May 3 ; they were common and were ard singing on May 5 ; and they were numerous on May 8. 1 May 1 6, they were noted as common at False Pass ; they were mmon at St. Catherine Cove on May 17; and were common on ay 28 at Izembek Bay. On June 14, a nest of four eggs was und on Hazen Point, Izembek Bay, and, the following day, a mber of specimens were taken. The females of this group of ecimens had brood patches, which were absent on the males. On June 18, 1936, we found a nest on Seguam Island. It was nk in the vegetation and was built of. fine dried grass stems th few longspur feathers. There were four young, with yellow wn. On May 24, 1937, longspurs were common on Dolgoi Island; ey were singing, and some of them evidently were nesting. On ne 1, they were very active, singing, on Atka Island — this obably was at the height of the nesting period. On June 22, I und a nest with 5 eggs in a clump of anemones on Little Kiska 258 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 6 1 , FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Island, and Steenis found another nest with 4 eggs. Apparent] the male sings throughout the entire nesting period. In 1936, young birds on the wing were seen as early as July On July 11, 1937, four or five young birds were seen flying abo i on Amchitka Island. On August 22, Scheffer found 2 dead Ion spurs in a cabin on Herbert Island, together with 30 dead son sparrows. The Alaska longspur is lighter in color than typical lapponicil Concerning the birds of the western Aleutians, Ridgway saj (1901), "The great contrast in coloration is just as marked 1:| tween specimens from the extreme western Aleutian Islan I (Atka, Adak, and Attn) and the extremely dark form (C. coloratus) of the Commander Islands as between the latter a] specimens from the Pribilofs and Unalaska." Plecfrophenax nivalis: Snow Bunting Plecfrophenax niYalis niyalis It is probable that some eastern snow buntings winter in tl Aleutian district. According to Ridgway (1901), this foi winters at Unalaska, the Shumagins, and at other points in soul eastern Alaska. Osgood (1904) reports — One specimen was taken on the beach at Nushagak, September 20, s\ another was seen in company with it. A small flock was seen on Bechai Lake, October 6, and a few more were seen in the mountains between Be arof Lake and Kanatak. Numerous specimens were taken at Nushagak I McKay and Johnson. Most of these are winter birds, but at least one (] 110128) is in full nupital plumage. It was taken July 3, 1886, which wo- indicate its breeding in the vicinity. It also breeds at Cold Bay, where M; dren found it nesting in high rocky cliffs in the summer of 1903. i Hine (1919), and other members of the 1919 expedition of tl National Geographic Society noted snow buntings on mountff tops of the Katmai region and in Katmai Canyon. A pair wci noted, singing, in upper Mageik Creek. These observations in cate nesting. Specimens from Kodiak have been taken in the migration ] riod, but Turner (1886) states that he saw these birds "at Kodi; in the early part of August, 1881. At the latter place young bii: of the season were abundant." On June 18, 1940, Gabriels^ noted snow buntings on the Semidi Islands. Howell (1948), reporting for 1944, says of the snow bunti on Kodiak Island — Seen only on the top of a mountain near Bell's Flats. Here ten were sh on June 25. They were above the snow line near the crest of the mount' at an elevation of about 2500 feet. Numerous bare areas in the extens FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 259 low fields were overgrown by low grass. In one of these a nest was found hich contained five young three days old. The nest was in a crevice in )me rocks that was too small to admit my hand until some overhanging OSS was removed. Thus, we know that the eastern snow bunting nests in suitable laces on Kodiak Island and at the base of Alaska Peninsula, 'estward as far as Becharof Lake, and probably in the Semidis. ; may be assumed that nivalis intergrades with toivnsendi some- 'here on Alaska Peninsula. hcfrophenax nivalis fownsendi Attu: K6-ka-noch Atka: Math'-a-ivach Unalaska: Masnikh (Wetmore) Kussian, Commander Islands :Sn;>(yrfroA% plu. Snegirki (Stejneger) Kussian: Snegir (Zitkow, Birula) or Seryi Snegir (Tolstow) Chukchi: Ptochekadlin (Palmen) This snow bunting nests throughout the Aleutian Islands, pre- Brring the high, rocky terrain. We considered it likely that snow untings inhabited most of these islands. Turner (1886) observed snow buntings at Belkofski in July 881, and Gianini (1917) found snow buntings in the mountains t Stepovak Bay. In 1911, Wetmore found the birds to be com- lon in the mountains near Morzhovoi Bay. Without question, low buntings nest in the high country throughout Alaska Penin- Jila. Somewhere along this Aleutian Range, probably well to the ast, toivnsendi must intergrade with nivalis. Of course, town- ^ndi is known to nest also on Nunivak, the Pribilofs, the humagins, the Commanders, and the Bering Sea coast of Siberia, In 1925, I observed snow buntings at King Cove on April 25, tid on April 26 and 27 I saw more of these birds at False Pass, ubspecific identification was not made in these instances, but, iter, the birds were found on the nesting grounds and were lentified as toivnsendi. On May 4, a male was heard singing mong the lava beds near Urilia Bay, Unimak Island, where ley were common. Soon, their songs were ringing everywhere 1 the rugged lava. Later, they were found among the high rocks t False Pass ; at the head of the valley near Aghileen Pinnacles ; n the rocky slopes of Frosty Peak ; on Amak Island ; and on vatan Peninsula. Immature birds were flying about on Amak 5land on July 11. On August 10, at Ikatan, a family of young irds on the beach was observed learning to fly. In 1941, Beals and Longworth found snow buntings on Unimak sland all winter. 260 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE In the Aleutians, the snow bunting is found from the shor< Hne to the high mountains, but it seems to prefer the mountain; The nest of the snow bunting may be placed among lava rock, in crevices or cliffs, or under a ledge of a rock on fairly lev< terrain. On June 4, 1937, Douglas Gray found a nest with thre eggs under an overhanging rock on Kiska Island. On June 12, 1937, on Agattu Island, I found two nests. Or was in the form of a deep grassy cup, with a few feathers workef in, placed under a ledge of a flat rock on fairly level ground, contained four eggs. The other nest was located under an overhanging boulder, anf it had feathers of a forked-tailed petrel woven into the structur This nest also contained four eggs. On June 14, also on Agattu Island, a similar nest made of gras. was found in a hollow under a flat rock. There were four egg, According to the Attn chief, the snow bunting is a permanei resident in the Near Islands. Plectrophenax hyperboreus: McKay's Bunting This species nests only on Hall and St. Matthew Islands, but occurs in migration in the Aleutian district. Nelson (1887) d scribes a bird of this species taken at Unalaska in January, ar several specimens were taken at Nushagak Bay by McKay an Johnson. Without doubt, this bird is quite common on Alask Peninsula and the Aleutian Islands in winter. Ember'iza rusfica: Rustic Bunting Emberiia rusfica lafifascia The only record of this species for North America is a smfl series of skins obtained on Kiska Island in June 1911 by Wetmoj and F. B. McKechnie. On June 17, Wetmore found a dead birj which was estimated to have been dead about a month, and ai other dead bird was found by McKechnie. In his field nota Wetmore says further — On June 19, while making the rounds of my traps, I flushed a small bii that flew up with a faint tsip, and dove immediately into the grass along creek. The flight was quick and with an up and down motion, and the bi showed two white outer tail feathers. I flushed it again after some trampir and shot it on the wing, and found it a fine specimen of the bird found the seventeenth. A hundred yards further I flushed another on a gras slope, and missed it the first time. When it got up again I shot it, but t wind carried it so that I was not able to find it, though I searched careful No others could be found. The one taken was a female, in fine plumage, b exceedingly fat. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 261 Apparently, these birds represented a straggling group that lad landed on Kiska Island. On our visits to Kiska Island in 1937 A^e spent considerable time on lowlands and uplands, but we iid not encounter this species. M ammals Family SORICIDAE Sorex cinereus: Cinereous Shrew Sorex dnereus holl'isferi This western Alaska form of cinereus is distrih'-^'-tgri throughom the length of Alaska Peninsula arid on Unimak Island. A mummi tied specimen from Tigalda Island, obtained by Stevenson in Apri 1925, marks the westernmost record of this shrew. More than 200 specimens have been collected, chiefly in th : district here under discussion. We have specimens from the basa parts of Alaska Peninsula and adjacent territory, including sudi localities as Nushagak, Kakwok, Lake Aleknagik, Lake Clarij Iliamna Lake, Katmai, and Becharof Lake. There are specimen I from Port Moller, Cold Bay, Chignik, King Cove, Frosty Peal<, Izembek Bay, and Unimak Island, but we have no specimen ! from Kodiak-Afognak Islands, the Shumagins, or other outlyin;] islands. In 1925, I found these shrews to be abundant at Izembek Bay and I obtained specimens at Urilia Bay, St. Catherine Cove, an I False Pass on Unimak Island. They were found in the grass; i margin of ponds as well as on the higher tundra. On May t, 1925, as Donald Stevenson and I came upon a high grassy fla: above a lagoon at Urilia Bay, we heard a faint squeaking in th: grass and caught glimpses of shrews darting here and there. T i quote from my notes : I imitated the squeaks, and presently a shrew came bobbing over the gras; right up to me and I pounced on him. Soon another came along in respons| to my squeaking, but disappeared in a tuft of grass. Then a third came u i and I caught him. Stevenson caught another and we missed several. Thes : shrews came from a distance of 20 to 25 feet. Those caught (original No;. 1979, 1980 and 1981) were all males, with enlarged testes. They probabl ' responded to the squeaking in the spirit of battle with another male, c t perhaps with the expectation of finding a female. Stevenson trapped two females at Izembek Bay; one had 1 embryos, and the other had 8. 262 FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 263 orex tundrens'is: Tundra Saddle-backed Shrew This well-marked shrew is represented by specimens from Jushagak, Kakwok, Lake Weelooluk, and Lake Aleknagik. Robert \ Orr (1939, p. 251) records a more-recent specimen taken by )allas Hanna in 1937 at Wide Bay, which is the farthest west tiat this animal has been recorded. Lack of other specimens uggests a limited distribution farther west on the peninsula. orex hydrodromus: Unalaska Saddle-backed Shrew In view of the uncertainties concerning the Unalaska saddle- acked shrew (the only known specimen is in Russia), every ffort was made to obtain specimens, but without success. Our tops at Unalaska were necessarily brief, and no shrews of any ind were found. In 1911, Wetmore was told by the natives that shrews were resent on Unalaska Island, but no specimens were taken. Donald Stevenson, who spent 5 years in the Aleutians from 920 to 1925, had reports of shrews on Unalaska, but he got no pecimens. Therefore, the original specimen and description are all we have n this species. In 1937, E. Raymond Hall had an opportunity to xamine the original specimen in the Zoological Institute of the Lcademy of Sciences in Leningrad. He has kindly furnished a opy of his notes, which are here quoted in full. ADDITIONAL EVIDENCE INDICATING THAT OREX HYDRODROMUS DOBSON IS A MEMBER OF THE SOREX ARCTICUS GROUP OF SHREWS Sorex hydrodromus Dobson from Unalaska Island, Aleutian Islands, .laska, was diagnosed in the original description (Annals and Mag. Nat. ;ist., ser. 6; vol. 4 p. 373, November 1889) as resembling Sorex vulgaris of le Old World in dental characters but resembling Neosorex in possessing vimming fringes on the digits. Jackson, who was unable to examine the I'pe specimen or topotypes, in his "A Taxonomic review of the American •ng-tailed shrews" (N. Amer. Fauna No. 51, July, 1928) tentatively assigned le species to the Sorex arcticus group, with the sugg-estion that 5. hydro- romus might be the same as Sorex hindrensis or at most subspecifically istinct. Bearing in mind the uncertainty as to the relationships of this shrew, was glad to take advantage of the opportunity which Pi'of. B. Vinogradov nd his assistant, Mr. A. J. Argyropulo, afforded me to study the type speci- len when I visited the Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences in leningrad in August 1937. The assumed type is an immature female, no. 2389, Zoological Museum of Te Academy of Sciences of Leningrad, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, allected by I. G. Vosnesensky at Unalaska, Aleutian Islands, Alaska, some 264 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE time between 1840 and 1848 (see Essig, E. 0., p. 777, "A History of Ei tomology," The Macmillan Co., New York, 1931). The specimen was preserved in alcohol, in a small jar containing r other specimen. An unattached label in the jar bears the catalogue numbe 2389, "Unalaska" and "Wosnesensky". A label on the outside of the jar beai the data given on the label inside the jar and also the words "Sorex hi drodromus type". The specimen is poorly preserved and has lost muc of the hair. From the parts preserved, it is ascertainable that the anim; was darker-colored above than below. The hairs remaining on the tail ai of the same reddish color on the top, bottom and sides of the tail. Dissei tion of the specimen revealed the uterine horns as small structures whic certainly had not recently contained young. Upon removal, the skull W£ found to have the left side of the brain case broken in and to be broken i two along the plane of the cribiform plate. Fortunately, another specimei an adult female, containing 6 embryos, 5.8 mm. in crown-rump length, take at Unalaska by Vosnesensky in 1848, is available at the Zoological Inst tute at Leningrad. This specimen, no. 2370, also an alcoholic, proved 1 have a perfect skull. Nos. 2389 and 2370, measured respectively as follows Total length, 97, 93; length of tail, 42.8, 32.6; length of hind foot, wit claws, 13.4, 12.3. Species and locality la "5 o •V to c C O o ■35 "3 5 3 t-. C3 03 £ Wear of teeth Remarks Sorex hy drodromus: Unalaska - 2389 ? yg 16.1 6.0 8.2 2.8* 4.45 5.3 None Type, bod in alcohc Sorex: Unalaska 2370 9 ad 16.0 6.3 8.0 3.2 4.7 5.6 Moderate Body in alcohol Sorer pribilofensis 2437 ?ad ? 6.1 7.8 3.2 4.8 5.55 Moderate, but less than above Coll. by Vosnes- enski * Probably least ii The hairiness c No. 39709, of th of hair on the s different. The si specimens of S. in comparison), brain case, due which, however, viewed from the longitudinal axis, above they are, which appears to ing for the lesser which magnifies When comparis iterorl )f the e Ml ides ^ull tiind las 1 n ea is sn side Als to m be I prot the i on is )ital b ; tail IS. V of b of nc rensi ess r ch ii lallei the 0, wl y ey )road usior mpre mac readth is al ert. oth 1 ). 23 s tak rotri istan in two len t e, of er, r 1 of t ssion e bet )OUt 1 ZooL, ,he f 70, c en w iding ce, I every skul le sa ider 2lativ he in of i ,weer the s fror ore- ompa nth 1 upp thin me£ s ha me t itical e to cisor ?reat Sor ame i n Ba and red ne f] er in k, to isure ve ic wo s outl its k s in er re ex p? n no rrow hind with 'om cisor the ment entic culls ine ( >ngth that lativ ibilo) 237 , Ah -feet M.V the I s an( grea take al c( are ;xcep , in speci 3 bre fensL D and Sore iska, and are not a .Z. 39710 Jnited Sta 1 a slightl; ter age of jn. Otherv )ntour in viewed fro ting in th no. 2370, e men — a cir adth. J (cat. nos X arcticui the frinfi ppreciab.l (one of tes to ui yT "flattei ' no. 231- /ise, whe' the dorsii m directli e rostrui ven allo\( cumstand 2485 an FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 265 >437 of Leningrad Acad. Sci.) from St. Paul Island, and no. 2370, the atter is seen to differ in wider (labial to lingual side) molars, seemingly Droader rostrum and certainly less continuous ridge on unicuspid. In S. oribilofensis there is a ridge continuous from the tip of the unicuspid on Jown into the cingulum without a break, whereas in no. 2370 from Unalaska ;here is a notch, or break, in this ridge where it meets the cingulum, al- ;hough the notch is shallower than in a specimen of Sorex tundrensis (no. 59710, Mus. Vert. Zool., from Barrow, Alaska ) which may be said to have I distinct notch separating the internal ridge from the cingulum. In no. 2370 the pigmentation stops short of the cingulum. The holotype of Sorex hydrodrovius agrees with no. 2370 in the presence of the notch and in the extent of the pigmentation. Nevertheless, in the holotype of hydrodromus :he molar teeth are narrower than in no. 2370 and about the same width IS in Sorex pribilofensis. My conclusion is that Sorex hydrodromus is a recognizable kind (species )r subspecies) of Sorex best placed in the arcticus group. In structure of jnicuspids it bridges the gap between S. tundrensis and S. pribilofensis. If specimens from the base of the Alaska Peninsula are morphologically intermediate between S. hydrodromus and populations of S. tundrensis east )f the base of the Alaska Peninsula, perhaps S. hydrodromus should be created as only subspecifically distinct from S. tundrensis — otherwise as 1 full species. To judge from measurements (published by Ognev in Vol. 1 of his "Mammals of the U. S. S. R.", 1928) of the various subspecies of Sorex ultimus, S. hydrodromus is a smaller animal. In a further communication, Hall expressed the opinion that hydrodromus probably should rank as a full species rather than as a subspecies. In that connection, it is interesting to note that from Unalaska to the Bristol Bay region there are hundreds of miles of territory from which no specimens of saddle-backed shrews have been taken. This would indicate ample isolation on Unalaska for the formation of a species. Sorex obscurus: Dusky Shrew iorex obscurus shumaginens'is \Jna\aska:Chichimukthah (Wetmore) In southwestern Alaska, this shrew has a range that is roughly 3oextensive with that of S. c. hollisteri. About 200 specimens are available in the Fish and Wildlife Service collection, some of which are from the following localities : Nushagak River, Kakwok, Lake Aleknagik, Ugaguk River, Dillingham, Cold Bay, Becharof Lake, Katmai, Chignik, King Cove, Morzhovoi Bay, Port Moller, Frosty Peak, Izembek Bay, Unimak Island, and the Shumagins. In 1937, on Sanak Island, I obtained a shrew that proved to be shumaginensis. In the field, we noted that this shrew was about as abundant as hollisteri, and that it inhabited grassy areas ^nd wet places. Wetmore reported it to be especially abundant along little streams. 266 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE At Sanak Island, where this shrew is common and is known as the "pig-nosed mouse," it readily enters buildings. It is of considerable interest that S. o. shuniaginensis occurs ori island groups, such as the Shumagins and Sanak, while speci mens of S. c. hollisteH have not been obtained from such localities apparently being confined to the Alaska Peninsula and Unimak The picture may change, however, with more extensive fiek work. At present, we have no specimens of shrews from th( Kodiak-Afognak group. Mlcrosorex boyi: Pigmy Shrew Microsorex hoy] eximius Only 2 specimens of this rare shrew have been obtained in thii district — one was taken by Maddren on the south branch o; Chulitna River (west of Lake Clark), and another was taken 8(i miles up the Kakwok River. I Family VESPERTIUONIDAE Myofis ludfugus: Little Brown Bat Myotis ludfugus alascensis We saw no bats on any of our expeditions, but Osgood (1904) mentions seeing several of them, presumed to be this form, aj Iliamna Village and near the head of Lake Clark, in July. Tru observed at this time were very sluggish, still fat, and apparently did not require large quantities of food. A local guide said thai he once found a bear sleeping on a snow patch, and the trail lead- ing to the bear had thawed away. The guide believed that bears sometimes remain several days in one spot. In early spring, the bears remain high in the mountains, in thej upper valleys, among the rocky ledges and high snowfields, as well as in the lava beds. During May and early June, there is still much snow in the mountains, especially in scattered deej drifts, and the weather is often cold and stormy. But the bears are immune to such weather and generally are seen resting or exposed rocky ledges or snow banks. This is their habitat unti' at least the middle of June, though a few may appear in th( lowlands much earlier. Bear trails were found on the slopes oi Pavlof Volcano and on many of the high ridges, as well as on th( glacier in the shadow of Aghileen Pinnacles. For the most part, the spring diet consists of grass and roots • varied occasionally by a ground squirrel. The stomach of a mak killed on May 24 contained a ground squirrel, various roots, anc a mass of Equisetum (horsetail), A large male killed on May 3C had only a handful of roots in the stomach. The stomach of i.\ female killed on June 3 was empty, but the intestines containeci a considerable amount of grass. At this time of year, there is little else for the bears to eat, unless they occasionally find somt carrion. When the salmon ascend the streams in June, the bears seem tc subsist largely on salmon. However, they do not entirely forsake the highlands. Long trails leading back to the highlands show the routes of travel down to the salmon streams, though thd bears often sleep near the streams, in the alder thickets. Thd bears scoop out beds along the banks, and sometimes pile \x\\ moss and other vegetation to form a mattress. We found one such structure at Izembek Bay, and, in 1911, Wetmore describee a similar heap found at Morzhovoi Bay, at a salmon pool: "Or the bank above this was a curious bed of moss and grass dugi up from the ground around piled up a foot deep and twelve^ feet square. Below it were smaller ones freshly made about twci feet square and all padded down as though bruin had been sitting on them." I have observed a bear capturing salmon only once. It tooti place in July 1925, when I was photographing a bear that was r.ttempting to dig out a ground squirrel. The bear seemed to hi FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 271 azy, and after a short time he stopped digging and ambled over ;o a shallow stream near my place of concealment. He splashed loisily through the stream and ran through some shallow riffles yhere he seized two or three of the swarming salmon with his ;eeth. In some streams there were deep pools that showed claw marks )n the bottoms and sides far underwater. Evidently, these narks were made by bears that were fishing, but the method of ;apturing salmon in such places was not observed. In autumn, when berries ripen, a new food supply becomes ivailable. On Unimak Island, the bears then seek the salmon- )erry thickets and feed on the ripe fruit. Many other berries are ;aten also. Osgood (1904) mentions crowberry (Empetrum iig7'U'm), which are eaten in "great quantities," and various .pecies of Vaccinium. There were indications that roots and grass ire eaten in the fall, and it was reported that bears occasionally ire seen on the beach, where they probably would eat anything ^dible that had washed ashore. Bears are always on the lookout for carrion. Some caribou carcasses appeared to have been eaten by bears, but there was 10 indication that the brown bear will kill caribou under normal ;ircumstances, A striking feature of the brown-bear country is the character- stic bear trail. In marshy ground, the bear trail forms a well- narked path, in which a man can sink to the ankles. But on firm ground, on the higher mossy tundra, the trail consists of two well- lefined ruts with a high center. In one instance, where the trail ed over a slight embankment, the ruts had been worn so deeply hat the bear's chest had rubbed on the high hump between the uts. The bear had literally "high-centered." One often finds a trail in which individual footprints are pre- served. Each bear has carefully stepped in the tracks of his )redecessors until the well-worn trail becomes a zig-zag series •f holes. It was only with great effort that I could step far •nough to walk in these tracks. This type of trail was usually ound in the vicinity of a large boulder, where a bear was ac- •ustomed to lurk, or where the trail led to a den or some other ocal point of interest. The trails with uniform ruts generally xtended for long distances. Occasionally, an abandoned trail is evidenced by clumps of :rass that have found a foothold in the disturbed ground in ach footstep. Griggs (1922) mentions an interesting bear trail n the volcanic ash of Katmai, in which drifting grass seeds had odged and taken root in the individual footprints. 272 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Much has been written about the ferocity of the Alaska brow bear. The great strength of the bear cannot be doubted, bi danger from this bear is dependent upon its disposition at given moment. There have been some disastrous encounter with this huge beast, but a detailed analysis of such cases wi not be attempted here. However, during my experience on Alasl<: Peninsula there was not a single instance when the bear did m try to get away, even when wounded. One bear that was photn graphed at close range, a matter of some 30 or 40 feet, starts for the photographer at the sound of the shutter, and I mus admit considerable nervousness at the time, but it was obviou that he was advancing out of curiosity. The bear fled when w shouted and brandished a rifle vigorously. On the same day, an other bear, coming slowly along a trail straight for the cameri heard the camera at close range and stopped. This bear wj* more suspicious and walked off reluctantly, obviously puzzlei In neither case did I wish to shoot, unless it was unavoidabli Indeed, except for a head shot, it might have been dangeron to shoot at such close range. Apparently, some residents of Unimak Island had little fei>. of the brown bear. Arthur Neumann related that on one o casion he had forced a group of bears into the rough water ' Swanson Lagoon on a stormy day to watch them struggle } the choppy waves. The Alaska brown bear deserves respect aiid should be a i proached carefully, because it can cause considerable damage in a few moments even after being shot through the heart. It [ best to realize that although this bear is not particularly viciois it is very curious and is likely to investigate anything unusu; The bear's eyesight is not good, which may account for its cloli approach at times. | An interesting incident occurred on the slope of Pavlof MouD tain. A companion and I sighted several bears high on a slon At the first shot, the largest bear rolled downhill, obviously sht in the head (incidently, this was a regrettable shot because t i bear was wanted for a specimen). Three other bears follow ji the rolling carcass, pell-mell, and it was apparent that they wef yearling cubs that were instinctively following the mother. T A mother rolled by very near us, and dropped off a small cliff J that point. The three young bears followed headlong, and \^ could hear them grunting, but at the very brink of the litU cliff they suddenly braced themselves and stopped. After detour, they approached the dead bear farther down the sloife FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 273 it suddenly they became frightened and fled. Either the death ' the mother, or our scent, had frightened them. Upon exami- ition, it was discovered that there was a small amount of milk the udders of the mother. Next day, the cubs were seen again I the same mountain slopes; they were wary and seemed able . shift for themselves. It has been said that the female brown bear has cubs only ^ery other year, or only over an interval of three years. This ay be true, for the female mentioned above had no young cubs at year, and there may be some irregularity and individual iriation in the breeding cycle. The young number from two to lur; two are the usual number. According to some reports from the western end of Alaska eninsula, brown bears may go into hibernation in December, as te as Christmas. Osgood (1904), speaking of the base of the 3ninsula, on the authority of natives there, said that they go to hibernation early in November, and even in October, but he Ids that the time of hibernation may vary with the severity ' the weather. They occasionally may emerge during the winter. Brown bears find dens in the lava rocks. I was told of several ich caves at the north base of Shishaldin Volcano on Unimak ;land. They are said to extend for a disance of as much as )0 feet. In 1925, I explored such a cave in a lava bed near lishaldin. It formed an underground tunnel some 30 or 40 feet ng and proved to be unoccupied at the time, though there were jge footprints on the floor. sus arctos m'lddendorffl This has been assumed to be the largest of all the Alaska brown ^ars, though Merriam, in his monograph on these animals, sug- ?sts that the peninsula bear may be fully as large. With in- )rmation at hand, we are not in a position to decide. This bear occupies the Kodiak-Afognak Island group, ap- irently including some of the smaller islands. E. M. Ball, of fognak, writing to Barton W. Evermann, of the Bureau of isheries, January 10, 1914, says — is true that the brown bear is found on Shuyak and Raspberry Islands, well as Afognak. The east end of Raspberry Straits is very narrow id shallow and is often dry during heavy ebb-tides so that bears can OSS from one island to the other without entering the water. It is highly •obable that they swim across these straits. Presumably there are only few bears on Raspberry at this time. On Shuyak, however, bears are mparatively plentiful, and the number is believed to be fairly constant ; local hunters seldom go that far for them. Shuyak Straits are narrow ough deep, and there may be some travel to and from Afognak Island. 274 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Bears should have no difficulty reaching any of these island because residents of Unimak Island stated that bears have bed' known to swim across Isanotski Strait, from the Alaska Penii sula. I have not had firsthand experience with this Kodiak bear, bi undoubtedly its habits are quite similar to those of the Alasli Peninsula bears. At times, the bears have interfered with dl mestic stock raising on Kodiak Island, but I have no recent i: formation, and there is no report based on consistent study i the question. Thalarcfos maritimus: Polar Bear Thalarctos marifimus mariflmus Information on the occurrence of the polar bear in the Aleuti? district is vague and unsatisfactory. In volume 2 of "Voyages > Captain James Cook", mention is made of white bear skins se< in Prince William Sound, in May 1778. Evermann (1922) lis the polar bear among the marine mammals of the Pacific. Th( have been known to occur on the Pribilofs, and Preble and McAt^ ( 1923) quote W. L. Hahn to the effect that the latter had found j the St. Paul Island log, "under date of September 20, 1874, {j entry stating that a party visited the cave on Bogoslof and brougi back a bear skull known to have been there since the time of tl, first occupation of the island." | This is the most definite record we have for the Aleutian dil trict, though St. Paul is several hundred miles north of the chai Polar bears could visit the Aleutians or Alaska Peninsula only ) > means of ice floes drifting south — no doubt this is possible, but : would be a rare occurrence. Family PROCYONIDAE Procyon lofor: Raccoon Turner (1886) reported, "I have heard, on what I considt reliable authority, that the Raccoon is not uncommon in t|i south portions of the Alaskan mainla,nd." ' Such occurrence has not been substantiated. However, in 19ci it was learned that A. W. Bennett and A. C. Bryant wee operating a blue-fox farm on Long Island, near Kodiak. A nu:i: ber of years previously they had stocked the little island wi ; raccoons from Wisconsin, Minnesota, Michigan, and North Tf kota. In the years 1932, 1933, and 1934, dead raccoons had bef FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 275 ound at intervals on the island. In a single year, 12 to 15 dead ■accoons were found, as well as some sick ones — the sick ones apparently were paralyzed, dragging the hind quarters. There were still a few raccoons at large on Long Island in 1936. Family MUSTELIDAE Varies amer'icana: Marten iartes amer'icana acfuosa Indian or Aleut (?), Iliamna Village: Kcheegocha (Osgood) Russian: So-bel (Buxton) Osgood (1904) reported the marten as being scarce at the base •f Alaska Peninsula. We have, indeed, very few records of it. rhere are five skulls from Kakhtul River in the Fish and Wildlife )ervice collection that were taken by Hanna in 1912. Naturally, hese animals are confined to forested areas and would not be ound far out on Alaska Peninsula. Nelson (1887) says marten occur on Kodiak Island, but I have lot seen specimens from there. 4usfela erminea: Weasel ^usfela erminea arctica Aleut (dialect?) : Samikakh (Geoghegan) Aleut Iliamna Village: Amectahduk (Osgood) Indian, Iliamna Village: Tahkiak and Kahoolcheenah (Osgood) Russian: Gor-no-stai-e (Buxton) Hall (1951) has placed the weasels in three groups: The least ^'easels, rixosa; the long-tailed weasels, frenata; and the short- ailed weasels, erminea. Accordingly, the weasel of Alaska Penin- ula becomes Mustela erminea arctica. These weasels occur throughout the entire length of the Alaska 'eninsula and Unimak Island, as well as the Kodiak-Afognak .roup. They are common on Unimak Island but have not been ound on any islands farther west. Specimens have been obtained t the following localities: Nushagak, 1 by Osgood; Ugashik liver, 6 by McKay, and 1 by Hanna ; Kakwok River, 1 by Hanna ; .ake Aleknagik, 1 by Hanna; Lake Weelooluk, 1 by Hanna; >echarof Lake, 3 by Osgood and Maddren ; Chignik, 7 by J. Oliver ; '>osty Peak, 1 by Wetmore ; Unimak Island, 1 each by Gardner, ^lurie, and Beals. Crabb (1922) reports a specimen from Pavlof Bay. No doubt, here are other specimens, obtained by various collectors, that I lave not examined. 276 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 6 1 , FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Weasels are reported to occur on Kodiak Island, but specimer were not available. Jack Benson, agent of the Alaska Game Con mission, in a report dated June 30, 1940, commented that wease on Kodiak and Afognak were not as plentiful that year. In 193i on a visit to Kodiak and Afognak Islands, we were assured thj weasels occur there, and we were shown a photograph of a 11^ weasel as proof. Musfela rixosa: Least Weasel Musiela rixosa r'lxosa Though this little weasel has been seldom observed in th area, it is known to occur as far west as Unimak Island. In 192 a trapper informed me that he had caught a least weasel ne^ Izembek Bay and had intended sending it to the Biological Surve, but he said that the specimen had been neglected and lost. In 1941, Beals reported that this weasel, though not plentif' on Unimak Island, is known to most of the residents there. I: saw one at St. Catherine Cove and another at False Pass; tl latter was taken for a specimen. This animal was seen trying i capture snow buntings, but it was not successful. Musfela v'ison: Mink Musfela vison ingens Aleut, Morzhovoi Bay: Illigitookh (Wetmore) ; ilgitukh (Geoghegan) Aleut (?), Iliamna Village: E'jwac/m^/ioof^H/c (Osgood) Egegik: Kochcheechuk (Osgood) Kenai: Yarkeechah (Osgood) This is assumed to be the form occupying the Alaska Peninsul Hollister (1913) says: "Though specimens from the Alaska Pei insula are placed with ingeyis, these show an approach towai melampeplus." Evidently, the mink occurs throughout the lengll of the peninsula and on Unimak Island. Specimens, mostly skul but also a few skins, are available from various localities : Kak] i tul, 2; Kakwok, 1; Kakwok River, 7; Lake Weelooluk, 5; Lall Aleknagik, 1 ; Becharof Lake and between Portage Bay ar i Becharof Lake, 73; Cold Bay, 3; Stepovak Bay, 1; Chignik an Chignik Bay, 2; Frosty Peak, 1. No specimens are availab from Unimak Island, but mink are known to occur there, f< trappers mention their occurrence as a matter of course. ]i 1925, a trapper told me that he had trapped six minks at Uril i Bay in the winter of 1924-25. In 1936, another trapper i Unimak Island remarked that minks were increasing in number and, in 1941, Beals saw mink tracks at False Pass and neighbo ing localities. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 277 On July 21, 1925, I saw a mink at Moffet Cove, Izembek Bay. n 1911, Wetmore had seen proof of the presence of mink at /[orzhovoi Bay, Frosty Peak, and King Cove. In 1936, we were informed at Afognak that there are mink n that island, but Jack Benson, of the Alaska Game Commis- ion, reported in 1940 that there are no mink on the Kodiak- ifognak group. It is of interest to note that a blue-fox farm n Long Island (near Kodiak) has released mink. I have not seen specimens from the Kodiak-Afognak group, md there are no records of mink west of Unimak. 7ulo luscus: Wolverine Aleut (dialect?) : Khachimaijughnakh (Geoghegan) Russian, Siberia: Rus-so-makah (Buxton) The wolverine never becomes abundant, being largely a solitary mimal, but it occurs throughout the length of Alaska Peninsula md on Unimak Island. There are wolverine skulls in the Fish and tVildlife Service collection from upper Nushagak River, from the irea between Portage Bay and Becharof Lake, from Chignik, and from Frosty Peak. Allen (1903) describes a specimen taken at Oksenof Bay, Unimak Island. In 1925, I found evidence of wolverines at the west end of A.laska Peninsula. A wolverine was seen on May 25 on a ridge ivest of Aghileen Pinnacles, and, on June 3, another was seen north of Aghileen Pinnacles high on a rocky slope. Wolverine tracks were seen on several occasions, and a wolverine, identi- fied by tracks, was noted as having fed on a brown bear carcass — it had carried off a foreleg. In 1925, it was reported that wolverines were extremely scarce on Unimak Island. By means of extensive inquiries, Donald Stevenson had estimated that over a 20-year period before 1925, four male wolverines had been killed on Unimak Island. How- ever, in 1936, we saw tracks on the beach at Ikatan, and, in 1941, Beals and Longworth stated that wolverines were plentiful on Unimak. They saw their tracks "on practically all the beaches from Swanson Lagoon to Banjo Bay." On January 13, they watched a wolverine foraging along the beach at Ikatan, and, on April 22, they saw a very dark animal, almost black, high on a mountain on Ikatan Peninsula. It was reported that a wolverine, killed near Pavlof Mountain, had small rock fragments embedded in the skin of the head and neck. The hair was gone from these spots, but the skin had healed perfectly. It was surmised that these pieces of rock could 278 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 6 1 , FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE have been small fragments of lava material' from an eruptioi of Mount Pavlof. Lutra canadensis: Otter Lufra canadensis yukonensJs Aleut: Ahkweeah (Osgood) Morzhovoi Bay: akhmjakh (Geoghegan) Aleut, Ahkweyikh (Wetmore) Russian: Nee-drah (Buxton) This mustelid species ranges throughout the length of Alaska Peninsula and Unimak Island, but we have no records farther west. Wetmore reported that they were partial to salt water a!( well as fresh, "frequently swimming boldly out to the islands^ lying off the coast." In 1925, I learned that a local trapper had caught 10 otters a Urilia Bay in the winter of 1924-25, Lufra canadensis kodiacensis Goldman (1935) distinguished the Kodiak otter from the maim land form. The type is a skull from Uyak Bay, Kodiak Islandl collected by C. Hart Merriam in 1899. There are a number o other skulls from the same island. Otters occur on both Kodial( and Afognak Islands, and in 1936, we saw a number of ottei skins at Afognak Village. Enhydra lufris: Sea Otter Enhydra lufris lufris Attu: Chach-toch Caxtux (Jochelson) Atka: Ching-d-tho Cna-tux (Jochelson) Morzhovoi Bay (dialect?) : Chngatukh (geoghegan) ; Chgatluk (Wetmore' Base of Alaska Peninsula: Ahchgh-nahchgh (Osgood) Kodiak: Ach-an-ah (King) Kwakiutl Indian: Kas-uh (Dawson) Russian: Bobr Morskoi (Steller) , "sea beaver" Bobry, adult males Matka, females Koschloki, 1-year-olds Medviedki, "little bears" — cubs The northern sea otter is described as being larger than thi»| southern sea otter of the California coast, E. I. nereis. I collectet a single specimen at Ogliuga Island on August 4, 1937. It was aij old male, weighing 80 pounds, and its measurements, in milli meters, were as follows: Total length, 1,390; length of tai vertebrae, 315; and length of hind foot, 242. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 279 The sea otter is stockier than the land otter, Lutra canadenis, id has acquired other special modifications. Its specialized food abits (discussed later) do not call for great agility, and this ay be one reason for the development of a heavier, somewhat ss streamlined body than the ancestral form — if we may assume le ancestral form to be similar to that of the present-day Lutra. ut the sea otter has become more aquatic than its ancestors, ith much less dependence on land, and it has developed seal-like ippers on its hind feet. Its front feet, on the other hand, appear I have responded to a specialized use in handling sea urchins id hard shells of mollusks that make up its principal food, he soles of the front feet have become very thick hard pads, id the toes have more or less coalesced — judging by the speci- en examined in detail (mentioned above) the toes are hardly mctional as separate digits. The claws have become very weak id pale colored and are placed well up on the dorsal surface of le toes. They probably have little use. The whole structure of le front paw indicates that it is used largely for resisting abra- on from hard sea urchins and shells; it seems incapable of lanual dexterity. In fact, the animal seems incapable of hold- Lg anything in one "hand." Yet, I have watched sea otters ceding and have seen them use one paw to toss away, with a )rward motion, an unwanted fragment of shell or other sub- ;ance. Possibly it was only "pushed" away. (Karl W. Kenyon, Figure 42. — Sea otter. 280 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE in correspondence in 1957, writes that a subadult female in t Seattle Zoo is very dexterous. It uses its front digits almost li fingers in grooming and feeding operations.) It is well known that the molariform teeth have been greal modified for a special diet, and have departed strikingly frc the mustelid type. Instead of the teeth having a shearing fur| tion, they are used for crushing, and have taken a bunodo form. A most interesting feature of the sea otter dentition is t prevalence of cavities in the molariform teeth. Among the moi or less fragmentary skulls and jaws found in Aleut village sit* a considerable percentage of the teeth had cavities, large aii small. E. M. Fisher (1941) has given a detailed discussion this and other features of the sea otter's dentition, and s ' intimates that rather active evolutionary changes may be taki:, place. She suggests that the difference in diet between ti southern and northern sea otter may account for the great prevalence of cavities in the teeth of the northern form. As i terpreted by Fisher, the dental formula of the adult would be I 1,2,3-Cl-Pm 2,3,4-Ml ^o^oo I 1,2 -Cl-Pm 2,3,4-Ml,2 ' The sea otter is generally dark brown, with considerable var: tion, although this variation may be due to age. Some old ai mals, as typified by the old male obtained by the writer at Ogliu Island, are a dull, dark brown, becoming black on legs, but wi a pale-brown head and neck — this pale coloration extends do^l on the chest, where it becomes almost straw-colored. The und; side of the tail is paler than the body. White hairs are sprinkl throughout the pelage. In most of the darker animals the silvery hairs become more conspicuous. The younger adults ai much darker, often blackish, with fine, lustrous fur. The young pups are a very light brown. In every case, frc the pup to the grizzled old male, the head and neck is paler th.i the body, and this difference is accentuated in the very old onm General Habits There is a voluminous literature on the habits of the sea otb^i much of it largely repetition of what was reported by the earli( f observers, including Steller. Only in the last few years have ^^ begun to study the sea otter in any great detail, and there S much to learn. Therefore, I will not attempt to give a compif hensive life history of this interesting mammal. Of chief interest to the biologist is the fact that this member P the weasel family has resorted to a marine environment and hji FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 281 3ne a long way in adapting itself to a strictly aquatic life. It interesting to note that, according to reports, the "land otter" I the Aleutian district readily takes to salt water at times ; ap- arently, this also is true of the otter of Great Britain. The sea otter spends most of its time in the water. When ■ishing to sleep, it simply lies on its back and dozes, sometimes 'ith a strand or two of kelp across the body serving as an an- lor, whether intentional or not. When feeding, the animal dives 3r its food, then lies on its back to eat, using its chest for a ible. On specimens from Alaska that were examined, the hair a the chest was somewhat worn, no doubt through this use in 9eding. When the little pup wishes to sleep, it curls up on the lother's abdomen, and both mother and offspring lie quiescent n the water. The offspring also climbs aboard the mother to urse. When startled, the mother puts an arm around the little one nd dives with it. On some occasions, the mother seemed to pat ^le little one on the head first, as if by this patting or pushing lotion she were warning it of the impending immersion. This ^as never clearly seen, however, and it needs to be verified. If lerely worried or suspicious, the mother seizes the pup with her rm and swims away with it. Generally, when startled, the sea otter rises erect in the water or a better view of the intruder before diving. It swims readily n its back, as well as on its belly. In fact, the observer soon :ains the impression that the sea otter spends most of its life ioating on its back. The sea otter does come ashore, however, and there are favorite auling-out places for certain individuals. One or more mothers lay climb out on a kelp-covered rock, with their youngsters, 7here they squirm about and fondle their little ones and end- essly dress their fur. Sometimes a pup will wander off to the rater, or will be reluctant to climb out on the rock. Then the lother persistently forces him, nudging and pushing, until he omplies with her desire to haul out on the rocks. Occasionally, , male will join the group. We also saw lone individuals, ap- )arently adult males, curled up on a rock, where they may lie ong enough for the fur to dry. Even here, they appear restless, md may raise their heads to look about, yawn, rub their faces vith their paws, or otherwise dress their fur. It is reported that sea otters go ashore in times of severe tornis, but that sometimes they succumb in heavy surf on the •eefs. 282 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Reproduction Sea otter breeding was observed once in Aleutian waters. ] ; took place in the water, as the pair rolled over and over, some ■ times being at the surface, sometimes underneath, the male grasf ■ ing the female at the head with his teeth. This was on July 2c 1936, at a time when the female had a small dependent pup. Th pup had been left at the outer edge of the kelp patch, where i swam about calling for its mother. This circumstance indicate' that the female may breed in successive years. Scammon (1874 remarks that the gestation period is supposed to be 8 or 9 monthj Probably it is fully that long. Many observers agree that breeding may take place at almost any time of the year, because young of different ages can bl seen at any season. Fisher (1940) appears to have definitel noted this during her research on the California sea otter. It i known that the young are born on the kelp beds, but in Alaska waters, /where kelp beds disappear during the winter, the pre cedure is uncertain. Herendeen (1892) claims that the youn are born at sea — he did not mention kelp beds. Food Habits It is well established that the northern sea otter feeds largelj on sea urchins, and that this diet is supplemented by considerablj quantities of mollusks, including mussels, chitons, limpets, snailf and others ; and with lesser quantities of crabs, octopuses, an : other items — fish play a minor role in the diet. More detaile; analyses of the diet of the northern sea otter are given bi Williams (1938), Barabash-Nikiforov (1935), and Murie (1940) Although the sea otter has, to a large extent, forsaken fish ai an important item in the diet, apparently it still enjoys such foo; on occasion. Chase Little John (1916) reports an interesting inc • dent: A sea otter was seen approaching his ship, but it divec Presently, a fisherman pulled in a codfish and, as the fish cam: to the surface, the sea otter was seen clasping it in its paws. One feature of the feeding habits deserves special mention because it involves the use of tools. It was first seen in deta 1 in California (Fisher 1939, and Murie 1940). Briefly stated, th: sea otter dove for food and when it came to the surface th; observer saw a rock lying on its chest or abdomen. The animj,^ held a small mussel (or whatever the food morsel might be it such instances) in both paws and pounded it on the rock t: break it. When feeding, the sea otter has a habit of rolling own occasionally in a complete turn, then continuing with its repasj Sometimes, it performs this roll with a rock and mollusk boti FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 283 n the chest. Naturally, it must clasp both of these objects to :s body during the roll, but it does this very adroitly and asually, and it continues unconcerned with its meal. lortality Factors The natural mortality factors affecting the sea otter are almost nknown. The northern bald eagle has been suspected of preying n young sea otters, and it is possible that this may occur on are occasions. But it is notable that in our study of the food abits of this eagle (see under that species), not a single in- tance of such predation was found upon examination of eagle ests in the center of abundance of sea otters. It was concluded lat eagle predation on the sea otter must be negligible. Two mammals, the sea lion and the killer whale, have fre- uently been mentioned as sea otter enemies, but we had little pportunity to verify this. We rarely saw these animals near ny sea otters, and although occasionally we saw killer whales ruising by the outer edge of a kelp bed, we could not identify ;s prey. However, the killer whale is known to eat fur seals, lierefore it is reasonable to suppose that it will pick up a sea tter when the opportunity is presented. At any rate, the sea tter has demonstrated in recent years that it can increase in umbers and extend its range when it is protected from human unters. Identification, and degree of predation, of its natural nemies must be determined by thorough scientific study. It is a well-known fact that dead sea otters occasionally are ^ashed up on the beach. On our expeditions, we found a number f skeletons on the beaches, from which blue foxes or eagles, or oth, had eaten the flesh. It is said that a sea otter sometimes Liccumbs in the heavy surf in winter. Pups, as well as large dults, are included in casualties thus recorded on the beach. In le postwar years a higher mortality rate has become evident nd many dead sea otters have been found. The cause is not yet nown. From the evolutionary standpoint, the sea otter seems to be in Q intermediate or transitional stage. The peculiar dental spe- ialization has been mentioned, as well as the prevalence of cavi- es in the molariform series. These cavities are present in fresh pecimens as well as in remains from old Aleut village middens, isher (1940) has reported an instance of gastric perforations 1 a sea otter found dead on a California beach. One cannot refrain from speculating whether the specializa- on in food, which involves hard and sharp mollusk shells, tests nd spines of sea urchins, barnacles, and similar materials that 284 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE are ingested together with the soft digestible parts, are causin; the sea otter some difficulty. Do some individuals succum': through injuries caused by such materials? How are the tissue responding to the demands for taking care of such rough fare? It is obvious that the sea otter does not meticulously select onl; the soft parts. Apparently, it relies on crushing the shells wit its teeth (and the teeth have developed enormously to meet th need) and then proceeds to swallow a considerable portion oi shells, tests, and spines. Even the byssus of the mussel, oftei with pieces of stone or coral attached, is swallowed. In one in stance, pebbles made up 21.8 percent of the contents of one scaii All such material passes through the alimentary tract, therefor it would not be surprising if serious injury occasionally resultec It would be interesting to know how many of the sea otter washed up on the beach in Alaska have internal injuries simila to the gastric perforations reported by Miss Fisher. On the other hand, from the standpoint of the sea otter popuh tion as a whole, the organism appears to be coping with the d( mands successfully. Rate of reproduction is slow — one young pe year — yet, when released from the pressure of the fur trade, th sea otter has multiplied rapidly. Distribution and Numbers It is well known that in primitive times the northern sea ottej ranged along all of the southern Alaskan coast, including th Aleutian chain and Alaska Peninsula. It ranged southward, ev dently intergrading with the southern form at some unknow point, and the southern form ranged from this point southwar: as far as the coast of Baja California. The northern sea ottei also occurred in the Commander Islands and southward into tin Kurile Island chain, and they were numerous about the Pribikl Islands. Littlejohn (1916) reported schools of 400 sea otteii in the early days of hunting along the Kuriles. The decline of the sea otter population is a striking instamt of the near extinction of a species through unregulated comme:l- cial exploitation. Before the coming of the white man, sea otteis were extremely numerous and the skin was used by the Aleuu for clothing and (according to the chief of Atka Village) for i lining of the interior of their underground huts. We found Alei 1 mummies in a cave on Kagamil Island that \\ ere wrapped, in par r. in sea otter skins. When the Pribilofs were first visited, the sea otters were abui;- dant. Preble and McAfee (1923), quoting Elliott and Littlejohr (1916), state that 5,000 sea otters were killed in the first year d FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 285 3upation of the Pribilofs. Veniaminof, speaking of the Pribilofs, ited that the animals became scarce in 1811, and that they ■re extinct 30 years later (Preble and McAfee 1923). In the Aleutian district, the Russians found a rich harvest of a, otter furs and exploited it vigorously. Without citing the luminous statistics on the shiploads of furs sent back to Rus- i, let it suffice to say that the sea otter population could not md up under the continued excessive harvest. History tells that the Russians, sensing the end of a lucrative industry, at- npted to regulate the killing of sea otters. But a new compli- tion had entered the picture. Trading ships from the south d discovered this great fur resource — Americans, French, and lers. Although the Russians could impose regulations on their m people, they found it hard to deal with this new foreign in- ,x. The sea otters continued to decline in numbers and probably ached their low point shortly after 1900. When almost all were stroyed, protection was finally granted. For years, the few remaining sea otters found a refuge in the leutians. Their status was hidden in the fog and mystery of is seldom-visited island chain, and for years naturalists feared at this animal species had disappeared from American fauna. But, as mentioned above, complete protection had finally be- me a reality, and it soon became evident that the animal had rvived in sufficient numbers to perpetuate itself. In spite of casional poaching, in 1936 we found substantial sea otter popu- tions in several places throughout the Aleutian chain, and we ade a conservative estimate of at least 2,000, Most heartening all, they were extending their range, not only in the Aleutians, it also along Alaska Peninsula. However, on our last visit to mak Islands the sea otters had not reappeared, although at one ne this area was one of the best sea otter hunting territories .ince our visit, five sea otters have been seen). The range of the sea otter raises a puzzling point. There ems to be a difference of opinion as to the distance that the sea ter will venture from land. It is generally believed, and observa- 3ns bear this out, that sea otters normally will live close to ore where they find their food in comparatively shallow water, et, there are reports of sea otters being seen far out at sea. a our expeditions, we never saw any of these animals far from nd. However, at one time sea otters were numerous in the I'ibilof Islands, and they must have made a long sea journey to ach these islands. After World War II, it was found that sea ters had increased still more and had extended their range. 286 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Littlejohn (1916) believed that sea otters live on squids wh( far from land. He did not think that the otter could dive deepc than 60 fathoms, and because its normal sea-bottom diet was n< available, it ate squid. Sea Otter Hunting At the height of the commercial exploitation of the sea otte^ a number of hunting methods were used. The Russians utilize^ the skilled Aleuts for this purpose. The various methods ha^ often been described, and the subject will be only briefly me:^ tioned here. One method was to spear the animal from the native boat. Se< eral boats would surround the animal and keep it diving repea' edly until it was exhausted. In the ijieantime, spears were thro"v\ until the animal was dead or helpless. Later, when the rifle w; used, three boats would surround the otter, according to Littl John (1916). Here, too, the object was to keep the otter divh quickly, to prevent a long dive, until someone could manage { effective shot. A dead sea otter will float, which insures recovery of an anim^ killed by any type of weapon. It is reported, also, that sea ottej were sometimes clubbed to death on reefs or rocky shores, whe i they had taken refuge from severe storms. At such times, tl noise of the wind and surf would drown out any sound of ai proach by the hunter, Littlejohn (Hall 1945, p. 90) has describ how natives would creep around on the rocks during dark nighi feel for the otters, then club them on the head. | Nets also were used. These nets were set in favorable loc' tions frequented by sea otters, and, according to Littlejohn, th i were very effective. The encouragement of natives to secure sea otter skins on large scale, promiscuous hunting by whites (who outfitted shi for that purpose) , combined with pelagic sealing, produced a lart and profitable fur harvest for many years. Sea Otter Management The return of the sea otter in satisfactory numbers, at a tir when we are being made conscious of wildlife management, mal^ : the subject especially pertinent. In the case of the sea otter, ti first step in management was to provide protection, and to €' courage spread to all of its ancestral range. This process is mp under way. From what we know of the food habits of the s? otter, the food supply should be ample to support a large pop^ lation without artificial manipulation. | Apparently, the Russians are experimenting with, and stuc'i FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 287 ig, the sea otter of the Commander Islands (May 1943), and t is said that the Japanese have been managing the sea otters f the Kurile Islands on a commercial basis. The southern sea tter is increasing along the California coast. All in all, this titeresting animal has already regained much of its lost range, nd it can be assumed that it has attained a lasting place in the !L.merican fauna. Family CANIDAE ulpes fulva: Red Fox ulpes fulva a/ascens/s Aleut, Morzhovoi Bay: Ikowiikh (Wetmore) From vocabulary compiled by R. H. Geoghegan at Valdez in 1903: Ikhaching Russian: Lec-see-sha (Buxton) Russian, Siberia; See-way -doos-ka (cross fox) The red fox is plentiful throughout the Alaska Peninsula and is ound on the eastern Aleutian Islands. Unimak Island, in particu- ar, has a large fox population, and the species occurs also on Lkun, Unalaska, Umnak, Chuginadak, Amlia, Adak, Kanaga, nd Sanak Islands. Foxes occur on Dolgoi, which was utilized or commercial fox propagation — it is possible that the fox origi- lated here in that fashion. Great Sitkin, also, was said to have ad some red foxes. Those on Amlia and Adak Islands are the ilver-gray color phase. Kellogg (1936) found bones of the red fox to be one of the lost abundant mammal remains in Aleut middens on Kodiak sland. The westward expansion of the red fox, in its various color hases, on the Aleutian chain is uncertain, but it certainly must ave occupied the easternmost group of islands. General histori- al accounts give us a few clues. In his "History of Alaska, 730-1885," Bancroft (p. 120) states that in 1758 Glottof started or the Aleutians, and wintered at Bering Island. The following ummer, he arrived at an unknown island, probably Umnak, inhere he remained* for 3 years. He returned with a cargo of urs, including the black foxes from the Aleutian Islands. The hipment included 11 sea otters, 280 sea otter tails, 1,002 black oxes, 1,100 cross foxes, 400 red foxes, 22 walrus tusks, and 58 lue foxes. Again (p. 154), Bancroft remarks, "In 1764, when the first lack fox skins had been forwarded to the empress, gold medals 288 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE were awarded to the merchants Orekhof , Kulkof,' Shapkin, Panoj and Nikoforof." He says, "Ocheredin's share of the proceeds wa 600 sea otters, 756 black foxes, 1230 red foxes; and with thi rich cargo he arrived at Okhotsk on the 24th of July 1770. These skins were obtained from Akutan, Unalaska, or adjacen: islands. There are other passages worthy of record. On page 123, Bari croft states that the ships Gavril and Vladimir combined force in 1760 and hunted Umnak, Sitkin, Atka, and Seguam, wher they obtained about 900 sea otters, 400 foxes of various kinds, an 432 pounds of walrus tusks. On page 153 of Bancroft's account, we fina reference to a 176' expedition by Solovief , during which he obtained 500 black f oxe; Bancroft (p. 169) further states that — Shiloff, Orekhof, and Lapin, in July of the same year (1770), fitted oi once more the old ship Sv Pavel at Okhotsk, and dispatched her to thi islands under command of the notorious Solovief. By this time the Aleu1 were evidently thoroughly subjugated, as the man who had slaughterei their brethren by hundreds during his former visit passed four additions years in safety among them, and then returned with an exceedingl valuable cargo of 1,900 sea otters, 1,493 black, 2,115 cross, and 1,275 rei foxes. He claims to have reached the Alaskan Peninsula, and describe i Unimak and adjoining islands. ! The wording of this passage would lead us to believe thsl Solovief did not go far east of Unimak. If that is true, he ur doubtedly obtained his foxes among the eastern islands, th[ group designated as the Fox Islands, from Unimak to Umna; inclusive. In all of these early cargoes of fox furs, there is a i amazingly high percentage of black and cross color phases — thes ; two phases greatly outnumbering the normal red color phasf. There had not been time for artificial development of such strain ■ on so great a scale, and there is no record of such breeding activ: ■ ties at that time. Therefore, it is evident that in the easter i Aleutian district a natural concentration of the melanistic typ; of the red fox had taken place, comparable to a similar develop- ment of the Arctic fox in the western Aleutians, Commander;, and Pribilofs. This may prove to be a significant biological phe- nomenon, when the active factors become understood. It is probable that the dark color phases occurred also oi Alaska Peninsula, and it is almost certain that excessive killin ; of these darker kinds, on a selective basis because of their greate f value, has served to bring the population back to a practicalU uniform type, the red phase. The silver fox persists on Amliji Island, but this island has been leased and the foxes are cor> FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 289 oiled artificially. We can no longer find the dark kinds in any ambers on Unalaska, where they were first found. The following table shows the proportions of these color phases . the cargoes of three ships. The records of other cargoes are Dt used here because they appear to have been of a selective iture, not comparable for this purpose. For example, some irgoes showed only black fox, and some cargoes showed no cross )X. ommand- Name of ship Year of return Species of foxes obtained er of pcdition Black fox Cross fox Red fox Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent ottof ovief 0 record) . 0 record) . (No record). (No record) - Sv Andrei-- Sv Prokop.. 1761 1774 1773-. _ (No record). 1,002 1,493 99(1 20 40 30. 0 33. 1 1,100 2,115 1,419 40 44 43.3 47.2 400 1,275 593 16 26.1 19.7 34.6 44.8 20.6 At the time of these expeditions, the red fox probably had not cached as far west as Kanaga (where a few have been present 1 recent years). It is difficult to evaluate the present distribu- on because of the extensive commercial manipulation of the leutian fauna. We can be confident, however, that the red fox ^iginally occupied the so-called Fox Islands, as far west as mnak at least; it may have occurred as far as the Andreanofs, luch farther west. Though Bancroft, writing a general history f Alaska, was not specific in mentioning the Aleutian fauna, he id make some helpful observations. His generalization on fur earers at least gives us helpful indications : he distribution of fur-bearing animals during the last century was of )urse very much the same as now, with the exception that foxes of all nds came almost exclusively from the islands. The stone-foxes — blue, hite, and gray — ^were most numerous on the western islands of the Aleutian lain and on the Pribilof group. Black and silver-gray foxes, then very iluable, were first obtained from Unalaska by the Shilof and Lapin ompany and at once brought into fashion at St. Petersburg by means I a judicious presentation to the empress. This passage confirms the general conclusion that blue foxes ^ere confined to the western islands and red foxes (with their olor phases) were limited to the eastern islands. Turner (1886) reported the red fox "as far west as Umnak." peaking of the cross and silver fox, he said that they occur in All of Alaska, except the extreme western Aleutian Islands." 290 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Food Habifs In the summer of 1925, I had an opportunity to frequently o serve foxes on Unimak Island and Alaska Peninsula. They we found on some of the sand islands at Izembek Bay — it is probab that they reached these islands by traveling over the ice duriij the winter. They spent much time on the beaches of these ii lands, where they dug for clams which they located by seer I They also picked up crabs at low tide and ate codfish or oth carrion thrown up on the beach. On Unimak Island, Unalaska, and some other localities, roden ; become important in the diet and the foxes spend more tin inland. In 1911, Wetmore examined a den in the Morzhovoi Bay regie! where he noted fragments of ptarmigan and ground squirrel | He also noted that foxes came down to the beach at Thin Poi:| to feed on the many stranded flounders. 'Beals and Longworth (field report, 1941) found red foxes to ]j well distributed over Unimak Island, but noted that they we:' concentrated in the coastal areas, where they could feed on tl beaches. "Sandfleas were present in unbelievable numbers und boulders and in rotting kelp. Scores of droppings were compos* almost entirely of these little fellows. The valley floors we littered with mounds and tunnels made by small rodents and he again we found fox droppings showing only hair and bones i rodents. We found hundreds of instances where nesting burrov had been torn out and the inhabitants eaten." They also found ptarmigan to be unusually abundant, obseri ing flocks of 300 to 400 birds, and they remarked: "Fox-eatJ ptarmigan were found often enought to indicate them as havirlj an important place in his diet." The contents of 57 red fox droppings from Dolgoi Island we ■ found to contain the following items, listed in number of occu: rences : i IteTTi Number Percent Microtus 38 52 Bird 16 21.9 Beach fleas (Crustacea) 6* 8.2 Sea urchin (Strongylocentrotiis drohachiensis) 4* 5.4 Mussel (Myie^us sp.) 2* 2.7 Heavy cloth 2 2.7 Brown paper 2 2.7 Hair seal (Phoca sp.) 1 1.3 Small fish 1 1.3 Large bone 1 1.3 * Such forms are listed as times occurring, rather than as actual number of individua FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 291 At least two of the birds represented here were of sparrow ie and may have been captured, but the others were larger birds id (since we found no bird colonies on this island) probably 3re carrion washed up on the beach. One dropping contained lO percent sea urchin, three others contained 100 percent beach las. The contents of 25 red fox droppings from Unalaska Island, ised on number of items, were as follows : Item Number Pet-cent Citellus 16 48.5 Microtus 9 27.3 Dicrostonyx 2 6 Bird 6 18.2 In this case, rodents furnish the bulk of the food. The droppings ere collected in summer. It is interesting to note that on luginadak, on Amlia, and probably on the sand islands in Izem- !k Bay, there are no rodents and the red fox evidently adapts self to beach combing. ;neral Habits There is no doubt that the life history of the Alaskan red fox illows a normal pattern, but there are certain unusual traits, ne of these unusual traits is the remarkable tameness of cer- in "wild" foxes. Frequently, I approached quite close to a fox ; it went about its usual business without giving me much atten- on, A most unusual incident occurred on Operl Island, at Izem- ,^k Bay, in the summer of 1925. A red fox that was hunting on 16 beach allowed me to approach with the camera to within 5 ■et. The animal had fed well on the beach, judging by the con- cur of its body. When the tide came in, the animal left the beach id wandered into the sand dunes, where it eventually lay down • rest. It closed its eyes and went to sleep while I photographed within a distance of 6 or 8 feet. The animal was still sleeping hen I departed. Local trappers assured me that foxes lose this extreme tame- 5ss on the approach of winter. On another occasion, Stevenson and I came upon a group of v^e beach-feeding red foxes that exhibited more normal traits, articularly an aversion to swimming. They were at the tip of a arrow sand spit that was separated from the main beach by narrow channel of water. This was an ideal situation for a icture, assuming that they would hesitate to swim the channel. We quickly reached the base of the sand spit and, dividing the 292 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE width equally between us, we walked slowly toward the foxe- camera ready. The foxes immediately sensed that they wei! trapped and acted at once. One after the other, three of thei chose to race past us, rather than to swim a distance of 7 or | yards to the main beach. At high speed, a fox charged straign at us and passed within 5 or 6 feet. There was hardly time 1 change film before another fox, frantic because it was corneret came rushing past us in the same manner, and the third fc^ followed the other two. Meanwhile, the remaining foxes swai across the lane of water and reached the main beach. Management On Unimak Island, there is an annual limit to the trapper i take — each legal trapper is allowed a maximum of 50 red foxc for the trapping season. This appears to be a satisfactory a rangement, and the fox population has not been unduly depletcM Even on the Alaska Peninsula, where no bag limit is in effect, t\\ fox population has remained fairly stable. The same is true d Umnak. There were reports that the status of the red fox c Unalaska was not so favorable; however, fox signs were qui' common when we visited there in 1936 and 1937. On other Aleutian Islands to the westward, red foxes are han died as private property and are either harvested at interval as on Amlia, or are being eliminated in favor of blue foxes. Alopex lagopus: Blue Fox Attu: Mis-si-sircli Chir-ri-ech Mis-si-si Kon-uch (white fox) From vocabulary compiled at Valdez by R. H. Geoghegan: Aikagukh Morzhovoi Bay: Ikoivkookmah (Wetmore) Russian, Siberia: Gcl-o-ba pee-seez-(a) (Buxton) Pee-seetz-(a), "tvhite fox" (Buxton) The original distribution of the Arctic fox in the Aleutians difficult to determine because of the fact that foxes have be« placed on many of the islands for commercial breeding. Tl Chief of Attu Village insisted that the blue fox had been intri duced in the Aleutians by man. Remington Kellogg, who e:i amined many bones from old village sites excavated by the lai Ales Hrdlicka, reported that no fox bones appeared in materis from the Aleutians, though he found them in midden materia from Kodiak. Certain historical records counteract this evidence. Ivan Petrcf (1884) , speaking of Atka Island, stated "even the blue fox (Vulp t lagopus), now confined to but few localities throughout Alasl^' is still found here." Concerning Attu, he said, "On account [ FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 293 he scanty supply of sea otters the natives have turned their ttention to the protection and preservation of the bkie fox, and f these they now kill about 200 annually, with every prospect f increasing their stock in hand." Again, he says: "The blue ox exists now on several of the Aleutian Islands, where it was ound by the first discoverers in 1741." He mentions that traders eported the presence of blue foxes to a limited extent at Ugashik, n Alaska Peninsula. However, Petroff's records may be doubted, because he says hat the red fox is "everywhere" on all the Aleutians, as far as ^ttu, on the Pribilofs, and on the Shumagins, and he also states hat the brown bear is present on the Shumagins. There is historical evidence that originally there were blue foxes •n at least a part of the Aleutian chain, as well as on the Com- iiander Islands. It is a well-known fact, first reported by Steller, hat, when Bering and his crew were wrecked on Bering Island •n their return from Alaska in 1741, Bering Island was well popu- ated with foxes. Speaking of this island, Bancroft (1886, p. 88) ays, "The only animals visible on land were the pestsi or Arctic oxes, exceedingly bold and rapacious. They fell upon the car- asses and devoured them almost before the survivors could nake preparations for their burial. It seemed to be impossible to righten them away." Again (p. 112), he says, "This vessel was lamed the Yeremy and carried the castaways to Kamchatka in he autumn of 1752, with a cargo of 820 sea otters, 1,900 blue 'oxes, and 7,000 fur seals, all collected on the island upon which hey were wrecked." A footnote explains that this island probably vas one of the Commander Group. Bancroft continues (p. 100), "Besides Bering Island, Bassof ilso visited Copper Island, and collected 1,600 sea otters, 2,000 ur seals, and 2,000 blue Arctic foxes. From this trip Bassof •eturned on the 31st of July 1746." Such commercial records show that the Commander Islands vere heavily populated with blue foxes in early times. Barabash- ^ikiforov (1938, p. 424) points out that Alopex lagopus bering- msis Merriam is the form on Bering Island and Alopex I. semenovi )gnev on Copper Island ; and that the latter is the larger and larker of the two forms. Historical records also point to the presence of blue foxes on he Near Islands of the Aleutian Chain. Early Russian expedi- ions obtained profitable cargoes of furs from these western is- ands. Bancroft (1886) furnishes several pertinent passages. 3n page 112 he says, "During the same year, 1749, the mer- 294 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE chants Rybinskoi and Tyrin sent out the Shitrika Sv loam to th Near Islands, the vessel returning in August 1752 with 700 sp- otters and 700 blue foxes." On page 118, he refers to Attu Island when he says, "Aftei living on this island in peace with the natives for over a yeaL Tolstykh departed with 5,360 sea otters and 1,190 blue foxes and reached Kamchatka in the autumn of 1758." Again, this historian reports (p. 155), "The Vladimir, owne'' by Krassilnikof and commanded by Soposhnikof, sailed in 176f, and returned from the Near Islands with 1,400 sea otters, 2,00 ' fur seals, and 1,050 blue foxes." I Dall (1870, p. 499) stated that blue foxes had been intrc FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 295 uced for commercial purposes on most of the islands by the :ussian-American Company. He adds that the earliest visitors 3 the Aleutians found "tame" foxes on the larger islands and ssumed they had originally been placed there by man. However, •ith due consideration of the well-known "tameness" of the Arctic ox in all its range, including Greenland, the lack of wildness is 0 indication of any degree of domestication. Elliott (1897, p. 180) wrote that blue foxes were introduced on ittu "many years ago." The above records, however, furnish ood evidence to the contrary. At present, there is no evidence that blue foxes occupied the astern Aleutians. From available records it is reasonable to onclude that blue foxes originally occupied only the Near Is- inds of the Aleutian chain. Even today, the next island eastward, >uldir, has no foxes and apparently has never had them. It is ne of the few islands on which geese are able to nest unmolested y foxes. Evidence is lacking that blue foxes occupied any islands ast of Buldir. It is possible that the blue foxes of the Near Islands originally v^ere derived from the Commander Group. Ice floes from more lorthern latitudes could have drifted down, at rare intervals, to ■rovide the necessary bridge or ferry — red foxes have been known 0 reach the Pribilofs over the ice, and a crossing to the Aleutians ould easily be made. The Arctic fox, apparently chiefly of the white color phase, ccurs rather sparingly on the Alaska Peninsula. Osgood (1904) eported — itraggling individuals of the Arctic fox are not infrequently found as far outh as the north shore of the Alaska Peninsula, doubtless having ollowed the pack ice in winter. One was killed by fishermen near Igagik :i the spring of 1902. They are also said to be found in the Togiak district nd very rarely at Nushagak. In 1911, Wetmore wrote (of the Morzhovoi Bay region), One white fox is reported to have been killed on the Bering Sea ide here in the winter of 1908. It is supposed to have come down n the ice in winter. No others were known." I found no evidence of Arctic fox at the western end of Alaska 'eninsula in 1925, but in 1936 I was informed by a resident at ^ort Holier that there were some white foxes about 60 miles lortheast of that place in 1914. In 1936, the late Alexis Yatch- neneff, who had been chief of one of the Aleut villages, said hat before the Russians came there were red, cross, and silver oxes on Unalaska but there were no white or blue foxes. 296 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Kellogg- (1936) found no bones of the Arctic fox in the midde material from Kodiak Island, though the red fox was abundantl represented. Probably this fox never ranged on the more rugger Pacific side of Alaska Peninsula. It appears, then, that the Arctic fox, mostly in its blue colo| phase, reached the westernmost Aleutians from the Commande Islands, while the Alaskan continental form straggled out, a|; least part way, on Alaska Peninsula. Food Habits The leasing of islands for the purpose of raising blue foxes ha a direct influence on the native fauna, therefore particular air tention has been given to the food habits of the blue fox in thh Aleutians. Accordingly, we made every effort to learn wha ; constituted the fox food on each island. This was accomplishes by the only two methods possible — observation and the analysis of droppings. Such studies were made on about 40 islands, thoug i data from a few of these were meager. Table 1 presents th; food habits data obtained on 22 islands, from the contents of more than 1,800 blue fox droppings. While a much greater nun:i- ber would be desirable from any given island for a complete pic ■ ture of the food habits pattern in percentages, the data herfe presented agree closely with our field observations and f urnis i an accurate statement of the food that is available and utilize I by the blue fox in the Aleutians. It had been assumed by lessees operating in the Aleutians thai: sea urchins were the most important food item, supplemented b ' birds and beach drift. We found that sea urchins, though ac- ceptable, do not rank in importance with amphipods (tiny crus- taceans commonly referred to as beach fleas). Crustaceans wer; found in 26.1 percent of the droppings studied, and sea urchins were found in 2.1 percent (see table 2). Beach fleas appear to be the most commonly available fool item. They swarm on the beaches, where windrows of dead keli furnish a favorite habitat. They lurk under bits of wood, o * under anything else that may lie on the sand and preserve th i required moist shelter underneath. It is easy for a fox to pic": up a full meal of sand fleas; on the other hand, sea urchins mus: be picked up at low tide and in limited areas on exposed reefs o ' other favorable spots. An island with extensive beaches, eithei sand or gravel, is favorable for foxes. An island with a rock; shore, and with few or no beaches, is not satisfactory ; here, th j foxes must rely on sea birds, as long as the bird colonies last Throughout the Aleutians, life is concentrated pretty much alonj FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 297 le shoreline, and there are few land birds. The sea birds depend n the ocean for food and generally are found at, or near, the liores. The life-giving tides are the principal source of food, 'here are no native rodents west of Unmak, but ground squirrels ave been placed on Kavalga for fox food, and rats accidentally ;ere introduced on Rat Island in early days. Foxes feed on both f these animals. On Rat Island, 28.8 percent of fox droppings contained rats, ,nd about 40 percent contained beach fleas. Rat Island has ex- ensive beaches, and most of the rats are confined to the beaches lecause of the nature and distribution of the vegetation. Rats have also been introduced on Atka and are eaten by foxes, )ut our data for that island are too meager for tabulation. On Jnalga Island, in the Fox Islands group, blue foxes were feeding )n field mice, but these rodents are not available on most of the Aleutians. A stranded whale, or a dead seal or sea lion, often becomes an mportant item of fox food. We witnessed a whale being eaten on funaska Island, but a whale on the beach of Kanaga was hardly ;ouched — this was explained by the caretaker who stated that nost of the foxes were on the other side of the island. The importance of birds in the blue fox diet is evident in the ;abulation. In the Aleutians as a whole, they furnish 57.8 per- cent of the food, though the percentage varies on different islands, ;lepending on availability. Land birds are relatively unimpor- :ant. They are hard to capture and do not gather in large groups. But the concentrated colonies of petrels, auklets, and related species furnish rich hunting grounds. In addition to the droppings tabulated in table 1, for Kasatochi Island, we found a single fox cache under a rock that contained 65 crested auklets, 37 least auklets, 1 whiskered auklet, 1 parakeet auklet, and 1 pigeon guillemot, and there were more birds farther back under the rock. On Bobrof Island, we found remains of 103 petrels, 6 tufted puffins, 4 least auklets, and 1 pigeon guillemot. On Semi- sopochnoi, we listed remains found at dens as follows : 107 least auklets, 18 crested auklets, 3 tufted puflins, 1 horned puffin, 1 murre, and 7 fork-tailed petrels. Necessarily, insects are a minor item in the diet, yet it is in- teresting to note that of the 10 droppings from Kiska Island that contained larvae of Noctuidae, one dropping consisted of 50 per- cent, another 75 percent, of these caterpillars. There is an interesting item from Kagamil Island. Two drop- pings contained skin from Aleut mummies. When we examined 298 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE S =^ ft a s CO CO -^ is i i i i i i ; Ico 1 1 Ic^ 1 1 1 I N(N 1 Ic^ 1 1 1 1 i 1 icq saouejjnooo JO jaqranN to M 1 t- 1 ' 1 1 1 1 ! lo 1 1 lr-( 1 1 1 1 -,-, 1 1-, 1 1 1 1 1 1 IfH o ^ •Soo g bS ft C 2 IBIOX JO II ; i^ i i ; ; ; : i * 1 1 1t}< 1 loiooco-* le^M 1m lO 1 ( 1 ■ 1 1 d CO o 00 1 — H i-i 1 T-i 1111"* saoua.unooo i| ^ 1 JO 11 ! jaquinN |l ; 1 Icc i 1 ! 1 1 'i 1 -(■2 1 1 1^ 1 loroooco icoco Im CO 1 1 1 1 1 00 CO TJI ( t ' I t 1 1 iH a) so 1 1 1 1 1 is i i i i i saouajjtiooo JO jaquin>s[ 1 iw ; 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 los 1 1 1^ 1 1 1 1 1 I'^a P^oj, JO luaojaj CS lO lO »o oo 1 I lo 1 1 (N 1 1 lO 1 O ■* 1 1 "O 1 —1 1 ■ 1 CO ci 1 1 1 1 1 1 im 1 1 1 lo 1— 1 1 1 loi 1 <1J saouojjiiooo JO .laquinx; O CO I.I 1 r-4 1 CO 1 (N 1 — i ICI O 1 i i i i i i'^ h 1 ^ •1: C .Sen " o ft M 2 IC}0,L JO luaojaj 00 r^ 1 CO . 1 OJ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 O O O 1 i i ' i'^ ' 100 1 1 IrH 1 i i i i i-: saouojjnoao JO jaqiuiifsj 1 ^^ : 1 ICO 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ; ,' ; ; ^ -^ -h — -^ ■ ItO 1 1 Irt 1 r> 3 Si u^a < S Id ICJOJ, JO luaojaj (N 1 lO 1 1 1 lie 1 1 'cO 1 1 1 Irt 1 1 1 lo 1 ira 1 u- 00 CO —1 1 -< Ic^ ■ 1 ■-^ i 1 i i i 1 1 ! ! !(N saouajJiiooQ | JO jaqmnx 00 -^ 1 — lO 1 1 1 Ico 1 1 OON Ico 1 .* f-l 1- CO II 1 -i;^ 1 1 1 1 1 ■* si be I^'JOJ, JO juao.iaj 05 lO 1 1.a< 1-1 1 1 Tj^ 1 1 1 ^ 1 1 — 1 1 i i i-^ i-^ saoiia.unooo JO jaquioN ^;^ ; . C^J C^ CO CO 1 ^ 1 i en 1 1 1—1 1 1 —1 1 i i i'^ i'^ T3 1 ' O 1 ft^ ! ft?X3 a&2 1 1 1 I'-r 1 1 1 cj I ; ; ; ft ; ; 12 1 1 1 1 S 1 1 iS ■/J 1 1 1 ^ 1 1 1 o s 1 1 i> ; I :2: £ c 1 1 s : 1 1 55 c3~ ' ' i; ' ' .s c-i2 ; o 1 :/-; ^5 V, ^^ ', 1 1 ; J ; 1 ^ a ftSi i [gg iJgs It im is s! o2-3^3o3SgS 1 1 1 1 l'3 1 1 I 1 1 tuo 1 ' -S •" 1 -^ a 1 '.S O 1 o^ o'S £ S 1 ^' 00<1P-iOOA. J ; 1 1 I-a < .J«! 1 '.- o 5-5 Sd og'aftS ft^ 3 o-g E ca g 3rt FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 299 Icq MiTCiili I 1 1 1 loi 1 1 llM 1 Irilllll^lc^llll I 1 1 1 1 -^ 1 11'-'; 1 1 1 1 Tf Tl- Tfl ^ 1 1 ■* 1 1 1 -^ ' i ; i i'-'"-'-'^ i i-' ; ; i ',',',',',"'[ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ^ ! IN 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 rt 1 1 1 oq 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 00 1 ^ 1 1 1"^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 loi 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l-t''00 I'llr-Slllll-flJllltollllll o 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 rH 1 1 1 1 1 TO 1 1 1 O 1 1 1 1 1 1 '^ i i i 1 ^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 C4 1 1 1 1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 ■". i i i Ifq 1 1 1 1 1 1 l-»> 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 "^ 1 1 1 Ir-H^ — e^to Irt loc 1 1 1 1 i i i i ! i^ ; i i i lrtTOr-lMTt< I.-I ITO 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 '^ 1 1 1 1 Black oys tercatcher Aleutian sandpiper Ptarmigan. Snow limiting Aleutian song sparrow... ._ Aleutian rosy finch Alaska longspur Aleutian winter wren Binl egg Fish. Blue-fox hair Sea otter Rat («a««s sp.) Hair seal San F IS A ^ rr ) w MCO I LDLIFE SERVICI CO CO 1 CO I C<» 1 1 t 1 1 if It saouajjnooo | JO jaquinjsl ^ - t-icq 00 -. -,-H '-' (M i' 03Oo •2| IB50X JO 5U80J8(I 2g - vo r^ *T-HOi O) CO j o o '^ CO t-H c-i i': -< 2 I^^OJ, to JO ■juooaaj lO 00 t^ CO CO Ic seou3Jjnooo ^ JO jaqtunH -t^ « 05 ^ ^ i" if S o JO •juoDjgj II '^ IM « -H C^ r^ rHCO -H (M SOOUajJllDOQ 11 .) Insects Total. 784 31.3 Birds: Petrels 396 9 158 15 13 17 604 4 12 4 7 7 4 56 59 83 15.8 .35 6.3 .6 .5 .7 24.1 .1 .4 .1 .2 .2 .1 2.2 2.3 3.3 Fulmars and shearwaters Puflfins Murres - Ancient murrclet_ . . Pigeon guillemot- Auklets. Cormorants Gulls and kittiwakes Emperor goose . Ducks Shorebirds Ptarmigan Small land birds Bird eggs Unidentified birds Total 1,448 57.8 Fish 70 2.7 Mammals: Blue fox 37 3 38 5 2 1.4 .1 1.5 .2 .08 Sea otter . Rat Hair seal . . . Human skin (mummy)... Total 85 3.3 Vegetation 86 28 3.4 1.1 Miscellaneous (mud, pebbles, paper) Grand total 2,501 100 a cave filled with mummies (v Museum) , we discovered that apart, literally limb from thoroughly at home in the m find human flesh tasty, eithe also indicate cannibalism. Pi were eaten were carrion. Disposition and Habits The Arctic fox is known to ence of man, not at all like th account of the reactions of b crew. They were exceedingly would begin nibbling on expos ing where a fox could get at 1 \i\nch. are now in t blue foxes had t( limb, and had ummy cave. Obv r fresh or dried, 'esumably, most ( be tame and una 3 red fox. Steller lue foxes to Beri bold, and on sor >ed parts of a per lim. he U. S. National! )rn some of these made themselvesi iously, blue foxea The tabulations )f the foxes that fraid in the pres- has given a vivic ng's shipwreckec tie occasions thej 3on if he were ly FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 303 An interesting experience on Rat Island illustrates the sur- irising behaviour of these animals at times. To quote from my leld notes — sat down to rest on a ridge. Through the tall grass I could see two adult oxes and a well-grown young in the draw below me. I was sharpening my encil and one of the foxes evidently caught the motion of my hand, and aw my head and shoulders. The young fox disappeared and one of the Id foxes came charging straight up the slope. To my amazement it came .11 the way, ran up to me, poked me in the arm, apparently with bared teeth or it was a sharp sensation, then ran off a little distance. Immediately, he other fox started up the hill in the same manner. But at this point, quickly stood up and waved it back. Both foxes then stood at a little listance and barked at me. The blue fox is a clever hunter. According to the Aleuts, some- imes a fox will catch an emperor goose when it is asleep and has ts head tucked under its wing. On occasion, too, a fox will ;tand on a point of rock where ducks are diving and, when a luck is rising in the water nearby, the fox will jump in and 5eize it while it is still below the surface. The Aleuts added that ;he blue fox will jump in the water and seize salmon. Incidently, tlomer Jewell, a member of our party, said that he had known of 5everal dogs in southeastern Alaska that would seize salmon in ;he water. Blue foxes readily swim from one island to another when the iistance is not great; sometimes they will attempt this where [here are strong tidal currents and are carried off to sea and lost. Foxes also can climb moderate cliffs with ease. Occasionally, Dne will even leap across a chasm and down to the top of a pin- aacle where ducks are nesting, then clamber down the pinnacle, and swim back to shore. Foxes have learned to take every possible advantage over birds, and the birds must nest on sheer cliffs or inaccessible offshore rocks to be entirely safe. Birds vs. Blue-Fox Industry Possibly, there are areas where bird colonies are so huge that the Arctic fox has made only an insignificant reduction in the number of birds. In the Aleutian Islands, there are some large bird colonies, and the foxes take their toll. In some instances, this has not as yet made a great difference, but, in many other instances, great changes have taken place. On some of the smaller islands the birds have been almost eliminated, and on many is- lands such birds as eider ducks have ceased to nest, except on a few offshore pinnacles where they can find protection. The cackling goose and lesser Canada goose have become so scarce 304 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE | that it is somewhat doubtful whether they can survive in the Aleil tians. If the migration to these islands should cease, these species would disappear from the Aleutian fauna. Certain rare specie; L too, are threatened. The whiskered auklet is not abundant, an| the Cassin's auklet has become very scarce. ! No native rodents occur on most of the islands, hence there i no food for foxes except for the birds and invertebrates, and thj drift on the beaches. Many of the islands are small, and the fo: populations are under commercial management, which necessaril; strives for the greatest possible fox numbers. Many of the is, lands have rocky shores with a minimum stretch of beach wher foxes can feed. These are some of the factors that cause a special hazard to the Aleutian bird colonies. Canis lupus: Wolf Canis lupus pambas'ileus Aleut: Alixgikh (Geoghegan) Russian: Volk (Buxton) The wolf has ranged the entire length of the Alaska Peninsula and is referred to by Osgood (1904, p. 40) . He found tracks neai' Lake Clark and around the portage between Chulitna River anc Swan Lake, and he was told of wolves occurring on Alaska Penin- sula. Turner (1886, p. 208) reports it as being present on Unimat Island, stating that it reached this island over ice that sometimes jams into False Pass. Nelson (1887, p. 238) quotes Veniaminofi to the effect that wolves were resident on Unimak Island and that two were killed on Akun Island in 1830— this is the farthest west that they have been reported. In 1911, Wetmore saw tracks of wolves in the King Cove re- gion. In 1925, I obtained further information on wolf distri- bution in that western district. Donald H. Stevenson, at that time resident fur warden there, reported that six wolves were killed on Unimak Island in 1912. He had unverified reports that the last ones were killed in 1914. It was learned that two wolves were killed in the winter of 1918 at the west end of Alaska Pen- insula. This had been a hard winter, the two wolves were poor, and their fur was greasy, showing that they had been living off a whale carcass. Griggs (1922, p. 315) found wolf tracks at Mount Katmai in 1916, and he mentions reports of wolf packs in former years. In 1936, wolves were reported to be plentiful on Mulchatna River, in the Lake Clark region, and in the Nanwhyenuk Lake and Naknek Lake country, but there were no recent reports of wolves westward along the Peninsula. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 305 Family FELIDAE ynx canadensis: Canada Lynx ynx canadensis moUip'ilosus Osgood (1904, p. 39) reported that lynx were scarce at the •ase of the Alaska Peninsula, according to the natives, though 1 1901 (p. 67) he recorded that lynxes were fairly common n the Cook Inlet region. Griggs (1922, p. 315) stated that trap- •ers had reported the capture of lynxes within the Katmai Na- ional Monument. In 1911, Wetmore wrote — 'he lynx is not common in the region around King's Cove, but a few are eported every year. It has been known from the region around Cold Bay or as far back as the trappers could remember, but has come into the egion west of Nelson's Lagoon, on the Bering Sea side, within the last or 5 years. Its food is reported to be the Arctic Hare. Thus, it is evident that the lynx has occurred far out on the \.laska Peninsula, beyond all timbered areas. It is not reported "rom the Kodiak-Afognak group, where varying hares were ntroduced only recently. Family OTARIIDAE •umefopias jubafa: Steller Sea Lion Attu: Kdv-rch Atka: Kow'-uhh Aleut (dialect?) : Qa'hwax (Jochelson) Khawakh (Geoghegan) Russian: Sivutcha (Steller) Sea lions are found throughout all of southwestern Alaska, ex- :ending to Attu Island, where we saw some at its westernmost :)oint, Cape Wrangell. There were colonies, numbering from 40 Dr 50 to several hundred individuals, at such places as Amak [sland, Bogoslof (the outstanding herd), Carlisle, Yunaska, :]hagulak, Amukta, Segula, Semisopochnoi, Ilak, and Buldir. Bogoslof has by far the largest and most spectacular herd — so 3utstanding that it deserves special consideration as an object of particular scientific, as well as popular, interest. In 1938, Scheffer sstimated 800 sea lions were on Bogoslof. The Aleuts use the skin of the sea lion for leather, and find the flesh very palatable. On one occasion, I ate the flesh of a young sea lion and found that it was decidedly acceptable. 306 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 6 1 , FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE CallorhJnus ursinus: Northern Fur Seal Attu : Hla-ko6-yach Laku'dax (Jochelson) Aleut (dialect?) : Lakukh (Geoghegan) Russian: Kot (Steller) The fur seal migrates to and from the Pribilof Islands by w y of various passes throughout the Aleutian chain, and, at suj times, they may be found, well offshore, south of Alaska Penii sula. In 1925, I was told of some unusual overland movements ) these seals near the western end of Alaska Peninsula. At thj time, Nick Kristensen, a local trapper at False Pass, stated thj fur seals in fall migration had been observed going up Nelsi i Lagoon, then crossing overland to the Pacific. Stevenson, a re i able observer, related that several people had reported fur seel going overland from the Bering Sea side, across the narroj strip into Morzhovoi Bay, and that they had crossed the sandsf i at St. Catherine Cove as well as the sandspit at Village Co ' on the opposite mainland. In regard to overland movements of seals, it is interesting ; recall Bailey's notation of a report of an Eskimo at Cape Prin ! of Wales to the effect that spotted seals and ribbon seals hji migrated overland out of lagoons to reach open water to the sout : because of ice conditions in the lagoons. In this instance, tbi crossed high country, and traveled several miles a day. There appeared to be a general understanding among the Aleu i that fur seals hauled out on Buldir Island in the past, and son I of the natives insisted that they bred there. These stories cam from natives of Attu as well as Atka. In 1937, Bill Dirks, brother of the chief of Atka Village, insisted that fur seals we: on Buldir. He told me that he had landed there years ago ar had killed some for their furs. He was confident that these seai would still be hauling out on Buldir. At this point, it is of interest to quote a short note fro: Scheffer, who wrote under date of January 28, 1942, that — In a collection of notes bequeathed to us by G. Dallas Hanna there appea a card with the following statement: "August 1 [1902] — Judge and Lembb shown a pup fur seal taken by the officers of the Manning this summer ( Bowldir Island." The statement was attributed to the official log of St. Pa Island, Alaska. In American Field (1902, vol. 53, p. 198), there is a report (■ "recent news" from Washington, D. C, to the effect that Captai Charles H. McLellan, commanding the U. S. Revenue Cutte FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 307 lanhattan had reported to Captain Shoemaker of the Revenue ^litter Service the discovery of a new fur seal rookery in the Jeutian Islands, on "Bouldyer Island." It was stated that Lieu- jnant Berthodd had approached the herd closely enough to ob- 9rve that none of the seals had been branded. In 1938, Scheffer was told by Bill Dirks, of Atka, that his father ved on Buldir Island for a month in 1900 and had killed several Lir seals there. He also said that A. C. Goss visited the north- est end of Buldir in 1920 and had reported the presence of fur sals and sea lions. We tried to find fur seals on Buldir, but we found only a sea on rookery on a beach of an offshore islet. However, we were nable to make a landing. When I mentioned this sea lion rookery D the chief at Atka, he was not surprised. He stated that he new of the presence of sea lions there, and he added that the fur eals would be there too. In spite of our negative findings, all the evidence seems to show nat, at one time, the fur seal was to some extent a resident as well s a migrant in the Aleutians. Family PHOCIDAE hoca v'ifulina: Harbor Seal hoca vifulina ricbard'i'i Attu: Ish'-u-gich Atka: Ish'-u Aleut (dialect?) : Isukh (Geoghegan) Hisook (Wetmore, at Morzhovoi Bay) Ishooik (Osgood). Russian, Siberia (Gichiga) : Ola (Buxton) Russian, Ikhotsk, Ayan, Pengina, and Marcova: Largha (Buxton) It is interesting to note that Nelson (1887, p. 262) gives Ish-6- ik as the Eskimo name for the ringed seal (Piisa hispida), which > extremely rare, or absent, in the Aleutians, and is not distin- uished from Phoca vitulina by the Aleuts. The harbor seal occurs all along the southern Alaskan coast, nd throughout the length of the Aleutians. We did not find it to e particularly abundant, but we sighted single animals or small roups here and there. In 1925, it was rather common along the -ering Sea side of Alaska Peninsula. In his revision of the Genus Phoca, Doutt (1942, p. 120) identi- ed specimens of this race from Alaska Peninsula between Katmai nd Kanatak and between Portage Bay and Becharof Lake, from iembek Bay, Nagai Island in the Shumagins, from Kagamil 308 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Island, and from Adak Island. He gave the range of this fo] as the "American side of the North Pacific Ocean." Obvious this is the seal of the Aleutian district, but there is a possibil that the more western form, P. v. largha, may occur near t western islands. These seals will enter fresh water. Osgood (1904, p. 49) mei tions reports of a spotted seal living in the fresh waters of La| Iliamna, and he says that most of those killed were taken eitht near the outlet of the lake or in Kvichak River, "which seems J indicate that the animals whether distinct or not, go back a I forth from Bristol Bay to Lake Iliamna." Among the Aleutian Islands, seals were usually found in t- kelp beds, but they do not always seek such a habitat. I had fine opportunity to study these animals in the spring and sui mer of 1925, at Unimak Island and at the west end of Alas* Peninsula. They were very common at that time. They haul; out on the boulders of the reef at Amagat Island and basked the kelp-covered boulders near the beaches of Amak Island. Urilia Bay, they hauled out on the sand along the entrance Rosenberg Lagoon, and in Izembek Bay they hauled out | shoals and sandbars at low tide. A small sand island in t| channel between Operl and Neumann Islands was a favor; I hauling-out place. \ Seals pick a resting place that provides ready escape, alwa near deep water. If the ebbing tide recedes from a boulder which a seal is resting, the animal will move to another ro( nearer to deeper water. When navigating the shallow Izembl Bay with our whaleboat, we could steer a deep-water course j noting the location of resting seals. j Mothers and pups appear to be very aflfectionate, swimmi i near each other and occasionally touching noses. A little o would try to climb to its mother's perch on a rock. After a whi the mother might lazily roll into the water to join it; later, bo: might be able to clamber out on the same perch. On June 17, a young seal was taken for a specimen — the stoi: ach was filled with milk. On July 10, Stevenson and I each c: served a pup nursing. We found a number of deserted pups, probably those whoi mothers had been killed. A deserted pup had been picked up False Pass in May. On June 16, I found a pup on Neumai Island, at the edge of the grass far from water, since the tide hi ebbed. A dead pup lay on a hauling place on a small sand islar A very lean pup was found on Glen Island on June 30 ; when "v FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 309 ipproached, it hurriedly scrambled into the sea. We noted a dead )up on this island on July 27. On June 17, a pup was swimming lear the beach calling for its mother. We answered its call, and t responded several times by coming out on the sand at our feet, )ut it retreated hastily when it learned its mistake, and finally t swam out to sea. The pups have a plaintive, moaning call, vhich is quickly identified by the mother. The adults have a ower and more raucous voice. On July 27, a partially blind seal swam near the beach at Glen sland. One eye was white, and the other was partly white. It ;ould see me only when it faced me squarely. On June 17, it was noticed that the seals were shedding their lair. Old hair was found in their beds, where they had been )asking on the beach. At this time, some were a dirty yellowish ;olor; some were mixed, partly light and partly dark; and others vere all dark. Evidently, these color variations were stages of )elage change. On June 24, 1937, a female seal was taken for a specimen at <^hvostof Island, and her pup was kept alive for a time. Part )f the navel cord was still attached, and it was evident that the )up was recently born. It had the typical dark, spotted coat of his species of seal. The mother weighed 220 pounds. As one would expect, the seal was much prized by the Aleuts, ind was used for food and for other purposes. Wetmore, writ- ng of Unalaska and neighboring islands in 1911, stated that "The lide is used for various purposes and oil is tried out of the blub- )er. The gut is split and dried and used for many purposes. It s sold in the store like cloth at about 15 cents a yard." ^usa hispida: Ringed Seal Russian (Siberia): Ak'-ee-pah (Buxton). Turner (1886, p. 206) implies that this seal occurs in the Aleutians, but from his casual statement it is obvious that he lad no specimens to support his opinion. Nelson (1887, p. 262) loes not mention any locality farther south than St. Michael, )ut there is a specimen in the National Museum (No. 227077) hat was obtained near Chogiung, Bristol Bay, by Hanna in 1913. Phis is a seal of the ice floes and would not be expected to occur •egularly in the Aleutian district. Stragglers may have come that "ar at times in winter with southward-drifting ice. ^agophJlus groenlandicus: Harp Seal This is another seal whose reported presence in the Aleutians nust be seriously doubted. Turner (1886, p. 206) gives as its 310 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE range: "All the Arctic shore, Bering Sea, and the Aleutian Is lands." There is no evidence of its presence in the Aleutiamj Allen (1880, p. 641) refers to Pallas and Steller as recording i; from Kamchatka, and he says that Tcmminck mentions havin]- examined three skins obtained at Sitka. On Temminck's recorc, Nelson (1887, p. 263) expresses serious doubt: "considerinj that we have no subsequent record of its capture in that no"v well-known region, and that it is unknown from the Aleutiai Islands and is of such extreme rarity in Bering Sea, that recori can be safely considered as more than doubtful." I agree with Nelson's opinion without any hesitation. In fact Doutt (1942, p. 90), considering t^ie complete lack of specimen from the western Arctic and Bering Sea, has some doubt abou it being circumpolar in distribution, although Nelson describee the skin of a young individual from Cape Prince of Wales, am described several individuals that were seen at close range ii the pack ice near Wrangel and Herald Islands. Hisfriophoca fasciafa: Ribbon Seal Russian: Kre-lat-ah and Mandar-ka (Buxton) This is a rare and little-known seal, but apparently it is quit migratory, and there is a possibility that it has been found amonj the Aleutian Islands. Allen (1880, p. 681) refers to Pallas a,i recording the range as far south as the Kurile Islands, and re' fers to Von Schrenck as stating that Wosnessenski obtaine( specimens that had been killed on the east coast of Kamchatka Allen also states that Von Schrenck had seen skins of these seali that had been killed on the southern coast of the Sea of Okhotsk Allen further states that Dall had obtained specimens from Capi Romanzoff, and he quotes Scammon as follows: "It is foum upon the coast of Alaska, bordering the Behring Sea, and th< natives of Ounalaska recognize it as an occasional visitor to thd Aleutian Islands." Erignafhus barbafus: Bearded Seal Erignathus barbafus nauticus Russian, (Siberia) : Nerpah Russian, Kamchatka and Marcona: Lock-tock (Buxton) Nelson (1887, p. 260) says— The Bearded Seal is rather common along the Alaskan coast of Bering Sea south to Bristol Bay, but it is not found on the Aleutian Islands no] about the Fur-Seal group, except possibly as a winter visitor with the ice pack about the latter islands. On the coast south of Cape Vancouver thej are far less common than north of that point. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 311 Osgood (1904, p. 47) obtained a skull of this seal from the atives near his camp on Ugagik River. The animal had been illed there on October 3, 1902. On May 23, 1936, in Bristol Bay, Captain Sellevold, who was in ommand of our ship the Brown Bear, reported that he saw a seal lat "dived like a fur seal," that is, sliding over head first, with umped back, but that it had a "white streak" on its face. It is rue that this is the diving habit of the bearded seal, and the o-called "white streak" may have been the appearance of the long •hiskers of this seal. A skull is in the National Museum (No. 260363) that was ob- ained from Kodiak Island by Ales Hrdlicka. Bill Dirks, Atka Chief, said that in the winter of 1935-36 two trange large seals arrived at Atka Island on ice floes after a leriod of northerly winds. It is probable that these were bearded eals, for the natives were familiar with their own common harbor eals. Family ODOBENIDAE ^dobenus rosmarus: Walrus )dobenus rosmarus divergens Aleut (dialect?) : Amgadakh (Geoghegan) Amagadookh (Wetmore) Russian: Morsjec (Elliot) The walrus was never known south of Alaska Peninsula or the Ueutian Islands in any numbers. Elliott (1882, p. 98) wrote— 10 walrus are found south of the Aleutian Islands; still, not more than :5 or 50 years ago, small gatherings of these animals were killed here nd there on the islands between Kodiak and Oonimak Pass; the greatest iggregate of them, south of Bering straits, will always be found in the ■stuaries of Bristol bay and on the north side of the peninsula. On October 9, 1923, Walker wrote, "One individual was killed n the fall of 1921 or spring of 1922 at the head of Cold Bay (north of Deer Island), on the south side of the Alaska Penin- 5ula." Apparently, there was even a more southerly distribution in n-imitive times. Colder (1922, p. 292) quotes from the journal )f Chirikov's vessel, the St. Paul, under date of July 16, 1741, the ocality being near Cape Addington in southeastern Alaska: "Ob- served many ducks and gulls of different species, also sea ani- Tials — whales, sea lions and walrus." The same author (p. 295) quotes again for July 23, 1741, somewhere in or near Lisianski Strait: "At the eleventh hour a 312 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE walrus swam past our ship." And again (p. 298), for August 1741, near Cape Elizabeth, the southwestern point of Kenai Pc insula : "A walrus dived near the ship." If we may accept these early records, and they appear to authentic, in primitive times the walrus must have ranged least as far south and east as Prince of Wales Island in souti eastern Alaska, possibly farther. It should be noted that thisi actually not farther south than the north shore of Unimak /; land. However, if there had been large herds in southeaste ■ Alaska, surely some of them would have survived long enough | have been more generally recorded. It is reasonable to conclu ' that walruses occurring south and east of Alaska Peninsula we only in small groups and that they represented the southern f rin of their distribution. , The Aleutian Islands west of Unimak are not properly in tl walrus range, but Turner (1886, p. 207) records a 2-year-old m£ killed at Attn Island in September 1880. In 1938, Scheffer recorded the following statement by Pe Olson, of Unalaska Island: I went to Anderson Bay near Makushin with my power dory and tow a walrus up on the beach. It had been killed by natives, was two or thii years old, and had a body about two thirds as long as my twenty fd dory. The walrus was beached and the natives took some meat. A doci on the Coast Guard boat "Haida" took the head, cleaned off the meat, a saved the skull. This happened in the late fall of 1926 or 1927. Such records represent strays. Walruses feed on clams on the ocean floor, therefore we wou^ not expect to find optimum habitat in the deep waters that a so prevalent in the western Aleutians. On the other hand, \ know that walruses existed in great numbers in Bering Se whose shallow waters afford favorable feeding grounds. It significant that Bristol Bay, whose shallow waters and mud ai sand bottom were the home of great numbers of walruses earlier days, now has very few. Several places on the north side of Alaska Peninsula we: visited by great numbers of walruses, though early accounts ( not always specify precise localities. It is obvious that tl "south side of Bristol Bay" harbored large walrus herds. Log residents indicated that the vicinity of Ugashik had one or moi hauling-out places. Osgood (1904, p. 49) reported in 1902 that— A very limited number of walruses still occur about some of the sm£ islands in Togiak Bay west of Nushagak, and on the north coast of tl Alaska Peninsula in the vicinity of the native village of Unangashik. Lari FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 313 uantities of walrus bones, witnesses of bygone slaughters, are to be found t various points along the peninsula. One such place was reported by he fishermen of Igigik, who had recently found it while on a hunting trip ear there. From their accounts, the remains must be in great quantities. Great numbers of walruses are known to have been killed at 'ort Moller. In 1911, Wetmore reported that a few walruses \^ere still to be found on "Walrus Island", in Izembek Bay, near he west end of Alaska Peninsula. In 1925, when I visited Izembek Bay, parts of walrus skulls were found on Hazen Point and on he ocean beaches of the Kudiakof Islands. These are a string >f sand islands that extend across the mouth of Izembek Bay. \.bout 14 miles offshore at this place is isolated Amak Island, vhich has a long boulder beach thickly strewn with old walrus )ones. Assuredly, at one time this was a much-used resting place 'or these animals. In 1936, the late Alexis Yetchmenef, Aleut chief then residing it Unalaska, said that in 1880 to 1883, during his visit at his )ld home in Morzhovoi Village, walruses were numerous on the lorth side of Unimak Island and were found in St. Catherine I^ove. On one occasion, while hunting on Unimak Island, he saw 10 or 50 walruses leaving the island. For 2 years they were Dlentiful there. Then, in 1898 or 1899, some white men "did a ot of shooting there," and the chief believed that the walrus left 'or that reason. Unimak Island undoubtedly marks the western- nost point in this area that is reached by the walrus in any num- 3ers, because it also marks the western end of suitable habitat. In 1887, E. W. Nelson (1887, p. 270) said, "Today it is safe to say that the number of these animals in existence is not over 50 percent of the number living ten years ago, and a heavy annual decrease is still going on." In a letter dated March 4, 1921, C. L. Andrews wrote to E. W. NTelson, at that time Chief of the U. S. Biological Survey — The walrus should be looked after. They are increasing, and are again coming to the Alaska Peninsula in small numbers where they, in Russian days, were by thousands. But the skin and ivory hunters will again wipe bhem off the waters if nothing is done to stop it. If handled properly an industry of at least a million dollars a year could be perpetuated in their skins, oil, and ivory. I can't get the record of the amount brought down for the last 8 or 10 years, the customs do not give it, but I know of 2800 skins being in Seattle about 4 years ago, and the "Belvedere" was lost in the Arctic "walrusing" last year. An occasional walrus is still seen in the vicinity of Nunivak Island, but the herds that Elliott thought would be "preserved in- definitely" are gone from Bristol Bay and Alaska Peninsula. Moreover, there is no assurance, with modern transportation 314 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE and with modern firearms in the hands of the natives, that thl: northern herds will survive. Eskimos still kill walruses for foo and clothing. But with the use of firearms about 50 percent o the animals sink and are lost. Today the walrus poses an in portant consei-vation problem. Family SCIURIDAE Marmofa caligafa: Hoary Marmot Marmota caligafa caligafa Russian, Siberia: Tar-bah-gan (Buxton) Howell (1915, p. 58) gives the distribution of the marmot a including much of southern and interior Alaska, Kenai Peninsuk and Alaska Peninsula as far west as the Port Moller regior Allen (1904, p. 278) records a marmot taken at "Muller Bay. The type locality is Bristol Bay. They do not occur in the Kodiak Afognak Islands, Captain Cook (1842, p. 358), writing at Unalaska, states tha foxes and weasels we.re the only quadrupeds seen, but he add that he was told that there were hares, and the "mai-mottas" mer tioned by Krasheninikoff in October, 1778. This statement probabl refers to the general region of Unalaska, and if the "marmottas are referable to "marmot," as used later, it is important to not that this name was often applied to the ground squirrel, Citellui Marmot Island obviously was named for the ground squirre There are no records of marmots west of Port Moller. Cifellus parryJi: Ground Squirrel Cifellus parryii ablusus Aleut (dialect?) :AndvMchgh (Osgood) Russian, (Morzhovoi Bay) : Everaskha (Wetmore) Russian, Siberia: Ov-rdhs-ka (Buxton) The type locality of this ground squirrel is Nushagak, and i inhabits the entire length of Alaska Peninsula and Unimak Is land.. The ground squirrels from the Barren Islands, betwee: Kenai Peninsula and Afognak Island, also are this form, instea^ of kodiacensis. These ground squirrels were introduced on Una laska Island by Samuel Applegate, of the U. S, Signal Service and they became plentiful in their new home. Osgood (190-^ p. 31) states that Applegate obtained the ground squirrels a Nushagak. In 1936, Chief Alexis Yetchmeneflf told us much th same story, giving the date of the introduction as 1896 or 1891 FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 315 ut he thought that they had come from Unimak Island or lorzhovoi Bay. The chief was a little uncertain about the precise )cality, and Osgood's statement was very definite, so it is likely lat they came from Nushagak. In any case, it is the same libspecies. According to Bill Dirks, chief of Atka Village, 10 or 12 ground quirrels were brought from Unalaska by Nick Bolshanin and 'ere liberated on Kavalga Island, in 1920, where they Increased 1 number. These two introductions, on Unalaska and Kavalga slands, were the only ones that we learned about. It is obvious that ground squirrels are able to cross narrow hannels of water to reach adjacent islands. In 1925, I was iformed that a ground squirrel had been seen swimming across bay in Isanotski Strait. It came to a net, ran along on the floats or a distance, then swam on again. When I arrived at King Cove on April 25, 1925, the ground quirrels were active, though it was not known how much earlier hey had been out. On May 2, on Unimak Island, it was noted hat they were sluggish and not much in evidence, which prob- bly was due to the cold, disagreeable weather that prevailed at hat time. Beals and Longworth, in 1941, saw the first ground quirrels on April 15. A trapper, Nick Kristensen, declared that ccasionally he had seen ground squirrel tracks in January, pre- umably in warm spells of weather, but that he had dug them out ti winter and found them fully dormant. Osgood (1904, p. 32) aid "The animals were more or less active at Cold Bay as late ,s October 18, although comparatively cold weather was prevail- ng." On May 25, 1925, on a plateau near Aghileen Pinnacles, I dis- overed that ground squirrels had burrowed up through the snow rom their place of hibernation, and were living on this snowfield, ometimes wandering far from the burrow. On June 3, a ground squirrel was observed pulling a big mouth- ul of grass into a den, no doubt for a nest for the young. Others vere similarly engaged on subsequent days — the last observation >eing on June 8, Though the food of the ground squirrel is chiefly vegetation, hey will eat animal matter. Several came to my camp on Alaska 'eninsula to nibble at the fat on a bear hide stretched out to dry. rhe stomach of a specimen taken on Unimak Island May 8, 1925, xamined by the Food Habits Research Section of the U. S. Bio- ogical Survey, contained the following items: 316 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 21 caterpillars and lepidopterous pupae, 60 percent; 1 tipulid larva and Bibio larvae, 4 percent; 2 beetles (Cryobius sp.) ; 1 ichneumonid and spider, trace; 2 berries (Vaccinium spj 2 percent; a few leaves oi Empetru'i nigrum and other vegetable matter, 34 percent. In 1937, Scheffer noted that on Kavalga Island the groun squirrels were cutting out the basal parts of Anemone narciss flora and Ligusticum above the roots. In 1938, on Unalaska L land, he noted again that ground squirrels were eating out th center of basal parts of stems of the anemone, and he foun wilted tops and outer layers of stems near the burrows. On Kavalga Island, the blue foxes feed to some extent o ground squirrels, and on Alaska Peninsula the Alaska brow bears dig them out of their burrows. C'ifellus parry}] nebulicola This form occupies the Shumagin Islands, and was observed o< Nagai, Simeonof, and Koniuji Islands in this group. CJtellus kodiacensis: Ground Squirrel Howell (1938, p. 103) considered this form distinct enough t be a full species. Its range is confined to Kodiak Island. There is a peculiar circumstance connected with this specie, Howell refers to Osgood's statement that the ground squirrels c Kodiak Island were introduced from North Semidi Island (0: good obtained this information from a native). Petroff (188' p. 139) states that "The animal [ground squirrel] does not exis on the island of Kodiak, but abounds on some of the smaller h lands." And again, 1936, Petellin, of Afognak, informed us tha ground squirrels occur on Chirikof and Semidi Islands and o Marmot Island, but none are on Kodiak or Afognak Islands, Ye Howell records 45 specimens from Kodiak Island. There is confusion here that should be cleared up when an opportunit is offered. During our short visits on Kodiak and Afognak h lands, in 1936 and 1937, we did not see the ground squirrel, bu'^ in 1938, Scheffer obtained two ppecimxcns at KodiaJ Tamiasciurus hudson'icus: Red Squirrel Tamiasciurus hudsonicus kenaiensis Osgood (1904, p. 30) expressed the distribution of red squirre' very well when he said — Red squirrels were found sparingly in the timbered regions. . . . This scarcil of red squirrels is doubtless because they reach the extreme western lim of their range in this region. Specimens were taken at the following localities FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 317 g-heling Portage, Lake Clark (near head), mouth of Chulitna River, Neek- veena Lake, south fork Chulitna River, Kakhtul River (near Malchatna iction). Howell gives the range of this form as reaching as far east as kutat. It is to be expected that red squirrels range as far as the ever- 9en forest at the base of Alaska Peninsula. Presumably, this imal does not occur on Kodiak or Afognak Islands. Family CASTORIDAE 7s/or canadensis: Beaver 'sfor canadensis canadensis Beavers are known to occur in the Bristol Bay region, and they e trapped there. McKay obtained a specimen at Kokwok on ^cember 17, 1881. Osgood (1904, p. 32) found evidence of aver at various points in the wooded region about the base of aska Peninsula. A. G. Maddren obtained a skull at Becharof ike in October 1903. But the designation of the range of beaver this country must await further field work. Kellogg (1936, p. 37) found beaver bones in native midden re- ains from Kodiak Island. This would suggest that beavers oc- pied Kodiak Island at one time, though it is possible that these ■aver remains might have been brought there by natives. At ly rate, beavers were introduced on Kodiak Island in 1925 by e Alaska Game Commission. In 1936, we found them to be sll established there. In 1938, Scheffer noted heavy utilization Sitka spruce by beavers in a pond near Kodiak; "Several mdred stumps 1-6 inches in diameter were seen around the ore. Peeled and unpeeled spruce sticks were used in the dam and dge — We noted some utilization of willow and Verati-um. . . . le Salmonberry, though abundant, was apparently not utilized." Family CRICETIDAE fnapfomys boreal'is: Lemming Mouse 'napiomys borealis dalli This mouse is confined to the basal parts of the Alaska Penin- ila, and eastward. In Fish and Wildlife Service collections there •e specimens from Lake Clark, Lake Iliamna, Chulitna River, ake Aleknagik, and Kokwok, on Nushagak River. 318 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Lemmus frimucronafus: Lemming Lemmus frimucronafus mJnusculus As might be expected, this mouse ventures out a considerab distance on Alaska Peninsula. Its range is roughly shown by tl, following specimens in the Fish and Wildlife Service collection:] from Chogiung, 11 from Kakhtul, 24 from Kakhtul River, 20 fro Chulitna River, 2 from Kokwok River, 2 from Kokwok, (i Nushagak River, 6 from Nushagak, and 5 from Chignik Ba The last mentioned show that further collecting will undoubted show a greater distribution on the more westerly part of tl Peninsula. Dicrostonyx groenlandJcus: Collared Lemming Dicrosfonyx groenlandJcus rubricafus Lemmings that, for the present, are referred to this subspeci are found throughout the length of Alaska Peninsula and Unimj Island. The few specimens we have from the western part Alaska Peninsula and Unimak Island do not entirely agree color with the typical rubricatus coloration. These specimens suggest a strong tendency toward the grj pelage of stevensoni from Umnak Island. But in view of tl variations in the characters of this lemming, and the small nur ber of specimens at hand, it is difficult to state the relationshi] of the lemmings in this interesting region. In 1925, when I visited the west end of Alaska Peninsula an Unimak Island, an attempt was made to collect a good series > specimens, but the lemmings were scarce that year and only foi were obtained on Unimak Island. They had their burrows on tl higher tundra and among the lava beds. Dicrosfonyx groenlandicus unalascensis The lemming from Unalaska Island was described in 1900 ( the basis of skulls taken from owl pellets, and for a long time v knew nothing of its external characters. Many attempts hs been made to trap specimens, and during our brief stops , Unalaska in 1936 and 1937 we tried to obtain some, but withoi result. We did find remains of these mice, however, in red f( droppings. In 1931, Gilmore succeeded in trapping two specimens on Un laska Island, and he has described them in detail (1933, p. 257 Apparently, this form, like the one on Umnak Island, does n acquire a white winter coat. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 319 )/cfos/onyx groenlandicus sfevensoni This lemming, described by Nelson in 1929, is similar to D. g. 'nalascensis in that it is grayer in coloration than rubricatus, nd does not become white in winter. It is quite common on Jmnak Island, but no lemmings or other native mice are found arther west in the Aleutians. In 1937, we were infonned by Mr. Stacey, owner of the domestic heep on Umnak Island, that about 1927, as nearly as he could emember, lemmings became abundant. "Millions," he said, and so hard on the grass" that he feared tliey would "run him out of he sheep business." The following year the lemmings were carce. The dates were a little uncertain, but apparently it was about hat time that a Captain Nelson, passing by Umnak Island, came ipon big "schools" of lemmings out at sea. A news account in the "Seward Gateway," dated April 18, 1932, )0ssibly refers to this same incident, and may fix the date more iccurately : tappers on Umnak Island, in the Aleutian group, report the recent migra- ion of millions of lemmings from the island. It is said the lemmings raveled in immense multitudes, in a straight line to the seashore, ap- larently in obedience to some blind mechanical impulse of nature. During the migration they moved onward in parallel columns. One trapper ould not induce them to deviate from the straight line. The remarkable migration terminated in Bering Sea and ended in the drowning of all that urvived the rough journey down from the higher regions of Umnak Island. In his interesting book, "Fifty Years below Zero," Charles Grower mentions a striking lemming migration (1943, p. 123). t occurred in the latter part of May 1888, near Point Barrow, ?he lemmings came from the southeast, at first a few bands, then n "solid masses," until the "whole land was black with them." 'The main body, moving seaward on a 10-mile front, took 4 days 0 pass the station. They kept on over the sea ice, finally leaping nto the water and swimming off'shore until drowned." These are striking examples of lemming migrations entering he sea, in the historic manner of those of Norway. It illustrates m innate tendency of this rodent group as a whole, shared by he lemmings of Point Barrow (which turn white in winter) , .nd their grayer and southernmost relatives of Umnak Island. In the spring of 1924 I observed numbers of mice of the genus jemmus in the edge of the shore ice at Hooper Bay, in the Yukon )elta region. Some of these were wet. Though no actual migra- ion was noted, nor any massed concentrations, the circumstances 320 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDUFE SERVICE suggested that this lemming may have in some degree the tendenc / that is so strong in Dicrostonyx. ClefbrJonomys rutJIus: Red-backed Mouse i Clethrionomys rufilus dawsoni ' The wide-ranging red-backed mouse is found practical! li throughout the whole length of the Alaska Peninsula, for We|- more obtained a specimen at Frosty Peak, which is not far fro][ the west tip of the peninsula. Furthermore, in 1925, I was ill- formed that in the general vicinity of False Pass there was [ "red" mouse, whose description accurately fitted that of Clethr ■ cnomys. No evidence of its presence on Unimak Island W£| obtained. M'icrofus oeconomus: Meadow Mouse Microfus oeconomus kadJacensls Osgood (1904, p. 34) discussed the specimens from the base o the Alaska Peninsula, and remarked that — All of these seem to be more similar to kadiaccnsis than to typical operarim though to a slight extent they partake of the characters of each. Fro;i the examination of a very large series of both it appears that in cok operarius and kadiacensis are absolutely alike, and that in cranial charactei they are very closely related. After careful and painstaking study of this material, it seem best to assign M. o. kadiacensis to Kodiak Island exclusively. 1 is indeed only slightly differentiated, but it may be recognizee It is possible that age has something to do with the character c the skulls from Kodiak, but they appear less robust than thos of M. oeconomus operarnis. The nasals are slightly different i shape, and the incisive foramen in skulls of kadiacensis tend to b a little shorter and wider. M'icrofus oeconomus operarius Aleut (dialect?) : Asookitah (Wetmore) Meadow mice inhabiting the Bering Sea coast, including Bristc Bay, the Alaska Peninsula, and Unimak Island, appear to be r€ ferable to operarius. Those found on Unimak Island do not af pear to be quite typical, but the differences are so slight (i they really exist in comparable specimens) that there seems to b no sound basis for separating them. Four specimens of meadow mice were obtained on Sanak Is land. Curiously enough, these could hardly be said to differ fror the mice on Unimak Island and the Peninsula, though they ar FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 321 ore isolated than popofensis of the Shumagin group. The feet id tail of those from Sanak are dark (as on the Peninsula) ; 16 feet and tail are darker than on imalascensis and duskier than 1 kadiacens-is, the latter being essentially browner. On the whole, lis small series from Sanak Island cannot be differentiated •om operamis, and should be included in that form. Meadow mice were abundant on Dolgoi Island in 1937, but none ere trapped, and they were plentiful on Sanak Island, where ley are known as "gophers." In 1936, they were extremely Dundant at Cape Pankof, Unimak Island, but they were exceed- igly scarce on other parts of the same island. Some signs of lice were seen on Ushagat Island, in the Barren Island group, at no specimens were obtained. In 1911, Wetmore found meadow mice to be scarce in the laces he visited at the west end of Alaska Peninsula. In 1925, I )und meadow mice to be fairly common on Unimak Island, but found them to be scarce on the mainland and almost unknown I some localities. Specimens were obtained by finding limited )lonies here and there. These mice preferred grassy locations, 1 contrast with the lemmings' choice of the mossy tundra, yet n occasional group could be found on the mossy tundra living 1 a stray patch of grass. In general, they were common about igoons and the grassy lowlands, and could be found among lava Dcks, particularly about the edge of rock masses, where grass enerally occurs. These mice were fond of the beaches and the and dunes, where the principal vegetation is the coarse wild ye (Elymus). In grassy places, where the snow had recently lelted, the winter runways were conspicuous. The mice had a king for the banks of little gullies, where they had numerous urrows — quite often, there were single burrows, at least there ^as a single entrance with a little pile of excavated dirt. In the and dunes, the mice run about without well-defined runways; ley have routes of travel among the coarse grass stems, as hown by their tracks, but the shifting sand prevents establish- lent of permanent paths. On May 17, 1925, at St. Catherine Cove, several food caches -ere found in the sand dunes, just out of reach of the tide. A mall external opening led into a tunnel that slanted downward bout 1 foot beneath the surface, to the stored food. In one case, lie cache consisted of about 17,560 seeds of beach sandwort, lonckenya peplmdes, together with dried stems and fragments f fruit capsules, and 403 large seeds of a composite, as well as trace of Elymus (bits of stem and leaves and fruit) . In another ache, 2 feet distant, there were only undetermined roots — both 322 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE caches totaled about half a peck. The shifting sands must ha covered those openings repeatedly, therefore the mouse undoubj;. edly found the spot by a sense of location and scent. At Urilia Bay, we found another cache that was made up < bases of stems of undetermined plants and roots. Microfus oeconomus popofensis This is another slightly differentiated form, occupying tl Shumagin Islands. Specimens have been obtained on Popof ar Unga Islands. This mouse is, of course, very similar to operariu but the skull appears to have a more slender rostrum, with little longer and definitely wider incisive foramen. Judging fro specimens at hand, the underparts of popofensis are more tawr than in the specimens from the mainland. In 1936, these mice were extremely abundant at one place ( Unga Island, near a bird colony. The ground was honeycombe with burrows, and mice were seen running about occasionally. They are known in the Shumagins as well as on Sanak Islam as "gophers," while shrews are called "mice." Microfus oeconomus amakensis Strangely enough, this form, which has the most restricts range, is one of the best defined. The skull differs from all oth( mice in this species, particularly in the occipital region — tl flat occipital surface contrasts with the convex surface in tl other forms. In this feature, the skull of amakensis suggests tH appearance of skull of M. o. kamtschaticus, though the series ( the latter is small and not entirely comparable. Also, the incisi^ foramen of amakensis is short and blunt, contrasting with tl attenuated foramina in other forms. The feet and top of tail aii paler than in the other forms. It is puzzling that this form, which is confined to small Ams Island located only 14 miles north of the coast of Alaska Penii sula, is more distinct than the mice on other islands that ai equally as far, or farther, from the mainland. It is possible thi unfavorable transportation aspects have tended to isolate thi island, thus emphasizing a distinct form. In 1925, when I visited Amak Island, meadow mice wei extremely abundant. Runways were everywhere, in the gras underground, under driftwood, among old whale bones on tl beach, as well as among the lava rocks and moss on the high( portions of the island. When walking over the low ground, "w FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 323 ten broke through into a maze of underground burrows. When tting traps, I could hear the traps snapping a short distance hind, as the mice were ah*eady being caught. Many of those ught were young mice, and there was a remarkable pre- •nderance of females. Several mice were infested with ticks, Ixodes angustus, some- nes three or four on one mouse. Many others were covered ith mites, a gamasid, probably Haeogamasus sp. There were numerous beetles in the mouse runways, some of hich fed on the trapped mice. One of these was the common rrion beetle, Necrophorus sp., and two others, Nebria sp. and 'aphinotus marginatus, were obtained there, though these latter ere not seen feeding. Dung beetles, Aphodius sp., and rove ietles gathered at the anus of dead mice, attracted by the aces of dung. Such an aggregatior of more or less parasitic invertebrates in a mse mouse population could be an important element in the clic behavior of these rodents. At the time of this heavy peak population on Amak Island, )th lemmings and meadow mice were scarce on Alaska Penin- ila. And none of the beetles, mentioned above, were noticed at summer, either on Alaska Peninsula or on Unimak Island. icrofus oeconomus unalascensis This form is more readily distinguished from M. o. operarius lan most of the other subspecies. The skull shows wider nasals, le convexity of the occipital plane is greater, and apparently it a somewhat larger animal. This m.ouse occupies Unalaska Island, and a specimen from 3arby Unalga Island is referable to this form. There is no lowledge concerning its presence on Akutan and Akun Islands, Dr on other smaller islands in that vicinity. Meadow mice ap- irently are not found on Umnak Island ; at least, we obtained ily lemmings when we trapped there. Therefore, Unalaska may i the westernmost point reached by Microtus in the Aleutians. On Unalaska Island, in 1936, I found meadow mice in the laracteristic grassy meadow habitat, just as on Alaska Peninsula id Unimak Island. And, in 1925, Stevenson stated that in times ' heavy mouse population on Unalaska Island, numerous beetles id ruined mouse specimens in the traps, just as they did on mak Island. 324 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE MJcrofus pennsylvanicus: Meadow Mouse M'icrofus pennsylvanicus drummondll This form of meadow mouse barely enters the area here imce discussion. There are specimens in the Fish and Wildhfe Sei-vi: collection from Lake Clark, Kakhtul River, and Nushag^t Probably, the Drummond meadow mouse does not range mut farther west than the base of Alaska Peninsula. Ondatra zibefhicus: Muskrat Ondatra libethlcus zaiophus Muskrats are common in the Bristol Bay region and the easte^' part of Alaska Peninsula. Specimens have been taken in man localities of this area, including one as far west as Ugashik, whi( was obtained by C. L. McKay in 1881. There is a series specimens in the Fish and Wildlife Service collection fret Becharof Lake, including the type. In 1925, I was told by re i dents of False Pass that muskrats are not found farther west th | Port Moller, the implication being that they do occur in th; locality. This is not supported by specimens at present. ^ Stevenson reported that L. A. Levigne, "a few years ago" (1| fore 1920), brought some muskrats to Unalaska and turn] them loose in a fresh-water pond near Captain's Harbor. "Th| were observed the next spring but have not been seen since, m| have starved, or possibly have migrated to some other locatioi About 1925, the Alaska Game Commission introduced mm rats on the Kodiak-Afognak group of islands, and they ha become established. Scheffer obtained three specimens on Afogni Island in 1938. Apparently there are no muskrats on Nunivak Island, in Beri Sea, and the distribution here recorded suggests that muskn require a habitat that is associated with vegetation found in, near, forested areas. They do not thrive on islands or other are where the vegetation is low to the ground. Family MURIDAE Mus musculus: House Mouse Mus musculus domesficus Presumably, the house mouse has been introduced in most the settlements of southwestern Alaska, and we made no partic lar effort to study its distribution. In the Aleutian Islands prop< where native rodents are nearly always absent, exotic introdi FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 325 ions have a peculiar interest, because of possible adaptation to a odent-free environment. We do not have specific information for Jnalaska Island, where presumably the house mouse must have -een introduced in the settlement. In the western, rodent-free is- ands we took pains to study this question and found a single rec- rd — on Kiska Island. In the summer of 1937, signs of mice were ound in a cabin on Kiska Island and many traps were set. A sin- :le house mouse was caught, possibly the only one on the island, hough since the occupation of the Aleutians by military forces t is to be expected that mice and rats have been brought to this nd other islands. The mouse from Kiska evidently came from Seattle in freight hipments. It proved to be Miis musculus domesticus, rather than form from the Asiatic side. Schwartz and Schwartz (1943, p. 66) lave shown that the West European house mouse, from which lur American commensal mice were derived, is M. m. domesticus, md not M. m. musculus as heretofore assumed. latfus norvegicus: House Rat Russian: Krisi Rats were introduced in the Aleutian Islands during the Russian occupation. Rat Island had received its name from the Russians as early as 1790, hence the rats must have arrived at an ■arlier date. Rats also are found at Unalaska and at Atka. Vt Atka Village, the rats were very troublesome. The natives could lot raise gardens at Atka because of these pests, so they crossed )ver to rat-free Amlia Island and planted their gardens. The •ats have managed to cross over to the little islands in Nazan i^ay, and they may soon invade Amlia Island (if they have not dready done so since the military occupation of that island). lats are reported from Kiska by G. A. Amman (correspondence), rhey were not there before World War II. It is probable that "ats have been introduced to Attn, Amchitka, and Adak as a •esult of military operations. In addition to Atka Village, rats have become feral on both \tka and Rat Islands. On Atka Island, we found their runways n the heavy grass, and we saw cut plant stems, which were much ike those of Microius, but longer. Burrows were found in some )laces. In the spring, we found large areas where the rats had lug up the bulbs of FritiUaria camschatcensis, and Scheffer found :hat the I'ats had eaten the basal parts of the stems of Anemone 326 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE narcissiflora, much in the manner of ground squirrels on Unalask and Kavalga Islands. On Rat Island, these rodents were confined to the beaches ii or near, the fringe of heavy vegetation. They found a convenier t refuge among the boulders on the beach and proved to hi extremely wary. The interior of this island supports a very shoij type of vegetation, not at all suitable for cover — hence the choic of the shoreline by the rats. To what extent blue foxes prey on rats is not certain. Thesi rodents are extremely wary and alert, and the foxes may not fin I them easy hunting. Bald eagles get an occasions;' one, but ral had tunneled into the peatlike foundations of two eagle's nests o rock pinnacles on Rat Island and were living there below whil the eagles were raising their young. On one occasion, a short-eared owl had appeared at Atk Island, far out of the range of native rodents, and it was promptl shot. When we found the remains about a year later, in 1936, w were able to determine that the stomach contained parts of a rai Family ZAPODIDAE Zapus hudsonius: Jumping Mouse Zapus hudsonius alascensis Jumping mice occur throughout the length of Alaska Peninsul; There are specimens from Lake Aleknagik, Chulitna River, Lai Clark, Lake Uiamna, Kokwok, Nushagak, Chignik, Frosty Peai and Izembek Bay. I obtained a male specimen at Izembek Bay on June 23, 1925, i the grass at the edge of a pond. At that time, I learned thb jumping mice are found on Unimak Island. Several people ha observed them there ; 1 man, in the course of some excavatid work, caught 4 of them. Harry Wilson, on Ikatan Peninsula, ha one of these mice in a tin can, but when I arrived there a few daj; later, the mouse had escaped. In 1941, Beals and Longwort reported that Nick Kristensen had found one of these mice at h: house at False Pass, where several others had drowned in a shai low dug well, and Arthur Neuman had reported them as bein plentiful about Ikatan Village several years previously. In thes instances, though no specimens were obtained, the mouse : easily identified, and there is no reason to doubt the report Therefore, we may conclude that Unimak Island is occupied b Zapus. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 327 Family ERETHIZONTIDAE refhiion dorsafum: American Porcupine rethizon dorsafum myops Morzhovoi Bay: Noon (Wetmore) Porcupines are found along the entire length of the Alaska ^eninsula. Osgood (1904, p. 38) suggested that their fondness or the aments and young leaves of the alders may cause them to vander some distance beyond the forest proper. In fact, recent •ecords prove that some of them live several hundreds of miles )eyond the forest. At Izembek Bay, in 1925, I found alder 'uttings that had been made by porcupines in winter. Evidently, n the summer they were living on green herbaceous plants. In 1911, near Frosty Peak, Wetmore observed that a porcupine lad shuffled along the beach for more than 2 miles before turning nland, evidently nosing around bunches of kelp. So far as we know, the porcupine is not found on Unimak island. Family OCHOTONIDAE Dcbofona collaris: Collared Pika Apparently, pikas are rare at the base of Alaska Peninsula, ;hough True (1886, p. 221) quotes from McKay's notebook: 'Said to be very plentiful in the mountains. The Indians in their /icinity have a superstitious dread about killing them, and can lot be hired to do so." McKay obtained two specimens in the Chigmit Mountains. We lave no other specimens from this region. Family LEPORIDAE .epus americanus: Varying Hare .epus americanus dalli Osgood (1904, p. 39) found these hares to be abundant about Lake Clark and along Chulitna River. Specimens have been taken it Nushagak, Lake Aleknagik, Ekwok, and Kakwok River. They jrobably do not range far beyond the timbered areas. Varying hares were introduced to the Kodiak-Afognak Islands 3y the Alaska Game Commission and are now established there. The introduced stock was obtained from territory along the A.laska Railroad on the mainland. 328 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Lepus ofhus: Arctic Hare Lepus ofhus poadromus Russian: Zaisch (Buxton) Siberian (Chukchi?), Okhotsk, Gichiga, Marcova: Oo-skon (Buxton) Arctic hares are found throughout the Alaska Peninsula aii Bristol Bay region (which is the principal range) . So far as v know, none are found on Unimak Island, There is a specimd in the Fish and Wildlife Service collection, which is understood 1 have been collected by Kleinschmidt on June 9, 1913, on Pop* Island — which is rather surprising. We have no information ( its presence on the Shumagins. In 1936, we found abundant signs of Arctic hares at Snag Poir near Nushagak, and learned that they live in the alder thicket In 1925, I observed them at the west end of Alaska Peninsu and obtained a specimen. There, too, they inhabited the thicket and in summer, when the vegetation was leafed out, they wei next to impossible to see, but they came out of the thickets i the evenings to feed. Family CERVIDAE Cervus canadensis: Elk (Wapiti) Cervus canadensis roosevelti The wapiti is not indigenous to Alaska, but it was introduced c the Kodiak-Afognak Island group. At present, the animals an mostly on Afognak Island, though individuals have crossed ove to Whale Island and Derenof Island. The original animals wei obtained from the Olympic Mountains in Washington. These el appear to be thriving in their new environment. Odocoileus hemionus: Black-tailed Deer Odocoileus hemionus sitkensis The Sitka black-tailed deer was introduced on Long Island, rather small island not far from Kodiak. This deer becam extremely abundant before 1935, then it began to die. A. \^ Bennett, who uses the island for fur farming, found many cai casses, and he noted that raccoons, which he had placed on th island, also were dying during that period. The surviving dee were very poor. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 329 Mces alces: Moose Mces alces gigas Russian: Los (Buxton) Moose are found throughout the basal part of Alaska Penin- sula, where Osgood and others noted their presence in the wooded regions. Griggs (1922, p. 314) found them in the Katmai Region. Osgood (1904, p. 29) wrote: Moose are scatter! ngly distributed on the Alaska Peninsula and extend farther west than has been generally supposed. In a native's camp on the QgagTak River I saw fresh meat and pieces of the skin of a moose which was about 2,500 animals, of which 2,000 are probably reindeer- aribou hybrids." In a letter of January 1959, David L. Spencer, supervisor of [enai National Moose Range, wrote me concerning caribou on Jnimak Island : For a long time there were none, but about 3 years ago we found 14 uring a rather incomplete survey. Last winter Jones and Burkholder jtimated 150 on the island. . . . Apparently there is a movement back and )rth over False Pass at the end of the Peninsula. We do know this occurs, s it has been witnessed. The population of caribou at the end of the Alaska Peninsula has for a )ng time been low but appears to be building up somewhat now. . . . 5,000 nimals would be a rather rough current estimate of the entire Peninsula erd. Whatever the actual numbers in early times, the fact that today he caribou have interbred so extensively with the domesticated eindeer spells the doom of Rangifer arcticus granti as a sub- pecies, perhaps as a wild game animal. \angJfer sp.: Reindeer Russian: 0-ldin (Buxton) Reindeer herds have been introduced in the Bristol Bay region, nd, in more recent years, they have been placed on Alaska Penin- ula. When one considers the scarcity of lichens, and the in- vitable hybridization with reindeer, it becomes obvious that the lative caribou undoubtedly will be supplanted. Many years ago, reindeer had been placed on Umnak Island. ^hey were not serving any useful purpose and were finally sold ly the Federal Government to the owners of domestic sheep on the sland. The sheep owners wished to kill off the reindeer because hey competed for forage with the sheep. However, the reindeer lad not been entirely eliminated as late as 1937, and we were nformed that the principal use being made of them was as fox )ait in trapping operations. Reindeer also had been placed on Atka Island. As long as these inimals remained close to the village, the Aleuts utilized them, but 332 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE when the reindeer moved to more-distant parts of the island, th natives lost interest. The Government teacher would sometimes organize an ex pedition to procure reindeer meat, but, on the whole, the Aleut preferred fishing. According to the Government teacher stationed on Atka Islani in 1937, some of the reindeer appeared to be diseased and ver' poor. Some had "pus in the joints" and some had lesions abov the hoofs. It must be concluded that reindeer have proven to be a failur' in the Aleutian district and that, while they are able to subsis to some extent, the forage in this area is not suitable for intensiv reindeer raising. Family BOVIDAE Ovis dalli: Dall Sheep (White Sheep) Oyis dallJ dalli Russian: Dee-ke har-an "Wild Sheep" (Buxton) Osgood (1904, p, 30) says- White sheep are found in small numbers in the mountains between Lab- Clark and Cook Inlet, and are probably more or less continuously distributee from there northward along the Alaska Range. They are not reportew from the mountains near Iliamna Bay, so it is probable that they do no< occur farther west than the vicinity of Lake Clark. There are two specimens in the National Museum obtained bj McKay from the Chigmit Mountains (which proves to be an in definite locality designation, meaning somewhere in the mountains back from Nushagak) . Family HYDRODAMALIDAE Hydrodamalis gigas: Steller Sea Cow Russian: Morskaia korova (Steller) Our knowledge of the sea cow depends mainly on the account! of Steller, who, in the disastrous winter when Bering's expedition was wrecked on Bering Island after discovery of Alaska in 1741, had ample opportunity to study this animal at first hand. The sea cow furnished food for Bering's party, as well as for other expeditions that used the Commander Islands as a starting point for Alaska, It was exterminated by 1768. There has always been a question whether this animal had FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 333 er occupied the Aleutian Islands. Stejneger (1883, p. 84) id Wosnessenski had obtained a rib of a sea cow from Attu land, and, in conversation, Stejneger expressed the belief that a cow remains might be found on Agattu Island. Goode et al. (1884, p. 136), wrote as follows concerning this id: osnessenski found a rib of the animal on Attu, the last island of the chipelago, but as Brandt suggests, it may have been derived from a iytma washed thither by the waves. Mr. Lucien Turner kindly informed 3 that an aged Aleut woman stated that Rhytina had been seen at Attu • her father, but such testimony is, perhaps, not altogether satisfactory. Thus, we have some evidence that the sea cow may have oc- irred on the westernmost Aleutian Islands, and it would be dremely interesting to have identification of bones from old leut village sites. To date, studies of such midden material have Dt revealed the presence of sea cow remains, and, on the whole, is likely that this animal never inhabited these islands except 3 an accidental straggler. Family BALAENIDAE jbalaena sieboldii: Pacific Right Whale Aleut (Umnak?): Kuldmax (Jochelson) This whale ranged in the Aleutian waters in former times, but nee whales of all kinds have been destroyed so extensively, some Decies have become exceedingly rare, and the right whale is ?ldom, if ever, seen any more. Osgood (1904, p. 27) mentions stranded whale between Kanatak and Wide Bay in 1902, which 9 tentatively assumed to be the right whale. True (1904, p. 270) notes Pechuel to the effect that a right whale was killed near 18 Aleutians. Birkeland (1926, p. 26) stated that he knows of ily two right whales that were killed at the Akutan whaling :ation, dating from about 1914 (he has a photograph of one of le two whales mentioned). We saw none of this species on our xpeditions to the Aleutians. alaena mysficetus: Bowhead Whale Aleut (Umnak?) : Ugamdxcax' (Jochelson) Essentially, this is an Arctic whale that came into Bering Sea nd visited the Kuril and Aleutian Islands, but it has become rare 1 the Aleutians. We obtained no certain records of it during ur visits. 334 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Family ESCHRICHTIDAE EschrichfJus glaucus: Gray Whale The gray whale is known to range northward through Berir; Sea, but we did not identify this species on any of our trip , It should be explained that no one in our party felt himself e: pert enough to identify many of the whales that were seen. Tl: Captain and some of the ship's crew had had some experiem with whales, but they were unable to identify many that wei seen. Under such circumstances, our observations were excee( ingly sketchy, except for the more-easily identified species. Turm (1886, p. 200) reported seeing several gray whales in Unima Pass in June 1878. Family BALAENOPTERIDAE Balaenoptera physalus: Finback Whale Aleut: Chi kakh' lukh (Turner was uncertain about the application of thl name.) The finback is still present in considerable numbers in tl: Aleutians, though it is not as plentiful now as in the past. "W saw several and they were being taken in 1937 at the whalin station on Akutan Island. At the latter place, we obtained dal on several fetuses that had been collected by S. Halvorsen, wh had been stationed there by the Coast Guard. This data follows Finback fetus, female, collected June 9, 1937, latitude 53° 25', longitua 164° 39'. The fetus was 4 feet long; the mother was 67 feet long. Finback fetus, female, collected June 10, 1937, latitude 53° 22', longitua 166° 30'. The fetus was 3 feet 4 inches long; the mother was 60 feet long. . Finback fetus, male, collected July 28, 1937, latitude 54° 06', longituc 166° 45'. This fetus was 16.7 inches long; the mother was 67 feet long. Balaenoptera borealis: Sei Whale The sei whale was observed at various times among the Aleutiai Islands; identification was made by Captain Sellevold. It ws recorded various times at Segula and Atka Islands and in Unima. Pass, and at Atka Island a whale spent most of a day cruisini about in the harbor and often came near the ship. A few motion pictures of it were obtained. On September 3, 1938, Scheffer recorded 2 sei whales near th ship in Umnak Pass, and later in the day, he noted 3 more. In 1937, the United States Bureau of Fisheries reported th FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 335 apture of a sei whale among 376 whales taken in Alaska that ear. ibbaldus musculus: Blue Whale We did not definitely identify a blue whale on our trip. On uly 14, 1937, Captain Sellevold believed a number of whales gen spouting near Unalaska were blue whales. A number of this pecies were taken by the Akutan whaling station that summer, nd we were given the head of a fetus for a specimen. iegapfera novaeangliae: Humpback Whale Aleut (dialect?) : Chi thukh (Turner was uncertain about the application of this name.) Humpback whales were seen at various times. In 1937, we ecorded 1 at Agattu Island, 1 at Semichi, at least 4 (possibly lore) at Kiska, and 3 at Amchitka. Sometimes this whale would ive straight down in shallow water, practically stand on its ead, then fall over with a resounding splash of its flukes. This ction was seen often. Family PHYSETERIDAE hyseter cafodon Sperm Whale Aleut (dialect?) : Agthd gik (Turner) Sperm whales were very scarce. One was definitely identified ear Kiska Island on June 3, 1937, and they were being taken at Ke Akutan whaling station. Sperm whales are not difficult to ientify, and we felt that most of our identifications were ac- urate. Family DELPHINIDAE nampus recfipinna: Pacific Killer Whale Attu: A'-ga-ghi-ach Atka: Ah'-ga-loh Ah'-ga-lucJi Aleut (dialect?) : Ag-lyuk (Turner) In the Atka dialect, the name is very similar to that of the ful- lar. The difference appears to be one of syllable length, or tress, which was not possible to record satisfactorily. The killer whale of the Aleutian district clearly shows the rhite elongated spot posterior to the eye and the gray patch losterior to the dorsal fin. These marks were noted on every 336 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE killer whale that we saw closely enough for identification. It i of interest to note Turner's remarks on the killers (1886, p. 198) The Aleuts speak of the killer as Ag-lyuk; and, to another species, whic they recognize, they give the name Um-gu-likh. I have seen what I believ to be 2 species, and perhaps 3 species, of the so-called "killers," swimminr together, all moving in the same direction. Dall (1870, p. 579) lists two killers for Alaska, Orca ater, an' Orca rectipinna. We did not obtain the impression of more thai one kind of killer whale, but our observations could not be coir elusive on that point. ' The killer whale is common along Alaska Peninsula an I throughout the Aleutians. We found a dead one on Agattu Islanc , We generally saw them in small groups, or alone, but as many aj 25 in a school were recorded. The most common number fo| a group was three. Ernest P. Walker (unpublished notes) ha; recorded some large schools of killer whales. On September K. 1913, in Icy Straits, he saw a school of 500 or more; on July li| 1915, near Port Armstrong he saw another school of about 2>Q(\ He quotes Captain Louis L. Lowe to the effect that he had seel schools of 400 to 1,500 off the southwestern end of Kodiak Islanc j and, in April 1922, he saw a school of about 1,000 off Uga^ Island near the Kodiak coast. ''They were apparently heade northward and were no doubt keeping close company with th: fur seals." Again, Walker says — Captain Haynes says that on only one occasion has he seen a large schoi ' of killers or thrashers. This was early in June near Unimak Island, whei he encountered a remarkable assemblage of various whales, seals, and othc i life feeding and many killers were present. There was a great deal c fighting accompanied by leaping. Turner (1886, p. 198) reported seeing as many as 150 at om time, in the Aleutians. Such large aggregation suggest a migration, and, as Walke says, they probably are rare occurrences. We frequently found killer whales cruising along the border of kelp beds. On one occasion, a killer passed directly under oui dory — a rather disconcerting experience. We obtained no direcl evidence of their food habits, but Turner saw a killer whale ki i a nearly full-grown sea lion at Bogoslof Island, and, at Tigaldl Island, he watched two killers attacking a large finback whalt He had also seen them following schools of smelt, which suggests diet including fish. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 337 lobicepbala scammonii: Pacific Blackfish Our information on this dolphin is very meager. Dall (1869, 333) reported it in Bering Sea, and Osgood 1 1901, p. 25) re- irted it in the Queen Charlotte Islands. We found no evidence of ; presence in the Aleutians. isodelphJs borealis: Right-whale Porpoise This species is rather vaguely listed as ranging into Bering Sea. irner mentioned it briefly in his report on the Aleutians, and he entioned native names for some porpoises which he was unable identify, but he had no positive information to offer on this rm, I have been unable to find precise information for the leutian district. jgenorhynchus obliquidens: Pacific Striped Porpoise Aleut (dialect?) : A-ga-makh'-chikh (Turner) Turner (1886, p. 197) reported that he saw a number of )lphins sporting about the ship at Amchitka Island, and he ascribed them thus : lese creatures were only about eight or nine feet in length and had merous markings, stripes, or bars, along the sides and throat. These irkings were two or three inches wide and of a sulphur-yellow color, lile the back and sides were bluish-black. Two or three persons on the vessel declared they had seen the same ecies in the waters of the Japan coast, and gave the name Japan Dolphins those seen near Amchitka. I do not know to what species they should be f erred. We saw none of these dolphins in the Aleutian area, but arner's description suggests the striped dolphin. jocoeno vomerlna: Pacific Harbor Porpoise Aleut (dialect?) : A-ld gikh (Turner) Russian: Svirika (Turner) Osgood (1904, p. 27) records two skulls obtained at Kanatak r Maddren in the fall of 1903. Preble and McAtee record a num- jr of specimens from the Pribilof Islands. True (in Jordan 1899, 353) reported — few bones of a small porpoise, apparently of this species, were picked ) at St. Paul June 3, 1890, and two small schools were seen in the harbor Unalaska May 20 and 21, the same year. A specimen of this species is obtained by Mr. Charles H. Townsend at Captain's Harbor, Unalaska, agust 17, 1895. Turner (1886, p. 200) stated that he saw these porpoises in the 338 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Aleutians and near Kodiak, and he said that they were commc in Captains Harbor, at Unalaska, where they came up clos to the wharf. He stated that two were caught on hooks baitc for codfish. On May 23, 1937, among the Shumagin Islands, we saw of these porpoises near our ship, and, on August 13, 1937, 3 wei'jf seen in the harbor at Atka Island. Phocoenoides dall'i: Dall Porpoise The type locality for Dall porpoise is near Adak Island, bij we did not find them plentiful in the Aleutians. On July 20, 193'! a school of these porpoises was playing about the ship, betwee Kasatochi and Atka Islands, and a few were seen in the Aleutiai in 1937. On August 8, 1938, Scheflfer recorded two porpoises nort of Yunaska Island. We found them to be much more plentiful i the waters of southeastern Alaska. Walker (unpublished notes likewise found them scarce in southwestern Alaska, and, durir a 3-month cruise in the summer of 1922, in a small boat betwee Juneau and Unalaska, he saw these porpoises only once. Ei wrote that Captain T. S. Haynes did not recall having seen dah in Bering Sea and said they are not plentiful along Alasi Peninsula. Walker found that one male weighed 199 pounds, and I measured the length of four specimens as follows: male, l,7f nmi. ; female, 1,575 mm.; female, 1,817 mm.; and another (s€ unknown), 1,880 mm. The stomach of one of Walker's specimens contained only t\ flesh and beaks of squids. One contained mainly squid, with trace of fish; one contained squid and a few bones of fish; ar another contained a few squid beaks and at least i/o pound ( small fish. Family MONODONTIDAE DelphJnapferus leucas: White Whale (Beluga) Aleut (dialect?) : Hd-thakh (Turner) Russian: Bi-loo-hah (Buxton) We saw no white whales on any of our expeditions. Osgoo^i (1904, p. 27) wrote: White whales or belugas often came into the mouth of the Nushag-ak River ( the neighboring small bays in pursuit of salmon, on which it is said to fee quite extensively . . . Belugas are said to occur also on the south side of tl peninsula, about the mouth of Cook Inlet. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 339 Kellogg (1936) found bones of this whale in midden material cm ancient village sites on Kodiak Island. Family ZIPHIIDAE ^rardius ba'ird'ii: Baird Beaked Whale This species is generally spoken of as ranging in Bering Sea, id Turner mentions it tentatively for the Aleutian Islands. We d not obtain evidence of its presence in the Aleutians, nor for e waters of southwest Alaska. esoplodon stejnegen: Stejneger Beaked Whale This rare whale was described from Bering Island, and it uld be expected to occur in the Aleutians. The Ziphiidae have Idom been observed, and we have very little information about em. phius cavirosfrJs: Cuvier Beaked Whale This is another whale that may occur in the Aleutian district, it we did not identify any. True (1910, p. 2) lists a specimen and in Kiska Harbor in September 1904. Walker (unpublished tes) mentions descriptions of whales by Captain Earling taken ' the southeast Alaskan coast, which suggest both Berardius irdii and Ziphius cavirostris. The Aleuts of Attn Island assured 3 that there were "many other" whales in the Aleutians, but e difficulty of describing the different species to the Aleuts ecluded any satisfactory listing of names. On several occasions, we found remains of unknown whales on aches. Further work is necessary to clarify whale distribution the Aleutian Islands. Ref erences Aldrich, John W. 1946. Speciation in the white-cheeked geese. Wilson Bulletin, vol. No. 2, pp. 94-103. 1948. Additional light on the races of the dowitcher. 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Biological Survey, Washington, D. C. Radcliffe, Lewis. 1932. Status of international convention for protection of whall Jour. Mammalogy, vol. 13, No. 3. Rainey, Froelich. 1940. Eskimo methods of capturing bowhead whales. Jour. Mai malogy, vol. 21, No. 3. Rand, A. L. 1950. Critical notes on Limnodromus semipalmatus. Condor, vol. i No. 5, pp. 228-231. Rausch, Robert. 1953. On the status of some arctic mammals. Arctic, vol. 6, No. pp. 91-148. Reimann, Edward J. 1938. Bald eagle takes live fish. Auk, vol. 55, No. 3, pp. 524-525. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 359 Lhoads, Samuel N. 1893. The Hudsonian chickadee and its allies, with remarks on the geographic distribution of bird races in boreal America. Auk, vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 321-333. 1902. Synopsis of the American marten. Proceed. Academy Natural Science Philadelphia. liCHMOND, Charles W. 1895. On the status of Bischoff's song sparrow (Melospiza insignis Baird). Auk, vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 144-150. liDGWAY, Robert. 1880. On a new Alaskan sandpiper. Bull. Nuttall Ornithological Club, vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 160-163. 1883. Description of a new petrel from Alaska. Proceed. U. S. Na- tional Museum (1882), pp. 656-658. 1886. On the glaucous gull of Bering's Sea and contiguous waters. Auk, vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 330-331. 1887. Clarke's nutcracker (Picicorvus columbianus) in the Bristol Bay region, Alaska. Auk, vol. 4, No. 3, p. 255. 1895. On Fisher's petrel (Aestrelata fisheri). Auk, vol. 12, No. 4, pp. 319-322. 1898. Descriptions of supposed new genera, species, and subspecies of American birds. I. Fringillidae. Auk, vol. 15, No. 3-4, pp. 223-230, 319-324. 1900. Descriptions of supposed new genera, species, and subspecies of American birds, VI. Fringillidae. Auk, vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 29-30. RiGGS, Thomas. 1919. Annual report of the Governor to the Secretary of the Interior, Alaska Game Law. Robinson, G. D., and others. 1947. Alaskan volcano investigations: Report No. 2, Progress of in- vestigations in 1946. U. S. Geol. Survey Preliminary Report. Rowan, William. 1932. The status of the dowitchers with a description of a new sub- species from Alberta and Manitoba. Auk, vol. 49, No. 1, pp. 14-35. Rowley, John. 1929. Life history of the sea-lions on the California coast. Jour. Mammalogy, vol. 10, No. 1. Salomonsen, Finn. 1931. On the geographical variation of the snow bunting (Plectroj)henax nivalis). Ibis (ser. 13), vol. 1, pp. 57-70, pis. 1-11. 1932. Description of three new guillemots (Uria aalge). Ibis (ser. 13), vol. 2, pp. 128-132. 1939. Moults and sequences of plumages in the rock ptarmigan (Lagopiis mutus (Moutin)). Videnskabelige Meddelelser fra Danske Naturhist. Forening, vol. 103, 491 pp. Copenhagen, Denmark. Scammon, C. M. 1869. On the cetaceans of the western coast of the North America. Proceed. Academy Science Philadelphia, ser. 2, vol. 21, pp. 13-62. 1874. The marine mammals of the northwestern coast of North Amer- ica. J. H. Carmany and Co., San Francisco; Putnam and Sons, New York. 360 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE ScHALOW, Herman. 1891. J. F. von Brandt: Ueber die Vogelfauna der Aleuten. Jour, fi Ornithologie, vol. 39, pp. 235-271. ScHEFFER, Victor B. 1939. Organisms collected from whales in the Aleutian Islands. Mu relet, vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 67-69. 1940. The sea otter on the Washington coast. Pacific Northwest Qua terly, pp. 370-388, October. 1942a. A list of the marine mammals of the west coast of Non America. Murrelet, vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 42-47. 1942b. Further records of the Dall porpoise in California. Joi Mammalogy, vol. 23, No. 2. 1943. Fish bites bird. Nature Magazine, vol. 36, No. 1, pp. 41-42. 1949. The Dall porpoise, Phocoenoides dalli, in Alaska. Jour. Mai malogy, vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 116-121. 1958. Seals, Sea Lions and Walruses — A review of the Pinnipedi Stanford Univ. Press. 179 pp. Schwartz, Ernst. 1942. The harbor seal of the Western Pacific. Jour. Mammalogy, v 23, No. 2. Schwartz, Ernst, and Henrietta K. Schwartz. 1943. The wild and commensal stocks of the house mouse, Mus muscul Linnaeus. Jour. Mammalogy, vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 59-72. Seale, Alvin. 1898. Notes on Alaskan water birds. Proceed. Academy Science Phil delphia, vol. 50, pp. 126-140. Sefton, Joseph W., Jr. 1926. Exhaustion of migrating sea birds. Condor, vol. 28, No. 5, p. 24 Setchell, W. A. 1912. Kelps of the United States and Alaska. In Fertilizer resourc of the United States. Senate Doc. 190, 62nd Cong., 2nd sess., i 130-178. Shelford, Victor E., and others. 1935. Some marine biotic communities of the Pacific Coast of Non America. Ecological Monographs, vol. 5, pp. 249-354. Shortt, T. M. 1939. The summer birds of Yakutat Bay, Alaska. Contrib. Roj Ontario Museum Zoology, vol. 17. 30 pp. 1940. Eared grebe at Yakutat, Alaska^a correction. Condor, vol. << No. 3, p. 170. Simpson, George Gaylord. 1940. Mammals and land bridges. Jour. Washington Academy Scienn vol. 30, No. 4, pp. 137-163. Smith, Philip S. 1927. Some post-Tertiary changes in Alaska of climatic significan National Research Council Bull. 61, pp. 35-39. Stejneger, Leon hard. 1883. Contributions to the history of the Commander Islands. No. 1 Notes on the natural history, including descriptions of new cetacean Proceed. U. S. National Museum, vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 58-59. 1884a. A brief review of the Lagopodes belonging to the group Attag Kaup. Zeitschrift fiir die gesammte Ornithologie, pp. 86-92. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 361 1884b. Die wichtigsten ornithologischen publicationen aus den vereinig- ten staaten. Vom. 1. Januar 1883 bis 1. Mai 1884. Zeitschrift fiir die Gesammte Ornithologie, pp. 179-189. 1885a. Results of ornithological explorations in the Commander Islands and in Kamtschatka. U. S. National Museum Bull. 29, 382 pp. 1885b. Notes on some apparently preoccupied ornithological generic names. Proceed. U. S. National Museum, vol. 8, No. 26, pp. 409-410. 1886a. Fra det yderste osten. Rejsebreve af Leonhard Stejneger. Reprint from Naturen, 1885-86, pp. 1-56. Kristiania, Norway. 1886b. On Brachyrhamphus perdix (Pall) and its nearest allies. Zeitschrift f. ges. Ornith., pp. 210-219, 1 pi. 1886c. On the status of Synthlihoramphus wumizusume as a North American bird. Proceed. U. S. National Museum, vol. 9, p. 524. 1887a. Notes on the northern palaearctic bullfinches. Proceed. U. S. National Museum, vol. 10, pp. 103-110. 1887b. Contributions to the natural history of the Commander Islands, No. 7, Revised and annotated catalogue of the birds inhabiting the Commander Islands. Proceed. U. S. National Museum, vol. 10, pp. 117-145. 1887c. How the great northern sea-cow (Rytina) became exterminated. American Naturalist, vol. 21, pp. 1047-1054. 1889. Contributions to the history of Pallas cormorant. Proceed. U. S. National Museum, vol. 12, pp. 83-94. 1895. Arctic notes on the habits of certain rare northern birds in Commander Islands and Kamtchatka. Museum, Albany, N. Y., vol. 1, pp. 53-58, 85, 87, 101-102. 1896. The Russian fur-seal islands. Bull. U. S. Fish Commission. (1896), vol. 16, pp. 1-148. 1898. Ross's gull {Rhodostethia rosea) on Bering Island. Auk, vol. 15, No. 2, p. 183. 1906. Isolation versus natural selection. Auk, vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 265- 270. 1928. Unsolved problems in arctic zoogeography. Special Publ. Ameri- can Geographic Society, vol. 7, pp. 155-165. jTEvenson, Charles H. 1902. Utilization of the skins of aquatic mammals. In Rept. of Com- missioner, U. S. Commission Fish and Fisheries, Part 28, pp. 281-352. 5T0NE, Andrew J. 1900. Some results of a natural history journey to northern British Columbia, Alaska, and the Northwest Territory, in the interests of the American Museum of Natural History. Bull. American Museum Natural History, vol. 13, p. 60. iTONE, WiTMER. 1900. Report on the birds and mammals collected by the Mcllhenny Expedition to Point Barrow, Alaska. Proceed. Academy Natural Sciences Philadelphia, pp. 4-49. >TORER, Robert W. 1950. Geographic variation in the pigeon guillemots of North America. Condor, vol. 52, No. 1, pp. 28-31. jUtton, George Miksch, and Rowland S. Wilson. 1946. Notes on the winter birds of Attu. Condor, vol. 48, No. 2, pp. 83-91. 362 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Swales, Bradshaw H. 1926. Ruby-throated hummingbird near St. Michael, Alaska. Condo vol. 28, No. 3, p. 128. SwARTH, Harry S. 1909. Birds and mammals of the 1909 Alexander Expedition. Unive: sity California Publ. Zoology, vol. 7, No. 2. 1920. Revision of the avian genus Passerella, with special referenc to the distribution and migration of the races in California. Unive;-. sity California Publ. Zoology, vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 75-224. 1926. Birds of the Atlin district, British Columbia. University Call fornia Publ. Zoology, vol. 30, No. 4. 1928. Occurrence of some Asiatic birds in Alaska. Proceed. Californj Academy Science, vol. 17, No. 8, pp. 247-251. 1931. The tyranny of the trinomial. Condor, vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 16( 162. 1933. The savannah sparrows of northwestern North America. Condo vol. 35, No. 6, pp. 243-245. 1934. Birds of Nunivak Island, Alaska. Pacific Coast Avifauna No. 2 pp. 1-64. Cooper Ornithological Club. 1935. Systematic status of some northwestern birds. Condor, vol. 3 No. 4, pp. 199-204. 1936. Savannah sparrow migration routes in the Northwest. Condc vol. 38, No. 1, pp. 30-32. Sykes, C. E. 1923. Cn the Alaska Peninsula for brown bear. Outdoor Life, V( 51, pp. 77-81, 157-162, 237-242. Taber, Richard D. 1946. The winter birds of Adak, Alaska. Condor, vol. 48, No. 6, p 272-277. Taverner, p. A. 1929. A study of the Canadian races of rock ptarmigan. Bull. No. C National Museum Canada, pp. 28-37. 1931. A study of Branta canadensis (Linnaeus), the Canada goos Annual Kept. National Museum Canada for 1929, pp. 28-40. 1935. Continental land masses and their effect upon bird life. Condd vol. 37, No. 3, pp. 160-162. 1936. Taxonomic comments on red-tailed hawks. Condor, vol. 38, No. pp. 66-71. Taylor, Walter P. 1914. The problem of aquatic adaptation in the Carnivora, as illu trated in the osteology and evolution of the sea otter. Bull. Univt sity California, vol. 7, p. 472. Thayer, John E. 1914. Nesting of the Kittlitz murrelet. Condor, vol. 16, No. 3, p 117-118. Thayer, John E., and Outram Bangs. 1921. The black-backed Kamchatkan wagtail, Motacilla lugens Kittll in Alaska. Auk, vol. 38, No. 3, p. 460. Thone, Frank. 1942. Aleutian weather. Science-Supplement, vol. 96. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 363 )DD, W. E. Clyde. 1935. Geographical variation in the American titlark. Proceed. Bio- logical Society Washington, vol. 48, pp. 63-66. •WNSEND, Charles H. 1887. Notes on the natural history and etunology of northern Alaska. In Report of the Cruise of the Revenue Steamer "Corwin" in the Arctic Ocean in the year 1885, by Captain M. A. Healy; pp. 81-102. U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 1913. The crested auklet. National Association Audubon Societies, Bird Lore, vol. 15, p. 133. lUE, Frederick W. 1884. The manatees and the Arctic sea cow, pp. 114-136. In Fish- eries and Fishing Industries of the United States, by George Brown Goode. U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 1885. On a new species of porpoise, Phocaena dalli, from Alaska. Proceed. U. S. National Museum, vol. 8, No. 7, p. 95. 1886. An annotated list of the mammals collected by the late Charles L. McKay in the vicinity of Bristol Bay, Alaska. Proceed. U. S. Na- tional Museum, vol. 9, pp. 221-224. 1904a. The whalebone whales of the western North Atlantic compared with those occurring in European waters with some observations on the species of the North Pacific. Smithsonian Institute, Washington, D. C. (Smithsonian contributions to knowledge, vol. 33.) 1904b. Note on three very large beaked whales from the North Pacific. Science (new ser.), vol. 20, No. 521, pp. 888-889. 1910. An account of the beaked whales of the family Ziphiidae in the collection of the United States National Museum, with remarks on some specimens in other American Museums. Bull. U. S. National Museum, vol. 73. urner, Lucien M. 1885. Notes on the birds of tne Nearer Islands, Alaska. Auk, vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 154-159. 1886. Contributions to the natural history of Alaska. Arctic series of publications in connection with the Signal Service, U. S. Army, No. 2. Washington, D. C. AN KAMMEN, I. J. 1916. Relative to the bald eagle in Alaska. Oologist, vol. 33, pp. 156- 158. ENIAMINOF, I. E. P. 1840. Zapiski ob ostrovakh Unalashkinskago. 3 vols, in 2. St. Petersburg. 'ales, Joseph H. 1927. Fearlessness of shearwaters. Condor, vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 119- 120. 'alker, Ernest P. 1920. Probable breeding of the Aleutian tern in southeastern Alaska. Condor, vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 111-112. 1923. Definite breeding record for the Aleutian tern in southern Alaska. Condor, vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 113-117. 'allace, George J. 1939. Bicknell's thrush, its taxonomy, distribution, and life history. Proceed. Boston Society Natural History, vol. 41, No. 6, pp. 211-402. 364 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Wetmore, Alexander, and others. 1944. Nineteenth, supplement to the American Ornithologists' Unioi Checklist of North American Birds. Auk, vol. 61, No. 3, pp. 441-464 1945. Twentieth supplement to the American Ornithologists' Unioi Checklist of North American Birds. Auk, vol. 62, No. 3, pp. 436-44S Weyer, Edward M. 1929. An Aleutian burial. American Museum Natural History An thropological Papers XXXI, Part III, pp. 219-238. Whelen, Townsend. 1946. Hunting big game. The Americas. Vol. II. Military ServicI Publ. Co., Harrisburg, Pa. WiLLETT, George. 1915. Summer birds of Forrester Island, Alaska. Auk, vol. 32, No. l pp. 295-305. 1920. Comments upon the safety of seabirds and upon the "probablei occurrence of the northern bald eagle in California. Condor, vol. 2i; No. 6, pp. 204-205. • 1921. Bird notes from southeastern Alaska. Condor, vol. 23, No. { pp. 156-159. 1927. Notes on the occurrence and distribution of some southeaster Alaskan birds. Condor, vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 58-60. , 1928. Notes on some birds of southeastern Alaska. Auk, vol. 45, N( 4, pp. 445-449. , 1939. Remarks on Alaska Savannah sparrows. Condor, vol. 41, No. t p. 86. Williams, Cecil S. 1938. Notes on food of the sea otter. Jour. Mammalogy, vol. 19, No. ! pp. 105-107. Wilson, Rowland Steele. 1948. The summer bird life of Attu. Condor, vol. 50, No. 3, pp. 124-12! WiSMER, N. M., and J. H. Swainson. 1935. Some marine biotic communities of the Pacific coast of Nortr America. Part 2. A study of the communities of a restricted are of soft bottom in San Juan channel. Ecological Monographs, vol I pp. 333-354. Zander, H. 1853. Kurze Uebersicht der europaischen Peiper, Anthus Bechs Jour, fiir Ornithologie, vol. 1, pp. 60-65. INVERTEBRATES AND FISHES COLLECTED IN THE ALEUTIANS, 1936-38 By Victor B. Scheffer, Biologist Introduction In the expeditions to the Aleutian Islands conducted by the ish and Wildlife Service from 1936 to 1938, chief emphasis was aced on investigations of birds and mammals. Limited studies ere made of the lesser forms of animal life that inhabit the sub- •ctic waters of the Northeast Pacific and the Bering Sea and at live on the shores and slopes of the islands. With relation the birds and the mammals, the myriad lesser organisms may •llectively be termed the "supporting fauna." One must actually visit the northern seas to realize the abun- mce of small animal life in the water and along the shore — )undance not of kinds but of numbers. From the deck of a ship, is often possible to see swarms of reddish microcrustaceans lifting along on the surface of the water in such profusion that ley impart a reddish cast to the water. At night, the churn :' the ship's propeller sometimes turns up a glowing wake as it •ings countless bodies of luminescent organisms to the surface, hese organisms are recovered in the stomachs and crops of -iklets and petrels. Where the ocean currents cause an upwell- ig of water rich in plankton, shearwaters and fulmars flock to le scene and baleen whales soon appear. On one occasion, at nimak Pass, it was estimated that the surface of the ocean for 5 square miles was covered with feeding shearwaters, each sepa- ited from its neighbor by 10 or 20 feet. If the carcass of a ird or fish, weighing about 5 pounds, is lowered to the bottom I the sea and hauled up on the following day, the bones usually ill have been picked clean by small amphipod crustaceans. On certain of the Aleutian beaches that are covered with flat, lingly rocks the size of a man's hand, it is possible to uncover 5 much as a half pint of amphipod crustaceans or sand fleas hid- ig beneath a single rock. Such organisms, on islands with ex- 365 366 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 6 1 , FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE tensive beaches, are often the main source of food of the blue fo: In certain quiet waters it is possible to look down from a ro^ boat and see a green carpet of sea urchins covering the floe of the ocean. These animals make up the largest single itei in the diet of the sea otter. More specific information on the foo relations of Aleutian organisms will be presented, but some ind cation has here been given of the importance of the invertebrate and fishes in the teeming, complex fauna of the northern seas. Specimens of invertebrates and fishes were collected at ever opportunity, but the time made available for this phase of tl; work was very limited, therefore the collection is not complet In includes, however, 255 species, or subspecies, of invertebrat( and 48 species, or subspecies, of fishes, representing many of th forms that are encountered in the Aleutian area. Two new genei and six new species have been described to date on the basis ( material in the collection, and many other species have ha their ranges extended. With the exceptions noted, all of the specimens collected 1: members of the Aleutian expeditions have been identified by sta members of the United States National Museum or by collabora ing agencies. The indispensable help of the following persoi is gratefully acknowledged : Paul Bartsch, S. S. Berry, H. ] Bigelow, Austin H. Clark, Wesley R. Coe, J. E. Cornwall, Irvir Fox, Theodore C. Frye, C. T. Greene, David G. Hall, Melville I Hatch, Trevor Kincaid, J. T. Lucker, J. 0. Maloney, J. Pen Moore, E. W. Price, Harald A. Rehder, Clarence Shoemaker Waldo L. Schmitt, Leonard P. Schultz, Alan Stone, William Rai' dolph Taylor, Margaret E. Van Winkle, Arthur Welander, ar C. B. Wilson. In the following pages, notes are presented on the invert brates and fishes that were most commonly observed or, becau; of some special relationship to the birds and mammals, attracts the attention of members of the 1936-38 party. Some of tlv conspicuous marine algae are also discussed briefly. There no attempt in this report to list all of the species of organisn collected, because, in the first place, such an array would be on an approach to a complete check list of the organisms of tl Aleutian Islands. In the second place, a complete list of the speci' collected in 1936-38 would serve no useful purpose, because tl specimen records, field data, and (in most cases) the specimei are already in the hands of specialists who have published, ( will publish, on any material of outstanding value. It is hop« that the present report will be of interest to future workers the Aleutian Islands National Wildlife Refuge. Marine Algae Samples of the commoner seaweeds found in the Aleutian Is- ids were identified by T. C. Frye. The genus Alaria (the most undant) is found in shoal water along the entire archipelago. Its long, brown, leathery fronds are a nuisance in small-boat .vigation. The thallus is 4 to 8 inches wide with a bladderlike idrib that is V2 to 1 inch wide. This midrib remains floating ter the sides of the thallus have decomposed and washed away. asses of Alaria are seen floating detached at sea and piled on e beaches after the first of August. LamiTiaria, has a similar structure, but the fronds are wider is much as 2 feet) and the plant has the general appearance of slick leather apron. Nereocystis, the common bull-whip kelp of the Pacific Coast, IS a long, hollow, floating stem increasing in diameter to a lib at the free end. Very common along the mainland, this plant observed only rarely west of the Alaska Peninsula. At King ove, east end of the Peninsula, Nereocystis is definitely the domi- mt kelp as compared with Alaria to the westward. Nereocys- s, in all cases a single plant drifting at sea or washed up dead 1 the beach, was seen on the following Islands : Unalaska, East emichi, Atka, Ogliuga, and Amchitka. Fiicus is common along the beach; locally it is called "popweed" 'om the sound made by the bursting of the bladders when they re trod upon (fig. 1). The bright-green sheets of sea lettuce, Ulva, are on every beach. Spongomorpha has the texture and appearance of coarse green loss and grows attached to rocks. On spray-covered rocks, the /lindrical floats of Halosaccion occur in clumps suggestive of the )cal name "dead man's fingers". Cystophyllum is a brown seaweed that occasionally washes up n the beach. It has a mass of fine branches covered with small rown bladders, each of which is the size and shape of a grain of 'heat. Thallasiophyllum is easily distinguished by its wide brown ronds covered with holes like a colander. A number of lime-secreting marine algae, locally called corals, 367 368 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE * ■♦ \^^f'f'A'^^ Figure 1. — Fucus, a brown seaweed common along the beaches of the Aleu- tian Islands. Rat Island, June 29, 1937. Figure 2. — Calcareous algae of the Lithothamnion group commonly attach to the holdfasts of kelp and are stranded during storms. Ogliuga Island, August 4, 1937. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 369 •e conspicuous on the Aleutian beaches (fig. 2). Members of e Lithothamnion group form chalk-white crusts around the lizoids of kelps, these crusts being later washed up on the beach windrows. CoraUirm grows in branched tufts on the rocks, oks like an ornamental coral, and is wine colored to dirty white. s stalks are commonly found attached to pebbles brought up r dredging. A list, accompanied by brief field notes, of 40 species of marine gae collected in the Aleutian Islands has been published by kamura (1933), who stated that "the Aleutian algae are al- lost equally dispersed westward to Japan, and eastward to alifornia." (The vascular plant Zostera, or eel grass, an important water- )wl food, was observed growing in a lagoon on Vsevidof Island, aar Umnak Island, but it was not seen farther west.) Marine Invertebrates SPONGES The vase sponge, Esperiopsis quatsinoensis, is common througj out the islands. It washes up on the beach and eventually bleach out to a creamy-white color. In size and general shape, it r sembles a flattened ice cream cone. A large specimen fro Aiktak Island measured 28 centimeters from base to lip and w; 30 centimeters wide. COELENTERATES HYDROIDS Ahietinarm filicula is a small hydroid about 5 centimetei long, resembling a feather. It is often washed up in tangles ' seaweed. Another hydroid, Thuaria robusta, has been collected in si otter scats. JELLYFISHES The common crystal jellyfish of the West Coast (Aequor aequorea) is observed almost daily after the first of July in t' Aleutian Islands. It is a transparent, lens-shaped medusa thi at first glance, appears to have no organized structure, but clos scrutiny will show a delicate central manubrium and a fringe fine tentacles. The body mass is firmer than that of the large r jellyfishes and may be turned over readily in the hand. A ft specimens reach a diameter of 150 millimeters. Aurelicv aurita is transparent, but it has a conspicuous stru ture in the center — a set of four yellowish-brown gonads arrange like the leaves of a four-leafed clover. Of the two species, Aequor appears much more frequently" during the summer. Cyanea capillata is one of the large, trailing, red jellyfish frequently seen from July to September, especially in the calm bays. The rim of the medusa is divided into eight pairs of sho lobes, or a total of 16 lobes. Each lobe has a medial notch abo. 370 FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 371 centimeters deep. Muscle fibrils can be seen extending into lese lobes in bundles of 12 or more. A number of small medusae were collected in plankton hauls, icluding Acgina, Hjjbocodon, Mitrocoma? , Rathkea, Sarsia, and tomotoca. FLATWORMS A monogenetic fluke, Entobdella hippoglossi, was collected rom the skin of a halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis) off Nikolski, 'mnak Island, on August 30, 1938. (See also Annelid Worms.) ROUNDWORMS Sperm whales (Physeter catodon) brought to the Akutan whal- ig station are, without exception, infested with intestinal worms, according to Coast Guard Inspector A. Van De Venter the baleen 'hales are commonly infested as well. Anisakis physeteris was allected from the intestine of sperm whales here (Scheffer 1939) . Contracaecum davatum is a thready white worm found in lasses in the stomach of nearly every cod (Gcidus macrocephalus) xamined in Aleutian waters. A single specimen of Cystidicola p. was also collected in the cod. Porrocaecum decipiens was ound encysted in larval stage in the mesenteries of the cod. An undetermined species (larval) of Porrocaecum was taken rom the stomach of a sea otter. NEMERTEAN WORMS Paranemertes perer/riyia is a long, thready worm found in the idal zone under rocks; it is colored dark brown to purple above .nd white to yellow below. BRACHIOPODS Three specimens of a single species, Diestothyris frontalis, were ollected. ANNELID WORMS Two leeches from the skin of fishes w^ere collected : Ottoniobdella corpii is a cream-colored worm, 25-50 millimeters long, com- nonly found attached to the dorsal surface of the sculpin Hemilepidotus). Platybdella qnadrioculata was collected once, in he operculum of a cod (Gadus macrocephalus) . Many free-living worms doubtless are present in the sand and imong the tide-pool rocks of the Aleutian beaches, but the col- ections of the present expedition have not been studied. A species 372 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE of Nereis was found in small numbers in blue-fox droppings Attu Island. A small, tan-colored earthworm was noticed on several occ sions, well up in the grass of the islands. ECHINODERMS BRITTLE STARS Gorgonocephala eucnemis var. caryi, the basket star, has fi arms which branch and rebranch profusely toward the periphe into a tangled mass of tendrils. The terminal branches writ slowly in the living specimen and are tan in color. Specime were snagged occasionally on codfish hooks. Ophiopholis aculeata is a small reddish species often streak or mottled with lighter colors. It was collected on three islan( Ophiura sarsii is grayish or tan. It was collected on three lands. STARFISHES Two specimens of Aleutiaster schefferi, a small stubby s; rayed starfish were taken; 1 on Attu Island and 1 on Amchitl in both cases by dredging. They formed the basis of a new gen and species (Clark 1939). The family Ganeriidae, to whi Aleutiaster was assigned, hitherto included 4 genera in the Ai arctic and 2 in the West Indies. ''It is especially interestii therefore, to find a member of this family in the North Pacifi< The topotype has a radius of only 5 millimeters. Two species of Henricia were collected. H. leviuscula, tak only once, was noted ' as purple above and tan beneath. sanguinolenta form tumida, taken on five islands was noted red. The latter is a slender, five-rayed "blood star" with a radi of about 20-30 millimeters. In a tide pool on Umnak Island was associated with other starfishes of the same size, but wi six-rays (Leptasterias). The only large species of starfish in the Aleutian Islands, { cording to A. H. Clark, is Asterias amur.ensis (fig. 3). A spe( men taken at Unalaska was wine-colored above, crossed by wh^i channels and spots, and was light tan below. A pronounc light radial streak on the dorsal surface of each ray extend from a pentagonal hub at the center. The limp, floppy attitu of this starfish is quite different from the rigidness of the co mon mainland Pisaster. Four species of Leptasterias were collected, L. alaskensis mcl FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 373 IGURE 3. — The only large 5-rayed starfish of the Aleutian Islands, Asterias mirensis. This species is about 1 foot in diameter. Unalaska, August 18, )37. ■equently (on six islands). These are slender, six-rayed star- shes, noted as dark green, gray, tan, or purplish red. No other Pacific Coast form resembles the 20-rayed starfish, ycnopodki helianthoidcs (fig. 4). Specimens were taken at King ove, 35 miles east of Unimak Island, but not in the Aleutian slands proper. No doubt it occurs at the east end, at least, of the lain. EA URCHINS Strongylocentrotus drohachiensis, the green sea urchin, is one f the most common inshore animals of the Aleutian Islands fig. 5). In many places it is possible to look down from a boat irough the clear water and see thousands of individuals side by ide in a submarine garden of green. It occurs on rocky bottoms lore frequently than on sand. Several specimens dredged from eep water (30 fathoms) off Sanak Island were a faded browTi in olor. Sea urchin spines are so predominant in the refuse heaps 374 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE of ancient Aleut villages that the middens are grayish in col( Sea urchins are eaten by the present-day natives. A small ch was seen sucking the brown contents of one at Nikolski. T shell was cracked open and the orange part (gonad and live was eaten with the fingers. Sea urchins do not seem to be pj ticularly palatable to fish. For example, in 20 cod stomachs ( amined at Chuginadak Island, only 1 small urchin was foui The occurrence of sea urchin remains in sea-otter, blue-fox, a sea-gull droppings has been mentioned elsewhere. According to Clark, no other species of Strongylocentrotus \ cur in the Aleutians. A fisherman stated that he had seen t large purple S. franciscanus at Sitka, Alaska, but he had not se it in the Aleutians. The sand dollar, or sea biscuit, Echinarachnius parma, is thii scattered along the Aleutians. Dead shells were seen or colled on the beaches of seven islands. Clark says that this is the oi species of sand dollar in the Aleutians. Figure 4. — Twenty-rayed starfish, Pycnopodia heUayithoides. September 9, 1938. King O FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 375 IGURE 5. — Green sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus drobachiensis, ventral or oral view. Rat Island, June 30, 1937. EA CUCUMBERS The sea cucumber, Cucumaria popuUfer, was collected at Kiska ^land and was observed at other places in the archipelago. CRUSTACEANS OPEPODS Eighteen species of copepods were identified in marine-plankton )llections. Concerning Acartia paclfica, Dr. Wilson states (in )rrespondence) , that — his species was established by Steuer in 1915 with figures of the fifth legs the two sexes and a statement of the size but with no description. These •e the first to be reported since that date and the species is much in need of detailed description. The predominant species, judging from the number of collec- ons in which it appears, is Eucalanus clongatus. Several parasitic copepods were collected, Lepeophtheirus 876 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE parviventris, on a cod at Tanaga Island, and L. salmonis, oi humpback salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) , also at Tanaga land. A species of Pennella occasionally is recovered from whales Akutan Island. Inspector Van De Venter at the whaling stat said that no specimens were seen in 1938 and only one was s( in 1937. BARNACLES Ordinary rock barnacles are common throughout the Aleutijj (fig. 6) . Balanus creTiatus was collected by dredge at Atka Islai Two interesting species of barnacles attach to the skin of ' humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) in the North Pac (Scheffer, 1939). Coronula diadema is a white, hard barna that attaches to the skin, and Conchoderma auritum is a fles' elongated species that attaches, in turn, to Coronula (fig. 7). fisherman said that Coronula is also found, though rarely, on 1 lower jaw of the sperm whale (Physetei- catodon) just below 1 teeth. Two employees of the whaling station said that they hi seen barnacles only on the humpback. 4 Figure 6. — Rock barnacles, Balanus sp., in tidal zone. July 10, 1937. Unalaska Islai FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 377 'IGURE 7. — Two species of barnacles collected fi'om the skin of a humpback hale. The dark stalks of Co7ichoderma auritum attach to the white plates f Coronvila diadenm. Akutan Island, August 6, 1938. Lepas, the goose barnacle, was collected at Otter Cove, Unimak sland, after a severe storm in September, 1937. Many tons of eaweeds were washed up on the beach, and Lepas was observed ttached near the rhizoids of the brown kelp, Nereocystis. Lepas ^as not seen west of Unimak Island. .MPHIPODS Several genera of marine amphipods were collected : Gam- larus, Odius, Opisa, Orchestia, Orchestoidea, and Melita. 378 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Orchestia traskiana was the most commonly observed specii living under the shelter of stranded seaweed or rocks throug. out the Aleutians. The principal food of this crustacej seems to be decaying seaweed, of which there is a limitless su> ply; it also eats decaying fish, shellfish, sea birds, and mamma** cast up from the sea. Orchestia is often found associated wii the isopod Lygia pallasi and carabid beetles. Beach fleas are of more than passing interest for, in spite > their small size, they may form the major item of food for tl blue fox. As a general rule, on islands where sea birds are plent ful the fox droppings contain mostly feathers and few or no beao fleas. Where birds are not available, hovs^ever, the droppings &> characteristically whitish in color and are composed of tl chitinous exoskeletons of beach fleas and isopods, together wi traces of other beach organisms. Paracyamus boopis (fig. 8) occurs on the skin of the humpbai Figure 8. — Parasitic amphipod, Paracyaimis boopis, from skin of humpb; whale. Akutan Island, August 6, 1938. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 879 lale (Scheffer 1939). Known at the Akutan whaling station a "whale louse," this amphipod clings tenaciously to the skin the whale around the genital opening and, to a certain extent, er the entire body. When pried loose, it immediately seizes the Hector's fingers with sickle-shaped claws. DPODS The isopods or sea slaters commonly are found clinging to damp cks in the tidal zone. A few species are parasitic on fish. Exospkaeroma oregonensis is common throughout the islands, t only in the tidal zone but also in brackish pools some distance Dm the sea. In Nikolski Lake, on Umnak Island, this isopod is living in water that had, to the taste, no perceptible salt ntent. The animal curls up into a round ball when disturbed. Idothea ochotensis, a large, dark species, was taken only once, Chichagof Harbor, Attn Island. Lygia pallasi is 1 of the 2 most common isopods; it is flat, lead- ay or blackish brown, with a broadly oval outline. It is found , or under, damp stones, and it was found from the mainland Attn Island. It has been taken from fox droppings. Idothea ivosnessenskii also is abundant. It is somewhat more mder than Lygia and occupies a similar habitat. Mesidotea, Muyimi, and Synidotea were each collected once. Rocinela belliceps is a flesh-colored isopod about 25 millimeters ng, with a suffusion of reddish and brown, paler on the ventral ie; eyes are black. It attaches to the body, fins, or operculum the cod throughout the Aleutian Islands. IRIMPS Shrimps of many species are found in dredge hauls or are re- vered from the stomachs of cod, sculpins, and halibut. In the 36-38 collections, Argis, Crago, Pandalus, Spirontocaris, Leb- iis, Eualus, and Heptacarpus are represented. Crago alasken- ? and Spirontocaris dalli are represented from more collecting itions than any other species. iRMIT CRABS Six species of Pagurus are represented in the collections, of lich P. hirsutiusculus is by far the most common. Hermit crabs e found everywhere along the beaches, in shells of periwinkles larger molluscs. 380 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Figure 9. — Common crab, Cancer magister, taken by trawling at a depth 15-20 fathoms. Petersburg, Alaska, September 17, 1937. Figure 10. — King crab, Paralithodes sp., taken by trawling at a depth 15-20 fathoms. Petersburg, Alaska, September 17, 1937. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 381 DMURAN CRABS )e7'7naturus mandti was taken at three localities, and Oedi- thus inermis and Placentron ivosnessenskii each at one lo- ty. HER CRABS 'ancer magister, the large edible crab of commercial impor- ce on the Pacific coast, was taken as far west as Tanaga Is- i, and it probably occurs still farther west (fig. 9), Cancer- gonensis is distinguished from the preceding species by its ly walking legs. Chionoecetes, Erimacrus, Hyas, Oregonia, ■alithodcs, Pugettm, and Telmessus are also represented in 1936-38 collection. Paralithodes camtschatica was taken for d in the Bay of Islands by the ship's crew (fig. 10) . It is one of huge king crabs for which the Japanese have fished in re- t years in Aleutian waters. It seems to be restricted to certain ilities or to certain water conditions, for it was not found in dge hauls made at other stations along the islands. MOLLUSKS MVES 'he species of marine mollusks in the North Pacific are num- ed by the hundreds. Only a few of the more conspicuous and L'e readily obtainable species are represented in the 1936-38 ections. ^ankia setacea, one of the shipworms or teredos, possibly may present, although only the calcareous tubes in driftwood were ected (Unimak Island). 'hree members of the family Cardiidae were collected. locardium nnttaUi, the giant cockle, is rather common and is d for food by the natives. In digging the mollusk, a two-tined ato fork bent like a hoe is raked through sand until it strikes 3lid object. It is said that the flesh makes good chowder, corn- able in sweetness to that of the razor clam. ~!hlamys islandica, the scallop or pecten, was found in sea-otter ppings and on the beaches of Ogliuga and Vsevidof islands, ne shells are white, others are pinkish both inside and out. Vo species of Liocyma were collected, one of which was hith- ) undescribed (Bartsch and Rehder 1939). Liocyma is a com- n small white clam about 25 millimeters long; oval with fine centric rings ; occasionally greenish when living. It was noted 3 on tideflats of the Alaska mainland. 382 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Five species of Macoma were collected. Two small mussels, Musculus cUscors and M. vernicosus, W( collected. Each is about 10 to 15 millim.eters long, and is redd brown or tan. The latter has a shining, varnished surface. The mud clam or gaper, Mya truncata, was collected once, Unalaska. The larger, abundant mussels are of two kinds. Mytilus edu the edible or blue mussel, is smooth and regular and is purpl blue to black in color with a bluish nacre (fig. 11). The umbc apical, unlike that of the horse mussel. The edible mussel is ui for food by the natives and is said to be best when there is a ] of snow-white fat on either side of the body. When yellow £ lean, the flesh is unpalatable. Volsella modiolus, the horse muss can be distinguished from the former by its larger, thicker sh and by the presence of a brown periostracum. The umbo is ne^ at the apex, and the nacre is gray. The horse mussel usually gro solitary or in clusters of a few, while the edible mussel may co' the rocks in an area many feet in diameter. Both attach to ro' by a thready byssus, but the horse mussel usually is partly bur in sand. (A third large mussel, Mytilus calif omicus, was collect only once — at a depth of 30 fathoms off Sanak Island.) Figure 11. — Edible or blue mussels, Mytilus edulis, in tidal zone. Unal Island, July 10, 1937. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 383 The rock oyster, or jingle, Pododesmus macrochisma, is fairly •mmon throughout the Aleutian chain. It is especially abundant 3ar the Peninsula. The rock oyster can not usually be collected itween tide lines, but its empty shells are strewn along the beach here they have been cast up from shallow water. The oysters •ow solitary or in clusters (seldom more than four), on rocks ist below low tide and never are buried in the sand. The at- .ched valve is perforated by a conspicuous hole. The oysters are iten by natives who fry the reddish flesh in butter. Protothaca staminea is a small cocklelike clam with concentric dges more conspicuous than the radiating lines. The butter clam, Saxidomus giganteus, has a thick white shell, lossy within and chalky outside, with the growth lines not pro- ounced. It is used as food by whites and natives. The razor clam, Siliqim patula, was collected only at Atka and nimak islands. The flesh is considered by local natives to have finer taste than that of any other mollusk. It is diflicult to ather any number of the clams, hov/ever, because they grow in lirly deep water, and the tides in the Aleutians do not fall low lough to expose the beds. It is possible to dig these light-shelled iams by backing a power boat up to the beach, throwing out vo anchors astern, and letting the wash of the propeller lift the lams out of the sand. A native of Unalaska stated that they sed to be abundant in front of the village. Spisula pohjnyyna is widespread among the islands. It is a ather large bivalve with brown periostracum and acute dorsal ngle. SAILS AND SEA SLUGS Five species of limpets, Acniaea, were collected (fig. 12). Lim- ets are very common throughout the Aleutian Islands, in pools r clinging to wet rocks above low tide. The only species found 1 sea-otter and blue-fox droppings was A. digitalis. A. pelta was ollected most often (at 10 stations) and is the largest of the ileutian limpets, reaching a diameter of 5 centimeters. A. mitra ^ a strongly peaked species. A. scutum was collected at seven tations. An odd, tiny snail Anahathron muriei was described from speci- lens found in sea-otter droppings (Bartsch and Rehder, 1939). Eight species of Buccinum were collected. Fusitriton oregoncnsis was the only large, cornucopialike snail hat was collected ; it has a length of about 5 centimeters, and is 384 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 6 1 , FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE olive colored and hairy, Beriyigius kennicotti is similar in shap but is slightly smaller and is not hairy. Three species of periwinkles, Littorina, were collected (fig. 13* The periwinkles are characteristic animals of the tidal zone. The are able to withstand drying for a long time, and they crawl we above the waterline to rocks and seaweed where they cling i^ clusters that often number in the hundreds. The periwinkle i| edible, but the flesh is not particularly tasty. Picking out the sma fragments of meat becomes tiresome, like eating sunflower seed; L. sitkana was by far the most abundant species (at nine stations] On Amlia Island the empty shells of this species served as home for small hermit crabs {Pagiiims hirsutiusculus) . The specie was also found in sea-otter scats. Five species of Margarites were collected, most of them smooth globular, white snails. Four species of Nucella were collected. Nucella lamellos forms collarlike egg cases of cemented sand, often washe up on the beach. A single sea slug, or nudibranch, Diaulula sandiegensis, we collected. Other species are reported from the Aleutians. Diaulul was taken by dredge from sandy bottoms at Attu and Tanaga. Figure 12. — Limpets, Acmaea sp., clinging to rocks in the tidal zon( Unalaska, July 10, 1937. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 385 CURE 13. — Periwinkles, Littorina sp., clinging to rocks in the tidal zone. Unalaska, July 27, 1937. HITONS Murie picked up a fragment of the giant chiton, Amicula stelleri 1 Amchitka Island. The species is brick red, as large as 10 by 20 mtimeters, and has a leathei*y girdle completely covering the ght dorsal plates. Katharina tunicata is fairly common. Many individuals were )ted at Umnak Island in shallow tidal pools and at Amlia Island 1 a rocky, kelp-covered ledge. The body is black and leathery, ith a row of eight plates down the back. Its local name "bidarka" also applied to the skin boat of the Aleuts. The natives prepare le chiton for eating by boiling it in sea water for 10 minutes, then deling off the skin, scales, and viscera and soaking in fresh ater. The general color of the live chiton is dark brown with •own and tan plates. Mopalm ciliata wosnessenskii is a small chiton about 25 milli- eters long that is pink on the dorsal surface. Its fringed edges ive given it the name of mossy or hairy chiton. It was collected ; three stations. Schizoplax brandti and Tonicella ruber were collected in sea- :ter droppings, and, in addition, 24 specimens of Schizoplax mndti were collected on the rocks of Herbert Island. 386 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE DEVILFISHES Two cephalopods were observed. A large devilfish, Octop apollyon, was taken at Nikolski Village, Umnak Island, in a beac, seine drag for salmon. The water here was not more than 10 fej deep at the mouth of a small stream. The ship's cook fried a steii of white meat from the dome of the devilfish and we found it mo ' tender than we anticipated. The natives usually boil the he: steaks before frying, and they boil the tentacles before eatir S. Halvorsen, Coast Guard inspector at the Akutan whaling si tion, stated that the stomach of a sperm whale killed in 1937 co tained 16 devilfish, presumably of this species. The natives a said to take good-sized specimens in Nazan Bay, Atka Island, i though we were able to get only two small ones here. A squid, Rossia pacifica, was found on the beach at Unimak ■ land after a storm in September. The color of the dead specim was white, peppered with fine brown spots. Kenneth New€ who is familiar with the "ink-fish" of Puget Sound said that had never seen one in the Aleutian Islands, S. Halvorsen, howev( reported that they were common in the stomachs of sperm whai brought into the Akutan whaling station. Possibly the speci does not range much farther west than the Alaska Peninsula. Fresh-Water Invertebrates The Aleutian Islands are dotted with shallow pools. In only few cases are the pools larger than 5 or 10 acres, and most of em are depressions only a few feet across. Standing on a hill- ie on Agattu Island, and looking over an expanse of about 2 by miles, we estimated that there were 200 pools in sight. In 1937, collections of fresh-water organisms were made in 24 kes scattered along the Aleutian chain. Crustaceans were col- 3ted with a plankton net; mollusks and aquatic insects were llected by hand. (A discussion of the insects is presented later the section devoted to land invertebrates.) The pools and lakes may be classed loosely in three groups, ac- rding to their size and the amount of vascular plant life present, , follows : Type 1: Small, clear pools (fig. 14). Shallow; vegetation absent ''IGURE 14. — A fresh-water pool of type 1 (small and clear). Attu Island, August 17, 1938. 387 388 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE or, if present, consisting of sparse patches of emergent Hippw. and Carex; bottom consisting of clean volcanic sand or occasioi silt. This type is by far the most abundant. Many of the cle i pools do not support plankton because they overflow and ai flushed out by each rain. The water in type 1 pools usually ' slightly tea-colored, like that of sphagnum bog pools on the ma: land. We discovered that it was possible to determine whetheij pool contained enough plankton to warrant taking a haul ' looking for aquatic bugs and beetles. A pool highly product) of plankton is generally well populated with aquatic insects. T clear pools are characterized by the presence of Diaptomus, oft in such numbers that a tow over a course of 300 feet may nel haul of 50 cubic centimeters of these red-bodied crustaceans. 0 such haul on Sanak Island consisted almost entirely of Diaptom shoshone var. ivardi, D. ashlandi, and D. eiseni. Cyclops serrulai is also commonly present in type 1 pools. Figure 15. — A fresh-water pool of type 2 (small and weedy) . Atka Isla August 13, 1937. Type 2: Small, weedy pools (fig. 15). Shallow depressions the tundra, 50-100 feet in diameter, with oozy silt bottoms. T) type is not common. Hulten (1937) concludes that the vegetat: in Aleutian lakes is so sparse that real associations are hari FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 389 •rmed: "The few aquatic plants, such as Potamogeton perfolia- im, Myriophyllum spicatum, Sparganium hyperhoreum, and anunculus tricophyllus, Hippuris vulgaris and Isoetes Braunii aritima, usually occur single or in patches." We found that the ^minant organism in plankton of type 2 pools is Chydorus jhaericus. Amphipods are usually present in the weeds. rnrn^ IGURE 16. — A fresh-water pool of type 3 (large and barren), about 0.2 x 1.5 miles. Semisopochnoi Island, August 23, 1938. Type 3 : Large, barren lakes (fig. 16) . Scant vegetation around hore ; clean sand and rubble bottom ; windswept. The largest xamples are about 2 miles long. Only about 10 of the 75 islands ave lakes of this type. The temperature of the water in three ikes at least 1 mile long was measured in August and was found ) be 56° F., 57° F., and 58° F. respectively. The plankton is niformly sparse ; in fact, hauls made in ' the lake at Unalaska 'illage in June and July were discarded for lack of a discernible atch. Again, in a lake measuring 1 by 2 miles, on Unimak Island, haul was made in late August with negative results. The surface temperature of fresh-water bodies in the Aleutian slands fluctuates greatly from day to day because of the shallow- ess of the water and the open surroundings (see table, p. 390). 'he lowest temperature recorded was 44° F. on September 10; 390 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE cold wind was blowing at the time. The highest temperature r corded was 66° F. on July 22, after one of the rare days of fi sunshine. Mean surface temperature of the water of Aleutian Island pools and lakes, 1937-38 Month Number of observations Mean temperature (°F.) June. 2 6 33 4 56 5 July 58 6 August 55.8 September. 51 2 Mean 45 65.8 The fresh-water plankton crustaceans have been identified Trevor Kincaid, of the University of Washington. His remar on the material are as follows : Very little is known regarding the fresh-water plankton of Alaska, a this is particularly true of the region including the Aleutian Islands which practically a blank in so far as records are concerned. The writer has been assembling plankton from various parts of Alas with a view to determining the geographic distribution of the species curring in the fresh water bodies in that territory, and to discovering wl relation exists between the fauna of Asia and that of Alaska and of No: America in general. It is becoming clear that this relationship is mii closer than has been suspected. In the genus of fresh-water copepods Diaptomas it has been suppo; that no species was common to both continents, but we now find seve species of this group ranging across Europe and Asia into Alaska, wl at least one species having a wide range over western North America 1 been reported from a lake in Siberia. The series of tows brought back by the expedition from the Aleutian lands was regarded as particularly important since the archipelago foi a series of natural stepping stones extending from the Siberian region the Alaskan Peninsula and southward, and as one might expect to i here the collection extends the known westerly range of several Ameri* species, and expands the easterly range of at least one Asiatic form. Diaptomus ashlandi was originally described from Wisconsin and known to be widely distributed over the northern portion of the Pac Coast. It appears in tows taken on the islands of Sanak and Unalas Diaptomus shoshone var. tvardi was first reported from Spokane, Washi ton and has since been reported from the Island of St. Paul in the Pribih It appears in a tow taken on Sanak Island. Diaptomus ciseni was descri from California, but has since appeared in collections taken at widely se rated localities of the Pacific Coast. It has been reported from a lake Siberia. A single specimen was found in a tow taken on Sanak Isla Arctodiaptomus kurilensis was recently described from the Kurile Isla: by Kiefer. It appears in a tow taken on the islands Kanaga, Tanaga ij Atka which lie near the middle of the Aleutian chain. The cyclopoid copepods found in the collection are, as might be expec species already known to be common to both continents, or as in the case FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 391 fclops scmdatus, with a cosmopolitan distribution. The same is true of most the Cladocera, the majority of which are common to Europe, Asia and merica. However, even in the case of widely distributed forms it is teresting to determine their existence as part of the local fresh-water una." Trevor Kincaid has recently (1953) published a report which lentions the 1937-38 Aleutian collection of plankton crustaceans. CRUSTACEANS LADOCERANS Daphnia piilex (de Geer) Daphnia longispina (0. F. Mtiller) Bosmina obtusirostris Sars Macrothrix hirsuticornis Norman and Brady Alona rectangula Sars Pleuroxus denticulatus Birge Chydonis sphaericus (0. F. Miiller) Chycloms latus Sars Alonella rmna (Baird) :OPEPODS Eurytemora affinis Poppe ArctodiaptoniMs kurilensis Kiefer Diaptomus ashlandi Marsh Diapto7nus shoshone var. ivardi Pearse Diaptomiis eiseni Lilljeborg Cyclops (Acanthocy clops) viridis Jurine Cyclops (Cyclops) strenuiis Fischer Cyclops (Eucy clops) semdatus Fischer )STRACODS Cyclocypris sp. MOLLUSKS Eleven species of mollusks were collected from fresh-water •ools and lakes. All of them were small bivalves or snails found linging to submerged vegetation or in the bottom mud ; none were ,s large as the fresh-water mussels of the mainland. A full list if the species collected is as follows : Fossaria truncatida, Gyraidus deflectiis, Menetus opercularius tlanidatus, Pisidium abditum?, Pisidium Uljeborgi, Pisklium 'VU7n?, Retinella binneyana pcllucida, Sphaerium tcyiue, Stagni- ola atkaensis (9 out of 12 were infested with trematode rediae), ^tagnicola randolphi, Stagnicola yukon.ensis atlinensis. Land Invertebrates MOLLUSKS Two land snails and one slug were collected in the AleutijJ Islands, all of them at Unalaska. Haplotrema sportella is a da- greenish-yellow snail collected in damp grass on a hillside, Septei ber 6, 1938. Vesperncola columbiana, collected at the same tir and place, is light horn-colored and is slightly more globular th; Haplotrema. Prophysaon andersoni is a common slug around U alaska Village. BEETLES As might be anticipated in a treeless, windblown region, tj insect fauna is poor. The most commonly observed insects ai small flies breeding under decaying seaweed along the beao under damp stones, and in shallow pools. Pools also may contai bugs, caddisflies, true flies, and collembola. No butterflies we observed though a tan moth was not uncommon. Bumblebees we occasionally seen in the flower fields. No grasshoppers or cricke were noted. Hatch (1938) has previously reported on a collection of : species of beetles taken on the islands in 1937. Of these 27 specie 8 had not apparently been recorded previously from the Aleuti; Islands, and 11 had their distribution extended westward by t 1937 records. A discussion of the importance and habitat i lations of certain of the species listed by Hatch follows. Scaphionotus marginatus is a large, iridescent ground bee1 that is known (elsewhere) to feed on snails. (Snails and sluj were collected on Unalaska Island.) Several species of Nehr were collected on the mouldering debris of Aleut middens. Three species of Hydroporus, minute beetles about 3 millimete long, are common in fresh-water pools. Agabus is an aquatic beet about 6 millimeters long. Ilybius is an aquatic form about 8 mil meters long, dark in color, with four small orange spots on til wing covers. Colymbcfes is the commonest large beetle (about ' millimeters long) observed in fresh-water pools. A single specim( of a very large beetle, 30 millimeters long, was taken on Sam Island, the first record of this Dytisciis from the islands. Gyrim 392 FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND AL'ASKA PENINSULA 393 le whirligig beetle, apparently is present on all of the islands. Of the carrion-feeding beetles, Ncbria, a small brown form, is lirly common in rotting kelp. Catops is the smallest beetle (about millimeters long) observed on the islands. Specimens of a large 25 millimeters) black staphylinid were collected under a decom- 3sing sea lion at Attn Village. Eurystethes, whose habitat is on rocks by the sea, was collected nee on Amchitka Island and once on Ogliuga Island, both times in .^a-otter droppings. Several click beetles, Ludius, and weevils, Lophalophus, were 3llected. A click beetle, Cnjptohypniis Httoralis (not reported by [atch), was found by Cecil Williams in droppings of a blue fox ti Attn Island. BIRD LICE A small series of biting bird lice (Mallophaga) was collected L'om the slender-billed shearwater, Puffinus tenuirostris, at Rat sland and at Unimak Island. The following determinations were lade by the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, U. S. )epartment of Agriculture : Esthiopterum cUversum, Giebelia mirahilis, Ancistrona sp., lenopon sp., and species of Analgesidae. DIPTERA The following species of true flies were identified in the 1936- 8 collections : Bihio variahilis, Calliphora vomito^na, Chironomus hyperhoreus, hjnomia hirta, Dilophus tibialis, Ernpis sp., Platychirus sp., Pro- ophorniis terranovae, Scatophaga sp., Syrphus sp. SPIDERS Only two kinds were commonly observed, Pardosa and Cybaeus, 'Oth of which were medium-sized, dark-bodied spiders collected n mats of damp lichens and low vegetation. A single specimen female) of a huge, milk-white Aranea sp. was collected near its irb web on a low bush at Unalaska. Cybaeus reticulatus was collected on eight islands. Members 'f this family (Agelenidae) spin sheet-like webs, usually in the orm of a funnel with a tubular retreat. Four wolf spiders (family Lycosidae) were collected. Members >f this group do not spin webs and are commonly found running >ver damp fields. Lycosa sp. was taken once. Pardosa tarsalis vas taken on six islands. Pi7'ata piratica was taken once. The 394 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE latter species is said to live in the vicinity of water, upon which runs freely, and beneath which it dives when alarmed. Tarentui aquiloTiaris was newly described by Fox (1940) from specimer taken on Attu Island. A tick, whose identity is not known to us, apparently is abundai on Bogoslof Island at certain seasons. According to Morris (193' p. 952), The murres were pestered with a tick about the size and appearance of small wood tick. These became especially numerous on the second week August. As many as 100 were picked off the inner walls of the tent eat day for a week. Several got on members of the party but only one tii drew blood. We recall picking lead-gray ticks from the body of a bird kille somewhere at sea in the Aleutian Islands, but the specimens ha"' been mislaid. Fish es Forty-eight species of fish were collected in the Aleutian Islands roper. These were identified by Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, and two f them were described by him as being new (1939). The fol- )wing list, alphabetically arranged, includes remarks on the oteworthy species only. A few descriptive notes in quotation larks from Evermann and Goldsborough (1907) are included. I Alepisaurus ferox, the lancet fish, is a fearsome species with irge, glassy eyes and an array of needle-sharp teeth. The only Ipecimen taken was one that had been caught in a crevice of jock between tide levels on Amchitka Island, where it had been jadly eroded. (Murie also saw a beach-worn specimen in 1936.) L'^he body was about 2 feet long and scarcely larger in diameter jhan a broom handle. Schultz says that there is only one species jif Alepisaurus in the North Pacific and that the usual length is [ to 5 feet. Ammodytes tobianus personatus is very common along the )eaches and was often taken in large numbers with the seine ; it is I bright silvery little fish that is called locally "needlefish". Ever- nann and Goldsborough (1907) say, "they quickly bury them- ;elves in the sand when disturbed. . . more delicious little fish probably do not exist. They are usually prepared by rolling in ine cornmeal or cracker crumbs and frying in butter." Aspicottu^ bison is one of the smaller sculpins reaching a length )f about 10 inches. (See Hemilepidotus.) Atheresthes stomias, one of the flounders, is called locally 'turbot." It swims with its right side up. Bathymaster signatus, a beautiful little fish, was taken once in :he Bay of Waterfalls, Adak Island. It is reddish-brown with Dlue-green spots ; also it has a blue line along base of ventral fin, a reddish line adjoining, and then another blue line near tips of fin rays. Chiropsis decagrammus. Only small specimens of this greenling, or rock trout, were taken, at Unimak Island. Clupea pallasi. Pedler, agent of the Alaska Commercial Co. at Unalaska, told us of the herring industry near Unlaska and Dutch Harbor. In 1938, the first run was from June 26 to July 27, 395 396 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE and the second run, much smaller, was from August 26 to Septen: ber 6. The run varies greatly in size from year to year. In 193J ] there were 165 tons of bloaters and 2,000 barrels (250 pounds t) a barrel) of gibbed herring prepared at Dutch Harbor. Th^ gibbed, or Scotch-cured, herring are cleaned and are salted onl i once. All herring are taken by gill nets near Dutch Harboi. Gibbed herring sold in Seattle for about $15 a barrel. Cyclopteridae, the members of which family are commonlj known as lumpsuckers, are characterized by a round sucking disj on the ventral surface of the body. By this means they attacj to rocks and sometimes to kelp in the region of wave action along shore. They are able to attach or release themselves almos instantly. The only adult taken was found on the beach in poo condition. The larvae of Elephantichthys copeianus? were take at two dredge stations. These were handsome little fish about 21 millimeters long, tan colored with pale-blue "spectacles" betwee;^ the eyes. FiGukE 17. — Alaska cod, Gadus macrocephalus, False Pass, August 5, 1938 Gadus macrocephalus, the common Alaska cod, was taken witl hook and line at nearly every anchorage (fig. 17). In deep wate: near Atka Island on August 10 the ship's crew caught more thai 80 fish in half a day. Most of them were later salted down. Al specimens taken during the summer were wormy, although no unfit for eating. Stomach contents from three localities containei masses of the nematode Contracaecum clavatum. In one stomach a female Cystidicola sp. was found. The mesenteries of the co( were usually knotted with masses of cysts of the nematode Porro FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 397 ■ecum decipiens — this worm also was taken from the stomach of I adult hair seal on Khwostof Island. External parasites of the d included a copepod, Lepcophtheirus pcirviventris, an isopod, icinela belliceps, and a leech, PMybdella quadrioculata. Stomach contents of cod were examined from time to time, irtly out of curiosity and partly to recover specimens of in- ■rtebrates for the general collection. Common items in the diet eluded large amphipods (often half a pint or more in a single omach), shrimp, octopus or squid beaks, sea urchins, snails, ams, crabs, and many small fishes. Near Chuginadak Island, on ugust 21, the head of an adult cormorant Phlacrocorax sp. was lund in a cod stomach. Off Ogliuga Island, on August 12, the itire body, considerably softened, of a parakeet auklet (Cy- orrhynchus psittacula) was recovered (Scheffer 1943) . Gasterosteus aculeatus aculeatus, the three-spined stickleback, as taken on three islands in fresh-water pools. G. a. microcephalus as taken on four islands, also in fresh-water pools or streams, oth races of aculeatus may be found in both salt and fresh water, at the resident salt-water form is more heavily plated and is iven the subspecific name aculeatus, while the resident fresh- ater form is given the name microcephalus. In fresh water, all ut four or five plates near the head are eventually lost. In some places, as on Kavalga Island, sticklebacks occur in ponds n plateaus isolated from the sea and now inaccessible to fish. It ; our opinion that the fish gained access to such ponds before the utlet streams became steep. In several cases, sticklebacks were noted heavily infested with ^^IGURE 18. — Red sculpin, Hemilepidotus hemilepidotus; color: red and brown. Kagamil Island, August 29, 1938. 398 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE tapeworms, which filled the body cavity to the extent that t fish had a pot-bellied appearance. (See also Pungitius, the mar spined stickleback.) Gymnocanthus pistilhger is a bullhead, or cottoid, of inten: because it was found in a sea-otter scat on Ogliuga Island. Thet are many species of cottoids in the shoal water and tide pools the Aleutian Islands. Figure 19. — Irish lord, Hemilepidotus jordani; color: dirty olive and bla Kiska Island, Augnst 19, 1938. Two species of Hemilepidotus are very common in the islant H. hemilepidotus, the red sculpin, is brick red to brown in col (fig. IS) ; H. jordani, the Irish Lord, is a dirty, olivaceous bro"\ with irregular dark bars (fig. 19). Sculpins are bottom feedi with an amazing capacity to swallow large objects. When caug with hook and line, it is often necessary to dissect the fish to ] cover the hook. When the boat was at anchor, sculpins were so attracted to the spot by garbage thrown overboard from t galley. Among other items found in sculpin stomachs, we ha noted a match box, a boiled potato, a good-sized chicken leg, a the entire carcass of small bird specimens discarded from t skinning room. Invertebrates seem to make up most of the natui diet : brittle stars, snails, clams, crabs, shrimps, amphipods, a many others. Color notes were taken of a specimen of H. hemilepidotus frc Kagamil Island : red, mottled with brown, belly is white wi chocolate spots; color fades rapidly. A specimen from Vsevic Island : head appears as though bright-red paint had been pour FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 399 ver it; a few red splotches on body; general body color is light rown and red; belly is light with small chocolate specks; a dark- olored stripe runs along each side near dorsal line, and a dark orizontal stripe runs across each eyeball. Color of a specimen of H. iordayii from Kiska Island : dirty olive dth several short, vertical, irregular dark bars near the dorsal ne ; lips are yellow ; belly is light. Hippoglossus stenolepis, the halibut, is fished on certain banks, ut it may be encountered anywhere among the islands (fig. 20). t is the largest of the flounders and is said to reach a weight of Imost 400 pounds. We took a 100-pound fish off Bogoslof Island n the deeper waters that it frequents. The halibut swims with its ight side up. Lebhis supei-ciliosus, the pogie, greenfish, or red rock trout, was aken on seven islands (fig. 21). Color notes on one specimen: general ground color of skin is black with greenish cast, covered Figure 20. -Halibut, Hippoglossus stenolepis, weighing approximately 100 pounds. Bogoslof Island, August 31, 1938. 400 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Figure 21. — Pog-ie, Lebius superciliosus. The flesh may be vivid green o white. Attu Island, August 16, 1938. with irregular spots of light tan. Inside of mouth and under jaw i light green; flesh and viscera are green. Another specimen back and sides are brownish olive mottled with black, and ar.i spotted with bluish green; under-parts are yellowish; flesh i white. On many specimens, the skin is a rich dark red, almos matching the fronds of kelp, among which the fish swim. The vivi( green flesh of the majority of specimens is a startling sight to '< person seeing it for the first time. Dr. L. P. Schultz says that th( presence, or absence, of green color throughout the flesh is not to the best of his knowledge, a sex character. The flesh color ii sometimes more of a blue than a green. 0. J. Murie reports tha the fish comes up to the shallow water along the beach at nigh and makes a popping noise like kelp bladders exploding. The fist was found in nests of the bald eagle on several occasions, suggest ing that it is a shoal-water species. Lepidopsetta bilineata, was called "flounder" on one occasior and "sole" on another, by the same fisherman. It swims with Hi right side up. Evermann and Goldsborough (1907) state thai the flounder is widely distributed and that it takes the hool< readily. Mijoxocephalus pohjacanthocephalus was taken on four islands,! This is said to be a large sculpin, but we have no field notes on it, All five species of Northeast Pacific salmon were collected in the Aleutians, the humpback and the silver salmon were found most frequently : FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 401 lURE 22. — Pink or humpback salmon, Oncorhynchus gorbuscha, breeding male. Amchitka Island, August 22, 1938. ' Oncorhijnchus gorbuscha, the humpback, or pink salmon is id by Evermann and Goldsborough to be the most common '>ecies in Alaska (fig. 22). Some of our specimens were adults, id others were fingerlings caught on hook and line in streams. parasitic copepod, Lepeophtheir-us salmonis, was collected from e back of a humpback salmon on Tanaga Island. Oncorhynchus keta, the dog, or chum salmon, was collected only ice — on Atka Island. The natives had constructed a crude fish ap at the outlet to Korovin Lake. On August 13, the silver salmon ere running and there were also a few dog salmon in the trap, hese were not recognized by the natives as dog salmon, but ere termed "winter salmon" and were given an Aleut name ightly different from that of the silver. Four specimens ex- Tiined were males with apparently mature testes but without the dernal hump that is characteristic of the breeding fish. Oncorhynchus kisutch, the silver salmon, was collected on ve islands. Oncorhynchus nerka, the sockeye, or red salmon, was running ito a lake on Attn Island in early June 1937 (figs. 23 and 24). he species runs only into streams that have lakes somewhere in le headwaters. Oncorhynchus tschawytscha, known as the king, spring, or tiinook salmon, was collected only in the fingerling stage. The dults frequent deep, or offshore waters, occasionally reaching a ize of 100 pounds. They are taken by trolling. Oxycottus acuticeps is of the many species of tide-pool bullheads. 402 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA fil, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Figure 23. — Native boy netting- sockeye salmon, Oncorhynchus nerka. Att Island, August 17, 1938. Figure 24. — Red or sockeye salmon, Oncorhyyichus nerka, taken in g-ill neli by Attu Island natives and dried for winter food. June 8, 1937. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 403 is a bizarre little fish, colored bright grass green over the entire idy, matching the sea lettuce (Ulva) among which it lives. The abs of the fins are transparent, with yellow at the base. There is little silver color on the jaws ; otherwise, the body is uniformly •een. Another bullhead, OUgocottus, is also commonly green. Phallocottus obtusus, a cottoid taken on Igitkin Island, was the Lsis for the description of a new species and genus by Schultz 1939). Pallasirm barbata, a sea poacher, is a very slender fish with a ng sturgeon-like snout. Specimens about 5 inches long were ken in a seine haul in the surf at Umnak Island. Pholis laetus is one of the many blennies that inhabit the tide )ols. It is a small, smooth fish, shaped like a slender cigar; it is ^llowish with a series of paired transverse black bands on the jrsal surface. Platichthys stellatus was taken only at Unimak Island. The arry flounder is said by Evermann and Goldsborough (1907) to 3 the most abundant and most widely-distributed flounder in laska. It has black spots along both dorsal and ventral fins, and . unlike other species in the North Pacific. It swims with its left de up. 'IGURE 25. — Atka mackerel, Pleiirogrammas monopterygius. Attu Island, August 16, 1938. Pleurogrammus monopterygius, the Atka or Attu mackerel, ccurs along the Aleutian chain, but apparently it is most abundant .ear the west end (fig. 25). At the mouth of Chichagof Harbor, Vttu Island, we were able to look down into the clear water and ee dozens of Atka mackerel swimming among the kelp fronds. 404 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 61, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE The body is strikingly marked with broad bands of black ai yellow. A number of specimens were taken by the crew | "jigging" (jerking a hook with an artificial lure up and down the water) . Specimens were also found in nests of the bald eagj Pungitius pungitius, the many-spined stickleback, was taken i fresh water pools on Afognak Island and the Semichi Islant both localities east of the Aleutian Islands proper, Sahnol William Gardner, employee at the salmon canned at False Pass, told us that there are at least four streams • Umnak Island where steelhead trout run. No species of Sab were collected in the Aleutian Islands by our party, and it is uj likely that any occur far from the Alaska mainland. Evermann a^ Goldsborough state that there are no records for rainbow tro^ (5. gairdneri) in any waters off, or north of, the Alaska Peninsu^ and that there are no records for cutthroat trout {S. clark^ beyond Kodiak Island. However, there may be more recent recor extending the range of these species. Salmonoid fingerlings C': lected along the Aleutians by our party invariably were youi salmon or Dolly Varden trout. Salvelinus nialma spectabilis, the Dolly Varden trout, is abui dant throughout the islands, both in fresh-water streams and salt water near the mouths of the streams. Locally, it is regard' as an important predator on salmon eggs, but there is no co elusive evidence to this effect. We found the flesh of the Dol Varden to be quite tasty, although it was scorned by some mei bers of the party. On Amchitka Island, July 19, 52 specime were taken with a single haul of a small beach seine. An i teresting landlocked form of Dolly Varden was observed Unalaska. On August 17, Captain H. A. Searles presented us wi six specimens taken with hook and line in Pyramid Creek abo an impassable falls. This form is much smaller and less silve: than the sea-run form, but the body colors are more brilliant. T] belly is bright orange, back of the ventral and anal fins it scarlet, and the body spots are bright orange. On Attu Island, on August 17, the natives were removing doze of large Dolly Vardens from gill nets set for red salmon, leavii them to rot on the lakeshore. Several odd-looking trout, sa by the natives to be different "kinds" of trout, proved to 1 spectabilis. Sebastodes ciliatus. A few sea bass were taken with hook ai line over the rail of the ship. The fish is not particularly common the Aleutians. FAUNA OF THE ALEUTIAN ISLANDS AND ALASKA PENINSULA 405 Sigmistes smithi, a small cottoid, was described by Schultz 1939) from a collection made on Igitkin Island. Theragra chalcogramma chalcogramma, the Alaska pollack, or Iver hake, was not observed in the islands, although it was iscovered that a young specimen had been taken in a beach haul lade on Igitkin Island (fig. 26). Adults were taken readily at sward and Petersburg, on the mainland. Trichodon trichodon was taken several times among kelp. It is small sand fish with an undershot jaw studded with fine, sharp -eth. Its odd appearance attracts immediate attention. IGURE 26. — Silver hake or Alaska pollack, Theragra chalcogramma. Chignik, Alaska, September 14, 1938. Zapyora silenus. A specimen was taken by one of the ship's few while he was fishing for Atka mackerel from a dory. The ngainly body so startled the man that his first impulse was to rop it back into the ocean. Another specimen, not recognized at le time, was observed off Umnak Island, hovering under a large range jellyfish {Cyanea) at a depth of about 1 foot. It followed le shelter of the umbrella and the hanging tentacles. When the 3llyfish was netted, the fish darted into the bell and was later ound in the center. Color : belly is white, sides and back are olive ray ; from above, it appeared orange because of the reflected light rom the Cyanea. The jellyfish was taken about 14 mile offshore Scheffer 1940). Literature Cited Bartsch, Paul, and H. A. Rehder. 1939. Two new marine shells from the Aleutian Islands. Nautilus, 52, No. 4, pp. 110-112, pi. 8. Clark, Austin H. 1939. A new genus of starfishes from the Aleutian Islands. Proc U. S. National Museum, vol. 86, No. 3061, pp. 597-600, pi. 57, figs, j EvERMANN, B. W., and E. L. Goldsborough. 1907. The fishes of Alaska. U. S. Bur. Fisheries Doc. 624, vol. 26, 221-376, pis. 16-32. Fox, Irving. 1940. Notes on Nearctic spiders chiefly on the family Theridii^ Proceed. Biological Society Washington, vol. 53, pp. 39-46, figs. 1- Hatch, Melville H. 1938. Report on the Coleoptera collected by Victor B. Scheff'er on Aleutian Islands in 1937. Pan-Pacific Entoniology, vol. 14, No pp. 145-149. HuLTEN, Eric. 1937. Flora of the Aleutian Islands. Bokforlags Aktiebolaget ThJ Stockholm, Sweden, 397 pp. KiNCAiD, Trevor. 1953. A contribution to the taxonomy and distribution of the Ameri fresh-water calanoid Crustacea. 73 pp., 5 pis. The Calliostoma Seattle, Wash. Morris, George E. 1937. Bogoslof Island. Proceed. U. S. Naval Institute, vol. 63, No. ^ pp. 950-952. Okamura, K. 1933. On the algae from Alaska collected by Y. Kobayashi. Reco of Oceanographic Works in Japan, vol.- 5, No. 1, pp. 85-98, pis. ^ Scheffer, Victor B. 1939. Organisms collected from whales in the Aleutian Islands. M relet, vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 67-69, figs. 1-5. 1940. Two recent records of Zaprora silenns Jordan from the Aleut Islands. Copeia, No. 3, p. 203. 1943. Fish bites bird. Nature Magazine, vol. 36, No. 1, pp. 41- 4 figs. ScHULTZ, Leonard P. 1939. A new genus and -two new species of cottoid fishes from Aleutian Islands. Proceed. U. S. National Museum, vol. 85, No. 30 pp. 187-191. iU. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE; 1959 428776 406 / 7 DEPOSITORY BIRDS OF AAARYLAND AND THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA ^fljH AMERJc^ FAUNA NUMBER 62 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE J BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA By Robert E. Stewart and Chandler S. Robbins Wildlife Biologists, Branch of Wildlife Research Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife ^RtH AMERTc^v NUMBER 62 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR Fred A. Seaton, Secretary FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Arnie J. Suomela, Commissioner Boston Public Library Superintendent of Documents AUG 1 2 1958 United States Government Printing Office • Washington • 1958 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, United States Government Printing Ofl5< Washington 25, D. C. : Price $1.75 CONTENTS Page itroduction 1 Objectives and Plan 2 Acknowledgments 4 Historical Sketch 6 Birdlife and Land Use H Geographical Distribution of Birds 15 Birds of the Oak-Pine Forest Region 20 Eastern Shore section 23 Western Shore section 25 Upper Chesapeake section 26 Birds of the Oak-Chestnut Forest Region 28 Piedmont section 29 Ridge and Valley section 31 Birds of the Mixed Mesophytic Forest Region 33 Allegheny Mountain section 33 pecies Account 37 iterature Cited 375 ppendix A — Common and Scientific Names of Plants Referred to in Text..— 387 ppendix B — Species Dropped From Hypothetical List 388 ppendix C — Important Records Since October 1956 388 pecies Index 39I MAPS L. Biotic areas of Maryland and the District of Columbia 19 5. Geographical localities in Maryland 38 5. Breeding colonies of Great Blue Heron and Black-crowned Night Heron 52 I. Breeding ranges of Least Bittern, Black Duck, Osprey, and Long-billed Marsh Wren 60 ». Breeding range of American Bittern 62 1. Canada Goose banding recoveries 66 '. Mallard banding recoveries 71 i. Black Duck banding recoveries 73 >. Pintail banding recoveries 76 ). Green-winged Teal banding recoveries 78 lu (I Pal, 11. Breeding ranges of Blue-winged Teal and Ruffed Grouse '{ 12. Blue-winged Teal banding recoveries -. ij 13. American Widgeon banding recoveries. - 1< 14. Wood Duck banding recoveries -- 1( 15. Redhead banding recoveries... .-. 1! 16. Ring-necked Duck banding recoveries I! 17. Canvasback banding recoveries i: 18. Lesser Scaup banding recoveries... !S 19. Breeding range of Black Vulture.. 20. Breeding range of Marsh Hawk.. — 21. Peregrine Falcon banding recoveries 22. Sparrow Hawk banding recoveries..-. 23. Breeding ranges of King Rail and Virginia Rail 24. Breeding ranges of Clapper Rail and Saw-whet Owl 25. Breeding ranges of Upland Plover and Willet 26. Common Tern banding recoveries 27. Breeding colonies of Least Tern 28. Mourning Dove banding recoveries 29. Breeding ranges of Chuck- will's- widow and Traill's Flycatcher 30. Chimney Swift banding recoveries 31. Breeding range of Pileated Woodpecker... 32. Breeding range of Yellow-bellied Sapsucker, Solitary Vireo, Mag- nolia Warbler, Black-throated Blue Warbler, Northern Water- thrush, Purple Finch, and Slate-colored Junco 11 33. Breeding range of Least Flycatcher 2(1 34. Breeding range of Tree Swallow.. 211 35. Breeding ranges of Bank Swallow and Cliff Swallow 2]| 36. Blue Jay banding recoveries.... 211 37. Breeding range of Fish Crow 2S1 38. Breeding ranges of Black-capped Chickadee and Carolina Chickadee 22( 39. Breeding range of White-breasted Nuthatch - 2Si 40. Breeding ranges of Brown-headed Nuthatch and Hermit Thrush.... 23 41. Breeding range of Bewick's Wren 29 42. Breeding range of Short-billed Marsh Wren 2f 43. Robin banding recoveries... 24 44. Breeding range of Veery _ _ 2E 45. Breeding ranges of Blue-gray Gnatcatcher and Golden-crowned Kinglet - 25 46. Breeding range of Warbling Vireo 26 47. Breeding range of Prothonotary Warbler 27 48. Breeding ranges of Swainson's Warbler and Nashville Warbler 27 49. Breeding range of Worm-eating Warbler 27 50. Breeding ranges of Golden-winged Warbler and Blue-winged Warbler 27 51. Breeding range of Black-throated Green Warbler.. 28 iv Page 2. Breeding range of Cerulean Warbler 289 3. Breeding ranges of Blackburnian Warbler and Yellow-throated Warbler 291 4. Breeding range of Chestnut-sided Warbler 293 5. Breeding range of Pine Warbler 296 6. Breeding range of Prairie Warbler 298 7. Breeding ranges of Kentucky Warbler and Mourning Warbler 305 8. Breeding ranges of Hooded Warbler and American Redstart 311 9. Breeding ranges of Canada Warbler and Rose-breasted Grosbeak 314 0. Breeding ranges of Bobolink and Boat-tailed Crackle 318 1. Common Crackle banding recoveries 328 2. Breeding range of Blue Grosbeak... 336 3. Purple Finch banding recoveries 342 4. Breeding range of Savannah Sparrow^ 350 5. Breeding ranges of Sharp-tailed Sparrow and Seaside Sparrow 354 6. Slate-colored Junco banding recoveries 360 7. White-throated Sparrow banding recoveries 367 8. Breeding range of Swamp Sparrow 370 9. Song Sparrow banding recoveries 372 ■r< ^*>' '-ipl^jgcat jA )0tcf% i^rant't S^ttf^t, The Bald Eagle, national bird of the United States. (From the Fish and Wildlife Service painting by Louis Agassiz Fuertes.) BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Birds hold an important position in our economy and culture, heir recreational value is shared by the gunner, the photog- ipher, and an increasing number of bird students who both ngly and in organized parties take frequent trips to make hristmas-season or spring counts, to record the progress of igration, or to seek rare species. If the amount of money spent mually for such items as field clothes, gasoline, food, lodging, ans, shells, boats, binoculars, telescopes, cameras, film, and ridge tolls by persons in quest of birds for one purpose or another ere known, the total would doubtless surprise even the most [•dent participants. Aside from their recreational and direct economic value, birds ave esthetic appeal to most of our citizens. Countless thou- mds of people derive daily enjoyment from the sight of birds 1 their feeding shelves, in their birdbaths, or on their lawns, 'om hearing their varied songs, or from watching distant flocks f waterfowl by day or hearing their calls by night. The majestic aid Eagle, which nests throughout our tidewater area, so in- Dired our ancestors that it was selected as our national emblem, requent references to other birds in prose and poetry attest to le more subtle influences these creatures have upon our vilization. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service is directed by jveral acts of Congress to obtain information on the protection nd management of all birdlife in the United States. To carry out lese directives the Service has made surveys of the birdlife of laracteristic segments of the nation. For convenience of delinea- on, State boundaries have usually been used to indicate survey reas. It has been noticeable that during the past two decades le approach has changed from very generalized surveys or more laborate treatments with detailed descriptions of habits, to the lost recent approach with primary emphasis on numerically flanging populations in response to human utilization of the land. 2 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE The importance of quantitative studies is stressed in the presei work, which deals with a part of the United States where hums populations are high and land use relatively intensive and divers fied. This area is ideally situated for appraisal of the effects upc our birdlife of the growing demands upon our natural resources OBJECTIVES AND PLAN The chief purpose of this book is to describe the birdlife of a important segment of the eastern United States in terms of i geographical, ecological, and seasonal distribution in each of tl natural or biotic regions that extend into Maryland and the Di trict of Columbia. An attempt is made to show where and wh^ populations of each species may be expected to occur within theii regions and to indicate some of the more important environment! factors. Related information on numerical status and breediri and migration periods is given in detail for most species. Banu ing data that furnish important clues to migration routes art breeding and wintering grounds are included. Unlike most State bird books of the past, this volume does m include descriptions of plumages, field marks, songs, and habit; That type of information is readily available in many other book ■ and need not be repeated here. Instead the pages that follow ai > devoted to information on the time and place of occurrence of eaa species, its ecological requirements, and its abundance, often i terms of population densities by habitat type. With respect ' population densities this volume initiates a new approach amor regional bird books. In the past, abundance of a species hi generally been described in vague terms, and seldom with refe; ence to a particular type of environment. This has made difficult if not impossible to make comparisons of one area wil' another or to measure changes within a given area over a peric of years. To the casual bird watcher the population figures wi indicate where he can expect to find a certain species of bird. T the more serious student they will indicate preferred habitats i| which he may carry out further study. To the farmer they mai suggest ways of making the farmyard, field borders, or woodlc more attractive to certain species of birds. For those entrusts with the protection of our Nation's wildlife resources, the presen population figures can be used in future comparisons to measuij decreases or increases in abundance of any of our nesting specie as a result of changing farming, forestry, or other land-usj practices. The information in this book is based almost entirely on dat BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 3 •btained within the boundaries of Maryland and the District of ;!olumbia. However, it is organized by major biotic regions that xtend into and cover large areas in many eastern States. Thus, he book actually serves as a cross-sectional study of the more mportant biotic regions in the mideastern part of the country. ?hese regions cover the central and southern Appalachian Moun- ains, the Piedmont Plateau, and the northern and central parts f the Atlantic Coastal Plain. Much of the information applies in , general way wherever the appropriate regions are found. During the course of this study it was found that each species 3 to a large extent independent of all other associated birds so ar as its habitat requirements and distributional patterns are oncerned. The habitat niche occupied by each species within a iven biotic community was invariably found to be somewhat ifferent from the habitat niche occupied by any other species. )efinite ecologic associations of two or more species occurred only a areas where the required habitat niches of all species concerned /ere present. Such associations are usually quite local in scope, ince all habitats vary from one area to another, and the presence r absence of a single critical factor in the environment can cause change in species composition. Because of this variation in pecies composition within most biotic communities it was decided 0 emphasize the "species approach" rather than the "community pproach" in reporting the results of our investigations. A gen- ral discussion of habitat conditions and characteristic bird popu- itions may be found in the descriptions of the major biotic egions of the area, but the bulk of the information is summarized nder the various species headings in the species account. This report is based to a large extent on systematic field work y the authors. Intensive field work was begun on the Patuxent research Refuge near Laurel in 1941, and during the period 1945 hrough 1955 this was expanded to include all of the State of laryland. A thorough coverage of all counties was attempted uring the height of one or more breeding seasons in order to ecord the geographical distribution, habitat, and relative bundance of each nesting species. Similar studies were carried ut in the winter, and intensive observations were conducted dur- ig the migration seasons at numerous strategic localities through- ut the State. An effort was made to determine breeding-popula- ion densities in at least one or two typical habitats for nearly all pecies of birds that nest regularly within the boundaries of Mary- imd and the District of Columbia. More than 1,500 records of ■ ggs and nestlings of noncolonial species were obtained in addi- 4 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE tion to 2 or 3 thousand nests of colonial species. We bandej approximately 18,000 birds during the period and collected spec j. mens of nearly all species that have been recorded. The field work by the authors was supplemented by gatherinsi together the sight observations and specimen records of manii professional and amateur ornithologists. The ornithological literature, including the bird-distribution files of the Fish ami Wildlife Service, has been critically examined for all Marylanili and District of Columbia records. These files contain reporli from cooperators since the year 1883, as well as clippings c abstracts from the more important ornithological literature dui ing the same period. Frequent reference is made to recoveries of banded bird, I Upwards of 100,000 birds have been banded in Maryland and thj District of Columbia since the inception of the banding prograni Several thousand recovery reports are on file at the Bird Bandinj Office at Patuxent Research Refuge. These have all been ei\ amined, as have the reports of birds banded in other States am Canadian Provinces and recovered in Maryland and the District c Columbia. Through the use of serially numbered aluminum bir bands we are learning where the individual birds that nest i Maryland spend the winter, where those that winter here rais their young during the summer months, and the routes these birc take during migration. This information is especially importai in the case of our migrant game birds, and has practical applicj tions for species such as the Redwinged Blackbird and Commo Crackle, which damage ripening grain crops in late summer bi, are beneficial to the farmer at other times. Be it for purposes c protection, for selective control, or for improvement of huntin] banding recoveries are constantly supplying more informatio on the distribution, migration, and abundance of a greater variet of birds. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The late Frank Coates Kirkwood heads the list of persons t whom special thanks are due ; his long series of detailed notes f roi 1881 through 1930 are the foundation for subsequent field invest gations throughout Maryland. The present volume was firj conceived by the late Robert C. McClanahan, who met his untimel death a few months after he had started serious work on th project. To each person mentioned in the historical sketch — in fact, t each whose name appears anywhere in the species account — ou BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 5 ncere thanks are tendered. Staff members of the Patuxent esearch Refuge, nearly all field observers of the various affiliated ubs of the Maryland Ornithological Society, and most active :embers of the Audubon Society of the District of Columbia have mtributed in one way or another to this manuscript. Dr. Irston . Barnes, Dr. Edwin G. Davis, Clara Schoenbauer, and Donald ;. Thatcher, in particular, have assisted by making the Audubon Dciety's field records available. We are especially indebted to W. ryant Tyrrell for help in assembling valuable data recorded J several of the earlier Maryland ornithologists. Our gratitude is extended to those active field observers who ive critically read the entire species account and supplied addi- onal notes to clarify the distribution, migration, abundance, and 3sting summaries: Dr. Maurice G. Brooks, Mr. and Mrs. A. J. [etcher, Richard L. Kleen, C. Haven Kolb, Jr., Dr. John W. ichards, Dr. Ralph S. Stauffer, John W. Terborgh, Dr. Alexander 'etmore, and Edwin Willis. We express our deep appreciation • officials of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, the United :ates National Museum, and the Natural History Society of aryland for the use of their collections. Thanks are extended to r. Ira N. Gabrielson for the use of his personal collection of aryland birds. There are so many contemporary observers active throughout aryland and the District of Columbia that it would not be 'actical to list them here. Nearly all who have contributed icords to this book will find their names used as authority for ime of the observations. It is difficult indeed to single out a few T special mention, but the following names stand out for their ork on migration or on nesting activities: John H. Buckalew, imes B. Cope, Edward J. Court, Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Richard Kleen, M. Brooke Meanley, Dr. John W. Richards, Allen R. ickley, Jr., Mrs. Gail Tappan, John W. Terborgh, and Edwin illis. Others who have made important contributions to this lase of the work are Dr. John W. Aldrich, Robert J. Beaton, Dbert M. Bowen, John W. Brainerd, Dr. Maurice G. Brooks, ary Catherine Crone, the late Frank C. Cross, Philip A. DuMont, lien J. Duvall, John H. Fales, C. Douglas Hackman, Marvin W. ewitt, Duvall A. Jones, Mrs. Alice Kaestner, the late Renwick Kerr, J. Ellsworth Knudson, Samuel Mason, R. Bruce Over- gton, K. Friel Sanders, H. Elizabeth Slater, Paul F. Springer, r. and Mrs. R. S. Stauffer, John W. Taylor, Jr., and Dr. Alex- ider Wetmore. Most of the persons mentioned in the following i iragraph have also supplied detailed notes on migration. 6 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE In addition to our own banding-recovery records we have sum-- marized recoveries from all other cooperators in Maryland and thei District of Columbia. Those who made the greatest contributior to banding were the following : Cooperators who have banded ovei^ 5,000 birds in Maryland and/or the District of Columbia are Setb H. Low (11,000 banded, mostly at Unity), Rev. Edward Stoehu (9,000, some of them at Capuchin College in Washington, thfl others at St. Conrad's Friary on the Severn River in Anne Arundel County), William M. Davidson (9,000 birds, mostly at Silvej Spring and Takoma Park), the Maryland Department of Game and Inland Fisheries (6,000 wild birds, almost all of them water fowl), and Leonard M. Llewellyn (5,000, mostly at Patuxem Refuge and in Allegany County) . The majority of the recoveriea have resulted from the work of these persons. We wish also t the Coastal Plain are much wider and more swampy than a those in the other provinces. There are several hundred miles of tidewater frontage, owl: to the ragged shoreline of Chesapeake Bay and its numerous an and inlets. The ocean coastline, however, is only 31 miles. T salinity of the tidewater in Maryland varies greatly; the wate of upper Chesapeake Bay and the upper sections of many of t estuaries are nearly fresh, while the waters of the lower Chej peake and coastal bays are almost as salty as the ocean. TH variation accounts for the great variety of aquatic plants a:i types of marshes found in the State. The boundaries of the principal biotic or natural areas in Mai land and the District of Columbia appear to coincide quite close with the units proposed by Dr. E. Lucy Braun (1950) for classiJ ing the regions of the Eastern Deciduous Forest of North Amerii According to this system a forest region is characterized by t prevalence of a specific climax type, or by a mosaic of types. Ha ever, each forest region also contains other climax types that a more restricted in area, including some that are prevalent in oth regions. Many other habitats, both forest and nonforest, a, present in these regions; some of these habitats actually occu( much greater areas than the climax types. These include stagj in natural succession from open country to forest and manmad habitats such as towns, cities, and agricultural areas. According to Braun's classification, the area embraced by Man land and the District of Columbia lies within three major forq regions that are designated the Oak-Pine Forest Region, the Oa BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 19 o o s 20 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Chestnut Forest Region, and the Mixed Mesophytic Forest Regie Our data on distribution and ecology of birds are closely corr lated with the distribution of these forest regions, so we ha^i decided to follow Braun's classification except for slight chang in the regional boundaries (see fig. 1). The most noticeable shi was made on the boundary separating the Oak-Pine and Oa Chestnut Forest Regions. For our purpose it seemed best include the "necks" of Baltimore and Harford Counties in t] Oak-Pine Forest Region rather than in the Oak-Chestnut Fore Region. Each of the three forest regions, here considered as major bioi regions, may be subdivided into sections that represent are' showing floral and faunal differences of a secondary nature. '. Maryland and the District of Columbia we have found it expec ent to recognize six sections — ^the Eastern Shore, Western Shoii and Upper Chesapeake sections of the Oak-Pine Forest Region the Piedmont and the Ridge and Valley sections of the Oal Chestnut Forest Region ; and the Allegheny Mountain section i the Mixed Mesophytic Forest Region. While attempting to folkl Braun's classification of these subdivisions as far as we could, -^ found it necessary to modify her concept of the sectional boun aries with the following results : The Allegheny Mountain secti' is the same as described; the Ridge and Valley section includ Braun's Northern Blue Ridge section as well as her Ridge ai Valley section ; the Piedmont section is the same as described € cept for a slight westward shift of the eastern boundary; t Upper Chesapeake, Western Shore, and Eastern Shore sectio are new subdivisions of the Oak-Pine Forest Region that have r been previously described. BIRDS OF THE OAK-PINE FOREST REGION The Coastal Plain of Maryland and the District of Columb except for Elk Neck in Cecil County, occurs within the Oak-Pi Forest Region. This region is intermediate in many respec between the Southeastern Evergreen Forest Region of the Soul ern States and the more central Oak-Chestnut Forest Regie Under the old life-zone concept it would probably be consider a transitional belt between the Lower Austral (Austroripariai and Upper Austral (Carolinian) Life Zones. Over the great! part of this region in Maryland the upland forests are composi of a combination of pine stands and oak-hickory forests or a mi ture of the two. An exception to this is found in the areas a joining the upper Chesapeake Bay (designated as the Upp BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 21 esapeake section), where the upland forests are almost entirely nduous, although still of a type characteristic of the Oak-Pine rest Region. Interesting associations of southern and east- itral plants occur in the region. Locally, extensive stands of lolly pine and even bald-cypress swamps are present, reminding 3 of more southern latitudes. Other species of pines, as well most of the deciduous trees, are those which are also character- ;c of the Oak-Chestnut Forest Region or are widely distributed oughout the Atlantic Coastal Plain. The associations of plants and animals in the tidewater habitats the Oak-Pine Forest Region are quite different from other com- nities found in Maryland and the District of Columbia. There ; numerous types of tidal marshes along the bays and estuaries, I almost every one has a distinct assortment of breeding birds. 3sh and brackish marsh types include American three-square, ley three-square, river bulrush, cattail, wild rice, reed, salt d-grass, and switchgrass. Salt-marsh types are salt-water dgrass, salt-meadow grass, spike-grass, needlerush, saltmarsh rush, black grass, and glasswort. Many tidewater birds may considered edge species, since they feed in the open water or marsh areas but nest in adjacent patches of brush or trees. II other species nest on small islands, on beaches, or in banks ng the shore. ;'he breeding birds of the region include several species of ;nite southern affinities, while associated with them are many re that are widely distributed throughout the greater part of Eastern Deciduous Forest area. Interestingly enough, a few eding species that are generally considered characteristic of more northern portions of the Eastern Deciduous Forest area also present. The species of birds that have been known to ed in the Oak-Pine Forest Region in recent years are as ows: in Heron it Bittern k Duck d Duck wey Vulture k Vulture (local) shouldered Hawk •ey vhite inia Rail men Tern (local) PRIMARY SPECIES Least Tern (local) Black Skimmer (local) Mourning Dove Yellow-billed Cuckoo Great Horned Owl (local) Barred Owl Chuck -will's- widow (local) Whip-poor-will Chimney Swift Pileated Woodpecker (local) Red-bellied Woodpecker Downy Woodpecker Eastern Kingbird Great Crested Flycatcher Acadian Flycatcher Eastern Wood Pewee Barn Swallow 22 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE PRIMARY SPECIES— Continued Purple Martin (local) Common Crow Carolina Chickadee Tufted Titmouse Brown-headed Nuthatch (local) House Wren Carolina Wren Long-billed Marsh Wren Short-billed Marsh Wren (local) Mockingbird Catbird Robin Wood Thrush Blue-gray Gnatcatcher (local) Great Blue Heron Little Blue Heron (local) Common Egret (local) Snowy Egret (local) Black-crowned Night Heron American Bittern (local) Mallard (local) Blue-winged Teal (local) Cooper's Hawk Red-tailed Hawk Broad-winged Hawk Bald Eagle Marsh Hawk (local) Sparrow Hawk King Rail Clapper Rail (local) Common Gallinule (local) Piping Plover (local) Killdeer Pied-billed Grebe Louisiana Heron (local) Starling White-eyed Vireo Red-eyed Vireo Prothonotary Warbler (local) Parula Warbler Yellow-throated Warbler (local) Pine Warbler (local) Prairie Warbler Ovenbird (local) Louisiana Waterthrush (local) Kentucky Warbler Yellowthroat Yellow-breasted Chat Hooded Warbler (local) SECONDARY SPECIES American Woodcock Spotted Sandpiper (local) Willet (local) Gull-billed Tern (local) Forster's Tern (local) Barn Owl Screech Owl (local) Common Nighthawk (local) Ruby-throated Hummingbird Belted Kingfisher Yellow-shafted Flicker Hairy Woodpecker Eastern Phoebe Horned Lark Tree Swallow (local) Bank Swallow (local) Rough-winged Swallow Blue Jay Fish Crow White-breasted Nuthatch (local) MINOR SPECIES Yellow-crowned Night Heron (local) Glossy Ibis (local) American Redstart^ (local) House Sparrow (lo|i Eastern Meadowla II Redwinged Blackbi u Common Grackle (local) Scarlet Tanager Cardinal Indigo Bunting Rufous-sided Towh Grasshopper Span [ Sharp-tailed Sparr i (local) I Seaside Sparrow | (local) Chipping Sparrow Field Sparrow | Song Sparrow I Brown Thrasher Eastern Bluebird Loggerhead Shrike (local) Yellow-throated Vi Warbling Vireo (Ic Black-and-white Warbler Swainson's Warble (local) Worm-eating Warl (local) Yellow Warbler Orchard Oriole Boat-tailed Grackli (local) Brown-headed Cov Summer Tanager (local) Blue Grosbeak (loc American Goldfincl Henslow's Sparro^' Vesper Sparrow Gadwall (local) Sora (local) Black Rail (local) Birds of Maryland and district of Columbia 23 MINOR SPECIES— Continued lerican Oyster- Red-headed Baltimore Oriole atcher (local) Woodpecker (local) (local) Ison's Plover (local) Red-cockaded Savannah Sparrow rring Gull (local) Woodpecker (local) (local) ighing Gull (local) Least Flycatcher Bachman's Sparrow ;eate Tern (local) (local) (local) /al Tern (local) Cedar Waxwing Swamp Sparrow ck-billed Cuckoo (local) STERN SHORE SECTION rhis part of the Oak-Pine Forest Region (see fig. 1) is in the astal Plain of southeastern Maryland, east of Chesapeake Bay. rather stations in this section (Weeks, 1941) yield the follow- r data (based on mean weather records over a period of from to 67 years) : lual temperature — 55.4° F. (at Easton) to 57.9° F. (at Crisfield) uary temperature— 35.2° F. (at Easton) to 38.6° F. (at Crisfield) y temperature — 76.0° F. (at Snow Hill) to 77.8° F. (at Pocomoke City) 'wing season — 178 days (at Princess Anne) to 210 days (at Crisfield) lual precipitation — 39.35 inches (at Snow Hill) to 43.37 inches (at Cam- bridge) lual snowfall — 10.2 inches (at Crisfield) to 21.1 inches (at Rock Hall) rhe upland forests are composed chiefly of loblolly-pine stands i oak-hickory forests or a mixture of the two. Along the rgins of the tidal marshes, loblolly pine characteristically urs in somewhat open stands without deciduous associates, ich of the Eastern Shore section is poorly drained with the ult that upland swamps are numerous and extensive lowland amps occur along many of the streams. Sweetgum, black gum, I maple, and pin oak are typical trees in most of these swamps, 1 locally American holly is common. The large swamp along Pocomoke River and its tributaries is especially interesting ce it includes many southern plants including bald cypress, ! bay, horse-sugar, water oak, cross vine, and laurel-leaved •enbrier. In the coastal area of Worcester County many other eresting habitats are found, such as the littoral zone of the an, the coastal bays or lagoons, the barrier beaches, and the t marshes. Along the Chesapeake Bay shore there are numer- ; brackish estuaries that abound in aquatic plant food, while oining many of them are extensive brackish marshes. Oysters, bs, and fish are plentiful in the tidewater areas of the Eastern )re section, and support a fairly large fishing industry. The •icultural areas of this section are largely devoted to truck 24 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE farming and chicken raising and to apple and peach orcha; (Hamilton and Johnson, 1940). Many of the southern birds that breed within the Oak-P Forest Region are more common and widespread in the East! Shore section than elsewhere, and this is true also of those spec i that are associated with salt-water habitats. These include vj : ous southern herons, Clapper Rail, American Oystercatch Wilson's Plover, Royal, Gull-billed, and Forster's Terns, Bl,. Skimmer, Chuck-will's-widow, Red-cockaded Woodpecker, Broi ; headed Nuthatch, Swainson's Warbler, Boat-tailed Grackle, ji Sharp-tailed and Seaside Sparrows. Paradoxically, several brel ing species generally associated with cooler climates occur re larly in certain tidewater habitats of the Eastern Shore secti but are absent or rare in other sections of the Oak-Pine Foi Region. These include the American Bittern, Gadwall, B] winged Teal, Marsh Hawk, Herring Gull, Tree Swallow, Sh( billed Marsh Wren, and Swamp Sparrow. During the migration and wintering periods, most of the ma ducks (Anatinae) and shorebirds (Charadriidae and Scolo cidae), as well as various other species associated with salt-w£ habitats, are much more abundant in the Eastern Shore sect than elsewhere. The greatest variety and numbers of marsh du are to be found in the brackish marshes of Dorchester Coui while the majority of the shorebirds are most numerous in coastal area of Worcester County. Spectacular concentration diving ducks and other open-water species are to be seen on numerous brackish estuaries and inlets along the Chesape Bay shore and are especially abundant on Eastern Bay and Chester River. In fall, many land birds, including several spei of hawks and quite a few passerine species, tend to follow coast while migrating and therefore are numerous in this sect In spring, several passerine species, particularly some of warblers, tend to follow inland migration routes and therei are rare or absent in the Eastern Shore section. In winter, several half-hardy species that are characteri wintering birds in the Southern States regularly range as north as the Eastern Shore section but are not ordinarily foun( the other sections. These include the Tree Swallow, House W] Palm Warbler, Vesper Sparrow, and Chipping Sparrow. Am other wintering birds of interest could be listed the Purple Sa pipers at the Ocean City Inlet and Ipswich Sparrows and Si Buntings on the barrier beaches. Turkey Vultures and My Warblers winter in unusually large numbers throughout mucl BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 25 e Eastern Shore section, and waterfowl are plentiful wherever propriate aquatic habitats occur. 5STERN SHORE SECTION This section is found on the Coastal Plain west of Chesapeake ,y and south of the Patapsco River (see map, %. 1). Weather itions within this section (Weeks, 1941) yield the following erage data: nual temperature — 54.5° F. (near Glenn Dale) to 57.1° F. (at Solomons) luary temperature — 34.3° F. (near Glenn Dale) to 36.7° F. (at La Plata) y temperature — 75.8° F. (near Glenn Dale) to 78.2° F. (at Solomons) nual growing season — 172 days (near Glenn Dale) to 213 days (at Solo- mons) nual precipitation — 35.62 inches (at Solomons) to 44.33 inches (at Anna- polis) nual snowfall — 15.8 inches (at Solomons) to 21.5 inches (at Annapolis) Over the greater part of the Western Shore section, the upland •ests are composed of scrub-pine stands and oak-hickory forests a mixture of the two. On the lower Coastal Plain terraces near ewater, and especially in the southern part of the section, ilolly pine is common, often taking the place of the scrub pine. sandy soils in the northern part of the section in the Fall-line ly Hills district (Harper, 1918), pitch pine is frequently pre- ninant. Rich, moist upland forests, composed chiefly of white j-i j BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 39 Accidental: Means that a species, well beyond its usual range, was recorded only once or twice. I These general terms are supplemented in many cases by breed- ng-population densities and maximum 1-day counts at other seasons. General and specific calendar dates are used to indicate the lesting seasons for species that breed in Maryland and the Dis- jTict of Columbia. In describing the nesting seasons, the prefixes 'early," ''mid," and late," applied to a month, are often used. 'Early" refers to the period from the 1st through the 10th day 3f the month; "mid" is used to designate the period from the 11th i:hrough the 20th; and "late" indicates the period from the 21st through the last day of the month. The nesting peak represents the approximate period when three-fourths or more of the indi- ividuals of a given species are engaged in nesting activities. Egg i dates refer to the extreme dates on which nests with viable eggs '(not necessarily full clutches) were found. Nestling dates indi- cate the extreme dates on which nests containing young birds were jrecorded. Corresponding dates for downy young are used instead of nestling dates in the case of precocial species. The total num- ber of nest records from which the egg-date and nestling-date extremes are derived is indicated for each species. A single nest- ing record may be included in both the egg count and the nestling count if observed in both stages. Only nest records reported from : Maryland or the District of Columbia are included. In the descriptions of spring and fall migration, the "normal 'periods" represent the dates when a species is ordinarily migrat- ing, while extreme dates may be considered to be unusual records. jIn order to make allowance for yearly variation in migration dates, a limited amount of leeway is usually indicated for the beginning and ending of normal migration periods. For example, a normal period listed as "April 15-25 to May 10-20" means that the migration usually begins some time between April 15 and April 25, and usually ends some time between May 10 and May 20. Migration peaks represent the approximate periods when the greatest numbers of individuals are migrating. For widespread breeding or transient species that occur in good numbers in several biotic sections, the nesting peak and normal migration periods as given in the text are applicable only to the more centrally located areas, including the Upper Chesapeake, Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections and the northern part of the Western Shore section (Prince Georges and Anne Arundel Counties) . As a general rule the nesting peaks and normal spring 40 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE migration periods as given here may be expected to be as much i 1 week earlier than corresponding dates in the Allegheny Moui| tain section, and as much as 1 week later than corresponding dat( I in southeastern Maryland (Eastern Shore section and souther: part of Western Shore section). On the other hand, the norm;, fall migration periods as given in the text for wide-ranging specie I may be as much as 1 week later than corresponding dates in tL Allegheny Mountain section and as much as 1 week earlier thai corresponding dates in southeastern Maryland. The differed may vary up to 3 weeks or more for such species as the Black-an( white Warbler and may not vary to any appreciable extent fc others such as the Rose-breasted Grosbeak and Cliff Swallow. The appropriate habitats of most species are briefly describe* It should be remembered that whenever an appraisal of the reh tive abundance of a species within a given biotic section is mad consideration is always given to the required habitat of thj species. The common names of plants used in the descriptior of habitats are taken from the eighth edition of Gray's Manual c Botany (Fernald, 1950). The scientific as well as the commo names of all plants referred to are listed in Appendix A. For nesting species, breeding-population densities by habitj are frequently listed. These figures are derived from intensi^v population studies of breeding territorial males or pairs, using th spot-mapping method (see Audubon Field Notes 4 (2) : 185, 1950; An effort has been made to include all known breeding-populatio studies of uniform habitats that have been conducted in Marylan and the District of Columbia. The unpublished studies from Princ Georges County were made on, or within 3 miles of, the Patuxer Research Refuge. Population densities based on only 1 pai of birds in a study area (or a fractional part of the territory of pair, or fractional parts of the territories of 2 or more pairs i their combined total amounts to less than 1.0 territory) have nc been included. In the cases of wide-ranging or rare species, i has been necessary to set up study areas of several hundred acre in order to obtain significant density figures. Altogether, breec ing-population densities have been obtained for 103 species. I addition, counts or careful estimates of 12 colonial species ar listed. It is hoped that these population figures will prove helj ful in appraising changes in abundance in years to come. Maximum nonbreeding counts are also listed for many specie! These represent the highest number of individuals recorded in day by 1 party of observers (except in the case of Christma counts, which include the total number recorded in 1 day by ai BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 41 rties taking a given count) . These counts were all taken either ! land or by boat. No attempt was made to include all high I unts of a species ; instead, selection was made of the highest rep- isentative counts for each general area in which the species I curs. It should be pointed out that in most cases these high unts were obtained incidental to other observations. A party I observer that set out at the proper season under favorable Bather conditions with the express intent of beating the high unt for a given species should have little trouble in exceeding iany of the counts listed here. The counts are intended as an dication of relative abundance rather than a series of extra- dinary figures. The inclusion of more than one count for most 1 ecies helps to make the few really exceptional counts stand out om the others. Most of the Christmas counts have been published in Audubon leld Notes. The present Washington, D. C, Christmas count is e only one of any importance that overlaps into an adjacent ate. In several other areas, a circle 15 miles in diameter would ive included parts of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, or Virginia, it observers have made a point of restricting their observations the Maryland portions of the circle. In the case of the recent ashington, D. C, figures, the breakdown by areas has always ;en published, so it has been possible to eliminate all counts that 9re made in Virginia and to include only those birds known to ive been seen or heard within Maryland or the District of )lumbia. The presentation of banding data for many species is restricted an analysis, mapping, or listing of recoveries that were made a distance of 10 miles or more from the points of banding. Qly out-of-State records are plotted on the maps, including the covery localities of birds banded in Maryland and the banding ations of birds recovered in Maryland. Four types of symbols I the maps represent: records of birds banded during the sum- er; records of birds banded during the fall, winter, and spring; ;Cords of birds recovered during the summer; and records of rds recovered during the fall, winter, and spring. Only one mbol of each type is plotted within a State or Province, regard- ss of the number of records involved. When a symbol represents or more records it is plotted in a central location as indicated by le distribution of the records. 42 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Family GAVIIDAE COMMON LOON Gavia immer (Brunnich) Status. — Transient: Common in the tidewater areas of tl Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sectiorj fairly common in the Allegheny Mountain section; uncommon the interior of all other sections. Wintering: Fairly common the tidewater areas of the southern portions of the Eastern Shoi and Western Shore sections ; uncommon in the tidewater areas ^ the northern portions of the Eastern Shore and Western Shoi sections and in the Upper Chesapeake section; casual in the i terior (recorded on Dec. 15, 1935, Dec. 16, 1936, Jan. 8, 1937, an Jan. 31, 1937, at Deep Creek Lake in Garrett County — M. Brooks). Summer vagrant: Casual in the tidewater areas of t Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sectio< (recorded between June 11 and June 28 in Worcester, Charld Anne Arundel, Baltimore, and Kent Counties) . Habitat. — Transient: Tidewaters of the ocean, bays, aa estuaries ; also inland fresh waters of ponds, lakes, reservoirs, an rivers. Wintering : Chiefly salt water of the coastal bays and low' Chesapeake Bay; occurs sparingly on the ocean and on brackii bays and estuaries. Spring migration. — Normal period: April 5-15 to May 25-3 peak, April 20 to May 5. Extreme arrival dates: April 4, 1941, Prince Georges County; April 8, 1950, in Garrett County (M. Brooks). Extreme departure dates: June 2, 1907, in Montgomei County (A. K. Fisher) ; June 1, 1938, in Baltimore County (. Brackbill). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 10-15 to Novei ber 20-30; peak, October 10 to November 15. Extreme arrit dates: September 8, 1940, in Baltimore County (H. Brackbill September 8, 1950, in Queen Annes County (Mr. and Mrs. W. Henderson). Extreme departure date: December 28, 1948, Baltimore County (H. Kolb) . Maximum counts. — Spriyig: 90 at Point Lookout, St. Marj County, on April 12, 1952 (L. Griffin, J. W. Terborgh, et al.) ; ' at Patuxent Refuge on April 25, 1944 ; 45 at Emmitsburg, Fre erick County, on April 30, 1955 (J. W. Richards) ; 35 on low Patuxent River on April 13, 1954; 30 in the Conowingo are Harford and Cecil Counties, on April 23, 1950 (H. F. Kuch) ; 1 in the South Marsh Island area, Somerset County, on April 2 1946. Fall: 200 in the Ocean City area, Worcester County, < November 2, 1945 ; 50 on the Chester River and Eastern Bay < BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 43 ctober 31 and again on November 1, 1953 (Mr. and Mrs. W. L. enderson) ; 40 on Fishing Bay, Dorchester County, on October 5, 1954; 36 on Mountain Lake, Garrett County, on October 24, )36 (M. G. Brooks). Winter (Christmas counts): 29 in the cean City area on December 27, 1950; 18 in southeastern Wor- ister County on December 22, 1947; 18 in the Solomons Island :ea, Calvert County, on December 21, 1946. ED-THROATED LOON Gavia stellata (Pontoppidan) I Status. — Transie^it: Common in the coastal area of Worcester iounty; fairly common in the tidewater areas elsewhere in the ! astern Shore and Western Shore sections ; uncommon in the tide- ater areas of the Upper Chesapeake section; casual in the in- hrior of all sections — recorded in Garrett (Brooks, 1936a), Alle- jany (Eifrig, 1904), and Montgomery (3 records — A. K. Fisher, |. F. Deed, J. W. Terborgh) Counties. Wintering: Common in le coastal area of Worcester County ; fairly common elsewhere in |ie tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore and Western Shore lections; rare in the tidewater areas of the Upper Chesapeake action. Summer vagrant: Rare in the coastal area of Worcester ounty. Habitat. — Usually in salt-water areas, including the ocean, )astal bays, and lower Chesapeake Bay; during migration also 3curs sparingly on brackish tidewaters and rarely on fresh water. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 5-15 to May 15-20; eak, March 20 to April 15. Extreme arrival dates: March 2, 885, in Kent County (H. Brown) ; March 21, 1937, in Garrett ounty (M. G. Brooks). Extreme departure dates: May 23, 1948, lay 21, 1949, and May 21, 1953 (J. M. Cadbury, D. A. Cutler), II in the Ocean City area. Fall migration. — Normal period: October 25-30 to December 5-20; peak, November 5 to December 10. Extreme arrival date: eptember 24, 1954, in Anne Arundel and Kent Counties (Mrs. 7. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tappan). Extreme departure date: >ecember 19, 1900, in Allegany County (Eifrig, 1904). Maximum counts. — Spring: 50 on March 24, 1947, and 29 on ipril 6, 1946, in the Ocean City area. Fall: 84 in the Ocean City rea on November 24, 1946. Winter (Christmas counts) : 292 in tie Ocean City area on December 27, 1953; 35 in the Wicomico Liver area, Charles and St. Marys Counties, on December 31, 950 ; 33 in the Solomons Island area, Calvert County, on Decem- er 21, 1946. 44 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Family PODICIPEDiDAE RED-NECKED GREBE Pod/ceps grisegena (Boddaert) Status. — Transient: Rare (uncommon in spring of 1948) i tidewater and inland fresh water areas of all sections. Winter ing: Rare in the tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore and Wes1<. ern Shore sections. Habitat. — Open salt, brackish, and fresh waters, including thi ocean, bays, estuaries, lakes, reservoirs, and rivers. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 1-10 to April 1-10 peak, March 10 to March 25. Extreme arrival date: February 2n 1894, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) . Extreme departur\ date: May 11, 1929, in Prince Georges County (H. C. Oberholser) Fall migration. — Normal period: About November 5 to De cember 5. Extreme departure dates: December 26, 1951, i: Montgomery County (S. H. Low) ; December 3, 1938, in Garret County (M. G. Brooks) . Maximum counts. — Spring: 6 in the District of Columbia dur ing March 16-21, 1948 (F. R. Bell, I. R. Barnes) ; 5 at Ocean Cit; on March 14, 1948 (J. E. Willoughby) ; 5 at Seneca, Montgomer; County, on March 19-21, 1948 (T. W. Donnelly, I. R. Barnes) ; : at Cobb Island, Charles County, on March 20, 1948 ; 3 at Triadel phia Reservoir, Montgomery County, on March 20 and April 3 1948 (W. M. Davidson, S. H. Low). Fall: 2 at Deep Creek Lak€ Garrett County, on November 11, 1937 (M. G. Brooks). Winter 8 at Ocean City on December 27, 1955 (Christmas count) ; 5 a Sycamore Island, Montgomery County, on January 3, 1953 (E. J Stivers) . HORNED GREBE Pod/ceps aurifus (Linnaeus) Status. — Transient: Abundant in the tidewater areas of East ern Bay and the Choptank River; common elsewhere in the tide water areas of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Uppe: Chesapeake sections ; fairly common in the interior of all sections Wintering : Common in the tidewater areas of the Eastern Shori and Western Shore sections ; uncommon in the tidewater areas o: the Upper Chesapeake section; casual elsewhere — recorded a Lake Ashburton, Baltimore, in 1938, 1940, and 1942 (H. Brack bill), at New Market, Carroll County, in 1881 (H. H. Hopkins), oi Triadelphia Reservoir on December 24, 1955, and on Deep Creel Lake in Garrett County on January 3, 1954 (M. G. Brooks) Summer vagrant: Casual in the tidewater areas of the Fasten Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections — recordec BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 45 . Worcester, Somerset, Anne Arundel (A. E. Conway), Harford r. A. Imhof), and Cecil (M. B. Meanley) Counties. Habitat. — Salt, brackish, and fresh waters, including the ;ean, bays, estuaries, lakes, ponds, and reservoirs. In winter, i ost numerous on the ocean, coastal bays, and central and lower hesapeake Bay. ' Spring migration. — Normal period: March 5-15 to May 10-15; j3ak, March 25 to April 25. Extreme arrival date: March 4, 1953, j I Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tappan) . ' xtreme departure dates: June 2, 1950, in Anne Arundel County I Mrs. W. L. Henderson) ; May 28, 1927, in the District of Columbia |W. H. Ball) ; May 23, 1952, in Prince Georges County. j Fall migration. — Normal period: October 10-20 to December -10; peak, October 25 to November 20. Extreme arrival date: eptember 21, 1954, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Hender- i3n, et al.). Extreme departure dates: December 29, 1949 (H. ^olb), and December 14, 1940 (H. Brackbill), in Baltimore bounty; December 3, 1935, in Garrett County (M. G. Brooks). I Maximum counts. — Spring: 1,000 at Point Lookout, St. Marys lounty, on April 13, 1955 (P. G. DuMont, E. Hall) ; 210 at Parson sland. Queen Annes County, on April 1, 1948; 123 in the South liver area, Anne Arundel County, on April 9, 1954; 122 on lower *atuxent River on April 13, 1954; 17 at Lake Ashburton, Balti- lore County, on April 12, 1940 (H. Brackbill). Fall: 830 in Charles and St. Marys Counties on November 26, 1955 (P. G. )uMont, E. Hall) ; 113 on the Patuxent River on November 22, 955; 50 in the District of Columbia on October 30, 1930 (W. L. ILcAtee) ; 30 at Mountain Lake, Garrett County, on November 2, 951 (H. E. Slater). Winter: 1,737 at St. Michaels, Talbot :;ounty, on December 29, 1953 (Christmas count) ; 371 at Ocean :ity on December 27, 1954 (Christmas count) ; 250 at Point Look- .ut, St. Marys County, on January 31, 1954 (J. W. Terborgh) ; :29 in the Annapolis area on January 2, 1955 (Christmas count) . lED-BILLED GREBE Podilymbus podiceps (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding: Uncommon in the tidewater areas of the i^astern Shore and Western Shore sections ; rare in the interior of he Eastern Shore, Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake, and Pied- nont sections. Eggs or small young have been recorded in Anne -Arundel and St. Marys Counties (Court, 1936), in Baltimore bounty (C. M. Buchanan), and in Prince Georges and Worcester Ilounties. Transient: Common in tidewater and inland-water ireas of all sections. Wintering: Uncommon in the tidewater 46 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE areas of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapea sections; rare or casual on inland areas of all sections (no defini winter records for the Ridge and Valley section). Summer vi grant: Rare in all sections. Habitat. — Usually on ponds or streams that are fringed wij emergent marsh vegetation ; occasional in open bays and estuarie « Nesting season. — Nests with eggs were found in Anne Aruiu del County on June 3, 1932 (Court, 1936), and in Prince George County on June 4, 1954. Downy young were observed in Worcei ter County on July 9, 1948, and August 11, 1955; in Baltimoi County (C. M. Buchanan) on June 15, 1951 ; and in Prince Georg(( County on July 10, 1956 (C. G. Webster). Spring migration. — Normal period : February 25-March 5 1 May 1-10; peak, March 20 to April 20. Extreme arrival daten February 14, 1949, in Prince Georges County ; February 22, 192; in the District of Columbia (Mrs. C. A. Aspinwall). Extreme d< parture dates: May 25, 1950, in Baltimore County (P. Heaps) May 15, 1920, in Montgomery County (Mrs. C. A. Aspinwall). Fall migration. — Normal period: August 10-20 to Decembc 1-10 ; peak, September 10 to November 10. Extreme arrival datei July 15, 1899 (E. A. Preble), and July 21, 1929 (W. H. Ball), i District of Columbia; July 21, 1944, in Prince Georges County Extreme departure dates: December 17, 1953, in Prince Georgt County; December 15, 1935, in Garrett County (M. G. Brooks). Maximum counts. — Spring: 82 in the Port Tobacco arej Charles County, on March 7, 1954 (A. R. Stickley, Jr.) ; 29 a Beltsville, Prince Georges County, on March 28, 1954 (L. "^i Oring, S. Karlin) ; 20+ in the District of Columbia on April I 1922 (M. J. Pellew) . Summer vagrant: 8 in the District of Colum bia during early June 1922 (L. P. Callaghan). Fall: 80 in th Newport Bay area, Worcester County, on November 1, 1951; 5 on Bush River, Harford County, on October 3, 1948; 34 in th District of Columbia on October 9, 1929 (W. H. Ball) ; 33 in th Elliott Island area, Dorchester County, on October 2, 1948; 30 oi Northeast River, Cecil County, on September 30, 1952 (Mrs. W. L Henderson) ; 26 on Mountain Lake, Garrett County, on Novembe:' 3, 1951 (H. E. Slater). Winter: 79 in the Annapolis area on Jan uary 2, 1955 (Christmas count) ; 46 at Port Tobacco, Charle; County, on January 27, 1953 (A. R. Stickley, Jr.) ; 43 in Oceai City area on December 21, 1952 (Christmas count) ; 33 in Wico mico River area, Charles and St. Marys Counties, on Decembe; 28, 1952 (Christmas count) ; 26 in the Susquehanna Flats area BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 47 irford and Cecil Counties, on January 2, 1950 (Christmas jnt). Banding. — One banded in Prince Georg-es County on September 1943, was found dead in central Minnesota (Kandiyohi County) November 21, 1944. Family PROCELLARIIDAE )RY'S SHEARWATER Puffinus diomedea (Scopoli) Status. — Fairly common summer visitor along the coast. This ecies was recorded between 2 and 10 miles offshore from Ocean ty as follows : 29 observed on August 8, 1947 ; 3 on August 21, 48 (S. H. Low, P. F. Springer) ; 65 on August 24, 1946; 2 on '.ptember 9, 1950. On June 22, 1956, approximately 80 were served between 15 and 25 miles offshore from Assateague land. lEATER SHEARWATER PufTinus gravis (O'Reilly) Status. — Casual visitor along the coast. Seven were observed short distance offshore from Assateague Island on May 17, )47. Five or 6 were repeatedly seen a short distance offshore ■om Ocean City during the period May 9-13, 1949 (E. G. Davis, . J. Beaton, E. G. Baldwin) , and 2 were seen in this same area 1 May 14, 1955. AUDUBON'S SHEARWATER] Puffinus Iherminieri Lesson Status. — Hypothetical. After the great storm of August 1842, shearwater, doubtfully referred to as this species, was captured 1 the District of Columbia (Coues and Prentiss, 1861). Coues 1864) later referred to this record and stated that it "has since een definitely ascertained to be this species." The specimen can- ot now be found. EACH'S PETREL Oceanodroma leucorhoa (Vieillot) Status. — Rare vistor along the coast and in tidewater areas Isewhere in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections. On une 11, 1894 (not 1895 as in Kirkwood, 1895), 2 were seen 3 liles out from Ocean City ; and 2 others were noted 8 miles out on lUgust 9, 1901 (F. C. Kirkwood) . Specimens (USNM) have been aken in the District of Columbia as follows: 2 in August 1842; about 1859; 1 on June 7, 1891 (W. Bayley) ; 1 on August 29 nd 1 on August 30, 1893 (W. Palmer) ; 1 (out of 5 seen) on )ctober 4, 1930 (Ball, 1931a) ; and 1 on August 24, 1933 (Lin- oln, 1934) . Another specimen was obtained at Royal Oak, Tal- .ot County, on October 17, 1954 (R. L. Kleen) . On August 25, 48 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 1933, 25 were seen on the Potomac River between Haines Po: in the District of Columbia and Mount Vernon, Virginia (H. Deignan). HARCOURT'S PETREL Oceanodroma casfro (Harcourt) Status. — Accidental visitor. Two were collected (USNM) the District of Columbia, 1 on August 28 and 1 on August 1 1893, after a hurricane had passed up the Atlantic coast (P mer, 1897b). WILSON'S PETREL Oceanites ocean/cus (Kuhl) Status. — Summer visitor: Common offshore along the coai rare in the coastal bays and other tidewater areas of the Easter Shore and Western Shore sections. Records on inland bays aa estuaries are as follows: One taken near Washington, D. C, August 1842 (McAtee, 1918) ; 1 collected in 1859 (USNM— cai logued on July 20, 1859) on the Potomac River (Wetmore, 1925; 1 collected (USNM) at Marshall Hall, Prince Georges County, June 27, 1914 (Swales, 1920) ; 1 seen near Chesapeake Beau Calvert County, on July 31, 1915 (A. K. Fisher) and 1 colled there (USNM) on June 21, 1924 (Wetmore, 1925) ; 1 collected Kenwood Beach in Calvert County on July 24, 1935 (Kolb a Bond, 1943) ; 9 seen (1 collected — USNM) on Chincoteague Bj Worcester County, on July 3, 1945 (Stewart and Bobbins, 19471 Habitat. — Preferably the pelagic zone of the ocean, 2 or mc' miles offshore. Extreme dates of occurrence. — June 21, 1924, in Calv( County (Wetmore, 1925) and September 9, 1950, off Ocean City Maximum counts. — 162 on August 8, 1947, off Ocean Cii 50 on August 21, 1948, off Ocean City (P. F. Springer) ; 30 September 9, 1950, off Ocean City. On June 22, 1956, appro:i mately 750 were observed between 15 and 25 miles offshore frc Assateague Island, Maryland. Family PELECANIDAE WHITE PELICAN Pelecanus erythrorhynchos Gmelin Status. — Accidental visitor. A male was shot in Garr< County near Oakland on April 31, 1887, by a 14-year-old boy; t head was mounted — Anon., Forest and Stream 28 (16) : 345, M 12, 1887. One was recorded as having been shot near the mou of the Chester River and another in Upper Chesapeake Bay dates not given (Burns, . 1932) . One bird, recorded by Coo (1929) as having been collected in the District of Columbia 1863 by C. Drexler, was actually taken by Drexler near Alexa BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 49 ria, Virginia, in April 1864; this specimen was correctly cata- gued (USNM) under the number 33701, but was later mis- ikenly reentered under number 41793 as having been collected in le District of Columbia in 1863. ROWN PELICAN Pe/ecanus occidentalis Linnaeus Status. — Casual visitor in the tidewater areas of the Eastern hore and Western Shore sections. A specimen in the old collec- I on of the Maryland Academy of Sciences was reported to have een taken on the lower Potomac River (Kirkwood, 1895). A lounted bird that had been shot on Chincoteague Bay on April , 1906, was examined in Worcester County (F. C. Kirkwood). knother mounted specimen owned by Mr. Ethan A. Carey of ierlin, Maryland, was reported to have been shot about 1922 near (le Isle of Wight Coast Guard Station, north of Ocean City ; and llr. Carey claimed that he had seen single birds on 2 occasions ince that time (Stewart and Robbins, 1947a). A flock of 4 was een on Assateague Island, 6 miles south of Ocean City, on May 2, 1935 (Cottam and Uhler, 1935). One was seen at Solomons sland in Calvert County during the period September 28 to November 1, 1935, by Dr. R. V. Truitt (Hampe and Kolb, 1947) nd another was seen there by the same observer on October 10, 936. One was seen on the Potomac River in Prince Georges bounty, 5 miles south of Alexandria, Virginia, on June 13, 1953 ;C. Cottam), and 1 at St. Michaels, Talbot County, on September :, 1956 (R. L. Kleen, etal). Family SULIDAE ^ANNET Morus bassanus (Linnaeus) Status. — Transient: Fairly common in the coastal area of A^orcester County; uncommon in the lower part of Chesapeake Say (St. Marys, Calvert, Somerset, and Dorchester Counties) ; -are in the upper part of Chesapeake Bay — records for Anne \rundel (C. Symington), Kent (A. P. Sharp), and Queen Annes (A. J. Duvall) Counties. Wintering: Uncommon in the coastal irea of Worcester County and in the lower part of Chesapeake Bay. HABITAT. — Littoral and pelagic zones of the ocean and the ieeper salt water portions of Chesapeake Bay. Period of occurrence. — Extreme dates: September 16, 1901, it Ocean City (E. F. Armstrong) and May 20, 1950, near Ocean 3ity. Approximate periods of greatest abundance: October 25 to December 5, and March 25 to May 5. so NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Maximum counts. — Spring: 80 during- the period May 1- 1953, off Assateague Island (R. Strosnider) ; 35 off Point Looko in St. Marys County on April 3, 1954 (J. W. Terborgh, et all Fall: 100+ on December 5, 1915, on Chesapeake Bay below t".| Patuxent River (C. R. Shoemaker) ; 75 on November 4, 1951, Ocean City (W. B. and D. C. Grautoff). Winter: 9 on Februa: 20, 1949, at Ocean City; 5 at Solomons Island, Calvert County, d December 21, 1946. Family PHALACROCORACIDAE [GREAT CORMORANT] Phalacrocorax carbo (Linnaeus) Status. — Hypothetical. Sight records of single birds believe to be this species vv^ere reported from the Ocean City inlet on tj following dates: December 13 and December 27, 1950 (Buckale'" 1951a) ; December 31, 1952 (S. Fisher, L. W. Oring, J. : Wright) ; February 26, 1950. A specimen collected on June 1859, in the District of Columbia (USNM) was said to have be< of this species, but in view of the lateness of the date and tl fact that the specimen cannot now be found, the record mu remain hypothetical. DOUBLE-CRESTED CORMORANT Phalacrocorax auritus (Lesson) Status. — Transient: Common in the coastal area of Worcest County; fairly common in tidewater areas elsewhere in the Eas ern Shore and Western Shore sections; uncommon in the All gheny Mountain section and in the tidewater areas of the Upp Chesapeake section; rare elsewhere in the interior of all sectior Wintering and summer vagrant: Uncommon in the tidewat areas of the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections. Oi adult in breeding- plumage was observed in the Pocomoke Riv swamp on June 16, 1946. Habitat. — Mostly on open salt water, including the ocean, baj and larger estuaries ; occasional on brackish and fresh water. Spring migration. — Normal period: February 25-March 5 May 20-30; peak, March 25 to May 15. Extreme arrival dat February 8, 1953, in Charles County (M. C. Crone, A. R. Stickle Jr.). Extreme departure dates: June 13, 1955, in Prince Georg County (F. M. Uhler) ; June 5, 1948, in Calvert County; June 1953, in Queen Annes County (Mrs. G. Tappan, Mrs. W. L. He derson) ; June 2, 1927, in the District of Columbia (W. W. Rubey Fall migration. — Normal period: August 5-15 to Novemb 15-25; peak, September 10 to November 1. Extreme arrh dates: August 4, 1945, in Worcester County; August 4, 1946, BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 51 lalvert County (F. M. Uhler) ; August 4, 1952, in Prince Georges I ounty. Maximum counts. — Spring: 4,600 in the Ocean City area on [ay 11, 1952 (D. A. Cutler) ; 4,000 at Gibson Island, Anne rundel County, on May 5, 1956 (Mrs. W. L. Henderson) ; 450 fc Point Lookout, St. Marys County, on April 6, 1953; 388 on hesapeake Bay, Calvert County, on April 20, 1954; 300 in the outh Marsh Island area, Somerset County, on April 28, 1946. all: 1,200 in the Ocean City area on October 25, 1949 ; 42 in the louth of the Chester River, Queen Annes County, on September 3, 1952 (Mr. and Mrs. W. L. Henderson). Winter: 29 at Cobb 5land, Charles County, on January 8, 1953 (A. R. Stickley, Jr., I. C. Crone) ; 16 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1955 Christmas count) . Banding. — Twelve birds, recovered in tidewater Maryland uring spring (April 21-May 11) and fall (September 26-Novem- er 18), had been banded on the breeding grounds as young birds uring the period June 26-August 4 in the following areas : 3 in entral Ontario (southern Algoma District) ; 7 on the coast of laine (Lincoln County) ; and 2 in southeastern Quebec (Ka- louraska County). Family ANHINGIDAE iNHINGA Anhinga anhinga (Linnaeus) Status. — Accidental visitor. A specimen in the old collection f the Maryland Academy of Sciences was reported to have come rom the Pocomoke River (Kirkwood, 1895) . Another specimen, ormerly in the old Peale collection, was reported to have been hot prior to 1805 at Elkridge Landing on the Patapsco River Burns, 1932). Family ARDEIDAE JREAT BLUE HERON Ardea herodias Linnaeus Status. — Breeding: Fairly common locally in the Eastern >hore and Western Shore sections (nesting colonies have been ocated in Worcester, Wicomico, Talbot, Queen Annes, St. Marys, Calvert, Charles, Prince Georges, and Anne Arundel Counties) ; mcommon and local in the Upper Chesapeake section (one large •olony located in Cecil County). See figure 3. Transient: Com- non in the tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, md Upper Chesapeake sections ; fairly common in the interior of ill sections. Wintering: Uncommon in the tidewater areas; rare 52 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE LEGEND O BLACK -CROWNED NIGHT HERON • GREAT BLUE HERON Figure 3. — Breeding colonies of Great Blue Heron and Black-crowned Nigi Heron. in the interior of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, Upper Chesj peake, and Piedmont sections. Summer vagrant: Fairly commc in all sections. Habitat. — Breeding: Heavily wooded flood-plain or swan:i forests along streams ; also in dense patches of scrubby, conif eroi and deciduous trees that are located adjacent to salt marshe Transient and wintering: Various water margin types alor ponds, lakes, streams, bays, and estuaries. Nesting season. — Mid-March to mid-July. Extreme nesti% dates (21 records) : March 20, 1949, in Anne Arundel Coun1 (Mrs. W. L. Hunt) and July 20, 1941, in Charles County (F. B: Uhler) . Nestlings were banded in Cecil County as early as Me 21, 1939 (F. C. Schmid). Approximate migration periods. — Spring: February 25 1 May 15; peak, March 15 to April 25. Fall: July 15 to Decemb( 15 ; peak, August 1 to November 1. Maximum breeding populations. — 300 nests in the colony nei Earleville, Cecil County in 1943 (R. 0. Bender) ; 100 occupit nests in a colony in the Pocomoke Swamp in Wicomico County i 1948. Maximum counts. — Spring: 60 at Aliens Fresh, Charl( County, on March 29, 1953 (J. W. Terborgh) . Fall: 82 along tl BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 53 :omac River in Prince Georges and Charles Counties on Septem- ■ 19, 1927 (H. H. T. Jackson). Winter (Christmas counts) : in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1954; 60 near Port Dacco, Charles County, on December 27, 1941; 54 in the An- 3oIis area on January 2, 1955. Banding. — Out of 245 nestlings banded in Cecil County in late y and early June of 1938, 1939, 1940, and 1941 by F. C. Schmid i J. A. Gillespie, 18 were subsequently recovered away from the ;ting colony. Fifteen of these were killed during the first fall 1 winter and show the same pattern of northward wandering is typical of other species of herons. As early as July 9 a young d was found dead on the coast of Long Island. Between mid- y and mid-October another was taken in southern New York, 1 Connecticut, 3 in New Jersey, and 1 along the Big Gunpowder /er in Carroll County, Maryland. It is interesting that birds overed during their first winter are scattered from Maryland arroll and Harford Counties) and New Jersey (2 records) to 'thern Florida and northern Cuba (Matanzas). Adult birds well as young ones take long migratory flights as shown by overies of II/2 to 6-year-old birds in central Florida and the hamas (Man-of-War Cay), respectively. EEN HERON Butorides v/rescens (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding and transient: Common in the tidewater 5as of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesa- ike sections (during the breeding season, scattered pairs and •-asional colonies comprising from 6 to 20 pairs occur) ; fairly nmon in the interior of all sections. Wintering: Casual in the stern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections — :orded in Worcester (1953-54), St. Marys (1940-41), Anne undel (1952-53, 1954-55), and Baltimore (1952-53, 1953-54) unties. Sabitat. — Breeding: In tidewater areas that contain a combi- tion of wooded or brush habitats and tidal marshes ; also in the erior along wooded stream bottoms and along the wooded .rgins of lakes and ponds. Transient: Various water-margin or illow-water habitats. Nesting season. — Mid-April to early August (peak, mid-May late June). Extreme egg dates (82 nests) : April 21, 1948, in )rcester County and July 8, 1891 (H. B. Stabler) in Mont- •nery County. Extreme nestling dates (13 nests) : May 30, n, in Kent County (Fisher, 1892) and August 3, 1954, in Dor- jster County. 54 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Period of regular occurrence. — Normal period: April 1 to November 1-10. Period of greatest abundance: April 25 September 10. Extreme dates of spring arrival: March 16, 1£ in Harford County (S. Mason, Jr.) ; March 23, 1947, in Dorches County; March 28, 1948, in the District of Columbia; March 1946, in St. Marys County. Extreme fall departure date: Novt ber 20, 1948, in Dorchester County (M. B. Meanley). Maximum counts. — 27 in the Ocean City area on May 11, 19 21 in the District of Columbia on May 11, 1917 (H. C. 01 holser) ; 18 at Port Tobacco, Charles County, on May 6, 1938 Cottam, A. L. Nelson) . LITTLE BLUE HERON Florida caerulea (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding: Fairly common in the coastal area of Wl cester County (3 colonies located) ; rare and local elsewhere in' Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections — nesting in Dorches County (P. J. Van Huizen) and in St. Marys County (E, Court) ; probably nesting along the Pocomoke River, and in vicinity of Port Tobacco, Charles County, since repeated obsei tions of adult birds have been made in these two areas dui April, May, and June in recent years. Adults have also b recorded during the breeding season at Cobb Island and Zel Swamp in Charles County and at the Marshall Dierssen Ref (J. W. Terborgh, et al.) in Montgomery County. Postbreeo transient: Common in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake sections; fairly common in the Piedmont, Ridge and Valley sections ; uncommon in the Allegheny Mouni section. Wintering : Rare in the tidewater areas of the East Shore and Western Shore sections. Habitat. — Breeding: Usually in dense patches of scrubby young trees adjacent to tidal marshes. Transient: Nearly) types of water-margin or shallow-water habitats. Nesting season. — Mid-April to mid-July. Extreme nesi dates (5 records) : June 6, 1953, and July 15, 1946. Spring migration. — Extreme arrival dates: March 26, 1950 Worcester County (Mr. and Mrs. J. Enoch Johnson) ; MarcW 1948, in Calvert County (F. M. Uhler) ; April 1, 1948, in Wicor County. Spring vagrant: One on June 1, 1950, at Patu> Refuge in Prince Georges County (K. Laub) ; and anothei Howard County on May 5, 1956. Postbreeding movement. — Normal period: July 1-10 to 0 ber 5-15; peak, July 25 to September 10. Extreme arrival da June 20, 1929, in the District of Columbia (W. H. Ball) ; June BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 55 9, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure dates: No- iber 23, 1946, in Dorchester County; November 5, 1951, in ien Annes County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson). lAXlMUM BREEDING POPULATIONS. — 125 pairs in the colony on Is Island, Worcester County, on July 6, 1946. Maximum counts. — Postbreeding : 650 along the Potomac er in Prince Georges County and the District of Columbia on ?ust28, 1930 (H. C. Oberholser) ; 90 in the District of Columbia August 8, 1928 (W. H. Ball) ; 75 on Assateague Island, Wor- ter County, on August 14, 1948; 60 on the Gunpowder River rshes on August 5, 1902 (W. B. Evans) ; 52 in Dorchester inty on August 31, 1946. Wintering: 2 in the District of umbia on December 18, 1948 (F. C. Cross) ; 1 in the Ocean City a on February 20, 1949. FTLE EGRET Bubulcus ibis Linnaeus Status. — Casual visitor. One was recorded on April 25, 1953, Berlin, Worcester County. Another was seen near Bucktown, rchester County, on May 1 and 8, 1955 (E. Rogers, K. Stecher). MMON EGRET Casmerodius albus (Linnaeus) )TATUS. — Breeding: Fairly common locally in the coastal area Worcester County and in the Pocomoke River swamp ; rare and al elsewhere in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections — nd nesting near Marbury in Charles County in 1931 (Court, >6) and on Bodkin Island in Queen Annes County in 1954 (V. Stotts). Postbreeding transient: Common in the Eastern )re, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections; fairly imon in the Piedmont, Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Moun- n sections. Wintering: Rare in the tidewater areas of the stern Shore and Western Shore sections; casual in the Upper Bsapeake section — 1 remained during the winter of 1952-53 ir Chase in Baltimore County (0. W. Crowder). Spring irant: Casual in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, Upper Bsapeake, and Piedmont sections. Iabitat. — Breeding: Near streams in heavily wooded swamp ests; also in dense patches of scrubby coniferous and deciduous es adjacent to salt marshes. Transient: Water-margin habitats ng ponds, lakes, and streams, and in marshes. Nesting season. — Early April to early July. Extreme nesting es (9 records) : April 1, 1950, in Wicomico County and July 6, 1:6, in Worcester County. J'ostbreeding movement. — Normal period: June 10-20 to No- nber 5-15; peak, July 15 to September 10. Extreme arrival 56 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE dates: May 27, 1926, in the District of Columbia (Mrs. T. Knappen) ; May 30, 1891, in the District of Columbia (W. P mer) ; June 1, 1950, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departt date: November 19, 1948, in Dorchester County. Maximum counts. — Transient: 1,000+ at Fort Foote, Prii Georges County, on August 26, 1951 (J. M. Abbott) ; 120 in 1 Elliott Island area, Dorchester County, on October 2, 1948 ; 10( in the District of Columbia on September 9, 1930 (W. L. McAtee 87 in the Chincoteague Bay area on August 7, 1948 ; 85 near N tingham along the Patuxent River on August 21, 1947; 75 nei Baltimore on August 26, 1945 (H. Brackbill) ; 71 at Sandy Poi Anne Arundel County, on July 17, 1948 (J. E. Willoughb; Winter: 8 in Dorchester County on December 22, 1952 (Christn count) . SNOWY EGRET Leucophoyx thula (Molina) Status. — Breeding: Fairly common in the coastal area of W cester County and on Smith Island in Somerset County; possi breeds elsevi'here near tidev^^ater in Somerset, Wicomico, e southern Dorchester Counties, since numerous observations adults have been recorded in this area during the breeding seat in recent years. Postbreeding transient: Fairly common in ' tidevi^ater areas of the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sectio: uncommon in the tidewater areas of the Upper Chesapeake s tion; rare in the interior of the Eastern Shore, Western She and Upper Chesapeake sections. Spring vagrant: Casual in Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections Habitat. — Breeding: Dense patches of scrubby or seco: grov^th coniferous and deciduous trees adjacent to extensive an of salt marsh. Transient: Usually in tidevi^ater areas along poi and streams, and in marshes. Nesting season. — Late April to mid-July. Extreme nest^ dates (5 records) : May 1, 1946, and July 15, 1946, in Worces County. Spring migration. — Extreme arrival dates: March 31, 1948 Dorchester County; April 2, 1955 (A. S. Kaestner), in A] Arundel County. Spring vagrant records: 1 at Middle Ri^^ Baltimore County, on May 2, 1950 (E. Willis) ; 1 at Patux Refuge, Prince Georges County, on May 16, 1945. Postbreeding movement. — Normal period: July 10-20 October 25-November 5 ; peak, August 1 to October 5. Extn arrival date: July 8, 1947, in Prince Georges County Extn BlkDS OP MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 51 parture date: November 6, 1948, at the mouth of the Patapsco ver (E. La Fleur). Maximum breeding populations. — 50 pairs at the Mills Island lony in Worcester County on July 6, 1946, and 100 pairs on ne 25, 1956. Maximum counts. — Postbreeding : 175 at Mills Island, Wor- 5ter County, on July 15, 1946 ; 104 at West Ocean City on Septem- r 7, 1955 (Mr. and Mrs. I. C. Hoover) ; 101 on Assateague and, Worcester County, on September 5, 1948 ; 25 in the Elliott and marsh, Dorchester County, on October 2, 1948 ; 20 at Sandy lint, Anne Arundel County, on September 1, 1947 (J. W. Taylor, .) ; 20 at Fairhaven, Anne Arundel County, on August 25, 1948 ). M. Thatcher) . Banding. — One banded as a nestling on July 13, 1947, in Wor- ster County was trapped and released on August 16, 1947, on lincoteague National Wildlife Refuge on the coast of Virginia 1 miles from the point of banding) . UISIANA HERON Hydranassa tricolor IMuller) Status. — Breeding: Uncommon and local in the Chincoteague ly area of Worcester County — from 3 to 5 pairs in a mixed heron lony on Mills Island in 1946 and 1947, at least 8 pairs in 1953, d about 25 pairs in 1956. Postbreeding transient: Uncommon the coastal area of Worcester County; rare in the tidevi^ater eas elsewhere in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections. yring vagrant: Casual in the Western Shore section — 4 observed Point Lookout, St. Marys County, on April 12, 1952 (J. W. rborgh) . Habitat. — Breeding: Patches of scrubby or second-growth trees jacent to salt marshes. Transient: Marginal habitats in salt irshes. Nesting season. — Late April to mid-July. Extreme nesting tes (4 records) : June 6, 1953, and July 13, 1947. Postbreeding movement. — Normal period: July 20-25 to Sep- nber 10-20; peak, July 25 to September 1. Extreme arrival te: July 17, 1927, in the District of Columbia (W. H. Ball). :treme departure date: September 27, 1949, at Ocean City. Maximum counts. — Postbreeding: 10 at Sandy Point, Anne •undel County, on July 31, 1948 (E. Arnold) ; 5 at Blackwater ifuge, Dorchester County, on August 23, 1956 (P. F. Springer) ; it Ocean City on July 24, 1949. 58 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE BLACK-CROWNED NIGHT HERON Nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus) I Status. — Breeding: Fairly common locally in the Easte Shore and Western Shore sections — colonies have been located Worcester, Somerset, Dorchester, Baltimore (F. C. Kirkwooc Charles (E. J. Court), Prince Georges (E. J. Court), and An Arundel (Le Compte, 1937) Counties and the District of ( lumbia; uncommon and local in the Piedmont section — colon: located along the Susquehanna River (0. W. Crowder) and in t District of Columbia (numerous observers). See figure Ti^ansient: Fairly common in the tidewater areas of the Easte Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections ; uncomm in the interior of all sections. Wintering: Uncommon within \ Eastern Shore section in the tidal marshes along Chesapeake Be rare elsewhere in the Eastern Shore section and in the Westa Shore, Upper Chesapeake, and Piedmont sections; casual in 1 Ridge and Valley section — 1 collected near Hagerstown on Jan ary 31, 1923 (R. Trovinger) . Habitat. — Breeding: Usually in dense stands of young scrubby trees (occasionally in stands of mature trees) near ti water or near inland ponds and streams. Transient: Varici types of water-margin or shallow-water habitats. Nesting season. — Early February to early August (nestii peak, late March to mid-June). Extreme egg dates (6 recordfi February 3, 1950, in the District of Columbia (Davis, 1945) s May 19, 1899, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Extre nestling dates (6 records) : February 22, 1909, in the District Columbia (A. K. Fisher) and July 15, 1946, in Worcester Cour Migration dates. — Extreme spring arrival dates: March 1945, in Prince Georges County; March 27, 1952, in Can County. Extreme fall departure date: October 17, 1894, in Ba more County (A. Resler). Breeding populations. — One hundred pairs at Linthia Heights, Anne Arundel County, on May 17, 1936 (M. B. Meanle;r 50 pairs at Mills Island, Worcester County, on July 6, 1946, { 75 pairs there on June 25, 1956. Maximum counts. — Spring: 80 from the District of Colum to Great Falls on May 12, 1913 (Mr. and Mrs. V. Bailey) ; 8C the Elliott Island marsh, Dorchester County, on April 30, 19 75 in the Ocean City area on May 11, 1952 (D. A. Cutler). Ft 64 in the Elliott Island marsh on September 26, 1949. Winteil in the Elliott Island marsh on December 28, 1955 (Christit count) . Banding. — Five birds recovered in the Eastern Shore sect BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 59 d been banded as nestlings in coastal localities from Cape Cod, , issachusetts, to Delaware. A Cape Cod bird was found winter- j f at Salisbury, while the others were all taken during the fall Igration period. One of these was recovered as an adult on ! gust 12, 1928, on the ocean l^ mile off Ocean City. {LLOW-CROWNED NIGHT HERON Nyctanassa violacea (Linnaeus) [Status. — Breeding: Rare and local in the Eastern Shore, West- !i Shore, and Piedmont sections — a small colony, comprising 7 ;ts in 1939, 5 nests in 1940, 2 nests in 1946 (Lawrence, 1946), 3 3 nests in 1953 (L. Kilham), is located in Montgomery unty near the junction of Seneca Creek and the Potomac River; 1946 and 1947, at least one pair was present in the large mixed •on colony on Mills Island in Chincoteague Bay; an occupied 5t was found in the District of Columbia in 1950 and 1951 Iriswell, 1951), and in 1952 (J. Criswell). It is probable that I ring recent years a small colony has existed in the vicinity of ;st Ocean City in Worcester County, since from 2 to 5 adults 7e been observed in this area repeatedly during the breeding Lson. Scattered observations of adults have been made during ! breeding season on Assateague Island, along the Pocomoke /er, near Chance in Somerset County, near St. Marys City in Marys County, along the Patuxent River in Prince Georges unty, in Zekiah Swamp in Charles County (F. C. Cross), and ir Emmitsburg (J. W. Richards) in Frederick County. Post- leding transient: Uncommon in the tidewater areas of the East- 1 Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections; rare the interior of all sections. 3ABITAT. — Breeding: Flood-plain or swamp forests near earns ; also in dense stands of young or scrubby trees adjacent salt marshes. Transient: Various water-margin or shallow- ter types. S'ESTING SEASON. — Mid-April to mid-July (probably) . In 1953, lewly completed nest was found in Montgomery County on ril 18, and on April 25 an adult was observed on the nest (L. ham). An occupied nest in the District of Columbia was died during the period May 6 to June 30, 1950 (Criswell, 1951) . 1939 a Montgomery County nest contained eggs on May 15 ^ H. Lawrence) and young on June 10 (E. Stoehr) ; in 1953, )ther nest at this location contained eggs on May 20, and young June 6 (J. W. Terborgh). Period of occurrence. — Probable normal period: April 10-20 October 10-20; period of greatest abundance, April 25 to Sep- 60 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE tember 10. Extreme occurrence dates: April 18, 1953, in Mor gomery County (L. Kilham) and October 18, 1947, in Baltimo County (R. M. Bowen). Maximum counts (nonbreeding). — 7 in the Ocean City ar on August 22, 1948 (S. H. Low, P. F. Springer) ; 4 in the Oce; City area on September 4, 1948. LEAST BITTERN /xobr/c/ius ex/f/s (Gmelin) Status. — Breeding: Common in the tidewater areas of t Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sectior during the breeding season, occasional birds have been observed the interior in all sections — however, definite evidence of breedil is lacking from these inland areas except that 2 nests were fou on Patuxent Refuge, Prince Georges County, in 1955 (F. '. Uhler) . See figure 4. Transient: Common in the tidewater are 79' 1 76- 77. 76° / i //-^ / / r jy LI i 6 \ / 1 \ 0 -39" - 0 SCALE 10 20 30 40 MILES "\ / 1, 1 mt 1 Princ LEGEND ipal Ronge of LEAST BITTERN, BLACK DUCK, OSPREY, end I \ J^ A /-' \ • -36° • o Loco Loco LONG-BILLED MARSH WREN Record of LEAST BITTERN Record of BLACK DUCK ^ 1 ^ ^ 4- ^ 79. 1 7jS- ? 7 1 7S° Figure 4. — Breeding ranges of Least Bittern, Black Duck, Osprey, Long-billed Marsh Wren. of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeji sections; uncommon in the interior in all sections. Winterii^ Casual in the tidewater areas — 1 in the District of Columbia!^ January 8, 1880 (P. L. Jouy) ; 1 on Carroll Island in Baltimd County on January 5, 1952 (T. A. Imhof). Habitat. — Breeding: Especially common in narrow-leaved ( BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 61 il marshes; fairly common in other coarse marsh types, includ- g reed and salt reed-grass ; also of regular occurrence in weak- ammed brackish marsh types, such as Olney three-square, when attered shrubs are present; occurs sparingly in the salt marshes needlerush and in salt-meadow grass when scattered shrubs of arsh elder or sea myrtle are present. Transient: Occurs in larly all marsh habitats. Nesting season. — Late April to early August. Extreme egg 'ies (23 nests) : May 10, 1916, in Dorchester County (Jackson, 41) and July 12, 1950, in Baltimore County (E. Willis). Ex- eme nestling dates (7 nests) : June 8, 1954, in Baltimore County i:. Willis) and July 14, 1950, in Baltimore County (E. Willis). le nestlings observed on June 8, 1954, voluntarily left the nest )on the approach of the observer. Period of regular occurrence. — Normal period: April 20-30 September 10-20; peak. May 5 to September 1. Extreme ar- val dates: April 12, 1929, in the District of Columbia (W. H. all) ; April 18, 1936, at Mountain Lake, Garrett County (Brooks, l36a). Extreme departure dates: November 7, 1954, in Mont- )mery County (R. R. Kerr) ; October 11, 1954, in Prince Georges Dunty; September 25, 1954, in Montgomery County (S. H. Low). VIERICAN BITTERN Bofaurus /enf/g/nosus (Rackett) Status. — Breeding: Fairly common in the tidewater areas of Dmerset, Wicomico, and Dorchester Counties; uncommon else- here in the tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, id Upper Chesapeake sections; rare in the Allegheny Mountain ction (Eifrig, 1904, and Brooks, 1944). See figure 5. Transient: airly common in the tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore, ''estern Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections; uncommon in le interior of all sections. Wwitering : Uncommon in the tide- ater areas of the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections; ire in the tidewater areas of the Upper Chesapeake section. dimmer vagrant: Casual in the interior of all sections. Habitat. — Breeding: Various marsh or marsh-meadow types, liefly tidal and including narrow-leaved cattail, Olney three- luare, needlerush, and switchgrass. Transient: Various marsh id marsh-meadow types. Wintering: Brackish and salt marsh id marsh-meadow types. Nesting season. — Three nests were found in or very near the istrict of Columbia on June 3, 1917, 1 containing 3 young ready ) fly, another 3 young, 10 days old, and the third 4 hard-set eggs Court, 1921) ; another nest containing 3 young and 1 Qgg was 62 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Figure 5. — Breeding range of American Bittern. found near Dames Quarter in Somerset County on June 18, 1948 large nestlings were found on the Blackwater National Wildli] Refuge, Dorchester County, in early July 1953 (J. H. Steenis, V R. Nicholson). Young birds out of the nest were recorded i Baltimore County on July 18, 1936 (M. B. Meanley), in Am Arundel County on August 28, 1937 (E. A. McGinity), and i western Maryland (Allegany or Garrett County) on June 3' 1902 (Eifrig, 1904). Spring migration. — Normal period: March 10-20 to May I 15; peak, March 25 to April 25. Extreme departure date: Ma 21, 1949, in the District of Columbia (E. Arnold). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 1-10 to Nover ber 1-10; peak, September 20 to October 20. Extreme dates i arrival: August 19, 1953, in Prince Georges County; August 2: 1917 (R. W. Moore) in the District of Columbia. Extreme daU of departure: December 7, 1952, at Pennyfield in Montgomei County (R. M. Cole) ; November 29, 1949, in Dorchester Countj November 16, 1937, in Garrett County (M. G. Brooks). Maximum counts. — Spring: 5 at Chesapeake Beach, Calve] County, on March 27, 1948 ; 5 at Port Tobacco, Charles County, c May 6, 1933 (C. Cottam, A. L. Nelson) . Fall: 3 in the Elliott Islar marsh, Dorchester County, on November 17, 1948, and Novemb( BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 63 I, 1949. Winter (Christmas counts) : 7 in the Blackwater sfuge area in Dorchester County on December 28, 1953 ; 6 in e Ocean City area on December 27, 1953. Family CICONIIDAE 'OOD IBIS Mycteria americana Linnaeus Status. — Casual visitor. One was collected (USNM) in Prince eorges County on July 28, 1851 (W. R. Young). One was re- tried to have been shot near Cumberland in Allegany County, 30ut 1865 (Kirkwood, 1895). Two, an adult and an immature, ere collected (USNM) "a short distance from the Washington [onument and on the Maryland side of the Potomac" on July 2, B92 (Hasbrouck, 1893). One was reported seen in Baltimore jounty in Dulaney Valley on October 15, 1893 (Kirkwood, 1895). jhree were shot in Prince Georges County in 1896 including an jdult and an immature at Silver Hill on July 20, and an immature liken near Laurel on July 27 (Palmer, 1897a). No other observations of this species were recorded until 1955 j^hen 18 or 20 birds arrived at Gibson Island, Anne Arundel lounty, on June 24; many of these remained until July 23 (first 2en by Capt. G. Fisher, and subsequently by numerous observers) ; I were also observed in Anne Arundel County along the Patuxent j Liver near Nottingham on July 12, 1955; a single was seen at the j'atuxent Refuge, Prince Georges County, on July 24 and 30, 1955; 1; were observed at Tilghman Island, Talbot County, on August I 0, 1955 (J. Cummings) ; and 1 was recorded at Towson, Balti- |iore County, in mid-July (Mrs. W. Royal). On June 17, 1956, nether was seen at Gibson Island (Dr. and Mrs. M. Stout). Family THRESKIORNITHIDAE 5L0SSY IBIS Plegadis falcinelfus (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding: Rare and local in the coastal area of Wor- ester County — 2 pairs of adults and 2 young, three-fourths rrown, recorded on Mills Island on June 25, 1956. Transient: lare and irregular in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sec- ions — a specimen was procured near Baltimore and 2 others in he District of Columbia in about 1817, and the species was lescribed as occurring on the Eastern Shore of Maryland at very rregular intervals in spring (Baird, et al., 1884) ; 1 was shot in ;he District of Columbia in September, 1900 (Daniel, 1901a) ; 1 Nas closely observed on Assateague Island, Worcester County, on lune 11, 1950 (J. H. Buckalew, E. 0. Mellinger) ; in Charles bounty, 1 was recorded at Port Tobacco on May 2, 1953 (M. C. 64 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Crone, K. Keeley), and another was seen on Cobb Island on Se] tember 2, 1953 (Taylor, 1953) ; 2 were seen at Ocean City c September 4, 1955 (R. L. Kleen), and a single was recorded thei on April 7, 1956 (P. A. Buckley). Family ANATIDAE [MUTE SWAN] Cygnus o/or (Gmelin) Status. — Hypothetical. This introduced species has been ri corded twice in the tidewater areas of Maryland — 3 were reportel near Ocean City on February 12, 1954 (Mr. and Mrs. I. C. Hooven and 3 immature birds were recorded at Gibson Island, Ann Arundel County, on January 22, 1955 (J. M. Abbott) ; 1 of th latter birds remained until January 28 (Mrs. W. L. Henderson Mrs. G. Tappan) . WHISTLING SWAN O/or columbianus (Ord) Status. — Transient: Locally common on Chesapeake Bay ar adjoining estuaries in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, ar Upper Chesapeake sections (concentration areas include tl Susquehanna Flats, Eastern Bay, and the Potomac, Patuxen Magothy, Middle, Gunpowder, Bush, Sassafras, Chester, ar Choptank Rivers) ; uncommon in the coastal area of Worcest( County and in the interior of all sections. Wintering: Local common on Chesapeake Bay and adjoining estuaries in the Eas ern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections (co] centration areas, same as during migration). Summer vagran Casual visitor — 11 on Gunpowder River marsh on June 2, 191 (W. A. Warns) ; 2 near Neavitt, Talbot County, through the sun mer of 1952 (R. L. Kleen) ; 12 on the Chester River during Jui and July 1955 (V. D. Stotts) . Habitat. — Chiefly shallow, brackish estuarine waters that coi tain an abundance of aquatic plants such as wild celery, sago pone weed, and red-head pondweed. During migration, also occurs ot casionally on inland ponds and lakes. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 1-10 to April 2C 30; peak, March 10 to April 5. Extreme arrival date: Februar 14, 1947, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure data May 27, 1955, in Washington County (S. C. Stauffer) ; May 2! 1951, in Queen Annes County (M. W. Hewitt) ; May 22, 1953, i Anne Arundel County; May 18, 1952, in Baltimore County (F. ( Cross). Fall migration. — Normal period: October 15-25 to Novembc 20-30 ; peak, October 25 to November 15, Extreme arrival datei BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 65 ;ptember 26, 1893, in Washington County (J. Leopold) ; 40 on e Patuxent River near Nottingham on October 1, 1938 (D. R. ascoyne). Extreme departure dates: December 16, 1902, in Gar- tt County (G. Eifrig) ; December 4, 1901, in Prince Georges Dunty (B. Greenwood). Maximum counts. — Spring: 15,000 on Susquehanna Flats on arch 15, 1931 (C. Marburger) ; 3,000 in Gunpowder River area 1 March 15, 1951 (T. A. Imhof ) ; 1,900 on Eastern Bay on March ), 1950 ; 945 on the Bush River on March 18, 1951 (T. A. Imhof) ; )0 at Sandy Point, Anne Arundel County, on March 20, 1952 (S. . Low) ; 400 on the Patuxent River on March 25, 1948. Fall: 000 on the Chester River on November 29, 1945 (E. R. Quort- lip) ; 3,000 on Eastern Bay on November 18, 1950 (Mr. and Mrs. j^ L. Henderson) ; 600 in the Carroll Island area, Baltimore lounty, on November 19, 1950; 177 near Unity, Montgomery ounty, on November 12, 1950 (S. H. Low) ; 50 at Mountain Lake, :arrett County, on November 2, 1951 (H. E. Slater). Winter: j3,654 in the St. Michaels area, Talbot County, on December 29, p53 (Christmas count) ; 4,940 on the Susquehanna Flats on January 2, 1950 (Christmas count) ; 2,000 on the Sassafras River In December 4, 1949 (E. Arnold) ; 1,505 in the Gibson Island area, j.nne Arundel County, on January 3, 1954 (Christmas count) ; ,500 in the Gunpowder River area on January 20, 1952 (T. A. mhof). ANADA GOOSE Branfa canadensis (Linnaeus) I Status. — Transient: Abundant in the tidewater areas of the lastern Shore and Upper Chesapeake sections (concentration reas include the Susquehanna Flats, Bohemia River, Sassafras ; Liver, Chester River, Eastern Bay, Choptank River, Honga River, Dorchester County marshes, Fishing Bay, Nanticoke River, /angier Sound, Pocomoke Sound, Chincoteague Bay, and Sine- ': uxent Bay) ; fairly common in the tidewater areas of the West- rn Shore section and in the interior (mostly flying overhead) f all sections. Wintering : Common in the tidewater areas of the ]astern Shore and Upper Chesapeake sections (concentration [reas, same as during migration) ; fairly common in the interior ' f the Eastern Shore and Upper Chesapeake sections ; uncommon n the Western Shore and Piedmont sections. I Habitat. — Shallow water with aquatic vegetation in tidal bays, stuaries, and ponds, and inland ponds and lakes ; also occurs reg- ilarly on tidal marshes, and in many areas feeds extensively in v'heat, rye, and corn fields near tidewater. 66 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Spring migration. — Normal period: February 15-25 to Api 15-25; peak, March 10 to April 10. Extreme arrival date February 9, 1950, in Prince Georges County (T. B. Israel February 10, 1920, in Dorchester County (R. W. Jackson) ; Febr i ary 14, 1920, in the District of Columbia (F. Harper). Extrer^ departure dates: May 23, 1903 (F. C. Kirkwood), and May 2| 1940 (H. Brackbill) , in Baltimore County. Figure 6. — Canada Goose banding recoveries. Each symbol represents t number of records for a State or Province. Banded in Maryland, recover elsewhere: solid circle = recovered June through August; solid triangle recovered September through May. Recovered in Maryland, banded eli where: open circle = banded June through August; open triangle = band September through May. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 67 Fall migration. — Normal period: September 25-October 5 to ; )vember 20-30; peak, October 15 to November 5. Extreyne ar- hal dates: September 8, 1955, in Talbot County (R. L. Kleen) ; jlptember 12, 1954, in Montgomery County (S. H. Low) ; Septem- lir 13, 1955, in Caroline County (M. W. Hewitt) ; September 14, :l54, in Baltimore County (S. W. Simon) ; September 18, 1953, i' Prince Georges County (F. M. Uhler). : Maximum counts. — Spring: 7,000 on the Susquehanna Flats, (hcil County, on March 31, 1955; 7,000 in the Sassafras River ; ea on April 1, 1955; 5,000 in the Newport Bay area in Wor- ijster County on April 1, 1950 ; "thousands" in Prince Georges ijmnty on March 24, 1929 (W. R. Maxon) ; 2,400 on Eastern Bay ill March 25, 1950 (J. E. Johnson) ; 1,250 on Savannah Lake, ■jDrchester County, on March 3, 1955; 1,000 in the Gibson Island ;jea, Anne Arundel County, on March 25, 1953 (Mrs. G. Tappan, :rs. W. L. Henderson) ; 800 near Emmitsburg, Frederick County, I March 20, 1955 (J. W. Richards). Fall: 15,000 on Blackwater ational Wildlife Refuge, Dorchester County, on November 16, )47 (L R. Barnes) ; 10,000 on Hooper Island, Dorchester County, I November 24, 1951 (I. C. Hoover) ; 2,000 in the Newport Bay rea, Worcester County, on November 11, 1951. Winter: 25,000 I. the Turner Creek area, Kent County, during January and ebruary, 1955 (R. T. Smith) ; 19,346 in the St. Michaels area, albot County, on December 29, 1953 (Christmas count) ; 17,440 j.i Chester River on December 6, 1955; 15,000 in Dorchester lounty on December 22, 1952 (Christmas count) ; 9,300 on the usquehanna Flats on January 1, 1951 (Christmas count) ; 6,700 : Ocean City on December 27, 1953 (Christmas count). Banding. — See figure 6. RANT Branta bernida (Linnaeus) Status. — Transient and ivintering: Common in the coastal area L Worcester County; also occurs regularly in the tidewater areas long the Chesapeake Bay side of the Eastern Shore section, being lirly common in Somerset and Dorchester Counties and uncom- lon in Talbot and Queen Annes Counties (north to Eastern Bay) ; are in tidewater areas of the Western Shore and Upper Chesa- eake sections. Summer vagrant: Casual visitor — 1 flying bird t South Point, Worcester County, on July 6, 1951 (J. H. Buck- lew), and 1 at Kent Island, Queen Annes County, on June 28, 954 (P. F. Springer). Habitat. — Shallow salt water in bays or sounds in which sea- ittuce {Enteromo7'pha spp.) or eel grass abound — most numerous long the barrier beach side of the coastal bays. 68 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Spring migration. — Normal period: February 10-20 to Apri] 20-30; peak, February 20 to April 10. Extreme arrival datv: February 6, 1954 (large flight), in Worcester County. Extren- departure dates: May 20, 1950 (R. J. Beaton), and May 15, 195^ (D. C. Aud. Soc), in Worcester County; May 8, 1955, in Quee|] Annes County (S. W. Simon). Fall migration. — Nor7nal period: October 10-20 to Decemb 10-20 ; peak, October 25 to December 10. Maximum counts. — 10,000 off South Point near the south en^ of Sinepuxent Bay on December 27, 1948 (E. Arnold, S. H. Low) 2,500 in the Ocean City area on February 25, 1951; 2,130 in tt; St. Michaels area, Talbot County, on December 29, 1953 (Chris mas count) ; 72 in the District of Columbia on February 20, 193 (Mr. and Mrs. W. J. Whiting). | [BARNACLE GOOSE] Branta /eucopsis (Bechsteln) Status. — Hypothetical. One reported killed near Langfor( Kent County, on November 12, 1947 (T. A. Geiser). WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE Anser albifrons (Scopoli) Status. — Casual visitor. A specimen (USNM) bought in tli Washington market in March 1856 was reported to have bee shot on the Potomac River (Baird, 1858). A specimen, formerl in the collection of the Maryland Academy of Sciences but aj parently no longer extant, was shot on the Gunpowder River o November 12, 1892 (Fisher, 1894). One was captured alive wit a flock of Canada Geese near Cambridge in Dorchester County o December 15, 1937 (D. V. Black). Another was observed at 0? ford, Talbot County, in mid-October 1956 (S. Hersloff). SNOW GOOSE Chen hyperborea (Falias) Status. — Transient and wintering: Fairly common in th coastal area of Worcester County (somewhat irregular in winter) rare elsewhere in tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore, Wester Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections; casual visitor in th interior — recorded in Garrett, Frederick, Montgomery, and Princ Georges Counties. Habitat. — Usually in marshes of salt-water cordgrass or o the bays adjacent to them. Period of occurrence. — Normal period: October 15-25 t March 20-30 ; peak, November 20 to March 5. Extreme dates o arrival: Early October, 1890, in Baltim^ore County (W. E Fisher) ; October 13, 1950, in Dorchester County (C. W. Wallace W. S. Webster). Extreme dates of departure: April 21, 195< BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 69 Worcester County (P. G. DuMont) ; April 19, 1935, in Mont- Ijmery County (Bagg", 1935). Maximum counts. — Spring: 206 in the Ocean City area on iarch 4, 1950 (R. J. Beaton) ; 50 at Emmitsburg, Frederick ijmnty, on March 9, 1955 (Mrs. J. W. Richards) . Fall: 700 in the I '.ean City area on November 28, 1950 (J. H. Buckalew) ; 125 at pavitt, Talbot County, on December 3, 1955 (J. Reese) . Winter: 1)00 in the Ocean City area on February 11, 1907 (F. C. Kirk- )od) ; 1,997 and 1,986 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 54, and December 27, 1950, respectively (Christmas counts) ; on Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge in Dorchester County December 23, 1951 (Christmas count). UE GOOSE Chen caerulescens (Linnaeus) Status. — Transient and ivintering: Rare in the Eastern Shore, iestern Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections; casual in the ! edmont section — 1 at Marshall Dierssen Refuge in Montgomery )unty, May 6-8, 1949, and 1 near Buckeystown in Frederick )unty during the period April 23-30, 1950. Prior to 1930 this ecies apparently occurred as a casual visitor only. Habitat. — Usually on ponds in tidal marshes ; rarely on ponds the interior. Period of occurrence. — Extreme dates of arrival: October 18, i50, in Dorchester County (C. W. Wallace, W. S. Webster) ; :tober 18, 1952, in Prince Georges County; October 24, 1949, in ueen Annes County. Extreme dates of departure: May 15, 1951, Harford County (T. A. Imhof ) ; May 8, 1949, in Montgomery )unty (R. Wright). Maximum counts. — 55 (1 flock) over Berwyn, Prince Georges )unty, on October 18, 1952; 14 (1 flock) on Gunpovi^der Neck, arford County, on May 15, 1951 (T. A. Imhof) ; 11 on Black- ater Refuge on December 28, 1954 (Christmas count) ; 10 near lestertown, Kent County, on November 24, 1950 (J. H. Buck- ew) ; 4 on Mills Island in Worcester County on February 9, •38 (G. A. Ammann). ALLARD Anas plafyrhynchos Linnaeus Status. — Breeding: The true status of "wild" Mallards during e breeding season is difficult to determine because of the fact at considerable numbers of semiwild birds have been released the State from time to time. Scattered pairs of nesting birds at give every appearance of being feral have been noted in iewater areas and on inland ponds, lakes, and streams in all ctions. Whether any of these are derived from the introduced 70 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE stock is problematical. It may be significant that Kirkwoc (1895) in his book on Maryland birds does not refer to ar breeding records for the species. During the past 12 yea:i (1942-1953), downy young or nests with eggs have been record( in the following areas: Worcester, Dorchester, Kent, Calvei Prince Georges, Baltimore, Montgomery, and Garrett Countii and the District of Columbia. Transient: Fairly common on tid< water and inland areas in all sections (concentrations occur aloBJ the Potomac River in Montgomery County, on TriadelphI Reservoir, on Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge, and on til Chester River). Wintering: Fairly common on tidewater and i:i land areas of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, Upper Chesi peake, and Piedmont sections ; uncommon in the Ridge and Valid and Allegheny Mountain sections. Habitat. — Breeding: Usually ponds or streams that are fring<( with marsh vegetation. Transient and wintering: All types i fresh-w^ater and tidal ponds, lakes, and streams; also feeds e:( tensively in corn fields that are located nearby. Nesting season. — Mid-March to late July. Extreme ec dates (5 nests) : March 20, 1949, in Montgomery County (] Shelton) and May 14, 1950, in Baltimore County (E. Willis Extreme dotvny young dates (13 broods) : May 7, 1949, in tl District of Columbia (W. W. Rubey) and July 20, 1952, in Ball more County (E. Willis). Spring migration. — Normal period: February 5-15 to Mj 1-10; peak, February 20 to March 20. Extreme arrival datex January 18, 1947, in Prince Georges County; January 22, 1939, Baltimore County (H. Kolb) ; January 28, 1949, in Anne Arund County (Mrs. F. H. Vinup). Extreme departure dates: May 1 1931, in Charles County (C. Cottam) ; May 14, 1949, in Worcest County (E. G. Davis) ; May 14, 1922, in the District of Columb (J. Kittredge, Jr.). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 10-20 to Decei ber 15-25; peak, October 25 to December 5. Extreme arriv dates: August 20, 1927, in the District of Columbia (A. Wc more) ; August 28, 1896, in Prince Georges County (B. Gree< wood). Extreme departure dates: December 31, 1940, in Prim Georges County; December 28, 1948, in Baltimore County (] Kolb). Maximum counts. — Spring: 1,690 on the Potomac River belc Washington, D. C, on March 10, 1928 (H. H. T. Jackson). Fa, 11,500 on the Chester River on December 6, 1955; 7,000 along t. Potomac River in Prince Georges and Charles Counties on Novel BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 71 \r 30, 1925 (F. C. Lincoln) ; 1,245 in the Patuxent River marsh ii October 27, 1955; 600 at Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge, jorchester County, on November 16, 1947 (I. R. Barnes) . Winter: 885 on the Potomac River in the District of Columbia area on inuary 7, 1928 (A. Wetmore, H. H. T. Jackson) ; 5,250 in south- n Dorchester County on December 28, 1955 (Christmas count) ; 500 at Triadelphia Reservoir on January 1, 1954, and December [, 1955 (Christmas counts) ; 1,240 on the Susquehanna Flats on inuary 2, 1950 (Christmas count) ; 1,110 in the Ocean City area 1 December 27, 1953 (Christmas count). Banding. — See figure 7. 1 ,- '. ■■■^o.pF. IGURE 7. — Mallard banding recoveries. Each symbol represents the number of records for a State or Province. Banded in Maryland, recovered else- where: solid circle = recovered June through August; solid triangle = recovered September through May. Recovered in Maryland, banded else- where: open circle = banded June through August; open triangle = banded September through May. 72 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE BLACK DUCK Anas rubripes Brewsfer Status. — Breeding: Common in the tidewater areas of t Eastern Shore section (greatest numbers in the marshes of D( Chester County and in the Chester River-Eastern Bay area uncommon in the tidewater areas of the Western Shore and Upp Chesapeake sections; rare in the interior of all sections; defin: inland-breeding records for Baltimore (H. Kolb), Prince Georg and Allegany (K. A. Wilson) Counties. See figure 4. Transiey Abundant in the tidewater areas of Dorchester County and in t Chester River-Eastern Bay area; common in tidewater are elsewhere in the Eastern Shore section; fairly common in tic water areas of the Western Shore and Upper Chesapeake sectio and in the interior of all sections. Wintering: Common in ti( water areas of the Eastern Shore section ; fairly common in tic water areas of the Western Shore and Upper Chesapeake sectior uncommon in the interior of all sections. Outstanding winteri and transient concentration areas include the Chester Rivi Eastern Bay, the Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge, and t large marsh extending from Savannah Lake to Elliott Island southern Dorchester County. Habitat. — Breeding: Various types of tidal marshes and mar meadows, including Olney three-square, switch grass, salt rec grass, salt-water cordgrass, salt-meadow grass, and needlerusi also along margins of islands situated in bays or estuaries; a on inland ponds and streams that are fringed with marsh vege' tion. Transient and wintering: Nearly all types of marshi ponds, and streams; occasionally fairly large numbers are a found on the open bays and estuaries. Nesting season. — Mid-March to early September; peak, ea: April to late June. Extreme egg dates (217 nests) : March 28, 19! in Queen Annes County (V. D. Stotts) and August 24, 1914, in Di Chester County (Jackson, 1941). Extreme downy young da. (54 broods) : April 8, 1949, in Dorchester County (W. S. Webste and August 12, 1954, in Dorchester County. Spring migration. — Normal period: February 15-25 to Ap 15-25; peak, February 25 to March 25. Extreme arrival da January 28, 1951, in Harford County (T. A. Imhof). Extre departure dates: May 21, 1922, in the District of Columbia Kittredge, Jr.) ; May 7, 1936, in Garrett County (M. G. Brookf May 6, 1893, in Baltimore County (G. H. Gray). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 10-20 to Dece ber 1-10; peak, October 20 to November 25. Extreme arri dates: August 20, 1927, in the District of Columbia (A. W BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 73 )re) ; August 24, 1949, in Prince Georges County. Extreme parture date: December 17, 1939, in Prince Georges County. Breeding population density (pairs per 100 acres). — (53 in 1000 acres) in brackish bay marsh (a mosaic of tidal ponds and creeks and various plant associations including needlerush, salt-water cordgrass, salt-meadow grass, salt reed-grass, spike-grass, Olney three- square, and ditch grass) in Dorchester County in 1956. Maximum counts. — Spring: 18,560 on the Potomac River be- V Washington, D. C, on March 10, 1928 (H. H. T. Jackson). 'M: 23,000 along the Potomac River in Prince Georges and SURE 8. — Black Duck banding recoveries. Each symbol represents the number of records for a State or Province. Banded in Maryland, recovered elsewhere: solid circle = recovered June through August; solid triangle = recovered September through May. Recovered in Maryland, banded else- where: open circle = banded June through August; open triangle = banded September through May. 74 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Charles Counties on November 10, 1928 (H. C. Oberholsei 10,000 on the marsh between Savannah Lake and Elliott Isla in Dorchester County on November 12, 1948 ; 6,941 on the Poton:< River belov^^ Washington, D. C, on October 28, 1930 (H. C. Ob holser) ; 4,000 on Middle River in Baltimore County on Noveml 12, 1927 (G. A. Edwards) ; 1,400 on Gunpowder Neck in Harfc County on October 22, 1950 (T. A. Imhof). Winter: 40,243 the Potomac River, below Washington, D. C, on February 1928 (H. H. T. Jackson) ; 10,125 in southern Dorchester Com on December 28, 1955 (Christmas count) ; 7,102 in the St. Micha area, Talbot County, on December 29, 1954 (Christmas couni 7,000 on the Susquehanna Flats on January 7, 1928 (J. A. Ci rier) ; 2,210 in the Ocean City area on December 22, IJ (Christmas count) ; 2,000 on Triadelphia Reservoir, Montgom( and Howard Counties, on January 1, 1954 (Christmas count Banding. — See figure 8. GADWALL Anas strepera Linnaeus Status. — Breeding: During the late spring of 1948, at lei 7 pairs were found nesting in a tidal marsh in Somerset Coui located from 1 to 2 miles southeast of Dames Quarter (Sprinj and Stewart, 1950) — several pairs were noted in this same ai during 1949 and 1950, and in 1955 a nest with eggs was foi about 2 miles south of there on Fish Island in the Manokin Riv in 1956, a nest with eggs was found in southern Dorches County, 6 miles northeast of Elliott. Transient: Common in ti water areas of Charles County along the Potomac and Wiconi Rivers; fairly common in tidewater areas of Dorchester Coun uncommon elsewhere on tidewater and inland areas of all sectio Wintering: Same as transient status, except that it is absent rare in the Allegheny Mountain, Ridge and Valley, and Piedmi sections. Summer vagrant: Casual in the Western Shore sect — recorded in the District of Columbia on June 7, 1930 (W. Ball), and June 12, 1952 (J. W. Taylor, Jr.), in Prince Geor County on June 13 to 24, 1949, and in Anne Arundel County (IVI W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tappan) on June 30, 1955. Habitat. — Breeding: In Somerset County, occurs in a ti< marsh in which salt-meadow grass is predominant with scatte patches of switch grass, salt-marsh bulrush, and needlerush j scattered shrubs of wax-myrtle, sea-myrtle and marsh-el( Transient and ivintering: Brackish estuaries, ponds in ti marshes, and occasionally on inland ponds, lakes, and rivers. Nesting season. — Late April to early August. Extreme BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 75 tes (4 nests) : May 4, 1956, in Dorchester County and July 19, 55, in Somerset County. A brood of 10 young about 4 or 5 days i was observed on July 3, 1948, in Somerset County (F. M. iler). Spring migration. — Normal period: March 10-20 to April 25- ay 5. Extreme m-rival date: February 25, 1955, in Anne Arun- 1 County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson). Extreme departure dates: ay 16, 1954, in Dorchester County (J. K. Wright) ; May 5, 1951, Harford County (T. A. Imhof) and in Baltimore County (H. )lb, E. Willis). Fall migration. — August 20-30 to November 20-30; peak, ;tober 10 to November 10. Extreme arrival dates: August 19, 50, in Montgomery County (J. W. Taylor, Jr.) ; August 20, 27, in Charles County (E. A. Preble). Extreme departure te: December 1, 1951, in Montgomery County (L. Kilham). Maximum counts. — Spring: 1,300 on the Potomac River belov^^ ashington, D. C, on March 13, 1928 (H. H. T. Jackson) ; 670 Savannah Lake, Dorchester County, on March 3, 1955; 260 in larles County on March 22, 1953 (A. R. Stickley, Jr.) ; 220 in ndy Point-Matapeake area on March 23, 1946. Fall: 6,000 on e Potomac River in Charles County on November 1, 1927 (H. C. )erholser) ; 650 in southern Dorchester County on November , 1950. Winter: 3,804 on the Potomac River in Prince Georges )unty and upper Charles County on December 5, 1930 (H. C. Derholser) ; 1,889 in the Wicomico River area in Charles County I January 1, 1950 (Christmas count) ; 1,300 in the Port Tobacco ea in Charles County on January 27, 1953 (A. R. Stickley, Jr.) ; lO in the Savannah Lake-Elliott Island area, Dorchester County, I February 25, 1950, and February 22, 1954. Banding. — Two Gadwalls recovered in Somerset and Harford )unties (November 22-27) had been banded as juvenals (August 17) in north-central North Dakota and Saskatchewan (Wood ver, Courval). NTAIL Anas acufa Linnaeus Status. — Transient and ivintering : Common in the tidewater eas of the Upper Chesapeake section (east of Chesapeake Bay) ; irly common in other tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore, estern Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections; uncommon in e interior of all sections. Habitat. — Brackish estuaries, and ponds in tidal marshes ; also I inland ponds, lakes, and rivers. Spring migration. — Normal period: January 15-25 to April >-May 5; peak, February 15 to March 20. Extreme arrival 76 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE date: January 14, 1956, in Dorchester County. Extreme departi dates: May 26, 1952, in Caroline County (M. W. Hewitt) ; M 16, 1954, in Dorchester County (J. K. Wright) ; May 14, 19 ! in the District of Columbia (J. Kittredge, Jr.). Fall migration. — Normal period: August 25-September 5 December 10-20 ; peak, October 25 to December 5. Extreme dt of arrival: August 22, 1929, in the District of Columbia (W. Ball). I Maximum counts. — Spring: 2,000 on Otter Creek and 470 j Bush River, both in Harford County on March 5, 1950 (P. i Springer) ; 500 in the District of Columbia on March 11, li (J. W. Taylor, Jr.). Fall: 6,330 in the Chester River area i December 6, 1955; 2,175 at Blackwater National Wildlife Reful on November 13, 1955 (H. Sutton) ; 800 on the Potomac Riv in Prince Georges County on December 5, 1930 (H. C. Oh holser) ; 300 in the Gunpowder River area on January 6, 19 Figure 9. — Pintail banding recoveries. Each symbol represents the numl of records for a State or Province. Banded in Maryland, recovered el; where: solid triangle = recovered September through May. Recovered Maryland, banded elsewhere: open circle = banded June through AugU! open triangle = banded September through May. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 77 \ A. Imhof ) ; 200 in the District of Columbia on November 13, 40 (W. L. McAtee). Winter: 30,000 near Chestertown, Kent )unty, during- January-February, 1955 (R. T. Smith) ; 3,625 southern Dorchester County on December 22, 1952 (Christmas unt) ; 550 in the Wicomico River area, Charles County, on Janu- y 2, 1949 (Christmas count) ; 535 in the Ocean City area on Bcember 22, 1951 (Christmas count) ; 506 on Susquehanna Flats 1 December 20, 1947 (Christmas count). j Banding. — See figure 9. I I5MM0N TEAL Anas crecca Linnaeus i Status. — Rare winter visitor in the coastal area of Worcester i)unty; casual elsewhere. One or two have been recorded nearly lery winter since February 1950 on Heine's Pond, i Period of occurrence. — Extreme dates: December 27, 1950, i)53, 1954, and 1955 (S. H. Low, et al.) in Worcester County and ipril 1885 on the Potomac River near Washington (USNM — |. Marshall). ! REEN-WINGED TEAL Anas caroVmensis Gmelin Status. — Transient: Common in the tidewater areas of Dor- lester County; fairly common in tidewater areas elsewhere in le Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sec- ons ; uncommon in the interior of all sections. Wintering: Fairly )mmon in tidewater areas of Dorchester County; uncommon in dewater areas elsewhere in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, nd Upper Chesapeake sections; rare in the interior of the astern Shore, Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake, and Piedmont actions. Summer vagrant: 1 observed in Dorchester County on une 21, 1956 (P. F. Springer). Habitat. — Tidal ponds and creeks of brackish marshes; also :curs more sparingly in salt marshes, on estuarine waters, and m inland ponds, lakes, and streams. Spring migration. — Normal period: February 25-March 5 to [ay 1-10; peak, March 10 to April 20. Extreme arrival date: 'ebruary 19, 1949, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure ate: May 19, 1954, in Dorchester County. Fall migration. — Normal period: September 5-15 to Decem- er 1-10; peak, October 10 to November 25. Extreme dates of rrival: August 19, 1950 (J. W. Taylor, Jr.), in Montgomery ounty; August 24, 1956, in Prince Georges County (P. F. pringer). Extreme dates of departure: December 23, 1926, in le District of Columbia (A. Wetmore) ; December 12, 1948, in lontgomery County (I. R. Barnes). 78 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Maximum covnts.— Spring : 500 on Mills Island, Worces County, on April 23, 1938 (G. A. Ammann) ; 166 in the Patux. River marsh near Upper Marlboro on April 5, 1955; 162 southern Dorchester County on March 11, 1955. Fall: 3,000' Blackwater Refuge, Dorchester County, on November 16, IJ (I. R. Barnes) ; 250 in the Gunpov^^der River area on October 1950 (T. A. Imhof ) ; 150 on the Potomac River below Washingt D. C, on November 9, 1925 (A. Wetmore). Winter (Christni counts) : 606 in southern Dorchester County on December 1954 ; 200 in the Ocean City area on December 21, 1952 ; 75 m St. Michaels in Talbot County on December 29, 1953 ; 60 on 1 Susquehanna Flats on January 2, 1950. Banding. — See figure 10. Figure 10. — Green-winged Teal banding recoveries. Each symbol represen the number of records for a State or Province. Banded in Maryland, reco ered elsewhere: solid circle = recovered June through August; solid ti angle = recovered September through May. Recovered in Maryland, bandt elsewhere: open circle = banded June through August; open triangle banded September through May. BIRDS OF MARYLAND .AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 79 JE-WINGED TEAL Anas discors Linnaeus Status. — Breeding: Fairly common in tidewater areas of Dor- 3ster County; uncommon in tidewater areas elsewhere in the stern Shore Section ; rare in tidewater areas of the Western ore and Upper Chesapeake sections. Definite records of nests th eggs or broods of downy young- are from Worcester (G. A. nmann), Somerset, Dorchester, St. Marys (E. J. Court), Anne undel (R. R. Kerr), and Baltimore (W. A. Putnam) Counties. e figure 11. LEGEND BLUE-WINGED TEAL ^^1 Principal Ran; • Local Record RUFFED GROUSE p^'as^ Principal Range O Local Record Figure 11. — Breeding ranges of Blue-winged Teal and Ruffed Grouse. ^ansient: Common in the tidewater areas of Dorchester County; irly common in tidewater areas elsewhere in the Eastern Shore, estern Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections; fairly common 3ally in the Allegheny Mountain Section; uncommon elsewhere the interior of all sections. Wintering : Uncommon in the tide- ater areas of Dorchester County ; casual elsewhere in the Eastern lore section — 1 recorded at Heine's Pond, Worcester County, I December 27, 1950, and 1 on December 27, 1954 (S. H. Low). Habitat. — Breeding: Usually in short-growth, tidal marsh- eadow types such as salt-meadow grass. Transient: Various pes of tidal and inland ponds and marshes. Nesting season. — Mid-April to early August (nesting peak, 80 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE early May to late June) . Extreme egg dates (9 nests) : Maj 1954, in Dorchester County and June 16, 1931 (A. L. Nelson)' Dorchester County. Extreme doivny young dates (25 brood May 25, 1919, in Baltimore County (W. A. Warner) and Aug 4, 1954, in Dorchester County. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 10-20 to May 20; peak, April 5 to May 5. Extreme arrival dates: March 1954, in Montgomery County (E. Hall, P. G. DuMont) ; Marcl 1926, on the Potomac River below Washington, D. C. (H. Figure 12. — Blue-winged Teal banding recoveries. Each symbol represen the number of records for a State or Province. Banded in Maryland, reco ered elsewhere: solid circle = recovered June through August; sol triangle = recovered September through May. Recovered in Marylan banded elsewhere: open circle = banded June through August. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 81 lerholser). Extreme departure dates: June 6, 1953, in Mont- tnery County (J. W. Terborgh) ; June 2, 1892, in Prince Georges unty (C. W. Richmond). Fall migration. — Normal period: August 20-30 to November -20; peak, September 5 to October 15. Extreme arrival dates: igust 7, 1928, in the District of Columbia (W. H. Ball) ; August , 1898, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme de- rture dates: December 10, 1927, on the Potomac River below ashington, D. C. (H. H. T. Jackson) ; December 9, 1899, on mpowder River marsh (J. Thomas). Breeding population density (pairs per 100 acres) . — (10 in 160 acres) in brackish bay marsh (study tract included tidal ponds and creeks and extensive areas of salt-meadow grass) in Dorchester County in 1956. Maximum counts. — Spring: 173 on the Patuxent River marsh ar Upper Marlboro on April 5, 1955; 150 at Marshall Dierssen ifuge, Montgomery County, on April 26, 1953, and March 30, 54 (both by J. W. Terborgh) ; 75 on the marsh between Savan- h Lake and Elliott Island, Dorchester County, on April 30, 49; 50 on Mills Island, Worcester County, on April 23, 1938 \. A. Ammann) . Fall: 500+ in Elliott Island marsh on Sep- nber 21, 1954; 185 on the Patuxent River marsh on October , 1955; 150 on Savannah Lake on October 2, 1948; 80 in the strict of Columbia on September 20, 1930 (C. Cottam) ; 75 at e Dierssen Refuge on September 8, 1952. Winter: 80 on Black- iter Refuge, Dorchester County, on February 22, 1952; 39 in Lithern Dorchester County on December 28, 1953 (Christmas imt). Banding. — See figure 12. INNAMON TEAL] Anas cyanoptera Vieillot Status. — Hypothetical. B. H. Warren reported observing a ile on the Bohemia River in Cecil County on April 9, 1910. ROPEAN WIDGEON Mareca pene/ope (Linnaeus) Status. — Transient and wintering: Rare in the tidewater areas the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake 3tions ; casual in the Piedmont and Allegheny Mountain sections, total of 41 records, including specimens, have been reported Dm Maryland and the District of Columbia. These include 18 Dm the Upper Chesapeake section (including 10 from Harford d Cecil Counties, and 2 each from Kent and Baltimore Coun- ;s) ; 11 from the Eastern Shore section (6 from Dorchester 82 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE County, 4 from Worcester County, and 1 from Caroline Countj 10 from the Western Shore section (6 from Anne Arun County, 2 from the District of Columbia, and 1 each from Char i and Prince Georges Counties) ; 1 from the Piedmont sectt (near Seneca, in Montgomery County — L. Kilham) ; and 1 fr> the Allegheny Mountain section (at Mountain Lake on April 1954— M. G. Brooks). Habitat. — Brackish and fresh estuaries and marsh pon«| usually associated with the American Widgeon. Period of occurrence. — Extreme dates: October 16, 18 (USNM), in the Washington, D. C, market (J. R. Massie) a April 17, 1954, in Garrett County (M. G. Brooks). Number , records by month: October, 6; November, 6; December, 7; Jf| uary, 2; February, 4; March, 7; April, 5. All records were single birds except for 2 seen at Gibson Island in Anne Arun(. County on October 30, 1951 (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. ! Tappan) ; and 2 seen near Perry ville in Cecil County on April! 1931 (W. Yoder). Banding. — One recovered in Dorchester County on Noveml 27, 1929, had been banded at Husavik, Iceland, on August : 1929. This was the fourth North American recovery of a Eui pean Widgeon from Iceland. AMERICAN WIDGEON Aiareca americana (Gmelin) Status. — Transient: Common, locally abundant, in the ti( water areas along Chesapeake Bay and adjoining estuaries in t Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sectio (concentration areas include the Susquehanna Flats, Eastern Bj Dorchester County marshes, and the Choptank, Chester, Sass fras. Northeast, Bush, Gunpowder, Middle, and Magothy Rive: and portions of the Potomac and Wicomico Rivers in southe: Charles County) ; fairly common in the interior of all sectio: and in the coastal area of Worcester County. Wintering: Local common in tidewater areas along Chesapeake Bay and adjoinii estuaries in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Ches peake sections; uncommon in the coastal area of Worcest County; rare in the interior of all sections. Summer vagran Casual visitor — recorded in Harford County on July 14, 191 (P. F. Springer) ; in Queen Annes County on June 17, 195 July 21, 1953, and June 8-15, 1954 (P. F. Springer) ; in Mon gomery County on July 12-16, 1953 (S. H. Low) ; and in tl District of Columbia, July 8-12, 1933 (E. N. Grinnell). Habitat. — Brackish estuarine waters, and ponds in brackif BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 83 lal marshes that contain a plentiful aquatic plant growth, in- iding such species as wild celery, red-head pondweed, sago ndweed and ditch grass; also occurs more sparingly on inland nds and lakes. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 1-10 to May 10-20; ak, March 15 to April 15. Extreme date of arrival: February , 1949, in Prince Georges County. Extreme dates of departure: ne 1, 1953, in Montgomery County (S. H. Low) ; May 31, 1951, Harford County (T. A. Imhof ) ; May 26, 1953, in Prince orges County (P. F. Springer). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 5-15 to Decem- r 10-20; peak, October 10 to December 10. Extreme arrival JURE 13. — American Widgeon banding recoveries. Each symbol represents he number of records for a State or Province. Banded in Maryland, recov- sred elsew^here: solid triangle = recovered September through May. Re- ;overed in Maryland, banded elsewhere : open circle = banded June through \ugust; open triangle = banded September through May. 84 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE j dates: August 28, 1935, in Prince Georges County (R. B. "V^l! lace) ; September 2, 1952, in Frederick County (J. W. Richarc s Maximum counts. — Spring: 7,900 in the Carroll Island aic Baltimore County, on March 16, 1947; 6,100 on Gunpowder Ntc Harford County, on March 18, 1951 (T. A. Imhof). Fall: 19,m on Gunpowder Neck on December 7, 1951 (T. A. Imhof) ; 14,ii on the Potomac River below Washington, D. C, on November I 1929 (H. C. Oberholser) ; 14,000 in the Carroll Island area i November 19, 1950; 5,650 in southern Charles County on Deed ber 11, 1948. Winter: 19,281 near St. Michaels in Talbot Cou: i on December 29, 1953 (Christmas count) ; 11,000 at Gunpow^l Neck on January 2, 1952 (T. A. Imhof) ; 4,830 on the Susquehaii Flats on January 2, 1950 (Christmas count) ; 3,165 in the K] Island area. Queen Annes County, on December 29, 1949 (Chr:j mas count) ; 2,670 in southern Charles County on December j 1948 (Christmas count) . I BANDING. — See figure 13. ' SHOVELER Spatula dypeafa (Linnaeus) Status. — Transient: Fairly common in tidewater areas Dorchester County; uncommon elsewhere in tidewater and inlai water areas of all sections. Wintering: Uncommon in tidewa areas of Dorchester County; rare in tidewater areas elsewhi in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesape£ sections; casual in the Piedmont section — 2 observed throught the winter of 1955-56 at Owings Mills, Baltimore County (E. and J. R. Worthley). Habitat. — Shallow ponds in brackish marshes; occasiona in other tidewater habitats and on inland ponds and lakes. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 1-10 to May 1-] peak, March 15 to April 25. Extreme date of arrival: Februa 28, 1953, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. Tappan). Extreme dates of departure: May 19, 1952, in the D trict of Columbia (M. W. Mulloy) ; May 17, 1954, in Dorchesi County. Fall migration. — Normal period: August 25-September 5 December 1-10; peak, September 25 to November 10. Extrei arrival date: August 6, 1944, in Prince Georges County. Extra departure date: December 11, 1899, on the Gunpowder Riv marsh (F. C. Kirkwood). Maximum counts. — Spring: 55 on Blackwater Refuge, Dc Chester County, on March 25, 1950 (J. E. Johnson) ; 40 at Elli( marsh, Dorchester County, on March 21, 1956 ; 35 at Indianto"W BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 85 Marys County, on April 3, 1954, and April 8, 1953 (J. W. rborgh) ; 20 on Mills Island, Worcester County, on April 23, 38 (G. A. Ammann). Fall: 410 on the Potomac River below ishington, D. C, on October 19, 1929 (H. C. Oberholser) ; 40+ the District of Columbia on September 6, 1930 (W. H. Ball) ; in Worcester County on November 8, 1952 (M. Gilbert). '.nter: 90 on Blackwater Refuge on February 25, 1950; 40 in ; Newport Bay area, Worcester County, on February 21, 1954 ; on the Sassafras River on December 26, 1948 (J. E. Willoughby, W. Taylor, Jr.). }0D DUCK Aix sponsa (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding: Fairly common in the Eastern Shore, jstern Shore, Upper Chesapeake, Piedmont, and Ridge and lley sections; uncommon in the Allegheny Mountain section. ansient: Common in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and iper Chesapeake sections ; fairly common in the Piedmont, Ridge i Valley, and Allegheny Mountain sections. Wintering: Un- nmon in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections; rare the Upper Chesapeake, Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sec- ns. Habitat. — Inland streams, ponds, and lakes that are bordered trees; also in the upper fresh-water marshes of the tidal uaries. N'ESTING SEASON. — Early March to early September (nesting ik, late March to early July). Extreme egg dates (76 nests) : irch 10, 1951 (12 eggs in another nest on March 14, 1953), i July 25, 1950 (both extremes in Prince Georges County by G. Webster). Extreme doivny young dates (88 broods) : April 1953, and September 2, 1953, both in Prince Georges County . G. Webster) . 5PRING MIGRATION. — Normal period: February 20-March 1 to ril 10-20; peak, March 1 to April 1. Extreme date of arrival: bruary 18, 1946, in Prince Georges County. ^'ALL MIGRATION. — August 15-25 to November 15-25; peak, Dtember 5 to November 5. Extreme date of arrival: August 12, 14, in Prince Georges County. Extreme dates of departure: cember 10, 1927, on the Potomac River below Washington, C. (H. H. T. Jackson) ; December 4, 1951, in Anne Arundel unty (Mrs. W. L. Henderson). Breeding population density (pairs per 100 acres) . — (3 in 714 acres) in flood-plain forest along Patuxent River, Prince Georges and Anne Arundel Counties, in 1943. 86 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Maximum counts. — Spring: 150 near Seneca, Montgom County, on March 19, 1948 (T. W. Donnelly). Fall: 184 Patuxent Refuge, Prince Georges County, on October 29, 19 150 on Mataponi Creek, Prince Georges County, on Septem 13, 1947 (N. Hotchkiss, F. M. Uhler) ; 90 on the Nanticoke Ri on November 3, 1955; 40 on Gunpowder Neck, Harford Com on September 5, 1951 (T. A. Imhof ) ; 35 in the District of Coh bia on September 13, 1930 (W. H. Ball). Winter (Christi dpf: Figure 14. — Wood Duck banding recoveries. Each symbol represents number of records for a State or Province. Banded in Maryland, recove elsewhere: solid triangle = recovered September through May. Recove in Maryland, banded elsewhere: open circle = banded June through Augi open triangle = banded September through May. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 87 ints) : 12 in the Ocean City area on December 28, 1949; 6 at tuxent Refuge on December 27, 1940. 3ANDING. — See figure 14. )HEAD Aytbya americana (Eyton) 5TATUS. — Transie7it and luintering: Locally common in the al estuaries adjoining Chesapeake Bay in the Upper Chesa- :ke, Eastern Shore, and Western Shore sections (concentration as include the Gunpowder-Middle River area, the Bush River, 9ster River, Eastern Bay, Choptank River, and Patuxent ^er) ; uncommon (rare in winter) in the coastal area of Wor- ter County and in the interior of all sections. Summei' vagrant: 5ual in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesa- ,ke sections. lABlTAT. — Brackish estuarine waters with a plentiful aquatic nt growth, including such species as red-head pondweed, sago idweed, and wild celery; occasional on inland lakes and ponds. 5FRING MIGRATION. — Normal period: March 1-10 to May 1-10; ,k, March 15 to April 20. Extreme dates of departure: May 1939, in Baltimore County (H. Kolb) ; May 20, 1949, in Queen nes County; May 15, 1954, in Worcester County (J. K. Wright) . •"ALL MIGRATION. — Normal period: October 5-15 to December •25; peak, November 10 to December 10. Extreme arrival es: October 1, 1956, in Cecil County (C. D. Evans, D. P. ikhauser) ; October 3, 1889, in Harford County (F. C. Kirk- Dd). /[AXIMUM COUNTS. — Spring: 10,500 in the Carroll Island area, timore County, on March 16, 1947; 4,000 on the Bush River, rford County, on March 17, 1946 (Mrs. R. C. Simpson) ; 2,200 the Potomac River below Washington, D. C, on March 13, 8 (H. H. T. Jackson). Fall: 9,340 on Eastern Bay, Queen nes County, on December 12, 1955; 5,000 on the Potomac er in Prince Georges and Charles Counties on November 29, 6 (H. C. Oberholser) , and November 30, 1925 (F. C. Lincoln) ; 10 on Chester River on December 6, 1955 ; 1,500 on Gunpowder ;k, Harford County, on December 10, 1950 (T. A. Imhof). tier: 7,050 in the Kent Island area. Queen Annes County, on '.ember 29, 1949 (Christmas count) ; 3,000 at Cove Point, vert County, on February 5, 1949 (L. K. Couch) ; 3,000 in the ipowder River area on January 6, 1952 (T. A. Imhof) ; 1,500 the lower Patuxent River on February 18, 1951 (E. G. Davis) lANDiNG. — See figure 15. 88 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Figure 15. — Redhead banding recoveries. Each symbol represents the numl of records for a State or Province. Banded in Maryland, recovered el where: solid triangle = recovered September through May. Recovered Maryland, banded elsewhere: open circle = banded June through Augui open triangle = banded September through May. RING-NECKED DUCK Aythya collaris (Donovan) Status. — Transient: Fairly common in all sections. Winte ing: Uncommon in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upp Chesapeake sections; rare in the Piedmont section. Sumrri' vagrant: Casual visitor — recorded at Marshall Dierssen Refug Montgomery County, on June 6, 1953 (J. W. Terborgh) and Patuxent Refuge, Prince Georges County, throughout the sui mers of 1953 (F. M. Uhler) and 1955. This species has becon decidedly more common since about 1945, coincident with i general increase as a breeding bird in the Northeast. Habitat. — Brackish or fresh estuarine waters and inland pom and lakes. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 89 Spring migration. — Normal period: February 10-20 to May -10; peak, February 20 to April 5. Extreme arrival date: ebruary 5, 1950, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure ite: May 18, 1938, in Baltimore County (H. Brackbill). Fall migration. — Normal period: October 5-15 to December -10; peak, October 25 to November 30. Extreme arrival dates: eptember 17, 1935, in Garrett County (M. G. Brooks) ; October 1948, in Queen Annes County. Extreme departure date: De- smber 12, 1948, in Montgomery County (I. R. Barnes). orf: GURE 16. — Ring-necked Duck banding recoveries. Each sjmabol represents the number of records for a State or Province. Banded in Maryland, re- covered elsewhere : solid triangle = recovered September through May. Re- covered in Maryland, banded elsewhere : open circle = banded June through A-Ugust; open triangle = banded September through May. 90 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Maximum counts. — Sprmg: 3,000 on the Bush River, Harfoi ] County, on March 26, 1933 (S. Cramer) ; 720 at Patuxent Refugii Prince Georges County, on March 10, 1953; 250 at Diersstt Refuge, Montgomery County, on February 28, 1954 (J. W. Tef borgh) ; 200 in the Carroll Island area, Baltimore County, ct March 30, 1947. Fall: 45 in Montgomery County on Novembia 27, 1949 (S. A. Briggs). Winter: 1,715 in southern Dorchest4 County on December 22, 1952 (Christmas count) ; 1,500 at Gibscj Island, Anne Arundel County, on January 20, 1951 (Mrs. W. ] Henderson) ; 730 on the Susquehanna Flats on January 2, 19?i (Christmas count). Banding. — See figure 16. CANVASBACK Ayfhya waWslnerla (Wilson) Status. — Transient: Abundant on the Susquehanna Flats Harford and Cecil Counties; locally common elsewhere in tl tidewater areas along Chesapeake Bay and adjoining estuarij in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper ChesapeaM sections (concentration areas include Eastern Bay, Fishing Ba| Tangier Sound, Pocomoke Sound, and Northeast, Sassafral Chester, Choptank, Honga, Nanticoke, Gunpowder, Magothy, an South Rivers, the lower Patuxent River, and portions of til Potomac and Wicomico Rivers within Charles County) ; uncon mon in the coastal area of Worcester County and in the interi( of all sections. Wintering: Common in tidewater areas alor Chesapeake Bay and adjoining estuaries in the Eastern Shor Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections (concentratic areas same as during transient periods) ; usually uncommon : the coastal area of Worcester County ; rare in the interior of tl Eastern Shore, Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake, and Piedmoi sections. Summer vagrant: Casual in the Eastern Shore ar Western Shore sections. Habitat. — Estuarine waters that contain a plentiful aquat plant growth, including such species as wild celery, sago poni weed, and eel grass; also on inland lakes and ponds. Local! Canvasbacks occur in large numbers in certain bays and estuari( that contain a rich and varied molluscan fauna. Spring migration. — Normal period: February 25-March 5 1 May 1-10; peak, March 5 to April 5. Extreme arrival daU February 23, 1930, in Montgomery County (A. K. Fisher Extreme departure dates: June 3, 1950, in Anne Arundel Coun1 (Mrs. W. L. Henderson) ; May 28, 1948, in Prince Georg( County; May 24, 1952, in Montgomery County (P. A. DuMont BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 91 Fall migration. — Normal period: October 15-25 to December 5-25; peak, November 15 to December 15. Extreme arrival ate: October 3, 1889, on the Gunpowder River (F. C. Kirkw^ood) . Maximum counts. — Spring: 40,000 on the Potomac River in rince Georges and Charles Counties on March 7, 1925 (H. C. berholser) ; 30,000 on the Susquehanna Flats on March 15, 1931 C. Marburger) ; 3,000 on Bird River, Baltimore County, on CURE 17. — Canvasback banding recoveries. Each symbol represents the ' number of records for a State or Province. Banded in Maryland, recovered I elsewhere: solid circle = recovered June through August; solid triangle = recovered September through May. Recovered in Maryland, banded else- where: open circle = banded June through August; open triangle = banded September through May. 92 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE March 7, 1948 (0. W. Crowder) ; 1,000+ at Gibson Island, Ami Arundel County, on March 18, 1952 (Mrs. W. L. Henderson 800 on Fishing Bay, Dorchester County, on March 25, 1941 Fall: 100,000+ on the Susquehanna Flats on December 7, 194" 50,000 on the Potomac River, Charles County, on December 1924 (H. C. Oberholser) ; "thousands" on Fishing Bay on Decer ber 9 and 10, 1949 ; 2,500 in southern Charles County on Decer ber 11, 1948. Winter: 105,000 on the Potomac River in Prin Georges and Charles Counties on February 13, 1926 (H. C. Obe< holser) ; 91,000 on the Susquehanna Flats on December 27, 1991 (Christmas count) ; 17,750 in the Ocean City area on Decemba 27, 1955 (Christmas count) ; 15,424 in the Annapolis area ( January 1, 1956 (Christmas count) ; 12,000 near the Army Chem cal Center, Harford County, on January 2, 1952 (T. A. Imhof; 8,520 in southern Charles County on December 30, 1951 (Chris mas count) ; 5,450 on the lower Patuxent River on January 1 1955 ; 3,085 in southern Dorchester County on December 28, 19( (Christmas count) ; 3,040 in the Kent Island area, Queen Ann^ County, on December 29, 1949 (Christmas count). Summt vagrant: About 100 in the District of Columbia on September 1931 (W. L. McAtee) ; about 30 in the District of Columbia ( August 25, 1929, and June 7, 1930 (W. H. Ball) . Banding. — See figure 17. GREATER SCAUP Aythya marila (Linnaeus) Status. — Transient and wintering: Common in the coastal ar« of Worcester County; fairly common in tidev^ater areas alor Chesapeake Bay and adjoining estuaries in the Eastern Shor Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections; rare in the i: terior of all sections. Habitat. — Bays and estuaries (both salt and brackish) ; o casional on inland lakes and ponds. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 1-10 to May 1( 20; peak March 15 to April 20. Extreme dates of departur May 31, 1951, in Harford County (T. A. Imhof ) ; May 27, 190 in Montgomery County (H. C. Oberholser) ; May 24, 1901, i Allegany County (G. Eifrig) ; May 23, 1920, in the District < Columbia (J. Kittredge, Jr.). Fall migration. — Normal period: October 1-10 to Decemb( 1-10. Extreme date of arrival: September 26, 1920, in the Dii trict of Columbia (J. Kittredge, Jr.). Maximum counts. — High counts for the Greater Scaup ar Lesser Scaup are combined under the latter species. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 93 ESSER SCAUP Aythya affinh (Eyton) Status. — Transient: Common, occasionally abundant, in tide- vater areas of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections ; fairly common in the interior of all sections. Wintering: Common in tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore, Vestern Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections; rare in the in- <^*^t^^^'y ^mtTD •"iGURE 18. — Lesser Scaup banding recoveries. Each symbol represents the number of records for a State or Province. Banded in Maryland, recovered elsewhere: solid circle = recovered June through August; solid triangle = recovered September through May. Recovered in Maryland, banded else- where: open circle = banded June through August; open triangle = banded September through May. 94 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE terior of all sections. Summer vagrant: Casual visitor — recordel] in Worcester, Dorchester, Queen Annes (P. F. Springer), Anr,^ Arundel (I. E. Hampe), Prince Georges, Charles (A. R. Stickle; , Jr.), Montgomery (J. Hailman, K. Stecher), and Garrett CountieJ, and in the District of Columbia (numerous observers). Habitat. — Bays and estuaries (both salt and brackish water | and inland ponds, reservoirs, and lakes. I Spring migration. — Normal period: March 1-10 to May IV 20; peak, March 15 to April 20. Extreme departure dates: Jur: 8, 1921 (A. Wetmore), and June 8, 1931 (W. L. McAtee), in tYi District of Columbia ; June 8, 1929, in Prince Georges and Chark ■ Counties (H. C. Oberholser) ; June 8, 1953, in Garrett County. Fall migration. — Normal period: September 25-October 5 l| December 15-25; peak, November 10 to December 10. Extreno arrival dates: September 19, 1927, in the District of Columbi (H. H. T. Jackson) ; September 24, 1953, in Dorchester Count: Maximum counts (Greater and Lesser Scaup). — Spring 73,000 on the Potomac River in Prince Georges and Charles Coui ties on March 17, 1926 (H. C. Oberholser) ; 6,250 in the Carre Island area, Baltimore County, on March 16, 1947 (0. ^ Crowder) ; 5,000 in the District of Columbia on March 10, 192 (A. Wetmore) ; 1,790 in Anne Arundel County on March 30, 1946 1,500 at Eastern Neck Island, Kent County, on April 1, 1938 (G. I Ammann) ; 1,350 on the Choptank River on March 25, 1946. Fal\ 118,000 on the Potomac River in Charles County on Novembe 17, 1926 (H. C. Oberholser) ; 25,000 on the Susquehanna Fla1 on December 7, 1947. Winter: 10,000 in southeastern Worceste County on December 22, 1947 (Christmas count) ; 2,100 on Senec Creek, Baltimore County, on February 14, 1952 ; 2,000 on the Sm quehanna Flats on December 26, 1952 (Christmas count) ; 1,40 on the lower Patuxent River on February 18, 1951. Summe vagrant: 9 in the District of Columbia on June 21 and August 11 1930 (W. J. Whiting) ; 4 at Port Tobacco, Charles County, on Jun 27, 1953 (A. R. Stickley, Jr.). Banding. — See figure 18. COMMON GOLDENEYE Bucephala c/angu/a (Linnaeus) Status. — Transient and luintering: Common in tidewate areas of the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections; fair! common (uncommon in winter) in tidewater areas of the Uppe Chesapeake section; uncommon (fairly common locally) in th interior of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections; uncommon (rare i: winter) in the Allegheny Mountain section. Concentration area BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 95 Qclude the lower Potomac River, lower Patuxent River, Chester liver, Eastern Bay, Choptank River, Honga River, Fishing Bay, Tanticoke River, Tangier Sound, Pocomoke Sound, and Chinco- eague Bay. Summei' vagrant: Casual visitor — recorded in Charles (J. W. Taylor, Jr.), Calvert (M. H. Martin), Anne Arundel (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, R. R. Kerr), and Baltimore C. D. Hackman) Counties. Habitat. — Bays and estuaries (both salt and brackish waters) ; Iso on inland lakes, reservoirs, and large streams. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 1-10 to April 20- 0; peak, March 15 to April 10. Extreme departure dates: May 1, 1953, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. G. Tappan, Mrs. W. L. lenderson) ; May 5, 1939, in Charles County (C. Cottam, F. M. Jhler) . Fall migration. — Normal period: October 15-25 to December 5-25; peak, November 10 to December 10. Extreme arrival 'ates: September 17, 1935, in Garrett County (M. G. Brooks) ; )ctober 8, 1901, on the Potomac River below Washington, D. C. B. Greenwood). Maximum counts. — Spring: 250 on Chesapeake Bay, Queen k.nnes County, on March 29, 1955; 150 on the Chester River on tiarch 2, 1946; 100 near Solomons Island, Calvert County, on /[arch 15, 1952 (L. Griffin). Fall: 1,500 on Fishing Bay, Dor- hester County, on December 10, 1949; 600 in the Kent Island .rea. Queen Annes County, on December 1, 1951 (Mr. and Mrs. . C. Hoover). Winter: 2,000 on the Potomac River off Mt. lemon, Virginia, on December 27, 1920 (A. Wetmore) ; 1,947 lear St. Michaels, Talbot County, on December 29, 1953 (Christ- nas count) ; 1,646 in the Annapolis area on January 1, 1956 Christmas count) ; 1,200 in southern Dorchester County on De- ember 28, 1953 (Christmas count) ; 1,066 in the Kent Island Tea on December 29, 1949 (Christmas count) ; 567 in St. Marys ;;ounty on January 2, 1956 (Christmas count) ; 432 in the Solo- aons Island area on December 21, 1946 (Christmas count) ; 387 n the Ocean City area on December 27, 1948 (Christmas count) ; 100 at Dierssen Refuge, Montgomery County, on January 31, .953 (E. D. Cooley) ; 80 near Green Spring in Allegany County on i'ebruary 7, 1924 (M. G. Brooks). BARROW'S GOLDENEYE] Bucephala islandica (Gmelin) Status. — Hypothetical. About December 20, 1922, 1 was re- )orted to have been taken at the mouth of Bush River by A. J. )ando (Hasbrouck, 1944). As no specimen is available, and )articularly because of the similarity of this species to the Com- 96 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE mon Goldeneye, this record must remain hypothetical. The fema^ specimen reported by Richmond (1891) as shot on the Potomj] River was found to be a Common Goldeneye. BUFFLEHEAD Bucephala albeola (Linnaeus) Status. — Transient: Common in tidewater areas of the Eas^ ern Shore and Western Shore sections; fairly common in tid water areas of the Upper Chesapeake section and in the interic of all sections. Wintering: Common in tidewater areas of tt Eastern Shore section; fairly common in the tidewater areas (I the Western Shore section; uncommon in the tidewater areas ci the Upper Chesapeake section ; rare in the interior of all sectionii One of the outstanding concentration areas is found on the LittH Choptank River in Dorchester County. Other concentration areai include Chincoteague and Sinepuxent Bays, Choptank River, EasK ern Bay, Chester River, and tidewaters of Anne Arundel am Calvert Counties. Summer vagrant: Casual visitor — 1 at Sand<| Point, Anne Arundel County, on July 7, 1952 (R. R. Kerr) . Habitat. — Bays and estuaries (both salt and brackish waters) also inland ponds, reservoirs, lakes, and (rarely) streams. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 10-20 to April 20' 30; peak, March 25 to April 15. Extreme arrival date: Februar; 25, 1950, in Prince Georges County (P. F. Springer). Extremx departure dates: June 9, 1951, in Charles County (J. W. Taylor Jr.) ; June 3, 1955, in Prince Georges County (F. M. Uhler) June 2, 1953, in Anne Arundel County (Mr. and Mrs. W. L Henderson). Fall migration. — Normal period: October 20-30 to Decembe: 10-20; peak, November 1 to November 30. Extreme arriva> dates: September 3, 1956, in Caroline County (M. W. Hewitt) October 10, 1893, in Frederick County (W. H. Fisher) . Maximum counts. — Spring: 201 on the South River, Anne Arundel County, on April 9, 1954; 77 in southern St. Marys County on April 12, 1954. Fall: 500 on Eastern Bay, Queer Annes County, on November 23, 1951 (V. B. Daiker) ; 280 in th( North Beach area, Calvert County, on November 23, 1952 (L. W' Sieck) ; 240 on South River, Anne Arundel County, on Novembei 14, 1954 ; 75 on Mountain Lake, Garrett County, on November 2 1951 (H. E. Slater). Winter: 650 in the Ocean City area on De^^ cember 27, 1948 (Christmas count) ; 646 in southeastern Wor- cester County on December 22, 1947 (Christmas count) ; 591 in the Annapolis area on January 2, 1955 (Christmas count) ; 558 in St. Marys County on January 2, 1956 (Christmas count) ; 150 BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 97 in Chester River, Kent County, on December 17, 1926 (T. Den- inead). Banding. — Two Buffleheads recovered in Anne Arundel and |)t. Marys Counties in winter (December 12-January 1) had been iianded during late summer (July 22-August 8) in southern Mani- oba. Two others banded in Queen Annes County on March 15 ,nd March 18, 1956, were recovered in eastern Wisconsin and outhwestern Saskatchewan on October 19, 1956, and September 5, 1956, respectively. )LDSQUAW Clangula hyemalis (Linnaeus) Status. — Transient and wintering: Common in tidewater areas if the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections ; uncommon in iidewater areas of the Upper Chesapeake section; rare in the in- jerior of all sections. Summer vagrant: Casual visitor — recorded in Anne Arundel County in 1946 (F. M. Uhler), in 1950 (E. \jB, Fleur, R. Beasley) and 1953 (Mr. and Mrs. S. Henderson), md in Prince Georges County in 1897 (G. Marshall) . I Habitat. — Bays and estuaries (chiefly salt-water) ; more spar- ingly in the ocean; rarely on inland ponds, lakes, and streams. I Spring migration. — Normal period: March 1-10 to April 20- |)0; peak, March 15 to April 15. Extreme departure dates: May ill, 1952, in Worcester County (D. A. Cutler) ; May 8, 1950, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson). I Fall migration. — Normal period: October 20-30 to December LO-20; peak, November 5 to December 5. Extreme arrival dates: October 18, 1956, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Hender- 5on, Mrs. G. Tappan) ; October 19, 1956, in Dorchester County. ! Maximum counts. — Spring: 4,000 in Talbot County on March 18, 1931 (H. C. Oberholser) ; 664 in the Western Shore section (West River to St. Georges Island) on March 25, 1920 (A. Wet- nore) ; 540 on the Potomac River near the mouth of the Wicomico River on March 26, 1920 (A. Wetmore). Fall: "Thousands" near the mouth of the Chester River on November 29, 1945 (E. R. ^uortrup) ; "thousands" at the mouth of the Manokin River, Somerset County, on December 6, 1911 (F. C. Kirkwood) ; 500 on Eastern Bay and the Choptank River on November 23, 1951; :200 near South Point in Chincoteague Bay on November 11, 1950; 10 near Seneca, Montgomery County, on November 28, 1953 (P. A. DuMont). Winter: 7,032 near St. Michaels in Talbot County on I December 29, 1953 (Christmas count) ; 2,413 in Ocean City area ion December 27, 1955 (Christmas count) ; 1,020 in southern Anne I Arundel County on January 6, 1955; 927 in southeastern Wor- 98 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE cester County on December 22, 1947 (Christmas count). Summ^ vagrant: 12 at Gibson Island, Anne Arundel County, on June 1953 (Mr. and Mrs. W. L. Henderson) . HARLEQUIN DUCK Histrionicus histrionicus (Linnaeus) Status. — Casual visitor along the coast. One was recorded j Ocean City on December 28, 1949 (Davis and Willoughby, 1950< Another was observed on March 1, 1955, and April 30, 19a (D. A. Cutler), at the Ocean City Inlet. ^ [LABRADOR DUCK] Campforhynchus labrador'ium (Gmelin) Status. — Hypothetical. Now extinct, this species probabj occurred in the Chesapeake Bay area at one time. Audubc^ (1838 and 1843) mentions seeing them in a market at Baltimor' COMMON EIDER Somaferla mollissima (Linnaeus) Status. — Casual visitor. A specimen, formerly in the old coi lection of the Maryland Academy of Sciences (but no longq extant), was reported to have been collected in Charles County below Marshall Hall (Kirkwood, 1895). An immature male wa closely observed at Ocean City on February 20, 1949 (I. I Barnes, P. F. Springer), and 1 was observed at the same loci- tion on May 15, 1949 (J. Cadbury, D. A. Cutler) . Five were see- at Ocean City on December 26 and 27, 1955 (E. G. Baldwin, P. J DuMont) , and 2 on February 26, 1956 (Mr. and Mrs. I. C. Hoover) KING EIDER Somateria spectabilis (Linnaeus) Status. — Casual visitor. One was collected (USNM) on th lower Potomac River (purchased at D. C. market on Decembe 12, 1866) . A female was collected on the Severn River on Deceir. ber 12, 1895 (F. C. Kirkwood). Another female, killed on th Honga River in Dorchester County on November 9, 1928, wa mounted and exhibited in a store at Hooper Island (Perkins, 1933) Two, a female (McDonogh Museum) and an immature male (Mc Acad. Sci.), were collected on November 18, 1933, at the moutl of the Little Choptank River in Dorchester County (H. Matthai) 2 others (a female collected — USNM) were seen by Mr. Mattha at the same location on November 25, 1933. One immature mal and 1 female were seen at Ocean City on January 29, 1950 (Barne, and Handley, 1950) ; the immature male was observed severa times after this, through February 26. A single bird was observec at Ocean City on October 28 and December 28-29, 1951 (J. W Taylor, Jr.). Another was seen at Ocean City on December 2'. and 29, 1952. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 99 HITE-WINGED SCOTER Melanitta deglandi (Bonaparte) Status. — Transierit: Abundant in the coastal area of Worcester Dunty; common in tidewater areas elsewhere in the Eastern lore and Western Shore sections; fairly common in tidewater ■eas of the Upper Chesapeake section ; rare in the interior of all ctions. Wintering: Common in tidewater areas of the Eastern lore section; fairly common in tidewater areas of the Western lore section ; uncommon in tidewater areas of the Upper Chesa- ;ake section. Summer vagrant: Rare in tidewater areas of the astern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections. Habitat. — Most numerous on littoral zone of ocean ; also regu- r in bays and estuaries and occasional on inland lakes and ponds. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 10-20 to May 1- ); peak, March 25 to April 25. Extreme departure dates: May L, 1939, in Queen Annes County (H. Kolb) ; May 21, 1950, be- i^een Sandy Point and Kent Island (S. H. Low) ; May 15, 1954, Worcester County (J. K. Wright). Fall migration. — Normal period: October 5-15 to December -15; peak, October 20 to December 1. Extreme arrival date: 'sptember 24, 1954, in Kent County (Mr. and Mrs, W. L. Hen- j3rson). I Maximum counts. — Spring: 8,000 between Ocean City and the elaware line on April 6, 1946; 1,000+ on Eastern Bay on May 1925 (F. C. Kirkwood). Fall: 3,000 in the Kent Island area, ueen Annes County, on December 1, 1951 (R, R. Kerr) ; 400 at orth Beach, Calvert County, on November 23, 1952 (L. W. ieck). Winter (Christmas counts) : 3,391 near St. Michaels, albot County, on December 29, 1954; 2,636 in the Ocean City rea on December 27, 1954 ; 565 in southeastern Worcester County 1 December 22, 1947; 203 in the Solomons Island area, Calvert ounty, on December 21, 1946. JRF SCOTER Melanitta perspicillata (Linnaeus) Status. — Transient: Abundant in the coastal area of Wor- ister County ; common in tidewater areas elsewhere in the Fast- en Shore and Western Shore sections; uncommon in tidewater reas of the Upper Chesapeake section; casual in the Piedmont action — 1, March 29-30, 1954, at Dierssen Refuge, Montgomery ounty (J. W. Terborgh, E. G. Baldwin). Wintering: Common 1 the coastal area of Worcester County ; fairly common in tide- '^ater areas elsewhere in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore actions ; rare in tidewater areas of the Upper Chesapeake section. 100 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Summer vagrant: Casual in the Eastern Shore section — recordf in Worcester County (L. T. Berry). Habitat. — Most numerous on littoral zone of ocean ; also regi lar on bays and estuaries (chiefly salt-water) . Spring migration. — Normal period: February 20-March to May 1-10; peak, March 1 to April 20. Extreme departwi dates: May 20, 1950, and May 19, 1906 (F. C. Kirkwood) , at Ocea City. Fall migration. — Normal period: October 1-10 to Decembt 1-10; peak, October 15 to November 25. Extreme arrival dau\ September 27, 1949, at Ocean City. j Maximum counts. — Spring: 19,000 between Ocean City anj the Delaware line on March 1, 1955. Winter (Christmas counts) 5,352 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1954; 1,066 i southeastern Worcester County on December 23, 1946. COMMON SCOTER Oidemia nigra (Linnaeus) Status. — Transient: Common in the coastal area of Worcestel County ; fairly common elsewhere in tidewater areas of the EasK em Shore and Western Shore sections; uncommon in tidewatd areas of the Upper Chesapeake section. Wintering: Fairly coir mon in the coastal area of Worcester County ; uncommon in tid( water areas elsewhere in the Eastern Shore and Western Shor sections; rare in the tidewater areas of the Upper Chesapeak section. Habitat. — Most numerous in littoral zone of ocean; also rego lar in bays and estuaries (chiefly salt-water). Spring migration. — Normal period: February 10-20 to Ma 5-15; peak, February 25 to April 25. Extreme date of arrival February 6, 1954, in Worcester County. Extreme dates of de parture: May 22, 1949, and May 20, 1950, at Ocean City. Fall migration. — Normal period: September 10-20 to Novem ber 20-30; peak, October 10 to November 10. Extreme arriva dates: August 4, 1945, and August 27, 1900 (F. C. Kirkwood), a Ocean City. Maximum counts. — Spring: 6,300 between Ocean City and thi Delaware line on April 6, 1946. Winter (Christmas counts) 2,368 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1954 ; 71 in south eastern Worcester County on December 22, 1947. RUDDY DUCK Oxyura jamaicensis (Gmelin) Status. — Transient: Common, locally abundant, in tidewatei areas of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesa peake sections; fairly common on inland water areas of all sec BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 101 )ns. Wintering: Common in tidewater areas of the Eastern lore and Western Shore sections; fairly common in tidewater I eas of the Upper Chesapeake section ; rare on inland water areas i the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake, and jedmont sections. Concentration areas include: the Potomac I ver in Charles County, Wicomico River in Charles and St. Marys , (Unties, lower Patuxent River, South River, West River, Ma- thy River, Patapsco River, Gunpowder River, Susquehanna jats, Sassafras River, Chester River, Eastern Bay, Choptank I ver. Fishing Bay, and the Nanticoke River. Summer vagrant: ire visitor in the tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore, Western |iore, and Upper Chesapeake sections. Habitat. — Brackish bays and estuaries that contain plenti- :1 aquatic plant growth, or a rich molluscan fauna; also on inland ies and ponds. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 1-10 to May 10- ; peak, March 15 to April 10. Extreme arrival date: February ;, 1948, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure dates: j.ne 7, 1930, in the District of Columbia (W. H. Ball) ; June 2, ,53, in Dorchester County (Mr. and Mrs. W. L. Henderson); ay 31, 1948, in Prince Georges County. Fall migration. — Normal period: September 15-25 to Decem- :r 5-15; peak, October 25 to November 30. Extreme arrival tes: August 27, 1935, in Garrett County (M. G. Brooks) ; Sep- mber 2, 1950, in Anne Arundel County. Extreme departure te: December 15, 1935, in Garrett County (M. G. Brooks). Maximum counts. — Spring: 12,500 on Fishing Bay, Dor- ester County, on March 21 and March 25, 1946; 6,150 in the luth River area, Anne Arundel County, on April 9, 1954; 3,520 southern Charles County on March 20, 1948; 2,500 in the Point )okout area, St. Marys County, on March 29, 1953 (J. W. Tborgh) ; 2,300 in the Carroll Island area, Baltimore County, . March 16, 1947 (0. W. Crowder). Fall: 26,330 in northern me Arundel County on November 23, 1955; 5,650 in southern larles County on December 11, 1948; 1,000+ in St. Marys mnty on November 8, 1946 (F. M. Uhler) ; 200 at Mountain ike, Garrett County, on November 2, 1951 (H. E. Slater). inter: 14,190 in the Annapolis area on January 2, 1955 (Christ- is count) ; 10,000 in the Port Tobacco area, Charles County, on icember 27, 1941 (Christmas count) ; 7,500 in the Wicomico ver area, St. Marys County, on February 11, 1950 (R. J. Beaton, W. Taylor, Jr.) ; 6,880 on the South and West Rivers, Anne rundel County, on January 2, 1949 ; 5,000 on the lower Patuxent 102 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE River on February 18, 1951 ; 4,400 on the Patapsco River on Ja uary 25, 1955. Summer vagrant: 40 on June 11, 1953, and ; on June 27, 1953, in the Port Tobacco area, Charles County (A. Stickley, Jr.). Banding. — One Ruddy Duck recovered in Baltimore County ( December 9, 1931, had been banded as a young- bird in easte:i Wisconsin on September 25, 1931. MASKED DUCK Ox/ura dominica (Linnaeus) Status. — Accidental visitor. An adult male was collect (USNM) in Cecil County near Elkton on September 8, 19l (Houghton, 1906). HOODED MERGANSER Lophodytes cucullatus (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding: Rare in the Allegheny Mountain and Piei mont sections — an adult female and 8 small young were observe^ on Cherry Creek in Garrett County on June 21, 1946 (Stewart ai Robbins, 1947a) , and an adult with young was seen near Sene( in Montgomery County on May 1, 1954 (W. B. Tyrrell). Tra sient: Common in tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore sectioi fairly common in tidewater areas of the Western Shore and Uppi Chesapeake sections and in the interior of all sections. Winte ing: Fairly common in tidewater areas of the Eastern Shoji section ; uncommon in tidewater areas of the Western Shore ai' Upper Chesapeake sections; rare in the interior of the Eastei Shore, Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake, and Piedmont section Summer vagrant: Rare in all sections. Habitat. — Creeks and ponds in tidal marshes; also on inlar streams, lakes, and ponds. Spring migration. — Normal period: February 15-25 to Ms 5-15; peak, March 10 to April 20. Extreme arrival date: Fe) ruary 14, 1953, in Frederick County (J. W. Richards) . Extren departure date: May 27, 1949, in Prince Georges County. Fall migration. — Normal period: September 25-October 5 1 December 5-15; peak, November 1 to November 30. Extrerr> arrival dates: September 17, 1895, in Montgomery County (E. . Brown) ; September 20, 1948, in Prince Georges County. Maximum counts. — Spring: 80 on Blackwater Refuge, Doi Chester County, on March 21, 1946. Fall: 50 in the Port Tobacc area, Charles County, on November 19, 1950; 31 at Patuxer Refuge, Prince Georges County, on November 26, 1947; 24 i Great Falls, Montgomery County, on November 14, 1948 (K. I Weber). Winter: 100 on the Potomac River, off Mt. Vernoi Virginia, on February 8, 1920 (F. Harper) ; 70 on Blackwate BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 103 fuge on December 27, 1949 (Christmas count) ; 50 in the Port bacco area on December 27, 1941 (Christmas count) ; 35 on npowder Neck, Harford County, on December 31, 1950 (T. A. hof). MMON MERGANSER Mergus merganser Linnaeus STATUS. — Transient and ivintering: Common in tidewater areas the Upper Chesapeake section; fairly common in tidewater ias of the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections and in the erior of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake, i Piedmont sections; uncommon in the Ridge and Valley, and egheny Mountain sections. Summer vagrant: Casual visitor — ;orded in Montgomery (D. M. Thatcher), Anne Arundel (J. W. ylor, Jr.), and Prince Georges Counties. Habitat. — Brackish bays, estuaries, and marshes, and inland ads, lakes, and streams (rare in salt-water habitats). Spring migration. — Normal period: February 15-25 to May .5; peak, March 5 to April 25. Extreme arrival dates: Feb- iry 7, 1903, in Allegany County (G. Eifrig) ; February 12, 1945, Prince Georges County. Extreme departure dates: May 26, 35 (H. C. Oberholser) , and May 24, 1952 (J. M. Abbott), in the strict of Columbia; May 18, 1944, in Prince Georges County. Fall migration. — October 20-30 to December 15-25; peak, •vember 15 to December 10. Extreme dates of arrival: Septem- r 22, 1951, in the District of Columbia (C. L. Clagett) ; Sep- nber 23, 1932, in Prince Georges County (H. C. Oberholser) ; ptember 29, 1894, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Ex- ■me date of departure: December 27, 1940, in Prince Georges unty. Maximum counts. — Spring: 195 in the Carroll Island area, Itimore County, on March 16, 1947 (0. W. Crowder) ; 150 in I District of Columbia on March 13, 1931 (W. L. McAtee) ; }+ at Port Tobacco, Charles County, on March 22, 1952 (H. A. tton, P. A. DuMont) ; 85 near Perry Point, Cecil County, on irch 5, 1949 (I. R. Barnes). Winter: 1,171 on Blackwater fuge, Dorchester County, on December 23, 1951 (Christmas mt) ; 438 on the Susquehanna Flats on December 28, 1951 hristmas count) ; 400 near Accokeek, Prince Georges County, December 29, 1944 (Christmas count) ; 350 on Loch Raven servoir, Baltimore County, on January 11, 1947 (H. Kolb) ; I in the Wicomico River area, southern Charles County, on tiuary 2, 1949 (Christmas count). 104 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE RED-BREASTED MERGANSER Mergus senator Linnaeus Status. — Transient: Common, occasionally abundant, in coastal area of Worcester County; fairly common elsewhere i tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sectioi i uncommon in tidewater areas of the Upper Chesapeake secti: and in the interior of all sections. Wintering : Fairly common : the coastal area of Worcester County; uncommon elsewhere ^i tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upp Chesapeake sections; rare in the interior of the Eastern Shoi Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake, and Piedmont sections. Sw mer vagrant: Rare in the coastal area of Worcester County and( tidewater areas of Somerset County; casual visitor in tidewali areas elsewhere — recorded in Dorchester, Anne Arundel, and I Marys Counties. Habitat. — Bays and estuaries (chiefly salt-water) ; also occu on the ocean and occasionally on inland ponds, lakes, and stream Spring migration — Normal period: March 5-15 to May 1 25; peak, March 25 to April 25. Extreme dates of departw May 30, 1927, in the District of Columbia (W. H. Ball) ; May l 1948, in Frederick County. Fall migration. — Normal period: October 15-25 to Decemt 10-20 ; peak, November 1 to November 30. Extreme arrival dai September 19, 1945, in Worcester County. Extreme departu date: December 23, 1901, in Allegany County (G. Eifrig). Maximum counts. — Spring: 200 on Deep Creek Lake, Garr< County, on April 18-19, 1936 (M. G. Brooks) ; 153 in the Oce, City area on April 6, 1946 ; 19 in the District of Columbia on Ap 17, 1918 (R. W. Moore) ; 15 near Seneca, Montgomery County, < April 18, 1949 (F. C. Cross). Fall: 5,000 on Sinepuxent Bg south of Ocean City, on November 2-3, 1945; 50 on Gunpowd Neck, Harford County, on October 21, 1950 (T. A. Imhof ) ; : on Mountain Lake, Garrett County, on November 3, 1951 (H. \ Slater). Winter (Christmas counts) : 462 in the Ocean City ar on December 28, 1949; 77 near St. Michaels, Talbot County, ( December 29, 1953. Family CATHARTIDAE TURKEY VULTURE Cofharfes aura (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding and transient: Common in the Eastei Shore, Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake, and Piedmont section fairly common in the Ridge and Valley section; uncommon (oce sionally fairly common during migration) in the Allegheny Mou: tain section. Wintering : Abundant in the Eastern Shore sectioi BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 105 mmon in the Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake, and Piedmont lotions; fairly common in the Ridge and Valley section; rare in 1 3 Allegheny Mountain section. j Habitat. — A wide-ranging edge species that occurs regularly I agricultural, marsh, and other open areas as well as in adjacent tested tracts. ! Nesting season. — Early April to late August (nesting peak, l:e April to mid-July). Extreme egg dates (91 nests) : April 1 1943, in Anne Arundel County and June 10, 1923 (F. C. Kirk- bod), in Baltimore County. Extreme nestling dates (25 nests) : |iy 13, 1954, in Caroline County (A. J. Fletcher) and August 29, 142, in Anne Arundel County. I Migration periods. — Approximate spring period: January 25 : March 20. Approximate fall period: October 25 to December Breeding population densities (pairs per 100 acres). — i (7 in 2,656 acres) in mixed habitats (including forest and brush, with ! scattered agricultural areas and abandoned farmlands) along the border '■ between Anne Arundel and Prince Georges Counties in 1943. ''• (7 in 11,520 acres) in "general farmland" (various agricultural habitats, i chiefly hayfields and pastures, with little cover owing to widespread clean- : farming practices) in Frederick County in 1950 (Stewart and Meanley, i 1950). Maximum counts. — Winter (Christmas counts) : 1,334 in the jCan City area on December 27, 1955; 704 near Denton, Caroline |iunty, on December 26, 1953; 400 near Crisfield, Somerset unty, on December 26, 1949. Banding. — Some of the Turkey Vultures, occurring in Maryland ;ring the summer, range farther south during the colder months ! shown by the following records: 1 banded in Howard County August 24 and recovered in northeastern North Carolina on nuary 23; and 2 recovered in Somerset and Frederick Counties 1 April 7 and July 19, respectively, that had been banded in atheastern Virginia (Elizabeth City County) in winter (De- nber 15-January 6) . A movement from Maryland to the north also shown by a bird that was banded in Dorchester County on irch 12 and recovered in central New Jersey on August 15. cal movements are indicated by 5 birds banded in Prince Georges ■unty in fall and winter (October 4-January 9), all of which ire recovered in winter and spring (December 10-April 20) tween 12 and 35 miles from the point of banding. Another 'd banded in Worcester County on June 5 was recovered the lowing year on July 3 in Dorchester County (37 miles from 106 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE point of banding). Occasional erratic seasonal movements shown by the following records: 1 recovered in Prince Geori County on December 23 that had been banded in southeaster Virginia on April 19 ; 1 recovered in Howard County on Deceml ( 3, that had been banded in northern Virginia (Alexandria) c August 26, and 1 banded in Prince Georges County on October' and recovered in south-central Pennsylvania on December 6 years later. BLACK VULTURE Coragyps afratus (Bechstein) Status. — Permanent resident (see fig. 19) : Common in 1 southern part of the Western Shore section (St. Marys, Charlt and Calvert Counties and southern Prince Georges Countj fairly common in the Potomac River Valley, extending from 1 LEGEND ^^^ Principal Rangi # Local Record Figure 19. — Breeding range of Black Vulture. District of Columbia to Williamsport in Washington County; u common in the northern part of the Western Shore section (An Arundel and northern Prince Georges Counties), in the southe part of the Piedmont section (Howard and Montgomery Cou ties), in western Frederick County (Frederick Valley), easte Washington County (Hagerstown Valley and the Blue Ridge), the Susquehanna River Valley (Harford and Cecil Counties), the northern part of the Eastern Shore section (southern Que BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 107 nes and northern Talbot Counties), and along the Pocomoke 7er (in Wicomico and Worcester Counties) ; rare, elsewhere in 1 Eastern Shore, Upper Chesapeake, and Piedmont sections and the western part of the Ridge and Valley section. Definite nest ords are from St. Marys (Court, 1924), Charles (A. D. Jones), intgomery (Wimsatt, 1939; S. H. Low), Prince Georges (Stew- and Robbins, 1947a), Anne Arundel (Dorsey, 1947), Harford olb, 1949b), Baltimore (Smyth, 1952), and Wicomico Coun- g. Alexander Wetmore states that this species was rare in .ryland until about 30 years ago. Sabitat. — A wide-ranging edge species that occurs in agricul- •al and other open habitats as well as in adjacent forested jsas. Nesting season. — Mid-March to early July. Extreme egg t':es (12 nests) : March 14, 1952, in Charles County (A. D. Jones) ]i May 17, 1947, in Harford County (Kolb, 1949b). Extreme dling dates (4 nests) : April 29, 1951, in Baltimore County I myth, 1952) and July 4, 1953, in Montgomery County (S. H. w). Maximum counts. — Spring: 75 at Carderock, Montgomery !unty, on March 28, 1948 (E. J. Stivers) ; 40 near Buckeystown, iederick County, on April 29, 1950. Winter: 100 near Plummers :and, Montgomery County, on February 11, 1945 (A. Wetmore) ; ; in St. Marys County on January 31, 1954 (J. W. Terborgh, et j) ; 69 in the District of Columbia area on December 20, 1952 jhristmas count) ; 65 near Accokeek, Prince Georges County, I December 22, 1947 (Christmas count) ; 62 in the Wicomico \veY area in southern Charles County on December 28, 1952 Ihristmas count) ; 51 in the Point Lookout area, St. Marys lunty, on December 22, 1937 (Christmas count) ; 16 near Den- !i, Caroline County, on December 26, 1953 (Christmas count) ; \ in the Catoctin Mountain area, Frederick County, on December i, 1951 (Christmas count). Banding. — One Black Vulture recovered in Kent County on irch 6, 1939, had been banded as an adult in southeastern rginia (Elizabeth City County) on May 5, 1935. Family ACCIPITRIDAE 'ALLOW-TAILED KITE E/ano/des forficatus (Linnaeus) Status. — Casual visitor. A specimen (USNM) was collected at licott City, Howard County, on August 7, 1879. A mounted 3cimen examined by Kirkwood (1895) was shot near Catons- le, Baltimore County, in late July or early August, 1889. An- 108 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE other was collected in Montgomery County on August 3, 18) (Bent, 1937). GOSHAWK Accipiter gentilis (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding: Formerly rare (one nest record) in 1 Allegheny Mountain section — in 1901, a pair was present summer and nested about 3 miles above Jennings in Garni County (Behr, 1914). Transient and wintering: Uncommon ai irregular in the Allegheny Mountain section; rare and irreguli in all other sections. Definite transient and wintering recor have been made in Garrett (Brooks, 1936c), Allegany (specimet — Kirkwood, 1895), Washington (specimen — J. N. Hamlet; Montgomery (specimens — USNM), Baltimore (F. C. Kirkwooc Prince Georges (specimen — Fisher, 1918; also several sig records), Talbot (fide R. L. Kleen), and Dorchester (specimen Cottam and Uhler, 1935) Counties. Habitat. — Breeding: Behr (1914) mentions that this sped: disappeared as a breeding bird in Garrett County, with the cutti:, of spruce and hemlock. Transient a7id wintering: Occurs in va:i ous forest edge habitats. Period of occurrence. — The dates of occurrence of transie and wintering birds are uniformly distributed between the e tremes of September 28, 1944 (Stewart et al., 1952) and t middle of March, 1918 (Cottam and Uhler, 1935). SHARP-SHINNED HAWK Accipiter striatus Vieillot Status. — Breeding: Fairly common in the Allegheny Mounta section; uncommon in the Ridge and Valley section; rare (fori erly more numerous) in the Piedmont section. Transient: Coi mon in all sections (a concentration area during the fall flight found on Hooper and Barren Islands in Dorchester County Wintering : Uncommon in the Eastern Shore and Western She sections ; rare in the Upper Chesapeake, Piedmont, and Ridge ai Valley sections. Habitat. — Occurs most commonly in areas with extensi wooded tracts. During migration, especially in the fall, th species concentrates along the ridge tops of the Allegheny Mou tain, and Ridge and Valley sections, along the Chesapeake Bj shores of the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections, and aloi the coast. Nesting season. — Early May to mid-July. Extreme egg dat (5 nests) : May 15, 1910, in the District of Columbia (E. J. Cour and May 31, 1891, in Montgomery County (Stabler, 1891 ■ BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 109 stling date (1 nest) : July 11, 1938, in Garrett County (L. M. ;wellyn). Spring migration. — Normal period: February 25-March 5 to ly 10-20; peak, April 5 to May 5. Extreme date of arrival: ibruary 8, 1943, in Prince Georges County. Extreme date of \oarture: May 28, 1953, in Charles County (A. R. Stickley, Jr.). ;Fall MIGRATION. — Normal period: September 1-10 to Novem- i* 15-25; peak, September 15 to October 25. Extreme dates of {"ival: August 16, 1943, in Prince Georges County; August 20, |S9, in the District of Columbia (C. W. Richmond). Extreme \te of departure: December 6, 1953, in Prince Georges County. IMaximum COUNTS. — Spring: 105 at Patuxent Refuge, Prince jorges County, on April 26, 1946. Fall: 190 at Monument Knob i the boundary between Frederick and Washington Counties on tober 11, 1953 (R. J. Beaton) ; 113 at White Marsh, Baltimore iunty, on October 1, 1954 (C. D. Hackman) ; 89 at Seneca, Mont- imery County, on September 22, 1951 (D. Power). Winter jihristmas counts) : 17 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 153 ; 5 in the Point Lookout area, St. Marys County, on December I, 1937 ; 5 in southern Dorchester County on December 28, 1955. lOPER'S HAWK Accipifer cooper// (Bonaparte) Status. — Breeding: Fairly common in the Western Shore sec- >n; uncommon elsewhere in all sections. Transient: Fairly com- im in all sections (a concentration area during the fall flight is ;und on Hooper and Barren Islands in Dorchester County) . intering: Uncommon in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, Up- ,r Chesapeake, and Piedmont sections; rare in the Ridge and iilley, and Allegheny Mountain sections. Habitat. — Forest and wood margin habitats, occurring most mmonly in areas that contain extensive forested tracts. i Nesting season. — Mid-April to late July. Extreme egg dates 1:9 nests) : April 21, 1918, in the District of Columbia (E. J. )urt) and June 5, 1892, in Montgomery County (H. B. Stabler). \ctreme nestling dates (10 nests) : June 5, 1892, in Montgomery mnty (H. B. Stabler) and July 23, 1937, in Worcester County Vaughn, 1937). Spring migration. — March 1-10 to May 5-15; peak, April 5 i April 30. Extreme date of arrival: February 24, 1949, in Prince iorges County. Extreme dates of departure: May 18, 1921, and lay 17, 1917, in the District of Columbia area (McAtee, 1921). .Fall migration. — Normal period: September 1-10 to Novem- r 15-25; peak, September 15 to October 25. Extreme dates of 110 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE arrival: August 24, 1945, in Worcester County; August 27, 1{[ in Talbot County (R. L. Kleen). Extreme date of departs November 28, 1951, in Frederick County (J. W. Richards). Breeding population density (pairs per 100 acres). — 0.2 (3 in 1,856 acres) in upland forest and brush (both pine and deciduoi with scattered small agricultural areas and abandoned farmlands! Prince Georges County in 1943. Maximum counts. — Spring: 19 on Patuxent Refuge, Pri: Georges County, on April 26, 1945. Fall: 16 on Patuxent Ref i on September 23, 1944 ; 14 on South Mountain along the bound i between Frederick and Washington Counties on October 15, 1 1 (Beaton, 1951) ; 14 at White Marsh, Baltimore County, on | tober 1, 1954 (C. D. Hackman). Winter (Christmas count| 8 in the Crisfield area, Somerset County, on December 26, 19 1 8 in the Ocean City area, Worcester County, on December 1955 ; 7 in southern Dorchester County on December 21, 1947. Banding. — A southward movement of Cooper's Hawks fi Maryland is shown by the record of an adult banded in Pri Georges County on August 1, 1945, that was recovered in soi eastern North Carolina on November 12, 1947. The more noi ern origin of some of the migrating Cooper's Hawks in MaryL is indicated by the following records of 5 birds recovered Maryland during early spring (March 6-20) and fall (Septemi 22-October 28) that had been banded as nestlings in sumn (June 20-July 12) farther north: 3 recovered in Dorchesn Prince Georges, and Washington Counties had been banded Massachusetts (eastern and southwestern portions) ; and sir birds recovered in Dorchester and Carroll Counties had b banded in northeastern New Jersey and southeastern Ontg (Leeds County) respectively. More local movements are il] trated by 2 birds recovered in Caroline County in fall (Septem 3-26, 1931) that had been banded as nestlings (June 18- 1931) in central Delaware; and a bird banded as a nestling Prince Georges County on June 16, 1943, that was recovered ab 10 miles distant in Anne Arundel County on April 20, 1944. RED-TAILED HAWK Bufeo \ama\cen%h (Gmelin) Status. — Breeding: Fairly common in the Eastern Shore i Western Shore sections; uncommon elsewhere in all sectic Transient: Fairly common in all sections. Wintering : Comn in the Eastern Shore and Upper Chesapeake sections ; fairly c( mon in the Western Shore and Piedmont sections ; uncommon the Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Mountain sections. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 1 1 1 lABlTAT. — A wide-ranging' edge species that occurs regularly agricultural, marsh, and other open areas as well as in ex- sive forested tracts. JESTING SEASON. — Mid-March to late June (peak, late March early June) . Extreme egg dates (49 nests) : March 12, 1899, i May 3, 1917, in Baltimore County (both extremes by F. C. 'kwood). Extreme nestling dates (9 nests) : April 25, 1923, i June 24, 1896, in Baltimore County (both by F. C. Kirkwood) . Spring migration. — Normal period: February 10-20 to April -20; peak, February 25 to April 1. Extreme date of departure: ril 30, 1944, in Prince Georges County. ^'ALL migration. — Normal period: September 5-15 to Decem- • 1-10 ; peak, October 10 to November 15. Breeding population density (pairs per 100 acres). — j» (5 in 10,560 acres) in mixed habitats (forest and brush, including [ deciduous and pine types, with scattered small agricultural areas and abandoned farmlands) along the boundary between Anne Arundel and Prince Georges Counties in 1951. Maximum counts. — Spring: 28 near Emmitsburg, Frederick iunty, on March 21, 1953 (J. W. Richards) ; 15 (12 in one hour) Patuxent Refuge, Prince Georges County, on February 28, 18. Fall: 231 over South Mountain along the boundary between ederick and Washington Counties on October 30, 1954 (E. ; nold) ; 65 at White Marsh, Baltimore County, on November 12, 152 (C. D. Hackman) ; 50 (in 15 minutes) in the District of ilumbia on November 6, 1947 (E. G. Davis). Winter (Christmas lints) : 35 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1955; 23 near I nton, Caroline County, on December 26, 1953 ; 16 in the Susque- inna Flats area in Harford and Cecil Counties on December 27, 52; 15 in southern Dorchester County on December 28, 1953; [ in the Catoctin Mountain area on January 1, 1955 ; 12 in the strict of Columbia area on December 31, 1951. Banding. — A nestling banded in Montgomery County on May 1937, was recovered in southwestern Illinois (St. Clair County) August 30, 1937. Another nestling banded in Montgomery unty on May 12, 1940, was recovered in northern Virginia age County) on February 19, 1941. An immature bird banded Prince Georges County on November 1, 1943, was recovered in ath-central North Carolina (Union County) on January 21, 44. One banded near Hagerstown, Washington County, on |)vember 8, 1952, was recovered near Savage River dam, Garrett unty, on October 28, 1954. One recovered in the District of lumbia on December 1, 1951, had been banded as a nestling 112 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE in central New York (Tompkins County) on May 28, 1951. i other bird recovered in Harford County on December 28, 19 had been banded in south-central Pennsylvania on December 1943. i RED-SHOULDERED HAWK Bufeo /ineafus (Gmelin) Status. — Regular occurrence throughout the year. Locsi common in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections — mi numerous along the Pocomoke and Patuxent Rivers and thi tributaries, and in the Zekiah Swamp (Charles County) ; fai< common in the Upper Chesapeake and Piedmont sections ; uncci mon (rare in winter) in the Ridge and Valley, and Alleghei Mountain sections. During migration in the fall this species tew to concentrate along the fall line of the Piedmont section (Ha^ man, 1954). Habitat. — Chiefly flood-plain or river swamp forests (Stews 1949) ; in the Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Mountain sectio also occurs in moist well-drained forests on the upland. Nesting season. — Mid-March to late June (nesting peak, I March to late May). Extreme egg dates (53 nests) : March 1910, in Prince Georges County (E. J. Court) and May 31, 18 in Baltimore County (Kirkwood, 1895). Extreme nestling da (75 nests) : April 3, 1939, in Prince Georges County (E. I Colgan) and June 16, 1941, in Prince Georges County (L. Dargan). Migration periods. — Spring: February 15-25 to April 10-! peak, March 1 to April 5. Fall: September 10-20 to Noveml 20-30 ; peak, September 20 to November 15. Breeding population density (pairs per 100 acres). — 0.2 (51 in 26,880 acres) in lowland forest (flood-plain forest and adjad small clearings and areas of river terrace and river bluif forests) aL the Patuxent River in Anne Arundel and Prince Georges Counties 1943 (Stewart, 1949). Maximum counts. — Spring (migrants) : 36 at Bethesda, Mo gomery County, on March 26, 1954 (J. C. Boyd) ; 8 near Wh Marsh, Baltimore County, on February 25, 1953 (C. D. Ha man) ; 8 near Emmitsburg, Frederick County, on April 14, li (J. W. Richards) ; 7 on Patuxent Refuge, Prince Georges Coun on March 25, 1945. Fall: 115 migrating along the fall line n< White Marsh on November 12, 1952 (C. D. Hackman) ; 56 migr ing along the fall line at Laurel, Prince Georges County, on i tober 24, 1954 ; 22 on South Mountain along the boundary betw< Frederick and Washington Counties on October 15, 1949 (Beat BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 113 )1). Winter- (Christmas counts) : 21 in the Ocean City area I December 27, 1954; 12 at Patuxent Refuge on January 12, )0; 12 in the Point Lookout area, St. Marys County, on Decem- • 23, 1938; 11 in southern Dorchester County on December 23, )1; 10 in the Triadelphia Reservoir area on December 24, 1955. Banding. — Ten banded as nestlings in Anne Arundel, Prince jDrges, and Montgomery Counties and the District of Columbia I spring (April 3-June 4), were recovered as follows: 5 were jen in spring and early summer (April 7-June 30), including jii Maryland (between 10 and 55 miles from point of banding), ji 1 each in central New York and east-central Virginia; 4 were |:en in fall (September 15-October 25) , all in Maryland, between jand 48 miles from the point of banding; and 1 was taken in jiter (January 20) in central North Carolina. An adult banded ! Prince Georges County on March 18, 1944, was recovered in it-central Virginia (reported in letter dated April 10, 1945) li an immature banded in Dorchester County on October 29, 11, was recovered in central Massachusetts on November 11, !l5. Five recovered in fall, winter, and spring (October 12- ril 1) in Prince Georges, Carroll, Kent, Baltimore, and Wico- 30 Counties had been banded as nestlings (May 2- June 17) in ,;tern Massachusetts, central New York, northern New Jersey, jitheastern Pennsylvania, and central Delaware, respectively. \. immature banded in southeastern Pennsylvania on September 1954, was recovered in Baltimore County on January 17, 1955. ;OAD-WINGED HAWK Bufeo platypterus (Vieillot) [Status. — Breeding: Common in the Allegheny Mountain, and ige and Valley sections; fairly common in the Piedmont and astern Shore sections ; uncommon in the Upper Chesapeake and ! stern Shore sections. Transient: Common, occasionally abund- jt, in the Allegheny Mountain, Ridge and Valley, Piedmont, and ^istern Shore sections; fairly common in the Upper Chesapeake i Eastern Shore sections. Concentration areas during migra- In, especially in the fall, include most of the higher ridges in ! Allegheny Mountain, and Ridge and Valley sections. Habitat. — Chiefly well-drained upland deciduous forest or up- :d deciduous forest mixed with pine. Nesting season. — Late April to mid-July (nesting peak, early ly to late June). Extreme egg dates (30 nests) : April 23, )3, in Montgomery County (USNM — M. Clarke) and June 6, 56, in Baltimore County (M. B. Meanley). Extreme nestling .es (7 nests) : June 3, 1886, in the District of Columbia (Riley, )2) and July 14, 1935, in Baltimore County (M. B. Meanley). 114 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Spring migration. — Normal period: April 5-15 to May 1-] peak, April 15 to April 30. Exty^eme dates of arrival: March : 1884 (H. W. Henshaw), and March 31, 1919 (M. T. Cooke), \ the District of Columbia. Fall migration. — Normal period: September 1-10 to Octoh 10-20; peak, September 15 to September 30. Extreme dates t arrival: August 11, 1955, in Talbot County (R. L. Kleen) ; Augi 28, 1946, in Prince Georges County (J. N. Hamlet). Extre^, dates of departure: November 27, 1891, in Montgomery Cour (USNM— C. W. Richmond) ; October 21, 1950, along the bounda: between Frederick and Washington Counties (R. S. Stauffer). Breeding population density (pairs per 100 acres). — 0.2 (4.5 in 1,856 acres) in upland forest and brush (mixed pine and decide forest with small scattered agricultural areas and abandoned farmland in Prince Georges County in 1943. Maximum counts. — Spring: 171 at Patuxent Refuge, Pria Georges County on April 16, 1944; 94 on South Mountain ald| the boundary between Frederick and Washington Counties April 21, 1951 (R. J. Beaton) ; 51 at Laurel, Prince Geor^ County, on April 20, 1952; 40 near Deep Creek Lake, Garri County, on April 17, 1954 (M. G. Brooks) ; 36 near Emmitsbui Frederick County, on April 19, 1954 (J. W. Richards). Fa 2,500 (in 15 minutes) near Emmitsburg, Frederick County, September 18, 1953 (J. W. Richards) ; 2,169 at Lore's Pond, C vert County, on September 21, 1949 (G. Kelly) ; 1,430 on Sot Mountain on September 24, 1950 (E. G. Baldwin) ; 1,399 alo the fall line above White Marsh, Baltimore County, on Septeml 23, 1954 (C. D. Hackman) ; 1,047 (in 75 minutes) on Patuxe Refuge on September 22, 1944; 1,000 in the District of Columl on September 22, 1918 (M. T. Cooke). ROUGH-LEGGED HAWK Buteo lagopus (Pontoppidan) Status. — Transient and lointering: Fairly common in D* Chester County; uncommon elsewhere in the Upper Chesapea and Eastern Shore sections; rare in all other sections. Birds the dark phase of this species predominate in Maryland. Habitat. — Chiefly, open agricultural areas and tidal marshl Period of occurrence. — Normal period: October 25-Noveml: 5 to April 5-15 ; peak, November 20 to March 25. Extreme di of arrival: October 1, 1949, along the boundary between Frederi and Washington Counties (R. J. Beaton). Extreme dates of i parture: April 21, 1948, in Queen Annes County; April 21, 19! along the boundary between Frederick and Washington Count (R. J. Beaton). BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 115 Maximum counts. — Sp7ing: 3 in Talbot and Dorchester Coun- s on March 22, 1953 (E. Willis). Winter: 6 in Dorchester unty on December 22, 1952 (Christmas count) , )LDEN EAGLE Aquila chrysa'efos (Linnaeus) Status. — Transient: Uncommon in the Ridge and Valley, and legheny Mountain sections; rare elsewhere in all sections. Intering: Rare in the Piedmont, Upper Chesapeake, Western ore, and Eastern Shore sections. Suminer vagrant: Casual in I Allegheny Mountain section — 1 seen over Negro Mountain, rrett County, on August 31, 1931 (A. Wetmore). Habitat. — A wide-ranging edge species. Spring migration — Normal period: March 1-10 to April 10- , Extreme date of departure: April 21, 1951, along the bound- j between Frederick and Washington Counties (R. J. Beaton). I Fall migration. — Normal period: September 20-30 to No- jmber 20-30. Extreme dates of arrival: September 16, 1951, I White Marsh, Baltimore County (C. D. Hackman) and Septem- |r 17, 1950, along the boundary between Frederick and Wash- \i^on Counties (R. J. Beaton). Extreme date of departure: hcember 3, 1949, along the boundary between Frederick and jashington Counties (R. J. Beaton). j Maximum counts. — Fall: 3 at Monument Knob along the iundary between Frederick and Washington Counties on Sep- Inber 24, 1950, and October 15, 1949 (Beaton, 1951). |1D EAGLE Haliaeefus leucocepbalus (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding: Fairly common in the tidewater areas of 3 Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sec- ns; rare in the Piedmont section. Definite nest records for Drcester, Somerset, Dorchester, Talbot, Caroline, Queen Annes, |int, Cecil, Harford, Baltimore, Prince Georges, Anne Arundel, ilvert, St. Marys, Charles, and Montgomery Counties and the : strict of Columbia. Transient and ivintering: Fairly common the tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and )per Chesapeake sections; uncommon in the Piedmont section d in the interior of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and )per Chesapeake sections; rare in the Ridge and Valley, and legheny Mountain sections. Summer vagrant: Uncommon in 3 Eastern Shore, Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake, and Pied- mt sections. Habitat. — Most numerous in tidewater habitats; also occurs mg inland lakes, ponds, and streams. Nesting season. — Early February to early August (peak, 116 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE mid-February to early June). Extreme egg dates (63 nestj February 8, 1915, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) April 29, 1936, in Baltimore County (W. B. Tyrrell). Extri\ nestling dates (34 nests) : March 18, 1934, in Anne Arun County (Tyrrell, 1934) and July 9, 1947, in the District of Coh bia (J. W. Taylor, Jr.). A nest containing young about 4 we: old was found on June 26, 1934 ; these young would not have j the nest until August (W. B. Tyrrell). Periods of greatest abundance (transients and vagrants) Spring: March 1 to April 30. Fall: August 25 to December Maximum counts. — Fall: 12 along the Potomac River in Pri Georges and Charles Counties on September 19, 1927 (H. H. Jackson) ; 7 near White Marsh, Baltimore County, on Septemi 17, 1953 (C. D. Hackman). Winter: 36 in southern Dorches County on December 22, 1952 (Christmas count) ; 34 in the Car Island area, Baltimore County, on December 29, 1951 (Christr count) ; 27 at Army Chemical Center, Harford County, on Janu 2, 1952 (T. A. Imhof ) ; 17 in the Susquehanna Flats area in H ford and Cecil Counties on December 28, 1951 (Christmas coui Banding. — A nestling banded in Charles County on May 1940, was recovered in central North Carolina on September 1940. Another nestling banded in Montgomery County on A] 23, 1936, was recovered in northeastern Ohio in August li Two other nestlings banded in Baltimore and Anne Arundel Co ties on June 23, 1936, and May 26, 1934, were recovered in Ma land on October 10, 1937, and December 30, 1936, respectiv within 35 miles of the points of banding. Two Bald Eagles covered in winter in Kent and Worcester Counties had been bann as nestlings in southeastern Ontario and southern New Jers^ respectively. Two others recovered in Dorchester and Cal\l Counties in winter and 1 recovered in Calvert County in Sept4 ber had all been banded as nestlings in northern Delaware. MARSH HAWK Circus cyaneus (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 20) : Fairly common in the M gheny Mountain section and in the tidewater areas of Someri« Wicomico, and Dorchester Counties; uncommon elsewhere in tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore section. Definite nest ii ords for Somerset, Dorchester, and Garrett Counties. Transiei Common in the Eastern Shore and Upper Chesapeake sectio fairly common in all other sections. Wintering: Common in Eastern Shore and Upper Chesapeake sections; fairly comni in the Western Shore and Piedmont sections; uncommon in BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 117 LEGEND Principal Range Local Record Figure 20. — Breeding range of Marsh Hawk. ige and Valley section ; rare in the Allegheny Mountain section. \mmer vagrant: Rare in all sections. lABiTAT. — Breeding: Tidal marsh and marsh-meadow types and |i Allegheny Mountain section) upland sedge-meadows. Trans- It and wintering: Open agricultural areas and tidal marshes. (Nesting season. — Late April to mid- July. Extreme egg dates \ nests) : April 28, 1954, in Dorchester County and June 23, j)0 (W. B. Tyrrell), in Garrett County. Extreme nestling dates jnests) : June 12, 1925, in Garrett County (F. C. Kirkwood) and iy 1, 1937 (downy young), in Garrett County (John, 1937). Spring migration. — Normal period: March 1-10 to May 1-10; ik, March 20 to April 20. Extreme date of arrival: February ! 1948, in Prince Georges County. Extreme dates of departure: !y 13, 1946, in Baltimore County (H. Kolb) ; May 12, 1913, in 'nee Georges County (T. H. Kearney, W. R. Maxon). ^""ALL MIGRATION. — Normal period: August 10-20 to November -30; peak, October 10 to November 15. Extreme dates of ar- al: July 27, 1894, in St. Marys County (A. W. Ridgway) ; July 1938, in Baltimore County (H. Kolb). vIaximum counts. — Fall: 20 along South Mountain on the mdary between Frederick and Washington Counties on Novem- I 12, 1949 (Beaton, 1951) ; 13 in Dorchester County on Novem- 118 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE ber 23, 1946. Winter: 73 in Dorchester County on December 1952 (Christmas count) ; 50+ near Seneca, Montgomery Coui on January 25, 1947 (S. A. Gatti) ; 45 in the Ocean City area December 27, 1955 (Christmas count) ; 31 in the Crisfield ai] Somerset County, on December 26, 1949 (Christmas count) ; 3V southeastern Worcester County on December 22, 1947 (Christr count) . I BANDING. — Two birds recovered in winter (December 30-Jai ary 12) in Caroline and Queen Annes Counties had been bam as nestlings in western New York and northeastern New Jerj Another, recovered in September in Wicomico County, had bl banded as a nestling in southern New Jersey. An adult bani in east-central New York was recovered in Talbot County (dd not known). OSPREY Pandion haliaetus (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 4) : Common in the tidewater an of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake , tions. Transient: Common in the Eastern Shore, Western Sh and Upper Chesapeake sections; fairly common in the Piedmi Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Mountain sections. Winteri Rare in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesape sections ; casual in the Piedmont section — recorded in Montgom County on February 1, 1918 (A. Wetmore), and December 1952 (L, E. Morgan). Summer vagrant: Uncommon in the E ern Shore, Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake, and Piedmont tions. Habitat. — Along open tidewater and inland ponds and strea Nesting season. — Late March to late August (nesting pi late April to early July) . Nest-building was recorded as earl; March 22, 1953, in Caroline County (Mr. and Mrs. A. J. Fletch Extreme egg dates (173 nests) : April 20, 1887, in Cecil Coi (USNM) and July 20, 1953, in Caroline County (Mr. and I A. J. Fletcher). Extreme nestling dates (68 nests) : "About ] 20" in Caroline County (Poole, 1942b) and August 19, 1893 Talbot County (Kirkwood, 1895). Spring migration. — Normal period: March 10-20 to Mayi 20; peak, April 10 to April 30. Extreme dates of arrival: M.i 2, 1954, in St. Marys County (H. N. Page, V. C. Kirtley) ; Mi 5, 1952, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, I G. Tappan) ; March 7, 1954, in Caroline County (S. Some Extreme date of departure: May 24, 1953 in Frederick Cou (J. W. Richards). BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 119 Fall migration. — Normal period: September 5-15 to Novem- r 1-10; peak, September 15 to October 5. Extreme date of ar- ml: August 31, 1942, in Prince Georges County. Extreme dates departure: November 30, 1907, in the District of Columbia L K. Fisher) ; November 23, 1951, in Dorchester County. Maximum counts.— Spring : 45 in Charles County on April 18, 53 (J. W. Terborgh) ; 43 (in Gi/o hours) on Patuxent Refuge April 26, 1945. Fall: 23 in the Ocean City area on September , 1945; 16 along the fall line above White Marsh, Baltimore >unty, on September 20, 1952 (C. D. Hackman), 13 on South Duntain along the boundary between Frederick and Washington iunties on September 23, 1950 (Dr. and Mrs. R. S. Stauffer). Banding. — One banded as a nestling at Turkey Point, Cecil lunty, on July 2, 1954, was recovered in western Mato Grosso, •azil, on September 25, 1954; another banded as a nestling on ng Marsh Island in Eastern Bay, Queen Annes County on July 1954, was recovered in Oriente Province, Cuba, on November , 1955. One shot near Grasonville, Queen Annes County, on [)ril 5, 1956, had been banded on Gardiners Island, New York, July 20, 1951. I Family FALCONIDAE REGRINE FALCON Faico peregrinus Tunstall Status. — Breeding: Occurs locally in the Piedmont, Ridge and illey, and Allegheny Mountain sections (during the period 1932- 52, 10 occupied nest sites found were in Harford, Montgomery, ederick, Washington, and Allegany Counties). Transient: irly common along the coast in Worcester County (Assateague land is an outstanding concentration area during the fall migra- n) ; uncommon in the tidewater areas elsewhere in the Eastern Sore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections and in the herior in the Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Mountain sec- ins; rare on inland areas of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, i>per Chesapeake, and Piedmont sections. Wintering: Rare in |i Eastern Shore, Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake, Piedmont, i Ridge and Valley sections. I Habitat. — Breeding: Usually in the vicinity of cliffs in the i'untains or along deep gorges of some of the larger streams. \ansient and ivinteiHng: Occurs most commonly along the ocean !ich; also regular along the bay shores and tidal marshes and I the higher ridges in the mountains ; in downtown Washington, C, 1 or 2 birds are frequently found in the vicinity of the taller I ildings. 120 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Figure 21. — Peregrine Falcon banding recoveries. Each symbol represew the number of records for a State or Province. Banded in Maryland, rec« ered elsewhere: solid triangle = recovered September through May. Rec« ered in Maryland, banded elsewhere: open triangle = banded Septemh through May. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 121 Nesting season. — Mid-February to early June (Wimsatt, 1939 id 1940). Extreme egg dates (3 nests): about February 12, '39 (Wimsatt, 1940), and about May 7, 1937 (allowing for incu- 'tion period — Wimsatt, 1939) — both records in Washington )unty. Extreme nestling dates (2 nests) : about March 15, 1939 iVimsatt, 1940), and about June 10, 1937 (Wimsatt, 1939)— both cords in Washington County. I Spring migration. — Normal period: February 20-March 1 to jay 10-20. Extreme date of arrival: February 19, 1922, in lontgomery County (Fisher, 1935). Extreme date of departure: ay 22, 1918, in the District of Columbia (L. Griscom). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 10-20 to Novem- ;r 20-30; peak, September 25 to November 5. Extreme date of rival: August 30, 1943, in Prince Georges County. Extreme te of departure: December 9, 1949, in Dorchester County. Maximum counts. — Spring: 5 at Gibson Island, Anne Arundel )unty, on February 25, 1955 (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, S. Hender- ,a). Fall: 75 (12 captured) on Assateague Island in Worcester i»unty on October 13, 1946 (T. H. Cunningham) ; 4 on South iDuntain on October 3, 1953 (R. J. Beaton) ; 4 on Backbone iDuntain, Garrett County, on September 25, 1955 (M. G. Brooks, 1 aL). Banding. — See map, figure 21. 3EON HAWK Faico columbarius Linnaeus Status. — Transient: Fairly common in the coastal area of Wor- |3ter County; uncommon elsewhere in all sections. Wintering: lire in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections. Habitat. — Especially characteristic of the coastal barrier 'aches in the zone containing brush and patches of loblolly pine; \\o occurs in other brush and forest edge habitats and along the y shores. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 20-30 to May 1- ; peak, April 10 to April 30. Extreme dates of arrival: March 1955, in Prince Georges County (F. C. Schmid) ; March 7, 1937, Anne Arundel County (M. B. Meanley) ; March 10, 1956, in ilbot County (R. L. Kleen, E. Adams) ; March 18, 1942, in Caro- ie County (K. B. Corbett). Extreme dates of departure: May ', 1954, in Worcester County (J. K. Wright) ; May 13, 1950, in arles County (M. C. Crone, R. S. Farr) ; May 11, 1917, in the strict of Columbia (H. C. Oberholser). Fall migration. — Normal period: August 20-30 to November 10; peak, September 15 to October 20. Extreme dates of ar- 122 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE rival: August 13, 1948, in Worcester County; August 17, 18S' in the District of Columbia (W. B. Barrows). Extreme dates departure: November 14, 1943, in Prince Georges County; N vember 11, 1951, in Worcester County. Maximum counts. — Fall: 8 on Assateague Island, Worcest County, on September 20, 1945; 5 near Emmitsburg, Frederi County, on September 23, 1951 (J. W. Richards) . SPARROW HAWK Fa/co sparverius Linnaeus Status. — Breeding: Fairly common in all sections. Transiep Locally abundant in the Eastern Shore section (Hooper Island , Dorchester County is one of the principal concentration areas fall) ; common elsewhere in all other sections. Wintering : Co] mon in the Eastern Shore and Upper Chesapeake sections; fail common in the Western Shore and Piedmont sections ; uncomm in the Ridge and Valley section; rare in the Allegheny Mounts section. Habitat. — Chiefly open agricultural areas. During migratia also occurs regularly along the wooded ridges in the Ridge ai Valley, and Allegheny Mountain sections; along the fall line the Piedmont section ; and in brush and edge habitats near ti( water. Nesting season. — Late March to late August (nesting peji mid-April to early July) . Extreme egg dates (39 nests) : Man 31, 1894, in the District of Columbia (USNM— J. H. Riley) ai August 4, 1889, in or near the District of Columbia (USNM— Robinette). Extreme nestling dates (10 nests): May 17, 18' in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) and August 5, 1946, in 1 District of Columbia (J. W. Taylor, Jr.). Normal migration periods. — Spring: March 1-10 to May 10; peak, March 15 to April 25. Fall: September 1-10 to Nove ber 10-20; peak, September 15 to October 10. Maximum counts. — Spring: 75 in Dulaney Valley, Baltimi County, on March 18, 1893 (Kirkwood, 1895) . Fall: 51 on Hoo] Island, Dorchester County, on September 24, 1950 ; 42 near Wh Marsh, Baltimore County, on September 20, 1952 (C. D. HaK man) ; 20 on South Mountain along the boundary between Fr erick and Washington Counties on September 24, 1950. Win (Christmas counts) : 66 in Caroline County on December 20, 19i 52 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1953. Banding. — See figure 22. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 123 GURE 22. — Sparrow Hawk banding recoveries. Each symbol represents the lumber of records for a State or Province. Banded in Maryland, recovered elsewhere: solid triangle = recovered September through May. Recovered n Maryland, banded elsewhere : open circle = banded June through August. 124 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Family TETRAONIDAE RUFFED GROUSE Bonasa umbellus (Linnaeus) Status. — Permanent resident. See figure 11 (p. 79). Comm( in the Allegheny Mountain section; fairly common in the Rid; and Valley section (absent from Hagerstown Valley) ; former occurred throughout the Piedmont section and in the northern pa of the Western Shore section (northern portions of Prince Georg and Anne Arundel Counties) but gradually disappeared from tl: area during the period 1900-1920. Possibly a few still occ along the Patapsco River in Carroll County, since 1 was report on the upper Patapsco on December 9, 1930 (Perkins and Alle 1931), and another was reported near Westminster on May 1953 (D. A. Jones). There have also been recent sight recor in northeastern Cecil County (Maryland Conservationist 25 (3 12, 1948). A most extraordinary record was made by J. Ca bury and J. Arnett who report seeing 2 Ruffed Grouse in t Pocomoke River swamp in Worcester County on May 10, 195 another was seen in the same area in May 1954 (D. A. Cutler). Habitat. — Occurs as an edge species in extensive tracts forest, being most common in the vicinity of forest openings in young stands of cut-over second-growth timber. Nesting season. — Mid-April to early July. Extreme egg da\ (8 nests) : April 28, 1859, in Montgomery County (USNM) a June 15, 1952 and 1956, in Garrett County (Allegany Bird CI Junior Camp). Extreme downy young dates (6 broods) : M 30, 1948, in Washington County and June 11, 1925, in Garr County (F. C. Kirkwood). Maximum counts. — Fall: 14 reported killed by a hunting pai near Crellin, Garrett County, on November 1, 1944 (A. Sisle: Winter (Christmas counts) : 27 in Garrett County on Deceml 31, 1954; 8 in the Catoctin Mountain area, Frederick County, January 2, 1954. GREATER PRAIRIE CHICKEN (HEATH HEN) lympanuchxts cupido (Linnaeus) Status. — Formerly occurred, at least locally, on the Maryla Coastal Plain (Crevier, 1830, and Cabot, 1855). C. S. Wescc of Philadelphia, reported it as occurring — "according to tra tion — in Maryland and Delaware, on the shores of the Chesapej Bay and on the Peninsula of Maryland and Virginia" (Grinn 1910). A specimen, formerly in the U. S. National Museum, "v collected near Washington, D. C, on April 10, 1846 (Swah BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 125 19). This species was also recorded near Marshall Hall, Prince lorges County, during the spring of 1860 (Bent, 1932). Family PHASIANIDAE (BWHITE Co/inus virginlanus (Linnaeus) Status. — Permanent resident. Common in the Eastern Shore, estern Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections; fairly common the Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections ; uncommon in the legheny Mountain section. Habitat. — In or near hedgerows, wood margins, and brushy Ids, in agricultural areas or on abandoned farmland. Nesting season. — Early May to late September (nesting peak, d-May to mid-August). Extreme egg dates (39 nests): May , 1935, in Baltimore County (M. B. Meanley) and September , 1891, in the District of Columbia (Farnham, 1891). Extreme wny young dates (25 broods) : June 16, 1953, in Caroline lunty (M. W. Hewitt) and September 25, 1949, in Montgomery >unty (W. B. Tyrrell). Breeding population densities (pairs per 100 acres). — (3 in 66 acres) in field and edge habitat (including strips of flood-plain forest, brushy fields, and hedgerows) in Baltimore County in 1947 (Hampe, et al., 1947). (25 in 1,694 acres) in upland pine and deciduous forest and brush with small agricultural areas and abandoned farmlands near the boundary between Anne Arundel and Prince Georges Counties in 1943. Maximum counts. — Winter (Christmas counts) : 122 in the ;ean City area on December 27, 1954 ; 77 in the St. Michaels area, ilbot County, on December 29, 1954 ; 74 in southern Dorchester )unty on December 28, 1953; 67 in the Annapolis area on Jan- ry 2, 1955 ; 42 at Patuxent Refuge on December 23, 1943 ; 40 the Catoctin Mountain area on December 30, 1951. MG-NECKED PHEASANT Phasianus co/ch/cus Linnaeus Status. — Permanent resident. Introductions of this species ,ve been made on numerous occasions, at many locations in aryland. However, the Ring-necked Pheasant has been unable maintain itself in numbers except locally in the Piedmont, Ridge d Valley, and Allegheny Mountain sections. This species may found most commonly near the Pennsylvania boundary in Cecil, arford, Baltimore, Carroll, Frederick, and Washington Counties, aven Kolb reports that this species was first noted at Loch Raven Baltimore County about 1939, and that territories of several owing males have been maintained there since the spring of '51. 126 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE i Habitat. — Agricultural fields, abandoned fields, hedgerows, a 1 brushy or weedy field margins. Family MELEAGRIDIDAe' TURKEY Meleagr'is gallopavo Linnaeus Status. — Permanent resident. Fairly common locally in A) gany County ; uncommon and local in western Washington Coun1 3 rare in Garrett County. Formerly occurred throughout the Al ii gheny Mountain, Ridge and Valley, and Piedmont sections, and Ii portions of the Western Shore section near the fall line; but m\ extirpated from the greater part of its range during the last h i of the nineteenth century. Turkeys were of regular occurreK in some of the wilder sections of Montgomery County until 18! the latest record occurring on October 28, 1894, when 4 bii( were observed at Seneca (C. W. Richmond). Two were shot Blue Ridge Summit, Frederick County, on November 11, 19J (J. V. L. Cook). During recent years the wild populations Allegany and Washington Counties have been augmented fr( time to time with introductions of game farm stock. Introduci birds have also become established in Worcester County in 1 vicinity of the Pocomoke State Forest. Habitat. — Occurs only where extensive tracts of forest i found. Nesting season. — A nest with 2 eggs was found in Montgc ery County near Rockville on June 4, 1859 (USNM— W. M. IVI Lain) . A nest, containing 7 eggs, was found in Allegany Cour in May during the mid 1940's, and poults were seen on numerc occasions in June, July, and August; earliest date for poults w June 14, 1945 (K. A. Wilson). Family RALLIDAE KING RAIL Rallus e/egans Audubon Status. — Breeding (see fig. 23) : Fairly common in the ti( water areas of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upi Chesapeake sections ; uncommon and local in the Piedmont secti and in the interior of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, a Upper Chesapeake sections. Transient: Fairly common in t tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upp Chesapeake sections ; uncommon elsewhere in all sections. Winh ing: Fairly common in tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore s< tion; uncommon in tidewater areas of the Western Shore ai Upper Chesapeake sections. Habitat. — Various brackish and fresh-water marsh types, i BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 127 Principal Range VIRGINIA RAIL O Local Record Figure 23. — Breeding ranges of King Rail and Virginia Rail. lading narrow-leaved cattail, Olney three-square and switch- rrass ; occurring most commonly in the higher areas of marsh that !.ontain scattered shrubs. I Nesting season. — Early May to mid-August. Extreme egg \lates (16 nests) : May 17, 1930, in St. Marys County (W. H. '3all) and June 23, 1950, in Caroline County (Mrs. A. J. Fletcher). ''Extreme doivny young dates (6 broods) : May 29, 1949, in Mont- gomery County (Cross, 1949) and August 13, 1954, in Dorchester bounty. i Maximum counts. — Winter: 23 in southern Dorchester County jm December 28, 1953 (Christmas count) ; 10 at Cove Point, halvert County, on February 17, 1946 (R. T. Peterson) . ZLAPPER RAIL Ra//us /ong/Vosfr/s Boddaert : Status. — Breeding mid transient (see fig. 24) : Fairly common in the coastal area of Worcester County and in the tidewater lireas of Somerset County; uncommon and local in the outer fringe !)f other tidal marshes along Chesapeake Bay, occurring in the Eastern Shore section (north to Parson Island in Queen Annes County — D. E. Davis) and in southern St. Marys County; casual occurrence elsewhere — recorded in the Patapsco River marsh (Kirkwood, 1895) and in the District of Columbia (Coues and 128 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE • Local Record SAW -WHET OWL O Local Record Figure 24. — Breeding ranges of Clapper Rail and Saw-whet OwL Prentiss, 1883). Wintering: Uncommon in the coastal area ( Worcester County ; rare in tidal areas of Somerset County ; casui in the tidewater areas elsewhere in the Eastern Shore and Wester Shore sections. Habitat. — Restricted to salt marshes, usually either salt-watt cordgrass or needlerush. Nesting season. — Early May to early August. Extreme eg dates (4 nests) : May 20, 1950 (S. H. Low), and July 20, 195. both in Worcester County. Half -grown young were seen at Ocea City on August 13, 1949. Maximum counts. — Spring: 6 at Ocean City on May 12, 194( Fall: 12 at Ocean City on September 3, 1953 (J. W. Terborgh] Winter: 27 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1953 (Chrisi mas count). VIRGINIA RAIL RaWus f/mico/a VIeillot Status. — Breeding and transient (see fig. 23) : Common i tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore and Upper Chesapeake sec tions; fairly common in the Allegheny Mountain section (locally and in tidewater areas of the Western Shore section ; rare in th Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections and in the interior of th Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 129 Vintering: Common in tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore sec- ion; uncommon in tidewater areas of the Western Shore and Jpper Chesapeake sections. Habitat. — Brackish tidal marshes, being especially char- icteristic of Olney three-square type, but also occurring regularly n narrow-leaved cattail, switchgrass and in other types; in the nterior it is characteristic of sedge meadows and is occasionally "ound in stands of common cattail. Nesting season. — Late April to late August. Extreme egg \Utes (16 nests) : May 14, 1933, in Dorchester County (F. R. j5mith) and August 16, 1956, in Dorchester County (P. F. i^pringer). Extreme doivny young dates (5 broods) : May 23, L944, in Dorchester County (L. M. Llewellyn) and July 8, 1950, n Montgomery County (S. H. Low). Migration periods. — The periods of migration for this species are imperfectly known. The probable periods would extend through April and early May in spring and through late August, September, and early October in fall ; the latest definite migration date is October 8, 1954, in Talbot County (R. L. Kleen). Maximum counts. — Fall: 42 in the Elliott Island area, Dor- chester County, on August 31, 1946. Winter (Christmas counts) : 58 in southern Dorchester County on December 23, 1951; 17 in the Gunpowder River marshes, Baltimore and Harford Counties, on December 29, 1951 ; 16 in southern Charles County on January 1, 1954. SORA Porzana Carolina (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding: Rare and local in the tidewater areas of the Upper Chesapeake and Western Shore sections — a nest with eggs (photograph, p. 469 in Bent, 1926) was found along the Bush River in Harford County on May 25, 1899 (W. H. Fisher) ; a female, with an egg ready to lay, was killed by a dog on the Gun- powder River marsh on May 5, 1899 (J. Thomas) ; 4 were seen at North Point, Baltimore County, on July 25, 1893 (G. Todd) ; 2 were heard calling at Sandy Point, Anne Arundel County, on June 27, 1952 (R. R. Kerr). Transient: Common (locally abundant in fall) in the tidewater areas of the Upper Chesapeake and Western Shore sections (concentration areas include the Elk, Bush, Gunpowder, Back, Patapsco, and Patuxent Rivers, and formerly the Anacostia River) ; fairly common elsewhere in all sections. Wintering: Rare in tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections. Habitat. — Various fresh and brackish marsh types; especially 130 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE numerous (in fall) in wildrice marshes; but also occurring regu larly in narrow-leaved cattail, reed, and many other types; ab found sparingly in salt marshes. Spring migration. — Normal period: April 20-25 to May 15. 20. Extreme date of arrival: April 19, 1953, in Anne Arunde County (L. W. Oring). Fall migration. — Normal period: August 10-20 to Octobe; 20-30; peak, August 25 to September 30. Extreme date of ar rival: August 7, 1895, in the Washington, D. C, area (B. Green wood). Extreme dates of departure: November 9, 1878, in tb District of Columbia (S. F. Baird) ; November 3, 1880, in Prinei Georges County (USNM). Maximum counts. — Spring: 8 at Sandy Point, Anne Arunde^ County, on May 2, 1953 (P. A. DuMont). Fall: 55 at Aliens Fresh, Charles County, on September 26, 1953; about 50 (21 shot)^ in the Patuxent River marsh on September 1, 1942 ; 50 at Senecai Montgomery County, on September 7, 1953 (J. W. Terborgh) ; 3(1 at Sandy Point on September 2, 1953 (J. W. Terborgh, R. rJ Kerr) ; 28 at Mountain Lake, Garrett County, on September 26i 1953 (M. G.Brooks). Banding. — One recovered in Cecil County on September 18* 1933, had been banded in northeastern New Jersey on September' 7, 1933. YELLOW RAIL Cofurni'cops noveboracensis (Gmelin) Status. — Transient: Rare in tidewater areas of the Easterr Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections. Recordsi from Worcester, Dorchester, Talbot, Prince Georges, Anne Arundel, Baltimore, and Harford Counties, and the District of Columbia. Habitat. — Chiefly, fresh and brackish tidal marshes. Migration periods. — Spring (8 records) : March 12, 1909, at Laurel, Prince Georges County (USNM — E. B. Marshall) to May 20, 1917, in the District of Columbia (USNM— Mrs. E. Paminetti). Fall (8 records) : October 2, 1929, in Patuxent River marsh, Prince Georges County (J. Trennis), to November 19, 1898, on Carroll Island, Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). BLACK RAIL Laterallus jamaicensls (Gmelin) Status. — Breeding and transient: Fairly common locally in tidewater areas of Dorchester County ; rare and local in tidewater areas elsewhere in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections (recorded in Worcester, Anne Arundel, Calvert, St. Marys, Charles, and Prince Georges Counties, and the District of Co- BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 131 imbia). There are definite nest records for Calvert (E. J. lourt) and Dorchester Counties, and adults were collected in the )istrict of Columbia on May 29, 1891 (R. L. Jones), and June 6, 879 (Shekells). Habitat. — Principally areas of salt meadow that contain a lixture of salt-meadow grass and spike-grass. Nesting season. — Nests with eggs were found in Dorchester bounty on June 16, 1931 (A. L. Nelson, F. M. Uhler), and on May 0, 1953. Dates on Calvert County records are not available. Migration period. — Spring (5 records) : April 26, 1954, in )orchester County (W. R. Nicholson) to May 22, 1952, in Anne Arundel County (J. W. Terborgh). Fall (9 records) : September , 1908, in the District of Columbia (USNM— H. M. Bailey) to )ctober 19, 1906, in the Patuxent River marsh. Prince Georges bounty (W. F. Roberts). Maximum count. — Sumyner: 100+ calling at 11:30 p.m. on Fune 2, 1954, in Elliott Island marsh, Dorchester County (J. W. Cerborgh, J. E. Knudson) . :ORN CRAKE Crex crex (Linnaeus) Status. — Accidental visitor. One was shot in Worcester bounty, at Hursley (now Stockton) on November 28, 1900, by lohn Livesey. The mounted specimen was exhibited at the De- cember 6, 1900, meeting of the Delaware Valley Ornithological 31ub {Ahstr. Proc. D.V.O.C. 4:6). Hampe and Kolb (1947) 5tate that Dr. Witmer Stone ''well remembered the specimen." Phis Old World species, which normally winters in Africa, has oeen taken in a dozen North American tidal localities from Mary- land north to Baffin Island. PURPLE GALLINULE Porphyrula martinica (Linnaeus) Status. — Casual visitor. An adult male was collected in the District of Columbia on April 30, 1845 (Deignan, 1943a). One that had been shot on the Potomac River was seen in a market in Washington, D. C, on August 24, 1889 (Kirkwood, 1895). An immature female was collected on the Patuxent River marsh in lower Anne Arundel County on October 12, 1938 (Hampe, et al., 1939). An adult was observed repeatedly during the period June 24-26, 1947, at the Patuxent Research Refuge, Prince Georges County (Stewart, et al., 1952). Another adult was observed repeatedly at Seneca, Montgomery County, during the period July 19-25, 1953 (R. R. Kerr). 132 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE COMMON GALLINULE Galllnula chloropus (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding: Fairly common in the marshes along th Gunpowder River estuary (Baltimore and Harford Counties) uncommon and local in tidewater areas of the southern half o Dorchester County; possibly breeds sparingly in other tidewate areas — recorded in summer on the Patapsco River (H. Brackbill and in the District of Columbia (several observers) and 1 bird was observed at the Patuxent Refuge, Prince Georges County o; June 9, 1949. Transient: Uncommon in tidewater areas of thi Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections rare in the Piedmont section and in the interior of the Easteri Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections. Winter ing: Casual visitor in the coastal area of Worcester County — : recorded at Heine's Pond near Berlin on December 27, 1954 (J, H. Buckalew, S. H. Low), and 2 at West Ocean City on Decemi ber 27, 1955 (P. A. DuMont). Habitat. — Occurs in the vicinity of ponds in brackish marsh types, including narrow-leaved cattail, Olney three-square, and needlerush ; during migration, also occurs on inland marshes. Nesting season. — Early May to mid-July. Extreme egg date', (7 nests) : May 10, 1916, in Dorchester County (Jackson, 1941) and June 21, 1936, on the Gunpowder River (M. B. Meanley). Migration periods. — Spring (12 records) : April 7, 1954, ii Anne Arundel County (N. B. Wells) to May 19, 1946, in the Dis trict of Columbia (J. W. Taylor, Jr.). Fall (16 records) : Septemi ber 22, 1955, in Talbot County (M. Gifford), to November 22 1953, in Worcester County (E. Arnold). Maximum counts. — 13 on August 31, 1946, and 5 on Octobei 2, 1948, in the Elliott Island area, Dorchester County. Banding. — One killed at Ridgely, Caroline County (letter oJ September 26, 1955), had been banded at Oshawa, Ontario, or August 24, 1955. AMERICAN COOT Fulica americana Gmelin Status. — Transient: Locally common in the tidewater areas oJ the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections (concentration areas include the Potomac, Wicomico, Patuxent and South Rivers in the Western Shore section, the Middle, Gun- powder, Northeast, and Sassafras Rivers and Susquehanna Flats in the Upper Chesapeake section, and the Chester River, Eastern Bay, and Heine's Pond near Berlin, in the Eastern Shore section) ; fairly common in the Allegheny Mountain section; uncommor elsewhere in all sections. Wintering: Locally common in tide- BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 133 ater areas of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper lesapeake sections (concentration areas, same as during migra- )n) ; rare in the Piedmont section and in the interior of the istern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections. immer vagrant: Casual — recorded in the District of Columbia .everal records), and in Queen Annes and Prince Georges )unties (P. F. Springer). {Habitat. — Brackish estuaries, and ponds in brackish marshes at contain a plentiful aquatic-plant growth, including such jecies as wild celery, red-head pondweed, and sago pondweed; |30 occurs on inland ponds and lakes. I Spring migration. — Normal period: March 10-20 to May 5-15; !:ak, March 25 to April 25. Extreme date of arrival: March 8, '49, in Prince Georges County. Extreme dates of departure: line 10, 1954, in Baltimore County (E. Willis) ; May 30, 1949, in jirrett County; May 23, 1886, in the District of Columbia (C. W. ichmond) ; May 20, 1926, in Charles County (A. Wetmore). jFALL migration. — Normal period: September 20-30 to Decem- |r 1-10; peak, October 15 to November 25. Extreme dates of \rival: August 28, 1930, on the Potomac River, below Washing- jn, D. C. (H. C. Oberholser) ; September 14, 1953, in Dorchester Dunty; September 14, 1954, in Queen Annes County (P. F. |)ringer) . [Maximum counts. — Spring: 11,350 on the Susquehanna Flats id Northeast River on March 31, 1955; 10,000 on the Middle [ver, Baltimore County, on March 21, 1953 (E. Willis) ; 1,500 the Port Tobacco area, Charles County, on March 21, 1954 (A. : Stickley, Jr.) ; 1,000 in the Kent Island area, Queen Annes mnty, on April 9, 1949 (R. A. Grizzell). Fall: 10,000 on the )tomac River in Prince Georges and Charles Counties on Novem- ir 10, 1928 (H. C. Oberholser) ; 4,000 in the Carroll Island area, dtimore County, on November 19, 1950 ; 1,200 on Heine's Pond, orcester County, on November 22, 1953 (E. Arnold) ; 590 on j.vannah Lake, Dorchester County, on November 23, 1946; 500 ' Deep Creek Lake, Garrett County, on November 2, 1954 (M. ' Brooks). Winter: 8,050 in the Carroll Island area, Baltimore :)unty, on December 31, 1949 (Christmas count) ; 5,460 on the isquehanna Flats on December 27, 1952 (Christmas count) ; LOO in the Wicomico River area, Charles County, on December , 1948 ; 1,700 in the Kent Island area, Queen Annes County, on bcember 31, 1948 (Christmas count). Banding. — One recovered in the District of Columbia (letter June 5, 1945) had been banded in northeastern Illinois on No- 134 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE vember 10, 1944. Another recovered in Kent County in the f of 1954 had been banded in Connecticut on February 25, 191 Five banded in Kent County between February 18 and March were shot during the fall, 1 in northern Minnesota, 2 in east-ct tral Wisconsin, 1 in southeastern Michigan, and 1 in easte Ontario. Family HAEMATOPODIDAE AMERICAN OYSTERCATCHER Haematopus palliatus Temminck Status. — Breeding and transient: Rare in the coastal areai Worcester County. Habitat. — Sandy, shell-strewn beaches on islands along 1 coast. Nesting season. — A pair with small downy young (pho graphed) was observed on Assateague Island about 8 miles soi of Ocean City on June 6, 1939 (M. B. Meanley). In 1951, in 1 northern part of Chincoteague Bay, a pair with large young tl could barely fly was seen on an island on July 3 (J. H. Buckalev and another pair with small young (1 banded) was seen on { other island on July 12 ; in 1952, another young bird was banc in the same area on July 4 (J. H. Buckalew) . Period of occurrence. — Extreme dates: April 25, 1900 ( Ludlam), and August 9, 1902 (F. C. Kirkwood), in Worces; County. Family CHARADRIIDAE SEMIPALMATED PLOVER Charadrius semipalmatus Bonaparte Status. — Transient: Common in the coastal area of Worces County; fairly common in other tidewater areas of the East< Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections; uncc mon elsewhere in all sections. Wintering and summer vagrw Rare in the coastal area of Worcester County. Habitat. — Mud flats and wet sand flats, usually along margins of bays, estuaries, ponds, and lakes ; occasional along ocean beach. Spring migration. — Normal period: April 5-15 to June 5- peak. May 5 to May 25. Extreme date of arrival: April 1, 19 in the Ocean City area. Extreme dates of departure: June 1950, in the Ocean City area; June 22, 1954, in Queen An: County (P. F. Springer) ; June 19, 1946, in the District of ' lumbia (W. H. Ball). Fall migration. — Normal period: July 15-25 to Novemben 10; peak, August 5 to September 15. Extreme date of arriii BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 135 ily 10, 1949, in the Ocean City area. Extreme dates of de- irture: November 30, 1949, in Dorchester County; November 16, >47, in the Ocean City area. Maximum counts. — Spring: 525 in the Ocean City area on jay 12, 1956; 300 on Mills Island in Chincoteague Bay on May 7, !i38 (G. A. Ammann) ; 25 in the District of Columbia on May 14, •27 (W. W. Rubey). Fall: 280 on Assateague Island on August I, 1950; 90 in the Crisfield area, Somerset County, on August 11, ji50; 60 at Sandy Point, Anne Arundel County, on August 21, 47. IPING PLOVER Charadrius me/oc/us Ord : Status. — Breeding: Uncommon in the coastal area of Wor- ister County. Transient: Uncommon in the coastal area of Wor- jster County; rare in tidewater areas elsewhere in the Eastern jiore and Western Shore sections. Wintei^ing: Rare and irregu- r in the coastal area of Worcester County. Habitat. — Coastal barrier beach; occasional on sandy beaches 'rdering bays and estuaries. 1 Nesting season. — Early May to late July. Extreme egg dates \ nests) : May 17, 1948 (J. E. Willoughby), and June 5, 1939 (M. Meanley), both in Worcester County. Extreme doivny young [tes (8 broods): June 16, 1935 (Tyrrell, 1935), and July 23, 49, both in Worcester County. Period of occurrence (excluding wintering dates). — Extreme )tes: March 12, 1949, on Assateague Island (J. H. Buckalew) !d November 12, 1950, in the Ocean City area. Maximum counts. — Spring: 7 on Assateague Island on April 1 , 1951 (J. H. Buckalew) . Summer: 22 on Assateague Island on ;'ly 23, 1949. Fall: 6 on Assateague Island on October 5, 1946. Hnter: 14 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1954 (Christ- 'is count) . Banding. — A juvenal banded in Worcester County on July 12, 147, was recovered in the Bahama Islands (Grand Bahama) on : tober 22, 1947 (Robbins and Stewart, 1948). I LSON'S PLOVER Charadrius wUsonia Ord jStatus. — Breeding and transient: Rare (formerly more num- ;:)us — H. H. Bailey) in the coastal area of Worcester County. iHabitat. — Sandy shores on the barrier beach or on sandy lands in the coastal bays. iNesting season. — A pair was observed in courtship at West jean City on April 16, 1949. A nest containing 2 newly hatched ung and 1 egg was found li/^ miles north of Ocean City on June 136 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 26, 1948 (S. H. Low). Downy young were banded on Assateag Island, 2 miles south of Ocean City, on July 10, 1947 (L. Cool, Jr.). Period of occurrence. — Extreme dates: April 16, 1949, a: August 17, 1925 (F. C. Kirkwood) , both in the Ocean City area Banding. — A juvenal banded in Worcester County, 2 mil south of Ocean City on July 10, 1947, was collected on Ced Island, Accomack County, Virginia, on June 3, 1948. KILLDEER Cbaradrius vociferus Linnaeus Status. — Breeding: Fairly common in all sections. Transiet Common in all sections. Wintering: Fairly common in the Ea ern Shore section; uncommon in the Western Shore and Upj Chesapeake sections; rare (occasionally more numerous) in i Piedmont section. Habitat. — Pastures, golf courses, and other extensive art' of short-grass turf; sparsely vegetated agricultural and falL fields; sand and gravel areas; mud flats and shores. Nesting season. — Mid-March to late July (nesting peak, m April to late June). Extreme egg dates (159 nests) : March ; 1919, in Dorchester County (Jackson, 1941) and July 17, 191 in Caroline County (Mr. and Mrs. A. J. Fletcher). Extre- downy young dates (48 broods) : April 14, 1952 (Mr. and M W. L. Henderson), and July 27, 1950 (R. W. Dickerman), Anne Arundel County. Spring migration. — Normal period: February 5-15 to Aj 1-10; peak, March 1 to March 20. Extreme dates of arriv January 23, 1953, in Prince Georges County; January 24, 19 in Montgomery County (P. F. Springer). Fall migration. — Normal period: July 5-15 to December 15; peak, August 20 to November 25. Extreme date of arriv July 1, 1943, in Prince Georges County. Extreme dates of > parture: December 22, 1946, in Prince Georges County; Dece ber 17, 1951, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. G. Tappan). Breeding population densities (pairs per 100 acres). — 3.9 (3 in nVz acres) in recently plowed fields and sprout-wheat fields Prince Georges County in 1949. 1.4 (4 in 275 acres) in mixed agricultural habitats (including residen areas) in Prince Georges County in 1943 and 1947. 0.2 (22 in 11,520 acres) in "general farmland" (chiefly hayfields and ]i tures, with little cover owing to widespread clean-farming practices)! Frederick County in 1950 (Stewart and Meanley, 1950). Maximum counts. — Fall: 200 in the Patuxent River marshi November 23, 1946; 125 on Deep Creek Lake, Garrett County,' BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 137 eptember 23, 1936 (M. G. Brooks) ; 100 in the District of Colum- ia on November 21-24, 1917 (C. H. M. Barrett) ; 100 at Emmits- urg, Frederick County, on October 27, 1955 (J. W. Richards) ; 5 on the Beltsville Research Center, Prince Georges County, on uly 24, 1945. Winter (Christmas counts) : 539 in the Ocean City rea on December 27, 1953; 115 in the District of Columbia area Q January 1, 1955; 109 in the Denton area, Caroline County, on 'ecember 20, 1952; 80 in the Triadelphia Reservoir area (Mont- omery and Howard Counties), on December 26, 1952. Banding. — One banded as a juvenal in Dorchester County on pril 20, 1952, was recovered in eastern North Carolina on Janu- ry 2, 1954. Another banded in Montgomery County on August 3, 1952, was recovered in south-central Virginia on March 5, 353. MERICAN GOLDEN PLOVER Pluvialis dom'mlca (Miiller) ' Status. — Fall transierit: Rare in all sections. Spring trans- lUt: Casual occurrence — 1 collected on Nanjemoy Creek, Charles jounty, on March 28, 1911 (Swales, 1920) ; 1 seen on Assateague 'sland, Worcester County, on May 1, 1946 (Stewart and Robbins, 'M7a) ; 1 seen at Ocean City on April 16, 1949; and 1 recorded 'long Sinepuxent Bay on May 12, 1956 (R. L. Kleen). Habitat. — Mud flats, sand bars, beaches, cultivated fields, and astures. I Period of fall migration. — Extreme dates: August 14, 1955, I Talbot County (R. L. Kleen) and November 22, 1953, in Anne rundel County (P. A. DuMont). Migration peak: September 15 > October 15. 1 Maximum counts. — 20 on October 5, 1930, in the District of lolumbia (Mr. and Mrs. W. J. Whiting) ; 6 on October 8, 1953, y Emmitsburg, Frederick County (J. W. Richards, P. O'Brien). IlACK-BELLIED plover Squaiarola squatarola (Linnaeus) ; Status. — Transient: Common in the coastal area of Worcester jounty; fairly common in tidewater areas elsewhere in the East- ■•n Shore and Western Shore sections; uncommon in tidewater , 'eas of the Upper Chesapeake section ; rare in the Piedmont see- on and in the interior of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and pper Chesapeake sections. Wintey^ing : Uncommon in the coastal ;:-ea of Worcester County; rare elsewhere in tidal areas of the astern Shore section. Summer vagrant: Rare in the coastal 'ea of Worcester County. Habitat, — Sandy beaches and mud flats, usually near salt water 138 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE (ocean or bays) ; occasional on fields and pastures, especially nea salt water. Spring migration. — Normal period: April 20-30 to June I 15; peak, May 10 to May 30. Extreme date of arrival: Marc 20, 1954, in Charles County (J. W. Terborgh). Fall migration, — Normal period: July 20-30 to Novembt 20-30; peak, August 15 to September 30. Extreme date of w. rival: July 15, 1946, in Worcester County. Extreme date ( departure: December 9, 1949, in Dorchester County. Maximum counts. — Spring: 200 in the Ocean City area o May 24, 1953, and 115 at Sandy Point, Anne Arundel County, c the same day (J. W. Terborgh) ; 100 in the Crisfield area. Some], set County, on May 18, 1947; 11 in the District of Columbia o May 26, 1928 (W. H. Ball, P. Knappen). Fall: 199 on Assa teague Island on August 30, 1950 ; 183 in the Ocean City area o August 23, 1945. Winter: 97 in the Ocean City area on Decemb( 27, 1954 (Christmas count). RUDDY TURNSTONE Arenaria I'nferpres (Linnaeus) Status. — Transient: Fairly common in the coastal area of Wo: cester County; uncommon in tidewater areas elsewhere in tl Eastern Shore section; rare in tidewater areas of the Wester Shore and Upper Chesapeake sections; casual in the Piedmoi section — 1 seen at Seneca, Montgomery County, on September 1 1953 (J. W. Terborgh). Wintering and summer vagrant: Rai in the coastal area of Worcester County. Habitat. — Tidal salt-water flats with a short sparse growt of salt-water cordgrass or glasswort; also on jetties and sand beaches at tidewater. Spring migration. — Normal period: April 20-30 to June 5-lf peak, May 10 to June 1. Extreme date of arrival: April 4, 1941 in Worcester County (S. H. Low). Extreme date of departure June 16, 1935, in Worcester County (W. B. Tyrrell). Fall migration. — Normal period: July 25-30 to November ] 10; peak, August 5 to September 30. Extreme dates of arriva^ July 23, 1947, and July 23, 1949, on Assateague Island. Extrem date of departure: November 12, 1950, in the Ocean City area. Maximum counts. — Spring: 420 near Ocean City on May II 1954 (D. C. Aud. Soc.) ; 300 on Assateague Island on May 21 1947; 75 in the District of Columbia on May 26, 1928 (W. I Ball, P. Knappen) . Fall: 100 on Assateague Island on Septemb^ 25, 1931 (H. E. Richardson). BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 139 Family SCOLOPACIDAE MERICAN WOODCOCK Philohela minor (Gmelin) Status. — Breeding: Fairly common locally in the Eastern tiore, Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake, Ridge and Valley, and llegheny Mountain sections; uncommon and local in the Pied- ont section. Transient: Fairly common in all sections. Winter- \g: Uncommon in the Eastern Shore section ; rare in the Western liore section; casual in the Piedmont and Allegheny Mountain ictions — 1 near Thurmont in Frederick County on January 2, )54 (Christmas count), and 1 seen along Bear Creek in Garrett ounty on December 31, 1954 (R. B. McCartney). Habitat. — Breeding: Thickets or open stands of shrubs and nail trees on or adjacent to damp or wet areas; pine and sweet- am fields, alder swamps, and slashings on recently cutover or irned-over areas are characteristic habitats. Transient and intering: Various types of shrub and forest swamps. Nesting season. — Late February to mid-June (nesting peak, id-March to early May). Extreme egg dates (23 nests) : Feb- lary 25, 1891, in Baltimore County (USNM) and May 8, 1943, I Prince Georges County. Extreme doivny young dates (19 :'oods) : April 5, 1936, in Baltimore County (M. B. Meanley) and me 16, 1896, in Baltimore County (G. Holland). Spring migration. — Normal period: February 10-20 to March )-30; peak, February 25 to March 15. Extreme dates of arrival: muary 19, 1953, in Prince Georges County; January 27, 1953, I Charles County (M. C. Crone, A. R. Stickley, Jr.). Extreme ite of departure: April 11, 1952, in Frederick County (Mrs. W. Richards). Fall migration. — Normal period: October 1-10 to December -10; peak, October 25 to November 25. Extreme date of de- irture: December 12, 1894, in Allegany County (Z. Laney). Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 ;res) . — 5 (7 in 125 acres) in brushy, poorly drained, abandoned farmland in Prince Georges County in 1943. 5 (19 in 1,280 acres) in upland, poorly drained brushland (cutover and burned-over forest land with scattered, small abandoned clearings) in Prince Georges County in 1951 (Stewart, 1952). Maximum counts. — Spring: 19 on Patuxent Refuge (in half- ile walk) on March 4, 1945; 18 near Elliott, Dorchester County, 1 February 22, 1954 (J. W. Terborgh, J. E. Knudson). Fall: on Patuxent Refuge on November 12, 1947. Wi7iter: 12 in Anne 140 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Arundel County on December 26, 1950 (Christmas count) ; 6 ai Aliens Fresh, Charles County, on January 31, 1953 (J. W. Ter borgh) ; 5 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1953 (Christ mas count). COMMON SNIPE Capef/a gallinago (Linnaeus) Status. — Transient: Fairly common in all sections. Wintei*, ing: Uncommon in tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore am Western Shore sections; rare in the Piedmont and Upper Chesai peake sections and in the interior of the Western Shore and Easti ern Shore sections. Habitat. — Usually on wet grassy areas such as low pastures and wet meadow types in tidal marshes ; also occurs on mud flati and shores that are adjacent to open water, and occasionalljl occurs on cultivated fields following heavy rains. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 1-10 to May 5-15 peak, March 15 to April 25. Extreme dates of arrival: Februar; 24, 1895, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; February 2^ 18 — , in Allegany County (Z. Laney). Extreme dates of de parture: May 23, 1937, in Baltimore County (M. B. Meanley) May 21, 1903, in Allegany County (G. Eifrig) ; May 18, 1947, 1: Prince Georges County. Fall migration. — Normal period: September 15-25 to Deceir ber 10-20 ; peak, October 1 to December 5. Extreme dates of an rival: August 3, 1955, in Prince Georges County; August 23, 195( in Dorchester County (P. F. Springer) ; August 26, 1928, in th District of Columbia (W. H. Ball) ; September 2, 1898, at Pa tapsco Marsh (John W. Edel). Extreme dates of departure: De cember 23, 1950, in Frederick County (R. T. Smith) ; Decembe 23, 1951, in Garrett County (J. G. Smart) . Maximum counts. — Spring: 120 at Aliens Fresh, Charle County, on March 29, 1953, and March 20, 1954 (J. W. Terborgl: et al.) ; 110 near Easton, Talbot County, on March 25, 1956 (C Welsh, R. L. Kleen) ; 100 in Frederick County on March 17, 195 (R. T. Smith) ; 55 at Sandy Point, Anne Arundel County, o: March 22, 1953 (E. Willis, D. A. Jones). Fall: 100 at Allen Fresh on December 6, 1952 (J. W. Terborgh) ; 25 in Frederic! County on December 23, 1950 (R. T. Smith) ; 24 on Bush Rivei Harford County, on October 3, 1948. Winter: 130 at Aliens Fres! on January 31, 1953 (J. W. Terborgh) ; 61 in the Wicomico Rive area (Charles and St. Marys Counties) on January 1, 195 (Christmas count) ; 20 in the Ocean City area on December 21 1955 (Christmas count) ; 12 in southern Dorchester County o;< December 28, 1953 (Christmas count). I BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 141 3NG-BILLED CURLEW Numenius americanus Bechstein Status. — Casual visitor: A specimen (USNM) was taken in 16 District of Columbia on April 11, 1842, by W. Walker (Swales, 920). Another specimen (USNM) was collected in September 843 in St. Marys County (Deignan, 1943a) . One was shot from a ock of 6 or 7 on the Gunpowder River marsh on May 19, 1899 J. Thomas — head and wings examined by F. C. Kirkwood) . There re also several sight records for the nineteenth century. /HIMBREL Numenius phaeopus (Linnaeus) Status. — Transient: Fairly common in the coastal area of Worcester County ; rare in tidewater areas elsewhere in the East- rn Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections. Habitat. — Salt-marsh flats Vv^ith a sparse growth of short vege- ation, usually either glasswort or salt-water cordgrass; also ccurs on the ocean beach and on mud flats adjoining the coastal ays. This species often concentrates in areas of salt marsh that ontain high populations of fiddler crabs (Uca pugnax). Spring migration. — Normal period: April 25-30 to May 20- 5; peak, May 1 to May 20. Extreme arrival date: April 21, 1906, n Worcester County (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme departure 'ate: May 27, 1935, in the District of Columbia (Ball, 1928b). Fall migration. — Normal period: July 5-10 to September 10- ;0; peak, July 15 to August 15. Extreme arrival date: July 3, 906, in Worcester County (F. C. Kirkwood) . Extreme departure 'ate: September 25, 1931, in Worcester County (H. E. Richard- on). Maximum counts. — Spring: 40 at Ocean City on May 15, 1906 F. C. Kirkwood) ; 37 on Assateague Island on May 1, 1946; 18 in he District of Columbia on May 26, 1928 (Ball, 1928b) . Fall: 16 in the Ocean City area on July 27, 1952. iSKIMO CURLEW Numenius borealis (Forsier) Status. — Now probably extinct. Apparently formerly occurred n Maryland as a rare transient. A specimen (USNM) was taken m the Potomac River (cataloged in Baird's handwriting in 1861). )ne was reported seen at Ocean City in 1913 by R. C. Walker, vho had personally collected nearly all other species of Maryland horebirds and who gave a detailed description of this bird. JPLAND PLOVER Bartramia longicauda (Bechstein) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 25) : Fairly common in the Fred- srick Valley (in Frederick County between the Monocacy River md Catoctin Mountain) ; uncommon locally elsewhere in the 142 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE LEGEND UPLAND PLOVER ^^2 Principal Range # Local Record WILLET ^^H Principal Range Figure 25. — Breeding ranges of Upland Plover and Willet. Piedmont section and in the Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Mountain sections — occurring in Baltimore County in the Wortl*] ington Valley and (formerly) in Dulaney Valley; in Montgomer' County in the vicinity of Dickerson, Poolesville, Whites Ferry, an (formerly) Sandy Spring; in Washington County in the Hagen town Valley; in Garrett County in the vicinity of Accident; an (formerly) in Allegany County at Vale Summit. Transient: Ur. common in all sections. Summer vagrant: Casual — 2, apparentl non-breeding, recorded in the District of Columbia from June 1 to June 26, 1935 (Ball and Wallace, 1936). Habitat. — Breeding: Agricultural areas w^ith extensive ha fields and pastures, usually on land v^^ith a slightly concave cor tour. Transient: Various types of open fields and meadows anc less frequently, in marsh and shore habitats with short or spars vegetation. Nesting season. — Early May to late June. Extreme egg datd (12 nests) : May 10, 1942, and June 10, 1940, both in Baltimon County (Meanley, 1943b). Extreme downy young dates ( broods) : May 25, 1947, in Frederick County and June 21, 1941 in Baltimore County (both by M. B. Meanley) . Spring migration. — Normal period: April 1-10 to May 5-15 peak, April 10 to May 5. Extreme dates of arrival: March 21 BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 145 B96, in the District of Columbia (P. W. Shufeldt) ; March 25, 944, in Prince Georges County. Extreme dates of departure: [ay 27, 1952, in Prince Georges County (G. B. Saunders) ; May 1, 1903, in Allegany County (G. Eifrig). Fall migration. — Normal period: July 5-15 to September 15- 5; peak, July 15 to September 5. Extreme dates of arrival: June 9, 1902, in the District of Columbia (W. W. Cooke) ; July 3, 895, in Baltimore County (Kirkwood, 1895). Extreme date of eparture: September 26, 1919, in Montgomery County (A. Wet- lore) . Breeding population density (territorial males per 100 cres). — 2 (20 in 11,520 acres) in "general farmland" (various agricultural habitats, chiefly hayfields and pastures, with little cover owing to widespread clean- farming practices) in Frederick County near Buckeystown in 1950 (Stewart and Meanley, 1950). Maximum counts (nonbreeding). — Fall: 20 near Emmits- iurg, Frederick County, on July 18, 1952 (J. W. Richards) ; 12 (ear Lilypons, Frederick County, on August 5, 1951 (L. M. Yendt). POTTED SANDPIPER Ac\Uh macularia (Linnaeus) I Status. — Breeding: Fairly common in the tidewater areas of 'he Eastern Shore section; uncommon elsewhere in all sections. Vransient: Common in all sections. Wintering: Accidental — 1 leen along the Choptank River near Cambridge on December 27, !949 (T. W. Donnelly). Habitat. — Various shore habitats along inland ponds and treams, tidal bays, and estuaries. During the breeding season ,lso frequents various field and meadow habitats that are adjacent 0 open water. Nesting season. — Early May to late July (nesting peak, mid- klay to late June). Extreme egg dates (35 nests) : May 11, 1911, n Dorchester County (Jackson, 1941) and July 15, 1946, in Anne Vrundel County (F. M. Uhler). Extreme downy young dates (9 )roods) : June 4, 1939, in Prince Georges County (M. B. Meanley) md July 9, 1949, in Worcester County. Spring migration. — Normal period: April 5-15 to May 25-June >; peak, April 25 to May 20. Extreme dates of arrival: April 2, .905, in Montgomery County (W. L. McAtee) ; April 3, 1861, in he District of Columbia (C. E. Schmidt). Extreme date of de- parture: June 6, 1945, in Prince Georges County. Fall migration. — Normal period: July 5-15 to October 1-10; 144 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE peak, July 25 to September 5. Extreme date of arrival: July [, 1948, in Prince Georges County. Extreme dates of departun ; November 13, 1949, in Dorchester County; October 28, 1906, in Montgomery County (A. K. Fisher) ; October 25, 1947, in Balti- more County (R. M. Bowen) ; October 25, 1954, in Anne Arundtl County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tappan) ; October 2 1936, in Garrett County (Brooks, 1938). Maximum counts. — Spring: 127 at Rosedale, Baltimore Count/ on May 6, 1950 (D. A. Jones) ; 63 in the District of Columbia art 6 on May 11, 1917 (H. C. Oberholser) ; 45 in the Port Tobacco are; I Charles County, on May 7, 1940 (I. N. Gabrielson, A. L. Nelson; j Fall: 50 near Centerville, Queen Annes County, on July 4, 190 [ (F. C. Kirkwood) ; 20 on Gibson Island, Anne Arundel County, o^ July 25, 1952 (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tappan). SOLITARY SANDPIPER Tringa solitaria Wilson Status. — Transient: Fairly common in all sections. Summi\ vagrant: Casual — small numbers, presumably non-breeding, weij observed throughout June, during several summers at Deep Creej Lake in Garrett County (Brooks, 1936b), and 1 was seen at Middll River in Baltimore County on June 17 and 19, 1951 (E. Willis]! Habitat. — Mud flats and other marginal habitats along freshl water ponds and streams. Spring migration. — Normal period: April 10-20 to May 2(Ji 25; peak, April 25 to May 15. Extreme dates of arrival: Marct 29, 1954, in Caroline County (M. W. Hewitt) ; March 30, 1883 in the District of Columbia (H. W. Henshaw) ; March 30, 1953 in Baltimore County (E. Willis). Extreme dates of departure May 30, 1891, in Montgomery County (H. W. Stabler) ; May 21 1945, in Prince Georges County. Fall migration. — Normal period: July 15-25 to October 10 20 ; peak, August 10 to September 25. Extreme dates of arrival July 12, 1948, in Prince Georges County; July 12, 1956, in Quee: Annes County (R. P. Dubois) ; July 14, 1893, in Baltimore Count: (P. T. Blogg, G. H. Gray). Extreme dates of departure: Novem ber 2, 1906, in Calvert County (J. H. Riley) ; October 28, 1916 in the District of Columbia (L. D. Miner) . Maximum counts. — Spring: 50 in the Port Tobacco area Charles County, on May 11, 1943 (A. L. Nelson, F. M. Uhler) 37 in St. Marys County on May 8, 1954 (J. W. Terborgh, J. W Taylor, Jr.) ; 30 near Seneca, Montgomery County, on April 26 1953 (J. W. Terborgh) ; 13 at Patuxent Refuge, Prince George County, on May 12, 1945. Fall: 8 at Chesapeake Beach, Calver BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 145 ounty, on August 10, 1946; 7 at Sandy Point, Anne Arundel ounty, on August 20, 1947. 'ILLET Cafoptrophorus semipalmatus (Gmelin) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 25) : Locally common in tidewater j'eas of Somerset and Wicomico Counties and southern Dor- liester County; uncommon in the coastal area of Worcester lounty. Transient: Common in the coastal area of Worcester jounty; uncommon in tidewater areas elsewhere in the Eastern hore and Western Shore sections ; rare in tidewater areas of the jpper Chesapeake section. j Habitat. — Tidal salt marshes, including salt-water cordgrass, iilt-meadow grass and glasswort types. During the spring and jdl also occurs on the ocean beach, bay shores, mud flats, and md bars. j Nesting season. — Mid-May to late July. Extreme egg dates 111 nests) : May 10, 1904 (R. W. Jackson), and July 12, 1951 'both extremes in Worcester County) . I Spring migration. — Extreme date of arrival: April 15, 1953, ii Dorchester County (W. R. Nicholson). Migration peak: April is to May 15. One bird was observed in the District of Columbia is late as June 11, 1926 (Ball, 1927) . Fall migration. — Normal period: July 10-20 to October 1- iO; peak, July 25 to September 1. Extreme date of arrival: July iO, 1949, in Worcester County. Extreme date of departure: A Iresh bird found in the Baltimore market on November 3, 1894, iad been shot nearby, possibly 1 or 2 days before (Kirkwood, 895). ' Breeding population density (pairs per 100 acres). — 3.5 (21 in 200 acres) in brackish bay marsh (strip 220 yards wide along tidal creek and containing extensive areas of salt-meadow grass) in ' Dorchester County in 1956. j Maximum counts. — Spring: 65 in the Ocean City area on May , 1953 (R. Strosnider). Fall: 200 on Assateague Island on Aug- st 23, 1947; 50 in the District of Columbia on August 10-11, 893 (Cooke, 1929) ; 9 at Sandy Point, Anne Arundel County, on Lugust 14, 1947 (J. W. Taylor, Jr.). GREATER YELLOWLEGS Tofanus melanoleucus (Gmelin) Status. — Transient: Common in the tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections; airly common elsewhere in all sections. Wintering: Uncommon n tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore section ; rare in tidewater ,reas of the Western Shore and Upper Chesapeake sections. 146 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE I Summer vagrant: Rare in tidewater areas of the Eastern Shoi^ Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections. Habitat. — Shallow flats in marshes or at the margins of pone s bays, and estuaries. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 25-April 5 to Ml; 25-June 5 ; peak, April 20 to May 15. Extreme dates of arrive I March 16, 1904, in the Patapsco River marsh (F. C. Kirkwoodj March 18, 1946, in Dorchester County. Extreme dates of Cf parture: June 13, 1946, in Dorchester County; June 12, 1946, Somerset County; June 8, 1938, in Worcester County (G. Ammann) . Fall migration. — Normal period: July 25-August 5 to Noveiji ber 15-25; peak, August 25 to September 30. Extreme date \ arrival: July 15, 1946, in Worcester County. Extreme date ') departure: November 28, 1953, in St. Marys County (J. W. Tct borgh). Maximum counts. — Spring: 500 on Mills Island in China teague Bay on May 7, 1938 (G. A. Ammann) ; 113 in the Ocej« City area on May 2, 1953 (R. Strosnider). Fall: 60 near EllicI Island, Dorchester County, on November 19, 1948; 50 on Blaci water National Wildlife Refuge, Dorchester County, on Septei ber 4, 1948. Winter: 26 in southern Dorchester County on D cember 28, 1953 (Christmas count). I LESSER YELLOWLEGS Tofanus flavipes (Gmelin) Status. — Transient: Common in tidewater areas of the Eastei" Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections; fair common in the Allegheny Mountain section ; uncommon elsewhe in all sections. Wintering : Rare in tidewater areas of the Eastei Shore section (most numerous in vicinity of Blackwater Nation Wildlife Refuge, Dorchester County) ; casual elsewhere — recordf in the District of Columbia on January 2, 1954 (J. M. Abbott Summer vagrant: Casual — recorded in the District of Columb on June 21, 1929 (W. H. Ball). Habitat. — Shallow flats in marshes or at the margins of pond bays, and estuaries. Spring migration. — Normal period: April 1-10 to May 2i June 5; peak, April 15 to May 20. Extreme dates of arriva March 12, 1906, in the District of Columbia (Cooke, 1929) ; Man 15, 1895, in Harford County (Kirkwood, 1895) ; March 18, 195 in Queen Annes County (J. W. Aldrich). Extreme date of d parture: June 13, 1946, in Dorchester County. Fall migration. — Normal period: July 15-25 to November ] BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 147 0; peak, August 10 to September 30. Extreme dates of arrival: uly 12, 1947, in Worcester County; July 13, 1952, in Baltimore bounty (E. Willis). Extreme dates of departure: November 23, 951, in Dorchester County (E. J. Stivers) ; November 16, 1941, a Garrett County (M. G. Brooks) ; November 14, 1948, in Har- jord County. Maximum counts. — Spring: 45 at Kent Island, Queen Annes pounty, on May 5, 1956 (R. P. and M. Dubois) ; 30+ at Chinco- |eague Bay on May 29, 1922 (A. H. Howell). Fall: 500 (50 shot) It Ocean City on September 16, 1901 (E. F. Armstrong) ; 225 on backwater National Wildlife Refuge, Dorchester County, on uigust 24, 1947; 79 in the District of Columbia on August 27, :928 (W. H. Ball). Winter: 16 on Blackwater Refuge on Feb- ruary 19, 1949. uNOT Calidris canutus (Linnaeus) I Status. — Transient: Fairly common in the coastal area of Worcester County ; rare in tidewater areas elsewhere in the East- Irn Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections. I Habitat. — Ocean beach, and sandy flats on the inland side of ihe barrier beaches that adjoin the coastal bays. I Spring migration. — Extreme dates: May 1, 1953, in Worcester bounty (R. Strosnider) and June 4, 1954, in Worcester County (J. W. Terborgh, J. E. Knudson) . ' Fall migration. — Extreme dates: August 4, 1945, in the Ocean |]ity area and November 2, 1952, at Heine's Pond, Worcester ^lounty. Migration peak: August 10 to September 20. Maximum counts. — Spring: 175 in the Ocean City area on Tune 1, 1952 (E. G. Baldwin) ; 170 on May 22, 1948, and 76 on Vlay 17, 1947, on Assateague Island; 15 in the District of Co- ,umbia on May 26, 1928 (W. H. Ball). Fall: 46 on Assateague :sland on August 30, 1950 ; 34 at Ocean City on August 17, 1925 (F. C. Kirkwood). ^URPLE SANDPIPER Erolia maritima (Briinnich) ' Status. — Transient and wintering: Fairly common in the /icinity of the Ocean City Inlet in Worcester County ; casual else- lA^here — 1 observed at Sandy Point in Anne Arundel County on i^ovember 22, 1953 (P. A. DuMont). I Habitat. — Usually found on the rocky jetties that border the i3cean City Inlet. Period of occurrence. — Extreme dates: October 28, 1950 (I. R. Barnes) and May 21, 1950, at Ocean City. Peak: November 20 to May 15. 148 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Maximum counts. — 68 on December 27, 1954 (Christmj count), and 61 on May 5, 1956 (P. A. DuMont), at Ocean CHj Inlet. PECTORAL SANDPIPER Eroiia melanotos (Vieillot) Status. — Transient: Fairly common in the Allegheny Mountaii section and in tidewater areas of the Upper Chesapeake, Wester j Shore, and Eastern Shore sections; uncommon elsewhere in aj sections. Summer vagrant: Casual — recorded in the District ( Columbia on June 21, 1929 (W. H. Ball). Habitat, — Marshes with short vegetation and mud flats. 0 the barrier beaches they are especially characteristic of the grass sloughs just back of the sand dunes — American three-square ari! Fimbristylis sp. are usually the principal plant species in this typ Spring migration. — Normal period: April 1-10 to May 2l\ June 5 ; peak, April 25 to May 20. Extreme date of arrival: Marc! 20, 1954, in Charles County (J. W. Terborgh, R. R. Kerr). Ei treme date of departure: June 11, 1926, in the District of Colun( bia (Ball, 1927). Fall migration. — Normal period: July 20-30 to November 1 10; peak, August 10 to October 25. Extreme date of arrival: Jul 15, 1952, in Baltimore County (E. Willis) . Extreme date of d( parture: November 12, 1945, in Prince Georges County. Maximum counts. — Spring: 34 near Essex, Baltimore Countjl on May 8, 1949 (D. A. Jones) ; 31 in Anne Arundel County on Mai 10, 1952; 22 at Aliens Fresh, Charles County, on April 3, 195( (J. W. Terborgh). Fall: 350+ in the District of Columbia 0( September 7, 1928 (W. H. Ball) ; 220 on Assateague Island o< August 14, 1948; 75 near Elliott, Dorchester Countj^ on Septem ber 22, 1954 ; 50 at Sandy Point, Anne Arundel County, on Augus 20, 1947. WHITE-RUMPED SANDPIPER Erolla fuscicollis (Vieillot) Status. — Transient: Uncommon in the coastal area of Woi cester County; rare elsewhere in all sections. Habitat. — Sandy beaches and mud flats at the margins o ponds, bays, and estuaries. Occurs in greater numbers on th' barrier beaches than elsewhere. Spring migration. — Extreme dates: May 2, 1953, in Woi< cester County (R. Strosnider) and June 14, 1926, in the District oi Columbia (Ball, 1927). Migration peak: May 10 to June 10. Fall migration. — Normal period: August 1-10 to October 20 30; peak, August 20 to September 30. Extreme date of arrival July 26, 1947, in Worcester County. Extreme dates of departure ■ i BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 149 fovember 13, 1954, in Dorchester County; November 12, 1949, 1 Worcester County. Maximum counts. — Spring: 20 in the District of Columbia on [ay 20, 24, and 26, 1928 (W. H. Ball). Fall: 18 in the District of olumbia on September 12, 1930 (W. J. Whiting) ; 14 on Assa- jjague Island on August 30, 1950. AIRD'S SANDPIPER Erolia bairdii (Coues) Status. — Fall transient: Rare — recorded in the Eastern Shore, /"estern Shore, and Allegheny Mountain sections. I Habitat. — Mud flats at the margins of ponds, bays, and estu- ries. ; Period of occurrence. — Single birds were recorded as follows : lugust 14, 1948, on Assateague Island; August 17, 1952, at Sandy ioint, Anne Arundel County (C. N. Mason) ; August 19, 1928, !; Scotland Beach, St. Marys County (Ball, 1930a) ; September 3, )28, and September 28, 1930, in the District of Columbia (Ball, l)31b) ; September 29, 1945 (USNM), at Ocean City; October i and 24, 1936, at Deep Creek Lake in Garrett County (Brooks, )38). !:AST SANDPIPER Erolia minufilla (Vieillot) Status. — Transient: Common in the tidewater areas of the astern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections; iirly common elsewhere in all sections. Wintering : Uncommon L the coastal area of Worcester County ; rare in tidewater areas sewhere in the Eastern Shore section. Summer vagrant: asual — recorded in the District of Columbia on June 21, 1929 W. H. Ball) . Habitat. — Marshes with short vegetation, and mud flats at the argins of ponds, bays, and estuaries. Spring migration. — Normal period: April 15-25 to May 25- me 5; peak. May 1 to May 20. Extreme dates of arrival: March !, 1947, in Dorchester County; April 4, 1953, in Worcester 3unty. Extreme dates of departure: June 14, 1926, in the Dis- ict of Columbia (Ball, 1927) ; June 12, 1946, in Somerset County. Fall migration. — Normal period: July 10-20 to November 1- ); peak, July 25 to September 25. Extreme date of arrival: ily 1, 1951, in Baltimore County (E. Willis). Extreme dates of 'parture: November 29, 1945, in Worcester County; November ', 1954, in Dorchester County; November 22, 1917, in the Dis- ict of Columbia (C. H. M. Barrett). Maximum counts. — Spring: 900 in the Crisfield area, Somer- t County, on May 18, 1947 ; 549 in the Ocean City area on May 150 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 2, 1953; 500+ on Mills Island in Chincoteague Bay on May 1938 (G. A. Ammann) ; 150 at Sandy Point, Anne Arundel Coun on May 23, 1954 (C. N. Mason). Fall: 210 on Assateague Isla: on August 14, 1948 ; 194 in the Ocean City area on August 5, 19^^ 51 on Blackwater Refuge, Dorchester County, on August 24, 19^ 1 Wintering: 25 in the Ocean City area on December 21, 1^; (Christmas count). DUNLIN Erolia alpina (Linnaeus) .« Status. — Transient: Abundant in the coastal area of Worces County; common in tidewater areas elsewhere in the Eastc Shore section ; uncommon in the Allegheny Mountain section a in the tidewater areas of the Western Shore and Upper Chesapet sections; rare elsewhere in all sections. Wintering: Fairly co mon in the coastal area of Worcester County ; uncommon in ti water areas elsewhere in the Eastern Shore section ; rare in ti water areas of the Western Shore section. Habitat. — Sandy beaches and mud flats at the margins ponds, bays, and estuaries. This species is especially characti istic of the tidal mud flats along the coastal bays and lower Che« peake Bay. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 20-30 to June 10; peak, May 1 to May 25. Extreme date of arrival: March 1892, in Baltimore County (W. N. Wholey) . Extreme date of parture: June 11, 1949, in Worcester County (B. Williams). Fall migration. — Normal period: July 25-August 5 to Dece ber 10-20; peak, October 15 to November 30. Extreme date arrival: July 23, 1949, in Worcester County. Extreme date of parture: December 30, 1951, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. L. Henderson). Maximum counts. — Spring: 700 in the Crisfleld area, Somi set County, on May 18, 1947; 315 in the Ocean City area on 2, 1953 (R. Strosnider) ; 130 (1 flock) near Elliott Island, Chester County, on May 20, 1953 ; 60 in the District of Columi on May 26, 1928 (W. H. Ball, P. Knappen) . Fall: 400 in the Oce^ City area on November 27, 1945 ; 200+ in the Elliott Island aji on October 30, 1949, and on November 18, 1947; 150 at Ki Narrows, Queen Annes County, on October 24, 1949. Winters (Christmas counts) : 1,102 in the Ocean City area on Decemlj 27, 1955; 177 in southern Dorchester County on December 1954. mi SHORT-BILLED DOWITCHER Limnodromus griseus (Gmelin) Status. — Transient: Common in the tidewater areas of W^ BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 151 rester, Somerset, Wicomico, and Dorchester Counties; fairly com- inon in tidewater areas elsewhere in the Eastern Shore, Western l^hore, and Upper Chesapeake sections; rare elsewhere in all jections. Wintey^ing : Casual in the coastal area of Worcester i^ounty — 1 at Ocean City on December 27, 1950 (F. M. Packard). \)ummer vagrant: Rare in the coastal area of Worcester County. I Habitat. — Mud flats at the margins of ponds, bays, and estu- j.ries. j Spring migration. — Normal period: April 1-10 to May 25- I'une 5; peak, May 1 to May 25. Extreme date of arrival: March !;, 1875, in Baltimore County (A. Resler). Extreme date of de- \)artm'e: June 6, 1939, in Worcester County (M. B. Meanley). Fall migration. — Norynal period: July 1-10 to November 10- ko ; peak, July 15 to September 5. Extreme dates of arrival: June 1:6, 1950, and June 27, 1948 (M. A. Elliott), in Worcester County. \ber 29, 1944, had been banded as a juvenal on Gravelly Island, a County, Wisconsin, on June 21, 1944. ZK TERN Chlidonias niger (Linnaeus) PATUS. — Breeding (?): Possibly nests occasionally in the Alle- ly Mountain section — on June 9, 1935, 2 were seen on a pond • Grantsville, Garrett County, and, according to the people g on the property, had been there since spring (Denmead, ') . Fall transient: Fairly common in the coastal area of Wor- lY County; uncommon in other tidewater areas of the Eastern 'e. Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections and in the gheny Mountain section; rare elsewhere in all sections. ng transient: Uncommon in tidewater areas of the Eastern 170 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections ; rare ( \ where in all sections. Habitat. — Ocean, bays, estuaries, and adjacent beaches a marshes ; also on inland ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and rivers, j Spring migration. — Normal period: May 1-10 to June 1-i] peak, May 10 to May 30. Extreme date of arrival: April 29, 1^ in Prince Georges County. Extreme date of departure: June 1952, in Montgomery County (J. W. Taylor, Jr.). Fall migration. — Normal period: July 5-15 to September I 25 ; peak, July 20 to September 20. Extreme date of arrival: i i 28, 1927, in Prince Georges County (Mr. and Mrs. L. D. Mini Extreme dates of departure: October 16, 1899, in Baltirii County (F. C. Kirk^^ood) ; September 28, 1952, in Queen Ai ; County (Mr. and Mrs. W. L. Henderson) ; September 26, 1 1 in the District of Columbia (W. H. Ball) . Maximum counts. — Spring: 24 at Ocean City an May 5, ] (P. A. DuMont) ; about 20 in the District of Columbia on '. 27, 1926 (Mrs. T. M. Knappen) ; 8 in Anne Arundel County May 8, 1954 (P. A. DuMont) ; 6 at Ocean City on May 11, 1! (D. A. Cutler). Fall: 81 on September 5, 1948, and 70 on , 23, 1949, on Assateague Island ; 37 in the District of Columbi; September 17, 1930 (W. H. Ball) ; 12 at Oxford, Talbot Couf on July 13, 1950 (Mr. and Mrs. W. L. Henderson) ; 12 at Ssi Point, Anne Arundel County, on September 13, 1947 (J. W. ' lor, Jr.) ; 8 at Seneca, Montgomery County, on September 8, 1 (J. W. Terborgh) . Family RYNCHOPIDAE BLACK SKIMMER Rynchops nigra Linnaeus Status. — Breeding: Common in the coastal area of Worcei County. Transient: Common in the coastal area of Worca County ; casual elsewhere — 1 on the Potomac River on Septem 8, 1858 (Coues and Prentiss, 1883), singles in the District of< lumbia on April 14, 1928 (C. H. M. Barrett) , and on August! 1952 (Johnson, 1952), 2 at Sandy Point, Anne Arundel Cou^ on August 28, 1955, and 1 at Tilghman Island on May 18 and 1956 (R. L. Kleen). Wintering: Casual visitor — 1 seen in Marys County on December 29, 1940 (Dargan, et al., 1941] seen at Ocean City on December 27, 1954 (I. N. Gabrielson), a" at Ocean City on January 24, 1947. Habitat. — Coastal bays and adjacent sandy beaches. N on sandy islands in the coastal bays. Nesting season. — Late May to late August (nesting peak, i BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 171 le to late July). Extreme egg dates (23 records, about 635 ts) : June 1, 1938 (Poole, 1942b), and August 3, 1939 (Kolb, 9), in Worcester County. Extreme downy young dates (23 ords, about 640 broods) : June 18, 1945, and August 12, 1955, iVorcester County. Spring migration. — Extreme arrival dates: April 14, 1928, the District of Columbia (C. H. M. Barrett) ; April 20, 1900, Worcester County (Ansley Ludlam). Migration peak: May 5 May 20. i'ALL MIGRATION. — Normal period: August 10-20 to November 20; peak, September 1 to November 1. Extreme date of de- nture: November 24, 1946, in Worcester County. IiGH BREEDING POPULATIONS. — About 250 pairs on islands in epuxent Bay and northern Chincoteague Bay on July 12, 1951. tlAXiMUM COUNTS (nonbreeding) . — Spring: 560 in the Ocean y area on May 11, 1952 (D. A. Cutler) . Fall: 400 in the Ocean y area on September 27, 1949, and September 29, 1945. LANDING. — Five, banded as juvenals in Worcester County in flmer (June 24-July 4) , were recovered in Florida during the iod September 12-April 6; 3 of these were recovered on the t coast of central Florida, and 2 were taken on the Gulf coast southern Florida. Five others, banded as juvenals in Wor- ter County, were recovered as follows : 2 in Georgia on January and April 1 ; 1 in South Carolina in late December ; 1 in south- i Delaware on August 9 ; and 1 at Salisbury, Wicomico County, 'ing the hurricane of August 12, 1955. Family ALCIDAE iZORBILL] AIca torda Linnaeus 5TATUS. — Hypothetical. One was seen on the barrier beach 2 es south of Ocean City on December 4, 1926 (Wetmore, 1927) . other was seen near the former Isle of Wight Coast Guard tion (north of Ocean City) on February 3, 1938 (J. H. Bucka- '). CK-BILLED MURRE Uria lomvia (Linnaeus) 5TATUS. — Casual visitor. Five specimens (USNM), found in i Washington, D. C, market, were taken in the District of lumbia during the period, December 14, 1896, to January 1, )7 (Bartsch, 1897). A specimen was collected at Havre de ace, Harford County, on November 5, 1899 (examined by F. C. 'kwood). Another was taken near Kensington, Montgomery Linty, on November 24, 1899 (USNM— R. S. Shepherd), and on 172 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE the same day at least 2 other freshly killed birds were offered ^i sale in Washington. DOVEKIE Plautus alle (Linnaeus) Status. — Transient and wintering: Rare (occasionally ni) numerous) in the coastal area of Worcester County. Habitat. — Pelagic and littoral zones of the ocean. | Period of occurrence. — Extreme dates: November 18, ll! (F. C. Kirkwood), and March 11, 1952 (J. H. Buckalew), botl Worcester County. Occurrence peak: December 10 to Febru 10. Maximum count. — Thousands were reported 10 to 15 m| offshore from Ocean City (hundreds caught in mackeral nep during early January 1949 (J. H. Buckalew). [BLACK GUILLEMOT] Cepphus grylle (Linnaeus) Status. — Hypothetical. Audubon (1840-1844) reported t . he had seen this species "as far south as the shores of Mal|' land." Family COLUMBIDAE MOURNING DOVE Zenaidura macroura (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding and transient: Common in the Piedmci Upper Chesapeake, and Western Shore sections; fairly comm in the Allegheny Mountain, Ridge and Valley, and Eastern Shi sections. Wintering: Fairly common in the Eastern Shore i\ Western Shore sections; uncommon in the Upper Chesapeaj Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections; rare in the Alleghd Mountain section. Habitat. — Agricultural areas and adjacent hedgerows, wo margins, woodlots, and residential areas. Nesting season. — Early March to early October (nesting pe mid-April to mid-July). Extreme egg dates (151 nests) : Mai 10, 1953, in the District of Columbia (J. A. Madden) and Septe ber 21, 1949, in Montgomery County (S. H. Low) . Extreme ne ling dates (67 nests) : March 29, 1950, in the District of Columi (W. B. Tyrrell) and October 4, 1952, in Baltimore County (C. Hackman). Spring migration. — Normal period: February 10-20 to Ap 20-30 ; peak, March 10 to April 10. Fall migration. — July 20-30 to November 1-10 ; peak, Augi 15 to October 15. Breeding population densities (territorial males per ] acres) . — j BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 173 ' (32 in 2,563 acres) in mixed forest and brush habitats with clearings , (both pine and deciduous trees with small scattered agricultural areas i and abandoned farmlands) along the border between Anne Arundel and Prince Georges Counties in 1943. (50 in 11,520 acres) in "general farmland" (various agricultural habitats, ; chiefly hayfields and pastures with little cover, owing to widespread i clean-farming practices) in Frederick County in 1950 (Stewart and Meanley, 1950). I^IAXIMUM COUNTS. — Fall: 200 near Baltimore on August 26, 1 13 (W. H. Fisher) ; 115 on Patuxent Refuge, Prince Georges imty, on September 28, 1946. Winter (Christmas counts) : 124 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1955; 370 near Inton in Caroline County on December 26, 1953; 319 in the St. phaels area, Talbot County, on December 29, 1955; 317 in the adelphia Reservoir area on December 24, 1955; 316 in the Dis- ,3t of Columbia area on January 1, 1955; 218 in southern Dor- jister County on December 28, 1955; 215 in southern Charles anty on January 1, 1954. Spring: 200 in Anne Arundel County March 1933 (T. Denmead). Landing. — See figure 28. 5SENGER PIGEON Ecfop/sfes migraforius (Linnaeus) 5TATUS. — Now extinct. Formerly abundant at times, at least ally. Grant (1951) states that this species formerly nested in 'rrett County in the vicinity of Deer Park, Mountain Lake Park, kland, and Grantsville. An immense roost was located near ;kland according to Eifrig (1904). In Allegany County during ! 1870's (Grant, 1951) the Passenger Pigeon was a regular 'ing and fall migrant arriving from the south in about the ddle of April and returning during the Indian summer, prob- y about the first of October. The last big flight was reported in stern Allegany County in the vicinity of Barton (Grant, 1951) i Vale Summit (Kirkwood, 1895) on the unusual date of Jan- ry 1, 1877 (mistakenly published by Grant as 1876). Grant :)orted a flock containing thousands of birds, and Kirkwood l.ted that at that time the sky was black with them and that ge numbers were killed. in Howard County (Fisher, 1896) during the period about iO-45, "large flocks would be seen reaching as far as the eye lid see — the birds making their appearance in the fall and !naining until about Christmas although at times a few would i nter with us." Large numbers were killed at night while roost- I ? and their bodies fed to the hogs (Fisher, 1894) . Until about 80, Passenger Pigeons were seen regularly in the vicinity of 174 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Figure 28. — Mourning Dove banding recoveries. Each symbol represents t number of records for a State or Province. Banded in Maryland, recovery elsewhere: solid triangle = recovered September through May. Recover! in Maryland, banded elsewhere: open circle = banded June through August open triangle = banded September through May. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 175 Itimore almost every season, generally migrating in September li October in flocks of from 15 to several hundred individuals isher, 1896). In 1878, for about 10 days in October, flocks con- ning from 5 to 20 birds were seen flying over Baltimore be- 3en 7:00 and 7:30 a.m., 6 to 12 flocks being seen each day irkwood, 1895). In the vicinity of Washington, D. C, this ;cies appeared in flocks at irregular intervals throughout the 1, winter, and spring ; the last large flight took place in the fall about 1858 or 1859 (Coues and Prentiss, 1883). By 1880, this species had become quite rare throughout its ige. The latest records were made during the period 1888 1903. In Dorchester County several were shot during the ter part of the 1880's (Hampe and Kolb, 1947). In the Dis- ct of Columbia and nearby sections of Maryland (Cooke, 1929) Ifew were seen and specimens collected in 1887, 1889 (small |ck near Laurel and flock of 12 at Jefferson), and 1891 (latest iiollected on May 2, 1891). In the vicinity of Baltimore 1 was Dt near Bradshaw in September 1888 and another, with a flock Mourning Doves in Dulaney Valley in September 1889 (Fisher, 96) ; quite a few were seen in the fall of 1893, including a record i3 on August 27, a flock of 50 or 60 on September 17, and a flock ' about 40 on September 19 (Kirkwood, 1895) . The last record st of the mountains was of 3 birds seen on the ridge near Loch iven Station in Baltimore County about August 15, 1899, by Imore. Near Hancock, in Washington County, a flock of 8 or 10 rds was observed several times during the year, 1889 (Den- aad, 1954). In Garrett County, Eifrig (1904) believed that he w 5 on July 19, 1901, and a pair on July 17, 1903. He states rther that farmers and others in Garrett County at that time 3re occasionally seeing small flocks of from 2 to 12 individuals. lOUND DOVE Columblgallina passerina (Linnaeus) Status. — Accidental visitor. Two female specimens (USNM) ive been taken. One was collected in the District of Columbia I September 1, 1844 (entered in catalog as 1843), by J. C. Mc- aire, and the other was collected at Broad Creek in Prince eorges County on October 14, 1888, by Thomas Marron. Family PSITTACIDAE \ROLINA PARAKEET Conurops/s carolinensis (Linnaeus) Status. — Now extinct. *'In September, 1865, while gunning ir Sora on the Potomac River, Mr. Edward Derrick flred into a Dck of strange birds flying overhead, killing several, which 176 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE I proved to be Carolina Paroquets. He had one mounted, and kij the specimen in his house for a number of years. Other parlii' on the marsh at the same time shot numbers of the birds. ]), scriptions furnished by Mr. Derrick and careful questioning t ourselves, leave no doubt as to the identity of the birds" (Smi and Palmer, 1888) . Kirkwood (1895) states that this species \ i originally well known in tidewater Maryland. Wright (19] 2 quotes Rev. Andrew White as reporting in about 1677 : "A Rt [j tion of the Colony of Lord Baron of Baltimore, in Maryland, n«|g Virginia, etc." recorded, that "During the winter it abounds i . . . parrots, and many others unknown to our parts of the worLj, Family CUCULIDAE YELLOW-BILLED CUCKOO Coccyzus americanus (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding and transient: Fairly common in the Eaii em Shore, Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake, Piedmont, ai Ridge and Valley sections; uncommon in the Allegheny Moit tain section. Habitat. — Swamp or moist, brushy open forest and wo|> margin types; also in orchards and residential areas. Nesting season. — Mid-May to mid-September (nesting peU late May to mid-August) . Extrevie egg dates (38 nests) : May ]l 1946, in Prince Georges County (R. B. Overington) and Augis 28, 1951, in Baltimore County (C. D. Hackman). Extreme ne,\ ling dates (18 nests) : May 26, 1935, in Baltimore County (M. ■ Meanley) and September 16, 1951, in Baltimore County ( Willis). Spring migration. — Normal period: May 1-5 to June 1-21 peak. May 10 to May 25. Extreme dates of arrival: April 9, 195< in Anne Arundel County (Col. and Mrs. U. Amoss) ; April 2 1954, in Allegany County (L. McCollough, Mrs. G. M. Miller, April 28, 1888, in Baltimore County (A. Resler) ; April 28, 195< in Caroline County (Mrs. A. J. Fletcher) ; April 29, 1948, Prince Georges County. In 1951 very few arrivals were not*i before June 10, and the major influx occurred in July. Fall migration. — Normal period: August 1-10 to October K 20; peak, August 15 to September 25. Extreme dates of depa ture: November 12, 1954, in Baltimore County (S. W. Simon] November 6, 1954, in Caroline County (A. J. Fletcher) ; Novemb< 3, 1954, in Prince Georges County (L. M. Llewellyn) ; October 2 1954, in Frederick County (J. W. Richards) ; October 25, 195: in Montgomery County (A. Baugness). BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 177 Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 ;res) . — (2 in 23^ acres) in upland oak forest (white, scarlet, and black oaks) in Prince Georges County in 1944, (1.5 in 24% acres) in river terrace forest (beech-white oak) in Prince Georges County in 1944. (2 in 32% acres) in well-drained flood-plain forest (sweetgum, hornbeam, river birch, tulip-poplar, etc.) in Prince Georges County in 1944; 3 (2.6 in 85 acres) in other areas of this habitat in 1945 (Stewart, et al., 1946). (2 in 47% acres) in hedgerows in agricultural areas and abandoned farm- lands (including strip 27% yards wide on each side of hedgerow) in Prince Georges County in 1945. I (1.5 in 80 acres) in "central hardwood forest (oaks-tulip-poplar) with I scattered pine" in the District of Columbia in 1948 (Trever, 1952) ; i absent in 1949, 1951, 1952, 1953, and 1954. i Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: 7 at Patuxent ;efuge in Prince Georges County on May 9, 1943, and on May '>, 1944; 7 in Worcester County on May 11, 1952 (D. A. Cutler). ■all: 10 in Carroll County on August 18, 1953 (D. H. Mcintosh) ; ) near Seneca, Montgomery County, on September 1, 1953 (J. K. I^right) ; 8 on Patuxent Refuge on August 16, 1943 ; 8 in Dor- 'lester County on September 25, 1953. LACK-BILLED CUCKOO Coccyzus erythropthalmus (Wilson) Status. — Breeding: Fairly common in the Allegheny Moun- lin section; uncommon in the Ridge and Valley, Piedmont, and pper Chesapeake sections ; rare in the Western Shore and East- rn Shore sections. Transient: Uncommon in all sections. Habitat. — Brushy open forest and wood margin types. Nesting season. — Early May to late July. Extreme egg dates 8 nests) : May 18, 1935 (H. Kolb), and July 19, 1950 (E. Willis), oth in Baltimore County. Extreme nestling dates (5 nests) : [ay 23, 1946, in Prince Georges County (E. G. Cooley) and July ;6, 1950 (E. Willis), in Baltimore County. Spring migration. — Normal period: April 25-May 5 to June -5; peak. May 5 to May 20. Extreme dates of arrival: April 18, 931, in Harford County (S. Mason, Jr.) ; April 20, 1905, in altimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme dates of depar- cre: June 30, 1951 (a year of exceptionally late cuckoo migra- on), and June 7, 1945, in Prince Georges County. I Fall migration. — Normal period: July 25-August 5 to October i-15; peak, August 10 to September 1. Extreme date of arrival: July 20, 1952, in Prince Georges County. Extreme dates of de- \arture: November 2, 1955, in Caroline County (Mrs. A. J. i'letcher) ; October 28, 1925, in the District of Columbia (Mr. and Irs. L. D. Miner) ; October 19, 1947, in Prince Georges County. 178 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Maximum counts. — Spring: 7 at Patuxent Refuge, Priic Georges County, on May 8, 1943 ; 6 at Gibson Island, Anne An t del County, on May 11, 1952 (Mrs. W. L. Henderson). Family TYTONIDAE BARN OWL Tyto alba (Scopoli) Status. — Fairly common locally in the Eastern Shore sectic uncommon locally in the Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake, Pi(i mont, and Ridge and Valley sections ; rare in the Allegheny Moi t tain section (Brooks, 1944). There are definite breeding recoijli for Worcester, Dorchester, Talbot, Caroline, Queen Annes, C|l vert, St. Marys, Charles, Anne Arundel, Prince Georges, Moil gomery, Baltimore, Harford, and Washington Counties and ti District of Columbia. Habitat. — Open agricultural lands or marshes in the vicini;; of woodlots or buildings or other man-made structures; also towns and cities. Nesting season. — Throughout the year (nesting peak, eail; March to late July). Extreme egg dates (20 nests) : January S 1949, in the District of Columbia (J. W. Aldrich) and Septemb^ 20, 1956, in Dorchester County (P. F. Springer). Extreme nai ling dates (25 nests) : April 11, 1930, in Montgomery Coun^; (E. J. Court) and November 6, 1956, in Dorchester County (P. } Springer). Young just out of the nest v^^ere seen on Decembfe 8, 1893, and on February 27, 1895, in the District of Columbi (Bendire, 1895). Young not over 2 weeks out of the nest wer also seen in the District of Columbia on January 7, 1896 (A. '.\ Fisher) . Maximum counts. — 12 on Blackwater Refuge, Dorchest; County, on May 10, 1952 (W. S. Webster) ; 5 in the Ocean Ci area on December 27, 1954 (Christmas count). | Banding. — Two adults banded in Prince Georges County ' spring (April 2-8) were recovered the same or the followii spring (April 30-May 14) in central and southeastern Pennsj vania. A nestling banded in Montgomery County on June L 1939, was recovered on September 7 of the same year just aero I the Pennsylvania line from Grantsville, Garrett County, Mar land. Two banded as nestlings in Dorchester County on Api 23, 1952, were recovered in southern New Jersey and nearl Maryland (12 miles from the point of banding) on (letter oi February 21, 1955, and June 24, 1952, respectively. Two reco ered in Howard and Worcester Counties in fall (September 2 November 8) had been banded as nestlings the same year th( BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 179 ere recovered (July 16, July 30) in southeastern Pennsylvania id southeastern Massachusetts, respectively. Another banded . west-central New Jersey on November 14, 1925, was caught Talbot County, Maryland, on April 5, 1926. I Family STRIGIDAE CREECH OWL Otus asi'o (Linnaeus) ! Status. — Permanent resident. Uncommon (fairly common jcally) in all sections. Alexander Wetmore states that this becies "has decreased decidedly over abundance of 40 years ago ji the area adjacent to Washington." ! Habitat. — Woodlots, orchards, and other wood-margin types bar agricultural areas ; also in towns and suburban areas. i Nesting season. — Late March to mid-July (nesting peak, early jpril to mid-June). Extreme egg dates (16 nests) : March 25, 889, in the District of Columbia (C. W. Richmond) and May 4, 899, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme nestling \ites (17 nests) : April 24, 1890, in Montgomery County (H. B. jtabler) and June 20, 1950, in Baltimore County (T. C. Buck). I'early full-grown young, still being fed by the parents, were re- brded as late as July 24, 1893, in Baltimore County (Kirkwood, 1395) . I Maximum counts. — Winter (Christmas counts) : 5 in the ;cean City area on December 27, 1953 ; 5 in the St. Michaels area, lalbot County, on December 29, 1955. !;REAT horned owl Bubo virglnianus (Gmelin) Status. — Permanent resident. Common in the tidewater areas f Dorchester County; fairly common elsewhere in the Eastern hore section and in the Allegheny Mountain section; uncommon 1 all other sections. Habitat. — Forests and woodlots and adjacent agricultural fields nd marshes. Nesting season. — Late January to late May (nesting peak, arly February to late April). Extreme egg dates (44 nests) : anuary 27, 1933, in Dorchester County (Jackson, 1941) and April 2, 1893, in Baltimore County (A. Wolle). Extreme nestling ates (22 nests) : February 24, 1945, in Prince Georges County J. N. Hamlet) and May 14, 1932, in Anne Arundel County (M. B. leanley) . Maximum counts. — Winter (Christmas counts) : 27 in the )cean City area on December 27, 1955 ; 25 in southern Dorchester 'ounty on December 28, 1954; 9 in Garrett County on January , 1950. 180 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE SNOWY OWL Nyctea scandiaca (Linnaeus) I . Status. — Rare and irregular winter visitor in all sectio^j (usually most numerous in the tidewater areas). • Period of occurrence. — Extreme arrival dates: November Igi 1954, in Anne Arundel County (H. A. Sutton); November Igj 1876, in the District of Columbia (W. Holmead). Extreme eel parture date: March 21, 1950, in St. Marys County (R. J. Beatcnl J. W. Taylor, Jr.) . Peak of abundance: November 25 to Februaf; 20. I Numbers. — During most years, this species was either abseji or only a few scattered records of singles were made. Occasional] 1^ however, larger numbers were recorded. About 15 specimen were taken in the vicinity of Washington, D. C, during the wintii of 1876-77 (C. W. Richmond) . There were 12 records from Marr land during the flight of 1926-27 (Gross, 1927). On Februa:(3 16, 1936, 6 were found in pole traps on Spesutie Island in HarfoK County (M. B. Meanley) . At least 5 were taken in Maryland aiijc brought to a taxidermist in Baltimore during the winter of 194! (■ 46 (Brackbill, 1946) . During the great flight of 1949-50 at lea|: 25 were recorded in Maryland and the District of Columbia ; 3 « |] these were observed at Mills Point on the Wicomico River in Sj; Marys County on March 21, 1950 (R. J. Beaton, J. W. Taylor, Jr. BARRED OWL Strix varia Barton Status. — Permanent resident. Common in the Eastern Shoii and Western Shore sections; fairly common in the Upper Ches.i peake. Piedmont, Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Mountai^ sections. Habitat. — Flood-plain and swamp forests ; also in various moi forest types on the upland. I Nesting season. — Late February to late June (nesting ^eai early March to early May). Extreme egg dates (45 nests) : FeH ruary 25, 1931, in the District of Columbia (J. C. Jones) and Ma 26, 1943, in Prince Georges County. Extreme nestling dates (3 nests) : March 23, 1935, in Baltimore County (M. B. Meanley and June 21, 1947, in Montgomery County (T. H. Cunningham) Breeding population density (pairs per 100 acres). — 0.5 (6 in 1,142 acres) in lowland forest (flood-plain forest with small adjacei clearings and areas of river terrace and river bluff forest) along tl Patuxent River in Anne Arundel and Prince Georges Counties in 194 Maximum counts. — Winter (Christmas counts) : 15 in th Ocean City area on December 27, 1954 ; 9 in the District of Coluir. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 181 area on January 1, 1955; 6 at Patuxent Refuge on December I 1945. Banding. — One recovered in Montgomery County on October 1942, had been banded in northeastern Ohio on May 1, 1942. NG-EARED OWL Asio otus (Linnaeus) Status. — Rare and local permanent resident in the Piedmont i Western Shore sections. Also occurs, at least occasionally, the Allegheny Mountain, Ridge and Valley, Upper Chesapeake, i Eastern Shore sections. There are definite breeding records • Baltimore County near Randalstown in 1893 (Kirkwood, )5), in Dulaney Valley in 1898 (F. C. Kirkwood), near Sweetair 1936 (F. C. Kirkwood) , and near Loch Raven Reservoir in 1946 olb, 1947) ; for Montgomery County near Rockville (Baird, al., 1874), near Brighton in 1892 and Olney in 1950 (H. B. ibler) ; for Prince Georges County near College Park in 1945 , N. Hamlet) ; for Anne Arundel County (E. J. Court) ; and for ! District of Columbia in 1890 (C. W. Richmond, E. M. Has- )uck) and 1894 (W. Palmer, E. M. Hasbrouck) . Other records occurrence in fall and winter have been made in Dorchester . Willis), Caroline (M. W. Hewitt, A. J. Fletcher), Calvert (E. Barry), Charles (F. M. Uhler), Harford (M. B. Meanley), ishington (E. A. Small), and Garrett Counties. Alexander ;tmore states that this species "has decreased greatly over the orded abundance of 50-60 years ago." Habitat. — Usually this species is found in or near dense stands young pine. N'ESTING SEASON. — Mid-March to early June. Extreme egg 'es (5 nests) : April 3, 1898, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirk- od) and May 1, 1950, in Montgomery County (H. B. Stabler). treme nestling dates (4 nests) : April 14, 1946, in Baltimore imty (Kolb, 1947) and June 1, 1950, in Montgomery County . B. Stabler). DRT-EARED OWL Asio flammeus (Pontoppidan) 5TATUS. — Breeding (1) : A "marsh owl" nest with eggs was )orted found in Dorchester County in June 1923 by Orrille Mills . C. Kirkwood) ; an adult was seen near the Blackwater Refuge Dorchester County on July 22, 1938 (N. Hotchkiss) ; 1 was col- i;ed on Assateague Island, Worcester County, on August 6, 1906 ^ H. Fisher) ; an adult was collected in the District of Colum- on May 23, 1871 (R. Ridgway) ; a pair was observed on May 1956, at Kent Narrows, Queen Annes County (R. P. and M. bois). Transient and wintering: Uncommon in the Upper esapeake and Eastern Shore sections and locally (Point Look- 182 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE out) in the Western Shore section; rare (formerly more numk ous — Kirkwood, 1895) in other sections. Habitat. — Usually most numerous on extensive areas of ti I; marsh ; also occurs on large, open agricultural areas. j Period of occurrence (transient and wintering). — iVont period: October 20-30 to April 5-15. Extreme date of arrivi October 16, 1953, in Prince Georges County (S. F. Blake), i'; treme dates of departure: April 21, 1939, in Garrett County (R G. Brooks) ; April 20, 1861, in the District of Columbia (D. f Prentiss) ; April 19, 1953, in Anne Arundel County (L. W. Orin, SAW-WHET OWL Aegolius acadkus (Gmelin) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 24) : Uncommon and local in 1 Allegheny Mountain section — recorded in summer near Cumb;; land on July 6, 1903 (Eifrig, 1904) ; in Cranberry Swamp (3 mij( south of Finzel) on July 5, 1945; in the Maryland portion 1( Cranesville Swamp (just east of Cranesville, West Virginia) t July 7, 1945; and in Wolf Swamp (about 4 miles southeast'! Grantsville) during the period May 30 to June 16, 1951. Triii sient and wintering: Rare or uncommon in the Eastern Shw Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake, Piedmont, and Ridge a Valley sections (probably also occurs in the Allegheny Mountji section although there are no definite records during fall a winter) . Habitat. — During the breeding season this species appears be restricted to boreal wooded bogs that contain stands of ii spruce, hemlock, or tamarack. At other seasons, it occurs in va ous wood margin thickets or in forest types with an understc brush layer. Nesting season. — A full-grown young bird was captured m\ Cumberland on July 6, 1903 (Eifrig, 1904), and a young birdj Juvenal plumage was seen at Wolf Swamp on June 16, 1951. I' other young bird in juvenal plumage was found in the West "V' ginia portion of Cranesville Swamp on June 22, 1932 (Broo 1936c). Period of occurrence (transient and wintering). — Norn period: October 20-30 to March 20-30. Extreme dates of arriv October 3, 1886, in the District of Columbia (F. S. Webstei October 15, 1944, in Prince Georges County. Extreme dates departure: May 2, 1953, in Frederick County, near Emmitsbu (J. W. Richards) ; April 6, 1953, in Prince Georges County. F. Kirkwood recorded 1 in Baltimore County on the unusual datei June 24, 1921. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 183 Family CAPRIMULGIDAE JCK-WILL'S-WIDOW Caprimulgus carolinensis Gmelin JTATUS. — Breeding (see fig. 29) : Common in or near the tide- ter areas of the Eastern Shore section and the southern part the Western Shore section (occurring regularly north to the aware line along the coast, north to Kent Island in Queen nes County along the eastern shore of Chesapeake Bay, north :he Shadyside Peninsula in Anne Arundel County on the west- shore of Chesapeake Bay; north along the Patuxent River to boesville, and north along the Potomac River to Morgantown Charles County) ; uncommon in the interior of the Eastern )re section and in the interior of the southern part of the stern Shore section (St. Marys, Charles, and Calvert Coun- ;) . This species occurs only as a casual visitor in the northern •t of the Western Shore section, having been recorded in the Inity of Laurel in Prince Georges County in the summer of 16 (C. W. Richmond), in the fall of 1929 (R. B. Overington), I on May 12, 1935 (Wetmore, 1936) ; at Cheverly in Prince )rges County on May 4, 1944 (W. M. Perrygo) ; in Anne Arun- County at Odenton on 2 occasions (Kirkwood, 1895) ; at Sandy nt on June 2, 1954 (J. W. Terborgh) ; and in the District of LEGEND CHUCK- WIUL'S-WIOOW ^^^1 Principal Range # Local Record TRAILL'S FLYCATCHER p^^^^ Principal Range O Local Record JRE 29. — Breeding ranges of Chuck-will's-widow and Traill's Flycatcher. 184 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Columbia on July 22, 1895 (R. Ridgway), and in the summer 1896 (C. W. Richmond). Habitat. — Brushy open stands or wood margins of loblc pine, usually near tidewater. Nesting season. — Egg dates (3 nests) : May 10, (Coul 1921), and May 27, 1930 (F. C. Kirkwood), in St. Marys Coui[ and July 8, 1954, in Talbot County (J. Spurry). Period of occurrence. — Extreme arrival dates: April 19, 19 i in Talbot County (J. Reese) ; April 23, 1955, in Anne Arun I County (H. E. Slater, K. F. Sanders) ; April 25, 1953, in Wi cester County; April 26, 1952, in St. Marys County (J. W. T borgh) ; April 26, 1955, in Caroline County (V. Wright) . I treme departure date: September 1, 1954, in Talbot County (R. Kleen). Maximum counts. — Spring: 32 in Talbot County on May 1954 (R. L. Kleen) ; 16 in the Ocean City area on May 5, 195 WHIP-POOR-WILL Caprimulgus vociferus Wilson Status. — Breeding and transient: Common in the Eastfl Shore, Western Shore, and Ridge and Valley sections ; fairly co mon in the Upper Chesapeake, Piedmont, and Allegheny Mount sections. Habitat. — Various types of upland forest in the vicinity | clearings or wood margins. I Nesting season. — Late April to mid- July (nesting peak, ea< May to early July). Extreme egg dates (15 nests) : April ! 1922, in Dorchester County (Jackson, 1941) and June 27, 19 in Prince Georges Oounty (L. M. Dargan). Extreme nesth\ dates (7 nests) : May 25, 1941, in Prince Georges County (W. I Lawrence) and July 17, 1908, in Garrett County (G. Eifrig). Spring migration. — Normal period: April 5-15 to May 15-!. peak, April 20 to May 10. Extreme dates of arrival: March I 1948, in Prince Georges County (H. Severance) ; March 26, 191 in Dorchester County (R. W. Jackson) ; March 29, 1903, in Ba j more County (F. C. Kirkwood). I Fall migration. — Normal period: August 10-20 to October 10 ; peak, September 1 to September 20. Extreme date of arrive July 29, 1920, in Dorchester County (R. W. Jackson). Extre* dates of departure: October 27, 1937, October 24, 1935, and ( tober 23, 1936, in the District of Columbia (R. Overing). Breeding population density (territorial males per 1 acres) . — 1.4 (15 in 1,047 acres) in upland forest and brush habitats (pine and deci"' filkDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 185 ous trees and brush, with small scattered agricultural areas and aban- doned farmlands) in Prince Georges County in 1943. total of 66 Whip-poor-wills was recorded between 9:28 p.m. and 12:30 a.m. during the evening of May 20, 1945, at 29 stops along the highway from southern St. Marys County to north-central Prince Georges County. Maximum covNTS.—Spring : 200 on May 7, 1949, in Washing- n County (Dr. R. S. Stauffer, M. Stauffer) ; 33 in the Ocean ty area on May 5, 1951; 24 on Patuxent Refuge in Prince Borges County on May 6, 1950. )MMON NIGHTHAWK Chordeiles minor (Forster) Status. — Breeding: Uncommon and somewhat local in all see- ms. Fall transient: Common, occasionally abundant, in all ctions. Spring transient: Uncommon in all sections. Habitat. — Open country such as agricultural fields and arshes ; also in towns and cities. Nesting season. — Late May to mid-July. Extreme egg dates 6 nests) : May 31, 1955, in Caroline County (A. J. Fletcher) d July 4, 1931, in St. Marys County (E. J. Court). One small stling was observed in Baltimore County on June 8, 1891 (Kirk- )od, 1895). Two juvenals were collected in St. Marys County July 18, 1894 (R. Ridgway). Spring migration. — Normal period: May 1-10 to May 25-30; ak. May 10 to May 20. Extreme dates of arrival: April 14, 1949, the District of Columbia (C. N. Mason) ; April 19, 1955, in iltimore (C. M. Buchanan) ; April 19, 1891, in Wicomico County \ C. Kirkwood) ; April 20, 1927, in Baltimore County (F. C. rkwood). Fall migration.— Norma? period: July 20-30 to September -October 5 ; peak, August 15 to September 10. Extreme date of rival: July 17, 1944, in Prince Georges County. Extreme dates departure: October 14, 1929, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirk- )od) ; October 14, 1947, in the District of Columbia (T. W. innelly) . Maximum counts. — Spring: 13 near Emmitsburg in Freder- : County on May 26, 1954 (P. J. O'Brien) ; 11 at Westminster, rroll County, on May 10, 1952 (D. A. Jones) ; 10 in the District Columbia on May 11, 1917 (H. C. Oberholser). Fall: 700 at nmitsburg, Frederick County, on August 30, 1953 (J. W. Rich- Is) ; 500 over the Gunpowder River marsh on September 3, 33 (F. C. Kirkwood) ; 250 at Rockville, Montgomery County, September 3, 1954 (J. W. Terborgh) ; 200 at Patuxent Refuge September 4, 1942, and on September 2, 1943. 186 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Family APODIDAE CHIMNEY SWIFT Chaetura pelagica (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding: Common in all sections. Transient: Com mon, occasionally abundant, in all sections. Figure 30, — Chimney Swift banding recoveries. Each symbol represents tl number of records for a State or Province. Recovered in Maryland, bande* elsewhere: open triangle = banded September through May. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 187 Habitat. — Aerial, usually most numerous in the vicinity of WHS and cities. Nesting season. — Early May to early September (nesting ak, late May to early August). Extreme egg dates (40 nests) : ay 9, 1918, in Dorchester County (Jackson, 1941) and July 14, 91, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme nestling tes (27 nests) : June 22, 1949, in Prince Georges County and ptember 1, 1907 (F. C. Kirkwood), in Allegany County. Fly- g young were recorded as early as June 29, 1924, in Baltimore )unty (F. C. Kirkwood). Spring migration. — Normal period: April 5-15 to May 10-20; ak, April 15 to May 5. Extreme dates of arrival: March 30, 95, in Baltimore County (P. T. Blogg) ; April 4, 1950, in Fred- ick County (R. T. Smith) . Fall migration. — Normal period: August 15-25 to October -20; peak, September 5 to October 10. Extreme dates of de- rture: November 2, 1954, in Talbot County (J, Spurry) ; October , 1906 (W. W. Cooke), October 25, 1915 (E. A. Preble), and ;tober 25, 1925 (V. Bailey), all in the District of Columbia. Breeding population density (pairs per 100 acres). — (16 in 2,656 acres) in mixed forest, brush and field habitats (in an area that included 12 buildings with chimneys) along the border between Anne Arundel and Prince Georges Counties in 1943. Maximum counts. — Spring: "Thousands" in the District of lumbia on April 20, 1925 (M. J. Pellew), and during April 26- iy 2, 1931, and 2,000 on May 9, 1932 (Cottam, 1932) ; 1,000 at rt Tobacco, Charles County, on May 7, 1940 (C. Cottam, F. M. iler) ; 500+ at Emmitsburg, Frederick County, on April 15, 53 (J. W. Richards) ; 500 at Gunpowder River marsh on April , 1901 (F. C. Kirkwood). Fall: 4,100 on October 2, 1947, and 100-5,000 about September 18, 1924 (H. C. Oberholser), in the strict of Columbia; "several thousand" at College Park, Prince orges County, on October 5, 1948 (A. C. Martin) ; 950 on Sep- nber 12, 1954, at Swallow Falls, Garrett County (L. W. Oring) . Banding. — See figure 30. Family TROCHILIDAE BY-THROATED HUMMINGBIRD Archilochus co/ubr/s (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding and transient: Fairly common in all ;tions. Habitat. — Breeding: In moist forest types and in hedgerows, lod margins, and other edge types that contain brush or small ;es. Transient: Various edge habitats; usually most numerous areas that contain an abundance of showy flowers. Native 188 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE flowers that are particularly attractive to this species include tiji jewelweed and trumpet creeper. Nesting season.— Mid-May to early September (nesting pea^ late May to mid-July) . One was observed on a nest as early May 10, 1953, in Worcester County (J. M. Cadbury, D. A. Cutler Extreme egg dates (58 nests) : May 17, 1949, in Prince Georg County (M. B. Meanley) and August 20, 1904 (hatching eggs) Washington County (Harlow, 1906). Extreme nestling dates (;|i nests) : June 8, 1898, in Baltimore County (J. Sommer) and Au?' ust 20, 1904 (hatching), in Washington County (Harlow, 1906) Spring migration. — Normal period: April 20-30 to May 2i- June 1; peak, May 5 to May 25. Extreme dates of arrival: Ap:i 11, 1954, in Caroline County (A. M. Thompson) ; April 12. 19E3 in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Ta) pan) ; April 13, 1893, in Baltimore County (W. H. Fisher) ; Ap:i 14, 1954, in Montgomery County (P. G. DuMont). Fall migration. — Normal period: August 1-10 to Septembk 25-October 5; peak, August 15 to September 10. Extreme dat\. of departure: October 20, 1913, in the District of Columbia (A. :[ Fisher) ; October 15, 1918 (A. T. Hoen) , and October 15, 19:^ (F. C. Kirkwood), in Baltimore County; October 14, 1950, Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson). Breeding population densities (breeding pairs per 1' i acres) . — 15 (13 in 85 acres) in well-drained flood-plain forest (sweetgum, hornbea^ river birch, tulip-poplar, etc.) along the border between Anne Arun and Prince Georges Counties in 1945 (Stewart et al., 1946). j 8 (1.5 in 20 acres) in "virgin hemlock forest" in Garrett County in Hi (Robbins, 1949a). 1 8 (2 in 23J<3 acres) in upland oak forest (white, scarlet, and black oaks) i Prince Georges County in 1944. 7 (2.4 in 34^ acres) in pine field (weedy, abandoned fields with op growth of young scrub pine) in Prince Georges County in 1945. 6 (1.5 in 2^14 acres) In river terrace forest (beech-white oak) in Prii^ Georges County in 1944. 6 (1.5 in 23^/4 acres) in "mature northern hardwood forest" (black chen beech, hemlock, sugar maple, sweet birch, etc.) in Garrett County | 1951 (Robbins and Stewart, 1951a). 4 (2 in 47% acres) in hedgerows in agricultural areas and abandoned Ian lands (including strip 21 V2 yards wide on each side of hedgerow) i Prince Georges County in 1945. 4 (1.5 in 36 acres) in "virgin central hardwood deciduous forest" (wh ' oak-tulip-poplar) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart and R( I bins, 1947b). 3 (2 in 80 acres) in "central hardwood forest (oaks-tulip-poplar) w scattered pine" in the District of Columbia in 1948 and 1949; absent 1951 (Trever, 1952) and in 1952, 1953, and 1954, BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 189 Maximum counts. — Spring: 9 at Patuxent Refuge on May 22, 345; 9 at Gibson Island, Anne Arundel County, on May 8, 1955 jMrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tappan). Fall: 35 on Patuxent iver marsh near Nottingham on August 21, 1947; 30 in Dor- hester County (Hurlock to Salem) on August 30, 1930 (H. B. urry) ; 30 at Seneca, Montgomery County, on September 12, 1954 J. W. Terborgh) ; 25-f- on 1 tree in Deer Park, Garrett County, (1 August 18, 1894 (J. E. Tylor) ; 20 on the Patapsco River marsh a August 25, 1896 (F. C. Kirkwood) . tUFOUS HUMMINGBIRD] Selasphorus rufus (Gmelin) \ Status. — Hypothetical. On November 8, 1952, a hummingbird ,ith a rufous back v^^as closely observed in flight by J. W. Rich- rds at Emmitsburg (Richards, 1954). Twenty-tvN^o days later Qother was observed at Jamesville on the Eastern Shore of Vir- inia (Fuller, 1953). The Rufous Hummingbird now occurs Bgularly in fall and winter as far east as Louisiana. The only pecimen for the Atlantic Coast was taken at Charleston, South ,arolina, on December 18, 1909. Any hummingbird seen in Mary- ind after early October should be studied with care. Family ALCEDINiDAE ELTED KINGFISHER Megaceryle alcyon (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding and transient: Fairly common in the tide- water areas of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper hesapeake sections ; uncommon elsewhere in all sections. Winter- \ig: Fairly common in the Eastern Shore section and in the tide- water areas of the Western Shore section; uncommon elsewhere |i the Western Shore section and in the Upper Chesapeake sec- ion ; rare in the Piedmont, Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Moun- ain sections. Habitat. — Margins of inland streams, ponds, and lakes, and idal bays and estuaries. Nesting season. — Late March to mid-July. Two were ob- erved entering a fresh hole in a bank in the District of Columbia s early as March 26, 1922 (W. W. Rubey) . Extreme egg dates 27 nests) : April 11, 1930, in Baltimore County (M. B. Meanley) nd June 4, 1911, in Dorchester County (Jackson, 1941) . Extreme estling dates (12 nests) : May 30, 1881, in Kent County (Fisher, 892) and July 7, 1954, in Baltimore County (J. R. Worthley) . Spring migration. — Normal arrival: March 5 to March 15. 'Jxtreme dates of arrival: February 13, 1898, in Baltimore County F. C. Kirkwood) ; February 19, 1949, in Montgomery County (J. 'riswell) . 190 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Fall migration. — Normal departure: November 1 to Novel i ber 10. Extreme date of departure: November 18, 1945, in PrinN Georges County. Maximum counts. — Winter (Christmas counts) : 104 in t]i« Annapolis area on January 2, 1955 ; 22 in the Ocean City area ( i December 27, 1954; 22 in southern Dorchester County on Decei^j ber 28, 1954; 22 in the District of Columbia area on January [' 1955; 19 in the Wicomico River area in Charles and St. Mar; < Counties on January 1, 1954. Family PICIDAE YELLOW-SHAFTED FLICKER Co/ap/es auraius (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding: Common in the Allegheny Mountain set- tion; uncommon (formerly common) in all other sections. Trans- ient: Common in all sections (during the fall flight this speci<£ concentrates in exceptionally large numbers on Hooper and Barre n Islands in Dorchester County) . Wintering: Fairly common in tl i Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections; uncommon in tH^ Upper Chesapeake, Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sectiom|; rare in the Allegheny Mountain section. Habitat. — Marginal areas that include forest, w^ood margini, and fields, as v^ell as brushland and hedgerows. Nesting season. — Early April to late July (nesting peak, lale April to mid-June) . Nest building was recorded as early as Apr 1 7, 1950, in Baltimore County (E. Willis). Extreme egg dates (9 2 nests) : April 18, 1910, in Dorchester County (Jackson 1941) anl June 23, 1893, in Baltimore County (Kirkwood, 1895). Extreme nestling dates (68 nests) : May 22, 1892, in Baltimore County! (F. C. Kirkwood) and July 30, 1940, in Baltimore County (El, Brackbill) . Spring migration. — Normal period: March 5-15 to May l-5<; peak, March 20 to April 25. Extreme dates of arrival: Februar ' 12, 1913, in Dorchester County (R. W. Jackson) ; February 241 1890, in Montgomery County (H. W. Stabler) ; February 25, 189H in Talbot County (R. H. Blain) ; February 27, 1910, in the Distric ; of Columbia (A. H. Howell). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 5-15 to Noveiri" ber 5-15 ; peak, September 25 to October 20. Extreme dates a ' arrival: August 24, 1931, in the District of Columbia (W. L. Mc Atee) ; September 4, 1901, in Baltimore and Washington Countie (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme dates of departure: December 3j 1941, in Baltimore County (H. Brackbill) ; November 17, 1944 1 in Prince Georges County. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 191 Breeding population densities (pairs per 100 acres). — (2 in 66 acres) in field and edge habitats (including strips of flood-plain forest, brushy fields, and hedgerows) in Baltimore County in 1947 (Hampe, et al., 1947). (2 in 80 acres) in "central hardwood forest (oaks-tulip-poplar) with scattered pine" in the District of Columbia in 1948 (Trever, 1952) and in 1954 (Wright, 1955) ; 1 (1 in 80 acres) in 1949, 1951, 1952, and 1953 (Trever, 1952; Clagett, 1952 and 1953). Maximum counts.— S'^^rms'; "Hundreds" near Baltimore on iVLarch 25, 1893 (F. C. Kirkwood). Fall: "Nearly 1,000" on iSooper Island, Dorchester County, on September 30, 1933 (W. B. Iryrrell) ; a flock of 200+ at Patuxent Refuge on October 15, 1942. Winter (Christmas counts) : 239 in the Ocean City area on Decem- Der 27, 1954 ; 107 in the Annapolis area on January 1, 1956 ; 104 [n the District of Columbia area on January 2, 1954 ; 80 in south- ern Dorchester County on December 28, 1953 ; 79 in the Wicomico JRiver area of Charles and St. Marys Counties on January 1, 1954; 75 on Patuxent Refuge on December 23, 1941. PILEATED WOODPECKER Dryocopus pileatus (Linnaeus) ; Status. — Permanent resident (see fig. 31). Fairly common in jthe Allegheny Mountain section and in the western part of the iRidge and Valley section (west of Hagerstown Valley) ; fairly icommon locally in the Eastern Shore section (most numerous Figure 31, — Breeding range of Pileated Woodpecker. 192 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE along the Pocomoke River and its tributaries, and in Dorchestei- County), in the Western Shore section (most numerous along th i Patuxent River and its tributaries in Prince Georges and Ann^ Arundel Counties and in the Zekiah Swamp in Charles County] and in the Piedmont section (chiefly along Potomac River vallef of Montgomery County) ; uncommon locally in the eastern part of the Ridge and Valley section (mountains of eastern Washington County and northwestern Frederick County) . Habitat. — Extensive areas of upland, moist forest types in thu mountains of the Allegheny Mountain, and Ridge and Valley sec ■ tions ; also in extensive areas of flood-plain or swamp forests i: the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Piedmont sections. Nesting season. — Early April to late June. Nest-building wai recorded as early as April 2, 1950, in Montgomery County (S. El Van Meter, M. G. Van Meter). Extreme egg dates (7 nests) April 17, 1949 (probable — adult flushed from nest) , in Montgoira ery County (P. A. DuMont) and "early June" 1895 in Dorcheste:( County (Kirkwood, 1895). Extreme nestling dates (14 nests) I May 2, 1949, in Montgomery County (S. B. Van Meter, M. G. Van Meter) and June 23, 1950 (W. B. Tyrrell), in Garrett County Breeding population densities (pairs per 100 acres). — 0.6 (5 in 775 acres) in flood-plain forest (including forest and brusli habitats) along the border between Anne Arundel and Prince Georgei Counties in 1950, 1951, and 1952; 0.5 (4 in 775 acres) in 1949; aboui 0.2 (1.5 in 775 acres) during the period 1942-48. Maximum counts. — Winter (Christmas counts) : 20 in the Ocean City area (Pocomoke swamp) on December 27, 1954; If in southeastern Worcester County (Pocomoke swamp) on Decem- ber 22, 1947; 11 in Garrett County on December 31, 1954; 8 in tht Blackwater Refuge area on December 21, 1947, on December 28 1948, and on December 23, 1951; 8 on Patuxent Refuge on Jan- uary 14, 1952. RED-BELLIED WOODPECKER Centurus carolinus (Linnaeus) Status. — Permanent resident. Common in the Western Shore section ; locally common in the Eastern Shore section (most numerous along the Pocomoke River and its tributaries) ; fairly common in the Upper Chesapeake and Piedmont sections; rare in the Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Mountain Sections. Habitat. — Flood-plain or swamp forests; also rich moist forests on the upland. Nesting season. — Mid-April to mid-June. An occupied nest was found as early as April 25, 1953, in Montgomery County (L. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 193 Iham). Extreme egg dates (6 nests) : May 2, 1919, in Dor- ester County (Jackson, 1941) and May 16, 1936, in Harford )unty (M. B. Meanley). Extreme nestling dates (9 nests): ay 4, 1945, in Prince Georges County (J. B. Cope) and June 10, 91, in Baltimore County (Kirkwood, 1895) . Breeding population densities (pairs per 100 acres) . — (7 in 36 acres) in "virgin central hardwood deciduous forest" (white oak-tulip-poplar) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart and Robbins, 1947b). (6 in 85 acres) in well-drained flood-plain forest (sweetgum, hornbeam, river birch, tulip-poplar, etc.) along the border between Anne Arundel and Prince Georges Counties in 1945 (Stewart, et al., 1946); 6 (2 in 32% acres) in another area of this habitat in 1944. (4.5 in 80 acres) in "central hardwood forest (oaks-tulip-poplar) with scattered pine" in the District of Columbia in 1951, 2 (1.5 in 80 acres) in 1948 and 1949 (Trever, 1952) ; 1 (1 in 80 acres) in 1952 and 1953 (Clagett, 1952 and 1953), and in 1954 (Wright, 1955). (2 in 44% acres) in river bluff forest (beech-white oak) in Prince Georges County in 1944, 2 (1 in 443/^ acres) in 1945 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). Maximum counts. — Winter (Christmas counts) : 111 in the nnapolis area on January 1, 1956 ; 94 in the Ocean City area on ecember 27, 1955 ; 86 in the District of Columbia area on Janu- -y 1, 1955 ; 72 in the Triadelphia Reservoir area on December 24, )55; 56 on Patuxent Refuge on January 12, 1950; 56 in the ''icomico River area in Charles and St. Marys Counties on De- ;mber 28, 1952. ED-HEADED WOODPECKER MelanerpQs erythrocephaius (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding and transient: Fairly common locally in the llegheny Mountain section; rare or uncommon and local in the idge and Valley, Piedmont, Western Shore, and Eastern Shore actions (breeds in Washington, Frederick, Montgomery, Balti- :ore, Harford, Prince Georges, and Anne Arundel Counties and le District of Columbia, and formerly in Caroline, Dorchester, id Talbot Counties). Wintering: Uncommon and local in the iedmont, Upper Chesapeake, and Western Shore sections (com- lon near Seneca, Montgomery County — L. Kilham, and near ccokeek, Prince Georges County — E. T. McKnight) ; rare and >cal in the Eastern Shore section. Alexander Wetmore states lat this species has become "greatly reduced in numbers since 0 years ago." Habitat. — Woodlots, parks, and open woodland; usually most umerous in open stands of oak trees or in areas with an abun- ance of dead trees. 194 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Breeding season. — Late April to early July. Extreme e.[( dates (11 nests) : May 3, 1891, in Baltimore County (Kirkwocd 1895) and June 23, 1885, in the District of Columbia (USNMJi Extreme nestling dates (11 nests) : May 8, 1920, in Baltimo^ County (F. C. Kirkwood) and July 6, 1945, in Garrett County. Spring migration. — Normal period: April 25-May 5 to Mii; 15-25; peak, May 5 to May 15. Extreme arrival dates: March 21 1890, in Wicomico County (A. E. Acworth) ; April 7, 1902, i Carroll County (R. Watts) ; April 7, 1940, in Baltimore Coun;i (E. A. McGinity) ; April 8, 1905, in the District of Columbia (V^ W. Cooke). Extreme departure dates: June 2, 1916, and May 3i) 1905, in the District of Columbia (H. C. Oberholser). I Fall migration. — Normal period: August 25-September 5 ( October 5-15; peak, September 10 to October 1. Extreme arrivi. date: August 23, 1952, in Frederick County (J. W. Richards: Extreme departure dates: October 20, 1950, in Anne Arundu! County (Mrs. G. Tappan) ; October 19, 1948, in Baltimore Counts (H. Brackbill). Maximum counts. — Spring: 50 near Seneca, Montgomeij County, on April 13, 1939 (W. H. Lawrence) ; 11 in the Distri of Columbia area on May 11, 1917 (H. C. Oberholser). Fall: 1 near Seneca, Montgomery County, on October 2, 1948 (L 1 Barnes, D. M. Thatcher). Winter: 100 near Accokeek, Primt Georges County, on December 22, 1940 (Christmas count) ; 50 neii Seneca, Montgomery County, on November 13, 1955 (H. I Smith) ; 5 at Port Tobacco, Charles County, on December 26, 192i (Christmas count). YELLOW-BELLIED SAPSUCKER Sphyrapicus varius (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 32) : Fairly common locally in tb Allegheny Mountain section (most numerous in Garrett Count: in the Cherry Creek swamps and in the vicinity of Herringtoi Manor — uncommon elsewhere) . Transient: Fairly common in a| sections. Wintering : Uncommon in the Eastern Shore and Wesll ern Shore sections ; rare in the Upper Chesapeake, Piedmont, an | Ridge and Valley sections. Summer vagrant: Accidental — 1 seei at Denton on June 20, 1956 (A, M. Thompson) . Habitat. — Breeding: Moist or swamp forests in or near boreal type bogs at elevations of 2,400 feet or more; also in forests o] the higher ridges at elevations over 3,000 feet. Transient an* wintering: Swamps and flood-plain forests and moist forest type* on the upland; also in orchards, parks, and in wooded areai around houses. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 195 CURE 32. — Breeding range of Yellow-bellied Sapsucker, Solitary Vireo, Magnolia Warbler, Black-throated Blue Warbler, Northern Waterthrush, Purple Finch, and Slate-colored Junco. Nesting season. — A nest containing eggs was found in Garrett ounty on June 5, 1925 (F. C. Kirkwood) . Nests containing young rare observed in Garrett County on May 29, 1949, and on July 7, !945. Adults were recorded feeding young out of the nest in Gar- 3tt County on June 12, 1949 (R. S. Stauffer), and on July 6, 1895 Kirkwood, 1895). Spring migration. — Normal period: March 20-30 to May 1- •0; peak, April 5 to April 25. Extreme arrival dates: March 12, ;892, in Baltimore County (G. H. Gray) ; March 15, 1908, in the >istrict of Columbia (W. L. McAtee) ; and March 17, 1907, in lontgomery County (W. L. McAtee). Extreme departure date: ilay 17, 1953, in Frederick County (Mr. and Mrs. A. J. Fletcher) . i Fall migration. — Normal period: September 15-25 to October 0-20; peak, September 25 to October 10. Extreme arrival date: ieptember 10, 1905, in the District of Columbia (W. W. Cooke). \lxtreme departure dates: November 1, 1947, in Baltimore County iH. Kolb) ; October 24, 1935, in Prince Georges County (R. Over- ing) ; October 24, 1951, in Anne Arundel County (K. Brooks) . j Maximum counts. — Spring: 6 in the District of Columbia on ipril 12, 1891 (C. W. Richmond). Fall: 15 near Seneca, Mont- 196 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE gomery County, on October 10, 1953 (A, Baugness, H. Oberlin 12 at Gibson Island, Anne Arundel County, on September 28, 19i (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tappan) ; 7 at Patuxent Refu:[ on September 28, 1944, and on October 2, 1944. Winter (Christ mas counts) : 15 in the District of Columbia area on December 3( 1955 ; 11 at Patuxent Refuge on December 29, 1944 ; 10 at Ace ) keek, Prince Georges County, on December 21, 1937; 8 in the S| Michaels area on December 29, 1955; 8 in the Ocean City area (i December 27, 1955 ; 6 near the eastern base of Catoctin Mountai in Frederick County on December 30, 1951, and December 2: 1952. HAIRY WOODPECKER Oenc/rocopos v/7/osus (Linnaeus) Status. — Permanent resident. Fairly common in all sectioni Habitat. — Extensive tracts of deciduous forest. NESTING SEASON.— Early April to mid-June. Extreme eg dates (5 nests) : April 19, 1934, in Montgomery County (E. , Court) and April 29, 1935, in Baltimore County (M. B. Meanley; Extreme nestling dates (26 nests) ; April 25, 1953, in Wicomici County (J. C. Miller) and June 13, 1931, in Baltimore County (IV | B. Meanley) — also an extremely early record of young on Apri 9, 1900, in the District of Columbia (Daniel, 1901b). Breeding population densities (pairs per 100 acres). — 2 (2 in 80 acres) in "central hardwood forest (oaks-tulip-poplar) wii scattered pine" in the District of Columbia in 1949, 1951, and 191 (Trever, 1952; Clagett, 1958); 1 (1 in 80 acres) in 1952 and 191 (Clagett, 1952; Wright, 1955). 2 (1.5 in 85 acres) in well-drained flood-plain forest (sweetgum, hornbeart river birch, tulip-poplar, etc.) along the border between Anne Arund»^ and Prince Georges Counties in 1945 (Stewart, et al., 1946). Maximum counts.— PFwier (Christmas counts) : 45 in th Ocean City area (including Pocomoke swamp) on December 27 1955; 29 in the Catoctin Mountain area in Frederick and Wash ington Counties on January 2, 1954; 27 at Patuxent Refuge oi January 12, 1951 ; 27 in the Triadelphia Reservoir area on Decern ber 24, 1955 ; 19 near Chase in Baltimore and Harford Counties oi December 31, 1950; 16 in Garrett County on December 31, 1954. DOWNY WOODPECKER Dendrocopos pubescens (Linnaeus) Status. — Permanent resident. Common in the Eastern Shore Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake, Piedmont, and Ridge anc Valley sections ; fairly common in the Allegheny Mountain section Habitat. — Wood margins, open woodland, orchards, and othei forest edge habitats. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 197 Nesting season. — Late April to mid-June. An occupied nest vas found as early as April 23, 1945, in Prince Georges County 'J. W. Brainerd). Extreme egg dates (16 nests) : May 1, 1930, n the District of Columbia (E. J. Court) and May 30, 1907, in lUlegany County (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme nestling dates (41 iiests) : May 7, 1945 (J. B. Cope), and June 17, 1956, both in l^rince Georges County. Breeding population densities (pairs per 100 acres). — 4 (5 in 36 acres) In "virgin central hardwood deciduous forest" (white oalc-tulip-poplar) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart and Robbins, 1947b). (2 in 30 acres) in "damp deciduous scrub with standing dead trees" (burned-over, poorly drained upland forest) in Prince Georges County in 1948 (Oresman, et al., 1948). : (5 in 80 acres) in "central hardwood forest (oaks-tulip-poplar) with scattered pine" in the District of Columbia in 1954 (Wright, 1955) ; 6 (4.5 in 80 acres) in 1953 (Clagett, 1953); 5 (4 in 80 acres) in 1952 (Clagett, 1952) ; 4 (3 in 80 acres) in 1948, 1949, and 1951 (Trever, 1952). (4.7 in 85 acres) in well-drained flood-plain forest (sweetgum, hornbeam, river birch, tulip-poplar, etc.) along the border between Anne Arundel and Prince Georges Counties in 1945 (Stewart, et al., 1946) ; 6 (2 in 32% acres) in another area in 1944. I (2 in 40 acres) in "mixed oak forest" (white, scarlet, and chestnut oaks, etc.) in Baltimore County in 1948 (Kolb, et al., 1948), and in 1949 j (Kolb, 1949a) ; 5 (2 in 37 acres) in 1952 and 1953 (Kaufmann, et al., 1952; Cole and Kolb, 1953); 3 (1 in 40 acres) in 1950 (Kolb, 1950); I 3 (1 in 37 acres) in 1951 (Kolb and Cole, 1951). t (3 in 66 acres) in field and edge habitats (including strips of flood-plain ' forest, brushy fields, and hedgerows) in Baltimore County in 1947 ' (Hampe, et al., 1947). Maximum counts. — Winter (Christmas counts) : 207 in the District of Columbia area on December 31, 1955; 168 in the An- lapolis area on January 1, 1956; 141 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1954 ; 100 at Patuxent Refuge on January 12, 1950 ; 36 in the Catoctin Mountain area in Frederick and Washington bounties on January 2, 1954. tED-COCKADED WOODPECKER Dendrocopos borea/is (Vieillot) Status. — Rare and local permanent resident in the Eastern Shore section. Small numbers occur in a rather restricted area in the vicinity of Golden Hill in Dorchester County. They were first recorded there by F. R. Smith, who observed singles or small flocks during the periods, June 2-November 29, 1932, and April 8- September 30, 1933. More recent records in the Golden Hill area include 1 seen on October 8, 1955 (P. Hurlock) and 2 seen on September 20, 1956 (P. F. Springer). Elsewhere, a young bird 198 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE was observed on Assateague Island, Worcester County, on Jun 9, 1939 (Meanley, 1943a). Habitat. — Open stands of loblolly pine along- the margins o tidal marshes. [IVORY-BILLED WOODPECKER] Campephilus principalis (Linnaeus) Status. — Hypothetical. Audubon (1831 and 1842) records thi species as occurring in Maryland. Family TYRANNIDAE EASTERN KINGBIRD Tyrannus tyrannus (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding: Fairly common in all sections. Springs transient: Common in all sections. Fall transient: Common ii the Eastern Shore section ; fairly common elsewhere in all sections Wintering: Accidental — 1 was closely observed on AssateagU( Island, Worcester County, on December 23, 1946 (J. H. Buckai lew). Habitat. — Marginal habitats such as orchards, farmyardsl residential areas, cut-over forests, etc. Nesting season.— Early May to late August (nesting peak late May to mid-July). Nest-building was recorded as early a! May 6, 1953, in Caroline County (Mr. and Mrs. A. J. Fletcher) Extreme egg dates (108 nests) : May 21, 1899, and July 18, 1923- both in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) . Extreme nestling dates (66 nests) : May 31, 1946, in Prince Georges County (E. G Cooley) and August 22, 1953, in Carroll County (D. H. Mcintosh) Spring migration.— A^ormaZ period: April 20-30 to May 20- 25; peak, May 1 to May 20. Extreme arrival dates: March 10 1955, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson) ; April 12 1922, in Dorchester County (R. W. Jackson) ; April 13, 1883, ir Washington County (E. A. Small) ; April 14, 1895, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme departure date: May 26 1901, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Fall migration.— A^ormaZ period: July 15-25 to Septembei 15-25; peak, August 5 to September 5. Extreme arrival dates. July 12, 1926, and July 13, 1911, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirk- wood). Extreme departure dates: October 13, 1955, in Caroline County (M. W. Hewitt) ; October 7, 1931, in Baltimore Countj (F. C. Kirkwood) ; October 5, 1947, in Prince Georges County; October 4, 1936, in Anne Arundel County (E. A. McGinity). Breeding population densities (pairs per 100 acres).— 10 (2 in 20 acres) in suburban type residential area (including small orchards! and large expanses of lawn) in Prince Georges County in 1942. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 199 (7 in 260 acres) in mixed agricultural habitats (including hedgerows and wood margins) in Prince Georges County in 1949. Maximum counts. — Spring: 150 at Gibson Island, Anne irundel County, on May 8, 1955 (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. T. Tappan) ; 117 near Greenbelt, Prince Georges County, on May , 1954 (L. W. Oring) ; 100+ (on 1 plowed field) in Baltimore bounty on May 14, 1920 (W. Marshall) ; 75 at Port Tobacco, pharles County, on May 6, 1938, and on May 8, 1937 (I. N. jJabrielson, F, M. Uhler) . Fall: 2,000 on Gunpowder River marsh n September 2, 1902 (J. Thomas) ; 250 in Worcester County on lieptember 4, 1953 (R. R. Kerr, J. W. Terborgh) ; 57 on Assa- league Island, Worcester County, on September 1, 1945; 40 in Dorchester County on August 22, 1930 (H. B. Curry). jVESTERN KINGBIRD Tyrannus vertUalis Say 1 Status. — Rare fall transient; accidental winter visitor and pring transient. A specimen (USNM) found in the Washington, ). C, market on September 30, 1874, had been collected in nearby klaryland (Coues and Prentiss, 1883). Another specimen was libtained near Denton in Caroline County on September 28, 1931, )y S. E. Perkins III (Lincoln, 1932) . Two were seen at St. Marys pity, St. Marys County, on September 18, 1938 (Wetmore, 1939). pne was recorded at South Point, Worcester County, on Novem- ber 14, 1954 (H. Sutton). Two were observed at Wye Island, ^ueen Annes County, on September 9, 1956 (N. Nevius, et al.), md 2 others at Ocean City on September 17, 1956 (R. D. Cole, et il.) ; 1 was banded at the latter location on the following day. One vas collected (USNM) in Worcester County, about 4 miles south- vest of Snow Hill on December 23, 1946. One was seen near :]laiborne, Talbot County, on May 22 and 23, 1956 (R. L. Kleen) . SCISSOR-TAILED FLYCATCHER] Muscivora forficata (Gmelin) Status. — Hypothetical. A bird, presumably of this species, vas reported seen in the District of Columbia on May 6, 1861 (Coues and Prentiss, 1883). Another was reported near the Potomac River in Prince Georges County during August of about ;he year 1865 (Palmer, 1896) . A third sight record was reported n this same area during April 1881 (C. W. Richmond). SREAT CRESTED FLYCATCHER Myiarchus cr/n/fus (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding: Common in the Eastern Shore and West- 3rn Shore sections ; fairly common in the Upper Chesapeake, Pied- mont, and Ridge and Valley sections ; uncommon in the Allegheny Mountain section. Transient: Fairly common in all sections. 200 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Habitat. — Wood margin habitats and open stands of pine oi< upland deciduous forest. Nesting season. — Mid-May to early August (nesting peak late May to early July) . Extreme egg dates (112 nests) : May 13 1881, in the District of Columbia (USNM— M. Thompson) anc July 15, 1913, in Dorchester County (Jackson, 1941). Extrenn nestling dates (26 nests) : June 11, 1912, in Dorchester Countj (R. W. Jackson) and August 4, 1949, in Prince Georges Countj (J. S. Cooley). Spring migration. — Normal period: April 20-30 to May 15- 20; peak. May 5 to May 15. Extreme arrival dates: April 18; 1931 (J. C. Jones), and April 19, 1914 (W. W. Cooke), in th€ District of Columbia. Fall migration. — Normal period: August 15-25 to SeptembeK 15-25; peak, August 25 to September 10. Extreme departure dates: November 21, 1948, in Baltimore County (E. Willis); October 29, 1952, in Montgomery County (M. G. Van Meter). Breeding population densities (pairs per 100 acres) . — 8 (3 in 36 acres) in "virgin central hardwood deciduous forest" (whitt oak-tulip-poplar) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart anci Robbins, 1947b). 8 (3 in 40 acres) in "mixed oak forest" (white, scarlet, and chestnut oaks etc.) in Baltimore County in 1950 (Kolb, 1950) ; 5 (2 in 40 acres) ir 1948 (Kolb, et al., 1948); 3 (1 in 40 acres) in 1949 (Kolb, 1949a); 3 (1 in 37 acres) in 1951 (Kolb and Cole, 1951) and 1952 (Kaufmanai et al., 1952) ; none in 1953. 7 (2 in 28 acres) in partially opened flood-plain forest (sycamore, elm, ash^ etc.) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). 7 (1.5 in 21 acres) in "dense second growth" (oak-maple ridge forest) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). 6 (5 in 80 acres) in "central hardwood forest (oaks-tulip-poplar) witW scattered pine" in the District of Columbia in 1948; 4 (3 in 80 acres)'! in 1949, 2 (2 in 80 acres) in 1951 (Trever, 1952) ; 4 (3.5 in 80 acres)( in 1954 (Wright, 1955); 4 (3 in 80 acres) in 1952 (Clagett, 1952);! 3 (2.5 in 80 acres) in 1953 (Clagett, 1953). 5 (2 in 44% acres) in river bluff forest (beech, white oak, scarlet oak) in Prince Georges County in 1944 and 1945 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). 4 (2 in 47% acres) in hedgerows in agricultural areas and abandoned fields (including strip 27^^ yards wide on each side of hedgerow) in Prince Georges County in 1945. Maximum counts. — Spring: 41 in Talbot County on May 8, 1954 (R. L. Kleen) ; 22 in Worcester County on May 11, 1952 (D. A. Cutler) ; 21 in the District of Columbia area on May 12, 1913 (Oberholser, 1917a) ; 20 in Frederick County on May 9, 1953 (J. W. Richards). Fall: 9 in Dorchester County on August 31, 1946. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 201 H-THROATED FLYCATCHER Myiarcbus cinerascens (Lawrence) Status. — Accidental visitor. A specimen (USNM) was col- ited at Beltsville, Prince Georges County, on November 25, 1911, i E. B. Marshall. STERN PHOEBE Sayornis phoebe (Latham) Status. — Breeding: Fairly common in all sections. Transient: mmon in all sections. Wintering : Fairly common in Worcester unty; uncommon elsewhere in the Eastern shore section and in i southern part of the Western Shore section (Calvert, St. irys, and Charles Counties) ; rare in the northern part of the 3stern Shore section (Anne Arundel and Prince Georges unties), and in the Upper Chesapeake and Piedmont sections; 5ual in the Ridge and Valley section — 1 seen in the Hagerstown ,lley of Washington County during the winter of 1882-83 mall, 1883a). Habitat. — Various edge habitats including wood margin and !d edge types. During the breeding season, this species is usu- y restricted to areas near bridges, culverts, buildings, or other m-made structures. Nesting season. — Late March to early August (nesting peak, d-April to late June). Extreme egg dates (272 nests) : March , 1929, in Prince Georges County (R. V. Truitt) and July 21, 56, in Prince Georges County. Extreme nestling dates (183 sts) : May 1, 1929, in the District of Columbia (G. B. Roth) and igust 1, 1956, in Prince Georges County (P. F. Springer). Spring migration. — Normal period: March 5-15 to April 20- ; peak, March 20 to April 15. Extreme arrival dates: Febru- V 23, 1902, in the District of Columbia (H. W. Oldys) ; February , 1953, in Prince Georges County (L. M. Horn, A. C. Martin) ; bruary 28, 1954, in Montgomery County (J. W. Terborgh) ; irch 1, 1953, in Caroline County (A. Knotts) . Fall migration. — Normal period: September 10-20 to Novem- r 1-10; peak, September 25 to October 15. Extreme arrival te: September 1, 1944, in Prince Georges County. Extreme de- rture dates: November 29, 1893, in Montgomery County (H. B. abler) ; November 29, 1896, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirk- )od) ; November 28, 1954, in Prince Georges County; November , 1948, in Caroline County (Mrs. A. J. Fletcher) . Breeding population densities (pairs per 100 acres) . — (6 in 84 acres) in mixed agricultural habitats (including bridges and buildings) in Prince Georges County in 1949; 6 (5 in 84 acres) in 1947 and 1948} 5 (4 in 84 acres) in 1950 and 1951. 202 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 0.6 (15 in 2,656 acres) in mixed forest and field habitats (containing sc t tered bridges, culverts, and buildings that are used for nesting sit< in Anne Arundel and Prince Georges Counties in 1943; 0.4 (11 2,656 acres) in 1942. Maximum counts. — Spring: 20 on the Gunpowder River man] on March 22, 1904 (J. Thomas) ; 20 at Port Tobacco, Charlgi County, on April 7, 1953 (J. Hailman) ; 18 on Patuxent Refur, on March 16, 1945; 15 at Seneca, Montgomery County, on Febr ary 28, 1954 (J. W. Terborgh). Fall: 13 on Patuxent Refuge October 7, 1945. Winter (Christmas counts) : 32 in the Oceij] City area on December 27, 1953; 11 in southeastern Worcestj: County on December 22, 1947 ; 8 near Denton, Caroline County, December 23, 1950; 3 in the Triadelphia Reservoir area of Moi^ gomery and Howard Counties on January J, 1954. YELLOW-BELLIED FLYCATCHER Empldonax flavivenfris (Baird and Baiii| Status. — Transient: Uncommon in the Allegheny Mountai Ridge and Valley, and Piedmont sections; rare in the Upp Chesapeake, Western Shore, and Eastern Shore sections. Habitat. — Various types of evergreen and deciduous foresi: with some preference shown for the former. i Spring migration. — Normal period: May 10-15 to May 31 June 1 ; peak, May 20 to May 30. Extreme arrival dates: May I 1949, in Montgomery County (M. C. Crone, L. M. Wendt) ; M;| 9, 1886 (W. Palmer), and May 9, 1902 (A. K. Fisher), in the Di trict of Columbia. Extreme departure dates: June 1, 1917, the District of Columbia (F. Harper) ; June 1, 1925, in Garre- County (F. C. Kirkwood). Fall migration. — Normal period: August 10-20 to SeptemW 25-October 5 ; peak, August 25 to September 25. Extreme arrit dates: July 28, 1859, in the District of Columbia (E. Coues- USNM) ; August 3, 1893, in Baltimore County (G. H. Gray August 5, 1894, in the District of Columbia (C. W. Richmond Extreme departure dates: October 26, 1955 (banded), in Balij more County (S. W. Simon) ; October 11, 1926, and October i 1905, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; October 6, 1881, the District of Columbia (H. M. Smith). Maximum counts. — Spring: 17 near Laurel, Prince Georg County, on May 30, 1917 (W. L. McAtee, A. Wetmore) ; 5 in Bal' more County on May 21, 1893 (W. N. Wholey) . Fall: 8+ at Hoi Point, Baltimore County, on September 23, 1896 (F. C. Kir, wood) ; 6 banded at Ocean City, Worcester County, on Septeinb( BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 203 , 1955; 3 in the District of Columbia on September 18, 1930 (W. McAtee). :ADIAN flycatcher Empldonax v/rescens (Vieillot) Status. — Breeding: Common in the Eastern Shore, Western lore, and Upper Chesapeake sections; fairly common in the edmont, and Ridge and Valley sections; uncommon and local the Allegheny Mountain section — occurs along Bear Creek in irrett County (Brooks, 1936c). Transient: Fairly common in e Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sec- )ns ; uncommon in the Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections. Habitat. — Flood-plain and swamp forests; also rich, moist rests on the upland. Nesting season. — Late May to mid-August (nesting peak, rly June to early July) . Extreme egg dates (71 nests) : May 26, 143, in Prince Georges County (J. B. Cope) and July 30, 1893, Baltimore County (Kirkwood, 1895). Extreme nestling dates !1 nests) : June 9, 1952, in Caroline County (M. W. Hewitt) and ugust 11, 1953, in Calvert County (W. B. Tyrrell). Period of occurrence. — Normal period: May 1-10 to Septem- ir 5-15 ; peak, May 10 to August 1. Extreme arrival dates: April \ 1845, in the District of Columbia (USNM— Hutton) ; April I, 1951, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure dates: itober 2, 1927, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood, J. Som- er) ; September 28, 1952, in St. Marys County (J. W. Terborgh) ; iptember 24, 1950, in Montgomery County (S. A. Briggs) ; ;ptember 19, 1947, and September 19, 1951, in Prince Georges )unty. Breeding population densities (pairs per 100 acres) . — (6 in 12% acres) in lowland seepage swamp (red maple, sweetgum, pin oak with brushy understory of sweet-bay, winterberry, arrow-wood, etc.) in Prince Georges County in 1946. (33.7 in 85 acres) in well-drained flood-plain forest (sweetgum, hornbeam, river birch, tulip-poplar, etc.) along the border between Anne Arundel and Prince Georges Counties in 1945 (Stewart, et al., 1946) ; 34 (11 in 32% acres) in another area of this type in 1944. (12 in 36 acres) in "virgin central hardwood deciduous forest" (white oak-tulip-poplar) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart and Robbins, 1947b). (4 in 14^ acres) in poorly drained flood-plain forest (pin oak, sweetgum, red maple, red ash, etc.) in Prince Georges County in 1946. (22.5 in 80 acres) in "central hardwood forest (oaks-tulip-poplar) with scattered pine" in the District of Columbia in 1954 (Wright, 1955) ; 28 (22 in 80 acres) in 1949, 26 (21 in 80 acres) in 1948 and 1953, 19 (15 in 80 acres) in 1951 (Trever, 1952; Clagett, 1953); 20 (16 in 80 acres) in 1952 (Clagett, 1952). 204 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 23 (6.5 in 28 acres) in partially opened flood-plain forest (sycamore, aslL elm, etc.) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall ;|.| 12 (3 in 24% acres) in river terrace forest (beech-white oak) in Prin(t Georges County in 1944. 12 (1.5 in 13 acres) in upland oak forest (white, northern red, chestnut, anJ black oaks) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall j. 9 (4 in 44% acres) in river bluff forest (beech, white oak, scarlet oak) ik Prince Georges County in 1945; absent in 1944 (J. W. Aldrich, A. .. Duvall). ' 9 (3.5 in 37 acres) in "mixed oak forest" (white, scarlet, and chestni ; oaks, etc.) in Baltimore County in 1953 (Cole and Kolb, 1953) ; 8 (3 i i 37 acres) in 1951 and 1952 (Kolb and Cole, 1951; Kaufmann, et ali, 1952); 5 (2 in 40 acres) in 1948 (Kolb, et al., 1948); 4 (1.5 in 4i acres) in 1949 (Kolb, 1949a) and 1950 (Kolb, 1950). Maximum counts. — Spring: 34 in Charles and St. Mary^ Counties on May 9, 1953 (J. W. Terborgh, et al.) ; 30 along th C. & 0. Canal in Montgomery County on May 9, 1953 (E. J Stivers, et al.) ; 25 at Patuxent Refuge on May 10, 1952. Fall 9 at Patuxent Refuge on August 17, 1944. TRAILL'S FLYCATCHER Empidonax trallUi (Audubon) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 29) : Uncommon in the Alleghenji Mountain section ; uncommon and local in the Piedmont section- in late June of 1951, territorial males were recorded at 6 location in the northern half of Carroll County and at 1 location a mil west of Frederick in Frederick County, while in 1954, C. M Buchanan found an occupied nest at Loch Raven in Baltimor i County; rare in the District of Columbia — 1 singing male wa closely observed at Kenilworth on July 15, 1950 (E. G. Davis, J. E Willoughby), and on June 27, 1951 (R. F. Deed). Transient Rare in the Allegheny Mountain, Ridge and Valley, Piedmont Upper Chesapeake, and Western Shore sections, and (in fall only] in the Eastern Shore section. HABlTAT.-^Alder thickets, located along streams or in swamps occasionally in other types of brushy thickets in damp situations Nesting season. — A nest containing 3 dead young was founol at Mountain Lake in Garrett County on June 11, 1939 (M. Gl Brooks) . A nest, just completed, found at Loch Raven, Baltimore^ County, on July 10, contained 3 young on July 31, 1954 (C. Ml Buchanan) . Another nest containing young was found in Garretn County, near Bittinger, on August 24, 1938 (L. M. Llewellyn). Spring migration. — Normal period: May 10-15 to May 25-1 June 1. Extreme arrival dates: May 5, 1893 (collected), ir Baltimore County (A. Resler) ; May 7, 1922, in the District o1. Columbia (H. C. Oberholser) ; May 8, 1954, in Howard County! BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 205 'xtreme departure dates: June 9, 1953, in Frederick County (J. I. Richards) ; June 2, 1943 (USNM), in Prince Georges County. Fall migration. — Normal period: August 20-25 to September 0-15. Extreme arrival dates: August 16, 1886, in the District f Columbia (A. K. Fisher) ; August 18, 1927, in Baltimore iounty (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme departure dates: September 4, 1955, in Baltimore County (C. M. Buchanan) ; September 17, i890, in the District of Columbia (USNM— C. W. Richmond) . I Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: 5 near Seneca, jlontgomery County, on May 14, 1949 (L. M. Ashley) ; 3 in |he District of Columbia on June 1, 1917 (F. Harper). IeAST flycatcher Empidonax minimus (Baird and Baird) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 33) : Fairly common in the Alle- ifheny Mountain section; uncommon in the western part of the ilidge and Valley section (Allegany County) ; rare and local in the 'iedmont and Western Shore sections — occurring irregularly in he vicinity of Baltimore (A. A. Brandenburg, A. Stokes), in the iiorthern part of Baltimore County, in Carroll County, and in iMnce Georges County in the vicinity of the Patuxent Research l.^efuge. Transient: Fairly common in the Allegheny Mountain, jilidge and Valley, and Piedmont sections ; uncommon in the Upper Figure 33, — Breeding range of Least Flycatcher. 206 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Chesapeake and Western Shore sections; rare in the Easteri Shore section. Habitat. — Breeding: Open deciduous woodland, and orchards Transient: Various types of deciduous forests and forest edge. Nesting season. — Early May to mid- August (nesting peak* late May to early July). Nest building was recorded in Balti more County as early as May 4, 1951 (A. A. Brandenburg) Extreme egg dates (8 nests) : May 19, 1935, in Allegany Countj (L. M. Llewellyn) and June 17, 1949, in Prince Georges County Nestlings were observed in Baltimore County during the perioo June 2-10, 1951 (A. A. Brandenburg). An occupied nest waa found in Garrett County at Friendsville on about August 15, 1949 (A.Wright). Spring migration. — Normal period: April 25-May 5 to May 15-25; peak. May 5 to May 15. Extreme arrival dates: April 19, 1880, in Prince Georges County (USNM— G. Marshall) ; April 20, 1881, in the District of Columbia (W. Palmer) ; April 20, 1954, in Baltimore County (Mrs. R. E. Kaestner). Extreme departure dates: June 11, 1953, in Frederick County (J. W. Richards) ; June 6, 1953, in Montgomery County (R. F. Deed) ; June 2, 1905, ini Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Fall migration. — Normal period: August 20-25 to September 15-25; peak, August 25 to September 15. Extreme arrival dates: August 13, 1887, in the District of Columbia (A. K. Fisher); August 18, 1927, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; August 19, 1942, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure dates: October 1, 1916, in Montgomery County (D. C. Mabbott) ; Septem- ber 28, 1892, in Baltimore County (A. Resler) ; September 28, 1901, in Allegany County (G. Eifrig) . EASTERN WOOD PEWEE Confopus virens (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding and transient: Fairly common in all sec- tions. Habitat. — Wood margins or open stands of upland deciduous and pine forests; also in mature orchards and in wooded resi- dential areas. During the fall migration period, this species also occurs in more open habitats such as field margins and hedgerows. Nesting season.— Late May to mid-September (nesting peak, early June to late July) . Extreme egg dates (116 nests) : May 21, 1953, in Charles County (A. R. Stickley, Jr.) and August 15, 1897, in Baltimore County (J. Sommer) . Extreme nestling dates (53 nests) : June 13, 1950, in Harford County (R. B. Thomas) and September 13, 1951, in Baltimore County (E. Willis). BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 207 Spring migration. — Normal period: May 1-10 to May 25- ne 5; peak, May 10 to May 25. Extreme arrival dates: April , 1930, in Montgomery County (F. C. Lincoln) ; April 24, 1932, Baltimore County (W. B. Tyrrell) ; April 26, 1945, in Prince iorges County. Fall migration. — Normal period: September 1-10 to October 15 ; peak, September 10 to October 1. Extreme departure dates: ;tober 31, 1950, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Hender- n) ; October 25, 1937, in St. Marys County (J. C. Jones, F. H. ay) ; October 19, 1901, in Allegany County (G. Eifrig) ; October , 1883, on the Patapsco River marsh (A. Resler) . Breeding population densities (pairs per 100 acres). — (7 in 36 acres) in "virgin central hardwood deciduous forest" (white oak- tulip-poplar) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart and Robbins, 1947b). (3.5 in 21 acres) in "immature loblolly-shortleaf pine stand" in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948c). (4.5 in 40 acres) in "mixed oak forest" (white, scarlet, and chestnut oaks, etc.) in Baltimore County in 1949 (Kolb, 1949a) ; 10 (4 in 40 acres) in 1948 (Kolb, et al., 1948) ; 8 (3 in 37 acres) in 1951 and 1953 (Kolb and Cole, 1951; Cole and Kolb, 1953) ; 4 (1.5 in 37 acres) in 1952 (Kaufmann, et al., 1952) ; 3 (1 in 40 acres) in 1950 (Kolb, 1950). I (8 in 80 acres) in "central hardwood forest (oaks-tulip-poplar) with scattered pine" in the District of Columbia in 1954 (Wright, 1955) ; 8 (6 in 80 acres) in 1948 and 1953; 6 (5 in 80 acres) in 1949 and 6 (4.5 in 80 acres) in 1951 (Trever, 1952; Clagett, 1953); 7 (5.5 in 80 acres) in 1952 (Clagett, 1952). (1.5 in 22 acres) in "unsprayed apple orchard with infrequently mowed ground cover" in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). (1.4 in 23% acres) in upland oak forest (white, scarlet, and black oaks) in Prince Georges County in 1944. (2 in 44% acres) in river bluff forest (beech, white oak, scarlet oak) in Prince Georges County in 1945; 2 (1 in 44% acres) in 1944 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). (1.6 in 32V5 acres) in pine-oak forest (pitch pine, scrub pine, Spanish oak) in Prince Georges County in 1944. (1.5 in 30 acres) in "damp deciduous scrub with standing dead trees" in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart, et al., 1947). Maximum counts.— -S2?rm^; 20 at Unity, Montgomery County, •n May 9, 1953 (S. H. Low) ; 16 in St. Marys and Charles Counties .n May s', 1954 (J. W. Terborgh, J. W. Taylor, Jr.) ; 16 in the Dis- rict of Columbia and southern Montgomery County on May 10, .952 (P. A. DuMont, et al.). Fall: 16 near Seneca, Montgomery ilounty, on September 5, 1953 (H. A. Sutton) ; 16 at Port Tobacco, Charles County, on September 2, 1954 (A. R. Stickley, Jr.) ; 15 )n September 9, 1944, at Patuxent Refuge. 208 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FlSH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE OLIVE-SIDED FLYCATCHER NuftaUornis borealls (Swainson) Statvs.— Breeding : Formerly found sparingly in summer Garrett County at Cranesville Swamp (Brooks, 1936c), being i regular occurrence there until about 1937 (M. G. Brooks, Transient: Uncommon in the Allegheny Mountain section; ran in the Ridge and Valley, Piedmont, Upper Chesapeake, and Wes< ern Shore sections ; casual in the Eastern Shore section — 1 seen i the Pocomoke Swamp on May 17, 1952 (P. A. DuMont) ; 1 see' at Royal Oak, Talbot County, on September 26, 1953 (R. ] Kleen) ; and 1 seen at Tilghman, Talbot County, on September L 1955 (R.L. Kleen). Habitat.— Brushy, cut-over or burned-over forest land wit! scattered standing dead trees. Spring migration.— Norma? period: May 10-15 to June 1-5 peak. May 15 to June 1. Extreme arrival dates: May 5, 1956, i Prince Georges County; May 9, 1912, in the District of Columbi (A. K. Fisher) ; May 9, 1953, in Frederick County (J. W. Rich ards). Extreme departure date: June 10, 1945, in Prince George County. Fall migration.— Normal period: August 15-25 to Septembe 15-25 ; peak, August 25 to September 15. Extreme arrival dates August 10, 1943 (USNM), in Prince Georges County; August 13 1917, in the District of Columbia (R. W. Moore). Extreme dei parture dates: October 2, 1928, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirk wood) ; September 30, 1950, in Montgomery County (C. N Mason) . Maximum counts.— Fall: 3 near Seneca, Montgomery County on September 5, 1953 (H. A. Sutton) ; 3 at Herrington Manor ir Garrett County on September 11, 1954 (L. W. Oring) . Family ALAUDIDAE HORNED LARK Eremophila alpestris (Linnaeus) STATVS.-Breediyig: Fairly common in the Allegheny Mountain, Ridge and Valley, and Piedmont sections, and in the coastal area of Worcester County; uncommon elsewhere in the Eastern Shore section and in the Western Shore and Upper Chesapeake sections. Transient: Fairly common in all sections. Wintering: Fairly common in the Eastern Shore section; uncommon in all other sections. This species has been gradually expanding its breeding rangei southeastward during the past 50 years. In Garrett and Alle-« gany Counties it was first recorded in summer in about 1900 andi the first definite breeding records were obtained in 1904 (Eifrig,( BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 209 923). Farther east, the first indication of breeding was evident 'hen an adult and 2 juvenals were collected near Laurel, Prince [eorges County, on June 23, 1922 (Swales, 1922). Habitat. — Cultivated fields, pastures, golf courses, airfields, andy beaches, and other open habitats with sparse or short I egetation. Nesting season. — Early March to late July (nesting peak, mid- I larch to mid-May) . Nest-building was recorded as early as March , 1939, in Prince Georges County (M. B. Meanley) . Extreme egg \ates (17 nests) : March 18, 1952, in Baltimore County (E. Willis) ,nd July 6, 1931, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Ex- vreme nestling dates (15 nests) : March 19, 1954, in Baltimore pounty (E. Willis) and July 14, 1946, in Worcester County, ii'ledglings were observed being fed by a parent in Baltimore j'ounty on August 2, 1954 (C. D. Hackman). I Spring migration. — Normal period: January 15-25 to March ilO-SO; peak, January 25 to March 10. Extreme departure date: ^pril 9, 1931, in the District of Columbia ( W. L. McAtee) . Fall migration. — Normal period: September 25-October 5 to December 10-20 ; peak, October 10 to December 1. Maximum counts. — Spring: 400 in Worcester County on .February 22, 1948 (E. Arnold) ; 200 in Baltimore County on Vlarch 20, 1928 (W. Marshall) ; 100 (1 flock) near Emmitsburg, .Frederick County, on February 7, 1952 (J. W. Richards) . Fall: 500 on the Gunpowder River marsh on December 7, 1902 (J. rhomas) ; 200 in Baltimore County on November 12, 1929 (W. Marshall) ; 150 on Taylors Island, Dorchester County, on Decem- Der 1, 1893 (R. C. Watters). Winter: 500 at Indiantown, St. Marys County, on January 31, 1952 (J. W. Terborgh) ; "hun- ireds" at Cumberland during February 1901 (Eifrig, 1902b) ; 270 at Ocean City on December 27, 1948 (Christmas count) ; 240 in the Catoctin Mountain area of Frederick County on January 2, 1954 (Christmas count) ; 154 in southeastern Worcester County on December 22, 1947 (Christmas count) ; 127 near Denton, Caro- line County, on December 26, 1953 (Christmas count). Family HIRUNDINIDAE TREE SWALLOW /r/doprocne bico/or (Vieillot) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 34) : Fairly common in the tide- water areas of Somerset, Wicomico, and Dorchester Counties; uncommon or rare in the tidewater areas elsewhere in the Eastern Shore section and in the Western Shore and Upper Chesapeake sections; locally uncommon or rare in the Allegheny Mountain 210 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE LEGEND Principal Range Local Record Figure 34. — Breeding range of Tree Swallow. section — recorded in Garrett County at Cranesville Swamp, Deepi Creek Lake (Brooks, 1936c), Crellin (Eifrig, 1920b), Hammeli Glade and Lake Louise. Spring transient: Common in the Eastern! Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections; fairly | common in the Piedmont, Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Moun- tain sections. Fall transient: Abundant in the Eastern Shore sec- tion ; common in the tidewater areas of the Upper Chesapeake and and Western Shore sections ; uncommon elsewhere in all sections. Wintering: Uncommon and irregular in the coastal area of Wor- cester County and in the tidewater areas of Somerset and Dor- chester Counties; casual elsewhere in the Eastern Shore section and in the Western Shore and Piedmont sections— 1 seen at Cobb Island, Charles County, on January 7, 1950 (F. M. Uhler), a small flock recorded at Gibson Island, Anne Arundel County, on January 15, 1950 (Mrs. W. L. Henderson), 1 seen at Westminster, Carroll County, on January 12, 1952 (D. A. Jones). Habitat. — Breeding: Usually near open water or marsh in areas with standing dead trees. Transient: Most numerous in the vicinity of open water or marsh, but also occurring regularly over agricultural fields and other open habitats. Wintering: Usually found in the vicinity of wax-myrtle thickets on the barrier beaches or adjacent to salt marshes. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 211 ' Nesting season. — Early May to mid-July. Extreme egg dates ,1 nests) : May 12, 1894 (W. H. Fisher), and July 3, 1893 (P. T. jlogg), in Baltimore County. Extreme nestling dates (9 nests) : I me 3, 1954, in Caroline County (Mrs. A. J. Fletcher) and June j5, 1920, in Garrett County (Eifrig, 1920b) . Spring migration. — Norynal period: March 25-April 5 to May )-20; peak, April 5 to May 5. Extreme arrival dates: February |>, 1954, in Dorchester County (J. W. Terborgh) ; February 28, |)53, in St. Marys County (J. E. Knudson) ; March 4, 1903, in laltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; March 10, 1956, in Caroline iounty (Mrs. A. J. Fletcher). Extreme departure dates: June 1953, in Frederick County (R. F. Deed) ; May 28, 1949, in Mont- Dmery County (P. A. DuMont) ; May 26, 1908, in Allegany Iounty (F. C. Kirkwood) ; May 24, 1951, in Prince Georges jounty. I Fall migration. — Normal period: July 1-10 to November 5- 5; peak, August 25 to October 25. Extreme arrival dates: June 1, 1950, in Prince Georges County; June 30, 1906, in Worcester iounty (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme departure dates: November ie, 1900, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; November 17, ■948, in Dorchester County. i Maximum counts. — Spring: 2,500 at Aliens Fresh, Charles iiounty, on April 12, 1952 (L. Griffin, et al.) ; 1,000 in Baltimore jlounty on April 7, 1901 (F. C. Kirkwood). Fall: 50,000+ in the lllliott Island area, Dorchester County, on October 22, 1949; 0,000+ between Vienna and Cambridge in Dorchester County on •)ctober 2, 1948 ; 5,000 in Baltimore County on August 29, 1903, nd October 18, 1901 (F. C. Kirkwood) ; 3,800 on Assateague island, Worcester County, on September 5, 1948. Winter: 200 on iLSsateague Island on February 8, 1938 (G. A. Ammann) ; 150 in he Ocean City area on January 31, 1906 (F. C. Kirkwood) ; 50 ear Westover, Somerset County, on December 8, 1911 (W. H. j'isher). I lANK SWALLOW Riparia riparia (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 35) : Fairly common locally in he tidewater areas of the Western Shore and Upper Chesapeake ections and along the Chesapeake Bay shores of the Eastern )hore section (south to the Choptank River) ; uncommon and local n the Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections — recorded in Baltimore County at Herring Run and Dulaney Valley (F. C. Kirk- vood), in Harford County along Broad Creek near Pylesville (P. leaps) and Darlington (S. Mason, Jr.) and occurring along the 212 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE LEGEND CLIFF SWALLOW t^]^^!^ Principal Range O Local Record BANK SWALLOW B^^H Principal Range # Local Record Figure 35. — Breeding ranges of Bank Swallow and Cliff Swallow. i Potomac River in Washington County (M. G. Brooks). Spring^ transient: Fairly common in all sections. Fall transient: Commor in the tidewater areas of the Upper Chesapeake section; fairly common in the Allegheny Mountain section and in the tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections; uncomi mon elsewhere in all sections. Habitat. — Breeding: Restricted to areas near water with suit able sandy banks for nesting. Transient: In the vicinity of opei water and marshes ; also over pastures, agricultural fields, barriei beaches, and other open habitats. Nesting season. — Mid-April to mid-July (nesting peak, earlj May to late June). In Baltimore County, this species was ob- served excavating nest burrows as early as April 19, 1895 (W. H. Fisher). Extreme egg dates (50 nests) : May 10, 1916, in the District of Columbia (E. J. Court) and June 23, 1912, in Anne Arundel County (J. Sommer). Extreme nestling dates (100+ nests) : May 30, 1950, in Cecil County (A. A. Brandenburg) and July 17, 1892, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Spring migration. — Normal period: April 10-20 to May 15- 25; peak, April 25 to May 10. Earliest arrival dates: April 4, 1918, in the District of Columbia (I. N. Gabrielson) ; April 5, 1916, in Dorchester County (R. W. Jackson) ; April 5, 1952, in Mont- BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 2 13 mery County (E. J. Stivers). Extreme departure dates: May ;, 1886, in the District of Columbia (C. W. Richmond) ; May 26, 49, in Prince Georges County. • Fall migration. — Normal period: July 5-15 to September 5- ; ; peak, July 15 to September 5. Extreme departure dates: jiptember 29, 1930, in Kent County (W. Baker) ; September 21, 20, in the District of Columbia (F. C. Lincoln) ; September 21, 40, in Baltimore County (E. A. McGinity). I Maximum counts. — Spring: 110 in the District of Columbia on jay 11, 1917 (Oberholser, 1918) . Fall: 10,000 on the Gunpowder i.ver marsh on July 15, 1900 (F. C. Kirkwood) ; 3,000 on Back jver, Baltimore County, on July 17, 1891 (F. C. Kirkwood) ; jhousands" on the Patapsco River marsh on August 16, 1897 ji'. C. Kirkwood) ; 500 in Kent County on August 10, 1954; 250 j Seneca, Montgomery County, on September 7, 1953 (J. W. Ter- kgh) . i)UGH-WINGED SWALLOW Stelgldopferyx rufico»/s (Vieillot) j Status. — Breeding: Fairly common along the Potomac River : Montgomery County; uncommon and local elsewhere in all Actions. Transient: Uncommon in all sections. : Habitat. — Usually in the vicinity of open water, including vers, ponds, bays, and estuaries. Nesting season. — Mid-April to late June (nesting peak, mid- ay to mid-June) . Nest-building was recorded in Caroline )unty as early as April 19, 1952 (Mr. and Mrs. A. J. Fletcher). xtreme egg dates (42 nests) : May 13, 1886, in Baltimore County ^. C. Kirkwood) and June 20, 1887, in the District of Columbia JSNM — H. Thompson). Extreme nestling dates (10 nests) : ay 22, 1953, in Caroline County (Mr. and Mrs. A. J. Fletcher) id June 27, 1893, in Baltimore County (P. T. Blogg) . Spring migration. — Normal period: April 1-10 to May 5-15; iak, April 10 to May 5. Extreme arrival dates: March 22, 1952, Caroline County (Mr. and Mrs. A. J. Fletcher) ; March 26, 1950, Montgomery County (J. W. Taylor, Jr.). Extreme departure tte: May 25, 1952, in Prince Georges County. Fall migration. — Normal period: June 25-July 5 to August i-September 5. Extreme arrival date: June 20, 1945, in Prince eorges County. Extreme departure dates: September 14, 1954, Charles County (R. R. Kerr, J. W. Terborgh) ; September 11, )20, in Montgomery County (H. C. Oberholser). Maximum counts. — Spring: 125 at Aliens Fresh, Charles ounty, on April 12, 1952 (R. R. Kerr) ; 87 at Gibson Island, Anne 214 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Arundel County, on May 5, 1956 (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, et al. 80 near Cabin John, Montgomery County, on April 17, 1949 ( A. DuMont). Fall: 50 in the District of Columbia on August 3 1917 (H. C. Oberholser). BARN SWALLOW Hirundo rustica Linnaeus Status. — Breeding: Common in all sections. Transient: Abui dant in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeal« sections; common in the Piedmont, Ridge and Valley, and AUl gheny Mountain sections. Wintering : Accidental — 1 recorded the District of Columbia on December 27, 1935 (G. Petrides). Habitat. — Breeding: In open country, usually in the vicinity barns, bridges, and other types of buildings. Transient: In opti country, usually most numerous near water. Nesting season. — Late April to late August (nesting peai late May to early July) . Nest-building was recorded as early j April 13, 1956, in Caroline County. Extreme egg dates (Zi nests) : May 5, 1955, in Caroline County (A. Bilbrough) ar. August 4, 1950, in Prince Georges County. Extreme nestli% dates (297 nests) : May 18, 1949, in Prince Georges County an August 21, 1950 (E. Willis), in Baltimore County. Spring migration. — Normal period: April 1-10 to May 10-2( peak, April 20 to May 5. Extreme arrival dates: March 20, 188 in Washington County (E. A. Small) ; March 20, 1900, on the Gui powder River marsh (J. Thomas) ; March 25, 1954, in Carolii County (A. J. Fletcher) ; March 26, 1954, in Anne Arundel Couni (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tappan). Extreme departw date: May 28, 1940, in Baltimore County (H. Brackbill). Fall migration. — Normal period: July 1-10 to September IC 20; peak, July 10 to September 1. Extreme arrival dates: Jur 22, 1956, in Worcester County; June 27, 1914, in Baltimore Count (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme departure dates: November 6, 194: in Worcester County (K. H. Weber) ; October 12, 1917, in Do: Chester County (R. W. Jackson) ; October 12, 1954, in Prim Georges County ; October 6, 1929, in the District of Columbia i'^. T. Donoho) . Breeding population densities (pairs per 100 acres). — 11 (31 in 275 acres) in mixed agricultural and residential habitats (includir several barns and sheds) in Prince Georges County in 1949; 5 (13 in 2' acres) in 1947; 3 (9 in 275 acres) in 1943. Maximum covnts.— Spring : 283 in Worcester County on Mai 11, 1952 (D. A. Cutler) ; 200 at Gibson Island, Anne Arund* County, on May 8, 1955 (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tappan] BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 215 ill: 10,000 on the Gunpowder River marsh on July 15, 1900 (F. ij Kirkwood) ; 1,600 in Montgomery County on July 26, 1953 (R. J Kerr) ; 1,000 in Worcester County on August 14, 1948. i.lFF SWALLOW Petrochelldon pyrrbonota (Vieillot) i Status. — Breeding (see fig. 35) : Common in the Allegheny lountain section; fairly common in the western part of the Ridge !id Valley section (Allegany County and western Washington jjunty, east to Indian Springs) ; rare and local in the Piedmont 'ction, the most recent records occurring in Baltimore and Har- rd Counties — including a colony found 20 miles north of Balti- jore in 1924 (Kirkwood, 1925) , 2 occupied nests between Glyndon lid Shawan on June 5, 1948 (M. B. Meanley) , and 2 nests at Nor- sville in 1955 (0. W. Crowder) ; formerly common in Baltimore iid Harford Counties and occurring in Frederick County (F. C. irkwood) ; formerly occurred sparingly in the District of Co- mbia (Coues and Prentiss, 1861), and in Prince Georges County jar Hyattsville — a colony of 15 pairs in 1898 (E. J. Court). ransient: Common in the Allegheny Mountain section; fairly immon in the Ridge and Valley section; uncommon in the Pied- ont, Upper Chesapeake, and Western Shore sections ; rare in the astern Shore section. Habitat. — Breeding: Open country, usually in the vicinity of ipainted barns. Transient: Open country generally, frequently ear water. I Nesting season. — Early May to late July (nesting peak, late i.'ay to early July) . Nest-building was recorded as early as May 1953, in Garrett County (M. Taylor), and May 12, 1902, in altimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme egg dates (10 l)lonies) : May 22, 1898, in Prince Georges County (E. J. Court) !id June 17, 1883, in Harford County (F. C. Kirkwood) . Extreme sstling dates (9 colonies) : June 17, 1883, in Harford County and .ily 27, 1902, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). ! Spring migration. — Normal period: April 20-30 to May 15- 5; peak. May 1 to May 15. Extreme arrival dates: April 6, 1952, I Charles County (M. C. Crone) ; April 10, 1887 (A. K. Fisher), pril 10, 1908 (W. W. Cooke), and April 10, 1916 (L. D. Miner), I the District of Columbia; April 13, 1930, in Baltimore County F. C. Kirkwood) . Extreme deimrture dates: June 4, 1883, in the istrict of Columbia (H. W. Henshaw) ; May 31, 1903, in Balti- lore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Fall migration. — Normal period: July 1-10 to September 5- 5; peak, July 10 to September 5. Extreme departure dates: 216 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE September 23, 1950, along- the boundary between Frederick a. Washington Counties (M. W. Goldman) ; September 17, 1929, Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; September 16, 1944, Prince Georges County. Maximum covNTS.—Sprmg : 36 at Patuxent Refuge on Ml 12, 1945; 35 near Seneca, Montgomery County, on May 8, 194, Fall: 1,500 on the Patapsco River marsh on September 15, 18 I (F. C. Kirkwood) ; 1,000 in Long Green Valley, Baltimore Counlj on July 11, 1909 (F. C. Kirkwood) ; "hundreds" in Garrett Coun; on August 14, 1903 (G. Eifrig). PURPLE MARTIN Progne subis (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding: Common in the tidewater areas of the Eaal ern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections; fain; common in the Piedmont section; uncommon elsewhere. Tra\ sient: Fairly common in all sections (abundant during the f{| flight in the District of Columbia— see Oberholser, 1917b an Cooke, 1929). Habitat.— Open country, frequently near water (in the vicinii; of martin houses during breeding season). Nesting season.— Late April to late August (nesting peai mid-May to mid-July) . Nest-building was recorded as early , April 28, 1949, in Caroline County (A. J. Fletcher) . Extreme e^ dates (20 colonies) : May 29, 1894, and July 9, 1895, in Baltimo;( County (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme nestling dates (79 nests) June 12, 1894, in Worcester County (Kirkwood, 1895) and Augui 24, 1951, in Caroline County (A. J. Fletcher) . Spring migration.— NormaZ period: March 25-April 5 to Md 10-20 ; peak, April 5 to April 25. Extreme arrival dates: March 1 1940, in St. Marys County (R. C. McClanahan) ; March 13, 1952, i Caroline County (R. Maloney) ; March 13, 1953, in Washingtci County (R. S. Stauffer). Extreme departure dates: May 26, 188) in the District of Columbia (C. W. Richmond) ; May 24, 1942, :i Prince Georges County. Fall migration.— A^orma^ period: July 1-10 to September 15 ; peak, July 15 to September 1. Extreme arrival date: June 21 1919, in the District of Columbia (M. J. Pellew). Extreme d\ parture dates: October 15, 1893, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirll wood) ; October 12, 1911, in the District of Columbia (F. G. Hen ton) ; October 11, 1936, in Anne Arundel County (E. A. M^. Ginity) . Maximum counts.— Spring : 40 at Patuxent Refuge on Apri 6, 1944; 30 at Magnolia, Harford County, on April 4, 1895 (F. ( BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 217 Cirkwood). Fall: 100,000 in the District of Columbia during the hird week in July 1947 ; 3,000 near Riverview, Baltimore County, .n September 12, 1908 (F. C. Kirkwood) ; 2,000 on Coaches Island, Talbot County, on August 30, 1952 (Judge and Mrs. W. L. Hender- jon) ; 1,500 at Cambridge, Dorchester County, on August 1, 1947 ;i. R. Barnes). Banding. — One bird, banded as a ju venal near Laurel, Prince lieorges County, on July 1, 1945, was recovered in the District of Columbia on July 27, 1950. Family CORVIDAE HUE JAY Cyanocitta cristata (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding: Fairly common in the Allegheny Mountain, ilidge and Valley, Piedmont, Upper Chesapeake, and Western Bhore sections; uncommon in the Eastern Shore section. Transient: Common in the Allegheny Mountain, Ridge and Valley, Piedmont, I Jpper Chesapeake, and Western Shore sections ; uncommon in the |5astern Shore section. Wintering : Fairly common in the Pied- nont. Upper Chesapeake, and Western Shore sections ; uncommon in the Allegheny Mountain, Ridge and Valley, and Eastern Shore sections. Habitat. — Various types of forests, wood margins, and hedge- rows. Nesting season. — Early April to mid-August (nesting peak, ate April to mid-June) . Nest-building was recorded as early as A.pril 1, 1945, in Prince Georges County (E. Ediger). Extreme 3gg dates (46 nests) : April 12, 1929, in Baltimore County (J. Sommer) and July 26, 1925, in the District of Columbia (K. Baird). Extreme nestling dates (60 nests) : May 8, 1943, in the District of Columbia (Fr. F. Kekich) and August 16, 1951, in Baltimore County (E. Willis). Spring migration. — Nor^nal period: April 15-25 to May 15- 25; peak, April 25 to May 15. Extreme arrival date: April 8, 1954, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure date: May 11, 1888, in the District of Columbia (C. W. Richmond). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 5-15 to Novem- 3er 1-10; peak, September 25 to October 20. Extreme arrival iate: September 3, 1944, in Baltimore County (H. Brackbill). Extreme departure date: November 12, 1945, in Prince Georges County. Breeding population densities (pairs per 100 acres) . — 5 (4.2 in 85 acres) in well-drained flood-plain forest (sweetgum, hornbeam, 218 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE river birch, tulip-poplar, etc.) along the boundary between Anne Arundtll and Prince Georges Counties in 1945 (Stewart, et al., 1946). 5 (2 in 44% acres) in river bluff forest (beech, white oak, scarlet oak) ii Prince Georges County in 1944 and 1945 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall)!, 4 (1.5 in 40 acres) in "mixed oak forest" (white, scarlet, and chestnut oakK, etc.) in Baltimore County in 1948 (Kolb, et al., 1948) ; 3 (1 in 40 acresi in 1949 (Kolb, 1949a) and 1950 (Kolb, 1950); 3 (1 in 37 acres) in 195. (Kolb and Cole, 1951) and in 1952 (Kaufmann, et al., 1952). Maximum counts. — Spring: 597 at Laurel, Prince George County, on May 5, 1955; 346 in the District of Columbia am adjacent Montgomery County on May 10, 1952 (P. A. DuMont, e al.) ; 200 near Emmitsburg, Frederick County, on April 27 ani again on April 28, 1954 (J. W. Richards) ; 134 at Patuxent Refugi on May 6, 1950; 100 over the Gunpowder River marsh on May 7 1900 (F. C. Kirkvi^ood). Fall: 862 in one-half hour, migratini along the fall line in Prince Georges County on September 22 1954; 532 in I14 hours along the fall line in Montgomery Count; on October 5, 1955 (K. A. Goodpasture) ; 500 in the Gunpowde: River area on October 2, 1902 (F. C. Kirkwood) ; 150 in Baltimore County on October 4, 1898, and October 30, 1901 (F. C. Kirk^ wood). Winter (Christmas counts) : 326 in the Catoctin Mouni tain area in Frederick County on December 30, 1951 ; 324 in thu Triadelphia Reservoir area on December 24, 1955 ; 246 in the Am napolis area on January 2, 1955 ; 246 in the District of Columbi;! area on January 1, 1955; 237 at Patuxent Refuge on January 12' 1951; 89 in Garrett County on December 31, 1954; 72 in southeri Dorchester County on December 28, 1953. Banding. — See figure 36. [BLACK-BILLED MAGPIE] Pica pica (Linnaeus) Status. — Hypothetical. This western species has been recorder from St. Marys (June 28, 1931), Frederick (August 1950 to Janu( ary 2, 1951), Allegany (December 23, 1950), and Montgomer; (July 3 to December 18, 1952) Counties. Two of the birds, thosi in Frederick and Montgomery Counties, later proved to be escapee cage birds, and there is no assurance that the other 2 had not als( been transported here in captivity. COMMON RAVEN Corvus corax Linnaeus Status. — Uncommon and local resident in the Allegheny Moun tain, and Ridge and Valley sections (formerly more numerous, bu" increasing in recent years). This species also occurs as a rar< visitor in the Piedmont section — records in this area are as fol lows: Montgomery County, 1 seen near Woodside on January 9 1949 (J. H. Fales), 1 seen near Rockville on July 4, 1938 (W. H BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 219 Figure 36. — Blue Jay banding recoveries. Each symbol represents the number of records for a State or Province. Banded in Maryland, recovered else- where: solid circle = recovered June through August; solid triangle = recovered September through May. Recovered in Maryland, banded else- where: open circle = banded June through August; open triangle = banded September through May. 220 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Lawrence), and 2 seen near Unity on April 10, 1949 (S. H. Low) Baltimore County, 1 shot at Sunnybrook on November 8, 192 (Kirkwood, 1930), 1 seen on the Back River Road on Februari' 11, 1930 (F. C. Kirkwood, J. Sommer), and 1 seen at White Mars a on October 12, 1951 (C. D. Hackman) ; District of Columbia, I seen on December 29, 1952 (A. Wetmore). A few other record t from the Piedmont section were found to be birds that had escape j from captivity. Habitat. — Usually on the higher ridges and in the vicinity o; cliffs. j Nesting season. — A pair found in Garrett County at Finzej during the summer of 1899 was reported to have nested there foi several years (Preble, 1900), and an occupied nest was f oun I there on May 15, 1903 (Eifrig, 1904). In Allegany County, abou: 25 pairs were found nesting in a colony at Rocky Gap, 6 miles eas ; of Cumberland (Eifrig, 1904) , and on May 15, 1902, several wer i observed carrying food there (G. Eifrig). A nest containin;: nearly full-grown young was observed on March 28 and April 4 , 1904, on Will's Mountain at the Narrows, a mile northwest o: Cumberland (Eifrig, 1905) . Three young were banded in an Alk > gany County nest on May 7, 1950 (S. F. Sigwald) . COMMON CROW Corvus bracbyrbynchos Brehm Status. — Breeding and transient: Common in all sections Wintering: Abundant in the Piedmont section, in the eastern par of the Ridge and Valley section (Hagerstown Valley in Washing ton County), and in or near the tidewater areas of the Fasten Shore section; common elsewhere in the Eastern Shore sectio] and in the Upper Chesapeake and Western Shore sections ; f airl; common in the western part of the Ridge and Valley section (wes of Hagerstown Valley) ; uncommon in the Allegheny Mountaii section. Habitat. — Agricultural lands and adjacent woodland. Nesting season. — Early March to early June (nesting peak late March to mid-May) . Extreme egg dates (243 nests) : Marcl 13, 1888, in Baltimore County (W. N. Wholey) and May 20, 1900 in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) . Extreme nestling date. (73 nests) : April 7, 1917, in Dorchester County (R. W. Jackson) and June 10, 1948, in Montgomery County. Spring migration. — Normal period: February 1-10 to Apri 10-20 ; peak, February 20 to March 20. Fall migration. — Normal period: September 10-20 to Novenu ber 20-30 ; peak, October 20 to November 20. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 221 Breeding population densities (pairs per 100 acres). — .6 (16 in 2,656 acres) in mixed forest and brush habitats (both pine and deciduous) with small scattered agricultural areas and abandoned fields, near the boundary between Anne Arundel and Prince Georges Counties in 1943. .1 (9 in 11,520 acres) in "general farm land" (various agricultural habitats, chiefly hayfields and pastures, with little cover owing to widespread clean-farming practices) in Frederick County in 1950 (Stewart and Meanley, 1950). Maximum covnts.— Winter: 200,000 in a roost in the District )f Columbia during the winter of 1919-20 (Oberholser, 1920) ; .1,000 at Elliott Island, Dorchester County, on December 28, 1953 '[J. W. Terborgh, et al.) ; 10,000 near Hampstead, Carroll County, pn January 2, 1950 (Christmas count) ; 6,542 near St. Michaels, ralbot County, on December 29, 1954 (Christmas count). ; Banding. — One banded as a young bird in St. Marys County )n July 26, 1939, was recovered in Montgomery County (letter pf December 2, 1939), and an adult banded in Prince Georges County on June 18, 1947, was recovered in Anne Arundel County i(about 12 miles from point of banding) on December 27, 1948. Two birds, recovered in Howard and Washington Counties in late fall and winter (November 14, January 7), had both been banded ;as juvenals in southeastern Quebec in late spring (May 15, June 7). FISH CROW Corvus ossifragus Wilson I Status.— Breeding (see fig. 37) : Fairly common in the tide- Iwater areas of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper ■Chesapeake sections; uncommon and local in the Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections (occurring in Frederick and Hagers- town Valleys) . Transient: Common in the Eastern Shore section ; "fairly common in the Upper Chesapeake section and in the tide- water areas of the Western Shore section; uncommon elsewhere in the Western Shore section and in the Piedmont, and Ridge land Valley sections. Wintering: Uncommon in the tidewater ! areas of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesa- peake sections; rare in the interior of these sections and in the , Piedmont and Ridge and Valley sections. j Habitat. — Wood margin, field, shore, and marsh habitats that 'are adjacent to tidewater; in the interior, also occurs sparingly iin Frederick and Washington Counties in agricultural fields and field borders. Nesting season. — Late March to late June (nesting peak, late April to early June). Extreme egg dates (27 nests) : March 30, 222 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Figure 37. — Breeding range of Fish Crow. 1864, in Montgomery County, near the District of Columbia Unci (USNM— T. B. Rice) and June 8, 1894, in Worcester Countyi (Kirkwood, 1895). Extreme nestling dates (4 nests) : May 14,1 1932, in Anne Arundel County (M. B. Meanley) and June Sj 1894, in Worcester County (Kirkwood, 1895). Spring migration. — Normal period: February 1-10 to May^ 1-10; peak, March 1 to April 15. Fall migration. — Normal period: September 20-30 to Decern-* ber 15-25; peak, October 20 to December 10. Maximum counts. — Spring: 250 at Aliens Fresh, Charlesi County, on March 29, 1953 (J. W. Terborgh) ; 160 in Talbot County on April 2, 1946; 125 in Worcester County on April 7, 1946. Fall: 75 in southern Dorchester County on November 27, 1954; 50 in the District of Columbia on October 13, 1950 (I. R. Barnes). Winter: 200 in the District of Columbia on December 23, 1906 (W. L. McAtee) ; 175 at Pt. Lookout, St. Marys County, on December 23, 1938 (Christmas count) ; 103 at the Susquehanna^ Flats on December 20, 1947 (Christmas count) . Family PARIDAE BLACK-CAPPED CHICKADEE Parus atrkapillus Linnaeus Status. — Breeding (see fig. 38) : Common in the Allegheny i BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 223 LEGEND BLACK-CAPPED CHICKADEE Principal Range CAROLINA CHICKADEE Principal Range Overlapping Oreo : Figure 38.— Breeding ranges of Black-capped Chickadee and Chickadee. Carolina Mountain section ; fairly common in the western part of the Ridge and Valley section (Allegany County) ; rare and local in the eastern part of the Ridge and Valley section and in the northern part of the Piedmont section (occurring near the Pennsylvania line in Carroll County and on the higher ridges of Washington and Frederick Counties). Transient and ivintering: Common in the Allegheny Mountain section and in the western part of the Ridge and Valley section (Allegany County) ; uncommon in the eastern part of the Ridge and Valley section and in the northern part of the Piedmont section (most numerous in the mountains and along the Potomac River in Washington and Frederick Counties and in the tier of counties along the Pennsylvania State line) ; rare and irregular (fairly common in flight years) else- where in the Piedmont, Upper Chesapeake, Western Shore, and Eastern Shore sections — much more numerous than usual during the winter of 1884-85 in Baltimore County (A. H. Jennings) and the District of Columbia (Palmer, 1885), and during the winter of 1954-55 throughout the State. Habitat. — Various forest and wood margin types; in winter shows a greater preference for weedy fields and pine stands than does the Carolina Chickadee. 224 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Nesting season. — In Garrett County an occupied nest was found on May 29, 1949, and nest-building was observed on June 26, 1949. Extreme nestling dates (3 nests) : June 12, 1955 (J, R. Worthley), and June 17, 1955 (Dr. and Mrs. J. R. Travis), all in Garrett County. Period of occurrence outside of breeding areas. — Extreme arrival dates: October 15, 1892, and October 15, 1893, in Balti- more County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; October 22, 1954, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tappan) ; October 23, 1954, in Baltimore County (C. M. Buchanan) ; October 24, 1954, in Prince Georges County; October 24, 1896, in the District of Columbia (USNM — W. Palmer). Occurrence peak: November 1 to March 1. Extreme departure dates: May 8, 1955, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tap- pan) ; May 6, 1955, in Baltimore County (S. W. Simon) ; April 24, 1955, in Prince Georges County; April 23, 1885, in the District of Columbia (USNM— A. H. Jennings). Maximum co\iW£^.— Spring : 25+ near Oakland, Garrett County, on March 14, 1953 (K. F. Sanders, H. E. Slater) . Winter (Christmas counts during flight year, 1954-55) : 173 in the District of Columbia area on January 1, 1955; 158 in Garrett County on December 31, 1954; 138 in the Catoctin Mountain area in Frederick and Washington Counties on January 1, 1955; 14 in the St. Michaels area, Talbot County, on December 29, 1954; 12 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1954. Winter (Christ- mas counts during other years) : 104 in Allegany County on December 31, 1949 ; 85 in the Catoctin Mountain area, Frederick County, on January 2, 1950; 7 near Perry Point, Cecil County, on December 27, 1952. Banding. — One banded in north-central Connecticut on Jan- uary 13, 1925, was recovered in Baltimore County on April 12, 1930. CAROLINA CHICKADEE Paruz carolinensh Audubon Status. — Permanent resident (see fig. 38). Common in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections; fairly common in the Piedmont section and the eastern part of the Ridge and Valley section (Frederick and Washington Coun- ties) ; uncommon in Allegany County. Habitat. — Various forest and wood margin types. Nesting season.— Mid-March to late June (nesting peak, mid- April to late May) . Nest-building was observed in Montgomery County as early as March 18, 1950 (W. B. Tyrrell). A female BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 225 iith an egg nearly ready to be laid was collected in the District j" Columbia on April 11, 1888 (Cooke, 1929). Extreme egg \ites (47 nests) : April 16, 1913, in Dorchester County (Jackson, )41) and May 29, 1950, in Prince Georges County. Extreme zstling dates (45 nests) : April 30, 1949, and June 29, 1944, )th in Prince Georges County. Young not long out of the nest ere observed on July 23, 1893 (Kirkwood, 1895). Breeding population densities (pairs per 100 acres). — (7 in 80 acres) in "central hardwood forest (oaks-tulip-poplar) with scat- tered pine" in the District of Columbia in 1951; 6 (5 in 80 acres) in 1949; 5 (4 in 80 acres) in 1948, 1952, and 1953 (Trever, 1952; Clagett, 1952 and 1953) ; 4 (31/2 in 80 acres) in 1954 (Wright, 1955). (2 in 32% acres) in well-drained flood-plain forest (sweetgum, hornbeam, river birch, tulip-poplar, etc.) along the boundary between Anne Arundel and Prince Georges Counties in 1944; 5 (4.3 in 85 acres) in other areas i of this habitat in 1945 (Stewart, et al., 1946). (1.5 in 28 acres) in partially opened flood-plain forest (sycamore, ash, elm, ! etc.) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). (1.5 in 30 acres) in "damp deciduous scrub with standing dead trees" I (burned-over, poorly drained upland forest) in Prince Georges County I in 1948 (Oresman, et al., 1948). I Maximum counts. — Winter (Christmas counts) : 816 in the district of Columbia area on January 1, 1955 ; 508 in the Ocean i!ity area on December 27, 1954; 372 in the Annapolis area on ianuary 1, 1956; 347 in the St. Michaels area, Talbot County, 'n December 29, 1955; 219 at Patuxent Refuge on January 12, ,950; 185 in southern Dorchester County on December 28, 1953. OREAL CHICKADEE Parus hudson/cus Forster Status. — Accidental visitor. One was seen near Rockville, /Eontgomery County, on December 12 (P. G. DuMont, K. Stecher) ,nd was collected (USNM) at the same location on December 19, .954 (Stecher, 1955). On January 25, 1955, 1 was seen at the 'eeding station of Mrs. H. W. Smith in Cumberland, and at about he same time another was seen, also in Cumberland (fide N. I^ivingston) . rUFTED TITMOUSE Parvs bico/or Linnaeus i Status. — Permanent resident. Common in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake, and Piedmont sections ; fairly 3ommon in the Ridge and Valley section; uncommon in the Allegheny Mountain section. I Habitat. — Various types of deciduous forest. ! Nesting season. — Mid-March to mid-July (nesting peak, mid- April to early June). Nest-building was recorded as early as 226 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE March 14, 1939, in Montgomery County (W. B. Tyrrell). E; treme egg dates (73 nests) : April 14, 1946, in Montgomeil County (J. N. Hamlet) and June 26, 1918, in Dorchester Coun1 (Jackson, 1941). Extreme nestling dates (36 nests) : May \ 1914, in Prince Georges County (A. Wetmore) and July 10, 195 ( in Caroline County (M. W. Hewitt). Young not long out of tli nest were recorded on August 3, 1919 (Cooke, 1929), and ct August 4, 1894 (Kirkwood, 1895). Breeding population densities (pairs per 100 acres). — 13 (11 in 85 acres) in well-drained flood-plain forest (sweetgum, hornbeai^ river birch, tulip-poplar, etc.) along the boundary between Anne Arund and Prince Georges Counties in 1945 (Stewart, et al., 1946) ; 12 (4 i 32% acres) in another area of the same habitat in 1944. 13 (3 in 23% acres) in upland oak forest (white, scarlet, and black oaks) Prince Georges County in 1944. 12 (10 in 80 acres) in "central hardwood forest (oaks-tulip-poplar) wii scattered pine" in the District of Columbia in 1951; 6 (5 in 80 acreK in 1948, 1949, 1953, and 1954 (Trever, 1952; Clagett, 1953; Wrigh 1955); only 2 pairs were present in 1952 (Clagett, 1952). 11 (4 in 37 acres) in "mixed oak forest" (white, scarlet, and chestnut oah etc.) in Baltimore County in 1951, 1952, and 1953 (Kolb and Cole, 195:1 Kaufmann, et al., 1952; Cole and Kolb, 1953) ; 6 (2.5 in 40 acres) in 194 (Kolb, et al., 1948) ; 5 (2 in 40 acres) in 1949 and 1950 (Kolb, 1949a an 1950). 11 (2 in 18% acres) in "second growth river swamp" (red maple, sweetguii black gum, etc. with dense understory of holly, sweet pepperbush, aiij greenbrier) in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948dl 10 (3.5 in 36 acres) in "central hardwood deciduous forest" (white oal^ tulip-poplar) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart and Robbin 1947b). 9 (4 in 44% acres) in river bluff forest (beech, white oak, and scarlet oali in Prince Georges County in 1945; 7 (3 in 44% acres) in 1944 (J. "V' Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). 7 (2 in 28 acres) in partially opened flood-plain forest (sycamore, ash, elr etc.) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). 6 (2 in 321^ acres) in pine-oak forest (pitch pine, scrub pine, and Spanis oak) in Prince Georges County in 1944. 6 (1.5 in 241/f) acres) in river terrace forest (beech-white oak) in Princi Georges County in 1944. Maximum covnts.— Winter (Christmas counts) : 476 in thi District of Columbia area on December 31, 1955; 290 in th< Ocean City area on December 27, 1954; 217 in the Annapolij area on January 1, 1956; 180 on Patuxent Refuge on Decembel 28, 1945; 112 in the Catoctin Mountain area in Frederick anr Washington Counties on January 2, 1954; 92 in southern Dor Chester County on December 28, 1955; 84 in Allegany County oi December 31, 1949. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 227 Family SITTIDAE VHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH Sitta carolinensis Latham Status. — Breeding (see fig. 39) : Fairly common in the Alle- |:heny Mountain and Piedmont sections; fairly common locally 'n the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections (most numerous n the swamp along the Pocomoke River and its tributaries, and n the Greensand District of east-central Prince Georges County— ee Harper, 1918; rare and irregular elsewhere) ; uncommon in he Ridge and Valley section ; rare or absent in the Upper Chesa- i)eake section. Transient and ivintering: Usually fairly common In all sections, but varying considerably in abundance from year l;o year. I Habitat. — Flood-plain and swamp forests ; and moist deciduous iiorest types on the upland. I Nesting season. — Late March to mid- July (nesting peak, mid- April to late May). Nest-building was recorded as early as March 31, 1894, in Baltimore County (P. T. Blogg). Extreme pgg dates (11 nests) : April 7, 1894, in Baltimore County (P. T. iBlogg) and May 17, 1881, in Washington County (Small, 1881b). pxtreme nestli7ig dates (11 nests) : April 30, 1948, in the District of Columbia (T. W. Donnelly) and June 10, 1956, in Garrett LEdEND 1; ri Principal Range 0 Local Record Figure 39. — Breeding range of White-breasted Nuthatch. 228 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE County (G. Knight) . Nest-building was recorded as late i ; June 1, 1935, in Allegany County (L. M. Llewellyn). Kirkwoc ; (1895) recorded young just out of the nest as late as July 2ij 1894. ! Spring migration. — Normal period: February 25-March 5 1; April 25-May 5; peak, March 5 to April 10. Fall migration. — Normal period: September 15-25 to No vember 1-10; peak, October 10 to November 1. As early as th first week in July there frequently is a light movement of Whit«i breasted Nuthatches into areas that are within 5 or 10 miles c its nesting range. Breeding population densities (pairs per 100 acres) . — 6 (2 in 36 acres) in "virgin central hardwood forest" (white oak-tulip-popIaiJ in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart and Robbins, 1947b). 1 t> (5 in 80 acres) in "central hardwood forest (oaks-tulip-poplar) with sea tered pine" in the District of Columbia in 1948; 5 (4 in 80 acres) i 1951, 3 (2.5 in 80 acres) in 1949 (Trever, 1952) ; and 2.5 (2 in 80 acres in 1952 and 1953 (Clagett, 1952 and 1953). 5 (2 in 40 acres) in "mixed oak forest" (white, scarlet, and chestnut oak etc.) in Baltimore County in 1949 (Kolb, 1949a) ; 5 (2 in 37 acres) i 1951, 1952, and 1953 (Kolb and Cole, 1951; Kaufmann, et al., 1952; Co. and Kolb, 1953); 3 (1 in 40 acres) in 1948 (Kolb, et al., 1948) and i 1950 (Kolb, 1950). 5 (1.5 in 28 acres) in partially opened flood-plain forest (sycamore, asll elm, etc.) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvairi Maximum covnts.— Winter (Christmas counts) : 188 in th^ District of Columbia area on January 1, 1955; 71 at Patuxeni Refuge on January 14, 1952; 71 in the Catoctin Mountain are;^ on December 30, 1951; 36 near Chase, Baltimore County, o]' December 29, 1951; 25 in southeastern Worcester County oi December 22, 1947; 22 in Garrett County on December 31, 1954 RED-BREASTED NUTHATCH Sitta canadensis Linnaeus Status.— Breeding ( ?) : Rare and irregular in the Alleghen: Mountain section. "A small flock of these birds, evidently i family, was seen on the branches of a tall dead tree, in the deej woods near Bittinger [during the period June 17-July 24, 1899] It was also seen near Finzel about the middle of May when 1 was undoubtedly breeding" (Preble, 1900). A singing male wa.' observed along the Youghiogheny River on June 4, 1919 (J. M Sommer), and this species has also been referred to as nesting along the Youghiogheny River by Brooks (1937) . Brooks reports that 1 was seen in the Maryland portion of Cranesville Swamj in June, 1932. Transient and ivinteriyig: Of irregular occurrence in all sections but usually most numerous in the Piedmont anc BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 229 Western Shore sections. This species is very erratic in its move- lents and extremely variable in abundance from year to year, Imging from being entirely absent to locally common. Summer igrant: One was seen in Prince Georges County on July 22, .943 (Stewart, et al., 1952). Habitat. — Breeding: Stands of red spruce and hemlock. ransient and wintering: Most numerous in stands of pine, par- cularly scrub pine and pitch pine; also occurs occasionally in larious deciduous forest types. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 5-15 to May 5-15; eak, March 20 to April 10. Extreme departure dates: May 23, 949, in Prince Georges County; May 18, 1886 (H. M. Smith), nd May 18, 1913 (J. H. Riley), in the District of Columbia. Fall migration. — Normal period: September 1-10 to October 5-November 5; peak, September 20 to October 20. Extreme rrival dates: August 22, 1903, in the District of Columbia (W. .. McAtee) ; August 30, 1948, in Prince Georges County; August .1, 1918, in Montgomery County (R. W. Moore). Maximum counts. — Winter (Christmas counts) : 109 in the District of Columbia area on January 1, 1955; 58 at Patuxent lefuge on January 14, 1952; 36 near Denton, Caroline County, )n January 1, 1955; 24 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1954; 23 ac Point Lookout, St. Marys County, on December 22, 1937. 3R0WN-HEADED NUTHATCH S/ffa pos;//a Latham Status. — Permanent resident (see fig. 40). Common in the ;idewater areas of Somerset, Wicomico, Dorchester, and Talbot bounties, and locally in the coastal area of Worcester County; Fairly common in the tidewater areas of southern St. Marys Oounty; uncommon and local in the tidewater areas of Queen /^nnes County and southern Calvert County. Habitat. — Open stands of loblolly pine near tidewater (usually at the margins of tidal marshes) . Nesting season. — Early April to mid-June. Extreme egg dates (7 nests) : April 15, 1931, in St. Marys County (E. J. Court) and May 7, 1920, in Dorchester County (Jackson, 1941). Ex- treme nestling dates (4 nests) : May 5, 1925, in Talbot County (R. W. Jackson) and June 10, 1896, in Somerset County (F. C. Kirkwood). Kirkwood (1895) also recorded a pair building a nest in Queen Annes County as late as May 25, 1892. Maximum counts. — Winter: 214 in southern Dorchester Coun- ty on December 28, 1953 (Christmas count) ; 130 in the St. 230 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE LEGEND BROWN-HEADED NUTHATCH ^^^1 Principal Range # Local Record HERMIT THRUSH ^^!^^ Principal Range Figure 40. — Breeding ranges of Brown-headed Nuthatch and Hermit Thrush.i Michaels area, Talbot County, on December 29, 1955 (Christmas* count) ; 127 along- the western shores of Sinepuxent and Newport- Bays on December 27, 1953 (Ocean City Christmas count) ; 70- at Point Lookout, St. Marys County, on January 31, 1954 (J. W. Terborgh, et al.). Family CERTHIIDAE BROWN CREEPER Certhia familiaris Linnaeus Status. — Breeding (?): Possibly nests occasionally in thei Allegheny Mountain section — a female was collected in Garrett I County at Bittinger on June 28, 1899 (Preble, 1900) . This species has been found during the nesting season in the West Virginia portion of Cranesville Swamp (Brooks, 1936c). Transient and wintering: Fairly common in all sections. Summer vagrant: A\ singing bird was observed on Patuxent Refuge, Prince Georges County, on June 2, 1944 (Stewart, et al., 1952) ; 1 was observed near Pikesville, Baltimore County, on July 22, 1949 (I. K. Kuch) ; 1 was recorded at Gibson Island, Anne Arundel County, on August 30, 1953 (Mrs. W. L. Henderson). HABITAT. — Various types of deciduous and coniferous forests. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 15-25 to April 20-30; peak, March 25 to April 15. Extreme departure dates: BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 231 '[ay 13, 1930, in Baltimore County (W. Marshall) ; May 12, 1951, I Montgomery County (C. N. Mason, K. Niles) ; May 8, 1954, |i Caroline County (N. W. Hewitt). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 25-October 5 to 'ovember 10-20; peak, October 15 to November 10. Extreme rrival dates: September 11, 1911, in Montgomery County (R. 7. Moore) ; September 14, 1913, in Baltimore County (J. M. ommer). Maximum counts. — Winter (Christmas counts) : 87 in the )istrict of Columbia area on January 1, 1955; 58 in the Ocean ;ity area on December 27, 1954; 48 at Patuxent Refuge on January 14, 1952; 31 in southern Dorchester County on December is, 1955; 21 in the Catoctin Mountain area of Frederick and IVashington Counties on January 2, 1954. Family TROGLODYTIDAE lOUSE WREN Troglodytes aedon Vieillot Status. — Breeding and transient: Common in all sections. Wintering: Uncommon in Worcester County; rare in Somerset, A^icomico, Dorchester, and St. Marys Counties; casual elsewhere —recorded in Prince Georges County on February 11, 1953 (L. N. Oring), in Baltimore County on December 11, 1948 (H. Kolb), December 16, 1928 (J. M. Sommer) , December 30, 1952-January >, 1953, and January 3, 1954 (E. Willis), in Frederick County m December 27, 1952 (Mrs. J. W. Richards), in Charles County m January 30, 1954 (J. W. Terborgh, R. R. Kerr). Habitat. — Various edge habitats, including brushland, wood nargins, hedgerows, orchards, and residential areas. Nesting season. — Early May to early September (nesting peak, mid-May to late July). Extreme egg dates (248 nests) : May 3, 1946, in Prince Georges County and August 12, 1947, in Prince Georges County (E. G. Cooley). Extreme nestling dates (317 nests) : May 22, 1945, in Prince Georges County (E. G. Cooley) and September 2, 1919, in Baltimore County (W. Marshall) . Spring migration. — Normal period: April 10-20 to May 10-20; peak, April 20 to May 5. Extreme arrival dates: March 26, 1910, in the District of Columbia (E. B. Gregg) ; March 26, 1950, in Montgomery County (P. A. DuMont) ; April 2, 1949, in Prince Georges County (E. G. Davis). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 1-10 to October 10-20 ; peak, September 10 to September 25. Extreme departure dates: November 19, 1950, in the District of Columbia (T. D. 232 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Burleigh) ; November 13, 1954, in Baltimore County (C. 1^ Buchanan). Breeding population densities (territorial males per 10) acres) . — 100 (5 in 5 acres) in farmyard and orchard in Prince Georges County ii 1948. 58 (13 in 221/^ acres) in abandoned field saturated with nesting boxes ii Prince Georges County in 1949. 50 (15 in 30 acres) in "damp deciduous scrub with standing dead trees f (burned-over poorly drained upland forest) in Prince Georges County i i 1947 (Stewart, et al., 1947). 47 (7 in 15 acres) in abandoned farmyard in Prince Georges County in 194'( 15 (3 in 20 acres) in suburban-type residential area (including small orchardj and large expanses of lawn) in Prince Georges County in 1942. 14 (3 in 22 acres) in "unsprayed apple orchard with infrequently mowei ground cover" in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart' 1948b). 11 (2 in nVz acres) in "lightly sprayed apple orchard with rye planted a( ground cover" in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart 1948b). Maximum covnts.— Spring : 135 at Gibson Island, Annci Arundel County, on May 8, 1955 (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrsi G. Tappan) ; 75 at Unity, Montgomery County, on May 9, 1952 (S. H. Low) ; 31 at Greenbelt, Prince Georges County, on May 9 1953 (L. W. Oring, et al.). Fall: 13 at Patuxent Refuge or September 13, 1943. Winter: 4 in the Ocean City area on De- cember 27, 1950 (Christmas count) ; 3 at Point Lookout, St, Marys County, on January 31, 1954 (R. R. Kerr, J. W. Terborgh), Banding.— One banded as a nestling at Unity, Montgomery County, on July 26, 1953, was recovered 15 miles away at Belts- ville, Prince Georges County, on May 28, 1954. WINTER WREN Troglodytes troglodytes (Linnaeus) Statvs.— Breeding : Formerly locally common in the Allegheny] Mountain section, occurring in Garrett County along the head- waters of the Casselman River in the valley between Negro and Meadow Mountains (Behr, 1914) ; they were last recorded in this area by Eifrig (1915 and 1920), who found a small colony during the summer of 1914; the only recent indication of thisi species breeding in Garrett County was 1 seen in summer in the Maryland portion of Cranesville Swamp (M. G. Brooks). Transient: Fairly common in all sections. Wintering: Locally i common in the Eastern Shore section (most numerous along the Pocomoke River and its tributaries) ; fairly common in the Western Shore and Upper Chesapeake sections ; uncommon in . BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 233 j; Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections; rare in the Alle- leny Mountain section. I Habitat. — Breeding: To be looked for in boreal types of forest iit contain red spruce. Transient and ivintering: Swamp and !9d-plain forests and rich, moist forests on the upland, i Spring migration. — Normal period: March 25-April 5 to April -May 5; peak, April 10 to April 25. Extreme departure dates: ly 10, 1950, in Prince Georges County ; May 9, 1909, in Mont- mery County (A. M. Stimson) ; May 9, 1950, in Baltimore [unty (A. A. Brandenburg). iFALL MIGRATION. — Normal period: September 25-October 5 to Wember 15-25; peak, October 10 to November 10. Extreme rival dates: September 19, 1953, in Washington County (R. S. auffer) ; September 20, 1947, in Baltimore County (H. Kolb) ; .ptember 21, 1901, in Allegany County (G. Eifrig) ; September j, 1948, in Frederick and Prince Georges Counties. JMAXIMUM COUNTS. — Spring: 11 on April 27, 1950, on Patuxent jjfuge. Fall: 10 on October 27, 1943, on Patuxent Refuge. Winter Christmas counts) : 68 in the Ocean City area on December 27, (54 ; 47 in southeastern Worcester County on December 23, 1946 ; f in southern Dorchester County on December 28, 1953; 33 in ie District of Columbia area on January 1, 1955; 26 in the licomico River area in Charles and St. Marys Counties on imuary 1, 1954; 19 at Patuxent Refuge on December 29, 1944; j; in the Catoctin Mountain area in Frederick and Washington JDunties on January 2, 1954; 5 in Garrett County on December ., 1954. Banding. — One banded in southeastern Massachusetts on Oc- ber 10, 1940, was recovered in Somerset County on April 8, )41. ■WICK'S WREN Thryomanes bewkkii (Audubon) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 41) : Fairly common in the western irt of the Ridge and Valley section (east to Indian Springs) ; ncommon in the Allegheny Mountain section and in the eastern art of the Ridge and Valley section; casual in the Piedmont action — found nesting near Cooksville, Howard County, in 1949 D. H. Mcintosh), and at Millers, Carroll County, in 1954 (J. . Worthley). Transient: Uncommon in the Ridge and Valley, nd Allegheny Mountain sections ; rare in the Piedmont section ; isual in the Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake, and Eastern hore sections — 1 collected in Prince Georges County on April 8, 944 (Stewart, et al., 1952), 1 seen in Baltimore County on 234 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Figure 41. — Breeding range of Bewick's Wren. April 16, 1950 (E. Willis), 1 seen in Worcester County on April . 1948 (S. H. Low). Summer vagrant: Rare and irregular in tl Piedmont section. Wintering: Casual — recorded in Worcest< County in 1953 (J. E. Knudson), in Caroline County in 1954-f (Mr. and Mrs. A. J. Fletcher), in Baltimore County in 1953-E (Worthley, 1954), in Montgomery County in 1954 (S. W. Simo; R. P. Dubois), and in the District of Columbia in 1890 (C. "V Richmond) . Habitat. — Various edge habitats in the vicinity of farm house or in towns. Nesting season.— Late April to mid-July. Extreme egg daU (8 nests) : April 30, 1890, in Washington County (G. H. Gray and June 26, 1907, in Allegany County (F. C. Kirkwood). Ei treme nestling dates (10 nests) : May 12, 1907 (young left nest; and July 13, 1907, both in Allegany County (F. C. Kirkwood). Spring migration.— Nortwai period: March 25-April 5 to Apr 25-May 5; peak, April 5 to April 25. Extreme arrival dati March 12, 1901, in Allegany County (G. Eifrig). Extreyn departure date: May 9, 1953, in Montgomery County (S. H. Low] Fall migration. — Extreme arrival date: September 9, 192! in Montgomery County (H. H. T. Jackson). Extreme departurt dates: November 23, 1954, in Washington County (Mrs. R. I BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 235 ;een); November 22, 1953, in Montgomery County (T. W. I'lvis). laROLINA WREN Thryothorus ludovicianus (Latham) Status. — Permanent resident. Common in the Eastern Shore ;'d Western Shore sections; fairly common in the Upper Chesa- |iake, Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections; rare in the ijlegheny Mountain section. Periodically, large numbers of this |ecies are winter-killed; during subsequent years, a gradual |;ild-up to usual population levels may be noted. ! Habitat. — Brushy swamps and flood-plain forests and rich, oist forests on the upland. Nesting season.— Late March to late September (nesting peak, id-April to early July). Nest-building was recorded as early l March 22, 1954, in Baltimore County (E. Willis). Extreme \g dates (43 nests) : April 5, 1949, in Baltimore County (I. K. uch) and August 10, 1893, in Baltimore County (Kirkwood, ^95). Extreme nestling dates (34 nests): April 25, 1926, in ke District of Columbia (W. H. Ball) and September 26, 1955, Baltimore County (M. R. Gatchell). Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 i^res) . — j (9 in 80 acres) in "central hardwood forest (oaks-tulip-poplar) with scat- I tered pine" in the District of Columbia in 1951, absent in 1948 and 1949 i (Trever, 1952) ; also absent in 1952 and 1954, 1 pair in 1953 (Clagett, I 1953). !(3 in 36 acres) in "virgin central hardwood deciduous forest" (white oak- tulip-poplar) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart and Robbins, 1947b). (4.8 in 85 acres) in "well-drained flood-plain forest" (sweetgum, hornbeam, river birch, tulip-poplar, etc.) along the boundary between Anne Arundel and Prince Georges Counties in 1945 (Stewart, et al., 1946) ; 6 (2 in 32% acres) in another area of this habitat in 1944. Maximum counts. — Winter (Christmas counts) : 286 in the icean City area on December 27, 1954; 207 in the Annapolis rea on January 2, 1955; 181 in the District of Columbia area n January 1, 1955; 148 in the St. Michaels area, Talbot County, n December 29, 1955; 55 in the Catoctin Mountain area on anuary 2, 1954. ONG-BILLED MARSH WREN Te/mafoc/yfes pa/usfr/s (Wilson) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 4) : Abundant in the tidewater Teas of the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesa- leake sections. Transient: Abundant in the tidewater areas of he Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sec- 236 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE I tions; uncommon elsewhere in all sections. Wintering: Faijl common in the tidewater areas of Somerset,^ Wicomico, a i Dorchester Counties ; uncommon in the tidewater areas elsewh( r in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections; rare in 1i tidewater areas of the Upper Chesapeake section. Habitat. — In the salt marshes during the breeding season tl |i species occurs in the greatest numbers in stands of needlerul but also occurs regularly in areas of salt-meadow grass and sail water cordgrass that contain scattered shrubs of marsh eldj and sea myrtle. In brackish tidal marshes, this species is foui abundantly in marshes of cattail, salt reed-grass and reed. I also occurs commonly in Olney three-square marshes, especial when scattered shrubs are present. Transients occur in lar: numbers in many types of tidal marsh, and are found sparing in the interior marshes and marsh-meadows. Wintering birl are usually most common in stands of salt reed-grass. Nesting season.— Early May to late August (nesting pea« early June to late July). Extreme egg dates (217 nests) : May 5 1938, in St. Marys County (R. C. McClanahan) and August ; 1950, in Baltimore County (E. Willis). Extreme nestling dat\ (78 nests) : June 9, 1950, and August 24, 1952, both in Baltimo County (E. Willis). Spring migration.— ATormaZ period: April 15-25 to May 10-2i^ peak, April 25 to May 10. Fall migration.— Non/iaZ period: September 5-15 to Octob 25-November 5; peak, September 15 to October 15. Extrer) arrival date: August 31, 1916, in the District of Columbia (M, and Mrs. L. D. Miner). Extreme departure date: November 1 1926, in the District of Columbia (W. H. Ball). Breeding population densities (territorial males per 1(1 acres). — 104 (23.2 in 22^/4 acres) in a uniform, nearly pure stand of "needleru; : marsh" in Somerset County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948a). 36 (6 in 161/^ acres) in "cattail marsh" (mostly narrow-leaved cattail wr 1 scattered swamp rose-mallow) in Calvert County in 1948 (Springer ai Stewart, 1948a). Maximum counts.— Fall: 50 in the Gunpowder River mars on October 25, 1900 (F. C. Kirkwood). Winter (Christms counts) : 127 in southern Dorchester County on December 2i! 1953; 27 in the Ocean City area on December 21, 1952. SHORT-BILLED MARSH WREN Cistothorus platensis (Latham) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 42) : Common in the tidewatei BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 237 Local Record Figure 42.— Breeding range of Short-billed Marsh Wren. reas of Somerset, Wicomico, and Dorchester Counties; uncom- non in the tidewater areas elsewhere in the Eastern Shore and Vestern Shore sections; uncommon and local in the Allegheny i/lountain section; rare and irregular in the interior of the iVestern Shore section and in the Piedmont section— recorded n summer from Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood, H. Kolb), Montgomery County (P. F. Springer), Prince Georges County (Stewart, et al., 1952), and Frederick County. Transient: ..^airly common in the tidewater areas of the Eastern Shore section; rare elsewhere in all sections. Wintering: Common in i;he tidewater areas of Somerset, Wicomico, and Dorchester bounties; uncommon in the coastal area of Worcester County; rare in the tidewater areas of Talbot, Queen Annes, St. Marys, !md Charles Counties. ' Habitat.— In the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections, i:his species is most commonly found in switchgrass meadows situated along the inner margins of the tidal marshes; in the Allegheny Mountain section, the open sedge-meadows situated in boreal bogs are preferred. Other marsh types, including imixed brush-wet meadow areas of the barrier beaches, saltmarsh Ibulrush stands, and mixed stands of Olney three-square and jsalt-meadow grass are occasionally inhabited. This species also 238 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE occurs irregularly on the upland in orchard grass hayfiields pastures. Nesting season. — In the District of Columbia, 1 was sej: that was apparently nest-building on May 26, 1935, and a coi; nest was found on June 15, 1935 (Ball and Wallace, 19361 other cock nests were found in this same area on June 25, 19; , (Ulke, 1935). At least 8 cock nests were found near Dami Quarter in Somerset County on June 20, 1952 (N. Hotchkiss ai E. Miller). A nest containing heavily incubated eggs was foui on June 25, 1935, in St. Marys County near Point Lookc (Wetmore, 1935). On September 13, 1896, a young bird w; observed begging an adult for food in Dulaney Valley in Ball more County (F. C. Kirkwood). Spring migration. — Normal period: May 1-5 to May 20-21 peak, May 5 to May 20. Extreme arrival dates: April 27, 195 in Prince Georges County ; April 30, 1929, in Montgomery Couni (W. H. Ball). Extreme departure date: June 8, 1948, in Prim Georges County. Fall migration. — Extreme dates: September 23, 1951, i Charles County (M. C. Crone) and November 13, 1929, in Calvew County (Ball, 1930b). In Garrett County this species was rc^ ported to be fairly common during early September (M. ( Brooks) . Breeding population density (territorial males per 10 acres). — 10 (3 in 30 acres) in "switchgrass marsh-meadow" in Somerset County i 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948a). Maximum con^T&.—Spring : 8 at Patuxent Refuge on May J 1953 ; 7 at White Marsh, Baltimore County, on May 9, 1953 (( D. Hackman) . Fall: 8 at Plum Point, Calvert County, on Novem ber 13, 1929 (Ball, 1930c). Winter (Christmas counts) : 164 i: southern Dorchester County on December 23, 1951; 35 in th Ocean City area on December 21, 1952. Family MIMIDAE MOCKINGBIRD fAlmus po/yg/offos (Linnaeus) Status. — Semi-permanent resident (slight migratory move ment between September 10 and October 10). Common in tb Western Shore and Eastern Shore sections; fairly common ii the Upper Chesapeake section and in the southern part of tb. Piedmont section (Howard and Montgomery Counties) ; uncoml mon elsewhere in the Piedmont section and in the eastern pari of the Ridge and Valley section (Frederick and Washington BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 239 anties) ; rare in the western part of the Ridge and Valley tion (Allegany County) and in the Allegheny Mountain tion. :oues and Prentiss (1883) called the Mockingbird a rare sum- r resident at Washington, D. C, arriving on April 25 and Darting in the middle of September. Kirkwood (1895) stated it in 1895, it was resident in the southern counties of Maryland d regular in summer as far north as Kent and Anne Arundel unties; in the remainder of the State, he considered it only straggler, and he cited all known occurrences in the Baltimore 3a, including 2 nests with eggs at Towson in 1882. Starting 1901 this species began a gradual increase in the Baltimore ea, but it was not until 1905 in Washington, D. C, and 1908 Baltimore County, that it began to be seen regularly through- 't the year. The first nesting record for western Maryland :is obtained in 1909 at Oldtown, Allegany County (Eifrig, 1909) , Id the first wintering bird was recorded in Allegany County 1 1920-21 (Eifrig, 1921). 'Habitat. — Hedgerows, wood margins, and other edge habitats I the vicinity of residential and agricultural areas. ! Nesting season.— Early April to early September (nesting lak, late April to mid-July). Nest-building was recorded in rince Georges County as early as April 7, 1948 (A. C. Martin). xtreme egg dates (98 nests): April 10, 1945 (B. Hoyland), id August 21, 1954, both in Prince Georges County. Extreme jstlvng dates (103 nests) : April 19, 1945, in Prince Georges Dunty (B. Hoyland) and September 1, 1953, in Carroll County D. H. Mcintosh) . Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 'ires) . — . (3 in 20 acres) in suburban-type residential area (including small orchards and large expanses of lawn) in Prince Georges County in 1951 and 1952; I 10 (2 in 20 acres) in 1942. i (3 in 175 acres) in mixed agricultural habitats (including hedgerows and } wood margins) in Prince Georges County in 1951. Maximum counts. — Winter (Christmas counts) : 278 in the nnapolis area on January 1, 1956; 179 in the Triadelphia Leservoir area on December 24, 1955; 163 in the Washington, !•. C, area on January 1, 1955; 137 in the St. Michaels area, I'albot County, on December 29, 1955; 70 in the Ocean City area n December 27, 1955; 33 in the Catoctin Mountain area of i'rederick and Washington Counties on December 31, 1955. Banding.— Two young birds banded in Prince Georges County 240 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE in summer (June 7, July 9) were recovered in Anne Arum] and Baltimore Counties in May and September (both betwtj 15 and 20 miles from the point of banding). One banded Anne Arundel County on September 12, 1954, was recovered; north-central West Virginia on May 20, 1956. CATBIRD Dumetella caroUnensis (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding and transient: Common in all sectioi Wintering: Uncommon in Worcester County and uncomnM locally in Charles and St. Marys Counties; rare elsewhf in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections; casual in 1 Upper Chesapeake and Piedmont sections (see Cooke, 1929, at Brackbill, 1942 — also other scattered records) ; accidental in t ' Ridge and Valley section— 1 recorded at Cumberland on Janua : 23, 1921 (Eifrig, 1921), and 1 seen at McCoole, Allegany Coun | on December 21, 1947 (L. M. Llewellyn). Habitat. — Especially characteristic of shrub swamps and othi brush areas on wet or moist sites ; also in hedgerows and wo margins, and in edge habitats in residential areas. Nesting season.— Late April to late August (nesting pea] late May to mid-July) . Nest building was recorded as early ! April 30, 1953, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. HendersonJ Extreme egg dates (589 nests) : May 6, 1956, in Prince Georgi County (E. C. Bobbins) and August 17, 1950, in Baltimo:^ County (E. Willis). Extreme nestling dates (298 nests) : Mrf 25, 1900, in the District of Columbia (Bartsch, 1900) and Augu^ 27, 1950, in Baltimore County (E. Willis). ! Spring migration.— iVormaZ period: April 20-30 to May 15-2U peak. May 1 to May 15. Extreme arrival dates: April 14, 19&I in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Taji pan) ; April 15, 1922, in the District of Columbia (L. D. Miner) April 15, 1938, in Prince Georges County (R. Overing) ; April 11 1940, in Baltimore County (E. A. McGinity). Extreme departun date: May 31, 1914, in the District of Columbia (Oberholse< 1919). Fall migration.— A^ormaZ period: September 1-10 to Octobe 20-30. Extreme departure dates: December 1, 1955, in Frederic County (J. W. Richards) ; November 28, 1950, in Anne Arund( County (Mr. and Mrs. G. Englar) ; November 23, 1936, in Bait: more County (E. A. McGinity) ; November 20, 1949, in Princ Georges County. Breeding population densities (territorial males per lOi acres) . — BIRDS OF MARYLAND AxND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 241 (10.4 in 13 acres) in shrub swamp (alder, poison sumac, sweet pepperbush, swamp rose, etc.) in Prince Georges County in 1945. (7 in 9V2 acres) in "open hemlock-spruce bog" (brush-meadow stage with young red spruce, hemlock, alder, etc.) in Garrett County in 1949 (Rob- bins, 1949c). (9 in 19.2 acres) in "shrubby field with stream-bordered trees" in Balti- more County in 1947, 42 (8 in 19.2 acres) in 1946 (Cooley, 1947). (19 in 53% acres) in brushy, poorly drained abandoned farmland in Prince Georges County in 1948; 22 (13 in 58 acres) in another area of similar habitat in 1947. (1.5 in 171/2 acres) in "lightly sprayed apple orchard with rye planted as ground cover" in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). Maximum co\JNTS.—Spri7ig : 200-f in the Port Tobacco area, Iharles County, on May 11, 1943 (I. N. Gabrielson, et al.) ; 150 t Gibson Island, Anne Arundel County, on May 8, 1955 (Mrs. 7. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tappan) ; 77 in the Rosedale area, laltimore County, on May 6, 1950 (D. A. Jones) ; 65 in Howard lounty on May 8, 1954 ; 59 each in 2 District of Columbia areas n May 12, 1913 (Oberholser, 1917a). Wiyiter (Christmas !ounts) : 30 in the Wicomico River area in Charles and St. Marys bounties on January 1, 1954; 17 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1954 ; 12 in southern Dorchester County on Decem- ber 28, 1953. Banding. — One banded in Cecil County on May 13, 1951, was I'ecovered in northeastern New Jersey on June 10, 1951. Another •ecovered in Somerset County on May 6, 1950, had been banded |n southeastern Pennsylvania on May 14, 1948. One bird banded n the District of Columbia on September 29, 1937, was recovered in southeastern New York on May 30, 1938. One banded at |3cean City on May 13, 1956, was found dead at Amityville, New iTork, on May 16, 1956. 3R0WN THRASHER Toxostoma rufum (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding and transient: Fairly common in all sec- tions. Winter i7ig: Uncommon in Worcester County; rare (locally uncommon) elsewhere in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections; casual in the Upper Chesapeake section. Habitat. — Upland, dry or moist brushland ; also in hedgerows, wood margins, and in edge habitats in residential areas. Nesting season. — Mid-April to early August (nesting peak, mid-May to early July). Extreme egg dates (195 nests) : April 22, 1954, in Caroline County (Mrs. A. J. Fletcher) and July 20, 1897, in Baltimore County (J. M. Sommer) . Extreme nestling dates (166 nests) : May 10, 1921, in the District of Columbia 242 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE (S. F. Blake) and August 6, 1893, in Baltimore County (Kir]-- wood, 1895). Spring migration. — Normal period: March 25-April 5 to Ms y 1-10; peak, April 15 to April 30. Extreme arrival dates: March 17, 1953, in Caroline County (Mrs. A. J. Fletcher) ; March 2 i, 1908, in the District of Columbia (A. H. Howell) ; March 2 1, 1953, in Baltimore County (E. Willis). Extreme departure daU; May 12, 1946, in Baltimore County (H. Brackbill). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 5-15 to Octob«i 5-15. Extreme departure dates: November 7, 1955, in Frederic < County (Mrs. J. W. Richards) ; November 5, 1893, in Baltimoi; County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; November 4, 1935, in Prince Georgt; County (R. Overing) ; November 3, 1930, in Kent County ("V^, Baker) . , Breeding population densities (territorial males per lol acres) . — 15 (3 in 20 acres) in suburban-type residential area (including small orchard and large expanses of lawn) in Prince Georges County in 1951 and 195)1 7 (2 in 30 acres) in "damp deciduous scrub with standing dead trees! (burned-over, poorly drained upland forest) in Prince Georges Counti in 1948 (Oresman, et al., 1948) ; 5 (1.5 in 30 acres) in 1947 (Steward et al,, 1947). 1 Maximum counts.— ^^^rm^'.* 100 at Gibson Island, Anne Aruni del County, on May 8, 1955 (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tad pan) ; 35 in Washington County on May 7, 1949 (R. S. and M Stauffer) ; 24 in Charles and St. Marys Counties (J. W. Terborgh" and in Howard County on May 8, 1954; 23 in Baltimore Count; on May 5, 1951 (E. Willis, D. A. Jones). Wiyiter (Christma counts) : 60 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1955; 42 ii the Wicomico River area in Charles and St. Marys Counties oi January 1, 1954 ; 20 in southern Dorchester County on Decembe: 28, 1954. Banding. — The winter distribution of Brown Thrashers tha. nest in Maryland is indicated by 3 records of banded birds thai were recovered in the coastal plain of South and North Carolina Another bird banded as a juvenal in the District of Columbia waj found dead the following May in Baltimore, 35 miles to the north The recovery of a south-bound bird of the year in Hanover County Virginia, on September 28, 1950, is directly in line between itj hatching locality in Prince Georges County, Maryland, and th( coastal plain of South Carolina. Another Brown Thrasher, founc dead in summer in Connecticut, had been banded at Baltimore during spring migration 4 years earlier, on May 9, 1943. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 243 Family TURDIDAE )BIN Turdus migratorius Linnaeus Status. — Breeding: Common in all sections. Transient: Abun- mt in all sections. Wintering: Common in Worcester County; irly common elsewhere in the Eastern Shore section and locally the Western Shore section ; uncommon in the Upper Chesapeake ction; rare in the Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections; .sual (usually) in the Allegheny Mountain section (Brooks, )36) — regular occurrence throughout Garrett County during the inter of 1952-53. Habitat. — Breeding: Marginal habitats with a short-grass ^rbaceous cover in agricultural and residential areas. Transient id ivintering: Various marginal and forest habitats that are ituated on wet or rich, moist sites. ! Nesting season. — Late March to late August (nesting peak, te April to mid-June) . Nest-building was recorded as early as larch 25, 1921, in Baltimore County (J. M. Sommer) . Extreme l/gr dates (476 nests) : April 4, 1945, in Prince Georges County 'e. G. Cooley) and August 3, 1894, in Baltimore County (F. C. [irkwood). In Carroll County, an adult was observed building I nest on August 6, 1953, and on August 25 was observed on the lest and turning eggs that were probably infertile (D. H. Mc- |itosh) , Extreme nestling dates (440 nests) : April 22, 1945, in laltimore County (Brackbill, 1947b) and August 24, 1951, in aroline County (Mr. and Mrs. A. J. Fletcher). Spring migration. — February 1-10 to April 20-30; peak, larch 5 to April 10. Extreme arrival dates: January 21, 1922, in Lnne Arundel County (fide T. Denmead) ; January 21, 1944, in 'rince Georges County. Extreme departure dates: May 2, 1944, nd May 2, 1945, in Prince Georges County. Fall migration. — Normal period: September 10-20 to Novem- er 10-20; peak, October 10 to November 1. Extreme departure ate: December 5, 1944, in Prince Georges County. Breeding population densities (pairs per 100 acres). — 5 (9 in 20 acres) in suburban-type residential area (including small orchards and large expanses of lawn) in Prince Georges County in 1942. 4 (5 in 20^/^ acres) in "moderately sprayed apple orchard with infrequently mowed ground cover" in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). 1 (4 in 19.2 acres) in "shrubby field with stream-bordered trees" in Balti- more County in 1947, 16 (3 in 19.2 acres) in 1946 (Cooley, 1947). 1 (2 in QVz acres) in "open hemlock-spruce bog" (brush-meadow stage with young hemlock, red spruce, alder, etc.) in Garrett County in 1949 (Bobbins, 1949c.) 244 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE '*^v -^ n. 0 "-^^-a^: Figure 43. — Robin banding recoveries. Each symbol represents the number* of records for a State or Province. Banded in Maryland, recovered else- where: solid triangle = recovered September through May. Recovered in Maryland, banded elsewhere: open circle = banded June through August; open triangle = banded September through May. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 245 (3 in nVz acres) in "lightly sprayed apple orchard with rye planted as ground cover" in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). (6 in 84 acres) in mixed agricultural habitats (including hedgerows and wood margins) in Prince Georges County in 1949, 5 (4 in 84 acres) in 1952, 4 (3 in 84 acres) in 1950 and 1951. Maximum counts. — Spring: 3,000 near Emmitsburg, Fred- ick County, on March 19, 1952 (J. W. Richards) ; 1,500 on the iunpowder River marsh on March 4, 1902 (F, C. Kirkwood) ; 750 bar Rockville, Montgomery County, on March 20, 1951 (R. F. !eed). Fall: 500 on the Gunpowder River marsh on October 23, 1)01, and on October 26, 1903 (F. C. Kirkwood) ; 344 on Patuxent jefuge on October 26, 1944. Winter (Christmas counts) : 2,931 ;i the Annapolis area on January 1, 1956 ; 2,080 in the St. Michaels irea, Talbot County, on December 29, 1955; 1,301 in the Ocean 'ity area on December 27, 1953; 1,103 in St. Marys County on ianuary 2, 1956; 620 in southern Dorchester County on December \l, 1952; 369 near Denton, Caroline County, on December 20, !952; 270 in the Triadelphia Reservoir area on December 24, ;955; 179 in the Catoctin Mountain area on December 31, 1955. I Banding. — See figure 43. ^OOD THRUSH Hy/oc/ch/o musfelina (Gmelin) Status. — Breeding and transient: Common in all sections. Entering: Accidental — 1 was closely observed at South Point, l^orcester County, on December 22, 1951 (J. H. Buckalew) . ' Habitat. — Flood-plain, swamp and upland rich, moist decidu- us forests that contain an understory of small trees and shrubs. : Nesting season. — Early May to mid-August (nesting peak, ite May to late July) . Extreme egg dates (353 nests) : May 8, 949, in Montgomery County (W. B. Tyrrell) and July 29, 1900, 1 Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme nestling dates 197 nests) : May 25, 1907, in the District of Columbia (R. H. >ue) and August 12, 1900, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirk- /ood). Spring migration. — Normal period: April 20-30 to May 15- 5; peak. May 1 to May 15. Extreme arrival dates: April 13, 888, in the District of Columbia (E. M. Hasbrouck) ; April 13, 892, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; April 13, 1930, in Washington County (W. Middlekauff ) . Fall migration. — Normal period: August 20-30 to October 5- 5; peak, September 1 to September 20. Extreme departure 'ates: November 27, 1931, in the District of Columbia (P. Cnappen) ; November 21, 1926, in Montgomery County (W. W. 246 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Rubey) ; November 14, 1948, in Prince Georges County (M. ]!, Meanley) . BREEDING POPULATION DENSITIES (territorial males per IC: acres). — 40 (14.5 in 36 acres) in "virgin central hardwood deciduous forest" (whi ( oak-tulip-poplar) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart and Ro i bins, 1947b). 24 (19.5 in 80 acres) in "central hardwood (oaks-tulip-poplar) with scatters pine" in the District of Columbia in 1949, 18 (14 in 80 acres) in 1951 aid 16 (13 in 80 acres) in 1948 and 1953 (Trever, 1952; Clagett, 1953); !' (16 in 80 acres) in 1954 (Wright, 1955) ; 19 (15.5 in 80 acres) in 19{|; (Clagett, 1952). 24 (20.1 in 85 acres) in well-drained flood-plain forest (sweetgum, hornbean river birch, tulip-poplar, etc.) along the boundary between Anne Arundfl and Prince Georges Counties in 1945 (Stewart, et al., 1946); 15 (5 i ; 32% acres) in another area of this habitat in 1944. 20 (4 in 20 acres) in "virgin hemlock forest" in Garrett County in 19^ (Robbins, 1949a). 18 (2 in 11 acres) in upland seepage swamp forest (red maple, sweetgun black gum, etc., with dense understory of holly, sweet pepperbush, clammt azalea, maleberry, etc.) in Prince Georges County in 1946. l 16 (2 in 13 acres) in shrub swamp (alder, poison sumac, sweet pepperbusli swamp rose, red maple, etc.) in Prince Georges County in 1945. 12 (3.5 in 28 acres) in partially opened flood-plain forest (sycamore, as) elm, etc.) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall 12 (1.5 in 13 acres) in upland oak forest (white, northern red, chestnut, an: black oaks) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall 11 (2.5 in 231/4 acres) in "mature northern hardwood forest" (black cherr; 1 beech, hemlock, sugar maple, sweet birch, etc.) in Garrett County i ( 1951 (Robbins and Stewart, 1951a). | 10 (4 in 40 acres) in "mixed oak forest" (white, scarlet, and chestnut oak etc.) in Baltimore County in 1949 (Kolb, 1949a); 8 (3 in 40 acres) ii 1948 (Kolb, et al., 1948) ; 5 (2 in 37 acres) in 1951, 1952, and 1953 (Kol ) and Cole, 1951; Kaufmann, et al., 1952; Cole and Kolb, 1953) ; 3 (1 in 4 ' acres) in 1950 (Kolb, 1950). 10 (2 in 19% acres) in "shrubby field with stream-bordered trees" in Baltl more County in 1946; 5 (1 in 19^5 acres) in 1947 (Cooley, 1947). 9 (4 in 443/, acres) in river bluff forest (beech, white oak, scarlet oak) i Prince Georges County in 1945; 7 (3 in 44% acres) in 1944 (J. W. Aid rich, A. J. Duvall). 8 (2 in 24% acres) in river terrace forest (beech-white oak) in Prince George( County in 1944. 8 (2 in 23^ acres) in upland oak forest (white, scarlet, and black oaks) i: Prince Georges County in 1944. 6 (3 in 47% acres) in hedgerows in agricultural areas and abandoned farm lands (including strip 21 Vz yards wide on each side of hedgerow) i; Prince Georges County in 1945. 4 (1.3 in 32% acres) in pine-oak forest (pitch pine, scrub pine, and Spanisl oak) in Prince Georges County in 1944, I BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 247 Maximum counts. — Sprmg: 160 at Greenbelt, Prince Georges ( unty, on May 9, 1953 (L. W. Oring-, et al.) ; 124 at Middle ];ver, Baltimore County, on May 5, 1951 (E. Willis, D. A. Jones) ; ]{2 in Howard County on May 8, 1954. Fall: 100 near Gwynns ]|,lls, Baltimore County, on September 21, 1897 (E. Armstrong) ; W on Patuxent Refuge on September 6, 1944. j Banding. — One banded as a nestling in Baltimore County on ,jne 18, 1949, was found in southern Alabama on March 11, 1950. ]j:nt (1949) gives March 16 as the earliest spring arrival date for iiywhere in the United States, so this bird was either an excep- 1 mally early migrant or a winter straggler. ijiRMIT THRUSH Hylocichia guttata (Pallas) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 40) : Uncommon and local in the .jlegheny Mountain section at elevations above 2,500 feet — oc- iirring in Garrett County near Grantsville, on Little Savage :,ountain near Finzel and at Mountain Lake Park (Preble, 1900) ; li Negro Mountain near Accident (Eifrig, 1938) ; in Cranberry I vamp near Finzel (G. Eifrig) ; in Cherry Creek Swamps near ittinger and Piney Creek Swamps near Finzel (Stewart and l;)bbins, 1947a) ; in Wolf Swamp; in Cranesville Swamp; in the jeinity of Herrington Manor; and in the vicinity of Deep Creek ike. Transient: Fairly common in all sections. Wintering: ,)mmon in the swamp along the Pocomoke River and its tribu- tries ; fairly common elsewhere in the Eastern Shore and West- n Shore sections; uncommon in the Upper Chesapeake, Pied- ont, and Ridge and Valley sections; casual in the Allegheny ountain section — 1 seen at Cranesville swamp on December 31, •54 (B. Miller, Mrs. G. M. Miller). Summer vagrant: Acci- • intal — 1 was collected in Howard County on July 9, 1890 (A. 3sler) . Habitat. — Breeding: Usually open spruce-hemlock bogs, pine antations in the vicinity of bogs, and oak and pine barrens on je ridge tops. Transient and ivintering: Wood margins; hedge- jws; and swamp, flood-plain, and upland moist forest types with rushy understory. i Spring migration. — Normal period: March 20-30 to May 1- ); peak, April 5 to April 25. Extreme arrival dates: March 15, )07, in the District of Columbia (W. W. Cooke) ; March 15, 1953, Frederick County (J. W. Richards) . Extreme departure dates: ay 21, 1892, in Baltimore County (G. H. Gray) ; May 19, 1898, Harford County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; May 17, 1891, in the Dis- ict of Columbia (C. W. Richmond). 248 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Fall migration. — Normal period: October 1-10 to Novemb 25-December 5; peak, October 10 to October 30. Extreine o rival dates: September 18, 1900, in the District of Columbia ( • W. Shufeldt) ; September 19, 1914, in Dorchester County (R. Ij Jackson) ; September 21, 1954, in Frederick County (J. 1] Richards). Maximum counts. — Spring: 100+ at Waverly, Baltimo< County, on April 15, 1893 (W. N. Wholey) ; 100 on Negro Mou tain, Garrett County, on April 20, 1903 (G. Eifrig). Fall: 50 Tilghman, Talbot County, on October 14, 1953 (R. L. Kleen) ; ll at Patuxent Refuge on October 26, 1944. Winter (Christmr counts) : 130 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1955; 72 the Wicomico River area of Charles and St. Marys Counties ( January 1, 1954; 64 in southern Dorchester County on Decemb 28, 1953; 44 in the Annapolis area on January 2, 1954; 34 ; Patuxent Refuge on December 29, 1944. Banding. — One banded at Monkton, Baltimore County, ( October 3, 1955, was recovered in north-central South Carolir on October 25, 1955. SWAINSON'S THRUSH Hy/ocic/i/o usfu/afa (Nuttall) Status. — Breeding: Formerly a regular summer resident i Garrett County — occurring in the vicinity of Jennings, until aboi 1908 when the last of the spruce was cut (Behr, 1914) ; a ne; with eggs (in sapling 4 feet above ground) near Oakland on Jun 13, 1917, was reported by J. M. Sommer; there are no recei records. Transient: Common in all sections (uncommon in sprir in the Eastern Shore section). Wintering: Accidental — 1 r( ported at Gibson Island, Anne Arundel County, from January to 18, 1954 (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tappan), and 1 nea Berlin, Worcester County, on December 27, 1955 (J. R. Worthle: R. Dubois). Habitat. — Flood-plain, swamp, and upland moist forest type with brushy understory. Spring migration. — Normal period: May 1-10 to May 20-30 peak. May 10 to May 20. Extreme arrival dates: April 20, 195^ in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tar pan) ; April 24, 1948, in Montgomery County (I. R. Barnes) April 25, 1921, in the District of Columbia (H. C. Oberholser) April 28, 1953, in Frederick County (J. W. Richards) ; April 2S 1954, in Talbot County (R. L. Kleen) . Extreme departure dates June 5, 1945, in Prince Georges County; June 4, 1917, in Baltimor County (C. H. Grace). BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 249 Fall migration. — Normal period: September 5-15 to October -15; peak, September 15 to October 5. Extreme arrival dates: ugust 25, 1944, in Montgomery County (A. Wetmore) ; August 9, 1955, in Prince Georges County; September 2, 1888, in the 'istrict of Columbia (A. K. Fisher). Extreme departure dates: November 7, 1954, in Talbot County (R. L. Kleen) ; October 26, j954, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. lappan) ; October 24, 1948, in the District of Columbia (J. W. jaylor, Jr.). I Maximum counts. — Spring: 66 at Patuxent Refuge on May 10, 1950; 35 in the District of Columbia on May 9, 1953 (C. L. jlagett) . Fall: 60 at Tilghman, Talbot County, on September 23, 1953 (R. L. Kleen) ; 18 at Patuxent Refuge on September 6, 1944. jiccasionally large numbers are heard calling while migrating iverhead at night; high counts include 1,900 at Laurel, Prince feorges County on September 29, 1950; 1,300 in northeastern arrett County on September 20, 1952; 1,200 in the District of ilolumbia on October 15, 1947 (I. R. Barnes) . RAY-CHEEKED THRUSH Hylocichla minima (Lafresnaye) Status. — Transient: Fairly common in all sections. j Habitat. — Forest types with brushy understory, particularly lood-plain and swamp forests, and rich moist forests on the ipland. I Spring migration. — Norynal period: May 5-15 to May 25-30; leak. May 15 to May 25. Extreme arrival dates: April 30, 1956, •1 Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson) ; May 2, 1956, '1 Prince Georges County; May 3, 1930, in the District of Colum- bia (W. J. Whiting) ; May 3, 1953, in Charles County (M. C. '■rone, A. R. Stickley, Jr.). Extreme departure dates: June 2, |927, in Baltimore County (J. M. Sommer) ; June 1, 1945, in j'rince Georges County. Fall migration. — Normal period: September 10-20 to October 0-20; peak, September 20 to October 5. Extreme arrival dates: eptember 5, 1950, in Baltimore County (Mr. and Mrs. R. D. :ole) ; September 5, 1952, in Prince Georges County. Extreme eparture dates: October 30, 1927, in Montgomery County (W. [. Ball) ; October 21, 1954, in Prince Georges County. Maximum counts. — The maximum number seen per day during oth spring and fall flights, would usually range between 5 and 10 irds. Much larger numbers were occasionally heard calling ^hile migrating overhead at night; high counts include 90 on lay 24, 1947, at Patuxent Refuge; 1,000 on September 29, 1950, 250 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE at Laurel, Prince Georges County; and 600 on September 2(i, 1952, in northeastern Garrett County, VEERY Hylocichia fuscescens (Stephens) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 44) : Common in the Alleghen' Mountain section; rare in the Ridge and Valley section; rar; and local in the Piedmont section. Summer occurrence in tht Piedmont section was recorded as follows: In the District oj Columbia along Rock Creek (Halle, 1943 and 1948) and i; Glover- Archbold Park (Briggs, 1954) ; in Montgomery Count; at Forest Glen (in 1952— E. Miller) and Cabin John Park (E J. Court, 1952) ; in Baltimore County along Gunpowder Fall| near the Carroll County line (M. B. Meanley) and near Lak Roland (A. Simon) ; in northwest Baltimore City (R, D. Cole) and in Harford County near Norrisville (0. W. Crowder) Transient: Fairly common in all sections (in spring, uncommo] in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections) . Habitat. — Breeding: Swamp and bog forests and moist forest on the upland ; also in plantations of pine situated on moist sites Transient: Forest types with brushy understory, particularl; flood-plain and swamp forests, and rich moist forests on th upland. LEGEND ^^JX^ Principal Range # Local Record Figure 44. — Breeding range of Veery. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 251 JESTING SEASON. — Early May to mid-July. Extreme egg dates nests) : May 12, 1945, in Montgomery County (E. J. Court) i June 26, 1948, in the District of Columbia (Halle, 1948). treme nestling dates (6 nests) : June 17, 1918, in Garrett unty (G. Eifrig) and July 10, 1948, in the District of Columbia :alle, 1948). 5PRING MIGRATION. — Normal period: April 25-May 5 to May -25; peak. May 5 to May 15. Extreme arrival dates: April 20, 19, in the District of Columbia (A. K. Fisher) ; April 24, 1881, Washington County (E. A. Small). Extreme departure dates: ne 8, 1947, in Baltimore County (E. G. Cooley) ; June 2, 1907, I the District of Columbia (A. K. Fisher). I Fall migration. — Normal period: August 20-30 to September i-25; peak, September 1 to September 15. Extreme arrival lies: August 17, 1927, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; jigust 18, 1889, in the District of Columbia (J. D. Figgins). I'treme departure dates: October 16, 1952, in Montgomery lunty (J. S. Moon) ; October 11, 1947, in Prince Georges ! unty. jBREEDiNG POPULATION DENSITY (territorial males per 100 ires). — ,;i,5 in 20 acres) in "virgin hemlock stand" in Garrett County in 1949 (Bobbins, 1949a). iMaximum counts. — Spring: 22 in Rock Creek Park, District I Columbia, on May 9, 1953 (C. L. Clagett) ; 15 at Patuxent ifuge on May 10 and again on May 13, 1950. Fall: 12 at .tuxent Refuge on September 5, 1943. On May 5, 1952, 130 !re heard calling, while migrating overhead at night at the .tuxent Refuge. STERN BLUEBIRD Sialia sialis (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding: Fairly common in all sections. Transient: •mmon in all sections. Wintering: Common in the Eastern lore and Western Shore sections; fairly common in the Upper lesapeake and Piedmont sections; uncommon in the Ridge and illey section; rare in the Allegheny Mountain section. Habitat. — Chiefly marginal habitats in agricultural and resi- ntial areas. Nesting season. — Early March to late August (nesting peak, rly April to mid-July) . Nest-building was recorded as early March 4, 1900, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Ex- eme egg dates (232 nests) : March 12, 1898, in Baltimore )unty (W. H. Fisher) and July 27, 1881, in Baltimore County 252 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE ] (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme nestling dates (161 nests) : Aj 17, 1946, in Prince Georges County (E. G. Cooley) and Aug 24, 1945, in Prince Georges County (J. B. Cope). Spring migration. — Normal period: February 5-15 to Aj 10-20; peak, March 1 to April 1. Extreme arrival dates: Feb;, ary 3, 1900, in Allegany County (G. Eifrig) ; February 3, 191 in Baltimore County (H. Brackbill) . Extreme departure da May 11, 1941, in Baltimore County (H. Brackbill). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 15-25 to ] cember 10-20; peak, October 5 to November 15. Extreme arri dates: August 30, 1896, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwooc August 31, 1901, in Allegany County (G. Eifrig). Extre departure date: December 28, 1938, in Baltimore County ( Brackbill). Breeding population densities (pairs per 100 acres). — 23 (5 in 21 1/^ acres) in an abandoned field saturated with nesting boxes Prince Georges County in 1949 and 1950, 19 (4 in 211/^ acres) in IJ 20 (4 in 20 acres) in suburban-type residential area (including small orcha and large expanses of lawn) in Prince Georges County in 1943, 1944, i 1945; 15 (3 in 20 acres) in 1942. 14 (3 in 22 acres) in "unsprayed apple orchard with infrequently mo^ ground cover" in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewi 1948b). 7 (2 in 30 acres) in "damp deciduous scrub with standing dead trees" (burn over, poorly drained upland forest) in Prince Georges County in ll (Stewart et al., 1947). 4 (3 in 75 acres) in mixed agricultural habitats (including hedgerows < wood margins) in Prince Georges County in 1947. Maximum counts. — Spring: 100 at Point Lookout, St. Mai County, on March 2, 1954 (H. N. Page, V. C. Kirtley) ; 61 Patuxent Refuge on March 22, 1944. Fall: 5,000 on the Gi powder River marsh on October 26, 1903 (J. Thomas) ; 40C at Cambridge, Dorchester County, on November 1 and 2, 19 (R. W. Jackson) ; "hundreds" at Cumberland, Allegany Coun on October 3, 1901, October 18, 1902, and October 24, 1900 ( Eifrig). Winter (Christmas counts) : 378 in the Annapolis ar on January 2, 1955; 336 at Port Tobacco, Charles County, December 21, 1941; 231 in the Ocean City area on December ' 1954; 102 in the Triadelphia Reservoir area on December { 1952. Banding. — One recovered in Calvert County on October 1934, had been banded as a juvenal in southwestern New Ham shire on August 10, 1933. Another banded in Prince Georg County on October 13, 1943, was recovered on April 15, 19-^ in northern Virginia (about 20 miles from the point of banding BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 253 Family SYLVIIDAE ILJE-GRAY GNATCATCHER Polioptila caerulea (Linnaeus) j Status. — Br-eeding and transieiit (see fig. 45) : Common in la Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sec- ijins; fairly common in the Ridge and Valley section and in the itomac River valley of the Piedmont section; uncommon else- lere in the Piedmont section; rare in the Allegheny Mountain 3tion. Wintering: Accidental — 1 was observed in the District Columbia on January 1, 1924 (Blake, 1924) ; 1 in Caroline )unty on December 20, 1953, and January 1 and 5, 1954 (Mr. d Mrs. A. J. Fletcher) ; and 2 near Annapolis on January 2, 55 (E. P. Wilson). LEGEND BLUE-GRAY GNATCATCHER [XjN^ Principal Range O Local Record GOLDEN-CROWNED KINGLET • Local Record GURE 45. — Breeding ranges of Blue-gray Gnatcatcher and Golden-crowned Kinglet. Habitat. — Brushy, partially open swamp and flood-plain •rests ; in the Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Mountain sections is also found in orchards and in open stands of upland forest. Nesting season. — Early April to late June (nesting peak, te April to early June). Nest-building was recorded as early 5 April 8, 1945, in Prince Georges County. Extreme egg dates 52 nests) : April 11, 1953, in Montgomery County (J. Love) id June 8, 1940, in Montgomery County (W. H. Lawrence). 254 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Extreme nestling dates (18 nests) : May 6, 1950, in Char]^ County (M. C. Crone) and June 16, 1946, in Calvert County. Spring migration. — Normal period: April 1-10 to May 1-1 peak, April 10 to April 25. Extreme arrival dates: March \{ 1921, in Dorchester County (R. W. Jackson) ; March 29, 19^ in Montgomery County (C. L. Clagett, et al.) ; March 29, 19n in Caroline County (Mrs. A. J. Fletcher). Extreme departu^ dates: May 18, 1901, in Allegany County (G. Eifrig) ; May ] 1934, in Prince Georges County (R. Overing). Fall migration. — Normal period: August 5-15 to Septemb 5-15. Extreme departure dates: December 1, 1953, in An Arundel County (J. W. Taylor, Jr.) ; November 23, 1890, in t District of Columbia (C. W. Richmond); November 11, 19E in Baltimore County (E. Willis) ; October 3, 1954, in Montgome County (P. A. DuMont) ; October 2, 1951, in Caroline Coun (Mrs. A. J. Fletcher). Breeding population densities (pairs per 100 acres). — 7 (2 in 28 acres) in partially opened, flood-plain forest (sycamore, ash, eh etc.) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich and A. J. Duvalj 6 (1.5 in 25 acres) in "unsprayed apple orchard with unmowed ground cov« in Allegany County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). 2 (1.4 in 85 acres) in well-drained, flood-plain forest (sweetgum, hornbea river birch, tulip-poplar, etc.) along the boundary between Anne Arun( and Prince Georges Counties in 1945 (Stewart, et al., 1946). Maximum counts (nonbreeding). — Spring: 77 at Greenbei Prince Georges County, on April 10, 1954 (L. W. Oring) ; ' along the Pocomoke River on April 21, 1954 (P. G. DuMont 65 near Aliens Fresh, Charles County, on April 12, 1952; I near Largo, Prince Georges County, on April 19, 1947; 18 Washington County on May 7, 1949 (R. S. and M. Stauffer Fall: 17 near Seneca in Montgomery County on August 20, 19^ (I. R. Barnes). GOLDEN-CROWNED KINGLET Regu/us satrapa Lichtenstein Status. — Breeding (see fig. 45) : Uncommon and local in tl Allegheny Mountain section at elevations above 2,500 fee1> occurring in Garrett County during recent years in Wolf Swan (about 4 miles southeast of Grantsville) ; in the Maryland portic of Cranesville Swamp (just east of Cranesville, West Virginia! and on the east slope of Backbone Mountain (2 to 3 miles wes southwest of Bayard, West Virginia) — also formerly occurn regularly in the vicinity of Jennings before the last of the sprue was cut in 1908 (Behr, 1914). Ti^ansient: Common in all se tions. Wintering: Common in the Eastern Shore and Wester BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 255 hore sections; fairly common in the Upper Chesapeake and Jedmont sections; uncommon in the Ridge and Valley section; jire in the Allegheny Mountain section. Summer vagrant: Acci- jgntal — 1 recorded in the District of Columbia on July 25, 1932 JBurleigh, 1932) ; 1 recorded at Cumberland, Allegany County, ia August 7, 1901 (G. Eifrig). I Habitat. — Breeding: Largely restricted to areas with fairly iense stands of mature red spruce. Transient and wintering: lost numerous in stands of scrub pine, pitch pine and loblolly ine; also of regular occurrence in various deciduous forest y^pes. Nesting season. — Dependent young out of the nest were ob- erved in Garrett County on July 6, 1945. Spring migration. — Normal 'period: March 15-25 to April 5-25; peak, March 25 to April 15. Extreme departure dates: lay 23, 1903, in Allegany County (Eifrig, 1904) ; May 12, 1919, n Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 25-October 5 to )ecember 1-10; peak, October 15 to November 10. Extreme arrival dates: September 20, 1910, in the District of Columbia ;E. J. Brown) ; September 22, 1942, in Prince Georges County ;M. B. Meanley) ; September 24, 1950, in Baltimore County ;E. Willis). Extreme departure dates: December 28, 1919, in ;he District of Columbia (F. Harper) ; December 20, 1946, in 3altimore County (H. Brackbill). Breeding population density (pairs per 100 acres). — 12 (4 in 12^ acres) in "virgin spruce-hemlock bog forest" (red spruce and hemlock with dense under story of great laurel) in Garrett County in 1951 (Stewart and Robbins, 1951a). Maximum counts.— Spring : 50 at Emmitsburg, Frederick County, on both April 8 and 9, 1953 (J. W. Richards) ; 35 at Patuxent Refuge on April 7, 1944. Fall: ''Hundreds" at Ocean City on October 2, 1949 (M. B. Meanley) ; 100 at Gibson Island, Anne Arundel County, on October 16, 1952 (Mrs. W. L. Hen- derson, Mrs. G. Tappan) ; 70 at Patuxent Refuge on October 27, 1943. Winter (Christmas counts) : 380 at Patuxent Refuge on December 23, 1943; 354 in the District of Columbia area on January 2, 1954; 156 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1955 ; 105 in southern Dorchester County on December 28, 1953 ; 92 in the Wicomico River area in Charles and St. Marys Counties on January 1, 1954. RUBY-CROWNED KINGLET Regu/us calendula (Linnaeus) Status.— Transient: Common in all sections. Wintering: Un- 256 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE common in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections; rai in the Upper Chesapeake and Piedm.ont sections; casual in tl: Ridge and Valley section. Habitat. — Brushy forested areas including pine and deciduoil types. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 25-April 5 to Ma 1-10; peak, April 10 to April 25. Extreme arrival date: Marc] 20, 1905, in the District of Columbia (T. H. Levering) . Extrem departure dates: May 19, 1950, in Washington County; May l(i 1954, in Worcester County (J. K. Wright) ; May 15, 1920, i Montgomery County (D. C. Aud. Soc). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 20-30 to Nc vember 10-20; peak, October 5 to October 30. Extreme arrive dates: September 6, 1935, in the District of Columbia (Overin^ 1936) ; September 9, 1955, in Frederick County (J. W. Richards) September 13, 1880, in Washing-ton County (E. A. Small) ; Sep tember 14, 1913, in Prince Georges County (W. W. Cooke) Extreme departure date: November 30, 1901, in Allegany Count;' (G. Eifrig). Maximum counts. — Spring: 50 at Emmitsburg, Frederic] County, on April 11, 1952, and April 18, 1953 (J. W. Richards) 36 at Patuxent Refuge on April 21, 1944. Fall: 155 at Patuxen Refuge on October 27, 1943. Winter (Christmas counts) : 2! in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1953 ; 23 at Patuxen Refuge on January 14, 1949; 22 in the Wicomico River area o: Charles and St. Marys Counties on January 1, 1954 ; 16 in southeri Dorchester County on December 27, 1949; 16 in the Catoctn Mountain area in Frederick County on December 30, 1951. Family MOTACILLJDAE WATER PIPIT Anihus spinolefta (Linnaeus) Status. — Transient: Common in the Piedmont section; fairlj common in all other sections. Wintering: Fairly common ir. the Eastern Shore section and in the southern part of the Western Shore section (St. Marys and southern Charles Coun- ties) ; rare elsevi^here in the Western Shore. Upper Chesapeake, and Piedmont sections. Habitat. — Open agricultural fields with short or sparse vege- tation, including pastures, and grain fields with young sprout growth; also occurs on mud flats and tidal marshes with sparse vegetation. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 1-10 to May 1-10; peak, March 10 to April 10. Extreme arrival dates: February BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 257 5, 1908, in the District of Columbia (W. W. Cooke) ; February i, 1924, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme eparture dates: May 21, 1925, in Dorchester County (R. W. ackson) ; May 18, 1949, in Prince Georges County; May 18, d50, in Washington County. Fall migration. — Normal period: September 20-30 to No- ember 25-December 5 ; peak, October 10 to November 5. £"0:- -eme arrival dates: September 12, 1901, in Harford County W. H. Fisher) ; September 12, 1911, in Baltimore County (F. i. Kirkwood) ; September 15, 1951, in Allegany County. Extreme \eparture dates: January 12, 1949, in Prince Georges County; j>ecember 23, 1914, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). I Maximum counts. — Spring: 600 at Emmitsburg, Frederick ilounty, on April 7, 1953 (J. W. Richards) ; 200 near Lanham, i'rince Georges Countj^, on March 26, 1949 ; 150 near Loch Raven Leservoir, Baltimore County, on March 13, 1940 (I. E. Hampe, I. Kolb) ; 150 at Queen Anne, Queen Annes County, on April 15, 1956 (W. Rittenhouse) . Fall: 2,000 near Seneca, Montgomery bounty, on October 25, 1952 (J. W. Terborgh) ; 1,500 at Monkton, l^altimore County, on November 13, 1955 (S. W. Simon) ; 1,000 jit Oxon Hill, Prince Georges County, on November 26, 1938 i;W. Perrygo) ; 300 in Montgomery County near Triadelphia ■leservoir on October 28, 1951 (S. H. Low). Winter (Christmas |;ounts) : 830 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1948; |J50 near Denton, Caroline County, on December 20, 1952; 235 n the Kent Island area, Queen Annes County, on December 31, iL948; 165 in the Wicomico River area in Charles and St. Marys bounties on December 26, 1948. Family BOMBYCILLIDAE CEDAR WAXWING BombyciUa cec/rorum Vieillot I Status. — Breeding: Common in the Allegheny Mountain sec- tion; uncommon in the Ridge and Valley, Piedmont, and Upper Chesapeake sections; rare in the Western Shore and Eastern Shore sections. Transient: Common in all sections. Wintering : Uncommon in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, Upper Chesa- peake, Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections; rare in the Allegheny Mountain section (Brooks, 1936c). Habitat. — Open or brushy woodland and marginal habitats in agricultural and residential areas. Nesting season. — Late May to mid-September (nesting peak, mid-June to mid-August). In Montgomery County, a new nest was found as early as May 30, 1905 (Oberholser, 1905) . Extreme 258 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE egg dates (21 nests) : June 7, 1936, in Harford County (W. ] Tyrrell) and Anne Arundel County (M. B. Meanley), and Augui 21, 1892, in Baltimore County (Kirkwood, 1895). Extren nestling dates (5 nests) : June 18, 1950, in Baltimore Couni (C. D. Hackman) and September 11, 1923, in the District ( Columbia (S. F. Blake). Spring migration. — Normal period: April 25-May 5 to Ma 25-June 5 ; peak, May 5 to May 25. In 1952, the migration ws much earlier than usual, large numbers arriving at the clog of February (earliest record, February 24, 1952, in Princ Georges County), and high counts were made in numerous areai throughout March and early April, while a few small flocli lingered until the end of April. Extreme departure dates: Jui] 15, 1902, in Baltimore County (J. Thomas) ; June 8, 1887, i the District of Columbia (C. W. Richmond) ; June 8, 1945, i Prince Georges County. Fall migration. — Normal period: August 15-25 to Januar 1-10; peak, September 25 to November 10. Extreme arrive date: August 9, 1944, in Prince Georges County. Extreme di parture date: January 12, 1940, in Prince Georges County. Breeding population densities (pairs per 100 acres). — 16 (1.5 in 9^/^ acres) in "open hemlock-spruce bog" (brush-meadow staj with young hemlock, red spruce, alder, etc.) in Garrett County in 19^ (Robbins, 1949c). 15 (4 in 2TV2 acres) in "red pine plantation" (young trees about 20 feet i height) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins and Barnes, 1949). 15 (3 in 20 acres) in suburban-type residential area (including small orchan and large expanses of lawn) in Prince Georges County in 1946; absei in other years during the period 1942-52. Maximum counts. — Spring: 450 near Port Tobacco, Charle County, on March 23, 1952 (A. R. Stickley, Jr., M. C. Crone) 350 near College Park, Prince Georges County, on March 25 an 27, 1952 (C. L. Clagett) ; 150 near the Gunpowder River mars on May 24, 1903 (J. Thomas). Fall: 400 in Baltimore Count on October 23, 1896 (W. H. Fisher) ; 350 near Seneca, Mon1 gomery County, on October 17, 1953 (J. K. Wright) ; 268 a Patuxent Refuge on October 26, 1944. Winter: 1,325 at Patuxen Refuge on February 23, 1956 (L. M. Llewellyn) ; 300 in th Port Tobacco area on December 23, 1931 (Christmas count). Family LANIIDAE NORTHERN SHRIKE Lanius excubi'for Linnaeus Status. — Wintering: Rare and irregular in all sections. Ordi narily, during most winters this species is absent; and durini BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 259 le occasional flight years, only a few scattered individuals are jcorded. The latest flights occurred during the winters of )50-51 and 1954-55, when the species was recorded in Garrett, ''ashington, Frederick, Montgomery, Anne Arundel, and Wor- jster Counties (various observers). The only previous winters hen more than single specimens or observations were recorded ere 1887-88 and 1892-93. Habitat. — Brushy wood-margins, hedgerows, and other "edge" abitats, chiefly in agricultural areas. Period of occurrence. — Extreme dates: October 26, 1887 collected), on the Patapsco River marsh (A. Resler) and March [), 1951, in Worcester County (J. H. Buckalew) . Occurrence eak: December 20 to February 20. 3GGERHEAD SHRIKE Lanius ludovicianus Linnaeus Status. — Breeding: Uncommon in the east-central portion of rince Georges County; rare and local elsewhere in the Western hore section and in the Eastern Shore, Upper Chesapeake, iedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections. Transient: Fairly Dmmon in the Eastern Shore section ; uncommon in the Western hore, Upper Chesapeake, Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sec- ions; rare in the Allegheny Mountain section. Wintering: Incommon in the Eastern Shore section and the southern part f the Western Shore section ; rare in the Upper Chesapeake and 'iedmont sections and in the northern part of the Western Shore ection; casual in the Ridge and Valley section. A. Wetmore tates that in Maryland, this species "has decreased appreciably n the past 15 years." Habitat. — Hedgerows, wood margins, and other edge types ti agricultural areas; during the breeding season usually found n the vicinity of hedgerows or groves of red cedar. Nesting season. — Mid-April to late June. Extreme egg dates 4 nests) : April 19, 1925, in the District of Columbia and May :, 1924, in Montgomery County (both by S. F. Blake). Extreme lestling dates (5 nests) : May 20, 1910, in Prince Georges County ;R. H. True) and June 29, 1931, in Montgomery County (W. M. )avidson) . Spring migration. — Normal period: March 5-15 to April 10- !0; peak, March 20 to April 10. Extreme arrival date: March 2, .954, in St. Marys County (H. N. Page, V. C. Kirtley). Extreme leparture dates: April 23, 1893, in Baltimore County (G. H. :Jray) ; April 21, 1904, in the District of Columbia (T. H. ^^evering) . 260 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Fall migration. — Normal period: August 10-20 to Novembe: 1-10; peak, August 25 to October 25. Extreme arrival dates July 31, 1906, in Montgomery County (H. W. Maynard) ; Augus 1, 1917, in Dorchester County (R. W. Jackson) ; August 5, 1898 1 in Prince Georges County (S. J. Judd). Extreme departuvi date: November 27, 1919, in the District of Columbia (J. Kittl redge, Jr.). Maximum counts. — Winter (Christmas counts) : 20 in tht Ocean City area on December 27, 1954; 13 in the Wicomico Riven area in Charles and St. Marys Counties on January 1, 1954( 11 near Denton, Caroline County, on January 1, 1955; 6 in thu Triadelphia Reservoir area in Howard and Montgomery Counties on^ January 1, 1954. Family STURNEDAE STARLING Sturnus vulgaris Linnaeus Status. — Permanent resident. Common (locally abundant) in all sections. Habitat. — Marginal habitats in agricultural and residential areas. In winter, large numbers roost on buildings in the business sections of Baltimore and Washington, D. C. Nesting season.— Early February to mid-July (nesting peak, mid-April to mid-June). Nest-building was recorded as early as February 1, 1939, in Baltimore County (H. Brackbill). Ex- treme egg dates (68 nests) : April 7, 1950, in Prince Georges County and June 12, 1950, in Prince Georges County (R. W. Dickerman). Extreme nestling dates (173 nests): April 12, 1933, in the District of Columbia (W. H. Ball) and July 18, 1940, in Baltimore County (H. Brackbill). Breeding population density (pairs per 100 acres).— 5 (15 in 275 acres) in mixed agricultural habitats (including residential areas and hedgerows and wood margins) in Prince Georges County in 1943. Maximum counts (nonbreeding) .— l^mier: 100,000 in Wash- ington, D. C. (Barnes, 1950) ; 30,000 in Susquehanna Flats area on December 27, 1952 (Christmas count) ; 9,338 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1955 (Christmas count) ; 7,166 near Chase, Baltimore County, on December 28, 1952 (Christmas count) ; 6,000 in the Port Tobacco area, Charles County, on December 22, 1928 (Christmas count). History of Starling invasion.— This European species be- came established in the United States following its successful introduction in New York City on March 6, 1890, and April 25, I BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 261 Wl (Chapman, editorial in Bird Lore, 1907, Vol. 9, p. 206). ;ts first appearance in Maryland was reported in 1906 at Balti- iiore by Chapman. On February 15, 1910, 1 was found dead Allowing a storm in Talbot County near Easton (A. K. Fisher) ; n January 19-20, 1912, 2 were collected in the District of tolumbia (USNM— C. Zeller). In the vicinity of Baltimore, his species was again recorded at the town of Cockeysville on ktober 24, 1913, when 2 were seen (D. C. Clark) ; the first nest lontaining young was found in Baltimore on May 27, 1917 (F. C. arkwood) ; at this time the species had become fairly common n that area, as several hundred were seen on January 27, 1917, j,nd about 10,000 on December 4, 1917 (W. H. Fisher). In the licinity of Washington, D. C, this species was next recorded .n January 9, 1914, when a flock of about 200 was seen (A. iVetmore) ; young of the year were seen on June 26, 1916 (F. ilarper), and on April 25, 1917, a nest with young was found learby in Montgomery County (Oldys, 1917) ; by late January, L922, this species had become quite common, as thousands were j-oosting on the buildings of downtown Washington (Cooke, 1929) . I Other early records in the Eastern Shore section include a ilock of over 75 seen at Cambridge, Dorchester County, on Feb- ruary 14, 1916 (Jackson, 1916), and a nesting record at Cam- bridge on May 2, 1920 (Jackson, 1941). In its spread westward i)ver the State, the Starling was first recorded at Frederick on IJune 1, 1918, when an occupied nest was found (J. B. Semple) ; it Cumberland it was first reported during February 1920, when a flock of about 100 was observed (Eifrig, 1920b) ; in the Alle- gheny Mountain section it was first recorded during the summer of 1928, when a flock of 40 was seen near Accident (Eifrig, 1933) . Banding. — Forty-five banded in Maryland and the District of Columbia during December, January, February, and March were subsequently taken outside the Maryland-District of Columbia- Virginia area. Only 2 of these were recovered in the spring immediately following the winter of banding. Both were taken in southern Pennsylvania, 1 on an unspecified date in February, the other on March 15. These data as well as recoveries from subsequent years indicate that the principal northward movement takes place in February and March. Kessel (1953) shows a map of all recoveries of Starlings banded in the vicinity of the District of Columbia in winter. The records are fairly evenly distributed within a "V" stretching from Washington northward through Buffalo on the west and Albany on the east. An exami- nation of the dates of recovery shows that the migrants which 262 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE winter in the Washington roosts nest primarily in central Ne\ York State and adjacent counties of Ontario, Quebec and Vermont All of the 24 Pennsylvania recoveries were made during th migration periods or in subsequent winters. i Recovery records indicate that the great majority of Starling a that winter in the Washington roosts nest within 20 miles o the Capitol; 4 out of every 5 summer recoveries of winter-banded birds were taken within 20 miles of the place of banding. Rei coveries of Maryland and District of Columbia Starlings soutl' of a 40-mile radius from the banding- station are very few— perhaps due in part to the relatively small number banded durinj, the nesting season. Four birds banded in Washington (January to March) were taken at various seasons of the year from 4( to 160 miles away in Virginia; and 1 banded at Raleigh, North Carolina, in mid-February was killed on the lower Patuxent Riven 2 years later in January. There have been too few bandingn on the Eastern Shore to yield recoveries, but Kessel (1953) has shown that a coastal flight from New England and another flighl from the Hudson and Connecticut River valleys probably accounn for many of the wintering birds in our Eastern Shore section. Family VIREONIDAE WHITE-EYED VIREO Vireo griseus (Boddaert) Status. — Breeding and transient: Common in the Easterr Shore and Western Shore sections; fairly common in the Uppei Chesapeake section and in the Potomac River valley of thei Piedmont section; uncommon elsewhere in the Piedmont section and in the Ridge and Valley section; rare in the Allegheny Mountain section. Habitat. — Chiefly shrub swamps and brushy cutover foresi swamps; also in hedgerows and wood margins in agricultural areas. Nesting season.— Mid-April to early August (nesting peak, early May to late June). Nest-building was recorded as early as April 16, 1949, in Worcester County (J. H. Buckalew). Ex- treme egg dates (24 nests) : April 25, 1949, in Worcester County (J. H. Buckalew) and July 11, 1901, in Harford County (W. H. Fisher). Extreme nestling dates (13 nests): June 1, 1902, in Washington County (J. M. Sommer) and August 6, 1893, in Baltimore County (Kirkwood, 1895). Spring migration.— iVormaZ period: April 15-25 to May 10-20; peak, April 25 to May 10. Extreme arrival dates: April 10, 1912, in the District of Columbia (W. D. Appel) ; April 12, 1953, in BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 263 i:!harles County (M. C. Crone, K. Keeley) ; April 12, 1954, in j Caroline County (M. W. Hewitt) ; April 14, 1929, in Baltimore pounty (J. M. Sommer). : Fall migration. — Normal period: August 15-25 to September 55-October 5 ; peak, August 25 to September 15. Extreme depar- :ure dates: October 30, 1927, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirk- vood, J. M. Sommer) ; October 28, 1910, in the District of Columbia (M. D. Suter) ; October 28, 1933, in Prince Georges bounty (R. Overing). Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 icres) . — to (5.2 in 13 acres) in shrub swamp (alder, poison sumac, sweet pepperbush, swamp rose, red maple, etc.) in Prince Georges County in 1945. J2 (6 in 18% acres) in "second-growth river swamp" (red maple, sweetgum, black gum, etc., with dense understory of holly, sweet pepperbush, and greenbrier) in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948d). IS (16 in 58 acres) in brushy, poorly drained, abandoned farmland in Prince Georges County in 1947. Seventy-four singing males were counted during a 20 mile canoe trip on the Pocomoke River, from Poorhouse Branch to Pocomoke City, on June 16, 1946. Maximum counts (nonbreeding). — Spring: 59 in the Ocean City area (including the upper Pocomoke River) on May 5, 1951; 40 in Charles and St. Marys Counties on May 8, 1954 (J. W. Terborgh). Fall: 18 killed at the Washington Monument in Washington, D. C, on September 12, 1937 (Overing, 1938) ; 15 at Patuxent Refuge on September 9, 1943. YELLOW-THROATED VIREO Vireo flav/frons Vleillot Status. — Breeding and transient: Fairly common in the East- ern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections and in the Potomac River valley of the Piedmont section ; uncommon elsewhere in the Piedmont section and in the Ridge and Valley section ; rare in the Allegheny Mountain section. Habitat. — Flood-plain and lowland swamp forests and rich, moist forests on the upland; usually occurring in forest areas with a partially opened canopy. Nesting season. — Mid-April to late July (nesting peak, mid- May to late June). Nest building was recorded as early as April 19, 1949, in Worcester County (J. H. Buckalew). Extreme egg dates (18 nests) : May 9, 1917, in Dorchester County (Jack- son, 1941) and July 21, 1922, in the District of Columbia (S. F. Blake). Extreme nestling dates (15 nests) : June 4, 1916, and July 18, 1915, both in Baltimore County (J. M. Sommer) . Spring migration. — Normal period: April 20-30 to May 15- 264 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 25; peak, May 1 to May 15. Extreme arrival dates: April 5 1953, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G Tappan) ; April 11, 1922, in the District of Columbia (J. Kitt redge) ; April 13, 1890, in Baltimore County (J. H. Pleasants) Fall migration. — Normal period: August 20-30 to Septembe: 20-30; peak, September 1 to September 20. Extreme departure dates: October 9, 1897, along the Patapsco River marsh (F. C Kirkwood) ; October 4, 1953, in Charles County (M. C. Crone A. R. Stickley, Jr.). Breeding population densities (territorial males per 10( acres). — 19 (7 in 36 acres) in "virgin central hardwood deciduous forest" (white oak-i tulip-poplar) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart and Robbins 1947b). 9 (2.5 in 28 acres) in partially opened, flood-plain forest (sycamore, ash, elm etc.) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). 9 (4 in 44% acres) in river bluff forest (beech, white oak, scarlet oak) li Prince Georges County in 1945; absent in 1944 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J Duvall). 8 (6 in 80 acres) in "central hardwood forest (oaks-tulip-poplar) with scat tered pine" in the District of Columbia in 1948 and 1949; 2 (2 in 8( acres) in 1951 (Trever, 1952) ; 4 (3.5 in 80 acres) in 1954 (Wright, 1955) 3 (2.5 in 80 acres) in 1952 (Clagett, 1952) ; 2 (1.5 in 80 acres) in 195^ (Clagett, 1953). 8 (1.5 in 18% acres) in "second-growth river swamp (red maple, sweetgum black gum, etc., with dense understory of holly, sweet pepperbush, anc greenbrier) in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948d). 7 (2.5 in 37 acres) in "mixed oak forest" (white, scarlet, and chestnut oaksj etc.) in Baltimore County in 1952 (Kaufmann, et al., 1952) ; 4 (1.5 in 37 acres) in 1953 (Cole and Kolb, 1953) ; 3 (1 in 37 acres) in 1951 (Kolb and Cole, 1951) ; 3 (1 in 40 acres) in 1949 and 1950 (Kolb, 1949 and 1950) ; 1 (0.5 in 40 acres) in 1948 (Kolb, et al., 1948). 3 (2.9 in 85 acres) in well-drained flood-plain forest (sweetgum, hornbeam, river birch, tulip-poplar) along the boundary between Anne Arundel and Prince Georges Counties in 1945 (Stewart et al., 1946). Maximum counts (nonbreeding). — Spring: 20 on May 11, 1952, at Port Tobacco, Charles County (M. C. Crone) ; 20 at Patuxent Refuge on May 8, 1954. Fall: 25 at Wills Mountain, Allegany County, on September 3, 1901 (F. C. Kirkwood). SOLITARY VIREO Vireo solitarius (Vi^ilson) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 32) : Fairly common in the Alle- gheny Mountain section at elevations above 2,000 feet. Transient: Fairly common in the Allegheny Mountain, and Ridge and Valley sections; uncommon in the Piedmont, Upper Chesapeake, and Western Shore sections; rare in the Eastern Shore section. Habitat. — Breeding: Hemlock and white pine forests and BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 265 lixed mesophytic forests. Transient: Various types of deciduous jnd coniferous forests. I Nesting season. — Late May to mid-July. The earliest record |f nest-building was made on May 27, 1919, in Garrett County J. M. Sommer). Egg dates (2 nests): June 1, 1925 (J. M. Ilommer), and June 1, 1951, both in Garrett County. Nestling \',ates (2 nests) : June 15, 1918 (J. M. Sommer), and June 25, ^949, both in Garrett County. Nest-building was recorded as iate as June 25, 1949. j Spring migration. — Normal period: April 10-20 to May 5-15; !)eak, April 20 to May 5. Extreme arrival dates: April 3, 1932, |n the District of Columbia (E. N. Grinnell) ; April 6, 1952, in l^altimore County (E. Willis) ; April 7, 1946, in Worcester bounty. Extreme departure dates: June 2, 1924, in the District ■)f Columbia (A. Wetmore) ; June 1, 1930, in Calvert County i(H. E. Ewing) ; May 30, 1947, in Prince Georges County (J. is. Willoughby). i Fall migration. — Normal period: September 20-30 to October ;20-30; peak, October 1 to October 20. Extreme arrival dates: lA.ugust 30, 1953, in Frederick County (J. W. Richards) ; Sep- pember 2, 1951, in Montgomery County (M. C. Merrill, C. K. Schoenbauer) ; September 6, 1903 (W. L. McAtee), and September 3, 1935 (R. Overing), in the District of Columbia; September 11, 1927, in Baltimore County (J. M. Sommer) . Extreme departure dates: November 15, 1955, in Frederick County (J. W. Richards) ; November 10, 1951, in Anne Arundel County (F. C. Cross) ; November 5, 1911, in Montgomery County (A. K. Fisher). Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 acres) . — 27 (5.5 in 20 acres) in "virgin hemlock forest" in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949a) ; 17 (4 in 23^^ acres) in "mature northern hardwood forest" (black cherry, beech, hemlock, sugar maple, sweet birch, etc.) in Garrett County in 1951 (Robbins and Stewart, 1951a). Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: 10 at Patuxent Refuge on April 29, 1944. Fall: 20 at Patuxent Refuge on October 15, 1947. RED-EYED VIREO V/reo o/ivaceus (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding and transient: Abundant in all sections except the Eastern Shore section where it is common. Habitat. — Various types of deciduous forests. Nesting season. — Mid-May to mid-August (nesting peak, late May to mid- July). Extrem.e egg dates (165 nests): May 19, 266 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 1945, in Prince Georges County (J. B. Cope) and July 31, 18931 in Baltimore County (Kirkwood, 1895). Extreme nestling datei^ (75 nests) : June 4, 1945, in Prince Georges County (J. B. Cope; and August 18, 1954, in Caroline County (Mrs. A. J. Fletcher)' Young birds, still partly dependent on their parents, were obi served at Baltimore on September 11, 1940 (H. Brackbill). Spring migration. — Normal period: April 25-May 1 to May 15-25; peak. May 1 to May 15. Extreme arrival dates: April 17 1954, in St. Marys County (J. W. Terborgh) ; April 17, 1954] in Prince Georges County (L. W. Oring) ; April 19, 1954, h Baltimore County (A. S. Kaestner) ; April 21, 1895, in th< District of Columbia (H. W. Oldys). Extreme departure date. May 28, 1914, in the District of Columbia (Oberholser, 1919). Fall migration. — Normal period: August 10-20 to Octobei^ 5-15; peak, August 25 to September 25. Extreme departure dates: November 11, 1888, in Montgomery County (J. D. Fig- gins) ; November 11, 1917, in the District of Columbia (Pj Bartsch). Breeding population densities (territorial males per loa acres) . — 100 (36 in 36 acres) in "virgin central hardwood deciduous forest" (white oak-tulip-poplar) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart am Robbins, 1947b). 92 (78.2 in 85 acres) in well-drained, flood-plain forest (sweetgum, hornbeam river birch, tulip-poplar, etc.) along the boundary between Anne Arunde. and Prince Georges Counties in 1945 (Stewart, et al., 1946) ; 55 (18 ir 32% acres) in another area of this habitat in 1944. 65 (29 in 44% acres) in river bluff forest (beech, white oak, scarlet oak) ir Prince Georges County in 1946, and 40 (18 in 44|^ acres) in 1945 (J. W, Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). 62 (8 in 13 acres) in upland forest (white, northern red, chestnut, and blacli oaks) in Montgomery Country in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). 61 (8.5 in 14% acres) in poorly drained flood-plain forest (pin oak, sweetgum/ red maple, red ash, etc.) in Prince Georges County in 1946. 60 (14 in 231/4 acres) in "mature northern hardwood forest" (black cherry, beech, hemlock, sugar maple, sweet birch, etc.) in Garrett County in 1951 (Robbins and Stewart, 1951a). 53 (42 in 80 acres) in "central hardwood forest (oaks-tulip-poplar) with scattered pine" in the District of Columbia in 1948, 51 (41 in 80 acres) in 1949, 49 (39 in 80 acres) in 1951 (Trever, 1951) ; 51 (41 in 80 acres) in 1954 (Wright, 1955) ; 48 (38.5 in 80 acres) in 1953 (Clagett, 1953) ; 411 (32.5 in 80 acres) in 1952 (Clagett, 1952). 52 (11 in 21 acres) in "dense second-grovsrth" (oak-maple ridge forest) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). 50 (20 in 40 acres) in "mixed oak forest" (white, scarlet, and chestnut oaks, etc.) in Baltimore County in 1948 (Kolb, et al., 1948) ; 49 (18 in 37 acres) in 1951 (Kolb and Cole, 1951) ; 38 (15 in 40 acres) in 1949 (Kolb, BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 267 1949a) ; 38 (14 in 37 acres) in 1953 (Cole and Kolb, 1953) ; 33 (13 in 40 acres) in 1950 (Kolb, 1950) ; 33 (12 in 37 acres) in 1952 (Kaufmann, et al., 1952). 45 (5 in 11 acres) in upland seepage swamp forest (red maple, sweetgum, black gum, with dense understory of holly, sweet pepperbush, clammy azalea, maleberry, etc.) in Prince Georges County in 1946. 44 (5.5 in 12 V2 acres) in "mature oak-maple ridge forest" in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b) ; 39 (5 in 12% acres) in lowland seepage swamp forest (red maple, sweetgum, pin oak, with brushy understory of sweet bay, winterberry, arrow-wood, etc.) in Prince Georges County in 1946. 37 (8.2 in 24y5 acres) in river terrace forest (beech-white oak) in Prince Georges County in 1944. 34 (8 in 23% acres) in upland oak forest (white, scarlet, and black oaks) in Prince Georges County in 1944. 34 (11 in 321/5 acres) in pine-oak forest (pitch pine, scrub pine, Spanish oak) in Prince Georges County in 1944. 28 (3.6 in 13 acres) in shrub swamp (alder, poison sumac, sweet pepperbush, swamp rose, red maple, etc.) in Prince Georges County in 1945. 21 (6 in 28 acres) in partially opened, flood-plain forest (sycamore, ash, elm, etc.) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). 16 (3 in 18% acres) in "second-growth river swamp" (red maple, sweetgum, black gum, etc., with dense understory of holly, sweet pepperbush, and greenbrier) in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948d). 10 (2 in 21 acres) in "immature loblolly-shortleaf pine stand" in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948c). 10 (1.5 in 15 acres) in "open slash area" (cutover oak-maple ridge forest) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). Maximum counts (nonbreeding) .—Spring : 205 at Patuxent Refuge on May 3, 1947 ; 200-f near Port Tobacco, Charles County, on May 11, 1943 (I. N. Gabrielson) ; 195 in Montgomery County on May 9, 1953 (E. J. Stivers, et al.). Fall: 209 killed at the Washington Monument in Washington, D. C, on September 12, 1937 (Overing, 1938) ; 47 at Patuxent Refuge on September 5, 1943. PHILADELPHIA VIREO ViVeo phi/ac/e/ph/cus (Cassin) Status. Transient: Uncommon in the Allegheny Mountain, and Ridge and Valley sections; rare in the Piedmont, Upper Chesapeake, and Western Shore sections, and (in fall only) in the Eastern Shore section. Habitat. — Various types of deciduous forests. Spring migration. — Normal period: May 5-10 to May 25-30; peak, May 10 to May 20. Extreme arrival date: May 3, 1931, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) . Extreme departure date: June 8, 1927, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 1-5 to October 268 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 1-5 ; peak, September 5 to September 25. Extreme arrival dates: August 25, 1951, in Baltimore County (Mr. and Mrs. R. D. Cole) and Montgomery County (I. R. Barnes) ; August 29, 1931, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; August 29, 1953, in Talbot County (R. L. Kleen). Extreme departure dates: October 21, 1948, in the District of Columbia (E. G. Davis) ; October 11, 1941 (collected), in Baltimore County (Kolb and Hampe, 1941). Maximum counts. — Spring: 3 near Rosedale, Baltimore County, on May 6, 1950 (D. A. Jones). Fall: 10 at Towson, Baltimore County, on August 27, 1951 (Mr. and Mrs. R. D. Cole) ; 4 at Chevy Chase, Montgomery County, on September 16, 1928 (W. H. Ball) ; 3 at Emmitsburg, Frederick County, on September 17, 1952 (J. W. Richards) ; 3 on South Mountain, along the boundary between Frederick and Washington Counties on September 20, 1952 (R. J. Beaton) ; 3 banded on the barrier beach north of Ocean City on September 13, 1955. WARBLING VIREO V/reo gilvus (Vieillot) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 46) : Fairly common in the Ridge and Valley, and Upper Chesapeake sections; uncommon in the Piedmont section and in the northern part of the Eastern Shore section (Queen Annes, Caroline, and Talbot Counties) ; uncom- mon and local in the southern part of the Eastern Shore section Figure 46. — Breeding range of Warbling Vireo. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 269 (occurring in the vicinity of the towns of Cambridge, Hurlock, Vienna, Salisbury, Berlin, and Princess Anne) ; rare in the Allegheny Mountain section (Brooks, 1936c) ; rare and local in the Western Shore section — summer records in Charles County at Marshall Hall (S. F. Judd) and Chapel Point (A. Wetmore), in Anne Arundel County near Deale (N. Hotchkiss) and Rock Creek (J. M. Sommer), in Prince Georges County at Hyattsville (N. Hotchkiss), and in the District of Columbia. Transient: Uncommon in the Ridge and Valley, and Piedmont sections; rare in the Allegheny Mountain, Upper Chesapeake, Western Shore, and Eastern Shore sections. Habitat.— Open stands of shade trees in residential areas of towns and farms; in Ridge and Valley, and Piedmont sections, also occurs in open-growth flood-plain forests. Nesting season.— Mid-May to mid-July (probably). Nest- building was recorded as early as May 17, 1917, in Dorchester County (R. W. Jackson). Extreme egg dates (15 nests) : May 24, 1925, and June 22, 1925, both in Dorchester County (R. W. Jackson) . Spring migration. — Normal period: April 20-25 to June 1-10; peak, May 1 to May 20. Extreme arrival date: April 19, 1919, in Dorchester County (R. W. Jackson). Extrerde departure dates: June 12, 1951, in Howard County; June 11, 1946, in Prince Georges County. Fall migration. — Normal period: August 20-30 to September 20-30; peak, September 1 to September 15. Extreme arrival dates: August 17, 1927, and August 17, 1930, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme departure date: October 9, 1892, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 acres) . — 10 (2 in 191/f, acres) in "shrubby field with stream-bordered trees" in Balti- more County in 1946; 5 (1 in IQi/s acres) in 1947 (Cooley, 1947). Maximum counts ( nonbreeding).— Spnn^/; 75 in Washington County on May 7, 1949 (R. S. and M. Stauffer) ; 9 near Seneca, Montgomery County, on May 12, 1956 (C. N. Mason) ; 7 in the District of Columbia on May 12, 1913 (Oberholser, 1917a) ; 3 at Patuxent Refuge on May 9, 1953. Family PARULIDAE BLACK-AND-WHITE WARBLER Mniotilta varia (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding: Common in the Allegheny Mountain, and Ridge and Valley sections; fairly common in the Piedmont and 270 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Western Shore sections; fairly common locally in the Easterr Shore section (most numerous in Worcester County, and ir. eastern portions of Wicomico and Somerset Counties) ; rare ir the Upper Chesapeake section. Transient: Common in all sec-i tions. Wintering: Casual — 2 seen at Chestertown, Kent County^ on December 27, 1932 (W. Baker) ; 1 banded at Cambridge^i Dorchester County, on December 27, 1952 (J. H. Buckalew) -} 1 seen at Denton, Caroline County, on December 9, 1953 (Mrs.| A. J. Fletcher). Habitat. — Various types of deciduous and coniferous forests,) usually with partly opened canopy (apparently absent during^ the breeding season in flood-plain forests). Nesting season.— Early May to early July. Extreme egg dates (9 nests) ; May 14, 1901, in the District of Columbian (Bartsch, 1901) and June 7, 1886, in the District of Columbia! (C. W. Richmond). Extreme nestling dates (9 nests) : May 17,' 1948, in Worcester County (P. F. Springer) and July 4, 1892, in Baltimore County (Kirkwood, 1895). Spring migration. — Normal period: April 5-15 to May 15-25; peak, April 20 to May 10. Extreme arrival dates: March 28, 1929, in Prince Georges County (L. McCormick-Goodhart) ; March 30, 1908, in the District of Columbia (H. W. Oldys) ; March 31, 1952, in Montgomery County (E. J. Stivers) . Extreme departure date: May 30, 1945, in Prince Georges County. Fall migration.— Norma? period: August 5-15 to October 1-10; peak, August 25 to September 25. Extreme arrival dates: July 19, 1951, in Caroline County (A. Knotts) ; July 24, 1951, in Baltimore County (E. Willis) ; July 31, 1886, in the District of Columbia (A. K. Fisher) . Extreme departure dates: Novem- ber 26, 1953, in Montgomery County (L. Kilham) ; November 14, 1931, in the District of Columbia (W. L. McAtee) ; October 30, 1952, in Caroline County (M. W. Hewitt). Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 acres). — 21 (4.5 in 21 acres) in "dense second-growth" (oak-maple ridge forest) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). 16 (3 in 18% acres) in "second-growth river swamp" (red maple, sweetgum, black gum, etc., with dense understory of holly, sweet pepperbush, and greenbrier) in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948d). 13 (2 in 15 acres) in "open slash area" (cut-over oak-maple ridge forest) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). 11 (4 in 36 acres) in "virgin central hardwood deciduous forest (white oak- tulip-poplar) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart and Robbins, 1947b). BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 271 (1.5 in 21 acres) in "immature loblolly-shortleaf pine stand" in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948c). (4 in 80 acres) in "central hardwood forest (oaks-tulip-poplar) with scat- tered pine" in the District of Columbia in 1948, 3 (2 in 80 acres) in 1949, 1 (1 in 80 acres) in 1951 (Trever, 1952) ; 1 (1 in 80 acres) in 1952 (Clagett, 1952) ; none in 1953 or 1954. Maximum counts {nonhreeding) .—Spring : 46 in the Poco- lioke River area on May 5, 1951; 46 at Patuxent Refuge on llay 6, 1950. Fall: 65 at Greenbelt, Prince Georges County, on iLUgust 27, 1954 (L. W. Oring) ; 50 at Patuxent Refuge on lugust 28, 1943; 30 near Cabin John, Montgomery County, on September 24, 1947 (I. R. Barnes, E. G. Davis). l»ROTHONOTARY WARBLER Protonofarla citrea (Boddaert) i Status. — Breeding and transient (see fig. 47) : Abundant in ihe swamps along the Pocomoke and upper Nanticoke Rivers and (heir tributaries; fairly common elsewhere in the Eastern Shore ijection and in the southern part of the Western Shore section (St. karys, Calvert, and Charles Counties, and southern Prince Georges bounty) ; uncommon in the northern part of the Western Shore isection, in the Upper Chesapeake section, and along the Potomac iand Susquehanna River valleys in the Piedmont section ; rare else- where in the Piedmont section, and along the Potomac River and larger tributaries in the Ridge and Valley section. LEGEND Principal Range Local Record Figure 47.— Breeding range of Prothonotary Warbler. 272 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Habitat. — Most numerous in river or stream swamp forests also occurs in well-drained flood-plain forests. Nesting season.— Late April to late June (peak, mid-May t mid-June). Nest-building was recorded as early as April 26 1953, in Caroline County (Mr. and Mrs. A. J. Fletcher) . Extrem egg dates (12 nests) : May 10, 1953, in Caroline County (Mr. am Mrs. A. J. Fletcher) and June 22, 1931, in Dorchester County (F C. Kirkwood). Extreme nestling dates (17 nests) : May 24, 1955 in Montgomery County (E. Meyer) and June 30, 1951, in Carolim County (Mr. and Mrs. A. J. Fletcher). Period of occurrence. — Normal period: April 15-20 to Sep tember 10-20; peak, April 25 to September 10. Extreme arriva date: April 8, 1951, in Worcester County (D. A. Cutler) . Extreme departure date: September 25, 1949, in Montgomery County (I R. Barnes). Breeding population density (territorial males per 10( acres). — 40 (7.5 in 18% acres) in "second-growth river swamp" (red maple, sweetgum black gum, etc., with dense understory of holly, sweet pepperbush, an( greenbrier) in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948d) A total of 180 singing males was counted during a 20-mile canoe trip on th( Pocomoke River, from Poorhouse Branch to Pocomoke City, on June 16, 1946 Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: 49 along the Poco- moke River on May 5, 1951; 15 near Cabin John, Montgomerj? County, on May 12, 1956 (H. A. Sutton) ; 8 near Seneca, Mont- gomery County, on April 25, 1948 (R. E. Lawrence). Fall: 15 along the Pocomoke River on September 10, 1950 ; 12 near Cabin John, Montgomery County, on September 3, 1947 (T. W. Don- nelly) . SWAINSON'S WARBLER Umnoihlyph swainsonii (Audubon) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 48) : Uncommon in the swamp along the Pocomoke River and its tributaries ; rare in other stream swamps in Worcester County. Habitat. — River and stream swamps, being most numerous in the drier portions with partially opened canopy, and with dense understory brush composed of greenbrier, sweet pepperbush, and other shrubs (Meanley, 1950). Nesting season.— On May 15, 1955, a female that had been captured in a mist net in the Pocomoke swamp, Worcester County, laid an egg in a gathering cage. Newly hatched young were ob- served in the Pocomoke swamp on June 13, 1948 (Meanley, 1950). Adults were observed feeding young out of the nest near Pocomoke City, on June 20, 1953 (E. Fleisher, L. G. Worley) . BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 273 ^1 Figure 48. — Breeding ranges of Swainson's Warbler and Nashville Warbler. Period of occurrence. — Extreme arrival date: April 21, 1948, in Worcester County. Extreme departure date: August 30, 1948, in Worcester County (M. B. Meanley). Future observations will undoubtedly show that this species remains on the breeding grounds at least until early September. Two migrants, probably from the Pocomoke swamp area, were seen on Tangier Island, Virginia, September 17 to 19, 1939, by A. H. Clark (Murray, 1952). Breeding population density (territorial males per 100 acres) . — 11 (2 in 18% acres) in "second-growth river swamp" (red maple, sweetgum, black gum, etc., with dense understory of holly, sweet pepperbush, and greenbrier) in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948d). WORM-EATING WARBLER He/mifheros vermivows (Gmelin) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 49) : Fairly common in the Ridge and Valley section, and locally in the Piedmont section ; uncommon in the Western Shore section, and in the swamp along the Poco- moke River and its tributaries; rare elsewhere in the Eastern Shore section, and in the Upper Chesapeake and Allegheny Moun- tain sections. Transient: Uncommon in the Ridge and Valley, Piedmont, and Western Shore sections; rare in the Allegheny Mountain, Upper Chesapeake, and Eastern Shore sections. 274 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Figure 49. — Breeding range of Worm-eating Warbler. Habitat. — Breeding: Well-drained upland deciduous forests, usually with understory of mountain laurel or other shrubs ; in the Eastern Shore section, occurs in the drier portions of river or stream swamps that contain an understory of mountain laurel. Transient: Various types of deciduous forests. Nesting season. — Mid-May to mid-July. Extreme egg dates (8 nests) : May 29, 1892, in Charles County (W. Palmer) and July 4, 1885, in the District of Columbia (USNM). Extreme nestling dates (8 nests) : May 28, 1930, in St. Marys County (F. C. Kirkwood) and June 25, 1893, in Baltimore County (W. N. Wholey) . Spring migration. — Normal period: April 25-30 to May 10- 15; peak, May 1 to May 10. Extreme arrival dates: April 17, 1942, in Harford County (S. Mason, Jr.) ; April 21, 1948, in Wor- cester County. Extreme departure date: May 18, 1923, in the District of Columbia (J. Kittredge, Jr.). Fall migration. — Normal period: August 10-20 to September 10-20; peak, August 20 to September 10. Extreme arrival dates: July 31, 1886, in the District of Columbia (A. K. Fisher) ; August 8, 1906, in Montgomery County (A. K. Fisher). Extreme de- parture dates: October 15, 1920, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirk- BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 275 ^ood) ; October 1, 1951, in Caroline County (M. W. Hewitt) ; eptember 23, 1952, in Prince Georges County. Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: 8 in Washington !ounty on May 7, 1949 (R. S. and M. Stauffer) ; 6 on Warrior lountain, Allegany County, on April 28, 1907 (F. C. Kirkwood) ; along the Pocomoke River in Worcester County on April 21, 948; 6 at Patuxent Refuge on May 10, 1950. Fall: 9 at Patuxent Lefuge on August 21, 1953; 5 in Dulaney Valley, Baltimore jounty, on August 13, 1899 (F. C. Kirkwood). JOLDEN-WINGED WARBLER Vermivora chrysoptera (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 50) : Fairly common in the Alle- gheny Mountain section, and in the western part of the Ridge and /alley section (Allegany County) ; uncommon in western Wash- ngton County (west of Hagerstown Valley). Transient: Fairly ;ommon in all sections except the Eastern Shore section where t is rare. Habitat. — Breeding: Brushy cutover oak-chestnut, mixed nesophytic, and bog forests. Transient: Various types of forest, ilthough usually most numerous in flood-plain and swamp forests. Nesting season. — In Garrett County, a nest with eggs was [ound on June 2, 1925, and a nest with young nearly ready to fly -39«- SCALE 0 10 20 30 40 MILES LEGEND GOLDEN- WINGED V/ARBLER ^%^s*^ Principal Range BLUE -WINGED WARBLER [^___^ Principal Range • Local Record -36'- 1 1 7.9. 78' Figure 50.— Breeding ranges of Golden-winged Warbler and Blue-winged Warbler. 276 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE on June 16, 1918 (both records by J. M. Sommer) . Another nes containing young, was observed in Garrett County on June ; and June 17, 1956 (G. Knight). Spring migration. — Normal jyeriod: April 25-30 to May 1(. 15; peak, May 1 to May 10. Extreme arrival dates: April 21 1952, in Prince Georges County; April 24, 1924, in the District* Columbia (M. T. Cooke). Extrem,e departure dates: May 2] 1892, in Baltimore County (W. N. Wholey) ; May 20, 1882, in til District of Columbia (H. W. Henshaw) ; May 20, 1952, in Caroln County (A. J. Fletcher, M. W. Hewitt) . Fall migration. — Normal period: August 15-20 to Septemb( 1-10; peak, August 20 to August 30. Extreme arrival datet August 2, 1896, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; Augui 6, 1953, in Prince Georges County; August 8, 1889 (USNM), i the District of Columbia (H. M. Smith). Extreme departw dates: September 24, 1950, in Baltimore County (E. Willis) September 16, 1955, in Worcester County; September 14, 1924, i Montgomery County (A. Wetmore) ; September 13, 1921, in tl District of Columbia (B. H. Sw^ales, A. Wetmore). Breeding population density (territorial males per lOi acres). — 17 (3.5 in 21 acres) in "dense second-growth" (oak-maple ridge forest) i Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: 17 at Patuxeri Refuge on May 8, 1943 ; 12 near Seneca, Montgomery County, oi May 3, 1952 (J. W. Terborgh) ; 6 at Port Tobacco, Charles County on May 5, 1939 (I. N. Gabrielson, A. L. Nelson). Fall: 14 ai Patuxent Refuge on August 28, 1943 ; 6 near Seneca, Montgomer;i County, on August 22, 1951 (R. R. Kerr, J. W. Terborgh) . BLUE-WINGED WARBLER Vermivora pinus (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 50) : Fairly common locally in thi eastern part of the Ridge and Valley section (occurring north o( Myersville in the Blue Ridge Mountains of western Frederic)* County) and in the northeastern part of the Piedmont section (h the Susquehanna River valley of Cecil and Harford Counties) also recorded in 1951 at Chevy Chase, Montgomery County (nes with eggs— C. P. Scheid) , and in 1954 in the vicinity of Northeast Cecil County (J. W. Day) ; prior to 1900, this species occurre< regularly in Baltimore County (Kirkwood, 1895) and Harfon County (W. H. Fisher), in the area between Baltimore and Vai Bibber; this species was also found nesting in 1880 near the Dis trict of Columbia (Richmond, 1888) and in Prince George; BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 277 Dunty, in the vicinity of Laurel (eggs, USNM— G. Marshall). '-ansient: Fairly common in the Piedmont, Upper Chesapeake, astern Shore, and Western Shore sections; uncommon in the dge and Valley section ; rare in the Allegheny Mountain section 3rooks, 1936c) . i Habitat. — Breeding: Wet or moist brushy cut-over forests. mnsient: Most numerous in flood-plain and swamp forests; oc- jsional in other deciduous forest types. ! Nesting season. — Mid-May to early July. Nest-building was Jcorded as early as May 20, 1893, in Baltimore County (G. H. ray) . Extreme egg dates (5 nests) : May 27, 1893 (G. H. Gray) , iid June 18, 1896 (F. C. Kirkwood), in Baltimore County. Ex- eme nestling dates (3 nests) : June 13, 1892, and July 1, 1893, in altimore County (G. H. Gray). Spring migration. — Normal period: April 25-30 to May 10-15 ; ;ak. May 1 to May 10. Extreme arrival dates: April 21, 1954, in orcester County (P. G. DuMont) ; April 23, 1925, in the District ■ Columbia (Mrs. T. M. Knappen) ; April 23, 1954, in Talbot Dunty (R. L. Kleen). Extreme departure dates: May 26, 1905 Oberholser, 1905) , May 26, 1906 (D. C. Aud. Soc.) , May 26, 1907 W. L. McAtee) , all in the District of Columbia ; May 22, 1948, in altimore County (H. Kolb) . i Fall migration. — Normal period: August 15-20 to September )-20; peak, August 20 to September 5. Extreme arrival dates: ugust 5, 1949, in the District of Columbia (A. R. Stickley, Jr.) ; ugust 6, 1953, in Prince Georges County; August 8, 1950 and 351, in Baltimore County (E. Willis) . Extreme departure dates: ctober 4, 1947, in Prince Georges County; September 27, 1952, i Montgomery County (M. M. Snow) . Maximum counts. — Spring: 23 in the Pocomoke River area on lay 5, 1951 ; 17 at Patuxent Refuge on May 10, 1950 ; 8 at Port 'obacco, Charles County, on May 5, 1939 (I. N. Gabrielson, A. L. Felson). Fall: 4 at Patuxent Refuge on August 20, 1943, and august 24, 1942. iOLDEN-WINGED WARBLER X BLUE-WINGED WARBLER HYBRIDS Records of Brewster's Warbler {"Vermivora leucobron- hialis") . — This hybrid form has been recorded as follows: 1 seen 't Glen Echo, Montgomery County, on April 26, 1953 (I. R. Jarnes, P. A. DuMont) ; 1 collected at Beltsville, Prince Georges ;ounty, on May 1, 1895 (USNM— A. H. Thayer) ; 1 seen at /[iddle River, Baltimore County, on May 3, 1950 (E. Willis) ; 1 een along the C. and 0. Canal, Montgomery County, on May 3, 278 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 1953 (I. R. Barnes) ; 1 seen at Port Tobacco, Charles County, May 4, 1953 (Mrs. J. Cooley, Jr.) ; 1 collected at Loch Raven, Bal more County, on May 7, 1940 (Seibert, 1941) ; 2 seen at Patuxet Refuge on May 8, 1943 (Stewart, et al., 1952) ; 1 seen in the D trict of Columbia on May 9, 1947 (I. R. Barnes) ; 1 seen Patuxent Refuge on May 10, 1950; 1 seen in the District Columbia on May 13, 1950 (T. W. Donnelly) ; 1 banded in the Dl trict of Columbia on May 16, 1939 (Fr. E. Stoehr). Records of Lawrence's Warbler ("Vermivora laivrencei") , This hybrid form has been recorded as follows : 1 seen in the D trict of Columbia on May 2, 1905 (T. H. Levering) ; and anoth on May 5, 1943 (A. Wetmore) ; 1 male collected at Plumme Island, Montgomery County, on May 12, 1907 (Osgood, 1907) ; seen in Garrett County on June 28, 1936 (Brooks, 1936c) ; 1 se« at Patuxent Refuge on September 4, 1942 (Meanley, 1944). TENNESSEE WARBLER Vermivora peregrina (Wilson) Status. — Transient: Fairly common in the Allegheny Mow tain. Ridge and Valley, and Piedmont sections ; uncommon in t Upper Chesapeake and Western Shore sections ; rare in the Earn ern Shore section. Habitat. — Various types of deciduous forest. Spring migration. — Normal period: May 5-10 to May 20-21 peak, May 10 to May 20. Extreme arrival dates: April 28, 195'i in Frederick County (J. W. Richards) ; April 29, 1956, in Prin.^ Georges County; May 1, 1954, in Montgomery County (J. ]j Fales, C. N. Mason). Extreme departure dates: June 3, 1910, ' the District of Columbia (R. W. Williams) ; May 30, 1917,' Prince Georges County (W. L. McAtee, A. Wetmore). Fall migration.— Norma? period: September 1-10 to Octob( 5-15; peak, September 15 to October 5. Extreme arrival date, August 20, 1955, in Baltimore County (C. M. Buchanan) ; Augu 25, 1951, in Montgomery County (L R. Barnes) ; August 27, 189 in Baltimore County (G. H. Gray) ; August 29, 1953, in Talbi County (R. L. Kleen). Extreme departure dates: November 3 1889, in Frederick County (J. D. Figgins) ; November 17, 195 in Montgomery County (1 banded— S. H. Low, J. H. Buckalew) October 22, 1922, in the District of Columbia (J. Kittredge, Jr. Maximum covnt^.— Spring : 66 at Patuxent Refuge on May 1 1950; 15 in the Seneca area, Montgomery County, on May 9, 19£: (L R. Barnes, et al.) . Fall: 50 at Seneca, Montgomery County, o| September 12, 1954 (J. W. Terborgh) ; 36 at Swallow Falls, GaJ rett County, on September 11, 1954 (L. W. Oring) ; 18 at Middl BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 2 79 iver, Baltimore County, on September 25, 1951 (E. Willis) ; 12 D Patuxent Refuge on October 3, 1947. RANGE-CROWNED WARBLER Vermlvora celata (Say) STATUS.— FaW transient: Rare (15 records)— recorded in Mont- omery, Baltimore, Prince Georges, and Worcester Counties. Jintering: Casual— recorded in Worcester County in 1952 (S. H. low), 1953 (A. J. Fletcher, R. R. Kerr), 1954 (I. N. Gabrielson, .. R. Stickley, Jr.), and 1955 (3 seen— J. W. Terborgh) ; in Balti- lore County in 1949-50 (R. D. Cole) ; and in the District of Colum- ia in 1928 (E. T. Wherry) . Sprifig transient: Casual — 1 observed 1 Baltimore County on May 11, 1892 (P. T. Blogg) ; and 1 seen on iree dates, April 10-26, 1956, at Emmitsburg (J. W. Richards). j HABITAT.— Usually found in hedgerows or wood margins. Fall migration. — Extreme arrival date: September 30, 1952, In Montgomery County (Cross, 1952) . Extreme departure dates: ,Tovember 12, 1950, in Baltimore County (E. Willis) ; November i, 1952, in Worcester County (M. Gilbert). lASHVILLE WARBLER \/erm\\/ora ruficapUla (Wilson) ' Status.— Breeding (see fig. 48) : Uncommon and local in the Ulegheny Mountain section— occurring in Garrett County at the ollowing locations: Mountain Lake (near Mt. Lake Park— M. G. 3rooks); Cranberry Swamp (V2 mile east of Finzel) ; Wolf Wamp (about 4 miles southeast of Grantsville) ; Cunnmgham iiwamp (near Bittinger) ; and the Maryland portion of Cranesville I^wamp (just east of Cranesville, West Virginia). Transient: i^airly common in the Allegheny Mountain, and Ridge and Valley sections; uncommon in the Piedmont, Upper Chesapeake, and iVestern Shore sections; rare in the Eastern Shore section. Kabitat.— Breeding: Brushy, cutover spruce bogs. Transient: Wood margins or open stands of swamp and flood-plain forests, land rich, moist forests on the upland. Nesting season.— A nest found in Wolf Swamp contamed eggs on May 30, and nearly full-grown young on June 16, 1951. On June 12, 1949, adults were observed carrying food in the Maryland portion of Cranesville Swamp. Spring migration.— Normal period: April 25-30 to May 15-20; peak May 1 to May 15. Extreme arrival dates: April 20, 1925, in the District of Columbia (W. H. Ball) ; April 23, 1946, in Prince Georges County; April 23, 1952, in Frederick County (J. W. Richards). Extreme departure dates: May 25, 1949, m Prmce Georges County; May 24, 1917, in Montgomery County (A. Wet- more) . 280 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Fall migration. — Normal period: September 5-10 to Octobei 5-15; peak, September 10 to October 5. Extreme arrival date] September 4, 1898, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Ex- treme departure dates: November 6, 1949, in Worcester Count; (M. B. Meanley) ; October 25, 1938, in the District of Columbi, (W. B. Mcllwaine, Jr.) ; October 23, 1954, in Baltimore Count; (C. M. Buchanan) ; October 19, 1950, in Prince Georges Count; (J. H. Fales). Breeding population densities (territorial males per 10 1 acres). — 39 (3.5 in 9 acres) in "scrub spruce bog" (brush-meadow stage with youn ; red spruce) in Garrett County in 1951 (Robbins and Stewart, 1951b). I 21 (2 in 9V^ acres) in "open hemlock-spruce bog" (brush-meadow stage witj young hemlock, red spruce, alder, etc.) in Garrett County in 194 i (Robbins, 1949c). Maximum counts (nonbreeding). — Spring: 20+ at Waverlj Baltimore County, on May 12, 1892 (W. N. Wholey) ; 14 in th District of Columbia, and adjacent Prince Georges County, Mary land, on May 11, 1917 (Oberholser, 1917a) ; 10 at Emmitsburg Frederick County, on April 27 and 28, 1954 (P. J. O'Brien, J. W Richards) . Fall: 3 at Patuxent Refuge on September 9, 1953, ant October 3, 1947 ; 3 at Seneca, Montgomery County, on Septembe 12, 1954 (J. W. Terborgh). PARULA WARBLER Parula americana (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding: Common in the Western Shore sectioni locally common in the Eastern Shore section (most numerou along the Pocomoke River and its tributaries, uncommon else where) ; fairly common in the Piedmont section; uncommon i: the Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Mountain sections; rare ii the Upper Chesapeake section. Transient: Fairly common in al sections. Habitat. — Flood-plain and swamp forests, and rich, mois forests on the upland, including both deciduous and coniferou types. Nesting season.— Late April to late June. Nest-buildini was recorded as early as April 24, 1946, in Montgomery Count; (Peterson, 1946). Extreme egg dates (6 nests) : May 15, 1947 and June 14, 1947, in Prince Georges County (M. B. Meanley) Extreme nestling dates (9 nests) : May 28, 1930, in St. Mary County (F. C. Kirkwood) and June 25, 1893, in Baltimore Count; (W.N. Wholey). Spring migration. — Normal period: April 15-20 to May 20-25 peak, April 20 to May 10. Extreme arrival dates: April 6, 192S BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 281 n the District of Columbia (A. H. Howell) ; April 7, 1946, in Vorcester County; April 7, 1949, in Montgomery County (L. M. Vendt). Extreme departure dates: May 30, 1905, in the District if Columbia (H. C. Oberholser) ; May 30, 1944 and 1945, in Prince ;aeorges County. I Fall migration. — Normal period: August 20-30 to October 5- \.5; peak, September 10 to October 5. Extreme departure dates: iDecember 14, 1936 (found dead, in "excellent condition"), in the District of Columbia (Lincoln, 1937) ; October 29, 1952, in Caro- line County (M. W. Hewitt) ; October 20, 1948, in the District of polumbia (E. G. Davis). ' Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 icres) . — jl7 (40.1 in 85 acres) in well-drained, flood-plain forest (sweetgum, horn- beam, river birch, tulip-poplar, etc.) along the boundary between Anne Arundel and Prince Georges Counties in 1945 (Stewart, et al., 1946) ; 22 (7.2 in 32% acres) in another area of this habitat in 1944. J9 (4 in 14^/4 acres) in poorly-drained, flood-plain forest (pin oak, sweetgum, red maple, red ash, etc.) in Prince Georges County in 1946. L9 (3.5 in 18% acres) in "second-growth river swamp" (red maple, sweetgum, black gum, etc., with dense understory of holly, sweet pepperbush, and greenbrier) in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948d). 16 (4.5 in 28 acres) in partially opened, flood-plain forest (sycamore, ash, elm, etc.) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). •14 (1.5 in 11 acres) in upland seepage swamp forest (red maple, sweetgum, ' black gum, with dense understory of holly, sweet pepperbush, clammy azalea, maleberry, etc.) in Prince Georges County in 1946. 12 (4 in 32^^ acres) in pine-oak forest (pitch pine, scrub pine and Spanish oak) in Prince Georges County in 1944. 12 (1.5 in 13 acres) in upland oak forest (white, northern red, chestnut, and black oaks) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). 8 (1.5 in 20 acres) in "virgin hemlock stand" in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949a). 6 (1.5 in 231/4 acres) in "mature northern hardwood forest" (black cherry, beech, hemlock, sugar maple, sweet birch, etc.) in Garrett County in 1951 (Robbins and Stewart, 1951a). 4 (1.5 in 36 acres) in "virgin central hardwood deciduous forest" (white oak- tulip-poplar) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart and Robbins, 1947b). Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: 112 at Patuxent Refuge on May 6, 1950; 102 in Montgomery County on May 8, 1954 (K. Stecher) ; 100 at Port Tobacco, Charles County, on May 11, 1943 (I. N. Gabrielson, F. M. Uhler) ; 49 in the Pocomoke River area of Worcester and Wicomico Counties on May 5, 1951. Fall: 80 in the District of Columbia on October 1, 1948 (I. R. Barnes, K. H. Weber) ; 35 near Cabin John, Montgomery County, on September 18, 1954 (P. A. DuMont) ; 23 found dead at the 282 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Washington Monument, in the District of Columbia, on Septembe:' 12, 1937 (Overing, 1938) ; 19 at Greenbelt, Prince Georges County on October 6, 1954 (L. W. Oring) . YELLOW WARBLER Dendroica petechia (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding: Fairly common in the Allegheny Mountain Ridge and Valley, and Upper Chesapeake sections, and in the tide water areas of the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections ; un common elsewhere in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sec tions, and in the Piedmont section. Transient: Common in the Allegheny Mountain section; uncommon in all other sections. | Habitat. — Open growth of willow, and other small trees amj shrubs on wet ground ; also occurs in orchards, and in residentia j areas that contain an open growth of small ornamental trees. Nesting season. — Early May to early July (nesting peak, midl May to mid-June) . Nest-building was recorded as early as Mayj 1, 1954, in Baltimore County (E. K. Lubbert) . Extreme egg dateii (99 nests) : May 7, 1921, in the District of Columbia (M. J. PeW lew) and June 17, 1951, in Baltimore County (E. Willis). Extreme nestling dates (27 nests) : May 23, 1902 (F. C. Kirkwood), and July 10, 1951 (E. Willis), in Baltimore County. Fledglings ouli of the nest were recorded as early as May 26, 1935, in Alleganji County (L. M. Llewellyn). Spring migration. — Normal period: April 15-25 to May 25-301 peak, May 1 to May 20. Extreme arrival dates: April 3, 1953, ir St. Marys County (R. R. Kerr) ; April 4, 1862 (USNM), in th& District of Columbia (C. E. Schmidt) ; April 6, 1893, in Dorchesten County (R. C. Watters). Extreme departure dates: June 11, 1916, in the District of Columbia (Oberholser, 1919) ; June 7, 1952, ir Prince Georges County. Fall migration. — Normal period: July 15-25 to September 20- 30; peak, July 25 to September 1. Extreme arrival dates: July 9, 1933, in the District of Columbia (E. N. Grinnell) ; July 12, 1917, in Dorchester County (R. W. Jackson). Extreme departure dates: October 12, 1910, in the District of Columbia (E. J. Brown) ; Octo- ber 6, 1927, in Montgomery County (W. H. Ball). Breeding population densities (territorial males per IOC acres). — 63 (12 in 19.2 acres) in shrubby field with stream-bordered trees in Baltimort County in 1946, 47 (9 in 19.2 acres) in 1947 (Cooley, 1947). 5 (3 in 66 acres) in field and edge habitat (including strips of flood-plair forest, brushy fields, and hedgerows) in Baltimore County in 194'! (Hampe, et al., 1947). Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: 200 at Port To- BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 283 )acco, Charles County, on May 7, 1940 (C. Cottam, I. N. Gabriel- ion) ; 60 in the District of Columbia on May 4, 1952 (Mr. and Mrs. Ir. L. Zapf ) . V\AGNOLIA WARBLER Dendroica magnolia (Wilson) j Status.— Breeding (see fig. 32) : Common in the Allegheny |V[ountain section at elevations above 2,500 feet (locally down to !2,100 feet) . Transient: Common in all sections except the Eastern Shore section where it is uncommon. I Habitat. — Breeding: Hemlock, red spruce, and mixed meso- phytic forests that contain an understory of conifers. Transient: jV^arious types of deciduous and coniferous forests, being most numerous in those that contain an understory shrub layer. Nesting season.— Probably late May to early July. Extreme ^gg dates (5 nests) : June 3, 1925 (F. C. Kirkwood), and June 28, 1899 (Preble, 1900), in Garrett County. Nestling dates (3 nests) ; June 12, 1918 (J. M. Sommer) ; June 12, 1925 (G. Eifrig) ; and June 13, 1949, all in Garrett County. i Spring migration. — Normal period: May 1-10 to May 25-30; ipeak. May 10 to May 20. Extreme arrival dates: April 22, 1891, lin the District of Columbia (C. W. Richmond) ; April 28, 1905, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; April 28, 1954, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. G. Tappan, Mrs. W. L. Henderson). Ex- \treme departure dates: June 8, 1954, in Baltimore County (S. W. Simon) ; June 3, 1945, in Prince Georges County; June 2, 1917, in ithe District of Columbia (F. Harper). ' Fall migration. — Normal period: August 20-30 to October 5- 15; peak, September 10 to September 25. Extreme arrival dates: ;August 15, 1886, in the District of Columbia (A. K. Fisher) ; August 19, 1952, in Baltimore County (E. Willis). Extreme de- \parture dates: October 28, 1916, in the District of Columbia (Mr. !and Mrs. L. D. Miner) ; October 27, 1951, in Garrett County (H. E. Slater) . Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 acres) . — 80 (16 in 20 acres) in "virgin hemlock forest" in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949a). 63 (6 in 91/2 acres) in "open hemlock-spruce bog" (brush-meadow stage with young hemlock, red spruce, alder, etc.) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949c). 40 (5 in 121/2 acres) in "virgin spruce-hemlock bog forest" (red spruce and hemlock with dense understory of great laurel) in Garrett County in 1951 (Stewart and Robbins, 1951a). 33 (3 in 9 acres) in "scrub spruce bog" (brush-meadow stage with young red spruce) in Garrett County in 1951 (Robbins and Stewart, 1951b). 284 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 26 (6 in 23^/4 acres) in "mature northern hardwood forest" (black cherr ) beech, hemlock, sugar maple, sweet birch, etc.) in Garrett County i 1951 (Robbins and Stewart, 1951a). 22 (6 in 27 Vz acres) in "red pine plantation" (young trees about 20 feet height) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins and Barnes, 1949). Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: 69 at Patuxei Refug-e on May 10, 1950. Fall: 48 at Middle River, Baltimor County, on September 24, 1950 (E. Willis) ; 34 killed at the Wasl: ington Monument in the District of Columbia on September 1' 1937 (Overing, 1938) ; 29 at Patuxent Refuge on September 21 1943 ; 25 at Cumberland, Allegany County, on September 21, 190 (G. Eifrig). CAPE MAY WARBLER Dendroka tlgrina (Gmelin) Status. — Spring transient: Uncommon in all sections exce^ the Eastern Shore section where it is rare. Fall transient: Fairl common in all sections. Wintering: Accidental — 1 recorded in th District of Columbia on December 16, 1888, and another on Decen: ber 16, 1916 (Richmond, 1917) ; 1 seen in Frederick County o; March 12, 1950 (R. T. Smith). Habitat. — Various types of forest, with preference general! shown for young pine stands. Spring migration. — Normal period: May 1-5 to May 15-2o| peak. May 5 to May 15. Extreme arrival dates: April 26, 1950, i:i the District of Columbia (F. C. Cross) ; April 27, 1954, in Princ Georges County; April 27, 1954, in Montgomery County (J. HI Fales) ; April 28, 1954, in Frederick County (J. W. Richards) Extreme departure dates: June 1, 1924, in Baltimore County (Jl M. Sommer) ; May 30, 1917, in Prince Georges County (A. Wet: more) ; May 30, 1921, in the District of Columbia (J. Kittredg€< Jr.). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 1-10 to Octobe: 15-25 ; peak, September 10 to October 10. Extreme arrival dates August 23, 1942 (USNM), in Prince Georges County; August 25 1890, in Montgomery County (J. D. Figgins) ; August 25, 1951 in Baltimore County (R. D. Cole, E. Willis) ; August 25, 1955, ii Talbot County (R. L. Kleen). Extreme departure dates: Novem ber 26, 1915, in the District of Columbia (P. Bartsch) ; Novembe: 10, 1951, in Queen Annes County; October 26, 1944 and 1954, ii Prince Georges County. Maximum covnts.— Spring : 36 near Seneca, Montgomery: County, on May 12, 1951 (R. F. Deed, C. N. Mason) ; 21 at Patuxi ent Refuge on May 13, 1950. Fall: "Thousands" at Ocean City on October 2, 1949 (M. B. Meanley) ; 41 at Patuxent Refuge on Octcw BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 285 3r 7, 1944; 15 at South Mountain, along the boundary between rederick and Washington Counties, on September 25, 1949 (R. J. eaton) . Banding. — One banded at Monkton, Baltimore County, on May 1955, was recovered near Chatham, New Brunswick, on June 1, 355. LACK-THROATED BLUE WARBLER Dendro/ca caerulescens (Gmelin) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 32) : Common in the Allegheny [ountain section at elevations above 2,000 feet. Trmisient: Com- lon in all sections except the Eastern Shore section, where it is ncommon. Wintering : Accidental — 1 was recorded in the Dis- nct of Columbia on December 22, 1930 (Booker, 1931), and re- lained throughout the months of January, February, and March, 931 (Oberholser, 1931). Habitat. — Breeding: Mixed mesophytic, oak-chestnut, hemlock, nd red spruce forests with understory of great laurel, mountain lurel, or various deciduous shrubs. Transient: Various types of eciduous forest. Nesting season. — Probably late May to early July. Egg dates 3 nests) : All on June 3, 1925, in Garrett County (F. C. Kirk- /ood). Nestling dates (2 nests) : June 11, 1918 (J. M. Sommer), nd June 25, 1949, both in Garrett County. Spring migration. — Normal period: April 25-30 to May 20-25; »eak, May 1 to May 15. Extreine arrival dates: April 15, 1928, n Harford County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; April 19, 1896, in the Dis- rict of Columbia (J. D. Figgins) ; April 21, 1929, in Baltimore bounty (F. C. Kirkwood, J. M. Sommer). Extreme departure lates: June 5, 1949, in Prince Georges County (R. C. Simpson) ; une 5, 1952, in Frederick County (J. W. Richards) ; May 30, .897, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; May 30, 1888, in he District of Columbia (C. W. Richmond). Fall migration. — Normal period: August 25-September 5 to October 10-20 ; peak, September 20 to October 10. Extreme arrival lates: August 19, 1951, in Baltimore County (E. Willis) ; August \1, 1887, in the District of Columbia (A. K. Fisher) ; August 21, L944, in Prince Georges County; August 22, 1930, in Dorchester bounty (H. B. Curry). Extreme departure dates: October 31, L953, in Montgomery County (P. G. DuMont) ; October 29, 1913, n the District of Columbia (L. D. Miner). Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 acres) . — )8 (11.5 in 20 acres) in "virgin hemlock forest" in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949a). 286 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 52 (6.5 in 12% acres) in "virgin spruce-hemlock bog forest" (red spruce an hemlock with dense understory of great laurel) in Garrett County ii 1951 (Stewart and Robbins, 1951a). 48 (3 in 6% acres) in "young second-growth resulting from cutting" (oali maple ridge forest) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). 17 (1.5 in 9 acres) in "scrub spruce bog" (brush-meadow stage with youn red spruce) in Garrett County in 1951 (Robbins and Stewart, 1951b). Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: 119 at Patuxeni Refuge on May 10, 1950 ; 50 at Port Tobacco, Charles County, on May 11, 1943 (I. N. Gabrielson, A. L. Nelson) ; 40 at Unity, Mont gomery County, on May 9, 1953 (S. H. Low). Fall: 29 at Patuxem Refuge on October 11, 1947; 17 at Greenbelt, Prince Georges County, on October 7, 1954 (L. W. Oring) ; 9 banded on thlumbia (A. K. Fisher). Maximum counts. — Spring: 300 at Port Tobacco, Charles bounty, on May 5, 1939 (I. N. Gabrielson, F. M. Uhler) ; 300 along bhe C. and 0. Canal in Montgomery County, on May 13, 1950 (P. A. DuMont) ; 240 at Greenbelt, Prince Georges County, on May 9, 1953 (L. W. Oring, et al.). Fall: 300 in the Ocean City area on October 25, 1949 ; 196 at Patuxent Refuge on October 26, 1944 ; 100 at Herring Run, Baltimore County, on October 16, 1930 (J. M. Sommer). Winter (Christmas counts) : 6,500 in southern Dor- chester County on December 28, 1953; 4,001 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1954; 1,138 in the Wicomico River area, Charles and St. Marys Counties, on January 1, 1954. Banding. — One recovered in Dorchester County, on February 12, 1956, had been banded on Nantucket Island, Massachusetts, on'october20, 1955. BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER Dendro/ca v/rens (Gmelin) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 51) : Common in the Allegheny Mountain section ; fairly common in the western part of the Ridge and Valley section (Allegany County) ; uncommon in the eastern Figure 51.— Breeding range of Black-throated Green Warbler. 288 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE part of the Ridge and Valley section (Washington County, and ini western Frederick County from Myersville north to the Pennsyl- vania line; also recorded in summer (July 20, 1947, and Juno 26, 1948) in the Piedmont section at Cabin John, Montgomery County. Transient: Common in all sections except the Eastern Shore see-1 tion where it is uncommon. Habitat. — Breeding: Hemlock stands, and mixed mesophytici forest (including deciduous types as well as mixed stands of con-| iferous and deciduous trees) . Transient: Various types of decidu- ous forest. Nesting season.— Probably mid-May to early July. Although a no nests have been located, young birds out of the nest have beeni recorded several times. The earliest of these observations wasi made on June 12, 1949, in Garrett County. A pair was observed i copulating as early as May 19, 1935, in Allegany County (L. M. , Llewellyn). Spring migration. — Normal period: April 20-25 to May 15-25; peak, May 1 to May 15. Extreme arrival dates: April 16, 1950 (P. A. DuMont), and April 18, 1920 (B. H. Swales), in Mont- gomery County; April 19, 1934, in the District of Columbia (C. H. Benjamin) ; April 19, 1946, and April 19, 1949, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure dates: June 10, 1917, in the District of Columbia (D. C. Mabbott) ; June 5, 1954, in Baltimore County (S. W. Simon) ; May 30, 1917 (W. L. McAtee, A. Wetmore), and May 30, 1945, in Prince Georges County. Fall migration.— A^ormaZ period: August 25-September 5 to October 10-20 ; peak, September 10 to October 5. Extreme arrival dates: August 9, 1952, in the District of Columbia (A. R. Stickley, Jr.) ; August 10, 1942, in Baltimore County (H. Kolb) ; August 21, 1949, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure dates: October 31, 1953, in Montgomery County (P. G. DuMont) ; Octo- ber 31, 1954, in Anne Arundel County (Mr. and Mrs. H. N. Page) ; October 27, 1956, in Prince Georges County ; October 23, 1954, in Frederick County (J. W. Richards) . Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 acres) . — 36 (4.5 in 12% acres) in "mature oak-maple ridge forest" in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). 30 (6 in 20 acres) in "virgin hemlock forest" in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949a). 21 (2 in 9% acres) in "open hemlock-spruce bog" (brush-meadow stage with young hemlock, red spruce, alder, etc.) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949c). 9 (2 in 23% acres) in "mature northern hardwood forest" (black cherry, BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 289 beech, hemlock, sugar maple, sweet birch, etc.) in Garrett County in 1951 (Robbins and Stewart, 1951a). (2 in 271/2 acres) in "red pine plantation" (young trees about 20 feet in height) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins and Barnes, 1949). Maximum counts (nonbreeding).— -Sj^rmsr: 37 at Patuxent efuge on May 10, 1950. Fall: 35 at Middle River, Baltimore ounty, on September 24, 1950 (E. Willis) ; 30 near Seneca, Mont- lomery County, on September 25, 1949 (I. R. Barnes, S. A. friggs) ; 28 at Patuxent Refuge on September 25, 1943. lERULEAN WARBLER Dendrolca ceru/ea (Wilson) ' Status.— Breeding (see fig. 52) : Fairly common in the western lart of the Ridge and Valley section (Allegany and Washington bounties, west of Hagerstown Valley) ; fairly common locally in he Piedmont section— occurring in the Susquehanna River valley, n the Potomac River valley, along the Patapsco River, and in the ncinity of Dulaney Valley northeast of Baltimore City, in Balti- 'nore County (Kolb, 1943) ; uncommon in the Savage River valley n Garrett County; rare elsewhere in the Allegheny Mountain sec- don. Transient: Uncommon in the Ridge and Valley section ; rare n all other sections. LEGEND JXVjj Principal Range 9 Local Record Figure 52.— Breeding range of Cerulean Warbler. 290 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Habitat. — Flood-plain forests, and rich, moist deciduous f orest.'i on the upland. Nesting season. — Probably late May to early July. Egg datei\ (2 nests) : June 9, 1901 (F. C. Kirkwood), and June 10, 190(' (Kirkwood, 1901), in Baltimore County. Nestling dates (2 nests) June 9, 1901, and June 14, 1903, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirk wood). Spring migration. — Occurrence peak: May 1 to May 15. Ex- treme arrival dates: April 20, 1954, in Allegany County (L, McCollough, E. Minke) ; April 25, 1953, in Frederick County (J. W. Richards) ; April 26, 1953, in Worcester County; April 27, 1902, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme departure dates: May 31, 1949, in Prince Georges County; May 29, 1902, in Montgomery County (USNM— W. R. Maxon). Fall migration. — Extreme arrival dates: August 8, 1953, in Prince Georges County; August 18, 1948, in Montgomery County (N. Jenison) ; August 19, 1948, in Baltimore County (I. E. Hampe) . Extreme departure dates: September 25, 1955, in Mont- gomery County (P. A. DuMont) ; September 23, 1951, in Balti- more County (E. Willis). Maximum counts (nonbreeding). — Spring: 11 near Seneca, Montgomery County, on May 5, 1951 (F. C. Cross) ; 5 near Emmitsburg, Frederick County, on May 3, 1954 (J. W. Richards) ; 3 at Patuxent Refuge on May 8, 1948. Fall: 7 near Seneca, Mont- gomery County, on August 25, 1951 (I. R. Barnes). BLACKBURNIAN WARBLER Dendro/ca iusca (Muller) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 53) : Common in the Allegheny Mountain section ; uncommon in the western part of the Ridge and Valley section (Allegany County) ; rare and local in the eastern part of the Ridge and Valley section (occurring in Frederick County along Hunting Creek, at elevations above 1,280 feet). Transient: Fairly common in all sections except the Eastern Shore section where it is rare. Habyta'T.— Breeding : Red spruce, hemlock, and white pine stands, and mixed mesophytic forests. Transient: Various types of forest. Nesting season.— Probably late May to early July. Nest- building was recorded in Garrett County on May 31, 1951, and on June 15, 1918 (Eifrig, 1920a). Adults were observed carrying food in Garrett County on June 25, 1949. Spring migration.— Norma? period: April 25-May 5 to May 20-30; peak. May 5 to May 20. Extreme arrival date: April 23, BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 291 i^iGURE 53.-Breeding ranges of Blackburnian Warbler and Yellow-throated Warbler. L920, in Montgomery County (A. Wetmore). Extreme departure dates: June 4, 1945, in Prince Georges County; June 3, 1907, m the District of Columbia ( W. W. Cooke) . Fall migration.— Normal period: August 20-25 to September 25-October 5; peak, September 5 to September 25. Extreme arrival dates: August 2, 1872, in the District of Columbia (USNM _E Coues) ; August 14, 1886, in the District of Columbia (A. K. Fisher) ; August 18, 1951, in Baltimore County (Mr. and Mrs. IR. D. Cole) ; August 19, 1942, and August 19, 1949, in Prmce 'Georges County. Extrem-e departure dates: October 17, 1953, m .Montgomery County (P. G. DuMont) ; October 17, 1954, in Anne i Arundel County (Mr. and Mrs. H. N. Page) ; October 16, 1954, m Baltimore County (S. W. Simon) . Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 acres ) . 110 (22 in 20 acres) in "virgin hemlock forest" in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949a). 96 (12 in 12y2 acres) in "virgin spruce-hemlock bog forest" (red spruce and hemlock, with dense understory of great laurel) in Garrett County in 1951 (Stewart and Robbins, 1951a). 39 (3.5 in 9 acres) in "scrub spruce bog" (brush-meadow stage with young red spruce) in Garrett County in 1951 (Robbins and Stewart, 1951b). 292 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Maximum counts (nonhreeding) .—Spring : 89 at Patuxert Refuge on May 10, 1950; 30 at Emmitsburg, Frederick Countjl on May 5, 1956 (J. W. Richards). Fall: 12 near Seneca, Monlf gomery County, on September 25, 1949 (I. R. Barnes, S. A[ Briggs) ; 8 at Patuxent Refuge on September 11, 1943. YELLOW-THROATED WARBLER Dendroica dominica (Linnaeus) | Status. — Breeding and transient (see fig. 53) : Common in thi Eastern Shore section and in the southern part of the Wester: Shore section (St. Marys County and southern portions of Charle and Calvert Counties) ; uncommon near tidewater in the norther] part of the Western Shore section; rare in the interior of thi] northern part of the Western Shore section and along the Potomax River in the Piedmont section (recorded up to Harrison Island- J. V. Dennis). Vagrant: One singing at an elevation of 800 fee'' near Alesia, Carroll County, June 21, 1951; also several records from the Upper Chesapeake section in spring. Habitat. — Stands of loblolly pine, and bald cypress swamps,^ also occurs sparingly in mature stands of scrub pine and pitcb pine. Nesting season.— Mid-April to early July. Nest-building was recorded as early as April 18, 1949, just across the Maryland boundary at Dyke, Virginia. In Dorchester County, Maryland, nest-building was recorded on May 9, 1920, and a nest with eggs was found on May 16, 1919 (Jackson, 1941). Adults were ob- served feeding young out of the nest on June 8, 1929, in Dorchester County (F. C. Kirkwood). A nest with young was found in Charles County on June 9, 1951 (J. W. Taylor, Jr.). A pair was observed feeding young on Harrison Island in the Potomac River on June 28, 1953 (J. V. Dennis). An occupied nest was found in Anne Arundel County as late as July 10, 1954 (Mrs. W. L. Hender- son, Mrs. G. Tappan). Period of occurrence.— A^ormaZ period: April 1-10 to Septem- ber 10-20. Extreme arrival dates: March 27, 1948, in Calvert County; March 30, 1927, in the District of Columbia (K. H. Stuart) ; March 30, 1946, in Anne Arundel County. Extreme departure dates: September 27, 1919, in the District of Columbia (M. J. Pellew) ; September 26, 1953, in Montgomery County (P. G. DuMont, E. Hall). Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 acres) . — 29 (6 in 21 acres) in "immature loblolly-shortleaf pine stand" (trees from 45 to 65 feet in height) in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948c). BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 293 1 (2 in 18% acres) in "second-growth river swamp" (red maple, sweetgum, black gum, etc., with dense understory of holly, sweet pepperbush, and greenbrier) in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948d). Maximum counts {nonbreeding) .—Spring : 25 along the Poco- noke River in Worcester County on May 5, 1951; 16 in St. Marys bounty on May 8, 1954 (J. W. Terborgh). :HESTNUT-SIDED warbler Dendro/ca pensylvanica (Linnaeus) Status.— Breeding (see fig. 54) : Common in the Allegheny Mountain, and Ridge and Valley sections (chiefly at elevations above 1,200 feet) ; fairly common locally in the northern part of :he Piedmont section, occurring in northern Carroll County, and n the valley of Gunpowder Falls in northern Baltimore County; -are and local in the southern part of Baltimore County, occurring in the vicinity of Reisterstown (first recorded by Brumbaugh, 1915) and once near the north boundary of Baltimore City (Mean- iey 1938) Summer vagrant: One singing at Fulton, Howard County on June 26, 1951 ; 10 July specimens (USNM) from Laurel, Maryland, and the District of Columbia taken durmg the period 1888-1891. Transient: Common in all sections except the Eastern iShore section where it is uncommon. LEGEND I _J Principal Range 0 Local Record Figure 54.— Breeding range of Chestnut-sided Warbler. 294 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Habitat. — Breeding: Brushy, cut-over areas of oak-chestnu1i mixed mesophytic, and northern hardwood forests; also in bear oak barrens. Transient: Various types of deciduous forest. Nesting season. — Late May to mid-July. Extreme egg date (18 nests) : May 28, 1919, in Garrett County (J. M. Sommer), an( June 26, 1937, in Baltimore County (Meanley, 1938) . A nest con taining young was observed in Garrett County on June 15, 195! (L. McCollough, E. Minke). Young out of the nest, but not fullj fledged, were recorded on July 17, 1915, in Baltimore Countr (Brumbaugh, 1915). Spring migration. — Normal period: April 25-May 5 to MajJ 15-25; peak. May 5 to May 15. Extreme arrival dates: April 19 j 1902, in the District of Columbia (H. W. Maynard) ; April 23; 1893, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) . Extreme departure dates: May 30, 1891, in the District of Columbia (C. W. Rich-« mond) ; May 30, 1917, in Prince Georges County (W. L. McAtee^ A. Wetmore) ; May 30, 1946, in Anne Arundel County. Fall migration. — Normal period: August 15-20 to Septemben 25-October 5 ; peak, August 20 to September 10. Extreme arrivdi dates: August 10, 1889 (C. W. Richmond), and August 10, 1894* (J. D. Figgins), in the District of Columbia; August 12, 1889, ir Baltimore County (A. H. Jennings) ; August 12, 1944, in Prince Georges County; August 14, 1951, in Caroline County (M. W, Hewitt). Extreme departure dates: October 14, 1906, in Mont- gomery County (A. K. Fisher) ; October 11, 1880, in Prince^ Georges County (W. Palmer) ; October 11, 1947, in Baltimore County (R. M. Bowen). Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 acres). — 79 (16.5 in 21 acres) in "dense second-growth" (oak-maple ridge forest) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). 67 (10 in 15 acres) in "open slash area" (cut-over oak-maple ridge forest) in' Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: 161 at Patuxent Refuge on May 10, 1950 ; 36 near Buckeystown, Frederick County, on May 6, 1950. Fall: 32 near Baltimore on September 5, 1893 (G. H. Gray) ; 32 at Patuxent Refuge on August 20, 1943. BAY-BREASTED WARBLER Dendroha casfanea (Wilson) Status. — Transient: Fairly common in all sections except thei Eastern Shore section where it is rare. Habitat. — Various types of forest. In spring, a preference is< shown for stands of young pine. Spring migration. — Normal period: May 5-10 to May 20-25; BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 295 ak, May 10 to May 20. Extreme arrival dates: May 1, 1932, in Vmtgomery County (F. C. Lincoln) ; May 2, 1896, in the District ]| Columbia (H. W. Oldys). Extreme departure dates: June 7, 150, in Anne Arundel County (M. McLean) ; June 2, 1917, in [l.ltimore County (C. H. Grace) ; June 2, 1917, in the District of [■Jumbia (F. Harper). IFall MIGRATION. — Normal period: August 20-30 to October 1- li; peak, September 5 to September 25. Extreme arrival dates: iligust 17, 1921, in the District of Columbia (B. H. Swales) ; /agust 18, 1939, in Garrett County (H. Kolb) ; August 19, 1942, ii Prince Georges County; August 19, 1952, in Frederick County !'. W. Richards). Extreme departure dates: November 6, 1887, i! the District of Columbia (H. W. Henshaw) ; November 1, 1896, ii Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; October 19, 1888, in the jistrict of Columbia (R. Ridgway). I Maximum counts. — Spriyig: 43 at Greenbelt, Prince Georges iDunty, on May 12, 1956 (L. W. Oring) ; 30 along the Potomac :iiver in Washington County on May 12, 1952 (Dr. and Mrs. R. S. Itauffer) ; 24 at Patuxent Refuge on May 13, 1950; 15 near Em- litsburg, Frederick County, on May 17, 1952 (J. W. Richards). nil: 22 at Patuxent Refuge on September 13, 1943; 18 at Seneca, Montgomery County, on September 12, 1954 (J. W. Terborgh). LACKPOLL WARBLER Dendro/ca sfr/afa (Forster) Status. — Transient: Common, occasionally abundant, in all sea- sons except the Eastern Shore section where it is fairly common. [ummer vagrant: Accidental — 1 seen in Montgomery County on lune 27, 1951 (J. H. Fales) ; 1 seen in Calvert County on July 6, '928 (Ball, 1930a) ; one collected in the District of Columbia on uly 30, 1893 (Brown, 1894). Habitat. — Various types of coniferous and deciduous forests. :)uring the latter part of the spring migration they usually con- entrate in stands of young pine. I Spring migration. — Normal period: May 1-5 to June 1-10; ;)eak. May 10 to May 30. Extreme arrival dates: April 21, 1916, 'n the District of Columbia (L. D. Miner, R. W. Moore) ; April 23, :954, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. G. Tappan) ; April 25, 1953 ^L. W. Oring), and April 25, 1948, in Prince Georges County. .Extreme departure dates: June 16, 1907 (R. W. Williams, Jr.), iFune 16, 1915 (A. H. Howell), and June 16, 1926 (S. F. Blake), in :he District of Columbia; June 14, 1907 in Allegany County (F. C. Kirkwood) . Fall migration.— Normal period: September 10-20 to October 296 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 15-25 ; peak, September 25 to October 10. Extreme arrival dates September 1, 1889, in the District of Columbia (USNM— C. % Richmond) ; September 3, 1872, in the District of Columbi (USNM — D. W. Scott) . Extreme departure dates: November IS 1949, in Worcester County; November 9, 1930, in the District o Columbia (H. C. Oberholser). Maximum counts. — Spring: 145 at Patuxent Refuge on Ma;( 24, 1949; 100+ at Port Tobacco, Charles County, on May 11, 194^ (I. N. Gabrielson, A. L. Nelson) ; 100 at Sycamore Island in Monti gomery County on May 28, 1949 (P. A. DuMont). Fall: 140 ai Patuxent Refuge on October 11, 1947. PINE WARBLER Dendroica pinus (Wilson) Status. — Breeding and transient (see fig. 55) : Abundant ill the Eastern Shore section, and in the southern part of the WesterF Shore section (St. Marys County, and southern portions of Calven and Charles Counties) ; fairly common elsewhere in the Westerr Shore section; uncommon in the western part of the Ridge anti Valley section (Allegany County), and locally in the Allegheny Mountain section (in the vicinity of Deep Creek Lake — M. G' Brooks) ; rare in the Piedmont and Upper Chesapeake section* and in the eastern part of the Ridge and Valley section (Washing^ LEGEND y Principal Range Local Record Figure 55. — Breeding range of Pine Warbler. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 297 and Frederick Counties). Wintering: Rare in the Eastern iJDre section, and near tidewater in the Western Shore section; ;j;ual in the interior of the Western Shore section, and in the 'lidmont section — recorded at Darlington, Harford County, dur- urthe winter of 1933-34 (S. Mason, Jr.) , and at Greenbelt, Prince liorges County, during the winter of 1953-54 (L. W. Oring) . Habitat. — Breeding: Most numerous in stands of loblolly pine id pitch pine; also occurs sparingly in mature stands of scrub lie and white pine. Transient: Pine stands; also occurs in mar- jial habitats in residential and agricultural areas in fall, and to esser extent in spring. INesting season. — Probably early April to mid-June. Nest- iilding was recorded as early as April 5, 1921, in Dorchester unty (R. W. Jackson) . Extreme egg dates (7 nests) : April 19, 20, and May 20, 1919, in Dorchester County (Jackson, 1941). :treme nestling dates (3 nests) : May 2, 1919, in Dorchester ,iunty (R. W. Jackson) and May 26, 1930, in St. Marys County r. C. Kirkwood). Spring migration. — Normal period: March 10-20 to April 20- ; ; peak, March 20 to April 20. Extreme arrival dates: March 8, ^45, in Prince Georges County ; March 5, 1922, in the District of |)lumbia (C. S. Baer). Extreme departure date: May 3, 1947, ■ Prince Georges County. ■Fall migration. — Normal period: August 15-25 to October i-25 ; peak, September 5 to October 5. Extreme departure dates: 'itober 31, 1943, in Prince Georges County ; October 28, 1952, in nne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson) ; October 27, 1900, Allegany County (G. Eifrig). Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 ,;res) . — (16 in 21 acres) in "immature loblolly-shortleaf pine stand" (trees from 45 ' to 65 feet in height) in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948c). I (6.4 in 32^ acres) in pine-oak forest (pitch pine, scrub pine, and Spanish oak) in Prince Georges County in 1944. I (2 in 20 acres) in mature scrub pine stand in Prince Georges County in 1946. Maximum counts (nonbreeding).— -Sfprms': 250 at Point Look- ut, St. Marys County, on April 9, 1953 (J. Hailman) ; 50 in Iharles County on March 29, 1953 (J. W. Terborgh) ; 15 at •atuxent Refuge on April 6, 1947. Fall: 20 at Patuxent Refuge n September 27, 1947. Winter (Christmas counts) : 11 in the )cean City area on December 27, 1955 ; 4 in the St. Michaels area, 'albot County, on December 29, 1953. 298 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE PRAIRIE WARBLER Dendroka discolor (Vieillot) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 56) : Common in the Eastern Shoi Western Shore, and Ridge and Valley sections; fairly commi (locally) in the Piedmont section; rare in the Upper Chesapea and Allegheny Mountain sections. Transient: Uncommon in t" Eastern Shore, Western Shore, Piedmont, and Ridge and Vail sections; rare in the Upper Chesapeake section. LEGEND ^^^ Principal Range • Local Record Figure 56. — Breeding range of Prairie Warbler. Habitat. — Especially characteristic of abandoned fields wit open stands of young pine, including scrub pine, pitch pine, an loblolly pine; also occurs locally in abandoned fields with ope stands of young sweetgum, in brushy cut-over or burned-ove upland forests, and in weedy or abandoned orchards. Nesting season.— Mid-May to late July (nesting peak, lail May to early July) . Extreme egg dates (30 nests) : May 14, 1891 (W. B. Barrows), and July 19, 1926 (S. F. Blake), in the Districi of Columbia. Extreme nestling dates (20 nests) : May 25, 1949 in Prince Georges County (E. C. Robbins) and July 12, 1947, 1: Baltimore County (H. Kolb). Spring migration.— Norma? period: April 15-25 to May 15-25 peak, April 25 to May 15. Extreme arrival dates: April 12, 1882 BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 299 ithe District of Columbia (H. W. Henshaw) ; April 12, 1949, in ine Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson). Fall migration. — Normal period: August 5-15 to September -25; peak, August 15 to September 5. Extreme arrival dates: ly 31, 1951 and 1953, in Prince Georges County. Extreme parture dates: November 19, 1954, in Caroline County (Mrs. J. Fletcher) ; October 20, 1952, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. . L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tappan) ; October 6, 1910, in the District I Columbia (E. J. Brown). Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 ires) . — (22 in 26 acres) in "dry deciduous scrub" (burned-over upland oak forest) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Robbins, et al., 1947). (4 in 7 acres) in pine field (abandoned field with open growth of young scrub pine) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall)^. (15 in 30 acres) in "damp deciduous scrub with standing dead trees" (burned-over, poorly drained upland forest) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart, et al., 1947). (9 in 18 acres) in brushy, well-drained, abandoned farmland in Prince Georges County in 1947. (10 in 21 acres) in "immature loblolly-shortleaf pine stand" (trees 45 to 65 feet in height) in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948c). (16 in 34% acres) in pine field (abandoned field with open growth of young scrub pine) in Prince Georges County in 1945. (6.5 in 19% acres) in sweetgum field (abandoned field with open growth of young sweetgum) in Prince Georges County in 1945. ; (4.5 in 25 acres) in "unsprayed apple orchard with unmowed ground cover" in Allegany County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). (4 in 22 acres) in "unsprayed apple orchard with infrequently mowed ground cover" in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). ^ :, j: ^ a (4 in 47% acres) in hedgerows in agricultural and abandoned farmland areas (including strip 271/2 yards wide on each side of hedgerow) in Prince Georges County in 1945. Maximum counts (nonbreeding) .—Spring: 75 at Port Tobacco, Charles County, on May 11, 1943 (I. N. Gabrielson, F. M. Uhler) ; 13 in Anne Arundel County on May 10, 1952 (J. W. Terborgh, et il.) ; 37 at Patuxent Refuge on May 3, 1947. Fall: 7 at Patuxent :iefuge on August 17, 1944. 'ALM WARBLER Dendroica palmarum (Gmelin) St AT\JS.— Transient: Fairly common in all sections. Wintering: Uncommon in Worcester County; rare elsewhere in the Eastern Shore section, and near tidewater in the Western Shore and Upper Chesapeake sections; casual in the Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections— recorded in Baltimore County on December 17, 300 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 1911 (J. L. Ulman), in Montgomery County during the winter \ 1949-50 (S. H. Low) and on December 19, 19-54, in Howard Couni on December 13, 1955 (S. H. Low), and December 26, 1952, ai in Allegany County at McCoole (L. M. Llewellyn) on Decembi 28, 1947. Habitat. — Wood margins, hedgerows, roadsides and other ma ginal habitats. Spring migration. — Normal period: April 1-10 to May l-K peak, April 10 to April 25. Extreme arrival dates: March 2 1952, in Caroline County (M. W. Hewitt) ; March 26, 1929, i Montgomery County (Mr. and Mrs. W. J. Whiting) ; March 2 1947, in Howard County; March 29, 1953, in Baltimore Couni (H. Kolb) . Extreme departure dates: May 27, 1897, and May 2 1931, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; May 20, 1917, in tl District of Columbia (W. L. McAtee) ; May 13, 1923, in Men gomery County (F. C. Lincoln) ; May 12, 1950, in Prince George j County; May 12, 1951, in Frederick County (J. W. Richards). Tl:] extreme dates for the Yellow Palm Warbler (Dendroica palmarw^ i hijpochrysea) are March 22, 1952 (M. W. Hewitt), and May 2- 1931 (F. C. Kirkwood). The Western Palm Warbler (Dendroic palmarum palmarum) has been recorded only 16 times in sprin] the extreme dates being April 12, 1947, in the District of Columbi (R. Tousey) and May 27, 1897, in Baltimore (F. C. Kirkwood). i Fall migration, — Normal period: September 10-20 to Novenj ber 1-10; peak, September 25 to October 25. Extreme arriv(\ dates: August 30, 1939, in Montgomery County (J. H. Fales)] September 4, 1887 (H. W. Henshaw), and September 4, 192J (L. D. Miner), in the District of Columbia; September 5, 1941 (USNM), in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure datei\ November 20, 1943, in Prince Georges County; November U! 1914, in the District of Columbia (J. H. Riley) ; November l^i 1948, in Anne Arundel County (E. J. Stivers). The bulk of th| Western Palms pass through before October 10; the bulk of thi Yellow Palms after that date. Extremes for the Western Pah Warbler are September 5, 1942, and November 14, 1947. Es tremes for the Yellow Palm Warbler are September 15, 1946 (J H. Fales), and November 14, 1948 (E. J. Stivers). Maximum covnts.— Spring : 63 (Yellow Palm) at Patuxen Refuge on April 21, 1944. Fall: 25 (Western Palm) north o Ocean City, Worcester County, on September 14, 1955; 18 (Wei tern Palm) at Point Lookout, St. Marys County, on September 21, 1953 (J. W. Terborgh) ; 15 (Yellow Palm) at Patuxent Refuge o:i October 15, 1942. Winter: 41 (39 Western, 2 Yellow) in the Ocea:^ BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 301 ty area on December 27, 1955 (Christmas count) ; 30 (20 Yel- w, 10 Western) in the Denton area, Caroline County, on Decem- |r 15, 1954 (Mrs. A. J. Fletcher) ; 12 (9 Western, 3 Yellow) in iutheastern Worcester County on December 23, 1946; 7 (6 iestern, 1 Yellow) near Rockville, Montgomery County, on De- imber 19, 1954; 6 in the Chase area in Baltimore and Harford ')unties on January 3, 1954 (Christmas count). I/ENBIRD Seiurus aurocapillus (Linnaeus) : Status. — Breeding: Abundant in the Ridge and Valley section; .mmon in the Allegheny Mountain, Piedmont, and Western Shore ictions ; fairly common locally in the Eastern Shore section ; un- limmon and local in the Upper Chesapeake section. Transient: ;airly common in all sections. J Habitat. — Breeding: Various types of well-drained, deciduous Wst on the upland; also in pine stands with deciduous under- :ory. Transient: All types of forest. ' Nesting season. — Early May to mid-July (nesting peak, mid- [ay to late June). Extreme egg dates (52 nests) : May 10, 1945 E. G. Cooley), and July 6, 1943 (J. B. Cope), in Prince Georges iounty. Extreme nestling dates (27 nests) : May 22, 1939, in the )istrict of Columbia (W. B. Tyrrell) and July 17, 1893, in Balti- lore County (G. H. Gray). Spring migration. — Normal period: April 15-25 to May 15-25; eak, April 25 to May 10. Extreme arrival dates: April 9, 1893, a Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; April 10, 1904, in the )istrict of Columbia (J. H. Riley) ; April 10, 1919, in Dorchester )ounty (R. W. Jackson) . Fall migration. — Normal period: August 15-25 to October 5- 5; peak, September 5 to September 25. Extreme arrival date: August 6, 1953, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure \ates: November 25, 1955, in Queen Annes County (W. Ritten- louse) ; November 13, 1887, in the District of Columbia (H. W. lenshaw) ; November 10, 1954, in Talbot County (R. L. Kleen) ; sTovember 8, 1949, in Baltimore County (E. Willis) ; October 21, .954, in Prince Georges County (L. W. Oring). Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 icres) . — 11 (49 in 80 acres) in "central hardwood forest (oaks-tulip-poplar) with scattered pine" in the District of Columbia in 1952 (Clagett, 1952) ; 59 (47 in 80 acres) in 1951 (Trever, 1952) and 1953 (Clagett, 1953) ; 55 (43.5 in 80 acres) in 1948, 43 (34 in 80 acres) in 1949 (Trever, 1952) ; 50 (40 in 80 acres) in 1954 (Wright, 1955). )3 (19 in 36 acres) in "virgin central hardwood deciduous forest" (white oak- 302 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE tulip-poplar) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart and Robbii 1947b). 45 (9.5 in 21 acres) in "immature loblolly-shortleaf pine stand" (trees 45 to feet in height) in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewai 1948c). 40 (16 in 40 acres) in "mixed oak forest" (white, scarlet, and chestnut oal etc.) in Baltimore County in 1948 (Kolb, et al., 1948) ; 34 (12.5 in acres) in 1953 (Cole and Kolb, 1953) ; 31 (12.5 in 40 acres) in 19 (Kolb, 1949a) ; 30 (12 in 40 acres) in 1950 (Kolb, 1950) ; 24 (9 in acres) in 1951 (Kolb and Cole, 1951), and 1952 (Kaufmann, 1952). 32 (4 in 12 1^ acres) in "mature oak-maple ridge forest" in Garrett County 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). 26 (5.5 in 21 acres) in "dense second-growth" (oak-maple ridge forest) Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). 25 (6 in 23% acres) in upland oak forest (white, scarlet, and black oaks) Prince Georges County in 1944. 24 (1.5 in 6^/4 acres) in "young second-growth resulting from cutting" (oa maple ridge forest) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). 23 (5.6 in 24% acres) in river terrace forest (beech- white oak) in Prin Georges County in 1944. 20 (3 in 15 acres) in "open slash area" (cut-over oak-maple ridge forest) Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). 17 (5.5 in 32% acres) in pine-oak forest (pitch pine, scrub pine, and Spani; oak) in Prince Georges County in 1944. 11 (5 in 44% acres) in river bluff forest (beech, white oak, scarlet oak) Prince Georges County in 1945; 9 (4 in 44% acres) in 1944 (J. W. Aldric A. J. Duvall). 10 (2 in 20 acres) in mature scrub pine stand in Prince Georges County 1946. Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: 66 in Baltimoi County on May 6, 1950 (D. A. Jones) ; 63 at Patuxent Refuge o May 6, 1950. Fall: About 15 killed at the Friendship Interm tional Airport ceilometer, Anne Arundel County, on Septembe 10, 1954; 13 killed at the Washington Monument, Washingtoi D. C, on September 12, 1937 (Overing, 1938) ; 10 at Patuxer Refuge on September 16, 1943. NORTHERN WATERTHRUSH Seiurus noveborocens/s (Gmelin) Statvs.— Breeding (see fig. 32) : Common in the Allegheni Mountain section. Transient: Fairly common in all section; Wintering: Accidental — 1 was recorded at Solomons Island, Ca! vert County, on December 12, 1949 (G. Kelly). Habitat. — Breeding: Occurs at elevations above 2,200 feet i: bogs or along streams in brushy, cut-over forests or in swam- forests with a well-developed understory of shrubs. Transient Shrub swamps, and swamp and flood-plain forests. Nesting season. — A nest containing 1 egg and 3 newly hatches BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 303 mng was found in Garrett County on May 29, 1949. Young just it of the nest were observed in Garrett County on June 13, 1918 r. M. Sommer) , and on June 25, 1949. I Spring migration. — Normal period: April 25-30 to May 20-30; |3ak. May 1 to May 20. Extreme arrival dates: April 15, 1951, ii Worcester County (J. H. Buckalew) ; April 16, 1921, in the i'istrict of Columbia (M. J. Pellew). Extreme departure dates: one 5, 1949, in Frederick County (M. B. Meanley) ; June 2, 1907, ji Montgomery County (A. K. Fisher). I Fall migration. — Normal period: August 1-10 to October 1- [0; peak, August 25 to September 20. Extreme arrival dates: July 26, 1952, in Baltimore County (E. Willis) ; July 27, 1907, in dlegany County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; July 27, 1955, in Caroline bounty (Mrs. A. J. Fletcher) ; July 28, 1889, in the District of 'olumbia (J. D. Figgins). Extreme departure dates: October 16, .892, in Baltimore County (W. N. Wholey) ; October 16, 1919, in he District of Columbia (M. J. Pellew) ; October 14, 1955, in Caroline County (Mrs. A. J. Fletcher). Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 icres). — 54 (8 in 9y2 acres) in "open hemlock-spruce bog" (brush-meadow stage with young hemlock, red spruce, alder, etc.) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949c). 34 (8 in 121/2 acres) in "virgin spruce-hemlock bog forest" (red spruce and hemlock with dense understory of great laurel) in Garrett County in 1951 (Stewart and Robbins, 1951a). 33 (3 in 9 acres) in "scrub spruce bog" (brush-meadow stage, with young red spruce) in Garrett County in 1951 (Robbins and Stewart, 1951b). Maximum counts (nonbreeding).— S^^nngr; 19 at Patuxent Refuge on May 12, 1951 ; 9 at Port Tobacco, Charles County, on May 11, 1943 (I. N. Gabrielson, A. L. Nelson) . Fall: 17 at Green- belt, Prince Georges County, on September 19, 1954 (L. W. Oring) ; 10 banded on the barrier beach north of Ocean City on September 11, 1955; 9 near Seneca, Montgomery County, on September 8, 1952 (J. W. Terborgh) ; 8 at Patuxent Refuge on September 9, 1953. LOUISIANA WATERTHRUSH Se/orus mofacilla (Vieillot) Status.— Breedm^ and transient: Common in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections; fairly common in the Upper Chesapeake, Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections; fairly common locally in the Allegheny Mountain section at elevations below 2 300 feet (rare up to 2,560 feet) . Wintering: Accidental— a female in excellent condition was collected (USNM) along the 304 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Patuxent River, near Bowie, Prince Georges County, on December 29, 1953. Habitat. — Flood-plain and swamp forests; also in rockji wooded ravines along streams. Nesting season.— Mid-April to mid-June. Nest-building waj recorded as early as April 10, 1888, in the District of Columbi,| (Cooke, 1929). Extreme egg dates (24 nests) : May 8, 1921, ii the District of Columbia (Cooke, 1929) and June 11, 1899,* ii Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme nestling dates (1 nests) : May 12, 1954, in Prince Georges County (L. W. Oring) and June 16, 1938, in the District of Columbia (W. H. Lawrence) Spring migration. — Normal period: April 1-10 to May 1-10 peak, April 15 to April 30. Extreme arrival dates: March 25 1948, in the District of Columbia (E. G. Davis, R. D. Widman) i March 26, 1929, in Montgomery County (Mr. and Mrs. W. J Whiting) ; March 27, 1948, in Calvert County. Fall migration.— A^ormaZ period: August 1-10 to Septembe; 10-20; peak, August 15 to September 5. Extreme arrival date July 31, 1953, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure dates: October 4, 1920, in the District of Columbia (M. J. Pellew) October 2, 1948, in Baltimore County (I. E. Hampe) ; Septembei 30, 1950, in Montgomery County (C. N. Mason) ; September 28 1945, in Prince Georges County. Breeding population densities (territorial males per IOC acres) . 16 (3 in 18% acres) in "second-growth river swamp" (red maple, sweetgum black gum, etc., with dense understory of holly, sweet pepperbush, an( greenbrier) in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948d) 4 (3.5 in 85 acres) in well-drained flood-plain forest (sweetgum, hornbeam river birch, tulip-poplar, etc.) along the boundary between Anne Arunde and Prince Georges Counties in 1945 (Stewart, et al., 1946). Maximum counts (nonhveedimg) .Spring : 35 along Westerr Branch, Prince Georges County, on April 19, 1947; 28 along the Potomac River, Montgomery County, on May 9, 1953 (E. J. Stivers, et al.) ; 25 along the Pocomoke River, Worcester County on April 1, 1948. Fall: 6 at Patuxent Refuge on September U 1943. KENTUCKY WARBLER Opororn/s formosi/s (Wilson) Status.— Sreedmgr and transient (see fig. 57) : Abundant in the Upper Chesapeake section ; common in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections; fairly common in the Piedmont section, and in the eastern part of the Ridge and Valley section (Blue Ridge Mountains and Hagerstown Valley) ; uncommon and locals BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 305 [i'lGURB 57.— Breeding ranges of Kentucky Warbler and Mourning Warbler. in the northwestern part of the Allegheny Mountain section (chiefly at elevations below 1,700 feet) ; rare in the western part of the Ridge and Valley section (Allegany and Washington Counties, west of Hagerstown Valley). Habitat.— Swamp and flood-plain forests, and rich, moist decidous forests on the upland. Nesting season.— Mid-May to mid-August (nesting peak, late May to late June). Extreme egg dates (42 nests) : May 16, 1918, in Dorchester County (Jackson, 1941), and July 31, 1933, in Baltimore County (DeGaris, 1936). Extreme nestling dates {SS nests) : June 4, 1944, in Prince Georges County and August 11, 1933 (DeGaris, 1936), in Baltimore County. Spring migration.— Normal period: April 25-30 to May ^U- 25- peak May 10 to May 20. Extreme arrival dates: April 19, 1949, in St. Marys County (M. B. Meanley) ; April 24, 1938, m Montgomery County (W. L. McAtee) ; April 24, 1954, in Carolme County (M. W. Hewitt) . .^ ^ c ^ k Fall migration.— Nor?7iai period: August 1-10 to beptemoer 1-10 Extreme arrival dates: July 25, 1951, in Baltimore County (E. Willis) ; July 26, 1951, in Caroline County (Mrs A. J. Fletcher) Extreme departure dates: September 20, 1954, m Caroline County (M. W. Hewitt) ; September 19, 1954, in Prince 306 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Georges County (L. W. Oring) ; September 18, 1951, in Baltimon County (R.D.Cole). Breeding population densities (territorial males per IC acres) . — 32 (3.5 in 11 acres) in upland seepage swamp forest (red maple, sweetgui black gum, etc., with dense understory of holly, sweet pepperbush, damn azalea, maleberry, etc.) in Prince Georges County in 1946. 31 (4 in 13 acres) in upland oak forest (white, northern red, chestnut, aij black oaks) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvallll 23 (6.5 in 28 acres) in partially opened flood-plain forest (sycamore, a.s.< elm, etc.) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). 23 (19.6 in 85 acres) in well-drained flood-plain forest (sweetgum, hornbear river birch, tulip-poplar, etc.) along the boundary between Anne Arund. and Prince Georges Counties in 1945 (Stewart, et al., 1946). 17 (6 in 36 acres) in "virgin central hardwood forest" (white oak-tulij poplar) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart and Robbins, 1947b; 14 (1.8 in 12% acres) in lowland seepage swamp forest (red maple, sweetgun pin oak, with dense understory of sweet-bay, winterberry, arrow-woo< etc.) in Prince Georges County in 1946. 13 (2.5 in 18% acres) in "second-growth river swamp" (red maple, swee1 gum, black gum, etc., with dense understory of holly, sweet pepperbusl and greenbrier) in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewar 1948d). 8 (2 in 24% acres) in river terrace forest (beech-white oak) in Princ Georges County in 1944. 8 (3 in 37 acres) in "mixed oak forest" (white, scarlet, and chestnut oaks) i: Baltimore County in 1953 (Cole and Kolb, 1953) ; 6 (2.5 in 40 acres) i: 1948 (Kolb, et al., 1948); 5 (2 in 37 acres) in 1952 (Kaufmann, et al 1952); 4 (1.5 in 40 acres) in 1950 (Kolb, 1950); 3 (1 in 40 acres) i: 1949 (Kolb, 1949a) ; absent in 1951 (Kolb and Cole, 1951). 6 (4.5 in 80 acres) in "central hardwood forest (oaks-tulip-poplar) witl scattered pine" in the District of Columbia in 1951; 4 (3 in 80 acres) ii 1953 (Clagett, 1953) ; 2.5 (2 in 80 acres) in 1954 (Wright, 1955) ; 1 (1 ii 80 acres) in 1948 and 1949 (Trever, 1952); 1 (1 in 80 acres) in 195; (Clagett, 1952). Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: 40 near Emmits^ burg, Frederick County, on May 10, 1952 (J. W. Richards) ; 39 a1 Patuxent Refuge on May 10, 1950. Fall: 5 at Patuxent Refuge or September 3, 1951 (C. H. Mayhood). CONNECTICUT WARBLER Opororn/s og/7/s (Wilson) Status. — Fall transient: Uncommon in all sections. Spring transient: Rare and irregular (all reliable records from the vicinity of the District of Columbia and Baltimore). Habitat. — Wood margins and other brushy areas in moist situations. Spring migration (11 records, including 5 specimens) .—i5'a;- BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 307 rente dates: May 5, 1901, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ,nd May 30, 1882, in the District of Columbia (USNM— E. W. Kelson) . Occurrence peak (7 records) : May 11 to May 24. Four ►f the specimens were collected in 1882 on May 22 (D. W. Pren- liss), May 24 (H. W. Henshaw), May 28 (W. Palmer), and May ';0 (E. W. Nelson), all in the District of Columbia. The other specimen was collected at Plummers Island, Montgomery County, m May 17, 1909 (W. H. Osgood). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 10-20 to October ;i0-20 ; peak, September 25 to October 10. Extreme arrival dates: lAugust 28, 1886, in the District of Columbia (USNM— A. K. JFisher) ; September 3, 1950, in Baltimore County (C. M. Bu- chanan) ; September 6 and 7, 1939, in the District of Columbia (F. C. Lincoln) ; September 9, 1943, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure dates: November 7, 1948, in Prince Georges County (M. B. Meanley) ; October 29, 1947, in Anne Arundel County; October 24, 1889, in the District of Columbia (W. Palmer) . Maximum counts.— FaZL- 7 in Prince Georges County on October 3, 1947 ; 4 banded in Worcester County on September 13, 1955. MOURNING WARBLER Oporornis Philadelphia (Wilson) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 57) : Uncommon locally in the Allegheny Mountain section— occurring regularly in Garrett County on Backbone Mountain at elevations above 3,000 feet (rare and local on the east slope of Backbone Mountain, down to 2,640 feet). Transient: Uncommon in the Ridge and Valley, Piedmont, Upper Chesapeake, and Western Shore sections (prob- ably also as numerous in the Allegheny Mountain section, although there are no definite transient records from that area) ; rare in the Eastern Shore section. Habitat. — Breeding: Brushy, cut-over oak-chestnut and north- ern hardwood forests— especially those areas that contain black- berry thickets. Transient: Wood margins and moist, brushy, cut- over forests. Nesting season.— No definite nest records; however, adults were observed carrying food on June 26, 1949, in Garrett County. Spring migration. — Normal period: May 15-20 to June 1-5; peak May 20 to June 1. Extreme arrival dates: May 4, 1928, in the District of Columbia (W. J. Whiting) ; May 5, 1951, in Mont- gomery County (S. A. Briggs) ; May 7, 1932, in Cecil County_ (J. W. Brown). Extreme departure dates: June 11, 1945, m Prince 308 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Georges County; June 7, 1917, in the District of Columbia (F. Harper) . Fall migration. — Normal period: August 20-25 to October 1- 5; peak, August 25 to October 1. Extreme arrival dates: August 17, 1894, in Prince Georges County (USNM — G. Marshall) ; August 19, 1877, in the District of Columbia (W. Palmer) . Ex- treme departure dates: October 13, 1946, in Prince Georges County; October 9, 1897, along the Patapsco River marsh (F. C. Kirkwood). Breeding population density (territorial males per 100 acres). — 10 (2 in 21 acres) in "dense second-growth" (oak-maple ridge forest) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: 5 at Patuxent Refuge on May 31, 1943. YELLOWTHROAT Geothlypis frichas (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding: Abundant in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections ; common in the Allegheny Mountain section ; fairly common in the Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections. Transient: Common, occasionally abundant, in all sections. Wintering : Rare in the Eastern Shore section and in the tidewater areas of the Western Shore and Upper Chesapeake sections; casual in the Piedmont section — recorded at Lake Ro- land, Baltimore County, on December 22, 1935 (Meanley, 1936b). Habitat. — Brushy wet meadows and marshes, and thickets of shrubs and small trees in swampy situations. Nesting season. — Early May to mid-August (nesting peak, late May to early July) . Extreme egg dates (41 nests) : May 4, 1954, in Dorchester County and August 4, 1895 (F. C. Kirkwood), in Baltimore County. Extreme nestling dates (24 nests) : May 23, 1954, in Worcester County (J. Travis) and August 13, 1893, in Baltimore County (Kirkwood, 1895). Spring migration. — Normal period: April 15-25 to May 15- 25; peak. May 1 to May 15. Extreme arrival dates: April 10, 1954, in Allegany County (L. McCollough, E. Minke) and Caroline County (M. W. Hewitt) ; April 11, 1929, in the District of Co- lumbia (W. H. Ball) ; April 11, 1954, in Charles County (M. C. Crone, A. R. Stickley, Jr.) ; April 12, 1929 in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; April 12, 1947, in Queen Annes County (E. G. Davis) ; April 12, 1948, in Prince Georges County. Fall migration. — Normal period: August 15-25 to October 15-25; peak, September 1 to October 1. Extreme arrival date: BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 309 .ugust 12, 1943, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure ates: November 13, 1949, in Prince Georges County (M. B. leanley) ; November 2, 1919, in the District of Columbia (F. [arper) . Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 cres) . — 11 (5 in 4% acres) in hedgerow along brook between agricultural fields (including strip 27% yards wide on each side of hedgerow) in Prince Georges County in 1948. 08 (14 in 13 acres) in shrub swamp (alder, poison sumac, sweet pepperbush, swamp rose, young red maple, etc.) in Prince Georges County in 1945. 0 (24 in 30 acres) in "damp deciduous scrub with standing dead trees" 1 (burned-over, poorly drained upland forest) in Prince Georges County I in 1947 (Stewart, et al., 1947). 8 (11 in 19.2 acres) in "shrubby field with stream-bordered trees" in Balti- more County in 1947, 47 (9 in 19.2 acres) in 1946 (Cooley, 1947). 5 (9 in 16% acres) in "cattail marsh" (narrow-leaved cattail stand with j scattered swamp rose-mallow) in Calvert County in 1948 (Springer and j Stewart, 1948a). |6 (12 in 26 acres) in "dry deciduous scrub" (burned-over upland oak forest) 1 in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Robbins, et al., 1947b). 1 (23 in 58 acres) in brushy, poorly drained, abandoned farmland in Prince I Georges County in 1947. 1 9 (10 in 34% acres) in pine field (abandoned field with open growth of young ' scrub pine) in Prince Georges County in 1945. i;2 (2 in 9 acres) in "scrub spruce bog" (brush-meadow stage with young red i spruce) in Garrett County in 1951 (Robbins and Stewart, 1951b). ]'l (2 in 9% acres) in "open hemlock-spruce bog" (brush-meadow stage with ! young hemlock, red spruce, alder, etc.) in Garrett County in 1949 (Rob- bins, 1949c). 6 (4 in 25 acres) in "unsprayed apple orchard with unmowed ground cover" in Allegany County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). |.4 (9 in 66 acres) in field and edge habitat (including strips of flood-plain ! forest, brushy fields, and hedgerows) in Baltimore County in 1947 ' (Hampe, et al., 1947). 1.3 (4 in 30 acres) in "switchgrass marsh-meadow" in Somerset County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948a). L3 (2 in 15 acres) in "open slash area" (cut-over oak-maple ridge forest) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). LI (2 in 18% acres) in "second-growth river swamp" (red maple, sweetgum, black gum, etc., with dense understory of holly, sweet pepperbush, and greenbrier) in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948d). I (2 in 28 acres) in partially opened flood-plain forest (sycamore, ash, elm, etc.) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). I (2 in 85 acres) in well-drained flood-plain forest (sweetgum, hornbeam, river birch, tulip-poplar, etc.) along the boundary between Anne Arundel and Prince Georges Counties in 1945 (Stewart, et al., 1946). Maximum counts (nonbreeding).— S^^nngr; 200+ at Port Tobacco, Charles County, on May 11, 1943 (I. N. Gabrielson, A- 310 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE L. Nelson) ; 135 near Greenbelt, Prince Georges County, on Ma;( 8, 1954 (L. W. Oring) ; 108 in the Middle River area, Baltimor^ County, on May 5, 1951 (E. Willis, D. A. Jones) . Fall: 189 fount dead at the Washington Monument, Washington, D. C, on Sep tember 12, 1937 (Overing, 1938). Winter: 5 in the Wicomic River area of Charles and St. Marys Counties on December 3C 1951 (J. W. Terborgh, R. R. Kerr) . YELLOW-BREASTED CHAT hteria virens (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding and transient: Common in the Easteri Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections; fairl; common in the Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections; uncom mon in the Allegheny Mountain section. Wintering : Casual in th Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections — recorded in Wor cester, Talbot, Baltimore, Anne Arundel, and St. Marys Counties and the District of Columbia. This species was not recorded i] winter before 1952. Habitat. — Hedgerows, wood margins, and other brushy habi tats, including cut-over and burned-over upland forests. Nesting season. — Mid-May to late July (nesting peak, lat May to early July). Extreme egg dates (102 nests) : May 18 1887, in the District of Columbia (Cooke, 1929) and July 16, 193S in Prince Georges County (E. G. Cooley). Extreme nestlim dates (29 nests) : June 1, 1946, in Baltimore County (H. Kolb' and July 26, 1891, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Period of occurrence. — Normal period: April 25-May 5 t September 15-25; peak. May 10 to August 15. Extreme arriva dates: April 3, 1951, at Gibson Island — possibly a wintering bir( (Mrs. M. North) ; April 14, 1917, in Montgomery County (Mis, H. P. Childs) ; April 16, 1952, in Talbot County (Mrs. S. Hender son). Extreme departure dates: October 14, 1954, in Princi Georges County (L. W. Oring) ; October 11, 1954, in Frederic! County (J. W. Richards) ; October 10, 1953, in Baltimore Count: (C. M. Buchanan). Several November records, possibly repre senting wintering birds, have been omitted. Breeding population densities (territorial males per 10( acres) . — 36 (7 in 19.2 acres) in "shrubby field with stream-bordered trees" in Balti more County in 1947; 31 (6 in 19.2 acres) in 1946 (Cooley, 1947). 28 (8.5 in 30 acres) in "damp deciduous scrub with standing dead trees (burned-over, poorly drained upland forest) in 1948 (Oresman, et al 1948); 13 (4 in 30 acres) in 1947 (Stewart, et al., 1947). 15 (4 in 26 acres) in "dry deciduous scrub" (burned-over upland oak foresti in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Robbins, et al., 1947), BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 311 [5 (8.5 in 58 acres) in brushy, poorly drained, abandoned farmland in Prince Georges County in 1947. I (5 in 66 acres) in field and edge habitat (including strips of flood-plain forest, brushy fields, and hedgerows) in Baltimore County in 1947 (Hampe, et al., 1947). I (2 in 25 acres) in "unsprayed apple orchard with unmowed ground cover" in Allegany County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: 100+ at Port Tobacco, Charles County, on May 11, 1953 (I. N. Gabrielson, et il.) ; 56 in Howard County on May 8, 1954; 34 in the Pocomoke Swamp on May 16, 1954 (J. K. Wright). Fall: 13 near Seneca, Montgomery County, on September 5, 1953 (H. A. Sutton) ; 4 aanded on the barrier beach north of Ocean City on September 12, 1955. HOODED WARBLER Wilsonia citrina (Boddaert) Status. — B^^eeding and trayisient (see fig. 58) : Common in the Western Shore, and Ridge and Valley sections ; common locally in the Eastern Shore section (during the breeding season largely restricted to the swamp along the Pocomoke River and its tribu- taries) ; fairly common in the Piedmont section and locally in the Allegheny Mountain section (at elevations under 2,000 feet in the northwestern part, and on the higher ridges above 2,800 feet) ; I I Principal Range • Local Record (Redstart) Figure 58. — Breeding ranges of Hooded Warbler and American Redstart. 312 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE uncommon elsewhere in the Allegheny Mountain section; rare ii the Upper Chesapeake section. Habitat. — Swamp forests or rich, moist forests on the upland that contain a fairly dense understory of shrubs, including sucll species as sweet pepperbush, southern arrow-wood, spicebushl mountain laurel, and great laurel. Nesting season. — Mid-May to mid-August (nesting peak, lat< May to early July) . Extreme egg dates (12 nests) : May 22, 1943 1 and July 30, 1943, in Prince Georges County. Extreme nestlinil dates (7 nests) : June 9, 1933, in Anne Arundel County (M. B Meanley) and July 11, 1944, in Prince Georges County (J. Bl Cope) . Young birds out of the nest were recorded as early as Jun< I 4, 1949, in Montgomery County (D. M. Thatcher), and partialis dependent young were observed being fed by parents as late as, August 27, 1955, in Prince Georges County. Spring migration. — Normal period: April 20-30 to May 20-30 peak, May 1 to May 15. Extreme arrival dates: April 3, 1950, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson) ; April 13, 1911 (A. Wetmore), and April 13, 1947 (Gunn and Crocker, 1951), ii the District of Columbia; April 16, 1949, in Worcester County April 17, 1945, in Prince Georges County. Fall migration. — Normal period: July 25-August 5 to Sep tember 20-30 ; peak, August 15 to September 10. Extreme depar ture dates: October 16, 1953, in the District of Columbia (CO Handley, Jr.) ; October 8, 1952, in Prince Georges County (L. W Oring) . Breeding population densities (territorial males per 10(1 acres) . — 63 (8 in 12% acres) in lowland seepage swamp forest (red maple, sweetgum pin oak with brushy understory of sweet-bay, winterberry, arrow-wooc etc.) in Prince Georges County in 1946. 48 (11.6 in 24% acres) in river terrace forest (beech-white oak) in Princ Georges County in 1944. 36 (4 in 11 acres) in upland seepage swamp forest (red maple, sweetgum black gum, pitch pine with dense understory of holly, sweet pepperbusli clammy azalea, maleberry, etc.) in Prince Georges County in 1946. 32 (6 in 18% acres) in "second-growth river swamp" (red maple, sweetgum black gum, etc., with dense understory of holly, sweet pepperbush, an< greenbrier) in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948d) 32 (2 in 6^ acres) in "young second-growth resulting from cutting" (oak maple ridge forest) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). 29 (6 in 21 acres) in "dense second-growth" (oak-maple ridge forest) ii Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). 18 (8 in 44% acres) in river-bluff forest (beech, white oak, and scarlet oak in Prince Georges County in 1944; 14 (6 in 44% acres) in 1945 (J. "W Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 313 7 (2.5 in 15 acres) in "open slash area" (cut-over, oak-maple ridge forest) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). .6 (5.2 in 32% acres) in pine-oak forest (pitch pine, scrub pine, Spanish oak) in Prince Georges County in 1944. t (3 in 36 acres) in "virgin central hardwood deciduous forest" (white oak- tulip-poplar) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart and Robbins, 1947b). J (2 in 22% acres) in upland oak forest (white, scarlet, and black oaks) in Prince Georges County in 1944. 5 (5 in 80 acres) in "central hardwood forest (oaks-tulip-poplar) with scat- tered pine" in the District of Columbia in 1948, 4 (3.5 in 80 acres) in 1949 (Trever, 1952) ; 4 (3 in 80 acres) in 1952 and 1953 (Clagett, 1952 and 1953) ; and in 1954 (Wright, 1955) ; 2 (2 in 80 acres) in 1951 (Trever, 1952). Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: 100 at Gibson llsland, Anne Arundel County, on May 8, 1955 (Mrs. W. L. Hen- derson, Mrs. G. Tappan) ; 50 at Patuxent Refuge on May 6, 1950; 40 near Emmitsburg, Frederick County, on May 10, 1952 (J. W. 'Richards) . Fall: 16 at Patuxent Refuge on September 5, 1943. WILSON'S WARBLER Wilsonia pusilla (Wilson) Status. — Transient: Uncommon, occasionally fairly common, in all sections, except the Eastern Shore section where it is rare. Wintering: Accidental— 1 was collected (USNM) in Worcester County on December 22, 1947 (Robbins, 1949d). Habitat. — Wood margins, hedgerows, and other brushy habi- tats, usually in moist situations. Spring migration. — Normal period: May 5-10 to May 20-30; peak. May 10 to May 20. Extreme arrival dates: April 26, 1953, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tap- pan) ; April 29, 1932, in the District of Columbia (E. N. Grinnell). Extreme departure dates: June 10, 1928, in Harford County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; June 4, 1910, in the District of Columbia (V. Bailey) ; May 31, 1943, in Prince Georges County; May 31, 1951, in Montgomery County (S. H. Low). Fall migration.— Normal period: August 20-25 to September 20-25; peak, August 25 to September 15. Extreme arrival dates: August 15, 1953, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tappan) ; August 17, 1945, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure dates: October 13, 1919 (M. J. Pellew), and October 6, 1904 (W. "W. Cooke), in the District of Columbia; October 5, 1954, in Prince Georges County (L. W. Oring) . Maximum counts. — Spring: 10 along the C. and 0. Canal, Montgomery County, on May 12, 1951 (P. A. DuMont) ; 10 at Greenbelt, Prince Georges County, on May 12, 1956 (L. W. 314 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Oring) ; 9 at Patuxent Refuge on May 18, 1947. Fall: 10 at Seneca, Montgomery County, on September 12, 1954 (J. W. Ter- borgh). CANADA WARBLER Wi'/sonia canadensis (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 59) : Common in the Allegheny, Mountain section at elevations above 2,100 feet. Transient: Com mon in all sections except the Eastern Shore section where it isi uncommon. Figure 59. — Breeding ranges of Canada Warbler and Rose-breasted Grosbeak. Habitat. — Breeding: Swamp and moist forests, in bogs and along streams with understory of great laurel and other shrubs; also occurs in brushy cut-over oak-chestnut and northern hardwood forests on the ridges. Transient: Flood-plain and swamp forests, and rich moist forests on the upland. Nesting season.— Probably late May to mid-July. Egg dates (2 nests) : May 28, 1935, in Allegany County (L. M. Llewellyn) and June 2, 1919, in Garrett County (J. M. Sommer) . Kirkwood. (1895) refers to a nest with young, found in Allegany County inn 1895, sometime later than June 10. Several observations have been made of adults carrying food in Garrett County, the earliest record occurring on June 11, 1918 (F. C. Kirkwood). Spring migration. — Normal period: May 1-10 to May 25-June BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 315 ; peak, May 10 to May 25. Extreme arrival dates: April 26, 1925, n Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; April 28, 1954, in Howard 'ounty. Extreme departure dates: June 4, 1945, in Prince Georges :!ounty; June 2, 1907 (A. K. Fisher), and June 2, 1917 (F. larper), in the District of Columbia. Fall migration. — Normal period: August 10-15 to September .5-25; peak, August 20 to September 5. Extreme arrival dates: uly 31, 1887, in the District of Columbia (A. K. Fisher) ; August ;, 1951, in Baltimore County (E. Willis) ; August 6, 1953, in Prince jeorges County, Extreme departure dates: October 23, 1921, in Montgomery County (A. Wetmore) ; October 12, 1947, in Prince jeorges County; October 11, 1908, in the District of Columbia (R.W.Williams). Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 icres) . — i5 (9.5 in 21 acres) in "dense second-growth" (oak-maple ridge forest) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). i4 (5,5 in 12% acres) in "virgin spruce-hemlock bog forest" (red spruce and hemlock with dense understory of great laurel) in Garrett County in 1951 (Stewart and Robbins, 1951a). 52 (2 in 6% acres) in "young second-growth resulting from cutting" (oak- maple ridge forest) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). J7 (4 in 15 acres) in "open slash area" (cut-over oak-maple ridge forest) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). >2 (2 in 9 acres) in "scrub spruce bog" (brush-meadow stage with young red spruce) in Garrett County in 1951 (Robbins and Stewart, 1951b). 21 (2 in 91/2 acres) in "open hemlock-spruce bog" (brush-meadow stage with young hemlock, red spruce, alder, etc.) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949c). 7 (1.5 in 20 acres) in "virgin hemlock stand" in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949a). Maximum counts (nonbreeding) .—Spring : 100+ along the Choptank River, Caroline County, on May 10-11, 1952 (A, J, Fletcher, M, W. Hewitt) ; 91 at Greenbelt, Prince Georges County, on May 12, 1956 (L. W. Oring) ; 72 at Patuxent Refuge on May 11, 1950; 42 in the District of Columbia on May 13, 1950 (P. A. DuMont, et al.) . Fall: 33 at Patuxent Refuge on August 20, 1943 ; 14 near Great Falls, Montgomery County, on August 29, 1948 (D. C. Aud. Soc). AMERICAN REDSTART Setophaga ruficilla (Linnaeus) Status.— Bree(^m(/ (see fig. 58) : Common in the Allegheny Mountain, Ridge and Valley, Piedmont, and Western Shore sec- tions; locally common in the Eastern Shore section (largely re- stricted to the swamps along the Pocomoke and upper Nanticoke Rivers and their tributaries) ; uncommon and local in the Upper 316 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Chesapeake section. Transient: Common in all sections. Win-^ tering: Accidental — 1 seen at White Marsh, Baltimore County, cm December 6, 1950 (C. D. Hackman) ; 1 seen in the District of( Columbia on December 4, 1951 (A. M. Stimson) . Habitat. — Breeding: Second-growth river swamps and flood-1 plain forests in all sections; also in second-growth mixed meso- phytic and northern hardwood forests in the Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Mountain sections. Transient: Various types of deciduous forest. Nesting season. — Late April to early July (nesting peak, mid- May to mid-June) . Nest-building was recorded as early as Apri] 19, 1949, in Worcester County (J. H. Buckalew) . Extreme egg dates (39 nests) : April 25, 1949, in Worcester County (J. H. Buckalew) and June 30, 1890, in the District of Columbia (E. M. Hasbrouck). Extreme nestling dates (19 nests) : May 23, 1954 in Worcester County (A. A. Brandenburg) and July 9, 1898 (F. C, Kirkwood), in Baltimore County. Spring migration. — Normal period: April 15-25 to May 20-30; peak. May 1 to May 15. Extreme arrival dates: April 7, 1946, in Worcester County; April 10, 1954, in Prince Georges County (L. W. Oring) ; April 13, 1952, in Charles County (A. R. Stickley Jr.) ; April 14, 1927, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Fall migration. — Normal period: August 1-10 to October 1- 10; peak, August 25 to September 20. Extreme arrival dates. July 22, 1918, in the District of Columbia (A. H. Howell) ; July 22 1955, in Prince Georges County (W. H. Stickel) ; July 25, 1951, ir Baltimore County (E. Willis). Extreme departure dates: Novem- ber 16, 1948, in the District of Columbia (E. G. Davis) ; Octobei 18, 1955, in Caroline County (Mrs. A. J. Fletcher) ; October 17 1953, in Montgomery County (P. G. DuMont) ; October 16, 1947 and October 16, 1954 (L. W. Oring) , in Prince Georges County. Breeding population densities (territorial males per 10( acres) . — 91 (17 in 18% acres) in "second-growth river swamp" (red maple, sweetgum black gum, etc., with dense understory of holly, sweet pepperbush, an( greenbrier) in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948d) 51 (43.4 in 85 acres) in well-drained flood-plain forest (sweetgum, hornbeam river birch, tulip-poplar, etc.) along the boundary between Anne Arunde and Prince Georges Counties in 1945 (Stewart, et al., 1946). 16 (3 in 19.2 acres) in "shrubby field with stream-bordered trees" in Balti more County in 1947, absent in 1946 (Cooley, 1947). 12 (3.5 in 28 acres) in partially opened flood-plain forest (sycamore, ash, elm etc.) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). 12 (1.6 in 13 acres) in shrub swamp (alder, poison sumac, sweet pepperbush swamp rose, young red maple, etc.) in Prince Georges County in 1945. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 317 Maximum counts (nonbreeding). — Spring: 130+ at Port Tobacco, Charles County, on May 11, 1943 (I. N. Gabrielson, A. L. iNelson) ; 130 in Baltimore County on May 6, 1950; 115 in Mont- igomery County on May 8, 1954 (K. Stecher) ; 91 at Patuxent Refuge on May 6, 1950; 72 in the Pocomoke Swamp on April 21, il954 (P. G. DuMont). Fall: 150 at Tilghman, Talbot County, on ISeptember 8, 1955 (R. L. Kleen) ; 110 on August 27, 1954, and 55 'on September 19, 1954, at Greenbelt, Prince Georges County (L. W. iOring) ; 40 in Baltimore County on August 31, 1893 (F. C. Kirk- Iwood) ; 27 killed at the Washington Monument in the District of : Columbia on September 12, 1937 (Overing, 1938) ; about 25 killed at the Friendship International Airport ceilometer, Anne Arundel County, on September 10, 1954. Family PLOCEIDAE HOUSE SPARROW Passer domesfkus (Linnaeus) I Status. — Permanent resident. Common (locally abundant) in !the Upper Chesapeake and Piedmont sections; fairly common ' (locally abundant) in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, Ridge ; and Valley, and Allegheny Mountain sections. j Habitat. — Most numerous in the vicinity of barnyards in the I country ; also characteristic of small towns and the business sec- tions of cities. In the rural areas, this species generally concen- trates wherever livestock are kept. Nesting season. — Mid-February to mid-November (nesting peak, early March to mid-August). Nest-building was recorded as early as February 14, 1894, in the District of Columbia (C. W. Richmond) and as late as November 3, 1898, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme egg dates (86 nests) : March 29, 1930 (M. B. Meanley), and August 6, 1882 (F. C. Kirkwood), in Baltimore County. Extreme nestliJig dates (45 nests) : April 15, 1945, in Prince Georges County and September 6, 1917 (W. Mar- shall), in Baltimore County. Maximum counts. — Winter (Christmas counts) : 1,329 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1955; 1,311 in the Catoctin Mountain area, Frederick County, on December 30, 1951 ; 793 in the Triadelphia Reservoir area on January 1, 1954 ; 607 in Caro- line County on December 26, 1953. History of introduction. — The following description of the early history of the House Sparrow in Maryland is largely derived from data presented by Kirkwood (1895). Beginning in 1851, when this European species was first introduced into the United States at Brooklyn, New York, importations were made at widely 318 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE different points during- the next 30 years. Its first appearance ir Maryland was recorded in 1865 at Hancock in Washingtor County. After this it soon appeared at other locations, including importations which were made in the District of Columbia in 1871 (Cooke, 1929) and in Baltimore in 1874. The establishment oJ this species in the various sections of the State may be describee as having taken place in the following order: Ridge and Vallej section during the period 1865-70 ; Allegheny Mountain and Pied- mont sections during the period 1872-76; Upper Chesapeake Western Shore, and Eastern Shore sections during the period 1877-80. Family ICTERIDAE BOBOLINK Dolichonyx oryzivorus (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 60) : Fairly common in the Alle- gheny Mountain section at elevations above 2,500 feet; rare and local in the Piedmont section, occurring in Baltimore County in Worthington Valley (M. B. Meanley) and in Frederick County in the vicinity of Buckeystown. Spring transient: Fairly common in all sections. Fall transient: Common, occasionally abundant, in the Upper Chesapeake and Western Shore sections ; fairly com- FlGURE 60.— Breeding ranges of Bobolink and Boat-tailed Grackle. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 319 non in the Eastern Shore section; uncommon in the Piedmont, ^idge and Valley, and Allegheny Mountain sections. Habitat. — Breeding: Hayfields and over-grown pastures. Transient: In spring this species frequents various field and field Dorder habitats ; in fall, it concentrates in fresh or brackish tidal narshes, especially those that contain wild rice. Concentration areas, in fall, include the marshes of the Patuxent, Patapsco, Gun- powder, Elk, and (formerly) the Potomac Rivers. Nesting season. — In 1932, a nest in Garrett County contained eggs on June 20 (Brooks, 1936c) and young birds on June 24 (Brooks, 1934). Spring migration. — Normal period: May 1-5 to May 20-30; peak. May 5 to May 20. Extreme arrival dates: April 16, 1905, April 25, 1898 and 1904, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; April 25, 1931 (Mr. and Mrs. L. D. Miner), in the District of Columbia; April 26, 1911 and 1914, in Dorchester County (R. W. Jackson). Extreme departure dates: June 12, 1921, in Anne Arundel County (T. Denmead) ; June 12, 1931, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; June 6, 1909, in the District of Colum- bia (H. W. Henshaw) ; June 6, 1914, in Dorchester County (R. W. Jackson) ; June 5, 1948, in Calvert County. Fall migration. — Normal period: July 25-August 5 to Octo- ber 1-10; peak, August 25 to September 15. Extreme arrival dates: July 18, 1944, in Prince Georges County; July 21, 1900, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; July 24, 1954, in St. Marys County (R. R. Kerr). Extreme departure dates: November 8, 1888, on the Patapsco River (A. Resler) ; November 5, 1901, on the Gunpowder River (F. C. Kirkwood) ; October 30, 1943, in Prince Georges County. Maximum cou^^ts.— Spring : 5,000 on the Gunpowder River marsh on May 21, 1902 (F. C. Kirkwood) ; 990 in Howard County on May 8, 1954 ; 500 near Blackwater Refuge, Dorchester County, on May 10, 1952 (W. S. Webster) ; 431 in Anne Arundel County on May 8 1954 (P. A. DuMont). Fall: 20,000 at Snows Marsh, Baltimore County, on September 12, 1899 (F. C. Kirkwood) ; 5,000 at the Gunpowder River marsh on August 26, 1904 (F. C. Kirk- wood) ; 2,000 along the Pocomoke River, Worcester County, on September 16, 1950 (J. H. Buckalew). EASTERN MEADOWLARK Sfurnella magna (Linnaeus) Statvs.— Breeding and transient: Common in all sections. Wintering: Common in the Eastern Shore section ; fairly common in the Western Shore and Upper Chesapeake sections; uncommon 320 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE in the Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections ; rare in the Alle- gheny Mountain section. Habitat. — Breeding: Hay fields and over-grown pastures ini agricultural areas; marsh-meadow types in the tidal marshes,] including salt-meadow grass, black grass, and switchgrass, andl American three-square meadows on the coastal barrier beaches. Transient and wintering: Agricultural fields and field borders,, and salt marshes. Nesting season. — Early May to early August (nesting peak,, mid-May to mid-July). Nest-building was recorded as early as^ May 1, 1926, in Dorchester County (R. W. Jackson). Extreme egg dates (68 nests) : May 10, 1941, in Montgomery County (E. J. Court) and July 25, 1922, in Dorchester County (Jackson, 1941). Extreme nestling dates (16 nests) : May 18, 1891, in the District of Columbia (C. W. Richmond) and July 26, 1931, ins Garrett County (J. A. Molter) . Spring migration. — Normal period: March 5-15 to April 25- May 5; peak, March 25 to April 20. Extreme arrival dates: February 21, 1908 (H. W. Oldys), and February 22, 1917 (Mr. and Mrs. L. D. Miner), in the District of Columbia; February 28, 1945, in Prince Georges County; March 1, 1902, in Allegany County (G. Eifrig) ; March 1, 1917, in Washington County (M. A. Murphy) ; March 12, 1953, in Garrett County (H. E. Slater, K. F. Sanders). Fall migration. — Normal period: October 1-10 to November 25-December 5; peak, October 15 to November 15. Extreme ar- rival date: September 16, 1943, in Prince Georges County. Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 acres) , — 7 (6 in 90 acres) in mixed hayfields and pastures in Prince Georges County in 1951. 7 (1.3 in 17 acres) in salt-meadow grass marsh-meadow in Somerset County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948a). 5 (1.5 in 30 acres) in switchgrass marsh-meadow in Somerset County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948a). Maximum counts (nonbreeding). — Winter (Christmas counts) : 4,167 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1955; 671 in Caroline County on December 26, 1953; 633 in southern Dor- chester County on December 28, 1954; 387 near the Wicomico River in Charles and St. Marys Counties on December 28, 1952. YELLOW-HEADED BLACKBIRD Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus (Bonaparte) Status. — Casual visitor. On September 10, 1891, a male was BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 321 jollected at Baltimore (Kirkwood, 1895), and on August 29, 1892, a female was collected in the District of Columbia (Hasbrouck, 1893). Two other females were collected in the vicinity of Balti- more, 1 on September 18, 1893 (Md. Acad. Sci.), the other on October 1, 1894 (Kirkwood, 1895). Another male was seen at West Ocean City on May 11, 12, and 13, 1956 (C. M. Buchanan, et al.). REDWINGED BLACKBIRD Agelaius pfioen/ceus (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding: Common, locally abundant, in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake, and Piedmont sections ; fairly common in the Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Mountain sections. Transient: Abundant in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections ; common in the Piedmont, Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Mountain sections. Wintering: Abundant in the Upper Chesapeake section; common in the East- ern Shore section ; fairly common near tidewater in the Western Shore section; uncommon in the interior of the Western Shore section, and in the Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections ; rare in the Allegheny Mountain section. Habitat. — Breeding: Various types of marsh and marsh- meadow with or without scattered shrubs and small trees ; in the Upper Chesapeake and Piedmont sections and to a lesser extent elsewhere, this species also occurs regularly in hayfields and weedy fallow fields and occasionally in grainfields. Transient and wintering: Marshes, agricultural fields, and field borders. Nesting season.— Late April to early August (nesting peak, mid-May to early July). Extreme egg dates (717 nests) : April 28, 1951 (E. Willis), and July 27, 1947 (E. G. Cooley), in Balti- more County. Extreme nestling dates (350 nests) : May 12, 1951, and August 9, 1950, in Baltimore County (E. Willis). Young birds out of the nest were observed in Baltimore County as early asMay 12, 1951 (E.Willis). Spring migration. — Normal period: February 15-25 to May 5-15; peak, February 25 to March 30. Extreme arrival dates: January 23, 1916, in the District of Columbia (W. W. Cooke) ; February 5, 1941, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure dates: May 18, 1902, in the District of Columbia (H. W. May- nard) ; May 18, 1947, in Prince Georges County. Fall migration.— Norma? period: July 20-30 to December 1- 10; peak, October 15 to November 20. Extreme arrival dates: July 8, 1933, in the District of Columbia (E. N. Grinnell) ; July 322 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA, 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 11, 1919, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme de- parture date: December 15, 1942, in Prince Georges County. Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 acres). — 73 (12 in 161/2 acres) in "cattail marsh" (narrow-leaved cattail with scattered swamp rose-mallow) in Calvert County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart' 1948a). 37 (7,2 in 19i/^ acres) in "saltmarsh bulrush-saltgrass marsh" in Somerse County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948a), 36 (7 in 19% acres) in "shrubby field with stream-bordered trees" in Baltimore^ County in 1947, 26 (5 in 19^^ acres) in 1946 (Cooley, 1947). 23 (7 in 30 acres) in "switchgrass marsh-meadow" in Somerset County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948a). Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: "Millions" at Car- roll Island, Baltimore County, on March 15, 1896 (F. C. Kirk-,, wood) ; 10,000 in Baltimore County on March 8, 1900 (F. C. Kirk- wood) ; 6,000 at Port Tobacco, Charles County, on March 2, 19541 (V. C. Kirtley, H. N. Page) . Fall: 10,000 in Baltimore County on November 11, 1894 (F. C. Kirkwood) ; 5,000+ along the Choptank River, Talbot County, on September 9, 1947 (N. Hotchkiss). Winter (Christmas counts) : 800,000 in the Susquehanna Flats area, Cecil County, on December 26, 1948; 26,825 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1954; 17,393 in southern Dorchester County on December 28, 1955; 5,000 at Port Tobacco, Charles County, on December 23, 1937, and December 27, 1941. Banding. — Three recovered in winter (December 31-February 15) in Somerset County had been banded in spring (April 22- May 15) in the following areas : 2 in southeastern Massachusetts and 1 in southern New Jersey. One banded at Patuxent Refugei on March 18, 1950, was recovered in central Vermont on May 16, 1952, and another banded at Patuxent Refuge on August 14, 1946, was recovered in northeastern North Carolina on April 4, 1947. ORCHARD ORIOLE Icterus spurius (Linnaeus) Status, — Breeding and transient: Common in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections; fairly common in the Upper Chesapeake and Piedmont sections; uncommon in the Ridge and Valley section; rare in the Allegheny Mountain section (Brooks, 1936c). Habitat. — Orchards and residential areas of farms, towns, and suburbs ; also occurs regularly in open stands of loblolly pine along the margins of the tidal marshes in the Eastern Shore section. Nesting season. — Early May to early August (nesting peak, late May to late June) . Nest-building was recorded as early as BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 323 vlay 2, 1953, in Worcester County (P. A. DuMont) . Extreme egg lates (65 nests) : May 20, 1916, in Dorchester County (Jackson, l941) and July 14, 1953, in Caroline County (E. Bilbrough). Extreme nestling dates (48 nests) : May 29, 1953, and August 1, L953, in Caroline County (E. Bilbrough). Spring migration. — Normal period: April 25-May 5 to May L5-25; peak, May 5 to May 15. Extreme arrival dates: April 7, 1947, in Prince Georges County; April 19, 1952, in Caroline County (Mr. and Mrs. A. J. Fletcher) ; April 20, 1916, in Dor- chester County (R. W. Jackson) ; April 21, 1917, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Fall migration. — Normal period: July 1-10 to August 20-30. Extreme departure dates: October 13, 1952, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tappan) ; September 21, 1952, in Charles County (M. C. Crone, A. R. Stickley, Jr.) ; September 18, 1954, in Montgomery County (P. A. DuMont) ; September 13, 1940 (A. V. Davis, Jr.), and September 13, 1948 (W. B. Green), in Washington County. The resident birds usually depart during the last half of July, while during some years, small numbers of transients are of regular occurrence dur- ing August. Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 acres) . — 29 (3 in 10.5 acres) in farmyards (including small orchards) in Prince Georges County in 1951. 15 (3 in 20 acres) in suburban residential area (including small orchards and large expanses of lawn) in Prince Georges County in 1942. 10 (2 in 19y5 acres) in "shrubby field with stream-bordered trees" in Balti- more County in 1946, 5 (1 in I9I/5 acres) in 1947 (Cooley, 1947). Maximum counts.— S^^rni^/; 50 along the Gunpowder River on May 5, 1904 (J. Thomas) ; 30 at Port Tobacco, Charles County, on May 6, 1938, and May 11, 1943 (I. N. Gabrielson, F. M. Uhler) ; 29 in Caroline County on May 10, 1952 (Mr. and Mrs. A. J. Fletcher) . BALTIMORE ORIOLE Icterus galbula (Linnaeus) Status. Breeding: Fairly common in the Allegheny Moun- tain, Ridge and Valley, and Piedmont sections ; uncommon in the Upper Chesapeake and Eastern Shore sections; rare (or absent- no definite records) in the Western Shore section. Transient: Fairly common in all sections. Wintering: Rare and irregular in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake, and Pied- mont Sections. Habitat. Breeding: Shade trees in residential areas on farms. 324 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE and in towns and suburbs; also in open stands of flood-plaini forests and moist forests on the upland. Transient: Various typeai of deciduous forest. Nesting season. — Early May to early July (nesting peak, mid- May to mid-June) . Nest-building was recorded as early as May 2, 1891, in Baltimore County (Kirkwood, 1895) and May 2, 1954,, in Caroline County (Mrs. A. J. Fletcher). Extreme egg datesi^ (19 nests) : May 18, 1880, in Washington County (E. A. Small) and June 12, 1931, in Baltimore County (M. B. Meanley) . Ex- treme nestling dates (40 nests) : May 26, 1954, in Caroline County (Mrs. A. J. Fletcher) and July 4, 1898, in Baltimore County (F., C. Kirkwood). Spring migration. — Normal period: April 25-May 5 to May 15-25; peak. May 5 to May 15. Extreme arrival dates: April 9, 1913, in Dorchester County (R. W. Jackson) ; April 17, 1896, in Wicomico County (A. E. Acworth) ; April 18, 1917, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme departure dates: June 12, 1946, in Prince Georges County; June 10, 1899, in the District of Columbia (A. H. Howell) . Fall migration. — Normal period: August 1-10 to September 20-30; peak, August 20 to September 15. Extreme arrival date: July 28, 1943, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure^ dates: October 20, 1945, in Prince Georges County; October 15, 1922, in the District of Columbia (J. Kittredge, Jr.) ; October 10,' 1930, in Kent County (W. Baker). Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 acres) . — 10 (2 in 19% acres) in "shrubby field with stream-bordered trees" in Balti- more County in 1947, 5 (1 in IdYs acres) in 1946 (Cooley, 1947). Maximum counts (nonbreeding). — Spring: 100 along the Gun- powder River marsh on May 8, 1904 (J. Thomas) ; 40 at Patuxent Refuge on May 10, 1950; 40 in Washington County on May 7, 1949 (Dr. R. S. and M. Stauffer). Fall: 11 at Patuxent Refuge on August 29, 1944; 10 (8 banded) on the barrier beach north of Ocean City on September 13, 1955. [BULLOCK'S ORIOLE] Icterus bulhckii (Swainson) Status. — Hypothetical. One was banded at Ruxton, Baltimore County, on January 17, 1955 (R. D. Cole). Another was seen at Claiborne, Talbot County, on March 3 and 8, 1955 (R. L. Kleen). RUSTY BLACKBIRD Euphagus carolinus (Muller) Status. — Transient: Fairly common in all sections. Winter- ing: Uncommon in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 325 hesapeake sections ; rare in the Piedmont, Ridge and Valley, and .llegheny Mountain sections. Habitat. Brushy, cut-over swamp and flood-plain forests ; also scasional in agricultural fields and field borders. Spring migration. — Normal period: February 25-March 5 to .pril 25-May 5; peak, March 25 to April 15. Extreme arrival ates: February 12, 1929 (W. H. Ball), and February 15, 1900 P. Bartsch) , in the District of Columbia ; February 21, 1926, in lontgomery County (W. W. Rubey). Extreme departure dates: lay 24, 1931, in Harford County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; May 18, 893, in Baltimore County (G. H. Gray, W. N. Wholey) ; May 15, 954, in Worcester County (J. K. Wright) ; May 12, 1951, in Mont- omery County (P. A. DuMont). Fall migration.— Normal period: October 1-10 to December -10; peak, October 20 to November 15. Extreme arrival dates: leptember'll, 1928, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; Sep- ember 16, 1885, in the District of Columbia (H. W. Henshaw) ; Jeptember 18, 19'46, in Baltimore County (I. E. Hampe). Ex- reme departure date: December 28, 1945, in Prince Georges ;;!ounty. Maximum counts.— Sprmc/: 500+ in Baltimore County on ^pril 27, 1924 (F. C. Kirkwood) ; 250 on the Gunpowder River narsh on March 30, 1904 (J. Thomas) ; 100+ at Port Tobacco, Charles County, on May 5, 1939 (C. Cottam, F. M. Uhler). Fall: 1,200 along the Patapsco River, Anne Arundel County, on Novem- 3er 13, 1899 (W. H. Fisher) ; 1,000 in Dulaney Valley, Baltimore County, on October 24, 1901 (F. C. Kirkwood) ; 165 at Patuxent Refuge on October 25, 1944. Winter (Christmas counts) : 242 aear Chase, Baltimore County, on December 28, 1952; 223 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1955; 106 near the Wicomico River in Charles and St. Marys Counties on December 28, 1952; 103 at Port Tobacco, Charles County, on December 26, 1944; 102 at Patuxent Refuge on January 14, 1953. BREWER'S BLACKBIRD Euphagus cyanocephahs (Wagler) Status.— Casual visitor— 1 seen repeatedly near Emmits- burg, Frederick County, during the period November 24- December 3, 1951 (Richards, 1953) ; also recorded in the same area on November 8-9, 1955 (J. W. Richards). Two were seen near Newark, Worcester County, on December 23, 1946 (J. W. Aldrich) . Three were seen near Port Tobacco, Charles County, on December 28, 1946 (I. N. Gabrielson). On April 8, 1956, 3 were observed near Easton, Talbot County, and 4 were seen at the 326 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge, Dorchester County (P. A\ Buckley) . BOAT-TAILED CRACKLE Cassidix mexicanus (Gmelin) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 60) : Fairly common in the coastal area of Worcester County and in the tidewater areas of Somerse County ; rare, local, and irregular elsewhere in the tidewater area of the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections, occurring a far north as Pomona in Kent County (Small, 1883b) and Gibso Island in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson) . Winter ing: Uncommon in the coastal area of Worcester County and i: the tidewater areas of Somerset County; casual in the tidewate areas of the Western Shore section — 10 seen on Gibson Islanc Anne Arundel County, on December 21, 1951, 50 on February V. 1952, and 100 on March 14, 1952 (Mrs. W. L. Henderson). Habitat. — Salt marshes and marsh borders, including patche' of loblolly pine and thickets of sea myrtle, marsh elder, ani wax-myrtle. Nesting season. — Mid-April to early July. Nest building anil nearly completed nests were recorded in Worcester County o:ii April 21, 1948. Nests with eggs were recorded in one colony i:il Worcester County on June 3, 1938 (G. A. Ammann). Extreme nestling dates (5 colonies) : May 13, 1952 (J. H. Buckalew) am July 7, 1892 (W. N. Wholey), in Worcester County. Maximum counts. — Spring: 200 in the Ocean City area oi May 12, 1951 (E. G. Baldwin, J. W. Terborgh). Fall: 128 in th Ocean City area on November 11, 1951 ; 70 on Assateague Islan i on August 30, 1950. Winter: 130 in the Ocean City area o; December 21, 1952 (Christmas count) ; 95 near Crisfield, Somei; set County, on January 25, 1947. COMMON CRACKLE Qu/sca/us quhcula (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding: Abundant in the Eastern Shore and Uppe« Chesapeake sections and in the southern part of the Westen Shore section (St. Marys County and southern Charles and CaJ vert Counties) ; common in the Piedmont section and in th^ eastern part of the Ridge and Valley section (Frederick am eastern Washington Counties) ; fairly common (somewhat local in the Allegheny Mountain section, in the western part of th Ridge and Valley section (Allegany County and western Washing; ton County), and in the northern part of the Western Shori section (Prince Georges and Anne Arundel Counties, norther Calvert County, and northern Charles County). Transient: Com mon, occasionally abundant, in all sections. Wintering : Abundan BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 327 I the Upper Chesapeake section; common in the Eastern Shore Action; fairly common in the southern part of the Western Shore action (Calvert, Charles, and St. Marys Counties) ; uncommon 1 the northern part of the Western Shore section (Anne Arundel ind Prince Georges Counties) and in the Piedmont section; rare 1 the Ridge and Valley section. Habitat. — Breeding: Agricultural fields and field borders, armyards, orchards, evergreen patches, and residential areas in 3wns and suburbs. Transient and tuintering: Chiefly agricultural elds and field borders; occasional in various forest types. Nesting season. — Late March to late June (nesting peak, mid- Lpril to late May). Nest-building was recorded as early as larch 21, 1951, in Baltimore County (E. Willis). Extreme egg 'ates (239 nests) : April 6, 1952 (E. Willis), and June 12, 1897 E. J. Cook), in Baltimore County. Extreme nestling dates (184 lests) : April 20, 1952 (E. Willis), and June 24, 1891 (F. C. Kirk- v^ood) , in Baltimore County. Spring migration. — Normal period: February 10-20 to April .-10; peak, February 25 to March 25. Extreme arrival dates: January 17, 1919, in Baltimore County (E. 0. Donovan) ; Janu- iry 21, 1916, in the District of Columbia (Mrs. F. M. Bailey) ; fanuary 28, 1944, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure lates: April 20, 1929, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; \pril 17, 1886, in the District of Columbia (USNM— C. W. Rich- nond) ; April 14, 1944, in Prince Georges County. Fall migration.— Normal period: July 10-20 to December L-10 ; peak, October 25 to November 20. During occasional years the peak movement is greatly delayed, occurring as late as De- cember 16-21 at the Patuxent Refuge in 1944 (Stewart, et al., 1952). Maximum covNTS.—Spring : 5,000+ at Dulaney Valley, Balti- more County, on February 27, 1930 (F. C. Kirkwood) ; 5,000+ at Patuxent Refuge on March 20, 1937 (I. N. Gabrielson). Fall: 60,000 at Patuxent Refuge on December 20, 1944 (late flight) ; 15^000 on Gunpowder River marsh on November 9, 1901 (J. Thomas) ; 10,000+ in Baltimore County on November 9, 1901, November 4, 1929, November 7, 1929, and November 10, 1928 (F C. Kirkwood) ; 10,000 on the Patuxent River marsh near Upper Marlboro on November 14, 1946; 10,000 near Easton, Tal- bot County, on August 18, 1953. Winter: 350,000 over Sassafras River Cecil County, on December 27, 1952 (Christmas count) ; 50,000 on December 18, 1902 (W. H. Fisher), and 31,500 on Janu- ary 25, 1947, in Somerset County. 328 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Banding. — See figure 61. Figure 61. — Common Grackle banding recoveries. Each symbol with numera represents the number of records for each State or Province. Banded Maryland, recovered elsewhere: solid circle = recovered June throufi August; solid triangle = recovered September through May. Recovered Maryland, banded elsewhere: open circle = banded June through Augus open triangle = September through May. BROWN-HEADED COWBIRD Mohfhrus afer (Boddaert) Status. — Breeding: Fairly common in the Allegheny Mountai: Ridge and Valley, Piedmont, Upper Chesapeake, and Easter BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 329 lore sections; uncommon in the Western Shore section. Trans- nt: Common in all sections. Wintering: Common in the Eastern tiore and Upper Chesapeake sections; fairly common in the )uthern part of the Western Shore section (Calvert, Charles, id St. Marys Counties) ; uncommon in the northern part of the /"estern Shore section (Anne Arundel and Prince Georges ounties) and in the Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections; are in the Allegheny Mountain section. Habitat. — Agricultural areas and adjacent woodland. Nesting season.— Late April to early August (nesting peak, arly May to early July) . Extreme egg dates (125 nests) : April 24, 921, in Montgomery County (E. J. Court) and July 28, 1929, in Baltimore County (M. B. Meanley). A young bird out of the .est was recorded as early as May 17, 1919, in Dorchester County R. W. Jackson) . Breeding host species. — A total of 223 instances of cowbird )arasitism have been recorded in Maryland and the District of i:;olumbia, including 59 on sparrows (Emberizinae), 53 on warb- ers (Parulidae), 44 on vireos (Vireonidae) , 15 on buntings (Richmondeninae) , 12 on thrushes (Turdidae), 10 on icterids (Icteridae), 10 on flycatchers (Tyrannidae), 8 on tanagers (Thraupidae) , and 12 on miscellaneous species. By species, rec- )rds of parasitism are as follows : 39, Red-eyed Vireo ; 23, Song Sparrow; 18, Chipping Sparrow; 11, Field Sparrow; 9 each for yellow Warbler, Yellow-throat, and Cardinal; 7, Summer Tana- ^er ; 6 each for Wood Thrush and Orchard Oriole ; 5 each for East- ern Phoebe, Hooded Warbler, American Redstart, Indigo Bunting, and Henslow's Sparrow; 4 each for Robin, White-eyed Vireo, and Redwinged Blackbird; 3 each for Carolina Wren, Ovenbird, Kentucky Warbler, and Yellow-breasted Chat; 2 each for Great Crested Flycatcher, Mockingbird, Blue-gray Gnatcatcher, Pro- thonotary Warbler, Parula Warbler, Pine Warbler, Prairie Warbler, Louisiana Waterthrush, and Rufous-sided Towhee; 1 each for Black-billed Cuckoo, Eastern Kingbird, Acadian Fly- catcher, Least Flycatcher, Barn Swallow, Carolina Chickadee, Veery, Eastern Bluebird, Starling, Solitary Vireo, Black-and- white Warbler, Worm-eating Warbler, Blue-winged Warbler, Magnolia Warbler, Blackburnian Warbler, Yellow-throated Warb- ler, Scarlet Tanager, Blue Grosbeak, and American Goldfinch. Spring migration.— iVorwai period: February 5-15 to April 15-25; peak, March 10 to April 10. Extreme arrival date: Janu- ary 25, 1941, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure 330 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE dates: May 10, 1910, in the District of Columbia (F. M. Bailey) May 7, 1943, in Prince Georges County. Fall migration. — Normal period: August 15-25 to Decembei 1-10; peak, September 25 to November 1. Extreme arrival dates August 10, 1917, and August 11, 1927, in Dorchester Countj (R. W. Jackson). Extreme departure dates: December 23, 1944 in Prince Georges County; December 19, 1951, in Anne Arunde County (Mrs. G. Tappan). Maximum counts. — Spring: 3,000 in Anne Arundel County oi March 21, 1954 (D. A. Jones, E. Willis) ; 3,000 at Middle River Baltimore County, on March 21, 1955 (E. Willis) ; 2,000 in Ceci County on March 25, 1947; 500 near Emmitsburg, Fredericl County, on April 14 and 15, 1953 (J. W. Richards) . Fall: 1,50( in Dulaney Valley, Baltimore County, on November 11, 189^ (F. C. Kirkv^^ood) ; "thousands" near Cumberland, Alleganj County, on November 3, 1901 (G. Eifrig) ; 600 on Kent Island Queen Annes County, on October 17, 1953 (V. B. Daiker, E Rogers) ; 500 near Beltsville, Prince Georges County, on Angus' 29, 1952. Winter: 200,000 in Cecil County on December 27, 195^ (Christmas count) ; 15,772 in the Ocean City area on Decembe] 27, 1955 (Christmas count) ; 8,700 on Kent Island, Queen Anne; County, on January 26, 1947 ; 2,095 in southern Dorchester Countj on December 28, 1953 (Christmas count). Banding. — Nine banded in Baltimore, Anne Arundel, Princ( Georges, and Montgomery Counties in spring and summer (Marcl 30-August 23) were recovered in fall and winter (November 6- February 10) in the following areas: 7 in eastern South Carolim and 2 in eastern North Carolina. Six recovered in late fall anc winter (November 15-February 5) in Kent, Dorchester, Wico^ mico, and Worcester Counties had been banded in late spring anc summer (April 16-September 22) in the following areas: 5 fron southeastern Massachusetts and 1 from southeastern Connecticut Family THRAUPIDAE SCARLET TANAGER Piranga o/i'vacea (Gmelin) Status. — Breeding and transient: Common in the Ridge anc Valley, Piedmont, and Western Shore sections; fairly common ir Allegheny Mountain, Upper Chesapeake, and Eastern Shore sec- tions. Wintering: Accidental — 1 seen near Berlin, Worcestei County, on December 27, 1953 (C. L. Clagett, E. G. Baldwin) and 1 observed at Annapolis on January 2, 1955 (E. R. Seeders) Habitat. — Various types of deciduous forest — usually mosi BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 331 liumerous in swamp and flood-plain forests, and in rich, moist lorests on the upland, I Nesting season. — Early May to early August (nesting peak, ate May to mid-July). Nest-building was recorded as early as Ulay 8, 1945, in Prince Georges County. Extreme egg dates (32 liests) : May 12, 1953, in Caroline County (M. W. Hewitt) and i^ugust 1, 1892, in Howard County (A. Resler) . Extreme nestling lates (12 nests) : June 4, 1953, in Caroline County (M. W. lewitt) and August 8, 1895, in Baltimore County (H. J. Muller). iitub-tailed young, just out of the nest, were recorded as early as jfune 10, 1953, in Prince Georges County. Spring migration. — Normal period: April 25-30 to May 20-25; peak, May 1 to May 15. Extreme arrival dates: April 17, 1896 (P. W. Schufeldt), and April 18, 1930 (L. McCormick-Goodhart) , in the District of Columbia; April 20, 1952, in Montgomery County (I. R. Barnes) ; April 20, 1954, in Prince Georges County (C. G. Webster, L. W. Oring). Fall migration. — Normal period: August 15-25 to October ll-lO; peak, September 10 to September 30. Extreme departure \dates: November 13, 1896, in the District of Columbia (USNM— |r. Ridgway) ; October 23, 1952, in Baltimore (H. Kolb, E. Willis). '' Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 lacres) . — 26 (9.3 in 36 acres) in "virgin central hardwood deciduous forest" (white oak- tulip-poplar) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart and Robbins, I 1947b). 19 (15.7 in 85 acres) in "well-drained, flood-plain forest" (sweetgum, horn- ' beam, river birch, tulip-poplar) along the boundary between Anne ! Arundel and Prince Georges Counties in 1945 (Stewart, et al., 1946). II (4 in 24y5 acres) in river terrace forest (beech-white oak) in Prince Georges County in 1944. 15 (3.5 in 23^/4 acres) in "mature northern hardwood forest" (black cherry, beech, hemlock, sugar maple, sweet birch, etc.) in Garrett County in 1951 (Robbins and Stewart, 1951a). 14 (3 in 21 acres) in "dense second-growth" (oak-maple ridge forest) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). 13 (6 in 44% acres) in river bluff forest (beech, white oak, scarlet oak) in Prince Georges County, in 1944, 7 (3 in 443/^ acres) in 1945 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). 13 (1.8 in 14% acres) in "poorly drained, flood-plain forest" (pin oak, sweet- gum, red maple, red ash, etc.) in Prince Georges County in 1946. 12 (1.5 in 13 acres) in upland oak forest (white, northern red, chestnut, and black oaks) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). 10 (8 in 80 acres) in "central hardwood forest (oaks-tulip-poplar) with scat- tered pine" in the District of Columbia in 1948, 8 (6.5 in 80 acres) in 1949, 7 (5.5 in 80 acres) in 1951 (Trever, 1952) ; 5 (4 in 80 acres) in 1952' (Clagett, 1952) ; 4 (3 in 80 acres) in 1953 (Clagett, 1953). 332 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 10 (2 in 20 acres) in "virgin hemlock forest" in Garrett County in 194) (Robbins, 1949a). 9 (3 in 32% acres) in pine-oak forest (pitch pine, scrub pine, Spanish oak) i i Prince Georges County in 1944. 9 (2.5 in 28 acres) in partially opened, flood-plain forest (sycamore, ash, eln , etc.) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). 8 (2.5 in 30 acres) in "damp deciduous scrub with standing dead trees ^ (burned-over, poorly drained upland forest) in Prince Georges Count in 1948 (Oresman, et al., 1948). 6 (1.4 in 23% acres) in upland oak forest (white, scarlet, and black oaks) i; Prince Georges County in 1944. 4 (1.5 in 37 acres) in "mixed oak forest" (white, scarlet, and chestnut oaks etc.) in Baltimore County in 1952 (Kaufmann, et al., 1952) ; 3 (1 in 4' acres) in 1950 (Kolb, 1950) ; 3 (1 in 37 acres) in 1951 and 1953 (Kolb an> Cole, 1951; Cole and Kolb, 1953); 1 (0.5 in 40 acres) in 1949 (Kolb: 1949a) ; absent in 1948 (Kolb, et al., 1948). Maximum counts (nonbreeding). — Spring: 110 at Patuxen' Refuge on May 10, 1950 ; 42 along the C. and 0. Canal in Mont- gomery County on May 9, 1953 (E. J. Stivers, et al.). Fall: 1\\ at Patuxent Refuge on September 25, 1943. SUMMER TANAGER Piranga rubra (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding and transient: Fairly common in the south- ern half of Worcester County, and near tidewater in the Westerr^ Shore section; uncommon elsewhere in the Eastern Shore anc Western Shore sections, and along the Potomac River valley and on Sugarloaf Mountain in the Piedmont section; rare elsewhere (formerly more numerous) in the Piedmont, and Ridge and Val- ley sections, and in northern Caroline County. Habitat. — Upland oak-hickory and oak-chestnut forests; also occurs in upland stands of loblolly pine and scrub pine. Nesting season.— Late May to late July (nesting peak, early June to early July. Extreme egg dates (41 nests) : May 24, 1912, in St. Marys County (E. J. Court) and July 13, 1902, in Baltimore County (J. M. Sommer). Extreme nestling dates (7 nests): June 13, 1899, in Baltimore County (J. M. Sommer) and July 27, 1954, in Caroline County (Mr. and Mrs. A. J. Fletcher). Spring migration.— A^ormaZ period: April 25-30 to May 20-25; peak, May 1 to May 15. Extreme date of arrival: April 21, 1896, in Montgomery County (P. W. Schufeldt). Extreme date of departure: May 29, 1954, in Prince Georges County. Fall Migration. — Normal period: August 15-25 to September 20-25. Extreme departure date: September 29, 1898, in Balti- more County (W. H. Fisher). BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 333 Breeding population density (territorial males per 100 icres) . — 0 (2 in 21 acres) in "immature loblolly-shortleaf pine stand" (trees 45 to 65 feet in height) in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948c). Maximum counts (nonbreedmg) .—Spring : 9 in St. Marys bounty on May 8, 1954 (J. W. Terborgh, J. W. Taylor, Jr.) ; 8 at Port Tobacco, Charles County, on May 12, 1951 (M. C. Crone) ; 6 n Seneca area, Montgomery County, on May 9, 1953 (I. R. Barnes, 3t al.). Fall: 7 at Port Tobacco on September 23, 1951 (M. C. Crone, R. L. Farr) . Family FRINGILLIDAE CARDINAL Richmondena cardinal'is (Linnaeus) Status. — Permanent resident. Common in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake, Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections. Uncommon and local in the Allegheny Mountain section except along Bear Creek and lower Youghiogheny River where it is fairly common. Habitat. — Brushy, cut-over flood-plain and swamp forests, and rich, brushy, moist forests on the upland ; also in hedgerows and wood margins, and in residential areas of farms, towns, and suburbs. Nesting season.— Early April to late August (nesting peak, late April to early July) . Nest-building was recorded as early as April 1, 1945, in Baltimore County (H. Brackbill). Extreme egg dates (206 nests) : April 5, 1931, in the District of Columbia (J. C. Jones) and August 19, 1900, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirk- wood). Extreme nestling dates (104 nests) ; April 24, 1947 (H. Brackbill), and August 29, 1915 (J. M. Sommer), both in Balti- more County. Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 acres) . — 23 (3 in 13 acres) in upland oak forest (white, northern red, chestnut, and black oaks) in JMtontgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). 19 (7 in 36 acres) in "virgin central hardwood deciduous forest" (white oak- tulip-poplar) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart and Robbins, 1947b). 18 (5 in 28 acres) in partially opened, flood-plain forest (sycamore, ash, elm, etc.) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). 13 (11 in 85 acres) in "well-drained flood-plain forest" (sweetgum, hornbeam, river birch, tulip-poplar) along the boundary between Anne Arundel and Prince Georges Counties in 1945 (Stewart, et al., 1946). 9 (7.5 in 80 acres) in "central hardwood forest (oaks-tulip-poplar) with scat- 334 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE tered pine" in the District of Columbia in 1951; 3 (2 in 80 acres) in 195S (Clagett, 1953); 2 (1,5 in 80 acres) in 1949 and 1952 (Clagett, 1952) | 1 (1 in 80 acres) in 1948 (Trever, 1952). 1 8 (1.5 in 18% acres) in "second-growth river swamp" (red maple, sweetgum] black gum, etc., with dense understory of holly, sweet pepperbush, anc greenbrier) in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948d) 5 (2.4 in 47% acres) in hedgerows in agricultural areas and abandonee farmlands (including strip 2TV2 yards wide on each side of hedgerow) ir Prince Georges County in 1945. 5 (3 in 66 acres) in field and edge habitat (including strips of flood-plair forest, brushy fields, and hedgerows) in Baltimore County in 19411 (Hampe, et al., 1947). Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Winter (Christmas' counts) : 640 in the Annapolis area on January 1, 1956; 467 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1953 ; 436 in the District ofl Columbia area on January 1, 1955; 310 in Caroline County out December 26, 1953 ; 284 in the Catoctin Mountain area in Freder- ick County on December 30, 1951 ; 266 near Triadelphia Reservoir- in Montgomery and Howard Counties on December 26, 1954 ; 1711 in Allegany County on December 31, 1949; 73 in Garrett County? on December 31, 1954, Banding. — An adult banded in Montgomery County on March 10, 1939, was recovered in western Pennsylvania (New< Kensington) on July 20, 1940. An immature bird banded in-^ Montgomery County on August 20, 1943, was recovered in south- eastern Pennsylvania on November 2, 1943. Two birds banded in Prince Georges County on March 29, 1946, and September 10, 1946, were recovered on April 23, 1947, and January 17, 1948, respectively, at distances of 13 and 17 miles from the points of banding. ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK Pheucf/cus ludovicianus (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 59) : Fairly common in the Alle- gheny Mountain section ; rare, irregular, and local in the Westerm Shore, Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections — recorded as fol- lows : in Calvert County (where a pair bred at Governor's Runa in 1925 and one was seen at Plum Point on Jufy 25, 1928 — Ball,'. 1930a), in Frederick County (E. J. Court reports that several pairs were found nesting on Sugarloaf Mountain, elevation 1,281 feet, many years ago) , and in Allegany County (one was seen at 1,100 feet on Green Ridge on June 8, 1947). Transient: Fairly common in all sections except the Eastern Shore section, where it is rare. Habitat. — Breeding: Brushy, cut-over bog, mixed mesophytict BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 335 orests, and northern hardwood forests. Transient: Various types f deciduous forests and wood margins. Nesting SEASON. — Late May to early July (probably). Extreme gg dates (10 nests) : May 27, 1919, and June 13, 1917, in Garrett 'ounty (J. M. Sommer). Nestling dates (2 nests) : June 8-14, 895, in Allegany County (Kirkwood, 1895) and June 11, 1918, n Garrett County (J. M. Sommer) . Spring migration. — Normal period: May 1-5 to May 20-251 )eak. May 5 to May 15. Extreme arrival dates: April 8, 1929, it Chestnut Grove, Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; April 17, .902, in the District of Columbia (H. W. Maynard) ; April 20, .952, in Charles County (M. C. Crone, A. R. Stickley, Jr.) ; ^pril 22, 1950, in Montgomery County (F. C. Cross). Extreme leparture dates: June 3, 1917, in the District of Columbia (A. H. 3owell) ; June 2, 1948, in Prince Georges County. Fall migration. — Normal period: September 5-15 to October [-10 ; peak, September 15 to September 30. Extreme arrival dates: f^ugust 22 1953, in Harford County (D. Mcintosh) ; August 29, L887, in the District of Columbia (R. Ridgway) ; August 29, 1954, ;n Charles County (A. R. Stickley, Jr.) ; August 30, 1950, in Baltimore County (E. Willis) ; August 31, 1900, in Prince Georges bounty (C. W. Richmond). Extreme departure dates: November 25, 1901, in Allegany County (G. Eifrig) ; November 23, 1952, in Montgomery County (J. E. Willoughby) ; November 15, 1953, in Prince Georges County (L. W. Oring) ; November 2, 1930, in Kent County (W. Baker). Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: 31 at Patuxent Refuge on May 13, 1950; 17 at Rosedale, Baltimore County, on May 6, 1950 (D. A. Jones). Fall: 5 at Patuxent Refuge on September 23, 1943. BLUE GROSBEAK Gu'iraca caerulea (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding and transient (see fig. 62) : Fairly common in Kent and Queen Annes Counties, and in northern Caroline County and western Talbot County; uncommon elsewhere in the Upper Chesapeake section, in the Western Shore section, and in the southern part of the Piedmont section (along Potomac River valley and in southern Howard County) ; rare in the southern part of the Eastern Shore section (south of Talbot and Caroline Coun- ties), in the northern Piedmont section, and along the Potomac River valley of the Ridge and Valley section. Habitat. — Wood margins, hedgerows, and orchards in open agricultural areas. 336 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Figure 62. — Breeding range of Blue Grosbeak. Nesting season. — Late May to early August. Extreme egi dates (6 nests) : May 28, 1863, in the District of Columbia (H. W Elliott) and June 24, 1887, in Prince Georges County (Farnham 1891). Extreme nestling dates (4 nests) : June 8, 1956, in Princt Georges County (E. Mashburn) and August 8, 1953, in Mont gomery County (Abbott, 1953). Period of occurrence. — Normal period: May 1-5 to Septembei 25-30; peak. May 10 to September 15. Extreme arrival dates April 22, 1956, in Prince Georges County (F. C. Schmid) ; Apri 23, 1950 (Mrs. F. H. Vinup), in Anne Arundel County; April 25 1955, in Caroline County (Mrs. A. J. Fletcher) ; April 30, 1950, h Frederick County (M. B. Meanley). Extreme departure dates October 24, 1953, and October 18, 1953, at different locations ii Talbot County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, R. L. Kleen) ; October 6 1955, in Caroline County (Mrs. A. J. Fletcher) ; October 3, 1947 in Prince Georges County; October 3, 1953, in Montgomery County (A. Wetmore) . Breeding population densities (territorial males per 10( acres) . — 1.7 (3 in 175 acres) in mixed agricultural habitats (including hedgerows an( wood margins) in Prince Georges County in 1952. 0.5 (8 in 1,600 acres) in mixed agricultural habitats (including wood margin; and hedgerows) in Howard County in 1951. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 337 ^DIGO BUNTING Passerlna cyanea (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding and transient: Abundant in the Ridge and 'alley, and Piedmont sections; common in the Allegheny Moun- ain, Upper Chesapeake, and Western Shore sections ; fairly com- lon in the Eastern Shore section. Wintering: Accidental— a pecimen was collected in the District of Columbia on December 3, 1887 (M. M. Green). Habitat. — Hedgerows, wood margins, and orchards; also in .rushy cut-over areas of swamp forest and of rich, moist forest in the upland. Nesting season. — Mid-May to late August (nesting peak, early rune to late July) . A nest, nearly complete, was found as early IS May 17, 1943, in Baltimore County (H. Kolb). Extreme egg lates (109 nests): May 24, 1896 (F. C. Kirkwood), May 24, 1948 (H. Kolb), and August 16, 1891 (F. C. Kirkwood), all in Baltimore County. Extreme nestling dates (41 nests) : June 5, L942 (H. Kolb), and August 30, 1896 (F. C. Kirkwood), in Baltimore County. Spring migration. — Normal period: April 25-May 5 to May 25-June 5; peak, May 10 to May 25. Extreme arrival dates: March 13, 1938, in Prince Georges County (L. McCormick- Goodhart) ; March 22, 1953 (1 bird), and April 8, 1953 (6 birds), at Gibson Island, Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tappan) ; April 11, 1953, in Caroline County (A. Knotts) ; April 15, 1921 (H. D. Wise), and April 18, 1918 (E. A. Chapin), in the District of Columbia. Fall migration. — Normal period: August 20-30 to October 5-15; peak, September 5 to September 25. Extreme arrival date: August 16, 1944, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure dates: November 1, 1955, in Frederick County (J. W. Richards) ; October 19, 1930, in Kent County (W. Baker) ; October 19, 1953, in Dorchester County (P. F. Springer) ; October 18, 1930, in Washington County (W. Middlekauff ) ; October 17, 1945, in Prince Georges County. Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 acres) . — 52 (13 in 25 acres) in "unsprayed apple orchard with unmowed ground cover" in Allegany County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). 30 (6.5 in 22 acres) in "unsprayed apple orchard with infrequently mowed ground cover" in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). 19 (4 in 21 acres) in "dense second-growth" (oak-maple ridge forest) in Gar- rett County in 1949 (Bobbins, 1949b). 338 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 18 (4.5 in 25 acres) in "heavily sprayed apple orchard with frequently mow« ground cover" in Allegany County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 19481: 17 (3.5 in 20% acres) in "moderately sprayed apple orchard with infi quently mowed ground cover" in Worcester County in 1948 (Spring and Stewart, 1948b) . 16 (3 in 19% acres) in "shrubby field with stream-bordered trees" in Bal more County in 1947, 10 (2 in 19^ acres) in 1946 (Cooley, 1947). 14 (10.5 in 72% acres) in mixed agricultural habitats (including hedgerow and wood margins) in Prince Georges County in 1948; 13 (9.5 in 72 acres) in 1949. 14 (9 in 66 acres) in field and edge habitat (including strips of flood-pla forest, brushy fields, and hedgerows) in Baltimore County in 19' (Hampe, et al., 1947). 6 (1.5 in 26 acres) in "dry deciduous scrub" (burned-over upland oak fores in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Robbins, et al., 1947). 5 (1.5 in 28 acres) in partially opened, flood-plain forest (sycamore, ash, eli etc.) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). Maximum counts (nonbreeding). — Spring: 200+ at Po: Tobacco, Charles County, on May 14, 1936 (C. Cottam, I. I Gabrielson) ; 112 near Seneca, Montgomery County, on May 1: 1951 (C. N. Mason, K. Niles) ; 45 in Howard County on May : 1954; 43 at Patuxent Refuge on May 13, 1950. Fall: 45 i Dulaney Valley, Baltimore County, on September 6, 1896 (F. ( Kirkwood) ; 35 near Seneca, Montgomery County, on Septembe 25, 1949 (I. R. Barnes). DICKCISSEL Sp/za americana (Gmelin) Status. — Breeding: Regular, but variable in abundance (rai to fairly common) locally, in the western part of the Piedmor section and eastern part of the Ridge and Valley section- occurring in Montgomery County in the vicinity of Dickerso (first noted in 1928 — Wetmore and Lincoln, 1928b) ; in Frederic County in the vicinity of Emmitsburg (J. W. Richards), Buckeyi town, and Doub, and formerly near Jefferson (1890-92 — J. I Figgins) ; and in Washington County near Spickler (R. ^ Stauffer), and in the vicinity of Ashton. Rare and irregula elsewhere in the Piedmont section — recent records of singin males include 1 seen in the District of Columbia during Jun 20-28, 1935 (Ball and Wallace, 1936), 1 seen near West Frienc ship, Howard County, on June 19, 1946 (Stewart and Robbim 1947a), and 1 seen near Uniontown, Carroll County, about Jun 10-15, 1953 (D. Mcintosh) ; casual in the Eastern Shore section- 1 singing near Wye Mills, Queen Annes County, on June 19, 195 (N. Hotchkiss, E. Miller). Formerly (about 1860) this specie was found breeding commonly in the District of Columbia (Smitl: BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 339 391; Coues and Prentiss, 1883) and near Baltimore (Kirkwood, B95), but it gradually decreased in numbers until 1875, by 'hich' time it had become extremely rare. Transient: Rare in le Ridge and Valley, Piedmont, Upper Chesapeake, Western hore, and Eastern Shore sections. Wintering: Rare and ir- 3gular— recorded during the winter of 1950-51 in Montgomery o'unty (H. E. Slater) ; in 1953-54 (M. W. Hewitt) and 1954-55 Mr. and Mrs. A. J. Fletcher) in Caroline County; on March 13, 954, in Frederick County (J. E. Knudson) and in the winter f 1954-55 in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson). Habitat.— Agricultural fields and weedy field borders, usually lost numerous in the vicinity of alfalfa or clover hayfields. Nesting season. — A nest with eggs was found near Ashton, Washington County, on June 15, 1951. A young bird, barely Town, was seen near Dickerson, Montgomery County, on July ;2, 1928 (Wetmore and Lincoln, 1928b). Spring migration dates.— April 24, 1938, in Cecil County Clark) ; April 26, 1953, in Montgomery County (H. S. Haller) ; Vpril 27, 1956, in Anne Arundel County (H. Wierenga) ; May 2, .950, in Frederick County; May 6, 1950, in Prince Georges bounty; May 7, 1892, in Baltimore County (W. N. Wholey) ; ^ay 7, 1939, in Montgomery County (H. C. Oberholser) ; May >0, 1876, in Baltimore County (A. Resler) ; May 22, 1953, in Prince Georges County. Fall migration dates.— September 2, 1956, in Prince Georges bounty; September 4, 1956, in Kent County; September 12-13, L955, in Worcester County; September 18, 1954 (P. G. DuMont), n Montgomery County; September 21, 1956 (banded) in Wor- cester County; September 30, 1953, in Anne Arundel County (Prof, and Mrs. D. Howard) ; October 2, 1880 (collected), in Bal- :imore County (A. Resler) ; October 30, 1898, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; November 18, 1954, in Frederick County (Mrs. J. W. Richards) ; November 22, 1951 (banded), in Montgomery County (S. H. Low). Breeding population density (territorial males per 100 acres) . — 1.4 (7 in 500 acres) in mixed agricultural land (chiefly wheat and red clover) in Washington County in 1951. Maximum counts.— 5%mmer; 25 were recorded in the Dicker- son area of Montgomery County on June 7, 1952 (R. R. Kerr, J. W. Terborgh), and 17 singing males were recorded in the same area on July 21, 1951 (R. J. Beaton). 340 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE EVENING GROSBEAK Hesper/pfiono vesperf/na (Cooper) {STATUS. — Irregular visitor during the fall, winter, and spring, in all sections. Although frequently absent, during flight years* it is usually rare or uncommon, while during the winters oil 1951-52, 1954-55, and 1955-56 it could be considered fairly com-i mon locally. Habitat. — Deciduous flood-plain forests, and stands of conif ersi Period of occurrence. — Noticeable flights occurred during the winters of 1921-22 (Wetmore, 1923), 1945-46, 1949-50 1951-52, 1954-55, and 1955-56, while 1 or 2 records were re- ported during the winters of 1941-42, 1946-47, 1948-49, 1950-51 1952-53, and 1953-54. Extreme arrival dates: October 4, 1949, in the District of Columbia (R. W. Peakes) ; October 22, 1954 in Baltimore County (S. W. Simon) ; October 23, 1951 and 1954 in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure dates: May 18 1952, in Prince Georges County (Mrs. R. McCeney) ; May 16 1952, in Baltimore County (Mrs. R. C. Stewart, Sr.) ; May 13; 1946, in Baltimore County (Brackbill, 1947a) ; May 12, 1922 in the District of Columbia (Cooke, 1929). Maximum counts. — Hundreds migrating over Frederick aboui May 15, 1952 (Partridge, 1953) ; 80 in Garrett County on De- cember 31, 1954 (Christmas count) ; 72 at Laurel, Prince Georges County, on November 6, 1954; 68 at Beltsville, Prince Georges County, on February 25, 1955 (J. H. Fales) ; 50 at Seneca, Mont- gomery County, on March 9, 1952 (P. A. DuMont) ; 40 at Chase, Baltimore County on March 15, 1952 (0. W. Crowder). Banding. — The greatest flight on record for our area occurred during the winter of 1951-52. One hundred and fifteen Evening Grosbeaks were banded at Laurel in Prince Georges County between April 6 and May 11, 1952. Four that had been banded elsewhere were trapped or seen at Laurel during this same period :: 1 banded at Lexington, Massachusetts, on May 9, 1950, 1 at! Alexandria, Virginia, on January 11, 1952, and 2 color-bandedi in the winter or spring of 1952 at Pine Ridge, Virginia (Robbins, 1953). Two that had been banded in central Connecticut on March 13, 1950, and February 22, 1953, were recovered in Wicomico County, Maryland, on April 16, 1952, and Worcesterf County about April 18, 1955, respectively. One bird banded at: Laurel on April 20, 1952, was trapped and released at a feeding station in central New York on March 5, 1953. Another banded! at Laurel on April 26, 1952, was recovered near Alpena, Michigan^, on April 1, 1955. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 341 URPLE FINCH Carpodacus purpureus (Gmelin) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 32) : Uncommon, occasionally airly common, in the Allegheny Mountain section. Transient: •"airly common in the Allegheny Mountain, Ridge and Valley, i'iedmont, and Western Shore sections; uncommon in the Upper Chesapeake and Eastern Shore sections. Wintering : Uncommon n all sections except the Allegheny Mountain section where it s rare or absent. Habitat. — Breeding: Occurs at elevations above 2,500 feet in )ogs or on the higher ridges in open stands of red spruce or )pen mixed stands of red spruce and hemlock. Transient and vintering: Chiefly flood-plain and swamp forests; occasional in noist, deciduous forests on the upland and in pine stands. In A^inter, this species is usually most numerous in areas where ;eed-laden ash or tulip-poplar occur. Nesting season. — A nest found in the Maryland portion of 3ranesville Swamp, Garrett County, contained eggs on May 29, md young birds on June 12, 1949. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 10-20 to May 5-15; peak, March 20 to May 5. Extreme arrival dates: February 22, 1904 (W. W. Cooke), and February 26, 1905 (T. H. Levering), :n the District of Columbia; February 29, 1956, in Prince Georges County; March 4, 1952, in Baltimore County (R. D. Cole). Ex- treme departure dates: June 3, 1907, on Warrior Mountain, Alle- gany County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; May 29, 1860, in the District of Columbia (USNM) ; May 26, 1907, in Montgomery County (A. K. Fisher) ; May 21, 1892, in Baltimore County (G. H. Gray). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 20-30 to Novem- ber 10-20; peak, October 15 to November 5. Extreme arrival dates: August 26, 1923, and August 31, 1919, in the District of Columbia (J. Kittredge, Jr.) ; September 4, 1951, in Howard County; September 4, 1955, in Baltimore County (C. M. Bu- chanan). Extreme departure dates: December 9, 1943, in Prince Georges County; December 6, 1901, in Allegany County (G. Eif rig) . Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: 500 near Cabin John, Montgomery County, on April 17, 1949 (P. A. DuMont) ; 500 (1 flock) at Glen Echo, Montgomery County, on April 6, 1946 (E. G. Davis) ; 100 in Baltimore County on April 4, 1891, and April 28, 1905 (F. C. Kirkwood) ; 100 in Prince Georges County on April 28, 1944. Fall: 200 in Baltimore County on November 26, 1893 (F. C. Kirkwood) ; 104 in Prince Georges County on November 8, 1954 ; 66 in Baltimore County on Novem- 342 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE -■A ^^hrub swamps, and orchards. Transient and wintering: Chiefly iood-plain and swamp forests; occasional in pine stands and in ledgerows, wood margins, and brushy fields. In winter, this species often concentrates in areas where seed-laden sweetgum s common. Nesting season. — Early July to early October (nesting peak, ate July to early September). Nest-building was recorded as early as July 6, 1952, in Baltimore County (E. Willis). Extreme igg dates (55 nests) : July 12, 1885, in the District of Columbia i(C. W. Richmond) and September 15, 1935, in Baltimore County (Meanley, 1936a). Extre7ne nestling dates (31 nests) : August \, 1912, in Dorchester County (R. W. Jackson) and October 4, jL948, in Baltimore County (H. F. Kuch). ^ Spring migration. — Normal period: March 20-30 to June 1- |L0; peak, April 5 to May 15. Extreme arrival date: March 11, |L906, in the District of Columbia (W. W. Cooke). Extreme leparture date: June 11, 1946, in Prince Georges County. j Fall migration. — Normal period: September 20-30 to Novem- i)er 20-30; peak, October 15 to November 15. I Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 icres). — 1 (4 in 19% acres) in "shrubby field with stream-bordered trees" in Balti- more County in 1946 and 1947 (Cooley, 1947). 2 (3 in 26 acres) in "dry, deciduous scrub" (burned-over upland oak forest) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Robbins, et al., 1947). (1.5 in 25 acres) in "unsprayed apple orchard with unmowed ground cover" in Allegany County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). (1.5 in 25 acres) in "heavily sprayed apple orchard with frequently mowed ground cover" in Allegany County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). (3 in 66 acres) in field and edge habitat (including strips of flood-plain forest, brushy fields, and hedgerows) in Baltimore County in 1947 (Hampe, et al., 1947). 346 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Maximum counts (nonbreeding). — Spring: 2,000 at Por Tobacco, Charles County, on May 7, 1940 (C. Cottam, F. M Uhler) ; 2,000 near Cabin John, Montgomery County, on Apri 17, 1949 (P. A. DuMont) ; 1,320 at Greenbelt, Prince George, County, on May 5, 1956 (L. W. Oring) ; 1,000 on Gibson Island Anne Arundel County, on April 28 and 29, 1952 (Mrs. W. L Henderson) . Fall: About 750 (382 banded) near Berwyn, Prind Georges County, on October 23, 1952 (S. H. Low) ; 200 at Unity. Montgomery County, on October 28, 1951 (S. H. Low) ; 150 a« Kent Island, Queen Annes County, on November 11, 1951 (Mrs W. L. Henderson). Winter: 1,607 in the Ocean City area oi December 22, 1951 (Christmas count) ; 724 in the Triadelphi; Reservoir area on December 24, 1955 (Christmas count) ; 67i in the Annapolis area on January 1, 1956 (Christmas count) 500 near Emmitsburg, Frederick County, on February 21, 1951 (J. W. Richards) ; 366 in St. Michaels area, Talbot County, oi December 29, 1953 (Christmas count) ; 300 at Port Tobaccc Charles County, on December 27, 1941, and December 21, 194; (Christmas counts). Banding. — One banded in Montgomery County on October 12; 1952, was recovered in southern South Carolina on February 28 1953; another banded in Prince Georges County on April 28: 1954, was recovered in Kamouraska County, Quebec, on Augus 7, 1955. RED CROSSBILL Loxia curvirostra Linnaeus Status. — Breeding ( ?) : A female collected near Laurel, Princ< Georges County, on May 23, 1884, showed "unmistakable evidence of having lately incubated" (Ridgway, 1884), and several wer seen at Laurel on June 30, 1884 (C. W. Richmond) ; a younj bird barely able to fly was seen with an adult near the Distric of Columbia on May 17, 1885 (Smith, 1885) ; recorded in Dor Chester County near Golden Hill during the periods May 15 t June 24, 1932, and June 4 to August 7, 1933 (F. R. Smith) Transient and wintering: Rare and irregular in all section (recorded during 5 of the past 10 winters, 1944-1955). Thi species has been recorded from the District of Columbia ani from Worcester, Dorchester, Talbot, Caroline, Anne Arundei Prince Georges, Montgomery, Howard, Baltimore, Harforc Allegany, and Garrett Counties. The records indicate that Re Crossbills were much more regular and numerous in the Piedmon section during the period 1884-1900 than at the present time Especially large flights were noted in the Piedmont section durin. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 347 he winters of 1887-88 (numerous specimens— USNM), 1894-95 Kirkwood, 1895; C. W. Richmond), and 1916-17 (H. C. Ober- lolser) . In Allegany County this species was noted in fair lumbers in winter during the period 1902-07 (G. Eifrig). Since 940, only scattered records of this species have been made. Habitat. — Usually in stands of pine or other conifers. Period of occurrence (nonbreeding) . — Extreme arrival dates: September 12, 1956, in Worcester County (S. W. Simon) ; October .0, 1886 (H. W. Henshaw), October 17, 1921 (J. Kittredge, Jr.), md October 28, 1906 (A. H. Howell), in the District of Columbia; 'late October, 1889" in Talbot County (J. E. Tylor). Extreme leparture dates: June 5, 1895 (R. Ridgway), and June 2, 1902 ;C. W. Richmond), in the District of Columbia. Maximum counts. — 75 in the District of Columbia on Novem- )er 6, 1887 (H. W. Henshaw) ; 50 at Long Green Valley, Balti- nore County, on December 27, 1899 (F. C. Kirkwood) ; 50 at 5ethesda, Montgomery County, on May 4, 1953 (V. F. Hogan) ; :0 on Warrior Mountain, Allegany County, on May 24, 1907 :F. C. Kirkwood). VHITE-WINGED CROSSBILL Loxia /eucopfera Gmelin Status. — Rare and irregular winter visitor; accidental sum- ner visitor — 1 collected at Oxon Hill, Prince Georges County, )n August 13, 1907 (Oldys, 1907). Definite records are from Jarrett, Frederick, Montgomery, Baltimore, Harford, Anne Vrundel, Prince Georges, and Talbot Counties, and the District )f Columbia. Habitat. — Stands of pine or other conifers. Period of occurrence (wintering). — Extreme arrival dates: )ctober 23, 1913, in the District of Columbia (Williams, 1914) ; November 13, 1954, in Prince Georges County. Extreme de- mrture dates: April 7, 1955, in Montgomery County (H. E. 5mith) ; March 1, 1953, in Frederick County (P. J. O'Brien) ; ^larch 1, 1953, in Garrett County (K. F. Sanders, H. E. Slater) ; February 25, 1923, in the District of Columbia (E. R. Kalmbach) ; February 25, 1953, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Hen- lerson, Mrs. G. Tappan). Only 2 well-marked flights of this ipecies have been recorded in our area, 1 during the winter of .916-17 and the other during the winter of 1952-53. During he winter of 1916-17, this species was recorded repeatedly in he District of Columbia and nearby Maryland from December .4 to the latter part of February (W. L. McAtee, A. Wetmore) . During the winter of 1952-53 it was recorded from January 4 348 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE to March 1 in Garrett (K. F. Sanders, H. E. Slater), Frederic] (J. W. Richards, P. J. O'Brien), Harford (R. W. Peakes), Anm Arundel (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tappan), Prince George; (Mrs. R. McCeney), and Talbot (H. McCullogh) Counties, an( the District of Columbia (J. H. Benn, H. Friedmann). Othe: scattered records of this species were made during the winter; of 1863-64, about 1874, 1906-07, 1913-14, 1922-23, and 1954-55 Maximum counts. — 40 on December 24, 1916 (McAtee, et al. 1917), 23 on December 25, 1916 (E. G. Holt, D. C. Mabbott), am 15 on February 25, 1923 (E. R. Kalmbach)— all in the Distric of Columbia; and 12 at Silver Spring, Montgomery County, on April 17, 1955 (H. E. Smith). RUFOUS-SIDED TOWHEE Pi'p/fo eryfhrophthalmus (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding and transient: Common, locally abundanti in all sections. Wintering: Fairly common in Worcester County uncommon elsewhere in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, ana Upper Chesapeake sections ; rare in the Piedmont, and Ridge ana Valley sections; casual in the Allegheny Mountain section. Habitat. — Brushy cut-over upland forests; dry brushy fieldfl and thickets; hedgerows and wood margins. Nesting season. — Mid-April to late August (nesting peak. mid-May to late July) . Extreme egg dates (115 nests) : April 22i 1945, in Prince Georges County (E. G. Cooley), April 22, 1955. in Caroline County (Mr. and Mrs. A. J. Fletcher), and August 16. 1939, in Prince Georges County (E. G. Cooley) . Extreme nestliuQi dates (72 nests) : April 30, 1945, and August 22, 1939, in Princa Georges County (E. G. Cooley). A nest with eggs (pipped) was also recorded on the extremely late date of August 28, 1891:^ in Baltimore County (W. H. Fisher). Spring migration. — Normal period: March 15-25 to May 5-15: peak, April 15 to May 5. Extreme arrival dates: March 8, 1894 (F. C. Kirkwood), and March 11, 1945 (E. A. McGinity), ir Baltimore County; March 13, 1952 and 1953, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tappan) ; March 14, 1943, in Prince Georges County. Fall migration. — Normal period: September 20-30 to October 25-November 5; peak, October 1 to October 25. Extreme de- parture dates: November 24, 1949, in Baltimore County (E. Willis) ; November 12, 1931, in the District of Columbia (J. Aa Molter) . Breeding population densities (territorial males per 10(H acres). — 57 (17 in 30 acres) in "damp deciduous scrub with standing dead trees" BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 349 (burned-over, poorly drained upland forest) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart, et al., 1947). >0 (13 in 26 acres) in "dry deciduous scrub" (burned-over, upland oak forest) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Robbins, et al., 1947). 15 (9.5 in 21 acres) in "immature loblolly-shortleaf pine stand" (trees 45 to 65 feet in height) in Worcester County in 1949 (Springer and Stewart, 1948c). }3 (5 in 15 acres) in "open slash area" (cut-over oak-maple ridge forest) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). }3 (7 in 21 acres) in "dense second-growth" (oak-maple ridge forest) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). J2 (2 in 6^/4 acres) in "young second-growth resulting from cutting" (oak- maple ridge forest) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949b). 23 (13.5 in 58 acres) in brushy, abandoned farmland in Prince Georges County in 1947. 22 (2 in 9 acres) in "scrub spruce bog" (brush-meadow stage with young red spruce) in Garrett County in 1951 (Robbins and Stewart, 1951b). 17 (6 in 34% acres) in pine field (abandoned field with open growth of young scrub pine) in Prince Georges County in 1945. 14 (3.5 in 25 acres) in "unsprayed apple orchard with unmowed ground cover" in Allegany County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). 3 (1.6 in 19% acres) in sweetgum field (abandoned field with open growth of young sweetgum) in Prince Georges County in 1945. 7 (2 in 2TV2 acres) in "red pine plantation" (young trees about 20 feet in height) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins and Barnes, 1949). 6 (1.8 in 32% acres) in pine-oak forest (pitch pine, scrub pine, Spanish oak) in Prince Georges County in 1944. Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: 320 at Rosedale, Baltimore County, on May 6, 1950 (D. A. Jones) ; 200 at Gibson Island, Anne Arundel County, on May 8, 1955 (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tappan) ; 135 at Middle River, Baltimore County, on May 5, 1951 (E. Willis, D. A. Jones). Fall: 100+ at Baltimore on October 10, 1917 (F. C. Kirkwood). Winter (Christmas counts) : 487 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1954; 112 in the Wicomico River area of Charles and St. Marys Counties on January 1, 1954; 94 in southern Dorchester County on December 28, 1954; 91 near Chase, Baltimore County, on December 29, 1951. Banding. — Two birds recovered in spring- (April 28-May 2) in St. Marys and Baltimore Counties had been banded in eastern Massachusetts and northeastern 'New Jersey on August 11 and April 25, respectively. IPSWICH SPARROW Passerculus princeps Maynard Status. — Transient and wintering: Uncommon along the coast in Worcester County; casual in the Western Shore section — singles recorded in Anne Arundel County along the West River 350 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE on March 24, 1920 (Wetmore, 1927), and at Gibson Island on April 15, 1956 (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tappan). Habitat. — Sand dune zone of the barrier beaches, usually occurring in areas where beachgrass is common. Period of occurrence. — Extreme arrival dates: November 9, 1929 (A. Wetmore), and November 16, 1947 (I. R. Barnes), in Worcester County. Extreme departure dates: April 15, 1956, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tap- pan) ; April 5, 1938, in Worcester County (G. A. Ammann). Maximum counts. — About 30 near Ocean City on December 30 and 31, 1927 (Wetmore and Lincoln, 1928a) ; 25 on Assateague Island on November 28, 1945 ; 12 on Assateague Island on Decem- ber 23, 1946 (Christmas count). SAVANNAH SPARROW Passercvlus sandwichensis (Gmelin) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 64) : Common in the Alleghenyi Mountain section (usually in areas that are over 2,500 feet infl elevation) ; uncommon and local in the Ridge and Valley, and Piedmont sections — occurring in the Hagerstown Valley in Wash- ington County, in the Frederick Valley in Frederick County, and in the Worthington Valley in Baltimore County; rare and local in the Upper Chesapeake, Western Shore, and Eastern Shore sections — occurring near Fort Howard in Baltimore County, near Figure 64. — Breeding range of Savannah Sparrow. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 351 Sandy Point in Anne Arundel County, and on Assateague Island in Worcester County. Transient: Abundant (at least locally) in the Eastern Shore section; fairly common elsewhere in all sections. Wintering: Common in the Eastern Shore section; fairly common in the southern part of the Western Shore section (Calvert, Charles, and St. Marys Counties) ; uncommon in the Upper Chesapeake section; rare in the Piedmont section and in the northern part of the Western Shore section (Anne Arundel and Prince Georges Counties). Habitat. — Breeding: Hayfields and over-grown pastures; also occurs in grassy areas on the bay shores and barrier beach. Transient and ivintering: Especially characteristic of weedy fallow and cultivated fields, and of marsh-meadow types in the tidal marshes ; also commonly found on the barrier beaches where beachgrass occurs. Nesting season. — Fledglings just out of the nest were observed in Garrett County on June 3, 1951. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 15-25 to May 5-15; peak, March 25 to April 20. Extreme arrival dates: March 6, 1944, in Harford County (S. Mason, Jr.) ; March 11, 1949, in Prince Georges County; March 12, 1892, in Baltimore County (J. H. Pleasants). Extreme departure dates: May 23, 1947, in Prince Georges County; May 18, 1921, in the District of Columbia (W. L. McAtee) ; May 18, 1948, in Worcester County; May 16, 1931, in Charles County (E. R. Kalmbach, C. C. Sperry). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 15-25 to Novem- ber 1-10; peak, October 5 to October 30. Extreme arrival dates: September 4, 1898, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; September 11, 1948, in Montgomery County (F. R. Bell, R. C. Simpson) ; September 13, 1945, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure dates: November 22, 1886, in the District of Columbia (H. W. Henshaw) ; November 16, 1902, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Breeding population density (territorial males per 100 acres) . — 50 (12.5 in 25 acres) in "lightly-grazed pasture" in Garrett County in 1951 (Stewart and Robbins, 1951b). Maximum counts (nonbreeding). — Spring: 68 in Anne Arun- del County on April 18, 1954 (L. W. Oring) ; 50+ near Emmits- burg, Frederick County, on March 30, 1952, and April 11, 1955 (J. W. Richards) ; 50 at Port Tobacco, Charles County, on May 5, 1939 (C. Cottam, A. L. Nelson) ; 30-40 in Baltimore County 352 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE on April 8, 1898 (F. C. Kirkwood). Fall: 100 in Worcester County on October 5, 1946; 50 in Dulaney Valley, Baltimore County, on November 2, 1902 (F. C. Kirkwood). Winter: 4711 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1954 (Christmas count) ; 145 in southeastern Worcester County on December 23, 1946 (Christmas count) ; 115 in southern Dorchester County on Decem- ber 28, 1955 (Christmas count) ; 85 at Point Lookout, St. Marysj County, on January 31, 1954 (J. W. Terborgh). GRASSHOPPER SPARROW Ammodramus savannarum (Gmelin) Status. — Breeding and transient: Common in all sections.. Wintering: Casual occurrence — recorded in Baltimore County oni January 2, 1893, and January 16, 1898 (F. C. Kirkwood), and collected on December 10 and 22, 1892 (W. H. Fisher) ; 1 collected at Marshall Hall, Charles County, on February 21, 1900 (S. D. Judd) ; recorded at Cambridge, Dorchester County, on February i 22, 1913 (R. W. Jackson). Habitat. — Chiefly, various types of hayfields; also in over- grown pastures and weedy, fallow fields and occasionally im broomsedge fields. Nesting season.— Early May to early September (nestings peak, late May to early August) . Extreme egg dates (83 nests) : May 15, 1921, in Baltimore County (W. Marshall) and August 19, 1952, in Harford County (D. Mcintosh). Extreme nestling dates (24 nests) : May 25, 1953, in Prince Georges County (P. F. Springer) and September 2, 1919, in the District of Columbia (F. Harper) . Young birds unable to fly were seen in Baltimore County on September 10, 1920 (F. C. Kirkwood). Period of occurrence.— A^ormaZ period: April 5-15 to October 20-30. Extreme arrival dates: March 17, 1912, in Dorchester County (R. W. Jackson) ; March 18, 1939, in Prince Georges County (M. B. Meanley) ; March 20, 1898 (F. C. Kirkwood), and March 20, 1927 (J. M. Sommer), in Baltimore County; March 25, 1950, in Frederick County (R. T. Smith). Extreme departure dates: November 23, 1892, in Somerset County (col- lected—W. H. Fisher) ; November 20, 1899, in the District of Columbia (E. A. Preble). Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 acres). — 77 (4 in 5% acres) in weedy fallow field in Prince Georges County in 1945. 42 (5 in 12 acres) in orchard grass-Korean lespedeza hayfield in Prince Georges County in 1948. 32 (3 in 9% acres) in weedy pasture in Prince Georges County in 1945. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 353 Maximum counts (nonbreeding). — Spring: 108 near West- minster, Carroll County, on May 9, 1953 (D. A. Jones) ; 85 in Howard County on May 8, 1954 ; 50 near Buckeystown, Frederick County, on May 6, 1950. Fall: 5 (banded) near Unity, Mont- gomery County, on October 19, 1952 (S. H. Low). HENSLOW'S SPARROW Passerherbulus henslowii (Audubon) Status. — Breeding and transient: Fairly common in the East- ern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections (rare in Caroline County) ; uncommon in the Piedmont and Allegheny Mountain sections ; rare in the Ridge and Valley section. Winter- ing: Casual occurrence — 1 observed near Newark, Worcester County, on December 23, 1946; another seen at Point Lookout, St. Marys County, on January 26, 1953 (R. R. Kerr). Habitat. — Chiefly broomsedge fields and weedy sedge-meadows ; also occasional in hayfields. Nesting season. — Mid-May to mid-July. Extreme egg dates (13 nests) : May 18, 1944, in Montgomery County (E. J. Court) and June 26, 1924, in Dorchester County (J. M. Sommer). Nestlings were recorded in St. Marys County on June 1, 1930 (E, J. Court). Period of occurrence. — Normal period: April 5-15 to Novem- ber 1-10. Extreme arrival dates: March 16, 1947, in Baltimore County (0. W. Crowder) ; March 24, 1945, in Prince Georges County; March 25, 1917, in the District of Columbia (M. T. Cooke) ; March 27, 1921, in Dorchester County (R. W. Jackson). Extreme departure dates: November 21, 1897, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; November 17, 1945 (collected), in Anne Arundel County; November 16, 1930, in the District of Columbia (J. A. Molter). Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 acres) . — 16 (2 in 12^ acres) in weedy, unimproved pasture in Prince Georges County in 1950. 15 (3 in 20 acres) in abandoned broomsedge field in Prince Georges County in 1948. 7 (2 in 30 acres) in "switchgrass marsh-meadow" in Somerset County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948a). Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — 23 in Charles and St. Marys Counties on May 9, 1953 (J. W. Terborgh, et al.) ; 18 in the Ocean City area on May 11, 1952 (D. A. Cutler, et al.). SHARP-TAILED SPARROW Ammospiza caudacuta (Gmelin) Status. — Breeding and transient (see fig. 65) : Common, 354 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 7;6- 1 ' V* ^i^° \ 7 -39»- — V / ,x SCALE 0 10 20 30 40 MILES \ f' '< s d}^^M V' ''r 1 1 79» 76* 1 1 4- aoAf, Figure 65. — Breeding range of Sharp-tailed Sparrow and Seaside Sparrow. locally abundant, in the Eastern Shore section, occurring in the coastal area of Worcester County, and in the tidewater areas along Chesapeake Bay north to Kent Narrows in Queen Annes County; uncommon and local in the Western Shore section, occurring in the tidewater areas along Chesapeake Bay, north to Sandy Point in Anne Arundel County, and up the Potomac River to Cobb Island in Charles County ; casual elsewhere during migration — recorded in the District of Columbia (Cooke, 1929) and at Strawberry Point, Baltimore County (E. Willis, D. A. Jones). Wintering: Uncommon in the coastal area of Worcester County; rare in the tidewater areas of Somerset, Wicomico, Dorchester, and St. Marys (R. R. Kerr, J. W. Terborgh) Counties. Habitat. — Breeding: Chiefly salt marshes in which salt- meadow grass is predominant; also common locally in salt marshes where black grass is prevalent, and sparingly in marshes of salt-water cordgrass. Nesting season. — Mid-May to late August. Extreme egg dates (6 nests) : May 14, 1955, in Worcester County (J. E. M. Wood) and August 21, 1947, in Anne Arundel County. Nestling dates (2 nests) : June 4, 1944, in Queen Annes County and June 16, 1940 (M. B. Meanley), in Worcester County. Period of occurrence. — Throughout the year. Population BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 355 Deak: May 10 to September 30. Extreme date of spring depar- ture: June 3, 1951, at Strawberry Point in Baltimore County (E. Willis, D. A. Jones). Breeding population density (territorial males per 100 acres) . — 100 (approximately 17 in 17 acres) in saltmeadow grass marsh-meadow in Somerset County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948a). Maximum counts (nonbreeding). — Fall: 47 in Worcester County on September 27, 1949. Winter: 61 in the Ocean City area on December 21, 1952 (Christmas count). SEASIDE SPARROW Ammospiza maritima (Wilson) Status. — Breeding and transient (see fig. 65) : Common in the Eastern Shore section — occurring in the coastal area of Worcester County and in the tidewater areas along Chesapeake Bay, north to Kent Narrows, Queen Annes County (rarely north to Langford Bay, Kent County— Kirkwood, 1895) ; uncommon and local in the Western Shore section, occurring in the tidewater areas along Chesapeake Bay, north to Idlewilde, Anne Arundel County (rarely north to Gunpowder River area, where recorded by F. C. Kirkwood on April 21, 1897, by W. H. Fisher on June 7, and 10, 1900, and by T. A. Imhof on May 6, 1951). Wintering: Rare in the tidewater areas of Somerset, Wicomico, and Dor- chester Counties, and in the coastal area of Worcester County; casual in the tidewater areas of the Western Shore section — single birds seen at Point Lookout, St. Marys County, on January 26, 1953 (R. R. Kerr), and January 2, 1956 (J. W. Terborgh). Habitat. — Tidal salt marshes, occurring most commonly in salt-water cordgrass and salt-meadow grass types that contain scattered shrubs of marsh elder and sea myrtle; also occurs sparingly in stands of needlerush. Nesting season. — Early May to early July (probably). Ex- treme egg dates (11 nests) : May 20, 1953, in Dorchester County and June 21, 1940 (Kolb, 1941), in Worcester County. Nestling dates (2 nests) : May 20, 1953, in Dorchester County and June 4, 1944, in Queen Annes County. Population peak. — About April 20 to October 10. Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 acres) . — 10 (2 in 19 y2 acres) in "saltmarsh buh-ush-saltgrass marsh" in Somerset County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948a). 9 (2 in 22 1^ acres) in "needlerush marsh" in Somerset County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948a). Note. Populations in optimum habitats have not been studied in detail. 356 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Maximum counts (nonbreeding).— ^^^rw^^; 50 in the Elliott Island marsh, Dorchester County, on May 23, 1954. Fall: 24 in Worcester County on September 27, 1949. Winter (Christmas counts) : 13 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1955; 7 neai Elliott, Dorchester County, on December 27, 1949. VESPER SPARROW Pooecefes gramineus (Gmelin) Status. — Breeding: Common in the Allegheny Mountain, Ridgei and Valley, and Piedmont sections; fairly common in the Uppen Chesapeake section; uncommon in the Eastern Shore section and in the northern part of the Western Shore section (Anne Arundel i and Prince Georges Counties) ; rare in the southern part of thei Western Shore section (Calvert, Charles, and St. Marys Counties) . Transient: Fairly common in all sections. Wintering: Uncommon i in Worcester County ; rare elsewhere in the Eastern Shore section i and in the southern part of the Western Shore section (Calvert, Charles, and St. Marys Counties) ; casual in the northern part of the Western Shore section (Anne Arundel and Prince Georges Counties) and in the Upper Chesapeake and Piedmont sections. Habitat. — Short-growth or sparsely vegetated pastures, hay-i fields, and fallow fields. Nesting season.— Mid-April to mid-August (nesting peak, early May to early July) . Nest-building was recorded in Balti- more County as early as April 14, 1924 (F. C, Kirkwood). Extreme egg dates (39 nests) : May 5, 1915, in Baltimore County f (F. C. Kirkwood) and August 1, 1901, in Garrett County (G. Eifrig). Extreme nestling dates (13 nests) : May 14, 1949, in Frederick County (M. B. Meanley) and July 2, 1931, in Baltimore i County (W. Marshall). Spring migration.— Normal period: March 10-20 to May 1-10; peak, March 25 to April 25. Extreme arrival dates: March 1, 1951, in Caroline County (M. W. Hewitt); March 4, 1893, ini Queen Annes County (F. C. Kirkwood); March 5, 1919, ini Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; March 5, 1945, in Prince i Georges County. Extreme departure dates: May 23, 1893, in Baltimore County (W. N. Wholey) ; May 16, 1906, in Worcester County (F. C. Kirkwood). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 10-20 to Novem- ber 1-10; peak, September 25 to October 30. Extreme arrival dates: September 1, 1886, in the District of Columbia (A. K. Fisher) ; September 2, 1947, in Talbot County (W. M. Davidson) ; September 9, 1943, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure dates: November 21, 1886, in the District of Columbia (A. K. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 357 Fisher) ; November 16, 1919, in Prince Georges County (F. Harper) . Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: "Several hundred" at Roland Park, Baltimore County, on April 10, 1897 (W. H Fisher) ; 50 in Queen Annes County on March 4, 1893 (F. C. Kirkwood) ; 30 near Emmitsburg, Frederick County, on March 26, 1953 (J. W. Richards) . Fall: 25 in Dulaney Valley, Baltimore County, on October 23, 1898 (F. C. Kirkwood). Winter: 34 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1954 (Christmas count) ; 21 in southeastern Worcester County on December 22, 1947 (Christmas count) ; 8 near the Wicomico River in Charles and St. Marys Counties on February 8, 1953 (J. W. Terborgh) ; 7 in southern Dorchester County on December 22, 1952 (Christmas count) . LARK SPARROW Chondesfes grammacus (Say) Status. — Breeding: Formerly occurred in the Allegheny Moun- tain section — a colony of about 50 birds, including young, was found near Accident, Garrett County, on July 24, 1901, and 1 was seen there on July 29, 1903 (Eifrig, 1902a) ; also recorded as being common near Red House until about 1926 (Brooks, 1936c). Spring transient: Casual — 1 seen at West Ocean City on May 13, 1951 (D. A. Cutler). Late summer and fall transient: Rare in the coastal area of Worcester County (7 records) ; casual else- where in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections — re- corded in Somerset County in 1955 (F. McLaughlin), in Calvert County in 1948 (McKnight, 1950), in Anne Arundel County in 1948 (Davis, 1948), in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart, et al., 1952), and in the District of Columbia in 1877 (2 seen — Ridgway, 1878) and 1886 (Henshaw, 1886). Habitat. — Breeding: Agricultural fields and field borders. Transient: Most records were made in brushy, sandy areas on the ocean barrier beach and along the bay shores. Late summer and fall migration. — Extreme arrival dates: July 17, 1947, in Prince Georges County (Stewart, et al., 1952) ; July 22, 1948, in Calvert County (McKnight, 1950). Extreme departure dates: October 21, 1950, in Worcester County (R. J. Beaton) ; September 29, 1955, in Somerset County (F. Mcl^aughlin) . Maximum count (nonbreeding). — 5 on the barrier beach be- tween Ocean City and the Delaware line on September 4, 1954 (R. L. Kleen). 358 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE BACHMAN'S SPARROW Aimophila aestivalis (Lichtenstein) Status. — Breeding and transient: Rare and local in the Western Shore, Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections ; formerly oc- ! curred in the Allegheny Mountain section. During the period \ 1896-1954, scattered observations of from 1 to 6 singing males or pairs have been recorded in the District of Columbia and in the area within 12 miles of the District boundary in Prince Georges and Montgomery Counties, at the following locations: Kensington (Figgins, 1897, and R. W. Moore), Congress Heights (P. Bartsch), Lanham (W. R. Maxon), Cabin John (A. Wet- more), District of Columbia (F. Lees), Beltsville Research Cen- ter (Stewart and Meanley, 1943), Patuxent Refuge (Stewart, et al., 1952), town of Potomac (R. Tousey), and College Park (Meanley, 1949). One was also recorded near Simpsonville, Howard County, on May 8, 1955. In Allegany County, 3 pairs were found during the summer of 1947 and 2 pairs in 1948 on Green Ridge, about 1 mile north of the Potomac River (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). This species was also found in Garrett County during the period 1900-10, and in June, 1923, a singing male was observed near Oakland (Brooks, 1936c). Wintering: Accidental — a specimen recently killed by a car was found on January 25, 1951, in Somerset County between Princess Anne and Deal Island (USNM— Buckalew, 1951b). Habitat. — Weedy, abandoned fields with open growth of shrubs and small pine or deciduous trees; also in weedy, abandoned orchards. Nesting season. — Mid-May to mid-July (probably). Egg dates (2 nests) : May 20, 1946 (E. J. Court), and May 26, 1942 (Stewart and Meanley, 1943), both on the Beltsville Research Center, Prince Georges County. The nest found in 1942 contained young birds on June 3. During the period June 22-25, 1948, adults were observed feeding fledglings, just out of the nest, on Green Ridge, Allegany County. Period of occurrence (transient and breeding). — Extreme arrival dates: April 11, 1956 (P. A. DuMont), and April 19, 1925 (F. Lees), in the District of Columbia; April 29, 1896 (Figgins, 1897), and April 29, 1953 (P. A. DuMont), in Montgomery County. Extreme departure date: "middle of August," 1949, in Prince Georges County (Meanley, 1949). Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 acres) . — 43 (3 in 7 acres) in brushy field (abandoned field with open growth of young BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 359 hickory, scrub pine, and shrubs) in Prince Georges County in 1942 (Stewart and Meanley, 1943). 8 (2 in 25 acres) in "unsprayed apple orchard with unmowed ground cover" in Allegany County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). SLATE-COLORED JUNCO Junco hyemalis (Linnaeus) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 32) : Fairly common on Backbone Mountain, Garrett County, at elevations above 3,000 feet; un- common elsewhere in the Allegheny Mountain section at eleva- tions above 2,500 feet. Transient: Abundant in all sections. Wintering : Abundant in all sections except the Allegheny Moun- tain section, where it may be considered as fairly common. Sum- mer vagrant: Casual occurrence — singles recorded at Old Town in Allegany County on June 7, 1907 (F. C. Kirkwood), at Hamp- stead in Carroll County on June 18, 1952 (D. H. Mcintosh), at Towson in Baltimore County on June 15, 1953 (D. A. Jones), and in the District of Columbia on June 13, 1953 (J. H. Criswell, K. Dale). Habitat. — Breeding: Brushy, cut-over forests in the boreal bogs and in ravines and on north slopes at elevations above 2,500 feet (1 record as low as 1,850 feet) ; also occurs in brushy cut- over oak-chestnut and northern hardwood forests on the higher ridges at elevations above 3,000 feet. Transient and wintering: Hedgerows, wood margins, thickets, brushy fields, and brushy cut-over or burned-over forests; also in residential areas of farms, towns, and suburbs. Nesting season. — Mid-May to mid- July (probably) . Extreme egg dates (5 nests) : May 18, 1899 (Preble, 1900), and July 9, 1920 (G. Eifrig), in Garrett County. Extreme nestling dates (6 nests) : May 31, 1919 rj. M. Sommer), and July 5, 1920 (G. Eifrig), in Garrett County. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 1-10 to May 1-10; peak, March 20 to April 15. Extreme arrival date: February 25, 1944, in Prince Georges County. Extreme departure dates: May 30, 1956, in Baltimore County (S. W. Simon) ; May 24, 1956, in Montgomery County (S. H. Low) ; May 17, 1908, in the District of Columbia (A. M. Stimson). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 25-October 5 to November 20-30; peak, October 20 to November 15. Extreme arrival dates: September 5, 1955, in Talbot County (R. L. Kleen) ; September 13, 1955, in Worcester County (M. Broun) ; Septem- ber 14, 1918, in the District of Columbia (Mr. and Mrs. L. D. Miner) ; September 15, 1953, in Baltimore County (D. A. Jones) ; September 19, 1950, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Hen- 360 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Figure 66. — Slate-colored Junco banding recoveries. Each symbol represents the number of records for a State or Province. Banded in Maryland, recov- ered elsewhere: solid triangle = recovered September through May. Re- covered in Maryland, banded elsewhere : open triangle = banded September through May. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 361 derson) ; September 20, 1914 (J. M. Sommer), and September 20, 1950 (E. Willis), in Baltimore County. Extreme departure date: December 5, 1944, in Prince Georges County. Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: 1,000 at Waverly, Baltimore County, on April 9, 1897 (A. M. Hoen) ; 800 at Emmits- burg-, Frederick County, on April 7, 1953 (J. W. Richards). Fall: 1,933 at Patuxent Refuge on October 27, 1943. Winter (Christmas counts) : 2,508 in the Annapolis area on January 1, 1956; 1,772 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1955 ; 1,725 in the Anna- polis area on January 2, 1955 ; 1,616 in the Triadelphia Reservoir area on December 24, 1955; 1,494 in the St. Michaels area on December 29, 1955; 1,283 at Patuxent Refuge on December 29, 1944. Banding. — See figure 66. OREGON JUNCO Junco oreganus fTownsend) Status. — Casual visitor. One v^^as collected near Laurel, Prince Georges County, on April 28, 1890 (USNM— Ridgway, 1890). One was seen on Gunpowder Neck, Harford County, on March 2 and March 7, 1952 (T. A. Imhof). One was banded at Denton, Caroline County, on October 31, 1955 (Mr. and Mrs. A. J. Fletcher) . TREE SPARROW Spizella arborea (Wilson) Status. — Transient and ivintering: Common in the Allegheny Mountain, Ridge and Valley, Piedmont, and Upper Chesapeake sections and in the northern part of the Western Shore section (all except St. Marys County) ; fairly common in the coastal area of Worcester County; uncommon, rare, or absent elsewhere in the Eastern Shore section and in the southern part of the Western Shore section (St. Marys County) . Habitat. — Agricultural and abandoned fields and field borders, including hedgerows and wood margins; also in brushy marsh- meadows in the interior and in brushy sandy areas on the barrier beaches. Period of occurrence. — Normal period: November 1-10 to March 25-April 5; peak, November 25 to March 15. Extreme arrival dates: October 18, 1947, in Allegany County (M. G. Brooks) ; October 20, 1946 (0. W. Crowder) , and October 20, 1948 (P. F. Springer), in Frederick County. Extreme departure dates: April 14, 1949, in Montgomery County (S. H. Low) ; April 14, 1956, in Prince Georges County (P. F. Springer) ; April 13, 1924, in the District of Columbia (C. H. M. Barrett) ; April 12, 1902, in Allegany County (G. Eifrig). 362 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Maximum counts (Christmas counts) . — 544 in the Triadelphia Reservoir area on December 24, 1955 ; 540 in Allegany County on December 31, 1949; 500 at Port Tobacco, Charles County, on December 26, 1936 ; 401 in the Catoctin Mountain area, Frederick County, on December 31, 1955. CHIPPING SPARROW SpizeZ/a passerina (Bechstein) Status. — Breeding and transient: Common in all sections. Wintering: Fairly common in the southern half of Worcester County; uncommon in the northern half of Worcester County; rare elsewhere in the Eastern Shore section and near tidewater in the Western Shore section. Habitat. — Breeding: Chiefly residential areas and orchards on farms, and in towns and suburbs, that contain a combination of scattered trees or shrubs and short grass or sparsely vegetated ground cover. Transient and ivintering: Residential areas, or- chards, and agricultural fields and field borders. Nesting season. — Mid-April to early September (nesting peak, late April to late July. Extreme egg dates (331 nests) : April 14, 1946, in Prince Georges County (E. G. Cooley) and August 28, 1892, in Baltimore County (Kirkwood, 1895). Extreme nestling dates (205 nests) ; May 7, 1945, in Prince Georges County (E. G. Cooley) and September 4, 1892 (F. C. Kirkwood), in Baltimore County. Young just out of the nest were observed in Baltimore County as late as September 16, 1894 (Kirkwood, 1895) . Spring migration. — Normal period: March 20-30 to May 1-10; peak, April 10 to April 30. Extreme arrival dates: March 2, 1952, in Charles County (A. R. Stickley, Jr., M. C. Crone) ; March 7, 1954, in Baltimore County (A. S. Kaestner) ; March 8, 1950, in Prince Georges County (P. F. Springer) ; March 12, 1890, in the District of Columbia (J. D. Figgins). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 5-15 to Novem- ber 5-15; peak, September 20 to October 15. Extreme departure dates: December 4, 1892, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; December 3, 1950, in Anne Arundel County (R. D. Cole) ; Novem- ber 29, 1943, in Prince Georges County. Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 acres) . — 90 (18 in 20 acres) in suburban type residential area (including small orch- ards and large expanses of lawn) in Prince Georges County in 1942. 51 (9 in llVz acres) in "lightly sprayed apple orchard with rye planted as ground cover" in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). 48 (10.5 in 22 acres) in "unsprayed apple orchard with infrequently mowed BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 363 ground cover" in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). 42 (10.5 in 25 acres) in "unsprayed apple orchard with unmowed ground cover" in Allegany County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). 28 (6 in 20^/^ acres) in "moderately sprayed apple orchard with infrequently mowed ground cover" in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stew- art, 1948b). 18 (13 in 72 acres) in mixed agricultural habitats (including hedgerows and wood margins) in Prince Georges County in 1948. 14 (3.5 in 25 acres) in "heavily sprayed apple orchard with frequently mowed ground cover" in Allegany County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). Maximum counts (nonbreeding). — Spring: 44 at Patuxent Refuge on April 9, 1945. Fall: "Hundreds" at Cumberland, Alle- gany County, on October 3, 1901 (G. Eifrig) ; 129 at Patuxent Refuge on September 28, 1943. Winter (Christmas counts) : 141 in southeastern Worcester County on December 23, 1946; 70 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1950; 11 in the District of Columbia area on January 2, 1954. Banding. — A Chipping Sparrow banded in Prince Georges County on September 13, 1943, was recovered in northern South Carolina on April 8, 1944. Another recovered in St. Marys County on February 13, 1933, had been banded in southeastern Massa- chusetts on July 6, 1930. One banded in the District of Columbia on April 15, 1942, was recovered in northern Virginia on June 24, 1944 (18 miles from point of banding). FIELD SPARROW Sp/ze//a puslUa (Wilson) Status. — Breeding and transient: Common in all sections. Wintering : Common in the Eastern Shore section; fairly common in the Western Shore, Upper Chesapeake, and Piedmont sections ; uncommon in the Ridge and Valley section; rare and local in the Allegheny Mountain section (occurring along Bear Creek and the Youghiogheny River in Garrett County at elevations under 1,700 feet). This species has been steadily expanding its wintering range northward during the past 10 years (1946-55). Habitat. — Weedy, abandoned fields with scattered shrubs or small trees; also in agricultural areas along hedgerows, wood margins, and in weedy orchards. Nesting season. — Mid-April to early September (nesting peak, early May to late July) . Extreme egg dates (265 nests) : April 21, 1952, in Baltimore County (C. D. Hackman) and August 25, 1919 (R. W. Jackson) , in Dorchester County. Extreme nestling dates (121 nests) : May 10, 1945, in Prince Georges County (E. G. Cooley) and August 23, 1950, in Baltimore County (E. Willis). 364 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Spring migration.— Norma? period: March 10-20 to May 1-10; peak, March 20 to April 25. Extreme arrival dates: March 5* 1911, in the District of Columbia (W. W. Cooke) ; March 8, 1944^ in Prince Georges County. Fall migration.— Norma? period: September 20-30 to Decem- ber 1-10; peak, October 10 to November 1. Extreme arrival dates: September 13, 1930, and September 15, 1895, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme departure date: Decem- ber 20, 1944, in Prince Georges County. Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 acres) . — 80 (20 in 25 acres) in "unsprayed apple orchard with unmowed ground cover" in Allegany County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). 79 (5.5 in 7 acres) in pine field (abandoned field with open growth of young scrub pine) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). 50 (11 in 22 acres) in "unsprayed apple orchard with infrequently mowed ground cover" in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart. 1948b). 48 (16.7 in 34% acres) in pine field (abandoned field with open growth of young scrub pine) in Prince Georges County in 1945. 36 (7 in 19% acres) in sweetgum field (abandoned field with open growth of young sweetgum) in Prince Georges County in 1945. 23 (13.5 in 58 acres) in brushy, abandoned farmland in Prince Georges County in 1948. 22 (4.5 in 20% acres) in "moderately sprayed apple orchard with infre- quently mowed ground cover" in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). 18 (13 in 72 acres) in mixed agricultural habitats (including hedgerows and wood margins) in Prince Georges County in 1948. 12 (3 in 26 acres) in "dry deciduous scrub" (burned-over upland oak forest) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Robbins, et al., 1947). 11 (2 in 17% acres) in "lightly sprayed apple orchard with rye planted as ground cover" in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart. 1948b). 7 (2 in 30 acres) in "damp deciduous scrub with standing dead trees" (burned- over poorly drained upland forest) in Prince Georges County in 1947 (Stewart, et al., 1947). Maximum counts (nonbreeding).— 5prm£^; 350 at Port To- bacco, Charles County, on April 7, 1953 (J. Hailman) ; 90 at Patuxent Refuge on March 23, 1945. Fall: "Hundreds" along Evitts Creek, Allegany County, on October 3, 1901 (G. Eifrig) ; "hundreds" in the District of Columbia on October 20, 1935 (Overing, 1936) ; 232 at Patuxent Refuge on October 30,' 1950. Winter (Christmas counts) : 849 in the Ocean City area on Decem- ber 27, 1950 ; 302 in the Triadelphia Reservoir area in Montgomery and Howard Counties on January 1, 1954; 272 in Caroline BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 365 County on December 26, 1953 ; 175 in the Catoctin Mountain area of Frederick and Washington Counties on January 2, 1954; 175 near the Susquehanna Flats in Harford and Cecil Counties on January 1, 1951. Banding. — One banded in Prince Georges County on October 20, 1943, was recovered in northeastern Massachusetts on May 5, 1944. [HARRIS' SPARROW] Zonotrichla querula (Nuftall) Status. — Hypothetical. At least 2 were closely observed at Elkridge, Howard County, on October 21, 1956 (G. M. Bond, I. E. Hampe, et al.). WHITE-CROWNED SPARROW Zonofrich/o leucophrys (Forster) Status. — Transient: Fairly common in the Allegheny Moun- tain, Ridge and Valley, and Piedmont sections ; uncommon in the Upper Chesapeake and Western Shore sections; rare in the Eastern Shore section. Wintering: Now uncommon in the Ridge and Valley, Piedmont, and Upper Chesapeake sections, and rare in the Western Shore and Eastern Shore sections ; prior to 1947, this species was only of casual occurrence in winter anywhere in Maryland. Habitat. — Hedgerows and wood margins in agricultural areas, especially where hayfields and pastures are predominant; also in residential areas on farms and in towns and suburbs with abund- ant ornamental shrubs and small trees. Spring migration. — Normal period: April 25-May 5 to May 15-20; peak, May 5 to May 15. Extreme arrival dates: April 10, 1952, in Anne Arundel County (Dr. and Mrs. F. H. Vinup) ; April 11, 1905 (W. W. Cooke), and April 12, 1914 (E. A. Preble), in the District of Columbia; April 20, 1948, in Montgomery County (S. H. Low). Extreme departure dates: May 26, 1929, in Baltimore County (W. Marshall) ; May 22, 1952, in Prince Georges County; May 21, 1892, in Montgomery County (H. B. Stabler) ; May 21, 1935, in the District of Columbia (M. M. Snow) . Fall migration. — Normal period: October 1-10 to November 10-20; peak, October 10 to October 30. Extreme arrival date: September 27, 1896, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme departure dates: December 6, 1896, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood) ; December 4, 1944, in Prince Georges County; November 28, 1886, in the District of Columbia (H. W. Henshaw). Maximum counts. — Spring: 11 in Caroline County on May 5, 1956 (A. J. Fletcher, et al.) ; 10 at Cumberland, Allegany County, on May 2, 1902 (G. Eifrig) ; 10 near Buckeystown, Frederick 366 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE County, on May 6, 1950. Fall: "Hundreds" in the Frederick Valley, Frederick County, on October 29, 1949 (C. 0. Handley, Jr., M. B. Meanley) ; 12 at Patuxent Refuge on October 9, 1943. Winter (Christmas counts) : 83 in the Triadelphia Reservoir area on December 24, 1955; 42 in the Catoctin Mountain area on De- cember 31, 1955; 26 in Caroline County on December 24, 1956; 25 at McCoole, Allegany County, on December 27, 1949; 12 near Ceciiton, Cecil County, on January 1, 1951. Banding. — One banded in Prince Georges County on October 13, 1947, was recovered in southern Texas (letter of January 10, 1950). WHITE-THROATED SPARROW Zonotrichia albicollis (Gmelin) Status. — Breeding ( ?) : Probably rare and irregular in the Allegheny Mountain section — 2 pairs in the Maryland portion of Cranesville Svi^amp on June 17, 1952, indicated that they were probably nesting; this belief is supported by the fact that 2 occu- pied nests were found on June 18 and 19, 1952, only 3I/2 miles away in West Virginia (Ganier and Buchanan, 1953). Transient: Abundant in all sections. Wintering : Abundant in the Eastern Shore section; common in the Western Shore and Upper Chesa- peake sections; fairly common in the Piedmont, and Ridge and Valley sections ; rare in the Allegheny Mountain section. Summer vagrant: Casual occurrence — 1 seen in the District of Columbia on August 9 and 10, 1907 (Wood, 1907) ; singles observed in Prince Georges County during June and July 1936 (B. Carow), and on June 26, 1947; and in Calvert County on June 28, 1955 (K. Stecher). Habitat. — Wood margins, hedgerows, and brushy cut-over areas of swamp and flood-plain forests and rich moist forests on the upland. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 20-30 to May 20-30; peak, April 15 to May 10. Extreme arrival dates: March 5, 1949, in Baltimore County (I. E. Hampe) ; March 11, 1903, in the District of Columbia (W. W. Cooke) ; March 16, 1945, in Prince Georges County ; March 17, 1918, in Anne Arundel County (F. Harper). Extreme departure dates: June 15, 1955, in Anne Arundel County (A. L. Varrieur) ; June 14, 1899, in the District of Columbia (A. H. Howell) ; June 13, 1933 (R. Overing), and June 10, 1946, in Prince Georges County; June 10, 1952, in Balti- more County (E. Willis). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 20-30 to Decem- ber 1-10; peak, October 10 to October 30. Extreme arrival dates: BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 367 Figure 67.— White-throated Sparrow banding recoveries. Each symbol repre- sents the number of records for a State or Province. Banded in Maryland, recovered elsewhere: solid triangle = recovered September through May. Recovered in Maryland, banded elsewhere: open triangle = banded Sep- tember through May. 368 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE September 13, 1955, in Worcester County (S. W. Simon) ; Sep- tember 14, 1918 (L. D. Miner, R. W. Moore), and September 15, 1889 (C. W. Richmond), in the District of Columbia. Extreme departure dates: December 20, 1944, in Prince Georges County; December 13, 1933, in the District of Columbia (C. H. Benjamin). Maximum counts. — Spring: 355 in Montgomery County on May 10, 1952 (P. A. DuMont, et al.) ; 336 at Patuxent Refuge on April 29, 1944; 200 near Emmitsburg, Frederick County, on May 7, 1953 (J. W. Richards). Fall: "Hundreds" in the Ocean City area on October 2, 1949 (M. B. Meanley) ; 196 at Patuxent Refuge on October 30, 1943. Winter (Christmas counts) : 5,154 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1955; 2,765 in the St. Michaels area on December 29, 1955; 1,983 in the Annapolis area on January 1, 1956 ; 1,550 in southern Dorchester County on De- cember 28, 1953 ; 904 in the Wicomico River area of Charles and St. Marys Counties on January 1, 1954 ; 807 in Talbot County on December 29, 1953 ; 704 in Caroline County on December 26, 1953. Banding. — See figure 67. FOX SPARROW Passerella iliaca (Merrem) Status. — Transient: Fairly common (occasionally more nu- merous) in all sections. Wintering: Uncommon in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections ; rare in all other sections. Habitat. — Wood margins, hedgerows, and brushy cut-over areas of swamp, flood-plain, and moist upland forest. Spring migration. — Normal period: February 10-20 to April 5-15; peak, February 25 to March 25. Extreme arrival dates: January 23, 1950, in Prince Georges County; January 26, 1950, in Baltimore County (E. Willis) ; January 31, 1954, in St. Marys County (J. W. Terborgh). Extreme departure dates: May 11, 1882 (W. Palmer), and May 11, 1917 (M. J. Pellew), in the Dis- trict of Columbia; May 8, 1956, in Montgomery County (S. H. Low) ; May 6, 1950, in Frederick County (Md. Ornith. Soc.) ; May 5, 1956, in Caroline County (A. J. Fletcher, et al.). Fall migration. — Normal period: October 15-25 to November 20-30 ; peak, November 1 to November 20. Extreme arrival dates: October 3, 1906, in the District of Columbia (A. K. Fisher) ; October 8, 1943, in Prince Georges County; October 9, 1921, in Montgomery County (A. K. Fisher). Extreme departure dates: December 16, 1894 and 1928, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirk- wood) ; December 8, 1900, in Allegany County (G. Eifrig). Maximum counts. — Spring: 200 near Unity, Montgomery County, on March 14, 1954 (S. H. Low) ; 145 at Patuxent Refuge BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 369 on March 22, 1944 ; 90 in St. Marys County on January 31, 1954 (J. W. Terborgh). Fall: 400-500 in Dulaney Valley, Baltimore County, on November 5, 1893 (F. C. Kirkwood) ; 25 at Patuxent ; Refuge on November 17, 1951. Winter (Christmas counts) : 107 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1955; 47 in St. Marys County on January 2, 1956 ; 38 in the District of Columbia area i on December 30, 1950 ; 30 at Port Tobacco, Charles County, on December 23, 1931; 20 in southern Dorchester County on De- cember 21, 1947. Banding. — One banded in Baltimore County on March 27, 1947, was recovered on May 1, 1948, in the St. Pierre and Miquelon I Islands (about 20 miles offshore from southern Newfoundland) ; 1 banded in Montgomery County on November 24, 1951, was re- I trapped in Harford County on March 21, 1956. I LINCOLN'S SPARROW Me/osp/za /inco/nii (Audubon) Status. — Transient: Fairly common in the Allegheny Mountain section ; uncommon in all other sections except the Eastern Shore section, where it is rare. Wintering: Casual in the Eastern Shore i section — 1 closely observed near Berlin, Worcester County, on December 27, 1948 (J. E. Willoughby). Habitat. — Hedgerows, wood margins, and brushy marsh- ! meadows. I Spring migration. — Normal period: May 1-5 to May 20-25; ! peak, May 5 to May 20. Extreme arrival dates: April 21, 1918 i (L. Griscom), and April 25, 1923 (J. Kittredge, Jr.), both in the ! District of Columbia. Extreme departure dates: May 30, 1917, in Prince Georges County (W. L. McAtee, A. Wetmore) ; May 26, 1952, in Baltimore County (Mr. and Mrs. R. D. Cole). Fall migration. — Normal period: September 15-25 to October 15-25; peak, September 25 to October 15. Extreme arrival date: September 12, 1943, in Prince Georges County. Extreme depart- ure dates: October 30, 1927, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood, J. M. Sommer) ; October 30, 1943, in Prince Georges County. Maximum counts. — Spring: 4 along the C. and 0. Canal, Mont- gomery County, on May 10, 1952 (P. A. DuMont) ; 3 at Rosedale, Baltimore County, on May 6, 1950 (D. A. Jones). Fall: 9 or 10 in Dulaney Valley, Baltimore County, on October 4, 1896 (F. C. Kirkwood) ; 6 at College Park, Prince Georges County, on Septem- ber 26, 1952 (C. L. Clagett) ; 4 near Emmitsburg, Frederick County, on October 10, 1953 (J. W. Richards). SWAMP SPARROW Melospiza georgiana (Latham) Status. — Breeding (see fig. 68) : Common in the Allegheny 370 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Figure 68. — Breeding range of Swamp Sparrow. Mountain section at elevations above 2400 feet; fairly common locally in the Eastern Shore section, occurring in the marshes along the Nanticoke River in the vicinity of Vienna (Bond and Stewart, 1951) ; also occurs in the Elk River marshes near Elkton. Trans- ient: Common, locally abundant, in the Eastern Shore, Western Shore, and Upper Chesapeake sections; fairly common in the Piedmont, Ridge and Valley, and Allegheny Mountain sections. Wintering : Common, locally abundant, in the Eastern Shore sec- tion ; fairly common in the Western Shore and Upper Chesapeake sections; uncommon in the Piedmont section; rare in the Ridge and Valley section. Habitat. — Marshes and sedge meadows with open growth of shrubs and small trees. Nesting season. — Probably mid-May to mid-July. Extreme egg dates (7 nests) : June 5, 1917 (J. M. Sommer), and June 22, 1946, in Garrett County. Extreme nestling dates (3 nests) : June 10, 1956 (G. H. Cole), and June 14, 1956 (R. Wilson), both in Garrett County. Spring migration. — Normal period: March 15-25 to May 15- 25; peak, April 15 to May 10. Extreme arrival dates: March 9, 1922 (C. H. M. Barrett), and March 10, 1909 (W. W. Cooke), in the District of Columbia. Extreme departure dates: May 27, 1917, BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 371 in the District of Columbia (A. Wetmore) ; May 26, 1945, in Prince Georges County. Fall migration. — September 15-25 to November 10-20 ; peak, October 5 to October 30. Extreme arrival dates: August 21, 1913, in the District of Columbia (W. D. Appel) ; August 24, 1954, in Anne Arundel County (Fr. E. Stoehr) ; September 5, 1901, in Allegany County (G. Eifrig) ; September 10, 1949, in Prince Georges County (M. B. Meanley). Extreme departure dates: December 3, 1922, in the District of Columbia (J. Kittredge, Jr.) ; November 30, 1943, in Prince Georges County. Breeding population density (territorial males per 100 acres) . — 21 (2 in 9l^ acres) in "open hemlock-spruce bog" (brush-meadow stage with young hemlock, red spruce, alder, etc.) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949c). Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: 53 at Rosedale, Baltimore County, on May 6, 1950 (D. A. Jones) ; 40 at Gibson Island, Anne Arundel County, on May 8, 1955 (Mrs. W. L. Hen- derson, Mrs. G. Tappan) ; 38 at Patuxent Refuge on April 29, 1944. Fall: About 100 at Patuxent Refuge on October 12, 1946; 75 at Seneca, Montgomery County, on October 11, 1953 (J. W. Terborgh). Winter (Christmas counts) : 1,271 in southern Dor- chester County on December 28, 1953 ; 759 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1953 ; 286 near the Wicomico River in Charles and St. Marys Counties on January 1, 1954; 113 at Patuxent Refuge on January 12, 1951. SONG SPARROW Mefosp/za melodia (Wilson) Status. — Breeding: Common in the Allegheny Mountain, Ridge and Valley, Piedmont, and Upper Chesapeake sections and in the tidevi^ater areas of the Western Shore and Eastern Shore sections ; uncommon (fairly common, locally) in the interior of the Western Shore and Eastern Shore sections. Transient: Abundant in all sections. Wintering: Common in the Eastern Shore and Western Shore sections; fairly common in the Upper Chesapeake, Pied- mont, and Ridge and Valley sections ; uncommon in the Allegheny Mountain section. Habitat. — Hedgerov^s and wood margins in agricultural areas ; residential areas (with ornamental shrubs, small trees, and lawns) of farms, towns, and suburbs ; brushy pastures ; and sedge meadows and marshes with open growth of shrubs or small trees. Nesting season. — Early April to mid-September (nesting peak, late April to early August). Extreme egg dates (306 nests) : 372 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Figure 69. — Song Sparrow banding recoveries. Each symbol represents the number of records for a State or Province. Banded in Maryland, recovered elsewhere: solid circle = recovered June through August; solid triangle = recovered September through May. Recovered in Maryland, banded else- where: open circle = banded June through August. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 373 April 12, 1901, in Allegany County (G. Eifrig) and August 21, 1892, in Baltimore County (F. C. Kirkwood). Extreme nestling dates (179 nests) : May 1, 1953, in Prince Georges County (E. C. Robbins) and September 11, 1892, in Baltimore County (Kirk- wood, 1895). Spring migration. — Normal period: February 15-25 to April 15-25; peak, March 1 to March 25. Extreme arrival date: Janu- ary 30, 1949, in Baltimore County (H. Brackbill). Extreme departure date: April 29, 1944, in Prince Georges County. Fall migration. — Normal period: September 20-30 to Novem- ber 20-30 ; peak, October 10 to October 30. Breeding population densities (territorial males per 100 acres) . — 109 (21 in 19% acres) in "shrubby field with stream-bordered trees" in Baltimore County in 1947, 67 (13 in 19^^ acres) in 1946 (Cooley, 1947). 32 (3 in 9% acres) in "open hemlock-spruce bog" (brush-meadow stage with young hemlock, red spruce, alder, etc.) in Garrett County in 1949 (Robbins, 1949c). 22 (4.5 in 20^ acres) in "moderately sprayed apple orchard with infrequently mowed ground cover" in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). 12 (9 in 72 acres) in mixed agricultural habitats (including hedgerows and wood margins) in Prince Georges County in 1951. 9 (6 in 66 acres) in field and edge habitat (including strips of flood-plain forest, brushy fields, and hedgerows) in Baltimore County in 1947 (Hampe, et al., 1947). 9 (1.5 in 17^ acres) in "lightly sprayed apple orchard with rye planted as ground cover" in Worcester County in 1948 (Springer and Stewart, 1948b). 7 (2 in 28 acres) in "partially opened flood-plain forest" (sycamore, ash, elm, etc.) in Montgomery County in 1943 (J. W. Aldrich, A. J. Duvall). Maximum counts (nonbreeding) . — Spring: 300 at Emmits- burg, Frederick County, on March 22, 1953 (J. W. Richards) ; 200 at Patuxent Refuge on March 4, 1945. Fall: 127 at Patuxent Refuge on October 27, 1943. Winter (Christmas counts) : 1,287 in the Ocean City area on December 27, 1953; 771 in southern Dorchester County on December 28, 1953; 508 in the Annapolis area on January 2, 1955 ; 100 in Allegany County on December 31, 1949. Banding. — See figure 69. LAPLAND LONGSPUR Ca/car/us /apponicus (Linnaeus) Status. — Rare and irregular winter visitor. About half a dozen were recorded in Baltimore City during the period February 4-10, 1895 (A. Resler) , and a flock of about 20 was observed at Lake Roland, Baltimore County, on February 10, 1895 (Kirk- 374 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE wood, 1895). At Ocean City a small flock was recorded on De- cember 29, 1927 (A. Wetmore), 3 were observed on December 25, 1939 (Stewart, 1947), and 1 was recorded on January 23, 1948 (I. R. Barnes). CHESTNUT-COLLARED LONGSPUR Cakarius ornatus (Townsend) Status. — Accidental visitor. One was collected at Ocean City on August 20, 1906 (USNM— Kirkwood, 1908). SNOW BUNTING P/ecfrophenax nivalis (Linnaeus) Status. — Transient and ivintering: Uncommon (occasionally more numerous) in the coastal area of Worcester County; rare elsewhere in all sections (no definite records for Allegheny Moun- tain section). Habitat. — Sand-dune zone of the barrier beaches; also along sandy shores of Chesapeake Bay and in extensive agricultural fields and pastures. Period of occurrence. — Normal period: November 10-20 to March 1-10 ; peak, November 25 to February 20. Extreme arrival dates: October 31, 1953, in Anne Arundel County (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tappan) ; November 2, 1947, in Worcester County (I. R. Barnes). Extreme departure dates: April 1, 1906, and March 13, 1907, in Worcester County (F. C. Kirkwood). Maximum counts. — 150 on January 29, 1906 (F. C. Kirkwood), 146 on December 27, 1955 (Christmas count) , and 50 on November 28, 1945, in the Ocean City area ; about 100 on February 18, 1905, in the District of Columbia (F. M. Finley) ; 45 at Triadelphia Reservoir, Montgomery County, on December 26, 1954 (Christmas count) ; 25 at Gibson Island, Anne Arundel County, on November 28, 1952 (Mrs. W. L. Henderson, Mrs. G. Tappan). LITERATURE CITED Abbott, Jackson M. 1953. Blue Grosbeak nest at Seneca, Atlantic Naturalist 9:35, Audubon, John James, 1831. Ornithological biography, xxiv + 512 pp, Philadelphia. 1838. Ornithological biography, xxiv + 618 pp. Edinburgh. 1840-44. The birds of America. 7 vols. 1840-44. New York and Phila- delphia. Bagg, Aaron C. 1935. Snow Geese (Chen hyperhorea) near Washington, D. C. Auk 52:302. Baird, Spencer F. 1858. North American birds. Pac. Rail Road Rep. 9:761. 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Ball, William Howard, and Robert Browne Wallace. 1936. Further remarks on birds of Boiling Field, D. C. Auk 53 :345-346. Barnes, Irston R. 1950. The Starling's conquest. Atlantic Naturalist 6:64-68. Barnes, Irston R., and Charles O. Handley, Jr. 1950. King Eiders seen at Ocean City. Atlantic Naturalist 5:183-184. Bartsch, Paul. 1897. Uria lomvia, an addition to the Avifauna Columbiana. Auk 14:312-313. 1900. Birds of the road: VI, nesting time. Osprey 4:147-150. 1901. Tenants of Uncle Sam. Osprey 5:88-91. 375 376 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Beaton, Robert J. 1951. Hawk migration at South Mountain. Atlantic Naturalist 6:166- 168. Behr, Herman. 1914. Some breeding birds of Garrett Co., Md. Auk 31:548. Bendire, Chas. E. 1895. The American Barn Owl breeding at Washington, D. C, in winter. . Auk 12:180-181. Bent, Arthur Cleveland. 1926. Life histories of North American marsh birds. U. S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 135. xii + 490 pp. 1932. Life histories of North American gallinaceous birds. U. S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 162. xi + 490 pp. 1937. Life histories of American birds of prey. U. S. Natl. Mus. Bull. 167. viii + 409 pp. Black, David V. 1941. Avocets in Maryland. Auk 58:405. Blake, S. F. 1924. Blue-gray Gnatcatcher in the District of Columbia in winter. Auk 41:349. Bond, Gorman M., and Robert E. Stewart. 1951. A new Swamp Sparrow from the Maryland coastal plain. Wilson Bull. 63:38-40. Booker, Y. E. 1931. A wintering Black-throated Blue Warbler. Bird-Lore 33:124. Brackbill, Hervey. 1942. Catbird wintering in Maryland. Auk 59:112-113. 1946. Snowy Owls in the winter of 1945-46. Maryland Birdlife 2 :28. 1947a. Evening Grosbeaks and Purple Finches at Baltimore. Auk 64: 321-322. 1947b. Period of dependency in the American Robin. Wilson Bull. 59:114-116. Braun, E. Lucy. 1950. Deciduous forests of eastern North America. Blackiston Co., Philadelphia, xiv + 596 pp. Briggs, Shirley A. 1954. Veeries in Glover-Archbold Park. Atlantic Naturalist 10:38. Brooks, A. B. 1934. Some ornithological contributions by the nature school. Redstart 1:1-3. Brooks, Maurice G. 1936a. Waterfowl on four Allegheny Lakes. Redstart 3:71-76, 82-85. 1936b. Solitary Sandpiper in summer at Deep Creek Lake, Maryland. Auk 53:444. 1936c. Notes on the land birds of Garrett County, Maryland. Nat. Hist. SocMd. Bull. 7:6-14. 1937. Pine Siskins in western Maryland. Wilson Bull. 49:294. 1938. Shorebirds at a western Maryland lake. Auk 55:126-127. 1944. A check-list of West Virginia birds. Bull. 316 Agric. Exp. Sta., West Virginia University. 56 pp. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 377 Brown, Edward J. 1894. Dendroica striata in summer at Washington, D. C. Auk 11:79. Brumbaugh, Chalmers S. 1915. Chestnut-sided Warbler nesting near Baltimore. Bird-Lore 17: 456-457. Buckalew, John H. 1948. Ruff in Maryland. Wood Thrush 4:22. 1949. Wilson's Phalarope in Maryland. Wood Thrush 5:26. 1950. Records from the Del-Mar-Va Peninsula. Auk 67:250-252. 1951a. European Cormorant observed at Ocean City, Maryland. Mary- land Birdlife 7:17. 1951b. First winter record of the Bachman's Sparrow in Maryland. Maryland Birdlife 7:40. Burleigh, Thomas D. 1932. The Golden-crowned Kinglet, a summer visitor in the District of Columbia. Auk 49:485-486. Burns, Frank L. 1932. Charles W. and Titian R. Peale and the ornithological section of the old Philadelphia Museum. Wilson Bull. 44:23-35. Chapman, Frank M. 1904. The Pine Grosbeak at Washington, D. C. Bird-Lore 6:17. 1907. The Starling in America. Bird-Lore 9:206. Clagett, Charles L. 1952. 1952 breeding-bird population studies. Atlantic Naturalist 8:87-88. 1953. 1953 breeding-bird population studies. Atlantic Naturalist 9:88-89. Cole, Richard, and Haven Kolb. 1953. Seventeenth breeding-bird census; Mixed Oak Forest. Audubon Field Notes 7:341-342. Cooke, May Thacher. 1921. Birds of the Washington region. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 34:1-22. 1929. Birds of the Washington, D. C, region. 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Some records of breeding birds for the vicinity of Washington, D. C. Auk 38:281-282. 1924. Black Vulture (Coragyps urubu) nesting in Maryland. Auk 41: 475-476. 1936. Four rare nesting records for Maryland. Auk 53:95-96. Criswell, Joan H. 1951. Yellow-crowned Night Heron nesting in Washington. Atlantic Naturalist 6:120. Cross, Frank C. 1949. King Rails nest at Seneca. Wood Thrush 5:26. 1952. Status of the Orange-crowned Warbler in the Washington area. Atlantic Naturalist 8:91. Cutler, David A. 1952. First Kittiwake specimen for Maryland. Maryland Birdlife 8:16. Cuvier, M. Le Baron. 1826. Oeuvres completes de Buffon (Oiseaux) 21:249-255. Daniel, John W., Jr. 1901a. Occurrence of the Glossy Ibis at Washington, D. C. Auk 18:271. 1901b. Nesting of the Hairy Woodpecker near Washington, D. C. Auk 18:272. Dargan, Lucas, Phoebe Knappen, and Robert C. McClanahan. 1941. A Maryland winter record for the Black Skimmer. Auk 58:406. Davis, Edwin G. 1948. Bird notes. Wood Thrush 4:22. Davis, Edwin G., and John E. Willoughby. 1950. Harlequin Duck in Maryland. Wood Thrush 5:124. Davis, Malcolm. 1945. Black-crowned Night Heron in Washington, D. C. Auk 62 :458. De Garis, Charles F. 1936. Notes on six nests of the Kentucky Warbler (Oporornis formosus). Auk 53:418-428. Deignan, H. G. 1943a. Some early bird-records for Maryland and the District of Colum- bia. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 56:69. 1943b. Occurrence of the Hudsonian Godwit in the District of Columbia. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 56:70. 1943c. Hoyt's Horned Lark on the Eastern Shore, Maryland. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 56:71. Denmead, Talbott. 1937. Black Tern in Maryland. Auk 54:206. 1954. Letter to the editor. Maryland Birdlife 10:56. Dorsey, Caleb. 1947. Observations on the nesting habits of the Black Vulture in Anne Arundel County, Maryland. Maryland, A Jour, of Nat. Hist. 17:27-29. Eifrig, C. W. G. 1902a. Lark Sparrow and Olive-sided Flycatcher in western Maryland. Auk 19:83-84. 1902b. Northern birds at Cumberland, Md. Auk 19:211-212. 1904. Birds of Allegany and Garrett Counties, western Maryland. Auk 21 :234-250. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 379 1905. Nesting of the Raven at Cumberland, Md. Auk 22:312. 1909. Additions to the list of birds of Allegany and Garrett Counties, western Maryland. Auk 26:437-438. 1915. Notes on some birds of the Maryland Alleghanies; an anomaly in the check-list. Auk 32:108-110. 1920a. In the haunts of Cairns' Warbler. Auk 37:551-558. 1920b. Additions to the "Birds of Allegany and Garrett Counties, Mary- land." Auk 37:598-600. 1921. Mockingbird and Catbird wintering at Cumberland, Maryland. Auk 38:608-609. 1923. Prairie Horned Lark (Otocoris alpestris praticola) in Maryland in summer. Auk 40:126. 1933. In the haunts of Cairn's Warbler— a retrospect and a comparison. Wilson Bull. 45:60-66. 1938. Hermit Thrush, Swamp and Savannah Sparrows as summer resi- dents in western Maryland. Auk 55:281. Farnham, A. B. 1891. Ornithologists Association Secretary's report. 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Grinnell, George Bird. _ ^ 1910. American game-bird shooting. Forest and Stream Publishing Co., New York, xviii + 558 pp. Gross, Alfred 0. 1927. The Snowy Owl migration of 1926-27. Auk 44:479-493. Gunn, W. W. H., and A. M. Crocker. 1951. Analysis of unusual bird migration in North America during the storm of April 4-7, 1947. Auk 68:139-163, 380 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Hackman, C. Douglas. 1954. A summary of hawk flights over White Marsh, Baltimore Countyj* Maryland. Maryland Birdlife 10:19-26. Halle, Louis J., Jr. 1943. The Veery breeding in Washington, D. C. Auk 60:103. | 1948. Veeries breed in Washington. Wood Thrush 4:2-7. Hamilton, A. B,, and J. D. Johnson. I 1940. Types of farming in Maryland. University of Maryland Agricul- ture Experiment Station Bull. 432. 271 pp. Hampe, Irving E. 1945. The Iceland Gull in Maryland. Maryland, A Jour. Nat. Hist. 15:77. Hampe, Irving E., Robert M. Bowen, and Gorman M. Bond. 1947. The breeding bird census and bird watching. Maryland, A Jour.i Nat. Hist. 17:67-72. Hampe, Irving E., and Haven Kolb. 1947. A preliminary list of the birds of Maryland and the District of Columbia. Nat. Hist. Soc. Md. Baltimore, xi + 76 pp. Hampe, Irving E., H. Seibert, and H. Kolb. 1939. Purple Gallinule in Maryland. Auk 56:475. Handlan, J. W. 1936. A brief inspection of lakes in the Allegheny tableland. Redstart 4:12-13. Harlow, R. C. 1906. Late nesting of the Hummingbird. Oologist 23:156. Harper, Roland M. 1918. A phytogeographical sketch of southern Maryland. Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. 8:581-589. Hasbrouck, Edwin M. 1893. Rare birds near Washington, D. C. Auk 10:91-92. 1944. The status of Barrow's Golden-eye in the eastern United States. Auk 61:544-554. 1948. Wilson's Phalarope near Washington, D. C. Auk 65:609-610. Henshaw, H. M. 1886. Occurrence of Chondestes grammacus about Washington, D. C. Auk 3:487. Houghton, C. 0. 1906. The Masked Duck in Maryland. Auk 23:335. Jackson, Ralph W. 1916. Occurrence of Starlings in Dorchester County, Md. Bird-Lore 18:175. 1941. Breeding birds of the Cambridge area, Maryland. Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. Md. 11:65-74. John, Thomas. 1937. A Maryland Marsh Hawk nest. Redstart 4:10. Johnson, J. Enoch. 1952. Black Skimmer in Washington. Atlantic Naturalist 8:90. Kaufmann, Jack, Richard D. Cole, and Haven Kolb. 1952. Sixteenth breeding-bird census; Mixed oak forest. Audubon Field Notes 6:308-309. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 3Sl Kessel, Brina. 1953. Distribution and migration of the European Starling in North America. Condor 55:49-67. Kirkwood, Frank Coates. 1895. A list of the birds of Maryland. Trans. Maryland Acad. Sci. 2:241-382. 1901. The Cerulean Warbler (Dendroica cerulea) as a summer resident in Baltimore County, Maryland. Auk 18:137-142. 1908. Chestnut-collared Longspur (Calcarius omatus) in Maryland. Auk 25:84. 1925. Cliff Swallow (Petrochelidon lunifrons) again nesting in Balti- more County, Maryland. Auk 42:275-276. 1930. A Raven in Baltimore County, Maryland. Auk 47:255. Kolb, C. Haven, Jr. 1939. Ornithological observations at Ocean City. Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. Md. 10:26-34. 1941. Further ornithological notes from Ocean City, Maryland. Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. Md. 11:115-120. 1943. Status of Dendroica cerulea in eastern Maryland. Auk 60:275-276. 1947. Breeding of the Long-eared Owl near Baltimore. Maryland, A Jour, of Nat. Hist. 17:23-25. 1949a. Thirteenth breeding-bird census; Mixed oak forest. Audubon Field Notes 3:266. 1949b. Northward extension in the breeding range of the Black Vulture. Maryland Naturalist 19:7-9. 1950. Fourteenth breeding-bird census; Mixed oak forest. Audubon Field Notes 4:300. Kolb, C. Haven, Jr., and Gorman Bond. 1943. Unusual records for eastern Maryland. Auk 60:451. Kolb, C. Haven, Jr., and Richard D. Cole. 1951. Fifteenth breeding-bird census; Mixed oak forest. Audubon Field Notes 5:323. Kolb, C. Haven, Jr., and Irving E. Hampe. 1941. Recent records from Baltimore and vicinity. Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. Md. 12:28-29. Kolb, C. Haven, Jr., Chandler S. Robbins, and Eleanor C. Robbins. 1948. Twelfth breeding-bird census; Mixed oak forest. Audubon Field Notes 2:234. Kumlien, Ludwig. 1880. The Yellow-rumped Warbler (Dendroeca coronata) breeding in eastern Maryland. Bull. Nuttall Ornith. Club 5:182-183. Lawrence, R. E. 1946. Trips of the month. Wood Thrush 1:23. Le Compte, E. Lee. 1937. Rare birds. Maryland Conserv. 14(3) :8-9. Lincoln, Frederick C. 1928. Forster's Tern in the District of Columbia. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 41:209-210. 1932. State of the Arkansas Kingbird (Tyrannus verticalis) in Mary- land. Auk 49:88-90. 1934. An influx of Leach's Petrels. Auk 51 : 74-75. 1937. Parula Warbler in Washington in December. Auk 54:395. 382 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE McAtee, W. L. 1918. Early bird records for the vicinity of Washington, D. C. Auk 35:85. 1921. Ten spring bird lists made near Washington, D. C. Wilson Bull. 33:183-192. McAtee, W. L., E. A. Preble, and Alexander Wetmore. 1917. Winter birds about Washington, D. C, 1916-1917. Wilson Bull. 29:183-187. McKnight, Edwin T. 1950. Summer occurrence of juvenile Lark Sparrow in southern Mary- land. Wood Thrush 5:125. Meanley, M. Brooke. 1936a. Late nesting of the Goldfinch at Baltimore, Md. Auk 53:90. 1936b. Maryland Yellow-throat in winter in Maryland. Auk 53:220. 1938. Chestnut-sided Warbler nesting near Baltimore, Maryland. Auk 55:542-543. 1943a. Red-cockaded Woodpecker breeding in Maryland. Auk 60:105. 1943b. Nesting of the Upland Plover in Baltimore County, Maryland. Auk 60:603. 1944. Lawrence's Warbler in Maryland. Auk 61 :477. 1949. Bachman's Sparrow at College Park, Maryland. Wood Thrush 5:73. 1950. Swainson's Warbler on coastal plain of Maryland. Wilson Bull. 62:93-94. Murray, Joseph James. 1952. A check-list of the birds of Virginia, Virginia Soc. Ornith., Lexington, Va. 113 pp. Oberholser, Harry C. 1905. Two bird days near Washington, D. C. Wilson Bull. 11 :84-88. 1917a. A cooperative bird census at Washington, D. C. Wilson Bull. 29:18-29. 1917b. A remarkable Martin roost in the City of Washington. Bird- Lore 19:315-317. 1918. A second bird survey at Washington, D. C. Wilson Bull. 30:34-48. 1919. Birds of a Washington City dooryard. Amer. Midland Nat. 6(1):1-13. 1920. The season; xviii, December 15, 1919, to February 15, 1920. Bird- Lore 22:106. 1931. The season, Washington region. Bird-Lore 33:194-195. Oldys, Henry. 1907. Occurrence of a White-winged Crossbill at Oxen Hill, Md., in August. Auk 24:442. 1917. Starlings nesting near Washington, D. C. Auk 34:338. Oresman, Stephen, John Tiffany, and Chandler S. Robbins. 1948. Twelfth breeding-bird census; Damp deciduous scrub with numer- ous standing dead trees. Audubon Field Notes 2:226-227. Osgood, Wilfred H. 1907. 'Helminthophila lawrenceV near the District of Columbia. Auk 24:342-343. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 383 Overing, Robert. 1936. The 1935 fall migration at the Washington monument. Wilson Bull. 48:222-224. 1938. High mortality at the Washington monument. Auk 55:679. Palmer, William. 1885. Abundance of Parus atricapillus near Washington. Auk 2:304. 1896. The Scissor-tailed Flycatcher in Virginia and Maryland. Auk 13:83. 1897a. The Wood Ibis in Virginia and Maryland. Auk 14:208-209. 1897b. An addition to North American Petrels. Auk 14:297-299. Partridge, Mrs. Melvin H. 1953. A northward flight of Evening Grosbeaks. Maryland Birdlife 9:14. Perkins, S. E. III. 1933. Notes from Dorchester Co., Maryland. Auk 50:367-368. Perkins, S. E. Ill, and Robert P. Allen. 1931. Notes on some winter birds of Maryland. Maryland Conserv. 8(2) :3-5. Peterson, Roger Tory. 1946. Nesting sites of the Parula Warbler in the Potomac valley. Wilson Bull. 58:197. Poole, Frazer G. 1942a. A list of the birds of Caroline County, Maryland. Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. Md. 12:51-56. 1942b. Breeding notes Eastern Shore birds. Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. Md. 12:56-58. Preble, Edward A. 1900. The summer birds of Western Maryland. Maryland Geological Survey 294-307. Richards, John W. 1953. Some records new to Frederick County. Maryland Birdlife 9=3-4. 1954. Rufous Hummingbird seen at Emmitsburg, Maryland Birdlife 10:36-37. Richmond, Charles W. 1888. An annotated list of birds breeding in the District of Columbia. Auk 5:18-25. 1891. Barrow's Golden-eye (Glaucionetta islandica) near Washington, D. C. Auk 8:112. 1917. The Cape May Warbler at Washington, D. C, in winter. Auk 34:343. Ridgway, Robert. 1878. Eastward range of Chondestes grammaca. Bull. Nuttall Ornith. Club 3:43-44. 1884. Probable breeding of the Red Crossbill in central Maryland. Auk 1:292. 1890. Junco hyemalis shufeldti in Maryland. Auk 7:289. Riley, J. H. , ^r. . 7 * 1902. Notes on the habits of the Broad-winged Hawk (Buteo platyp- terus) in the vicinity of Washington, D. C. Osprey 6:21-23. Robbins, Chandler S. -. i. a j 1949a. Thirteenth breeding-bird census; Virgin hemlock forest. Audu- bon Field Notes 3:257-258. 384 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE 1949b. Thirteenth breeding-bird census; Mature and lumbered oak-maple ridge forest. Audubon Field Notes 3:259-261. 1949c. Thirteenth breeding-bird census; Open hemlock-spruce bog. Audubon Field Notes 3:269. 1949d. Wilson's Warbler in Maryland in late December. Auk 66:207-208. 1953. The Evening Grosbeak in Maryland. Maryland Birdlife 9:19-23. Robbins, Chandler S., and Irston R. Barnes. 1949. Thirteenth breeding-bird census; Red pine plantation. Audubon Field Notes 3:258. Robbins, Chandler S., and Robert E. Stewart. 1948. Maryland Piping Plover recovered in the Bahamas. Bird-Banding 19:73-74. 1951a. Fifteenth breeding-bird census; Mature northern hardwood for- est. Audubon Field Notes 5:320-321. 1951b. Fifteenth breeding-bird census; Scrub spruce bog. Audubon Field Notes 5:325. Robbins, Chandler S., Robert E. Stewart, and Martin Karplus. 1947. Eleventh breeding-bird census; Dry deciduous scrub. Audubon Field Notes 1 :200-201. ^ Seibert, Henri C. | 1941. Brewster's Warbler in Maryland. Auk 58:410. Small, Edgar A. 1881. Notes from Maryland. Ornithologist and Oologist 6:79. 1883a. Phoebe birds in winter. Ornithologist and Oologist 8:32. 1883b. Boat-tailed Crackle. Ornithologist and Oologist 8:76. fl Smith, Hugh M. 1 1885. Breeding of Loxia americana in the District of Columbia. Auk 2:379-380. 1891. On the disappearance of the Dick Cissel (Spiza Americana) from the District of Columbia. Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus. 13:171-172. Smith, Hugh M., and William Palmer. 1888. Additions to the avifauna of Washington and vicinity. Auk 5:147- 148. Smyth, Thomas, Jr. 1952. Black Vulture nesting in Baltimore County. Maryland Naturalist 22:18-19. Springer, Paul F., and Robert E. Stewart. 1948a. Twelfth breeding-bird census; Tidal marshes. Audubon Field Notes 2:223-226. 1948b. Twelfth breeding-bird census; Apple orchards. Audubon Field Notes 2:227-229. 1948c. Twelfth breeding-bird census; Immature loblolly-shortleaf pine stand. Audubon Field Notes 2:239. 1948d. Twelfth breeding-bird census; Second-growth river swamp. Audubon Field Notes 2:240-241. 1950. Gadwall nesting in Maryland. Auk 67:234-235. Stabler, Harold B. 1891. Nesting of the Sharp-shinned Hawk. Oologist 8:161-162. Stecher, Karl. 1955. Brown-capped Chickadee at Rockville. Atlantic Naturalist 10 :214. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 385 Stewart, Robert E. 1947. The distribution of Maryland birds. Maryland Birdlife 3:55-57. 1949. Ecology of a nesting Red-shouldered Hawk population. Wilson Bull. 61 :26-35. 1951. Kittiwake — seen on Assateague Island. Atlantic Naturalist 6:175, 222. 1952. Census of Woodcock breeding population in vicinity of Patuxent Refuge, Md. in 1951 [in investigations of Woodcock, Snipe, and Rails in 1951 by John W. Aldrich and others]. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Special Scientific Report — Wildlife No. 14:29. Stewart, Robt. E., James B. Cope, Chandler S. Robbins, and John W. Brainerd. 1946. Effects of DDT on birds at the Patuxent Research Refuge. Journal of Wildlife Management 10:195-201. 1952, Seasonal distribution of bird populations at the Patuxent Research Refuge. Amer. Midi. Nat. 47:257-363. Stewart, Robert E., Martin Karplus, and Chandler S. Robbins. 1947. Eleventh breeding-bird census; Damp deciduous scrub with numer- ous standing dead trees. Audubon Field Notes 1:200. Stewart, Robert E., and M. Brooke Meanley. 1943. Bachman's Sparrow in Maryland. Auk 60:605-606. 1950. Fourteenth breeding-bird census; General farm land. Audubon Field Notes 4:305. Stewart, Robert E., and Chandler S. Robbins. 1947a. Recent observations on Maryland birds. Auk 64:266-274. 1947b. Eleventh breeding-bird census; Virgin central hardwood decidu- ous forest. Audubon Field Notes 1:211-212. 1951a. Fifteenth breeding-bird census; Virgin spruce-hemlock bog for- est. Audubon Field Notes 5:317-318. 1951b. Fifteenth breeding-bird census: Lightly grazed pasture. Audu- bon Field Notes 5:326-327. Swales, B. H. 1919. A former record of the Heath Hen (Tympanuchus cupido) at Washington, D. C. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 32:198. 1920. Records of several rare birds from near Washington, D. C. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 33:181-182. 1922. Prairie Horned Lark (Otocoris alpestris praticola) in Maryland in summer. Auk 39:568-569. Taylor, John W. 1953. Glossy Ibis at Cobb Island. Atlantic Naturalist 9:91. Trever, Karl. 1952. 1951 breeding-bird population studies. Atlantic Naturalist 7:133- 135. Tyrrell, W. Bryant. 1934. The youth of the Eagle — in Maryland. Maryland Conserv. 11(4) : 8-9. 1935. Bird notes from Ocean City, Maryland. Nat. Hist. Soc. Md. Bull. 6:21-23. Ulke, Titus. 1935. Rare birds in the District of Columbia. Auk 52:461. Vaughn, Ernest A. 1937. Wildlife's public enemy No. 1. Maryland Conserv. 14(4):19-20. 386 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Warden, David Baillie. 1816. A chorographical and statistical description of the District of Columbia. Smith, Rue Montmorency, Paris, vii + 212 pp. Weeks, John R. 1941. Our climate: Maryland and Delaware. Maryland State Weather Service. 66 pp. Wendt, Lorina M. 1951. Upland Sandpipers near Lilypons. Atlantic Naturalist 7:37. Wetmore, Alexander. 1923. The Evening Grosbeak near Washington, D. C. Auk 40:130. 1925. Wilson's Petrel in Maryland. Auk 42:262-263. 1927. Records from the coast of Maryland. Auk 44:256-257. 1929. Wilson's Phalarope in Maryland. Auk 46:538-539. 1935. The Short-billed Marsh Wren breeding in Maryland. Auk 52:455. 1936. The Chuck-will's-widow in Maryland. Auk 53:333. 1939. Arkansas Kingbird in Maryland. Auk 56:86. Wetmore, Alexander, and Frederick C. Lincoln. 1928a. Recent records for Maryland. Auk 45:225-226. 1928b. The Dickcissel in Maryland. Auk 45:508-509. Williams, R. W. 1914. The White-winged Crossbill (Loxia leucoptera) in the District of Columbia. Auk 31:251-252. Wimsatt, William A. 1939. Black Vulture and Duck Hawk nesting in Maryland. Auk 56: 181-182. 1940. Early nesting of the Duck Hawk in Maryland. Auk 57:109. Wood, Nelson R. 1907. A White-throated Sparrow in Washington, D. C, in August. Auk 24:442. Wright, Albert Hazen. 1912. Early records of the Carolina Paroquet. Auk 29:343-363. Wright, J. Kenneth. 1955. 1954 breeding-bird population studies. Atlantic Naturalist 10: 150-151. APPENDIX A — Common and Scientific Names of Plants Referred to in Text [Names taken from eighth edition of Gray's Manual of Botany (Fernald, 1950)] Alder {Alnus spp.) American elm {Ulmus aTnericana) American holly {Ilex opaca) American three-square {Scirpus americanus) Arrow-wood (Viburnum dentatum) Ash {Fraxinus spp.) Bald cypress {Taxodium distichum) Basswood {Tilia americana) Bay berry {Myrica pensylvanica) Beachgrass (Ammophila breviligulata) Bear oak {Quercus ilicifoUa) Beech {Fagus grandifolia) Black cherry (Prunus serotina) Black grass {Juncus gerardi) Black gum (Nyssa sylvatica) Black oak {Quercu^ velutina) Broomsedge {Andropogon virginicus) Cattail {Typha spp.) Chestnut {Castanea dentata) Chestnut oak {Quercus prinus) Clammy azalea (Rhododendron viscosum) Common cattail (Typha latifolia) Cross vine (Bignonia capreolata) Ditch grass (Ruppia maritima) Eel grass (Zostera maHna) Elm (Ulmus sp.) Flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) Glass wort (Salico7-nia spp.) Great laurel (Rhododendron maximum) Greenbrier (Smilax spp.) Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) Hickory (Gary a spp.) Hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana) Horse-sugar (Symplocos tinctoria) Jewel weed (Impatiens capensis) Laurel-leaved greenbrier (Smilax lauri folia) Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) Maleberry (Lyonia Ugustrina) Marsh elder (Iva frutescens) Mockernut (Gary a tomentosa) Mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia) Narrow-leaved cattail (Typha angustif olia) Needlerush (Juncus roemerianus) Northern red oak (Quercus rubra) Olney three-square (Scirpus olneyi) Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) Pignut (Gary a cordiformis) Pin oak (Quercus palustris) Pitch pine (Pinus rigida) Poison ivy (Rhus radicans) Poison sumac (Rhus vernix) Red ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) Red bay (Persea borbonia) Red cedar (Juniperus virginiana) Red-head pondweed (Potamogeton perfoliatus) Red maple (Acer rubrum) Red pine (Pinus resinosa) Red spruce (Picea rubens) Reed (Phragmites communis) River birch (Betula nigra) River bulrush (Scirpus fiuviatilis) Sago pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatus) Saltmarsh bulrush (Scirpus robustus) Salt-meadow grass (Spartina patens) Salt reed-grass (Spartina cynosuroides) Salt-water cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) Scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea) Scrub pine (Pinus virginiana) Sea myrtle (Baccharis halimifolia) Shagbark hickory (Garya ovata) Shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata) Southern arrow- wood (Viburnum dentatum) Spanish oak (Quercus falcata) 387 388 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Spicebush (Lindera benzoin) Tamarack {Larix laricina) Spike-grass (Distichlis spicata) Three-square (Scirpics spp.) Sugar maple {Acer saccharum) Trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans) Swamp rose {Rosa palustris) Tulip-poplar {Liriodendron Swamp rose-mallow {Hibiscus tulipifera) palustris) Water oak {Quercus nigra) Sweet-bay {Magnolia virginiana) Wax-myrtle {Myrica cenfera) Sweet birch {Betula lenta) White ash {Fraxinus americana) Sweetgum {Liquidambar White oak {Quercus alba) styraciflua) White pine {Pinus strobus) Sweet pepperbush {Clethra Wild celery {Vallisneria americana) alnifolia) Wild rice {Zizania aquatica) Switchgrass {Panicum virgatum) Willow oak {Quercus phellos) Sycamore {Platanus occidentalis) Winterberry {Ilex verticillata) Table Mountain pine {Pinus pungens) Yellow birch {Betula lutea) APPENDIX B — List of Species Dropped From Hypothetical List The following species have been reported as having occurred in Maryland or the District of Columbia, but the records are too indefinite to warrant their inclusion as probable members of the avifauna. Sooty Shearwater Puffinus griseus (Gmelin). Specimen cannot be found (Hampe and Kolb, 1947). Egyptian Goose Alopochen aegyptiaca (Linnaeus). There is no assurance that the specimen recorded by Kirkwood (Auk 17:64-65) had not escaped from captivity. European Quail Coturnix coturnix (Linnaeus). About 1,200 re- leased in Baltimore County, 1879-92; 1 nest record. This introduced species did not become established. Sandhill Crane Grus canadensis (Linnaeus). Specimen said to have been procured in the District of Columbia (Coues and Prentiss, 1862) cannot be located, and may never have been preserved or examined by an ornithologist. Ivory Gull Pagophila eburnea (Phipps). Recorded in 1843 (McAtee, 1918), but there is no assurance it was correctly identified. Rock Dove Columba livia Gmelin. The great majority of obser- vations refer to privately owned or escaped birds. No truly wild population is recognized in this area. APPENDIX C — Important Records Since October 1956 As stated on page 37, it was the intent of the authors to have the text complete through the calendar year 1955. The more important changes in status, migration and nesting dates, popu- BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 389 lation densities, and high counts for the period January through October 1956 were incorporated into the text. The maps and the bibliography, however, have not been amended since 1955. Several new records of interest occurred while the manu- script was in press and are of sufficient importance to be included here. White Pelican Pelecanus erythrorhynchos Gmelin. One was seen at Gibson Island, Anne Arundel County, on October 4 and 5, 1957 (R. Dwight, Mrs. E. G. Tappan). Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis Linnaeus. Five birds spent the sum- mer of 1957 in the Mills Island heron colony (N. Hotchkiss), but there was no proof of nesting. One bird was reported seen near Easton, Talbot County, on May 6, 1957. Knot Calidris canutus (Linnaeus) . Three seen at Ocean City on December 30, 1957 (D. A. Cutler et al.) constitute the first winter record for Maryland. Buff-breasted Sandpiper Tryngites subruficollis (Vieillot). A sight record near Hurlock, Dorchester County, on September 24, 1957 (S. H. Dyke) places this species on the hypothetical list. Ruff Philomachus pugnax (Linnaeus). One was observed in the District of Columbia on September 22, 1957 (P. A. DuMont) . This is the second definite record for our area. Black-legged Kittiwake Rissa tridactyla (Linnaeus). One was seen at Ocean City on December 30, 1957 (D. A. Cutler et al.) . Another observed at the mouth of the South River in Anne Arundel County on December 30, 1956, represents the first record for the Chesapeake Bay area. Common Tern Sterna hirundo Linnaeus. One observed at Ocean City on December 30, 1957 (J. W. Terborgh et al.) repre- sents the first winter record for Maryland. Ash-throated Flycatcher Myiarchus cinerascens (Lawrence). One collected (USNM) at Monkton, Baltimore County, on November 26, 1957 (S. W. Simon) represents the second record for Maryland. Wilson's Warbler Wilsonia pusilla (Wilson) . One spent the winter of 1956-57 at a feeding station in Easton, Talbot County; it was first noted on November 30, 1956 (J. Offutt) . This is the second winter record for Maryland. Bachman's Sparrow Aimophila aestivalis (Lichtenstein). One seen at Elliott, Dorchester County, on December 31, 1957 (K. Stecher) represents the second winter record for Mary- land. 390 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Harris' Sparrow Zonotrichia querula (Nuttall). This species is transferred from the hypothetical list to the regular list on the basis of a bird found near Darnestown, Montgomery- County, on January 1, 1958, and subsequently seen by many observers. With the above changes, the regular list of birds recorded in Maryland and the District of Columbia stands at 334 species. The revised hypothetical list still contains 19 additional species. March 1958. SPECIES INDEX [Page numbers in boldface refer to principal entries; those in italics to maps] Acanthis flammea, 343. hornemanni, 343. linaria. See A. flammea. Accipiter cooperii, 22, 29, 35, 109. gentilis, 108. striatus, 7, 29, 35, 108. velox. See A. striatus. Actitis macularia, 22, 35, 143. Aegolius acadicus, 15, 34, 35, 128, 182. Agelaius phoeniceus, 4, 7, 17, 22, 26, 27, 28, 35, 321, 329. Aimophila aestivalis, 23, 29, 33, 358, 389. Aix sponsa, 7, 21, 29, 35, 85, 86. Alca torda, 171. Alle alle. See Plautus alle. Alopochen aegyptiaca, 388. Am,modramus savannarum, 22, 28, 35, 352. Ammospiza caudacuta, 22, 24, 353, 354-. maritima, 22, 24, 354, 355. Anas acuta, 13, 75, 76. carolinensis, 11, 78. crecca, 37, 77. cyanoptera, 81. discors, 22, 24, 79, 79, 80. platyrhynchos, 13, 22, 29, 35, 69, 71. rubripes, 13, 16, 21, 29, 60, 72, 73. strepera, 22, 24, 74. Anhinga, 51. Anhinga anhinga, 51. Anser albifrons, 68. Anthus spinoletta, 17, 31, 256. Antrostomu^. See Caprimulgus. Aquila chrysaetos, 115. Archilochus colubris, 7, 22, 29, 35, 187. Ardea herodias, 22, 51, 52. Arenaria interpres, 138. Arquatella maritima. See Erolia maritima. Asio flammeu^, 181. oiMs, 181. wilsonianus. See yl. ofMS. Astwr atricapillus. See Accipzfer gentilis. Auk, Razor-billed. See Razorbill. Avocet, American, 37, 154. Ay thy a affinis, 16, 92, 93. americana, 7, 87, 88. collaris, 88, 59. marila, 16, 92, 94. valisineria, 7, 16, 27, 90, 9i. B Baeolophus bicolor. See Parus bicolor. Bald Eagle, vi, 1, 22, 29, 115. Baldpate. See Widgeon, American. Bartramia longicauda, 29, 31, 35, 141, 1^2. Bittern, American, 22, 24, 61, 62. Least, 21, 60, 60. Blackbird, Brewer's, 37, 325. Redwinged, 4, 7, 17, 22, 26, 27, 28, 35, 321, 329. Rusty, 324. Yellow-headed, 320. Bluebird, Eastern, 7, 22, 29, 35, 251, 329. Blue Jay, 7, 22, 29, 35, 217, 219. Bobolink, 16, 26, 29, 35, 318, 318. Bobwhite, 7, 21, 29, 35, 125. Bombycilla cedrorum, 23, 29, 34, 257. Bonasa umbellus, 12, 29, 32, 34, 79, 124. Botaurus lentiginosus, 22, 24, 61, 62. Brant, 16, 67. Branta bernicla, 16, 67. canadensis, 7, 13, 16, 27, 65, 66. leucopsis, 68. Bubo virginianus, 7, 21, 29, 35, 179. Bubulcus ibis, 37, 55, 389. Bucephala albeola, 96. clangula, 94. islandica, 95. 391 392 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Bufflehead, 96. Bunting, Indigo, 7, 13, 22, 28, 35, 329, 337. Snow, 17, 24, 374. Buteo borealis. See B. jaTnaicensis. jamaicensis, 22, 29, 35, 110. lagopus, 17, 114. lineatus, 21, 29, 35, 112. platypterus, 22, 29, 35, 113. Butorides virescens, 21, 29, 35, 53. c Calcarius lapponictis, 37, 373. omatus, 374. Calidris canutus, 16, 147, 389. Campephilus principalis, 198. Camptorhynchus labradorium, 98. Canvasback, 7, 16, 27, 90, 91. Capella delicata. See C. gallinago. gallinago, 140. Caprimulgus carolinensis, 15, 21, 24, 25, 183, 183. vociferus, 7, 21, 29, 35, 184. Cardinal, 17, 22, 28, 34, 35, 329, 333. Carpodacus purpureus, 15, 35, 195, 341, S42. Casmerodius albtis, 22, 55. Cassidix mexicanus, 15, 17, 22, 24, 318, 326. Catbird, 7, 17, 22, 29, 34, 240. Cathartes aura, 17, 21, 24, 28, 35, 104. Catoptrophorus semipalmatus, 16, 22, H2, 145. Centurus carolinus, 21, 29, 35, 192. Ceophloeus pileatus. See Dryocopiis pileattts. Cepph7is grylle, 172. Certhia familiaris, 230. Chaetura pelagica, 21, 28, 35, 186, 186. Charadrius hiaticula. See C. semipal- matus. melodus, 12, 22, 135. semipalmatus, 134. vociferus, 22, 29, 35, 136. wilsonia, 12, 23, 24, 135. Charitonetta. See Bucephala. Chat, Yellow-breasted, 22, 29, 34, 35, 310, 329. Chen caerulescens, 69. hyperborea, 16, 68. Chickadee, Black-capped, 17, 29, 32, 34, 222, 223. Boreal, 225. Carolina, 17, 22, 29, 223, 224, 329. Chlidonias niger, 169. Chondestes grammacus, 357. Chordeiles minor, 7, 22, 29, 35, 185. Chuck-will's-widow, 15, 21, 24, 25, 183, 183. Circus cyaneus, 22, 24, 35, 116, 117. hudsonius. See C. cyaneus. Cistothorus platensis, 17, 22, 24, 29, 35, 236, 237. stellaris. See C. platensis. Clangula hyemalis, 97. Coccyzus americanus, 21, 29, 35, 176. erythropthalmus, 23, 29, 35, 177, 329. Colaptes auratus, 7, 22, 29, 34, 190. Colinus virginianus, 7, 21, 29, 35, 125. Columba livia, 388. Columbigallina passerina, 175. Colymbus. See Podiceps. Compsothlypis americana. See Parula americana. Contopus virens, 21, 28, 35, 206. Conuropsis carolinensis, 37, 175. Coot, American, 15, 132. Coragyps atratus, 21, 26, 27, 29, 31, 106, 106. Cormorant, Double-crested, 16, 50. European. See Cormorant, Great. Great, 50. Corn Crake, 131. Corthylio calendula. See Regulus calendula. Corvus brachyrhynchos, 17, 22, 28, 31, 34, 220. corax, 35, 218. ossifragv^, 22, 29, 221, 222. Coturnicops noveboracensis, 130. Coturnix coturnix, 388. Cowbird, Brown-headed, 17, 22, 28, 29, 35, 328. Crake, Corn, 131. Crane, Sandhill, 388, Creciscus jamaicensis. See Laterally^ jamaicensis. Creeper, Brown, 230. Crex crex, 131. Crocethia alba, 16, 154. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 393 Crossbill, Red, 346. White-winged, 347. Crow, Common, 17, 22, 28, 31, 34, 220. Fish, 22, 29, 221, 222. Cryptoglaux acadica. See Aegolius acadicus. Cuckoo, Black-billed, 23, 29, 35, 177, 329. Yellow-billed, 21, 29, 35, 176. Curlew, Eskimo, 37, 141. Hudsonian. See Whimbrel. Long-billed, 141. Cyanocitta cristata, 7, 22, 29, 35, 217, 219. Cygnus coluinhianus. See Olor colum- biamis. olor, 64. D Dendrocopos borealis, 15, 23, 24, 37, 197. pubescens, 17, 21, 28, 35, 196. villosus, 22, 29, 35, 196. Dendroica aestiva. See D. petechia. caerulescens, 34, 195, 285. castanea, 36, 294. cerulea, 29, 31, 32, 35, 289, 289. coronata, 7, 24, 286. discolor, 22, 27, 29, 298, 298, 329. dominica, 22, 26, 291, 292, 329. fusca, 29, 32, 35, 36, 290, 291, 329. magnolia, 34, 36, 195, 283, 329. palmarum, 17, 24, 299. pensylvanica, 29, 31, 32, 35, 293, 293. petechia, 22, 29, 35, 282, 329.. pinus, 12, 22, 29, 296, 296, 329. striata, 295. tigrina, 284. virens, 29, 32, 35, 287, 287. Dickcissel, 29, 31, 338. DoUchonyx oryzivoriis, 16, 26, 29, 35, 318, 318. Dove, Ground, 175. Mourning, 13, 21, 28, 35, 172, ITj^. Rock, 388. Dovekie, 172. Dowitcher, Eastern. See Dowitcher, Short-billed. Long-billed, 151. Short-billed, 150. Dryobates. See Dendrocopos. Dryocopus pileatus, 21, 29, 35, 191, 191. Duck, Black, 13, 16, 21, 29, 60, 72, 73. Harlequin, 37, 98. Labrador, 98. Masked, 102. Ring-necked, 88, 89. Ruddy, 16, 100. Wood, 7, 21, 29, 35, 85, 86. Dumetella carolinensis, 7, 17, 22, 29, 34, 240. Dunlin, 150. E Eagle, Bald, vi, 1, 22, 29, 115. Golden, 115. Ectopistes migratorius, 7, 37, 173. Egret, American. See Egret, Com- mon. Cattle, 37, 55, 389. Common, 22, 55. Snowy, 22, 56. Eider, American. See Eider, Common. Common, 98. King, 98. Elanoides forficatus, 107. Empidonax flaviventris, 36, 202. minimus, 23, 29, 32, 35, 36, 205, 205, 329. trailii, 29, 31, 36, 183, 204. virescens, 12, 21, 29, 35, 203, 329. Eremophila alpestris, 7, 22, 29, 35, 208. Ereunetes mauri, 16, 153. pusillus, 7, 152. Erolia alpina, 150. bairdii, 149. fuscicollis, 148. maritima, 17, 24, 147. melanotos, 148. minutilla, 149. Euphagus carolinus, 324. cyanocephaliis, 37, 325. F Falco columbarius, 121. peregrimis, 29, 119, 120. sparverius, 22, 29, 35, 122, 123. Falcon, Peregrine, 29, 119, 120. Finch, Purple, 15, 35, 195, 341, 342. Flicker, Yellow-shafted, 7, 22, 29, 34, 190. Florida caerulea, 22, 54. 394 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Flycatcher, Acadian, 12, 21, 29, 35, 203, 329. Alder. See Flycatcher, Traill's. Ash-throated, 201, 389. Crested. See Flycatcher, Great Crested. Great Crested, 13, 21, 29, 35, 199, 329. Least, 23, 29, 32, 35, 36, 205, 205, 329. Olive-sided, 36, 208. Scissor-tailed, 199. Traill's, 29, 31, 36, 183, 204. Yellow-bellied, 36, 202. Fulica americana, 15, 132. G Gadwall, 22, 24, 74. Gallinula chloropus, 22, 132. Gallinule, Common, 22, 132. Florida. See Gallinule, Common. Purple, 131. Gannet, 16, 49. Gavia immer, 16, 42. stellata, 16, 43. Gelochelidon nilotica, 22, 24, 162. Geothlypis trichas, 7, 13, 22, 29, 35, 308, 329. Glnucionetta. See Bucephala. Gnatcatcher, Blue-gray, 22, 29, 253, 253, 329. Godwit, Hudsonian, 153. Marbled, 153. Goldeneye, American. See Goldeneye, Common. Barrow's, 95. Common, 94. Goldfinch, American, 7, 22, 28, 35, 329, 345. Eastern. See Goldfinch, Ameri- can. Goose, Barnacle, 68. Blue, 69. Canada, 7, 13, 16, 27, 65, 66. Egyptian, 388. Snow, 16, 68. White-fronted, 68. Goshawk, 108. Crackle, Boat-tailed, 15, 17, 22, 24, 318, 326. Bronzed. See Crackle, Common. Common, 4, 7, 17, 22, 27, 28, 35, 326, 328. Purple. See Crackle, Common. Grebe, Holboell's. See Grebe, Red- necked. Horned, 16, 44. Pied-billed, 22, 45. Red-necked, 44. Grosbeak, Blue, 22, 26, 27, 29, 31, 329, 335, 336. Evening, 17, 340. Pine, 37, 343. Rose-breasted, 35, 36, 40, 3H, 334. Grouse, Ruffed, 12, 29, 32, 34, 79, 124. Grus canadensis, 388. Guillemot, Black, 172. Guiraca caerulea, 22, 26, 27, 29, 31, 329, 335, 336. Gull, Bonaparte's, 161. Glaucous, 37, 156. Great Black-backed, 157. Herring, 23, 24, 158. Iceland, 37, 157. Ivory, 388. Laughing, 23, 159. Lesser Black-backed, 157. Ring-billed, 16, 158. H Haematopus palliatus, 12, 24, 37, 134. Haliaeetus leucocephalus, vi, 1, 22, 29, 115. Hawk, Broad-winged, 22, 29, 35, 113. Cooper's, 22, 29, 35, 109. Duck, See Falcon, Peregrine. Marsh, 22, 24, 35, 116, 117. Pigeon, 121. Red-shouldered, 21, 29, 35, 112. Red-tailed, 22, 29, 35, 110. Rough-legged, 17, 114. Sharp-shinned, 7, 29, 35, 108. Sparrow, 22, 29, 35, 122, 123. Heath Hen. See Prairie Chicken, Greater. Hedymeles ludovicianus. See Pheucti- cus ludovicianus. Helmitheros vermivorus, 22, 29, 273, 27i, 329. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 395 Heron, Black-crowned Night, 22, 52, 58. Great Blue, 22, 51, 52. Green, 21, 29, 35, 53. Little Blue, 22, 54. Louisiana, 15, 22, 57. Yellow-crowned Night, 22, 59. Hesperipho7ia vespertina, 17, 340. Hirundo erythrogaster. See H. rus- tica. rustica, 7, 21, 28, 34, 214, 329. Histrionicus histrionicus, 37, 98. Hummingbird, Ruby-throated, 7, 22, 29, 35, 187. Rufous, 189. Hydranassa tricolor, 15, 22, 57. Hydroprogne casjna, 168. Hylocichla fuscescens, 29, 31, 34, 250, 250, 329. guttata, 15, 35, 230, 247. minima, 249. mustelina, 12, 22, 28, 34, 245, 329. ustulata, 248. Ibis, Glossy, 22, 63. Wood, 63. Icteria vireyis, 22, 29, 34, 35, 310, 329. Icterus bullockii, 324. galbula, 7, 23, 26, 29, 35, 323. spurius, 7, 22, 29, 322, 329. lonornis martinica. See Porphyrula Tnartinica. Iridoprocne bicolor, 16, 22, 24, 35, 209, 210. Ixobrychus exilis, 21, 60, 60. J Jaeger, Long-tailed, 156. Parasitic, 156. Pomarine, 156. Jay, Blue, 7, 22, 29, 35, 217, 219. Junco hyemalis, 17, 35, 195, 359, 360. oreganus, 361. Junco, Oregon, 361. Slate-colored, 17, 35, 195, 359, 360. K Killdeer, 22, 29, 35, 136. Kingbird, Arkansas. See Kingbird, Western. Eastern, 21, 28, 35, 198, 329. Western, 199. Kingfisher, Belted, 22, 29, 35, 189. Kinglet, Golden-crowned, 17, 34, 35, 253, 254. Ruby-crowned, 255. Kite, Swallow-tailed, 107. Kittiwake, Black-legged, 161, 389. Knot, 16, 147, 389. L Lanitis borealis. See L. excubitor. excubitor, 258. ludovicianus, 7, 22, 26, 29, 259. Lark, Horned, 7, 22, 29, 35, 208. Larus argentatus, 23, 24, 158. atricilla, 23, 159. delawarensis, 16, 158. fuscus, 157. glaucoides, 37, 157. hyperboreus, 37, 156. leucopterus. See L. glaucoides. marinus, 157. Philadelphia, 161. Laterallus jamaicensis, 22, 130. Leucophoyx thula, 22, 56. Lim,nodromus griseus, 150. scolopaceus, 151. Limnothlypis swainsonii, 22, 24, 272, 273. Limosa fedoa, 153. haemastica, 153. Lobipes lobatus, 155. Longspur, Chestnut-collared, 374. Lapland, 37, 373. Loon, Common, 16, 42. Red-throated, 16, 43. Lophodytes cucullatus, 35, 102. Loxia curvirostra, 346. leucoptera, 347. M Magpie, American. See Magpie, Black-billed. Black-billed, 218. Mallard, 13, 22, 29, 35, 69, 71. Mareca americana. 16, 82, 83. penelope, 81. Martin, Purple, 16, 22, 29, 35, 216. Meadowlark, Eastern, 7, 17, 22, 28, 35, 319. Megaceryle alcyon, 22, 29, 35, 189. Melanerpes erythrocephalus, 23, 29, 35, 193. 396 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Melanitta deglandi, 99. Nuttallornis borealis, 36, 208. fusca. See M. deglandi. mesoleuciis. See N. borealis. perspicillata, 99. Nyctanassa violacea, 22, 59. Meleagris gallopavo, 12, 29, 32, 35, Nyctea nyctea. See N. scandiaca. 126. scandiaca, 7, 180. Melospiza georgiana, 23, 24, 35, 369, Nycticorax nycticorax, 22, 5:2, 58. S70. Nyroca. See Aythya. lincolnii, 369. melodia, 13, 22, 28, 35, 329, 371, ^ S72. Oceanites oceanicus, 48. Merganser, American. See Merganser, Oceanodroma castro, 48. Common. leucorhoa, 47. Common, 103. Oidemia nigra, 100. Hooded, 35, 102. Oldsquaw, 97. Red-breasted, 16, 104. Olor columbianus, 15, 16, 27, 64. Mergus merganser, 103. Oporornis agilis, 306. serrator, 16, 104. formosus, 22, 27, 29, 35, 304, 305, Micropalama himantopus, 151. 329. Mimus polyglottos, 7, 13, 22, 29, 238, Philadelphia, 15, 34, 35, 36, 305, 329. 307. Mniotilta varia, 22, 27, 28, 35, 40, 269, Oriole, Baltimore, 7, 23, 26, 29, 35, 329. 323. Mockingbird, 7, 13, 22, 29, 238, 329. Bullock's, 324. Molothrus ater, 17, 22, 28, 29, 35, 328. Orchard, 7, 22, 29, 322, 329. Morus bassanus, 16, 49. Osprey, 16, 21, 60, 118. Murre, Brunnich's. See Murre, Thick- Otocoris alpestris. See Eremophila billed. alpestris. Thick-billed, 171. Otus asio, 22, 29, 35, 179. Muscivora forficata, 199. Ovenbird, 22, 27, 28, 35, 301, 329. Mycteria americana, 63. ^^^' •^^^"' ^^' ^^' ^'^^• Myiarchus crinitus, 13, 21, 29, 35, Barred, 21, 29, 35, 180. jgg 329 > > , , , Q^^^^ Horned, 7, 21, 29, 35, 179. cinerascens, 201, 389. ^^^"^'^- ^^^ ^^^' ^^^^* H^^"^'^- ,- . , . o. ^ , Long-eared, 181. Myiochanes vtrens. See Contopus „ ^. j. -,r c,a nc i^o ion ^ Saw-whet, 15, 34, 35, 128, 182. ^^^^^^' Screech, 22, 29, 35, 179. N Short-eared, 181. Nannus hiemalis. See Troglodytes Snowy, 7, 180. troglodytes. Oxyechus vociferus. See Charadrius Nighthawk, Common, 7, 22, 29, 35, vociferus. 185, Oxyura dominica, 102. Nomonyx dominicus. See Oxyura jamaicensis, 16, 100. dominica. Oystercatcher, American, 12, 24, 37, Numenius americanv^, 141. borealis, 37, 141. P phaeopus, 141. Pagolla wilsonia. See Charadrius Nuthatch, Brown-headed, 15, 17, 22, wilsonia. 24, 25, 229, ;250. Pagophila eburnea, 388. Red-breasted, 228. Pandion haliaetus, 16, 21, 60, 118. White-breasted, 22, 26, 29, 35, Parakeet, Carolina, 37, 175. 227, 227. Parula americana, 22, 29, 35, 280, 329. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 397 Parus atHcapillus, 17, 29, 32, 34, 222, Pintail, 13, 75, 76. 223, Pipilo erythrophthalmus, 22, 28, 35, bicolor, 17, 22, 29, 34, 35, 225. 86, 329, 348. carolinensis, 17, 22, 29, 223, 224, Pipit, American. See Pipit, Water. 329. Water, 17, 31, 256. hudsonicus, 225. Piranga erythromelas. See P. Passer domesticus, 22, 28, 35, 37, 317. olivacea. Passerculus princeps, 24, 349. olivacea, 22, 28, 35, 329, 330. sand^v^chens^s, 23, 29, 31, 35, 350, rubra, 22, 26, 29, 31, 329, 332. ggQ^ Pisobia. See Erolia. Passerella iliaca, 7, 368. Plautiis alle, 172. Passerherbulus henslowii, 22, 29, 35, Plectrophenax nivalis, 17, 24, 374. 329 353. Plegadis falcinellus, 22, 63. Passerina cyanea, 7, 13, 22, 28, 35, Plover, American Golden, 137. 329 337. Black-bellied, 137. Pelec'anus erythrorhynchos, 48, 389. Golden. See Plover, American occidentalis, 49. Golden. Pelican, Brown, 49. Piping, 12, 22, 135. White, 48, 389. Semipalmated, 134. Pelidna alpina. See Erolia aljnna. Upland, 29, 31, 35, 141, 1^2. Penthestes. See Parus. Wilson's 12, 23, 24, 135. Petrel Harcourt's, 48. Phivialis dominica, 137. Leach's 47. Podiceps auritus, 16, 44. Madeira. See Petrel, Harcourt's. grisegena, 44. Wilson's 48. Podilymbus podiceps, 22, 45. Petrochelidon albifrons. See P. Polioptila caerulea, 22, 29, 253, 253, pyrrhonota. ^2"* pyrrhonota, 16, 29, 32, 34, 36, 40, Pooecetes gramineus, 17, 22, 24, 28, 35, 212 215. 356. Pewee, Eastern Wood, 21, 28, 35, 206. Porphyrula maritinica, 131. Phaeopus borealis. See Numenius Porzana Carolina, 16, 22, 26, 129. borealis Prairie Chicken, Greater, 37, 124. hudsonicus. See Numenius phaeo- ^^^^-^e subis, 16, 22, 29, 35, 216. ^,.„ Protonotaria citrea, 22, 29, 271, 271, pus. 329 Phalacrocorax auritus, 16, 50. „ ^ ' , _« Puffinus diomedea, 47 Phalarope, Northern, 155. Red, 155. Wilson's, 155. Phalaropus fulicarius, 155. Phasianus colchicus, 37, 125. Pheasant, Ring-necked, 37, 125. Q«ail, European, 388. Pheucticus ludovicianus, 35, 36, 40, Querquedula. See Anas. 31^ 334. Quiscahis quiscula, 4, 7, 17, 22, 27, 28, Philohela minor, 22, 29, 35, 139. 35, 326, 328. Philomachus pugnax, 154, 389. K Phoebe, Eastern, 17, 22, 29, 35, 201, Rail, Black, 22, 130. 329. Clapper, 22, 24, 127, 128. Pica pica, 218. King, 22, 29, 126, 127. Pigeon, Passenger, 7, 37, 173. Virginia, 7, 21, 29, 35, 127, 128. Pinicola enucleator, 37, 343. Yellow, 130. gravis, 37, 47. griseus, 388. Iherminieri, 47. Purple Finch, 15, 35, 195, 341, 542. Q 398 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Rallus elegans, 22, 29, 126, 127. limicola, 7, 21, 29, 35, 127, 128. longirostris, 22, 24, 127, 128. Raven, Common, 35, 218. Razorbill, 171. Recurvirostra americana, 37, 154. Redhead, 7, 87, 88. Redpoll, Common, 343. Hoary, 343. Redstart, American, 22, 27, 28, 35, 311, 315, 329. Redwing, Eastern. See Blackbird, Redwinged. Regulus calendula, 255. satrapa, 17, 34, 35, 253, 254. Richmondena cardinalis, 17, 22, 28, 34, 35, 329, 333. Riparia riparia, 22, 29, 211, 212. Rissa tridactyla, 161, 389. Robin, 7, 12, 22, 28, 34, 243, 2U, 329. Ruddy Duck, 16, 100. Ruff, 154, 389. Ruffed Grouse, 12, 29, 32, 34, 79, 124. Rynchops nigra, 21, 24, 170. s Sanderling, 16, 154. Sandpiper, Baird's, 149. Buff-breasted, 37, 389. Least, 149. Pectoral, 148. Purple, 17, 24, 147. Red-backed. See Dunlin. Semipalmated, 7, 152. Solitary, 144. Spotted, 22, 35, 143. Stilt, 151. Western, 16, 153. White-rumped, 148. Sapsucker, Yellow-bellied, 35, 194, 195. Sayornis phoebe, 17, 22, 29, 35, 201, 329. Scaup, Greater, 16, 92, 94. Lesser, 16, 92, 93. Scoter, American. See Scoter, Com- mon. Common, 100. Surf, 99. White-winged, 99. Seiurus aurocapillus, 22, 27, 28, 35, 301, 329. motacilla, 22, 29, 35, 303, 329. novehoracensis, 15, 35, 195, 302. Selasphorus rufus, 189. Setophaga ruticilla, 22, 27, 28, 35, 311, 315, 329. Shearwater, Audubon's, 47. Cory's, 47. Greater, 37, 47. Sooty, 388. Shoveler, 84. Shrike, Loggerhead, 7, 22, 26, 29, 259. Migrant. See Shrike, Logger- head. Northern, 258. Sialia sialis, 7, 22, 29, 35, 251, 329. Siskin, Pine, 344. Sitta canadensis, 228. carolinensis, 22, 26, 29, 35, 227, 227. pusilla, 15, 17, 22, 24, 25, 229, 230. Skimmer, Black, 21, 24, 170. Snipe, Common, 140. Wilson's. See Snipe, Common. Somateria mollissima, 98. spectabilis, 98. Sora, 16, 22, 26, 129. Sparrow, Bachman's 23, 29, 33, 358, 389. Chipping, 12, 17, 22, 24, 28, 35, 329, 362. English. See Sparrow, House. Field, 13, 22, 28, 35, 329, 363. Fox, 7, 368. Grasshopper, 22, 28, 35, 352. Harris', 365, 390. Henslow's, 22, 29, 35, 329, 353. House, 22, 28, 35, 37, 317. Ipswich, 24, 349. Lark, 357. Lincoln's, 369. Savannah, 23, 29, 31, 35, 350, 350. Seaside, 22, 24, 354, 355. Sharp-tailed, 22, 24, 353, 554. Song, 13, 22, 28, 35, 329, 371, 372. Swamp, 23, 24, 35, 369, 370. Tree, 17, 361. Vesper, 17, 22, 24, 28, 35, 356. White-crowned, 17, 31, 365. White-throated, 36, 366, 367. Spatula clypeata, 84. Sphyrapicus varius, 35, 194, 195. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 399 Spinus pinus, 344. tristis, 7, 22, 28, 35, 329, 345. Spiza americana, 29, 31, 338. Spizella arborea, 17, 361. passeri7ia, 12, 17, 22, 24, 28, 35, 329, 362. pusilla, 13, 22, 28, 35, 329, 363. Squatarola squatarola, 137. Starling, 12, 22, 28, 37, 260, 329. Steganopus tricolor, 155. Stelgidopteryx ruficollis, 22, 29, 35, 213. Stercorarius longicaudus, 156. parasiticus, 156. poinarinus, 156. Sterna albifrons, 21, 166, 166. antillarum. See S. albifrons. dougallii, 23, 165. forsteri, 22, 24, 162. fuscata, 166. hirundo, 21, 164, 165, 389. Strix varia, 21, 29, 35, 180. Sturnella magna, 7, 17, 22, 28, 35, 319. Sturnus vulgaris, 12, 22, 28, 37, 260, 329. Swallow, Bank, 22, 29, 211, 212. Barn, 7, 21, 28, 34, 214, 329. Cliff, 16, 29, 32, 34, 36, 40, 212, 215. Rough-winged, 22, 29, 35, 213. Tree, 16, 22, 24, 35, 209, 210. Swan, Mute, 64. Whistling, 15, 16, 27, 64. Swift, Chimney, 21, 28, 35, 186, 186. T Tanager, Scarlet, 22, 28, 35, 329, 330. Summer, 22, 26, 29, 31, 329, 332. Teal, Blue-winged, 22, 24, 79, 79, 80. Cinnamon, 81. Common, 37, 77. European. See Teal, Common. Green-winged, 77, 78. Tebnatodytes palustris, 22, 60, 235. Tern, Black, 169. Caspian, 168. Common, 21, 164, 165, 389. Forster's, 22, 24, 162. Gull-billed, 22, 24, 162. Least, 21, 166, 166. Roseate, 23, 165. Royal, 15, 23, 24, 167. Sandwich, 168. Sooty, 166, Thalasseus maximus, 15, 23, 24, 167. sandvicensis, 168. Thrasher, Brown, 17, 22, 29, 34, 241. Thrush, Gray-cheeked, 249. Hermit, 15, 35, 230, 247. Olive-backed. See Thrush, Swain- son's. Swainson's, 248. Wood, 12, 22, 28, 34, 245, 329. Thryomanes bewickii, 29, 32, 35, 233, 23i. Thryothorus ludovicianus, 17, 22, 29, 35, 235, 329. Titmouse, Tufted, 17, 22, 29, 34, 35, 225. Totanus flavipes, 146. melanoleucus, 145. Towhee, Red-eyed. See Towhee, Rufous-sided. Rufous-sided, 22, 28, 35, 36, 329, 348. Toxostoma rufum, 17, 22, 29, 34, 241. T ring a solitaria, 144. Troglodytes aedon, 22, 24, 28, 34, 231. troglodytes, 232. Tryngites subruficollis, 37, 389. Turdus migratorius, 7, 12, 22, 28, 34, 243, 2U, 329. Turkey, 12, 29, 32, 35, 126. Turnstone, Ruddy, 138. Tympanuchus cupido, 37, 124. Tyrannus tyrannus, 21, 28, 35, 198, 329. verticalis, 199. Tyto alba, 22, 29, 178. U Upland Plover, 29, 31, 35, 141, lJt2. Uria lomvia, 171. V Veery, 29, 31, 34, 250, 250, 329. Vermivora celata, 279. chrysoptera, 29, 32, 35, 275, 275. lawrencei, 278. leucobronchialis, 277. peregrina, 36, 278. pinus, 29, 31, 32, 275, 276, 329. ruficapilla, 15, 34, 35, 36, 273, 279. 400 NORTH AMERICAN FAUNA 62, FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE Vireo flavifrons, 22, 29, 35, 263. Parula, 22, 29, 35, 280, 329 gilvus, 22, 26, 29, 35, 268, 268. Pine, 12, 22, 29, 296, 296, 329 gHseus, 22, 29, 262, 329. Prairie, 22, 27, 29, 298, 298, 329 ohvaceus, 12, 22, 28, 34, 265, 329. Prothonotary, 22, 29, 271, 271 philadelphicus, 36, 267. 329. ' solitarius, 35, 195, 264, 329. Swainson's, 22, 24, 272, 27S. Vireo, Blue-headed. See Vireo, Soli- Tennessee, 36, 278. ^^^y- Wilson's, 36, 313, 389. Philadelphia, 36, 267. Worm-eating, 22, 29, 273, 27i, 329 Red-eyed, 12, 22, 28, 34, 265, 329. Yellow, 22, 29, 35, 282, 329. Solitary, 35, 195, 264, 329. Yellow-throated, 22, 26, 291, 292 Warbling, 22, 26, 29, 35, 268, 268. 329. White-eyed, 22, 29, 262, 329. Waterthrush, Louisiana, 22, 29, 35 Yellow-throated, 22, 29, 35, 263. 303, 329. ' Vulture, Black, 21, 26, 27, 29, 31, 106, Northern, 15, 35, 195, 302. ^^^- Water-turkey. See Anhinga. Turkey, 17, 21, 24, 28, 35, 104. Waxwing, Cedar, 23, 29, 34, 257. W Whimbrel, 141. Warbler, Bay-breasted, 36, 294. Whip-poor-will, 7, 21, 29, 35, 184. Black-and-white, 22, 27, 28, 35, Widgeon, American, 16, 82, 83. 40, 269, 329. European, 81. Blackburnian, 29, 32, 35, 36, 290, Willet, 16, 22, li2, 145. 291, 329. Wilsonia canadensis, 35, 314, Sli. Blackpoll, 295. citrina, 12, 22, 27, 28, 34, 35, 311, Black-throated Blue, 34, 195, 285. ^^^> 329. Black-throated Green, 29, 32, 35, pusilla, 36, 313, 389. 287, 287. Woodcock, American, 22, 29, 35, 139. Blue-winged, 29, 31, 32, 275, 276, Woodpecker, Downy, 17, 21, 28, 35, 329. 196. Brewster's, 277. Hairy, 22, 29, 35, 196. Canada, 35, 314, 31^. Ivory-billed, 198. Cape May, 284. Pileated, 21, 29, 35, 191, 191. Cerulean, 29, 31, 32, 35, 289, 289. Red-bellied, 21, 29, 35, 192. Chestnut-sided, 29, 31, 32, 35, 293, Red-cockaded, 15, 23, 24, 37, 197. ^9^- Red-headed, 23, 29, 35, 193. Connecticut, 306. Wood Pewee, Eastern, 21, 28, 35, 206. Golden-winged, 29, 32, 35, 275, Wren, Bewick's, 29, 32, 35, 233, 234. ^^^' Carolina, 17, 22, 29, 35, 235, 329. Golden-winged X Blue-winged House, 22, 24, 28, 34, 231. hybrids, 277. Long-billed Marsh, 22, 60, 235. Hooded, 12, 22, 27, 28, 34, 35, 311, Short-billed Marsh, 17, 22, 24, 29, ^^^' 329. 35^ 236, 237. Kentucky, 22, 27, 29, 35, 304, 305, Winter 232 329. ■ Lawrence's, 278. Magnolia 34 36 195 283 329 Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus, 320. Mourning, 15, 34, 35, 36, 305, 307. Y Myrtle, 7, 24, 286. Yellowlegs, Greater, 145. Nashville, 15, 34, 35, 36, 273, 279. Lesser, 146. Orange-crowned, 279. Yellowthroat, 7, 13, 22, 29, 35, 308, Palm, 17, 24, 299. 329. BIRDS OF MARYLAND AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 401 2 Zonotrichia albicollis, 36, 366, 367. Zenaidura macroura, 13, 21, 28, 35, leucophrys, 17, 31, 365. 172 17i. querula, 365, 390. -i:;r U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1958—429354