r !»'J II : ' THE NOEWEGIAN NORTH POLAE EXPEDITION 1893-1896 SCIENTIFIC RESULTS VOLUME I THE NORWEGIAN NORTH POLAR EXPEDITION 1893—1896 SCIENTIFIC EESULTS EDITED BY FRIDTJOF NANSEN in VOLUME I PUBLISHED BY THE FRIDTJOF NANSEN FUND , FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE LONDON, CHRISTIANIA NEW YORK, BOMBAY LEIPZIG JACOB DYBWAD LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. F. A. BROCKHAUS 1900 Q V.I PRINTED BY A. W. BROGGER. CHRISTIANIA. 1900. CONTENTS OF VOL. I. I. COLIN ARCHER. The Fram. Pp. 1—16, with 3 Plates. (Received November, 1898.) II. J. F. POMPECKJ. The Jurassic Fauna of Cape Flora, Franz Josef Land. With a Geological Sketch of Cape Flora and its Neighbourhood by Fridtjof Nansen. Pp. 1—147, with 3 Plates. (Received October, 1898.) III. A. G. NATHORST. Fossil Plants from Franz Josef Land. Pp. 1 — 26, with 2 Plates. (Received April, 1899.) IV. ROBERT COLLETT and FRIDTJOF NANSEN. An Account of the Birds. Pp. 1-53, with 2 Plates. (Received November, 1899.) V. G. 0. SARS. Crustacea. Pp. 1—137, with 36 Plates. (Received November — December, 1899.) PEEFACE. J. he aim of this Report, the first volume of which now appears, is to give, in a series of separate Memoirs, a complete account of the Scientific Results of the Norwegian North Polar Expedition of 1893—1896. The expedition was rendered possible by the united support of HIS MAJESTY KING OSCAR, THE NORWEGIAN STORTING, and a series of contributors, amongst whom may be mentioned the three men, Messrs. THOMAS FEARNLEY, AXEL HEIBERG and ELLEF RING- NES, who formed the Committee of the Expedition, bore the burden of arrang- ing its pecuniary affairs, and assisted with so much valuable work; and further, Mr. C. J. A. DICK, Baron OSCAR DICKSON, Consul WESTYE EGEBERG, Mr. ANTON CHR. HOUEN, Mr. A. S. KJOSTERUD, Consul NICOLAY H. KNUDTZON, Minister of State C. LCVENSKIOLD, Mr. AMUND RINGNES, the firm HALVOR SCHOU, Mr. C. SUNDT, Baron HARALD WEDEL-JARLSBERG, the ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, and others. I do not know how to express in words the gratitude which my com- panions and I feel for the interest and confidence placed in our undertaking and ourselves before we started, and for the many signs of sympathy shown us after our return. I trust that the results published in these volumes will II give the Norwegian Nation and the noble contributors the best reward that we can bring them. The expedition in the From must, to some extent, be regarded as a pioneer undertaking. It was trying a new mode of travelling for penetrating into the unknown region of the sea surrounding the North Pole. It was not easy beforehand to calculate what difficulties might there be met with, or what struggles for life the members of the expedition might have to go through. Certainly, with the best of my knowledge, I could come to no other conclusion than that a ship like the Fratn should, according to all proba- bility, be carried by the ice, unharmed and safe, along its untrodden track across an unknown sea; but nevertheless I could not hide from myself the fact that this was contrary to the expectations of most authorities on the subject. It may, therefore, be considered a pardonable weakness, if I not only admitted the possibility of losing the ship, but also constantly kept this possibility in view, while preparing and equipping the expedition, Nor could I say with certainty how long the voyage would last. Accor- ding to my calculations, the probability was that it would not last longer than three years, but no one could be certain that this period might not be doubled or more, and I thought it my duty to equip accordingly. The whole preparation of the expedition was therefore based on the possibility that it might last a long series of years, and that the ship might be lost, the members having to return a long distance across the drifting polar ice, or in boats, without being able to carry much in the way of scien- tific collections and instruments, or even scientific journals. For the planning of the scientific work, these considerations were, therefore, decisive. The ship was made as small and as strong as possible; and in order to save space, as well as fuel for heating and light, it was thought imperative to reduce the accommodation for the members and the scientific work as much as possible. As the ship was nearly filled by the necessary provisions, coal, equipment, etc., nothing could be taken which was not considered quite essential. There was thus no room for special laboratories, which would have Ill considerably facilitated the many different kinds of scientific work. With our present experience from the From, this could be materially improved on a future expedition of the same kind". The worst thing was, however, that in order to save space and provisions, the number of the members of the expe- dition had also to be reduced to a minimum, and the scientific staff could not be numerous. It was therefore unavoidable that a number of scientific observations of various kinds should fall to each man's lot, and this seldom happens without the risk of having no series of observations quite complete and satisfactory. Considering all this, and the numerous difficulties with which any kind of scientific work has to contend during such an expedition and in such surroundings, constantly adrift in the ice, it might be expected that our scientific results would not be very abundant. However, in spite of everything, it may be justly said that the expedition has brought home both abundant and valuable scientific material, which will in many respects essentially increase our knowledge of the North Polar Region. This result is solely due to the never-failing ardour with which my companions on board the Fram undertook the many and multifarious observations entrusted to them, and it has been a pleasure to hear the specialists who have kindly undertaken the elaboration of the material, express their unreserved and unanimous recognition of the amount of work done. In issuing this first volume of the Scientific Results of the Expedition, therefore, I feel it my first and pleasant duty here to acknowledge, with deep gratitude, the devoted work of all my companions. I desire especially to mention late Lieutenant, now Captain in our Navy, SIGURD SCOTT-HANSEN, who with admirable skill and energy took charge of the astronomical, meteorological (partly also auroral), magnetic, pen- dulum and other observations, as well as the navigation. These numerous observations had all of them often to be carried on under difficulties which, especially during the long, cold polar night, were unusually great. But never- theless he has brought back material so copious and exact in every respect, IV that it has drawn admiration from the specialists who are now working it up. I fear thatfvery few who look through the volumes in which these obser- vations are printed, will be able fully to realize what an amount of mental energy and endurance every page really represents. I also desire to mention specially Dr. H. G. BLESSING, who carried on the physiological investigations on board, made the botanical collections, and during the last two winters undertook the observations of the Aurora Borealis. After my departure from the ship, he took charge of the oceanic researches, the zoological collections, the observations of the ice, of the atmospheric elec- tricity, etc. It is unnecessaiy to say that I remember with deep gratitude the work of Captain OTTO SVERDRUP, who was master of the Fram, and the leader of the expedition after March, 1895, and thus assisted in all branches of scientific work; — and last but not least my faithful companion on the sledge-journey, Lieutenant HJALMAR JOHANSEN, who in every respect rendered me ardent and valuable 'assistance in my endeavours to make such scientific obser- vations as the often difficult circumstances of our long and lonely journey would permit. There are many of the others, indeed, who also deserve to be mentioned specially; but as this will be done later in the various Memoirs. I here beg all my companions to accept my warmest thanks for their work, and the way in which they all of them contributed to the Scientific Results of the Expedition. I feel certain that it is with deep sorrow that we all miss two excellent comrades amongst the number of the living, LARS PETTERSEN, who died in 1898, in Hamburg, and BERNT BENTSEN, who died last winter, on a new expedition in Franz Josef Land. It is only natural that at this moment I should also gratefully re- member those men of high distinction who so largely assisted me in the scientific equipment of the expedition. I may especially mention Prof. W. C. BROGGER, Prof. H. GEELMUYDEN, Dr. JOHAN HJORT, Prof. W. C. MAC INTOSH (St. Andrews), Prof. H. MOHN, Sir JOHN MURRAY (Edinburgh), Dr. G. N BUM A YER (Hamburg), Prof. OTTO PETTERSSON (Stockholm), Prof. 0. E. SCHIOTZ, Dr. L. SCHMELCK, Mr. ROBERT H. SCOTT (London), Prof. ALEXANDER SUPAN (Gotha), General A. VON TILLO (St. Petersburg), Baron E. VON TOLL (Dorpat), Dr. HERCULES TORNOE, Prof. SOPHUS TORUP, Prof. N. WILLE, and Mr. EDWARD WHYMPER. For the preparation of this Report, I have been fortunate enough to secure the co-operation of some of the first authorities in the various bran- ches of science, all of whom, with friendly readiness, undertook the elaboration of the material. Thanks to the liberal assistance of the council of the Fridtjof Nansen Fund for the Advancement of Science, the necessary means for publishing this Report has been placed at my disposal. I thus hope that I shall be successful in my endeavour to make the volumes, both as to contents and appearance, worthy of the Norwegian Nation and the zealous and devoted work of my brave companions in the expedition. During the preparation of the work, I have constantly kept in view the fact that we have traversed unknown regions of the Earth, regions which will not probably be visited again for some time to come. All observations made by us having thus an additional value, I have thought it right that everything should be worked up with the greatest possible care, and nothing be left out which might prove of the slightest interest. Being aware that this will probably, for a series of years hence, form a standard work as regards our knowledge of the North Polar Basin, I am trying to make all the informa- tion as trustworthy as possible by giving, in most cases, the original ob- servations and material in full, so that the reader may be able to judge for himself how far the results or conclusions drawn are reliable, or may be able to draw his own conclusions. This may in several cases, e. g. the astrono- mical, meteorological, magnetic, oceanographic and auroral observations, add considerably to the size of the work; but it will, I hope, also materially increase its scientific value. In order to place the various Memoirs before the scientific world at the earliest possible date, they are printed as they are finished, without VI regard to the systematic sequence, and they will be published as soon as there is sufficient material to form a volume. Each Memoir will be paged separately, and will be given a number, running continuously from 1 through the whole series, by which it may easily be referred to. It might be thought suitable that these volumes should have been intro- duced by a general narrative of the expedition, but as this has already been given fully in the popular account, 'Fram over Polhavet', which has appeared in several languages ('Farthest North', 'In Nacht und Eis', 'Vers le Pole', 'Fra Ghiacci e Tenebre', etc.), it was considered unnecessary to give any such ac- count here. I feel confident that a more valuable aid to future Polar expedi- tions will be afforded in the circumstance that the shipbuilder, Mr. COLIN ARCHER, has been kind enough to open the work by a description of the Fram, to which the expedition owes so much of its success. It would have been desirable that a detailed chart of the route of the Front and the sledge journey should have accompanied this first volume. As, however, such a chart must be based upon all the astronomical observa- tions, and as this large material, which is now being worked up by Prof. GEELMUYDEN, is not yet quite ready for publication, the charts will appear in the second volume, which I hope will follow not very long after the first. The second volume will probably contain the following Memoirs: 6) The Astronomical Observations and their Results, by Prof. H. GEEL- MUYDEN (with charts). 7) Terrestrial Magnetism, by Mr. AXEL STEEN, (with diagrams, etc.). 8) On the Pendulum Observations and their Results, by Prof. 0. E. SCHIOTZ. In the third volume will probably appear: 9) The Oceanography of the North Polar Basin, (with charts and diagrams of the distribution of temperature, specific gravity, etc.), by myself. 10) On Hydrometers and their Errors, especially those caused by Variations of the Surface Tension of Liquids (with illustrations), by myself. VII 11) The Depths, and Submarine Features of the North Polar Basin, by myself, with Chemical Analyses of its Deep-Sea Deposits, by 0. N. HEIDEN- REICH. This Memoir will also contain a description of the Microscopical Com- position of the Deep-Sea Deposits by 0. B. BOGGILD. 12) Diatomacese and Algae living on the Drifting Ice and in the Sea of the North Polar Basin, (with 4 plates), by Dr. H. H. GRAN. Amongst other Memoirs now being prepared for the subsequent volumes, I may specially mention the following: Meteorology, (with diagrams and charts), by Prof. H. MOHN, in one volume. Physiological Investigations made on board the Fram, by Dr. H. G. BLESSING. On Arctic Scurvy, especially with regard to its Etiology, by Prof. SOPHUS TORUP. Geological and Geographical Observations on the North Coast of Siberia and Franz Josef Land, by myself, with contributions from Prof. BROGGER and Prof. GEELMUYDEN, (with maps and illustrations). Observations on the Aurora Borealis, by myself, (with plates, diagrams and illustrations). Mammalian Life in the North Polar Region traversed by the Expedition by myself, (with plates and illustrations). Marine Animals collected during the Expedition, by Prof. G. 0. SARS, (with plates). Formation and Movements of the North Polar Ice, by myself, (with maps of the ice, etc.). On 'Dead Water,' by Prof. V. BJERKNES and Mr. C. WALFRID EKMAN, (with illustrations) Observations on Atmospheric Electricity, etc. etc. VIII The whole work is estimated to form five or six quarto volumes, which it is hoped will be finished in the course of about two years. It will be issued in the English language only. If nothing prevents me, it is my intention to give at the end of the work, a complete summary of the Scientific Results of the Expedition. GODTHAB, LYSAKER. December, 1899. FRIDTJOF NANSEN. THE F R A M BY COLIN ARCHER. he success of an expedition, such as that planned and carried out by Dr. Nansen during the years 1893—96, must in a great measure depend upon every possible contingency being foreseen and provided for, and every detail of the outfit chosen with a special view to the purpose to be served. To no part of the equipment could this apply with greater force than to the ship that was to carry Nansen and his companions on their adventurous voyage. It was clearly of the greatest importance that she should be the best that could possibly be devised for the purpose. The fate of the undertaking, and the safety of those who entered upon it, would evidently largely depend upon their always having, whatever might happen, a compa- ratively safe place of refuge to fall back upon; while the loss of the ship would necessarily entail hardship and suffering to the crew, and possibly the miscarriage of the whole enterprise. It was, therefore, in the highest degree important in the design and construction of the vessel to form as precise an estimate as possible of the nature of the strains and destructive forces to which she might become exposed, and of the various critical situations into which she might be thrown on her way, and to take such measures as experience might suggest for securing her safety. The leading idea, which formed so to speak the key-stone of the expedition, was that the vessel, after having reached the vicinity of the New Sibirian Islands, and having been frozen fast in the ice there, would be carried by an ocean current, slowly but surely, towards the coast of Greenland, passing at a greater or less distance from the North Pole. As the ice surrounding the vessel would drift with the current, it follows that it would necessarily be split up at certain seasons into floes, of which the dimensions were unknown, but which, judging from experience in 1* COLIN ARCHER. [NOEW. POL. EXP. other parts of the polar seas, would be constantly grinding against each other, and crushing intervening objects with apparently irresistible force. To attempt to force a way through such ice was no part of the scheme. The part the ship would have to play was mainly a passive one. She would have to lie still and be squeezed. Assuming this reasoning to be correct the question arose : — Is it possible to build a ship sufficiently strong to resist the enormous pressure likely to be brought to bear upon her, without sustaining serious damage? This was the problem which had to be solved, and the prospect of solving it satisfactorily did not at first sight seem promising. Almost without exception the best authorities on the subject both in Norway and abroad, men who had the best opportunities of forming an opinion from personal ex- perience, expressed the belief that the question must be answered in the nega- tive; the ordeal, it was maintained, would be too severe for the strongest structure. Nor were the accounts of previous voyages in high latitudes en- couraging. Many a fine ship had been tried and found wanting, thus adding strength to the general belief that the pressure of the ice is irresistible. When, therefore, the Fram was fitted out and ready for sea, it was undoubtedly still the prevailing opinion among those who had seen her while being built, that we might see Nansen and his men again; but the ship -- never. But, although the greatest weight was attached to these opinions and facts as far as they went, they could not be looked upon as affording conclu- sive evidence that the problem does not admit of a favorable solution. It is sufficient to say that, as far as was known, no ship had as yet been built with the avowed object of putting the problem to a practical test. As a rule arctic explorers had, heretofore, made use of ships, strongly built no doubt, and frequently specially strengthened for the occasion; but it is doubt- ful if any one of these ships could be said to have been thoroughly suited for the work, or to have been so strengthened as to make every part equally invulnerable. To effect this in a vessel originally built perhaps for a totally different purpose, may be a task of some difficulty. It becomes comparatively easy when the result aimed at is kept steadily in view from the keel up- wards. It was to put the question of the possibility of surviving a protracted encounter with the ice to a practical test, that the Fram was planned and built. To make her proof against its assaults was the consideration to which all others had to yield precedence. NO. i.] THE FRAM. But apart from considerations of mere strength of structure, there were questions of design or model which, it was believed, would play an important part in the attainment of the desired end. It is sometimes expedient in an encounter to evade the full force of a blow rather than oppose it, even if it could be met with impunity; and there was reason to believe that by a judicious choice of model, something could be done to break the force of a nnip", and thus deprive it of half its terrors. It frequently happens that small vessels, of which a considerable number every year visit Spitsbergen and Novaya Zemlya waters from the North of Norway, when caught in the ice, are raised bodily out of the water without sustaining serious injury. These vessels are by no means remarkably strong; but, like most small sail- ing craft, they generally have a considerable rise of floor, and sloping sides. When, therefore, they are nipped the ice, instead of being opposed by a verti- cal wall like an ordinary ship's side, meets a sloping surface, and is pres- sed down under the bilge, causing the vessel to rise until the ice from oppo- site sides meets under her keel, and forms a bed for her to rest on. Hence their immunity from destruction. In order to utilize this principle it was decided to depart entirely from the usual deep-bilged form of section, and to adopt a shape which would af- ford the ice no point of attack normal to the ship's side, but would, as the horizontal pressure increased, force the attacking floes to dive under the ships bottom, lifting her as described above. How this desirable end was sought to be realized in the Fram, will best be understood by a reference to the plans (PI. I and II), showing her lines and two of her cross sections. It will be seen that plane or concave surfaces were avoided as much as possible by giving her round and full lines. This, while increasing the power to resist pres- sure from outside, also had the advantage of making it easy for the ice to glide along the bottom in any direction. The Fram is an auxiliary screw steamer rigged as a threemasted fore and aft schooner. Her engines, built at wAkers mekaniske Vaerksted", are of 200 indicated h. p. and were expected to drive her, when moderately loaded, at a speed of 6 knots, with a coal consumption of 2.8 tons a day. The first thing to be considered in making out the design was the size or carrying capacity to be chosen. As a general rule it may be said that, for any given strength of material, the strength of the ship will vary in- g COLIN ARCHER. [NOEW. POL. EXP. versely as the size. For this reason the Fram was made only sufficiently large to enable her to carry the necessary supply of coals, provisions, and other stores for a period of 5 years, and to afford accomodation for her crew. The peculiar shape adopted for her cross section, coupled with the desire to cut down the length as much as possible — great length being an element of weakness — necessitated a greater beam than would be desirable in a seagoing ship. Considered merely as a safe home for her crew while drifting with the ice, even a greater approximation to the circular or bowl form, than that adopted, would have been preferable; but as the vessel would have to sail or steam a long distance before she could be frozen in, and again after emerging from the ice, it was not thought judicious to depart too far from the proportions between the extreme dimensions usually found in sea- going ships. The principal dimensions are: Length of keel 103.3 feet = 31.50 metres, do. „ waterline 119 „ 36.25 „ do. extreme 128 „ 39.00 „ Breadth at waterline 34 „ 10.40 „ do. extreme 36 „ 11.00 „ Depth, moulded 17.2 „ 5.25 „ Displacement at 15.6 ft. (4.75 m.) draft, 800 tons. The measurements are taken to outside of planking but do not include the ice sheathing. By customhouse measurement she was found to be 402 tons reg. gross, and 307 tons nett. It was estimated that the ship with engines would weigh about 420 tons. At the draft of water given above, 15.6 ft. which leaves a freeboard amidships of 3 feet, there would thus be a margin for cargo etc. of 380 tons. Actually this weight was exceeded by more than 100 tons, leaving only about 18 inches freeboard when the vessel started on her voyage. This extra im- mersion could not but act prejudicially when among the ice, as it would tend to retard the lifting process on which, it was believed, the safety of the ship would largely depend. Not only was there a greater weight to lift, but the manifest danger of the walls of ice, that would accumulate against the ship's side, tumbling over the bulwarks and filling her decks before the ice under water could take effect, would be greatly increased. She would, however, be NO. 1.] THE FRAM. somewhat lightened by the time she was frozen fast. As the event showed, she actually rose readily when pressed, and the danger of being overwhelmed by superincumbent masses of ice does not appear to have been so great as might have been anticipated. The model of the Fram having after much deliberation been fixed upon, it next became necessary to decide upon the most sintable system of construction, and, as the use to which this vessel was to be put was so totally different to that of any ordinary ship, it would be vain to seek a guide in any of the established rules and regulations for ship- building. The builder was thrown on his own resources, and had to be guided by his own judgement and experience. The strength of a structure depends, of course, not only upon the strength of the material used, hut also quite as much upon the combination of the various parts, so as to form a compact whole. In this case it was important to economise weight, so as not to reduce too much the cargo carrying capacity, and it became, therefore, necessary to modify the scantlings accordingly, select the timber with care, and above all to make a judicious arrangement of the materials, paying due attention to the connection of the parts, and the sufficiency of the fastenings. The Fram's keel is American elm in two lengths 14in (35.5 cm.) square. The room and space is 2 feet (60 cm.). The frames are nearly all oak pro- cured from the Naval dockyards at Horten, where it had been stored for a number of years and was, therefore, thoroughly seasoned. It is all grown to shape so that there is scarcely any cross grain. The frames are as usual double throughout, each course sided 10 to 11 inches, the two courses forming a frame being fayed and rivetted together, so as to make a firm and com- pact structure. The butts of the frames are connected by iron straps to pre- vent stretching. The inner lining consists of pitch pine in good lengths, and varying in thickness from 4in to 6in (10—15.2 cm.), the stringers and shel- ves being 8™ (20.2 cm.). The keelson is also pitch pine in two tiers, one over the other, each 15in (38 cm.) square, from the stem to the engine room. Under the boiler and engines there was only sufficient height for one keelson. There are two decks. The main deck beams are American or German oak, the lower deck and poop beams are pitch pine or Norwegian yellow pine. All the deck planking is Norwegian pine, the upper decks being 4™, the between- decks 3in thick. The beams are fastened to the ships side by Norwegian white g COLIN ARCHER. [NORW. POL. EXP. pine knees (root and stem) of which about 450 have been used in the ship. Wooden knees were as a rule preferred to iron as being more elastic. A considerable number of iron knees were, however, also used, where wood was less suitable. In the boiler- and engine-room the lower deck beams had to be raised about 3 feet to give sufficient height for the engines. The upper deck was similarly raised from the stern to the mainmast forming the poop, under which the cabins are situated over the engine room. On the poop, immediately in front of the funnel, a deckhouse was built in which was fitted a chartroom, and from which the companion steps lead down to the cabin, one on each side. Independent of the ice sheathing, the outside planking is double and all oak. The two first (garboard) strakes are, however, single, 7"1 (17.7 cm.) thick, and bolted transversely through the keel as well as to the frames. The first or inner layer of planking is 3in (7.5 cm.) thick, and fastened with spikes only; outside this comes a course of 4in (10.1 cm.) plank, fastened with oak treenails and through bolts in the usual manner. The two top strakes are again single, 6"1 in thickness. The ice sheathing is greenheart, and covers the whole side from keel to within 18"1 of the shear strake. It is 3in thick at the keel gradually increasing to 6"1 at and above the waterline. It is fastened with spikes and bay bolts only. Each course of planking was caulked and paid before the next was put on. The keel is thus inclosed by the planking, all but 3 — 4m which project below it, and this part of the keel is rounded off so as not to obstruct the ice in passing under the ships bottom. The interstices between the frames were filled with a composition, consisting of coaltar, pitch, and sawdust, boiled to a consistency and poured in hot, the ship's side thus forming one compact mass varying in thickness from 28 — 32 inches (71 — 81 cm). In consequence of all open spaces in the framing being filled, there was no room left for bilge water under the ceiling. A loose floor was, therefore, laid a few inches above the ceiling on each side of the keelson, to give room for any water that might collect in the ship. In order still further to strengthen the side and more especially to prevent stretching, iron riders were fitted on the ceiling extending from the shelf of the upper deck downwards, well over the floor timbers. The stem consists of three massive oak timbers, one inside the other, making over 4 feet (1.22 m.) of solid wood in a fore and aft direction, by NO. ij THE FRAM. 9 15"1 (38 cm.) broad. The three outside courses of planking, as well as the ceiling, had each a separate rabbet cut in the stem. The propeller sternpost is in two pieces placed side by side, and measuring 26in ( 66cm.) laterally by 14in (35 cm.) fore and aft. As will be seen by the lines (PI. I), the over- hanging counter runs to a sharp edge, and there is no transom. On each side of the sternpost is fitted a strong counter timber parallel to the middle vertical plane, making as it were a double sternpost, and the space between them forms a well, running up right through the upper deck. The rudderpost is placed in the middle of this well, and devides it into two parts, one for the screw and the other for the rudder. By this means the rudder as well as screw -- which is made to unship - - can be raised clear of the water, and again shipped into their places at pleasure. The rudder is hung so that the rudder shaft, which is cylindrical, revolves about its own axis, in order to prevent jamming if the well should be choked with ice. Abaft the rudder well the space between the counter timbers is filled with solid wood, the whole being securely bolted together laterally. The frames at this part of the hull butt up against the counter timbers, and are secured to them by means of knees. The stem and sternpost are of course strengthened, and the two sides of the ship bound together, with massive aprons and breasthooks of wood or iron. Although not built specially for ,,ramming", it was probable that the Fram would occasionally be placed in situations, in which it would be neces- sary to attempt to force a passage. Her bow and stern were, therefore, shod in the usual manner with an iron casing. On the forward face of the stem was bolted a segment-shaped bar of iron, from the bobstay plate downwards, some distance under the keel. Outside this were bent, at right angles to the stem, bars of iron about 3fa X s/^ (7.6 X 1-9 cm.), extending about 6 feet along the planking on either side. These bars were placed close together thus forming a continuous armour plating down to within a couple of feet of the keel. The sharp edge of the counter abaft the wells was simi- larly shod with transverse bars of iron, while the lower edges of the wells were sheathed with stout iron plating. The rudder post, which from its ex- posed position may be said to be the Achilles' heel of the ship, was streng- thened with three heavy U shaped iron frames of which one was fitted inside 10 COLIN ARCHER. [NORW. POL. EXP. the screw aperture, the others, one on each side of the two posts and the keel, and bolted together laterally. In whaling and sealing ships, intended to work among ice, it is the usual practice to amass quantities of timber in the bows, so as to make them dis- proportionately strong as compared with other portions of the hull. These ships generally have more powerful engines than the Fram, and they have fre- quently to force their way through the ice, going at it full speed. The bows have then to bear the brunt of the battle. In our case on the contrary where nnipping" was the chief danger to be apprehended, it was impossible to say where the blow might hit the hardest, but it was probable that the broadside, as presenting the largest target, would be exposed to the most violent attacks. But the broadside is evidently, both structurally and from its shape which approaches nearest to a plane, the weakest part of the hull. It was, therefore, necessary to adopt extraordinary measures for strengthening this part of the vessel. The plan adopted will be best understood by referring to the plans of sections shown on pi. II. Under every beam in both decks were fitted diagonal stays of yellow pine 6ta X 10*" (15.2 X 25.4 cm.), placed nearly at right angles to the ship's side, and securely fastened to the side and to the beam with wooden knees. Of these diagonals there are 68 distributed over the ship. There are, besides, under each beam three rows of upright stanchions in the between decks, and one row in the lower hold from the keelson. These are tied by iron straps to the keelson, to the beams, or to each other. The whole interior of the ship is thus filled up with a network of braces and struts, so arranged as to transmit the pressure from outside, and give rigidity to the whole structure. As will be seen from the drawings, the arrangement of the stays had to be somewhat modified in the engine room, so as to allow the boiler and engines to be placed in the middle line of the ship. All bolts, spikes, and other fastenings, as well as all wrought iron work for hull, spars and rigging, with the exception of the heaviest forgings, such as riders, breasthooks, rudder pintals and gudgeons etc., are galvanised. For lifting the anchors - - which are Trotman's patent - - there is a Clarke and Chapman's windlass worked by hand or by a steam winch, placed on the main deck just abaft the foremast. The hold is divided into water- tight compartments by two bulkheads, one immediately abaft the foremast, the other in front of the engine room. Besides two ordinary hand pumps NO. i.] THE FRAM. there is a powerful centrifugal pump worked by steam, and communicating with each compartment. The cabin, which had to give accomodation to the whole crew, is situated under the poop deck over the engine room. The centre saloon is about 13 ft. X 1^ ft. On both sides and abaft the saloon are 6 berths of which 4 are single berths. Special precautions were taken to make the cabins as impervious as possible to the arctic frost. Previous experience shows that it is highly objectionable, however thick the wall, to leave the ends of through bolts, and other fastenings passing through the ships side, exposed in an in- habited part of the ship. The metal, being a good conductor, draws the heat from the adjacent air which is moist from the exhalations of the occu- pants, and, on being cooled, deposits its moisture about the metal in the shape of hoar frost or ice, always accumulating, and after a time becoming very troublesome and destructive to health and comfort. To obviate this, and also add to the thickness of the wall, all bolts and other metal showing on the ships lining were first covered with patches of felt. Three light panelings were next put up parallel to the side one inside the other, with intervals between them and the wall, and between each other, and these intervals were filled with alternate layers of cork shavings, reindeer wool, and thick felt, one interval being left empty as an air jacket. The floor, the ceiling, and the thwatships bulkheads enclosing the cabin were similarly treated but with fewer successive layers, and partly without the air space. The doors leading to the companions were made of double thickness with a space between filled with reindeer wool, and the door sills were raised 15"1 from the floor to prevent the influx of cold air. In the saloon a stove was fitted with means of ventilation. Light is obtained through a skylight with treble plate glass, placed over the middle of the saloon. Contrary to the advice of experienced whalers, who strongly advocated the square rig for maneuvering among ice, the Fram was rigged as a fore and -aft three masted schooner, only carrying on the foremast a flying square topsail and foresail which could be lowered, and in the opinion of Capt. Sverdrup this style of rig proved, under the circumstances in which she was placed, the most suitable for the purpose. Two hands on the watch were sufficient to work the ship under sail, a matter of importance with a a small crew. Her masts, three fine Oregon spars, have a diametre at the f 12 COLIN ARCHER. [NOEW. POL. EXP. partners of respectively 20in (51 cm.), 22in (56 cm.) and 18in (46 cm.) for the fore- main- and mizzenmast, the latter being stepped in a beam of extra size over the engines. The mainmast has a housing topmast on which the ncrows nest" is fixed, 100 feet (31 m.) above the sea level. The fore- and mizzen masts are on the contrary pole masts, the upper part above the peak halyards being scarphed on to the lower mast, and secured with iron rings. The sail plan (PI. Ill) shows the arrangement of the sails. Their total area is about 720 square yards (602 m.2). All the standing rigging is steel wire, and the running rigging fine spun hemp rope. The three boom-sail sheets were fitted with sheet buffers, the blocks were all specially made, and the more important ones fitted with patent bushes. The bridge for the commanding officer is built across the ship round the mizzen mast, 6 ft 6in above the poop deck. There are no chain plates visible outside the vessel to break the smoothness of the side. The lower deadeyes are held by eyebolts passing through the waterways and fastened to the frames inboard. There is, upon the whole, but little of interest to note with regard to the rig, into which no novelties of consequence were introduced. The object aimed at throughout was to make it simple, strong, and easy to work. The Fram was furnished with 8 boats. Two of them were of a con- siderable size, measuring 28 ft X 9 ft X & ft. They were carvel built of oak, strong but comparatively light, and were provided with a deck, mast and sails. Each of them is large enough to carry the whole ship's crew with provisions for several months. They were intended as a refuge from wind and cold, and to carry the explorers home in case the ship was lost or had to be abandoned. Their services were never required. There were besides 4 sealing boats of the ordinary type 20 ft X 6 ft, lightly built of American elm; an oil launch 20 ft X 5 ft also built of elm, and a small Norwegian Bpram". With the exception of the launch which was purposely broken up during the voyage, and the pram which had sustained some damage, all the boats were brought home in the best condition. The large boats were carried on a pair of gallows over the main hatch, the sealing boats and launch in davits, and the pram on deck. Having now given a brief description of the Fram, her design and her construction, and pointed out some of the details in which she differs from the general run of ships, it will be of interest to inquire in how far she can NO. 1.] THE FRAM. 13 be said to have justified the expectations of her designers, and the confidence placed in her by her adventurous crew. She had, it is true, carried them home safely and in good health after a 3 year's cruise. But if, on exami- nation, there should be found evident signs of weakness or straining, showing that she had not, nevertheless, escaped altogether uninjured from the clutches of the ice, there would still be good reason to doubt what the result might have been, had the voyage been protracted over a much longer period. On this point a good opportunity has been afforded of forming an opinion. After a year's rest it was decided to add a superstructure in the shape of a spar deck in order to make her fit for her second expedition, and while uuder- going this alteration, she was carefully surveyed both outside and in the hold; but — with the single exception mentioned below — not the smallest sign of straining could be discovered in any part of the vessel. Her butts and scarphs were as close and firm as the day she was launched, and the pitch or putty in the seams showed no indication of a movement or disturbance of the parts having taken place. The exception alluded to refers to one of the bolts in the U shaped mounting described above which had started, show- ing that her ,,Achilles' heel" had been exposed to a severe blow. This was the only fastening that had to be renewed. It may, therefore, confidently be asserted that the Fram has withstood the ordeal she has passed through, even better than the most sanguine could have ventured to hope, and there seems little reason to doubt that she would have come triumphantly out of even more severe trials than those to which she had been exposed. Professor Nansen has expressed the opinion that the vessel has never — even when most severely pinched - - been tried approximately to the limit of her power of resistance, and, assuming this view to be correct, it would seem that her scantlings might have been considerably reduced without incurring the risk of a collapse, while it may at the same time be taken as a proof that the design and system of construction adopted is a good and efficient one. The Fram had a slight leak when she left the stocks arising, possibly, from some augerhole which had been overlooked, or, more probably, from some part of the caulking having been carelessly done. No perceptible change took place in the leakage before she was frozen fast. When, at the end of three years, she was finally released from her icy imprisonment, it was found that she made more water than before, and she continued to do so till she 14 COLIN ARCHER. [NOEW. POL. EXP. was discharged. This may partly be accounted for on tho supposition that the ice had drawn some of the oakum out of her seams, a thing not to be wondered at considering the scouring she had gone through, which had left numerous traces in the shape of erosions on the ice sheathing. But this is not in itself sufficient to fully explain the increase of leakage. Capt. Scott-Hansen states that when sudden and violent changes of temperature set in, a crack- ling noise was heard all over the ship, arising in all probability from the expansion and contractions of timbers and planking; and this, in conjunction with the expansion of the water when being converted into ice in seams and cracks, would necessarily have the effect of compressing the oakum and to some extent the wooden planking, widening the seams and giving access to the water when milder weather set in, and the ice melted. As the increase of leakage could not be traced to structural weakness or to any part of the planking having given way to outside pressure, this explanation §eems the most plausible, and shows the importance of using the hardest and and most unyielding kind of timber in the planking, and of having the caulking well and carefully done. The vessel was hove down and the ice sheathing recaulked before she started on her pressent voyage, reducing the leakage to a trifle. At no time can it be said to have been considerable. Half an hours spell at the handpump every watch was sufficient to keep the ship dry on her voyage home from the far north. Perhaps no better proof can be adduced of the unimpaired condition of the structure than the fact, that Capt. Sverd- rup has started on his second voyage — perhaps no less hazardous than the first - - without having found reason to suggest any repairs whatever (beyond the caulking mentioned above) to any part of the original hull. Professor Nansen's expedition in the Fram has tought us many useful lessons scientific and practical. And not the least important of these is the practical proof it affords of the possibility of building ships capable, in all human probability, of resisting with impunity the assaults of such ice, as is to be met with in the arctic seas. LARVIK, November, 1898. COLIN ARCHER. NO. 1.] THE FRAM. 15 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. PL I. Fig. 1. The lines of the nFram" in vertical projection. The lines of the frames (2 — 60) projected on a vertical longitudinal section as well as on a transverse section. Fig. 2. The lines of the nFram" in horizontal projection. The numbers indicate the same in both figures. W. L. 1 — 5. The water lines in vertical projection (fig. 1) and in horizontal projection (fig. 2). 2—60. The frames. PI. II. Fig. 1. Vertical longitudinal section of the nFram". Fig. 2. Plan showing the deck and the arangement of the Cabins etc. Fig. 3. Transverse section amidships, at a b, fig. 1. Fig. 4. Transverse section at the engine room, at c d, fig. 1. The letters and numbers indicate the same in all figures. S. Saloon. B. Berths. G. Galley. St. Study (on the poop deck). C. Chartroom (on the poop deck). CB. Coal Bunkers. 1. Raised forecastle. 2. Windlass. 3. Frame timbers. 4. Aprons. 16 COLIN ARCHER. THE FRAM. [NORW. POL EXp N0 1 ] 5. Supports under deck beams. 6. Diagonal stays. 7. Wooden knees securing the stanchions and diagonals. 8. Iron straps. 9. Steps leading to poop. 10. do. „ from deck house to 'tween decks. 11. do. „ to cabin. 12. Funnel, jointed so as to lower when under canvas. 13. Deck house with chart room and study. 14. Skylight. 15. Ladder leading to engine room. 16. Boiler. 17. Engines. 18. Well for raising screw propeller. 19. do. „ „ rudder. 20. Counter timbers. PI. III. Design of the rig of the wFram". THE NORWEGIAN POLAR EXPEDITION 1893-1896 N?1. Urn pritxite ftym tinting* It/A 4n*talt Krittinniu PI. I 892 /t?f THI PI. IE i t- it. »i t- • 4V fc» THE NORWEGIAN POLAR EXPEDITION 1893-1896 N?1 Urn ,:,-,:'„!,• I/,,,,,,,,,/!,,,,., lilli ./«-•/«/' Kriilinniu PI. HI 15 ? v ?' t » ? '.« II. THE JURASSIC FAUNA OF CAPE FLORA, FRANZ JOSEF LAND BY J. F. POMPECKJ. WITH A GEOLOGICAL SKETCH OF CAPE FLORA AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD BY FRIDTJOF NANSEN. A GEOLOGICAL SKETCH OF CAPE FLORA AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD. BY FRIOTJOF NANSEN. The geology of Cape Flora and its neighbourhood has been subjected to special researches by Dr. REGINALD KOZTTLITZ, the geologist of the Jackson- Harmsworth Expedition, who stayed there for three years (1894 — 1897). The results of his important investigations have been most ably described by Dr. KffiTTLiTZ himself1, and his collections have been examined and described by Messrs. E. T. NEWTON and J. J. H. TEALLS. Much valuable information about the geology of this little-known country has thus been obtained. There are, however, still many open or doubtful questions left, which will have to wait for future researches made on the spot, if they are to be fully settled. In the mean time, I trust that every contribution, imperfect though it may be, to our knowledge in this respect, will be welcome. During my stay at Mr. Jackson's house, Elmwood, on Cape Flora, from June 17th to August 7th, 1896, I used what little time there was left me from other important work, to study, in company with Dr. Koettlitz, the geology of this interesting neighbourhood. Through Jackson's kindness and with Koettlitz 's valuable assistance, I thus was enabled, amongst other things, to make a collec- tion of fossils and rocks from the Jurassic deposits of this locality. 1 Dr. Reginald Keettlitz. B0bservations on the Geology of Franz Josef Land." Quar- terly Journal of the Geological Society, vol. LIV (1898), pp. 620—646. See also his rBrief Sketch of the Geology". Geographical Journal, vol. IX (1898\ pp. 132-135. 3 E T. Newton and J. J. H. Teall. nNotes on a Collection of Rocks and Fossils from Franz Josef Land, made by the Jackson-Harmsworth Expedition during 1894 — 18%." Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. LIII (1897), pp. 477—519; and also ibid. vol. LIV (1898), pp. 646 -651. POMPECKJ. JDRASSIC FAUNA OF CAPE FLORA. [NORW. POL. EXP. UP .-I » v -2 ^ ~ ^ 8 « J -= c •§ ^^ » !f*s iS O £ : a g-s s r . -s- II M "ill L^ ^^ ^^ M • * tf *•- •§ ^lii I1--I Mill '" ^ -o £ ss « a t>, Mill I &2 3 .2 . 8,1 i o — N0. 2.] GEOLOGICAL SKETCH BY NANSEN. 5 Dr. J. F. POMPECKJ undertook the examination of this collection, which, however, does not contain much that has not been found by Koettlitz. But as Pompeckj does not agree with Mr. E. T. Newton, who has described Kcettlitz's collection of fossils, on several rather important points as regards the determination of the fossils, and the exact horizon of the various strata, etc., I hope his paper will throw some additional light on the subject, and may be read with much interest. Dr. Pompeckj has asked me to accompany his paper with a sketch of the general features in the geological structure of Cape Flora, and the descrip- tion of the localities where the fossils were found. In doing this, I feel it to be my pleasant duty, first of all to express my sincere thanks to Mr. FREDE- RICK JACKSON for the kind way in which he helped me in my geological researches while I was his guest at Elmwood. I also use this welcome op- portunity of thanking Dr. REGINALD K