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^ A NOTE-BOOK

OF

AGRICULTURAL FACTS kM
FIGURES

COMPILED BY

R. CECIL WOOD, M.A.,

MADRAS AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT.

THIRD EDITION.

MADRAS:
PRINTED BY THE SUPERINTENDENT, (iOVERNMENT PRESS

Price, 1 rupee.} 1 9 20.

Fasli 1330.

rfl

£47/

First Edition, 1,000 copies, 1915
Second Edition, 1,500 copies, 1916.
Third Edition, 2.500 copies, 1920..

644094

PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION.

"THE few years since this book was first published in
1915, have seen a considerable increase in the interest
taken by the man in the street in Agriculture and
the production of grain, and the increased demand
for the present publication has necessitated a third
edition. Opportunity has been taken to revise and
correct it where possible, but the work has had to be
done intermittently and in my scanty leisure, and
I trust its users will pardon the many mistakes. 1
have not altered the figures for costing : all values are
shifting relatively and actually, and I have thought
it better to stick to the pre-war figures, which at any
rate represent a fairly well-defined standard.

I am responsible for the arrangement of the
matter, but I need hardly say that without the
generous assistance of my colleagues on the staff of
this department the book could not have been com-
piled. I desire to express my thanks to Mr. Cecil
Fischer, of the Indian Forest Service, for the notes
•on the timber trees of the Presidency. I wish also
to express my thanks to the Government of Madras,
for the generous way in which they have recognized
my efforts.

Madras,
■January 1920. R. CECIL WOOD.

CONTENTS

PAGE

Weights and Measures

i

1

Mensuration and Surveying ..

. ... ,

19

Build tngs and Roads

... ..

28

Machinery

... ».

30

Labour

...

■

36

Soils

46

Manures

...

.

49

Crops

...

...

... 58

Foods and Feeding

...

... 93

Live-Stock

106

Dairying

...

151

Common Insect Pests

...

156

Horticulture

...

■ ••„

161

Timber Trees

...

...

170

Statistics

... ..

177

Calendar

... ••

...

188

Index

... ..

189

A NOTE-BOOK

OF

AGKICULTUKAL FACTS AND HGUKES.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

Imperial Avoirdupois Weight.

27*34 grains (gr.) = 1 drachm (dr.)

16 drachms =1 ounce (oz.).

16 ounces ,7,000 grainsl ... = 1 pound (lb.).

14 pounds = 1 stone (st.).

28 pounds = 1 quarter (qr.).

4 quarters ... =1 hundredweight

(cwt.\

112 pounds ... = 1 hundredweight.

20 hundredweights = 1 ton.

Imperial Indian Weight.
(Used in Railways.)

10 tolas = 1 chittak.

8 chittaks = 1 seer.

40 seers = 1 maund.

A tola is the weight of a rupee and is "414 oz. or 180 grains.
One seer weighs 2*057 lb. Avoirdupois, and one maund
82-28 lb.

Madras Weight.

3 tolas... — 1 palam.

8 palams = 1 seer.

5 seers = 1 viss.

8 visses = 1 maund.

20 maunds ... =» 1 candy.

A viss is 3*0857 lb. A Madras maund is thus nearly 25 lb.
Avoirdupois (24*68), and a candy is generally taken at 500 lb.
1 lb. = 38*88 tolas.

2 . WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

The table used by European merchants in Madras is
slightly different from the above and is as follows : —

1 palam = 1£ oz. avoirdupois.

40 palams = 1 viss = 3£ lb.

8 vis&es = 1 maund = 25 lb.

zO-niaumls = 1 candy or baram =

500 lb.

Imperial Measures of Capacity.

5 fluid ounces of water ... =1 gill.

4 gills ... ™ 1 pint (pt.L

2 pints ... ... = 1 quart (qt.-.

4 quarts •= 1 gallon f gal.).

2 gallons = 1 peck (pk.).

4 pecks — 1 bushel (bus.).

8 bushels ... =1 quarter (qr.).

A gallon contains 277*463 c. inches and equals 10 lb. of
distilled water at 62° F.

6'25 gallons = 1 cubic foot.

1 gallon = '16 cubic foot.

1 fluid ounce pure water weighs 1 oz. avoirdupois.

41 A pint of pure water weighs a pound and a quarter."

Madras Measures of Capacity.

These are extremely variable, and only a few of the most
widely known are given.

8 ollocks =1 Madras measure

(M.M.\ pucka
or padi.
8 Madras measures ... =1 marakkal.

1 marakkal = £ cub. foot ... = 500 fluid oz.

The type Madras measure is 108 inches cubic capacity,
contains 62*5 fluid ounces and is usually 4'5 inches in diame-
ter and 6*75 inches deep.

In Madras and Saidapet it is struck : elsewhere it is
heaped.

The seer when used as a measure is about 80 tolas : but
▼aries with the commodity that is being used.

Imperial Linear Measure.

3 barleycorns =1 inch (in.).

12 inches = 1 foot (ft.).

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

LOCAL WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

ANANTAPUR.

Table of Weights.

21 tolas (or *4114 of an oz.) = 1 seer.

li seers
2 sava seers
2 adi seers
12 seers
4 dhadiyams
ara seer

...

.. = 1 sava seer.
... — 1 adi seer (3 seers).
... = 1 panch seer (6 seers).
... = 1 dhadiyam.
... = 1 maund (25*92 lb.).
... = \ seer.

pavu
ara pavu
chattak ...

•::

... = \ seer.
... = \ seer.
... =TVseer.

A seer of gold or

silver weighs, as elsewhere, 24 tolas.

Gratn

Measure.

1 seer = 88 tolas

weight

of second sort rice heaped,

divided into ara, pavu, etc., as before.

The next largest measure above the seer is the muntha
whose capacity differs from taluk to taluk.

16 munthas = 1 thumu.

20 thumus =1 putti.

The thumu and the putti are as inconstant in value as the
muntha itself.

Liquid Measure.

The grain seer is used for milk, buttermilk and curd. Oil
and ghee are generally sold by weight.

BELLARY.

Weights.

Same as Anantapur.

Grain Measures.

1 seer = 84 tolas weight of a mixture of the 9 grains
known as navadhanya,

which seems = 86 tolas weight of paddy divided into
ara, pavu, etc.

The multiples of this seer differ in different taluks : in
Bellary taluk a putti weighs 2,560 seers.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Liquid Measures.

Same as Anantapur.

CHINGLEPUT.

1 gundu of firewood

8 ollocks

4 M.M

= 56 lb.

= 1 M.M.

= 1 Tiruvellur jodu.

8 rupees wt .
15 palams

8 visses
10 maunds
20 maunds
12 tulams

COIMBATORE.

= 1 palam.

= 1 viss.

= 1 maund.

= 1 pothy.

=1 baram.

= 1 pothy.

A palam of 3 rupees is used for drugs.

2 M. M = 1 vallam.

33 vallams =1 selagai.

There are a number of local measures which are gradu-
ally being replaced by the standard M.M.

The Coimbatore vallam is larger than the standard one
and 30 only go to the selagai.

1 maund of jaggery ... = 26 lb.

When firewood is sold by the ton, the maund is often
taken at 28 lb., i.e., 80th of a ton.

32 M.M.

20 thumus

CUDDAPAH.

GANJAM.

Weights.

1 thumu.
1 putti.

80 tolas = 1 seer.

5 seers = 1 viss.

8 visses = 1 maund.

8 maunds = 1 candy.

For gingelly, castor, coconut-oil and ghee, 1 seer = 22
tolas.

6 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

For onions, garlic, saffron, tamarind, potatos and silk,
1 seer = 24 tolas.

For chillies 1 seer = 105 tolas.

For vegetables, etc. ... 1 seer = 180 tolas.
For camphor, spices ... 1 viss = 118 tolas.

Land Measure.

4 seers of rice and other grains = 1 thumu.

16 seers = 1 nowtie (cent).

20 nowties = 1 bharanam.

100 nowties ... = 1 acre.

GODAVARI.

Weights.

2 pampus

2 yebulams

2 padalams

2 visses

4 yettedus

20 maunds .

Fuel is sold by the following table

5 maunds

4 kavadis

1 putti dry jungle wood

1 putti green jungle wood ...
1 putti of jaggery

= 1 yebulam.
= 1 padalam.
= 1 viss (5 seers or

tolas').
= 1 yettedu.
= 1 maund (or 25 lb.).
= 1 putti (or candy),

s= 1 kavadi.
= 1 putti.
as 500 lb.
= 6121b.
= 504 lb.

129

Grain Measures.

5 tolas weight of rice

4 giddas

2 solas

2 manikas
2 addas

20 kunchams
2 yedumus
2 pandumus

= 1 gidda,

= 1 sola.

= 1 manika or seer (holds

80 tolas weight of

rice).
= 1 adda.
= 1 kuncham (320 tolas

weight of rice).
= 1 yedumu or kavadi,
= 1 pandumu.
= 1 palle putti (80

kunchams).

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

1\ palle puttis = 1 garce (garisa of 600

kuncham a or 192,000
tolas weight of rice).

1 bag or busta of paddy ... = 166 lb.

Linear Measurement.

1 nulu

2 nulu

= i inch.

= 1 pathika.

Land Measure (popular).

1 kuncham
1 yedum
1 pandum

= 10 cents.

= 2 acres.

= 4 acres.

MALABAR.

Walluvanad Taluk.
Measurement for Grain and Liquids.

2 azhakus
2 ozhakus
2 uris
4 nazhia

6 nazhis
10 narayams
24 nazhis

1 ozhaku.
1 uri.
1 nazhi.
1 edangali.
1 narayam.
1 para.
1 chottana.

NOTE.— One Madras measure = 7 nazhis ; 1 narayam paddy weighs
90 rupees weight.

Linear Measurements.

8 ellammanies
8 thoras
24 virals

2,000 muzhakoles
4 nazhikas ...

1 thora.
1 viral.

1 muzhakole or carpen-
ter's kole.
1 nazhika.
1 kathom.

Measurements by Timber Merchants.
576 perukams .. ... = 1 candy.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Weights.

4 nellummanies = 1 kunni.

2 kunnis = 1 manjadi.

2 manjadis = 1 panathookam.

10 panathookams = 1 kazhanchu.

12 kazhanchus = 1 palam.

100 palams = 1 thulam.

20 thulams = 1 bharam.

NOTE.— Grain is measured struck. There are palams of different
weights.

Bazaar drugs, 1 palam = 5 rupees weight.

Jaggery and tobacco, 1 palam ... =10 „

Pepper, ginger, sweet 1
potatos, etc., 1 palam J

= 15

Ernad Taluk.

5 Walluvanad nazhis = 1 edangali.

10 edangalis = 1 para.

1 kole of sawed timber = i kole x 1 viral

y 1 viral.

lkole =2 ft, 3^ in.

NOTE.— 24 local virals make 1 kole.

Ginger is sold by the thulam of 35 lb. weight.

Chiraklcal Taluk.

Measurements for Grains.

4 nazhis ... = 1 edangali or seer.

1 edangali =1 Madras measure

very nearly.

10 edangalis or seers =1 para.

3 nazhis =1 kongayi.

In the hills, 1 mada =25 seers.

NOTE.— All are heaped measures.

Liquid Measures.

6 small nazhis =1 kutti.

1 kutti = 4 quart or big

bottles.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Weights.

1 palam = 9 rupees weight.

40 rupees weight =-• 1 lb.

281b ... = 1 thulam.

20 thulams =1 bharam.

Tellicherry.

32 lb. =1 thulam.

20 thulams = 1 bharam.

Cannanore.

301b. = 1 thulam.

20 thulams = 1 bharam.

Note— In all the above three cases 1 lb. = 40 rupees weight.

MADURA.

Weights.

6 tolas ('4114 oz.) = 1 palam (nearly "2\ oz.).

20 palams = 1 viss.

6 visses = 1 thulam (about 18£ lb.).

8 visses = 1 maund (about 25 lb.).

Grain Measure.

1 heaped measure contains =132 tolas rice.

4 measures = 1 marakkal.

12 marakkals =1 kalam.

NILGIRIS.

Land Measure.

28 adis or country feet ... =1 kole =24 English ft.

1 square kole = 1 guli = 576 sq.ft.

100 gulis = 1 cawny = 57,600 sq.ft.

or 1*322 acres.

1 balla = 3*82 acres = 166,464 sq.ft.

60 X 40 feet or 2,400 sq.ft. = 1 manai or house-site.

#
Measures.

2 ollocks = 1 ullock.

8 ollocks =1 padi or measure.

10 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

8 measures =1 marakkal.

5 marakkals = 1 para.

400 marakkals = 1 garisa.

50 jodis (i.e., double measures

or 100 Madras measures). = 1 palla.

Weights.

3 rupees weight (tolas) ... = 1 palam.

8 palams = 1 seer.

5 seers (3 1 rattal) ... ... =1 viss.

50 palams (1| viss) = 1 tuk.

8 visses = 1 maund.

20 maunds ... =1 bharam or candy.

SALEM.

Measures.

2\ M.M = 1 vallam.

40 vallams =1 kandagam.

The vallam varies up to 3 M.M.

Weights.

The tuku is used, but varies from 1\ viss to 2£ viss accord-
ing to the commodity.

1\ tukus =1 thulam.

16 thulams ... ... =1 sattai.

In Namakkal, 16 vallams. = 1 moda.

6 modas =1 podi.

NORTH ARCOT.

Weights.

3 tolas = 1 palam.

8 palams =1 seer (kaccha).

5 seers ... ... ... =1 viss.

2 visses ... ... ... = 1 dhadiyam.

4 dhadiyams =1 maund.

20 maunds = 1 candy.

The pucka seer of Chittoor and Vellore is 72 tolas.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 11

Measures.

8 padis =1 marakkal or toom.

12 marakkals = 1 kalam.

400 marakkals =1 garce.

40 kalams = 1 candy.

The toom or marakkal differs in different places of the
district.

Milk, curds and buttermilk are sold by measure.

Ghee, oils and honey are sold by measure as well as by
weight.

Land Measure.

1 kole or rod =24 feet.

1 square kole ... .. = 576 square feet = 1

kuzhi (Tamil) or
gunta (Telugu).
100 kuzhis or guntas .., = 1 kani = 57,600 square

feet = 1'32 acres.
Same as cawny of
Tanjore.

SOUTH ARCOT.

Weights.

3 tolas = 1 palam.

8 palams = 1 seer.

40 palams (5 seers) ... =1 viss.

50 palams = 1 tuk.

12 palams and a fraction (varying in different localities) =
1 rattal (for indigo).

The 4 French ' pound is "5 kilo. The groundnut candy ia
240 kilos = 529-2 lb.

In the Salt Factories.

80 tolas ... = 1 seer.

40 seers =1 Indian maund.

120 maunds ... ... = 1 garce (4*39 tons).

Grain Measure.

( Officially recognized. )

132 tolas of rice = 1 heaped Madras-

measure.
2 Madras measures = 1 marakkal.

12 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

The marakkal however varies in size in different taluks
though at all places 12 marakkals = 1 kalam and 24 kalams
are generally held equal to a cartload. Near Palur, a kalam
= 36 Madras measures and 12 kalams go to the cartload.

Liquid Measure.

Usually as fractions and multiples of a Madras measure,
ghee and oil are retailed by weight by the seer and palam
above.

Arrack is sold by gallons and drams.

Linear Measure.

9 angulas (thumb's breadths) = 1 jan (span).

12 „ " == 1 adi (foot).

18 „ . .. = 1 molam (cubit,

length from elbow
to tip of middle
finger).

2 molams ... = 1 gaja (yard).

2 gajas = 1 mar (distance be-

tween tips of the
two middle fingers
measured across
the chest with the
arms horizontal) .

Land Measure.

24 feet — 1 kole (rod).

1 square kole (576 sq.ft.). = 1 kuli.
100 kulis = 1 kani (132 acres).

SOUTH KANAKA.

Mangalore.
Weights.

24 tolas =1 seer.

48 seers =1 maund.

20 maunds = 1 candy.

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

13

Grain Measures.

1 pavu

2 pavus

14 seers

3 kalasikays

42 mudas

NOTE.— One muda paddy seed is generally 4 kalasikays.

i seer.
£ seer.
1 kalasikay.
1 muda.
1

Liquid Measures.

1 kututhay .
9 kututhays

2 kututhays
10 kuttis

= 12 rupees weight.
= 1 kutti.
= 1 seer.
= 1 maund.

Udipi — L iquids.
12 kudukthas = 1 baylay.

llsidhay
l^manikay ...

Coondapoor.

= H kututhay.
= 1 muda.

Bantwal side, Mangalore Taluk

7 kuttis

10 kuttis

4 doddays

= 1 samma mana or

maund.
= 1 thodda mana or

maund.
= 1 maund.

1 varah
1 duddu

1 pie

12 duddus

2 chakras

Money and Gold.

= 4 rupees.

= 4 pies.

= 2 chikas.

= 1 chakra = 4 annas.

= 1 chavala = £ rupee.

14

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

TANJORE AND TRICHINOPOLY.

Weights.

16 pies ss 1 palam or 3 tolas.

8 palams == 1 seer.

5 seers = 1 viss.

8 visses =1 maund.

20 maunds . =1 candy.

Hides and leather are weighed in terms of a rattal of H
seers.

Vegetables, tamarind, etc., in terms of Ihukku or -edai of
Gi seers.

Measures.

2 padis

12 marakkals

2 kalams

5 somais

4 urais ...
120 coconuts
40 marakkals of onions
32 palams of oil (vegetable)
16 sombus

= 1

marakkal.
1 kalam.
1 somai (load).
1 urai.

1 bandy load.
1 somai or load.
1 podi or pack.
1 sombu.
1 adam.

A small padi, of which four go to the marakkal, is still
largely used by the ryot. A seer, one-fifth of a padi, is used
for measuring milk, etc The kalam itself varies from taluk
to taluk.

Land Measure.

144 sq. feet.
100 kulis ..,

3 ma's ..

4 ma's . ..
20 ma's ...

= 1

1 kuli.
1 ma.
1 acre
1 kani.
veli (6-£

acres) .

TINNEVELLY.

Weights.

144 palams

12 tulams
2 pothis

rupees weight

= 1 palam.

= 1 tulam (100

palams — 1 tulam
in the south).

= 1 pothi.

= 1 candy (500 lb.).

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

15

1 tulam
16 tulam s

12 tulams
16 tulams

72 palams
25 palams
20 palams

4± palams

In the cotton
to 10* lb.

= 20* lb.

■ ... = 1 podi in Ramnad

district.

= 1 podi of seed.

= 1 podi of Kappas — in

cotton tracts north
of Sattur.
.. = 1 edai in cotton tract.
... = 1 edai in the south.

= 1 edai in Silvilliput-

tur taluk of
Ramnad district.

= 1 seer (Rs. 25

weight),
tracts in the south 1 edai is equivalent

Weights used for weighing Gold and Silver.

20 manchadis
f kalanji
3£ varagan idai

2 half mahanis
2 mahanis
2 ollocks ...

2 ullocks
4 ullocks

]\ seers
96 Madras measures

112 Madras measures

120 Madras measures

4 Madras measures
48 Madras measm*es

In some parts of RSmnad-
3 Madras measures
90 Madras measures

= 1 kalanji.

— 1 varagan idai.

... = 1 rupee weight =
1 tola.
Grain Measures.

. = 1 mahani Cy1^ mea-
sure).
.. = 1 ollock (£ Madras
measure).
= i ullock fj| Madras
measure).
.. — i Madras measure.
.. = 1 nali (1 Madras

measure).
. — 1 Madras measure.
= 1 kottai (Koilpatti
tract).
.. tm 1 do. (in Tinne-
velly).
= 1 do. (Ramnad
district).
.. = 1 marakkal.
.. = 1 kalam.

1 marakkal.
1 kottai.

or-

16 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Land Measurement.

Wet Land.

8 seer padi = 1 marakkal (nearly

8 cents).
21 marakkals = 1 kota (163 cents).

Dry Land.

21 kurukkams is the area which can be ploughed by on*

pair in a day.
8 kurukkams =1 sangili

3 Madras measures ==1 marakkal.

30 marakkals =1 kottai.

12 marakkals = 1 acre.

VIZAGAPATAM.

Weights.

2 chatakas ... = 1 nantak ... = 1} oz.

8 nantaks .., = 1 seer as 10 oz.

5 seers ... = 1 visam or viss = 3 J lb.

8 visams ... = 1 manugu or maund = 25 lb.

8 manugus ... = 1 kantlam ... = 200 lb.

20 manugus ... = 1 putti or candy = 500 lb.

The following table is also used side by side with the
first : —

2 yebalams ... — 1 padalam ... = 1^ lb.

2 pad.ilams = 1 visam .. ... = 3 lb.

8 visams ... = 1 manugu ... = 24 lb.

8 manugus ... = 1 kantlam — 192 lb.

20 manugus ... = 1 candy = 480 lb.

Grain and Liquid Measure.

4 giddas ... =■ 1 sola =

2 solas ... — 1 tavva ... ... — 2£ pints.

2 tavvas ... = 1 adda or manika. = A\ pints*

4 addas ... = 1 kuncham ... = 17 pints.

20 kunchams ... = 1 buri putti ( in Kondakerla firka).

80 kunchams ... = 1 pedde putti an rest of taluk}..

600 kunchams ... = 1 garisu (garce).

Weights and measures

17

OTHER WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

Cotton.

1 skein

=== 120 yards.

7 skeins

= 1 hank.

18 hanks

= 1 spindle.

The number of hanks to 1 lb. ... = "counts."

Angular Measu k e.

60 seconds {)

=1 minute (/)•-

60 minutes ...

= 1 degree (°).

= 1 right angle.

90 degrees ...

Metrical System.

Linear Measure.

10 millimetres

= 1 centimetre.

10 centimetres

... = 1 decimetre.

10 decimetres

= 1 metre.

10 metres ...

= 1 decametre.

10 decametres

... = 1 hectometre.

10 hectometres

=-1 kilometre.

10 kilometres

= 1 myriametre*.

= -039370 inch.

1 millimetre

1 metre

= 328084 feet.

1 kilometre

= -62137 mile.

Square Measure.
1 hectare = 1 square hectometre = 2*4711 acres.

Weights.
1 gramme = "03527 oz. (Avoirdupois).

1 kilogramme

== 2-20146 lb. (Avoirdupois).

Dry Fluid Measure.

1 litre = 21998 gallons.

The metrical system is based on the metre which is the
ten millionth part of the quadrant of a terrestrial meridian.
The litre is the cube of the tenth part of the metre, and the
weight of a litre of distilled water at its greatest density is a
kilogramme.

18

weights and measures
Useful Numbers.

For converting.

Multiply by

Converse.

Linear.

Feet into links

Yards „ „

Chains,, miles ...

Feet „ metres

Yards ,, „ ...

Chains,. „ ...

1-5151

4-545

•0125

•3048

•9144

20-117

•66
•22

80
3-2809
1-0936
•049

Square.

Square yds. into sq. metres

Square „ „ acres

Square miles ,, „

•8361
•0002066
640

1196
4,840

•001562

Capacity.

Cubic ius. into bushels

Cubic ft. „ „

Cubic ,. „ gallons

Cubic „ „ Madras Measures ..

Gallons „ litres

Litres „ cub. ft.

•00045

•778
6-228
16-0
4-543

03532

2219-7
1-285
•1605
•0625
•220
28-33

Weights.

Lb. into cub. ins. of water ...
Lb. „ „ ft.

Cubic ft. of water in tons

Lb. into kilogrammes

27-74
•01605
•0278
•4536

•036
62-2786
35-9
2-2

Money.

Dollars iivto Rs.

Francs „ „

3-1245
•58665

•32
1-70

MENSURATION AND SURVEYING

1!)

MENSURATION AND SURVEYING.

Area of rectangle — length X breadth.

Area of square = any side X itself.

Area of parallelogram = base X perpendicular height.

Area of trapezoid = half the sum of the parallel sides X
perpendicular height. »

Area of trapezium or any quadrilateral = sum of the two
triangles of which it is composed.

Area of triangle = half the product of the base into the
__. , . , . ABXC5
perpendicular height or k~ *

ADBADB AB D

or if s = half the sum of the three sides o, h. e, the area =
-/ s (s --a) (» — b) (s -- c)
(a) Area of a circle = diameter 2 x '7854.

To multiply by '7854, multiply by 7 and then by 2
moving the rows one place to the right, as shown below : —

865

7

6055
6055
12110
12110

7

14
14

079-3710

7854

22

7

or the dia-

The circumference = twice the radius X
22

7
(6) Area = circumference X half the radius or if r

meter X

the radius.^area

, 22

29

r*

7 ^ 2 "~ 7
(c) Area = (the circumference) 2 x "08

Area of a sector of la circle = length of the arc X half th<*
radius.

20 MKNSUKATION AND SURVEYING

Area of a segment of a circle—

/'

L

ii

4H

Area of an ellipse —

3 V iQ X T

' AB CD 22

Area = ^— x — ■ «- x~~-

Cube--

A B

Surface = 6 (AB)2 or 6 (BD)2
Volume = (AB)3 or (BD)3

Rectangular solid or parallelopiped

— D

I)

Surface == 2 AB X BC 4- 2 BD X BC + 2 AB, BD.
Volume = AB X BD X BC.
Solid cylinder-
Surface = area of both ends + length X circumference.
Volume = area of one end X length.

MENSURATION AND SURVEYING 21

Solid cone or pyramid —
Surface of cone = area of base + circumference X h

the slant height.
Surface of pyramid = area of the base + areas of the

side triangles. J

Solid content = area of the base X one third of the
perpendicular height.
Sphere —
Surface = diameter2 X 3' 14159
Solid content = diameter^ X '6236
Wedge —
Solid content = area of base X £ perpendicular height if
all the edges are equal.

A Priamoid is a solid whose ends are parallel but unequal
in area, e.g., a bund whose extreme heights are unequal, a
cutting whose extreme depths are different, a gravel heap on
the roadside, a pond, etc.

NOTE.— A prismoid includes a cone and a pyramid : but if the ends
besides being parallel are also equal and similar so that the solid is uni-
form from end to end it is a prism.

Solid contents of a prism = area of one of the parallel ends

X height or depth or length.
The solid contents of a prismoid may be calculated in
three ways —

(a) Average of extreme areas X length (or height).

(b) The middle area X length (or height).

(c) By the following formula :—

' h = distance between the parallel ends.
Ax = area of one end.
A, = area of the other and parallel end.
Am = area of a section taken midway between Ai
and A2 and parallel to them.

Solid contents A x ( Ai -f 4 Am + A2)
b

(a) Always gives more than the real volume and may be
used for making estimates, so as to be on the safe side.

(b) Always gives less than the real volume and is used
for measuring heaps of road metal stored by contractor .

Example. — A metal heap has a rectangular base 14' X 6'
and a rectangular top surface 10' X 2' with a height of 2'.
Find its volume.

(a) 84 + 20 X 2 = 104 cubic feet.

(b) 12 X 4 X 2 = 96 cubic feet.

(0) 84 + 4 X 48 + 20 x 2 = 9g.6 cubic f ^

22

MENSURATION AND SURVEYING

Co/dents of a stack.— There are two general types of
stacks.

(i)

(ii)

\

J

(i) A rectangular parallelopiped and a prismoid.
(ii) Two prismoids.

The weight of straw per cubic yard in the stack varies
with the nature of the straw and the length of time it has
been in the stack, and the position from which it is taken.
Old straw is heavier than new straw and if taken from the
bottom of the stack weighs more than that from the top.

Weight of strav) and examples.- The weight of cholam and
paddy straw in the stack is about 124 lb. per cubic yard. The
weignt of a stack of hay made at Coimbatore was only
88 lb. per cubic yard.

At these rates the hay will measure 25 cubic yards to the
ton, and the straw, 18 yards.

To set out a right angle with the chain*

Take 40 links on the chain, 30 links for the perpendicular
and 50 for the hypotenuse.

Obstacles in ranging survey lines.

1. Seen over and chained round.

MENSURATION AND SURVEYING 23

B D

Lay off AB and CD equal to each o'her and at right angles
to the line, then AC = BD.

2. Not seen over but chained round.

F B D H

i-:

Lay off the lines EF, AB, equal to each other, and at
right angles to the line ; range the points D, H, in line with
FB, and set off the lines DC, HG, equal to AB and EF, and
at right angles to the line FH, then C and Gr are points for
ranging the continuation of the line EA, and AC = BD.

3. Seen over but neither chained across nor round.
[1] 2] [3] [4]

24

MENSURATION AND SURVEYING

By figure** —
Measure off perpendiculars BC, AD ranging D in line
with OC.
OA OB

AD==BC;0A X BC = AD X(OA + AB)=ADX0A
+ ADXAB ; ,\ OA(BC-AD) - AD X AB or OA =
AD X AB,
BC • - AD

By figure 2 —

Measure AB at right angles to AO and bisect AB at C.
Set off BD at right angles to AB until at D, C hides O.
Then AO = BD.
By figure 3 —

Set off AC at right angles to AD and CB at right
angles to CO.

Then OA X AB = AC3.

AC3

Therefore OA = -Tg-

B ;/ figure 4 —

Fix any line AD and bisect it at F.

Make BF = FC. Produce CD until at E. F hides O.

Then AO = DE.

Measurements of heights.

Fix two rods AC, BD, of unequal height vertically as
shown so that C, D and T are in one line. Measure AB and
BH.

mv TF DE TF DE

ThenFC= EC "AH^ AB;

TF

DE X AH
AB

MENSURATION AND SURVEYING

25

The height of the tower = TF + AC.

Or plant any stick vertically and measure its shadow ; at
the same time measure the shadow of the object whose height
is required.

Then

Height of object
Its shadow

Height of stick
Its shadow

Simple methods of levelling.

A line at right angles to the plumb line is horizontal.

After driving a few pegs on one level with a bricklayer's
level, a peg at a distance on the same level may be driven
with the help of boning rods or any three sticks of one
height.

Place two of the sticks over the extreme pegs A and C
driven with a mason's level and drive the peg B so that the
third stick placed over it is in line with the tops of the other
two. Intermediate pegs may similarly be got on the same
level.

The pegs may also be driven on any required gradient.
If AB is 3 feet, place upon B a small plank 1 inch thick and
level. The gradient from A to B will then be a gradient of
1 in 36 and so on.

•2<;

MENSURATION AND SURVEYING

2. Liquids in communicating vessels are on a level.

A B

A and B are two glass j

vessels or bottles connect- J-

ed by a tube AB, contain-
ing some coloured liquid
and mounted on a stand
CD.

3. Instead of a mason's level a bubble tube placed on a
plank with parallel edges may be used.

The following simple example shows the use of the Dumpy
level.

It is require d to find the difference in level between
stations (1) and (3). Erect the spirit level at A and take the
- backsight " re ading on the staff at (1) and the " foresight"
on the staff at ( 2). Then move the level to B and repeat the

MENSURATION AND SURVEYING

27

same for (2) and (3) : the distance between the stations is
also to be measured. These observations are entered in
columns in the book as follows : —

6
o

3

■
Q

Staff
readings.

Rise.

Fall.

t

I

level.

a
o

Back-
sight.

Fore-
sight!

S

Q

0

M

Remarks.

1

2

3

155
325

5^85

3-25

1 -65
5-10

4-20

fm

10

14-20
12-35

Datum line
below sta-
tion 1.

478

9-10
6-75

6-75

4-20
1-85

2-35

1-85

12-35
10

2-35

2-35

'-' Thus there is a fall of 2'35 feet from (3) to (1) (distance,
478 feet) or 5'9 inches nearly in 100 feet.

3» BUILDINGS AND ROADS

BUILDINGS AND BOADS.

Lime absorbs water, or water may be added, when it is
called slaked lime.

A para of lime is the quantity contained in a box 22 inches
square and 10 inches deep (inside measurements), and is thus
approximately 2 '8 cubic feet. It weighs 60 lb.
2 paras = 1 salagai.

A cartload of lime will be from 10 to 12 paras, i.e., about
30 cubic feet. When slaked this will occupy about twice the
space, i.e., 60 cubic feet.

Mortar for concrete : — 1 part of lime to 3 of sand : 'for
building and plastering : 1 part of lime to 2 of sand.

The volume of mortar is equal to the volume of sand
used : thus 10 paras of sand + 5 paras of lime will give
10 paras of mortar. Twelve paras of mortar will be required
for building 100 cubic feet of brick in mortar.

Bricks.

Table moulded bricks :— 9" X 4* X 2£r.
Country bricks :— 8" X 4£" X 2£\

For 100 cubic feet of building 1,200—1,300 table moulded
bricks are wanted, or 1,500—1,700 country bricks.

One cartload of bricks contains 300 table moulded or
430 country bricks.

Four masons, with four women to assist, will build
100 cubic feet of straight wall in a day : if scaffolding is
necessary, the figure may drop to 60 "cubic feet.

Surki concrete : — 2 parts of mortar to 4 or 5 parts of
broken bricks.

One woman will break § cubic yard of bricks for concrete
in a day.

One mason, with a woman to help, will rough plaster
150 square feet in a day. If the work is properly finished
100 square feet only will be done

BUILBINGS AM) FOADS 29

One Madras Measure of lime, mixed with water, will be
sufficient for whitewashing 100 square feet, single coat.
For second coat half the quantity.

One woman will cover 300 square feet in a day, single
coat, 200 square feet double coat.

Metalling Roads.

One man can pick up 500 square feet of metalled road in a
day, if the surface be thoroughly soaked : this will drop to
350 square feet if conditions are not so favourable.

For spreading metal, labour may be employed as
follows :— 3 men filling baskets, 6 women carrying, 1 man
taking and emptying baskets, and 2 men sectioning : such a
gang will, if the metal is already in heaps on the side of the
road, cover 3,000 square feet a day.

[From U.S. A. Bulletin 463. ]

Width of
roadway
in feet.

Area in square

yards per mile

of length.

Cubic yards of

surfacing material

required for each

1 inch loose depth per

mile of length.

8

4,693

130-3

10

5,866

162-9

12

7,040

195-5

16

9,386

260-6 ,

20

11,733

325-8

To move one ton gross load on a well constructed cart.

lb.
Loose sand road 315

Earth road, average (dry)
Good earth road ...
Gravel road
First-class metal road

150

100

80

55

30 MACHINERY

MACHINERY.

Nominal horse-power (N.H.P.) is a general or vague
term used to indicate the size of the engine and means the
power given out when worked at a pressure of about 30 lb.
to the square inch.

Indicated horse-power (I.H.P.) refers to the total power
exerted on the piston by the steam or the exploding gases in
the cylinder as tested by an indicator. It is usually 2£ times
the 'nominal.' Brake or effective horse-power (B.H.P.)
is the net useful work transmitted by the driving shaft
through a band which acts as a ' brake ' to the motion of the
fly wheel. It represents the ordinary working power of an
engine, and runs about f of the I.H.P., or l£ times the
N.H.P.

One horse-power = raising 33,000 lb. one foot high in
one minute or — 33,000 foot pounds = 33,000 units of work.
The heat unit, i.e., the energy required to raise 1 lb. of water
1° Fah. is 744 ft. lb., to raise 1 lb. of water 1° C. requires
1,390 ft. lb.

1 lb. of coal yields 14,000 heat units.

1 lb. of kerosene oil yields 20,000 heat units.

The modulus of an engine is the proportion of motive
power which is given out as useful work : in ordinary farm
machines it is about a half, the other half being used up in
overcoming the resistance of the machine itself.

In an oil engine about 60 per cent of the heat is dissipated
by the cooling jacket, 25 per cent escapes by the exhaust and
only about 15 per cent are ultimately available for transmit-
ting power to other machinery.

Half a pint of oil is supposed to be required per B.H.P.
per hour.

Water Lifting.

Water lifted in one hour by various machines.

Picottah (3 men — 2 on beam) ... 14 ft. 2.735 gallons.

Mhote 38 ft. 1,523

Oil engine : 3" pump and 3* H.P. 25 ft. 12,800
engine.

The co-efficient of utility is the amount of useful work
done in one hour, expressed in foot pounds, divided by the
weight of the animal in pounds, and represents the vertical

MACHINERY

81

height iu feet to which by the expenditure of a similar
amount of work, the animal's body would be raised.

Dura-

Foot-

Co-

tion of

pounds

Weight

time of

of work

of

\^kll\jl%D III'

of
utility.

experi-
ment.

done per
hour.

animals.

MINUTES.

Double mhote

Saidapet.
Stoney's improved

double mhote.

180

413,000

1,146

360

367

1,709,300

1,146

498

Subba Rao's improv-

60

500,940

1,348

371

ed single mhote.

Single mhote Bellary

102

1,337,000

2,688

497

lift of 35 feet.

Single mhote Bellarv

165

456.400

2,058

222

lift of 13 feet.

Picottah

16

375,810

308

1,220

Do.

420

394,310

331

1,191

[Table from Madras Agricultural Department Bulletin 35,
by Sir A. Chatterton. j

Amount of water lifted one foot for 1 anna.

By bullocks iu country mhote (1882 : Benson) 4,00(1
By bullocks in country mhote : (1907 : 2,000

Chatterton).
By oil-engine and pump : under very 13,500

favourable conditions.
By oil-engine and pump : under ordinary 9,000

conditions.
By oil-engine and pump : under unfavourable 4.000

conditions.

The loss of power in a centrifugal pump ranges from 75
per cent for a 2" suction pipe to 60 per cent for a 3" suction
pipe and 45 per cent for a 10" or 12' pipe.

A 3" pipe will lift up to 22 feet easily and a 4" pipe will
lift up to 28 feet.

The larger the installation the more economically the
engine can be run, owing to the increased efficiency of the
engine, and the proportionate saving in the establishment.

32

MACHINERY

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V

MACHINERY 3.V

Duty of water %
The duty of water is the irrigation work which a given
quantity of water can perform and is usually shown as the
number of acres on which a crop can be irrigated by a
continuous flow of water at the rate of 1 cubic foot per second.
The duty of water when used to cultivate paddy is much less
than when irrigated dry crops are grown. For tank irrigation
which is generally wasteful, the duty may be taken as 50
acres : in large irrigation systems, where the water is under
proper control, the duty will be as high as 100 acres. For
water lifted from wells by engines and pumps the duty may
be taken as 240 acres ; actual experiment at Coimbatore with
water lifted from wells gives 280 acres. At Cawnpore where
sugarcane needed 50 acre-inches of water, the duty is 171 :
for wheat 347 and for maize 192.

Amounts of water needed for irrigated crop*.
(Exclusive of rain-fall.)

Crop.

Paddy

Ragi, monsoon crop
Ragi, hot weather

Cholam

Sugarcane (Cawnpore)
Maize ( do. )
Wheat ( do. )

Water data.

1 cubic foot water — 62425 lb. = '557 cwt. = -028 ton*.
1 cubic inch = '03612 lb.

1 gallon = 10 lb. = 16 eft. = 277*274 cubic inches,
1 cubic foot = 625 gallons (6i gallons).

Gauging water.

1. Through a sluice or submerged opening
Q = A X V=A X5^"H
where Q = quantity in cusecs (c. ft. per second).

A = area in sq. feet of the opening through which th«

water passes.
H = height of water in feet above the centre of the

opening.
Q x 375 = gallons per minute.

V = Mean velocity of water approaching the opening in
feet per second.

3 #

Duration.

Inches.

5 months

37

... 3 „

9

... 3 „

13

... 4 „

10

... 12 ,.

50

... 4 „

15

... 4 „

8

54* MACHINERY

2. Over a weir or plank, free overfall.
Q = HX L X V

where H = height of still water above crest in feet.
L = length of crest in feet.
V— mean velocily of water approaching the crest in

feet per second = |X5 ^ H.
Q = quantity discharged over the crest in c. ft. per
second.

In gauging, the water must all be made to pass over a
rectangular aperture in a thin board. The height must be
measured from the top of the crest to the level of the surface
where it is not affected by the curve of the overfall.

w Storage.

It is usual to assume that an acre of crop will require an
acre-fathom (6 ft.) of storage in a tank if the latter is the
source of supply. Rain is required to supplement this supply
as also to make up for the loss due to evaporation winch
may be taken as *4 inch as a maximum figure on a very hot
day. It is less proportionately in deep tanks than in shallow
ones.

Capacity of a tank may be roughly taken to be = area of
waterspread at F.T.L. (full tank level) X £ of the depth of
the lowest sluice.

Velocity and discharge of minor irrigation channels.

The average velocity of water flowing in a channel may be
taken as 4/5 of the surface velocity which may be easily ascer-
tained by means of a float floated down a measured distance.
The average velocity of an earthen channel should ordinarily
be more than one foot per second and less than three feet
per second. If less than one foot per second, there will be
a free deposit of silt and the channel will be choked with
aquatic plants. If more than three feet per second, the
water will cut its own banks and bed and take a new course.

The velocity of a channel depends upon the depth of
water flowing as well as the fall of bed. If the depth is
great as in large rivers, the bed-fall will have to be small so
that the velocity may not exceed about three feet per second.
In small channels where depth is limited the bed-fall will
have to be great to secure the proper velocity. The bed-fall
is usually half to two feet per mile in large rivers, five to t«n
feet per mile in canals, and 20 to 25 feet per mile in very
small channels, 25 feet per mile = 1 in 211 or say 1 in 200.

MACHINERY 30

For small masonry channels where friction is less and
therefore velocity greater, a fall of 1 in 300 or 400 may be
given.

Discharge of channel = AxV cusecs, where A = area of
cross section of stream in square feet and V = average velo-
city in feet per second.

Draught of carts.

The force of traction of a cart along a level fairly metal-
led road is about 1/21 of the weight of the cart with load.
To move a loaded cart weighing one ton, with the wheels
well greased along such a road, will require 107 lb.

Up a gradient of 1 in 100 the draught will increase by
1/100 of a ton, i.e., 224 lb. .-= total 129 lb.

Weights and draughts of various implements.

■\

Weight,

Draught

LB.

CWT.

Country plough
Sivagiri plough
Meston plough

50

2i

50

24

36

21

Monsoon plough

60

3

Sabul plough

... 120

3*

Howard plough
Steel Eagle plough ...

... 110
... 135

5

6

Gallows plough

3 furrow S.E.E.D. plough

... 250

6

... 300

3£

Double disc plough

... 1,000

7

Flexible harrow

... 240

3

Disc harrow

.. 1,500

7-12

Cambridge roller ...

... 1,500

4

Buck scraper (empty)

... 430

...

Do. (full)

..

11

Junior hoe

55

H

Martins cultivator ...

.. 440

36 LABOUR i

LABOUR.

Cane harvesting.— For cutting 10 cents of cane (J to 12
men will be needed. For cleaning, stripping, topping and
bundling 10—14 women. Carrying will depend on the lead.
At 20 tons to the acre of cleaned cane, there will be 2 tons
from 10 cents ; this will be crushed by a three roller mill with
two good pairs of animals, working in shifts in 12 to 14 hours.
The juice from this will be 2,800—3,000 lb. One man to
feed canes, one boy to drive, one boy to remove megass and
help generally. A pan holds about 400 lb. and will give
about 90 lb. of jaggery.

Carting manure. — Two carts, one left for loading while
the other goes to the field, one pair of cattle, one driver and
two men loading will fill and take to field ten carts per day
with a lead of not more than half mile.

Carting, silt. — The same as above, but one man for loading
may be enough.

Clearing, heaping and burning scrub jungle for modem
paddy. Malabar : — Five men and five women per acre.

Clod crusher. — The area worked by this daily depends
on the state of the land, i.e., the size and hardness of the
clods, and will vary from 1 acre with two pairs and a loaded
crusher, to 3 acres with single pair in light land.

Cotton ginning.— One woman will beat and gin 25 lb. of
cotton per day. Tinnevelly : — One woman gins 3 edai or
$1 lb. in a day.

One man will keep about 12 ginners (on piece work)
supplied for a day.

A double roller gin will clean from 2,000 lb. to 2,500 lb. of
ordinary cotton in a day's work of ten hours. Nadam cotton
is harder to gin and only about 1,500 lb. will be put through
in a day, while with Cambodia as much as 3,000 lb. per day
may be finished.

Crowbarring. — Thirty-three to forty men working in
gangs of two, one digging and the other turning over clods,
will dig one acre a day.

Digging viet land with mamuty. — In Tanjore district 12
men per acre for first digging ; 8 men after first puddling.
At Coimbatore it takes 16 men.

Cultivating.— The Martin's cultivator at Coimbatore
with two pairs of cattle covers 4 to 5 acres per day.

With the gorru worked as a cultivator, 3 to 4 acres a day.

Working guntaka. — With a 3-foot blade, a man can cover
4 to 5 acres per day.

LABOUR

37

(i) With Pedda guntaka (Black cotton soil previously
ploughed with B.C.S. plough) four pairs of cattle and four
men will cover one acre per day.

(ii) With ordinary guntakas weighted and worked
deeply : one man and one pair will cover 2 acres per day ; if
worked merely for the purpose of creating a mulch and
removing weeds, 3 to 4 acres may be covered according to the
weediness of the land.

(iii) With guntaka to cover seed : with a 4-span
guntaka 4 acres will be covered ; if two are fixed to one yoke
and a boy used to guide, from 6 to 8 acres will be covered
per day.

(iv) With guntaka to remove cotton or jonna stubble,
about 1 acre will be cleared per day.

Chaffing fodder.— This depends mainly on the length
into which the fodder is cut. One man will cut 840 lb. of
cholam fodder per day into pieces 24 inches long. With
8-inch machine needing 2 horse-power to drive it 8,000 lb. of
cholam fodder can be cut in a day of 8 hours into lengths H
to 2 inches long.

Drilling. — A team consists of one pair with three- tined
gorru, tines 10 inches apart, one pair with guntaka, two
drivers and one or two women (if mixed crop) and they will
drill 2£ acres a day, working the guntaka before and after
the drilling. If the seed is drilled on the unworked land,
one guntaka will keep pace with two gorrus.

(i) Tvjo-tined gorru. — Used for cotton with tines 1|
feet apart. One man to drive, one boy or woman to sow.
will do 4 or 5 acres in a day.

(ii) Three-tmed gorru. — Used for jonna, one man to
•ive and sow, one boy to weight when needed and one pair.
8 or 4 acres per day. Used for cotton (as in Kurnool), the
middle tine plugged, the boy may be dispensed with, and the
area turned out will be 4 acres.

(iii) Six-tined gorru.— With, another man to sow, and
the same labour as shown for the three-tined gorru used for
jonna, double the area may be turned out. Usually the
implement needs to be weighted.

(iv) Plough and akkadi. — One pair and two men (1 for
plough, 1 for akkadi) about 1 to 3 acres will be sown per day
according to the crop sown.

(v) Gorru and akkadi— (As for cotton in Bellary
district) one pair of cattle and one driver, and a cooly for

drn

38 LABOUR

Extracting fibre— Agave fibre. — One man and one
woman will extract 50 lb. of dry fibre in a day from fresh
leaves.

Coir fibre. — A woman can beat out 25 lb. of coir fibre
per day.

Gogu. — Cutting or pulling crop, 10 women or 10 men.
Bundling, 6 women per acre. Betting, 2 men will arrange
the bundles and weight them off one acre (20,000 lb.), while
in stripping, 3 men will supply stalks to 30 women or boys
who will strip the above amount and produce 800 lb. of dry
fibre per acre.

Sunnhemp. — The fibre is obtained by beating the
retted stalks in water. Forty men will cut and beat the
produce of one acre (15,000 lb. of green stalks) and obtain
600 lb. of dry fibre per day.

In Tinnevelly reaping the crop and bundling Rs. 4 per
acre.

Grinding — Cotton seed. — This may be done wet as in
Coimbatore where a woman or boy will do 7 lb. per hour,
i.e., 50 lb. per day, enough for 17 animals, or dry as in Ceded
districts where two boys sitting on either side of large stone
will crush 100 lb. per day.

Harrowing — Brush harrow.— A number of branches
(weighted) drawn by a pair ; covers an area of 5 to 6 acres of
a sown field.

The Sampson harrow works 2^ to 3 acres a day in open
fields or if the crop is not too high.

Seed harrow covers about 5 to 6 acres a day.

Harvesting— Bengal gram.— This is pulled out of the
ground and needs 5 to 6 women per acre.

Cholam. — Three women will cut the crop off an acre
and 5 women will remove the heads. The heads (850 lb.) of
an acre will fill 1 or \\ carts, and 1 man and 2 boys will be
needed to load and remove to the floor. Bundling and
stooking is generally done by men and needs per acre 4 men.
The straw [4,000 lb.] off an acre will fill four carts.

Fodder Cholam. — One woman will cut and bundle
1,000 lb. a day.

In Tinnevelly, on black soils, 2 men and 8 women will
cut and bundle 1 acre of fodder cholam, i.e., about 1 ton.

Cotton picking. — In a heavy crop 1 woman will pick
25 to 30 lb., but in a poor crop the quantity may be as low
as 10 lb.

In Cambodia cotton, as much as 100 lb. per day may
be picked by a woman in a good season.

LABOUR $9

Cumbu.— Twelve to twenty women for cutting
earheads and 6 to 8 women for cutting straw, depending on
the size of the crop.

Removing cotton stalks. — Four to five men will clear an
acre. (See Guntaka above.)

With the cotton puller (leaflet XIX of 1911) the
work can be done in the dry weather by 5 women or less
per acre.

Groundnut. — In South Arcot, the land is dug over by 12
to 15 men with the mamuty and 5 women to each man collect
the nuts, i.e., 75 to 80 women per acre. A rainfed crop may
be ploughed with a country or special plough and the nuts
collected by hand, if the land is sandy.

Sweet potatos. — Forty men to dig and 30 women to turn
over and collect the vines and tubers.

Onions. — Digging, lifting, carrying and cleaning 10 men
and 60 women.

Other pulses. — The crop will be picked over two or
three times and may need each time 4 to 5 women per acre.

Paddy. — Six to ten men or 10 to 12 women will reap the
crop. Bundling and carrying to the floor close by, 2 men and
4 women. Stacking if done preparatory to threshing, 1 man
per acre.

Magi. — Twelve to sixteen women to cut heads off an
acre on two occasions and 6 to 8 women for cutting straw.

Tenai. — In Ceded districts for a mixed crop of Korra-
pathi, 6 women per acre. For a pure garden crop 10 women
per acre.

Tobacco harvesting.— Four men will harvest an acre in
a day cutting the leaves off the stalks ; 2 men and 10 women
will carry and stack the produce.

Stripping and bundling — Six men and twelve women
drying, and heaping 6 men. Finally 8 men and 12 women will
open, sort and rebundle leaves and sprinkle salt water on
them.

Turmeric. — Twenty men and forty women will dig or
clean an acre in a day.

Basking— Paddy. — Two women should finish a selagai
(160—170 lb.) in 5—6 hours. They may do as much as 1£
selagais per day. A cooly of paddy, i.e., one day's work is 16
Marakkals for which 1^ M.m. are given.

Intercnltnring— Bulloch hoeing.— With dantulu, about 2
acres for each danta, i.e., for three, 6 acres per day, for four,
8 acres a day. In the Ceded districts it is not uncommon to
cover 9 to 10 acres in a day.

40

LABOUR

(i) By hand, usually combined with weeding. For a
fairly clean field of jonna, 3 to 10 coolies will cover 1 acre, a
weedy field will take up to 40 per acre depending on the
weediness.

(ii) Cotton with guntaka. — One man and a pair, 3 acres
per day.

(iii) With a plough from f to 1 acre per day.

Planting— Canes.— Six men and ten women will cut, strip,
carry and plant an acre in a day using 10,000 to 12,000 sets.
If the rate is 20,000 to 25,000, 10 men and 16 women will be
needed.

Coconuts —

Digging 80 pits per acre 40 men.

Manuring ... 20 „

Planting 4 „

Kiluvei hedge.— One man can do 16 — 30 yards fence a
day depending on thickness of hedge, and his skill. Twenty
cuttings per yard at 1£ lb. per cutting.

Chillies and other garden crops. —Four to eight women
are sufficient per acre.

Paddy. — One man or woman will lift seedlings, bundle
and clean them for 4 to 5 women depending on the distance
of the seed-bed. If seedlings are supplied it will need 12 to
15 women to transplant an acre- If the planting is done
singly, when the women become accustomed to it, they will
plant more quickly.

A gang will be allotted in the following proportion : 6
ploughs, one levelling board, 6 men or 8 women lifting seed-
lings, 3 to 6 boys carrying seedlings and 25 women trans-
planting.

Bundling seedlings in a paddy seed-bed. — A man will pull
and bundle about 1 cent per day, i.e., from 200 to 250 bundles.
On contract he will do at least twice as much and will be
paid at the rate of ^ to £ an anna per 20 bundles. 1,000 to
1,500 bundles will be sufficient for transplanting an acre
singly.

Onions.— 20 to 40 women transplant one acre in a day
according to the spacing of the bulbs.

Pepper.— Digging holes and planting 400 standards per
acre, 12 men ; digging pits and planting pepper cuttings, 12
men per acre.

Plantains. — Digging 900 holes 1 foot deep per acre, 4
men ; lifting suckers. 4 men ; planting, 8 men ; pressing, 18
men.

LABOUR 41

Groundnut*. — Dibbling, 15 women per acre including
weeding, exclusive of weeding, 10 women in cumbu and 12 in
ragi.

Ragi— Generally planted singly. Three women will
lift seedlings for 15 women to plant. For planting in ridges
10 to 12 women per acre, and for beds 14 to 16 women per
acre are required. One man and two women plant an acre
of dry ragi a day.

TWmmc— Behind plough, one and a half pairs and
drivers with 4 or 5 boys will sow an acre in the day.

Ploughing. — First ploughing with the country plough in
dry land, half acre for each pair daily. There should be no
ridges left between the furrows.

In subsequent ploughings the plough takes a little more
land and the area covered is about f acre daily.

In ploughing to cover seed an acre a day may be expected.
In wet land (puddling), generally with inferior animals, 25
cents the first time, about 35 cents the second time and half
an acre for third and subsequent ploughings. With black-
cotton soil iron plough, four men and four pairs will plough
40 — 60 cents ; when the soil is very hard, another man is
required.

Gallows plough with two pairs will do 50 cents a day
unless the lead is very short. In Ceded districts half acre
can be ploughed daily with the cotton soil plough, using four
pairs of cattle. In places where this implement is newly
introduced, the work turned out is less, only one-third of an
acre being ploughed daily.

R.I.S. plough and Turn wrest plough— 40 to 50 cents a day.

Ridging. — A man with Ransomes double mould board
plough and a pair of cattle can ridge up to 1£ acres a day
(ridges l£ feet apart) in land already well ploughed.

Rope-making. — One man and one woman or boy will twist
30 to 38 lb. of fibre into rope in a day.

Twists of straw for packing grains are made 30 feet long,
and 2 men can make 40 twists in a day.

Sowing broadcast —A. man will sow 1 acre an hour. To
•cover this one man and a pair of bullocks will take one full
day.

Sowing modan (dry land) paddy in Kalabar.— Eight men
will carry to the field sow and rake in the seed for an acre
(about 60 lb.).

Groundnuts. — Three pairs of cattle and 6 women extra
will do an acre in half day, that is 2 women or men behind
each plough, if sowing is done in every furrow.

42 LABOUR

Spreading. — Manure. — The heaps are generally one cart-
load (10 cwt.) ; with light dressings (15 to 20 cartloads) 6
women per acre will spread ; as the heaps get closer there is
less lead but more stuff to carry, so for heavy dressings 8
women will be needed per acre.

One man will spread 8 cartloads per day. Applying
castor cake to sugarcane, 1 man will apply one bag and for
every 4 men, 1 woman or boy will be required to carry.

Thatching.— One man will thatch 400 square feet per day
with a woman to help.

Threshing— Ckolam. — The heads are spread out on the
floor and are either beaten by sticks or are pressed under the
stone roller. One man will beat the produce of an acre
(1,000 lb. of heads or 600 lb. of grain) in one day. With roller
two pairs of animals with drivers, and 2 men and 4 women
will thresh out 6,000 to 7,000 lb. of grain in a day.

Threshing by bullocks— A. team consists of four animals
with driver, 2 men to turn heads and 2 women. They will
thresh 1,300 lb. of grain per day.

For threshing with machine, 2 men to feed the machine,

1 woman to supply heads, 5 women to collect and remove
the empty heads after the second threshing, and 1 woman to
collect the grain into a heap 15,000 lb. per day of eight hours.

Paddy. — This is usually threshed in two operations. The
heads are first beaten against a board and 90 per cent of the
grain removed. One man with a woman or boy to hand him
the bundles can thus beat out 2,000 lb. a day. The straw is
afterwards trodden out by cattle. In this second threshing
roughly, 16 bullocks with 4 boys to drive will thresh out
2,000 lb. per day while six will stack the straw in the same
time.

If the paddy is trodden out directly by cattle, a team of
16 cattle, i.e., four yokes of four each with 4 men or boys to
drive, and 3 men to turn the straw, will thresh out 7,000 lb.
of grain per day.

Bengal gram. — With the stone roller, a team of two pairs

2 drivers and 3 women will thresh 4,000 lb. per day. If the
stuff is trodden with cattle 16 bullocks and 7 men or boys
will thresh 5,000 lb. per day. If threshed with sticks 1
woman can thresh out 80 lb. grain per day.

Ragi. — Two pairs of cattle, 5 men and 2 women can
thresh about 2,000 lb. per day.

Cumbu. — Two pairs of cattle, 2 men and 2 women thresh
1,500 lb. per day.

Trenching. — For cane, 25 men per acre.

LABOUR 43

Watching paddy.— One palikapu to watch and irrigate 50
acres if in one block.

Weeding by hand. — Three to five women will weed an
acre of land. The figure varies very much with the state of
the land.

Winnowing 18-inch machine. — One woman turning, two
supplying and one collecting will clean 3,000 lb. of cholam,
1,000 lb. of paddy, 1,500 lb. of ragi or tenai and 2,250 lb. of
cumbu in a day. (Half the quantity noted above of cholam,
if machine threshed, on account of the presence of glumes.)

Wrapping— Canes.— First time 15 men per acre to wrap
and 5 boys to remove rubbish and weeds.

Second time 20 men to wrap and 10 boys to remove
rubbish.

Third and subsequent 25 to 30 men to wrap and 1 or 2
boys to remove rubbish.

Fixing bamboos.— (3,000 to 3,500 per acre.) One man will
fix about 300 bamboos per day.'

*Cost of Labour by Piecework or Contract or
Share System.

Cotton ginning.— Three annas per maund of 26 lb of
kappas. Eight pies an edai in Tinnevelly. Ten to twelve
annas by machine for 250 lb. of kappas, Rs. 5 per candy
(500 lb.) of lint.

In Tinnevelly Re. 1 for 247 lb. of kappas.

Cotton picking. — Usually on the share system, one-tenth to
one-sixteenth according to the ease of picking and the yield
of the season crop. Out of season, it may go down to one-
third.

Cotton stalks, removing. — This can be done at Rs. 1-4-0
per acre. It is much cheaper with the puller. (See page 36.)

Crovibarring. — In Coimbatore Rs. 10 — 15 per acre in wet
lands. Rs. 7—10 per acre in wet lands in Godavari.

Dry lands Rs. 6 to 8 per acre in the Godavari.

South Arcot Rs. 12 to 15 per acre.

Cumbu harvest. — One-sixteenth to one twenty-fourth of
the produce (Tinnevelly).

Digging Hariali.— Coimbatore, Rs. 32 in black soils and
Rs. 37 in red soils per acre. The contractor is bound to clear
anything left in the next year, pending which one-tenth of
the sum is withheld. Rs. 5 extra per acre, if the work is in
patches.

# These are all at pre-war rates and will in most cases
have to be considerably increased.

RS.

A.

p.

o

12

0

1

4

u

1

8

0

3

0

it

44 LABOUR

Digging cane stubbles in wet lands Rs. 1\ per acre. In
Godavari Rs. 5 per acre.

Digging with mamuty. — Ceded districts, Rs. 2-5-0 per acre
in wet lands. Coimbatore, Rs. 4£ in wet lands. Kulivettu
or levelling wet lands : 1 Kuli = 4 Koles, i.e., 48 ft. X 3 ft.X
9 in. the rate for this is 2£— 3 as.

Digging wells. — One niluvu or man's height and 4 feet
diameter : —

First niluvu

Second „

Third ,

Fourth „

Fibre extraction. — In Godavari", one-eighth of the fibre in a
good crop of sunn-hemp to one-fourth in a bad crop, is given
for cutting, retting, stripping and washing.

Groundnut lifting.— Contract Rs. 10 per acre, for a rainfed
crop or else for one -fourth to one -eighth the crop ; or piece-
work 2 — 4 pies for every marakkal (2 Madras measures), the •
higher rate being for the rainfed crop.

Stripping nuts off haulms : 2 p. a Madras measure : picking
nuts out of ground after they have been dug : 9 p. a Madras
measure (Pollachi).

Penning cattle.— -In Ganjam, Re. 1 for a herd of 100 to 150
cattle for one night : in Tanjore, 4 to 6 marakkals of paddy
per 100 or, 1 rupee and 2 Madras measure rice.

Hurdles. — Ordinary tattis of split bamboo, 2 annas per
square yard inclusive of the cost of the material. Trellis
work 3 — 3£ annas per square yard.

Paddy.— Reaping, threshing and cleaning are done in
Godavari at one-tenth of the crop. Reaping : carrying and
first threshing : one twenty-fourth of the crop (Pollachi).

Planting is done on contract in Tinnevelly in some parts
at 42 Madras measures of paddy per acre. Paddy seedlings
in Tanjore are pulled by men at 1£ to 2 pies a big bundle.
Reaping, binding and taking to threshing floor in Coimbatore
at three selag ais of paddy for 3*20 acres crop.

In Tanjore 72 Madras measures per acre for harvesting,
threshing and stacking per acre ; or one Madras measure for
every kalam (24 Madras measures) of paddy threshed and
cleaned. Stacking extra labour : 1 man to 20 women harvest-
ing ; thus.

LABOUR 4d

Madras
measures.

For 30 kalaras cleaned and stored 30

Two Madras measures extra for 8 men ... 16
Wages of 1 man stacking ... 2

48

In Malabar one-seventeenth of the crop for harvesting
only.

Hutf1dng.—2\ M.M. of paddy or U M.M. of rice for every
96M.M.

Picking chillies.— One twenty- fourth of the quantity
picked.

Picking coconuts.— One nut for every five trees picked or

3 pies for every tree.

Coimbatore rate : 7 coconuts peeled for every 100 coconuts
picked from trees and peeled free of outer coat and given
ready for sale.

In Godavari two nuts for every hundred picked and from

4 annas to 10 annas per 1,000 for removing the outer covering.

Ploughing.— with cotton soil plough Rs. 5 to Rs. 8 per acre.

Prickly-pear : clearing. — This varies widely with dense-
ness of the pear and the thoroughness of the eradication.
Probably, in very few cases, should Rs. 50 an acre be ex-
ceeded for complete removal. This will of course spring up
again, unless the land can be subsequently ploughed.

Rope making.— Twelve annas for making a mhote rope of
25 lb. of fibre and 4 annas for a tail rope.

Sawing timber.— varies with the hardness and dryness of
the wood. In CoimbatOre a unit is 12 square feet and for
sawing a surface of this dimension the charge is 6 annas.

Sheep penning. — Three-hundred sheep per day per rupee ;
at 3,000 sheep per acre, this comes to Rs. 10 per acre.

In Tinnevelly 2,000 sheep for Rs. 7 ; 350 cattle for
Rs. 5 to Rs. 7. Tanjore : 1 thundu of 100 sheep for 3
marakkals paddy.

Straw twists.— One hundred twists of 30 feet length for
Rs. 1-4-0. In Tinnevelly 12 annas for 100 twists of 30 feet
length.

Sweet j)otatos. — On sandy soils one-tenth to one-eighth is
paid in kind for lifting ; contract price on heavy soils Rs. 10
to Rs. 12 per acre.

Threshing cholam. — One-eleventh to one-twelfth the
produce in grain for threshing by hand (Guntur).

Turmeric. — Annas 2 per cent dug : £ anna per maund for
cleaning.

46 SOILS

SOILS.

Soil is the uppermost layer of the earth's surface, and
consists of the more weathered portions of the rocks of which
the earth is composed. It is immediately underlain by the
subsoil. It consists of stones, gravel, sand, silt, clay and
organic matter in varying proportions.

Classification of Soils.

Per cent clay.

Sandy under 10

Sandy loam 10—20

Loam 20—30

Clay loam ... 30-50

Clay over 50

Besides this we may have calcareous soils, containing over
20 per cent calcium carbonate, humous soils with more than
5 per cent organic matter, and gravelly soils containing vary-
ing quantities of gravel or kunkur.

Residual or sedentary soils are those formed in situ from
the disintegration and decomposition of rocks.

Transported soils are formed from disintegrated and partly
decomposed rock, but instead of remaining in the place previ-
ously occupied by the rock, they have been transported and
retransported by various agencies such as wind and water to
the place where they are now found.

ROCK-FORMING MINERALS.

Felspar, an anhydrous double aluminium silicate with
potash, soda or lime. Orthoclase is a potash felspar and is
the commonest. Felspars on decomposition give rise to clay
which is a hydrated aluminium silicate, or laterite.

Quartz. — Silica or an oxide of silicon. It is found in all
crystalline rocks and forms the bulk of ordinary sand where
it is often coloured red with oxides of iron.

Mica is found in many volcanic rocks and is a constant
constituent in the gneissic rocks of Southern India. It is
extensively quarried in Nellore.

Carbonate of lime commonly found as accretionary depo-
sits of kunkur or nodular limestone.

SOILS

47

Chemical Analyses.

An exact chemical analysis of a soil may be useful as
showing any deficiency in plant food, but it is not generally of
great practical use, because it does not show in what state the
elements exist ; — whether suitable for plant food or not.
Analyses may, however, show the available amounts of the
plant foods present by the use of a 1 per cent solutioD of
citric acid (Dyer's method). This is purely empirical, but has
been found to give good results. Mechanical analyses show
the sizes of the particles composing the soil which are usually
given in six grades. Analyses of three classes of soils at the
Coimbatore Central Farm are given below. They represent
" dry red," " garden " and " black " soils respectively.

Garden

Dry

Black

Constituents.

. land,
Number

red land,
Number

soil,
Number

20.

10.

13.

Sand and insoluble

79-040

86-780

78-50

FeoO

4-730

2-250

3-06

AI2O

6-680

4-190

7-06

CaO

1-500

1-520

3-67

MgO

•920

•490

1-49

K2O :..

•530

-210

•39

Na20

•120

•180

18

CO2

•540

•660

1-30

P2O5

•115

•028

05

SO3

•030

•on

Trace.

Loss on ignition

5-795

3681

4-24

Total ...

100-000

100-000

100-00

Nitrogen

•0567

0.037

034

K2O available

018

•008

003

P2O 5 available

•036

•011

•015

48

ROILS

Mechanical Analyses'.

Constituents.

Number
20.

Number j Number
10. 13.

Fine gravel

63

18'3

9-5

Coarse sand

17-4

41-1

25-0

Fine sand

19-1

15-1

15'1

Silt

6'5

2'1

6'4

Fine sill

21-1

9'8

28-1

Clay

25-7

12-4

12.0

Moisture, etc.

3-9

12

2-8

MANURES

MANURES.

Average Analyses of Cattle Manure.

Box.

Heap.

Pit.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Per cent.

Moisture

50

18

56

Organic matter

27

30

16

Insoluble mineral matter.

15

42

19

Nitrogen

•97

•623

•527

Phosphoric acid

Potash

•476

•404

•335

1-79

1-23

•996

One cartload of farm-yard manure (10 cwt. or half a ton)
will contain —

5 to 8 lb. nitrogen.
5 to 8 lb. potash.
2 to 4 lb. phosphoric acid.
Measurements made at the Central Farm with pitted
dung and large box carts give the following : —

One cart holds 15-20 cubic feet. The weight of 1 cubic
foot is 70 to 80 lb.

Manure produced by Stock per annum.

A pair of animals may be expected to produce 3 tons of
farm-yard manure in twelve months, including litter and
moisture. The figure naturally varies considerably.

Nitrogenous Manures.

Nitrogen is the most important constituent in the cakes
which form so important a manure for many crops. This
substance can also be purchased alone in various forms.
The following shows the percentages of nitrogen, they
should contain —

Nitrate of Soda— 15-16 per cent.

Nitrate of Potash — 13 per cent.

Nitrate of Lime— 13 per cent.

Sulphate of Ammonia— 20-21 per cent.

Calcium Cyanamide (Lime Nitrogen : Nitrolim) —
20 per cent.

4

50

MANURES

Phosphatic Manures.

Phosphorus is usually supplied as ashes, or in the form
of cake or fish manure, but it can be purchased in a more
concentrated form as bone meal, bone superphosphate,
steamed bones, rock superphosphate or basic slag (Thomas
phosphate).
■ Average analyses of these manures are given below : —

—

.si

11

o

d
bo

o

o

V3

Bone meal

Bone superphosphate ...

Steamed bones

Rock superphosphate . . .
Basic slag

6-0
13-0

5-2
14-0

3-4

30-3

24-0

17*5

7-0

3-8

2-5

16

•6

23-2
167
30-9
161
19-0

31-3
41-8
45*0

The phosphoric acid in superphosphate is in a soluble
form and is therefore considered more valuable. For wet
lands, however, it is doubtful whether this is necessary, and
bone meal or fish manure are probably better. Steamed
bones are rich in phosphoric acid, but have lost a proportion
of their organic matter. Thomas phosphate contains a large
proportion of lime and is valuable in acid soils, but is heavy
and expensive to transport. It should be ground to a very
fine powder.

Potash.

Potash may be supplied as potassium sulphate, potassium
chloride (Muriate of potash), or Kainit. It is not generally
considered an important manure for South Indian soils,
though if analysis shows less than -25 per cent of total
potash in a soil, experiments should be tried with potash
manures. Kainit is a mixture of potash and magnesium
salts and contains often fairly large quantities of common
salt. Its use is practically unknown, most experiments with
potash having been carried out with the sulphate.

MANURES

51

Common Manures.
Analyses of cakes.

—

P2O5.

K2O.

N.

White castor

261

1'24

6-42

Black castor ...

1-86

•70

4-50

Purgam ...

134

'6&

3-58

Neem (Margosa)

131

1*69

504

Groundnut

1-40

1-21

8-04

Safflower

1-48

•82

5-83

Punnai * ...

108

1-55

2-65

Castor cake. — This is universally esteemed for the cultiva-
tion of the sugarcane crop to which it may be applied at a
rate of 1,000 to 2,000 lb. per acre. A common application in
Godavari is 10 bags of 164 lb. each, given in two applica-
tions. Its cost is about Rs. 80 per ton. As will be seen from
the analysis it is a general manure. It is known as black or
white cake according to the proportion of husk left in.

Groundnut cake is not considered so good as castor cake
for canes, but is largely used for paddy in certam districts.
It is generally better to use it as food for cattle and return
its constituents to the soil in the shape of dung.

Margosa cake made from the seed of the neem tree,
which is collected by women and children from under the
trees. The oil is used medicinally. The use of this cake
could probably be extended.

Pungam cake used in many places where it can be
bought as cheap as Rs. 35 a ton.

Fish manure {ordinary). Fish guano.

Water

Organic

Ash

6"5 to 15-0
... 36-5 to 60-0
... 18-4 to 41-0

Water
Organic
Ash

N

P2O5

K20

8-26
66-88
24-86
100-0

N

P2O5

K20

4-4 to 6-8

3*9 to 5-3

•2 to -7

8-40
863
0-50

Calophyllum Inophyllum.

52

MANURES

Fish manure, — This is a most valuable manure which is not
yet appreciated at its proper worth. It is a general manure,
especially rich in phosphoric acid. It can be produced in
large quantities on the West Coast. The fish are simply
spread on the beach to dry and are subsequently pounded.
This generally causes a considerable amount of adulteration
with sand which it is impossible to remove completely : good
samples, however, should not contain more than 20 per cent
by weight. There is also a considerable proportion of oil
which partially prevents decomposition. Fish from which
the offal has been removed and tne oil extracted, are ground
up and sold as fish guano which is a dry powder, capable of
storage without decomposition and a more concentrated
manure than ordinary Milled Fish. There are also other bye-
products obtainable which however should not be purchased
without analysis.

Tannery refuse. — This may consist of spent bark and of jthe
refuse obtained from the process of tanning. It is reported
to be valuable in alkaline lands. Wool, Hair, Hooves, etc.,
are all waste products which are used as manures. They
are mostly nitrogenous, but their use for dry lands is not
recommended as they are very slow in decomposition. Round
Madras they are largely used for the paddy crop.

Waste from rice mill.

Indigo waste seeth).

Parts per 100,000
of liquid.

Parts per

100,000 of

liquid.

Total N

Ammoniacal N ...
Albuminoid N ...

16 to 56
8 to 9
2 to 33

40 to 51
98 to 129

Water ...
Organic.
Ash ...

Total ...

N

P205 ...

K20 ...

1290

81-12

5-98

10000

p2o5

K20

1- 84
•361

•277

Mill refuse. — The waste liquor from sugar or spirit
factories is, though very dilute, highly esteemed for irriga-
tion and its effects can be seen on the lands near the Nelli-
kuppam and Samalkota factories. Ashes too are largely

MANURES 53

available from most factories. The blowings from rice-mills,
a very fine dust consisting of particles of bran, husk, etc.,
may be used with good effect, while the effluent from rice
mills could be used for irrigation.

Village earth (Pati mannu).

H20 420

Organic 4*22

Sand 7551

Fe208 and A120, 9*82

CaO 2-60

MgO -78

K20 139

Na20 -32

P205 -69

C02 '32

Total ... 99-825

N -094

Village earth. — This may be scraped or brushed from old
walls, or dug from pits in old village sites and consists of a
greyish powdery earth containing nitrogen, potash and phos-
phoric acid. It varies largely in composition and is used for
{>addy and cane, to the former of which crops it has been very
argely applied in the Kistna.

Ashes.

P205 K20

Cane trash -78 2*51

Cotton stalk ash 1*77 935

Villaqe refuse. — This again is a manure which varies very
largely in quality. It consists of house sweepings, dung,
ashes, and refuse fodder and is the most commonly used man-
ure in South India. If cattle dung largely predominates it is
called cattle manure, but is nearly always obtained in a dry
and powdery condition.

. Green manures (fresh).

N per cent.

Sunnhemp '708

Dhaincha -619

The value of these leguminous crops lies partly in the
addition they make to the nitrogen in the soil and partly in

54 MANURES

the extent to which they ameliorate the physical condition
of the soil, when ploughed under. The three commonest
are sunnhemp isee p. 76), Wild Indigo (Tephrosia purpurea)
and Dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata). The rate at which these
are sown, unmixed and for green manure, is respectively 30
lb., 15 lb. and 15 lb.

Green leaf. — Certain plants are largely cut, especially in
the south and used as manure for paddy and sugarcane crops.
Wild indigo (Tephrosia purpurea : kolinji : vempali) is the
most generally esteemed : and is used throughout the Circars
for almost all irrigated crops, especially cane but not paddy.
Any leaf may be used in the south for paddy, but wild indigo,
Madder (Ca'llotropis gigantea : erukam : jilledi) and margosa
are held the most valuable.

Nightsoil. — The use of this valuable product is being
extended in the neighbourhood of the larger towns, espe-
cially by those engaged in the cultivation of garden crops.
The general method of treating this substance is to bury it
in shallow trenches, and allow it to be absorbed by the soil and
gradually undergo decomposition. In a few months it will
become a dry powder in handling which little difficulty will
be experienced.

Lime as a manure. — This substance is a plant food and
when lacking, must be supplied to obtain good crops. The
quantity needed is however so small that very few soils are
without it. Liming consequently is not known. Experi-
ments in its use are in progress at some of the Agricultural
stations but little effect has as yet been noted. It has a
beneficial effect in soils heavily charged with organic material,
and assists in obtaining a tilth on stiff clayey soils while it is
said to exert a binding influence on sandy soils. It may be
applied as burnt or slaked lime.

Unit Prices of Manures available in India.

rs.

N in ammonium sulphate 12*3

N in nitrate of soda 15'0

N in refined saltpetre 6*7

N in crude saltpetre 6*7

N in calcium cyanamide 10*0

N in calcium nitrate ... * 13*0

N in bone meal
N in poonacs

}

12-0

* The lime has not been valued.

M ANURES 55

N in fish manure

RS.

10-0

N in dried blood j *"

P205 in superphosphate 4*8

P206 in bone meal '9

P205infish -9

K*0 in sulphate of potash 37

Summary,

Potash 3*5

P205 soluble 5-0

P205 insoluble 1*0

N in saltpetre imported 13*0

N in saltpetre .. 6*5

N in bones, poonacs. etc. ... ... 1V0

These can only be taken as approximate.

"Unit" Prices of Manures. *

The price divided by the percentage gives the cost of a
"unit ", i.e., the one-hundredth of a ton. If a standard unit
price is adopted, the real value of any manure can be found by
multiplying the percentage of each ingredient by the standard
price and adding all together. The real value can then be
compared with the market price.

It is customary in fixing the prices of manures per ton, on
the system of valuing by units, to allow only for the phos-
phates dissolved or soluble, the phosphates undissolved or
insoluble, the nitrogen equal to ammonia and the potash.
Other items are seldom taken notice of, and in the case of a
mineral superphosphate it is not even usual to allow for the
insoluble phosphate.

The above prices are of course only approximate, as they
vary according to markets, and only represent the value at the
ports or manufactories ; the cost of bags, carriage, credit, etc.,
must be added according to circumstances.

It must be borne in mind that the commercial values bear
no relation to the manmial values ; the soluble phosphate in
a mineral superphosphate, for instance, being probably as
good for the plants as that in a bone superphosphate, although
the latter has a higher market value. The cheapest sources
should be tried first in experiments.

56 MANURES I

Relative Manurial Value of Different Manures.

Average of several authorities.

Nitrogen in ammonium sulphate, guano, etc. 100

Do. sodium nitrate ... 98

Do. fish guano, meat meal, etc. ... 81

Do. bone meal, horn meal, etc. ... 77

Do. farm-yard manure 56

Phosphoric acid in superphosphate 100

Do. guano 92

Do. bone meal ... 88

Do. medium meal 64

Do. coarse meal 40

Do. basic slag 33

Do. farm-yard manure 33

Potash in sulphate ... .. 100

Do. chloride (muriate) 82

Nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash are the only three sub-
stances which require to be applied in ordinary manuring and
most manures are valuable only in proportion to the amounts
of these they contain ; while manurial experiments usually
resolve themselves into testing the effect of the various com-
mercial compounds and mixtures of these three bodies on
different soils. The other mineral foods required by plants
exist in superabundance in the great majority of soils.

Amount of
Nitrogen (N)

Do!

Do.
Ammonia (NH8)

Do.

Do.

Do.

Do.
Potash (anhydrous)

Useful Factors.

Multiplied Gives corresponding

by

Do.
Do.
Do.

(K20).

1-214

4-714

6-25

6-071

0-824

3822

3-147

3-706

5-0

1-85

1-585
2-149
7-4

amount of

Ammonia.

Ammonium sulphate.
Albuminoid matter.
Sodium nitrate.
Nitrogen.

Ammonium sulphate.
Do. chloride.

Nitric acid.
Sodium nitrate.
Potassium sulphate.

Do.

Do.

Kainit.

chloride,
nitrate.

§ s
2 -J

£> * 5

CD C ^
lit

•~ -a 'd *>

w 2 5 5 5

M
b.

H
o:

MANURES

57

Useful Factors— cont.

Amount of

Phosphoric (anhydride)

(P.O.).
Do.

Do.

Do.

Soluble monocalcic phos-
phate (CaH4 2P04).
Anhydrous monobasic

phosphate (Ca2POs).
Lime (CaO)
Do.
Do.
Magnesia (MgO) ...

Do.
Chlorine

Multiplied Gives corresponding
by amount of

2*183 Tricalcium phosphate

1*4 Anhydrous mono-

basic phosphate.

1*648 Soluble monocalcic
phosphate. „

2*555 Tetracalcic (slag)
phosphate.

1*325 Tricalcic phosphate.

1-566 Do,

1845 Do.

1*786 Calcium carbonate.

2*43 Do. sulphate.

2 09 Magnesium carbonate

3 Do. sulphate.
1*648 Sodium chloride.

58

CROPS

CEOPS.

CEREALS.

PADDY.

(Oryza Satlva.)

Tamil

Telugu ...

Malayalam

Kanarese

Hindustani

Oriya

Tulu

Nellu.

Yadlu.

Nellu.

Batta.

Dhan.

Dhanno.

Bar.

Area in Madras— 10,943,700 acres.

The number of varieties is very large, even if allowances
are made for the same variety* receiving different names in
different localities. These varieties differ in the colour
either of the seed-coat or glume ; their duration of growth,
from three and a half to nine months ; and their quality, i.e.,
the delicacy and flavour of their rice. The crop is normally
grown in wet lands irrigated from canals or tanks (rain or
river fed) ; it is occasionally seen as a garden crop (e.g.,
Salem, North Arcot, etc ) growing in similar conditions. It
may be either broadcasted or transplanted. As a dry crop it
is extensively found in the Northern Circars and on the West
Coast. It is occasionally sown dry and subsequently irri-
gated.

Seed-rate— Broadcast, 50 to 75 lb. per acre. Transplanted,
20 lb. from 7 cents of land will plant up one acre. But this
seed-rate is usually very largely exceeded, up to 150 lb. per
acre being used.

Volume weight— 1 M.M. weighs 2'5 lb.

Hnsk to grain— 33 to 36 per cent by weight.

Weight of seed— 1,000 grains weigh 16 to 25 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— 18,000 to 27,000.

Germination capacity— 90 to 100 per cent.

Yield— Good delta land— 2,000 to 4,000 lb. of grain, 3,000
lb. of straw. Average tank irrigated land — 1,500 to 3,000(
lb. of grain, 2,500 lb. of straw.

CROPS

59

CHOLAM.

(Sorghum vulgare.)

Tamil ...
Telugu ..
Kanarese
Malayalam
Hindustani
Oriya ...
Tulu ...

Cholam.

Jonnalu.

Jola.

Cholam.

Juari.

Jonna.

Ari Jola

Area in Madras— 5,219,700 acres.

Varieties— Numerous : see Bulletin No. 55, Department
of Agriculture, Madras. It is grown as a dry or irrigated
crop on almost any class of soil. It is also grown thickly
as a fodder crop when it is not intended to produce grain.

Seed-rate— 10 to 15 lb. Irrigated 20 to 35 lb. ; for fodder
up to 100 lb.

Volume weight— 1 M.M. weighs 3*1 lb.

Husk to grain— 14 per cent by weight.

Weight of seed — 1,000 seeds weigh 25 to 30 grammes.

Number of seeds in t lb. — 15,900.

Germination capacity— 95 per cent.

Yield— Average produce of garden lands — 2,000 to 3,000
lb. of grain, 5,000 to 7,000 lb. of straw.

Dry lands : grain 1,000 lb. per acre in best black soils ;
700 in good red soils ; down to 300 lb. in dry tracts of Ceded
Districts.

BULRUSH OR SPIKED MILLET.

(Pennisetum

typhoideum.)

Tamil

... Kambu.

Telugu

... Sajjalu or Gantelu.

Kanarese

... Sajje.

Malayalam

. . . Kampam.

Oriya

... G-antiya.

Hindustani

... Bajra.

Area in Madras— 3,606,300 acres.

There are long and short duration varieties : varieties are
also known in which the grain thrashes free of the husk
(Arisikumbu). The crop is grown either under dry or garden
conditions. The former is sown during the monsoon seasons,
and the latter during the hot weather : as a dry crop it gene-
rally occupies poor soils, save in Tinnevelly and Kamnad,
where it takes the place of cholam on black soils. It has

60 CROPS

wonderful tillering capacity. It is quick growing, and
therefore may be raised as a fodder crop though the straw is
considered wnen ripe, inferior in quality to cholam.

Seed-rate — 3 lb. in black soils ; others 6 to 10 lb.

Volume weight— 1 M.M. weighs 27 lb.

Husk to grain— 7 to 8 per cent by weight.

Weight of seed — 1,000 seeds weigh 4 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb— 111,400.

Germination capacity— 93 per cent.

Yield — Up to 1,000 lb. of grain on best black soils. In
other soils about 300 lb. is an average crop Productivity
inferior to cholam both in fodder and grain.

RAGI.

(Eleusine coracana.)

Tamil Kelvaragu or Ragi.

Telugu Ragulu, Thamidalu

Chodulu.

Malayalam Muttari.

Kanarese ... Ragi.

Hindustani Ragi.

Oriya Mandiya

Tulu Ragi.

Area in Madras— 2,600,900 acres.

Varieties— There are distinct varieties for dry and
garden lands and for early and late seasons. Plants differ
also in the nature of panicles (open or closed). In a few
parts of Madras, this is grown as a dry crop (generally mixed
with pulses and castor) in the uplands of Salem, Coimbatore
and Hindupur, in Vizagapatam, and in valleys near the hills.
In some districts it is raised as the first crop on wet lands
with limited or precarious water-supply. Elsewhere it is a

farden crop, being raised in seed-beds and transplanted in
eds or in ridges.

Seed-rate— 2 lb. in 2 cents of land for planting out 1 acre.
In dry lands about 3 lb. is mixed with pulses.

Volume weight— 1 M.M. weighs 307 lb.

Husk to grain— 5 to 6 per cent by weight.

Weight of seed— 1,000 seeds weigh 2-88 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— 157,500.

Germination capacity— 95 to 99 per cent.

Yield -2,000 to 3,000 lb. garden crop. The straw is
usually cut and fed partly green, and will weigh up to 8,000
lb. Dry crop, 1,000 to 1,500 lb. of grain and 4,000 lb. of
straw.

CROPS 61

ITALIAN MILLET.

(Setaria italica.)

Tamil Tenai.

Telugu Korralu.

Kanarese Navane.

Malayalam .. Tena.

Hindustani Kanguni.

Oriya Kangu.

Area in Madras— 1,832,000 acres.

There are several cultivated varieties differing in the
colour of the seed which may be any shade of yellow to
orange, brown or black. Grown as a dry or an irrigated crop
on almost any soil. Frequently mixed with cotton as a dry
crop ; but is not generally mixed with pulses as other cereals.

Seed-rate — 5-6 lb. per acre as a garden crop : half that
for dry lands, with further reduction if sown as a mixture.

Volume weight— 1 M.M. weighs 3*57 lb.

Husk to grain — 20 per cent by weight.

Weight of seed— 1,000 seeds weigh 2*70 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— 168,000.

Germination capacity — 95 per cent.

Yield— Dry crop up to 600 lb. Irrigated up to 1,000 lb. ;
1,000 to 2,000 lb. of- straw per acre.

SAMAL

(Panicum miliare.)

Tamil Shamai.

Telugu Samulu.

Malayalam Shama.

Kanarese Shame.

Hindustani Savan.

Oriya Suniva.

Area in Madras— 1,008,500 acres.

There are long and short duration varieties of Samai :
One with black glumes is also known. It is usually grown as
an early dry crop, occupying poor soils and is mixed with
pulses.

Seed-rate — 10 lb. per acre.

Volume weight— 1 M.M. weighs 31 lb.

Husk to grain— 44 per cent by weight.

Weight of seed — 1,000 seeds weigh 2*65 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb —171,200.

62 crops

Germination capacity— 98 per cent.

Yield— 400 to 600 lb. of grain ; 800 to 900 lb. of straw per

COMMON MILLET.

(Panicum millaceum.)

Tamil Panivaragu or Kadaikanni.

Telugu Yarigalu or Barigalu.

Kanarese Baragu.

Hindustani

Oriya Rala.

There are two varieties grown which differ in colour of
the glume. The crop is grown dry on poor soils : and only
occasionally as a garden crop.

Seed-rate— 10 lb. per acre.

Volume weight— 1 M.M. weighs 3*09 lb.

Husk to grain— 35 per cent by weight.

Weight of seed— 1,000 seeds weigh 512 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb.- 88,600.

Germination capacity — 99 per cent.

Yield— 500 to 600 lb. of grain ; 900 lb. of straw. An
irrigated crop will yield up to 1,200 lb. of grain per acre.

SANWA MILLET.

(Panicum Orusgalli var Frnmentaceum.)

Tamil Kudiraivali.

Telugu Oodalu.

A green and a red variety are found growing in Ganjam :
elsewhere there seems to be a single variety. It is a minor
grain grown usually on poor soils. It grows very rapidly,
can stand water-logging and is therefore raised in iow lands
to prevent wash. The straw is considered good : grain con-
tains a very high proportion of husk.

Seed-rate— 35 lb. per acre.

Volume weight — 1 M.M. weighs 2'33 lb.

Husk to grain— 35 per cent by weight.

Weight of seed— 1,000 seeds weigh 3-14 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb. — 144,450.

Yield— 400 to 500 lb. of grain and 2,000 lb. of straw per
acre.

CROPS

63

KODO MILLET.

(Paspalum Scrobiculatum.)

Tamil Varagu.

Telugu ' Arikelu.

Kanarese Arikel.

Oriya Khoddi.

• Area in Madras — 1,721,800 acres.

Commonly grown dry on poor soils often mixed with red
gram (sown in lines 4 feet to 5 feet apart) and seldom manured.
Occasionally heavy yields are obtained from alluvial or deep
black soils. A very hardy cereal which can be grown on any
soil. The grain can be kept good for many years and hence
it is a useful famine reserve, though the food and fodder are
both inferior. The straw is used as manure for salt lands.
. Seed-rate— 12 to 20 lb.

Volume weight — 1 M.M. weighs 276 lb.

Husk to grain— 40 per cent by weight.

Weight of seeds — 1,000 seeds weigh 5'90 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— 76,900.

Yield— 600 to 900 lb. of grain and 1,000 to 2.000 lb. of
straw.

WHEAT.

(Triticum Sp.)

Tamil ...
Telugu
Malayalam
Kanarese
Tulu ...

Godumai.
Godumalu .
Kotampam.
Godi.
Godi.

Area in Madras— 18,300 acres.

Wheat is not an important crop. According to Howard
the Madras wheats fall under three heads, viz. Triticum
vulgare, T. Durum and T. Dicoccum (Emmer). Some of the
dry wheats of i lie northern parts of the Deccan and Akkigodi
of Nilgiris fall under the first two varieties, whereas the
irrigated wheat of Coimbatore is Dicoccum. This last does
not thresh out clean, i.e., the " seed " is really the spikelet
containing two (sometimes three) grains.

Seed-rate— 25 lb. (in 1 and 2) ; 60 to 70 lb. in Dicoccum.

Weight of seed— 1,000 seeds weigh 30'6 grammes (Dicoc-
cum).

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— 14,800.

64

CROPS

Germination capacity— 61 to 91 per cent in ten days.
Yield— The irrigated crop will yield 1,500 lb. to 1,700 lb.
Dry Crop 400 to 800 lb.

MAIZE.

(Zea Mays.)

Tamil ...

Telugu ...
Malayalam
Kanarese
Oriya
Tulu ...

Makka Cholam,

Thulukka Cholam.
Mokka Jonnalu .
Makka Cholam,
Mekke Jola.
Mokka.
Jola.

Area in Madras — 133,900 acres.

Introduced varieties are occasionally met with. It is
cultivated on a very limited scale as a field crop : as for
instance in the Kistna delta on lands too high for irrigation.
It is sown also in small patches to supply green cobs. It may
also be grown for fodder.

Seed-rate— 6 to 8.1b. ; for fodder 20 lb.

Volume weight— 1 M.M. weighs 3 lb.

Weight of grain— 100 seeds weigh 304 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— 1,500.

Germination capacity— 80 per cent.

Yield — Very variable : a good dry crop should give 1,200
to 1,500 lb. ; 4,000 to 8,000 cobs.

PULSES.

BENGAL GRAM.

(Cicer Arietinum.)

Tamil ...
Telugu ...
Malayalam
Kanarese
Oriya ...
Tulu ...

~. ... Kadalai.

Sanagalu.

.. Kadalakka.

.., Kadale.

Sullo Chonna.

Kadale.

Area in Madras — 138,400 acres.

Yarieties are known with white, pale yellow, dark yellow
or black grains. The crop is practically confined to the
black soils. It is a late crop, sown after the rains. It is
generally sown by itself, drilled or dibbled behind the
plough, but may somtimes be broadcasted in mixtures.

CROPS

65

Seed-rate— 40 to 70 lb. per acre.

Volume weight— 1 M.M. weighs 313 lb.

Husk to grain— 20 per cent by weight.

Weight of seed— 1,000 seeds weigh 133*94 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb— 3,400.

Germination capacity— 98 per cent.

Yield— 300 to 700 lb. The refuse is a useful cattle food.

Tamil

Telugu

Malayalam

Kanarese .

Oriya

Tulu

RED GRAM.

( Cajanus lndicus.)

Tuvaraf.

Kandulu.

Tuvera.

Togari.

Kandulo.

Togori.

Area in Madras — 294,800 acres.

There are numerous varieties which differ in the colour of
their seed coats. A very widespread and hardy pulse $ sown
early ; stops seven to nine months in the field. Practically
always grown as a mixture, frequently in lines 4 feet to 6 feet
apart with cereals. Dhal is a very valuable and important
human food, while the husk is a good cattle food.

Seed-rate will vary with the mixture adopted : from
2 to 4 lb. per acre.

Volume weight— 1 M.M. weighs 2-83 lb.

Husk to grain -20 per cent.

Weight of seed— 1,000 seeds weigh 8*95 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— 6,600.

Germination capacity— 76 per cent.

Yield — This will vary very much with the class of mix-
ture ; 300 to 1,000 lb. per acre. The refuse (pods, leaves, etc.)
obtained in the process of threshing is stacked and given to
working cattle.

HORSI

3 GRAM.

(DolicJios biflorus.)

Tamil

Telugu

Malayalam

Kanarese

Oriya

Tulu

... ...

Kollu or Kanam.

Ulavalu.

Muthira.

Huruli.

Kalutho.

Kudu.

66

CROPS

Area in Madras— 2,208,000 acres.

There are varieties with black, grey or mottled seeds of
various shades. The crop is sown pure on the poorest and
thinnest red soils. It is found as a mixture with cotton in
Nandyal and Tinnevelly. The grain is used for feeding
cattle and horses, and is also eaten by man, it is a good fodder
.and green manure crop. The black variety is of short duration
and is therefore sown late.

Seed-rate — 15 to 20 lb. ; in the case of black horse gram
it is 30 to 40 lb. Half the seed-rate or less if the seed ia
jnixed. For fodder crop from 30 to 50 lb. per acre.

Volume weight— 1 M.M. weighs 3*45 lb.

Weight of seed -1,000 seeds weigh 29*25 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— 15,500.

Germination capacity— 90 per cent.

Yield— 100 to 200 lb. in a mixture and 300 to 400 lb. if
sown alone ; 500 lb. of dry fodder, including pods, etc.

FIELD BEAN.

(Dolichos Lablab.)

Tamil
Telugu ..
Kanarese .,
Malayalam
Oriya
Tulu

Mochai.

Anumulu.

Avarai.

Moccakotta.

Bairq.

Abare.

The seeds vary in colour from a dark red apj
black to a light cream almost white. Flowers white, occa-
sionally purple.

It is a climbing plant which is always grown as a mixture,
generally with some upstanding cereal like sorghum or kambu
sown early in lines. A pure crop may be used to check
weeds (smother crop).

Seed-rate— For a pure crop about 30 lb. would be needed.
In mixtures 7 to 14 may be sown.

Volume weight— 1 M.M. weighs 3*33 lb.

Husk to grain— 21 per cent by weight.

Weight of seed — 1,000 seeds weigh 256*94 grammes,

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— 1,765.

Germination capacity— 89 per cent.

Yield— 100 to 200 lb. in a mixture ; 300 to 400 if sown
alone.

crops 67

GREEN GRAM.

{Phaseolus Mungo.)

Tamil ... ... , Paccapagaru.

Telugu Pesalu, Paccapesalu.

Malayalam Cherupayaru.

Kanarese '„ Hasaru.

Oriya Puggo.

Tulu ... Madenji.

Area in Madras— 386,000 acres.

There are three varieties characterized by having green,
vellow and black seeds. The crop is commonly grown
throughout the Presidency, generally as a subsidiary crop to
one of the cereals. It may be grown as a second crop on rice
land or sown thick as a smother crop for weeds on irrigated
land. The grain is held in high esteem.

Seed-rate — Up to 5 lb. in a mixture.

Volume weight— 1 M.M. weighs 343 lb.

Husk to grain— 24 per cent by weight.

Weight of seed— 1,000 seeds weigh 29*^2 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— 15,500.

Germination capacity —91 per cent. ,

Yield-150 to 200 lb. in a mixture.

•

BLACK GRAM.

(Phaseolus Mungo var. Radiatus, Hook.)

Tamil Ulundu.

Telugu Minumulu.

Malayalam Uzhunnu.

Kanarese Uddu.

Tulu ... ... ... ' ... Urdu.

Area in Madras— 160,200 acres.

The remarks under previous crop, which it closely
resembles in appearance, yield and methods of cultivation,
hold good. This suits a stiff soil.

Seed-rate — Up to 5 lb. in a mixture. ..

Volume weight — 1 M.M. weighs 3*3 lb.

Husk to grain— 11 per cent by weight.

Weight of seed— 1,000 seeds weigh 463 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— 9,800.

Germination capacity— 98 per cent.

68 crops

DEW GRAM.

(Phaseolus aconitifolius.)

Tamil Naripayaru, Kallupayaru,

Tullikkapayaru.
Telugu Mittikelu.

There is only one variety ; which is rather sparingly
cultivated in Madras ; it is a poor yielder, and is found
generally as a mixture on the least fertile lands. The whole
plant is a valuable fodder and is frequently grown, either alone
or mixed with some millet, for this purpose exclusively. It
may also be grown as a green manure crop.

Seed-rate— H to 3 lb. per acre in mixture.

Volume weight— 1 M.M. weighs 2-66 lb.

Weight of seed— 1,000 seeds weigh 16*67 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— 27,200.

Germination capacity— 91 per cent.

Yleld-120 to 150 lb. in a mixture.

COW GRAM : COW PEA.

(Vigna Catiang.)

Tamil Karamani, Tattapayaru. ^

Telugu Alasandulu, Bobbarlu. W

Malayalam ... Mampayaru, Kottapayaru.

Kanarese Avade.

Oriya .. ... Mamkododandi.

Tulu Lattane, Alasande.

A fairly common pulse as a mixed crop. The pods are
prominent and large. A very useful green manure crop. It
makes an excellent combination for cattle food when grown
with cholam fodder.

Seed-rate— 15 to 20 lb. as a pure crop. Half this for
mixtures.

Volume weight— 1 M.M. weighs 5*1 lb.
Husk to grain- -10 per cent by weight.
Weight of seed— 1,000 seeds weigh 128-2 grammes.
Number of seeds in 1 lb.-3,530.
Germination capacity — 95 to 100 per cent.
Yield— 300 to 400 lb. per acre in a pure crop.

• CROPS m

VEGETABLES AND GARDEN PRODUCE.
BRINJAL.

(Solanum melongena.)

Tamil Kathri.

Telugu Vankaya.

Malayalam Vazhuthininga.

Kanarese Badinekayi.

Oriya Banjino.

Tulu Badane.

There are many local varieties which differ in colour, shape
size and flavour. Introduced varieties from American seed
have been tried but have not spread. The crop is grown all
over the Presidency on garden lands, sometimes alone, but
more often mixed with*various vegetables or at the edges of
betel gardens. The unripe fruits are used for making curries.
Seed-rate. — The crop is grown from transplanted seed-
lings. Between one and two pounds of seed sown in three-
fourths of a cent, will plant one acre two feet apart both
ways.

Yield— up to 20,000 lb. per acre for a good crop.

CLUSTER BEAN.

{Cyamopsis psoralioides.)

Tamil Kottavarai.

Telugu Goruchikkudikaya.

Kanarese Govardhanakayi.

The crop is of very little importance and is confined to
mixtures in vegetable gardens. It is nowhere grown on a
field scale.

PUMPKIN.

(Cucurbita maxima.')

Tamil Pushinikkai : Parangikkai :

Sakkarai Pushinikkai.

Telugu Gummadikaya.

Malayalam Mattanga.

Tulu Kumbuda : Kembude :

Kancholu.

There are several varieties differing in shape, size and colour
of fruits. There are also varieties which are sown in summer
and in the rains. It is chiefly a rainy weather crop. The ripe
and unripe fruits are used as vegetables for making curries.
The ripe fruits keep for months. It is usually grown near
the hedges in field margins : but occasionally may De found as
a field crop.

70 CROPS

CUCUMBEE.

(Cucumis Sativus.)

Tamil Yelliri.

Telugu Dosakaya.

Kanarese Sonthikayi.

Tulu ... ... ... ... Tante.

There are many local varieties which differ in colour, shape,
size, flavour and keeping quality of the fruit. The crop is
commonly grown mixed with all crops in black soils of Kistna
district. It is also grown in tank beds when tanks get dry in
the beginning of summer. It is very common on the West
Coast. Near Madras occasionally on a field scale.

The fruits are eaten fresh or cooked. The variety culti-
rated in Kistna district can be dridft and preserved, and is
often used in making pickles.

MELON.

(Cucumis Melo.)

Tamil ... Mulampazham : Kar-

bujapazham.

Telugu Karbuja pandu.

Malayalam

Kanarese ... Karbuja hannu.

Tulu Tekkarpe: Tekkare.

There are a number of melons grown in tank beds or in the
sandy beds of rivers, in the hot weather, many of which have
local reputation, e.g., Cuddapah melons, Siddhout melons.
They are generally heavily manured and hand- watered

VEGETABLE MARROW.

(Cucurbita Pepo.)

Tamil Simapushini or Simaparangi .

There are several varieties differing in size and shape of
the fruit. Occasionally met with in vegetable gardens.

MUSK MELON.

(Cucurbita Moschata.)

Tamil Arasanikai.

This variety is found in the Coimbatore district.

CROPS 71

WATER MELON.

(Citrullus Vulgaris.)

Tamil ... Pic^a pazham : Karbuja.

Telugu Kalangadi pandu : Pucca

pandu.

Kanarese Baccangayi.

Tulu Baccangayi.

A large green water melon with dark mottled green skin
and pinkish flesh with black seeds.

The ripe fruits are sold in the hot weather in the bazaars.

LADIES' FINGERS.

(Hibiscus esculentus.)

Tamil Vendaikay.

Telugu Bendakaya.

Kanarese Bendakayi.

Tulu Bendekayi: Bendayi,

This is grown as a small percentage in a mixture in vege-
table and other gardens for the sake of its unripe fruits. It is
nowhere very extensively grown, though found all over the
Presidency, especially near Targe towns. It has been recom-
mended as a u trap crop " for cotton pests.

Seed-rate — 5 to 10 lb. when the crop is to be transplanted.

SWEET-POTATO.

(Jpomcea Batatas,)

Tamil Sakkaraivallikizhangu or

Chinikizhangu.

Telugu Genusugaddalu.

Malayalam Chakkarai kizhangu.

Kanarese Genusu.

Oriya Kondamulo.

Tulu Kerang.

A white skinned and a red skinned variety are known.

The crop is grown extensively throughout Madras as a
garden crop, preferably on deep sandy soils. The mature
vines are cut into lengths with generally three nodes, and
planted on ridges or flat beds. Care must be taken to see
that the spreading plants do not root at the nodes. It is
commonly used as food, either cooked in curry or boiled,
roasted or fried. The vines are good cattle food.

Seed-rate— 20,000 to 35,000 sets per acre.

Yield— 8,000 to 12,000 lb. per acre.

72 crops

TAPIOCA.

(Manihot utilissima.)

Tamil Maravallikizhangu.

Telugu ■ Karra pendalam.

Malayalam Marachini.

The crop is grown fairly widely from cuttings in the sandy
soils of South Arcot, Chingleput and Nellore, and occasionally
further north along the littoral tracts. It is grown largely on
the West Coast. In South Arcot a good crop weighed fresh
13,000 lb. an acre.

ELEPHANT YAM.

(Amorph ophallus campanulatus.)

Tamil Karakkaranai : She-

naikizhangu.

Telugu Thiyyakanda.

Malay; lam ... Senai.

On the West Coast, this is cultivated on dry land often
mixed with ginger as a rain-fed crop ; also in the compounds
of houses where it may receive occasional irrigation. In
Coimbatore, it forms a subordinate crop in turmeric.

Seed-rate —About 1,500 lb. of corms per acre.

Yield— About 15,000 lb. per acre.

DIOSCOREA.

The true yam is grown occasionally in betel gardens, etc.
It is fairly common on the West Coast.

COLOCASIA.

(Colocasia antiquorum.)

Tamil ... Sheppankizhangu or

Shamakkizhangu.

Telugu Shamagadda.

Malayalam Chempakizhangu.

Kanarese Chamagadda.

Tulu Tevu.

There is a variety without acridity occurring rarely in
Malabar. The area under this crop is limited and it is con-
fined to rich garden lands and backyards, with the exception
of the West Coast, where it may be grown as a dry crop. In
Chingleput, this occurs as a pure crop on good sandy loams,
where it is heavily manured with cattle manure and copiously
watered. In Tanjore it is grown as a field crop, either pure

CROPS

73

or mixed with yams and other vegetables. It is grown in
trenches or pits and needs heavy manuring, when it is most
profitable returning up to forty-fold. The corms are cooked
and made into curry. Red soil is said in Chingleput to
produce round tubers.

Seed-rate— 600 lb. of corms.

Yield-8,000 to 10,000 lb.

TYPHONIUM TRILOBATUM.

Tamil Karanai kizhangu.

Telugu Kanda.

Oriya Ullo.

Tuiu Kene.

This is cultivated in small quantities in Chingleput and
Chittoor. The root is acrid. The acridity is removed by
boiling the root with tamarind water. It has a reputation as
a remedy for piles.

Seed-rate— 500 to 600 lb. per acre.

ARROW-ROOT.

(Curcuma angustifolia.)

Araruttu.

Palagunpa.

Kuvva.

Kuvegida.

Palu.

Kooveda dayi.

limited and the crop is found only
in Ganjam, parts of the Circars and the West Coast. It is
grown on well-manured sandy soils.

Seed-rate— About 700 lb. per acre.

Yield -4,000 to 8,000 lb. of tubers. 100 lb. of tubers
produce about 12£ lb. of flour.

POTATO.

Tamil

Telugu ..

Malayalam

Kanarese

Oriya

Tulu

The cultivation is very

(Solarium tuberosum.)

Tamil
Telugu ...
Malayalam
Kanarese
Tulu

Urulaikkizhangu.
Urula gadda.
Urula kizhangu.
Urula gadda.
Batate.

74 crops

The varieties are numerous. The crop is confined to the
hills, since the temperature of the plains is too high for it to
be grown profitably. It is an increasingly important crop on
the Nilgiris.

Seed-rate— 900 to 1,000 lb. per acre.
Yield— 5 to 6 tons.

CEPHALANDRA INDICA.

Tamil Kovai.

Telugu Dondai.

There are two varieties, one is wild and is bitter, and the
other cultivated which is sweet. It is said that the fruits lose
bitterness under cultivation. In the Circars, it is cultivated
and the fruit is used as a vegetable. Elsewhere it is com-
monly found wild, growing on bushes and hedges. The ripe
fruit may be gathered as it becomes sweet.

AMARANTH.

(Amaranthu8 gangeticus.)

Tamil Kiraithandu.

Telugu Thotakoora.

Malayalam

Kanarese

This is grown as a mixed crop in vegetable and backyard
gardens. The whole plant is generally pulled out and sold.

There is another variety which goes by the name A.
Paniculatus, and which is grown on the hills for the sake of
its grain which is parched and made into flour and eaten. It
is also used for making sweetmeats.

Weight of seed— 1,000 seeds weigh "82 gramme.

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— 553,000.

SNAKE GOURD.

(Trichosanthes anguina.)

Tamil Pudalangai.

Telugu Potlakaya.

Malayalam ... Padavalanga.

This gourd is cultivated commonly throughout India as
a rainy season crop in back yards and occasionally on garden
lands. There are varieties differing in the size of the fruit
and its colour : length, 5 feet to 2 feet : colour from light to

crops 75

dark green, occasionally with lighter stripes. The ripe fruit
is deep orange in colour externally and the pulp inside in
which the seeds are imbedded is scarlet. This fruit is largely
used as a vegetable especially when tender and unripe.

BITTER-GOURD OR CARTLLA FRUIT.

(Momordica charantia.)

Tamil .,. ... Pavakkai.

Telugu Kakarakaya.

Malayalam Kaippakka.

The fruits are slightly bitter and are largely used in
making curries. There are several cultivated forms which
differ in size and colour of the fruit : some forms have long
warty fruits varying in length from 4 inches to 12 inches
while others produce small fruits varying from £ to 1 inch.
Colour varies from light to dark green. The fruit is supposed
to be a good tonic and stomachic.

CALABASH OR CALABASH-CUCUMBER.

(Lagenaria vulgaris.')

Tamil Sorakkai.

Telugu Sorakaya.

Malayalam Churaka.

An exotic but now largely cultivated in India. Unlike
the other gourds this has white flowers. The unripe fruits,
just before the outer skin becomes thick, form a good veget-
able if seasoned. When fully ripe the rind of the fruit
becomes very hard and woody and then it makes an excellent
vessel or flask.

ASH-GOURD OR ASH-PUMPKIN.

{Benincasa cerifera.)

Tamil Kalvana pushini.

Telugu Budutha gummidi

or Pendli gum-
midi.

Malayalam Kumbalam.

This is another gourd very widely cultivated all over
India. The fruits are usually large (1 to l£ feet long), up
to 25 lb. in weight, smooth but covered with whitish bloom.

76 crops

When fully ripe the rind becomes hard and the fruits keep
well for a long time.

RIBBED-GOURD.

{Luffa acutangula.)

Tamil Peerkan.

Telugu Beera.

The fruit is very largely used in curries, when it is about
half -mature and it is considered to be one of the best of the
indigenous vegetable plants. The fruits grow to about one
foot and have sharp ridges externally. It is cultivated all
over India.

LOOFAH.
{Luffa aegyptiaca.)

Tamil Norai Peerkan.

Telugu ... Gutti beera or

Nuna beera.

Though not a native of India, it is widely cultivated and
has become naturalized. This differs from the ribbed-gourd
in not having the sharp ridges, but in other respects both
are similar. The net work of vascular bundles forming the
frame work of the pericarp in the fruits of this and the
ribbed-gourd forms the loofah of commerce.

GUINEA GRASS.

{Panicum maximum.)

A fodder crop which has been introduced successfully in
parts of Madras. The crop is usually propagated by portions
separated from the root stocks, which become overgrown and
need division. The roots should be set out evenly in rows
running in both directions spaced 3' X 3' or 2' X 2' to ensure
through inter-cultivation. The plant needs copious irrigation
and liberal manuring ; it is quick growing and ordinarily
eight cuttings can be had in a year. 500 slips weigh 40 lb.
and fill one gunny bag.

Yield -25,000 to 40,000 lb. of green fodder per acre per
annum in 8 cuttings.

LUCERNE.

(Medicago satlva.)
An excellent fodder, but difficult to grow extensively.
Has yielded at Coimbatore 15,000 lb. an acre in a year.

crops 77

OIL SEEDS.

GINGELLY.

(Sesamum indicum.)

Tamil Ellu.

Telugu Nuvvulu.

Malayalam ... * , Ellu.

Kanarese Yellu.

Oriya ... Rasi.

Tulu ., ,.. Yenme.

Area in Madras— 812,800 acres.

There are several local varieties which differ in their
period of growth, time of sowing and the colour of their seed.
The crop is grown throughout the Presidency generally as an
early crop. It is seen on the driest and poorest soils, on
tlie richest delta lands and on paddv fields as a second crop.
Owing to the small size of the seecf it is sometimes difficult
to get a full plant.

Seed-rate— 2 to 3 lb. ; less if drilled.

Volume weight— 1 M.M. weighs 2*57 lb.

Weight of seed— 1,000 seeds weigh 2*61 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb —172,800.

Germination capacity— 90 per cent.

Yield — 350 to 450 lb. ; but of course this will vary very
much according to the conditions under which it is grown.

Percentage of oil— 40 per cent by weight.

CASTOR.

(Ricinus communis.)

Tamil Amanakku : Kottai-

muthu.

» Telugu ... Amudalu.

Malayalam , ... Avanakku.

Kanarese Haralu.

Oriva Kallo.

Tulu Almbudathakayi.

Area in Madras— 454,900 acres.

There are numerous varieties, annual, biennial and peren-
nial, grown either as garden or dry crops, and either green
or red in colour. As a dry crop, castor occupies ' the
poorest red soil, alone or mixed with one of the inferior
millets or grams. As a perennial, it is dibbled along the

78 crops

edges of sugarcane and betel vine and other garden crops.
It is generally sown in fields in lines.

Seed-rate— 10 to 20 lb. per acre.

Volume weight— 1 M.M. weighs 2'87 lb.

Weight of seed— 1,000 seeds weigh 346*71 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— 1,308.

Germination capacity— 80 per cent.

Yield— 200 to 300 lb. as dry crop in poor lands, up to 700
lb. in more favourable surroundings.

Percentage of oil— 46, but ordinary extraction gives 36.
The cake is an excellent manure.

GROUNDNUT.

(Arachis hypogea.)

Tamil Verkadalai : Nilak-

kadalai.

Telugu ... . ... Vershanagalu : Nela-

shanagalii.

Kanarese • ... Nilakkadala.

Tulu Nilakkadale.

Area in Madras — 1,455,800 acres,

The Mauritius variety Has practically displaced the old
local variety ; other varieties may be seen on trial at the
Palur Agricultural station.

The crop suits sandy soils, and is either sown as a dry
rain-fed crop, when it is mixed with some cereal, or raised
under irrigation mixed with ragi.

Rain-fed crop :- -June- July to December- January. Irri-
gated crop : February-March to July- August. The crop is
very profitable, and its area has increased rapidly in the last
few years.

Seed-rate— 50 to 75 lb. good shelled seed.

Volume weight — 1 Madras measure of unshelled nuts
weighs If lb. 1 Madras measure of shelled nuts weighs 2£ lb.
1 Madras measure of oil is 3£ lb.

Weight of seed — 100 seeds weigh 43 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb— 1,000.

Yield — Dry average 1,300 lb. per acre. Irrigated crop as
much as 2,500 lb.

Percentage of oil — As extracted by country mill is 36
to 40, actual contents up to 50 per cent.

Proportion of shell to kernels — 25 per cent by weight,
being a little higher in the case of dry rain-fed crop.

crops 79

NIGER SEED.

(Guizotia abyssinica.)

Tamil .,, Peyellu : Uchchellu.

Telugu ... ... Verrinuvvulu :

Valiselu : Ojurellu.
Kanarese Huchellu.

A black oil seed grown occasionally as a mixture in the
western and northern taluks of Bellary, and in the uplands
of the Circars, Salem, Coimbatore, etc.

Seed-rate — About one pound of seed is mixed with a
cereal.

Weight of seed— 1,000 seeds weigh 4*55 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— 100,000.

Yield— About 300 lb. may be expected from an acre.

Percentage of oil— 35 by extraction.

LINSEED.

(Linum usitatissimum.)

Tamil Alivirai.

Telugu ... Avisi.

Kanarese Alasi.

Area in Madras— 25,000 acres.

This is only grown for its seed, which yields a valuable
oil : the fibre is not extracted. The crop is found mostly
in the Bellary portion of the Deccan upland, mixed with
other crops like safflower or wheat.

Seed-rate— 15 to 20 lb. per acre.

Volume weight— 1 M.M. weighs 2'87 lb.

Weight of seed— 100 seeds weigh 6'4 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb. -70,900.

Yield -300 to 400 lb. of seed per acre.

Percentage of oil— about 30 when pressed in the
ordinary country mills.

SAFFLOWER.

(Carthamus tinctorius.)

Tamil Kasumbavirai.

Telugu Kusumbalu.

Kanarese Kusumba.

Tulu Kusumadapu.

80 CROPS

The plant may be grown both for its oil and also for the
dye which can be extracted from the flowers, though there is
little or no extraction done now in Madras. The foliage of
the plants ordinarily met with is thickly armed with spines.
There is also a smooth-leaved variety. The cultivation is
confined to the black soils of the Ceded Districts, where it is
frequently seen sown on the head-lands, partly to prevent
cattle trespass, and partly because it can be sown late. The
oil is very clear and is used in cooking ; also to adulterate
ghee.

Seed-rate— 5 to 10 lb.

Volume weight— 1 M.M. weighs 2-43 lb.

Weight of seed — 1,000 seeds weigh 41*27 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— 1 1,000.

Yield— 400 lb. per acre.

Percentage of oil — 30 ; ordinary methods extract 20 per
cent. The cake is used as a cattle food and is said not to get
mouldy readily.

FIBRES.

COTTON.

{Gossypium herbaceum ; Gossypium indicum ; Gossypium
obtusifolium ; Gossypium hirsutum.)

Tamil
Telugu .;
Malayalam
Kanarese ..
Oriya
Tulu

Paruthi.

Parthi.

Parutti.

Hatti.

Koppa.

Parti.

Area in Madras— 2,018,900 acres.

The two common varieties grown as annuals on the black
cotton soils are G. herbacuem (Tellapathi ; Uppam ;
Ukkam) and G. indicum (Yerrapathi ; Karunganni). Besides
these, G. obtusifolium (Nadam) is found in parts of Coimba-
tore, while in the same tract are found the remains of the
early introduction of American cotton in the shape of
G. hirsutum (Bourbon) ; both these are perennial.

All the above are dry crops and occupy generally the black
cotton soils, though Yerrapathi is found on reddish soils, and
the two last are found on lightish gravelly soils.

Seed-rate — 5 to 15 lb. per acre ; rate varies in different
Localities and also with the soils.

CROPS 81

Volume weight— (Uppam) 1 M.M. weighs 2*1 lb.

Weight of seed— (Uppam) 1,000 seeds weigh 49*2
grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— (Uppam) 9,220.

Yield- 300 to 450 lb. Nadam 3001b. a year for 2£
years.

Ginning percentage— 22 per cent up to 26 per cent. In
selected strains up to 33 per cent.

CAMBODIA COTTON.

(Gossypium hirsutum.)

This is a recently introduced cotton which has spread from
the south, and now occupies a very considerable area. It
should be grown normally as an irrigated crop, and will repay
good treatment. Very good samples of Kappas may be
obtained from the soils at the foot of the hills, as in Madura
district, but Cambodia does not take kindly to black soils.
Seed is sown at the beginning of the north-east monsoon.

Seed-rate— 10 to 20 lb.

Germination capacity— 90 per cent.

Yield— 700 to 1,500 lb. per acre : cases have been reported
where the yield has been over 2,000 lb.

Ginning percentage— 30 to 33 per cent.

DECCAN HEMP : BIMLIPATAM JUTE.

(Hibiscus cannabinus.)

Tamil Pulicchai or Pulimanji.

Telugu Gogu.

Kanarese ... ... ... Pundi.

Area in Madras— 66,200 acres.

There are several varieties distinguished by the colour of
the stem and leaf which is either green or wholly or partly
red. The shape of the leaves also varies being either entire
or palmately divided.. The crop is grown very commonly as a
slight mixture in almost any crop, the leaf being used for
curry. As a pure crop, its cultivation is confined to parts of
Guntm* and Vizagapatam. Tests at Coimbatore have shown
that there the red stemmed green veined variety with divided
leaves is the best for fibre.

Seed -rate- 25 to 30 lb. per acre.

Volume weight— 1 M.M. weighs 263 lb.

Weight of seed— 1,000 seeds weigh 24-5 grammes.
6

82 CROPS

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— 18,500.
Yield-600 to 1,000 lb. dry fibre.
Percentage of fibre to dry stalks— 16 to 17.
Percentage of fibre to green stalks— 4.

SUNNHEMP.

( Crotolaria juncea-)

Tamil Sanappu or Shanal.

Telugu ... Janumu.

Malayalam .. "Wuckoo.

Kanarese Sonabu.

Oriya Soin.

Tulu Talambu.

Area in Madras— 216,400 acres.

The crop is found very extensively as a mixture through-
out the uplands of Kistna and Guntur and pure as a second
crop after paddy in the deltas. It is grown as a pure
crop in parts of Godavari, Tinnevelly and Chingleput. It*
use as a green manure crop is rapidly extending, and has
caused a heavy demand for seed. The fibre is used for
making gunny bags, tails of mhote buckets, harness of pack
bullocks, etc. Fishing nets in coastal tracts are exclusively
made of this. |

Seed-rate— 40 to 60 lb. up to 100 to 150 lb. in places.

Volume weight— 1 M.M. weighs 3*12 lb.

Weight of seed— 1,000 seeds weigh 46*4 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— 9,800.

Yield— 500 to 800 lb. of fibre ; grown as a seed crop 400
to 600 lb. of seed may be expected.

Percentage of fibre to dry stem— 8*2 per cent.

AGAVE.

{Agave vera Cruz : Agave sisalana.)

Tamil ... Anaikkattazhai,

Kattazhai.

Telugu Kalabanda.

Malayalam ... . ... Wakkuchan.

The American or Railway aloe (misnamed) is commonly
seen in all parts of the Presidency as a hedge plant. It is
generally propagated by means of plantlets which arise as
suckers on the roots of the older plant, or by bulbils.

Attempts have been made to grow the sisal agave on a large
scale but without much success. It can only pay when rents

CROPS 8£

are low ; on such lands, difficulties are often felt in the
extraction of the fibre for want of water. The fibre is
excellent.

Yield— Each plant will produce 15—20 leaves a year. The
average weight of each leaf being 6 lb., 900 plants per acre
will give at this rate and with 3£ per cent fibre, 300 lb. of dry
fibre per acre per annum.

CONDIMENTS AND SPICES.
CHILLIES.

(Capsicum annuum, Watt.)

Tamil Milagai.

Telugu Mirapakaya*

Malayalam ... Molaku.

Kanarese Menasinakayi.

Oriya Lonkamonho,

Tulu Munuchi

Area in Madras— 286,000 acres.

There is one common variety, though special races from
particular districts are recognized for their good qualities.
The plant is generally transplanted from a seed bed, and is
usually grown on garden lands, as a pure crop or as a mixture
in a vegetable garden. On dry soils it is an important crop
in Ountur and the uplands in the G5davari and Kistna, where
it is grown in large fields which are most accurately trans-
planted to allow of careful inter- cultivation. The pods are
picked and dried for marketing.

Seed-rate — 1 to li lb. to transplant an acre.

Volume weight — 1 Madras measure of dried fruits weigh*
frlb.

Weight of seed— 1,000 seeds weigh 5*65 grammes.

Number or seeds in 1 lb - 80,300.

Yield- 2,000 to 2,500 lb.

ONIONS.
{Allium cepa.)

Tamil Vengayam, Irulli

Telugu Ulligadda, Nirulli.

Malayalam Chuvannaulli .

Kanarese Irulli, Ulligadda.

Oriya Pizago.

Tulu Neerulli.

t4 CROPS

The common onion grown in Madras is of a reddish colour.
It is raised from seed which is sown in a seed-bed ; the seed*
lings being planted out in beds or ridges, or is raised from
bulbs which are planted preferably on ridges. The latter
method is obviously wasteful. White onions from Dhulia in
Bombay have been grown successfully. The Bellary onion
has a special reputation.

Seed-rate — 10 lb. carefully sown in a nursery will be
enough for an acre. The seed is delicate and must be fresh
as it very quickly deteriorates. For bulb planting about
1 ,000 lb. will be sufficient to plant an acre.

Volume weight— 1 Madras measure of seed weighs 2 lb.

Weight of seed — 1,000 seeds weigh 3*95 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— 114,800.

Yield— 15,000 to 25,0001b. per acre. About 15 to 25 per
cent of dryage will occur on storing for three months.
Onions are rarely kept for more than three or four months,
either for consumption or for planting.

GARLIC.

{Allium

sativum.)

Tamil

... Vellaipundu.

Telugu

...

... Tellagadda : Velluli.
... Vellulli.

Malayalam

Kanarese ...

... Bellulli.

Oriya

».

... Losono.

Tulu

...

... Bolluli.

A rare field crop which is only occasionally seen. It is
raised from bulbs. The treatment is similar to that outlined
for onions. As a food, garlic is almost universally used in
curries on account of its varied medicinal properties. It is a
more valuable crop than onion and can be kept much longer.

Seed-rate— 500 to 700 lb. of bulbs will be sufficient to
plant an acre.

Yield— 8,000 to 10,000 lb. per acre.

TURMERIC.

(Curcuma longa.)

Tamil

Manjal.

Telugu

Pasupu.

Malayalam

Manjal.

Kanarese

Arashina

Oriya ,.

Holodi.

Tulu

Manjal .

CROPS »

Area in Madras — 54,400 acres.

There are no distinct varieties though the rhizomes from
different localities show slight differences.

An irrigated crop grown in wet or garden lands ; needing a
deep fertile, well-drained soil ; occupies the ground for nine
months. It is usually planted in rows by hand on ridges ;
and generally mixed with yams, castor, etc. Castor gives the
necessary shade and supplies some fuel for curing.

Seed-rate— 1,000 to 1,700 lb. per acre.

Yield- 12,000 to 20,000 lb. of green roots which when
oured and dried will weigh 3,000 to 5,000 lb. approximately.

CORIANDER.

(Coriandrum

sativum.)

Tamil

... Kottumalli.

Telugu

••

... Dhaniyalu or Kottu-
meri.

Malayalam

...

... ' Kottumpalari.
... Kothumlbaribija.

Kanarese ...

...

Oriya

... Dhonia.

Tulu

...

... Kottemberi-

Area in Madras— 105,000 acres.

There is only one variety, which is grown on a field scale
principally on "black soils, and as a mixture with cotton and
other crops. In deep and heavy black soils, in parts of
Tinnevelly district, this is grown pure in extensive fields
where it rotates with kambu and gives heavy yields. Occa-
sionally grown in gardens for seed, and also as a vegetable for
the sake of the leaves.

Seed-rate— 10 to 12 lb. for a pure crop ; 2 to 4 lb. in
mixtures.

Weight of seeds— 1,000 mericarps (i.e., 500 fruits) weigh
7*31 grammes.

Number off seeds in 1 lb.-62,000.

Yield— about 350 lb. per acre.

CUMMIN.

(Cuminvrn cyminum.)

Tamil Siragam.

Telugu Jilakara.

Malayalam ... Jirakam.

Kanarese Jirige.

Tulu Jerridari.

86 crops

This is a valuable and delicate crop raised in gardens : it
requires much care, fine tilth and a firm seed-bed : grown in
two seasons, beginning of south-west and end of north-east
monsoons : wants thorough manuring and light watering
and mild climate. Hence cultivated in limited extent in
Coimbatore and elsewhere in Madura and in Cuddapah-
Kurnool. A rich loam fairly well-drained is preferred : two
months crop.

Seed- rate- 20 lb. per acre.

Weight of seed— 1,000 seeds weigh 3*97 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— 114,250.
' Yield— up to 750 lb. of seed (fruits).

OMUM-BISHOP'S WEED.

( Caru m copticum. )

Tamil ... ... r Ashamadhan: Omum,

Telugu Omu : Omamu.

Kanarese Omu.

Malayalam ... Ayamodakam.

A crop of very minor importance agriculturally. Grown
occasionally as a field crop in parts of the Nandyal valley and
as a mixture on black cotton soils in Tinnevelly.

MUSTARD.

(Brassica juncea.)

Tamil Kadugu.

Telugu Avalu.

Malayalam Katuku.

Kanarese Sasive.

Oriya Soriso.

Tulu ... Dasemi.

The area under this crop is small. It is found in parts of
Salem and Coimbatore uplands, and as a cold weather crop in
Ganjam and on the Kistna lankas. It is always grown as a
mixture.

Seed-rate -4 to 6 lb.

Weight of seed— 1,000 seeds weigh 1*78 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— 254,800.

Yield -400 lb.

CROPS

*7

PEPPER.

(Piper nigrum.)

Tamil
Telugu
Malayalam
Kanarese .
Tulu

Milagu.
Miriyalu.
Kurumulaku.
Olleminasu.
Sedde Munuchi.

The following varieties are grown : Balamcotta, Kallu-
▼alli and Cheriya Kodi. An inferior female variety (others
are all hermaphrodite) called Utherankotta is often seen in
gardens. The crop is confined to the West Coast, mostly
North Malabar and the Wynaad. Cuttings are planted
against standards. The crop is perennial and commences to
bear after the third year up to the 15th or 20th when it
declines. (See Reports of the Taliparamba Agricultural
Station.)

Volume weight — 1 Madras measure of green pepper
weighs 1 lb. when dry.

Weight of seed- --1,000 seeds weigh 51-5 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb. -8,800.

Yields in the Wynaad about 5 cwt. per acre, up to 15
cwt. ; in the low country 2 to 3 cwt. is a good yield.

GINGER

(Zing

nber

officina

le.)

Tamil

...

•«•

... Inii.
. . . Allam.

Telugu ...

..

Malayalam

...

tt

... Inchi.

Kanarese ...

...

...

... Hasisuntni.

Oriya

...

...

... Vodda.

Tulu

...

...

... Soonti.

The cultivation is practically confined to the West Coast
where it is grown on the high lands and heavily manured
with leaves. In the Circars, occasionally under shade for
green ginger. A variety of ginger with the smell of mangos
is occasionally found and is called mango ginger. This is
used for making pickles and chutnies.

Seed«rate— 1,200 to 2,000 lb. of green rhizomes.

Yield — up to 40,000 lb. of green ginger which will give
2,000 lb. of dry ginger.

88 crops

FENUGREEK.

(Trigonella faenumgraecum.)

Tamil ... Venthiam.

Telugu ... Menthulu.

Malayalam Uluma.

Kanarese Menthiya.

Oriya ... Methi.

Tulu Mente or Metti.

This is grown in gardens and is a three months' crop. It
is found near towns as a pot herb in gardens. The seed is
used for flavouring curries and is also used medicinally.

Weight or seed— 1,000 seeds weigh 11*75 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— 38,600.

Yield— 600 up to 850 lb.

CARDAMOM.

(Elettaria cardamomum.)

Tamil Elakkai.

Telugu Yelakkayulu.

Malayalam Elam.

Kanarese ... Yalakki.

Tulu ... Elakki.

Area— (1903) Madura— 4,000 acres : 650,000 lb.
Malabar- 1,500 acres : 245.000 lb.
South Kanara- 1,260 acres : 68,800 lb.
Coorg— 1,100 acres : 50,000 lb.
Its cultivation is practically confined to the hills, where it
is grown by planters at a considerable elevation, and also in
the submontane tracts of Madura and West Coast where the
rainfall is heavy. The crop wants partial shade and a
humous soil : it is perennial.

Yield— 150 to 300 lb. per acre in an year.

DRUGS AND NARCOTICS.
BETEL.

• — (Piper bete1!.)

Tamil Vettilai.

Telugu ... Tamalapakulu.

Malayalam Vettila.

Kanarese Vilidele.

Oriya ... Panno.

Tulu Baccire.

CROPS 8$

Area in Madras— 23,800 acres.

The varieties grown are numerous, but their names
vary from district to district. The crop is a three years' one,
and needs constant attention and careful manuring and
irrigation. It is usually trained to climb the living stalks
of Agathi grandiflora, grown for this purpose : it is also
trained up bamboos. It is planted from cuttings.

Yield is said to be 80 lakbs of leaves per acre per annum
after the first year, but it is very difficult to get accurate
figures

TOBACCO.

(Nicotiana tabacum.)

Tamil Pugaiyilai.

Telugu Pogaku.

Malayalam Pukayila.

Kanarese .„ ... Hogesoppu.

Oriya Dhuma.

Tulu Pugere.

There are numerous local varieties differing in the shapt»
of the leaf, the thickness of the leaf or the midrib and the
quality or flavour of the leaf.

The crop is grown extensively. It is sometimes seen
as a dry crop, but is more often irrigated though probably
the largest crops are obtained on un irrigated lands on the
Gsdavari lankas. The crop is often sold standing as the
processes of curing and fermenting are difficult.

Seed-rate— 2 oz. of seed mixed with fine sand will sow
200 square feet of seed-bed and will plant out an acre.
Weight of seed— 1,000 seeds weigh "095 gramme.
Number of seeds in 1 lb-4,775;000.
Yield— 900 -2,000 lb. of cured leaf.

INDIAN HEMP.

(Cannabis sativa.)

Tamil Ganja.

Telugu Ganjaya : Ganja :

Bangiku.
Malayalam Kanjavacheti : Kan-

javu.

Kanarese Bhangi : Ganja,

Tulu Bangi : Ganja.

90 CROPS

Area in Madras— 300 acres.

It is cultivated only under the supervision of the
Abkari Department. The success of the crop depends on
the complete elimination of the male plants, as the narcotic
principle is only developed to any extent in the unfertilized
female plant.

Yield— said to be up to 200 lb. of prepared ganja in the
hills : experimental crops at Coimbatore gave 700—800 lb.
per acre.

TINNEVELLY SENNA.

(Cassia angustifolia.)

Tamil Surat Nilavirai : Nilavakai.

Telugu Nelatangedu.

The crop is grown for its leaves which are used medici-
nally and is found mainly in Tinnevelly in dry, wet or
garden lands. Flowers appear after two months and are
nipped off, and leaves are first gathered four or five months
from the time of sowing. After picking, the leaves are cured
under shade for seven days, when they are bagged and sold.
The crop lasts on dry land for three years.

Seed-rate — 4 to 5 Madras measures.

Weight of seed— 1,000 seeds weigh 22'6 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb. -20,000.

Yield -Dry lands, 1st year 700 lb., second and third-half
or less ; wet and garden lands — 1,400 lb.

SUGARS.
SUGARCANE.

(Saccharum officinarum.)

Tamil Karumbu.

Telugu ... Cheruku.

Malayalam Karimpu.

Kanarese Kabbu.

Oriya Akku.

Tulu ... .Si Karumbu.

Area in Madras— 98,800 acres.

There are numerous varieties and one variety may often
be known by different names in different districts. Besides
the local canes, there are a number of Mauritius canes
and sports from them which are being widely cultivated

CROPS 91

in certain tracts. There are further the seedling canes
raised from seed in various countries, from which they have
been obtained, namely, Barbados and Java. Indian seed-
lings are now being raised on a large scale at the Govern-
ment of India Sugarcane Station near Coimbatore.

This is the chief sugar crop although sugar is obtained
from the juice of the palmyra, date and coconut palm. It
is a twelve-month crop which requires irrigation through-
out, and can only be successfully grown on well-drained
garden or wet lands of high fertility which must be well-
manured.

Seed-rate- 10,000 to 35,000 setts (cuttings). These
should be cut from the top halves of the cane. Each sett
should have at least two if not three joints. Jaggery is
manufactured by boiling down the juice extracted by
milling the canes in mills with iron rollers.

Extraction— 60— 70 per cent by weight of the cane is
extracted by a good iron roller in form of juice.

Proportion — jaggery to juice : 11— 13 percent.

Yield— 4,000 to 10,000 lb. of jaggery.

DYES.
INDIGO.

(Indigofera Sumatrana.)

Tamil - ... Avuri : Nili.

Telugu Nili.

Malay alam Nilam.

Kanarese Nili.

Oriya Nili.

Tulu Neeli.

Area in Madras— 66,500 acres.

There is only one variety grown in Madras. Its cultiva-
tion is steadily decreasing ; but the crop is still found on a
fair scale in Vizagapatam, Guntur, Kurnool, Cuddapah and
South Arcot, where the high prices obtainable for the refuse
help to keep the industry going. Two or three cuttings are
obtained from each crop.

Seed-rate — 10 to 15 lb. per acre.

Volume weight — 1 M.M. weighs 3 lb.

Weight of seed— 1,000 seeds weigh 5*85 grammes.

Number of seeds in 1 lb.— 72,500.

92 crops

Yield— 9,000— 12,000 lb. green stuff of which 40 per cent
should be leaf, and this should give 27 to 30 lb. dry indigo ;
as much as 80 lb. may be obtained.

# CHAYROOT.

(Oldenlandia umbellata.)

Tamil Chayaver.

Telugu Chiriverulu.

Malayalam Chayaver.

Kanarese Chayaveru.

The plant is of no economic importance now and its
cultivation has been abandoned.

DRYAGE OF STORED GRAINS.

It is impossible to give definite figures because conditions
vary so widely. The following figures were obtained at
Palur, and represent the loss in weight the crop underwent,
in the interval between the time it was harvested, and the
time it was drv ready for sale : —

Paddy, 8—13 per cent.

Cumbu, 6—13 per cent.

Tenai, 11—17 per cent.

Groundnut* — Irrigated, 25 — 45 per cent.
Dry, 10—30 per cent.

* This probably includes loss of earth adhering to shell as well an
moisture.

FOODS AND FKKPINO.

93

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FOODS AND FEEDING

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FOODS AND FEEDING 95

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FOODS AND FP:EDING

Composition of rations.

A satisfactory ration must not only supply the necessary
amount of nutrition but must also be sufficiently bulky to fill
the animal's belly; it is not possible to keep an animal in
health by feeding it only on concentrated food like groundnut
cake or cotton seed, but it must also get a bulky fodder. It
is important to see that the proportion between the nitro-
genous (proteid) and the non-nitrogenous constituents is
correct, in order on the one hand to avoid giving too much
proteid which is expensive and wasteful, and on the other,
diminishing the proteid below what is necessary for the
animal's health whether it is a mature bullock or a growing
calf. This proportion is called the nutritive ratio, and
shows the proportion between the amounts of each actually
digested by the animals. It is incorrect to work out the
ration by the actual quantities found by analysis, though as
a matter of fact, it has to be done in many cases, because to
mid the digestive co-efficient, i.e., the proportion of a sub-
stance which is digested, is a tedious business and necessitates
actual trial on the animal. The nutritive ratio of a standard
diet is worked out in both ways below. To find the nutritive
or albuminoid ratio, the average percentages of the various
substances are taken, the fat brought to its equivalent in
carbohydrate by multiplying it by 2*29, and the total quantity
of non-nitrogenous matter is then divided by the total
quantity of nitrogenous matter.

For example, let us take the following ration : — 1£ lb.
cotton seed, \\ lb. groundnut cake and 20 lb. cholam straw.
Then :—

Albumi-

Fats.

Carbo-

A

noids.

hydrates.

Food.

d

i li

d

d

d

o

S

c

o

3

o

P

«S

*-< d
<u j d

a>

s

o-

Ph

\<

P-i j "**i

fc

<

LB.

LB.

LB.

LB.

Cottonseed

U

19-00

•28

19-8

•.so

25-7

•39

Groundnut cake ...

H

52-06

•78

7-99

•12

20-7

•31

Cholam straw

20

2-10

•42

1-50

•30
•72

39-7

7-93

Total ...

...

1-48

8-63

7-2 X 2-29 = 1-65. 1-65 + 8-63 = 10'28.
Albuminoid ratio = 10*28 -f- 1*48 = 1 : 7.

FOODS AND FEEDING

97

If now we take the proportions which are actually
digestible we get a somewhat different set of figures. The
following digestive co-efficients may be assumed for
rumiuants : —

Food.

Albumi-
noids.

Fats.

Carbo
hydrates

Cotton seed

Groundnut cake

Cholam straw

PER
CENT.

67
70
46

PER
CENT.

87
89
74

PER
CENT.

49
49
74

The percentages of the constituents will thus be —

Food.

Albumi-
noids.

Fats.

Carbo-
hydrates.

Cottonseed

Groundnut cake

Cholam straw

12-88

3675

0-98

17-25
7-17
1-11

12-75

10-15
2959

and the correct nutritive ratio will be-

Food.

Albumi-
noids.

Fats.

Carbo-
hydrates.

Per

cent.

Lb. | Per+
* cent.

Lb.

Per

cent.

Lb.

Cotton seed, U lb.
Groundnut cake,

l*lb.
Cholam straw, 20

lb

12-88
36-75

0*98

•19
•55

•20

17-25
7-17

111

•26
11

•22

12-75
10-15

29-59

•19
•15

592

Total ...

•94

...

•59

...

6-26

•59x2-29 = 1-35. 1-35 4-6-26 = 7-61,
Albuminoid ratio 7*61 -f- "94 = 1 : 8.

foods and feeding

Specimen rations.
Bullocks doing hard work.

Food and amount.

Albumi-
noids.

Fats.

Carbo-
hydrates.

Horsegram, 2 lb

Cotton seed, 3 lb

Paddy straw, 25 lb. ;

0-27
0*39
0-30

0*008

0-52

0-12

1-00
0-38
327

Total ...

0-96

0-74

_

4-65

n

0-74 X 2-29 = 1-69. 1-69 + 4'65 = 6*34.
Albuminoid ratio = 6'34 ~ 0*96 = 1 : 6-6.

Safflower cake, 3 lb.

Cholam straw, 15 lb

0-96
0-15

0*26
017

0-51
4-44

Total ...

111

0-43

4-95

0-43 X 2-29 = -98. -98 + 4*95 = 5* 93.
Albuminoid ratio = 593-f 1*11 = 1 : 5'4.

Cotton seed, 4 lb

Italian millet straw, 20 lb.

0-52
0-15

0-69 0*51
0-09 , 3-89

Total ...

0-67

0-78

4-40

0-78 X 2-29 = 1*83. 1*83 + 4'40 = 6*23.
Albuminoid ratio = 6'23 -*~ 0*67 = 1 : 9*3.

FOODS AND FEEDING

Food and amount.

Albumi-
noids.

Fats.

Carbo-
hydrates.

Horsegram, 4£ lb

Paddy husk (chittu), 7 lb.
Paddy bran (tavudu), 3£ lb.

•63
•27
•20

•02
•17
•29

2*25

2-43
1-19

Total ...

1-10

•49

<;-42

0-49 X 2-29=^1-12.
Albuminoid ratio =

1-12+6-42=7-54.
7-54 -M -09 = 1 :6'8.

Cows in milk.

Food and amount.

Albumi-
noids.

Fats.

Carbo-
hydrates.

Groundnut cake, 2 lb

Green fodder, 70 lb

0-74
0-45

0-14
0-25

0-20
7-67

Total ...

1-19

0-39 7-87

0-39 X 2-29 = 0-89. 0'89 X 7*87 = 8*76.
Albuminoid ratio 8-76 -5-1-19 = 1 : 7-36.

Cotton seed, 1 lb.

Grass, say, 70 lb.

0-13
056

0-17
020

013
5-03

Total ...

069

037

5-16

0-37 X 29 = 0-85. 0'85 + 5'16 = 6-01.
Albuminoid ratio = 6'01 -f- 0 69 = 1 : 8'71.

100

FOODS AND FEEDING

Dry cows.

Food and amount.

Albumi-
| noids.

Fats.

Carbo
hydrates.

Grass, say, 50 lb...

0-40

! 0'14

3-60

0*14 X 2*29 = 0-32.
Albuminoid ratio =

0-32 + 360 =
: 0-40 -h 3-92 =

= 3-92.
= 1 : 9-8.

Cholam straw, 20 lb.

020

0-22 ! 5-92

0-22 X 2-29 «= 0-50. 0'50 + 5'92 = 6'42.
Albuminoid ratio = 6*42 ■#- 0*20 = 1 ; 321

Calves.

Food and amount.

Albumi-
noids

Fats.

Carbo-
hydrates.

Ground cake, £ lb

Cholam, green, 10 lb.

Milk. £ measure, 2 lb. (cow's)

Total

0-06
0-64
0-06

0*09
0*04
010

0-06
110
0*09

07G

0-23

1-25

023 X 2-29 = 0-53. 0'53 + 1*25 = 1*78.
Albuminoid ratio == 178 + 76 = 1 : 2 3.

wilk (cow's), li Madras measures
= 5 lb.

0'1G

0-24

023

0-24 X2-29 = 0-55. 0'55 + 023 = 078.
Albuminoid ratio = 78 + 16 «= 1 ,: 4'9.

Milk (buffalo's), 1£ Madras mea- ; 0*27
sures =6 lb.

0-49 J 0-27

0-49 X 229 = 112. 112 + 027 =139.
Albuminoid ratio = 139 -5-0*27 = 1:51,

FOODS AND FEEDING
DIGESTIVE CO-EFFICIENTS.

101

Food and amount.

Albumi-
noids.

i
Fats.

Carbo-
hydrates.

Horsegram

Paddy straw

Safflower cake ...

Italian millet (tenai) straw

Green fodder (cholam)

Grass *

Milk

75
45
85
25
46
58
94

59
47

88
42

74

58

100

80
32
80
54
74
48
98

Note. — The digestive co-efficients in these illustrations
are those which have been worked out fcr diniiar fcods iii
other countries. The actual figures may vary very largely
from these.

Cost of feeding a pair of cattle per annum.

Saklapft, 1885.

Fodder, 100 lb. a day at 4(X) lb. the rupee
Cake, 8 lb. a day at Rs. 7 a candy of 500 lb. ...
Interest on value of cattle at 5 per cent on

Rs. 100

Depreciation at 10 per cent per annum

Shoei ng twelve times a year at 12 annas
Contingencies

Total

RS. A.

91 4
40 14

p.
0
0

5 0

10 0

9 0

3 14

0
0
0
0

160 0

g

Coimbatore, 1911.

•Cholam straw— January, February and March

90 days— 30 lb. a day ; 2,700 lb. at 250 lb. a

rupee ...
' Tenai straw - April 30 days- 30 lb. a day ; 900 lb.

at 150 lb. a rupee

! "Wheat straw and gram pottu ; May 31 days— 30

lb. a day ; 930 lb. at 500 lb. a rupee

10 12 10
6 0 0
1 13 9

102

FOODS AND FEEDING

10 lb. of green fodder a day additional in May,

3,100 lb. at 300 lb. a rupee

Paddy straw — June, July and August, 122

days— 30 lb. a day, 3,660 lb. at 150 lb. a rupee.
Ragi straw, October 31 days, 80 lb. [green J a

day, 2,480 lb. at 400 lb. a rupee

November, 30 days, 40 lb. [dry] a day, 1.200 lb.

at 250 lb. a rupee

Grass — December 31 days, at 100 lb a day, 3,100

lb. at 500 lb. a rupee .*.. ...

Groundnut cake 365 X 3 = 1,095 lb. at Rupees

78-12-0 a ton

Cottonseed 365 X 3 = 1,095 lb. at Rs. 95 per

ton

Salt 365 X 2 tolas or

730 X 2

lb. or 18| lb.

5X16

6 pics alb.

Shoeing fcur times at 12 annas
Ir+erest at 5 per cent on Rs*200 ...
Depreciation j«t 10 per cent on Rs. 200

Attendance

Contingencies

Total

RS.

A. P.

i

0 "6

24

6 5

6

3 2

4

12 9

6

3 2

46

7 0

46

7 0

0

3

10

20

12

3

9 2

0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
3 4

195

0 0

Cost of feeding cows per annum.
Saidapet, 1885.

11,000 lb. of green food

1,5001b. oil cake

730 lb. wheat bran

730 lb. dholl husk

*201b. salt

Attendance and sundries

Interest on value of cow Rs. 15$? at 5 per cent
and depreciation at 10 per cent ..

Total

Deduct— One-third value of artificial food

chargeable to manure ...

Net cost per annum ...

36 12 0

21

0 0

18

4 0

11

6 0

0 10 1

18

0 0

22

8 0

128

8 0

16

8

112

0

FOODS AND FEEDING 103

Coimbatore.

(In milk 10 months, 304 days.)

RS. a. r.
Cotton seed, 1 lb. a day, 304 lb. at Rs. 95 a

ton ... 12 14 3

Groundnut cake, 1 lb. a day, 304 lb. at Rupees

78-12-0 a ton 10 11 0

Dholl husk, 2 lb. a day, 608 lb. at Rs. 1-3-0 for

50 lb 14 7 0

Green cholam fodder, 40 lb. a day, 9,680 lb. for

242 days at 300 lb. a rupee 32 4 3

Green grass, 60 lb. a day, 3,720 lb. for 62 days

at 500 lb. a rupee ... 7 7 0

Salt, 1 tola a day, 304 tolas for 304 days or 1\ lb.

at 6 pies a lb 0 3 8

Total ... 77 15 2

(Dry two months.)

>ry cholam fodder (straw) 20 lb. a day, 1,220 lb.
for 61 days at 250 lb. a rupee ... ' 4 14 2

82 13 4

Attendance* 18 0 0

Depreciation at 10 per cent per annum on Rs. 80. 8 0 0

Interest at 5 per cent on Rs. 80 4 0 0

Contingencies ... 1118

Total ...
Deduct — One-fourth value of artificial food
chargeable to manure

Net cost per annum ...

Cost of feeding calves.

First year.

[ilk for the first two months, 30 Madras
measures at 4 annas a Madras measure ... 7 8 0

Groundnut cake, i lb. a day for 10 months, 76
lb. at Rs. 78-10-0 per ton 2 10 9

* One man on Rs. 8 and one boy on Rs. 4 a month of
very eight cows.

114

9

9

9

0

0

105

0

0

104 FOODS AND FEEDING

Cotton seed, £ lb. a day, for 10 months, 76 lb. at
Rs. 95 per ton

Dholl husk, \ lb. a day, for 10 months, 76 lb. at
Rs. 1-3-0 for 50 lb

Salt

Fodder similar to that of cows, at one-fourth
their rate

Attendance*

Groundnut cake, £ lb. a day, 182£ lb. at Rupees

78-12-0 per ton

Cotton seed, i lb. a day, 1824 lb. at Rs. 95 per ton.
Dholl husk, \ lb. a day, 182£ lb. at Rs. 1-3-0 for

. 501b.

Bait ...

1 ' odder, similar to that of cows, at half their rate.
Attendance

Third year.

Groundnut cake, f lb. a day, 274 lb. at Rupees
78-12-0 per ton

Cotton seed, f lb. a day, 274 lb. at Rs. 95 per ton.

Dholl husk, f lb. a day, 274 lb. at Rs. 1-3-0 for
501b

Salt

Fodder, similar to that of cows at half their rate.

Attendance

Total ... 25 4 1

Second year.

6

6

8

7

11

10

4

5

4

0

1

0

20

0

0

2

0

0

Total ... 40 8 10

9 10
11 9

0
9

6 8

0 1

20 0

2 0

d

0
0
0

Total ... 49 12 9

Total for three years 115 9 8

Contingencies for three years 46 4

Grand total ... 120 0 0

* This has heen calculated at the rate of Rs. 4 (one boy) for every
24 calves per month all through.

FOODS AND FEEDING

106

Rations.

(Fed to calves at the Military Dairy Farm, Bangalore.)
First period— birth to 21 days ... 6 lb. whole milk given

three times a da^

f Whole milk

Second period— third to fifth week, -j

Separated

j Barley meal

i ;,

^Linseed oil ... 1 oz.

(Separated milk. 2 lb.
Barley meal ... 4 „
Linseed oil ... 1 oz.
Fourth period — fourth to fifth Barley meal raised

month.
Fifth period — sixth to eighth month.

to

61b.
Barley meal gradually
reduced until none is
given. Green fodder
is now given and a
ration of 1 lb. wheat
bran; \ lb. oil cake and
i oz. salt, each day.
From ninth month on the normal young stock ration is
fed, viz. : —

Wheat bran ... 1 lb.

Decorticated cotton cake ... 1 „

Green fodder ".. ... ... 15 .,

Second period-
month.

-third week to sixth

Fourth period— sixth
month.

From ninth month

to

Whole milk ... 1 lb.
Separated milk ... 5 „
Cotton seed meal. I „

| Fodder as much as they

l. will eat.

f Cotton seed meal. 1 lb.
eighth] Hay 15 „

[Salt

f Cotton seed meal.

| Cotton seed hulls.
..'{ Rice bran

| Salt

IHay

2oz.
21b.
1 ,,
1 „
2oz.
151b.

Pasturage fees.

In the northern deltas, Rs. 20 to Rs. 30 are charged for
grazing a pair of bullocks for four months — August to Sep-
tember—including watching charges.

106 LIVE-STOCK

LIVE-STOCK.

Names of cattle.
Male.

At birth.— Bull calf ; if castrated, bullock calf or stot calf.

When a year old. — Yearling bull or year-old bull ; if cas-
trated, year-old stot or steer.

When two years old.— Two-year old bull ; if castrated, two-
year old stot or steer.

When three years old and upwards. — Three-year old bull or
bullock (if castrated), four-year old bull or bullock, five-year
old bull or bullock, aged bull or bullock ; or

Two-teeth bull or bullock, four-teeth bull or bullock, six-
teeth bull or bullock, full mouthed bull or bullock, aged bull
or bullock.

Female.

At birth. — Heifer calf or cow calf.

When a year old. — Yearling heifer or year-old heifer.

When two years old.— Two-year old heifer.

When three years old. — Three-year old heifer.

A cow or heifer that has received the bull is said to have
been served or bulled and, if in calf, is called cow in calf or
heifer in calf.

A heifer becomes a cow on bearing a calf.

A cow in milk is termed a milk or milch cow (Tamil
Karavai) . When she ceases milking, she is a dry or yeld cow
(Tamil Varadu).

Cows, as a rule, bear one calf at a time. If two are born
at one birth, they are termed twins, if three, triplets. When
a bull and heifer calf are born twins, the latter is called a
free-martin and is usually barren.

Breeding.

Cattle are bred in India for draught and milk purposes.
Draught cattle are used for the plough, the mhote and the
cart . Bullocks are also used as beasts of burden. Of the
several breeds in Southern India, the pre-eminent and the
best defined ones are the Ongole and the Mysore. The
Ongoles are huge in size and are suitable for a steady, heavy
draught. The cows on an average give 6 to 10 lb. of milk

LIVE-STOCK 107

per day. The best ones may yield as much as 15 to 20 lb. in
24 hours. The Mysore cattle are quick of pace and very
spirited and are specially suited for road work. The cows are
poor milkers. Between these two extremes are all the
remaining several breeds, in which the working and milking
capabilities are combined and are of a medium standard.
Indian heifers, as a rule, do not come in heat until they
are from 3| to 4 years old, but some take the bull as soon
as they have cut the first pair of teeth, that is, when they are
21 years old, and instances are known in which heifers have
produced their first calves before cutting the first pair of
teeth. It is quite safe to breed from heifers which have
cut the first pair, and it is desirable from the point of
view of saving in the matter of keep, that they should be
so bred from. Early maturity can be secured by proper
feeding and care. Indian cattle tend to go dry for a long
time. They are not fed when they are dry and it does
not pay the owner to do so. There is no reason why cows
when they are dry, should not be used as draught animals
until they are within a month and a half or two of calving,
and fed and looked after well. This practice obtain in
some parts of Coimbatore and Salem districts, and deserves
further extension. A cow comes in season, as a rule, every
three weeks, but this varies very much with different animals.
A good cow should average a calf a year ; this means she
should take the bull two to four months after calving. A cow
after calving should not be given the bull, even if she comes in
heat, until two months have elapsed since calving. Some cows
may go on milking during the whole period of pregnancy,
hi such cases they should be dried when they are within a
couple of months of calving, so that the mammary glands
may have rest and the process of the secretion of new milk
may go on undisturbed. Heifers should not be allowed to
get too fat, as oestrum is liable to be delayed, and they
may even go barren. The breeding bull should be parti-
cularly selected as his influence on the progeny is extensive,
and as he becomes the sire of many animals. A bull
should not be used for breeding before he has at least cut
he first pair, that is about 2i year old. He is in his vigour
from the third to the eighth year, after which he should
be discarded. He must be fed well, and light and regular
work will keep him in good condition, health and spirit.
The average period of gestation in cows is 9£ months or 285
days. It is said that they go longer with a bull calf than
with a heifer, which is, however, not confirmed by observation..
The signs of pregnancy in a cow are these. She does not

108 LIVE-STOCK

come in heat again, and there is improvement in her condition.
The abdomen enlarges and becomes pendulous, particularly
on the right side. The udder increases in size, and the
mucous discharge from the genital parts is also increased.
After the fifth month, foetal movements can be perceived by
looking at the flank on the right side. Abortion or miscarriage
occurs occasionally. It is due to the nature of the food and
other influences. Pregnant animals when affected with blood
diseases may abort. Abortion is also caused by certain
bacterial organisms, and therefore rigid separation of animals
which have aborted from those which are pregnant should be
attended to. Approaching parturition is indicated by the
swelling of the udder and occurrence of milk in it, discharge
of thick mucus from the vulva, and the loosening or ' slipping '
of the hinder parts, due to the relaxation of the pelvic liga-
ments. The process of parturition occupies about an hour.
The placenta or after-birth comes away in \ to 4 hours after
the calf has been dropped.

Rearing.

The calf is allowed to suck its mother both before and
after milking. In some parts the calf is tied to the arm
of the mother and is allowed to suck only after milking. In
Europe the general practice is to separate the calf from the
dam as soon as it is born, or in a week or ten days after birth
and to hand-feed it. Both the systems have their advantages
and disadvantages. Allowing the calf access to the mother
acts as a stimulus for the secretion of milk and ensures the
udder being thoroughly emptied after each milking, and the
cow yields her milk freely. When the cow is out grazing,
there is no danger of her milk being drawn stealthily. The
disadvantages are that the cow may not give milk if the calf
dies, and that it is difficult to regulate the amount of milk to
be left for the calf. Under the European system, the calf
is given a regelated and required amount of milk, and the
cow can be milked whether the calf is alive or dead, but there
is no certainty of the milkman stripping the udder thoroughly.
As soon as cow has calved, she should be milked and a por-
tion of the milk should be given to the calf or left in the
udder for it to suck. The milk yielded for the first four or
five days is called colostrum ; it contains a high proportion of
albumen and curdles when boiled. It is called in Tamil
' seempal,' that is, ' pus milk.1 This milk contains some laxa-
tive principle and helps to clear the intestines of the calf of
meconium. Some cows do not secrete milk on the very first day

MVE-STOCK 109

of (-living. In such a case an ounce or two of castor oil may
be given to the calf. During the first month the calf should
get sufficient milk, 2 to 4 lb. a day according to its size. If
the cow is a poor milker, the whole of the milk should be left
to the calf. During the next month, half this quantity may be
allowed, the calf being taken out for grazing or supplied with

grass and also given a little special food — skimmed milk,
utter milk, linseed meal or rice or cholam or kambu conjee.
Hand-fed calves may be weaned when 4 to 6 months old.

Bulls are castrated in this country when they are four and
five years old, the objection to earlier castration being that the
growth is stunted. Unfortunately this leads to promiscuous
breeding, young and unsuitable stock being allowed to cover
cows. It is still a matter for question, as to the best age at
which to castrate young bulls, so far as their growth and
nature is concerned. Young animals should get exercise.
Even when there is no grazing available, they must be taken
out for a run. The weight of calf at birth is 1/15 to 1/12 of
that of the mother. Nellore calves weigh 40 to 50 lb. at
birth and Kangayam and big sized country calves 30 to 40 lb.

Feeding.

After a calf has been weaned, it must be fed liberally and
regularly as the animal goes on continuously growing. It is
only a well fed calf that will grow into a good bull or heifer.
Bad or interrupted feeding during the early years tells upon
the system throughout life. In addition to good grazing or
supply of fodder and grass, which forms the bulk of food in
cattle of all ages, the young stock should get a certain amount
of concentrated food. The tissues of the body among other
elements contain nitrogen. Nitrogen is not contained in all
food stuffs but the other elements generally are. The special
food given to young stock should therefore be rich in nitro-
gen. Nitrogen is found in cotton seed and in pulses such as
grams, groundnuts, etc. A mixture of equal parts of horse-
gram, cotton-seed and groundnut cake will be a proper food
for young stock. Young animals should be let loose daily for
grazing and exercise. Byots take care of their bull calves but
neglect their heifer calves. It is very right to feed and look
after the bull calves well, so that they may grow into good
breeding bulls or draught cattle, but it is wrong to neglect the
heifer calves. If heifers are required for breeding they must
be brought up well. Both the sire and the dam influence the
progeny, although the former has more influence in the herd.
A dairy cow in milk must be fed well and regularly. She

110 LIVE-STOCK

must get some green fodder or grass and also some nitrogen-
ous and fatty food stuffs, such as oil-cakes and cotton seed.
Bulls and working cattle should, in addition to fodder and
straw, get some special food. Common salt is as necessary to
cattle as it is to man, and a tola or two per head should be given
daily mixed with food. Proper housing must be provided,
and cattle must be protected from exposure and wind during
inclement weather.

Age of cattle.

The age of cattle is estimated by means of the teeth and
also by the rings or nicks round the horn. The first ring
appears at the third year, and then each year is supposed to add
a ring, so that if there are two rings, the animal is considered!
four years old, if three rings, five years old and so on. The]
rings are, however, not always well marked, and it is much '
safer to judge the age by the teeth.

Dentition. — The dentition of cattle is typical of the:
ruminants. At or within a month after birth the calf has!
eight incisors, or six incisors and two canines, in the lower jaw]
(the canines are shaped exactly like the incisors and situated!
close, to them and are generally regarded as incisors) and
twelve premolars, three on each side above and below. The!
upper jaw has no incisors nor canines and is provided instead]
with a cartilaginous pad (dental pad) . All these are temporary ]
or milk-teeth, and they are replaced later by permanent ones. ]
Three molars on each side of each jaw behind the premolars
come up and complete the permanent dentition. The number]
of permanent teeth is thus 32. Until the eight permanent!
incisors are completed when the animal is said to be full-J
mouthed, the age can be told with correctness. After this,!
ageing is a matter of guesswork from the extent to which the!
teeth are worn.

Dental formula for milk teeth —

Incisors - — - , premolars - — -. Total 20.
4 — 4 o — o

Dental formula for permanent teeth —

A A Q O Q q

Incisors -— , premolars ~ — ^, molars - — - . Total 32. ■

The top figures show the teeth on each side of the upper*!
jaw and the bottom figures the teeth on each I side of thef
lower jaw.

LIVE-STOCK

111

Teeth indicating age —

(Appearance of temporary incisors.)

nrrriTD

At birth or 1 week.

2 weeks.

3 to 4 weeks.
(Appearance of permanent incisors.)

2 years 6 months.

3 years 6 months.

4 years 6 months.

5 years 6 months.

(Appearance of molars.)

3 to 4 weeks.

Temporary premolars.

ermanent premo

lars j Molars j

/

i /

i /

L_i_

9 months.

1 year 6 months.

2 years 3 months.
2i to 3 years.

3 to 4£ years.

112

LIVE-STOCK

Calving table.
Average period of gestation, 285 days.

" If served on

Will calve
about

If served on

Will cal
about

\v

January

1

October

13

July 1

April

12

7

19

7

18

M

14

M

26

14

;;

25

M

21

November 2

21

May

2

28

'

9

28

*

9

M

31

M

12

31

12

February

1

,,

13

August 1

,j

13

7

19

7

16

14

},

26

14

M

26

21

Decembei

• 3

21

June

2

28

M

10

28

•j

March

1

ii

11

31

ii

12

„

7

ii

17

September 1

13

14

)t

24

7

19

n

21

n

31

14

26

M

28

January

7

21

July

:\

31

10

28

10

April

1

ii

11

30

12

7

17

October 1

13

M

14

24

7

19

21

M

31

H

M

26

„

28

February

7

21

August

2

30

9

28

9

May

1

M

10

31

12

7

M

16

November 1

M

13

14

23

7

-

19

21

March

2

14

M

26

28

n

9

21

September 2

31

i>

12

28

»i

9

June

1

13

30

ii

11

7

M

19

December 1

12 .

14

26

' 7

n

18

21

April

2

14

October

25

28

9

21

2 1

ii

30

n

11

28

ii

9

LIVE-STOCK 113

Common diseases.

Simple fever. — This may be brought about through chauges
of weather, change of food, or exposure. It is ushered in
with a shivering fit, which is followed by hurried breathing
and with temperature increased to 104° to 106'. Confine the
animal to the stall. Give as drench 8 to 12 ounces of Epsom
salts with an ounce of nitre. Then give twice a day an ounce
of common salt and two drams of nitre in a pint of water.
The patient must have green grass and plenty of pure drink-
ing water. When free from the complaint an ounce of pow-
dered chirata with two drams of black pepper in a pint of
water or gruel may be given once daily for a few days.

Rheumatism. — A common complaint in India. It results
from the inflammation of the fibrous tissue through
exposure to wet and damp. It is most common in the
south-west monsoon— June to September. Young animals
between the ages of one and five are most liable. There is
high fever attended with stiffness and pain in moving. The
animal walks very lame. It soon lies down and is unable to
get up. The attack lasts for about three days, when fever
and lameness disappear, but stiffness in gait remains for
some time. Give at once a pound of Epsom salts with half an
ounce of ginger in sufficient quantity of warm water. The
animal must be provided with a good bed and have placed
before it green grass and pure fresh water with a little nitre
dissolved in it. After recovery two ounces of sulphur may
be given once daily for a few days.

Cancer. — Cancerous tumours and sores are not uncommon
in cattle. The only plan is to remove the diseased part
completely by surgical means. If this is not possible, the
disease cannot be eradicated. Mild caustics may be used as a
palliative measure.

Tuberculosis. — This is what is commonly known as con-
sumption in man. It attacks cattle and other domesticated
animals. The disease is infectious. The cause is an organism
known as Bacillus tuberculosis. It is a blood disease, but the
organs particularly affected are different in different attacks.
The lungs are the organs most frequently attacked, but the
liver and intestines and other abdominal organs may also be
the seat of the disease. Joints are sometimes affected. The
affected animal is out of condition and falls away in flesh.
The faeces are offensive and loose. When the lungs are
affected there is also a cough, which is weak and coarse.
Post-mortem examination shows the presence of small nodules
or tubercles in the organs affected. There is no known cure
8

114 . LIVE-STOCK

for the disease. Young animals and cows five to eight years
old are most liable. Infected animals must be removed from
the herd. They are unsafe to use either for breeding, milk-
ing or for human food.

Pleuro-pneumo?iia contagiosa. — Inflammation of the lungs
and pleura may be simple or contagious. The latter is a speci-
fic form and is contagious and infectious. It is fortunately
rare in India. There is fever and general signs of disease.
The breathing is hurried, the muzzle is protruded and the

Eatient grunts and moans during respiration. Pressure
etween the ribs makes the animal grunt from pain. Purg-
ing sets in and the animal dies eventually of suffocation and
exhaustion. Affected animals must be isolated. Ten drops
of carbolic acid may be given twice daily in rice gruel. Tur-
pentine must be well rubbed in on the throat and chest. The
disease is almost always a fatal one and it is best to destroy
the animal in the early stage.

Foot-and-mouth disease. — A highly infectious and conta-
gious disorder attacking cattle principally, but also transmis-
sible to sheep, goats and buffalos. The period of incubation
varies from one to four days, and the disease shows itself with
an elevation of temperature from two to five degrees. The
disease is characterised by the appearance of vesicles or
blisters in the mouth and between the toes and, in cows, on
the udder also. The blisters soon burst leaving raw sores.
There is saliva foaming from the mouth, with a peculiar
smacking of the lips and tongue. The feet are so sore that
the animal is extremely lame, and moves with great difficulty.
Mortality is very rare in adult animals, but the disease may
prove fatal to very young calves. The diet must be nutritious
and soft, such as rice or other grain, gruel and green grass.
Give a mild purgative at the commencement. Wash the
mouth once daily for two or three days with alum lotion— 20
to 30 grains to an ounce of water. The feet must be kept
clean and dressed with carbolic, camphor or margosa oil. If
the udder is affected, treat as in mammitis. The milk of the
affected animals should not be used without being well boiled.
Rinderpest. — This is the most formidable disease in cattle
and is highly infectious and contagious. It also attacks sheep,
goats and buffalos. In virulent outbreaks, mortality is 80 to
§0 per cent, in ordinary, 40 to 50 per cent. The period of in-
cubation lasts from four to eight days but ma}' extend even
to 14 days. In the beginning there are all the general signs
of disease. There is fever, persistent shivering, congestion of
the mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, eyes and vagina,
followed with a discharge of acrid tears from the eyes, and of

LIVE-STOCK 115

copious saliva from the mouth, and a muco-purulent discharge
from the nose and the vagina. There are often sores in the
mouth. Bowels are at first constipated, but soon fetid
diarrhoea of a dirty yellow colour with mucus and blood in it
sets in. The prostration of strength is very great. In milch
cows the secretion of milk entirely ceases. Duration of the
disease is from 2 to 10 days. As a rule, a crisis sets in about
the sixth or seventh day and the animal dies or shows signs
of recovery. Treatment : at the commencement, when the
bowels are costive, give once daily, until the bowels get loose,
8 to 10 ounces of castor or linseed oil. Twenty to 30 minims
of carbolic acid may be administered in a pint of warm gruel
once daily. If there be bloody diarrhoea, give some astringent
(see Recipes). Diet must consist of fresh young grass and of
gruel, which must be gently drenched down if the animal will
not take it of its own accord. Affected animals should be
strictly isolated. The carcases with the dung, litter, etc.,
should be burned or buried deep with oruicklime.

Cow-pox. — A specific eruptive fever in cattle. It is of rare
occurrence. Cows are more liable to it than bulls, and cows
after calving are most liable . It is not a severe affection. The
eruptions show themselves in the region of the udder and
teats in the form of circular vesicles with a central depression.
The vesicles contain a clear fluid termed lymph, which gradu-
ally becomes opaque and purulent. In the course of a few
days the pustules burst and scales form, which soon drop
away. The disease terminates in about three weeks and calls
for no special treatment. If the udder is much inflamed,
foment with hot water twice daily, and after milking, dust a
little powdered chalk or alum over the sores. Isolation is
seldom necessary. Milk of the affected animals must be
rejected. It is with the lymph contained in the vesicles of
cow-pox that man is vaccinated as a protection from small-
pox. One attack of cow-pox gives the animal immunity from
the disease in future.

Haemorrhaqic septicemia. — This term includes a variety
of diseases, Buffalo disease, Deer disease, Gloss-Anthrax,
Swine plague, Fowl cholera, Contagious Pneumonia of the
horse, etc. The agent that produces this disease is a cocco-^
bacillus or Pasteurella. In cattle it is found in three forms
mostly commencing to attack buffalos (hence the name).
They are as follows : —
i. Exanthematic.
ii. Lung form,
iii. Intestinal form.

The first form of this malady is characterised by its rapi-
dity of onset and course and its fatal termination. The

116 LIVE-STOCK

animal is off feed, rumination suspended, temperature rising
very high as 108° to 109° F. There is hurried breathing with
great distress, and often a bloody discharge from the nostrils
and bowels. Large swellings of a tense nature appear at the
throat, in the dewlap and sometimes over the fetlocks and
shoulder. In some cases the throat swelling is so great that
the animal is totally unable to breathe or swallow. The
tongue swells up very much and hangs out. The mouth is
frothy, the visible mucous membranes are purple coloured,
and death often occurs in a few hours. In the other two
forms the lungs and digestive organs aie chiefly affected, the
animal having an acute pneumonia and pleurisy in the lung
form and inflammation of the alimentary canal in the third
form.

The disease often occurs in an area as an outbreak and
is worst on marshy low-lying pastures and badly drained
and ill-ventilated sheds.

Treatment is not of much avail. Preventive measures to
be adopted are segregating the sick animals, and removing
from unhealthy surroundings. Treat sick animals with a
dram of carbolic acid in a pint of linseed or castor oil inter-
nally or soda hyposulphate 1 oz. morning and evening in
drinking water. Tincture of iodine, liniments and fomenta-
tions may be applied to the swellings. Healthy animals
may be protected by subcutaneous injection of anti-
Hjemorrhagic Septicemic serum.

This disease can be differentiated from Rinderpest by the
absence of mouth lesions and sudden onset of symptoms.
The carcases of animals affected with this disease have to be
disposed of in the same way as Anthrax and disinfection car-
ried out the same manner.

A nth rax.— This is a specific contagious disease attacking
cattle and other domestic animals. It is caused by the pre-
sence of an organism in the blood called Bacillus authracis.
The disease is nighly fatal (95 — 99 per cent) and runs a rapid
course from a few hours to a few days. It is communicable
to man. It appears mostly in two forms.

Splenic form. — This form is called splenic fever and is
characterised by a very high fever, discharge of bloody fasces
and high coloured urine, and tympany ; death ensues in
a few hours. In many instances animals seen apparently in
good health a few hours before are found dead suddenlv.
On pos£-raorte/rc"examination the spleen is found considerably
enlarged, and distended with tarry blood.

Enteric form. — All the above mentioned symptoms are
noticed and in addition there is severe colic and dark coloured

LIVE-STOCK 117

blood escapes with the faeces from the bowels. Here also
death occurs within a few hours.

Treatment is not of much avail. The animal should at
once be isolated and the whole place thoroughly disinfected.
A dram of carbolic acid in a pint of linseed oil may be given
at once. The carcases of animals that have died of this
disease should either be burned or buried deep with quick-
lime. They should be covered with straw to prevent dis-
charges falling to the ground from the natural openings and
then removed to the burial or burning ground. The earth
in the sheds for about six inches must be dug and replaced
with fresh earth and quicklime, and the whole place
thoroughly disinfected with strong antiseptic lotions, after
burning a layer of straw on the floor. Temporary isolation
sheds are better burned after an outbreak. Thorough scrub-
bing of the walls with antiseptic lotion and whitewashing
should be insisted on in permanent sheds.

Black-quarter or quarter ill, black leg or quarter evil. —
This disease was until recently supposed to be a kind of
anthrax. It is an infectious bacterial disease manifested by
high temperature, lameness and a localised hot, painful
swelling on the shoulders, quarter, neck, leg, trunk or else-
where. The swellings mostly occur in the limbs and quarters,
and hence the name black-quarter. Cattle of all ages are
liable to infection; but the disease begins in animals under
two years of age and rarely in adult cattle. Suckling calves
fed only on milk are free. It is a disease that is worst in
low-lying marshy pastures.

The swelling at first is small, hot, tender and pits on
pressure. It extends to 12 inches or more in diameter in a
few hours, and becomes dry and parchment like. Decomposi-
tion takes place inside ; the swelling becomes cold, the parts
inside gangrenous, and the skin becomes insensible.

Preventive treatment consists in changing the pasture,
and in inoculating healthy animals with black-quarter
vaccine, which is prepared out of muscle-juice from an in-
f eeted part. The ends of the ears and the tail are the seats
of inoculation, which should be done with proper antiseptic
precautions by a trained veterinarian. Sick animals should
De isolated at once and strict disinfection should be carried
out. A dose of linseed oil (1 pint) with a dram of carbolic
acid may be given without delay. The tumours in sever.il
places may be scarified and a saturated solution of potassium
permanganate may be applied, or strong antiseptics or
caustics as pure carbolic acid or equal parts of turpentine,
tincture of iodine and liquor ammonia may be applied. In

118 LIVE-STOCK

animals that recover, internal tonics as tincture ferri per-
ehloride, 1 ounce in a pint of water may be given once daily,
and externally the diseased parts will have to be treated
surgically as wounds or abscesses.

Choking. — Cattle are sometimes choked with pieces of oil
cake, palmyra nuts, stalks of cholam. The animal is uneasy
and restless and there is no rumination. It coughs and
salivates and, when it attempts to drink, water returns
through the nostrils. If the obstruction can be reached by
the hand, attempt must be made to remove it. If the impac-
tion be lower down in the gullet beyond the reach of the
hand, pour down the throat a little oil and then work the
obstacle up and down when it may be dislodged and will
descend into the stomach. Should this prove unsuccessful,
the probang ought to be used and, in the absence of one, a
rattan 6 feet long and half an inch in diameter covered at one
end with soft cloth or wash leather may be substituted. The
mouth must be kept open by the introduction across it of a

Eiece of wood with a hole in the centre to allpw of the cane
eiug passed through. The obstruction must be gently
pushed down into the stomach.

Tympanitis ; Hoven. — A common complaint among cattle
in India. It is due to the distension of the rumen with gas.
The cause is generally a too free use of succulent fodder or
grass. There is uneasiness and pain, and a swelling on the
left side of the belly, which, when struck, sounds like a drum.
The animal is unable to breath freely and grunts. In severe
cases, relief should be afforded at once or the animal may die
of suffocation. Give at once a pint of linseed oil with an
ounce of turpentine in it (see also Recipes) and administer
enemas of warm water. Should relief be not obtained in a
few hours, and should the symptoms become aggravated,
puncture the rumen with a trocar and canula on the left side
at a point equally distant from the point of the hip, the last
rib and the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebras. If
this instrument is not to be had, plunge the large blade of a
pocket knife into the stomach and turn it crossways, when
the gas will escape.

Impaction of the rumen. — This is distension of the rumen
with food. Some particular foods are liable to cause this
disorder, but anything particularly palatable and eaten to
excess may produce the disease. The abdomen is distended
on the left side but percussion elicits a dull sound and the
swelling pits on pressure. If not relieved soon enough,
tympanitis may supervene and the animal may die of suffo-
cation. Give immediately an oil purgative with a strong

LIVE-STOCK 119

stimulant, linseed or castor oil two pints, croten oil thirty
minims, powdered ginger one ounce. Administer copious
and frequent enemas of warm water. Should relief be not
obtained by the above measures, the only remedy is to
perform " ruminotomy," that is, to cut into the stomach and
remove its contents through the incision. This operation
should only be attempted by a practised hand.

Diarrhoea. — Frequent evacuations of excessively fluid
faeces. The causes are many, such as unwholesome food, free
consumption of fresh young grass springing up after rains,
scanty pasturage in the hot weather, sudden change of food
from dry to green, change of seasons from hot to cold and
vice versa. Impure water may also cause diarrhoea. In most
cases, it would be well to clear the bowels with a laxative
dose of castor or linseed oil — 15 ounces of oil with a dram of
ganja. The food must be carefully examined, and changed
if necessary. Should diarrhoea persist, give daily for a few
days an astringent drench (see Recipes).

Dysentery. — This is caused by inflammation of the mem-
brane lining the bowels. It is a frequent accompaniment of
blood disorders. Simple dysentery may follow protracted
and neglected diarrhoea, or may originate from exposure to
cold, coarse, innutritious food or fodder, impure water, etc.
It may also be an after-effect of poisonous agents. Give
once daily or on alternate days, according to the nature of
the case 8 ounces of linseed oil with a dram of ganja or of
opium. Rub the flanks well with equal parts of mustard and
turpentine. A course of astringents may also be adminis-
tered if necessary (see Recipes).

Hepatitis. — Inflammation of the liver. It may be caused
by an excessive amount of highly stimulating food, associated
with want of exercise. The disease is also attributed to
changes of temperature and of food. It is most frequent in
the hot weather. Fever may be present. The eyes and the
skin are yellow. There may be perceptible enlargement on
the right side with tenderness on pressure. Give frequent
saline purgatives so as to keep the bowels loose for a week
or ten days. Then give once or twice daily for a few days 2
drams each of camphor, aniseed and fenugreek in a pint of
warm gruel.

• Bronchitis. — Inflammation of the trachea and bronchial
tubes. It is usually acute but may be chronic. The common
causes are exposure to cold and dampness, sudden changes of
temperature or over exertion. The disease begins with a
chill followed by high fever. The respirations are hurried.

120 LIVE-STOCK

There is cough, which in the early stage is dry, but in the
later stages becomes moist, with a mucous discharge from
the mouth and nostrils. The bowels are generally costive.
Administer enemas and a saline purgative. The air passages
may be steamed and stimulating applications rubbed on the
sides of the chest and the course of the trachea. The patient
must be allowed a free supply of pure air, of tempting food
and of nitrated drinking water— 2 ounces of nitre dissolved
in a gallon of water. Later, give a few expectorant drenches
(see Recipes).

Young calves are subject to a parasitical bronchitis called
" husk " or " hoose." This is caused by a species of thread
worm known as Strongylus micrurus. There is a husky
cough. Give \ ounce of turpentine in 3 ounces of linseed oil
twice a week. Fumigation with chlorine, carbolic acid or
sulphur is supposed to kill the parasite.

Pneumonia ; Inflammation of the lungs. — This disease may
be accompanied with pleurisy (inflammation of the pleura).
The causes are the same as those of bronchitis. There is
quick and laborious breathing ; the mouth is hot but the
horns, ears and feet are often excessively cold. There is
also a frequent sore cough. Give an aperient of Epsom salts
and a free supply of nitrated water to drink. The patient
must be well housed and kept warm. Rub turpentine on the
chest twice daily, until it becomes slightly sore. A seton
may be inserted in the dew lap.

Red water ; Black water. — This disease sometimes shows
itself in cows after calving. The urinary organs get irritated
and the cow strains frequently and passes urine in small
quantities tinged with blood. Later, the secretion may
become black or brownish black. Keep the cow quiet and
give her drinks of linseed tea or of thin rice gruel in which
some nitre should be dissolved. Three or four ounces of
Epsom salts may be given once daily in the form of a drench
for about a week.

Nephritis ; Inflammation of the kidney. — This is a frequent
complaint in cattle, specially working bullocks, as a result of
violent strains or blows on the loins. It may also arise
from sudden changes in the temperature and exposure to wet
and cold. There are general febrile symptoms. If both
kidneys are affected, no urine is passed ; if only one, a
diminished supply of a thick, viscid character containing
blood and pus is passed in small quantities with straining.
When pressed on the loins, the animal flinches. The gait is
straddling and painful. Foment the loins with warm water

LIVE-STOCK 121

frequently and give warm enemas. Administer 8 or 10
ounces of linseed oil with a dram of opium and repeat on
the following day if necessary. Give linseed tea to drink
freely.

Mange. — A contagious disorder of the skin due to the

' ravages of a mite known as " Acarus bovis." There are many

I forms of this mite, but the most frequent one is Dermatodectes

I bovis. Debility, poverty of condition and uncleanliness

are predisposing causes. There is intolerable itching, the

affected parts become sore, the hair falls off and the skin

» becomes thickened and drawn in folds or wrinkles. The

parts primarily affected are the hump and the tail, from

I which the disease may extend to other parts. All animals

affected should be carefully isolated. Wash them well with

soap and water and then rub in ointment made up of sulphur

four parts, linseed oil eight parts, turpentine two parts.

t Any of the antiparasitics given under Eecipes may also be

|f used. Give also internally once daily for a few days 2 ounces

I common salt and 4 ounces sulphur, mixed with food, or as a

I drench in a pint of water.

Lousiness. — This is very common in cattle, specially in
animals in poor condition. Several different forms of lice
are known to attack cattle. Dress with tobacco infusion or
some other antiparasitic dressing mentioned under Recipes.
The dressings require to be several times repeated and well
rubbed in. The animals should be thoroughly washed an
hour or two after each application.

Rhtr/mmn.— This is due to vegetable parasites — fungi —
growing upon the skin. Two forms are known in cattle,
Tinea tonsurans (common ringworm) and Tinea favosa
(honeycomb ringworm V Ronnd patches are formed devoid
I of hair and covered with a greyish, yellow scurf. Dress the
[affected parts with corrosive sublimate lotion or rub in red
iodide of mercury ointment.

Foul. — An irritative inflammation and ulceration between
■the digits, usually caused by animals j standing) in a filthy
Iwet yard or on soft, wet, marshy pastures. The treatment
■consists of the removal of the affected animals to a dry place.
I The feet must be washed with phenyle or carbolic lotion,
f'and then dressed with tar mixed with a little powdered
ulphate of copper.

Lamitiitis. — Inflammation of the sensitive structure of the

t. This complaint is not very frequent in cattle, but

metimes occurs in highly-fed animals : it may also be caused

f overdriving. Working cattle are most liable. Some or

1 the feet may be affected. Give a cathartic, rest the

122 LIVE-STOCK

animal, and continuously apply cold water to the affected
feet.

Conjunctivitis, Simple ophthalmia. — Results from injuries
and from entry of foreign matter into the eye. The eye is
red and congested, tears flow freely from it and the patient
cannot bear exposure to the light. Seek and remove the'
cause. Then bathe the eye freely with cold water. Follow-
ing this, put into ihe eye a few drops of alum or zinc or
boric lotion (see collyria under Recipes). If any opacity of
the cornea should result, dress the eye with silver nitrate
lotion — 5 grains to an ounce of water.

Worm in the eye. — The worm is Filaria lachrymalis. It
does not, as in the horse, live within the aqueous chamber of
the eye but on the surface of the cornea, and lodges at
the inner angle under the haw. There may be one worm or
several. The affected eye is partially closed and continually
waters. Cast the animal and bathe the eye freely with cold
water. The worms, if present, can be got at by lifting up the
haw. They must be picked up with forceps and removed.

Paralysis. — This is characterized by total or partial loss
of sensibility or motion or both in some part or parts of the
body. The most usual form in which the disease is met
with in cattle, is the affection of the hind quarters known as
paraplegia. Causes are injuries to the spine, overloading (in
pack bullocks), sudden changes of temperature and exposure
to wet and cold. The animal is unable to move freely, and
drags the hind quarters. The gait is unsteady and staggering.
Give a purgative to clear out the bowels. Apply a blister of
red iodide of mercury to the loins (see Irritants under
Recipes) and give daily for about a month half a dram of
powdered nux-vomica in food or as drench.

Milk fever : parturient apoplexy ; dropping after calving. —
A disease peculiar to the cow which occurs after calving
and within 10 days of it. In rare instances it is seen during
or immediately prior to the birth of the calf. The disease is
one of the nervous system and induces a partial or total loss
of power. It is due to the formation of a certain ferment or
toxin (poison) in the udder, which is absorbed and causes
this nervous disorder. It chiefly affects deep milkers, and
one attack predisposes to a second. The animal has a wild
look and the gait is staggering. It lies in a state of torpor
and moans. There is no discharge of dung or urine. The
mouth opens and saliva flows from it. If any gruel is given,
it runs out of the mouth without the cow making any
attempt to swallow it. The disease is very fatal. Its

LIVE-STOCK 12$

duration is one or two days. Treatment should be prompt.
Give a strong purgative — 1£ lb. of Epsom salts with an
ounce of aloes in two or three quarts of water. Copious
warm enemas with castor oil or soap in them should be
administered. Thin rice conjee or linseed tea should be
given warm, and, if the patient does not take it, should
be gently poured down the throat. The up-to-date treat-
ment for milk fever is the injection of oxygen or
atmospheric air or any antiseptic lotion into the udder
through the teat after milking the cow thoroughly dry, with
the necessary antiseptic precautions ; this needs the attend-
ance of a professional man. If the animal recovers, it must
be kept for some time on digestible and laxative food, or
better on a gruel diet with some green grass, and receive a
course of tonics.

Fracture of the horn. — This often occurs from animals
fighting or from an accident. The horn core may be frac-
tured transversely without injury of the horn. The latter
acts as splints, and no particular treatment is necessary
beyond rest and a cold bandage round the horn. In some
cases the horn alone is stripped off without the core being
injured. In such cases clean the core gently with carbolic
lotion and cover it with tarred tow and then with a bandage.
When both core and horn are broken off, the rough projec-
tions and broken fragments of bone must be removed and
sawn level. The bleeding may be stopped with a hot iron
and the part dressed as above.

Sprain. — The muscles and tendons or ligaments of the joint
of the leg may become sprained, and swelling, heat and pain
of the affected part with lameness, may result. Foment the
part with hot water till heat and pain pass off. Then keep a
cold bandage on or make the animal stand in cold water for a
couple of hours daily. If this does not complete the cureT
and if any swelling still remains, rub in a blister of red
iodide of mercury.

Midocation or luxation.— From accident or over-exertion, a
bone may be put out of joint In working cattle the arm
bone is perhaps the most frequently dislocated. The reduc-
tion is to be effected by casting the animal, and seizing the
arm and pulling it downwards, when the bone may be heard
to return to its socket with a snap. After this, rest and cold
applications to the part are all that are necessary.

Wound* and tumours. — In case of injuries to the skin and
in wounds generally, wash the parts with clean water freelyr

124 LTVE-STOCK

and then dress them with some antiseptic dressing. See
antiseptic recipes. The necks of working cattle are liable
to be galled in various ways. In case of simple abrasion, the
treatment is the same as for wounds. If the neck be inflamed
and swollen, foment with hot water twice daily for two or
three days, after which apply cold water freely and frequently.
Should any swelling still persist, blister the part with
mercury or mylabris ointment. Sometimes an abscess may
form, which must be opened and the contents removed and
the part treated as a wound. If there be any longstanding
cold and well circumscribed tumour, it should be dissected
out surgically.

Abortion ; Miscarriage. — Abortion may happen at any period
between the first and the seventh month of pregnancy. If it
occurs after the seventh month, it is called miscarriage and
the young animal is born alive and is able to live for a longer
or shorter period. Some of the causes of abortion are injuries,
fright or excitement, over-driving, the presence of fungi on
the fodder, exposure to cold, debility, etc. Pregnant animals
affected with blood diseases generally abort. Sometimes
abortion is due to bacterial organisms and in such cases it
may rage as an enzootic. In every case the safest plan is to
segregate the cow that has aborted, to bury the calf and the
cleansing deeply in the ground and to disinfect the stall.
The animal should be nursed and carefully watched. As a
rule, the foetal membranes are passed investing the foetus
but if not and if they are retained unduly long, they should
be removed with the hand. An aperient of Epsom salts
should be given to the cow. Cows that have once aborted
are liable to do so at about the same stage during future
pregnancies.

Retention of after -birth or placenta. — The placenta comes
away from ^ to 4 hours after the birth of the calf. The cow
must be watched till the after-birth drops, when it should be
removed and buried. Sometimes the placenta is retained
for several days without any constitutional disturbances
being set up. There is no danger whatsoever in allowing it
to remain for two or three days. If it is retained beyond
this, it may be removed with the hand. The practice of
removing the placenta forcibly when it is retained a little
beyond the usual time is to be condemned.

Inversion of the womb; Downfall of the calf bag. — This may
occur after calving, specially when there has been difficult
labour. After the calf is born, the cow continues to strain
until the uterus is forced out. Administer a dram of gauja or
of opium in gruel to quiet the animal, and make it stand with

LIVE-STOCK 125>

the hinder parts elevated. The uterus should be carefully
washed with warm water containing a small quantity of
carbolic acid or some other antiseptic. The closed fist should
then be applied to the fundus of the organ, which must be
gradually and gently pushed inwards Stitches may be
passed through the lips of the vulva to keep the uterus in its

! pLice. The stitches can be left for about 24 hours or until
all straining has stopped. In some cases, a truss made of

J rope can be arranged so that it will press against the vagina.
Mammitis ; Garget ; Downfall of the udder. — Inflammation:

| of the mammary gland is frequent in the cow. Exposure to
cold, injuries of various kinds, obstruction of the flow of
milk, allowing the animal to remain too long without milking
may be enumerated as causes. Foot-and-mouth disease and
cow-pox may also induce the disease. Mammitis often occurs
soon after parturition and is caused by sudden overdistention
of the part from a rush of new milk. The udder becomes
enlarged, hot and tender and pits on pressure. The calf
should be put to the mother frequently and the milk drawn,
away gently, so that the udder may be emptied. The part
should be fomented with warm water freely two or three
times a day and dressed with camphor oil after each fomenta-
tion The patient should have a pound of Epsom salts given
in warm water. The udder can be supported with a broad
bandage. Abscesses should be looked for and at the first
indication they should be opened, the matter let out and the
opening dressed with carbolic oil.

Sore-teats. — This, like garget, often occurs after calving.
Cracks and sores form on the teats causing much uneasiness
when the cow is milked. Before milking, foment the teats
with warm water, in which some alum has been dissolved.
After milking dress the teats with boric liniment made in
butter, ghi or coconut oil.

Savel-ilL— Occasionally calves suffer from this owing to
the abrupt or imperfect separation of the navel cord, and the
navel bleeds. Should the cord be of sufficient length, it may
be ligatured, but if close to the abdomen, apply a little pow-
dered sulphate of copper or touch it with the point of a
heated iron. Sometimes an abscess may form, which must
be opened at once and dressed with carbolic oil. An abscess
may lead to inflammation of the peritoneum and occasion the
Kith of the calf.

Costiveness in the newly born calf. — The best medicine is the
•ows first milk. If there is any necessity for an aperient
Ring given, administer in half a pint of rice gruel 2 ounces
j>f castor oil with half a dram of ginger powder.

126 LIVE-STOCK

Scour ; Diarrhoea in calves. — This is caused by indigestion
brought on by repletion. At other times the disease may be
produced by the free eating of young tender grass. Starvation
or want of sufficient nourishment may also induce the
disease. The first thing to do is to administer a mild aperient.
~— 2 ounces of castor oil in half a pint of gruel. Then put
the calf on a course of some cordial like the following — pow-
dered chalk 2 ounces, powdered catechu 1 ounce, powdered
ginger \ ounce, ginger 1 dram, infusion of coriander 1 pint ;
-dose, 1 to 2 ounces, 2 or 3 times a day.

The Sheep.

The sheep is a mammal belonging to the order Unguiatoa
group Rumhiantia, family Ovidae, genus Oris and species]
Vvis aries.

The chief breeds of Southern India are —

The Madras or South Indian. — This breed is found over
the whole Presidency. The sheep have tucked up bellies,^
light feet, bony limbs, flat sides and short tail. Only the;
rams have horns. They are covered with short coarse hairf|
whose colour is generally red or brown. They have, as a
rule, a couple of pendulous lobules hanging from the throat,!
known in Tamil as ' Munnies,' that is, bells.

The Nellore.— The sheep are large in size and about the
tallest in India. The average live weight of adult animals is I
80 to 100 lb. The rams have twisted horns. The ewes are
^hornless. The prevailing colour is white or a light brownish-;
white. The body is densely covered with short hair.

The Coimbatore. — This district has, in addition to the
Madras breed, a breed of wool-producing sheep. The pre-
vailing colour is white with a black head, sometimes also.,}
black neck. The sheep have a fine covering of wool. They
have good square compact carcases. They fatten rapidly,
■and they yield mutton of a superior quality. Full grown
animals weigh from 50 to GO lb.

The Mysore.— This province is noted for a woolly breed
of sheep. The rams have well twisted horns but the ewes
are, as a rule, hornless. The usual colour is a light to a dark
grey or black. Live weight of adult animal is 40 to 60 lb.
They are not unlike the Coimbatore in point of build and
size. The sheep of this breed are prone to pugnacity, and
furnish the chief fighting rams in Southern India. The
breed has been improved from time to time by being crossed
with Merino rams.

LIVE-STOCK 127

Patna in Bengal is noted for a breed of woolly sheep of
good size and form and yielding very good mutton. Some
rams of this breed were imported in the Government Farm,
Saidapet, and they throve remarkably well and stood the hot
weather much better than the Nellore, which were present in
the ilock at the time.

Names of Sheep.
Male,

\

Until weaned, suckling. After weaning until a year old,
ram lamb ; if castrated, a wether. Afterwards, a two-year
ram or wether, a three-year ram or wether and then an aged
ram or wether.

In the case of woolly sheep, the ram lamb when shorn at
the end of the first year becomes a shearling, then a two-shear
ram, then a three-shear ram and then aged.

Female.

Until weaned, suckling. Until a year old, ewe lamb.
After a year old until it drops a lamb, a gimmer ; if in lamb,
gimmer in lamb, if not, barren gimmer, if not put to the
ram, a yeld gimmer. After a gimmer has lambed, she is
called an ewe, two-year, three-year, aged.

Iu the case of woolly sheep, the terms used are the same
as those for rams, namely shearling ewe, two-shear ewe,
three-shear ewe, aged ewe.

Breeding and Rearing.

Sheep are bred in India for mutton alone or for mutton
and wool. The wool should be fine and long and free from
hair. The ewes kept for breeding should be carefully
Selected. They should have a good conformation and, in the
;case of woolly sheep, a good fleece, especially over the belly.
-They should be between 1 and 3 years old. Old and ill-
formed and defective animals should be weeded out from
the flock. One ram will suffice for 50 ewes. The breeding
rams are allowed to run with the ewes always. Under these
conditions, all over Southern India, generally, the ewes take
the ram from February to March and the lambs are dropped
from July to August. The average period of gestation in

128 LIVE-STOCK

r

sheep is 150 days or roughly 5 months. The lambs can be
weaned when 3 to 6 months old. Rams are not castrated
until they are about a year old, but lamb castration per-
formed a fortnight or a month after birth is probably
desirable. The weight of a lamb at birth is about one-
twelfth of the weight of the dam. A sheep attains its full
growth and weight at the age of three years. About two-
thirds of the weight is attained in the first year and the
greater part of the remainder during the second year.

Feeding.— The sheep are fed on pastures only and are
kept out in the open air all the year round. In the hot
weather when the pastures are bare, the animals fall in
condition considerably. No provision of any artificial food
or of any fodder, green or dry, for such seasons is made.

Shearing. — In India the sheep are clipped once yearly
either in the hot and dry part of the year, April to May, or
in the cold dry season, January to February. They are
clipped for the first time when they are a year old. The
sheep are washed generally before they are shorn. The
washing is done on the same day or the day before.

Dentition. — The dentition of the sheep resembles that of
cattle as to the number of teeth and their position. The
teeth of the sheep are also similar to those of cattle but
much smaller. As in cattle, the front part of the upper jaw
has no teeth and has, in their place, a dense fibrous pad.
There are two sets of teeth, milk and permanent. The milk
set consists of eight incisors in the front part of the lower
jaw and three molars (known as premolars) on each side of
each jaw, that is 20 in all. All these are replaced later on by
permanent teeth and three more molars on each side of each
jaw behind the premolars come up once for all. so that the
total number of permanent teeth is 32.

Dental formula for milk teeth.

0—0 3-R

Incisors -— - premolars J-f- Total 20.
4-4 3-3*

Dental formula for permanent teeth .

Incisors^ premolarS|^? molars fcL. Total 32.

Note.— The top figures in each formula show the teeth on
each side of the upper jaw, and the bottom figures, the teeth
in the lower jaw.

LIVE-STOCK

129

Teeth indicating age.
(Appearance of temporary incisors.)

rrrryyyy^

1 week.

2 weeks.

3 to 4 weeks.
(Appearance of permanent incisors.)

rrronono

a:

Temporary premolars

1 year 6 months.

2 years.

2 years 6 months.

3 years.

(Appearance of molars.)
2 to 4 months.

Permanent premolars.

\

t.

FT

l

3 months.

9 months.
18 months.

18 to 24 months.

130 live-stock

Lambing Table.
Average period of gestation, 150 dags.

If servec

on

Will lamb
about

If served on

Will lamb
about

January

1

May 31

July 1

November 28

»i

14

June 13

14

December 11

Februar;

7l

Julv 1

August 1

29

„

14

16

14

January 11

March

1

29

September 1

29

H

14

August 11

■■■ ,;' u

February 11

April

1

29

October 1

28

f1

14

Septemberl 1

14

March 13

May

1

28

November 1

31

* »»

14

October 1 1

14

April 13

June

1

- v. . ■ 29

December 1

K, 30

"

14

^November 1 1

14

May 13

Common Diseases

Foot-and-mouth disease — Epizootic aphtha. — (See the de-
scription under cattle.) In sheep the feet are chiefly affected
and the mouth seldom. Some of the milder applications
mentioned under antiseptics (see Recipes) may be used. The
disease is infectious and contagious but causes little mortality,

$>heep~pox — Variola ovina.—A formidable and highly fatal
disease in sheep, infectious and contagious. First, reddish '
spots appear on the naked places, which then turn into red or
purple circumscribed vesicles, which often run into each
other. Treatment is of no avail. Every attempt should be
made to suppress the disease and dead animals should be
buried deep with quicklime.

Rinderpest. — (See the description under cattle.) This is
also a highly infectious and fatal disease. In virulent out-
breaks, 80 per cent may die. There is fever, blisters in the
mouth and bloody diarrhoea. Preventive measures should be
adopted and dead animals should be buried in deep pits with
quicklime.

Anthrax, — In sheep, it runs the same course as in cattle
(see above) and is highly fatal*

LIVE-STOCK 131

Treatment.— 5 to 10 minims of carbolic acid in three to
four ounces of linseed oil may be given. Precautionary
measures such as segregation and disinfection should be
adopted as mentioned in the case of cattle. This disease
should not be confused with Braxy.

Scrofula Tuberculosis. — A specific disease and somewhat
infectious. The respiratory organs are often affected, some-
times the abdominal organs. It is very liable to appear in
animals which are inbred and which are in a fat condition.
There is slow fever and the animal pines away. An attack
of diarrhoea carries off the animal in the end. The best
thing is to slaughter the animal as soon as the symptoms are
noticed. If the disease has not made much progress, the
flesh can be eaten well boiled.

Rabies. — Hydrophobia. — This is produced by the bite of a
rabid dog or jackal. After a varying period of incubation
after the animal has been bitten, it begins to behave strangely
and butts other sheep furiously. The breathing becomes
hurried and saliva flows freely from the mouth. The patient
dies within a week. There is no treatment and a rabid sheep
should be destroyed at once. Should there be suspicion that
a sheep has been bitten by a rabid animal, the best thing is
to kill it forthwith. The mutton can be used well cooked.

Contagious footrot. — This is a specific disease. The hoof
softens and loosens, from the tissues inside. There is
suppuration and fungoid growth on the coronet. Fortu-
nately this disease is rare. Make a solution of carbolic acid
or of sulphate of copper in a large tub and dip the feet of
the affected sheep once daily.

Catarrh or cold. — A very common complaint during wet
and cold weather. There is slight cough and copious dis-
charge of mucus from the nostrils. The patient may also be
feverish. Rest and quiet is all that is necessary. A couple
of ounces of Epsom salts with half a dram of powdered gin-
ger may be given as a drench in half a pint of water.

Bronchitis. — This may be the result of a neglected catarrh
or may originate from the same causes as catarrh. There is
severe cough and profuse discharge from the nostrils. The
appetite is lost, the breathing is hurried and the bowels are
costive. Fever is generally present at the commencement.
G-ive once daily for two or three days an ounce of Epsom
salts, a dram of nitre and half a dram of ginger powder in
half a pint of warm water. In severe cases, rub some
stimulating liniment or turpentine on the throat.

Pneumonia — Inflammation of the lungs. — This is a danger-
ous disease in sheep. There is fever, hard breathing, much

132 LIVE-STOCK

cough and some mucous discharge from the nostrils. Rumi-
nation is suspended and food is refused. There is heaving
of the flanks and a staggering gait. The disease may prove
fatal in a couple of days. Treat in the same way as bron-
chitis. Rub in powdered mustard or turpentine over the
throat and chest until the parts are slightly blistered.

Aphtha. — This sometimes breaks out in a flock, as a rule
in the cold weather. Lambs and young sheep are chiefly
affected. The disease is probably contagious. There is a
dense crop of warty growths on the lips and the muzzle. They
soon become ulcerated and fungoid and run into each other.
Mortality, however, is not marked. Wash the parts once
daily with carbolic lotion and then dress with boric ointment.

Boven — Tympanitis — Distention of the rumen with gas. —
It is generally caused by the consumption of young succulent
grass. There is swelling on the left side of the belly, which
when struck sounds like a drum. The patient evinces
uneasiness and pain. Give at once in half a pint of warm
water, Epsom salts 3 ounces, ginger 2 drams and slaked lime
20 grains.

Diarrhwa. — This may arise from the same causes as tym-
panitis or from a change of pasture or from change of weather.
There is excessive purging, loss of flesh and weakness. Give
shelter and dry nourishing food. Change pasture, if possible.
Give repeated doses of some cordial (see Recipes) or the
following twice daily for a couple of days : Powdered gallnut
half a dram, powdered omum half a dram, chalk or slaked
lime 20 grains, powdered ganja 10 grains, in half a pint of
warm gruel or infusion of linseed.

Dysentery — Bloody flux. — This is inflammation of the
mucous membrane of the intestines. This is a much more
dangerous and fatal disease than diarrhoea. There is some-
times an outbreak of dysentery in a flock, which is probably
a contagious form of the disease. There is fever, the stools
become frequent, are mixed with blood and slime and are
voided with pain and straining. Give once daily for a couple
of days 2 ounces of castor oil with 10 grains of powdered
ganja in half a pint of warm gruel. Should the purging
continue after this, give catechu naif a dram, powdered gin-
ger half a dram, chalk one dram, in half a pint of warm
infusion of linseed once daily.

Mot — Liver Rot. — This is very destructive disease. It
sometimes breaks out in a flock during the hot weather.
It is due to the presence of flukes — Distoma or Fasciola
hepatica — in the substance of the liver, gall-bladder and biliary

MVE-STOCK 133

ducts. Sheep infested with the fluke lose flesh gradually.
The eyes are dull and tinged yellow. The bowels are costive
at first but, later, violent purging begins and the faeces are
fetid and tinged with blood. Dropsy sets in and is parti-
cularly marked as a swelling under the jaw, and the disease
terminates generally fatally, from three to seven days. After
this, treatment should, if possible, consist in the removal of
the flock to an open dry pasture. The animals should have
a little cake in addition to grazing. Common salt and sul-
phate of iron powdered may be given mixed with cake or as a
drench at the rate of li drams of common salt and half a
scruple of sulphate of iron per adult head.

Tetanus, Trismus or lock-jaw, is an infectious disease which
may attack the ox but more commonly sheep and goats. It
is caused by the Tetanus bacillus which infects wounds and
casues a general poisoning of the nervous system. Tetanus
is of two kinds : Traumatic and Idiopathic. In the former
the wound is seen anywhere over the body, in the latter
the wound or abrasion is believed to be either in the mouth
or in the alimentary tract. The period of incubation is two
or three days. The animal is nervous and excitable with
rigidity of the muscles of the neck. There is quivering,
stiffening and elevation of the tail. There is also fever with
excessive thirst. The symptoms increase in one, tw<* or three
days. All the muscles of the head and neck gradually become
stiff, the nose is poked forward, the nostrils dilated and the
haw of the eye protruded. The jaw is fixed, and there is
complete loss of power to masticate. The animal stands
stiff with the fore legs propped out for support and when it
moves the legs appear to be jointless. As the disease pro
gresses there is general rigidity of the muscles and the
animal falls down with spasms, and, unable to get up struggles
till death.

Treatment. — In the early stages before the lower jaw gets
fixed, give a strong purgative. Four ounces of Epsom salt,
two drops of croton oil and a dram of ginger in half a pint
of water may be given and subsequently administer on the
following days sedatives such as ganja, opium, belladona or
chloral hydras, in ten grain doses mixed with a little jaggery
or honey and rubbed on the tongue and palate twice daily.
Careful nursing is necessary. The animal should be 'kept
as quiet as possible and in a dark but well-ventilated shed.
The wound, if any, should be thoroughly cleansed with strong
antiseptic lotion and touched with pure carbolic acid or silver
nitrate. Soft liquid food should be given.

VM LIVE-STOCK

Scab. — This is a contagious skin disease due to the ravages
of a minute acarus — A cams ovis or Derrnatodectes ovis. The
disease is known by the following symptoms : The animal
shows uneasiness, wool comes away in locks and the parts
denuded of wool exhibit pustules. The patient attempts to
bite or strike with the feet the parts diseased, and rubs itself
against a tree, stone or any other hard object. The affected
sheep should be well washed with soapnut powder and water
daily. Occasionally, about half an hour before washing, they
may be dressed with an infusion of tobacco — half a pound of
tobacco to 4 gallons of water. This should not be repeated
too often, as tobacco is liable to be absorbed and to kill the
patient. Any of the antiparasitic lotions given under " Reci-
pes " may also be used. Salt should be placed before the
animals to lick at pleasure.

The Gadfly. — A species of the gad fly, Oestrus ovis, infests
sheep and deposits its ova about the nose and the lips. The
larvae, when hatched, creep into the nostrils and make their
way up into the frontal sinuses, where they remain for about
a year feeding upon the mucus. The maggots do not cause
any irritation unless they are in large numbers. No treat-
ment is necessary, and it is not possible to find out the
affected animals.

Lousbiess. — The sheep louse is Hippobosca ovina. It is
generally associated with scab. Treatment is the same as
that for scab.

Ticks. — Sheep are sometimes infested with ticks. There
are species peculiar to the sheep, but dog ticks may also
attack them. Ticks prefer the ears and the region of the
neck and shoulders. When lambs are infested, they suffer
much and their growth is arrested. Sponge the affected
parts with tobacco infusion and then dress them with lamp
oil.

Flies. — Many of the Muscidae, particularly the Bluebottle
fly, Musca vomitoria, and the Flesh fly, Musca ccesar, are very
troublesome to sheep. They attack any part that may have a
small abrasion or sore, and deposit eggs thereon. The larvae
familiarly known as maggots, are soon hatched and they
infest the sores and eat into them. Dress the sores with a
saturated solution of camphor in oil, to which a little kerosene
oil may be added.

Abortion. — This is not at all uncommon in ewes and is
brought about by various causes. No particular treatment is
necessary. Placing the ewes for a few days in a sheltered
place and nursing them will suffice.

LIVE-STOCK 135

Garget or Inflammation of the udder. — This is of frequent
occurrence. Exposure to wet and cold, moisture and filth in
the places where sheep lie down, wounds and injuries to the
udder are amongst the causes. The udder becomes hot, hard
and tender. Foment frequently with warm water and empty
the udder of milk.

Recipes.

The recipes given below are for cattle and buffalos and
the doses put down are for adult animals of those species,
that is, those that have cut the first pair of teeth. For
younger animals, the doses should be proportionately reduced.
For calves under 6 months give one quarter of the adult dose.
Many disorders are common to cattle, sheep and goats and
in such, the same recipes may be employed for sheep and
goats, the dose not being greater than that specified above
for calves.

Alteratives and tonics. .—Useful in debility, anaemia, during
convalescence from debilitating disorders and in poverty of
condition. To be given once daily for a week or more.

Drench —

(1) Sulphate of iron

Ginger, powdered

Chirata „

Warm water or gruel

... 2 drams.
... \ ounce.
... 1 ounce.
1 pint.

Drench —
(2) Sulphate of copper

Nux- vomica, powdered

Coriander

Warm water or gruel ... ..

... 1 dram.
... 1 scruple
... \ ounce.
... 1 pint.

Powder or drench—

(3) Sulphate of iron ,

Nux-vomica, powdered ,

White arsenic

Fenugreek, powdered

Aniseed

... 1 dram.
... 1 scruple
... 3 grains
... \ ounce.
... \ ounce.

Mix and give in food or as drench in a pint of water.
This last recipe is very good when an animal is out of
condition.

Anthelmintics, vermifuges. — These are given when an
animal is suffering from worms. Begin with a strong

136 LIVE-STOCK

purgative (see purgatives), thei) give once daily for a fortnight
the recipe No. 3 under ' alteratives ' or the following : —

Powder —

Sulphate of iron 1 dram.

Sulphur 4 drams.

Sodium chloride 4 drams.

Mix and give in food.

Ancesthetics. — General and local anaesthesia is difficult to
produce in ruminants and is seldom necessary.
General, to be given by inhalation —

(1) Chloroform or ether 4 to 6 ounces.

(2) Chloroform 3 ounces.

Ether 3 ounces.

Local, chiefly for the examination of,, and operations on,
the eyes.

(3) Cocaine t part.

Distilled, rain, or soft clean water ... 20 parts.

Antipyretics, febrifuges. — These lower the temperature of
^the body in fevers.

(1) Give a saline purgative (see purgatives) and nitre

in drinking water.

(2) Drench-
Magnesium sulphate 3 ounces.

Nitrate of potash f ounce.

Water ... 1 pint.

Give twice a day for 2 or 3 days.

Antiparasitics. — Useful in mange, lousiness, and against
ticks.
Lotion —

(1) Carbolic acid or phenyle 1 part.

Water ... 50 to 80 parts.

(2) A strong decoction of margosa or nux vomica

leaves.

(3) Tobacco leaf \ ounce.

Water, hot 1 pint.

(4) Perchloride of mercury 1 part.

Water 500 parts.

N.B.— The last two must he employed with great caution especially
when they are applied to the whole, or a large part of the body, as these
drugs are liable to be absorbed and to endanger the life of the patient.
Within three nours of the dressing, the animal should be washed with
water and the application should not be repeated before the lapse of ft
week.

.

LIVE-STOCK 137

Liniment —

(5) Camphor .. 1 part.

Margosaoil 10 parts.

Coconut oil 20 parts.

Ointment —

(6) Carbolic acid ... 1 part.

Sulphur, sublimed or powdered ... 2 parts.
Lard 6 parts.

Antiseptics —

Internal, given in indigestion, tympanitis, etc.

Drench —

Carbolic acid ... ,M 1 fluid dram.

Linseed oil , ... 1 ounce.

Gruel 1 pint.

External, for wounds, ulcers, etc.

Lotions —

(1) Carbolic acid or phenyle ... 1 part.

Water „, ... 20 to 40 parts.

(2) Boric acid 1 part.

Water (hot preferable) 20 parts.

(3) Permanganate of potash .„ 4 grains.

Water ... , 1 ounce.

(4) Perchloride of mercury 2 grains.

Water ... ... ... 1 ounce.

Liniments —

(5) Carbolic acid 1 part.

Coconut oil ... 10 to 12 parts.

(6) Iodoform 1 part.

Carbolic acid 1 part.

Turpentine 2 parts.

Camphor 1 part.

Tobacco snuff i part.

Coconut oil 20 parts.

.B.—A very good detergent for foul wounds infested with maggo t s.

138 LIVE-STOCK

Powders —

(7) Iodoform 1 part.

Boric acid 2 parts.

(8) Chalk 15 parts.

Carbolic acid 1 part.

Ointments —

(9) Carbolic acid 1 part.

Lard 8 parts.

(10) Boric acid ... 1 part.

Lard 4 parts.

(11) Common tar^

Resin J- Of each equal parts.

Lard J

N.B. — Melt and mix over a gentle fire. Useful in footrot in sheep, and
in foul in cattle.

Astringents —

Internal, for diarrhoea, dysentery, etc.

Drenches to be given twice daily —

(1) Gallnut, powdered ... 3 drams.

Chirata, powdered ... 4 drams.

Fenugreek, powdered 4 drams.

Gruel ... 1 pint.

(2) Catechu, powdered , ...... 2 drams.

Camphor 2 drams.

Bael fruit, powdered ... 4 drams.

Gruel 1 pint.

(3) Decoction of the leaves and the rind of the fruit of

the pomegranate tree.

External, for wounds and ulcers, and for stopping capillary
bleeding. 4

Lotions —

(1) Alum, or zinc sulphate or sulphate of

copper 1 ounce

Water 6 to 10 ounces

Powders —

(2) Alum ]

Sulphate of iron ... j- Of each equal parts.
Sulphate of zinc ... J

(3) CatechPu°Wdered '" } 0f each equal parts*

LIVE-STOCK 139

Collyria or eye washes useful in conjunctivitis : —

(1) Alum or sulphate of zinc or sulphate

of copper 5 to 10 grains.

Water 1 ounce.

(2) Alum ... 5 grains.

Zinc sulphate 5 grains.

Boric acid 10 grains.

Water ' 1 ounce

(3) Silver nitrate 5 to 10 grains.

Water ... 1 ounce.

Note 5 to 10 minims of tincture of opium may be added to each of the

above as an anodyne.

Gargles in simple and epizootic aphtha, for wounds in the
mouth, etc. : —

(1) Boric acid

20 grains.

Water

... 1 ounce.

(2) Alum

15 grains.

Water

1 ounce.

(3) Permanganate of potash

4 grains.

Water

1 ounce.

Cordials and stimulants — useful

in indigestion, flatu

and tympanitis :—

Drenches —

(1) Ginger, powdered

... 4 drams.

Cumin ...

4 drams.

Asafetida

2 drams.

Water

1 pint.

2 drams.

(2) Ammonium carbonate

Nux-vomica, powdered

£ dram.

Water ...

1 pint;

(3) Solution of ammonia

1 ounce.

Turpentine

2 ounces

Aniseed, powdered ...

..'. 4 drams.

Water ...

li pints.

Very strong and efficacious in tympanitis.

Disinfectants. — Internal, given as curative and preventative
in specific blood diseases.

Recipes given under ' Antiseptics internal ' may be em-
ployed.

140 LIVE-STOCK

External, for disinfecting cattle sheds, sheep pens and
contaminated articles —

(1) Freshly slaked lime 100 parts.

Carbolic acid 15 parts.

Mix thoroughly and sprinkle :

(2) Carbolic acid " ... ... ... 3 ounces.

Water 1 gallon.

(3) Perchloride of mercury 1 ounce.

Water ... ... * 1 gallon.

(4) Permanganate of potash 1£ ounces.

Water 1 gallon.

(5) Chlorine gas and sulphur anhydride are very useful

disinfectants.

(6) A good fire is the best disinfectant. All contami-

nated straw, litter, etc., should always be burnt.

Diuretics. — These increase the secretion of urine and are
indicated in dropsical swellings, in fever and in dysuria.

Drenches —

(1) Nitrate of potash 3 drams.

Resin, powdered » 3 drams.

Turpentine 2 drams.

Water 1 pint.

(2) Magnesium sulphate 3 ounces.

Nitrate of potash jounce.

Water 1 pint.

'Demulcents and emollients. — These soften and soothe the
parts to which they are applied.

Demulcents (internal).— Bland oils, linseed tea, gruel.
Emollients (external). — All non-irritating oils and fats,
starch, powdered chalk, etc.

For burns and scalds, a very efficacious application is
carron oil, prepared as follows : —
Solution of lime "I j. v i

Coconut oil ] of each e(*ual Parts-

Ecbolics-parturients. — These make the womb contract and
expel its contents.

Powder or tincture or extract of ergot. 1 ounce.

Asafetida 2 drams.

Water 1 pint.

Expectorants. — These remove phlegm from the air passages
and are given in cough, catarrh and lung affections.

LIVE-STOCK

141

E}"

each 2 drams.

.. 1 pint.
.. 1 dram.
.. 2 drams.

... 1 ounce.
.. 1 pint.

Drenches —

(1) Ammonium carbonate
Asafetida
Camphor
Water

(2) Opium
Camphor
Turpentine
Water or gruel

Irritants.— These are employed externally for counter-
irritation in cases of sprains, sore- throat and inflammatory
affections of the internal organs ; as stimulants, detergent
and caustic to unhealthy sores and ulcers ; for bringing about
absorption of bony tumours, enlarged glands and thickened
integuments, and for ringworm.

Liniments —

(1) Solution of ammonia 1 ounce.

Turpentine 1 ounce.

Coconut oil 2 ounces.

(2) Mylabris, powdered 1 ounce.

Coconut oil 8 ounces.

(Digest over a hot bath.)

(3) Mustard, powdered ... 4 ounces.

Turpentine 5 ounces.

Coconut oil ... 5 ounces.

Ointment—

(4) Mylabris in powder
Lard ,

(5) Red iodide of mercury
Lard

1 part.
6 parts.
1 part.
8 parts.

For bites of venomous reptiles and rabid animals apply
immediately to the part undiluted carbolic acid or some other
strong caustic.

Purgatives —

Mild-

Drenches —

(1) Magnesium sulphate

... 12 to 16 ounces.

Ginger, powdered ...

£ ounce.

Water

2 pints.

lib.

(2) Sodium chloride

Omum powdered ...

1 ounce.

Water »

... 2 pints.

(3) Castor oil or linseed oil

2 pints.

Infusion of ginger (1 ounce). ... 10 fluid ounce.

142

LTVE-STOCK

Strong —
Drenches —

(1) Magnesium sulphate
Aloe, powdered

Ginger

Water

(2) Magnesium sulphate
Gamboge, powdered

Aniseed

Water

(3) Castor oil or linseed oil

Croton oil
Infusion of ginger

...

••

... lib.
... 1 ounce.
... £ ounce.
... 2 pints.
... lib.

,..

..

... \ ounce.

dii

••

... \ ounce.
2 pints.
... 2 pints.
... 30 minims.
... 10 fluid ounces

Weights and Measures and other Substitutes
used in Veterinary Practice,

[Solid medicines are weighed. Liquid medicines are
generally measured but may also be weighed.]

Solids.

60 grains ... =

8 drams ... =

16 ounces ... =

1 scruple ... =
1 viss = 40 palams=

1 pound ... =

1 palam ... =

1 tola =

1 dram or drachm.

1 ounce.

1 pound.
20 grains.

3 pounds, 2 ounces = 120 tolas.
38| tolas.

3 tolas = 1 ounce, 2 drams.

3| drams.

60 minims

8 fluid drams ...
16 fluid ounces ..

1 pint

1 gallon=8 pints -

1 Madras measure= 62£ fluid ounces.
A bottle contains 20 to 25 ounces.

Liquids.

=== 1 fluid dram.
= 1 fluid ounce.
= 1 fluid pound.
= 20 fluid ounces.
160 fluid ounces = 10 fluid pounds.

LIVE-STOCK

UvV

Medicinal Substances and Instruments which a
Farmer should always have at hand.

Medicinal Substances.

Aloe.

Alum.

Arecanuts.

Asafetida.

Bicarbonate of soda.

Boric acid.

Camphor.

Carbolic acid, phenyl,

or cresol.
Castor oil.
Catechu.
Chirata.
Coconut oil.
Croton oil.
Gallnuts.
Ganja.
Ginger.
Iodoform.
Sulphate

stone).

cyllin

of copper (blue

Sulphate of iron.
Linseed ; linseed oil (raw).
Liquor ammoniae.
Mylabris.
Nux vomica.
Omum.

Perchloride of mercury.
Permanganate of potash.
Red iodide of mercury.
Saltpetre (nitre).
Slaked lime or chalk.
Sulphate of magnesia (Ep-
som salts).
Sulphate of zinc.
Sulphur.
Turpentine.
Tar.

Instruments and Appliances.

Dressing instruments : — Forceps, seton needles, suture need-
les, probe, a couple of scalpels, scissors.

Trocar and canula for tympanitis.

Enema funnel.

Firing irons.

Shoeing tools — drawing knife, pincers, buffer and hammer.

Castrating clamps.

Teat bistoury.

Probang or a piece of smooth flexible rattan about 6 feet
long.

Drencning horn or bambo o or bottle.

Clinical thermometer.

Syringe.

A big Knife for post-mortem examination.

Lint, tow, cotton and suture thread.

144

LIVE-STOCK

Periods of gestation of domestic animals and of)
incubation of poultry.

Animals.

Shortest
period.

Average
or usual
period.

Longest
period.

DAYS.

DAYS.

DAYS.

Mare

315

345

360

Ass

365

380

391

Cow

242

285

313

Buffalo

290

310

330

Ewe

145

150

160

Goat

148

155

165

Sow

109

115

143

Bitch

55

60

63

Cat ...

48

50

56

Rabbit

25

30

35

Hen sitting on hen eggs ...

19

21

23

duck eggs .

28

30

32

turkey eggs.

26

28

30

Duck

28

30

32

Goose

27

30

33

Pigeon

18

20

21

Number of Females to each Male.

Mares

•• ...

,

.. 60

Cows and buffalos

„

t

.. 50

Ewes

••« ...

>•«

.. 50

Goats

.,

.. 20

Sows

•••

.,

.. 10

Hens

.. 10

Ducks

...

.. 10

Turkeys

., ...

►•• i

.. 8

Geese

..

4

lite-stock
Periods of Heat (Oestrum).

145

Animal.

Duration of
heat.

First heat after
birth of young.

Recurrences
of heat.

•

Mare

5 to 7 days.

10 to 15 days ...

2 to 3 weeks.

Cow

1 to 2 „

1 to 3 months and

2 to 4 „

Buffalo ...

1 to 3 „

more.
2 to 3 months and

3 to 4 „

Ewe

1 to 2 ;;

more.
2 to 6 months ...

2 to 3 „

Goat

1 to 2 „

lto3

2 to 3 „

Sow

2 to 4 „

5 to 6 weeks

2 to 3 „

Pulse, Respiration and Temperature.

Animal.

Horse
Cattle

Buffalo
Sheep
Goat
Pig ...

Pulse.

Beats

per

minute.

Where felt.

...

35-45

50—60

45-50

60-80'

...

60-70

...

70

Jaw ' ...

Tail and jaw ; in
calves, arm and
thigh also.

Tail and jaw

Arm and thigh ...
Do.
Heart

Respira- T

tlonPer< tureV
minute.

10—12
16—24

20-25
30-40
25—30
15—25

100—101

100-5
101-5

100-101

102-104

101—103

102-5

10

146 LIVE-STOCK

The above figures are the average for adult animals while
at rest. There are considerable individual variations and,
consistently with health, variations in the same animal at
different times and under different conditions. For instance,
in sheep the number of respiratory acts may run up consider-
ably on account of excitement or atmospheric temperature.
In the younsf%mimal respiration is quicker and temperature
slightly higher than in the adult. Exercise and digestion
increase temperature and respiratory acts.

Disinfection.

An infected building is best disinfected with sulphur burnt
inside, the doors and windows being closed. Cattle sheds can
be disinfected with a 5 per cent solution of carbolic acid or a
i per cent solution of corrosive sublimate or 1 per cent solu-
tion of permanganate of potash. All the wood work should
be sponged with the solution and all corners and crevices
should be well damped with it. Gutters should be flushed
with the disinfectant lotion. If the floor be of mud, some
litter may be burnt on it, and then it should be sprinkled with
quick or freshly slaked lime, to which some carbolic acid may
be added. Finally, the walls should be lime- washed, a little
carbolic acid being added to the wash. See " Disinfectants "
under " Recipes."

Life of Animals.

years.

Horse 35

Ass ... 30

Cattle 20

Buffalo 25

Sheep 10

Goat 15

Pig ... 20

Cat 12

Dog • 12

Hare 7

Rabbit 7

Hen 14

Goose 80

Camel 60

Elephant 150

LIVE-STOCK

147

List of the principal Animal and Vegetable
Parasites.

Scientific name.

Common name.

Attack.

Sub-kingdom, Ver-
mes.

Class, Platyhelmia
(flat worms).

Order, • Cestoda or
Taeniada (tape-

worms).

Cysticercus CeUulosus.

Cysticercus sp.

Ccenerus Cerebralis

Tamia expansa

Order, Trematoda

(flukes).

Fasciola or Distoma
hepatica.

Class, Nemathelmia
(round worms).
Order Nematoda.

Trichina spiralis

Strongylus Jilaria]
Strong yluu micrurus

Measles '
pork.

in

Measles '
4 Bladder
worm '
the ox.
Sturdy '
sheep.

or
of

in

Fluke '—
4 rot '—
4 liver rot.'

Flesh worm..

Husk ' in
lambs.

Husk ' in
calves.

Muscles of the pig.
Becomes common
or armed tapeworm
(Taenia Solum) in
man.

Muscles of the ox.
Becomes unarmed
tapeworm ( Tcenia
sac/htata) in man.

Brain of the sheep.
Becomes tapeworm
(Tamia ca'.nurus) in
dog.

Tapeworm in the ox,
sheep and goats.

Liver, gall bladder
and biliary ducts of
sheep.

Muscles of man, pig,
etc., causes trichi-
niasis.

Trachea and bronchi-
al tubes of lambs.

Trachea and bronchi-
al tubes of calves.

148

LIVE-STOCK

List of the principal Animal and Vegetable
Parasites - emit.

Scientific name.

Common name.

Attack.

Strongylus contortus
or Strongylus cervi-

• Lamb

Fourth stomach of

disease.'

lambs. Causes

cor?tis.

gastro-enteritis.

Oxyrus cunmla

' Maw- worm' —
4 pinworm '
4 thread
worm.'

Rectum of the horse.

Oxyrus vermicularis.

Thread worm.

Rectum of man.

A scar is megaloce-

Horse worm.

Intestines of the

phala.

horse.

Ascaris lumbricoides

Round worm

Intestines of the ox

bovis.

of ox.

Ascaris marginata ...

Round worm
of dog.

Intestines of the dog.

Ascaris lumbricoides

Round worm

Intestines of man.

hominis.

of man.

Filaria lachrymalis

Worm in the

Within the aoueous
chamber of the eye

equi.

eye.

of the horse.

Fi laria lach ry malis

Do.

On the surface of the

bovis.

cornea and at the
inner canthus of
the eye of the ox.

Sub-kingdom Arthro-

poda (jointed-
Iimbed animals)

Class, Arachnoidea

(scorpions, spiders,

mites).

Order, Acaridea

(mites).

Sarcoptes hominis ...

1 Itch '

Man.

Sar copies equi

4 Sarcoptic

Horse.

mange.'

LIVE-STOCK

149

List of the principal animal and Vegetable
Parasites— cont.

Scientific name.

Common name.

Attack.

Sarcoptes ovis

Sarcoptes suis
Sarcoptes ca?iis
Dermatodectea equi .
Dermatodectes bovis.
Dermatodectes ovis
Ixodes ricbius

Ixodes reduvius
Ixodes reticulatus ...

Class, Insecta

Order, Parasita
Hcematopinus ma-

crocephalus.
Hcematopinus eury-

sternus.

Hcematopinus eury-
sternus ani et
vulvm.

Hcematopinus vituli...

Hcematopinus ste-

nopis.

Trichodectes scalar{s.

Melophagus ovinus .

Order, Diptera
Oestrus equi ...
Oestrus bovis

4 Sarcoptic
mange.'

' Mange '
Do.
Do.
Do.

4 Scab '
1 Dog tick '

' Hheep tick
1 Ox tick '

' Horse-louse.'

' Sucking ox
louse.

1 Sucking cow
louse.

' Sucking calf

louse.
4 Sucking goat

louse.

4 Biting ox

louse.'
4 Ked '—
4 Sheep louse.'

4Bot'

4 Ox-bot '—
4 Warble.'

Sheep.

Pig.
Dog.
Horse.
Ox.
Sheep.

Dog, also man, ox
and sheep.

Sheep and goats.
Ox and also sheep
and goats.

Horse.
Cattle.

Cow (genital parts).

Calves.
Goats.

Cattle.
Sheep.

Horse (stomach).
Ox (under the skin).

150

LIVE-STOCK

List of the principal Animal and Vegetable
Parasites— cont. ^,

Scientific name.

Common name.

Attack.

Oestrus oris ...
Tabanus bovinus

Tabanus autumnalis.

Musca vomitoria ..
Musca cadaverina.
Musca ctesar, etc. j

Sheep bot ' ...
Ox gadfly ' ...

Horse gad-
Ay.'

Maggot
flies,' ' blow
flies,' ' blue,
bottle flies,'
4 Maggots in
wounds.'

Sheep (nostrils).
Cattle (sucks

blood).
Horse (sucks

blood).

! Wounds and

ulcers in cattle,
and

goats.

Vegetable Parasites

Order, Fungi.
Achorion schouleinii.

' Tinea

Skin of ox.

favosa. ;'

honey-comb

ring worm.

Trichophyton tonsur-
ans oovis.

k Tinea tonsu-

Do.

rans ; ' com-

mon ring

worm.

Trichophyton tonsur-

...

Skin of horse.

ans equi.

DA IRVING

151

O w

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B.tOi-irHO«D05TH(»OJOHXN«0».5(N

-<*
co

OS

| Cross-bred
Kerry (3). Bhagiam I
(4).

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m t> os cm t>. r- oo cc io ■«*< co o as : : : «-i
,_5 cc -rti -^ •<* rjt r»i co co cn ih : : '

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o

o
©

1—1

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gi-t0;O'-ti-H<N<M00Q0«>C0(M : : :

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g(>]>bi-':cocococo'N(Mi-H0050ocot>o

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«^iC(M"*iCCOCCH0C(NtOrH ....

CO.

cCO'tCOH^iOCOWOtDOt'

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©

1— 1

J*

1

o

First month

Second „

Third

Fourth

Fifth

Sixth

Seventh „

Eighth „

Ninth

Tenth

Eleventh

Twelfth

Thirteenth „

Fourteenth „

Fifteenth

Extra parts of month

13
-*>
o
Eh

/

2 .

(-1

ci o

to

a
O

152

DAIRYING

ANALYSES.

Cows' Milk.

r

Per cent.

i

From

To

Average

Water

Fat

Proteid

Sugar

Ash

•••

Buffalos1 Milk

87-5

35

31

4-1

•6

•

84-5
60
3-4
51

•8

86-0

45

33

4*8

•7

Water
Fat .
Proteid
Sugar
Ash

.*•

Goats' Milk.

80-0

5'0

4*3

4-2

•7

85-0

10-0

4-5

5-0

•8

82-4
8-1
43
45

•7

Water ...

Fat

Other solids

...

...

85-5

40

10-5

Cream.

Fat

...

, Skim Milk.

47-6

68-0

57-0

Water
Fat

Proteid
Sugar
Ash ...

...

«.t

90*2

10

4-0

4-0

•8

DAIRYING

153

Water
Fat

Proteid
Sugar
Ash ..

Water
Fat ...
Proteid

Butter Milk.

Per cent.

From

To

Butter.

12-5
81-0
- -2

170

85'0

•3

Average

90-5

•2

3-3

53

•7

14-5

84-5

•2

Water
Fat ...
Other solids

Whey.

92-2

•3

75

Colostrum (Cows').

Water
Fat ...
Other solids

750

60

190

Useful Data.

One gallon of milk weighs 10 lb.
One bottle of milk weighs roughly 1 lb. 4 6z.
One Madras Measure of milk weighs 4 lb.
One seer of milk weighs 2 lb.

An ollock of milk is 12£ cubic inches, and contains about 8
ounces of milk. Cows are occasionally sold when in milk on
the valuation of Rs. 10 for every bottle of milk given per day;
i.e., a four-bottle cow will be sold at Rs. 40.

* The specific gravity of milk is from 1,028—1,032 (water
1,000) ; that of skimmed milk 1,034—1,037, of cream 985. In
testing milk for quality by a specific gravity method, one
should be sur* that the milk is not adulterated, because the

154 DAIRYING

removal of fat which will increase the specific gravity, may
be counterbalanced by the addition of water which will
reduce it.

Buffalos' milk is much richer than cows' milk and may
contain as much as 10 per cent of butter fat. In estimating
the amount of butter to be got from any milk, it will be found
approximately equal to the percentage of fat as found by
analysis, the loss of fat which occurs in making the butter,
being made up by the water contained in the butter. The
following table is calculated on this assumption :—

Dercentage

Pounds of milk

Pounds of milk

of butter

to make one

to make one

fat.

pound butter.

pound ghee.

10-00

10

15-0

9-09

11

16-5

8-33

12

18-0

7-69

13

195

7-14

14

21-0

6-66

15

225

6-25

16

240

5-88

17

25-5

5-55

18

27-0

5-26

19

28-5

5-00

20

300

4-76

21

31-5

4-54

22

33-0

435

23

345

4-17

24

36-0

4-00

25

375

The ghee is taken as 70 per cent of the butter : this is
only approximate ; from 70—80 per cent may be obtained.

The percentage of cream obtained from milk will vary
according to the quality of the milk and the setting of the
Separator. Thus 6—8 lb. of buffalos' milk will give 1 lb. of
cream (14 per cent), or 10—12 lb. of cows' milk (9 per cent).

One Madras measure of buffalos' milk should give
10 - 12 oz. cream and 4-5 oz. of butter.

One viss of ghee (3 k lb.) is obtained from 60—70 lb. of
buffalos' milk.

100 lb. of cream will yield 30 lb. butter and 70 lb. butter
milk. 100 lb. of skim milk will yield 75 lb. curd and 25 lb.
whey.

DAIRYING

155

Equipment iff the dairy (for 100 cows).

R?.

Separator 200

Churn ... ... ... 85

Delaiteuse (centrifugal drier) ... 75

Dairy herd recorder 40

Milk filter (Hygeia) 20

Scoops (2) 5

Scotch hands (2) 5

Butter prints (5) 5

Measures (3) 5

Large receiving drums (2) 30

Buckets (5) 35

Hair sieve (2) 3

Scales 20

Furniture 15

Soap, towels, brooms, stationery, baskets,

ropes, matches, etc ' ... 30

Total ... 573

For calculating the yield of milk from a herd, the follow-
ing figures from the herd at Coimbatore may be of use : —

In November 1913, 22 cows in milk gave 124 lb. of milk,
i.e., about 5*6 lb. of milk per cow in milk. In addition to
these there were 19 cows dry, so that the average yield for
the 41 cows is only 3 lb. In March 1914, 22 cows in milk gave
163 lb. daily or an average of 7*4 lb. Adding 18 dry cows,
the average for the whole herd of 40 cows was 4'1 Id. The
proportion of dry to milking cows is from 39 to 46 per cent.

156 COMMON INSECT PESTS

t

COMMON INSECT PESTS.

Paddy.

(i) The Stem-borer Moth (Sckcenobius bipunctifer) is a
serious pest in all rice-growing areas, destroying probably an
eighth of the total crop in normal years and one quarter or
more in bad years. The caterpillar feeds in the stem, and
remedial measures consist chiefly in ploughing the stubble and
burning or burying it as soon as the crop has been harvested.

(ii) Rice Hispa (Hispa aenescetis), a small blackish spiny
beetle, which damages young plants, occurring on the West
Coast especially. No remedy can bo advised until its life
history and manner of occurrence have been studied.

(iii) Rice Bug (Leptocorisa), a narrow greenish insect
which sucks the ripening grain, causing very marked diminu-
tion of yield when it is abundant, especially on the West
Coast and in South Kanara. Remedy — " bagging".i.e , catching
the bugs in nets dragged over the crop, or in small hand nets.

(iv) Caterpillars (Spodoptera mauritia and Syrphis) occur
in occasional outbreaks with heavy damage. Isolation of
attacked areas by trenching around them, bagging and
ploughing are remedies indicated

* (v) Rice Case Worm (Nymphula depunctalis) is a cater-
pillar which lives in the water itself, in a small case made of
bits of grass, etc. It occurs chiefly in Malabar where it does
serious damage. It is checked to some extent by small fish.
Draining the water off the fields, when possible, is a simple
remedy.

(vi) Rice Grasshopper (Hieroglyphvs), a greenish grass-
hopper which occurs chiefly in Malabar and South Kanara.
Can be checked by bagging the young hoppers.

Sorghum.

(i) Moth-borers (Chilo simplex and Sesamia), whose
caterpillars bore into the stem of the plant, occur in all
areas and form the chief pest of Sorghum. They attack young
and old plants, in the latter, often leading to serious and
widespread reduction of crop. Remedies indicated are
(a) removal and immediate destruction of all plants seen to
be withering ; (b) disposal of the stubble and dry stalks
during the winter season.

(ii) Cholam Bug (Calocoris angustatus) occurs chiefly in
the G-odavari and Kistna districts. The ripening grain is
sucked out and is either not formed or is light.

Remedy—?

(iii) Mites, causing rust of the leaves.

(iv) Deccan Grasshopper {Cole mania sphe?iarioides), a
greenish wingless grasshopper which has only recently begun

COMMON INSECT PESTS 157

to attack cultivated crops. It attacks the crop in all stages,
devouring the leaves and even the grain.

Remedies.- -(a) Bagging the young hoppers from July to
November ; (b) ploughing, where practicable, to destroy the
eggs which are in the ground from January to June.

Pennisetum Typhoideum.

(i) Hairy Caterpillars (Creatonotus spp.) attack the crop
regularly in South Arcot. Attracting the moths to lights at
night has been tried but further investigation is required.
The white moths should be collected and destroyed.

(ii) Green Bug (Nezara viridula) is a pest in Tinnevelly,
Guntur, etc., attacking the ripening crop. Can probably be
collected by hand and destroyed.

(iii) Grasshoppers of several kinds attack this crop also ;
bagging is usually effective for these.

Eleusine coracana.
Grasshoppers of several kinds. Remedy, bagging.

Millets.

(i) Surface Grasshoppers eat young plants and grain
heads ; they may be caught by bagging in nets.

(ii) Stem Fly attacks young plants. Destruction of
plants seen to be attacked is probably the only remedy.

Maize.

The principal pest is Stem-borer (Chilo), the caterpillar '
of which bores in the stem. Destruction of withering plants
and disposal of stubble are remedies indicated.

Wheat.

A very small green-fly (Aphis) does considerable damage
at times.

Sugarcane.

(i) Stem-borers of various kinds are important pests
especially in the young crop. All dead hearts should be
rigidly cut out and burnt.

(ii) Mealy-wing Bugs (Aleurodes) are important chiefly in
ratoon crops ; they suck the leaves, leading to weak plants
and very inferior juice, making bad sugar.

(iii) White-ants (Termes spp.) often do great damage to
young sets. Soaking these in a solution of copper sulphate
before planting and the use of insecticides in irrigation water
will usually check the attack until the young canes are
established.

158 common insect pests

Pulses.

There are various minor pests, but very little is known as
yex regarding the insects which attack this class of crop.
Gingelly,

Is attacked by a caterpillar (Antlgastra) ; hand-picking is
probably the best remedy.

Castor.

Attacked by semi-looper caterpillars (Achoea) and by
Hairy Caterpillars. Hand-picking is probably the best
remedy. In bad cases, cutting down the plants may be
necessary.

Groundnut.

(i) Surul (Anacampsis nerteria) is the most important pest.
May perhaps be checked by light-traps, but further investiga-
tion is required.

(ii) Yerpuchi (Sphenoptera) is a pest of general occurrence,
causing considerable loss by boring in the stem. All plants
attacked should be removed from the field and destroyed.

(iii) Hairy Caterpillars occur especially in South Arcot.

Cotton.

(i) Bollworm (Earias) attacks firstly the top shoots of the
young plants and afterwards bores into the bolls. All top-
shoots seen to wither should be removed and destroyed and
the same practice applied later on to all bolls found to be
attacked. The removal of the plants from the fields immedi-
ately after harvest will of itself form a remedy also.

(ii) fled Cotton Bug {Dysdercus) sucks the bolls, destroying
the seed and staining the lint. May easily be collected by
hand and destroyed.

(iii) Dusky Cotton Bug {Oxycarwnus) is a very small bug
which breeds chiefly in old bolls, which have been attacked
by the Bollworm. All these old useless bolls should be
removed and destroyed.

Brinjal, Gourds and Melons, Sweet Potato.

These are all attacked by various minor insect pests. The
usual remedy is the complete destruction of the plants or
fruits affected.

Tobacco.

(i) Tobacco Caterpillar (Prodenia) does damage especially
in the nurseries ; may be picked off by hand : in bad cases it
may be necessary to irrigate or trench.

(ii) Stem Caterpillar (Pthorimcea) bores in the stem
causing characteristic swellings. Young plants I attacked
should be destroyed and replaced.

COMMON JNSECT PESTS 159

©

Agaththi.

(i) Is bored by Azygophleps ; borer should be cut out.
(ii) Weevil (Alcides) may be collected by hand,
(iiij Tobacco Caterpillar (Prodenid) may be hand-picked ;
in bad cases ground may be irrigated or trenched.

Mango.

(i) The Mango Beetle (Batocera) bores the branches as a
large white grub. It should be cut out and the wound tarred
over.

(ii) The Mango Hopper (Idiocerus) is often a serious pest
and can only be controlled by spraying early in the season.

(iii) Fruit fly (Dacus) attacks the fruit itself. All attacked
and fallen fruit should be destroyed.

(iv) The Mango Weevil lives inside the stone of the fruit.

Pomegranate.

The caterpillar of a small Blue Butterfly (Virachola)
bores into the fruits. Attacked fruits should be destroyed.
Grapes.

(i) Cockchafers often do damage. They are probably
best dealt with by spraying a sweetened arsenical poison on
to the leaves.

(ii) Scales (Aspidiotus) can only be treated by spraying
with a contact poison such as rosin wash.
Palms.

Both Coconut and Toddy palms are attacked by the
Rhinoceros Beetle (Orvctes) and the Red Weevil (Rhyncho-
phorus). The former bores into the crown and the latter
then lays its eggs in the hole made by the former. The
grubs of the Weevil bore into the tree and ultimately kill it
after which the grubs of the Rhinoceros Beetle live in the
decaying stem. Old dead stumps should be cut down and
burnt and accumulations of leaves, etc., under the trees
should be avoided, as the large white grubs of the Rhinoceros
Beetle will breed in any heaps of decaying vegetable rubbish,

Bordeaux Mixture.

Bordeaux mixture is a preparation of copper sulphate and
quicklime in water. It may be used strong or weak. The
strength generally regarded as a standard is : —

Copper sulphate 51b.

Quicklime 51b.

Water ... t 50 gallons.

160 COMMON INSECT PESTS

A mixture of this strength is known as the 5- 5— 50 formula.

The quantity to be made at one time is a matter of conve-
nience, depending on the number of plants to be sprayed and
on the available vessels.

Fiftv gallons is often a convenient quantity to make at a
time ; tor this, one 50-gallon barrel and two 25-gallon tubs
are required. The method of preparation is always the same
whatever the quantity of mixture required —

(1) Wrap 5 lb. of copper sulphate in a piece of gunny
bag, powder it on a stone, tie up the piece of gunny and
suspend it by a string to a stick laid across the mouth of a
tub containing 25 gallons of water. In a short time the
copper sulphate will have dissolved.

(2) Put 5 lb. of good quicklime in a tub, and sprinkle
about a quarter of a gallon of water on it. When the lime
begins to crack and crumble add more water a little at a time,
taking care that the lime does not become too dry. Keep on
adding water, a little at a time, till a thick creamy paste free
from lumps is formed. Add the requisite quantity of water
to make up to 25 gallons. Stir well.

(3) While stirring vigorously, slowly pour the solution
of copper sulphate and the milk of lime together into the
large barrel. Keep stirring for two or three minutes.

Properly prepared mixture is of a light sky blue colour.

When using Bordeaux mixture during the monsoon, an
adhesive substance must be added to prevent the mixture
being washed off by the rain. An efficient adhesive may be
prepared from resin and washing soda. For the above
quantity of 50 gallons Bordeaux mixture put 2 lb. washing
soda in an earthenware pot containing 2 gallons of water and
bring to the boil. Add 4 lb. of powdered resin, a little at a
time. For the first half hour the liquid is liable to boil over,
so the fire should be a slow one, as the liquid becomes clear
the fire may be made to burn more brightly. The liquid
should be boiled altogether an hour. It becomes clear like
coffee decoction. While stirring vigorously slowly add the
resin-soda liquid to the Bordeaux mixture.

Test.— Rub the blade of a knife in sand or earth till it is
polished, then dip in the mixture for a minute. If the blade
is unchanged the mixture is safe. But if the blade becomes
red, then more lime must be added, till the clean blade is not
stained when dipped afresh in the mixture.

HORTICULTURE

161

HORTICULTURE.

2 feet each way

9

o „

4 „

"

5 „

»i

6 „

„

8 M

,,

10 „

ii

12 „

M

15 „

.

18 „

ii

20 „

„

25 „

ii

30 „

35 i

ii

40 „

n

Number of trees per acre.

... 10,890

4,840

2,722

1,742

1,210

680

435

302

200

135

110

70

50

35

27

Hedge Plants.

Hedges are used for guarding against trespass, providing
lateral shade and for ornament. Almost any plant can be
used for one or other of these purposes, but attention here
is chiefly directed to such hedges as are agriculturally useful.
For gardens there are a very great number of hedge plants in
India and all stages can be obtained between creepers on
trellises on the one hand and rows of all shrubs and borders
for ornamental beds.

1. Pithecolobium dulce —

Korukapili — Tamil.
Simachintha — Telugu.

This is a leguminous plant well suited for hedges as it
stands any amount of cutting back. Seeds must be sown in
2 or 3 rows. When the plants are about 2 feet high, they
must be topped to make them branch, and during each year
they must be cut back at least twice. Gaps in old hedges
may be filled up by half cutting through tall branches and
laying them down across the gaps.

2. Omnitia Dill&rii — The prickly-pear.

Sappaththi Mullu— Tamil.
Nagadali— Telugu.

An excellent hedge, impenetrable and easily made, with one
disadvantage that it takes up rather a lot of room. It leaves
the land on which it grows enriched, however, and crops can

11

162 HORTICULTURE

be grown right up close to it. It is propagated by simply
laying cut pieces on the ground.

.3. BaUanodendron Berryi * —
M ullukiluvai — Tamil .
It is possible to get a good hedge by planting cut branches

i'ust before the commencement of rains (June or July). To
:eep the hedge in good condition it must be cut back occa-
sionally.

4. Euphorbia Ti?'ucalli~The milk hedge.

Tirugukalli- Tamil.
A small tree with round stem and smooth cylindrical
branches. Useful as a hedge plant because cattle will not
approach it as the milky juice or latex is acrid and irritating.
It causes acute pain if it gets into the eyes. Easily propa-
gated by cutting?.

5. Euphorbia Antiquorum —

ChaduraKkalli— Tamil.
This is also often used as a hedge plant and is raised from
cuttings.

6. Casuarina equisetifolia —

S a vukkumaram — T amil .

Chavukku Manu— Telugu.
These plants form a very handsome hedge as may be seen
on the Marina, Madras Beach, if constantly pruned and
trimmed. Casuarina must be raised from seeds.

7. Arundo donax— very often forms a thick impenetra-
ble hedge, generally seen round betel gardens. It is planted
from stumps.

8. Saccharum arundinaceum —

Pekkarumbu— Tamil.
Verricheruku —Telugu.
This is also a common hedge plant round betel gardens.
Propagated from stumps.

9. Sesbania qrandiflora —

Agaththi- TamiL

Avisi — Telugu. I

10. Sesbania eyyptiaca —

Siththagaththi or karunsembai — Tamil.
These plants are sometimes used in betel gardens to form
a hedge. Both are raised from seeds.

11. Poinciana eiata, — By planting stumps a good hedge
may be formed. But the shoots must be constantly trimmed
or it will become thin below.

12. Larvsonia alba — Henna.

Maruthani -Tamil,
(lorantaku Telusru.

* See page 40.

HORTICULTURE 163

By sowing seeds or by planting cuttings a hedge may be
formed. As with others this must be constantly cut back.
13. Acacia farnesiana —
Pee Velan— Tamil
Kamputumma — Telugu.
and
14 Acacia arabica — Babul.
Karuvelan- Tamil.
Nallatumma— Telugu.
Both these Acacias are capable of being used for hedges.
They must be raised by sowing seeds and cut back at inter-
vals.

15. Agave americana and other agaves.

Kaththalai— Tamil.
Agave plants mav be propagated from suckers. These
plants form a fine hedge after some time. Little or no atten-
tion is required after planting.

16. Borassus flabellifer— The Palmyra palm.

Panai —Tamil.
Thadi— Telugu.
The Palmyra palm can be propagated only by seeds. By
sowing the seeds in rows these may be made to grow so as to
form a hedge. As they grow very slowly, they form a good
hedge for a considerable period of time.

Coconut Gardens.
East Coast.
Thoroughly ripe nuts from trees that have passed the mid-
dle age are carefully collected and dried in the shade for about
a fortnight. These nuts are then arranged one touching the
other in a seed-bed with the butt-ends above, covered with
sand, and irrigated every day. The nuts begin to germi-
nate after about two months, all finish sprouting after 5 or 6
months. When the seedlings are about 3 feet high or 6 to 8
months old, they are lifted and permanently transplanted in
all the southern districts. In the northern districts these
are transplanted 7 feet apart in a second seed-bed, and
3 or 4 years after, these are again lifted and transplanted
permanently in a field at the rate of 50 or 60 per acre. In
the south as many as 150 per acre are planted. The trees
begin to bear 8 to 10 years from the date of planting tho
nuts, but the full bearing is to be expected after 12 years.
On an average about 50 or 60 nuts can be expected from
each tree, and the trees bear for about 100 years provided
proper care is taken. In the south, tapping coconut trees
is very common, but in the north it is entirely absent.

164 HORTICULTURE

Root pruning and careful manuring are the secrets of success-
ful coconut cultivation. In the southern districts, coconut
topes are irrigated, but in the north a surface mulch of
fine soil is provided by ploughing immediately after the
rains.

West Coast.

Ripe nuts are carefully gathered from the middle-aged
trees in February-March, germinated and planted out after
six months to three years, in February-March or June-July,
according as the land is low or high lying. Sixty trees per
acre is a fair number, but even double the number is not
uncommon in certain parts.

Sandy loams are the best. Along sea-coast and river banks
they flourish very well. The yield per tree varies from 10 to
100 nuts. The trees may live long, 75 years or more ;
generally begin to bear fruit in about 12 years increasing in
yield up to 60. It has been observed along salt water river
banks that the trees begin to bear in about 5 years, but die
an earlier death.

They require plenty of sun and water, and respond to
heavy manuring. They are opened out in June-July and
manured with green leaves and ashes. This operation
facilitates percolation of water and formation and develop-
ment of young roots.

There is nothing else in the West Coast to be compared to
this tree in point of yield and usefulness, every bit of it being
of great economical value. It is therefore rightly called
" Kalpaka Vriksha," i.e., the tree that gives all the require-
ments of man.

Areca NUT3.

Ripe nuts are gathered from old trees and seedlings are
raised from them. When about six months old, they are
transplanted, generally in June- July. Loamy soils at the
bottom of a valley, cool and moist, are the best fitted. They
grow straight and tall, begin to bear in about 10 years and
may live over 80 years, the yield becoming less and less after
middle age. They give three to six bunches, varying from
50 to 200 nuts each, even more in favourable localities if
properly watered and heavily manured. A rupee per tree is
not an exaggerated figure. The nuts are prepared and largely
exported from the West Coast. They are used for chewing
with chunam and betel leaves, with or without tobacco.
They are valuable as a medicine. The stem is much used for
house construction.

horticulture 165

Mango Gardens.

The number of plants to the acre varies with the soil. On
rich soils where the trees spread well, 20 to 25 are planted,
while on gravelly soils where the growth is rather stunted, up
to 50 trees to the acre. The best distance is 40 feet apart, in
rows 30 feet apart, the plants arranged quincuncially, whereby
36 go to the acre. Grafts are not allowed to bear for the
first three or four years to promote growth. Afterwards an
average yield of about Rs. 2 to 3 may be expected from each
tree. The value of the fruit varies considerably with the
variety. There are varieties that fetch up to Rs. 4 a dozen.
The gardens can be considerably improved by interculturing
and growing a pulse crop like horsegram. Graft mango
gardens bear well for about 50 years when they must be
renewed.

Jack Gardens.

The Jack is a tree, which requires plenty of rainfall,
and moist and dewy climate : it is rare in parts of the
East Coast wherje the conditions are adverse, but is quite
a common tree in the West Coast bearing very heavily in the
dewy, cold and mountainous interior villages.

It is always planted mixed with coconut, arecanut, mango
and pepper, serving as a standard for the last-mentioned
creeper. Its top shade is very heavy and highly objectionable
to trie neighbouring trees. When alone, 20 trees will be
ample per acre. Seedlings are raised from well chosen nuts
from young trees, and they (4 to 6 months old) are planted
out in well prepared and protected pits at the close of the
South-West Monsoon rains. They should be watered when
necessary.

Red loams with an admixture of gravel are preferred.
The trees grow slowly, begin to bear in about 12 years, live
long, even over 100 years : flower in December-January ;
harvest is completed in June- July. They are seldom manur-
ed, but the garden receives one or two diggings a year. The
yield per tree varies considerably from 5 to 200 fruits (worth
5 annas to 5 rupees) with age, soil and locality. It is a poor
man's food on the West Coast. There are two main varieties,
hard and soft, known as Varikai and Pazhom. The wood is
one of the best in the world in point of hardness and polish,
with golden yellow colour. It is excellent for all kinds of
woodwork, particularly for furniture.

166 HORTICULTURE

Plantain Gardens.
[This note refers to the practice which prevails in the Cauvery valley. -i

The land is leased for three years : pits are dug about 1\
feet apart, and in the month of October, 750 suckers to the
acre are planted. Drains are dug between every alternate
row in both directions, dividing the land up to into a number
of beds. After one month, the field is dug over thoroughly
some six times, i.e., every alternate month. Fencing has to
be attended to, and manure — generally a mixture of cattle
manure and tannery refuse— is applied four months after
planting. The trenches are deepened, and irrigation attended
to, and the removal of side suckers from May onward, and the
earthing up of the trees is carried out. .

Bunches appear in October and November, twelve to
thirteen months after planting, and are collected until
February. Meanwhile, only one new sucker has been left
and the land is dug over, but only twice during the second
year, in February and June : manure is given after the first
digging. The second crop is obtained from October to
February. Towards the end, suckers are not removed, the
object now aimed at being to get plenty of leaves which are
eventually cut and sold in June, when the whole crop is
removed. A crop of paddy is taken before the land is
handed back to the lessor.

Casuarina Topes.

Usually poor sandy soils of upland tracts are put u^ider
casuarina cultivation. Ripe fruits from old trees are
gathered in the hot weather, put in earthen pots and kept in
the sun. The fruits burst and the seeds are then carefully
dried and stored. Twelve ounces of seed sown on 100
square feet will supply seedlings sufficient to transplant one
acre. The seed is sprinkled evenly on the surface of the
nursery and covered thinly with ashes and cattle manure.
The plot is then covered with straw, leaves, etc., and
regularly watered. The seeds sprout in 8 to 10 days. Care
should be taken to keep weeds and ants from the nursery.
After three months, the seedlings should be transplanted in
another nursery and they are finally removed for planting in
the field in 6 or 8 months, i.e., when they are less than 3 feet
high. 3,000 to 4,000 small pits are dug with mamuty in an
acre 3' to \\' apart, kept exposed for a time, and then hand-
watered just before planting. The pits are not manured.

HORTICULTURE 167

The plants should be watered almost daily till they take root,
and then they can be watered once a week during the first
year, or in exceptional cases, for two hot weather seasons.
The plantation should be thinned and all crooked plants
removed, leaving 1,500 plants to the acre. The trees will bo
ready for cutting in 1 0 years, and will fetch about Rs. 750 td
1,000 per acre at 8 annas per tree. In the intervening years
the proceeds from the loppings of the side branches, etc.,
will defray all expenses such as hand-watering, etc. After
the plantation is cut, about 50 per cent of the roots will
put forth fresh shoots, and when the dead roots are dug
out, a groundnut crop may be raised in the interspace.
The ratoon plantation will also be ready for cutting in
10 years.

Batavian Orange Gardens (Oircars).

Seeds are collected from ripe fruit of fairly aged trees,
mixed with ashes and dried in the shade for about a week.
These are then planted in a seed-bed about an inch apart.
When the seedlings are about 6 inches high, they are lifted
and transplanted in a second nursery about 6 inches apart.
Here they are kept for 3 years or even more. Seedlings
about 3 years old are available at Rs. 50 per 100. These are
transplanted 15 to 16 feet apart, or 150 or 200 plants to the
acre depending on the nature of the soil. Plantains are also

Elanted to give shade to the young transplants. The trees
egin to bear seven years after permanent transplanting. A
mixture of red earth and sheep manure is considered to be a
very good manure. On the borders of the gardens, limes,
pumelos, citrons are always planted. Along the water
channels very, good pint apples are also grown. On an
average each tree gives about 200 fruits worth about Rs. 5, in
the garden itself. The garden gives full produce for about
20 years.

Babul Topes.

Land intended for babul topes may be either sown, or
trees may be allowed to spring up naturally from seed passed
by sheep or goats which have browsed over the land.. The
seed possesses a hard coat which unless scratched or poundecj
in some wav may interfere with germination. No further
treatment of the land is necessary, and the plantation may be
left to itself. The rate of growth depends upon the soil
and the tope may be mature in anything from 10 to 20 years,
ie., be of a size sufficient to afford marketable timber.
The grazing under babul is generally good, and the pods
themselves are a valuable and nutritious food.

168 horticulture

Bamboo Topes.

(This note embodies the practice at Ayyampet, Tanjore District.)
The seeds are sown in the nursery in July- August. One
Madras measure of seed, which costs from Re. 1 to Rs 5, is
sown in one cent divided into 25 beds. Seeds keep their
vitality only for one year. Seeds germinate in six or seven
days. Until then the nursery is shaded. Beds are watered
once a day for a week and are kept free from weeds. About
four months after sowing, i.e., in December- January, the
seedlings are removed and planted in bunches of four plants
at 8 inches apart. Agathi qrandiflora or Sesbania aculeata is
sown here and there for shade. In this condition the seed-
lings remain for about two years. Afterwards they are
removed and planted in padugai lands (in pits) in bunches
containing from four to ten tillers at 8 feet apart. While
planting the plants are topped from 4 feet to 2£ feet high.
Seedlings in 100 kulis or 33 cents are sold for Rs. 200. These
are sufficient for planting A\ acres. There is a class of
Muhammadans (Ravuttars) who grow seedlings for sale and
•have made this their business. No manure is applied to
bamboos and no other particular operation is given except
pruning from the third or fourth year. The cost of pruning
will be realized by the sale of loppings, besides getting the
area fenced round. The bamboos will be fit for cutting
from about the fifth year after the final planting or about
seven and a half years from the date of sowing the seed. 'In
some places they are cut when they are about ten years old.
The cutting is clone in alternate years and the value of the
yield amounts to Rs. 400 or 500 every other year or from
Its. 200 to 250 per acre annually. The bamboos are sorted
into four classes' according to different sizes : —

I Class Rs. 40 per 100.

IT „ 30 „

HI „ „ 20 „

IV , , 10 „

Mother branches ... „ 2 „
It is said that bamboos flower once in sixty years, when
they all die. Some say that they flower in thirty years.

Pruning.

The proper pruning of trees is often much neglected
and the loss in timber, foliage and fruit thereby caused is
very considerable. The matter receives very careful atten-
tion among horticulturists in temperate climates, but it is

HORTICULTURE 169

rendered difficult in India because of the rapid growth, and
the absence of any true resting period, when pruning usually
takes place. Stated briefly, the object of pruning a tree is to
give it a good natural shape, whereby all its branches, leaves
and flowers have free space to grow, and incidentally, to
increase the number of these. An ideal form must be aimed
at in each tree, but, as the natural habit of trees varies very
much, this will differ with the species. Compare for instance
the cork tree (Millingtonia suberosa) of erect, narrow habit
and the low flat-crowned gold mohur with the well rounded
tamarind. All three of these must be treated in entirely
different ways, to obtain the maximum of leaf surface.
Seeing that trees are so constantly cut for fuel, fodder and
leaf-manure in South India, a recognition of the general
principles of pruning is very important.

Pruning for fruit is little understood in India. Two of
the commonest methods adopted for increasing fruitfulness
are root-pruning and shoot-pruning, and one example has
been chosen among Indian fruit trees to show that the right
method can only be arrived at after a careful study of the
natural habit of the plant. The guava is a small tree or large
shrub of very variable shape, but the flowers and fruits are
borne in very well defined places. A little study will show
that, when a new shoot appears, the second, third and fourth
pairs of leaves usually bear flowers in their axils, and that
these are produced nowhere else. If then a tree has Income
unfruitful numerous new shoots must be produced. Some
grafted Chinese guanas in the Botanic garden at Coimbatore,
had not borne fruit after three years' growth, and two of them
were taken for experiment. In the first, a deep trench was
dug around and all the roots were cut across ; a severe
pruning of all its branches was given to the second. The
result was very instructive. The root-pruned plant dropped
many of its leaves but produced no new shoots and therefore
no flowers. The shoot-pruned plant was covered with burst-
ing buds within a week of the operation. Many of these
bore flowers in the usual place and, after six months, there
were nearly a hundred fruits upon it.

170 TIMBER TREES

SOME COMMON TIMBER TREES.

1. Grewia tilijEfolia, Vahl.

Vernacular. — Sadachi. Thadasu, Unu, Tam.* ; Thadasu,
Mai. ; Thadasal, Kan. ; Thana, Thadda, Tel. ; Dhomono,
Oriya.

Habitat.— Throughout the Presidency, ascending to 4,000
feet.

Description.— A moderate sized deciduous tree. Wood
brown, hard, tough, and elastic. Takes a good polish.
Weight about 401b.*

Chief uses. — Boats, masts, oars, ploughs, shoulderpoles,
tool-handles, house posts, door and window frames, furniture,
carts <all parts), excellent for cooper's work. Has some of
the properties of American hickory.

By-products.— Fibre extracted from the bark.

2. AZADIRACHTA INDJCA, JUSS. (MELIA INDICA, BRANDIS.)

The Margosa or Nim„

Vernacular. — Veppam, Vembu, Tam. ; Veppu, Mai ; Betta
Be van. Kan. ; Yepa, Veppa, Tel. ; Limbo, Oriya.

Habitat.— Natural in the dry forests of the Carnatic and
Deccan but widely planted especially as an avenue tree.

Description. — A moderate to large sized deciduous tree.
Hear&vood red, hard, close-grained, scented, resembling
mahogany, durable. Weight about 50 lb.

Chief uses. —House building (all parts except planking),
furniture, carts, axles, yokes, naves and felloes, ship and boat
building, oars, ploughs, oil-mills.

By-products.— Bark yields a febrifuge, seeds expressed
for oil, all parts medicinal.

3. Cedrela toona, Roxb.
The Red cedar.
Vernacular.— San thana- Vembu, Agli, Tam ; Vembu
Vella-Agil, Mai. ; Noga, Kan. ; Mahahmbo, Oriya.

* Note. — The weights of wood given are per cubic foot,
dry. The abbreviations of Vernacular names used are as
foJlows : —

Tam „ ... = Tamil.

Mai. = Malayalam.

Kan. = Kanarese.

Tel = Telugu.

TIMBER TREES 171

Habitat —Western Ghats and low hills of Southern India.

Description. — A large deciduous tree, wood brick red and
soft but even-grained, fragrant and easily worked, seasons
readily, does not split or warp when seasoned. Durable and
not attacked by white ants. Weight 30 to 35 lb.

Chief uses. —House building (^ chiefly planking and panels),
excellent for furniture and boxes, well-construction, dug-outs,
and canoes, oars, yokes, carving.

4. Chloroxylon swietenia, DC.

The Sati?i wood.

Vernacular. — Karum-porasu, Tarn. ; Huragalu, Kan. ;
Billudu, Tel.; Bheru, Oriya.

Habitat. — Dry forests and low hills of Southern India,
not in areas of heavy rainfall.

Description. A moderate sized deciduous tree. Wood
light-yellow, hard, close-grained, with a satiny lustre. Very
durable. Weight 60 lb.

Chief uses.- Much exported to Europe for furniture and
cabinet work. Bridge work, wharf -piles, ploughs, agricul-
tural implements, oil-mills, pestles, carving and turning, carts
(all parts), boats, tool handles, gunstocks, high class panelling.

5. Mangifera indica, Linn.

The Mango.

Vernacular.— Ma-maram, Tam. ; Mava, Mai. ; Mava,
Kan. ; Mamidi, Tel. ; Ambo, Oriya.

Habitat.— Indigenous along the Western Ghats, but exten-
sively cultivated everywhere.

Description A large evergreen tree. Wood grey, in old
trees sometimes dark-brown, soft. Weight 42 lb.

Chief uses. — ^ lanking, door and window frames, packing
cases, tea Boxes, cheap furniture, dug outs, well-construction,
ploughs, yokes, felloes, cooper's work.

6. DALBERGIA LAT1FOLIA, ROXB.

The Black-wood or Rose-wood.

Vernacular.— Iti, Tam. ; Iti, Mai. ; Biti, Kan. ; Jittegi,
Tel. ; Siasua, Oriya.

Habitat.— Throughout the Madras Presidency up to 4,000
feet.

172 TIMBER TREES

Description. — A large deciduous tree. Heartwood dark
purple with black streaks, very strong and durable, seasons
well without warping or splitting and takes polish well. A
very fine timber. Weight about 55 lb.

Chief uses. — High class furniture, carts (all parts),
ploughs, well-construction, tool-handles, walking-sticks,
cooper's work.

7. Pterocarpus marsupium, Roxb.

The Kino tree.

Vernacular.— -Venge, Tarn. ; Yenge, Mai. ; Honne, Kan. ;
Yegi, Yegise, Tel. ; Piasal, Oriya.

Habitat.— Throughout the Madras Presidency except in
wet evergreen forests, up to 4,000 feet.

Description.- A large deciduous tree. Heartwood yel-
lowish-brown with darker streaks, very hard, dux-able, seasons
well and takes a fine polish. The heartwood stains yellow
when damp. Weight about 55 lb.

Chief uses. —Posts, beams, door and window frames, fur-
niture, agricultural implements, carts (all parts), boat-build-
ing, cars, cooper's work.

By-products. — Yields gum kino.

8. Hardwickia binata, Roxb.

Vernacular— Acha, Tarn. ; Kamra, Kan. ; Yepi, Tel.

Habitat.— Dry forests of Southern India, up to 3,000 feet.

Description — A large deciduous tree. Heartwood dark-
red or purplish, streaked with black, extremely hard, close
and cross-grained, very durable, does not warp, but apt to
split, Weight about 82 lb.

Chief uses. — House and bridge posts, beams and rafters,
carts (all parts), ploughs, clod-crushers, vessels for sowing
seeds, hand-looms, well-construction, carving, turning ana
ornamental work, bearings for machinery, oars.

By-products. — The bark yields a useful fibre.

9. Tamarindfs indica, Linn.

The Tamarind.

Vernacular. — Puli, Tarn. ; Puli, Mai. ; Hunase, Kan. ;
Chinti, Tel. ; Koya. Tentuli, Oriya.

Habitat.— Doubtfully indigenous in India, but everywhere
grown .

TIMBER TREES 173

Description. — A large evergreen tree, sapwood yellowish-
white, sometimes with red streaks, heartwood small, present
only in old trees, very durable and difficult to work. Weight,
sapwood 62 lb., heartwood 80 lb.

Chief uses. — Oil and sugar-mills, rice-pounders, mortars,
pestles, ploughs, mallets, tool-handles, furniture, house fit-
tings, well-construction, cooper's work, tent-pegs, side planks
of boats, carts, shafts, axles and naves.

10. Xylia dolabriformis, Benth.

- Iromcood.

Vernacular. — Irul, Tam. ; Irul, Mai. ; Jambe, Kan. ;
Kondatangedu, Tel. ; Tangani, Oriya.

Habitat. — Eastern and Western Ghats in semi-moist
forests.

Description. — A large deciduous tree, remaining small on
poor soils. Heartwood reddish-brown, extremely hard, cross-
grained, very durable. Weight 60 lb.

Chief uses. — House building (chiefly posts, beams and
scantlings), bridge-construction, piles, telegraph posts, sleep-
ers, railway waggon construction, tent-peg^ railway keys,
well-construction, boats, dug-outs, carts (all parts), ploughs,
harrow-teeth, yokes, oil-presses, shingles, tool-handles.

11. Acacia arabica, Willd.

The Babul tree.

Vernacular. — Karu-velam, Tam. ; Karu-velam, Mai. ; Jali
Kan. ; Nalla-tumma, Tel. ; Babulo, Oriya.

Habitat. — Probably not indigenous in Southern India, but
abundantly cultivated and self-sown in tank beds, on bunds,
along channels and other similar situations where there is
alluvial soil and water not far from the surface.

Description.— A moderate sized tree, heartwood pink turn-
ing reddish-brown on exposure, mottled with darn: streaks,
hard, very durable. Weight 54 lb.

Chief uses. — House buildings (posts, beams, rafters, door
and window frames), carts (all parts), solid wheels, boat-build-
ing, oars, sugar and oil-presses, rice-pounders, ploughs,
harrows, clod-crushers, Persian wheels, well curbs, tool-
handles, cooper's work, carving and turning, the best wood
for tent-pegs. Excellent fuel.

By-products — Bark yields tannin and a dye, the pods are
used as fodder, the resin yields a fair gum.

174

TIMBER TREES

12. Albizzia Lebbek, Benth.

The Indian Walnut*

Vernacular.— Vage, Sele-unjal, Tarn. ; Vage, Vel-vage,
Mai. ; Bengha, Bage, Kan. ; Dirisanam, (xirisanam, Tel. ;
{Sirisa, Oriya.

Habitat.— Throughout Southern India in the drier parts
often planted.

Description. — A large deciduous tree. Heartwood dark-
brown streaked with lighter or darker streaks, hard, fairly
durable, seasons, works and polishes well. Weight . 47 to
50 lb. p \

Chief uses. — A handsome furniture wood, housebuilding
(chiefly posts and beams), ploughs, rollers, oil-mills, sugarcane
crushers, yokes, well-curbs, boats, carts (all parts), cooper's
work and turnery.

13. Terminalia tomentosa, W. & A.

Vernacular. — Karumarudu, Tarn. ; Karimaridu, Mai. ;
Karimadi, Kan. ; Nellamaddi, Tel. ; Sahajo,- Oriya.

Habitat.— Throughout the Presidency up to 4,000 feet
but not in evergreen forests.

Description. — A large deciduous tree. Heartwood dark-
brown with streaks of dark colour, hard and apt to split in
seasoning. Weight 67 lb.

Chief uses.— House building (all parts), rough furniture,
oil-mills, rice-pounders, ploughs, harrows, yokes, shafts and
axles of carts, boat and ship-building.

By-products. — Bark is used for tanning and dyeing,
especially fishing nets.

14. Anogeissus latifolia, Wall.

Vernacular. — Velnage, Vekkali, Tarn. ; Vella-naga, Mai. ;
Dinduga, Kan. ; Chiruman, Tel. ; Dhau, Oriya.

Habitat. — Dry deciduous forests throughout the Presi-
dency up to 5,000 feet.

Description. — A large deciduous tree, often stunted at the
higher elevations, sapwood grey, hard, shining, smooth.
Heartwood small and irregular, purplish-brown, very hard,
very tough, but splits in seasoning. Weight 62 lb.

Chief uses. — Poles and rafters, axles and shafts of carts
yokes, naves, ploughs and other agricultural implements, rice-
pounders, mortars, tool-handles, tent-pegy, spinning-wheels,
shoulder-poles, furniture, boat-building and mine props.

timber trees 175

15. Eugenia jambolana, Lam.

The Black Plum.

Vernacular.— Naga Naval, Tarn. ; Navil, Mai. ; Nerale,
Kan ; Naredu, Tel. ; Jambo, Oriya.

Habitat.— Throughout the Presidency up to 6,000 feet,
chiefly along streams, often cultivated.

Description. —A large evergreen tree. Wood reddish-grey,
moderately hard, fairly durable, lasts well under water. No
distinct heartwood. Weight 48 lb.

Chief uses. --House building (chiefly posts, beams and
rafters), carts (all parts), boat-building, oars, masts, agricul-
tural implements, rice-mortars, well curbs, common furniture,
carving and turning.

By-products.— The fruit is edible.

16. Adina cordifolia, Hook.

Vernacular. — Manjakadambe, Tarn. ; Manjakadamba,
Mai. ; Kadamba, Kan. ; Rudrabataganapu, Tel. ; Holondo,
Oriya.

Habitat.— Deciduous forests throughout the Presidency
up to about 3,000 feet.

Description —A large deciduous tree, wood yellowish,
moderately hard, even-grained, seasons well, but apt to warp
and crack. No heartwood. Weight 45 lb.

Chief uses. — Building (posts but chiefly planking), dug-
outs, packing cases, light furniture, agricultural implements,
yokes, shingles, carving and turning.

17. Tectona grandis, Linn. y.
The Teak tree.

Vernacular .— Tekku, Tarn.; Tekku, Mai. ; Tega, Kan. ;
Teku, Tel. ; Siguvani, Oriya.

Habitat. — Hilly tracts of Godavari, Kurnool, Cuddapah,
Mysore, Coorg, Malabar, the Nilgiris, Coimbatore, Madura,
Tinnevelly, Travancore and Cochin.

Description. — A large deciduous tree, wood dark-golden,
yellow when fresh, turning ^ark-brown with age, hard and
very durable, rarely attacked by white ants, probably due to
the large amount of oil it contains. Does not warp or crack.
One of the finest known timbers. Weight 45 lb.

Chief uses.— House building (all parts), bridge-work, ship-
building, furniture, ploughs, yokes, narrows, carts (all parts),
railway sleepers, railway carriages, casks, well-construction,
looms, spinning wheels, etc.

176 TIMBER TREES

18. FlCUS BENGALENSIS, LlNN.

The Banyan tree.

Vernacular. —Ala, Tarn. ; Peria-ala, Mai. ; Ala, Goli,
Kan. ; Marri, Tel. ; Bori, Oriya.

Habitat. — Probably not indigenous in the Madras Presi-
dency, but widely planted especially as an avenue tree.

Description. — A large shady tree, throwing down numerous
serial roots from the branches. Wood grey, moderately hard,
not durable but lasts well under water, wood of the aerial
roots stronger than that of branches. Weight 36 lb.

Chief uses.— Door panels, boxes, cheap furniture, well
curbs, pestles, the wood of the aerial roots is used for tent-
poles, cart-yokes, and shafts and shoulder poles.

19. Artocarpus integrifolia, Linn, f.
The Jack tree.

Vernacular. — Pilla, Tarn. ; Pilavu, Mai. ; Alasu, Kan. ;
Panasa, Tel. ; Ponaso, Oriya.

Habitat. - Indigenous in the forests of the Western Ghats
up to 4,000 feet, much cultivated elsewhere.

Description. — A large evergreen tree, heartwood bright
yellow, darkening on exposure. Moderately hard. Weight
401b.

Chief uses. — House building, boats, masts, oars, carts
(yokes, naves, spokes and felloes), rice-pounders, cooper's
work, well-construction, furniture, boxes and turnery.

By-products. — Yields the well-known jack fruit.

20. BORASSUS FLABELLIFER, LlNN.

The Palmyra Palm or Toddy Palm,

Vernacular.— Pane, Tarn. ; Pana. Mai. ; Pani, Talimara
Kan. ; Tadi, Tel. : Talo, Oriya.

Habitat.— -Not indigenous in India, but cultivated and run
wild throughout the Madras Presidency.

Description.— & large erect palm. Wood light-brown and
soft inside, outside black and handsomely streaked, hard
strong, very durable under water.

Chief Uses.— Posts and rafters, water-pipes and gutters,
troughs, dug-outs, well-construction, turnery, buckets. *

By -products. — The sap is tapped for toddy and jaggery.
The leaves are used for thatch, umbrellas, mats, fans, hats,
sandals, buckets, basket work, writing tablets, etc. The
pulp of the fruit is edible. The fibres are used for brushes.

STATISTICS

m

STATISTICS.

Table showing the Agricultural position of the
districts of the madras presidency during the
Agricultural year 1917-18.

•

Jler

.►»

o

^

District.

area.

2 c*

3 O
>

1 .

9

B

q, &0

bog

is.

O M °

13

s3^

22

w W I— 1

08 ^ £

+*

? 3

P t->

9 ©

P >> ee

o

M°

-o -

$*

h^ »
^

ACRES.

ACRES.

ACRES.

ACRES.

ACRES.

Ganjain

5,366,900

1,760,218

2,113,652

4-69

5-76

Vizagapatam.

10,999,238

2,348,460

2,807,664

9-94

5-26

Godavari ...

3,980,698

961,453

1,230,709

874

4-74

Kistn.i

3,695,343

1,772,786

2,170,425

7-71

8-00

Guntfir

3,648,781

2,036,662

2,338,706

7-38 16*50

Nellore

5,103,053

1,355,026

1,525,519

7-80

12-52

Kuruool

4,833,774

1,998,528

2,062,449

10-13

22-88

Bellary

3,649,513

2,336,651

2,365,184

14*68

2166

Anantapur ...

4,281,825

1,884,862

1,993,734

'11-71

15-88

Cuddapah ...

: 3,757,862

1,050,000

1,156,618

4-99

1300

Chittoor

! 3T609.292

715,862

843,777

4-80

560

North Arcot.

! 3,170^3V

1,157,691

1,418,010

414

522

Ghiugleput . . .

I 1,896,6§I

752,135

949,545

4-18

5-16

Madras

' 17,2T0

South Arcot.

2,693,301

1,323,053

1,5311344

3-61

5V81

Salem

i 4,423,953

1,662,495

1,907,856

651

1262

Ooimbatore. .

i 4,627,999

2,043,596

2,313,859

9-69

11 ■('.('

Trichinopoly.

1 2,767,685

1,422,848

1,558,276

5-63

7-57

Tanjore

2,389,404

1,341,654

1,461,774

4-80

6*63

Madura

1 3,203,034

1,437,827

1,599,094

5-80

7-07

R a inn ad

! 2,096,808

1,422,106

1,473,056

4-76

9(.»'

Tinnevelly ...

2352*391

1,267,762

1,497,514

540

7*61

Nilgiris
Malabar

651,226

76,493

80,020

20-00

15;;:.

i 3,708,685

1,370,295

1,663,117

643

38-16

Anjengo
South Kanara

375

336

336

J 2,573,445

557,261

759,094

8-28

3i5

Total for the

89,699,386

34,056,060

38,821,332

...

Presidency.

12

ITS

STATISTICS

Table showing the average rainfall of the
districts of the madras presidency.

xi

i
I

5=1 fe

O CD

5 a

1*

O a)

32 O

District.

4

o <a

<
u

9
1

9

g §
a *

<D O

1

>>*

IS

13
0
H

Ganjam

1-65

3-88

30-26

10-18

45*97

Vizagapatam

1-35

3*74

2513

10-59

40-81

^'Gddavari

Kistna
VG-untilr

078

262

25-39

10-61

39*40

072

2-04

24-21

8-85

35-82

078

1-98

18-52

10-11

31-39

Nellore

1-25

1-66

11-29

21-64

35-84

Kuruool

0-34

1-85

17-69

5-68

25-56

Bellary

0-30

2-70

14-25

5-41

22-66

Anantapur

0-29

2-65

1328

6-43

22-65

Cuddapah

0-55

2-07

15-15

9-94

27-71

North Arcot

114

373

17*84

15*03

3774

Chingleput

. 1-33

214

1637

25-55

45-39

South Arcot

1-46

2'93

16-93

24-08

45-40

Salem

. 1-04

5-55

14-86

10-95

32-40

Coimbatore

1-19

5*34

8-34

11-29

26-16

Trichinopoly ..

. 117

4-97

11-59

14-48

32-21

Tanjore

. 2-07

317

12-44

26-50

44-18

Madura

. 175

512

8-84

14-94

30-65

Ramnad

. 219

366

6*08

17-04

28-97

Tinnevelly

3-22

3*28

3-10

17-79

27-39

TheNilgiris

359

8-90

36-49

20-11

69-09

Malabar

1-23

11-13

89-16

15-24

116-76

South Kanara . .

0'36

743

125-64

11-84

145-27

Chittoor

1-06

314

14-70"

1411

33-01

Madras

1-51

2-20

15-88

31-12

50-71

STATISTICS

179

Table showing the normal price of food grainjb
per imperial maund (82 lb.) during the agricul-
tural year 1917-18.

Group.

District.

8 P

•a
I

c

Circars . . . ^

Deccan ..

Garnatic...

•

I
ntral .. ^

I

South

West
Coast.

Hills

Ganjam ...
Vizagapatam
Godavari ..
Kistna
Guntur ...

Kurnool ...
Bellary
Anantapur
Cuddapah

Nellore
Chingleput
Madras
South Arcot

Chittoor ...
North Arcot
Salem
Coimbatore
Trichinopoly

Tanjore :..
Madura . . .
Ramnad . . .
Tinnevelly

Malabar
South Kanara

The Nilgiris

RS. A.

5 0
5 0

4 7

5 0
4 7

5 0
5 11
5 0
5 0

4 7

5 0
5 11
5 0

4 7

5 0
5 11
5 11
5 0

5 0
5 0
5 0
5 0

5 0

4 7

5 11

RS. A.

2 11

2 11

2 11

2 14

2 8
2 11

2 11

3 5
3 1
3 1

3 1
2 14
2 14
2 14

3 5

RS. A

2 14

RS. A.

2*11

2U
3 1

2 11
2 14

2 14
85

3 1 | 3 1
3 1 i 3 5
3 13 5

3 5 13 5
3 13 10
2 14 3 10

180

STATISTICS

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September 26— Oct. 8

October 9-22.

October 23 -Nov. 4.

November 5 —17.

November H— 30.

December 1—14.

December 15 -27.

December 23— January 9.

11
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Uttrashada ...

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Sravanam ...
Bhadrapada.
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Kartigam
Margasiram...

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Kumbham ...

Meenam

Medan

Idavam

Mithunam

Karkitaka

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Kanni

Thulam

Vrichikam ...

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1

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Jan. 16-Feb. 15 ...
Feb. 16-Mar. 15...
Mar. 16— Apr. 15...
Apr. 16-May 15...
May 16— June 15...
June 16— July 15...
July 16-Aug. 15...
Aug. 16-Sep. 15...
Sep. 16 -Oct. 15...
Oct. 16— Nov. 15...
Nov. 16— Dec. 15...
Dec. 16— Jan. 15 ...

189

INDEX

Abortion ("cattle), 124
Do. (sheep). 134

Acacia arabica, 173

Acacia farnesiana, 163

Adina cordi folia, 175

Agathi, 162
Do. —Insect Pests of, 159

Agave, 82

Agave americana, 82, 156, 163

Agave sisalana, 82

Agave Vera Cruz, 82

Age of cattle, 110

Aee of sheep, 129

Albizzia lebbek, 174

Allium cepa, 83

Alteratives and tonics (recipes),
135

Amaranthus Gangeticus, 74

Amorphoohallus campanulatus, 72

Anaesthetics, 136

Anantapur— Weight and mea-
sures of, 4

Angular measure, 17

Anogeissus lati folia, 174

Anthelmintics (recipes), 135

Antiparasitics (recipes). 136

Antipyretics (recipes), 136

Antiseptics (recipes \ 137

Anthrax (cattle), 116
Do. (sheep). 130

Aphtha (sheep \ 132

Arachis hypooea, 78

Arasanikai.70

Arecanute, 164

Arrowroot, 73

Artocarpus integrifolia, 176

Arundo donax, 162

Ashe«. 53

Ash Gourd or Ash— Pumpkin, 75

Astringents (recipes;, 13S

Average yield of principal crops,
181

Azadirachta indica, 170

Babul, 163. 167. 173

Balsa modendron Berryl, 162

Bamboo tope*. 163

Banian tree. 176

Batavian orange gardens, 167

Bellary— Weights and measures

of, 4
Bengal gram, 64
Benincasa cerifera, 75
Betel, 88

Bimlipatam jute, 81
Bishop's weed. 86
Bitter-Gourd, 75
Black gram, 67
Black plum, 175
Black water, 120
Black-quarter. 117
Black-wood, 172
Bloody flux (sheep), 132
Bone manures, 50
Borassusflabellifer, 163, 176
Bordeaux mixture, 159
Brassica juncea, 86
Breeding (cattle), 106—103
Breeding and rearing (sheep), 127

—128
Bricks, 28
Brinjal, 69

Do. —Insect pests of, 153
Bronchitis (cattle), 119
Do. (sheep), 131
Buffalo's milk— Analysis of, 152
Buildings, 23
Bundling seedlings, 40
Butter— Analysis of. 153
Buttermilk— Analysis of, 1&3

Cajanus indieus, 65

Cakes— Analyses of, 51

Calabash or Calabash-cucumber,

75
Calves— Feeding, 100
Calving table, 112
Cambodia cotton, 81
Canarese months corresponding

with English months, 189
Cancer, 113
Cane harvesting, 36
Canes, wrapping, 43
Cannabis sativa, i-9
Cannanore— Weights and measures

of, 9
Capsicum annuum, 83
Cardamom, 88
Cardials (recipes), 139
Carilla fruit, 75

190

N D E X

Carting, 36

Carthamus tinctorius, 79-80

Carts— Draught of, 35

Carum copticum, 86

Cassia angustifolia, 90

Castor, 77

Castor cake — Analysis of, 51

Castor— Insect pests of, 153

Casuarina equiseti folia, 162, 166

Catarrh (sheep), 131

Cattle manure, 49

Cattle (rearing >, 103

Ccdrela toona, 171

Cephalandra indica, 74

Chadurakkalli, 162

Chaffing, 37

Chayroot, 92

Chingleput— Weights and mea-
sures of, 5

Chillies, 83

Chillies, picking, 45

Chirakkal taluk— Weights and
measures of, 8

Cldoroxijlon swietenia, 171

Choking, 113

Cholam, 59

Chowk maram, 162

Cicer arietinum, 64

Citrullus vulgaris, 71

Clearing land, 36

Clod crusher, 36

Cluster bean, 69

Coconut gardens, 163, 164

Coconuts, picking, 45

Coimbatore— Weights and mea-
sures of, 5

Collyria (recipes), 139

Coloeasia antiquorum, 72

Colostrum— Analysis of, 153

Common millet, 62

Concrete, 23

Condiments and spices, 83

Conjunctivitis, 122

Contagious foot rot (sheep), 131

Contract— Labour by, 43

Conversion factors, 13

Coriander, 85

Coriandrum sativum, 85

Cost of feeding a pair of cattle per
annum, 101

Cost of feeding cows per annum,
102-103

Cost of pumping water, 32

Cotton, c 0

Cotton ginning, 36, 43

Cotton- Insect pests of, 153

Cotton, picking, 43

Cotton stalks, removing, 43

Cow gram, 63

Cow pea, ti 4

Cow pox, 115

Cow's milk— Analysis of, 152

Cream— Analysis of, 152

Cropping of districts— Table
showing, 132

Crotolaria juncea, 82

Crow-barring, 36, 43

Cucumber, 70

Cucumis Mela, 70

Cucumis s itivus. 70

Oucurbita maxima, 69

Cucurbita moschata, 70

Oucurbita Pepo, 70

Cuddapah— Weights and mea-
sures of, 5

Cultivating, 36

Cumbu, 59

Cuminum cuminum, 85

Cummin, 85

Curcuma angustifolia, 73

Curcuma longa, 84

Cyamopsis psoralioides, 69

Dairying— Useful data, 153-154
Dairy, equipment of, 155
Dalbergia latifolia, 172
Deccan hemp, 81
Demulcents (recipes), 140
Dentition (cattle), 110
Do. (sheep), 123
Dew gram, 6 i
Diarrhoea (cattle), 119
Do. (calves), 125
Do. (sheep), 132
Digestive co-efficients, 101
Digging cane stubbles, 44

Do. hariali, 43

Do. wells, 44

Do. wet land, 36

Do. with mamuti, 44
Disinfectants, 139
Disinfection, 146
Diuretics (recipes), 140
Dolichos bitiorus, 65
Dolichos lablab, 66
Downtall of the udder, 125
Drilling, 37

Drugs and narcotics, 88
Dryage of stored grains, 92
Duty of water, 33
Dyes, 91

Dysentery (cattle), 119
Do. (sheep), 132

Ecbolics-parturients (recipes), 140
Elettaria cardamomum, 88
Elephant yam, 72

INDEX

191

Eleusine coracana, 60

Do. —Insect pests

of. 157

Emollients, 140

Ernad taluk— Weights and mea-
sures of, 6

Eugenia jambolana, 175

Euphorbia antiquorum, 162

Euphorbia tirucalli, 162

Expectorants (recipes), 140

Extracting fibre, 44

Eye washes (.recipes), 139

Fasli. 3

Febrifuges (recipes), 136

Feeding, cost of, 101—105

Feeding live-stock (see also Foods

and feeding), 109
Feeding sheep, 123
Fenugreek, 88
Fever, simple, 113
Fibres, bO

Fibre extracting, 3<
Fici/s Benqalemis, 176
Field bean, 66
Filaria lachrymaUs, 122
Fish guano, 51
Fish manure, 51
Flies (sheep >, 134
Foods and feeding, 93-105
Foot-and-mouth disease — Cattle, 11 4
Do. —Sheep, 130

Foot rot, 131
Foul, 121
Fracture of the horn, 123

Gadfly (sheep), 134

Gan jam -Weights and measures

of, 5
Garget (cattle), 125

Do. (sheep), 135
Gargles (recipes), 139
Garlic, 84

Gestation— Periods of, 144
Gingelly, 77

Do. - Insect pests of, 153
Ginger, 87

Goats' milk— Analysis of. 153
Godavari— Weights and measures

of. 6
Gossypium, ^'0, 81
Gourds— Insect pests of, 153
Grapes— Insect pests of, 159
Green manures, 53

Green gram, 67

Grewia tilicn/olia, 173

Grinding, 3 >

Groundnut, 71

Groundnut cake— Analysis of, 51

Groundnut— Insect pests of, 153

Groundnut lifting. 39

Guano <flsh), 51

Guinea grass, 76

Gulzotia abyssinica, 79

Guntaka working, 36-37

II

Hemorrhagic septicemia, 115

Hardivickia binata, 172

Harrowing, 3 <

Harvesting (Bengal gram), 33
Do. (cumbu), 39
Do. (groundnut), 39
Do. (paddy), 39

Hedge plants, 161

Henna, 162

Hepatitis, 119

Hibiscus cannabinus, 81

Hibiscus esculentus, 71

Horse gram, 65

Horse power, 30

Horticulture. 161

Hoven (sheep1, 132

Hurdles -Rate for, 44

Husking. 39

Hydrophobia (sheep), 131

Impaction of the rumen, 118

Implements— Draught, of. 35

Incubation of poultry, 144

Indian corn, 62

Indian hemp, 89

Indian walnut, 174

Ind go, 91

Indigo/era Sumatrana, 91

Inflammation of the lungs (sheep),

131
Inflammation of the udder (cattle),

125
Inflammation of the udder (sheep),

135
Insect posts, 156
Instruments Ve'erinary, 143
Inter-culturing. 39
Inversion of the womb, 124
Ipoman Batatas, 71

Italian millet. 61
Iron wood, 173
Irritants (.recipes), 141
Irul, 173

192

INDEX

Jack tree, 165, 176

Kainit, 50

Kaliyana Pushini, 75
Kambu, 59
Kaththalai. 163
Karamani, 63
Karumarudu. 174
Karanai-kizhangu, 73
Karum porasu. 171
Karunsembai. 162
Karuvelam. 163
Kino tree, 172
Kiraithandu. 74
Kodo millet, 63
Korukapili, 161
Kovai, 74
Kudiraivali, 62

Labour, 36
Ladies' fingers, 71
Lagenaria vulgaris, 75
Lambing table, 130
Laminitis, 121
Law ami a alba, 162
Leaf— Green. 53
Levelling : Methods of, 25
Life of animals, 146
Lime, 2\ 47
Linseed, 79

Linum mitatimtimum, 79
Live-stock. 106
Liver rot, 132
Loam, 46

Local weights and measures, 4—16
Lockjaw (sheep \ 133
Lousiness (cattle ), 121
Do. (sheep), 134
Lucerne. 76
Loofah, 76

Luff a aegyptiaea, 76
Luffa acutangula, 76
Luxation, 123

Machinery. 30

Madura— Weights and measures

of, 9
Maize, 64

Do. —Inject pest of, 157
Malabar— Walluvanad taluk,

weights and measures of, 7

Malayalam months corresponding

with English months— List of,

139
Mammitis, 125
Mangalore— Weights and measures

of, 12
Mange. 121

Manqlfera ind'ca, 165, 171
Mango, 165, 171

Do. —Insect pest of, 159
Manihot utillssfma, 72
Manjakadambe, 175
Manures— Nitrogenous, 49
Do. Phospha+ic, 50
Manure spreading. 42
Manurial factors, 56
Do. values, 56
Manures— Green, 53

Do. Unit prices of, 54, 55
Margosa. 170
Maruthani, 162
Measures, 1

Do. —Local. 4
Medi cago sativa, 76
Melia indica, 170
Melons, 70

Do. —Insect pests of, 153
Mensuration and Surveying, 19
Mefal, road, 29

Metrical weights and measures, 17
Mhote— Work of, 23
Milk— Analvses of, 152
Milk fever, 122
Milk hedge, 162
Milk yields of cows, 151
Mill refuse, 52
Millets— Insect pests of, 157
Minerals— Rock forming, 46
Miscarriage, 124
Mislocation, 123
Mixing manures, 56
Momordica oharantia, 75
Months : Vernacular names of, 189
Mortar. 23
Mullukiluvai, 162
Mustard, 86

Naga, 175

Navel-118,125

Nephritis, 120

Nicotiana tabacum, 89

Niger seed, 79

N'ght soil. 54

Nilgiris— Weights and measures of,
9

Nim, 170

Norai Peerkan, 76

North Arcot— Weights and mea-
sures of, 10

INDEX

193

Oestrum, 145
Oil seeds, 77

Oldenlandia umbellata, 92
Omum, 86
Onions, 83
Opuntia Dillenii, 161
Oryza Sativa, 58

Paddy. 58

Paddy : Harvesting, 44
Paddy— Insect pests of, 158
Palms Do. 159

Palmyra palm, 163, 177.
Panicum crusgalli, 62

Do. frumentaceum, 62

Do. maximum, 76

Do. miliaceum, 62

Do. mili are, 61
Para (of lime), 28
Paralysis, 122
Parasites, 147
Parturient apoplexy, 122
Paspalum scrobiculatum, 63
Pasturage fees, 105
Pati mannu, 53
Pavakkai, 75
Peerkan, 76
Pee velan, 163
Pekkarumbu, 162
Penning cattle, 44
Pennisetum typhoideum, 59
Pennisetum typhoideum— Insect

pe«ts of. 157
Pepper. 87
Periods of gestation of domestic

animals, 144
Periods of heat, 145
Pests— Insect, 156
Pliaseolus aconitifolius, 63

Do. Mungo, 67

Do. Mungo. radiatus, 67
Picking cotton, 33
Filter nigrum, 87
Plantain gardens, 166
Planting, 40

Pleuro-pneumonia contagiosa, 114
Ploughing, 41, 45
Ploughs— Draughts of. 35
Pneumonia (cattle), 120
Do. (sheep), 131
Pomegranate— Insect pests of,

159
Poinciana elata, 162
Poonacs— Analysis of, 51
Potash, 50
Potato, 73

Prices of food-grains per Imperial

maund(821b.). 180
Prickly-pear, 161
Prismoid— Measurement of, 21
Pruning of trees, 163
Pterocarpus marsupium, 172
Pudalangai, 74
Pulichai, 81
Pulimanji, 81
Pulse (of animals), 145
Pulses, 64

Pulses— Insect pests of, 158
Pumpkin, 69

Pumping water, 31 ^.

Pungam cake— Analysis of, 51
Punnai cake— Analysis of, 51
Purgatives (recipes), 141

Rabies (sheep), 131

Rag-:. 60
Do. - -Insect pests of, 157

Rainfall table, 178

Rations— Composition of, 96
Do. —Specimen, 93-100

Rations for calves at the Military
Dairy, Bangalore, 115

Rearing (cattle), 103
Do. (sheep), 127

Recipes, 135

Red cedar, 171

Red gram, 65

Red water, 120

Retention of after-birth or placen-
ta, 124

Respiration, 145

Rheumatism, 113

Ribbed-Gourd, 17

Ricinus Communis, 77

Ridging, 41

Rinderpest (cattle), 114
Do. (sheep), 130

Ringworm, 121

Roads, 28

Rope making. 41, 45

Rosewood, 172

Rot (sheep), 132

Saccharum arundinaceum, 162

Do. offlcinarum, 9U
Rafflower, 79

Safflower cake — Analysis of, 51
Salem— Weights and measures of

10
Samai, 61

194

INDEX

Sanwa millet, 62

Satinwood, 171

Sawing timber. 45

Scab (sheep >, 134

Scrofula (sheep), 131

Scour, 125

Senna, 90

Sesamum indicum, 77

Sesbania aegyjttiaca, 162
Bo. grandi flora, 162

Setaria italica, 61

Shearing (sheep), 123

Sheep, 126
Do. Breeds of, 126
Do. penning, 15
Do. pox, i:»o

Simple fever, 113

Siththagathi, 162

Skim milk— Analysis of, 152

Snake Gourd, 74

Soils, 46

Soil— Chemical analysis of, 47

Do. —Mechanical analysis of, 43

Solarium mrlongena, 69
Do. tuberosum, 73

Sorakkai, 75

Sore teats, 125

Sorghum— Inject pesisof, 156

Sorghum vuhare. 59

South Arcot— Weignis and mea-
sures of, 11

South Kanara— Weights and mea-
sures of, 12

Sowing, 41

Spiked millet, 59

Specimen rations, 93

Sprain, 123

Stack Measurement of, 22

Statistics— Agricultural, 1Y8

Stimulants (recipes), 139

Straw twists, 45

Straw— Weight of, 22

Sugarcane, 90

Do. —Insect pests of, 157

Sunnhemp, 82

Surki, 23

Surveying, 19

Sweet potato, 71

Do. — Insect pests of, 153

Sweet potatoes— Harvesting, 45

Tamil 'months corresponding with

English months, 1S9
Tanjore— Weights and measures

of, 14
Tamarind, 173
Tamarindm indira, 173
Tannery refuse, 52

Tapioca. 72

Teak, 176

Teat-s, sore, 125

Tectona qrandis, 17^

Teeth— Age from (cattle), 111
Do. - Age from (sheep >, 129

Telugu months corresponding
with English months, 1S9

Telli cherry —Weights and mea-
sures of, 9

Temperature of animals, 145

Tenai, 61

Terminaiia tomentosa, 174

Tetanus (sheep), 133

Thadasu, 170

Thatching, 42

Thenai, 61

Thirugu kalli, 162

Ticks (sheep), 134

Timber trees (common), 170

Tinnevelly senna, 90

Tinnevelly— Weights and mea-
sures of, 14

Threshing, 39, 45

Tobacco, 89

Do. —Insect pests of, 158

Toddy palm, 177

Trenching, 42

Trichinopoly— Weights and mea-
sures of, 14

Trichosanthes anguina, 74

Trigonella faenumgraecum, 88

Triticum sp., 63

Tuberculosis (cattle), 113
Do. (sheep), 131

Turmeric, 84

Do. —Lifting, 45

Tuvarai, 65

Tympanitis (cattle), 118
Do. (sheep), 132

Typhonium trilobatum, 73

Unit prices of manures, 55

Variola ovina (sheep), 130

Vage. 174

Varagu, 63

Vegetable and garden produce, 69

Vegetable marrow, 70

Velnage, 175

Vermifuges (recipes), 135

Veterinary instruments and

appliances, 143
Vigna Catiang. 71
Village earth, 53

INDEX

195

Village refuse, 53

Vizagapat am— Weights and mea-
sures of, 16

Watching paddy, 43

Water lifting, 40

Water melo ns, 71

Weeding, 43

Weights and measures, 1

Do. (local), 4

Do. (veteri-

nary), 142

Wheat, 63

Do. —Insect pests of, 157

Whey -Analysis of, 153
Whitewashing, 2i
Winnowing, 43
Worm in tUe eye, 122
Wounds and tumours, 123
Wrapping canes, 43

Xylia dolabriformis, 139

Zea Mays, G4
Zingiber officianale, 87

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