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rOTES ON MUHAMMADANISM

lEV. IP. HUGHES. CM. S

SECOND mrnm.

jl 7G6 Broadway

'^

'd PRINCETON, N. J. -'' ^ PR^IICBTON._^:. fiECJUN 1880
Division. Section .. Shelf. Number..	..B.?.l4..! ...a..a.a...

NOTES

ON

MUHAMMADANISM.

With the Publisher: Compliments.

NOTES

MUHAMMADANISM,

BEING OUTLINES OF

THE RELIGIOUS SYSTEM OF ISLAM.

Rev. T. p. "^hughes, M.R.A.S.,

C.M.S., MISSIONARY TO THE AFGHANS, PESHAWAR.

SECOND EDITION, EEVISED AND ENLARGED.

LONDON : Wm. H. ALLEN & CO., 13, WATEELOO PLACE, S.W.

PUBLISHERS TO THE INDIA OFFICE.

1877.

(.411 rigMs reserved.)

LONDON : FEINTED BY W. H. ALLEN AND CO.

PEIHCETOIT RECJUN 1880

TO THE SECOND EDITION.

The favourable reception whicli has been ac- corded to the first edition of these outlines of the Muhammadan system has encouraged me to put forth a revised and enlarged edition. I am glad of the opportunity ; for, the first edition contained numerous errors, consequent upon my bringing it out during a short and hurried visit to England, in the summer of 1875. Still, notwithstanding its numerous and manifest short- comings, it has been pronounced, by an eminent Arabic scholar, as not only

a 2

VI PEEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

"about the best outlines of Muslim faitb lie had seen"; but as having '' the rare merit of being accurate.^*

T. P. H.

Peshaivar, 16t7i August 1877.

PREFACE

TO THE FIRST EDITION.

Theee is a general impression amongst European students of Islam, that it is a simple system of Deism unfettered by numerous dogmas and creeds, wliich are supposed to be such an insuperable hindrance to an acceptance of Christianity. Such was the opinion of the historian Gibbon, and it is also the view taken by some who seek to weaken the authority of the Christian system by extolling the merit of its great rival creed. But even amongst the advocates of Christianity there is altogether an erroneous impression as to what Muham- madanism really is. Dean Stanley has an ad- mirable chapter on the subject of Islam in his

VIU PEEFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

'' Eastern Church"; but he tells his readers that '' the Quran contains the ivhole of the religion of Muhammad " ; and Mr. Zincke, in his exceed- ingly interesting book, " Egypt of the Pharaohs and the Khedive," appears to be under the same impression ; for he says, '' the Quran is an all embracing a7id sufficient code, regulating everything.'' Whereas the true state of the case is, that whilst the Quran is the highest authority for Muslim doctrine, still, the " faith- ful," whether Sunni, Shi^'h, or Wahhabi, must receive the sayings and practices of their Prophet as of divine obligation ; for, in Islam, the teachings of the " Sacred Traditions " must be received side by side with that of the Quran itself ; and the Muslim who would escape the suspicion of heresy must not dare to question the teaching of the learned doctors, whose opinions have been handed down in numerous commentaries and ponderous volumes

divinity.

In publishing these ''Notes on Muham-

PEEFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. IX

madanism," tlie author is fully conscious of tlieir imperfections,* but lie ventures to liope tliat tliey will contain information which may be suggestive to Missionaries and others interested in the study of Islam.

Upon a thoughtful study of the present work, the reader cannot fail to observe what an important place dogmatic teaching occupies in the system under consideration. There are those amongst English and Continental writers who regard all dogmatic teaching as antiquated, and who would recommend the Christian Missionary to keep dogma in the back- ground, when dealing with such a religious system as Muhammadanism. But Muslim divines would spurn such teaching as unworthy of theologians, whether of Islam or of Christianity. The trumpet must give no uncertain sound. It is a solemn thing for a Christian Missionary to be engaged day by day in unsettling the

* They are hond fide notes of a Dictionary of Islam, which the author has in course of compilation.

X PEEFACE TO THE EIEST EDITION.

religious opinions of immortal beings, unless he feels tliat he has something good and true to offer in the place of opinions renounced. If we call upon the millions of Islam to loose from their moorings amidst the reefs and shoals cf a false system, and to steer forth into the wide ocean of religious inquiry, we must surely direct them to some fair haven of refuge where they will find rest and peace. It has been well said by Dr. Martensen* that " a mind starved by doubt has never been able to produce a dogmatic system''; and we are quite sure that all who have had practical experience of Muhammadanism, will agree that none could be so helpless in dealing with Muslim doctors, as those who are wandering about in the un- certainty of doubt, and cannot stand firm in the certainty of faith.

On the other hand, Muhammadanism may be used as a schoolmaster to bring men to

* " Christian Dogmatics," by Dr. H. Martensen, Bishop of Zeeland, Denmark.

PEEFACE TO THE FIEST EDITION. XI

Christ, for mucli wliicli is contained in its elaborate system is expressive of man's great and exceeding need. Tlie Christian controver- sialist, in dealing with Muhammadanism, must ever remember that it contains a two-fold element of truth. The Founder of Islam derived much of his system from that great unwritten law of God which is ever speaking to men of every nation and of every clime ; and he was also greatly indebted to the written law of the Holy One of Israel, although he received it from Talmudic sources. To quote the words of Bengel, the commentator, " the Law " — whether it be that written on the con- science, or in the pages of the Quran, or in God's revealed word — "the law hounds a man till he betake himself to Christ ; then it says to him, ' Thou hast found an asylum ; I pursue thee no more; thou art wise, thou art safe.' "

Notwithstanding its fair show of outward observance, and its severe legal enactments, there is something in Islam which strikes at the

XU PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

very root of morals, poisons domestic life, and (in its truest sense) disorganizes society. Free- dom of judgment is crushed, and a barrier has been raised not merely against the advance of Christianity, but against the progress of Civi- lization itself. It is impossible to account for this peculiar feature in Muhammadan nations by attributing it to the peculiarities of Oriental races, or other accidental circumstances. The great cause lies in the religious system which they profess, which binds them hand and foot. For everything in religion, in law, in life, and in thought, has been measured for all time. Muhammadanism admits of no progress in morals, law, or commerce. It fails to re- generate the man, and it is equally powerless in regenerating the nation.

Futney, 17th August 1875.

CONTENTS,

I. Muhammad 1

II. Islam 10

III. EuLE OF Faith 12

IV. The Qtjran 14

V. Inspiration 47

VI. The Traditions 50

VII. Ijma' 61

VIII. QiAs 64

IX. Faith .66

X. Allah, or God 67

XI. Angels 79

XII. Prophets 84

Xni. The Day op Eesurrection and

Judgment . . , . .87

XIV CONTENTS.

Page

XIY. Heaven 91

XV. Hell 96

XYI. The Decrees of G-od .... 98

XVII. The Five Foundations op Pkactical

Eeligion 101

XVIII. The Eecital of the Ceeed . . 102

XIX. Prayer 104

XX. Ramazan, or the Month of Fasting 119 XXI. Zakat, or Legal Almsgiving . . 125

XXII. Hajj, or Pilgrimage to Mecca . 130

XXIII. The Law 137

XXIV. Sin 139

XXV. Punishment 141

XXVI. Lawful Food ..... 143

XXVn. Farz-i-Kafai . . . . .146

XXVIII. Fiteat 147

XXIX. Salutations 148

XXX. Caliph 150

XXXI. Muhammadan Clergy, Scholars, and

Saints 155

XXXn. Theological Literature . . . 160

XXXIII. Muharram and Ashuraa . . . 163

	CONTENTS.	XV Page
XXXIV.	Akhiri Ghahar Shamba	167
XXXY.	Bara Wafat .....	168
XXXYI.	Shab-i-Barat	169
XXXYII.	'Id-ul-Fitr	171
XXXYIII.	'Id-ul-Azha . .0 . .	173
XXXIX.	NiKAH, OR Marriage ....	177
XL.	Talaq, or Divorce ....	182
XLI.	Janaza, or Burial ....	185
XLII.	Slavery	194
XTiIII.	Khtjtbah, or the Friday's Sermon .	198
XLIY.	Jihad, or Eeligious War .	206
XLY.	Martyrs . . . ...	211
XLYI.	The Four Orthodox Sects	212
XLYII.	The Shia'hs	214
XLYIII.	The Wahhabis	219
XLIX.	SuFiisM, OR Mysticism	227
L.	Faqirs, or Darweshes	234
LI.	ZlKR, OR THE EeLIGIOUS SERVICES OF
	THE Darweshes ....	243
LII.	The Lord Jesus Christ	256
TJTI.	The Crucifixion of our Saviour	261

XVI CONTENTS.

Page

LIV. The Divinity of Christ and the

Holy Trinity .... 264

LV. Tahrif, or the Alleged Corruption OF THE Sacred Books of the Jews and Christians . . . 267

Index of Technical Terms . .275

NOTES

ON

MUHAMMADANISM.

I.— MUHAMMAD.

The earliest biograpliers of the Arabian Pro- phet, whose works are extant in Arabic, are Ibn-Ishaq (a.h. 151), Ibn-Hisham (a.h. 218), Waqidi (a.h. 207), and Tabari (a.h. 310). Is- mail Abulfida, Prince of Hamah, in Syria (a.h. 733), compiled a Life of Mnhammad in Arabic, which was translated by John Gagnier, Pro- fessor of Arabic at Oxford (a.d. 1723), and into English by the Rev. W. Mnrray, Episcopal clergyman at DufEus, in Scotland.* Dr. Spren- ger of Calcutta commenced a Life of Muham-

* Mr. Murray's translation was published at Elgin (without date). It is exceedingly scarce, the British Mu- seum not possessing a copy.

1

2 MUHAMMAD.

mad in Bnglisli, and printed tlie first part of it at Allahabad (a.d. 1851) ; but it was never completed. The learned author afterwards published his work in German in 1869.* The only Life of Muhammad in English, which has any pretension to original research, is that by Sir William Muir of the Bengal Civil Service. t

Muhammad (lit. the praised one), son of Abdul Muttalib, by his ^vife Amina, was born at Mecca, August 29th, a.d. 570. He assumed the prophetic office at the age of fort}^, fled from Mecca at the age of fifty-four, and died at Medinah, June 9th, a.d. 632, aged sixty-two.

The Hijrat, or Hegira (the flight from Mecca), which is the Muhammadan era, dates from July 16th, A.D. 622.

The character of Muhammad is an historic problem, and many have been the conjectures as to his motives and designs. Was he an impostor, a fanatic, or an honest man — " a very prophet of God?" And the problem might

* Das Leben iind die Lehre des Mohammad. A. Sprenger. 6 vols. 8vo. Berlin, 1869.

t Life of Mahomet. 4 vols. 8vo. London, 1858-61. New Edition. 1 vol. 8vo. London, 1877.

MUHAMMAD. '6

have for ever remained unsolved had not the Prophet himself appealed to the Old and New Testament in proof of his mission. This is the crucial test, established by the Prophet himself. He claims to be weighed in the balance with the Divine Jesus. Having done so, we find him wanting.

Objection has often been made to the manner in which Christian divines have attacked the private character of Muhammad. Why reject the prophetic mission of Muhammad on account of his private vices, when you receive as inspired the sayings of a Balaam, a David, or a Solomon ? We do not, as a rule, attack the character of Muhammad in dealing with Islam; it rouses opposition, and is an offensive Ime of argument. Still, in forming an estimate of his prophetical pretensions, we contend that the character of Muhammad is an important item in our bill of indictment. We readily admit that bad men have sometimes been, like Balaam and others, the divinely appointed organs of inspiration ; but in the case of Muhammad his professed in- spiration sanctioned and encouraged his own vices. That which ought to have been the foun- tain of purity was, in fact, the cover of the

1 A

4 MUHAMMAD.

Prophet's depravity.* But liow different it is in the case of tlie true propliet David, where, in the words of inspiration, he lays bare to public gaze the enormity of his own crimes. The deep contrition of his inmost soul is manifest in every line — " I acknowledge my transgression and my sin is ever, before me : against Thee, Thee only, have I sinned, and done this evil in Thy sight."

The best defenders of the Arabian Pro- phett are obliged to admit that the matter of Zeinab, the wife of Zeid, and again, of Mary, the Coptic slave, are "an indelible stain" upon his memory; that " he is once or twice untrue to the kind and forgiving disposition of liis best nature ; that he is once or twice unrelenting in the punishment of his personal enemies; and that he is gnilty even more than once of con- niving at the assassination of inveterate o|)po- nents; " but they give no satisfactory explana- tion or apology for all this being done under the supposed sanction of God in the Quran.

In formmg an estimate of Muhammad's pro-

*■ Vide Quran, chap, xxxiii. 37, and chap. Ixvi. 1.

t Vide Muhammad and Muhamniadism, by Mr. E. Bosworth Smith, M.A., an Assistant Master of Harrow School.

MUHAMMAD. O

phetical pretensions, it must be remembered that lie did not claim to be tlie founder of a new religion, but merely of a new covenant. He is tlie last and greatest of all God's pro- phets. He is sent to convert tlie world to tlie one true religion which God had before revealed to the five great lawgivers — Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, and Jesus ! The creed of Muhammad, therefore, claims to supersede that of the Lord Jesus. And it is here that we take our stand. We give Muhammad credit as a warrior, as a legislator, as a poet, as a man of uncommon genius, raising himself amidst great opposition to a pinnacle of renown ; we admit that he is, without doubt, one of the greatest heros the world has ever seen ; but when we consider his claims to supersede the mission of the Divine Jesus, we strip him of his borrowed plumes, and reduce him to the condition of an impostor ! * For whilst he has adopted and

* " There are modern biographers of the Prophet who would have us believe that he was not conscious of falsehood when making these assertions. He was under a hallucination, of course, but he believed what he said. This is to me incredible. The legends of the Koran are derived chiefly from Talmudic sources ; Muhammad must

6 MUHAMMAD.

avowed his belief in tlie sacred books of the Jew and the Christian, and has given them all the stamp and currency which his authority and influence could impart, he has attempted to rob ' Christianity of every distinctive truth which it possesses — its Divine Saviour, its Heavenly Comforter, its pure code of social morals, its spirit of love and truth — and has written his own refutation and condemna- tion with his own hand, by professing to con- firm the divine oracles wliich sap the very foundations of his prophetical pretensions.

have learned them from some Jew resident in or near Mekka. To work them up in the form of rhymed Suras, to put his own peculiar doctrines in the mouths of Jewish patriarchs, the Virgin Mary, and the infant Jesus (who talks like a good Moslem from his birth), must have re- quired time, thought, and labour. It is not possible that the man who had done all this could have forgotten all about it, and believed that these legends had been brought to him ready prepared by an angelic visitor. Muhammad was guilty of falsehood under circumstances where he

deemed the end justified the means He was

brought face to face with the question which every spi- ritual reformer has to consider, against which so many noble spirits have gone to ruin, — will not the end justify the means ? " — " Islam under the Arabs," by Major Durie Osborn, p. 21.

MUHAMMAD. /

We follow the would-be prophet in his self- asserted mission from the cave of Hira to the closing scene, when he dies in the midst of the lamentations of his harem, and the con- tentions of his friends — the visions of Gabriel, the period of mental depression, the contem- plated suicide, the assumption of the prophetic office, his struggles with Meccan unbelief, his flight to Medina, his triumphant entry into Mecca — and whilst we wonder at the genius of the hero, we pause at every stage and inquire, " Is this the Apostle of God whose mission is to claim universal dominion to the suppression not merely of idolatry, but of Christianity itself? " Then it is that the divine and holy character of Jesus rises to our view, and the inquiring mind sickens at the thought of the beloved, the pure, the lowly Jesus giving place to that of the ambitious, the sensual, the time-serving hero of Arabia. In the study of Islam the character of Muhammad needs an apology or a defence at every stage; but in the contemplation of the Christian system, whilst we everywhere read of Jesus, and see the reflection of His image in everything we read, the heart revels in the

« MUHAMMAD.

contemplation, the inner pulsations of our spi- ritual life bound witliin us at the study of a character so divine, so pure.

We are not insensible to the beauties of the Quran as a literary production, although they have, without doubt, been overrated ; but as we admire its conceptions of the Divine nature its deep and fervent trust in the power of God, its frequent deep moral earnestness, and its sen- tentious wisdom, we would gladly rid ourselves of our recollections of the Prophet, his licen- tious harem, his sanguinary battle-fields, his ambitious schemes ; whilst as we peruse the Christian scriptures we find the grand central charm in the divine character of its founder. It is the divine character of Jesus which gives fragrance to His words ; it is the divine form of Jesus which shines through all He says or does ; it is the divine life of Jesus which is the great central point in Grospel history. How then, we ask, can the creed of Muhammad, the son of Abdullah, supersede and abrogate that of Jesus, the Son of God ? It is a remarkable coincidence that whilst the founder of Islam died feelino* that he had but imperfectly fulfilled his mis-

MUHAMMAD. 9

sion,* the founder of Cliristianity died in tlie full consciousness that His work was done — '' It is finished." It was in professing to produce a revelation which should supersede that of Jesus that Muhammad set the seal to his own refutation.

* Waqidi relates that Muhammad shortly before his death called for a " shoulder blade " upon which to write another chapter of the Quran, which should prevent them going astray for ever.

10

II.— ISLAM.

Isla'm is tlie name given to tlie Muhammadan religion by its founder. Abdul Haqq (the com- mentator on tlie Mislikat) says it implies '' sub- mission to the divine will."

In tlie Dictionary of tlie Quran entitled Moglirab, Mdm is explained as ''entering into peace (salm) with another," alluding to the fact that he who embraces Islam in a Mu- hammadan state becomes free from all those penalties and disabilities which belong to one who does not embrace the faith.

In the Quran the word is used for doing homage to God. Islam is said to be the religion of all the prophets from the time of Abraham, as will appear from the following verses (Surat- ul-Imran, ver. 78, 79) : — "We believe in God and in what hath been sent down to Abraham, and Ishmael, and Isaac, and Jacob, and the Tribes, and in what was given to Moses, and Jesus and the Prophets from their Lord. We

ISLAM.

make no difference between tliem, and to liim are we resigned (i.e. Muslims). Wlioso desire tli any other religion than Islam, that religion shall never be accepted of him, and in the next world he shall be lost."

There are three words nsed by Muhammadan writers for religion, namely, Bin, Millat, and Mazliah ; and in the Kitab-nt-Tarifat the dif- ference implied in these words is said to be as follows : — Din as it stands in its relation to (xod, e.g. Din-UIlah, the religion of God; Millat, as it stands in relation to a prophet or lawgiver, e.g. Millat-i' Ibrahim, the religion of Abraham; and Mazliah as it stands in relation to the divines of Islam, e.g. Mazhah-i-Hana/i, the re- ligion of Hanifa. The expression Din, however, is of general application.

Those who profess the religion of Islam are called Musalmans, Muslims, or Momins.

AJil-i'Kitdh,"- the people of the Book," is used for Muhammadans, Jews, and Christians.

12

III.— RULE OF FAITH.

The Muhammadan rule of faitli is based upon what are called the four foundations of orthodoxy, namely, the Quran, or, as it is called, Kaldrn JJllali, the Word of God; the Hcidis {^\. Aliddis), ov the traditions of the sayings and practice of Muhammad; Ijmd\ or the consent of the Mujtahidin, or learned doctors ; and Qids, or the analogical reasoning of the learned.

In studying the Muhammadan religious sys- tem it must be well understood that Islam is not simply the religion of the Quran, but that all Muhammadans, whether Sunni, Shia'h, or Wahhabi, receive the Traditions as an authority in matters of faith and practice. The Sunni Muhammadans arrogate to themselves the title of traditionists ; but the Shia'hs also receive the Hadis as binding upon them, although they do not acknowledge the same collection of traditions as those received by their opponents. The

RULE OF FAITH. 13

Wahliabis receive tlie "six correct books of the Sunnis."

The examjde of Muhammad is just as binding upon the Muslim, as that of Him who said " Learn of ane " is upon the Christian, and very many were the injunctions which the "Pro- phet " gave as to the transmission of his sayings and practice, and very ekiborate is the canon whereby Muslims arrive at what they believe to be the example of their Prophet. If, there- fore, the grand and elaborate system of morals as expressed in the law of Islam has failed to raise the standard of morality amongst the nations of the earth which have embraced its creed, it is not unreasonable to conclude that its failure rests in the absence of a living example of truth.

14

lY.— THE QUEA'N.*

The word Quran is derived from the Arabic Qara, which occurs at the commencement of Siira xcv., which is said to have been -the first chapter revealed to Muhammad ; and has the same meaning as the Hebrew hara, '' to read," or ''to recite," which is frequently used in Jeremiah xxxvi., as well as in other places in the Old Testament. It is, therefore, equi- valent to the Hebrew mikra, rendered in Nehe- miah viii. 18. "the reading." It is the title given to the Muhammadan Scriptures which are usually appealed to and quoted from as the " Quran Majid,'' or the '' Glorious Quran "; the " Quran Sharif,'' or the " Noble Quran " ; and is also called the '' Fitrqdn,'' or " Distinguisher,"

* The contents of this article aj^pear as an Introduction to the Eoman-Urdii edition of the Quran, published at Ludianah, North India, 1877.

THE QURAN. 15

''Kaldm JJIUK' or the ''Word of God," and ''Al hitdh,'' or ''the Book."*

Muhammadans believe the Quran to be the inspired Word of God sent down to the lowest heaven complete,! and then revealed from time to time to the Prophet by the Angel Gabriel.

There is, however, only one J distinct assertion in the Quran of Gabriel having been the me- dium of inspiration, namely, Siira-i-Baqr (ii.), 91 ; and this occurs in a Medina Sura, revealed about seven years after the Prophet's rule had been established. In the Siira-i-Shura (xxvi.), 192, the Quran is said to have been given by the '' Bilh ul A'onin,'' or Faithful Spirit; and in the Siira-i-Najm (liii.), 5, Muhammad claims to have been taught by the " Shadid-ul-Qud,''

* According to Jalal-ud-dm Syuty there are fifty-five titles of the Quran. (See the Itqan, p. 117.)

t See Jalal-ud- din's Itqan, j). 91. The " Eecording Angels" mentioned in the Sura-i-Abas (Ixxx.), 15, are said to have written the Quran before it was sent down from heaven.

X Gi-abriel (Jihrdtl) is only mentioned twice by name in the Quran : once in the verse noted above, and again in the Siira-i-Tahrim (Ixvi.), 4. He is supposed to be alluded to under the title of Euh-ul-Qudus, or the Holy Spirit, in Suras Baqr (ii.), 82, 254 ; Maida (v.), 109 ; Nahl (xvi.), 104.

16 THE QUEAN.

or One terrible in power ; and in tlie Traditions tlie agent of inspiration is generally spoken of as "an angel " [malali).* It is, therefore, not qnite certain throngli wliat agency Mnliammad believed liimself to be inspired of God.

According to Ayesliali, one of the Prophet's wives, the revelation was first communicated m dreams. Ayeshah relates f: — " The first revelations which the Prophet received were in true dreams ; and he never dreamt but it came to pass as regularly as the dawn of day. After this the Prophet was fond of retirement, and used to seclude himself in a cave in mount Hiraa and worship there day and night. He would, whenever he wished, return to his family at Mecca, and then go back again, taking with him the necessaries of life. Thus he continued to return to Khadijah from time to time, until one day the revelation came down to him, and the angel (inalaJi)^ came

* Malak. Hebrew, MalaJch, an angel ; pro23liet ; a name of office, not of nature. See Wilson's Hebrew Lexicon, p. 13.

t Mishkat, bk. xxiv. chap. v. pt. 1.

X Capt. Matthews, in his edition of the Mishkat, has followed the Persian Commentator, and translated the

THE QUEAN. 17

to liim and said, ' Read ' (iqarda) ; but tlie Propliet said, ' I am not a reader.' And tlie Propliet related, that he (i. e. the angel) took hold of me and squeezed me as much as I could bear, and he then let me go and said again, ' Read ! ' And I said, ' I am not a reader.' Then he took hold of me a second time, and squeezed me as much as I could bear, and then let me go, and said ' Read ! ' And I said, ' I am not a reader.' Then he took hold of me a third time and squeezed me as much as I could bear, and said : — " ' Read ! in the name of thy Lord who created ;

Created man from a clot of blood in the womb. *' ' Read ! for thy Lord is the most beneficent.

He hath taught men the use of the pen ;

He hath taught man that which he knoweth not.'* '' Then the Prophet repeated the words him- self, and with his heart trembling he returned (l. e. from Hiraa to Mecca) to Khadijah, and

word Malah, Gabriel, instead of Angel, and most of our English authors have quoted the tradition from his book. * Sura-i-Alaq (xcvi.), the first five verses. The other verses of the chapter are of a later date.

. 2

18 THE QURMT.

said, ' Wrap me up, wrap me up.' And tliey wrapped him up in a garment till his fear was dispelled, and he told Khadijah what had passed, and he said : ' Yerily, I was afraid I should have died.' Then Khadijah said, ' No, it will not be so. I swear by Grod, He will never make you melancholy or sad. For verily you are kind to your relatives, you speak the truth, you are faithful in trust, you bear the afflictions of the people, you spend in good works what you gain in trade, you are hospitable, and you assist your fellow men.' After this, Khadijah took the Prophet to Waraqa, who was the son of her uncle, and she said to him, ' 0 son of my uncle I hear what your brother's son says.' Then Waraqa said to the Prophet, ' 0 son of my brother! what do you see?' Then the Prophet told Waraqa what he saw, and Waraqa said, 'That is the Ndmmis^ which G-od sent to Moses.' Ayeshah also relates

* Ndmns. Understood by all Commentators to be the angel Gabriel. It lias, however, many significations, e.g. Law, Voice, Sound, &c. (see Johnson's Arabic Dictionary) Probably a corruption of the Greek vojjlo^, which is always used in the New Testament for the Law of Moses.

THE QURAN. 19

tliat Haris-ibn-Hisliam asked tlie Prophet, ' How did tlie revelation come to you ? ' and tlie Propliet said, ' Sometimes like tlie noise of a bell, and sometimes tlie angel would come and converse with me in the shape of a man.' "

According to A'yeshah's statement, the Siira-i-Alaq (xcvi.) was the first portion of the Quran revealed; but it is more probable that the poetical Suras, in Avhich there is no express declaration of the prophetic office, or of a divine commission, were composed at an earlier period. Internal evidence would assign the earliest date to the Suras Zilzal (xcix.), Asar (ciii.), A'dijat (c), and Fatilia (i.), which are rather the utterances of a searcher after truth than of an Apostle of God.

The whole book was not arranged until after Muhammad's death, but it is believed that the Prophet himself divided the Siiras and gave most of them their present titles, which are chosen from some word which oc- curs in the chapter.* The following is the

* The ancient Jews divided the whole Law of Moses into fifty-four Sections, which were called Sidrah, or an

2 A

20 THE QURAN.

account of tlie collection and arrangement of the Quran, as it stands at present, as given in traditions recorded by Bokliari : —

" Zaid-ibn-Sabit, relates*: — ' Abii-Bakr sent a person to me, and called me to liim, at tlie time of the battle with the people of Zema- mah ; and I went to him, and Omar was with him ; and Abii-Bakr said to me, " Omar came to me and said, ' Yerily, a great many of the readers of the Quran were slain on the day of the battle with the people of Zemamah ; and really I am afraid that if the slaughter should be great, much will be lost from the Quran, because every person remembers some- thing of it ; and, verily, I see it advisable for you to order the Quran to be collected into one book.' I said to Omar, ' How can I do a thing which the Prophet has not done.' He said, ' I swear by God, this collecting of the Quran is a good thing.' And Omar used to be constantly returning to me and saying : ' You must collect the Quran,' till at length

order or division. These sections had each a technical name, e.g. the first was called "Bereshith," and the second '' Noah." (See Dr. Adam Clark on Genesis.) * Mishkat, bk. viii. chap. iii. pt. 3.

THE QUEAN. 21

God opened my breast so to do, and I saw wliat Omar had been advising.' And Zaid-ibn- Sabit says that, 'Abu-Bakr said to me, "You are a young and sensible man, and I do not suspect you of forgetfuhiess, negligence, or perfidy ; and, verily, you used to write for the Prophet his instructions from above ; then look for the Quran in every place and collect it." I said, " I swear by God, that if people had ordered me to carry a mountain about from one place to another, it would not be heavier upon me than the order which Abu- Bakr has given for collecting the Quran." I said to Abu-Bakr, " How do you do a thing which the Prophet of God did not ? " He said, " By God, this collecting of the Quran is a good act." And he used perpetually to return to me, until God put it into my heart to do the thing which the heart of Omar had been set upon. Then I sought for the Quran, and collected it from the leaves of the date, and white stones, and the breasts of people that remembered it, till I found the last part of the chapter entitled Tmiha (Re- pentance), with Abil-Khuzaimah Ansari, and mth no other person. These leaves were in

22 THE QURAN.

the possession of Abu-Bakr, until Grocl caused him to die; after which Omar had them in his life-time; after that, they remained with his daughter, Hafsah ; after that, Osman com- piled them into one book.'

" Anas-ibn-Malik relates : — ' Huzaifah came to Osman, and he had fought with the people of Syria in the conquest of Armenia ; and had fought in Azurbaijan, with the people of Irak, and he was shocked at the different ways of people reading the Quran. And Huzaifah said to Osman, " 0 Osman, assist this people, before they differ in the Book of Grod, just as the Jews and Christians differ in their books." Then Osman sent a person to Hafsah, ordering her to send those portions which she had, and saying, " I shall have a number of copies of them taken, and will then return them to you." And Hafsah sent the portions to Osman, and Osman ordered Zaid-ibn-Sabit, Ansari, and Abdullah-bin- Zu- bair, and Said-ibn-Alnas, and Abdullah-ibn- ul-Haris-bin-Hisham ; and these were all of the Quraish tribe, except Zaid-ibn-Sabit and Osman. And he said to the three Quraish- ites, ''When you and Zaid-ibn-Sabit differ

THE QUEAN. 23

about any part of tlie dialect of the Quran, tlien do ye write it in tlie Quraisli dialect, because it came not down in the language of any tribe but theirs." Then they did as Osman had ordered; and when a number of copies had been taken, Osman returned the leaves to Hafsah. And Osman sent a copy to every quarter of the countries of Islam, and ordered all other leaves to be burnt, and Ibn-Shahab said, " Kharijah, son of Zaid- ibn-Sabit, informed me, saying, * I could not find one verse when I was writing the Quran, which, verily, I heard from the Prophet ; then I looked for it, and found it with Khuzaimah Ansari, and entered it into the Siira-i-Ahzab.'"

This recension of the Quran produced by Khalifa Osman has been handed down to us unaltered ; and, as Sir William Muir remarks, "there is probably no other book in the world which has remained twelve centuries with so pure a text."*

That various readings (such as Christians understand by the term) did exist when Os- man produced the first uniform edition is

* Muir's " Life of Mohamet," vol. i. Introduction.

24 THE QUEAN.

more than probable, and the Shi'ahs have al- ways charged the Ansars * with " having mutilated and changed and made the Quran what they pleased; " a charge, however, which they do not attempt to prove, beyond the mere assertion that certain passages were omitted which favoured the claims of Ali to b.e the first Khalif.

The various readings (Qira^at) in the Quran are not such as are usually understood by the term in English authors, but different dialects of the Arabic language. Ibn Abbas says the Prophet said, " Gabriel taught me to read the Quran in one dialect, and when I recited it he taught me to recite it in an- other dialect, and so on until the number of dialects increased to seven." t

Muhammad seems to have adopted this ex- pedient to satisfy the desire of the leading

* See the Hyat-ul-Kalub, a Shi'ah book of Traditions, leaf 420. " The Ansars were ordained to oppose the claims of the family of Muhammad, and this was the reason why the other wretches took the office of Khalif by force. After thus treating one Khalif of God, they then muti- lated and changed the other Khalif, which is the book of God."

t Mishkat, bk. ii. chap. ii. pt. 1.

THE QUEAN. 25

tribes to have a Quran in their own dialect; for Abdul Haqq* says, '' The Quran was first revealed in the dialect of the Quraish, which was the Prophet's native tongue ; but when the Prophet saw that the people of other tribes recited it with difficulty then he obtained per- mission from God to extend its currency by allowing it to be recited in all the chief dialects of Arabia, which were seven : — Quraish, Tai, Hawazin, Ahl-i-Yaman, Saqif, Huzail, and Bani-Tamin. Every one of these tribes ac- cordingly read the Quran in its own dialect, till the time of Osman, when these differences of reading were prohibited."

These seven dialects are called SahaHa-Ahruf, and the science of reading the Quran in the correct dialect is called ^Ilm-i-Tajivid,

The chronological arrangement of the chap- ters of the Quran is most important. In the present Urdii edition, as well as in all Arabic editions, the Siiras are placed as they must have been arranged by Zaid-ibn-i-Sabit, who put them together regardless of all chro-

* Abdul Haqq, the Persian Commentator of the Mishkat.

26

THE QUEAN.

nological sequence. If, therefore, we arrange them according to the order which is given in Syuty's Itqan,* we shall not fail to mark the gradual develo^Dment of Muhammad's mind from that of a mere moral teacher and re- former, to that of a prophet and warrior chief. The contrast between the earlier, mid- dle, and later Suras is very striking. He who at Mecca is the admonisher and persuader, at Medina is the legislator and the warrior, who dictates obedience, and uses other weapons than the pen of the poet and the scribe. When business pressed, as at Medina, poetry makes way for prose; and although touches of the poetical element occasionally break forth, and he has to defend himself up to a very late period against the charge of being merely a poet, yet this is rarely the case in the Medina Suras, in which we so frequently meet with injunctions to obey God and the Prophet, t

To fully realize the gradual growth of Mu-

* The chronological list as given in Jalal-ud-dm Sjuty's Itqan will be found in the Index of the Suras.

t See Eodwell's Introduction to the English Quran, in which the Suras are chronologically arranged.

THE QUEAN. 27

liammad's religious system in his own mind, it is absolutely necessary to read the Quran through, not in the order in which it now stands, but that in which Muslim divines ad- mit that it was revealed. At the same time it must be remembered that all Muhammadan doctors allow that in most of the Siiras there are verses which belong to a different date from that of other portions of the chapter; for example, in the Siira-i-'Alaq the first five verses belong to a much earlier date than the others; and in Sura-i-Baqr, verse 234 is acknowledged by all commentators to have been revealed after verse 240, which it abro- gates.

The sources whence Muhammad derived the materials for his Quran, are, over and above the more poetical parts, which are his own creation, the legends of his time and country, Jewish traditions based upon the Talmud, perverted to suit his own purposes, and the floating Christian traditions of Arabia and South Syria. Muhammadanism, however, owes more to Judaism * than it does to either

* See a book by M. Geiger entitled, " Was hat Mu- hammed aus dem Judentliume aufgenommen," in which

28 THE QURAN.

Christianity or Sabeanism, for it is simply Talmudic Judaism adapted to Arabia, plus the Apostleship of Jesus and Muhammad. Wherever Muhammad departs from the mono- theistic principles of Judaism, as in the idola- trous practices of the Pilgrimage to the K'aba, it is evident that it is done as a necessary concession to the national feelings and sym- pathies of the people of Arabia, and it is ab- solutely impossible for Muhammadan divines to reconcile the idolatrous rites of the K'aba with that simple monotheism which it was evidently Muhammad's intention to establish in Arabia.

The Quran is divided into : —

1. Harf (pi. Hitruf), Letters; of which there are said to be 323,671.

2. Kalimah (pi. KalimcU)^ Words ; of which there are 77,934.

3. A'yat (pi. A'ljdt), Yerses. Ayat is a word which signifies "signs," and it was used

that learned Jew has traced all the leading features of Islam to Talmudic sources. Also " Literary Eemains of Emanuel Deutsch." Essay on Islam.

THE QUEAN. 29

by Muhammad for sliort sections or verses of his supposed revelation. There are said to be 6,616 verses in the whole book; but the division of verses differs in different editions of the Arabic Quran. The number of verses in the Arabic Qurans are recorded after the title of the Siira, and the verses distinguished in the text by a small cypher or circle.*

4. Sura (pi. Smuar), Chapters. A word which signifies a row or series, but which is now used exclusively for the chapters of the Quran, which are one hundred and fourteen in number. These chapters are called after some word which occurs in the text, and if the Traditions are to be trusted, they were so named by Muhammad himself, although the verses of their respective Suras were undoubt- edly arranged after his death, and sometimes with little regard to their sequence. Musal- man doctors admit that the Khalif Osman arranged the chapters in the order in which they now stand in the Quran.

* Unfortunately the verses in Rodwell's English Quran do not correspond with the Arabic Qurans in use amongst the Muhammadans of India.

30 THE QUEAN.

5. Bid'iV (pi. BiiMdt), Prostrations. Tliese are of two kinds, the RulnV of a Sura and tlie BiihV of a Sipara, and are distinguished in the Arabic Quran by the letter 'a in on the margin. Muhammadans generally quote by the Ruku and not by the verse.

6. Buba\ The quarter of a Sipara.

7. Nisf, The half of a Sipara.

8. Suls, Three-quarters of a Sipara.

9. Slpdra,^ the Persian for the Arabic Juz. The Siparas or Juz, are thirty in number, and it is said that the Quran is so divided to enable the pious Muslim to recite the whole of the Quran in the thirty days of Ramazan. Muhammadans generally quote their Quran by the Sijpdra and Buku\ and not by the Sm^a and A'yat,

10. Manzil (pi. mandzil), Stages. Tliese are seven in number, and are marked by the letters F, M, Y, B, Sh, W, and Q, which words are said to spell Famibeshauq, L e. " My mouth with desire." They have been arranged to enable the devout Muslim to recite the whole in the course of a week.

* The Persian word Sipara is derived from si, thirty, and ]pdra, a portion.

THE QUEAN. 31

'llm-i-Usul,^ or the Exegesis of tlie Quran, is a science, some knowledge of which is ab- solutely necessary to enable the Christian con- troversialist to meet a Muhammadan opponent. It is used by the Muslim divine to explain away many apparent or real contradictions which exist in the Quran, and it is also avail- able for a similar purpose when rightly used by the Christian in explanation of the exegesis of his own sacred books.

The words (alfdz) of the Quran are of four classes : — Khdss, 'Amm, MushtaraJc, and Muaiv- ival.

(1) Khdss, Words used in a special sense. These are of three kinds : — Khusits-ul-jins, Special genus ; Khusus-un-nau\ Special spe- cies; Khitsus-uh'ain, Special individuality.

(2) 'Amm, Collective or common, which em- brace many individuals or things.

. (3) MusUarah, Complex words which have several significations ; e.g. 'ccin, a word which

* 'Ilm-i-Usul embraces both the exegesis of the Quran and Hadis. The most authoritative works on the 'Ilm-i- TJsul of the Quran are Syuty's Itqan (Sprenger's edition), and the Manar-ul-Usul, and its commentary the Nur-ul- Anwar.

32 THE QUEAN.

signifies an Eye, a Fountain, tlie Knee, or the Sun.

(4) Muawwal, Words which require to be explained : e. g. Suldt may mean either the Liturgical daily prayer {Namdz), or simple prayer (DucV).

II. The Sentences {'Ihdrat) of the Quran are either Zdhir or Khafi, L e. either Obvious or Hidden.

Obvious sentences are of four classes : — Zdhir, Nass, Mufassar, MuJiham.

(1) Zdhir, — Those sentences, the meaning of which is Obvious or clear, without any assist- ance from the context [harina).

(2) Nass. — Those sentences the meaning of which is Manifest from the text : e. g. '' Take in marriage of such other women as please you, two, three, or four." Here it is manifest that the expression " such other women as please you " is restricted.

(3) Mufassar. — Sentences which are ex- plained by some expression in the verse : e. g. " And the angels prostrated themselves all of them with one accord save Iblis.^' Here

THE QUEAN. 33

it is explained that Iblis did not prostrate himself.

(4) Muhlcam. — Perspicuous sentences, the meaning of which is incontrovertible : e. g. Sdra-i-Maida (v.), 98, ''He (God) knoweth all things."

Hidden sentences are either Khafi, Mushkil, Mujmal, or Mutashdbih.

(1) Khafi. — Sentences in which other per- sons or things are hidden beneath the plain meaning of a word or expression contained therein : e. g. Siira-i-Maida (v.), 42, " As for a thief whether male or female cut ye ofE their hands in recompense for their doings." In this sentence the word Sdriq, " thief," is un- derstood to have hidden beneath its literal meaning, both pickpockets and highway rob- bers.

(2) Mushhil. — Sentences which are ambigu- ous : e.g. Sura-i-Dahr (Ixxvi.), 15, ''Vessels of silver and decanters which are of glass, decanters of glass with silver whose measure they shall mete."

(3) Mujmal. — Sentences which are comjpen- dious, and have many interpretations : e. g,

3

34 THE QURAN.

Siira-i-Ma'rij (Ixx.), 19, "Man truly is by creation liasty."

(4) Mutashdhih. — Intricate sentences, or ex- pressions, the exact meaning of wliicli it is impossible for man to ascertain until the day of resurrection, but which was known to the Prophet : e. g. the letters Alif, Lam, Mim (A. L. M.) ; Alif, Lam, Ea (A. L. R.) ; Alif, Lam, Mim, Ra (A. L. M. U.), etc., at the commencement of different Suras or chapters. Also Sura-i-Mulk (Ixvii.) 1, '' In whose hand is the Kingdom,'' i. e. God's hand (Arabic, yad); and Siira-i-Twa Ha (xx.), '^He is most merciful and sitteth on His throne," i. e. God sitteth (Arabic, istaiud) ; and Siira-i-Baqr (ii.), 115, " The face of God" (Arabic, ivaj-ullali),

III. The use (isti'mdl) of words in the Quran is divided into four classes. They are either Haqiqat, Majdz, SaHh, or Kindyah.

(1) Haqiqat. — Words which are used in their literal meaning : e. g. rulm, a prostration ; zind, adultery.

(2) Majdz. — Words which are figurative.

(3) Sarih. — Words the meaning of which is

THE QURAN. 35

clear and palpable : e. g. " Thou art free,''^ '' Thou art divorced.''^

(4) Kindyah. — Words which are metaphorical in their meaning: e. g. ''Thou art separated; by which may be meant "thou art divorced.'*

TV, The deduction of arguments, or istidldl, as expressed in the Quran, is divided into four sections : 'Ihdrat, Ishdrat, Daldlat, and Iqtizd.

(1) 'Ibdrat. — The plain sentence.

(2) Ishdrat. — A sign or hint : e. g. " Born of him; " meaning, of course, the father.

(3) Daldlat. — The argument arising from a word or expression : e. g. Siira-i-Bani Israil (xyii.), 23, '' Say not unto your parents fie " (Arabic, itff) ; from which it is argued that children are not either to abuse or beat their parents.

(4) Iqtizd. — Demanding certain conditions : e. g. Sura-i-]Srisa (iv.), 91, "Whoso killeth a Mumin (believer) by mischance shall be bound to free a slave." Here the condition demanded is that the slave shall be the property of the person who frees him.

An acquaintance with the use of these

3 A

36 THE QURAN.

expressions used in tlie exegetical commen- taries of tlie Quran is of great assistance to tlie Bazaar-preacher, for it often happens that Maulavis interrupt the preacher by putting some difficult question, which the most able missionary will find it difficult to answer to the satisfaction of a mixed assemblage. For instance, an interesting discourse or discussion is often interrupted by a Maulavi putting the following question : " What did Jesus mean when He said, ' All that ever came before me were thieves or robbers?'" The sole object of the Maulavi being to interrupt a profitable conversation or sermon, the best reply to such an one would be, " Maulavi Sahib, you know sentences are Zahir or Khafi, hidden or evident. That is Khafi. Hidden sentences you know are of four kinds, Khafi, Mushkil, Mujmal, or Mutashabih. I consider the text you have quoted to be Mujmal, and you must admit that it would take up too much time to explain a Mujmal sentence in the midst of my present discourse." Most probably the Maulavi will be satisfied, for the preacher has applied a little flattering unction, in supposing that the Mau- lavi is learned in the principles of exegesis.

THE QUEAN. 37

We liave frequently silenced a troublesome ob- jector, who lias introduced the subject of the Trinity for no other purpose than to disturb the preaching, by telling him that it was mu- tashdhih, i.e. intricate, and at the same time asking him if he knew the meaning of Alif Lam Mim at the commencement of the se- cond chapter of the Quran. This appears to have been our blessed Lord's method with troublesome objectors : " The baptism of John : whence was it? "

It is often pamful to observe how some of our native preachers will attempt to explain the sacred mysteries of our faith in the midst of an ignorant mob. Whereas learned Muslim doctors, if placed in the same position, would decline to discuss mysterious questions under such conditions. They would say, as the Christian Divine might also say, " Many things in Grod's Avord are hidden (hhafi), and cannot be explained to such a mixed audience as this, and besides this, in speaking of the nature (zdt) of God, there is always some fear of blasphemy {I'lifr) ; I prefer speaking to you on that subject alone, after the preaching is over."

Some passages of the Quran are contradic-

38 THE QUEAX.

tory, and are often made tlie snbject of attack ; bnt it is part of the theological belief of the Muslim doctor that certain passages of the Quran are w-ansuhh, or abrogated by verses afterwards revealed. This was the doctrine taught by the Arabian prophet in the Siira-i- Baqr (ii.), 105, '' Whatever verses we (z*. e. God) cancel or cause thee to forget, we bring a better or its like." This convenient doctrine fell in with that law of expediency which appears to be the salient feature in Muham- mad's prophetical career.

In the Tafsir-i-'Azizi it is written, that ab- rogated (mansulth) verses of the Quran are of three kinds : (1) Where the verse has been removed from the Quran and another given in its place ; (2) Where the injunction is ab- rogated and the letters of the verse remain; (3) Where both the verse and its injunction are removed from the text. This is also the view of Jalal-ud-Dm, who says, that the number of abrogated verses has been variously estimated from five to five hundred, and he gives the following table of twenty verses which most commentators acknowledge to be abrogated,

THE QUEAN. 39

or Mansiclch, witli tliose verses wliich cancel tliem, or are Ndsihh.^

* It is to be regretted that the Greek verb KaraXvo), in St. Matthew v. '17, has been translated in some of the versions of the New Testament by mansiikh ; for it gives rise to needless controversy, and conveys a wrong im- pression to the Muhammadan mind as to the Christian view regarding this question. According to most G-reek lexicons, the Greek word means to throw down, or to destroy (as of a building), which is the meaning given to the word in our authorized English translation. Christ did not come to destroy, or to pull down, the Law and the Prophets ; but we all admit that certain precepts of the Old Testament were abrogated by those of the New Tes- tament. Indeed we further admit that the old covenant was abrogated by the new covenant of grace. " He taketh away the first that he may establish the second," Heb. X. 9.

In the Arabic translation of the New Testament, printed at Beyrut a.d. 1869, KaraXvw is translated by naqz, " to de- molish"; and in Mr. Loewenthal's Paslito translation, A.D. 1863, by hdtilawal, " to destroy," or " render void " ; and in Henry Martyn's Persian Testament, a.d. 1837, it is also translated by the Arabic ihtdl, i. e. " making void." In both the Arabic-Urdu and Roman-Urdu it is unfor- tunately rendered tnansukh, a word which has a technical meaning in Muhammadan theology contrary to that im- plied in the word used by our Lord in Matthew v. 17.

40

THE QURAN,

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THE QUEAN. 41

Upon a careful perusal of tlie Quran, it does not appear tliat Muhammad ever distinctly de- clared that it was the object of his mission either to abrogate or to destroy the teaching of the previous prophets. On the contrary, we are told that the Quran is ''A book con- fir mat orij of the previous Scriptures and their safeguard.''^

And yet such is the anti- Christian character of Islam that it demands nothing short of the entire destruction of God's revealed will to mankind contained in the New Testament.

In dealing with serious minded Muhamma- dans, we should, as far as possible, abstain fi^om attacking any real or apparent contradic- tions which may exist in the Quran, and insist more upon a general comparison between the two systems : — the teaching of Jesus and the teaching of Muhammad, the position of man under the Gospel and the position of man under the Quran, the sonship of the Christian and the servitude of the Muslim, the covenant of Grace and the covenant of Works ; and endeavour to show the true seeker after Truth and Salvation, that it is impossible for the

* Sura-i-Maida (v.), 52.

42 THE QURAN.

mission of Miiliammad to abrogate and super- sede that of Jesus.

It must be admitted tliat tlie Quran deserves tlie highest praise for its conception of the Divine nature, that it embodies much deep and noble earnestness; but still, it is not what it professes to be — it pulls down what it professes to build up, it destroys what it professes to confirm. It is not Truth, and as the counter- feit of Truth we reject it. In the Quran we read,* "We believe in God, and that which was sent down unto us and that which was sent down to Ibrahim and Ismail and Ishaq and Yaqub and the Tribes, and that which was delivered to Moses and the Prophets from the Lord, and we make no distinction between any of them." And yet this very book which ''makes no distinction between any of them" and which is said to be '' confirmatory" of the Scriptures, ignores the Atonement, the Sacra- ments of Baptism and the Lord's Supper, and denies the Crucifixion of the Saviour, the Son- ship of Christ and the doctrine of the Holy Trinity.

* Stira-i-Baqr (ii.), 136 ; also Sura-i-Al-i-'Imran (iii.), 83.

THE QUEAN.

43

THE TITLES

OF THE

CHAPTEES OF THE QUEAN.

No.	Title of Sura.	Meaning in Englisli.	The Chronological Order.
According to Jalal-ud- din.	Accord- ing to Eev.J.M.	According to Sir W. Mvdr.
1			Eodwell.
Fatiha	Preface	uncertain	8	6
2	Baqr	Cow	86	91	uncertain
3	A'l-i-'Imran	Family of Im-	88	97	A.H. 2 to 10.
4	Nisa	ran. Women	91	100	uncertain
5	Maida	Table	112	114	A.H. 6 to 10.
6	Anam	Cattle	54	89	81
7	'Araf	Araf	38	87	91
8	'Anfal	Spoils	87	95	A.H. 2
9	Tauba	Repentance	113	113	The last
10	Yunus	Jonah	50	84	79
11	Hud	Hud	51	75	78
12	Yusuf	Joseph	52	77	77
13	E'ad ^	Thunder	95	90	89
14	Tbralaim	Abraham	71	76	80
15	Hajr	Hajr	53	57	62
16	Nahl	Bee	69	73	88
17	Bani Israfl	Children of Is- rael.	49	67	87
18	Kahaf	Cave	68	69	69
19	Maryam	Mary	43	58	68
20	TwaHa	TwaHa	44	55	75
21	Ambiya	Prophets	72	65	86
22	Hajj ^	Pilgrimage	103	107	85
23	Muminun	Believers	73	64	84
24	Nur ^	Light	102	105	A.H. 5
25	Furqan	Quran	41	66	74
26	Sh'ura	Poets	46	56	61
27	Namal	Ant	47	68	70
28	Qasas	Story	48	79	83
29	'Ankabut	Spider	84	81	90
30	Rum	Greeks	83	74	60
31	Luqman	Luqman	56	82	50

44

THE QURAN.

No.	Title of Sura.	Meaning in EngKsh.	The Chronological Order.
1 According to Jalal-ud- din.	Accord- ing to Rev.J.M.	According to Sir W. Muir.
			Rodwell.
32	Sijda	Prostration	74	70	44
33	Ahzab	Confederates	89	103	imcertain
34	Saba	Saba	57	85	49
35	Malaika	Angels	42	86	66
36	Ya Sm	Ya Sm	40	60	67
37	Saffat	Eanks	55	50	59
38	Swad	Swad	37	59	73
39	Zarnar	Ti'oops	58	80	45
40	Mum in	Believer	59	78	72
41	Fussilat	Explanation	60	71	53
42	Shori	Council	61	83	71
43	Zukhraf	Jewels	62	61	76
44	Dukhan	Smoke	63	53	58
45	Jasiya	Kneeling	64	72	57
46	Ahqaf	Ahqaf	65	88	64
47	Muhammad	Muhammad	94	96	uncertain
48	Fatah	Victory	111	108	A.H. 6
49	Hujrat	Chambers	106	112	uncertain
50	Qaf ^	Qaf	33	54	56
51	Zariat	Breath of Winds.	66	43	63
52	Tur	Mountain	75	44	55
53	Najam	Star	22	46	43
54	Qamar	Moon	36	49	48
55	Eahman	Merciful	96	48	40
56	Waqia'	Inevitable	45	45	41
57	Hadid	Iron	93	99	uncertain
58	Mujadila	Disputer	105	106	uncertain
59	Hashar	Assembly	101	102	A.H. 4
60	Mumtahina	Proof	90	110	A.H. 7
61	Saf	Array	110	98	micertain
62	Jura' a	Assembly	108	94	imcertain
63	Munafiqun	Hypocrites	104	104	A.H. 65
64	Taghabmi	Deceit	109	93	82
65	Talaq	Divorce	108	101	uncertain
66	Tahrim	Prohibition	107	109	A.H. 7 to 8
67	Mulk	Kingdom	76	63	42
68	Qalam	Pen	2	17	52
69	Haqa	Inevitable-Day	77	42	51
70	Ma'arij	Steps	78	47	37
71	Nuh	Noah	70	51	54

THE QUEAN.

45

No.	Title of Sura.	Meaning in English.	The Chronological Order.
According to Tilal-ud-	Accord- ing to	According to
			iJ\J O cllal-LlLL- din.	Eev.J.M.	Sir W. Muir.
			Eodwell.
72	Jiiin	Genii	39	62	65
73	Muzzamnail	Wrapped up	3	3	46
74	Muddassir	Mantle	4	2	21
75	Qivamat	Resurrection	30	40	36
76	Dahr	Man	97	52	35
77	Mursalat	Messengers	32	36	34
78	Naba	News	79	37	33
79	JSTazi'at	Ministers of Vengeance.	80	35	47
80	'Abas	He frowned	23	24	26
81	Takwir	Folding up	6	32	27
82	Infitar	Cleaving asunder.	81	31	11
83	Tatfif	Short Measui'e	85	41	32
84	Inshiqaq	Bending in sunder.	82	33	28
85	Buruj	Celestial Signs	26	28	31
86	Tariq	Night Star	35	22	29
87	'A'la	Most High	7	25	23
88	Ghashiya	Overwhelming	67	38	25
89	Fajr	Day-break	9	39	14
90	Balad	City	34	18	15
91	Shams	Sun	25	23	4
92	Lail	Night	8	16	12
93	Zuha	Sun in his me- ridian.	10	4	16
94	Insliirah	Expanding	11	5	17
95	Tin	Fig	27	26	8
96	'Alaq	Congealed blood.	1	1	19
97	Qadar	Night of power.	24	92	24
98	Baiyana	Evidence	99	21	uncertain
99	Zilzal^	Earthquake	92	30	3
100	'Adiyat	Swift horses	13	34	2
101	Qari'a	Striking	29	29	7
102	Takasur	Multiplying	15	15	9
103	'Asar	Afternoon	12	27	1
104	Hamza	Slanderer	31	13	10
105	Fil	Elephant	18	19	13
106	Qoreish.	Qoreish	28	20	5

46

THE QURAN.

No.	Title of Sura.	Meaning in English.	The Chronological Order.
According to Jalal-ud- din.	Accord- ing to Eev.J.M. Eodwell.	According to Sir W. Muir.
107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114	Maun Kausar Kafirun Nasr Lahab Ikhlas Falaq Nas	Necessaries Kausar Infidels Assistance Lahab Unity Day-break Men	16 14 17 101 5 21 19 20	14 9 12 111 11 10 6 7	39 18 38 30 22 20 uncertain imcertain

47

v.— INSPIRATION.

AccoEDiNG to Muliammadan theologians, in- spiration is of two kinds, Wdhi and Ilhdm. Wdhi, is that which was given to the prophets, and is used especially for the Quran; Ilhdm being the inspiration to Walls, or saints.

Ilhdm is the word generally used by Christian missionaries for the inspiration of the sacred Scriptures, and we believe it is sometimes used by Arabic divines for a higher form of inspira- tion, but always in the compound form of Ilhdm Bahhdni.

Shaikh Ahmad in his book, the Nur-ul-Anwar, defines inspiration as follows : — " Wdhi, or inspiration, is either Zdhir (external), or Bdtin (internal). Wdhi Zdhir is divided into three classes : — (1) Wdhi Qitrdn, that which was given by the mouth of the angel Gabriel, and which reached the ear of the Prophet after he knew that it was Gabriel who spoke to

48 INSPIRATION.

him. (2) Ishdrat-ul-Maiah, that whicli was received from Gabriel, but not by word of mouth, as when the Prophet said, " The Holy Ghost has breathed into my heart." (3) IlJtdm, or Wdhi Qalb, that which was made known to the Prophet by the light of jDrophecy. This kind of inspiration is possessed by Walls or saints, but in their case it may be true or false. Wdhi Bdtin is that which the Prophet obtained by analogical reasoning {c[ids) just as the enlightened doctors, or Mujtahidin, ob- tain it."

The Ishdrat-ul-Malalv, mentioned in the above quotation is never used for the inspiration of the Quran, but for certain instructions which Muhammad professes to have received direct from Gabriel, and which are recorded in the Hadis, or Traditions.

Whatever may have been the actual impres- sion upon Muhammad's mind as to the nature of the communications he professed to have received from God, it is evident that Muslim theologians have no conception of the Word of God being given in the form of the Old and New Testament Scriptures. The most plausible objection raised against the New Tes-

INSPIRATION. 49

tament, by Muhammadan controversialists of the present day is, that the Christians have lost the original Gospels and that our present book contains merely the Hadis, or traditions, of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. It is, therefore, necessary to correct their common idea that the Gospel was revealed to Jesus in the same manner as the Quran is said to have been given to Muhammad ; to show that it was the special office of the Holy Spirit to give the J^ew Testament Scriptures, and that they came to man by the same method of inspiration whereby the Old Testament writ- ings were given to the Prophets of old, the Quran being an exception to God's tcsual method of giving inspired writings to his Prophets.*

* Vide 2 Tim. iii. 16 : Tracra ypacftr] ©coTn/evo-ros " all scrip- ture is Grod-breatlied " {divinatus inspirata, Yulg.), whicli Dean Alford says is the idea common to the Jews. Vide Jos. contra Apion. i. 7.

50

yi.— THE TRADITIONS.

The Had/is (pi. Ahddis) is, as we have already remarked, the second part of the Muhammadan rule of faith. It forms the body of that oral law of the Arabian legislator which stands next to the Quran in point of authority, being considered by all Muhammadans, whether Sunni, Shia'h, or Wahhabi, as a supplement to that book. The collections of these tra- ditions are called Hadis, being records of the sayings of the Prophet, but they are also called Sunna, a word which signifies custom, or regulation.

Muhammad gave very special injunctions respecting the faithful transmission of his sayings ; for example, it is related by Tirmizi, that the Prophet said, ''Convey to other per- sons none of my words except those which ye

THE TEADITIONS. 61

know of a surety. Yerily he who purposely represents my words wrongly, would find a place nowhere for himself but in fire."

But notwithstanding the severe warning given by Muhammad himself, it is admitted by all Muslim divines that very many spurious traditions have been handed down. Abu Daud received onlj^ four thousand eight hundred, out of five hundred thousand, and even after this careful selection he states that he has mentioned '' tJiose which seem to he authentic and those which are nearly so." Out of forty thousand persons who have been instrumental in handing down traditions of " the Prophet," Bokhari only acknowledged two thousand as reliable authorities. It will, therefore, be seen how unreliable are the traditions of Islam although they are part of the rule of faith. Such being the case, it is not surprising that 'Um-i-Hadis, or the Science of Tradition, has become a most important branch of Muslim Divinity, and that the following canons have been framed for the reception or rejection of traditions.

4 A

52 THE TRADITIONS.

I. With reference to tlie character of those who have handed down the tradition * : —

(1) Hadis-i-Sahih, a genuine tradition, is one which has been handed down by truly pious persons who have been distinguished for their integrity.

(2) Hadis-i-Hasan, a Qnediocre tradition, is one the narrators of which do not approach in moral excellence to those of the Sahih class.

(3) Hadis-i-Z^mf, a weah tradition, is one whose narrators are of questionable authority.

The disputed claims of narrators to these three classes have proved a fruitful source of learned discussion, and very numerous are the works written upon the subject.

II. With reference to the original relators of the Hadis : —

(1) IIadis-i-Marfu\ an exalted tradition, is a saying, or an act, related or performed by

* In the first edition of these Notes the canons for the reception and rejection of traditions were taken from Sayyad Ahmad Khan's "Essay on Traditions," but in the present edition they have been arranged according to the Arabic treatise, entitled ISTukhbat-al-Faqr by Shekh Shahab-ud-dm Ahmad, edited by Capt. W. Nassau Lees, LL.D. (Calcutta, 1862.)

THE TEADITIONS. 63

the Propliet himself and handed down m a tradition.

(2) HacUs-i-Mauqiif, a restricted tradition, is a saying or an act related or performed by one of the asJidh or companions of the Prophet.

(3) HadiS'i'Maqtu', an intersected tradition, is a saying or an act related or performed by one of the Tdha'in, or those who conversed with the companions of the Prophet.

III. With reference to the links in the chain of the narrators of the tradition, a Hadis is either Muttasil, connected, or Munqata\ dis- connected. If the chain of narrators is com- plete from the time of the first utterance of the saying or performance of the act recorded to the time that it was wi^itten down by the collector of traditions, it is Muttasil ; but if the chain of narrators is incomplete, it is Munqata\

lY. With reference to the manner in which the tradition has been narrated, and transmitted down from the first : —

(1) Hadis'i-Mutatudtir, an undoubted tradi- tion, is one which is handed down by very many distinct chains of narrators, and which has been always accepted as authentic and genuine, no doubt ever having been raised

54 THE TRADITIONS.

againsrit. The learned doctors say there are only five such traditions ; but the exact number is disputed.

(2) Hadis-i-Mashhur, a ivell-hiorvn tradition, is one which has been handed down by at least three distinct lines of narrators. It is called also Mustafiz, diffused. It is also used for a tradition which was at first recorded by one person, or a few individuals, and after- wards became a popular tradition.

(3) Hadis-i-^Aziz, a rare tradition, is one related by only two lines of narrators.

(4) Hadis-i-Gharib, a poor tradition, is one related by only one line of narrators.

Khabar-i- Wahid, a single saying, is a term also used for a tradition related by one person and handed down by one line of narrators. It is a disputed point whether a Khabar-i' Wahid can form the basis of Muslim doctrine.

Hadis'i-Mursal (lit. " a tradition let loose ''), is a tradition which any collector of traditions, such as Bokhari and others, records with the assertion, " the Apostle of God said.^'

Biwdyat, is a Hadis which commences with the words ''it is related S" without the authority being given.

THE TEADITIONS. 55

IIadis-i-Mcmizic\ an invented tradition, is one tlie untruth of wliich is beyond dispute.

It is an universal canon tliat no tradition can be received wliicli is contrary to the Quran, and it is related that when 'Ayeshah heard Omar say that Muhammad had taught that the dead could hear, she rejected the tradition as spurious, because it was contrary to the teaching of the Quran.

Whatever may be the difference of opinion as to the authority of the various traditions, it must be remembered that they form the groundwork of the different schools of thought of the Muhammadan religion. It is, therefore, impossible for European critics to form a just estimate of the Muhammadan creed without being acquainted with those traditions which are generally received as authentic and genuine.

European wi^iters are unfortunately under the impression that the "Muhammadan re- vival" is a going back to "first principles," as expressed in the Quran, whereas, it is, as we have already remarked, a revival of the study of the traditions concerning their Prophet, which study has undoubtedly been promoted by the establishment of printing presses in Egypt,

56 THE TEADITIONS.

Turkey, and India. Not that we think Islam will present any fairer proportions even when deprived of those excrescences which are sup- posed to have been the preternatural growth of tradition, as long as the Pilgrimage has the so-called divine sanction of the Quran, and the position of women is regulated by the same " divine oracles."

The following are the six principal collectors of Hadis received by the Sunni Muhamma- dans : —

1. Muhammad Ismail 5oZ;Mr^.*

Born, A.H. 194; died, a.h. 256.

2 . Muslim-ihB.'i-lIsbjj aj .

Born, A.H. 204; died, a.h. 261.

3. Abu Isa' Muhammad Tirmizi,

Born, A.H. 209 ; died, a.h. 279.

4. Ahu Baud Sajistani.

Born, A.H. 202; died, a.h. 275.

5. Abu Abdur Rahman Nasai.

Born, A.H. 215; died, a.h. 303.

6. Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn-i-Mdjah.

Born, A.H. 209; died, a.h. 273.

* The names in italics denote the usual title of the book.

THE TRADITIONS. 57

Some divines substitute tlie following for that of Ibn-i-Mdjah.

Muaivattda Imam MdliJc.

Born, A.H. 95; died, a.h. 179.

The following are the collections of Hadis received by the Shia'h : —

1. The Kdfi, by Abu Jafar Muhammad, a.h. 329.

2. The Man-ld-yastahziraJi-al-Faqih, by Shekh 'Ali, A.H. 381.

3. The Tahzib, by Shekh Abu Jafar Mu- hammad, A.H. 466.

4. The Istihsdr, by the same author.

5. The Nahaj-ul-Baldghat, by Sayyud Razi, A.H. 406.

Copies of the Sihah-Sittah, or ''six correct" books of tradition received by the Sunnis, to- gether with the seventh work by Imam Malik, have been lithographed, and can be purchased in the book shops of Delhi, Lucknow, and Bombay ; but the work most read is the Mish- kat-ul-Musabih (the niche for lamps), which is a collection of the most reliable traditions. This work was originally in Arabic; but it was translated into Persian in the reign of Akbar. It was rendered into English by Cap-

58 THE TEADITIONS.

tain Matthews, and published in Calcutta in 1809. The English translation has been long since out of print, but efforts are being made by the author of these notes for its republica- tion. The popular collection of Shia'h tradi- tions arranged in the form of an historical narrative is the Hyat-ul-Qulub, a Persian work which has been translated by the E-ev. J. L. Merrick (Phillips, Sampson & Co., Boston, U.S., 1850).

The most trustworthy of the various collec- tions of Sunni traditions is the one usually called Bohhdri. It was compiled by Abu Ab- dullah Muhammad ibn-i-Ismail a native of Bokhara. In obedience to instructions he is said to have received in a vision, he set himself to commence the collection of all the current traditions relating to Muhammad. He suc- ceeded in collecting not fewer than six hundred thousand traditions, of which he selected only 7275 as trustworthy ! These he recorded in his work ; but it is said that he repeated a two ri¥at prayer before he wrote down any one of the 7275 traditions which he recorded. There is, therefore, every reason to believe that the compilers of the books of tradition

THE TRADITIONS. 59

were sincere and lionest in tlieir endeavours to produce correct and well authenticated tradi- tions of tlieir Propliet's precepts and practice ; but, as Sir William Muir remarks, " tlie exclu- sively oral character of the early traditions deprives them of every check against the licence of error and fabrication."

Sir William Muir has very ably dwelt upon the unsatisfactory character of Muhammadan tradition in the first volume of his " Life of Mahomet," to which Sayyid Ahmad Khan has written a reply in a supplement to his essay on Muhammadan tradition. The learned Say- yid is in this, as in almost everything he writes on the subject of religion, his own refutation. Sir William Muir reveals to the public " the higgledy-piggledy condition, the unauthenticity and the spuriousness of Muhammadan tradi- tions," and surely Sayyid Ahmad Khan does but confirm the same when he writes : " All learned Muhammadan divines of every period have declared that the Quran only is the Hadees mutawdtir ; but some doctors have de- clared certain other Hadeeses also to be Muta- watir, the number, however, of such Hadeeses not exceeding ^ve. Such are the Hadeeses that

60 THE TEADITIONS.

ai^e implicitly believed, and ought to he Teligi- ously observed.'^

But although the traditions of Muhammad are shrouded with a degree of uncertainty which is perplexing, not to say vexatious, to the student of history, still there can be no doubt as to the place they were intended to, and still do occupy in the theological structure of Islam. The example of Muhammad is just as binding upon the Muslim as that of our Divine Lord and Saviour is upon the Christian. And everything Muhammad said with reference to religious dogmas and morals is believed to have been inspired by God ; by a " ivdM ghair- i-mutlu\'' or an inspiration similar in kind to that which we believe to have been given to the inspired writers of our Christian Scriptures.

61

YII.— IJMA'.

Ijma' is the tliird foundation of tlie Mnliam- madan rule of faith. It literally means col- lecting, or assemhling, and in Muslim divinity it expresses the unanimous consent of the Muj- tahidin (learned doctors) ; or, as we should call it, ''the unanimous consent of the Fathers." A Mujtahid is a Muslim divine of the highest degree of learning, a title usually conferred by Muslim rulers. There are three foundations of Ijma^ : (1) Itifaq-i-QauU, unanimous consent expressed in declaration of opinion ; (2) Itifdq- i-Fi'li, expressed in unanimity of iwactice ; (3) Itifdq-i-Saqiiti, when the majority of the Mujtahidin signified their tacit assent to the opinions of the minority by '^ silence ^^ or non- interference.

The Mujtahidin, capable of making Tjma\ must be '' men of learning and piety, not heretics, nor fools, but men of judgment."

There is great diversity of opinion as to up to what period in the history of Islam,

62 IJMA*.

Ijmci^ can be accepted. Some doctors assert that only the Ijma^ of the Mnjtahidin who were Ashab (companions) ; others, that of those who were not only "companions" but de- scendants " of the " Prophet," can be accepted; whilst others accept the Ijma^ of the Ansdrs^ (helpers,) and of the Miihdjarin, (fugitives,) who were dwellers in Medina mth Muhammad. The majority of learned Muslim divines, how- ever, appear to think that Ijma^ may be col- lected in every age, although they admit that, owing to the numerous divisions which have arisen amongst Muhammadans, it has not been possible since the days of the Taha^ Taha%n, (i.e., the followers of the followers of the companions) .

The following is considered to be the relative value of IJ7}ia' : —

That of the Ashdb (companions) is equal to Hadis Mutawdtir. That which was decided afterwards, but in accordance with the unani- mous opinion of the Ashab, is equal to Hadis Khahar-i'Mashlmr, and that upon which there was diversity of opinion amongst the Ashdb, but has since been decided by the later Mnj- tahidin is equal to Hndis'i-Khahar'i'Wdhid.

ijma'. 63

Amongst the SMa'hs, we believe, there are still Mujtahidin whose Ijma' is accepted, but the Sunnis have four orthodox schools of in- terpretation, named after their respective founders, Hanafi, Shafa'i, Maliki, and Hambali. The Wahhabis for the most part reject Ijma' collected after the death of '' the Companions."

From these remarks, it will be easily un- derstood what a fruitful source of religious dissension and sectarian strife this third foun- dation of the rule of faith is. Divided as the Christian Church is by its numerous sects, it ■will compare favourably with Muhammadanism even in this respect. Muhammad, it is related, prophesied that as the Jewish Church had been divided into seventy-one sects 1 and the Christians into seventy-two ! so his followers would be divided into seventy-three sects * ; but every Muslim historian is obliged to admit that they have far exceeded the limits of Mu- hammad's prophecy; for, according to Abdul Qadir Jilani, there are at least 150.

* The seventy -three sects are, according to some writers, distributed as follows :—Shia'h 31, M'utazilah 21, Kha- warij 7, Murjiah 5, Najariah 3, Jabariyah 2, Mushabiyah 1, and Najiah (the term used for the orthodox).

64

YIII.— QIAS.

QiVs (lit. " to compare ") is the fourtli founda- tion of Islam, and expresses the analogical reasoning of the learned with regard to the teaching of the Quran, Hadis, and Ijma'.

There are four conditions of Qias : (1) That the precept or practice upon which it is founded must be of common ( ^amm ) and not of special (khdss) application; (2) The cause (illat) of the injunction must be known and understood ; (3) The decision must be based upon either the Quran, the Hadis, or the Ijma' ; (4) The decision arrived at must not be con- trary to anything declared elsewhere in the Quran and Hadis.

Qids is of two kinds, Qids-i-Jali or evident, and Qids-i-Khafi or hidden.

An example of Qids-i-Jali is as follows : — Wine is forbidden in the Quran under the word Khamar, which literally means anything in-

QIAS. 65

toxicating ; it is, therefore, evident tliat opium and all intoxicating drugs are also forbidden. Qids-i'Khafi is seen in tlie following ex- ample : — In the Hadis it is enjoined that one goat in forty must be given to Grod. To some poor persons the money may be more accept- able ; therefore, the value of the goat may be given instead of the goat.

66

IX.— FAITH.

Faith, I'man, is defined as " tlie belief of the heart and the confession of the mouth." It is of two kinds — Tmdn-i-Mujmal and Trndn- i'Mufassal.

T mdn-i'Mujmal is a simple expression of faith in the teaching of the Quran and the Hadis.

Tmdn-i'Mufassal is a belief in the six articles of faith, viz. :— 1. The Unity of God. 2. The Angels. 3. The Books. 4. The Prophets. 5. The Day of Judgment. 6. Predestination, or the Decrees of Grod.

Q1

X.— ALLAH OH GOD.

The name of tlie Creator of tlie universe in the Quran is Allah, whicli is tlie title given to tlie Supreme Being by Muhammadans of every race and language. It is called tlie special, or essential, name of God, the ism-i-zdt ; all other names being considered merely ism-i-safdt, or attributes, of which there are said to be ninety- nine.* It is supposed to have been derived from the word ildh, a deity or god, with the addition of the definite article al, thus Al-ildh, The God. But Imam Hanifa says that, just as God's essence is unchangeable so is His name, and that Alldh has always been the name of the great Eternal Being (vide Ghyas-ul-Loghat). It appears to be an Arabic rendering of the Hebrew *??< el, God. It is expressed in Per-

* Vide the ninety-nine names of God in the article on Zikr. There is also the Ism-uV Azam, the exalted name of God, which is said to be unknown.

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68 ALLAH OR GOD.

sian and Hindustani by tlie word Khudd, de- rived from the Persian Khud (self) ; tlie self- existing one.

The Muhammadan belief in tlie existence of God is expressed in the first part of the well known confession of faith, La-ildha U-lal- Idho, " There is no deity but God," the in- terpretation of which occupies so prominent a place in all treatises of divinity.

The following is an interpretation of the Muslim belief in the existence and nature of God, by the famous scholastic divine. Imam Ghazali, in his book entitled Al Maqsud-ul- asna, an extract from which Ockley has trans- lated from Pocock's Specimen Historias Ara- bum: —

" Praise be to God the Creator and Restorer of all things ; who does whatsoever he pleases, who is Master of the glorious throne and mighty force, and directs his sincere servants into_the right way and the straight path ; who favoureth them, who have once borne testimony to the unity, by preserving their confessions from the darkness of doubt and hesitation; who directs them to follow his chosen apostle, upon whom be the blessing

ALLAH OR GOD. 69

and peace of God; and to go after his most honourable companions, to whom he hath Yonchsafed his assistance and direction which is revealed to them in his essence and opera- tions by the excellencies of his attributes, to the knowledge whereof no man attains but he that hath been taught by hearing. To these, as touching his essence, he maketh known that he is one, and hath no partner ; singular, without anythmg like him; uniform, having no con- trary; separate, ha\dng no equal. He is an- cient, having no first ; eternal, having no be- ginning; remaining for ever, having no end; continuing to eternity, without any termination. He persists, without ceasing to be ; remains with- out falling, and never did cease, nor ever shall cease to be described by glorious attributes, nor is subject to any decree so as to be deter- mined by any precise limits or set times, but is the First and the Last, and is within and without. '' (What God is not.) He, glorified be his name, is not a body endued with form, nor a substance circumscribed with limits or deter- mined by measure; neither does he resemble bodies, as they are capable of being measured or divided. Neither is he a substance, neither

70 ALLAH OE GOD.

do substances exist in liim; neither is lie an accident, nor do accidents exist in liim. Neitlier is lie like to anything tliat exists, neither is anything like to him; nor is he deter- minate in quantity nor comprehended by bounds, nor circumscribed by the differences of situation, nor contained in the heavens. He sits upon the throne, after that manner which he himself hath described, and in that same sense which he himself means, which is a sitting far removed from any notion of contact, or resting upon, or local situation ; but both the throne itself, and whatsoever is upon it, are sustained by the goodness of his power, and are subj.ect to the grasp of his hand. But he is above the throne, and above all things, even to the utmost ends of the earth ; but so above as at the same time not to be a whit nearer the throne and the heaven ; since he is exalted by (infinite) degrees above the throne no less than he is exalted above the earth, and at the same time is near to everything that hath a being; nay, ' nearer to man than their jugular veins, and is witness to everything : ' * though

* Vide Quran.

ALLAH OR GOD. 71

his nearness is not like the nearness of bodies, as neither is his essence like the essence of bodies. Neither doth he exist in anything, neither doth anything exist in him ; but he is too high to be contained in any place, and too holy to be determined by time ; for he was before time and place were created, and is now after the same manner as he always was. He is also distinct from the creatures by his attri- butes, neither is there anything besides him- self in his essence, nor is his essence in any other besides him. He is too holy to be sub- ject to change, or any local motion; neither do any accidents dwell in him, nor any con- tingencies befall him; but he abides through all generations with his glorious attributes, free from all danger of dissolution. As to the attribute of perfection, he wants no addition of his perfection. As to being, he is known to exist by the apprehension of the understanding ; and he is seen as he is by an ocular intuition, which will be vouchsafed out of his mercy and grace to the holy in the eternal mansion, com- pleting theu^ joy by the vision of his glorious presence.

" (His poiuer.) He, praised be his name, is

72 ALLAH OE GOD.

living, powerful, mighty, omnipotent, not liable to any defect or impotence ; neither slumbering nor sleeping, nor being obnoxious to decay or death. To him belongs the kingdom, and the power, and the might. His is the dominion, and the excellency, and the creation, and the com- mand thereof. The heavens are folded up in his right hand, and all creatures are couched within his grasp. His excellency consists in his creating and producing, and his unity in communicating existence and a beginning of being. He created men and their works, and measured out their maintenance and their de- termined times. Nothing that is possible can escape his grasp, nor can the vicissitudes of things elude his power. The effects of his might are innumerable, and the objects of his knowledge infinite.

" (His hiowledge.) He, praised be his name, knows all things that can be understood, and comprehends whatsoever comes to pass, from the extremities of the earth to the highest heavens. Even the weight of a pismire could not escape him either in earth or heaven ; but he would perceive the creeping of the black pismire in the dark night upon the hard stone,

ALLAH OR GOD. 73

and discern the motion of an atom in the open air. He knows what is secret and conceals it, and views the conceptions of the minds, and the motions of the thoughts, and the inmost recesses of secrets, by a knowledge ancient and eternal, that never ceased to be his attribute from eternal eternity, and not by any new knowledge, superadded to his essence, either inhering or adventitious.

" (His will.) He, praised be his name, doth will those things to be that are, and disposes of all accidents. Nothing passes in the empire, nor the kingdom, neither little nor much, nor small nor great, nor good nor evil, nor profit- able nor hurtful, nor faith nor infidelity, nor knowledge nor ignorance, nor prosperity nor adversity, nor increase nor decrease, nor obedi- ence nor rebellion, but by his determinate counsel and decree, and his definite sentence and will. Nor doth the wink of him that seeth, nor the subtlety of him that thinketh, exceed the bounds of his will; but it is he who gave all things their beginning; he is the creator and restorer, the sole operator of what he pleases ; there is no reversing his de- cree nor delaying what he hath determined.

74 ALLAH OR GOD.

nor is there any refuge to man from liis re- bellion against liim, but only his help and mercy; nor hath any man any power to per- form any duty towards him, but through his love and will. Though men, genii, angels and devils, should conspire together either to put one single atom in motion, or cause it to cease its motion, without his will and approbation they would not be able to do it. His will subsists in his essence amongst the rest of his attributes, and was from eternity one of his eternal attributes, by which he willed from eternity the existence of those things that he had decreed, which were produced in their proper seasons according to his eternal will, without any before or after, and in agreement both with his knowledge and will, and not by methodising of thoughts, nor waiting for a proper time, for which reason no one thing is in him a hindrance from another.

" (His hearing and sight.) And he, praised be his name, is hearing and seeing, and heareth and seeth. No audible object, how still so- ever, escapeth his hearing; nor is any thing visible so small as to escape his sight; for distance is no hindrance to his hearing, nor

ALLAH OE GOD. 75

darkness to his sight. He sees without pupil or eyelids, and hears without any passage or ear, even as he knoweth without a heart, and performs his actions without the assistance of any corporeal limb, and creates without any instrument, for his attributes (or properties) are not like those of men, any more than his essence is like theirs.

" (His IV or d. J Furthermore, he doth speak, command, forbid, promise, and threaten by an eternal, ancient word, subsisting in his essence. Neither is it like to the word of the creatures, nor doth it consist in a voice arising from the commotion of the air and the collision of bodies, nor letters which are separated by the joining together of the lips or the motion of the tongue. The Koran, the Law, the Gospel, and the Psalter, are books sent down by him to his apostles, and the Koran, indeed, is read with tongues, written in books, and kept in hearts ; yet as subsisting in the essence of God, it doth not become liable to separation and division whilst it is transferred into the hearts and the papers. Thus Moses also heard the Word of God without voice or letter, even as the saints behold the essence of God without

76 ALLAH OE GOD.

substance or accident. And tliat since these are liis attributes, lie liveth and knowetb, is powerful and willeth and operatetb, and seeth and speaketh, by life and knowledge, and will and bearing, and siglit and word, not by bis simple essence.

" (His worhs.J He, praised be bis name, exists after sucb a manner tbat nothing besides bim batb any being but wliat is produced by bis operation, and floweth from bis justice after the best, most excellent, most perfect, and most just model. He is, moreover, wise in bis works, and just in bis decrees. But bis justice is not to be compared witb tbe justice of men. For a man may be supposed to act unjustly by invading the possession of another; but no injustice can be conceived of God, inasmuch as there is nothing that belongs to any other besides himself, so that wrong is not imputable to him as meddling with things not appertain- ing to him. All things, himself only excepted, genii, men, the devil, angels, heaven, earth, animals, plants, substance, accident, intelligible, sensible, were all created originally by him. He created them by his power out of mere privation, and brought them into light, when

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as yet they were notliing at all, but lie alone existing from eternity, neither was there any other with him. 'Now he created all things in the begmning for the manifestation of his power, and his will, and the confirmation of his word, which was true from all eternity. Not that he stood in need of them, nor wanted them ; but he manifestly declared his glory in creating, and producing, and commanding, without being under any obligation, nor out of necessity. Loving kindness, and to show fa- vour, and grace, and beneficence, belong to him ; whereas it is in his power to pour forth upon men a variety of torments, and afflict them with various kinds of sorrows and dis- eases, which, if he were to do, his justice could not be arraigned, nor would he be chargeable with injustice. Yet he rewards those that wor- ship him for their obedience on account of his promise and beneficence, not of their merit nor of necessity, since there is nothing which he can be tied to perform ; nor can any injus- tice be supposed in him, nor can he be under any obligation to any person whatsoever. That his creatures, however, should be bound to serve him, ariseth from his having declared by

78 ALLAH OR GOD.

the tongues of the prophets that it was due to him from them. The worship of him is not simply the dictate of the understanding, but he sent messengers to carry to men his commands, and promises, and threats, whose veracity he proved by manifest miracles, whereby men are obliged to give credit to them in those things that they relate."

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XI.— ANGELS.

The existence of angels {malaJc, pi. maldik), and their purity, are absolutely required to be believed in by the Quran, and he is reckoned an infidel who denies that there are such beings, or hates any of them or asserts any distinction of the sexes. The Muhammadans reckon four archangels : (1) JibrdM (Grabriel), who is God's messenger; (2) MiMil (Michael), who is the protector of the Jews; (3) Isrdfil, who will sound the last trumpet at the resurrection; (4) Azrdil, the angel of death. Muhammad undoubtedly obtained the names of these arch- angels from the Scriptures and Jewish tra- dition, although in the Apocryphal Book of Enoch* the names of the six archangels are Uriel, Raphael, Baguel, Michael, Sarahiel,

* Book of Enoch translated by Archbishop Laurence, chap. XX.

80 ANGELS.

Gabriel — a fact wliicli may be cited as an ad- ditional proof, tliat when Muhammad availed himself of Jewish traditions, he quoted or adopted them with the same want of accuracy as when he appealed to the Divine word of God.

There are also the two recording angels called the Mua'qqihdf, or the angels who con- tinually succeed each other, who record the good and evil actions of a man, one standing at his right hand and another on his left. These are also called the Kirdm-ul-Katihin (the exalted writers). The angel who has charge of Heaven is Bezwdn and the angel who pre- sides over Hell is Malik.

Munhar and Nakir are described by Mu- hammad as two black angels with blue eyes who visit every man in his grave, make him sit up, and examine him as to his faith in God and in Muhammad his prophet. If the answer is satisfactory, he will be allowed to sleep on in peace, but if he replies that he knows no- thing of ''God's A'postle,'' then he will be struck with an iron hammer called Mitraqat, and he will roar out, and his cries will be heard by all animals that may be near his grave, excepting

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men and genii.* This exciting ceremony is said to take place as soon as the funeral party- have proceeded forty paces from the grave ! t

Enlightened Muhammadans of the present day attempt to explain all this in a figurative sense, but in vain, for there is a very trustworthy tradition, recorded both by Bohhdri and Muslim, to the effect that Muhammad related that he himself heard the infliction of torment on infidels in their graves when passing through the grave-yard, and that his camel was fright- ened by their groans ! This is one of the many instances of Muhammad's superstitious belief which the more recent Muhammadan divines endeavour to explain in a metaphorical sense. We have, however, shown in a previous article that the traditions of Bohhdri are of considerable historical weight, so that there can be little doubt that Muhammad believed " the pun- ishments of the grave " to be real and literal, which is opposed to the teaching of God's revealed word {vide Eccl. ix. 10 ; xii. 7 ; Psalm cxlvi. 4).

* Mishkat, bk. i. cliap. v.

t Vide Article on Janaza or Burial.

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82 ANGELS.

The Devil is said to be a fallen angel who was tnrned out of Paradise because he refused to do homage to Adam.* He is called Iblis, a word which is most probably derived from halas, a wicked or profligate person ; and also Sliaitdn (Satan). Besides angels and devils, there are said to be a distinct order of crea- tures called Jinn (Grenii) who were created of fire some thousands of years before Adam. According to tradition the species consists of five distinct orders: — 1. Jd7in ; 2. Jinn; 3. Sliaitdn; 4. ^Ifrit; 5. Mdrid.

Their chief abode is the mountains of Qaf, which are supposed to encircle the world.

There are good and evil Grenii. If good, they are exceedingly handsome ; if evil, they are horribly hideous. The evil genii are said to have been at liberty to enter any of the seven heavens till the birth of Jesus, when they were excluded from three of them. On the birth of Muhammad they were forbidden the other four heavens. They continue, however, to ascend to the confines of the lowest heavens, and there listen to the conversations of the

* Surat-ul-Baqr (ii.), 33.

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angels respecting the decrees of God, wliicli they sometimes impart to men by means of talismans and invocations.

The good genii are Muslims, and perform all the religions duties of the faithful.

King Solomon is said to have had great power over the genii by means of his magic ring.*

Students of Islam must bear in mind that most of the absurd stories of the genii are related in the Quran, and have, therefore, received from Muhammad all the authority of a divine revelation.

* The second Tar gum on Esther i. — ii., mentions the four classes of Genii which were given into the power of King Solomon.

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XII.— PROPHETS.

The number of prophets (rasul), which have been sent by God, are said to be 224,000, or, according to another tradition, 124,000. Of these 313 were Apostles sent with special com- missions, to reclaim the world from infidelity and superstition.

Six brought new laws which successively ab- rogated the preceding and have special titles, or halima * : —

1. Adam (Adam), Stifi-UUah, the Chosen of God.

2. Nuh (Koah), Nabi-Ullah, the Preacher of God.

* Dr. Pfander, in tlie second chapter of Mizan-ul-Haqq, states that Muhammadan Doctors assert that by the de- scent of the Psalms the Torah was abrogated. Such, how- ever, is not the case, for the Psalms are not said to have abrogated the Torah, and consequently David has no special title or Kalima.

PEOPHETS. 85

3. Ibrahim (Abraham), KhaUl-Ullah, the Friend of God.

4. Musci (Moses), Kalim'TJllah, one who con- versed with God.

5. 'Isa (Jesus), Buh-UUah, the Spirit of God.

6. Muhammad, Busid-UUah, the Messenger of God.

The number of sacred books delivered to man are said to have been one hundred and four, vi^. : —

Ten, to Adam ;

Fifty, to Seth (SisJi) ;

Thirty, to Enoch (Edris) ;

Ten, to Abraham ;

The Taurat, to Moses ;

The Zabur, to David ;

The Injil, to Jesus ;

The Quran, to Muhammad. The one hundred scriptures given to Adam, Seth, Enoch, and Abraham, are termed Salii- fall (a pamphlet), and the other four, Kitdh (a book) ; but all that is necessary for the Muslim to know of these books is supposed to have been retained in the Quran.

Luqman-i-Hakim (supposed to have been

86 PROPHETS.

^sop) and Alexander the Great are also con- sidered by Muhammadan commentators to have been prophets. Lnqman is mentioned in the thirty-first Sura of the Quran, and Zulqurnain, *'the two-horned" (supposed to have been Alexander), in the eighteenth Sura; but it is not clear as to what position the author of the Quran intended to assign to these worthies. Muhammad's enumeration of the Old Tes- tament Prophets, both as to name and chro- nological order, is exceedingly confused.

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XIII. — THE DAY OF RESUERECTIOlSr AND JUDGMENT, AND THE SIGNS OF THE LAST DAYS.

Qi'a'mat (lit. "standing"), or the day of resurrec- tion and judgment, is a time wliich all Muham- madans allow is a perfect secret and known only to God. But they say that the approach of the day of judgment will be known by twenty- five signs.*

1. The decay of faith among men.

2. The advancing of the meanest persons to dignity.

3. That a maid-servant shall become the mother of her mistress.

4. Tumults and seditions.

5. A war with the Turks.

6. Great distress in the world.

7. That the provinces of 'Iraq and Syria shall refuse to pay tribute.

* See Mishkat-ul-Musabih, bk. xxiii. chap. iii.

88 RESUREECTION AND JUDGMENT.

8. That the buildings of Medina shall extend to Yahab.

9. The sun rising in the west.

10. The appearance of a remarkable Beast, called the Ddhhat-ul-arz, which shall rise out of the earth in the temple at Mecca.

11. War with the Greeks and the taking of Constantinople by 70,000 of the posterity of Isaac.

12. The coming of Masih-ud-Dajjdl, or Anti- christ.

13. The coming of Jesus Christ, who will descend upon one of the minarets of the Mosque at Damascus.

14. War with the Jews.

15. The ravages made by Taji'tj and Majuj (Gog and Magog).

16. A smoke which shall fill the whole earth.

17. An eclipse of the moon.

18. The return of the Arabians to idolatry.

19. The discovery of a heap of treasure by the retreating of the river Euphrates.

20. The demolition of the temple at Mecca.

21. The speaking of beasts and inanimate things.

RESUEEECTION AND JUDGMENT. 89

22. A breaking out of a fire in Yaman.

23. The appearance of a remarkable man who shall drive men before him with his staff.

24. The coming of Imam Mahdi,* the di- rector, who will come from Khorasan, his troops bearing black ensigns.

25. A mighty wind which shall sweep away the souls of all who have but a grain of faith in their hearts.

The following is a succinct account of the day of judgment, translated from a Muham- madan book : — " Then shall Grod bring all men back and raise them again, and restore to them their souls, and gather them together. He will then call for the books in which have been written the good and evil actions of all men. Then he will judge them in equity and weigh the balance (mizdn) of their works, and will make retribution to every soul according to what he has done. Some shall enter Para- dise through his goodness and mercy, and some shall go to hell. No Muslim shall remain in

* Imam Malidi is said by the Shia'hs to have been their twelfth Imam, Abu Kasim ; but who will come again in the last days.

90 RESUEEECTION AND JUDGMENT.

hell for ever, but sliall enter into Paradise, after they have suffered according to their sins, for believers shall remain for ever in Paradise, and the unbelievers in hell fire."

Sirdt is a bridge which all must pass over on the day of judgment. It is said to extend over the midst of hell, and to be sharper than the edge of a sword. In passing it the feet of the infidel will slip, and he will fall into hell fire ; but the feet of the Muslim will be firm, and carry him safely to Paradise.

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XIY.— HEAYEN.

The Muhammadan Paradise is called Jannat (garden) in Arabic, and BahisM in Persian; the word Fir dans, from wliich we get our Eng- lish word Paradise, being restricted to one region in the celestial abodes of bliss.

There are eight different terms employed in the Quran for heaven, and although they would appear to be but different names for the same region, Muhammadan divines understand them to mean different stages of glory.

They are as follows * : —

1. Jannat-ul-Khuld (Sura xxv. 16), "The garden of eternity."

2. Ddr-us-Saldm (Sura vi. 127), " The dwel- ling of peace."

* These various stages of Paradise are variously given by European authors. Those in the text are from the Arabic dictionary, the Ghyas-ul-Loghat, and have been compared with the verses given from the Quran.

92 HEAVEN.

3. Ddr-uUQardr (Suraxl. 42), " The dwelling wliicli abide til."

4. Jannat-i-'Adan{Sursihi.72), "The garden of Eden."

5. Jannat'ul-Maiud (Sura xxxii. 19), " The garden of refuge.

6. Jannat-un-N' aim (Suravi. 70), " The gar- den of delight."

7. Jannat-i-' Illiyun (Sura Ixxxiii. 18), " The garden of 'Illiyun."

8. Jannat-ul-Firdaus (Sura xviii. 107), " The garden of Paradise."

These eight stages of Paradise are spoken of as ''eight doors'' in the Traditions (Mishkat, bk. ii. chap. i.).

The sensual delights of Muhammad's Para- dise are proverbial, and they must have exer- cised considerable influence upon the minds of the people to whom he made known his mission. The allusions in the Quran are far too numerous to admit of quotation, but they will be found more particularly in Suras Ixxvi., Iv., Ivi., xlvii.

The descriptions of the celestial regions and the enjoyments promised to " the faithful " are still more minutely given in the traditional sayings of the Prophet (Mishkat, bk. xxiii. chap. xiii.).

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Apologists for Islam, Carlyle for example, liave suggested tliat tlie sensual delights of Muhammad's Paradise may after all be taken figuratively, even as the Song of Solomon and the Revelation of St. John. It is quite true that such is the interpretation hinted at in the Akhlaq-i- Jalali ; and Mr. Lane in his " Modern Egyptians " says he met a Muslim of learning who considered them figurative; but such is not the view of any Muhammadan commentator. All Muslim theologians have given a literal in- terpretation of the sensual delights, and it is impossible for any candid mind to read the Quran and Traditions and arrive to any other conclusion on the subject.

Islam, true to its anti- Christian character, preaches a sensual abode of bliss in opposition to the express teaching of our blessed Lord, who said, '' They neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are as the angels of heaven (St. Matt. xxii. 30).

It is remarkable that with the exception of one passage (Sura iii. 25), Muhammad's de- scriptions of the sensual paradise belong to the later period of his mission, and after he had become a polygamist.

94 HEAVEN.

In addition to tlie seven divisions of celestial bliss, there are said to be seven firmaments (asmdn).

1. Of pure virgin silver, wliicli is Adam's residence.

2. Of pm^e gold, which is Enoch's and John Baptist's.

3. Of pearls, which is Joseph's.

4. Of white gold, which is Jesus'.

5. Of silver, which is Aaron's.

6. Of ruby and garnet, which is Moses'.

7. Of crystal, which is Abraham's.

Muhammadans undoubtedly get their tra- dition of seven heavens from the Talmud; but the Jewish tradition with reference to the seven heavens was a more sensible ar- rangement than that of the Muhammadans.

The seven heavens of the Jews are as follow * : —

1. The vellum, or curtain.

2. The expanse, or firmament.

3. The clouds of ether.

4. The habitation, where the temple of Jeru-

* See Dr. Adam Clark on 2 Cor. xii. 2.

HEAVEN. 95

salem and tlie altar are situated, and where Michael the great prince offers sacrifice.

5. The dwelling place, where troops of an- gels sing.

6. The fixed residence, where are the trea- sures of snow and hail.

7. Araboth, or special place of glory.

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XY.— HELL.

Hell, or the place of torment, is called in Arabic Jahannam, and in Persian Dozahh ; and is said to liave seven portals or divisions,* wliicli tlie Commentator Bagliawi distributes as follows : —

1. Jahannam, for Mnbammadans ; for, ac- cording to the Quran, all Muslims will pass througb hell.t

2. Lazwd, a blazing fire for Christians (Snra Ixx. 15 only).

3. Hutama, an intense fire for Jews (Sura civ. 4 only).

* Sura XV. 44. "It hath seven portals, and at each portal a separate band;" a tradition founded on the Talmud. Thus in Sota 10, David is said to have rescued Absalom from the seven dwelHngs of hell. (Eodwell.)

t Sura xix. 44, "Verily there is not one of you that shall not go down into hell. Jahannam is the Arabic form of the Greek yeeWa, and it is remarkable that the word should be used for a purgatorial hell and not aSiys which, according to the Papists, denotes that state.

HELL. 97

4. 8^ air, a flaming fire for Sabians (Sura iv. 11, and fourteen otlier places).

5. Saqar, a scorching lieat for Magi (Suras liv. 58, and Ixxiv. 43).

6. JaJitm, a huge hot fire for idolaters (Sura ii. 113, and twenty other places).

7. Hdwia, the bottomless pit for hypocrites (Sura, cl. 8).

The situation of hell is a matter of dispute.

Baghawi's distribution of the different sections of hell is a proof of the utter recklessness of Muslim Commentators, for in neither case are Lazivd and Hutama apportioned to Christians or Jews in the Quran.

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XVL— THE DECREES OF GOD.

Taqdi'r, or the absolute decree and predes- tination of both good and evil, is the sixth article of the Muslim's creed. The orthodox belief is that whatever hath or shall come to pass in this world, whether it be good or bad, proceedeth entirely from the divine will, and is irrevocably fixed and recorded in the preserved tablet (Lahw-ul-Mahfih).*

Of this doctrine Muhammad makes great use in his Quran, and all those who have had any practical acquaintance with the lives of Mu- hammadans, know well to what extent it influences the daily life of every Muslim. It

* Lahw -ul' Mahfilz, occurs only once in the Qurjin, namely, Sura Ixxxv. 22, where it relates to the Quran being written thereon. The Preserved Tablet on which the actions of men are written, is called Tmim-ul-Muhin, the clear prototype. Sura xxxvi. 11.

DEOEEES OF GOD. 99

is not only urged as a source of consolation in every trial, but as a palliation of every crime. " It was written in my taqdir " (fate), is an excuse familiar to every European who has had much intercourse with Muslim servants or soldiers.

The following is a translation of an Arabic treatise on the subject : '' Faith in the decrees of God, is that we believe in our heart and con- fess with our tongue that the most High Grod hath decreed all things so that nothing can happen in the world, whether it respects the conditions and operations of things, or good and evil, or obedience and disobedience, or faith and infidelity, or sickness and health, or riches and poverty, or life and death, that is not contained in the written tablet of the decrees of God. But God hath so decreed good works, obedience, and faith, that He ordains and wills them, and that they may be under His decree. His salutary direction, His good pleasure and command. On the contrary, God hath decreed, and does ordain and determine evil, disobedience, and infidelity ; yet without His salutary direction, good plea- sure and command, but being only by way

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100 DECEEES OF GOD.

of seduction, indignation, and prohibition. But whosoever shall say that Grod is not delighted with good faith, or that God hath not an indignation against evil and unbelief, he is certainly an infidel."

101

XYIL — THE FIYE FOUNDATIONS OF PRACTICAL RELIGION.

The five pillars, or foundations, of practice in Islam are : —

1. The recital of the Creed, or Kalimah,^ — " There is no deity but G-od, and Muhammad is the Prophet of God."

2. Siddt. — The five stated periods of prayer.

3. Boza. — The thirty days fast of Ramazan.

4. Zakdt. — The legal alms.

5. flay}'. — The pilgrimage to Mecca.

* The enumeration of the Creed amongst the founda- tions of practice seems to perplex English writers, and consequently Dr. Macbride (p. 134), and other authors, omit it entirely, and reduce the foundations of practical religion to four. Our readers will observe, however, that it is the recital of the creed, and not the creed itself, which forms one of the five practical duties of the Muslim (vide next article).

102

XYIII.— THE RECITAL OF THE CREED.

The Recital of the Kalimah, or Creed, is the first of the five foundations, or pillars of prac- tice, in Islam. It consists of the following sentence, which is always recited in Arabic : —

La - ildha - it - lot - laho Miiliamimad - ur - Basid - Ullah, " There is no deity bnt Grod, and Muhammad is the Apostle of God."*

When any one is converted to Islam he is required to repeat this formula, and the following are the conditions required of every Muslim with reference to it : —

1. — That it shall be repeated aloud, at least once in a life-time.

* We have here translated rasiU, " Apostle," although it is generally rendered " Prophet," which, however, is the more correct rendering of nahi, a word which also occurs in the Quran. Both nahi and rasTil are translated into Persian and Hindustani by paighamhar, which is trans- lated into English by either Prophet, Apostle, or Mes-

THE EECITAL OF THE CEEED. 103

2. — That tlie meaning of it shall be fully understood.

3. — That it shall be believed in "by the heart."

4. — That it shall be professed until death.

6. — That it shall be recited correctly.

6. — That it shall be always professed and declared without hesitation.

Something similar to this celebrated symbol of the Muhammadan creed appears to have existed in Arabia previous to the foundation of Islamism. Dr. Arnold in his work on " Is- lam and Christianity," quotes the following prayer from the writings of Abulfaraj, which is said to have been used by the idolatrous Arabians : — " I dedicate myself to Thy service, O Grod ! Thou hast no companion, except Thy companion, of whom Thou art absolute Master of whatever is his." *

* Circumcision (Kliatnali) although never once enjoined in either the Quran or Traditions, is an institution of Islam ; but it is not incumbent upon adults, the recital of the creed being sufficient.

104

XIX.— PRAYER.

Peayer (Arabic Suldt, Persian and Hindustani Namdz, Puslito Nmuz) is tlie second of tlie five foundations of practice in Islam. The constant round of devotion which characterizes Muham- madan nations is a very remarkable phenomenon in the system. We translate the words Suldt and Namdz by the English word prayer, al- though this "second foundation" of the re- ligion of Muhammad is something quite distinct from that prayer which the Christian poet so well describes as the " soul's sincere desire uttered or unexpressed." It would be more correct to speak of the Muhammadan Namdz as a service; ''prayer" being more correctly rendered by the Arabic du^a. In Islam prayer is reduced to a mechanical act, as distinct from a mental act; and in judging of the spiritual character of Muhammadanism, we must take into careful consideration the precise character

PEAYEE. 105

of tliat devotional service wliicli every Muslim is required to render to Grod at least five times a day,* and wliicli, undoubtedly, exercises so great an influence upon the character of the followers of Muhammad.

It is absolutely necessary that the service should be performed in Arabic; and that the clothes and body of the worshipper should be clean, and that the praying place should be free from all impurity. It may be said either privately, or in company, or in a Mosque — although services in a Mosque are more meri- torious than those elsewhere.

It is always preceded by ablution (Wimi),i and, if said in a Mosque, by the Azdn and

* It is remarkable that there is but one passage in the Quran in which the stated times of prayer are enjoined, and that it mentions only four and not five j^ei'iocls : — Surat-ur-Eum (xxx.), 17, " Glorify God when it is even- ing (masa), and at morning (subh), — and to Him be praise in the heavens and in the earth, — and at afternoon (^ashi), and at noon- tide (zuhr).'^ But all commentators are agreed that masa includes both smi-set and after sun- set ; and, therefore, both the Maghrib and 'Ishaa prayers.

t Wuzu is the ablution of the face, hands, feet, &c., which is necessary before every time of prayer. Ghusal, or the washing of the whole body, is performed after cer- tain legal defilements.

106 PEAYEE.

Iqdmat, terms which will be explained after- wards.

The regular form of prayer begins with the Niyyat, which is said standing, with the hands on either side : —

" I have purposed to offer up to Grod only, with a sincere heart this morning (or, as the case may be), with my face Qibla-wards, two (or, as the case may be) raFat prayers Farz (Sunnat, or Nafl).^^

Then follows the Takbir-i-Tahrimah, said with the thumbs touching the lobules of the ears and the open hands on each side of the face : —

" Grod is great ! "

The Qiam, or standing position. The right hand placed upon the left, below the navel,* and the eyes looking to the ground in self-abasement. During which is said the Subhan f: —

"Holiness to Thee, 0 God ! " '' And praise be to Thee ! " " Great is Thy name ! "

* The Shafia', and the two other orthodox sects, place their hands on their breasts ; as also the Wahhabis. The Shia'hs keep their hands on either side. In all the sects the women perform the Qiam with their hands on their breasts.

t The Shia'hs omit the Subhan.

PEAYEE. 107

" Great is Tlij greatness ! " " There is no deity but Thee ! "

The T'auuz * is then said as follows : —

" I seek refuge from God from cursed Satan/'

After which the Tasmiyah is repeated : —

" In the name of God, the compassionate, the

merciful.

)>

Then follows the Fatihah, viz., the first chapter of the Quran f: —

'' Praise be to God, Lord of all the worlds ! "

" The compassionate, the merciful ! "

" King on the day of reckoning ! "

'' Thee only do we worship, and to Thee

only do we cry for help."

" Guide Thou us in the 'ttraight path,"

" The path of those to whom Thou hast been

gracious; "

" With whom Thou art not angry," " And who go not astray." — Amen.

After this the worshipper can repeat as many chapters of the Quran as he may wish ; he should, at least, recite one long or two short verses. The following chapter is

* The T'auuz is also called the 'Auzohillah. t The recital of the Quran is called the Qira'at, or reading.

108 PEAYEE.

usually recited, namely, the Surat-ul-Ikhlas, or the 112th chapter : —

" Say : He is God alone : "

" God tlie Eternal ! "

"He begettetli not,"

" And is not begotten ; "

" And there is none like unto Him."

The Takbir-i-Euku', said whilst making an inclination of the head and body and placing the hands upon the knees, separating the fingers a little.

" God is great ! "

The Tasbih-i-Euku', said in the same posture.

"I extol tlie holiness of mj Lord, the Great!"*

"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great!"

"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great!"

The Qium-i-Sami Ullah or Tasmia', said with the body erect, but, unlike the former Qiam, the hands being placed on either side. The Imam says f aloud,

'' God hears him who praises Him."

* The Shia'hs here add, " and with his praise." This is also added by the Shia'hs to the Tasbih-i-Sijdah.

t When the prayers are 'said by a person alone he recites both sentences.

PEAYEE. 109

The people then respond in a low voice.

" 0 Lord, Thou art praised."

Takbir-i-Sijdah, said as the worshipper drops on his knees.

''God is great!"

Tasbih-i-Sijdah, recited as the worshipper puts first his nose and then his forehead to the ground.

" I extol tlie holiness of my Lord, the most High ! "

" I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most High ! "

" I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most

High ! "

Then raising his head and body and sinking backward upon his heels, and placing his hands upon his thighs, he says the Takbir-i-Jalsa.*

"God is great!"

Then, whilst prostrating as before, he says the Takbir- i-Sijdah.

'' God is great ! "

And then during the prostration the Tasbih-i-Sijdah as before.

" I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most

High ! "

* The Shia'hs here omit the Takbir, and say instead, " I rise and sit by the power of God ! "

110 PEAYER.

" I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most High ! "

" I extol the holiness of my Lord, the most High!"

Then, if at the close of one rak'at, he repeats the Takbir standing, when it is called Takbir-i-Qiam ; but at the end of two rak'ats, and at the close of the prayer, he repeats it sitting, when it is called Takbir-i-Qa'ud.*

" God is great ! "

Here ends one rak'at or form of prayer. The next rak'at begins with the Fatihah or 1st chapter of the Quran. At the close of every two rak'ats he recites the Attahiyat, which is said whilst kneeling upon the ground. His left foot bent under him he sits upon it, and places his hands upon his knees and says f : —

" The adorations of the tongue are for Grod, and also the adorations of the body, and alms- giving ! ' '

" Peace be on thee, 0 Prophet, with the mercy of God and His blessing ! "

" Peace be upon us and upon God's righteous servants ! "

* The Shia'hs here recite the Takbir :— " God is great!" with the thumbs touching the lobules of the ear, and add, "I seek forgiveness from God, my Lord, and I repent before Him ! "

t The Shia'hs omit the Attahiyat.

PEAYEE. Ill

Then raising the first finger of the right hand he recites the Tashahhtid : —

"I testify tliat there is no deity but Grod*; and I testify that Muhammad is the servant of Grod, and the messenger of Grod ! " t

The Darud is said whilst in the same posture.

" 0 God, have mercy on Muhammad and on his descendants 4 as Thou didst have mercy on Abraham and on his descendants. Thou art to be praised, and Thou art great. 0 God, bless Muhammad and his descendants, as Thou didst bless Abraham and his descendants ! "

" Thou art to be praised, and Thou art great ! "

Then the Du'a—

"0 God our Lord, give us the blessings of this life, and also the blessings of life everlast- ing. Save us from the torments of fire."§

* The Shia'hs add, " who has no partner."

t Every two rak'ats close with the Tashahhud.

:|: The Shia'hs merely recite: — " Grod have mercy on Muhammad and his descendants ; " and omit the rest.

§ The Du'a is omitted by the Shia'hs, who recite the following instead : — " Peace be on thee, 0 Prophet, with the mercy of God and His blessing!" "Peace be upon us, and upon God's righteous servants !"

112 PEAYEE.

He then closes with the Salam.

Turning the head round to the right, he says —

" Tlie peace and mercy of God be with you."

Turning the head round to the left, he says —

'' The peace and mercy of God be mth yon."

At the close of the whole set of prayers, that is, of Farz, Sunnat, Nafl, or Witr, the worshipper raises his hands * and offers np a ^' Mundjdt,'' or supplication. This usually con- sists of prayers selected from the Quran or Hadis. They ought to be said in Arabic, although they are frequently offered up in the vernacular.

These daily prayers are either Farz, Sunnat, Nafl, or Wit7\ Farz, are those number of rak'ats, (or forms of prayer,) said to be enjoined by God. Sunnat those founded on the practice of Muhammad. Nafi, the voluntary per- formance of two rak'ats, or more, which may be omitted without sin. Witr, an odd number

* The hands are raised in order to catch a blessing from heaven, and they are afterwards drawn over the face in order to transfer it to every part of the body.

PEAYEE. 113

of rak'ats, either one, three, five or seven, said after the night prayer. These divisions of prayer are entirely distinct from each other. They each begin afresh with the Niyijat. The worshippers may rest for awhile between them, bnt not converse on worldly subjects. The Wahhabis think it correct to say the Sunnaf prayers in their houses and only the Farz prayers in the mosque.*

In order that our readers may be able to judge of the mechanism of this Muhammadan performance of prayer, we annex a time-table of the Muslim's common prayer, showing the number of raFats or forms ; from which it will be seen what is required of a pious Muham- madan. The five times of prayer are enjoined in the Quran, the other three periods of prayer are voluntary. (See next page.)

Upon reference to the form of prayer, or rak'ats, which we have given, and which admits

* Mr. Palgrave, in his " Central and Eastern Arabia," states that he observed that the Wahhabis were careless as to the legal ablutions. Perhaps he was not aware that the worshippers had performed the ablutions, and had said the Sunnat rak'ats privately before they came into the mosque.

8

114

PRAYER.

ft ! M P^ n PI	•J^Tiii	: : : : i> : : :
•FT^lt	: (M : (N <M 00 cx> o>
	: (M : cq cq : : :
•zaBj	(M tj* T? CO >* : : :
•ZJTJJ 8Jopq ^•Buntig	iM -5^ : : : : : :
•I13UOI!;dO dXB qoiqM cj-Bntrng	: : ^ : -* : : :
g ! i	1	da-Sahar- nmuz. da-Miispe- khin-nmuz. da-Mazi- gar-nmuz. da-Makh- am-nmuz. da-Maz- khuftan- nmuz. da-Ishraq- nmuz. da-Ghar- mi-nmuz. da-Shpe- nmuz.
* 1	Fajr-ki- Namaz. Zohar-ki- Namaz. 'Asur-ki- Namaz. Maghrib- ki-Namaz. 'Aysha-kf- Namaz. Ishraq-ki- Namaz. Zoha-kl- Namaz. Tahajud. ki-Namaz.
1	Namaz-i- Subh. _ Namtiz-i- Peshin. Namaz-i- Digar. Namaz-i- Shani. Namaz-i- Khuftan. Namaz-i- Ishraq. Namaz-i- Chast. Namaz-i- Tahajud.
1 <1	Sulat-ul- Fa jr. Sulat-ul- Zuhr. Sulat-ul- 'Asar. Sulat-ul- Maghrib. Sulat-ul- 'Ishaa. Sulat-ul- Ishraq. Sulat-ul- Zuha. Sulat-ul- Tahajud.
<1)	From dawn to sun- rise. When the sun has begun to decline. Mid-way between No. 2 and No. 4. A few minutes after sun-set. When the night has closed in. When the sun has well risen. About 11 o'clock A.M. After mid-night
1	r-IC<JC<5-^iO i-((MCO

•aaivaa dO saoiaad aAU anx

•iaviKinoA a-av hoihal saoiuad aauHx

PEAYER. 115

of no change or variation, whether used for the "time of travelling," in the "time of danger," or in the " time of need," it will be seen that notwithstanding the beauty of its devotional language, it is simply a superstitious rite, having nothing in common Avith the Christian idea of prayer.

The devotions of Islam are essentially " vain repetitions," for they must be said in the Arabic language, and admit of no change or variety. The effect of such a constant round of devotional forms, which are but the service of the lips, on the vast majority of Muham- madans, can be easily imagined. We believe that the absence of anything like true devotion from these services accounts for the fact that religion and true piety stand so far apart in the practice of Islam.

In addition to the daily prayers, the following are special services for special occasions :

SuUt-ul-Juma\ — " The Friday Prayer." It consists of two rak'ats after the daily meridian prayer. .

Suldt'ul-Musdfir. — " Prayers for a traveller."

8 A

116 PEAYEE.

Two rak'ats instead of the usual number at the meridian, afternoon, and night prayers.

Suldt-ul-Khcmf.—" The prayers of fear." Said in time of war. They are two rak'ats recited first by one regiment or company and then by the other.

Suldt'Ul'Tardwih. — Twenty rak'ats recited every evening during the Ramazan, immediately after the fifth daily prayer.

Suldt'Ul-Istihhdra. — Prayers for success or guidance. The person who is about to un- dertake any special business, performs two rak'at prayers and then goes to sleep. During his slumbers he may expect to have " ilhdm,'' or inspiration, as to the undertaking for which he seeks guidance !

Suldt-ul-Khasuf. — Two rak'ats said at the time of an eclipse of the moon.

Suldt-ul'Kusuf. — Two rak'ats said at the time of an eclipse of the sun.

The Azdn, is the summons to prayer pro- claimed by the Muazzin, or crier, in small mosques from the door or side, but in large mosques it ought to be given from the minaret (mandrat). The following is a translation,

PRAYEE. 117

" God is great ! God is great ! God is great ! God is great ! I bear witness tliat tliere is no God but God ! (repeated twice) I bear witness that Mubammad is the Apostle of God ! (re- peated twice) Come to prayers ! Come to prayers ! Come to salvation ! Come to salvation ! * God is great! Tliere is no other God but God!"t

In the early morning the following sentence is added : " Prayers are better than sleep."

The summons to prayer was, at first, the simple cry, " Come to prayer." Bingham tells us that a similar custom existed at Jerusalem (vide Antiquities, vol. ii. p. 489) : '' In the mo- nastery of virgms which Paula, the famous Eoman lady, set up, and governed at Jerusalem, the signal was given by one going about and singing hallehtja, for that was their call to church, as St. Jerome informs us."

The Iqdmat (lit. '' causing to stand ") is a recitation at the commencement of prayers in a congregation, after the worshippers have taken

* The ShiVlis add, " Come to good works ! t The Shia'hs recite the last sentence twice.

118 PRAYER.

up their position. It is exactly tlie same as the Azdn, with the addition of the words, " prayers are now ready."

The Iqamat of the Shafia' and the Wahhabis is just half the length of that of the Hanifis.

119

XX.— EAMAZA'N, OR THE MONTH OF FASTING.

The Bamazdn * is the ninth month of the Mn- hammadan year, which is observed as a strict fast from the dawn of day to snnset of each day in the month. The excellence of this month was much extolled by Muhammad, who said that during Ramazan " the gates of Para- dise are open, and the gates of hell are shut, and the devils are chained by the leg"; and that *' only those who observe it will be per- mitted to enter by the gate of heaven called Bay y an.'' Those who keep the fast " will be pardoned all their past venial sins."t In the

* The word Bamazdn is derived from Bamz, to burn. The month is said to have been so called either because it used (before the change of the calendar) to occur in the hot season, or because the month's fast is supposed to burn away the sins of men. (See Ghyds-ul-Loghdt.)

t Mishkat-ul-Musabih, bk. vii. chap. i. sect. 1.

120 EAMAZAN, OR THE MONTH OF FASTING.

montli of Ramazan, Muhammad said, the Quran began to be revealed from heaven. *

The fast does not commence until some Mu- salman is able to state that he has seen the new moon. If the sky be over- clouded and the moon cannot be seen, the fast begins upon the completion of thirty days from the begin- ning of the previous month.

The Ramazan must be kept by every Mu- salman, except the sick, the infirm, and preg- nant women, or women who are nursing their children. Young children, who have not reached the age of puberty, are exempt, and also tra- vellers on a journey. In the case of a sick person or a traveller, the month's fast must be kept as soon as they are able to perform it. This is called Qazd, or expiation.

The fast is extremely rigorous and mortify- ing, and when the Ramazan happens to fall in the summer and the days are long, the prohibition even to drink a drop of water to slake the thirst is a very great hardship. Mu- hammad speaks of this religious exercise as "easy, "fas most probably it was when com-

* Quran, Surat-i-Baqr, verse 181. t Ihid,

RAMAZAN, OE THE MONTH OF FASTING. 121

pared with the ascetic spirit of tlie tinies. Sir William Muir * tliinks Muhammad did not foresee that, when he changed the Jewish in- tercalary year for the lunar year, that the fast would become a grievous burden instead of an easy one ; but Muhammadan lexicographers say, the fast was established when the month occurred in the hot season {see note, p. 119).

During the month of Ramazan twenty ad- ditional ra¥ats, or forms of prayer, are re- peated after the night prayer. These are called TardiDih.

Devout Muslims seclude themselves for some time in the Mosque during this month, and abstain from all worldly conversation and en- gage themselves in the reading of the Quran. This seclusion is called 'Itiqdf. Muhammad is said to have usually observed this custom for the last ten days of Ramazan.

The LaykiUuI-Qadr, or the "night of power," is said by Muhammad to be either on the twenty-first, twenty-third, or twenty-fifth, or twenty-seventh, or twenty-ninth. The exact date of this solemn night has not been dis-

* Life of Mahomet, iii. p. 49.

122 EAMAZAN, OR THE MONTH OF FASTING.

covered by any but tlie Prophet himself, and some of the Companions, although the learned doctors believe it to be on the twenty-seventh. Of this night Muhammad says in the Quran (Surat-ul-Qadr) : —

" Yerily we have caused it (the Quran) to descend on the night of power.

"And who shall teach thee what the night of power is ?

'' The night of power excelleth a thousand months ;

" Therein descend the angels and the spirit by permission

" Of their Lord in every matter ;

"And all is peace till the breaking of the morn."

By these verses commentators * understand that on this night the Quran came down en- tire in one volume to the lowest heaven, from whence it was revealed by G-abriel in portions as the occasion required. The excellences of this night are said to be innumerable, and it is believed that during it the whole animal and vegetable kingdom bow in humble adoration

* Tafsir-i-Hoseini.

EAMAZAN, OE THE MONTH OF FASTING. 123

to the Almighty, and the waters of the sea become sweet m a moment of time ! This night is frequently confounded * with the Shah- i'Bardt ; but even the Quran itself does not appear to be quite clear on the subject, for in the Surat-i-Dulahdn we read, " By this clear book. See, on a blessed night have we sent it down, for we would warn mankind, on the night wherein all things are disposed in wis- dom." In which it appears that the blessed night, or the Laylut-uUMubaral', is both the night of record and the night upon which the Quran came down from heaven, although the one is supposed to be the twenty-seventh day of Eamazan, and the other the fifteenth of Shaban.

M. G-eiger identifies the Ramazan with the fast of the tenth (Leviticus xxiii. 27) ; it is, however, far more likely that the fast of the Tenth is identical with the 'Id-i-Ashura, not only because the Hebrew 'Asilr, ten, is retained in the title of that Muhammadan fast ; but also because there is a Jewish tradition (vide Adam Clark), that creation began upon the

* By Lane, in his " Egyptians," and by other writers.

124 RAMAZAN, OR THE MONTH OF FASTING.

Jewisli fast of the Tentli, wliicli coincides with the Muhammadan day 'Ashura, being regarded as the day of creation. Moreover, the Jewish 'Asur and the Muslim 'Ashura are both fasts and days of affliction. It is far more probable that Muhammad got his idea of a thirty days' fast from the Christian Lent. The observance of Lent in the Eastern Church was exceedingly strict both with regard to the nights as well as the days of that season of abstinence ; but Muhammad entirely relaxed the rules with regard to the night, and from sunset till the dawn of day the Muslim is permitted to indulge in any lawful pleasures and to feast with his friends ; consequently large evening dinner- parties are usual in the nights of the Ramazan amongst the better classes. This would be what Muhammad meant when he said, " God would make the fast an ease and not a diffi- culty," for notwithstanding its rigour in the day-time, it must be an easier observance than the strict fast observed during Lent by the Eastern Christians of Muhammad's day.

125

XXI.— ZAKAT, OR LEGAL ALMS- GIYING.

Zaka't (lit. ''purification"), the legal alms, or poor rate, is the fourth of the five founda- tions of practice. Zakat should be given an- nually of five descriptions of property, provided they have been in possession a whole year; namely, money, cattle, grain, fruit, and mer- chandise. There are several minor differences amongst the various sects as to the precise explanation of the law with reference to these legal alms ; but the following are the general rules observed by Sunni Musulmans : —

(1.) Money. If he is a Sdhih-i-Nlssab {i. e. one who has had forty rupees in his possession for a year), he must give alms at the rate of one rupee in every forty, or two and a half per cent.

(2.) Cattle. Should his property consist of sheep or goats, he is not obliged to give alms

126 ZAKAT, OB LEGAL ALMSGIVING.

until tliey amount to forty in number. He must tlien give one for one hundred and twenty, and two for tlie next eighty, and then one for every hundred afterwards. For camels the following is the rate : — from 5 to 24, one sheep or goat; from 25 to 35, one yearling female (bint'l'muJchdz) camel; from 36 to 45, one two-year old female (hint-i'lahicn) camel; from 46 to 60, one three-year old female (hiqqah) camel; from 61 to 75, one four-year old female (jaz^ali) camel; from 76 to 90, two two-year old female camels; from 91 to 120, two three-year old female camels ; and from 121 and upwards, either a two-year old female camel for every forty, or a three-year old female camel for every fifty.

For cows or bulls : — If 30 cows, a one-year old female calf; if 40, a two-year old female calf, and so on, a one-year old female calf for every 10.

Alms for buffaloes are the same as for sheep.

For horses, either the same rate as for camels, or two rupees eight annas for every horse whose value exceeds one hundred rupees. Animals used for riding, and beasts of burden, are exempt.

ZAKAT, OR LEGAL ALMSGIVING. 127

(3.) Fruits. For fruits watered by rain a tenth is given; but if irrigated, then a twen- tieth part.

(4.) Grain. The same rate as for fruits.

(5.) Merchandise. For the capital, as well as for the profits, Zalcdt is given at the rate of one in forty, provided the owner be a Sahib-i- nissab. For gold bullion, half a misqdl (=67^ grains) is given for every 20 misqal weight. For silver bullion at the rate of 2^ per cent. For whatever is found in mines, if over 240 dirhams in weight (^2 lbs. 2oz. 2 dr.), a fifth is required ; and if the money be laid out in merchandise, alms are to be given on the profits.

"Wood and pearls are exempt, and also cloth- ing ; but not jewels.

The following are the classes of persons on whom it is lawful to bestow the Zakat : —

1. Such pilgrims to Mecca as have not the means of defraying the expenses of the journey.

2. Religious mendicants.

3. Debtors who cannot discharge their debts.

4. Beggars.

5. Poor travellers.

128 ZAKAT, OR LEGAL ALMSGIVING.

6. Proselytes to Muhammadanism.

The Zalcdt, or legal alms, must be distin- guislied from tlie Sadaqa, or offerings, wliicli is a term more especially applied to tlie offer- ings on tlie 'Id-ul-Fitr (q.v.) although it is used for almsgiving in general.

As far as we have been able to ascertain, it does not appear that the Muhammadans of the present day are very regular in the pay- ment of the Zakat, which ought to be given on the termination of a year's possession. In countries under Muhammadan rule it is ex- acted by Government.

It is somewhat remarkable that Muhammad in his institution of legal almsgiving did not more closely copy the Jewish law in the giving of the "tenths," more particularly as the number ten appears to have been so frequently preferred as a number of selection in the cases of offerings in both sacred and secular history. The Muhammadan Zahdt, however, differs very materially from the Jewish tithe ; for the latter was given to the Levites of the Temple, and employed by them for their own support and for that of the priests, as well as for festival

ZAKAT, OR LEGAL ALMSGIVING. 129

purposes. The Muliammadan priesthood are supported by grants of land,* and offerings at the time of harvest, and are not permitted to take any of the Zakdt. Moreover, the descen- dants of the " Prophet " are not allowed to accept of either Zahdt or Sadaqa, because " they are of the Prophet's own blood and not to be included in the indigent."

Whatever may be the weak points in Mu- hammadanism, all candid observers, acquainted with the condition of Muliammadan nations, must admit that its provision for the poor is highly commendable. As we have journeyed from village to village amongst the Afghans, we have been frequently struck with the ab- sence of great poverty ; and even in our large cities, where Muliammadan beggars are numer- ous, it must be remembered that they are either religious mendicants or professional beggars, and for the most part quite unworthy of charitable relief.

* Land, or any property appropriated for religious or charitable purposes, is called waqaf.

130

XXII.— HAJJ, OH PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA.*

Ha.j.t, or Pilgrimage to Mecca, is tlie fifth of the five foundations of practice. It is said, by Muhammad, to be of Divine institution, and has the authority of the Quran for its obser- vance, t Its performance is incumbent upon those men and women who have sufficient means to meet the expenses of the journey,

* Only three Englishmeu are known to have visited Mecca, and to have witnessed the ceremonies of the Pil- grimage : — Joseph Pitts, of Exeter, a.d. 1678 ; John Lewis Burckhardt, a.d. 1814 ; Lieut. Eichard Burton, of the Bombay Army, a.d. 1853. The narratives of each of these "pilgrims" have been published. The first account in English of the visit of a European to Mecca, is that of Lodovico Bartema, a gentleman of Eome, who visited Mecca in 1503. His narrative was pubHshed in Willes and Eden's Decades, a.d. 1555.

t Vide Quran, Sura xxii. 28.

HAJJ, OR PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA. 131

and to maintain their families at home during their absence.

The ceremonies observed on this occasion are so ridiculous that they do more to reveal the imposture of Muhammad than any other part of his system. They are, even by the con- fession of Muhammadans themselves, the re- licts of the idolatrous superstitions of ancient Arabia; and they are either evidences of the dark and superstitious character of Muham- mad's mind, or, what is perhaps even more probable, they show how far the "Prophet" found it suit his purpose to compromise with the heathen Arabians of his day. The merits of the pilgrimage are so great, that every step taken in the direction of the K'aba blots out a sin; and he who dies on his way to Mecca is enrolled on the list of martyrs.

However ingeniously the apologists of Islam may offer excuses for some of the weak points of Muhammad's religious system, and endeavour to shield the " Prophet of Arabia " from the grave and solemn charge of having " forged the name of God," the pilgrimage to Mecca can admit of no satisfactory solution. In its institution the false prophet layeth open his

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132 HAJJ, OR PILGEIMAGE TO MECCA.

own folly, for in the ridiculous ceremonies of the Hajj, we see the law-giver, whose professed mission it was to uproot the idolatry of Arabia, giving one of its superstitious customs the authority of a Divine enactment. The pilgrim- age to Mecca is one of the numerous inconsis- tencies of Muhammad's pretended revelation.

The following is the orthodox way of per- forming the pilgrimage, founded upon the ex- ample of the " Prophet" himself.

Upon the pilgrim's arrival at the last stage* near Mecca, he bathes himself, and performs two rak'at prayers, and then divesting himself of his clothes, he assumes the pilgrim's sacred robe, which is called Ihrdm. This garment consists of two seamless wrappers, one being wrapped round the waist, and the other thrown loosely over the shoulder, the head being left uncovered. Sandals may also be worn, but not shoes or boots. After he has assumed the pilgrim's garb, he must not anoint his head, shave any part of his body, pare his nails, nor

* These are six in number, and are situated about five or six miles from Mecca in different directions. They are called Miqdt.

HAJJ, OE PILGEIMAGE TO MECCA. 133

wear any other garment than the Ihrdm. Im- mediately on his arrival at Mecca he performs the legal ablutions, and proceeds to the Musjid- ul'Hardm, or Sacred Mosque, and kisses the Hajr-ul-asivad, or the black stone, and then encompasses the K'aha^ seven times. This act, which is called Taivdf, is performed by com- mencing on the right and leaving the ICaha on the left. The circuits are made thrice with a quick step or run, and four times at a slow pace.t He then proceeds to the Maqdm-i- Ibrahim (the place of the prophet Abraham) and performs two rah'at prayers, after which he returns to the black stone and kisses it. He then goes to the gate of the temple leading to Mount Safa, and from it ascends the hill and

* Some confusion exists in the minds of English authors with regard to the word K'aba. The Temple or Mosque at Mecca is called Musjid-ul-Haram (the sacred Mosque), or Bait-ullah (the house of God). The K'dba (lit. a cube) is the square stone building in the centre, containing the black stone. And the Hajr-ul-aswad is the black stone itself, which Muslims say was originally white, but became black by reason of men's sins.

t Sharastani informs us, that there was an opinion pre- valent amongst the Arabs that the walking round the K'aba, and other ceremonies, were symbolic of the motion of the planets, and of other astronomical facts. (Bodwell)

134 HA.TJ, OR PILGEIMAGE TO MECCA.

runs from the summit of Mount Safa to tliat of Mount Marwali seven times ! On the top of the hill he remains for a few moments, and raising his hands heavenwards supplicates the Almighty.

On the eighth day, which is called Tarwiah, he unites with his fellow-pilgrims at Mina in the usual services of the Muslim ritual, and stays the night.

After morning prayer he rushes to Mount 'Arifat, where, having said two rak'at prayers with the Imam and heard the Khnfbah (or oration), he remains until sunset. He then proceeds to Muzdalifah, and having said the sunset and night prayers, he stays the night at that place.

The next morning, which is the 'Id-td-Azhd, or great feast, he comes to three places in Mina, marked by three pillars called Jamra. At each of these pillars he picks up seven small stones, or pebbles, and having said some particular prayer over each pebble and blown upon it, he throws it at one of the pillars. This ceremony is called Bami-ul-Jamdr, or the throwing of pebbles.

He then proceeds to the place of sacrifice at

HAJJ, OR PILGRIMAGE TO MECCA. 135

Mina, and performs the usual sacrifice of the 'Id-ul-Azha; after this sacrifice he gets him- self shaved, and his nails pared. The pilgrim garb is then removed and the pilgrimage is ended, although he should rest at Mecca the three following days, Avhicli are called the Ay- ydm-ut-Tashriq, or the days of drying up the blood of the sacrifice. These are three days of well earned rest after the vigorous peri- patetic performances of the last four days.

The pilgrimage must be performed on three days of the month of Zul Hijja, namely from the seventh to the tenth; a visit to Mecca at any other time has not the merit of a pil- grimage.

Before he leaves Mecca the pilgrim should once more perform the circuits round the K^aha, and throw stones at the sacred pillars, each seven times.

He then proceeds to Medina, and makes his salutations at the Shrine of Muhammad. The Wahhabis do not perform the last act, as it is contrary to their principles to visit shrines.

The Musulman who has performed the pil- grimage is called Hdji.

The K'aba is also called the Qibla, or the

136 HAJJ, OE PILCtEIMAGE to MECCA.

direction to wliicli Muslims are to pray. Mosques are, therefore, always erected Qibla- wards. At tlie commencement of Islam, the Qibla was Jerusalem ; but when Muhammad failed to conciliate the Jews to his prophetic pretensions, he made the K'aba the Qibla, or the direction in which to pray.

The pilgrimage cannot be performed by proxy, as some English authors have stated, although it is considered a meritorious act to pay the expenses of one who cannot afford to perform it. But if a Muhammadan on his death-bed bequeath a sum of money to be paid to a certain person to perform the pilgrimage, it is considered to satisfy the claims of the Muslim law. If a Muslim have the means of performing the pilgrimage, and omit to do so, its omission is equal to a Icahira, or mortal sin.

137

XXIII.— THE LAW.

Mtjhammadan law consists of two divisions, Rawd and Ndratvd, i. e., Tilings lawful and Things unlawful.

I. — That which is lawful is divided into five classes.

1. Farz. — That which has been enjoined in the* Quran.

2. Wdjih. — That of which there is some doubt as to its Divine institution.

3. Sunnat. — The example of Muhammad, which consists of three kinds : —

Sunnat-i-F'ili. — That which Muhammad

himself did. Sunnat-i-Qauli. — That which Muhammad

said should be practised. Sumiat'i-Taqriri. — That which was done

in the presence of Muhammad and

which he did not forbid.

138 THE LAW.

4. Mustahah. — That which Muhammad sometimes did and sometimes omitted.

5. Miihdh,—Th^t which may be left unper- formed without any fear of Divine punishment.

II. — Things unlawful are of three classes : —

1. Hardm. — That which is distinctly for- bidden in the Quran and Hadis.

2. Makruh. — That of which there is some doubt as to its unlawfulness, but w^hich is generally held to be unclean or unlawful.

3. Mufsid. — That which is corrupting and pernicious.

The divisions of lawful and unlawful do not merely apply to food, but also to ablutions and other customs and precepts.

139

XXIY.— SIN.

The Muhammadan doctors divide sins into two classes, very mucli as the Roman Catholic divines do ; the usual Roman designation being that of mortal and venial sin, whilst Muhammadans use the expressions Kahira and Saghira, " Great " and " Little." Kabira are those great sins, of which, if a Musalman do not repent, he will go to the purgatorial hell reserved for sinful Muslims. The divines of Islam are not agreed amongst themselves as to the exact number of Kabira sins, but they are generally considered to be seventeen {vide Fawaid-us-Shari'at).

1. Kufr, or infidelity.

2. Constantly committing Saghira, or little sins.

3. Despairing of the mercy of God.

4. Considering one's self safe from the wrath of God.

140 SIN.

5. False witness.

6. Qazaf, or falsely charging a Musulman with adultery.

7. Taking a false oath.

8. Magic.

9. Drinking wine.

10. Appropriation of the property of or- phans.

11. Usury.

12. Adultery.

13 Unnatural crimes.

14. Theft.

15. Murder.

16. Fleeing in battle before the face of an infidel.

17. Disobedience to parents.

141

XXY.— PUNISHMENT.

Punishment is divided into three classes : — Hadd, Tazir, and Qisds.

1. Hadd is tliat punishment which is said to have been ordained of God in the Quran and the Hadis, and which must be inflicted. The following belong to this class : — Adultery, for which the adulterer is stoned. Formication, for which one hundred stripes are inflicted. Drunkenness, for which there are eighty stripes. The slander of a married person, that is, bring- ing a false charge of adultery against a married person, for which the offender must receive eighty lashes. This punishment is said to have been instituted by God, when 'A yesha, the favourite wife of '* the Prophet," was falsely charged with adultery ! Apostacy, for which the Murtadd, or Apostate, is killed, unless he repent of his error within three days. When an Apostate from Islam has been killed according to the law, or has left the country,

142 PUNISHMENT.

his property goes to those of his heirs who still reraain Musulmdns {vide the " Al Sira-

jiyah").

2. Tazir is that punishment which is said to have been ordained of God, but of which there are not special injunctions, the exact punishment being left to the discretion of the Qazi, or Judge.

3. Qisds (lit. " retaliation " ) is that punish- ment which can be remitted by the person offended against, upon the payment of a fine or compensation. The punishment for murder is of this class. The next akin to the murdered person can either take the life of his kinsman's murderer, or accept a money compensation (Diat), There is also' retaliation in case of wounds. Qisas is the lex talionis of Moses, '' eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, burning for burning, wound for wound, stripe for stripe " (oule Exodus xxi. 24). But in allowing a money compensation for murder, Muhammad departed from the Jewish code.

143

XXYI.— LAWFUL FOOD.

No animal is lawful food unless it be slaugh- tered according to the Muhammadan law, namely, by drawing the knife across the throat and cutting the windpipe, the carotid arteries, and the gullet, repeating at the same time the words '' Bismillali AllaJw Akbar,'^ i. e. '' In the name of the great God." A dean animal, so slaughtered, becomes lawful food for Mus- lims, whether slaughtered by Jews, Christians, or Muhammadans.

In the '' Sharah Waqaia "it is said that the following creatures are lawful (Jialdl) : —

1. Those animals that are cloven-footed and chew the cud, and are not beasts of prey.

2. Birds that do not seize their prey with their claws, or wound them with their bills, but pick up food with their bills.

3. Fish; but no other animals which move in the water.

144 LAWFUL FOOD.

4. Locusts.

Some commentators say tliat tlie liorse is lawful ; but it is generally held to be '' mah- ruhr

Fish found dead in tlie water is unlawful ; but if it be taken out and die afterwards it is lawrful.

Alligators, turtles, crabs, snakes, frogs, etc., are unlawful. Wine is expressly forbidden in tlie Quran ; and, in tlie judgment of tlie learned, this prohibition extends to whatever has a ten- dency to intoxicate, such as opium, bhang, chars,* and tobacco. The Akliund of Swat t has issued several ^^fahvdhs,^^ prohibiting the use of tobacco ; but the cliilam (or pipe), having become a national institution, no notice has been taken of the inhibition. The "Wahhabis do not permit its use. In Trans-Indus terri- tory, the liukka, or cliilam, is never allowed in a mosque.

* Bhang and Chars are intoxicating preparations of hemp.

t The Akhund of Swat is a great religious leader a- mongst the Muhammadans of North India and Central Asia. He resides at Seydii, in Swat, about twenty miles beyond the British frontier.

LAWFUL FOOD. 145

From what we have written, it mil be seen that a Muslim can have no religions scruples to eat with a Christian, as long as the food eaten is of a lawful kind. Sayyid Ahmad Khan Bahadur, C.S.I., has wiitten a treatise proving that Muhammadans can eat with the AJiI-i-Kitdb, namely, Jews or Christians. The Muhammadans of India, whilst they will eat food cooked by idolatrous Hindus, refuse to touch that cooked either by Native or Euro- pean Christians ; and they often refuse to allow Christians to draw water from the public wells, although Hindus are permitted to do so. Such objections arise solely from jealousy of race, and an unfriendly feeling towards the ruling power. In Afghanistan and Persia, no such objections exist ; and no doubt much evil has been caused by Grovernment allowing Hindu- stani Musulmans to create a religious custom which has no foundation whatever, except that of national hatred to their English conquerors.

10

146

XXYII.— FARZ-I-KAFAl^

Faez-i-Kafa'i' are tliose commands which are imperative (fcirz) ; but which, if one person in eight or ten perform, it is equivalent to all having performed it.

1. To return a salutation.

2. To visit the sick, and inquire after their welfare.

3. To follow a bier on foot to the grave.

4. To accept an invitation.

5. To reply to a sneeze, e. g. if a person sneeze, and say immediately afterwards, " God be praised" {Alhamdo lillah), it is incumbent upon at least one of the party to exclaim, " God have mercy on you " (YarhamuJc Allah).

There is an interesting chapter on the custom of saluting after sneezing in Isaac D'Israeli's *' Curiosities of Literature," from which it appears that it is almost universal amongst nations. -?

147

XXYIII.— FITRAT.

FiTEAT (lit. '' nature'") is said to be certain ancient practices of the prophets before the time of Muhammad, which have not been for- bidden by him.

In the Hadis '' Muslim,^' the customs of fitrat are said to be ten in number.

1. The clipping of the mustachios, so that they do not enter the mouth.

2. Not cutting or shaving the beard.

3. Cleaning the teeth (^. e. miswdh).

4. Cleansing the nostrils with water at the usual ablutions.

5. Cutting the nails.

6. Cleaning the finger-joints.

7. Pulling out the hairs under the arms.

8.	-t.	-Mc *-	*
9.	ii^	^ ^	*
10.	Cleansing	the mouth with water at the
time of ablution.

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148

XXIX.— SALUTATIONS.

The usual Muhammadan salutation is "^ as saldmu ^aleham,^' i. e. " The peace of God be with you."

When a person makes a " saldm,'^ and any of the assembly rise and return it, it is con- sidered sufficient for the whole company.

The lesser number should always be the first to salute the greater; he who rides should salute him who walks ; he who walks, him who stands ; the stander, the sitter, etc. A man should not salute a woman on the road ; and it is considered very disrespectful to salute with the left hand, that hand being used for legal ablutions.

The ordinary salute is made by raising the right hand either to the breast or to the fore- head.

In Central Asia the salutation is generally given without any motion of the hand or body.

SALUTATIONS. 149

Pupils salute their masters by kissing tlie hand or sleeve, which is the usual salutation made to men of eminent piety.

Homage is paid by kissing the feet of the ruler, or by kissing the ground or carpet.

In Afghanistan, conquered people pay hom- age hj casting their turbans at the feet of the conqueror ; and the heads of tribes often lessen the size of their turbans before appearing in the presence of their rulers.

150

XXX.— THE CALIPH.

The Calipli, or Khalifa {i. e. the vicegerent of the Prophet), is the sovereign dignity amongst Mnhammadans, vested with absolute power. The word more frequently used for the office in Muhammadan works of jurisprudence is Imam (leader), or Imdm-ul-Azam (the great leader). It is held to be an essential principle in the establishment of the office, that there shall be only one Caliph at the same time ; for the Prophet said: — ''When two Caliphs have been set up, put the last to death and preserve the second, for the last is a rebel" {vide Mishkat, bk. xvi. chap. i.). According to all Sunni Muhammadan books, it is absolutely necessary that the Caliph be "a man, an adult, a sane person, a free man, a learned divine, a powerful ruler, a just person, and one of the Quraish " {i. e. of the tribe to which the Prophet himself belonged). The Shia'hs, of

THE CALIPH. 151

course, hold that he should be one of the descendants of the Prophet's own family ; but this is rejected by the Sunnis and Wahhabis. The condition that the Caliph should be of the Quraish, is very important ; for thereby the present Ottoman Sultans fail to establish their claims to the Caliphate.

After the deaths of the first five Caliphs, — Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman, Ali, and Hasan, — the Caliphate, which is allowed by all parties to be elective, and not hereditary, passed suc- cessively to the Ommiades and Abbasides. The temporal power of the Abbaside Caliphs was overthrown by Houlakon Khan, son of the celebrated Jengiz Khan, a.d. 1258 ; but, for three centuries, i\\e descendants of the Abba- side, or Bagdad, Caliphs resided in Egypt, and asserted their claim to the spiritual power.

The founder of the present dynasty of Ottoman Sultans was Osman, the son of a tribe of Oghouz Turks, a powerful chief, whose descendant, Bazazet I., is said to have obtained the title of Sultan from one of the Abbaside Caliphs in Egypt, a.d. 1389. When Selim I. conquered Egypt (a.d. 1516), it is asserted that he obtained a transfer of the title

152 THE CALIPH.

of Caliph to himself from one of the successors of the old Bagdad Caliphs. It is, however, a mere assertion ; for the title and office being elective, and not hereditary, it was not in the power of any Caliph to transfer it to another. Force of circumstances alone has compelled the ruler of the Ottoman Empire to assume the position, and has induced his subjects to acquiesce in the usurpation. We have not seen a single work of authority, nor met with a single man of learning, who has ever at- tempted to prove that the Sultans of Turkey are rightful Caliphs ; for the assumption of the title by any one who is not of the Quraish tribe is undoubtedly illegal and heretical, as will be seen from the following authorities : —

(Mishlvdt'ul-Musdhih, bk. xxiv. chap, xii.) " Ibn-i-Umr relates that the Prophet of God said : — ' The Caliphs shall be in the Quraish tribe as long as there are two persons in it, one to rule and another to serve.' " {8ha7'h-til-Mutvdqif, p. 606. Arabic Edition. Egypt.) ''It is a condition that the Caliph (Imam) be of the Quraish tribe. All admit this, except the Khawarij and certain Mutazilahs. We all

THE CALIPH. 153

say with the Prophet : ' Let the Caliph be of the Quraish ' ; and it is certain that the Com- panions acted upon this injunction, for Abu Bakr urged it as an authority upon the Ansars, on the day of Sakhifah, when the Companions were present and agreed. It is, therefore, for a certainty established that the Caliph must be of the Quraish."

(The Hujjat-UUah-al-Bdlaghah, p. 335. Arabic Edition. Delhi.)

'* It is a necessary condition that the Caliph (Imam) be of the Quraish tribe."

(The Kashhdf-i-IstaldJiat. A Dictionary of Technical Terms. Edited by Colonel K Lees, in loco.)

"The Caliph (Imam) must be a Quraish."

It is a matter of history that the Wahhabis regarded the Turkish Sultan as a usurper when Sana took Mecca and Medina in 1804 ; and to the present day, in countries not under Turkish rule, the Khutbah is recited in behalf of the Amir, or ruler of the Muslim state, instead of the Ottoman Sultan, which would not be the case if he were acknowledged as a lawful Caliph. In a collection of Khutbahs, entitled the Majmua' Khutbah, the name of the Sultan

154 THE CALIPH.

does not once occur, although this collection is much used in Muhammadan states. We have seen it stated that the Sultan is prayed for in Hyderabad and Bengal ; but, we believe, it will be found, upon careful inquiry, that he was not mentioned hy name^ until very recently, in any of the mosques of India. Khutbah in which there are prayers for the Ottoman Sultan by name, have been imported from Constanti- nople ; but, whoever may be the rightful Caliph, it is certain that, according to law, the only sovereign who can be prayed for in an Indian mosque, is " Alexandrina Victoria, Empress of India" (Qaisar-i-Hind) ; for all Muhammadans admit that the Friday Khutbah cannot be re- cited without the permission of the ruler.

155

XXXI.— MUHAMMAD AN CLERGY, SCHOLARS, AND SAINTS.

The Muslims liave no liereditary priestly caste as the Hindus, nor liave tliey a distinct order of clergy exactly corresponding witli those of the Christian Church. But still there is a powerful hierarchy possessed of great jDolitical and religious influence, which resembles the Jewish Scribes and Lawyers.

In countries under Muhammadan rule the religious dignitaries are appointed by the king, who is properly the highest spiritual authority in the kingdom. The Shekh - ul - Islam at Constantinople unites in himself the functions of the Primate and Lord Chancellor.

The following are the chief religious func- tionaries, in a state governed according to Muhammadan law.

Qcki. — The minister of justice, who passes

156 MUHAMMAD AN OLEEGY, ETC.

sentence in all cases of law ; religious, moral, civil, or criminal.

Mufti. — The law officer, wlio expounds the law, and in difficult cases supplies the Qdzi with '' faUms " or decisions.

There are still persons in India bearing the titles of Qdzi and Mufti, but the offices have ceased to exist under British Grovernment. The Indian law, however, permits civil cases being decided by Muhammadan divines, if both parties consent to the arrangement.

Imam. — The Arabic word Imam is said, by Sale, to answer to the Latin antistes, the pre- sident of the temple. It is also used for the four successors of Muhammad, the four great doctors of the four orthodox sects, the twelve great leaders of the Shia'hs, and for any great religious leader. It is, however, commonly used for the person who leads the daily prayer, and is in receipt of the revenues of the mosque.

The titles of Qdzi, Mufti, and Imdm may be said to embrace the various appointments held by Muhammadan divines ; but there are also numerous titles to denote doctors of Science and Divinity.

Tahih. A doctor of medicine.

MUHAMMAD AN CLEEGY, ETC. 157

HaJcim, A doctor of pliilosopliy, used also for a doctor of medicine.

Miihaqqiq. A very learned doctor in one or two sciences.

Maulawi, also Mulld. A doctor of divinity, used for any person wlio has been educated in the Muliammadan religion, and assumes the office of teacher.

FaqiJi. A doctor of law.

Mutahallim. A doctor of theology.

Muhaddis, A doctor of the law of the traditions.

Mufassir. One learned in the commentaries on the Quran.

Madams. An academical doctor, i. e., one educated in some school of reputation.

Doctors of Divinity are of three grades : Maulavi, 'Alim (pi. 'Ulama), MujtaJiid (pi. Muj- tahidin). The title of Mujtaliid is held by very few Sunni Muhammadans, but is more common amongst the Shia'hs.

In addition to these titles, which express the degree of learning, there are others which denote the piety and sanctity of the individual. Fir and Wall are the common titles ; but the

158 MUHAMMAD AN CLEEGY, ETC.

following express certain degrees of reputed sanctity : —

^A'bid, one constantly engaged in tlie worship of Grod.

Zdhld, one who leads a life of asceticism. The title of Faqir does not always denote one who has renounced the possessions of the world, but is applied to any one of a humble spirit, one poor in the sight of Grod, rather than in need of worldly assistance.

Quthah and Ghaus, the highest orders of sanctity. According to vulgar tradition, a Grhaus is a saint whose ardour of devotion is such, that in the act of worship his head and limbs fall asunder ! whilst a Qiithah is one who is supposed to have attained to the state of sanctity which reflects the heart of the Prophet.

There are four titles of respect which scarcely belong to either the religious or the learned class, but are of more general use : —

Sliekh, an appellation which literally signifies an elder or aged person. It is a common title of respect, and is almost synonymous with our English ''Mister.'' In Egypt and Arabia it

MUHAMMADAN CLEEGY, ETC. 159

appears to be used for the Hindustani and Persian Khan, or chief.

Miydn, (lit. "a master" or "friend") gene- rally used for the descendants of celebrated saints, but also as a title of respect.

Sayyid, generally pronounced Syud (lit. "lord"). For the descendants of Muham- mad from his daughter Fatimah and her hus- band 'Ali. The word Sayyid is often used as part of a name, without reference to family descent from the Prophet ; as Sayyid Ahmad, Sayyid Shah, &c.

Mr, also used for Sayyids, but not exclu- sively.

160

XXXII.— THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE.

MuHAMMADAN tliGological literature is very ex- tensive, and in consequence of the cheapness of lithographic printing, it is daily increasing. The following are its chief divisions : — (1.) Hadis. — Accounts of the precepts and practice of Muhammad. The collectors of Hadis may be numbered by hundreds, but the chief authorities are the six books known as the Sihdh-i-Sita, or " six correct boolcs.'' The popular work on the sub ect amongst the Sunnis of India being the Mishkat-ul-Musabih. {See article on Traditions.)

(2.) Us{d (lit. "roots").— Treatises on the rules and principles of the four foundations of the Islam law, — being expositions of the exe- gesis of the Quran and Hadis, and the prin- ciples of Ijma' and Qias. The most popular works on this subject are the Manar, by

THEOLOGICAL LITEEATURE. 161

Abdullah ibn Alimacl, a.h. 710, and the Talwi' Tauzia', by 'Ubaid-Ullah ibn Mas'ud, a.h. 747.

(3.) 'Aqdid (lit. ''creeds"). — Expositions of scholastic theology, founded upon the six ar- ticles of faith. The most celebrated exposition of the Islam creed being that by Imam Ghazali, A.H. 505. In India the work most read is the 8harah-i-'Aqdid, by Maulavi Mas'ud S'ad- ud-din Taftazani, a.h. 792.

(4.) Fiqah. — Works on Muhammadan law, whether civil or religious. The work most read amongst Sunnis is the Hiddyah, written by a learned man named 'Ali, a.h. 593; part of which has been translated by the late Colonel Charles Hamilton. A smaller work, entitled the SJiarah Waqaiah, by Abdul Haqq, is also much used.

(5.) Tafsir. — Commentaries on the Quran. These are very numerous, and contain very many Jewish traditions of the most worthless character. One of the latest and most learned of these productions is said to be the short commentary by Shah Wali Ullah of Delhi, who died A.H. 1176.

The best known commentaries amongst the Sunnis are Baizawi (a.h. 685), Madarik (a.h.

11

162 THEOLOGICAL LITEEATUEE.

701), Jalalain (a.h. 911), Bagliam (a.h. 515), MazMri (a.h. 1225), Hoseini (a.h. 900).

(6.) Siyar. — Ecclesiastical history, i. e, tlie history of Muhammad and his successors. This branch of literature, Sayyid Ahmad Khan of Aligarh says, " is the one which requires the most emendation."

The chief authorities on the life of Mu- hammad and early days of Islam, in addition to the Hadis, are Ibn Ishaq, Ibn Hisham, Waqidi, and Tabari; whilst the most popular histories amongst the Sunnis of India are the Rawzat-ul-Ahbab, by 'Ataa Ullah ibn Fazl Illlah, A.H. 1000, and the Madarij-un-Nabuwat, by Shekh Abdul Haqq, a.h. 1025.

In addition to his theological studies, the Muhammadan student is instructed in Mantiq (logic), /S'ar/ (inflexion), and Nahw (syntax).

The text of a book is called Matan, the marginal notes HasJmjah, and its commentary Shark.

163

XXXIII.— MUHARRAM AND 'A'SHURA'A.

The Miiharram (lit. " that wliicli is sacred ") commences on the first of the month * of that name, and is continued for ten days, the tenth day being called 'A'shurda, They are days of mdtam, or lamentation, in commemora- tion of the martyrdom of 'Ali, and of Hasan,

* The twelve months of the Muhammad lunar year are

as follows : —

1. Muharram.

2. Safar.

3. Eabi'-ul-awwal.

4. Eabi'-ul-akhir.

5. Jamad-al-iila.

6. Jamad-al-ukhra.

7. Eajab.

8. Sh'aban.

9. Ramazan.

10. Shawwal.

11. Zul-Q'ada.

12. Zul-Hijja.

The sacred month. The month which is void. The first of spring. The last of spring. The first dry month. The last of spring. The revered month. The month of division. The hot month.

The month for going [forth (hunt- ing). The month of rest. The month of pilgrimage.

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164 MUHAEEAM AND 'aSHUEAA.

and Husain,* as observed by tlie Sliia'hs ; but the day ^A'shurda (the tenth) is also held sacred by the Sunnis, the observance of the month having been enjoined by Muhammad on account of its having been the month of creation. The ceremonies of the Muharram differ much in different places; but the following are the main features of the festival as observed by the Shia'hs. A place is prepared which is called the ' A' shuT'hhdna (the ten-day house), or Imdm-Bdra (the Imam place), in the centre of which is dug a pit, in which fires are kindled, and at night the people, young and old, fence across the fire with sticks and swords, and whilst dancing round it, call out, " Oh 'Ali ! noble Hasan ! noble Husain ! bridegroom ! alas friend ! stay ! stay ! etc. ; the cry being re- peated in the most excited manner hundreds of times, until the whole assembly has reached the highest pitch of excitement. They then form

* The Khalifa 'Ali was assassinated in the Mosque of Cufa, A.D. 660. Hasan was poisoned by his wife, at the instigation of Yazid. Husain was slain, with three and thirty strokes of lances and swords, a.d. 680. The story of Husain is one of the most touching pages of MusHm history.

MUHAEEAM AND 'aSHUEAA. 165

themselves in circles, and beat themselves with chains in the most frantic manner. The women repeat a funeral eulogium, and the Maulavis, the Boiuzat'US-Shuhddda, or the Book of Martyrs.

On the seventh day there are representations of the marriage ceremony of Qasim, and of the martyrdom of Husain ; and on the eighth day a lance or spear is carried about the city to represent Husain 's head, which was carried on the point of a javelin by order of Yazid. In addition to these representations, there are the Tazias, Tabiits, or biers, of the tombs of Hasan and Husain, a horse-shoe in representation of Husain' s swift horse, and the standards of Hasan, Husain, and Qasim, and other Muslim celebrities.

The Sunni Muhammadans do not usually take part in these ceremonies, but observe the tenth day, ^A'shurda, being the day on which God is said to have created Adam and Eve, heaven, hell, the tablet of decree, the pen, fate, life, and death.

Muhammad commanded his followers to ob- serve the ^A'shurda by bathing, wearing new

166 MUHARRAM AND 'aSHURAA.

clothes, applying surma * to tlie eyes, fasting, prayers, making peace with one's enemies, as- sociating with religions persons, relieving or- phans, and giving of alms.

The fast of 'A'shurda is a Sunnat fast, i, e. not founded upon an injunction in the Quran, but upon the example of Muhammad.

* Surma is antimony or galena ground to a fine powder, and applied to the eyelids to improve the brightness of the eyes.

167

XXXIV.— A'KHIHI CHAHA'R SHAMBA.*

A'khiei Chaha'e Shamba is the " last Wednes- day " of tlie montli of Safar, and is a feast lield in commemoration of Muhammad's having ex- perienced some mitigation of his last illness and having bathed. It was the last time he performed the legal bathing, for he died on the twelfth day of the next month. In some parts of Islam it is customary, in the early morning of this day, to write seven verses of the Quran, known as the Seven Saldms, and then wash off the ink and drink it as a charm against evil.

The A'khiri Chahar Shamba is not observed by the Wahhabis, not being enjoined in the Quran and Hadis.

* The Persian name for the day ; the Arabic being Arb'da-ul-AJcMr, i. e. " the last Wednesday."

168

XXXY.— BA'RA WAFAT.*

The Bdra Wafdt {_l. e. Bar a, "twelve," and Wafdt, ''death") is tlie twelfth day of the month, Rabi-ul-Awwal. It is observed in commemor- ation of Muhammad's death.

On this day, Fdtihahs (i. e. the first chapter of the Quran), are said for Muhammad ; and both in private houses and in the mosques, the learned recite portions of the Traditions and other works in praise of the excellences of Muhammad. These customs are usually ob- served for the whole twelve days, although the twelfth day is held most sacred.

The Wahhabis do not observe the Bdra Wafdt, as its observance is not enjoined in the Quran or Hadis.

* The Hindustani name of the day, there being no special title for the day in Persian or Arabic.

169

XXXYI.— SHAB-I-BARAT.*

Shab-i-Bara't, tlie ''night of record," is ob- seryecl on the fifteenth day of the month, Sh'aban. It is the ''Guy Fawkes Day" of India, being the night for display of fireworks. On this night, Muhammad said, Grod regis- ters annually all the actions of mankind which they are to perform during the year ; and that all the children of men, who are to be born and to die in the year, are recorded. Muhammad enjoined his followers to keep awake the whole night, to repeat one hundred rah' at prayers, and to fast the next day; but there are ge- nerally great rejoicings instead of a fast, and large sums of money are spent in fireworks. The Shab-i-Barat must not be confounded with

* The Persian title; the Arabic being Laylat-ul-Mu- baraJca.

170 SHAB-I-BAEAT.

the Laylat-ul-Qadr (night of power), mentioned in the Quran, which is the twenty- seventh night of the Eamazan. The 8hah-i-Bardt, however, is frequently called Shab Qadr, or the night of power, by the common people.

171

XXXYII.— 'ID-UL-FITR, OR THE LESSER FESTIVAL.

'Id-ul-Fitr (lit. "the feast of breaking tlie fast "), is called also the feast of Ramazan, tlie Feast of Alms, and the Minor Festival. It is held on the first day of the month of Shawwal, which is the day after the close of the Ramazan fast. On this day, before going to the place of prayer, the Sadaqa, or propitiatory offerings, are made to the poor in the name of God. The offerings having been made, the people assemble either in the Jama'-i-Masjid (i. e. the principal mosque), or proceed to the 'Idgah, which is a special place for worship on festivals. The worship commences with two raWat prayers, after which the Imam takes his place on the second step of the mimbar (pulpit) and recites the Khuthah, concluding with a prayer for the king. After this is ended, he offers up a mundjdt, or supplication, for the people, for the

172 'iD-UL-FITE, OR THE LESSER FESTIVAL.

remission of sins, the recovery of the sick, in- crease of rain, abundance of corn, preservation from misfortune, and freedom from debt. He tlien descends to the ground, and makes further supplication for the people, the congregation saying Amin at the end of each supplication. At the close of the service the members of the congregation salute and embrace each other, and offer mutual congratulations, and then return to their homes, and spend the rest of the day in feasting and merriment.

173

XXXYIII.— 'ID-UL-AZHA', OE THE FEAST OF SACEIFICE.

Id-ul-Azha,* or the Feast of Sacrifice, is called also Yaum-un-Nahr, Qurhdn-i- Id, Qur- hdn Bayrdm, Baqr-i-Id (the Cow Festival), and the Great Feast, and is held on the tenth day of the month Zul-Hijja. This festival has become part of the Meccan pilgrimage, of which it is the concluding scene, although it appears that Muhammad at first intended to conform to the custom of the Jews in observing the great day of atonement, but, when he failed to maintain a friendly footing with the Jews, he merged the rite into the Meccan pilgrimage. This feast, however, is the great Muhammadan festival, which is observed wherever Islam exists ; and it is a notable fact that whilst Muhammad professed to abrogate the Jewish

* Vulsr. 'Id'Uz-Zohd.

174 'iD-UL-AZHA, OR THE FEAST OF SACRIFICE.

ritual, and also ignored entirely the doctrine of the atonement as taught in the New Testament, denying even the very fact of our Saviour's crucifixion, he made the ''day of sacrifice'' the great central festival of his religion.

There is a very remarkable Hadis, related by 'A yesha, who states, that Muhammad said, " Man hath not done anything on the 'Id-ul- Azha more pleasing to God than spilling blood; for verily the animal sacrificed will come, on the day of resurrection, with its horns, its hair, and its hoofs, and will make the scales of his (good) actions heavy. Yerily its blood reacheth the acceptance of Grod, before it falleth upon the ground, therefore be joyful in it."* Muhammad has thus become unwill- ingly a witness to the grand doctrine of the Christian faith that " without shedding of blood, there is no remission." The animal sacrificed must be without blemish, and of full age ; but it may be either a goat, a sheep, a cow, or a camel.

According to the commentator Jalal-ud-din Syiity, the sacrifice was instituted in com-

* Mishkat-ul-Masabih, bk. iv. chap. xlii. sect, 2.

'ID-UL-AZHA, OE THE FEAST OF SACRIFICE. 175

memoration of Abraliam's willingness to sa- crifice liis son Ismail ! The following is the ac- count given by Muhammadan writers: — "When Ibrahim (the peace of Grod be upon him) founded Mecca, the Lord desired him to pre- pare a feast for Him. Upon Ibrahim's (the friend of Grod) requesting to know what He would have on the occasion, the Lord replied, * Offer up thy son Ismail.' Agreeably to God's command he took Ismail to the K'aba to sacrifice him, and having laid him down, he made several ineffectual strokes on his throat with a knife, on which Ismail observed, ' Your eyes being uncovered, it is through pity and compassion for me you allow the knife to miss : it would be better if you blindfolded yourself with the end of your turban and then sacrificed me.' Ibrahim acted upon his son's suggestion and having repeated the words ' hismillah allah- ho ahhar' (i.e., 'in the name of the great God'), he drew the knife across his son's neck. In the meanwhiloj however, Gabriel had sub- stituted a broad-tailed sheep for the youth Ismail, and Ibrahim unfolding his eyes ob- served, to his surprise, the sheep slain, and his son standing behind him." The account

176 'ID-UL-AZHA, OE THE FEAST OF SACEIFICE.

is a ridiculous parody upon tlie words of the inspired prophet Moses. In tlie Quran the name of the son is not given, although com- mentators state, that the Prophet said, that he was a descendant of the son of Abraham who was offered in sacrifice.* The sacrifice, as it is now performed on the 'Id-ul-Azha is as fol- lows : — The people assemble for prayer at the 'Idgah as on the 'Id-ul-Fitr ; after prayers the people return to their houses. The head of the ^family then takes a sheep (or a cow or camel) to the entrance of his house and sa- crifices it, by repeating the words, " In the name of the great God," and cutting its throat. The flesh of the animal is then divided, two- thirds being kept by the family, and one-third being given to the poor in the name of God.

* The name is not given in the Quran, but it is in the Hadis Sahih Bokhsiri.

177

XXXIX.— NIKAH, OR MARRIAGE.

Nik AH, is tlie celebration of tlie marriage con- tract as distingnislied from tlie festive rejoicings whicli usually accompany it; the latter being called Shddi in Persian and Urdu, and ' Urs in Arabic.

Marriage, according to Muliammadan law, is simply a civil contract, and its validity does not depend upon any religious ceremony.

Tlie legality of marriage depends upon the consent of the parties, which is called Tjah and Qabill, viz. declaration and acceptance ; the presence of two male witnesses, or one male and two females * ; and a dower of not less than ten dirhems to be settled upon the woman. The omission of the settlement does not, how- ever, invalidate the contract ; for, under any

* In Muliammadan law woman, instead of being man's " better half," is only equal to half a man !

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178 NIKAH, OE MAEEIAGE.

circumstances, tlie woman becomes entitled to her dower of ten dirliems or more. Muliam- madans are permitted by tlie Quran* to marry four free women, and to have as many female slaves as lie may possess. Marriages for a limited period were sanctioned by " the Prophet"; but this law is said to have been abrogated, although it is allowed by the Shia'hs even in the present day. These temporary marriages are called Miifah, and are undoubt- edly the greatest blot in Muhammad's moral legislation.

Marriage is enjoined upon every Muslim, and celibacy is frequently condemned by Muham- mad. The '' clergy" are all married men, and even the ascetic orders are, as George Herbert would have said, " rather married than un- married." It is related in the Hadis, that Muhammad said that, "when the servant of God marries, he perfects half his religion." Not long ago we met a Faqir of the Nuksh- bandia order, a man of considerable reputation

* " Of women who seem good in your eyes marry two, or three, or four; and if ye fear that ye shall not act equitably, then one only, or the slaves whom ye have acquired." (Sura iv. 3.)

NIKAH, OE MAEEIAGE. 179

at the court of Cabul, who said that he wished to lead a celibate life, but that his disciples had insisted upon his "perfecting his religion" by entering upon the married state !

As the religious ceremony does not form part of the legal conditions of marriage, there is no uniformity of ritual observed in its celebration. Some Qazis merely recite the Fdtihah (the first chapter of the Quran), and the Darud, or blessing ; but the following is the more com- mon order of performing the service. The Qazi, the bridegroom, and the bride's attorney, with the witnesses having assembled in some con- venient place, arrangements, are made as to the amount of Dower, or Mahr. The bridegroom then repeats after the Qazi the following : —

1. The Istighfdr, ''I desire forgiveness from God, who is my Lord."

2. The four chapters of the Quran com- mencing with the word '' QitZ." These chap- ters have nothing in them connected with the subject of marriage, and appear to be selected on account of their brevity.

3. The Kalhna, or Creed. " There is no deity but Grod, and Muhammad is the Prophet of God."

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180 NIKAH, OE MAEEIAGE.

4. The Sift-ul-Imdn, A profession of belief in God, tlie angels, tlie scriptures, the prophets, the resurrection, and in fate or absolute decree of good and evil.

The Qazi then requests the bride's attorney to take the hand of the bridegroom, and to say, " Such an one's daughter, by the agency of her attorney, and by the testimony of two witnesses, has, in your marriage with her, had such a dower settled upon her, do you consent to it ? " To which the bridegroom replies, " With my whole heart and soul, to my mar- riage with this woman as well as to the dower already settled upon her, I consent, I consent, I consent ! "

After this the Qazi raises his hands, and offers the followmg prayer : —

" 0 great God ! grant that mutual love may reign between this couple, as it existed be- tween Adam and Eve, Abraham and Sarah, Joseph and Zulekha,* Moses and Zipporah, his Highness Muhammad and 'A yesha, and his Highness 'AliMurtuza and Fatimah-uz-Zahra."

* According to Muhammad, Joseph afterwards married Zulekha, the widow of Potiphar.

NIKAH, OE MAERIAGE. 181

The ceremony being over, the bridegroom embraces his friends and receives their con- gratulations. Mkah is preceded and followed by festive rejoicings, which have been variously described by Oriental travellers ; but they are not parts of either the civil or religious cere- mony.

182

XL.— TALA'Q, OR DIYORCE.

In Islam tlie wife is tlie property of tlie lius- band, and consequently slie can be disposed of by divorce at a moment's notice. Tlie law has, however, placed certain slight restrictions upon the exercise of this right, and has ruled that there are three kinds of divorce : —

(1.) Taldq-i-AJisan, or "the most laudahle form of divorce," is when the husband divorces his wife when she is in a state of purity, by one sentence, " thou art divorced,^^ or words to that effect. This is esteemed the best form, because the sentence having been only pronounced once^ the husband can again change his mind, with the consent of his divorced wife, at any sub- sequent period, until she marries another.

(2.) Taldq-i-Hasan, or " a laudable form of divorce," is when the husband divorces his wife

TALAQ, OR DIVOEOB. 183

by prououncing the sentence, " thou art di- vorced,^' .dnrmg liis wife's period of purity, and at intervals of a montli.

(4.) TaIdq-i-Bid\ii, or "an irregular form of divorce," is wlien tlie linsband repeats the sentence three times on one occasion.

Whenever the sentence of divorce is repeated three times it is a Taldq-i-Mutlaq, or an ir- revocable divorce, after which the husband cannot marry his repudiated wife until she has married and lived with another, and is divorced by her second husband.

In all cases of repudiation, except when a wife requests her husband to divorce her, the dower must be repaid to the woman, an ar- rangement which often prevents a man exer- cising the privilege.

The ground of divorce, under the Mosaic law, was " some uncleanness in her " (vide Deut. xxiv. 1 — 4), and of which there were two well-known interpretations. The school of Shammai seemed to limit it to a moral de- linquency in the woman, whilst that of Hillel extended it to the most trifling causes. Our Lord appears to have confirmed the interpre-

184 TALAQ, OR DIVOECE.

tation of Sliammai (St. Matt. v. 32), whilst Muliammad adopted that of Hillel, but dis- pensing with the ''bill of divorcement" en- joined by the Mosaic code, thereby placing the woman entirely at the will and caprice of her husband.

185

XLI.— JANA'ZA, OE BURIAL.

Jana'za is the term used both for the bier and for the Muhammadaii funeral service. The burial service is founded upon the practice of Muhammad, and varies but little in different countries, although the ceremonies connected with the funeral procession are diversified. In Egypt, for instance, the male relations and friends of the deceased precede the corpse, whilst the female mourners follow behind. In North India and Central Asia, women do not usually attend funerals, and the friends and relatives of the deceased walk behind the bier. There is a tradition amongst some Muhamma- dans that no one should precede the corpse, as the angels go before. Funeral processions in Central Asia are usually very simple in their arrangements, and are said to be more in ac- cordance with the practice of the "Prophet," than those of Egypt and Turkey. It is con-

186 JANAZA, OE BUEIAL.

sidered a very meritorious act to carry the bier, and four from among the near relations, every now and then relieved by an equal num- ber, carry it on their shoulders. Unlike our Christian custom of walking slowly to the grave, Muhammadans carry their dead quickly to the place of interment ; for Muhammad is related to have said, that it is good to carry the dead quickly to the grave to cause the righteous person to arrive soon at happiness, and if he be a bad man it is well to put wickedness away from one's shoulders. Fu- nerals should always be attended on foot; for it is said, that Muhammad on one occasion re- buked his people for following a bier on horse- back. " Have you no shame ? " said he, " since God's angels go on foot, and you go upon the backs of quadrupeds?" It is a highly meri- torious act to attend a funeral, whether it be that of a Muslim, a Jew, or a Christian. There are, however, two traditions given by Bokhari, which appear to mark a change of feeling on the part of the time-serving Prophet of Arabia towards the Jews and Christians. "A bier passed by the Prophet, and he stood up ; and it was said to the Prophet, this is the bier of

JANAZA, OE BURIAL. 187

Jew. 'It is tlie liolder of a soul/ lie re- plied, ' from whicli we should take warning and fear.' " Tliis rule is said to have been abrogated, for, " on one occasion the Prophet sitting on the road when a bier passed, and the Prophet disliked that the bier of a Jew should be higher than his head, and he therefore stood up." Notwithstanding these contradictory tra- ditions, we believe that in all countries Mu- hammadans are wont to pay great respect to the funerals of both Jews and Christians. Not long ago, about sixty Muhammadans attended the funeral of an Armenian Christian lady at Peshawur, when the funeral service was read by the Native clergyman. In the procession the Muhammadans took their turn with the Native Christian converts in carrying the bier, and assisting in lowering the coffin into the grave. During the reading of the service, some few seated themselves on the grass, but the majority listened attentively to the funeral office, which was impressively read by the Native pastor, himself a Christian convert from Muhammadanism.

The Muhammadan funeral service is not re- cited in the graveyard, it being too polluted a .

188 JANAZA, OE BUEIAL.

place for so sacred an oflSce ; but either in a mosque, or in some open space near the dwel- ling of the deceased person, or the graveyard. The owner of the corpse, i. e. the nearest relative, is the proper person to recite the service ; but it is usually said by the family Imam, or the village Qazi.

The following is the order of the service : —

Some one present calls out, —

"Here begin the prayers for the dead."

Then tkose present arrange themselves in three, five, or seven rows opposite the corpse, with their faces Qiblawards (i. e. towards Mecca). The Imam stands in front of the ranks opposite the head* of the corpse, if it be that of a male, or the waist, if it be that of a female.

The whole comj^any having taken up the Qidm, or standing position, the Imam recites the Niyat.

" I purpose to perform prayers to God, for this dead person, consisting of four TakhirsJ^

Then placing his hands to the lobes of his ears, he says the first TaWir.

'' God is great

Then folding his hands, the right hand placed upon the left, below the navel, he recites the Suhhcin : —

" Holiness to Thee, 0 God,"

"And to Thee be praise."

* The Shia'hs stand opposite the loins of a man.

JANAZA, OE BUEIAL. 189

'' Great is Tliy Name." '' Great is Thy Greatness." *' Great is Thy Praise."* " There is no deity but Thee."

Then follows the second Takhir: —

" God is great ! "

Then the Barud : —

" 0 God, have mercy on Muhammad and upon his descendants, as Thou didst bestow mercy, and peace, and blessing, and compassion, and great kindness upon Abraham and upon his descendants."

" Thou art praised, and Thou art great ! "

'' 0 God, bless Muhammad and his descend- ants, as Thou didst bless and didst have com- passion and great kindness upon Abraham and upon his descendants."

Then follows the third Takhir: —

"God is great!" After which the following prayer (Bua') is recited : — " 0 God, forgive our living and our dead, and those of us who are present, and those who are absent, and our children, and our full

* This sentence is not generally recited in the Subhan of the daily prayer.

190 JANAZA, OR BURIAL.

grown persons, onr men and our women. 0 God, those wliom Thou dost keep alive amongst us, keep alive in Islam, and those whom thou causest to die, let them die in the Faith."

Then follows the fourth TaJchir : —

" God is great ! " Turning the head round to the right, he says : —

" Peace and mercy be to Thee." Turning the head round to the left, he says : —

" Peace and mercy be to Thee."

The Takhir is recited by the Imam aloud, but the Subhdn, the Saldm, the Dariid, and the Dua\ are recited by the Imam and the people in a low voice.

The people then seat themselves on the ground, and raise their hands in silent prayer in behalf of the deceased's soul, and afterwards addressing the relatives they say, "It is the decree of God." To which the chief mourner replies, " I am pleased with the will of God." He then gives permission to the people to retire by saying, " There is permission to depart."

Those who wish to return to their houses do so at this time, and the rest proceed to the

JANAZA, OR BURIAL. 191

grave. The corpse is then placed on its back in the grave, with the head to the north and feet to the south, the face being turned towards Mecca. The persons who place the corpse in the grave repeat the following sentence : '' We commit thee to earth in the name of God and in the religion of the Prophet."

The bands of the shroud having been loosed, the recess, which is called the UM, is closed in with unburnt bricks and the grave filled in with earth. In some countries it is usual to recite the Surat i T'wd Hah as the clods' of earth are thrown into the grave ; but this practice is objected to by the Wahhabis, and by many learned divines. This chapter is as follows : —

*' From it (the earth) have We (Grod) created you, and unto it will We return you, and out of it will We bring you forth the second time."

After the burial, the people offer a fdtihah {i.e., the first chapter of the Quran) in the name of the deceased, and again when they have proceeded about forty paces from the grave they offer another fdtihah ; for at this juncture, it is said, the two angels Munkar and

192 JANAZA, OR BURIAL.

Nakir examine the deceased as to his faith.* After this, food is distributed to beggars and religious mendicants as a propitiatory offering to God, in the name of the deceased person.

If the grave be for the body of a woman, it should be to the height of a man's chest, if for a man, to the height of the waist. At the bottom of the grave the recess is made on the side to receive the corpse, which is called the Idhad. The dead are seldom interred in coffins, although they are not prohibited.

To build tombs with stones or burnt bricks, or to write a verse of the Quran upon them, is forbidden in the Hadis; but largest one and brick tombs are common to all Muhammadan countries, and very frequently they bear in- scriptions.

On the third day after the burial of the dead, it is usual for the relatives to visit the grave, and to recite selections from the Quran. Those who can afford to pay Maulavis, employ these learned men to recite the whole of the Quran at the graves of their deceased relatives ; and.

* Vide article on Angels.

JANAZA, OR BUEIAL. 193

as we have already remarked, in a former article, the Quran is divided into sections to admit of its being recited by tlie several Maulavis at once. During the days of mourning the relatives abstain from wearing any article of dress of a bright colour, and their soiled garments remain unchanged.

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194

XLII.— SLAVERY.

Slaveey (^uhudiyat) lias been consecrated bj Mubammadan law, and some of its provisions bave been taken from tbe Mosaic code. Tbe traces of beatbenism are, bowever, observable in most of tbe Muslim laws witb reference to tbis question. For example, according to Jewisb law,* if a master slew bis slave be was liable to punisbment, wbereas tbe Islamic code f annexes no worldly punisbment for tbe murder of a slave.

Tbere is no limit to tbe number of slave girls witb wbom a Muslim may cobabit, and it is tbe consecration of tbis illimitable indulgence wbicb so popularizes slavery amongst Mubam- madan nations. Some Muslim writers { of tbe

* Exodus xxi. 20.

t Hidaya, bk. xvi.

J Life of Muhaminad, by Sayyid Ameer Ali, p. 257. It

SLAVERY. 195

present day contend that Muhammad looked upon the custom as temporary in its nature, and held that its extinction was sure to be achieved by the progress of ideas and change of circumstances ; but the slavery of Islam is interwoven with the Law of marriage, the Law of sale, and the Law of inheritance, of the system, and its abolition would strike at the very foundations of the code of Muhammad- anism.

Slavery is in complete harmony with the spirit of Islam, whilst it is abhorrent to that of Christianity. That Muhammad ameliorated the condition of the slave, as it existed under the heathen laws of Arabia, we cannot doubt ; bat it is equally certain that the Arabian legislator intended it to be a perpetual in- stitution.

The following traditions * with reference to the action of the Prophet in this matter are notable : —

" 'Imran-ibn-Husain said a man freed six

is often said that the buying and selling of slaves is not sanctioned by Islam ; this is not correct, as will be seen upon reference to the Muhammadan Law of Sale. * Mishkat, bk. xiii. chap. xx. pt. 1.

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196 SLAVEEY.

slaves at his death, and he had no other pro- perty besides; and the Prophet called them, and divided them into three sections, and then cast lots ; he then ordered that two of them should be freed, and he retained four in slavery, and spoke severely of the man who had set them free."

" Jabir said we used to sell the mothers of children in the time of the Prophet, and of Abu Bakr ; but Omar forbade it in his time."

For certain sins the manumission of slaves is the legal penalty, and a slave may purchase his own freedom with the permission of Ms owner.

In the Akhlak-i-Jilali,* which is the popular work upon practical philosophy amongst the Muhammadans, it is said that "for service a slave is preferable to a freeman, inasmuch as he must be more disposed to submit, obey, and adopt his patron's habits and pursuits."

Although slavery has existed side by side with Christianity, it is undoubtedly contrary to the spirit of the teaching of our divine Lord,

* Akhlak-i-Jalali, by Fakir Jaiii Muhammad Asa'ad, sect. 6.

SLAVERY. 197

who has given to the world the grand doctrine of universal brotherhood.

Mr. Lecky believes * that it was the spirit of Christianity which brought about the aboli- tion of slavery "in Europe. He says, " The services of Christianity were of three kinds. It supplied a new order of relations, in which the distinction of classes was unknown. It im- parted a moral dignity to the servile classes. It gave an unexampled impetus to the move- ment of enfranchisement."

* History of European Morals, vol. ii. p. 70.

198

XLIII.— THE KHUTBAH, OR THE miDAY'S SERMON.

The Khutbah is tlie oration or sermon delivered in tlie mosque every Friday, and on the chief festivals,* after the meridian prayer. After the usual ablutions, the four Simnat prayers are recited. The Khatih, or preacher, then seats himself on the Mimhar (pulpit), whilst the Muazzin proclaims the Azan; after which he stands up on the second step,t and delivers

* The 'Id-i-Fitr and the 'Id-ul-Azha.

t The Mimbar is the pulpit of a mosque. It consists of three steps, and is sometimes a moveable wooden struc- ture, and sometimes a fixture of brick or stone built against the wall. Muhammad, in addressing the congre- gation, stood on the uppermost step, Abu Bakr on the second, and Omar on the third or the lowest. Osman, being the most modest of the Khalifs, would have gladly- descended lower if he could have done so ; but this being impossible, he fixed upon the second step, from which it is still the custom to preach.

THE KHUTBAH, OR THE ERIDAy's SERMON. 199

the sermon, which must be in the Arabic language, and include prayers for ''Muham- mad, the Companions, and the King." There are several books of Khutbahs published for the use of preachers. The most celebrated of these preachers' manuals is the Mujmua' Khitab, printed by Abdur Rahman of Cawn- pore. The sermons are arranged for every Friday in the year, and are the compositions of various Muslim divines. It is remarkable that short sermons are meritorious ; for it is related that the "Prophet" remarked that " the length of a man's prayers and the short- ness of his sermon are the signs of his sense and understanding ; therefore make your prayers long and your Khutbah short. "J

The following is a translation of the third Khutbah in the book of sermons already men- tioned; it is a fair specimen of an average Khutbah, both as to its length and matter : —

" In the name of God, the compassionate, the merciful.

'' Praised be God. Praised be that God who hath shown us the way in this religion. If He had not guided us into the path we should not have found it.

200 THE KHUTBAH, OR THE FEIDAY's SERMON.

" I bear witness that there is no deity but God. He is one. He has no associate. I bear witness that Muhammad is, of a truth, His servant and His Apostle. May God have mercy upon him, and upon his descendants, and upon his companions, and give them peace.

" Fear God, 0 ye people, and fear that day, the day of judgment, when a father will not be able to answer for his son, nor the son for the father. Of a truth God's promises are true. Let not this present life make you proud. Let not the deceiver (Satan) lead you astray.

" 0 ye people who have believed, turn ye to God, as Nasua * did turn to God. Yerily God doth forgive all sin, verily He is the merciful, the forgiver of sins. Yerily He is the most munificent, and bountiful, the King, the Holy One, the Clement, the Most Merciful."

The preacher then descends from the pulpit, and sitting on the floor of the mosque, offers

* Nasutl, is a name whicli occurs in the sixth verse of the Surat-i-Tahrimah (Ixvi.) in the Quran ; it is translated "true repentance" bj Sale and Eodwell, but it is sup- posed to be a person's name by several commentators.

THE KHUTBAH, OE THE FEIDAY's SEEMO?^. 201

up a silent prayer. He tlien, again, ascends the Mimbar, as before, and proceeds thus : —

" In the name of God, the compassionate, the merciful.

"Praised be God. We praise Him. "We seek help from Him. We ask forgiveness of sins. We trust in Him. We seek refuge in Him from evil desires and from former sinful actioxis. He who has God for his guide is never lost; and whomsoever He leadeth aside none can guide into the right path.

" We bear witness that there is no deity but God. He is one. He hath no partner.

" Yerily we bear witness that Muhammad is the servant and apostle of God, and may God have mercy upon him, who is more exalted than any being. May God have mercy upon his descendants, and upon his companions ! May God give them peace ! Especially upon Amir-ul-Mominin Abu Bakr Sadiq (may God be pleased with him). And upon him wh was the most temperate of the "friends" Amir-ul-Mominin Omar Ibn-ul-Khattab (may God be pleased with him). And upon him whose modesty and faith were perfect, Amir- ul-Mominin Osman (may God be pleased with

202 THE KHUTBAH, OE THE FEIDAY's SEEMON.

him). And upon tlie Lion of the powerful God, Amir-nl-Mominin Ali ibn Abu-Talib (may God be pleased with him). And upon the two Imams, the holy ones, the two martyrs, Amir-ul-Mominin Abu Muhammad Hasan and Abu Abdullah Husain (may God be pleased with both of them). And upon the mother of these two persons, the chief of women, Fatimah-uz-Zarah (may God be pleased with her). And upon his (Muham- mad's) two imcles, Hamza and 'Abbas (may God be pleased with them). And upon the rest of the " companions," and upon the " fol- lowers " (may God be pleased with all of them). Of Thy mercy, 0 most merciful of all merciful ones, 0 God, forgive all Musalman men and Musalman women, all male believers, and all female believers. Of a truth thou art He who wilt receive our prayers.

" 0 God, help those who help the religion of Muhammad. May we also exert ourselves to help those who help Islam. Make those weak, who weaken the religion of Muhammad.

" 0 God, bless the king of the age, and make him kind and favourable to the people.

'' 0 servants of God, may God have mercy

THE KHUTBAH, OE THE FEIDAY's SEEMON. 203

upon you. Verily, God enjoinetli justice and the doing of good, and gifts to kindred ; and He forbiddetli wickedness, and wrong, and oppres- sion. He warneth you that haply ye may be mindful.*

*' 0 ye people, remember the great and exalted God. He will also remember you. He will answer your prayers. The remembrance of God is great, and good, and honourable, and noble, and meritorious, and worthy, and sublime."

The preacher then descends, and taking up his position as Imam, facing the Mihrdb,f conducts two rah' at prayers. The Khatib, however, does not always officiate as Imam.

In the above Khutbah we have inserted the petition usually offered up in behalf of " the king " m India, although it does not occur in the collection of sermons from which we have translated. Until the Mutiny of 1857,

* The ninety- second verse of Surat-i-Nahe (cxvi.) of tlie Quran.

t The Mihrab is the centre of the wall of a mosque, facing Mecca, to which the Imam (priest) prays. It usually consists of a circular niche in the wall.

204 THE KHUTBAH, OR THE FEIDAY's SEEMON.

we believe that in the majority of mosques in North India it was recited in the name of the King of Delhi, and even now we are informed that some bigoted Imams say it in the name of the Sultan of Turkey. The recital of the Khutbah serves to remind every Muhammadan priest, at least once a week, that he is in the land of warfare {Ddr-uUHarh) ; and the fact that Muhammadans under Christian rule are in an anomalous position, is a source of trouble to many a conscientious Muslim. A few years ago, a celebrated Muhammadan divine sent for a native Christian officer, as he wished to obtain his aid in an important matter. The nature of the good man's difficulty was as follows : — The Friday prayer, or Khutbah, must, according to Muhammadan law, be said in the name and by the permission of the ruler of the land. He had been saying the Friday prayer without permission of the ruler, and he feared that these prayers had, consequently, not been ac- cepted by the Almighty. He, therefore, asked the Christian officer to obtain the necessary permission from the magistrate of the district. The Christian was also a man versed in Muslim law, and he quoted authorities to prove that

THE KHUTBAH, OE THE FEIDAY's SEEMON. 205

the permission of an "infidel" rnler was not wliat Islam enjoined.

In Turkey and Egypt, and in otlier countries under Muslim rule, it is tlie custom for the Kliatib to deliver the Khutbah whilst he holds a wooden sword reversed.

The prayer for the reigning monarch, if he be a Muslim, would be offered up in the following manner : —

'' 0 God, aid Islam, and strengthen its pillars, and make infidelity to tremble, and destroy its might, by the preservation of Thy servant, and the son of Thy servant, the sub- missive to the might of Thy Majesty and Glory, whom God hath aided, our master Amir Sher 'All Khan, son of Amir Dost Muhammad Khan, may God assist him and prolong his reign. 0 God, assist him, and assist his armies. 0 Thou God of the religion and Lord of the world, assist the armies of Muslims ; frustrate the armies of infidels and polytheists, thine enemies, the enemies of the religion."

206

XLIY.— JIHA'D, OR RELIGIOUS WAR.

Jiha'd* (lit. "an effort") is a religious war

against the infidels, as enjoined by Muhammad

in the following passages in the Quran : —

Surat-un-Msa (vi.).

" Fight, therefore, for the religion of Grod."

*****

Grod hath indeed promised Paradise to every one, But God hath preferred those who fight for the faith."

Siirat-ul-Muhammad (xlvii.).

" Those who fight in defence of God's true religion, God will not suffer their works to j^erish."

Those who engage in war against the infidels are called Ghdzis. The whole question of Jihad has been fully discussed by Dr. W. W. Hunter, of the Bengal Civil Service, in his work en- titled, "Indian Musalmans," which is the re-

* Some Muhammadan divines say there are two Jihads, viz. Jihad-ul-Akbar, or the Greater Warfare, which is against one's own lusts; and Jihad-ul-Asghar, or the Lesser Warfare, against infidels.

JIHAD. 207

suit of careful inquiry as to the necessary- conditions of a Jihad, or Cresentade, instituted at the time of the excitement which existed in India in 1870-71, in consequence of a sup- posed Wahhabi conspiracy for the overthrow of Christian rule in that country. The whole matter, according to the Sunni Musulmans, hinges upon the question whether India is Ddr-ul-Harb, the land of enmity, or Ddr-uU Islam, the land of Islam.

The Muftis belonging to the Hanifia and Shafa'ia sects at Mecca decided that, '' as long as even some of the peculiar observances of Islam prevail in a country, it is Ddr-id-IsldmJ^

The decision of the Mufti of the Maliki sect was very similar, being to the following effect : —

" A country does not become Ddr-ul-Harb as soon as it passes into the hands of the infidels, but when all or most of the injunctions of Islam disappear therefrom."

The law doctors of North India decided that, " the absence of protection and liberty to Musulmans is essential in a Jihdd, or religious war, and that there should be a probability of victory to the armies of Islam."

The Shia'h decision on the subject was as

208 JIHAD.

follows : — '' A Jiliad is lawful only wlien the armies of Islam are led by tlie rightful Imam, when arms and ammunitions of war and ex- perienced Avarriors are ready, when it is against the enemies of God, when he who makes war is in possession of his reason, and when he has secured the permission of his parents, and has sufficient money to meet the expenses of his journey."

The Sunnis and Shia'hs alike believe in the eventual triumph of Islam, when the whole world shall become followers of the Prophet of Arabia ; but whilst the Sunnis are, of course, ready to undertake the accomplishment of this great end, " whenever there is a probability of victory to the Musulmans," the Shia'hs, true to the one great principle of their sect, must wait until the appearance of a rightful Imam.

JSTot very long ago a learned Muhammadan Qdzi (judge) was consulted by the writer of these notes with reference to this interesting question, namely, whether India is Ddr-ul- Isldm, or Ddr-ul-Harb. At first he replied JDdr-ul'Isldm, and then, after a short pause, he said, '' Well, sir, may I tell you the truth?" Upon being assured that the ques-

JIHAD. 209

tion was put merely as one of theological in- quiry, and not for any political reasons, he replied, ''It is Ddr-ul-Harh.'' One of his reasons for arriving at this conclusion was the well-known doctrine of Islam that a Muslim cannot be a Zimmi, or one who pays tribute to an infidel power. We believe that the fact that Muhammadans under Christian rule are in an anomalous position, is a source of trouble to many a conscientious Muslim. Many Mus- lims believe that Hijrat, or flight, is incumbent upon every child of the Faith who is under Kafir (infidel) rule ; but, as our friend the Qazi put it, "Where are they to go to?" The Muslim who abandons his country under such circumstances is called a Muhdjir, or refugee.

When an infidel's country is conquered by a Muslim ruler, its inhabitants are offered three alternatives : —

(1.) The reception of Islam, in which case the conquered become enfranchised citizens of the Muslim state.

(2.) The payment of a poll-tax (Jiziyah), by which unbelievers in Islam obtain protection, and become Zimmis.

14

210 JIHAD.

(3.) Death by the sword.

In a state brouglit under Muslims, all those who do not embrace tlie faith are placed under certain disabilities. They can worship Grod according to their own customs, provided they are not idolaters ; but it must be done without any ostentation, and, whilst churches and synagogues may be repaired, no new place of worship can he erected. Vide Hidayah,* where we read : — '' The construction of churches, or synagogues, in Muslim territory is unlawful, this being forbidden in the Traditions ; but if places of worship belonging to Jews, or Christians, be destroyed, or fall into decay, they are at liberty to repair them, because buildings cannot endure for ever."

Idol temples must be destroyed, and idolatry suppressed by force in all countries ruled according to strict Muslim law.

* Hamilton's Translation, vol. ii. p. 219.

211

XLY.— MARTYRS.

The title of Shahid, or martyr, is given to anyone wlio dies under the following circum- stances : —

1. A soldier who dies in war for the cause of Islam.

2. One who innocently meets with his death from the hand of another.

3. The victim of a plague.

4. A person accidentally drowned.

5. One upon whom a wall may fall acci- dentally.

6. A person burnt in a house on fire.

7. One who dies from hunger.

8. One who dies on the pilgrimage to Mecca.

If a martyr dies in war, or is innocently mur- dered, he is buried without the usual washing before burial, as it is said that the blood of a martyr is a sufficient ablution.

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212

XLYI.— THE FOUE OETHODOX

SECTS.

Theee are four orthodox sects or schools of interpretation amongst the Sunnis, the Hanifi, the Shafa'i, the Mahki, and the Ham- bali.

1. The Hanifis are found in Turkey, Central Asia, and North India. The founder of this sect was Imam Abu Hanifa, who was born at Koofa, the capital of Irak, a.d. 702, or a.h. 80, at which time four of the " Prophet's " com- panions were still alive. He is the great oracle of jurisprudence, and (with his two pupils Imam Abu Yusaf and Imam Muhammad) was the founder of the Hanifi Code of Law.*

2. The Shafa'ias are found in South India and Egypt. The founder of this school of interpre- tation was Imam Muhammad ibn i Idris al

* A Digest of the Hanifi Code of Law has been pub- lished in English by Mr. N. B. E. Baillie.

THE rOUE ORTHODOX SECTS. 213

Shafa'i, who was born at Askalon, in Palestine, A.D. 772 (a.h. 150).

3. The Malikis prevail in Morocco, Barbary, and other parts of Africa, and were founded by- Imam Malik, who was born at Madina, a.d. 716 (a.h. 93). He enjoyed the personal ac- quaintance of Hanifa, and he was considered the most learned man of his time.

4. The Hambalis were founded by Imam Abu 'Abdullah Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Hambal, who was born at Bagdad, a.d. 786 (a.h. 164). He attended the lectures delivered by Shafa'i, by whom he was instructed in the traditions. His followers are found in Eastern Arabia, and in some parts of Africa, but it is the least popular of the four schools of inter- pretation. They have no Mufti at Mecca, whilst the other three sects are represented there. The Wahhabis rose from this sect.

From the disciples of these four great Imams have proceeded an immense number of com- mentaries and other works, all differing on a variety of points in their constructions, although coinciding in their general principles.

214

XLYII.— THE SHI'A'HS.

The SMa'hs (lit. " followers ") are the followers of 'Ali, the husband of Fatimah, the daughter of Muhammad. They maintain that 'Ali was the first legitimate Khalifa, or successor to Muhammad, and therefore reject Abu Bakr, Omar, and Osman, the first three Khalifs, as usurpers. According to the Shia'hs the Muslim religion consists of a knowledge of the true Imam, or leader, and the differences amongst themselves with reference to this question have given rise to endless divisions. Of the pro- verbial seventy-three sects of Islam, not fewer than thirty-two are assigned to the Shia'hs.

The twelve Imams, according to the Shia'hs, are as follows : —

1. Hazrat 'Ali.

2. Hasan.

3. Husain.

4. Zain-ul-'Abid-din.

5. Muhammad Baqr.

THE shia'hs. 215

6. Jaj&r Sadiq.

7. Miisa Kazim.

8. 'Ali Miisa Eaza.

9. Muhammad Taqi.

10. Muhammad Naqi.

11. Hasan 'Askari.

12. Abu Qasim (or Imam Mahdi).

The last Imam, Abu Qasim, is supposed by the Shia'hs to be still alive and concealed in some secret place ; and that he is the same Mahdi, or director, concerning whom Mu- hammad prophesied that the world should not have an end until one of his own descendants should govern the Arabians, and whose coming in the last days is expected by all Muslims.

During the absence of the Imam, the Shia'hs appeal to the Mujtahids, or enlightened doctors of the law, for direction in all matters both temporal and spiritual. Since the accession of Ismail, the first of the Sufi dynasty, a.d. 1499, the Shia'h faith has been the national reli- gion of Persia. The enmity which exists between Sunni and Shia'h Muhammadans is, perhaps, hardly equalled by the mutual animosity which too often exists between Romanists and Protes- tants.

216 THE SHIA*HS.

It is not true that tlie Shia'h Muhaminadans reject tlie Traditions of Muhammad, although the Sunnis arrogate to themselves the title of traditionists. Thej do not acknowledge the SiMh-i-8ita, or six correct books of the Sunnis and "Wahhabis, but receive the five collections of Traditions, entitled: 1. Kafi; 2. Man-la- yastahzirah-al-Faqih ; 3. Tahzib; 4. Istibsar; 5. Nahaj-ul-Balaghat.

The Shia'h school of law is called the Imamia,* and it is earlier than that of the Sunnis ; for Abu Hanifa, the father of the Sunni code of law, received his first instructions in jurisprudence from Imam Jafir Sadiq, the sixth Imam of the Shia'hs; but this learned doctor afterwards separated from his teacher, and established a school of his own.

The differences between the Shia'hs and Sunnis are very numerous, but we will enu- merate a few of them : —

1. The discussion as to the ofiice of Imam, already alluded to.

2. The Shia'hs have a profound veneration

* A Digest of the Imamia code has been pubhshed by Mr. N. B. E. Baillie. London, 1869.

217

for Imam 'Ali, and some of their sects regard him as an incarnation of divinity. They all assert that next to the Prophet, 'Ali is the most excellent of men.

3. They observe the ceremonies of the Muharram in commemoration of 'Ali, Hasan, Husain, and Bibi Fatimah, whilst the Sunnis only regard the tenth day of Muharram, the 'A'shurda, being the day on which Grod is said to have created Adam and Eve, etc.

4. The Shia'hs permit Muta'h, or temporary marriages, which are contracted for a limited period, and for a certain sum of money. The Sunnis say that Muhammad afterwards can- celled this institution.

5. The Shia'hs include the Majusi, or fire- worshippers, among the AJil-i-Kitdb, or people of the Book, whilst Sunnis only acknowledge Jews, Christians, and Muslims, as Kitdbiahs.

6. There are also various minor differences in the ceremony of Suldt, or prayer, and in the ablutions previous to prayer.

7. The Shia'hs admit a principle of religious compromise which is called Tahia (lit. " guard- ing one's self "), a pious fraud, whereby the Shia'h Muhammadan believes he is justij&ed

218 THE shia'hs.

in either smoothing down or in denying the peculiarities of his religious belief in order to save himself from religious persecution. A Shia'h can, therefore, pass himself off as a Sunni, or even curse the twelve Imams, in order to avoid persecution.

219

XLYIII.— THE WAHHA'BI'S.

This sect was founded by Muhammad, son of

Abdul Wahhab, but as their opponents could

not call them Muhammadans, thej have been

distinguished by the name of the father of the

founder of their sect, and are called Wahhabis.*

Shekh Muhammad was born at Ayina, a

village in the province . of Arad, in the country

of Najd, in the year a.d. 1691. Having been

carefully instructed in the tenets of the Muslim

religion, according to the teachings of the

Hambali sect, he in due time left his native

place, in company with his father, to perform

the pilgrimage to Mecca. At Madina, he was

instructed by Shekh Abdullah-ibn-Ibrahim, of

Najd; and, it is supposed, that whilst sitting

at the feet of this celebrated teacher, the

* Vide a Wahhabi book entitled Sulh-ul-Aklwan, by Sayyid Allama Daud, of Bagdad.

220 THE WAHHABIS.

son of Abdul Waliliab first realized how far tlie rigid lines of Islam liad been stretched, almost to breaking, in the endeavour to adapt its stern principles to the superstitions of idolatrous Arabia. He accompanied his father to Harimala, and, after his father's death, he returned to his native village of Ayina, where he assumed the position of a religious teacher. His teachings met with acceptance, and he soon acquired so great an influence over the people of those parts that the Governor of Hassa compelled him to leave the district, and the reformer found a friendly asylum in Deraiah, under the protection of Muhammad- ibn-Saud, a chief of considerable influence, who made the protection of Ibn- Abdul- Wahhab a pretext for a war with the Shekh of Hassa. Ibn Sand married the daughter of Ibn-Abdul- Wahhab, and established in his family the Wahhabi dynasty, wliich, after a chequered existence of more than a hundred years, still exists in the person of the Wahhabi chief at Eyadh.*

* The following are the names of the Wahhalti chiefs, from the establishment of the dynasty :—Muhammad-ibn- Saud, died a.d. 1765 ; Abdul-Aziz, assassinated 1803 ;

THE WAHHABIS. 221

The wliole of Eastern Arabia lias embraced the reformed doctrines of the Wahbabis, and Mr. Palgrave, in his account of his travels in those parts, has given an interesting sketch of the Wahhabi religionists, although he is not always correct as to the distinctive prin- ciples of their religious creed.

In the great Wahhabi revival, political in- terests were united with religious reform, as was the case in the great Puritan struggle in England ; and the Wahhabis soon pushed their conquests over the whole of Arabia. In a.d. 1803, they conquered Mecca and Madina, and for many years threatened the subjugation of the whole Turkish empire ; but in a.d. 1811, Muhammad 'Ali, the celebrated Pasha of Egypt, commenced a war against the Wah- habis, and soon recovered Mecca and Madina; and in 1818, his son, Ibrahim Pasha, totally defeated Abdullah, the Wahhabi leader, and

Saud-ibn-Abdul Aziz, died 1814 ; Abdullali-ibn-Saud, be- headed 1818 ; Turki, assassinated 1830 ; Fajzul, died 1866 ; Abdullah, still living. Fayzul and his son Abdullah en- tertained Col. Sir Lewis Pelly, K.C.B., K.C.S.I., who visited the Wahhabi capital, as Her Britannic Majesty's represen- tative, in 1865.

222 THE WAHHABIS.

sent him a prisoner to Constantinople, where lie was executed in tlie public square of St. Sophia, December 19th, 1818. But although the temporal power of the Wahhabis has been subdued, thej still continue secretly to pro- pagate their peculiar tenets, and in the present day there are numerous disciples of the sect not only in Arabia, but in Turkey and in India. It is a movement which has influenced religious thought in every part of Islam.

The leader of the Wahhabi movement in India was Sayyid Ahmad, who was born at Rai Bareli, in Oudh, in a.d. 1786. He began life as a freebooter ; but about the year 1816, he gave up robbery, and commenced to study divinity in one of the mosques at Delhi. After a few years study, he performed the pilgrimage to the sacred city; and, whilst at Mecca, attracted the notice of the learned doctors by the similarity of his teaching to that of the "Wahhabi sectaries, from whom the city had suffered so much. He was soon expelled from the town, and he returned to India a fanatical disciple of the Wahhabi leader. His success as a preacher was great, both in Bombay and Calcutta; and having collected a numerous

THE WAHHABIS. 223

following from the ranks of Islam within British territory, he proceeded to the north- west frontier of India, and preached a Jihad, or Holy War, against the Sikhs. On the 21st of December 1826, the war against the infidel Sikhs began, and almost every place in the Peshawur valley is, in some way, associated with this fanatical struggle. The mission of this Wahhabi leader was soon brought to an untimely end ; for, in the battle of Balakot, in Hazarah, in May 1831, when the fanatics were surprised by a Sikh army, under Sher Singh, their leader, Sayyid Ahmad, was slain.* But, as in the case of the Wahhabi leader of Eastern Arabia, the propagation of the religious tenets did not cease with Sayyid Ahmad's death, and within the last thirty years Wah- habyism has widely influenced religious thought amongst the Muhammadans of India. The people who hold the doctrines of the Wahhabis do not always combine with them the fanatical spirit of either the son of Abdul Wahhab, or

* The remnant of the Sayyid' s army formed the nucleus of the Wahhabi fanatics, who are now stationed at the village of Polosi, on the banks of the Indus, on the north- west frontier of British India.

224 THE WAHHABIS.

of Sayyid Ahmad Khan ; they speak of them- selves as Ahl-i'Hadis, or the people of the traditions, or those who interpret the teaching of the Quran by the example of Muhammad ; but there can be but little doubt that the religious principles of. the Wahhabis of India are identical with those of the Wahhabis of Arabia, although it does not follow that they are imbued with exactly the same fanatical spirit. It must, however, be remembered that there is no separation between Church and State in the principles of Islam, and that Muhammadans only cease to be fanatical and disloyal under foreign rule when they are certain that opportunities for resistance do not exist. In the fahvd (decision) given by a number of learned doctors of Lucknow and other places, dated 17th July 1870, it was stated that " it is necessary that there should he a probability of victory to the Musalmdns, and glory to the ^people of Hindustan. If there be no such probability, the Jihdd is unlaivful.^^ *

* Vide Hunter's Indian Musalmans, Appendix II. Dr. Badger, in his article in the " Contemporary Eeview," June 1875, questions whether there is any real affinity between the Wahhabyism of India and Najd, but we be- lieve they are identical in princij)le and spirit.

THE WAHHABIS. 225

The Wahliabis speak of themselves as Mu- tvahhid, or Unitarians, and call all others MushriJc, or those who associate another with God; and the following are some of their dis- tinctive religious tenets : — -

1. They do not receive the decisions of the four orthodox sects, but say that any man who can read and understand the Quran and the sacred Hadis can judge for himself in matters of doctrine. They, therefore, reject Ijma' after the death of the Companions of the Prophet.

2. That no one but God can know the secrets of men, and that prayers should not be offered to any Prophet, Wall, Pir, or Saint ; but that God may be asked to grant a petition for the sake of a saint.

3. That at the last day, Muhammad will obtain permission (izn) of God to intercede for his people. The Sunnis believe that permission has already been given.

4. That it is unlawful to illuminate the shrines of departed saints, or to prostrate before them, or to perambulate (taiudf) roimd them.

5. That women should not be allowed to visit the graves of the dead, on account of their immoderate weeping.

15

226 THE WAHHABIS.

6. That only four festivals ouglit to be observed, namely, 'Id - ul - Fitr, 'Id - ul - AzM, 'A'shiiraa, and Shab-i-Barat.

7. They do not observe the ceremonies of Maulud, which are celebrated on the anniversary of Muhammad's birth.

8. They do not present offerings (JSfazr) at any shrine.

9. They count the ninety-nine names of Grod on their fingers, and not on a rosary.

10. They understand the terms " sitting of Grod," and '' hand of Grod," which occur in the Quran, in their literal (Haqiqi) sense, and not figuratively (Majdzi) ; but, at the same time, they say it is not revealed hoiv Grod sits, or in what sense he has a hand, etc.*

* On this account the Christian doctrines of the Trinity and the Sonship of Christ do not present the same diffi- culties to the mind of a Wahhabi which they do to that of a Sunni.

227

XLIX.— SUFIISM, OR MYSTICISM.

The term Sufi is said to be derived from the Arabic Silf, " wool," on account of tlie woollen garments worn by the Eastern ascetics ; or from the Persian Sdf, '' pure," with reference to the Sufiistic effort to attain to metaphysical purity; or from the Greek, ao4,ia, *' wisdom," i. e, the true wisdom, or knowledge.

Tasaivivaf, or Sufiism, appears to be. but the Muslim adaptation of the doctrines of the Yedanta school, which we also find in the writings of the old academies of Grreece, and which Sir William Jones thought Plato learned from the sages of the East.

The Sufis are divided into innumerable sects ; but although they differ in name, and in some of their customs, they are all agreed in the principal tenets, especially those which incul- cate the absolute necessity of blind submission to an inspired teacher, or Murshid. They

15 A

228 suFiisM.

believe that God only exists. He is in all things, and all things in Him, and all created beings visible and invisible are an emanation from God, and not really distinct from Him. That the sonl of man existed before the body in which it is confined as in a cage. The great object of the Siifi being to escape from the trammels of humanity, and to return to the bosom of divinity, whilst the teachings of their mystic creed are supposed to lead the soul onward, stage by stage, until it reaches the goal — perfect hioivledge.

The natural state of every Muslim is Ndsut, in which state the disciple must observe the precepts of the law, or Shari^at; but, as this is the lowest form of spiritual existence, the performance of the journey is enjoined upon every searcher after Truth.

The following are the stages (Manzil) which the Siifi has to perform. Having become a searcher after God (Tcilih), he enters the first stage of ' IJbudiyat, " service." When the Divine attraction has developed his inclination into the love of God, he is said to have reached the second stage of ^Ishaq, "love." This Divine love, expelling all worldly desires from his

suFiiSM. 229

heart, he arrives at the tHrd stage of Zudh, *' seclusion." Occupying himself henceforward with contemplation and the investigations of the metaphysical theories concerning the nature, attributes, and works of God, which are the characteristics of the Siifi system, he reaches the fourth stage of M'arifat, ''knowledge." This assiduous contemplation of metaphysical theories soon produces a state of mental ex- citement, which is considered a sure prognos- tication of direct illumination from Grod. This fifth stage is called Wajd, "ecstasy." During the next stage he is supposed to receive a revelation of the true nature of the Grodhead, and to have reached the sixth stage of Haqiqat, ''truth." The next stage is that of Wasl, " union with Grod," which is the highest stage to which he can go whilst in the body ; but when death overtakes him, it is looked upon as a total re-absorption into the Deity, forming the consummation of his journey and the eighth and last stage of Fand, " extinction." That stage in which the traveller is said to have attained to the love of Grod, is the point from which the Sufiistic poets love to discuss the doctrines of their sect. The Sdlik, or traveller, is the Lover ('A'shiq),

230 SUFIISM.

and God is the Beloved One (M'ashuq). This Divine love is the theme of most of the Persian and Pushtu poems, which abound in Sufiistic expressions which are difficult of interpretation to an ordinary English reader. For instance, Shardh, "wine," expresses the domination of Divine love in the heart. Gisit, *' a ringlet," the details of the mysteries of Divinity. Mai Khdna, "a tavern," a stage of the journey. '* Mirth," ''wantonness," and "inebriation," signify religious enthusiasm and abstraction from worldly things.

The eight stages which we have given are those usually taught by Siifi teachers in their published works ; but in North India we have frequently met with persons of this sect, who have learnt only the four following stages : —

The first, Ndsut, " humanity," for which there is the Shari'at, or law. The second Malakut, "the nature of angels," for which there is Tariqat, or the pathway of purity. The third is JahartU, " the possession of power," for which there is Warifat, or knowledge. And the fourth is LdMd, "extinction," for which there is Haqiqat, or truth.

The Sufi mystic seeks, by concentration of

SUFIISM. 231

his thoughts and affections on God, to lose his own identity ; and the following fable, related by Jalal-iid-din, ' the author of the Masnawi,* illustrates their views on the subject. It re- presents Human Love seeking admission into the Sanctuary of Divinity : —

" One knocked at the door of the Beloved, and a voice from within inquired * Who is there ? ' Then he answered, ' It is J.' And the voice said, ' This house will not hold me and thee.' So the door remained shut. Then the Lover sped away into the wilderness, and fasted and prayed in solitude. And after a year he returned, and knocked again at the door, and the voice again demanded, ' Who is there?' And the Lover said, 'It is Thou' Then the door was opened."

In Professor Max Miiller's address to the Aryan section of the International Congress of Orientalists assembled in London, in September, 1874, he said: — "We have learnt already one lesson, that behind the helpless expressions

* The Masnawi is the celebrated book of the Siif i mys- tics which, it is said, takes the place of the Quran amongst the majority of people in Persia.

232 suFiiSM.

Avhicli language lias devised, wlietlier in tlie East or the West, for uttering the unutterable re * * there is the same intention, the same striving, the same stammering, the same faith. Other lessons will follow, till in the end we shall be able to restore that ancient word which unites not only the East with the West, but with all the members of the human family, and may learn to understand what a Persian poet meant when he wrote many centuries ago : — ' Diversity of worship has divided the human race into seventy-two nations. From all their dogmas I have selected one — the love of God.' "

By ''the seventy-two^' (seventy- three ? ) nations," are doubtless meant the number of sects into which Muhammad said Islam would be divided; but the learned Professor surely cannot be ignorant of the fact that the " love of God'' selected by the Persian poet, as the dogma par excellence, is the 'hhaq, or second

* Muhammad said that, as the Jews had been di- vided into seventy-one sects, and the Christians into seventy-two, the Mushms would be divided into seventy- three, that is seventy-two in addition to the " orthodox,'" or Ndjiah sect, each sect, of course, claiming to be Ndjiah.

suFiisM. 233

stage of the Sufiistic journey. Only those who have conversed with Siifis on this mystical love can well realize how impossible it is for the Christian to reconcile that practical love of Grod, which "gave His only begotten Son," and that practical love to Grod, which is shown by keeping His commandments, with that mys- tical love, or ^Isliaq, which is the subject of Siifi divinity.

234

L.— FAQI'RS, OR DAEWESHES.

The Arabic word Faqir, signifies poor ; but it is used in the sense of being in need of mercy, and poor in tlie sight of God, rather than in need of worldly assistance. Darivesh is derived from the Persian dar, " a door," — those who beg from door to door. The terms are generally used for those who lead a religious life. Eeligious Faqirs are divided into two great classes, the ha Shara' (with the law), or those who govern their conduct according to the principles of Islam ; and the be Shara^ (without the law), or those who do not rule their lives according to the principles of any religious creed, although they call themselves Musul- mans. The former are called SdliJc, or travel- lers on the pathway (tariqat) to heaven ; and the latter are either A'zdd (free), or Majziib (abstracted). The Sdlilc embrace the various religious orders who perform the Zikrs de- scribed in our next note. The Majzub are

EAQIES, OR DAEWTJSHES. 235

totally absorbed in religious reverie. The A'zdd shave their beards, whiskers, moustachios, eyebrows and eyelashes, and lead lives of celibacy.

The A'zdd and Majzith Faqirs can scarcely be said to be Muhammadans, so that a descrip- tion of their various sects do not fall within the limits of these notes. The Salik Faqirs are also divided into very numerous orders; but their chief difference consists in their Silsilah, or chain of succession, from their great teachers the Khalifas 'Ali, and Abu Bakr, who are said to have been the founders of the religious order of Faqirs. European writers have distinguished the various orders by their dress and their religious performances; but we have not been able to find that these are the distinguishing features of difference amongst them.

The following are the chief orders which are met with in North India : —

1. The Naqshbandia are followers of Khwa- jah Pir Muhammad Naqshband, and are a very numerous sect ; they usually perform the Zikr- i-Khafi, or the silent religious devotion de- scribed in the next chapter.

236 FAQIES, OE DAEWESHES.

2. The Qadiria sprung from the celebrated Sayyid Abdul Qadir, smniamed Pir Dustagir, whose shrine is at Bagdad. They practise both the ZiJcr-i-Jalt, and the Zihr-i-Khafi. Most of the Sunni Maulavis on the north-west frontier of India are members of this order. In Egypt it is most popular amongst fishermen.

3. The Chishtia are followers of Banda Nawaz, surnamed the Gaysu dardz, or the long- ringletted. His shrine is at Calburgah.

The Shia'hs generally become Faqirs of this order. They are partial to vocal music, for the founder of the order remarked, that singing was the food and support of the soul. They perform the Zihr-l-Jali, described in the next article.

4. The Jalalia were founded by Sayyid Jalal-ud-din, of Bokhara. They are met with in Central Asia. Religious mendicants are often of this order.

5. The Sarwardia are a popular order in Afghanistan, and comprise a number of learned men. They are the followers of Hasan Bisri, of Basra, near Bagdad.

These are the most noted orders of ba Shara* Faqirs. The he Shara' Faqirs are very nume-

FAQIES, OE DARWESHES.

237

rous. The most popular order is that of the Muddria, founded by Zinda Shah Murdar, of Syria, whose shrine is at Mukanpur, in Oudh. From these have sprung the Malang Faqirs who crowd the bazaars of India. They wear their hair matted and tied in a knot. The Rafia order is also a numerous one in some parts of India. They practise the most severe discipline, and mortify themselves by beating their bodies.

D'Ohsson enumerates thirty- two of the prin- cipal religious orders, giving the name of the founder, and the place of his shrine.

No.	Name of the	Foimder.	Place of the	Date,
Order.	Foimder' s Shrine.	A.H.
1	Alwani	Shekh Alwan	Jeddah	149
2	Adhami	Ibrahim ibn Adham	Damascus	161
3	Bast ami	Bayazid Bastami	Jebel Bestami	261
4	Saqati	Sirri Siqati	Bagdad	295
5	Qadiri	Abdul-Qadir Jikini	Bagdad	561
6	Rufali	Syyid Ahmad Euf all	Bagdad	576
7	Sahrwardi	Shihab-ud-din	Bagdad	602
8	Kabrawi	Najm-ud-din	Khwaresm	617
9	Shazili	Abul Hasan	Mecca	656
10	Maulavi	Jalal-ud-dm Mulana	Conyah	672
11	Badawi	Abul Fitan Ahmad	Egypt	675
12	Naqshbandi	Pir Muhammad	Persia	719
13	S'adi	S'ad-ud-din	Damascus	736
14	Bakhtaslii	Haji Bakhtash	Kir Sher	736
15	Khilwati	'Umar Khilwati	Caisarea	800
16	Zaini	Zaiu-ud-dm	Cufa	838
17	Bahai	Abdul Ghani	Adrianople	870
18	B air ami	Haji B air am	Angora	876
19	Ashrafi	Ashraf Eumi	Chin Iznic	899
20	Bakri	Abu Bakr Wafai	Aleppo	902

238

FAQIRS, OE DARWESHES.

No.	Name of the Order.	Founder.	Place of the Founder's Shrine.	Date, A.H.
21	Sunbuli	SunbulYustifBolawi	Constantinople	936
22	Ghulshani	rbrahim Glinlsliani	Cairo	910
23	Yijit Bashf	Shams-ud-dfn	Magnesia	951
24	Umm Sunani	Shekh Umm Siman	Constantinople	959
25	Jalwati	Pir Uftadi	Bursah	988
26	'Ushaqi	Hasan-ud-dm	Constantinople	1001
27	Sliamsi	Shams-ud-dm	Madina	1010
28	Sinan Ummi	'Alim Sinan Ummi	Elmahli	1079
29	Niyazi	Muhammad Niyaz	Lemnos	1100
30	Mas'adi	Murad Shami	Constantinople	1132
31	Nuruddini	Nur-ud-din	Constantinople	1146
32	Jamali	Jamal-ud-dm '	Constantinople	1164

We insert tlie above list on the authority of M. D'Ohsson; but we have not had an oppor- tunity of testing the correctness of its infor- ma^tion.

The order of Maulavis is the most popular religious order in Constantinople. They are called by Europeans the dancing, or whirling darveshes, and their religious performances constitute one of the public sights in Con- stantinople. They have service at their Tahiyn, or convent, every Wednesday, and at Kasim Pasha every Sunday, at 2 o'clock. There are about twenty performers, with high round felt caps and brown mantles. At a given signal they all fall flat on their faces, and rise and walk slowly round and round with their

FAQIES, OR DARWESHES. 239

arms folded, bowing and turning slowly several times. They then cast off their mantles and appear in long bell -shaped petticoats and jackets, and then begin to spin, revolving, dancing, and turning with extraordinary velocity.

The founder of this religious order was a native of Balkh, in Central Asia. It is said the spiritual powers of this extraordinary man were developed at the early age of six years; for once on a Friday Jalad-ud-din was at Balkh on the roof of a house with some children of his own age, when one of the boys asked him if it were possible for him to jump from one house to the other. He replied, " If you have faith, jump up towards heaven." He then sprang upwards, and was immediately lost to sight. The youths all cried out as he disappeared, but he soon returned from the celestial regfions, greatly altered in complexion and changed in figure ; for he had obtained a sight of the abodes of bliss !

It is impossible to become acquainted with all the rules and ceremonies of the numerous orders of Faqirs ; for, like those of the Free-

240 FAQIES, OE DAEWESHES.

masons, they may not be divulged to the un- initiated.

The following is said to be the usual method of admitting a Muhammadan to the order of a ha Shara^ Faqir. Having first performed the legal ablutions, the Murid (disciple) seats him- self before the Murshid (spiritual guide). The Murshid then takes the Murid's right hand, and requires of him a confession of sin ac- cording to the following form : "I ask for- giveness of the great Grod than Whom there is no other deity, the Eternal, the Everlasting, the Living One : I turn to Him for repentance, and beg His grace and forgiveness." This, or a similar form of repentance, is repeated several times. The Murid then repeats after the Murshid : — "I beg for the favour of God and of the Prophet, and I take for my guide to God (here naming the Murshid) not to change or to separate. God is our witness. By the great God. There is no deity but God. Amin." The Murshid and the Murid then recite the first chapter of the Quran, and the Murid con- cludes the ceremony by kissing the Murshid' s hand.

FAQIRS, OE DARWESHES. 241

After the initiatory rite, the Murid undergoes a series of instructions, including the Zihrs, which he is required to repeat daily. The Murid frequently visits his Murshid, and some- times the Murshids proceed on a circuit of visitation to their disciples. The place where these " holy men " sit down to instruct the people is ever afterwards held sacred, a small flag is hoisted on a tree, and it is fenced in. Such places are called " Tahiya,'' and are pro- tected and kept free from pollution by some Faqir engaged for the purpose.

Those Faqirs who attain to a high degree of sanctity are called Wcdis, the highest rank of which is that of a Ghaus, Of such is the Akhund of Swat, on the north-west frontier of India. This celebrated religious leader at the age of eighteen became a member of the Qadiria order of Faqirs ; and shortly after his incor- poration, he settled down on a small island in the river Indus near Attock, where he lived the life of a recluse for twelve years. During this time, it is said, his only diet was the wild-grass seed and buffalo's milk. He soon -acquired a reputation for sanctity, and has gradually become the great religious leader of Central

16

242 FAQIRS, OR DARWESHES.

Asia. He now resides at the village of Seydu in Swat, where lie entertains as many as a thousand visitors daily ; men from all parts of the Muslim world, who come to hear his wisdom and receive the benefit of his prayers. The Akhund has always been a great opponent of Wahhabi doctrines; and, although he is not well-read in Muslim divinity, his fatwds on re- ligious ceremonies and secular observances are received and obeyed by all the Sunni Muham- madans of the north-west frontier of British India.*

* An account of the Muhammadan darweshes lias been written by Mr. J. P. Brown, Secretary of the United States Legation at Constantinople. Triibner & Co., London.

243

LI.— ZIKR, OR THE RELIGIOUS SER- VICES OF THE DARWESHES.

ZiKE is tlie religious ceremony, or act of devotion, wliicli is practised by tlie various religious orders of Eaqirs, or Darweslies. Almost every religious Muhammadan is a member of some order of Faqirs, and, con- sequently, tlie performance of zilcr is very common in all Muliammadan countries ; but it does not appear tliat any one method of per- forming tlie religious service of zikr^ is peculiar to any particular order.

Zihrs, are of two kinds, zihr-i-jali, that which is recited aloud, and zihr-i-Jchafi, that which is performed either with a low voice, or mentally.

The Naqshbandia order of Faqirs usually perform the latter, whilst the Chishtia and Qadiria orders celebrate the former. There are various ways of going through the exercise,

16 A

244 ziKR.

but the main features of eacli are similar in character. The following is a zikr-i-jali as given in the book Qual-ul-Jamil, by Maulavi Shah Wall Ullah, of Delhi :—

1. The worshipper sits in the usual sitting posture and shouts the word Al-lah (G-od), drawing his voice from his left side and then from his throat.

2. Sitting as at prayers he repeats the word Al-lah still louder than before, first from his right knee, and then from his left side.

3. Folding his legs under him he repeats the word Al-lah first from his right knee and then from his left side, still louder !

4. Still remaining in the same position, he shouts the word Al-lah, first from the left knee then from the right knee, then from the left side, and lastly in front, still louder !

5. Sitting as at prayer, with his face towards Mecca, he closes his eyes, says " La " — drawing the sound as from his navel up to his left shoulder; then he says i-ld-ha, drawing out the sound as from his brain; and lastly "il-lal-ld-ho,'' repeated from his left side with great energy.

Each of these stages is called a Zarb. They

ziKB. 245

are, of course, recited many hundreds of times over, and tlie changes we have described account for the variations of sound and motion of the body described by Eastern travellers who have witnessed the performance of a zikr.

The following is a zihr-i-Jchafi, or that which is performed in either a low voice, or mentally.

1. Closing his eyes and lips, he says, ''with the tongue of the heart,"

Al'la-Jio-sami'un, " God the hearer." Al-la-ho-basiviriin, '' God the seer." Al-la-ho-^ aliimm, " God the knower." The first being drawn, as it were, from the navel to the breast; the second, from the breast to the brain ; the third, from the brain up to the heavens ; and then again repeated stage by stage backwards and forwards.

2. He says in a low voice, " Allah,' ^ from the right knee, and then from the left side.

3. With each exhalation of his breath, he says, " Id-ildha,'' and with each inhalation, '' il-lal-ld-ho.''

This third zarh is a most exhausting act of devotion, performed, as it is, hundreds or even

246 ziKR.

thousands of times, and is, therefore, considered the most meritorious.

It is related that Maulavi Habib Ullah, now living in the village of Gabasanri, in the Gradiin country, on the Peshawur frontier, has become such an adept in the performance of this zarh, that he recites the first part of the zikr-ld-Udha with the exhalation of his breath after the mid- day prayer ; and the second part, il-lal-ld-ho, with the inhalation of his breath before the next time of prayer, thus sustaining his breath for the period of about three hours !

Another act of devotion, which usually ac- companies the zihr, is that of Muvdqaha, or meditation.

The worshipper first performs zihr of the following : —

Allaho-hdzari, '' God the present one." AUaho-ndzari, '' God the seer." AllahO'sJidhidi, " God who witnesses." AUaho-mai, " God who is with us." Having recited this zikr, either aloud or mentally, the worshipper proceeds to meditate upon some verse or verses of the Quran. Those recommended for the Qadiria Faqirs by Maulavi

ziKE. 247

Shab Wall Ullali are tlie following, which we give as indicating the line of thought which is considered most devotional and spiritual by Muslim mystics : —

1. Surat-ul-Hadid (Ivii.), 3.

"He (God) is first. He is last. The Manifest, and the Hidden, and who knoweth all things."

2. Surat-ul-Hadid (Ivii.), 4.

"He (God) is with you wheresoever ye be."

3. Surat-ul-Qaf (L), 16.

"We (God) are closer to him (man) than his neck vein."

4. Surat-ul-Baqr (ii.), 109.

" Whichever way ye turn, there is the face of God."

5. Surat-un-Nisa (iv.), 125. " God encompasseth all things."

i, 6. Surat-ur-Rahman (Iv.), 7.

" All on earth shall pass away, but the face of thy God shall abide resplendent with majesty and glory."

Some teachers tell their disciples that the heart has two doors, that which is fleshly, and that which is spiritual; and that the ziJcr-i- jali has been established for the opening of the former, and zihr-i-khafi for the latter, in order that they may both be enlightened.

There certainly must be something invigora-

248 ziKR.

ting in the exercise of a zikr-i-jali to a religions devotee, who seldom stirs ont of his mosqne ; and we have often been told by Mania vis, that they find the performance of a zthr keeps evil thoughts from the mind; bnt as some of the most devoted zdkirs (i. e. those who perform the zihr) are amongst the most immoral men, the religions exercise does not appear to have any lasting effect on the moral character.

As a cnrions instance of the superstitious character of this devotional exercise, the Chishtia order believe that if a man sits cross-legged and seizes the vein called KaimcLi, which is under the leg, with his toes, that it will give peace to his heart, when accompanied by a zikr of the '' nafi ishdt,'' which is a term used for the first part of the Kalimah, which forms the usual zihr, namely : —

Ld'ildha-il-laUlaho, " There is no deity but God."

The most common form of ziJcr is a recital of the ninety-nine names of God ; for Muham- mad promised those of his followers who recited them, a sure entrance to Paradise.*

* Vide Mishkat, bk. cxi.

ziKR. 249

To facilitate this repetition, the zdhir uses a Tashih, or rosary, of ninety-nine beads. The Wahhabis, however, do not use this invention, but count on their fingers. The introduction of the rosary amongst Roman Catholics is generally ascribed to Dominic, the founder of the Black Friars (a.d. 1221).; but Dean Hook says it was in use in theyear 1100 ; it is, there- fore, not improbable that the Crusaders bor- rowed it from their Muslim opponents ; and it is thought that the Muhammadans received it from the Buddhists.

There are several lists of the supposed ninety-nine names * of God ; . but the following is given by Muslim and Bokhari in their col- lections of traditions : —

1. Hahman	. The Compassionate.
2.. Rahim .	. The Merciful.
3. Malik .	. The King.
4. Quddus	. The Holy One.
5. Salam .	. The Peace.
6. Momin .	. . The Faithful.
7. Mohymin	. The Protector.

* Surat-al-Araf (vii.), 179 : "Most excellent titles hath G-od by these, call ye uj^on him."

250

ZIKR.

8. 'Aziz .

9. Jabbar .

10. Mutakabbir

11. KMliq.

12. Bari .

13. Musawwir

14. Ghafar. .15. QaliMr. .16. WahMb

17. Eazzaq,

18. Fattali .

19. ^Alim .

20. Qabiz .

21. Basit .

22. Khafiz .

23. Rafi .

24. Mu'iz .

25. Muzil .

26. Sami' .

27. Basir .

28. Hakam.

29. 'Adl .

30. Latif .

31. Khabir.

32. Halim .

The Incomparable The Benefactor. The Mighty Doer. The Creator. The Maker. The Former. The Pardoner. The Powerful. The Giver. The Bestower of

Daily Bread. The Opener. The Omniscient. The Res trainer. The Expander. The Depressor. The Exalter. The. Strengthener.. The Lowerer. The Hearer. The Seer. The Judge. The Just. The Benignant. The Knower. The Clement.

ZIKR.

251

33. 'Azim

34. Ghafur

35. Shakur,

36. 'All

37. Kabir

38. Hafiz

39. Muqit

40. Hasib

41. Jalil

42. Karim

43. Raqib

44. Mujib

45. Wasi'

46. Hakim

47. Wadiid

48. Majid

49. Bais

50. Slialiid

51. Haqq

52. Wakil

53. Qawwi

54. Matin

55. Wall

56. Hamid-

Tlie Great. The Great Pardoner. The Rewarder. The Most High. The Great Lord. The Guardian. The Giver of Strength. The Reckoner. The Glorious. The Munificent. The Watcher. The Approver of

Supplications. The Expander. The Physician. The All-Loving. The Glorious. The Awakener. The Witness. The True. The Provider. The Powerful. The Firm. The Friend. The One to be

Praised.

252

ZIKR.

57. Mulisi .

58. Mubdi .

59. Mu'id .

60. Moliji .

61. Mumit .

62. Hai .

63. Qaiyyiim

64. Wajid .

65. Majid .

66. "Wahid .

67. Samad .

68. Qadir .

69. Muqtadir

70. Muqaddim

71. Muwakhkhir

72. Awwal .

73. Akliir .

74. Zahir .

75. Batin .

76. Wall .

77. Muta'a.

78. Barr .

79. Tawwab

80. Muntaqim

81. AM .

82. Rauf .

The Counter. . The Cause. . The Restorer. . The Life-giver. . . The Death-giver. . The Living. . The Self-subsisting. . The Finder. . The G-rand. . The Unique. . . The Perpetual. . . The Powerful. . The Prevailing.

The Bringer before. . . The Bringer after. . , The First. . The Last. . The Evident. . The Hidden.

The Governor. . The Sublime. . The Doer of Good.

The Propitious.

The Avenger.

The Eraser. . The Benefiter.

ZIKE.

253

83. Malik-ul-Mulk . The King of King-

doms.

84. Zuljalal-wal-Ikram The Lord of Grlorj

and Honour.

85. Muksit.

86. Jami' .

87. G-hani .

88. Mughani

89. Muti .

90. Mani' .

91. Zarr .

92. Mfi' .

93. Niir .

94. Hadi .

95. Badia' .

96. Baqi .

97. Waris .

98. Rashid .

99. Sabur .

The Equitable. The Assembler. The Eich. The Enricher. The Giver. The Withholder. The Afflicter. The Benefactor. The Light. The Guide. The Incomparable. The Eternal. The Inheritor. The Director. The Patient.

The list either begins or closes with the peculiar designation of God, Allah, making the complete number of one hundred names for the Deity.

The following names occur in other works which we have consulted, and are sometimes used in place of some of those in the list

254 ziKE.

already given : — Azali, the Eternal ; Abadi, the Everlasting ; Maula, the Lord ; Ahad, the only One; Mim^em, the Giver of Blessing; Sddiq, the Righteons One; Sattdr, the Con- cealer of Sins ; Babh, the Lord.

In the recital of these words the prefix and inflexion are nsed thus, Ar-Eahimo ! Al-Maliko! As-Sami'o ! etc. Many of the titles will ap- pear to the English reader to be synonymous, but Muslim theologians discover in them shades of difference. It will be observed that the titles are not arranged in philosophical order.

In addition to the forms of zikr already mentioned there are four others which are even of more common use, and are known as TasMh, Tahmid, TaJilil, and TaJcbw, They are used as exclamations of joy and surprise, as well as for the devotional exercise of dhr,

Tasbih is the expression Subhdn - Allah ! " Holiness be to God ! "

Tahmid. Alhamdo-Lilla ! " Praise be to God ! "

Tahlil. Ld-iUla-ha-il'lal'ld-ho I '' There is no deity but God ! "

TaWir, AUaho-AJcbar ! " God is great ! ''

ziKE. 255

Muhammad said, "Repeat the Tasbih a hundred times, and a thousand virtues shall be recorded by God for you, ten virtuous deeds for each repetition."

When the Tasbih and Tahmid are recited together it is said thus, SubMn-Allah loa Bihamdihi, i. e., " Holiness be to God with His praise." It is related in the Hadis that Mu- hammad said, " Whoever recites this sentence a hundred times, morning and evening, will have all his sins forgiven."

In forming our estimation of Muhammad and Muhammadanism we must take into con- sideration the important place the devotional exercise of zikr occupies in the system, not for- getting that it has had the authoritative sanction of " the Prophet " himself.

256

LII.— THE LORD JESUS CHRIST.

In the Quran our blessed Lord is spoken of as 'Isa (Jesus), and Masih (the Messiah). He is also called Kalima,* the Word (of God) ; Qaul-ul'Haqq,f the Word of Truth ; and Bith, the Spirit (of God) ; Etih- Ullah, the Spirit of God, being the special title, or Kalima, whereby Jesus is distinguished from the other great prophets. He is one "illustrious in this Avorld and in the next," and " who has near access to God. "J He is " GocFs Apostle to confirm the law, and to announce an apostle that should come after, whose name shall be

* Surat-un-Nisa (iv.), 169.

t Surat-Til-Maryam (xix.), 35. The passage is trans- lated by Eodwell, as well as by Persian commentators, " this is a statement of the truth " ; but according to Bezawi, the words Qaul-ul-Haqq may be taken as a title of Jesus Christ, i. e. the Word of Truth.

X Surat-i-Al-i-'Imran (iii.), 40.

THE LORD JESoS CHRIST. 257

Ahmad.'* ^ He is said to have been born of Mary, the sister of Aaron, and the daughter of 'Imran, near the trunk of a palm tree ; to have spoken in his cradle, and to have per- formed many miracles during his infancy ; to have cured the blind and the leper ; to have chosen apostles, and to have caused a table to descend from heaven, both as '' a festival and a sign for them." The Jews are said to have been deceived by God, and to have crucified another person instead of Jesus, who was taken up into heaven, where he remains with his mother in a lofty and quiet place, watered with springs, until he shall come again in the last day to convert the whole world to Islam !

The rambling incoherent account of our blessed Lord's life, as given in the Quran, would far exceed the limits of these " Notes " ; but it will be found upon reference to the following Siiras, or chapters : —

An account of the birth of the Virgin Mary. — Siira iii. 33-37, 42-44.

Birth of Jesus announced to the Virgin Mary.— Siira ih. 45-48 ; xix. 16-21.

* Surat-us-Saf (Ixi.), 6.

17

258 THE LORD JESUS CHEIST.

The birth of Jesus.— Siira xix. 22-28.

The miracles of the Infancy. — Siira xix. 29-32 ; iii. 48 ; v. 119.

His prophetical mission. — Siira v. 87 ; xxxiii. 7 ; xliii. 56-63 ; Ixi. 6.

His choice of apostles. — Siira iii. 51-52 ; Ixi. 14.

The Lord's table.— Siira y. 121-124.

His crucifixion. — Siira iii. 53-54 ; iv. 156- 158; V. 119; xix. 32; iii. 54.

His assumption mth the Yirgin Mary into Paradise. — Siira xxiii. 52.

His second Advent. — Siira xliii. 59.

He must render an account of himself to God.— Siira xxiii. I.S; v. 118-119, 125, 127; iv. 158.

There is a remarkable Hadis related by Anas, which inadvertently proves that, whilst Muham- mad admitted his own sinfulness, as well as that of other prophets, he could not charge our Lord with sin. It is as follows : — *' The Prophet of God said, ' In the day of resurrection Musalmans will not be able to move, and they will be greatly distressed, and will say, " Would to God that we had asked Him to create some- one to intercede for us, that we might be taken

THE LORD JESUS CHRIST. 259

from this place, and be delivered from tribula- tion and sorrow?" Then these men will go to Adam, and will say, " Thou art the father of all men, God created thee with His hand, and made thee a dweller in Paradise, and ordered His angels to prostrate themselves before thee, and taught thee the names of all things. Ask grace for us we pray thee ! " And Adam will say, '' I am not of that degree of eminence you suppose, for I committed a sin in eating of the tree which was forbidden. Gro to Noah, the Prophet, he was the first who was sent by God to the unbelievers on the face of the earth." Then they will go to Noah and ask for inter- cession, and he will say, " I am not of that degree which ye suppose." And he will re- member the sin which he committed in asking the Lord for the deliverance of his son (Hud), not knowing whether it was a right request or not ; and he will say, "Go to Abraham, who is the Friend of God." Then they will go to Abraham, and he will say, " I am not of that degree which ye suppose." And he will re- member the three occasions upon which he told lies in the world; and he will say, ''Go to Moses, who is the servant to whom God gave

17 A

260 THE LORD JESUS CHRIST.

His law, and whom He allowed to converse with Him." And tliey will go to Moses, and Moses will say, '* I am not of that degree which ye suppose." And he will remember the sin which he committed in slaying a man, and he will say, " Gro to Jesns, He is the servant of God, the Apostle of God, the Spirit of God, and the Word of God." Then they will go to Jesus, and He will say, '' Go to Muhammad who is a servant, whose sins God has forgiven both first and last." Then the Musalmans will come to me, and I will ask permission to go into God's presence and intercede for them.' " (Vide Mishkat, bk. xxiii. chap, xii.)

261

LIII.— THE CRUCIFIXION OF OUR SAYIOUR.

The following are the verses in tlie Qnran which allude to our blessed Lord's crucifixion :

Surat-un-Nisa (iv.), 157 : —

" And for their saying {ive have cursed them), ' Verily we have slain the Messiah, Jesus the son of Mary, and Apostle of God.' Yet they slew him not, and they crucified him not; but they had only his likeness. And they who differed about him were in doubt concerning him ; no sure knowledge had they about him, but followed only an opinion, and they did not really slay him, but God took him up to Himself."

Surat-ul-Maida (v.), 19 :—

*' They are in&dels who say, ' Verily God is the Messiah, the son of Mary.' Say : And who could obtain anything from God to the con- trary if he chose to destroy the Messiah, the

262 THE CEUCIFIXION OF OUR SAVIOUR.

son of Mary, and his mother, and the whole world also.'*

Surat-i-Al-i-Imran (iii.), 47, 48 :— ** The Jews plotted and God plotted : but of those who plot is God the best. Remember when God said, ' 0 Jesus ! verily I will cause thee to die, and will take thee up to myself and deliver thee from those who believe not ; and I will place those who follow thee above those who believe not until the day of resurrection. Then to me is your return, and wherein ye differ will I decide between you.' "

Whilst all Muslim commentators are agreed as to the literal interpretation of these passages, there is some difference as to the person cru- cified in Christ's stead.

1. In the Tafsir-i-Bezawi it is said that Christ asked one of his disciples to take his place.

2. In the Tafsir-i-Mazhari, that God took Christ in his human bodv to heaven alive.

3. In the Tafsir-i-Baghwl, that God trans- formed Christ's appearance to one of his enemies, a spy, who was thus crucified in his stead by mistake.

4. In the Tafsir-i-Kalbi, that Titdnus was

THE CRUCIFIXION OF OUR SAVIOUR. 263

crucified, Grod having transferred Christ's appearance to that person.

5. In the Tafsir-i-Kamalain that Christ was dead seven hours, then restored to life and taken to heaven.

Tt will be seen that these commentators have adopted the errors of the Basilidians, and other heretics, with reference to our Lord's cruci- fixion ; for Irenseus says that the Basilidians held that Simon of Cyrene was crucified instead of Christ.

The " Cross of Christ" is the missing link in the Muslim's creed; for we have already al- luded to the great anomaly of a religion which rejects the doctrine of a sacrifice for sin, whilst its great central feast is a Feast of Sacrifice,

It is related by the Muslim historian Waqidi, that Muhammad had such repugnance to the sign of the cross, that he destroyed everything brought to his house with that figure upon it.

264

LIV.— THE DIVINITY OF CHRIST, AND THE HOLY TRINITY.

The following are the allusions to tlie Holy Trinity and the Sonship of Christ in the Quran : —

Surat-un-Nisa (iv.), 169 : —

"0 ye people of the Book ! overstep not bounds in your religion, and of God speak only truth. The Messiah Jesus, son of Mary, is only an Apostle of God, and his Word which he conveyed into Mary, and a Spirit proceeding from himself. Believe, therefore, in God and his apostles, and say not there is a Trinity (lit. ''three"). Forbear, it will be better for you. God is only one God ! Far be it from His glory that He should have a son * * * * The Messiah disdaineth not to be a servant of God."

Surat-ul-Maida (v.), 79 : —

*' The Messiah, the son of Mary, is but an

THE DIVINITY OF CHRIST. 265

apostle; other apostles have flourished before him, and his mother was a just person ; they both ate food."

Yerse 116 of the same Siira : —

" 0 Jesus, son of Mary, hast thou said unto mankind, ' Take me and my mother as two Gods beside Ood?'"

From the above verses it appears that Muhammad thought the Holy Trinity of the Christians consisted of the Father, the Son, and the Virgin ; and historians tell us that there existed in Arabia a sect called Collyridians, who considered the Virgin Mary a divine person, and offered in worship to her a cake called Collyris ; it is, therefore, not improbable that Muhammad obtained his perverted notion of the Holy Trinity from the existence of this sect. From the expression "they both ate food," we must conclude that Muhammad had but a sensuous idea of the Trinity in Unity, and had never been instructed in the orthodox faith with reference to this dogma.

In dealing with Muhammadans the Christian missionary must not treat their system as though the views of Islam were precisely those

266 THE DIVINITY OF CHRIST.

of modern Socinians.* Islam admits the mi- raculous conception of Christ, and that he is the ''Word'' which God *' conveyed into Mary ; " and whilst the other five great pro- phets are but "the chosen," ''the preacher," *'the friend," "the converser with," and "the messenger " of Grod, Jesus is admitted to be the " Spirit of God.'' He is the greatest miracle worker of all the prophets, and whilst Muham- mad is dead and buried, and saw corruption, all Muslim divines admit that Jesus " saw no cor- ruption," and still lives with a human body in Paradise.

Moreover, it is said in the Hadis that the Nur-i'Muhammad, the light of Muhammad, was created before all things which were made by God. The pre-existence of the divine "Word which was made flesh and dwelt amongst us " is not, therefore, an idea foreign to the Muslim mind.

* We speak of the views of modern Socinians, for we are aware that both the Socini, uncle and nephew, ad- mitted the miraculous conception of Christ, and said that He ought to be worshipped.

267

LY. — TAHRI'F, OR THE ALLEGED CORRUPTION^ OF THE SACRED BOOKS BY THE JEWS AND CHRISTIANS.

Tahpj'f is' tlie word used by Muliammadan writers to express tlie corruption of the sacred Scriptures of the Jews and Christians, as as- serted in the Quran.

Imam Fakhar-ud-din Razi, in his commen- tary, explains " Tahrif^^ to mean, to change, alter, or turn aside anything from the truth. Muslim divines say there are two kinds of Tahrif, namely, Tahrif-i-M^ anaivi, a corruption of the meaning ; and Tahrif -i-Lafzi, a corrup- tion of the words.

Muhammadan controversialists, when they become acquainted with the nature of the contents of our sacred books, and of the im- possibility of reconciling the contents of the Quran with those of the sacred Scriptures,

268 TAHRIF.

charge tlie Christians with the Tahrif-i-Lafzi. They say the Christians have expunged the word Ahmad from the prophecies, and have inserted the expression '' Son of God," and the story of the crucifixion, death, and resurrection of our blessed Lord. This view, however, is not the one held by the most celebrated of the Muslim commentators.

Imam Muhammad Ismail Bokhari,* records that Ibn 'Abbas said that " the word Tahrif (corruption) signifies to change a thing from its original nature ; and that there is no man who could corrupt a single word of what pro- ceeded from God, so that the Jews and Chris- tians could corrupt only by misrepresenting the meaning of the words of God."

Ibn-i-Mazar and Ibn Abi Hatim state, in the commentary known as the Tafsir Durr-i-Mansur, that they have it on the authority of Ibn-i- Munia, that the Taurdt {i. e. the books of Moses), and the Injil {i. e. the Gospels), are in the same state of purity in which they were

* Vide Hadis-i-Sahih-Bokhari, edition printed at the Matba' Ahmadi Meerut, a.h. 1284 (a.d. 1867), p. 1127, line 7.

TAHRIF. 269

sent down from heaven, and that no alterations had been made in them, but that the Jews were wont to deceive the people by unsound arguments, and by wresting the sense of Scripture.

Shah Wall Ullah, in his commentary, the Fauz-ul'Kahir, and also Ibn 'Abbas, support the same view.

This appears to be the correct interpretation of the various verses of the Quran charging the Jews with having corrupted the meaning of the sacred Scriptures.

For example, Surat-i-Al-i-Imram (iii.), 78 : " There are certainly some of them who read the Scriptures perversely, that ye may think what they read to be really in the Scriptures, yet it is not in the Scriptures ; and they say this is from Grod, but it is not from Grod ; and they speak that which is false concerning Grod against their own knowledge."

Imam Fakhar-ud-din, in his commentary on this verse, and many others of the same cha- racter which occur in the Quran, says it refers to a TaliTif-i-M^ anaivi, and that it does not mean that the Jews altered the text, but

270 TAHRIF.

merely that tliey made alterations in tlie course of reading.

But whilst all the old commentators, who most probaby had never seen a copj of the sacred Books of the Jews and Christians, only charge us with a Tahrif-i-]\r auaiui, all modern controversialists amongst the Muhammadans contend for a Tahrif-i-Lafzi, as being the only solution of the difficulty.

In dealing with such opponents, the Christian divine will avail himself of the following argu- ments : —

1. The Quran does not charge the Jews and Christians with corrupting the text of their sacred books ; and all the learned Muslim com- mentators admit that such is not the case.

2. The Quran asserts that the Holy Scrip- tures of the Jews and Christians existed in the days of Muhammad, who invariably speaks of them with reverence and respect.

3. There now exist manuscripts of the Old and New Testaments of an earlier date than that of Muhammad (a.d. 610-632).

4. There are versions of the Old and New Testament now extant, which existed before

TAHEIF. 271

Muhammad ; for example, the Septuagint, tlie Latiii Yulgate, tlie Syriac, the Coptic, and the Armenian versions.

5. The Hexapla, or Octapla of Origen, which dates four centuries before Muhammad, gives various versions of the Old Testament Scrip- tures in parallel columns.

6. The Syrian Christians of St. Thomas,* of Malabar and Travancore, in the south of India, who were separated from the western world for centuries, possess the same Scrip- tures.

7. In the works of Justin Martyr, who lived from A.D. 103 to 167, there are numerous quo- tations from our sacred books, which prove that they were exactly the same as those we have now. The same may be said of other early Christian writers.

Muhammadan controversialists of the present day urge that the numerous readings which exist in the Christian books are a proof that they have been corrupted. But these do not

* That Christians existed in India at a very early period is plain from the fact that a Bishop of India signed his name at the Council of Nice, a.d. 325.

272 TAHRIF.

affect, in tlie least, the main points at issue between tlie Christian and the Muslim. The Divine Sonship of Christ, the Fatherhood of Grod, the Crucifixion, Death, and Resurrection of Christ, and the Atonement, are all clearly stated in almost every book of the New Testament, whilst they are rejected by the Quran.

The most plausible of modern objections urged by Muslim divines is, that the Christians have lost the Injil which was sent down from heaven to Jesus ; and that the New Testament contains merely the Hadis, or Sunna — the tra- ditions handed down by Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Paul, and others. It is, of course, a mere assertion, unsupported by any proof ; but it appears to be a line of argument which commends itself to Sayyid Ahmad Khan, C.S.I.,* and also to Ameer 'Ali Maulavi, M.A., LL.B. f The latter professes to be a Muhammadan

* Vide The Muhammadan Commentaries on the Holy Bible, Part I., by Sjud Ahmad Khan, C.S.I. Ghazeepore, 1862.

t Vide The Life and Teachings of Muhammad, by Syud Ameer Ali Moulvie, M.A., LL.B., of the Inner Temple, Barrister-at-Law. London, 1873.

TAHRIF. 273

rationalist ; but as Islam is a system of the most positive dogma, it does not admit either of rationalism, or '' free thought." Sayyid Ahmad and Ameer 'Ali no more represent the Muhammadanism of the Quran and the Tra- ditions, than the opinions of Mr. Yoysey represent the teaching of orthodox Chris- tianity.

'' Islamism is in itself stationary, and was framed thus to remain ; sterile, like its Grod, lifeless like its first principle in all that con- stitutes life — for life is love, participation, and progress, and of these the Coranic deity has none. It justly repudiates all change, all de- velopment. To borrow the forcible words of Lord Houghton, the written book is there the dead man's hand, stiff and motionless ; whatever savours of vitality is by that alone convicted of heresy and defection." *

* Palgrave's Arabia, vol. i. p. 372.

18

INDEX

OF

TECHNICAL TERMS.

A.

'Abid, 158.

Abu-Daiid, 56.

Ahadis, 12.

Ahl-i-Kitab, 11.

Akhiri Chahar Shambah,

167. Alfaz, 31. 'Alim, 157. Al-kitab, 15. Allah, Q7. 'Amm, 31, 64. Ansar, 24, 62. 'Aqaid, 161. Arb'aa-ul-Akhir, 167. 'Asar, 114. Ashab, 62. 'Ashiq, 229. 'Ashura'a, 163. 'Ashur-Kiana, 164.

Attahiyat, 110. 'Auzobillah, 107. Ayat, 28.

Ayyam-ul-Tashriq, 135. Azad, 234. AzAn, 105, 116. Azrail, 79.

B.

Bahisht, 91. Bait-TJllah, 133. Baqr-i-'Id, 173. Bara-Wafat, 168. Ba Shara', 234. Be Shara', 234. Bint-i-Labun, 126. Bint-i-Mukhaz, 126. Bokhari, 58.

18 A

276

INDEX.

Chast, 114. Chishtia, 236.

D.

Dabbat-ul-Arz, 88, Dajjal, 88. Dalalat, 35. Darud, 111. Dar-ul-Harb, 207. Dar-ul-Islam, 207. Dar-ul-Qarar, 92. Dar-us-Salam, 91. Darwesli, 234. Diat, 142. Digar, 114. Dm, 11. Dirham, 127. Dozakh, 96. Dua', 32, 111.

P.

Fana, 229. Faqih, 157. Faqfr, 158, 234. Farz, 112, 137. Farz-i-Kafai, 146. Fatihah, 107. Fatwa, 144, 156. Firdaus, 91. Fiqah, 161. Fitrat, 147. Furqan, 14.

G.

Gliaus, 158, 241. Ghazi, 206. Ghusal, 105. aisA, 230.

H.

Hadd, 141. Hadis, 50, 160. Hadis-i-'Aziz, 54. Hadis-i-Gharib, 54. Hadis-i-Hasan, 52. Hadis-i-Maqtu', 53. Hadis-i-Marfu', 52. Hadis-i-Masbhur, 54, 62. Hadis-i-Mauquf, 53. Hadis-i-Mauzu', 55. Hadis-i-Mursal, 54. Hadis-i-Mustafiz, 54. Hadis-i-Mutawatir, 53, 62. Hadis-i-Sahih, 52. Hadis-i-Z'aif, 52. Haji, 135. Hajj, 101, 130. Hajr-ul-Aswad, 133. Hakim, 157. Halal, 143. Hambali, 213. Hanifi, 212. Haqiqat, 34, 229, 230. Haqiqi, 226. Haram, 138. Harf, 28. Hashijah, 162.

INDEX.

277

Hawia, 97. Hijrat, 2, 209. Hiqqaii, 126. Hutama, 96.

'Ibarat, 32, 35. Iblis, 32, 82. Ibn-i-Majah, 56. 'Idgab, 171. 'Id-ul-Azha, 134, 173. 'Id-ul-Fitr, 128, 171. 'Ifrit, 82. Ihram, 132. rjab, 177. 'f jma', 12, 61. Ilham, 47, 48. Ilham Rabbani, 47. Illat, 64. 'Ilm-i-Hadis, 51. 'Ilm-i-Tajwid, 25. 'Ilm-i-Usul, 31. Imam, 150, 156. Imam-Bara, 164. Imam-Mahdi, 89. Imam-ul-'Azam, 150. Imam-ul-Mubm, 98. I'man, 66.

rmjin-i-Mufassal, 66. I'man-i-Mujmal, 66. Injil, 268. Iqamat, 106, 117. Iqtiza, 35. 'Isa, 256. 'Ishaq, 228. Isharat, 35. Isharat-ul-Malak, 48.

Islam, 10. Ism-i-Safat, 67. Ism-i-Zat, 67. Ism-ul-'Azam, 67. Istibsar, 57. Istidlal, 35. Istighfar, 179. Isti'mal, 34. Israfil, 79. Itifaq-i-F'ili, 61. Itifaq-i-Qauli, 61. Itifaq-i-Saquti, 61. 'Itiqaf, 121. Izn, 225.

Jabariit, 230. Jahamiam, 96. Jahim, 97. Jalalia, 236. Jamad-ul-iila, 163. Jamad-ul-ukhni, 163. Jama'-i-Masjid, 171. Jamra, 134. Janaza, 185. Jann, 82. Jannat, 91. Jannat-i-'Adan, 92. Januat-i-'Illiyun, 92. Jamiat-ul-Firdaus, 92. Jannat-ul-Khuld, 91. Jamiat-ul-Mawa, 92. Jannat-un-N'aim, 92. Jaz'ah, 126. Jibrail, 15, 79.

278

INDEX.

Jilidd, 206. Jihad-ul-Akbar, 206. Jihad-ul-Asgbar, 206. Jinn, 82. Jiziyah, 209. Juz, 30.

K.

K'aba, 131. E:abira, 136, 139. Kafi, 57.

Kalimah, 28, 102, 179, 256. Kalam-Ullali, 12, 15. Kalim-Ullah, 84. Karma, 32.

Khabar-i-Wahid, 54, 62. Khafi, 32, 33, 37. Khalifa, 150. Khalil-Ullah, 85. Khan, 159. Khass, 31, 64. Khatib, 198. Khatnah, 103. Khuda, 68. Khusus-ul-'ain, 31. . Khusus-ul-jins, 31. KhusLis-ul-nau', 31. Khutbah, 134, 198. Kinayah, 35. Kitab, 15, 85. Kitabiah, 217. Kiram-ul-Katibim, 80. Kufr, 37, 139.

L.

Ldhd, 191, 192. Lahiit, 230. Lahw-ul-Mahfuz, 98. Laylut-ul-Mubarak, 123,

169. Laylut-ul-Qadr, 121. Lazwa, 96.

M.

Madarris, 157.

Mahr, 179.

Mai-khana, 230.

Majaz, 34.

Majazi, 226.

Majuj, 88.

Majusi, 217.

Majziib, 234.

Makruh, 138.

Malak, 16, 79.

Malakut, 230.

Malang, 237.

Malik, 80.

Maliki, 207, 213.

Man - la - yastahzirah - al

faqih, 57x Mansukh, 38. Mantiq, 162. Manzil, 30, 228. Maqam-i-Ibrahim, 133. Marid, 82. M'arifat, 229, 230. M'ashuq, 230. Masih, 256.

INDEX.

279

Masih-ul-Dajjal, 88. Masjid-ul-Haram, 133. Matam, 163. Matan, 162. Maulavi, 157, 238. Maulud, 226. Mazhab, 11. Mihrab, 203. Mikail, 79. Millat, 11. Mimbar,171, 198. Miqat, 132. Mir, 159. Misqal, 127. Miswak, 147. Mitraqat, 80. Miyan, 159. Mizan, 89. Momin, 11. Mua'qqibat, 80. Muawattaa, 57. Muawwal, 32. Muazzin, 116, 198. Mubah, 138. Mudaria, 237. Mufassar, 32. Mufassir, l57. Mufsid, 138. Mufti, 156. Muhaddis, 157. Muhajir, 62, 209. Muhammad, 1. Muharram, 163. Muhaqqiq, 157. Muhkam, 33. Mujmal, 33. Muj tabid, 157. Mujtabidin, 48, 61. Mulla, 157. Munajat, 112, 171.

Munkar, 80. Munqata', 53. Muraqaba, 246. Murid, 240. Murshid, 227, 240. Murtadd, 141. Musalman, 11. Mushkil, 33. Mushrik, 225. Mushtarak, 31. Muslim, 56. Mustahab, 138. Mut'ah, 178. Mutakallim, 157. Mutashabih, 34. Muttasil, 53. Muwahhid, 225.

Nabi, 102. Nabi-Ullah, 84. Nafl, 112. Naf i-isbat, 248. Nahaj-ul-Balaghat, 57. Nahw, 162. Najiah, 232. Nakir, 80. Namaz, 32, 104. Namaz-i-Digar, 114. Namaz-i-Kbuftan, 114. Namaz-i-Peshm, 114. Namaz-i-Sbjim, 114. Namaz-i-Subh, 114. Namiis, 18. Naqsbbandia, 235. Narawa, 137. Nasai, 56.

280

INDEX.

Nass, 32.

Nasikh, 39.

Nasua, 200.

Nasut, 228, 230.

Nazr, 226.

Nikah, 177.

Nisf, 30.

Niyyat, 106.

Nmuz, 104, 114.

Nur-i-Muhammad, 266.

p.

Paighambar, 102. Peshm, 114. Pfr, 157.

Q.

Qabul, 177. Qadaria, 236. Qaul-ul-Haqq, 256. Qaza, 120. Qazaf, 140. Qazi, 155. Qiam, 106.

Qiam-i-Sami-TJllah, 108. Qiamat, 87. Qias, 12, 48, 64. Qias-i-Jab', 64. Qias-i-Khafi, 64. Qibla, 135. Qira'at, 24, 107. Qisas, 142. Qurban-Bayram, 173. Qurban-i-'Id, 173. Quran, 12, 14. Quran-Majid, 14.

Quran- Sharif, 14. ^ Qutab, 158. Qutbah, 158.

Rabi'-ul-Awwal, 163. Eabi'-ul-Akhir, 163. Eafia, 237. Eajab, 163. Eak'at, 110. Eamazan, 119, 163. Eami-ul-Jamar, 134. Easul, 84, 102. Easul-Ullah, 85. Eawa, 137. Eayyan, 119. Eezwan, 80. Eiwayat, 54. Eoza, 101.

Eowzat-us-Shuhadaa, 165. Euba', 30. Euh, 256.

Euh-Ullah, 85, 256. Euh-ul-Amm, 15. Euh-ul-Qudus, 15. Euku', 30.

S.

Sab'ata-Ahriif, 25. Sadaqa, 128, 171. Safar, 163. Saghira, 139. Sahib-i-Nissab, 125. Sahifah, 85. S'air, 97. Salam, 112, 148.

INDEX.

281

Salik, 229, 234. Saqar, 97. Sarf, 162. Sarih, 34. Sarwardia, 236. SajyicL, 159. Sift-ul-Iman, 180. Sihah-Sittah, 57, 160. Silsilah, 235. Sipara, 30. Sirat, 90. Siyar, 162. Sh'aban, 163. Shab-i-Bar/it, 123, 169. Shab-Qadr, 170. Shadi, 177. Shadid-nl-Qiia, 15. Shafa'i, 207, 212. Shahid, 211. Shaitan, 82. Sharab, 230. Sharh, 162. Shari'at, 230. Shawwal, 163. Shekh, 158. Shekh-ul-Islam, 155. Shia'h, 12. Subhan, 106. Sufi, 227. Sufi-Ullah, 84. Sulat, 101, 104. Sulat-ul-'Asar, 114. Sulat-ul-Fajr, 114. Sulat-ul-'Isiiaa, 114. Sulat-ul-Isliraq, 114. Sulat-ul-Istikharah, 116. Sulat-ul-Juma', 115. Sulat-ul-Khasdf, 116. Sulat-ul-Khaiif, 116. Sulat-ul-Kusuf, 116.

Sulat-ul-Maghrib, 114. Sulat-ul-Musafir, 115. Sulat-ut-Tahajud, 114. Sulat-ut-Tarawih, 116. Sulat-uz-Zuha, 114. Subit-uz-Zuhr, 114. Suls, 30. Sunna, 50. Sunnat, 112. Sunnat-i-F'ili, 137. Sunnat-i-Qaidi, 137. Snnnat-i-Taqriri, 137. Simni, 12. Sura, 29.

T.

Tab'am, 53. Taba' Tab'am, 62. Tabib, 156. Tafsir, 161. Tahhl, 254. Tahniid, 254. Tahrif, 267. Tahrif-i-Lafzi, 267. Tahrif-i-M'anawi, 267. Tahzib, 57. Takbir, 188, 254. Takbir-i-Jalsa, 109. Takbir-i-Qa'ud, 110. Takbir-i-Qiam, 110. Takbi'r-i-Euku', 108. Takbir-i-Sijdah, 109. Takbir-i-Tahrimah, 106. Takia, 217. Takiya, 238, 241. Tabiq, 182. Talaq-i-Ahsan, 182.

282

INDEX.

Talaq-i-Bid'ai, 183.

Talaq-i-Hasan, 182. Talaq-i-Mutlaq, 183. Talib, 228. Taqdir, 98. Tarawih, 121. Tariqat, 230, 234. Tarwiah, 134. Tasawwaf, 227. Tasbih, 249, 254. Tasbih-i-Euku', 108. Tasbih-i-Sijdah, 108, 109. Tashahhud, 111. Tasmiyah, 107. Taurat, 268. T'auuz, 107. Tawaf, 133, 225. T'azir, 142. Tirmizi, 56.

u.

'Ubudiyat, 194, 228. 'Ulama, 157. 'Urs, 177. Usui, 160.

w.

Wahhabi, 219. Wahi, 47. Wahi-Batin, 48.

Wahi-Ghair-i-Matlu', 60. Wahi-Qalb, 48. Wahi-Quran, 47. Wahi-Zahir, 47. Wajd, 229. Wajib, 137. Wail, 47, 157, 241. Wasl, 229. Witr, 112. Wuzu, 105.

Yajuj, 88. Yaum-un-Nahr, 173.

Zahid, 158. Zahir, 32, 47. Zakat, 101, 125. Zakir, 248. Zarb, 244. Zat, 37. Zikr, 243. Zikr-i-Jali, 243. Zikr-i-Khafi, 243. Zimmi, 209. Zuhd, 229. Zul-Hijja, 135, 163. Zul-Q'ada, 163.

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