APPLE TONS'

ANNUAL -CYCLOPAEDIA

AND

REGISTER OF IMPORTANT EVENTS

OF THE YEAR

1883

EMBRACING POLITICAL, CIVIL, MILITARY, AND SOCIAL AFFAIRS ; PUBLIC DOCU-
MENTS; BIOGRAPHY, STATISTICS, COMMERCE, FINANCE, LITERATURE,
SCIENCE, AGRICULTURE, AND MECHANICAL INDUSTRY.

NEW SEEIES, VOL. VIII.

WHOLE SERIES, VOL. XXIII.

NEW YORK :
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY,

1, 3, AND 5 BOND STREET.

1888

COPYRIGHT, 1884,
BY D. APPLETON AND COMPANY

D.Appleton. &: Co

PREFACE.

IN the present volume of the ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, the eighth of the New
Series, some improvements have been introduced which it is hoped will add to
its attractiveness and usefulness. The subjects treated have been subdivided
with unusual care, and the use of full-face type for the heads and sub-heads
brings them out more distinctly, and renders it easier for the reader to turn at
once to the exact piece of information which he seeks. Increased attention has
been given to illustration. The accounts of the wars in Egypt and Tonquin
are each accompanied by a full-page map ; another full-page map exhibits the
annual rainfall in every part of the United States, and a colored map shows the
new time-system recently adopted; there is a large view of the Cantilever
Bridge at Niagara, one of the German National Monument on the Niederwald,
and one of the new Capitol at Albany ; the improvements in the use of gas and
electricity are fully illustrated ; and some strange and important discoveries in
the aberration of sound as used for fog-signals are represented by curious dia-
grams. Portraits of the new Archbishop of Canterbury, Speaker Carlisle, Peter
Cooper, Gustave Dore, General Gordon, Hicks Pasha, Mario the singer, General
Sheridan, Alexander H. Stephens, Wagner the composer, and other celebrities,
appear in their proper places.

The report of the proceedings of Congress has been made unusually full, as
a means of ready reference to several subjects of national interest which will be
discussed in the Presidential canvass of 1884.

A brief summary of the events of the year, in chronological order, is a new
feature, serving to refresh the reader's memory as to numerous occurrences
which could not be treated at length in a work like this. The paper-on the
"Composition and Nutritive Yalue of Foods," and that on the " United ' States
Fish Commission," with instructions for the propagation and preservation: of
fish, will be found especially instructive and practical,

Mr. Alphonso A. Hopkins, Prohibition candidate for Governor of New
York in 1882, gives a full history of prohibition,, from the earliest times- to-the
present day — a subject that is rapidly making for itself a place in political and
legislative affairs ; while the editor of the Salvation Army's publications gives
an Authoritative account of that strange movement in the religious world!. The
recent advances in chemistry, surgery, and other sciences are noted, and the
present condition of each of the great denominations of Christians is set forth.

vi PREFACE.

The articles " Failures in Business," u Financial Review of 1883," and " United
States Finances," show clearly what has taken place in the monetary world.
These and the numerous other articles, most of which, being subjects treated
every year, need not be specially enumerated, constitute substantially the
world's chronicle for 1883. Those who have just lived that year amid the
crowding occurrences of our hurrying age, will realize, as they glance over the
record, how letters in their simplest and humblest capacity, if they can not
bring back the past, at least may double memory, and thereby lengthen life.

An index to the eight volumes (including the present) of the New Series
will be found at the close of the book. An effort has been made to give it
sufficient fullness to render all the information easily accessible, and yet not to
overload it with needless entries that obscure the very things the reader is look-
ing for.

In its proper place will be found a portrait and brief sketch of the late
"William J. Tenney, who edited this work from its beginning, in 1861, up to
and including the volume for 1882.

NEW YOBK, April 11, 1884.

CONTRIBUTORS.

Among the Contributors to this Volume of the " Annual Cyclopedia " are the following .
Wilbur O. At water, Ph. D.,

Professor of Chemistry in Wesleyan University,
Middletown, Conn.

FOODS, COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE
OF.

Tarleton H. Bean, M. D., M. S.,

Curator Department of Fishes, National Museum.
FlSH-CuLTURE.

Marcus Benjamin,

IT. 8. Laboratory, port of New York.
PHARMACY,
SUGAR.

Linus P. Brockett, M. D.
PAPER-HANGINGS,
PORCELAIN,
and other articles.

Eaton S. Drone.
CIVIL RIGHTS,
LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL.

Nathaniel H. Egleston,

of U. S. Department of Agriculture.
FORESTRY.

George T. Ferris.

LITERATURE, AMERICAN.
A. K. Fiske.

GREELY RELIEF EXPEDITION,
REFORM IN THE CIVIL SERVICE,
and other articles.

G. Brown Goode, M. A.,

Assistant Director National Museum.

UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.
Edward 0. Graves,

Assistant Treasurer of the United States.

UNITED STATES, FINANCES OF THE.
Alfred H. Guernsey, Ph. D.

JOHN RICHARD GREEN,
LUTHER CELEBRATION.

John B. Hamilton, M. D.,

U. S. Supervising Surgeon-General.
EPIDEMICS IN 1883.
James W. Hawes.

ARTICLES ON THE STATES AND TERRITORIES.
Alphonso A. Hopkins,

Prohibition Candidate for Governor of New York in

PROHIBITION.
James L. Hughes,

Toronto, Canada.

CANADIAN ARTICLES.
Frank Huntington.
DANUBE, EUROPEAN COMMISSION OP,
EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES,
ENGINEERING,
and geographical articles.

Arnold B. Johnson,

Chief Clerk of U. 8. Lighthouse Board.

SOUND-SIGNALS.
Charles B. Kelsey, M. D.

CEREBRAL LOCALIZATION,
SURGERY,
and other articles.

John B. Kendrick,

Editor of the Philadelphia Carpet Trade.
CARPETS.

C. Kirchhoff.
CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICAN ARTICLES.

Prof. Daniel Kirkwood, LL. D.,

of Indiana University.

ASTRONOMICAL PROGRESS.

William H. Larrabee.

AURORA BOREALIS,
IGUANODON,

TIME, STANDARD AND COSMOPOLITAN,
and other articles.

Charles M. Lungren, C. E.
ELECTRIC LIGHTING,
GAS-LIGHTING,
RAILWAYS, ELECTRIC.

Frank H. Norton.
LITERATURE, BRITISH,
WORLD'S FAIRS.

George E. Pond,

Author of " The Shenandoah Valley tn 1864."
SHERIDAN, PHILIP -HENRY.

John Gilmary Shea, LL. D.
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.

T. O'Conor Sloane, Ph. D.
GAS,
PATENTS.

Prof. J. A. Spencer, D. D.

COLENSO. JOHN WILLIAM,
COOPER, PETER,
. LITERATURE, CONTINENTAL,
PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH,
and other articles.

Rev. John F. Thompson,

Editor of Salvation Army publications.
SALVATION ARMY.

I. de Veitelle.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC,
SPAIN.

William J. Youmans, M. D.,

of the Popular Science Monthly.
CHEMISTRY,
METALLURGY,
PHYSIOLOGY,

and other articles.

THE

ANNUAL CYCLOPEDIA.

A

AFGHANISTAN. Abdurrahman Khan, since
he was set up by the British as Amir of Af-
ghanistan, has struggled vigorously to con-
solidate the Afghan state and maintain his
rule over the loose league of turbulent clans
which form the Afghan nation. After the
withdrawal of the British army from Afghan-
istan, there was no hope of preserving a close
control over Abdurrahman, for as a puppet of
England he would immediately become impos-
sible. As the British nominee, he was left in
an exceedingly difficult position. The policy
of the Imperial Government was, to attempt
no dictation and make no exhibition of British
power in Afghanistan, nor even inquire too
closely into the loyalty and friendship of the
Amir, yet to supply him liberally with money
and war materials, at the expense of the In-
dian revenue, so as to enable him to buy or
compel the submission of his vassals. " A
strong, peaceful, and friendly Afghanistan "
was the aim of this policy, the friendship to
be won by large gifts and the renunciation of
British claims to domination, which would
encourage the Afghans to apply their united
strength to resist Russian encroachments. Ab-
durrahman gained possession of the fortress
of Herat, which is the bulwark of Afghanistan
on the west, by a prompt military movement.
His energy, or that of his lieutenants, broke
up the seemingly formidable power of his
cousin and rival, Ayub. Yet the undivided
authority of the Amir was not established in
Herat, nor can the Heratis be counted upon
in future complications to remain true either
to their allegiance to the Amir, or to their
political union with Southern Afghanistan.
Gen. Abdul Kudus Khan, who took possession
of Herat in the autumn of 1881, after the
defeat of Ayub, established himself there as
unlimited ruler, and by the mildness of his
government won the affections of the Herat!
people. Abdurrahman quickly re-established
the sovereignty of the Amir in Turkistan, or
Northern Afghanistan, as soon as he crossed

VOL. XXIII. — 1 A

the Oxns. This great province, embracing the
rich region on the northern slope of the Hindoo
Koosh, was given into the hands of the Amir's
cousin, Isa Khan, as a reward for his fidelity
to the cause of Abdurrahman while he was
still living as an exile in Samarcand. Isa Khan
objected to the appointment of his former sub-
ordinate, Kudus Khan, to the governorship of
Herat, which post he desired for his brother,
Mohsin. Abdurrahman would have been glad
to please his cousins and displace the danger-
ous officer who had implanted himself too firm-
ly in Herat, but he dared not put his authority
to the test. This caused an alienation between
the Amir and his viceroy in Turkistan. Both
the northern divisions of the country are thus
ruled by governors who are able and ready to
defy the commands of the Amir. The advanc-
ing influence of Russia finds there a field which
the misdirected efforts and sacrifices of the
British have helped to prepare for it.

In the southern parts of the country Abdur-
rahman has been but little more successful in
consolidating his power. In Cabool he rules in
state with the aid of British gold, and Canda-
har he holds with a tolerably firm hand. But
the maintenance of civil order in garrisoned
towns is a different thing from keeping in sub-
jection and restraint the Afghan people, which
is composed of warlike clans who have not
yet passed out of the tribal organization of
society, and who will accept none of the bur-
dens and pay none of the duties 'of civil gov-
ernment, except to unite in repelling a foreign
enemy. In 1883 the Shinwarris, a tribe in-
habiting the eastern side of the Sufed Koh
range, rebelled against the authority of the
Amir. Abdurrahman sent a force to reduce
them to subjection, but the military operations
accomplished nothing except to spread dis-
affection, and the rebellious agitation extended
to the neighboring clans, the Afridis and Mo-
munds. The Government of British India
came to the aid of the Amir with arms and
ammunition. Some of these were intercepted

ALABAMA.

at the Khyber pass. Tbe spirit of discontent
began to pervade the great Ghilzai nation, up-
on whose loyalty the power of the Ainir main-
ly rests. These warning signs impelled Abdur-
rahman not to strain his authority, and he ac-
cordingly withdrew the military and yielded
to the demands of the Shinwarris.

The British, seeing the power of the Amir
broken in the north and threatened in the
south, and knowing that the treasure which
they had given him three years before, with.
which he had established his position,- was
exhausted, thought they could strengthen his
hands to maintain his power and at the same
time secure his wavering and uncertain attach-
ment by coming to him in the hour of his need
with the promise of a stated annual allowance
sufficient to support his power and state. Pe-
cuniary gifts and subsidies have been a feature
of British policy in Afghanistan from the be-
ginning. Dost Mohammed received, by the
treaty of 1856, twelve lacs of rupees per an-
num during the war with Persia, besides large
occasional presents of money and arms. Shere
Ali was the recipient of lavish gifts of money
and munitions of war, and a treaty to bestow
on him a subsidy of twelve lacs a year was
in negotiation when his secret understanding
with Russia was discovered, and was declared.
Sir Louis Oavaguari, whose murder created a
fresh rupture, was the bearer of an offer to
Yakub Khan of half that amount per annum.
When the British set Abdurrahman on the
throne, they supplied him with treasure to the
amount of over thirty lacs of rupees, or nearly
a million and a half of dollars. The offer now
made to Abdurrahman by the Indian Govern-
ment, and accepted by him, was twelve lacs
of rupees per annum. The payment of this
large subsidy is conditional on his conforming
his external policy to the wishes and interests
of the British Empire.

ALABAMA. State Government.— The following
were the State officers during the year: Gov-
ernor, Edward A. O'Neal, Democrat ; Secre-
tary of State, Ellis Phelan ; Treasurer, Fred-
erick II. Smith ; Auditor, Jesse M. Carmichael ;
Attorney-General, Henry 0. Tompkins ; Su-
perintendent of Public Instruction, Henry C.
Armstrong. Judiciary, Supreme Court — Chief-
Justice, Robert C. Brickell; Associate Justices,
George W. Stone and II. M. Somerville.

Legislative Session. — The Legislature, which
w:n in session at the beginning of the year,
adjourned near the close of February. Perhaps
the most important act of the session was one
"to provide for the assessment and collec-
tion of taxes for the use of this State and the
counties thereof, and to define the duties of
officers engaged about the said assessment and
collection of taxes."

It provides a complete system, and contains
stringent provisions requiring individuals and

Another systematic act fixes the rate of poll
and other taxes, the amount and kind of license
fees, and defines the classes of taxable property.
By an act "to establish a Department of Ag-
riculture for the State of Alabama," a depart-
ment of agriculture is created and established
" which shall be under the management and
control of the Commissioner of Agriculture,
who shall be a practical and experienced agri-
culturist. Said commissioner shall be appointed
by the Governor, and shall hold his office for
the term of two years, and until his successor
is appointed and qualified."

An act u to assist the University of Alabama,
and the State Agricultural and Mechanical Col-
lege, in furnishing additional room for students
and facilities for instruction," appropriates the
sum of $90,000. It was further enacted that
" landlords of storehouses, dwelling-houses, and
other buildings shall have a lien for rent, upon
such goods, furniture, and effects as may belong
to the tenant, and that this lien shall be a supe-
rior lien to all other liens on said goods, except
for taxes."

An act " to prevent monopolies in the trans-
portation of freight, and to secure free and fair
competition in the same," provides that " it
shall be unlawful for two or more railroad com-
panies or persons operating railroads in this
State to enter into any agreement among them-
selves, directly or indirectly, for the division
among themselves of the freight-carrying busi-
ness at any station, town, or city in this State,
or into any pool arrangement among themselves
of the nature and character aforesaid, the ob-
ject, purpose, and effect of which in either event
shall be to prevent free and fair competition
among said railroad companies or persons oper-
ating said railroads, for said freight-carrying
business, and to establish extortionate rates in
favor of said companies or persons in doing
said business, and which shall have the effect
of being in undue restraint of the trade and
business at any such station, town, or city of
this State " ; that u it is the true intent and mean-
ing of this act that any such agreement rates
or pool agreement made by any convention or
association of freight agents, or commissioner
of freight rates or rate-making committee out-
side of this State, but to be performed in whole
or in part in this State, shall as to such part of
the same as is to be performed within this
State, come within the provisions of this act."

Other acts were entitled as follows:

To regulate the hiring and treatment of State and
county convicts.

To regulate the business of co-operative and mu-
tual aid and relief associations, societies, and cor-
porations.

To amend an act to revive and complete the Geo-
logical and Agricultural Survey of the State of Ala-
bama.

To provide for the introduction of the study of the
laws of health in the public schools of this State.

To authorize railroad companies organized under
the general incorporation laws to extend their lines
and build branch roads.

To vacate and annul the charter and dissolve the

ALABAMA.

ANGLICAN CHUEOHES.

3

corporation of the city of Selma, and to provide for
the application of the assets thereof to the payment of
the debts thereof.

To prevent cruelty to animals.

To empower the Railroad Commission of Alabama
to recommend joint local rates on freight to railroad
companies and persons operating railroads in this
State.

To provide for the comfort and accommodation of
oassengers at each of the passenger depots along the
line of every railroad operated by every railroad com-
pany in this State.

To provide that a determination of any matter by
the Kailroad Commission within its jurisdiction shall
be prima facie evidence- that such determination was

right and proper, etc.

To confer police po
passenger-trams in this

wers upon the conductors of
passenger-trains in this State.

To make appropriations for the payment of the rail-
road commissioners and their clerk, and for other ex-
penses of the Eailroad Commission.

To incorporate the inhabitants and territory for-
merly embraced within the corporate limits of the
municipal corporation, since dissolved, styled the city
of Selma, and to establish a local government therefor.

To authorize private corporations to hold stock-
holders' and directors' meetings outside of this State
in certain cases.

The amount of appropriations for the fiscal
year was $1,120,435.

Statistics. — The total taxable property in Ala-
bama in the year 1881, on which the tax
for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1882,
was collected, is $152,880,069.24. Of this
amount the railroads of the State furnished
$17,574,583. The total railroad mileage in
Alabama is, main track, 1,788 miles; side-track,
131 miles— 1,919 in all. The total valuation of
track is $15,801,829.78; of rolling-stock, $1,-
762,753.89. 'The average value of the main
track is $8,643 per mile. Of the several rail-
roads in the State, the Nashville and Decatur
has the highest valuation, it being $14,000 per
mile. Of the whole taxable property, the rail-
roads furnish over 11 per cent. Variations in
land values, shown by the Auditor's report, are
as numerous as the counties in the State. In
Baldwin, the value is 65 cents per acre. Even
in so rich a county as Barbour, the valuation
is only $3.50 per acre ; in Cherokee, $4.50 ; in
Escambia, less than 50 cents ; in Eto wah, $6.50 ;
in Limestone, $5.11; in Lowndes, $5.06; in
Madison, $6 ; in Marshall, over $4 ; in Wash-
ington, less than 50 cents.

The whole tax raised on property that reached
the Treasury in the fiscal year ending Septem-
ber 30, 1882, was $651,156.83. Of this amount
the five counties in the State paying over $20,-
000 apiece contributed $254,351.56, or 39 per
cent. The amounts paid by each of these coun-
ties were as follow :

Mobile $93,917 23

Montgomery 71 059 34

Dallas 36,535 23

Jefferson 27,255 35

Madison 25,58441

The county coming next to these, but pay-
ing less than $20,000, is Barbour, with $19",-
185.30. The amount of licenses paid by these
five counties is $25,998.90, or 36 per cent of
the whole amount of license-tax. The amount

of tax retained in these five counties for the
school fund, which of course never reached the
State treasury, was $43,435.25, or over 19 per
cent, of the whole school fund.

Adding to the tax of the counties mentioned
that of Barbour, Bullock, Jackson, Lowndes,
Talladega, and Tuscaloosa, all of which pay
over $15,000, we have the eleven counties in
the State which pay over $15,000 in direct
taxes, paying considerably more than half the
entire property-tax of $651,156.83. The black
belt is still by far the richest portion of the
State, especially if we include those black coun-
ties which are not in the black belt proper.

The entire tax paid by Montgomery county,
for general purposes, for the school fund, from
licenses and from general taxes, aggregated
$93,383.75. The whole amount paid by Mobile
county was $109,620.64. The next highest was
Dallas, with $40,983. Of the $651,156.83 paid
into the treasury from the tax on property,
Montgomery and Mobile paid $164,976.57, or
about one fourth.

Congressional Election,— On the 2d of January,
Gen. Joseph Wheeler was elected, by a major-
ity of 3,846, to fill the vacancy in the 8th dis-
trict, caused by the death of Mr. Lowe.

Miscellaneous. — In February, Walter L. Bragg
was chosen President of the Railroad Com-
mission. James Crook and Charles P. Ball
were chosen members. In January, State
Treasurer Isaac H. Vincent absconded, leav-
ing a deficit of about $212,000.

ALGERIA. See FRANCE.

AMSTERDAM EXPOSITION. See WORLD'S FAIR
AT AMSTERDAM.

ANGLICAN CHURCHES. An exhibit of the
work of the Church of England, and the vari-
ous societies co-operating with it, is given in
"The Official Year-Book of the Church of
England," the first volume of which was pub-
lished in 1883, under the sanction of the Arch-
bishops and Bishops of the English, Irish, and
Scottish Churches, and of the lower house of
the Convocation of Canterbury. The present
number of dioceses in the Church of England,
including the two archdioceses, is thirty-two.
With them are connected 17,970 clergymen, of
whom 11,186 are registered as "incumbents
resident," 1,509 as "incumbents non-resi-
dent," 387 as "curates in sole charge," and
4,888 as "assistant curates." In communion
with the Church of England are the Church
of Ireland, having twelve dioceses; the Epis-
copal Church of Scotland, having seven dio-
ceses ; sixty colonial dioceses in America, Asia,
Africa, Australasia, New Zealand, and other
colonial settlements, and the Protestant Epis-
copal Church in the United States. (See the
article on PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH.)
The official records of the several dioceses of
the Church of England show the number of
ordinations to the order of deacons, during the
ten years ending in 1881, to have been 6,560.
The number of confirmations during the same
period was 1,471,718. Five general societies,

ANGLICAN CHURCHES.

two of them dating from the last century, aid
theological students requiring pecuniary help ;
besides which a few diocesan societies exist for
the same purpose, and special funds are set
apart in some of the theological schools. Spe-
cial theological training is given at ten theo-
logical schools, besides the universities. The
Society for Promoting the Employment of
Additional Curates returns an income of
£42,686, and supports, in whole or in part,
620 clergymen ; the Church Pastoral Aid So-
ciety, existing with the similar purpose of in-
creasing the number of clergymen and lay
agents, returns an income of £55,659, and
maintains, wholly or in part, 540 clergymen
and 168 lay agents. Besides these societies
and similar diocesan organizations, societies
exist within the Church, whose object it is to
support agencies supplementary to clerical
work ; and numerous special mission agencies
are maintained in all the large centers of popu-
lation, and among particular classes of work-
ingmen, wherever they are congregated; in
the army and navy; among British seamen
abroad, at seventy foreign ports; among the
fishermen of the Mersey and the Thames;
among navvies, or laborers on works of pub-
lic improvement; among hop-pickers; among
homeless and friendless women and girls and
abandoned women; among emigrants collect-
ed at ports of embarkation preparatory to
sailing; and among the miscellaneous popu-
lations of the lower classes in the larger towns
and cities.

According to the report presented by Lord
Hampton in the House of Lords in 1874, 1,727
churches and 27 cathedrals had been built, and
7,117 churches restored, from 1840 to that time,
at a total cost of £25,548,703. According to a
later return, the sum of £4,326,469 was spent
in thirteen dioceses upon church building and
restoration between 1872 and 1881. Among
the larger funds in aid of this purpose are that
of the Incorporated Church Building Society,
which has expended for it £785,859 since 1818,
and which granted £13,690 in 1881, and the
Bishop of London's Fund, applicable to the
diocese of London alone, of which £588,412
were spent during the eighteen years ending
with 1881. The Ecclesiastical Commissioners
were the means of securing through their own
grants and the benefactions that were called
out to meet them, between 1840 and 1880, a
total increase in the incomes of benefices of
£765,500, representing a capital sum of about
£23,000,000 ; and during 1881 they made 347
grants, amounting to £26,270, to maintain as-
sistant clergy in twenty dioceses. The Free
and Open Church Association seeks to multi-
ply free sittings in churches ; to spread the doc-
trine that the offertory is an obligation " for
which there is a direct scriptural warrant";
and to have the churches opened daily for pri-
vate prayer. It is also prepared to receive and
hold trust gifts for building, endowing, and re-
pairing free-seated churches, and to accept in

trust, exercise, and dispose of the patronage of
benefices.

The Church of England Temperance Society,
formed in 1862, has organizations in twenty-
nine dioceses, twenty-six of which return 2,443
bran ch societies. Steps have been taken in later
years for making the cathedrals more accessible
to the people, and introducing into them ser-
vices adapted to popular wants, and for encour-
aging the employment of lay-readers and as-
signing them a recognized place in the service
of the church. Much attention has also been
given to the sending out of earnest men and per-
suasive speakers to interest the masses in reli-
gious concerns, or in the work of what are called
" Parochial Missions." The Church Parochial
Mission Society, organized in 1873, supports
eight preachers, and reported, in 1881, that
more than 500 missions had been held by its
agents. Similar enterprises are sustained by a
number of diocesan organizations. Nine dea-
conesses' institutions have been formed in dif-
ferent dioceses, as homes for women who will
devote themselves to religious work and the
care of the sick. They returned, in 1881, 190
nurses domiciled within them. The National
Society for Promoting theEducation of the Poor
in the Principles of the Established Church has
spent, since its formation, in 1811, more than
£1,100,000 in furtherance of its object, involv-
ing, according to the statement of its secretary,
an expenditure of at least twelve times as much
from other sources, for the same end. In 1881
it returned 11,589 efficient church schools un-
der government inspection, which afforded ac-
commodation for 2,351,235 children, or more
than half the school accommodation of the
country. Thirty colleges have been established
for the training of teachers, in which two thirds
of the entire number of trained teachers in the
country have received their professional edu-
cation. Provision is made for the religious in-
spection of the schools under the direction of
the bishops in the several dioceses, and for the
regular examination of students in religious
knowledge. A society of fellows of a college
has been formed for the promotion of middle-
class schools; and eight such schools provide
for the education of more than two thousand
boys and girls. The interests of Sunday-schools
are cared for by the Church of England Sun-
day-School Institute, which publishes returns
from 8,405 of the 14,466 parishes in England
and Wales, of 16,498 Sunday-schools with 113,-
412 teachers and 1,289,273 enrolled scholars.
The tendencies of modern thought which are
described under the general term of " secu-
larism" are opposed by the Christian Evi-
dence Society, in which the Church co-op-
erates with other denominations, and which
works by means of conferences and meet-
ings, sermons, lectures, open-air lectures, in-
struction of classes, publication and other agen-
cies ; and by the Christian Evidence Committee
of the Society for the Promotion of Christian
Knowledge.

ANGLICAN CHURCHES.

Missionary Societies. — The principal foreign
missionary societies of the Church are the " So-
ciety for the Propagation of the Gospel in
Foreign Parts,1' which was organized in 1701
and has missions in all the British colonies
among colonists and natives ; the " Church
Missionary Society for India and the East,"
organized in ] 799, and having missions, chiefly
to the heathen, in West, East, and Central Af-
rica, Palestine, Persia, India, Ceylon, Mauri-
tius, China, Japan, New Zealand, Northwest
America, and the North Pacific coast and isl-
ands ; the Zenana Missionary Society, affiliated
with the Church Missionary Society, and labor-
ing among women exclusively; the South Amer-
ican Missionary Society, founded in 1844, and
having missions in the southern part of South
America and among Indians of the Patagonian
race ; the Universities Mission to Central Afri-
ca, founded in 1859, especially to take care of
Africans freed by the British Government from
slavery, and having its center of operations at
Zanzibar and in the neighboring regions of
Africa; the Oxford Mission to Calcutta, or-
ganized in 1880 ; the Cambridge Mission to
North India, formed in 1876; the Indian Church
Aid Association, formed in 1880; the mission
in the Diocese of Maritzburg, South Africa ; the
Melanesian Mission, begun in 1848 ; the Colo-
nial and Continental Church Society, for pro-
viding clergymen, teachers, etc., for the colo-
nies of Great Britain, and to minister to British
residents in other parts of the world ; and the
Anglo-Continental Society, instituted in 1853,
" to serve as an organ of the Church of Eng-
land in dealing with Christians outside of Eng-
land." Six special colleges or mission-houses ex-
ist for the training of missionaries, and twenty
"Missionary Studentship Associations" have
been formed in different dioceses.

The Colonial Bishopric's Fund was founded
in 1841, to promote the growth of the Church
in the colonies and distant dependencies of the
British Crown, by securing the endowment of
bishoprics in them. From its foundation to
1882 it had been the means of raising £635,311
toward the endowment of forty-one sees.

The London Society for Promoting Chris-
tianity among the Jews was founded in 1809,
and has been distinctively a Church of Eng-
land institution since 1815. It seeks to extend
its labors among the people of the Hebrew race
wherever they may be found, and has mission
stations in England, Austria, France, Germany,
Holland, > Italy, Persia, Poland, Turkey, the
Principalities, Asia Minor, Syria, and North
America, with a special station, comprising
schools, an inquirer's home, a house of indus-
try, and a hospital at Jerusalem. It promotes
the circulation of the Hebrew Bible, of a trans-
lation of the liturgy of the Church of England,
and of controversial works, and maintains
schools in London, Warsaw, Bucharest, and
Jerusalem. It reports that 360 Israelites had
been baptized at Warsaw before the mission
was broken up, and 767 adults and 784 chil-

dren had been baptized in London up to 1881.
Its missionaries estimate that there are now
2,000 Christian Israelites in London, and proba-
bly a thousand more in other parts of England,
and that there are nearly 5,000 Jewish Chris-
tians in Prussia.

The ordinary increase of the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts
for 1882 was £109,041. Including £33,571 ad-
ditional of gifts for special purposes, the gross
receipts were £142,612. The general fund had
increased £7,805 in two years. Five hundred
and twenty-seven ordained ministers were em-
ployed by the society, of whom 161 were labor-
ing in Asia, 129 in Africa, 20 in Australia and
the Pacific, 216 in America and the West Indies,
and one in Europe. There were also in the va-
rious missions about 1,400 catechists and lay
teachers, mostly natives, and about 300 students
in colleges. An important change had been
made in the constitution and administration
of the society. A supplemental charter granted
by the Crown had removed the various anoma-
lies which in the course of 181 years had sur-
rounded the ancient charter ; and the incor-
porated members scattered over the whole
country now possessed by representation that
power in the conduct of the society's affairs
which a very large proportion of them had not
previously enjoyed.

The ordinary income of the Church Mission-
ary Society for 1882 was £200,402 ; including
in addition the special gifts, the gross receipts
amounted to £225,231. The total expenditures
were £215,483. Missionary work was carried
on at 206 stations, under the agency of 227
European ordained missionaries, 244 native
clergy, 44 European lay missionaries, 3,106 na-
tive lay agents. Of 182,000 native Christian
adherents reported, 37,391 were communicants.
New work had been taken up, or extended,
at the Afghan frontier, at Kok-Ning-Fu in the
Fuhkien province of China, among the Esqui-
maux, at Bagdad, and at Cairo, Egypt, to the
Mohammedans. A gift of £72,000 had been
received from Mr. W. 0. Jones f or a " William
Charles Jones China and Japan Native Church
and Mission Fund."

Convocation of Canterbury. — Both houses of the
Convocation of Canterbury met for business,
for the first time in the year, April 10th. A
minute was unanimously adopted in the upper
house, with the expectation that the lower
house would concur in it, taking notice of the
death of the late archbishop. A "statement"
was then made by the committee, to whom
had been referred the question of the attitude
the Church should assume with reference to
the movements of the Salvation Army! The
archbishop represented "in behalf of the com-
mittee that it had not been found possible to
make any definite statement or recommenda-
tion on the subject, as the committee consid-
ered that the movements of the organization
were still in a transitory condition, and he sug-
gested that the committee should be consti-

ANGLICAN CHURCHES.

toted as one of inquiry rather than as a com-
mittee to make any report or recommendation.
In the course of the discussion which followed,
while some of the bishops thought that the
Salvation Army was doing a good work in par-
ticular places, and others conceded that its
promoters were actuated by good intentions
and motives, the general expression of opinion
was, that many of the methods employed by it
were unhealthful and likely to lead to immo-
rality. The committee was reconstituted, and
instructed to consider whether the Church
should take any steps having particular refer-
ence to the unsatisfactory spiritual state of
large masses of the population, especially in the
towns.

The subject of the " Affirmation Bill," which
was pending in Parliament, was brought be-
fore the lower house upon a recommendation
of a committee that the members of the upper
house be requested to oppose the bill. A mo-
tion was offered in amendment that their lord-
ships be requested to watch the progress of
the bill through the Houses of Parliament, in
order to prevent its being enacted with retro-
spective powers. Some of the members of the
house expressed a preference of affirmations
to oaths, on grounds of principle. Canon
Gregory contended that the real question was,
whether the house was anxious to support the
introduction into Parliament of Mr. Bradlaugh,
or whether they were anxious to prevent peo-
ple of that description from polluting the legis-
lature of the country. Prebendary Stephens
considered that oath-taking was most injurious,
in that it had a pernicious tendency to cause a
belief in two kinds of truth — oath-truth and
ordinary truth. The proposal of the committee
was agreed to.

The convocation met again on July 3d. The
following address to the upper house was adopt-
ed in the lower house :

The lower house of Convocation of the Province of
Canterbury, in humble thankfulness to Almighty
God for the rejection by the House of Lords on Thurs-

day, June 28, 1S83; of the bill for legalizing marriage
witli a deceased wife's sister, make this their dutiful
representation and prayer to the upper house.

They represent that there is reason to apprehend
un immediate renewal of the agitation upon this ques-
tion.

^ That, inasmuch as holy matrimony is the founda-
tion of human society ; and inasmuch as there is a
wide-spread ignorance of the principles of Christian
marriage, the lower house, as in love and duty bound,
turn- to the Archbishop and Bishops in Convocation
assembled ; earnestly praying them to exhort all who
have cure of souls in the "province of Canterbury to
set forth plainly, from time to time, in their addresses
to their flocks the aforesaid principles ; as embodied
in the Table of Prohibited Degjrees, in the 99th Can-
on, and in the form of Solemnization of Matrimony ;
and, in particular, to remind their people that the
union of a man with his wife's sister has been forbid-
den by the Church of Christ from the beginning, as
being contrary to the Word of God.

The lower house venture further to call special at-
tention to the injury which would be done to the
moral and spiritual welfare of the English people •
also to the disruption of domestic and social relations
necessarily involved in the success of the agitation

above referred to; and, lastly, to the grave conse-
quences which must ensue if the law of the Church
and the law of the state be brought into open opposi-
tion.

The subject was referred in the upper house
to a committee, whose report, which was
adopted, besides minutely setting forth the con-
siderations on which the action was based,
embodied a resolution to the effect that u this
house concurs with the lower house in their
earnest desire for the maintenance in its integ-
rity of the Table of Prohibited Degrees, set
forth in the year of our Lord 1563, in order to be
publicly set up in churches by the 99th canon."
A resolution was adopted that the Church,
" though always insisting on the use of wine in
the holy communion, has never prescribed the
strength or the weakness of the wine to be
used, and consequently it is always possible to
deal with even extreme cases without depart-
ure from the custom observed by the Church,
and it is most convenient that the clergy should
conform to ancient and unbroken usage, and
to discountenance all attempts to deviate from
it."

Enthronement of the Archbishop of Canterbury. —
The Eev. Edward White Benson, D. D., Bishop
of Truro, having been nominated by the Queen,
was formally elected Archbishop of Canterbury
at a special session of the Dean and Chapter of
the See, Jan. 28th. The election was confirmed
by the Bishop of London and a commission of
bishops of the Southern Province, March 3d.
The new archbishop was enthroned with im-
posing ceremonies at the Cathedral of Canter-
bury, March 29th. The proceedings were par-
ticipated in or witnessed by a large assemblage
of clergy and laity, and home, colonial, and
foreign bishops, among whom the Duke of
Edinburgh represented the royal family, and
Bishop Littlejohn. of Long Island, the Protes-
tant Episcopal Church in the United States.

The Ritualistic Controversy.— The late Arch-
bishop Tait, of Canterbury, a short time before
Ins death, in December, 1882, had devised and
partly carried into effect a plan for indirectly
removing from the courts the suit against the
Rev. A. H. Mackonochie, of St. Alban's, who
was still under prosecution for contumacy,
hoping that one of the results of his action
might be to help allay the ritualistic agitation.
He induced Mr. Mackonochie to resign his bene-
fice in the interest of the peace of the Church,
while the Bishop of London offered him an-
other benefice, that of St. Peter's, London
Docks, at the same time transferring the in-
cumbent of that benefice to Mr. Mackonochie's
former parish of St. Alban's. The Church As-
sociation refused to acquiesce in this proceed-
ing. It published a statement showing that
illegal acts were still practiced at St. Alban's
and St. Peter's, and addressed resolutions of
protest against the fulfillment by the Bishop of
London of the compromise which had been
arranged. The Bishop of London replied to
these resolutions :

ANGLICAN CHURCHES.

If, by refusing to accept Mr. Mackonochie's resig-
nation, I had defeated the late archbishop's dying
desire and effort to promote the peace of the Church,
I could never have forgiven myself"; nor could I have
expected the forgiveness of the great bulk either of
the clergy or of the laity of England, whether within
the Church or without it. I am not aware that the
bishop has the power to require from a duly qualified
clergyman, the sufficiency of whose learning he has
no reason to doubt, any conditions of admission to a
benefice, when presented by the rightful patron, other
than the production of testimonials signed by three
beueficed clergymen and the oaths and declarations
prescribed by law.

If there are those who, knowing as I do the good
and self-denying work done among the poor and igno-
rant by such men as Mr. Mackonocnie and the late Mr.
Lowder, are yet, on account of differences in disci-
pline and doctrine (the seriousness of which I do not
wish to extenuate), unable to appreciate or afraid to
acknowledge it, I can not sympathize with them— 1
can only pity them.

A memorial was addressed to the bishop by
the Canons of Durham, Peterborough, Carlisle,
and Ripon, and others, in which exception was
taken to the institution of Mr. Mackonochie,
because by reason of it the recent legal de-
cisions against ritual (ritual openly acknowl-
edged to be preparatory to the restoration of
the sacrifice of the mass) had apparently been
rendered nugatory; because by it disloyalty to
the formularies, articles, and homilies of the
Church of England had received tacit encour-
agement from her highest officers; becauss his
lordship's action in the matter would appear to
the public to be inconsistent with law and or-
der; and because the illegalities of ceremony
which had been practiced at St. Alban's would
seem to them to have received episcopal sanc-
tion and approval. Hence a most injurious
effect would be produced upon the Church and
nation, an.l a strong weapon placed in the
hands of the enemies of the Church of Eng-
land, for the furtherance of their designs to
procure its disestablishment.

Mr. Mackonochie was formally installed in
the benefice of St. Peter's, London Docks, on
Jan. 21st, when he read himself into the vicar-
ship and subscribed to the Thirty-nine Articles
of the Church of England.

The suit against Mr. Mackonochie, which
had been before the law courts in various
phases for nearly fifteen years, was contin-
ued, notwithstanding the exchange of bene-
fices which it was hoped would lead to a
cessation of proceedings. The final judgment
in the case, by Lord Penzance, was given
July 21st. • The question before his lordship
was now whether Mr. Mackonochie should
be deprived of all ecclesiastical promotions in
the province of Canterbury. The defendant
had been admonished by the Court of Arches
repeatedly for his illegal ritualistic practices
at St. Alban's, Holborn, and had treated the
orders of the court with contempt. He had
therefore been ordered to be committed. In
the mean time an exchange of livings had been
effected between Mr. Mackonochie and the
Rev. Mr. Suckling, incumbent of St. Peter's,
London Docks. The case was remitted to the

Dean of Arches by the Judicial Committee of
the Privy Council for a " definitive sentence "
to be passed, it having been decided that a
sentence of suspension would be inadequate,
because it had once before been pronounced,
and Mr. Mackonochie had discharged it, and
that a sentence of deprivation was the only
one applicable. In the present case, however,
the issue was more complicated than usual,
the ordinary form of sentence being inapplica-
ble in consequence of the defendant having
ceased to hold the living of St. Alban's, Hoi-
born, in which the offense had been com-
mitted. The court had to consider whether a
decree of deprivation had become impracticable
by the course the defendant had adopted of re-
signing the benefice with respect to which the
suit had been instituted. After a careful ex-
amination of authorities, Lord Penzance came
to the conclusion that it, had not. A depri-
vation of the defendant was then decreed from
all his ecclesiastical promotions in the province
of Canterbury, among which is included the
living of St. Peter's, London Docks. An ap-
peal may still lie to the Privy Council.

The parish of St. John's, Miles Platting, hav-
ing become vacant by the deprivation of the
Rev. S. F. Green for contumacy in ritualism,
the patron of the benefice presented the Rev.
Mr. Cow gill, Mr. Green's former vicar, for the
incumbency. The Bishop of Manchester re-
fused to institute Mr. Cowgill unless he would
obligate himself to conform to the cathedral
standard of services, and this Mr. Cowgill, in
turn, refused to do. The patron notified the
bishop that if he persisted in his refusal to
institute Mr. Cowgill, he (the patron) would
be driven to one of two alternatives : either to
seek in a court of law to protect his right of
patronage, which he, had exercised to the best
of his judgment, or to ask Mr. Green to re-
ceive back his resignation, the bishop having
refused to accept it, and to take his old place
at the rectory. The bishop replied that he
saw nothing in the patron's letter to modify
or change the resolution he had come to not
to institute Mr. Cowgill, and added : " I deeply
regret that it should be so ; but there is a
peace which may be too dearly purchased, and
in my opinion it would be so in this instance
if it were purchased by the surrender of all
law and authority in the administration of the
discipline of the Church of England." Ad-
dresses expressing sympathy with him, and
satisfaction at his course, were sent to the
bishop from different sources, to one of which
he replied :

With you, in the course which I have felt it my
duty to pursue, I " desire no party triumph." _ But the
principle of obedience to law, when authoritatively
declared, seems to me to need to be vindicated ; and
again I agree with you in thinking that to institute to
a benefice a clergyman who would continue the same
illegal ceremonial acts for which the former incum-
bent had been deprived, would be a stultification of
the law which the common sense of the country would
not tolerate. If I am wrong in my conception of my
duty, the law, which is appealed to, will set me right,

8

ANGLICAN CHURCHES.

and to its decision, when duly pronounced, I am pre-
pared to bow. Meanwhile, I am anxious, as far as
may be, without raising partisan passion or animosity,
calmly to await that decision.

To another address he replied :

My course of action has not been dictated by any
desire to strain the principles of episcopal authority,
but simply to secure obedience to the law, as the only
guarantee of the stability of our beloved church, and,
indeed, of the rights and liberties of churchmen.

In May, the Archbishop of York issued a
monition to the Rev. G. C. Ommanney, Vicar
of St. Matthew's, Sheffield, directing him to
discontinue eight specified ritualistic prac-
tices. The archbishop's requirements were
as follow :

1. To use pure wine, and not wine mixed with water,
in the holy communion. 2. To use ordinary wheaten
bread in all celebrations of the holy communion, and
not bread pressed so as to resemble wafer bread. 3. So
to proceed in the acts of the holy communion that the
congregation may see his acts. 4. To refrain from pros-
trating or bowing low over the elements at the time of
celebration. 5. To refrain from making the sign of the
cross over the elements at the time of celebration. 6. To
discontinue the ceremonial of elevation of the paten and
the cup. 7. To permit no person not licensed by the
archbishop to officiate in any manner at the holy com-
munion , whether such person be caDed server or by any
other title; and 8. That the washing and cleaning of the
vessels used in the holy communion shall not take place
in the service, but in some place apart.

The observance of these rules was demanded
in virtue of the vicar's promise of canonical
obedience. Mr. Ommanney, in a published let-
ter, declared that he did not intend to abandon
the eastward position, the mixing of water and
wine at the communion, and the washing of the
chalice ; but that, in order to promote peace in
his parish, he was willing to give up making
the sign of the cross and other practices that
did not interfere with his conscientious con-
victions.

The Archbishop of York, in a letter to the
church- wardens of the parish on the subject
of the monition, pointed out that no person
had a right to interfere and put a stop by force
to ceremonies in churches.

Reorganization of Ecclesiastical Courts.— A royal
commission was appointed in May, 1881, to
inquire into the constitution and working of
the ecclesiastical courts under existing stat-
utes. The principal object of its work was to
frame a plan for such a reconstitution of the
courts having cognizance of ecclesiastical mat-
ters as would remove the objections entertained
by a large party in the Church to having ques-
tions of doctrine and ritual decided by lay
judges. An analysis of the report of the com-
mission was published in August. The essen-
tial features of the scheme proposed in it are
the establishment of an exclusively ecclesiasti-
cal jurisdiction in the courts of first instance
and the postponement of the intervention of
lay authority to the court of final resort. Un-
der its provisions, the Diocesan Court and the
Provincial Court, which were practically de-
stroyed by the Public Worship Regulation Act,
will be restored to their original vitality.

While by the Public Worship Regulation Act
the co-operation in prosecution of three ag-
grieved parishioners was required as initiatory
to the beginning of proceedings against a cler-
gyman charged with offending in doctrine or
ritual, the act proposed by the commission
makes the right to begin an action open to
any one, and unrestricted. It is then left dis-
cretionary with the bishop whether he shall
allow the complaint to be prosecuted or shall
stop it at once. If it is allowed to proceed, the
bishop may, with the consent of the parties,
deliver a final judgment ; if this consent is not
given, the case is carried before the Diocesan
Court. This court will consist of the bishop,
with the chancellor of the diocese, or some
other person learned in the law, as legal as-
sessor, and a theological assessor to be chosen
for the occasion by the bishop, with the ad-
vice of the dean and chapter. From this court
an appeal may be taken to the Provincial
Court, where it may be heard, at the discre-
tion of the archbishop, by the official principal
of the province, or by the archbishop himself,
with the official principal as assessor, in which
case the archbishop is empowered to appoint
any number of theological assessors, not ex-
ceeding five, to sit with the court. The theo-
logical assessor must be either a bishop within
the province, or a professor, past or present, of
one of the English universities. From the
Provincial Court an appeal will lie to the
Crown, which is to exercise its prerogative
through an entirely new court, composed of
" a permanent body of lay judges, learned in
the law," of whom not less than five shall be
summoned for each case, by the lord chancel-
lor, in rotation. In doctrinal cases, this court
may, only on demand of one or more of its
members, consult experts, namely, the arch-
bishop or bishops of the province, or of both
provinces. The court shall not be bound to
give the reasons for its decisions ; but, if it does
state its reasons, each judge shall deliver his
own judgment separately ; and only the bare
words of the decree shall be legally binding.
On this feature of the proposition, the report
furnishes the explanation: "Considering how
widely different a matter the legal interpreta-
tion of documents must often be from the defi-
nition of doctrine, we hold it to be essential
that only the actual decree, as dealing with the
particular case, should be of binding authority
in the judgments hitherto or hereafter to be
delivered, and that the reasoning in support of
those judgments and the obiter dicta should
always be allowed to be reconsidered and dis-
puted." Should a clergyman refuse to obey
the sentence of a church court, he is to be pun-
ished, not by imprisonment, but by a tempo-
rary suspension. A second disobedience shall
be followed by another suspension, and diso-
bedience for the third time by suspension until
the court is satisfied. Disobedience to a sen-
tence of suspension may be visited, after three
months' notice, with deprivation ; and any cler-

ANGLICAN CHURCHES.

9

gyman who, during suspension or deprivation,
attempts to conduct divine service in a church
forbidden to him, may be charged with dis-
turbance of public worship. The practical
effect of the act, if it is adopted by Parliament,
will be to repeal the Public Worship Regula-
tion Act, and restore the old courts to their
pristine vigor. By its provisions, the Dean of
Arches is to be elected, and to be required to
qualify in the ancient way. All spiritual sen-
tences are to be pronounced by the bishop in
person in the Diocesan Court, and by the arch-
bishop in the Provincial Court. And the two
primates are to be empowered, if they think
fit, to appoint the same person as official prin-
cipal for both provinces.

Some of the features of the scheme of the
commission have been criticised in the dis-
cussions to which it has been subjected. Eight
of the 23 members of the commission itself ex-
pressed objections to the power of vetoing the
continuance of proceedings given by it to the
bishop. Among these are the Lord Chief-
Justice and the Archbishop of York. The
archbishop remarked, in expressing his dissent,
that under the operation of this rule the courts
might be entirely closed to laymen. The Lord
Chief-Justice, while he admitted that the power
of prosecution might be liable to abuse, if no
trammels were put upon it, thought it better
to run the risk of abuse than to override the
rights of the laity, and expressed himself per-
fectly confident that "competent judges, with
absolute power of costs, would very soon re-
strain, and indeed altogether put an end to
merely frivolous litigation." Similar objec-
tions were made by the Church Association,
which devoted the entire session, of its autum-
nal conference in October to the discussion of
the report. Besides this point, a number of
speakers at the Church Congress, and the chair-
man of the Church Association, offered objec-
tions to the feature of the constitution of the
final court of laymen. The Executive Com-
mittee of the Liberation Society has published
a statement of objections to the proposed
measure. It deprecates the investment with
judicial authority of bishops and judges ap-
pointed by the archbishops, so long as the
Church continues fo be a national establish-
ment, and protests against the recommendation
that the members of the courts shall declare
themselves to be " members of the Church of
England as by law established," as involving a
civil disqualification on ecclesiastical grounds,
as placing members of the Church of England
on a different footing from Nonconformists in
regard to the administration of justice, and as
being inconsistent with the position of .that
Church as a national institution.

The Liberation Society.— The triennial confer-
ence of the Liberation Society was held May
1st. Mr. H. P. Richard, M. P., presided. The
report represented that the friends of religious
equality, who had waited during the abnormal
pressure on Parliament, now claimed that the

question of disestablishment should be dealt
with by the Legislature. The educational work
of the society during the past three years had
been carried on on a large scale. As many as
3,074,000 publications had been issued, and
1,247 meetings had been held. During the
course of the meetings Mr. John Bright made
a speech censuring the Established Church for
inefficiency. He discussed the questions, Is
the state the better for its union with the
Church? or is the Church the better for its
union with the state ? The theory of many
supporters of the union was that the Church
tends to make the state more Christian — that
is, more just and gentle, more merciful and
peaceful. That theory the speaker declared
to be "unsound and baseless." The bishops
of the Established Church in the House of
Lords had never exercised their influence in
behalf of Christian and generous legislation.
In respect to the criminal code, when it was
most barbarous, the bishops and the clergy
never raised a voice against the cruelty of the
laws. The Church had provided no check, and
uttered no denunciation of the country's inces-
sant wars. " I complain, then," he added, u of
the Established Church in this broad manner,
that it does nothing to guide the state in the
way of righteousness; that it is, in certain re-
spects, the bond-slave of the state ; that, in all
the great matters which must affect our coun-
try, the bishops and the clergy are dumb, and
their activity is shown only when any com-
paratively small measure is discussed which
they think treads a little upon their position
and their supremacy." He predicted a better
future for the Church as a church, and as an
object of popular affection, after it shall have
been disestablished.

The Church Congress. — The Church Congress
met at Reading, Oct. 2d. The Bishop of Ox-
ford, being the bishop of the diocese in which
the congress was held, presided, and delivered
the opening address. He spoke of the subjects
which would engross the attention of the meet-
ing as being such as men of academic culture,
serious thinkers, and ardent seekers after knowl-
edge might properly discuss. The statement of
them implied no foregone conclusion, and as-
sumed no contradiction to exist between the
great generalizations of science and the Chris
tian faith. Believers in the one source of truth
and life, the members of the congress could not
conceive of any physical discovery which should
destroy that faith ; but they did not, therefore,
separate themselves from the votaries of sci-
ence, or ask them to be untrue to themselves ;
but rather believed that the seeming contra-
dictions would disappear. The president also
spoke of the subjects relating to social morality
that were upon the programme of the congress,
particularly on the one concerning the proposi-
tion to repeal the prohibition of marriage with
a deceased wife's sister. He knew, he said,
the bishops were threatened with expulsion
from the House of Lords because they refused

10

ANGLICAN CHURCHES.

to support a measure of which its friends could
not give an intelligible account. He was not
tenacious of temporal honors, and he hoped
they would not forfeit their place by coward-
ice, political corruption, slavish adherence to a
party, or subserviency to a court. He, however,
** should feel no sense of shame if the bishops
gave the vote which was fatal to themselves in
defense of the purity of English homes, and
the teaching of the word of God." Papers on
" Recent Advances in Natural Science in Re-
lation to the Christian Faith " were read by
Prof. Flower, the Bishop of Carlisle, and the
Rev. Aubrey Moore. The general expression
of the discussion was to the effect that the
newly developed theory of evolution, irrespect-
ive of its scientific value, which was regarded
favorably, had nothing in it contrary either to
the idea of an intelligent Creator or to the
Bible. The Bishop of Carlisle affirmed that
recent advances in natural science do not lead
logically, and therefore ought not to lead at
all, to either unbelief or atheism. The Rev.
Aubrey Moore asked whether it is too much
to believe that the time will come when we
shall see in evolution, modified perhaps by
wider knowledge — conditioned certainly by
truths drawn from another sphere — a fuller
revelation in nature than now seems possible
for man of the wonderful works of God? On
the subject, " Recent Advances in Biblical
Criticism in their Relation to the Christian
Faith," papers were read by the Rev. T. K.
Cheyne on "Old Testament Criticism," by
Prof. Sanday on " New Testament Criticism,"
and by Colonel Sir C. W. Wilson and Canon
Rawlinson on " Historical Discovery."

Special interest was taken in the discussions
on "the Marriage Laws," in view of the pend-
ing applications for relaxing the restrictions
upon marriages of affinity. The speakers all
opposed the relaxation sought.

The subject of " Ecclesiastical Courts " was
discussed during two sessions, with especial ref-
erence to the report of the commission on the
reorganization of those courts. Among the
speakers were Dr. Hayman, Canon Trevor, Mr.
Sydney Gedge, Lord Edward Churchill, the
Rev. Dr. Porter, Prof. Burrows, of Oxford,
the Bishop of Winchester, Mr. W. G. F. Philli-
more, the Rev. Dr. Hay, of the Protestant Epis-
copal Church in the United States, and Mr.
Beresford-IIope, M. P. Two points elicited
differences of opinion. They were the pro-
posed constitution of the Court of Final Ap-
peal of Laymen, and the provision in the plan
projected by the commission for allowing the
bishop a veto on the initiation of proceedings
in the courts. Other subjects discussed in the
congress were the prevention of pauperism,
"personal religion," education in the universi-
ties and in the public schools, and " the rela-
tions of the Church at home to the Church in
the colonies and in missionary dioceses."

Woman's Work.— A session was given to the
•ubject of woman's work in connection with

the Church. A suggestion by one of the speak-
ers that women engaging in organizations for
dealing with sorrow and misery should take
vows of celibacy, was met by a proposition by
the Bishop of Lincoln that the ceremony should
be postponed till the women are sixty years
old. The subject of the promotion of personal
purity, and the prevention of the degradation
of women and children, was considered in a
private session.

Kpiscopal Synod of Canada. — The Anglican
Church of British North America is divided
into two provincial synods, one of which is
composed of the Dioceses of Canada and the
Maritime Provinces, with the Bishop of Fred-
ericton as metropolitan ; and the other, con-
stituted in 1873, includes the Dioceses of the
Northwest Territories, with the Bishop of
Rupert's Land as metropolitan.

The Provincial Synod of Canada met in tri-
ennial session in Montreal, September 12th.
The Dioceses of Nova Scotia, Quebec, Toronto,
Fredericton, Ontario, Montreal, Huron, and
Niagara, were represented by their bishops
and by delegates. The Rev. Charles Hamil-
ton, of Quebec, was elected prolocutor of the
synod. The Central Board of Domestic Mis-
sions presented its first triennial report. It
showed that the eight dioceses had during the
past three years contributed $34,396 to the
work of domestic missions, and $23,878 to
the mission fund. The principal objects of
missionary work were in Algoma and the
Northwest. The Central Board of Foreign
Missions reported that its receipts for the past
three years had been $6,743. The report of
the board closed with a recommendation that
it be amalgamated with the Board of Domestic
Missions; and a proposition was introduced
for the organization of a Domestic and For-
eign Missionary Society of the Church of Eng-
land in Canada. A memorial from the Diocese
of Niagara requested the enactment of a canon
for the promotion of greater uniformity in the
rubric worship of the Church. The committee
to which the subject was referred reported
that it was at present impossible to frame in
the dogmatic form of a canon what should be
considered legal or illegal in the private minis-
trations of ritual, but that clergymen should
be advised to submit to the ruling of their
bishops in all matters connected with worship
as to the legality of which doubts are enter-
tained, or controversy shall have arisen. The
Diocese of Montreal sent in a memorial, set-
ting forth its claims to be the metropolitan
see, averring that it had never ceased to pro-
test against the action of the Provincial Synod
in appointing another than the Bishop of
Montreal as metropolitan, as illegal, and ask-
ing for a reconsideration of the question. No
change was made in the present rule, which
vests the selection of the metropolitan in the
House of Bishops. A committee appointed
to consider the subject of the employment of
women in the work of the Church reported,

ANGLICAN CHURCHES.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

H

recommending the recognition of deaconesses
and sisterhoods. Objection being made to the
feature of sisterhoods, the synod, " adopting
the principle of the desirability of making
arrangements for the better employment of
Christian women in the work of the Church,"
but without binding itself to the provisions
of the report, referred it back to the commit-
tee to prepare a canon on the subject to be
presented at the next session. Satisfaction
was expressed at the success of the recent
Church Congress, with the declaration that
the organization and conduct of such bodies
ought to be free from any synodical action.

The first Church Congress of the Episcopal
Church in Canada was held at Hamilton in
June. The Bishop of Niagara presided, and
the meeting was attended by a number of
clergymen from the United States. Among
the subjects considered were those of clerical
education, the attitude clergymen should oc-
cupy toward popular literature and recrea-
tion, "Lay Co-operation," "the Revised Ver-
sion of the New Testament," " Modern Doubts
and Difficulties," " Woman's Work in the
Church," and " Church Music."

Anglican Churches in South Africa and Australia.—
The question whether the Diocese of Natal,
South Africa, shall be continued has been raised
by the death of Bishop John William Colenso.
Bishop Colenso was, in 1863, declared by the
Bishop of Cape Town to be deposed from his
office for certain heretical doctrines which he
was found to have published. The validity of
the act of deposition was not established, and
the Colonial Assembly of Natal, in 1872, passed
an act vesting in Bishop Oolenso the property
belonging to the See of Natal. In the mean-
time, the Diocese of Maritzburg had been
founded in 1869, with jurisdiction extending
over the colony of Natal, and conflicting with
the jurisdiction claimed for the Bishop of Na-
tal. If the bishopric of Natal were allowed
to lapse, the conflict of jurisdictions would
be quietly terminated. The authority of the
Bishop of Maritzburg is recognized by the other
South African dioceses, while that of the Bishop
of Natal is acknowledged only by those imme-
diately connected with the diocese. The Dio-
cese of Natal includes seven clergymen, all but
two of whom were ordained by Bishop Colen-
so after he was excommunicated, with fifteen
churches, three of which are closed and two
are connected with native work, while two are
in the hands of the Diocese of Maritzburg.
The latter diocese has thirty-four clergymen,
seven of whom are missionaries to the heathen,
while three others have native work, superin-
tended by themselves, going on in their par-
ishes; and thirty-two churches, seven of which
are devoted to native work.

The bishopric of Sydney, which includes the
metropolitan ate and the Episcopal primacy of
Australia, having become vacant, the Arch-
bishops of Canterbury and York and the Bish-
ops of Durham, Rochester, and Liverpool have,

on request, recommended the Rev. Canon Al-
fred Barry, D. D., Principal of King's College,
London, as a suitable candidate for the office.

Anglican Church in Norway. — The foundation-
stone of an English Episcopal church has been
laid in Christiania, Norway. The ceremonies
were superintended by Sir Horace Rumbold,
the British minister resident at the court of
Norway and Sweden, and were witnessed by
the Norwegian Minister of State and other
members of the royal government, and the ec-
clesiastical, military, and civil authorities.

ANTISEPTICS. See SUKGERY.

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. Area.— Since the set-
tlement of the boundary question with Chili,
in October, 1881, the Argentine territory em-
braces an area of 1,168,682 square miles. Be-
fore that settlement, the republic was credited
with but 841,000* square miles (including the
undisputed portion of the Gran Chaco), Pata-
gonia having then been treated as a separate
region.

Population. — In no other country in the west-
ern hemisphere, save the United States, has
the population grown so rapidly as in the Ar-
gentine Republic. From 620,730 in 1836, it
had reached 1,526,738 (an increase of 146 per
cent.) in 1869; and in an official publication
issued in September, 1882, it was estimated at
2,942,000, as follows:

PROVINCES, ETC.

Population.

Capitals.

LlTTOBAL OB ElVEKINK PfiOV-

INCE8.

907 000

Corrientes . . . v

204.000

Corrientes

Entre-Rios . .

188,000

Concepclon del

Santa F6

187,000

Uruguay.
Santa Fe

ANDINE PBOVINOES.
Catamarca

102000

Catamarca

LaEioja

87,000

La Kioja.

Mendoza

99,000

Mendoza.

91 000

CKSTTBAL PBOVINCES.
Cordoba

820,000

C6rdoba

San Luis

76,000

San Luis

Santiago del Estero

158000

Tucuman

178 000

Estero.

NOBTHEBN PBOVINOES.

66000

Salta

167 000

Salta

TERRITOBIES

112.000

Total

2 942 000

Of the total number of inhabitants, as given
in that table, the classification by nationalities
was as follows : 2,578,255 Argentine citizens;
123,641 Italians; 55,432 French ; 59,022 Span-
iards; 8,616 Germans; 17,950 English; -and
99,084 of various other nationalities.

* Details concerning territorial divisions, population, etc.,
may be found in the '-Annual Cyclopedia" for 1872, 1877,
and 1878.

t The new capital of this province, La Plata, was founded
Nov. 19, 1882, on the banks of the river of the same name,
and thirty miles southeast of Buenos Ayres, the latter city
having been constituted the Federal capital by the law of Sept.
21, 1880.

12

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

The estimated population of the city of Bue-
nos Ayres was, in September, 1882, 295,000;
and those of other important cities as follows :
C6rdoba, 39,651; Rosario, 32,204; Tucuman,
24,237.

Immigration.— By the terms of the "homestead
law," enacted Oct. 6, 1876, inducements were
loffcred with a view to attract Europeans to the
shores of the republic.*

In pursuance of a new decree of May 16,
1883, passage-money was advanced to 135 im-
migrants in that year. A new and prosperous
colony in the fertile region surrounding Bahia
Blanca, in southern Buenos Ayres, bids fair to
make of that seaport at no distant day " one
of the great centers of Argentine commerce."
The already rapid growth of the settlement
will be materially enhanced on the completion
of the railway between Buenos Ayres city and
Bahia Blanca, the northern half of which line
is now in operation to Olavarria. Of the older
colonies may be mentioned those of Santa F6,
sixty-eight in all, with an aggregate population
of 55,143 (in 1883); and Entre-Rios, number-
ing seventeen, with 9,905 inhabitants. The
Santa F6 colonists, besides other products, har-
vested upward of 1,000,000 bushels of wheat
in 1882.

The following table exhibits the nationality
and number of the immigrants who landed at
Buenos Ayres in 1879, 1880, 1881, and 1882 :

NATIONALITIES.

1879.

1880.

1881.

1889.

Italians.

22,774
8,422
2149
788
717
490
1,760
23
78
47
7
15
17
51
861

18,416
8,112
2,175
583
5S1
445
819
84
57
54

's

11
21

292

20,506
8,474
8,612
1,149
685
591
495
78
140
11
10
84
28
72
648

29,587
8,520
8,882
826
948
1,128
672
108
188
11
5
26
14
226
410

Spaniards

French

Enirllsh..

Swiss

Aastrian.s

Portuzuese . .

BeltfaVs....

DttftM

Dutch

Russians

Greeks and Turks
Americans .. .

Various

Total

82,702

26,643 | 81,463

41,041

The number of arrivals for 1883 was 63,325.

GoTernment, Pnblie Officers, «te.— The President
of the Republic is Lieut.-Gen. Don Julio A
Roca (inaugurated Oct. 12, 1880), and the Vice-
President, Don Francisco Madero.

The Cabinet was composed of the following
Ministers: Interior, Don Bernardo de Irigoyen;
Foreign Affairs, Don Francisco Ortiz; Finance,
Don Virtorino de la Plaza; Justice, Public
Worship, and Public Instruction, Dr. Eduardo
Wilde ; War and the Navy, Gen. Don Benia-
min Victories.

The governors of the several provinces, etc.,
were:

Buenos Ayres Dr. D. Rocha

Oatamarca Don .1. Acuna

^nloba Don G. Gavier'.

Corrientes Don A. 8oto

Entre-Rios Col J. Antelo.

* An abstract of this "homestead law," or "colonization
WH," was ylren In our Volume for 1877, p. 29.

Jujuy Don E. Tello.

La Rioja Don B. Jaramillo.

Mendoza Don J. M, Segura.

Salta : . Don M. 8. Ortiz.

San Juan Don A. Gil.

San Luis Don Z. Concha.

Santa F6 Don M. Zavalla.

Santiago del Estero Don L. G. Pinto.

Tucuman Don B. Paz.

Gran Chaco Territoiy Col. F . Bosch.

Patagonia. Col. L. Winter.

Misiones Col. E. Roca.

The Argentine Envoy Extraordinary and
Minister Plenipotentiary to the United States
is Dr. Don Luis L. Dominguez (accredited in
1882) ; and the Argentine Consul-General (at
New York) for the American Union, is Don
Carlos Carranza.

The United States Minister Resident in the
Argentine Republic is Gen. Thomas O. Osborn ;
and the United States Consul at Buenos Ayres
is Mr. E. L. Baker.

Army. — The Argentine army in June, 1883,
comprised, exclusive of the National Guard,
6,787 men, as follows : 3,500 foot, 2,474 horse,
and 815 artillery. There were 4 lieutenant-
generals, 14 generals of division, 50 colonels,
127 lieutenant- colonels, 142 majors, and 742
officers of other grades. The National Guard
was 315,850 strong. The military academy
had, in 1882, 14 teachers and 123 students; and
the military school (for non-commissioned offi-
cers) 6 teachers and 68 pupils.

Navy. — The navy, in June, 1883, was com-
posed of 39 vessels, namely : 3 steam-ironclads,
6 gunboats, 7 torpedoes, 2 steam-transports,
3 cruisers, 6 other steam-vessels, and 12 sail-
of-the-line, with an aggregate tonnage of 12,-
630, and an armament of 55 guns, and manned
with 1 rear-admiral, 2 chiefs of squadron, 3
colonels, 9 lieutenant-colonels, 9 majors, 20
captains, 32 lieutenants, 45 second-lieutenants,
63 students, 23 midshipmen, 20 paymasters,
48 engineers, 23 physicians, 2 almoners, 20
pilots, 1,505 seamen, 1,737 marines (including
officers), and a torpedo division 137 strong.
In the foregoing enumeration is not included
the flotilla of the Rio Negro, comprising 3
steamers and 3 steam-launches.

The naval school had, in 1882, 17 teachers
and 69 students; and another school, for sea-
men, had 9 teachers and 43 pupils.

The navy, like the army, is recruited by vol-
untary enlistment for a fixed period.

Education. — The cause of popular education
continues to be zealously fostered by the Ar-
gentine Government, than which none has dis-
played more untiring energy in its efforts to
insure the benefits of rudimentary instruction
to the youth of all classes of society. In the
budget for 1883 the cost of this department to
the state was estimated at $2,190,430.88.

There were in the republic, in 1882, 2,023
educational establishments of all grades, with
an aggregate of 4,097 teachers, and a total of
136,928 pupils. Primary instruction was given,
in 1881, at 1,985 schools, national, provincial,
municipal, and private, by 3,544 teachers to
128,919 children. But as, from a bare statement

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

13

of the number of primary schools, no precise
idea of the status of rudimentary education can
be derived, the following comparative statistics
are transcribed from the report of the Minister
of Public Instruction for 1882 : Assuming the
population of the republic to be 2,500,000, and
the proportion of the children between the ages
of six and fifteen to be 20 per cent., we should
have:

Children fit to attend school 500,000

Actual number attending public primary-
schools 99,968

Estimated number attending private pri-
mary schools 100,000

Estimated number home-taught 10,000

Total number possessing or acquiring

primary education

Total number illiterate . . .

Total...

500,000

Yet these figures attest a notable improvement
when compared with those for 1872, in which
year but 81,183 children, out of a total of
468,987, attended school.

Finance. — Contrary to the almost general
rule in Spanish America — witness Mexico, Cos-
ta Rica, Honduras, and principally Peru — the
Argentine Republic, while rapidly extending
her already considerable railway and telegraph
systems, and otherwise facilitating transpor-
tation to and from the seaboard, not only ac-
complishes this without sacrifice to the nation-
al credit, but seldom fails to render such mate-
rial improvements subservient to the financial
prosperity of the country. Thanks to this sys-
tem, and to punctuality in the service of the
national debt and in the payment of interest
thereon, Argentine bonds, first quoted at a
premium in December, 1881, have rarely de-
scended below par since that year.

The budget estimates for 1883 were: reve-
nue, $29,576,000; expenditure, $31,224,749,
whereby there would be a deficit of $1,648,-
749.

The subjoined tables, which are transcribed
from official returns published this year, ex-
hibit the branches of the national revenue and
expenditure, and the amounts of each, as esti-
mated in the budget for 1884 :

Import duties $20,600,000

Additional duties 670,333

Exportduties $3,080,000

Additional duties 513,000

Warehouse fees

Stamped paper

Licenses \\

Direct taxes

Post-Office ....'..'.'.'.'.'.".'.'.'

Telegraphs [ ' '_ '

Lighthouses, etc

Sanitary Department

Forests '//.'.

"Water- works

Railways ". '

National Bank shares

Wharfage ' '. '

Penitentiary

Mint '/.

Sundries . . .

$21,270,833

Total

EXPENDITURE.

Ministry of the Interior $6,950,714 09

u Foreign Affairs 871,70000

" Finance 13,788,93627

" Justice, Public Worship, and Pub-
lic Instruction 4,291,671 40

"War and the Navy:

War-Office $6,150,924 72

Navy Department 2,549,537 88

8,700,462 60

Total .$34,053,484 85

Estimated deficit for 1884 $283,151

The actual showing of the Finance Depart-
ment for 1882 was unusually favorable; for,
as Gen. Roca observes in his message to Con-
gress in May, of a revenue of $26,763,985.27,
but $25,354,996.76 were required for the ordi-
nary expenditure of the administration. " The
surplus, $1,408,988.51, together with $3,712,-
962.54, the proceeds of the treasury notes is-
sued under the law of Nov. 3, 1881, the $2,-
312,704.16 balance in the treasury at the end
of that year, and other funds resulting from suc-
cessful credit operations, was applied to reduce
the balance overdue on our debt, thus placing
the treasury in a position to discharge within
a few days all our old accounts." The consoli-
dated national debt, according to the Presi-
dent's statement, amounted on Dec. 31, 1881,
to $82,048,004.50, and to $94,565,787.90 at the
end of 1882, in which latter year the principal
of the debt was reduced by $3,625,257.13, and
increased by new emissions to the amount of
$14,283,788.50. Gen. Roca affirms that the
reduction just alluded to was a real diminution
of the country's indebtedness, while the four-
teen million increase represented only the
transformation of existing debts or the defray-
al of productive outlays on works the yield of
which would be more than sufficient for the
amortization of the bonds emitted. " At the
end of the present year " (1883), adds the
President, " the 6 per cent, consolidated debt,
with a small portion at 8 and 9 per cent., will
have been reduced to $75,418,201.31. The
amount paid annually on the national debt
(principal and interest) is $8,979,061.51.
Should the conversion * which I proposed to
Congress last year be sanctioned, we should
only require to dispose of 5 per cent, bonds
to the amount of $88,727,295.66, at the price
of 85 per cent, (the rate taken as a basis by
the committee on ways and means), for the ex-
tinction of those debts. And if the emission
were made without a sinking fund for a term
of twenty or twenty-five years, the annual ser-
vice would only call for $4,436,364.78. The
advantages accruing from either of these plans
are apparent, and would enable us to carry on
numberless works of public utility without
burdening future generations with such debts
as have been handed down to us and were con-
tracted to defray the expenses of wars abroad
and internecine strife." The President referred
to the urgent need of a national bank law
similar to that existing in the United States.
Up to March 31, 1883, there were delivered
* See the "Annual Cyclopaedia" for 1881, p. 25.

14

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

from the mint 5,755,257 coins (gold, silver,
and copper), representing an aggregate of $4,-
154,519.16, and most of which was to replace
the fractional paper currency, the withdrawal
of which from circulation was decreed on Nov.
5, 1881.

The following tables exhibit the sources,
destinations, and values respectively of the Ar-
gentine imports and exports for the year 1882 :

FROM IMPORTS. Value..

Belgium $2.775,735

Bolivia 128,688

Brazil 2,084,298

Chili 15.185

France 1 1 ,798,701

Great Britain' !! ! .... is!924'l28

Holland 978,011

Italy 2.822,301

Paraguay 1404.347

Portugal 85,555

Spain 2,812,409

United States 4,930,417

Uruguay 2,799,592

West Indies 120,367

Other countries 8,839,712

Total (for 1832) $59.270,866

Against (for 1881) 54,029,649

Increase in 1882 $5,240,717

TO EXPORTS. values.

Belgium $13,901,460

Bolivia 318,605

Brazil 2,092,219

Chili 1,463,078

France 15,869,992

Germany 4,648,995

GreatBritain 7,879,582

Holland 65,660

Italy 1,620,931

Paraguay 70,341

Portugal 28,780

South Africa

Siain

United States ! !

Other countries I" *"M." "!.*ill.'!i 8|3I2l223

$58,440,905

56,069,104

Increase (in 1882) $2,371^801

The exports and imports for the first ten
months of 1883 were of the respective values
of $35,532,486 and $50,176,456. against $34,-
325,245 and $41,217,972 respectively for the
corresponding period of 1882.

The trade in transitu for 1882 was as follows :

TOIE8-

Totala

Inward-

$12,888,585

$17,057,917

0nt™L

$1,802180
i',287,059

$17,057,917

Argentine territory, unburdened by any such
tax as Peru used and Chili continues to exact,
and with the great additional advantage of
ready access to the Atlantic seaboard. In
November, 1883, Bolivian explorers announced
the navigability of the Pilcomayo river through-
out, which circumstance, with the completion
of the Northern Central Railway, will establish
easy communication between the two countries.
The export branch of this trade consists chiefly
of bismuth, tin, silver, silver-ore, etc., while
the imports are European manufactures.

Thus, the foreign commerce of the republic
for 1882 was of the aggregate value of $117,-
711,271, constituting an increase of $7,612,518
as compared with 1881. On comparing the
value of the imports and exports for each of
these two years, it will be seen that the bal-
ance of trade for 1882 ($829,461) was against,
while that for 1881 ($1,039,455) was in favor
of the republic. It has been officially objected,
however, that the unfavorable showing for
1882 is rather apparent than real, since of the
value of the imports $4,513,638 were for " ar-
ticles of a productive character, such as rail-
way materials, machinery for industrial pur-
poses, and a large quantity of tools and agricul-
tural implements." Among the more extensive
consumers of Argentine products, as shown by
the foregoing table of exports, France stands
first, Belgium second, Great Britain third,
Germany fourth, and the United States fifth.
In the table of imports, those same countries
range in the following order as shippers to the
republic: Great Britain first, France second,
the United States third, Germany fourth, and
Belgium fifth. The imports from Germany,
the United States, and Great Britain are steadi-
ly increasing, while those from Belgium and
France fluctuate from year to year ; and the
exports to Germany and France, and particu-
larly to the former, have increased, while
those to the other three countries have fluctu-
ated during the seven years 1876-'82.

Of the aggregate trade — imports and exports
—of the republic with all countries for the sep-
tennial period 1876-'82, the subjoined table ex-
hibits the proportions represented by each of
the five countries just referred to :

Chief among the competitors of the United
States, as a supplier of the Argentine Republic,
is Great Britain.

The American articles shipped most exten-

Bolivia, now

agricultural instruments ($528,046, the total
from al1 COUI1tries having been $727,807) ; ker-

, ow an ,

channe forLr f«,S ** C™lemer1*' osene ($363,139) ; books and other printed mat-

ier foreign commeroe_ftrougfater98,826); machinery ($126,588); manufact-

~~~

Belgium
France
Germany
Great Britati

S-4

1878.

P" cent.

oo
22'4

8'9

188O.

Percent.

16'2
28-4

4'7

Percent.

15'5

23'7

6'6

Percent.

14'1
23'5

ARGENTINE REPUBLIC.

15

ured tobacco ($120,339) ; clocks and watches
($30,347, against $24,006 from France, and $14,-
926 from Great Britain). Of American musical
instruments of all kinds, but $5,939 worth were
sent to the republic in 1882. American ma-
chinery is fast gaining favor, no fewer than
sixty-two locomotives having been ordered ot
a single Philadelphia firm in 1882, while the
total number imported from the United States
in the year previous was but seven ; and exten-
sive orders for rolling-stock, particularly draw-
ing-room cars, were also given in 1883. Indeed,
there is a growing appreciation of things Ameri-
can in the Argentine Republic.

The imports of specie in 1882 were $2,683,-
327. and the exports, $2,225,082 ; against $4,-
157,648 and $2,991,305 respectively in 1881.

Chief among the Argentine export staples is
wool; the quantity shipped in 1882 was 111,-
009,796 kilogrammes, of the value of $29,033.-
000, against 89,259,122 in 1876. Next in im-
portance after wool are hides, of which but
1,945,427, of the value of $8,286,000, were ex-
ported in 1882, against 2,325,866 in 1876 ; then
follow sheep-skins (22,353,021, of the value
of $4,095,000 in 1882, against 27,597,973 for
1876); jerked beef, 26,996,613 kilogrammes,
$3,756,000; tallow, $2,699,000: maize, 107,-
327,155 kilogrammes, $2,141,000; live cattle,
94,649, $1,478,000; linseed, 23,351,794 kilo-
grammes, $1,650,000; bones, ores, etc.

Agriculture, etc.— Until within a few years an
importer, the Argentine Republic is now an ex-
porter of wheat in constantly increasing quan-
tities: 1,705,292 kilogrammes in 1882. Sugar-
culture is rapidly developing in Tucuman, Sal-
ta, Jujuy, Santiago, Corrientes, and in parts of
the Gran Chaco and Misiones. The total su-
gar-crop for 1882 was estimated at 11,615,000
kilogrammes. Tucuman nowgrowsl7,500 acres
of cane, giving work to thirty-four mills. The
vine is extensively cultivated ; Catamarca, in
1881, produced 1,200,000 gallons of wine, val-
ued at $108,000 ; and, in 1882, San Juan pro-
duced 5,236,186 gallons, valued at $1,107,275.
But the main sources of the country's wealth
are cattle rearing and sheep-farming. There
were in the republic, at the beginning of 1883,
93,000,000 head of sheep, while Australia's
flocks numbered but 72,000,000, and those of
the United States, 41, 000,000; of horned cattle
there were 16,000,000 in the republic; and of
horses, about 5,000,000. The statistics of these
industries, for the single province of Buenos
Ayres, were given in the census returns of Oct.
9, 1881, as follow : Sheep, 57,838,073 ; horned
cattle, 4,754.810 ; horses, 2,396,469; hogs,
155,134; goats, 7,612.

Shipping Movements. — The shipping movements
at the various ports of the republic were as be-
low, in 1882 :

Entered: FOREIGN TRADE.

Steamers, 8.040, with an aggregate of 1,104.927 tons.

Bailing-vessels, 8,031, " " 423,121 "

Cleared :

Steamers, 2,742, " u 1,080,214 "

Sailing-vessels, 2,023, " " 867,925 "

The distribution of the foreign carrying-
trade by flags was as follows : British, 31 per
cent.; French, 16; Argentine, 13; Italian, 9;
Uruguayan, 9 ; German, 6 ; Brazilian, 4 ; Nor-
wegian, 4; Spanish, 3; American, 2; Belgian,
1 ; others, 2.

COASTING AND FLUVIAL TRADE.
Entered :

Steamers, 6,002, with an aggregate of 1,351,468 tons.

Sailing-vessels, 15,725, " " 478,465 "
Cleared :

Steamers, 6,012, " "

Sailing-vessels, 16,195, " "

The distribution of this trade by flags was :
Argentine, 57 per cent. ; British, 24 ; French,
9 ; Uraguayan, 3 ; Paraguayan, 2 ; others, 5.

"We have no merchant navy," writes a na-
tive statistician, " unless that name be given to
a few hundred barges, lighters, and schooners,
which, with Italian and Austrian crews, ply
on our rivers and carry the Argentine fiag just
as they might carry the Turkish."

Railways. — The railways in operation, and in
process of building, at the end of 1883, were as
follow :

Central Argentine (Rosario to Cordoba) . .
Northern Central (Cordoba to Tucuman).

Northern Central (Tucuman to Jujuy)

Northern Central (branch from Frias to

Santiago)

Northern Central (branch from. Eecreo to

Chumbicha)* ...

Andine (Villa Maria to La Paz)

Andine (La Faz to San Juan via Mendcza}
Western (Buenos Ayres to Bragado, and

branches to Pergamino and Lobos). . .

Western (extensions)

Southern (Buenos Ayres to Altamirano,

and branches to Olavarria and Tandil)
Southern (Olavarria to Eahia Blanca). . .
Northern (Buenos Ayres to El Tigre). .
Ensenada (Buenos Ayres to Ensenada).
Campana (Buenos Ayres to Campana). .

Eastern (Concordia to Ceibo) .

Puerto Euiz and Gualeguay

Eosario to Candelaria

Transandinef (Mercedes in Buenos Ayres

to Mercedes in San Luis)

Santa Fe Colonial

Kilometres Kilometres

Totals 2,950 2,567

In

operation.

546

470

515

679

'85

58

81

ICO

10

840

.255

386

578
100

Tramways. — At the end of 1882 there were
in the capital five tramway or horse-car lines,
which, covering an aggregate of 95 miles, and
with 1,001 employes, carried an average of 51,-
740 passengers daily. There were also lines in
some of the smaller towns of the province of
Buenos Ayres; C6rdoba city had two lines,
and Rosario one.

Telegraphy. — The total length of the Argen-
tine telegraph lines at the end of 1882 was 13,-
543 kilometres, of which 10,772 belonged to
the Government; there were 202 offices, and
the number of dispatches transmitted through-
out the year was 509,928, of which 71,838

* From Chumbicha the line is to be extended southwest to
La Kiqja, and northeast to Catamarca.

t This line will open direct communication between Buenos
Ayres and Santiago, the capital of Chili, and so .between the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.

16

ARIZONA.

were official. By Dec. 81, 1883, 1,727 addi-
tional miles of Government line were com-
pleted.

Telephone.— In December, 1882, there were
two telephone companies in Buenos Ayres,
with 1,500 subscribers.

Post-Offlee.— In 1881 the number of letters
that passed through the post-office was 9,723,-
740, of which 2,380,065 were official ; and
that of packages of printed matter, 6,132,374,
of which 1,191,046 were to or from foreign
countries.

Improvements. — The much-needed work of
improving the condition of the ports, which is
"still almost the same as at the arrival of the
first Spanish settlers," says President Roca,
was continued actively during the past year.
The canalization of the Riachuelo, at Buenos
Ayres, was sufficiently far advanced in Janu-
ary, 1883, to admit vessels of 1,120 tons reg-
ister, and the intention is to prepare the har-
bor for craft of all sizes.

ARIZONA. Territorial Government,— The fol-
lowing were the Territorial officers during the
year : Governor, Frederick A. Tritle ; Secre-
tary, H. M. Van Amain ; Chief-Justice of
Supreme Court, Charles G. W. French ; Asso-
ciate Justices, Wilson W. Hoover and Daniel
H. Pinney.

General Condition.— During the past two years
the advancement of the Territory, both with
regard to wealth in the development of profit-
able industries and increase of population, has
been remarkable. The Territory can now claim
75,000 people and over $20,000,000 of taxable
property ; and while the progress of its civili-
zation and the development of its resources
have been opposed by most serious difficulties,
it is now safe to say that those dangerous and
disturbing elements are well under control.
During the past two years exceptional devel-
opment has been made in all industries, mining,
grazing, and agricultural ; extensive railroad
enterprises have been successfully completed ;
and the affairs of the Territory generally are
exceedingly prosperous.

The <rreat natural facilities of the country
for stock-raising and wool-growing are begin-
ning to be understood, and large droves of cat-
tle and sneep are being driven in from the
neighboring States and Territories.

The valleys along the principal water-courses
yield magnificent crops of grain, fruits, and
vegetables, and even the mesa or table-lands
adjacent will grow almost everything with a
sufficient water-supply. The valleys of the
(iihi and Salt river are being rapidly settled.

Beyond the making of flour and lumber the
manufacturing interests of the Territory are in
their infancy. Some of the native plants fur-
nish excellent material for the manufacture
of paper, coarse cloths, mats, ropes, and other
articles. No attempt has been made to utilize
this raw material, although it is known that
the aborigines have succeeded, in their crude
way, in making rdpes of fair quality.

Mining. — Since the building of the Southern
Pacific Railroad, mining has made rapid prog-
ress, and now Arizona stands second on the
list of silver-producing States and Territories.

Eight years ago the bullion yield of the Ter-
ritory was but a little over $100,000, while
now it stands third on the list in its yield of
the precious metals.

According to the best information at hand,
the production of Arizona in gold and silver
for the four years ending Dec. 31, 1882, was as
follows :

1879 . . . $1,942,403 I 1881 $8,198,766

1880 4,472,471 | 1832 9,298,267

A large quantity of rich ore and base bullion
which finds its way out of the country is not
included in the above. It is safe to estimate
the value of such ores and bullion at 10 per
cent- of the figures given.

From careful estimates it is believed that
Arizona's yield of gold and silver for 1883 will
exceed $12,000,000.

As near as can be ascertained, the copper
yield of the Territory for the past three years
has been as follows :

Pounds. 1 Pounds.

1880 2,000,000 1882 15,000,000

1881 5,000,000 I

The estimated yield for 1883 has been placed
at from 20,000,000 to 25,000,000 pounds.

The combined value of the silver and copper
product for 1883 will be between fifteen and
sixteen million dollars.

Agrienltnre and Grazing. — Irrigation is neces-
sary to the raising of a crop in Arizona. It is
estimated that there are at the present time
between 60,000 and 70,000 acres under cultiva-
tion in the Territory, and that the quantity of
grain (wheat, barley, and corn) produced dur-
ing the year was nearly 60,000,000 pounds. In
the valleys of the Gila and Salt rivers alone
there are 400,000 acres which can be brought
under cultivation, of which only about one
tenth is now utilized. Two crops a year can
be grown. After the wheat or barley is har-
vested, corn is planted. There are at present
about 30,000 acres under cultivation along the
Salt river, yielding, in 1883, 14,000,000 pounds
of wheat, and 18,000,000 pounds of barley. Of
fruit-trees there are nearly 40,000, and over
300,000 vines in bearing. Alfalfa is sown ex-
tensively, and yields three cuttings during the
season, averaging two tons to the acre at a
cutting. The number of cattle in the Territory
is about 280,000, an increase of more than 300
per cent, during the past two years. It is esti-
mated that the area of grazing-land in the
Territory will reach 60,000 square miles. The
country north of the thirty -fourth parallel is
well adapted to the raising of sheep. The
number of sheep in the Territory is placed
at. 300,000, and the yearly clip at 2,400,000
pounds.

As near as can be ascertained, the number
of horses, mules, and hogs in the several coun-
ties is as follows :

ARIZONA.

ARKANSAS.

17

COUNTIES.

Horses.

Mules.

Hogs.

Yavapai

10,000

2000

1,000

Maricopa

5000

2000

TOOO

Cochise

4000

3000

500

8,000

1,000

500

Final

2000

1 000

600

Gila

1000

800

300

Yuma

800

300

200

Mohave

1,000

500

Pima

6000

2500

1 000

Total

32,800

12600

11,100

The School System.— No Territory of the Union
has a .better school system than Arizona. All
children of school age are compelled to attend
the public schools, and the expenses are borne
by a direct tax on the people. A superintend-
ent is elected every two years. In each county
the probate judge is ex-officio superintendent
of the schools of his county. According to
the latest census, the number of schools was 97.

The total revenue for school purposes in the
Territory, for 1882, was $101,967.35.

There are many small communities that fail
to receive any advantage from the school fund,
owing to the necessity of only organizing schools
with a large number of pupils. The number of
children of school age is nearly 10,000.

Railroads. — Arizona is now in possession of
two transcontinental railroads. The South-
ern Pacific enters the Territory at Yuma, and
crosses nearly along the line of the thirty-sec-
ond parallel. Its length through the Territory
is 389 miles. From Benson, 40 miles east of
Tucson, the Arizona and New Mexico Railroad
branches from the Southern Pacific and runs
southward to Gnaymas, on the Gulf of Califor-
nia. The length of this road through Oochise
and Pima counties is about 65 miles. The
Atlantic and Pacific Railroad begins at Albu-
querque, New Mexico, and strikes westward,
following very nearly the line of the thirty-
fifth parallel, to Colorado river. Its length
through the Territory is about 350 miles. This
road opens up the great coal-beds and the
grand timber-belt of the Mogollon mountains.
This great forest is nearly 200 miles in length
by 60 in width, and contains some of the finest
timber in the United States. There is also the
Clifton and Lordsburg road, now nearly com-
pleted, running in this Territory a distance of
about 60 miles, and furnishing an outlet to a
very rich mineral and grazing region. Other
roads have been projected, and some are un-
der way. In connection with these roads there
is over a thousand miles of telegraph lines.

The Indian Question.— One of the greatest
drawbacks to the prosperity of Arizona has
been found in the hostile Apaches. Up to 1874
they terrorized the entire Territory, kept out
immigration and capital, and had life and prop-
erty virtually at their mercy. In that year
they were placed on a reservation, where those
of them who are not absent in Mexico yet re-
main. It was supposed that an end had been
put to Indian troubles, but the raids of the
VOL. xxiii. — 2 A

past two years have shaken the feeling of se-
curity.

There are in Arizona about 25,000 Indians
occupying lands reserved to them by the Gen-
eral Government. A large part of them are
self-supporting, although about 5,000 depend
almost entirely upon the Government. The
tribes occupying the Territory are the Huala-
pais, Yum&s, Papagoes, Pimas, Maricopas, Mo-
haves, Navajos, Ava Supies, and Moquis ; also
various branches of the Apache family, who
have been placed upon the San Carlos Reser-
vation. With the exception, perhaps, of the
Hualapais and Yumas, these Indian tribes oc-
cupy some of the finest spots in the Territory,
covering a vast area. The Hualapais and Yu-
mas occupy reservations that are almost entire-
ly barren lands. The principal dissatisfaction
upon the San Carlos Reservation came from the
Chiricahuas, and in April, 1882, it resulted in
an open rebellion. On the morning of April
19th Loco's band of Chiricahuas broke out, and,
after killing the chief of police, entered the
valley of the Gila, and it is estimated that sixty
industrious citizens were killed. The military
force of the Territory was so small and so scat-
tered that the raid was continued almost with-
out interruption until the Indians reached the
boundary line between Arizona and Sonora.
Gen. Wilcox, then in command of this de-
partment, moved his forces with great activity,
and the General of the Army, as well as the
Secretary of War, responded promptly by send-
ing more troops into the field, and several en-
gagements took place within a few miles of the
Sonora line, in which a number of the Indians
were killed.

The survivors, supposed to number about
500, took up their abode in the Sierra Madre
mountains, in Sonora and Chihuahua, Mexico.
They remained quiet until March, 1883, when
a small number of them raided through South-
eastern Arizona and Southwestern New Mexi-
co, killed a number of citizens, and stole a
large amount of property, returning to Mexico
without receiving any punishment.

Gen. George Crook visited Sonora and Chi-
huahua and arranged with the authorities there
to take a military force into Mexico for the
purpose of capturing these Indians. He found
them encamped in the Sierra Madre moun-
tains, but npon his approach many of the fight-
ing men fled. An engagement was had, and
some Indians killed. Quite a large number of
men, women, and children were captured. With
these the general returned and placed them
upon their reservation.

Lawlessness and the depredations of " cow-
boys" and "rustlers," who at one time held
portions of the Territory in a condition of ter-
rorism, have succumbed in a large degree to
law and order.

ARKANSAS. State Government.— The State offi-
cers during the year were as follow : Govern-
or, James H. Berry, Democrat; Secretary of
State, Jacob Frolich ; Auditor, A. W. Files ;

18

ARKANSAS.

Treasurer, W. G. Woodruff, Jr.; Attorney-Gen-
eral, 0. B. Moore ; Superintendent of Public
Instruction, W. E. Thompson ; State Land Com-
missioner, W. P. Campbell. Judiciary, Su-
preme Court : E. H. English, Chief-Justice ; W.
W. Smith and John R. Eakin, Associate Jus-
tices. Chancellor, D. W. Carroll.

Legislative Session.— The Legislature met on
the 8th of January, and adjourned on the 28th
of March. The State was redistricted for con-
gressional purposes as follows :

1st district, the counties of Randolph, Clay, Green,
Lawrence, Sharp, Independence, Jackson, Craighead,
Mississippi, Pomsett, Cross, Crittenden, St. Francis,
Lee. Phillips, Desha, and Chicot.

2d district, the counties of Dorsey, Lincoln, Grant,
Jefferson. Arkansas, Monroe, Prairie, Lonoke, Wood-
ruff, White, Faulkner, Conway, Pope, Van Buren,
Stone, and Cleburne.

3d district, the counties of Polk, Howard, Sevier,
Little River, Pike, Hempstead, Miller, Lafayette, Co-
lumbia, Nevada, Clark, Hot Spring, Dallas, Ouachita,
Calhoun, Union Bradley t Drew, and Ashley.

4th district, the counties of Crawford, Franklin,
Johnson, Sebastian, Logan, Scott, Yell, Perry, Gar-
land, Saline, Pulaski, and Montgomery.

5th district, the counties of Benton, Washington,
Madison, Carroll, Boone, Newton, Searcy, Marion,
Baxter, Fulton, and Izard.

An act was passed to provide for revising
and digesting the statutes. Another act pro-
vides that " the charters and all the amend-
ments thereto of all municipal corporations
within this State, designated as cities of the
second class and incorporated towns, may be
surrendered, all offices held thereunto abol-
ished, and the territory and inhabitants thereof
remanded to the government of this State in
the manner hereinafter provided."

An act was passed to establish the county
of Cleburne from portions of Van Buren, In-
dependence, and White counties.

An important enactment was the following:

That if any person belie \-ing himself to be the
owner, either in law or equity, under color of title has
peaceably improved, or snail peaceably improve any
land, which upon judicial investigation shall be de-
cided to belong to another, the value of the improve-
ment made as aforesaid, and the amount of all taxes
which may have been paid on said land by such per-
son and those under whom he claims, shall be paid
by the successful party to such occupant, or the per-
son under whom or from whom he entered and holds,
before the court rendering judgment in such proceed-
ing shall cause possession to be delivered to such suc-
cessful party.

The principal law of the session, relating to
the liquor-traffic, provides :

That any person owning or using or controlling any
house or tenement of any kind, who shall sell or give
awav or cause or allow to be sold or given away any
alcohol, ardent or vinous spirits or malt liquors, any
compound or tincture commonly called bitters or ton-
ics, whether the same be sold or given away, openly
or secretly, by such device as is known as " The Blind
Tiger," or by anv other name or under any other de-
vice, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and' if any per-
son shall obtain any such alcohol, ardent or vinous
spirits, or malt liquors, or any compound or tincture
commonly called bitters or tonics, in any house, room
or tenement so owned, occupied, or controlled by an-
other, by going therein or thereto, and by call, sound
word, or token, it shall be prima facie evidence of the

guilt of the person who so owns, occupies, or controls
such house, room, or tenement ; or, if any persons
are allowed to pass through or into any room or place
so owned or controlled or occupied by another, and
there obtain such alcohol, ardent or vinous spirits, or
malt liquors, or any compound or tincture commonly
called bitters or tonics, it shall be deemed presump-
tive evidence of the guilt of the party who owns, con-
trols, or occupies such house or room.

Other acts passed were as follow :

For the better regulation of the system of letting
and subletting of lands, and for the punishment of
persons for violations of the provisions of this act.

Making the stealing of cattle, hogs, sheep, and goats
a felony, and prescribing the punishment.

To provide now railroads shall unite, cross, intersect,
or join other railroads.

To prevent the sale of obscene literature.

Requiring compensation for causing death by wrong-
ful act, neglect, or default.

The following article was proposed as an
amendment to the Constitution of the State, to
be voted upon at the next general election :

ARTICLE XX. The General Assembly shall have no
power to levy any tax, or to make any appropriations
to pay either the principal or interest, or any part
thereof, of any of the following bonds or the State, or
the claims, or pretended claims, upon which they may
be based, to wit : Bonds issued under an act of the
General Assembly of the State of Arkansas, entitled
" An act to provide for the funding of the public debt
of the State," approved April 6, A. D. 1869, and num-
bered from 491 to 1,860, inclusive, being the " funding
bonds," delivered to F. W. Caper, and sometimes
called " Holford bonds," or bonds known as .railroad
aid bonds, issued under an act of the General Assem-
bly of the State of Arkansas, entitled " An act to aid
in the construction of railroads," approved July 21,
A. D. 1868, or bonds called "levee bonds," being
bonds issued under an act of the General Assembly
of the State of Arkansas, entitled " An act providing
for the building and repairing the public levees of the
State and for other purposes," approved March 16,
A. D. 1869 ; and the supplemental act thereto, approved
April 12, 1869 ; and the act entitled " An act to amend
an act entitled ' an Act providing for the building and
repairing of the public levees of this State,' " approved
March 23, A. D. 1871, and any law providing for any
such tax or appropriation shall be null and void.

United States Senator Garland was re-elect-
ed.

Finances. — The total amount of warrants
drawn by the Auditor for the two years end-
ing September 30, 1882, was $1,356,392.80, of
which sum $498,382.63 was used in paying the
current expenses of the State government for
the two years.

During the two years the 10 per cent, bonds
of the State, known as the Baxter war bonds,
amounting originally to $280,443.02, were re-
deemed and canceled.

There is now outstanding only about $50,000
in State scrip.

On the subject of the State debt, and the
condition of the State's finances, Treasurer
Woodruff says: "The redemption of the ten-
year_ bonds, and the near absorption of the
floating (scrip) debt, place the State in better
financial condition than at any time since 1860.
. . . Taking as correct the estimate of the
bonded debt contained in statement No. 18,
the acknowledged debt was, October 1, 1882,

ARKANSAS.

19

$5,078,692. Of this amount, $2,495,500 bears
interest at the rate of 6 per cent., and $22,000
at the rate of 5 per cent, per annum ; $6,200
bears no interest, and will be redeemed before
the Legislature meets. The remaining $2,554,-
992 is unpaid interest accrued."

In his message to the Legislature at the be-
ginning of the year, the Governor says :

By reference to the reports of the Treasurer and Com-
missioner of State Lands, it will be seen that both rec-
ommend the repeal of the donation or homestead
law, and that the forfeited lands, which now amount
to over 3,000,000 acres, be reserved, or sold only for the
extinguishment of the State debt. This would seem
to be a wise provision, and I most heartily concur in
its recommendation.

Among the first things, however, to determine is,
of what does the just and legal debt consist ? The le-
gality and justness of a portion of this debt have been
questioned, and much bad feeling has been engendered
among the people of the State. Among all classes.
however, there is a disposition to act honorably ana
honestly by the State's creditors. The mass of the
people are honest and in favor of honest methods,
and the one important point first to determine is,
whether common honesty demands payment of any
portion of our disputed indebtedness.

Repudiation, in any form or in any shape, can be
fraught only with evil. No constitutional enactment
can do away with the State's legal responsibility for
paper issued by her.

The history of the issuance of $5,300,000 of bonds
to aid in the construction of railroads is well known.
The bonds were issued to the roads, taken to New
York and other commercial centers, sold, and the pro-
ceeds used by the roads to aid in their construction.
When this was done, there was a contract between
the roads and the State that the latter should be held
harmless. These bonds are now in the hands of inno-
cent purchasers. Because the Supreme Court of the
State has declared the act under which the bonds
were issued illegal, and as the General Assembly, at its
extraordinary session in 1874, repealed the act pro-
viding for the sequestration of the earnings of the
roads, in default ot payment of interest, it is contend-
ed that the innocent holders of the bonds should re-
ceive nothing. So far as the State is concerned she
can not be expected, nor is it assumed, by even the
bondholders, that she ought to pay any part of this
indebtedness. But does she not owe a duty to the in-
nocent purchasers of her bonds, to see that they are
protected, and that the roads are compelled to comply
with their contract ? The State has the power, through
the Legislature, undoubted and supreme, to tax the
railroads in an amount sufficient to meet the yearly
interests and eventually the principal of these bonds ;
this, irrespective of the unconstitutionality of the law
under which they were issued.

Since commencing my message, the Circuit Court
of the United States, for this State, has rendered a de-
cision in regard to these railroad aid bonds, sustain-
ing this view of the case, and therefore strengthens
this my recommendation.

I desire to again emphasize all that has heretofore
been said on the subject of the judgment held by citi-
zens against the State, on account of property taken
from them during the pending of martial law'in sev-
eral counties in 1869. Provision for the payment of
this debt should be made at once.

Inaugural Views. — Gov. Berry was inaugu-
rated on the 13th of January, and in his ad-
dress expressed the following views:

The fact that there are outstanding "bonds repre-
senting some $13,000,000, which are claimed by the
holders to be a valid obligation of the State, and
which are believed by a large portion of our people to
be fraudulent and void, has proved a constant source

of annoyance and embarrassment. The best interests
of the people demand that the question of the State's
liability for these bonds be definitely settled. If they
constitute a just claim, we ought to provide for their
ultimate payment. If they are not a legitimate charge
against the State, and we do not intend to pay them,
common fairness requires us to say so, and say it in
such a manner that we can not be misunderstood.
Two classes of these bonds, those known as the rail-
road aid and levee bonds, amounting to more than
flO, 000,000, have been declared by our Supreme
Court to have been issued without authority of law,
and not binding upon the State. The remaining
class, known as the Holford bonds, are based upon a
claim which the authorities of the State refused to
recognize when first preferred — a claim the people
have never admitted to be just, but upon which they
have already paid all that, under any view of the
circumstances, could be claimed was either legal or
equitable. In a matter of this magnitude it seems to
me eminently proper that the question should be
withdrawn from the General Assembly and placed
directly before the people. Under our present sys-
tem the railroad property practically escapes taxation,
the total amount of State taxes upon railroad property
upon last year's assessment, excluding lands, being
only $2,400. Some of these railroad corporations
claim to be exempt from taxation by their charters.
This claim should be thoroughly investigated.

The Governor proposed a new revenue law,
" that will compel assessors to assess all of the
property of the State at its true value ; that
will impose upon railroad property its just
portion of taxes, levied for the benefit of all ;
that will prevent tax-dodging," etc.

Railroad Aid Bonds.— The railroad aid bonds
were issued by the State under the act of
1868. They were accepted and used by five
railroad companies, to which the following
issues of bonds were made :

Little Rock and Fort Smith ... ... $1,000,000

Little Rock, Pine Bluff, and New Orleans 1,200,000

Mississippi. Ouacliita, and Red Kiver 600,000

Memphis and Little Rock 1,200,000

Arkansas Central ; 1,850,000

Total $5,350,000

To which sum must be added twelve years'
interest at 7 per cent.

The Memphis and Little Rock Railroad
Company owns and holds $938,000 of the $1,-
200,000 bonds originally issued to that corpo-
ration, and the bonds owned and held by the
Little Rock and Fort Smith Railway Company
amount to $644,000. These bonds were pur-
chased years ago upon advice of counsel, at
very low figures, with a view of hedging
against a possible decision by the courts, hold-
ing the railroads and not the State liable for
the bonds issued to those corporations. The
remainder are outstanding.

Of the railway corporations above named,
all but one — the Arkansas Central — are thor-
oughly responsible, and fully able to liquidate
the claims due on these bonds.

In the suit of Tompkins vs. the Little Rock
and Fort Smith Railroad Company, in the
United States Circuit Court, Judges Caldwell
and McCrary held on deinurrer that these
bonds were a lien on the railroads, but, at the
hearing on the merits, Justice Miller held the
contrary. Judge Caldwell dissented, and the

20

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

case went to the Supreme Court of the United
States. These issues of railroad aid bonds form
a portion of the alleged public debt of the
State, to repudiate which amendment No. 1
was submitted to the electors in 1880, lost by
not receiving a constitutional majority, and
will be resubmitted at the general election in
1884. The significance of Justice Miller's de-
cision is in holding the railroads harmless, and
throwing the bonds back on the State, which
issued them under an act in whose passage the
State Supreme Court has decided the necessary
forms were not complied with.

Miscellaneous. — The Insane Asylum has been
completed, and a State Board of Health organ-
ized. The building for a branch normal col-
lege for the education of colored teachers,
near Pine Bluff, has been completed.

In March a joint legislative committee re-
ported the net deficit of Gov. Churchill's ac-
counts, as State Treasurer during three terms,
to be $233,616.89, differing widely from the
previous report of a Senate committee, which
made the deficit about $114,000.

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.
Solar Activity. — The year 1883 has been char-
acterized by considerable disturbance of the
sun's surface. The " Comptes Rendus," vol.
xcvii, No. 4, describes in detail the phenomena
observed from the Irtth to the 23d of July— a
period of very marked activity. At 4 o'clock
on the afternoon of the 16th, M. Thollon saw,
on the sun's eastern limb, a most brilliant
prominence, in which the spectroscope indi-
cated a violent displacement of the C line. At
gh. 20m. this displacement was so pronounced
that M. Thollon inferred an approach of solar
matter at the rate of 186 miles a second — ten
times the velocity of the earth in its orbit.
Somewhat earlier in the afternoon a smaller
displacement was observed in the opposite di-
rection. On the 21st and 22d, a considerable
part of the sun's southern hemisphere gave
signs of great agitation. A large group, con-
sisting of spots too numerous to be counted,
was seen near the eastern margin, and a long
chain of spots, at almost regular intervals,
stretched across the disk, from limb to limb.
On the morning of the 22d a brilliant promi-
nence attracted attention, and a number of
metallic lines were strongly reversed. M. Thol-
lon says he had never, in so short a time, seen
so many large displacements of the spectral
lines.

Total Eclipse of May 6, 1883.— This eclipse was
observed at Caroline Island, in the South Pa-
cific Ocean, by parties from the United States,
Paris, and Vienna. The expedition sent by
the United States Government was under the
direction of Prof. Edward S. Holden, of the
Washburn Observatory, at Madison, Wis. Oth-
er members of the party were Lieut. Brown, of
the Navy ; Prof. Hastings, of the Johns Hop-
kins University; Prof. 0. S. Peirce, of the
Coast and Geodetic Survey ; and Mr. 0. H
Rockwell, of Tarry town, N. Y. It had been

hoped by astronomers that the question of the
existence of an intra-Mercurial planet would
be definitely settled, as a special search had
been arranged for by two parties of observers.
The state of the atmosphere was favorable, the
duration of totality was unusually long, and
Prof. Holden himself swept the region about
the sun with all possible attention. His search,
however, was entirely unsuccessful. The facts
of the case are thus exceedingly perplexing.
That fixed stars, whose positions were well
known, should have been mistaken for planets
by two experienced observers, such as Watson
and Swift, seems almost incredible. On the
other hand, it is at least equally improbable
that Professors Holden and Palisa, with more
time for the search, should have failed to de-
tect a planet, if any were visible. During to-
tality, M. Trouvelot noticed a reddish star of
the fifth magnitude — not far from the sun —
which he has not since been able to identify.

Markings and Spots on Mercnry.— " The Month-
ly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society "
for March, 1883, contains the results of the re-
cent observations of Mercury by Mr. W. F. Den-
ning, of Bristol, Eng., and Sig. Schiaparelli, of
Milan, Italy. The former saw several dark,
irregular spots on the mornings of Nov. 6, 7,
9, and 10, 1882; also a small bright spot and
a large white area. The south horn of the
planet was also seen on several mornings to be
very much blunted. Both Denning and Schia-
parelli find the markings on Mercury much
more distinct than those on Venus. They find,
moreover, that the former bears a more strik-
ing resemblance, in its physical aspect, to Mars
than to Venus. Without undertaking to give
an exact determination of Mercury's rotation-
period, Mr. Denning expresses the opinion, con-
curred in by Schiaparelli, that Schroeter's pe-
riod of 24"' 5m- 30s- is too short. The observa-
tions of these astronomers give promise that
this element, hitherto somewhat doubtful, may
soon be accurately found.

The Transit of Venus on Dee. 6, 1882.— The va-
rious expeditions sent to different parts of the
world to observe the transit of Venus in 1882
were generally successful. At the Naval Ob-
servatory, Washington, D. C., Prof. E. Frisby,
with the 26-inch equatorial telescope, observed
the four contacts as follows:

First contact 8h. 56m. 45s.

Second contact... 9 16 9

Third contact 2 88 57

Fourth contact 2 58 55

Capt. Sampson observed with the 9-inch equato-
rial telescope as follows :

Firstcontact 8h. 55m. 9'96s.

Second contact 9 16 18-96

Third contact 2 89 56-11

Fourth contact Uncertain.

The observations at Princeton, N. J., were re-
ported by Prof. Young in the " Sidereal Mes-
senger " for January, 1883. All four of the
contacts were observed. One hundred and
eighty-eight photographs were taken by Prof.
Bracket. The spectroscopic observations by

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

Prof. Young and Mr. McNeill showed unmis-
takably the presence of water-vapor in the at-
mosphere of Venus. " Between the first and
second contacts the atmosphere of the planet
was conspicuous as a delicate halo around its
disk."

The transit was observed at Vassar College,
Poughkeepsie, N. Y., by Prof. Maria Mitchell ;
at Harvard College Observatory, by Prof. Pick-
ering and others ; at Dearborn Observatory,
Chicago, by Professors G. W. Hough and S. W.
Burnham; at Allegheny Observatory, Pa.,
by Prof. 8. P. Langley ; at Tarrytown, N. Y.,
by Mr. Charles H. Rockwell ; at Columbus, O.,
by Prof. R. W. McFarland and Mr. F. H. El-
dredge ; at Phelps, N. Y., by Mr. W. R. Brooks ;
at Nashville, Tenn., by Prof. E. E. Barnard ; at
New Windsor, 111., by Prof. E. L. Larkin ; and
by many others in various parts of the country.
The observations of foreign astronomers were
also generally successful. "How long it will
be before the observations, especially the pho-
tograph and heliometer measures, are fully re-
duced and published, it is impossible to say.
It must be years at least. After this is done,
it will be extremely probable that some high
authority, perhaps an international commis-
sion, should collect and discuss all the various
observations, both of this transit and that of
1874, and, from the enormous mass of material
thus obtained, deduce the best final result which
it can furnish — a result which can not fail to be
of the highest value in settling the dimensions
of our universe." *

Mr. A. Stanley Williams, who observed the
transit at Brighton, Eng., while examining the
border of light around Venus, noticed this
fringe to be very conspicuous on the southern
portion of the planet's limb, but very faint and
narrow elsewhere. During the transit, how-
ever, some change was manifest in the relative
brightness at different parts of the ring. The
phenomenon was ascribed by Mr. Williams to
the presence of clouds on the limb of Venus.

The Moon. — In " The Observatory " for March
and April, 1883, Mr. A. Stanley Williams, of
West Brighton, Eng., gives an interesting ac-
count of his observations on the lunar crater
Plato during the past five years. The condi-
tion of our satellite has long been regarded as
dead and changeless ; but the observations of
Mr. Williams, in connection with a most care-
ful examination of the floor of Plato by several
astronomers from 1869 to 1871, reveal the fact
of undoubted physical changes within the past
twelve years. The evidence of variation does
not rest on the testimony of a single observer.
Observations of Plato were simultaneously con-
ducted by the Rev. J. B. Allison, of Chester-
field; W. F. Denning, of Bristol; T. P. Gray,
of Bedford ; and H. Pratt, of Brighton. Some
of the changes discovered by a comparison of
the late observations with those of 1869-'71
are as follow :

1. Of the thirty-seven spots observed and
* " Sidereal Messenger,11 February, 1883.

mapped about 1870, six have entirely disap-
peared. Seven new ones have been found,
however, during the recent observations.

2. A very large increase in visibility is found
in the spots numbered 12 and 13 on the chart
of the floor of Plato. The latter also exhibits
some remarkable changes in form.

3. No. 16 has to a considerable extent de-
creased in brightness.

4. Several streaks in the floor of the crater
have sensibly increased in breadth ; three new
streaks have appeared within the past ten
years, and several that were distinctly visible
about 1870 can not now be found.

5. Very obvious changes in the state of the
floor of the crater have taken place since the
observations of 1869-'71.

Diameter of the Moon.— Prof . H. M. Paul, of
the United States Navy, has lately redeter-
mined the semi-diameter of the moon from two
occultations of the Pleiades, observed on July
6, 1877, and September 6, 1879. His value of
the mean apparent semi-diameter is 15' 31*78" ;
corresponding to a diameter of 2158*3 miles.

Minor Planets.— The 232d minor planet was
detected on the 21st of January, 1883, by Herr
Palisa, of the Vienna Observatory. It is of
the twelfth magnitude, and is the thirty-ninth
discovered by this observer. The right to
select a name was delegated to Dr. Engel-
hardt, of Dresden, who called it Russia. Its
elements, computed by Dr. Herz, from Vienna
observations of January 31st, Rome, March
8th, and Dresden, April 13th, are as follow :

Epoch, April 15- 5, Berlin mean time.

Longitude of perihelion 200° 24' 87'

Longitude of ascending node 152 80 28

Inclination 6 8 34

Mean daily motion • 870-2296"

Period 1489 • 26 days.

Mean distance 2-5522

Eccentricity '. 0 • 1 754

The mean distance falls in the cluster imme-
diately exterior to the well-known hiatus where
the period of an asteroid would be one third
that of Jupiter.

Another asteroid was discovered at Mar-
seilles, on the llth of May, by M. Borelly. Its
light is about equal to that of a star of the
eleventh magnitude. The third minor planet
of the year was detected, August 12th, by Dr.
Peters, of Clinton, N. Y. This is the 234th
of the group, and the 42d discovered by him.
It is of the ninth magnitude, and its approxi-
mate elements are as follows :

Epoch, 1883, August 30- 5, Berlin mean time. -

Longitude of perihelion 332° 6' 35 • 5"

Longitude of ascending node 144 6 44

Inclination 15 81 19

Eccentricity 0'2436

Mean daily motion 956'674"

Period 1354-7 days.'

Mean distance...

Owing to the great eccentricity of this
planet's orbit, its least distance from the sun
is only T812. Its remarkable brightness when
discovered was due to the fact that it was
nearly in opposition, as well as near the sun, at
the time of its detection. The 235th minor

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

planet was discovered on the morning of Nov.
29, 1883, by Dr. Palisa, of Vienna.

Distribution of the Asteroids in Spaee.— Flam-
marion's " L'Astronomie " for June, 1883, con-
tains an article of much interest on the dis-
tribution of the asteroids between Mars and
Jupiter. The author, Gen. Parmentier, notices
well-defined gaps in those parts of the zone
where the periods would be commensurable
with that of Jupiter. His discussion of the
periods and distances is thus confirmatory of
Prof. Kirkwood's theory, published in 1866.

Several asteroids lately discovered are still
without names ; the following have been con-
ferred during the current year:

No. 224. Oceana.
u 225. Henrietta.
" 226. Weriniria.
" 227. Philosophic
" 229. Adelinda.

No. 230. Athemantis.
" 281. Vindobona.
" 282. Russia.
" 234. Barbara.

Jupiter. — The great red spot on Jupiter,
which had been observed for several years,
gradually disappeared in 1883. Prof. Ricco,
of the Royal Observatory, Palermo, says that,
in September, the part of the surface recently
occupied by it bad become brilliantly white.
He infers from his own observations that the
neighborhood of the red spot had acquired the
same rate of motion as the spot itself. This
place is designated by a permanent depression
in the great belt in which the red spot was
situated.

Prof. G. W. Hough, Director of the Dear-
born Observatory, Chicago, has for several
years made Jupiter a special object of atten-
tion. In his last annual report, May 9, 1883,
he says: " While the spot has remained nearly
stationary in latitude, the south edge of the
great Equatorial Belt has gradually drifted
south during the present opposition, until it is
nearly coincident with the middle of the spot.
But what is remarkable, the two do not blend
together, but are entirely distinct and separate.
A depression has formed in the edge of the
belt, corresponding in shape to the oval out-
line of the spot, the distance between the two
objects being about one second of arc. That
portion of the belt following the spot first
began to drift, forming a bend near the posi-
tion occupied by a curious offshoot, seen at
various times in 1880 and 1881. The non-
blending of the two objects would seem to in-
dicate that they are composed of matter hav-
ing repellent properties, similar to two clouds
charged with the same kind of electricity."

It is suggested by Prof. Hough that the
red spot visible from 1878 to 1883 may have
been a return of the great spot observed by
Hook and Cassini from 1664 to 1666. It was
some distance south of the equator, and its
diameter was over 8,000 miles. It reappeared
and vanished eight times within forty-four
years from the date of its first discovery. If
the objects are the same, " we would naturally
infer that it was a portion of the solid body
of the planet; being sometimes rendered in-
visible by a covering of clouds."

"The Observatory" for April contains a
communication by N. E. Green, on the relative
heights of markings on Jupiter. The white
spots, it is maintained, are at a higher level in
the atmosphere of the planet than the dark
ones. This theory is derived from a critical
examination of several hundred drawings of
the planet, taken within the past twenty years.
The reasons assigned by Mr. Green for the
adoption of his views are as follow :

" 1. The general form of the light marks,
these being round, oval, or compact patches,
very unlike openings or rifts in a superficial
cloudy envelope. 2. That the. oval forms so
frequently seen on the equatorial side of the
dark southern belt, indent equally both the
dark belt and the general surface of the planet.
3. That the continuity of a long, dark streak
is occasionally broken by a patch of light broad-
er than the streak, the patch of light hiding,
therefore, not only the streak but a portion of
the general surface of the planet to the north
and south of it. The first reason, that of the
general form of the light markings, may seem
to be weak, but, taken in connection with their
relative position, is by no means inconclusive.
In March, 1874. lines of small round patches
of light, smaller than the satellites, were fre-
quently seen, looking like strings of pearls ;
these occurred generally on the dark southern
belt, but were occasionally seen in northern
and high southern latitudes. Now, if the
darker portions are uppermost, these surfaces
must have been pierced like the sides of a
man-of-war, in order that the light underlying
portion might be seen through the openings.
Again, in January, 1873, large oval masses of
light were so constant on the equatorial side
of the southern belt, that the belt itself looked
like a long, dark bridge with many arches ;
but let it be observed that these light forms
not only indented the dark belt on one side,
but equally indented the general tone of the
planet on the other ; and if we consider the
dark belt as being at a higher level, and the
light marks as portions of a continuous light
surface seen through its openings, we must
admit that some other envelope is also pierced
with similar openings, and that the two open-
ings coincide, in order that the oval form may
be complete — a supposition which is not rec-
ommended by its probability. But the last
argument, that of the imposition of a mass of
light on a long, dark streak, is the most con-
clusive ; this has occurred several times since
the last opposition, the most marked instances
being on Feb. 18, at 8h- 55m- G. M. T., and
Feb. 24, at 8h- 4om- On the first date a broad
and some what square patch of light interrupted
the continuity of the darkest portion of the
southern belt, and, being broader than the belt,
extended in the direction of the equator over
the general tone of the planet. On Feb. 24th,
gh. ^gm., ft SqUare patch of light was nearly on
the center of the disk ; this lay on a long, blu-
ish streak. The patch of light was consider-

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

ably broader than the streak, and, what is very
remarkable, portions of blue streak appeared
on the north and south sides of the square
patch, as though the light patch had been
formed from material drawn away from the
general covering of the surface, thus leaving
vacant spaces both above and below it."

In "The Observatory" for April, 1883, W.
F. Denning gives some results of his own ob-
servations of Jupiter's equatorial white spot,
and also of the great red spot now no longer
visible. Mr. Denning has found that while
the white spot was completing 2,064 revolu-
tions, the red spot performed only 2,045 ; in
other words, the white spot gained 19 revolu-
tions. The former, therefore, moves 260 miles
an hour more rapidly in a direction from west
to east around the planet. The average pe-
riod of the red spot from July, 1881, to March,
1883, was 9h- 55m> 37'78- ; that of the white
spot, 9h- 50ra- 8/7"-. These results are very
nearly identical with those found by Prof.
Hough.

Researches on the Satnrnlan System. — During the
past three years Dr. Wilhelm Meyer, of Gene-
va, has been engaged in an elaborate investi-
gation of the Saturnian system.* His observa-
tions of 1881 give the following:

Dimensions of Saturn and its rings for the distance. .
Exterior diameter of the bright ring. ................

Diameter of the ring in the middle of Cassini's di-

vision ..........................................

Interior diameter of the bright ring ............ _____

Interior diameter of the dusky ring ................

Distance between the extremity of the ring and the

planet on the west ........ .......................

The same distance on the east ......................

Equatorial diameter of the planet ...................

Polar diameter of the planet ........................

Compression ...................................... ^^

The interior edge of the bright ring was not
sharply defined, and hence the interior diame-
ter could not be determined with accuracy.

Orbits of the Satellites and Mass of the Primary.—

Dr. Meyer's observations of Mimas and Hype-
rion were insufficient for a determination of
their orbits. The others were satisfactorily
observed, and the resulting distances and pe-
riods are given below :

SATELLITES. Mean distance. Period.

d. h. in. e.

Enceladus ....................... 34"'3501 1 8 53 6'92

Tethys ......................... 4'2 -7514 121 1825-62

Dione ........ ................... 54 -7574 217 41 9'29

Ehea ........................... 76 -4838 4 12 25 11'57

Titan ............................ 176 '9102 15 22 41 23'16

lapetus .......................... 514-710879 7 4924-84

The mass of Saturn obtained from these peri-
ods is ^4^, a value somewhat greater than
that found by Bessel. The mass of the ring,
that of Saturn being 1, is y^.

The Divisions in the Ring.— The London " Ob-
servatory" for September, 1883, gives the fol-
lowing abstract of Dr. Meyer's researches on
the divisions of Saturn's ring, and the disturb-
ing influence of the satellites:

" Prof. Kirkwood showed, some twenty years
ago, that Jupiter exercised a peculiar influence

*Astr. Nach., Nos. 2,517,2.527; London Obs., July and
September, 1883; Payne's Sid. Mess., September, 1888.

84-48
26 '05
21 • 13

11-34
11 -30
17' 77
16-12

over the minor planets, tending to produce-
well-marked gaps among them at certain well-
defined distances. For if the period of any
minor planet were commensurable with that
of Jupiter, the latter would exercise a perturb-
ing influence upon it, which would eventually
result in a complete change of orbit. Later
on, in 1868, Prof. Kirkwood employed the
same principle to account for the great divis-
ion (Cassini's) in Saturn's rings. Maxwell had
shown that the rings must be formed of sepa-
rate particles moving round the planet to a
certain extent as independent satellites. But
a body moving round Saturn at the distance of
Cassini's division would have a period that was
very closely commensurable with those of each
of the six inner satellites, and it would, there-
fore, be especially exposed to perturbation.
Dr. Meyer has carried the principle yet further,
and has investigated every possible combina-
tion of the commensurabilities of the revolu-
tion periods of the satellites, and he finds that,
including the division of Cassini, there are
seven places where the satellites would unite
to exercise a perturbing influence on the mem-
bers of the ring system. The first position is
where the period would be one fourth of that
of Mimas, and marks the inner boundary of
the dark ring. Particles moving at almost
precisely the same distances would have their
times commensurable with each of the other
five inner satellites: thus, for a period of one
fourth of that of Mimas, we have a distance of
10'56"from the center of Saturn ; for one sixth
of that of Enceladus, 10-43", and for one eighth
of that of Tethys, 1Q-66". Dr. Meyer sees a
consequence of this close agreement in the
well-defined character of the inner edge of the
dark ring. Next comes Struve's division in
the dark ring. One fifth the period of Ence-
ladus corresponds to a distance of 11-79", one
seventh that of Tethys, 11 -66"; the next three
satellites give a closely similar result. The
position of Struve's division is not very exactly
known, and Dr. Meyer adopts 11*79" as its
distance, being the mean between the posi-
tions of the inner boundaries of rings C and
B. One third of the period of Mimas intro-
duces a new series of commensurabilities in
which all the six satellites take part, but the
agreement is by no means so close as in the
first two cases ; and Dr. Meyer regards the in-
distinct character of the inner boundary of the
bright ring B, which would about correspond
to the mean of the distances indicated, as con-
nected with this less perfect coincidence. The
period of Enceladus is four times, that of Tethys
six times, that belonging to a particle at this
distance. Cassini's division corresponds, as'al-
ready stated, to a period commensurable with
each of the six inner satellites, the period of
Mimas being twice as long, Enceladus three
times, Tethys four, Dione six, Rhea nine, Ti-
tan thirty-three. The commensurabilities in
the case of the four nearest satellites are of
the simplest possible character; and we find

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

that the inner edge of Cassini's division, which
is situated at the distance thus indicated, is
especially distinctly marked. The outer edge
is very indistinct, the influence of Rhea and
Titan being much feebler, on account of their
great distance.

" One tifth the period of Dione corresponds
to about the distance of Encke's division. One
eighth of Rhea's period and one halt' of Titan's
approximate roughly to the same distance. The
division is faint and ill-defined. One third the
period of Tethys, the simplest relation now re-
maining, indicates the outer boundary of the
ring system, and one seventh that of Rhea, and
one twenty-sixth that of Titan, correspond to
distances of nearly the same amount.

" The only simple relation omitted is that of
one fifth the period of Tethys, and this closely
corresponds to integral parts of the periods of
the three next outer planets. There should,
therefore, be another division at about 14'7".
Dr. Meyer does not seem aware of the fact;
but several observers of Saturn have noticed
that ring B begins to shade off a little nearer
Saturn than the center of the ring, which would
correspond to a distance of about 14'T" or
14-8". Prof. Holden speaks of the point where
this shading off begins as 'a definite point.'
The correspondence between calculation and
observation as to the divisions of Saturn's rings
would, therefore, seem to be complete."

At a meeting of the Philosophical Society of
Washington, Oct. 13, 1883, William B. Taylor
recalled attention to M. Struve's conclusion,
announced in 1851, that the rings of Saturn
are increasing in breadth, while the interval
between the inner brigh't ring and the planet
is gradually decreasing. This conclusion, ac-
cording to Mr. Taylor, is confirmed by later
observations ; although the change is probably
less rapid than was inferred by Struve, from a
comparison of the measures up to 1850. This
process of convergence, it was shown, is a
necessary consequence of the modern discov-
ery that the rings consist of dense streams of
indefinitely small satellites. All parts of the
ring are subject to perturbations by the exte-
rior members of the Saturnian system. The
bodies composing the ring can not, therefore,
revolve in circular orbits. Hence the friction
or collision of the different parts must fre-
quently occur, resulting in a " degradation of
motion," a convergence of orbits, and a short-
ening of the periods. In this theory of their
constitution Mr. Taylor foresees the ultimate
precipitation of the rings upon the surface of
the planet.

Uranus.— The question whether Uranus has
any measurable ellipticity seems to have been
definitely settled by the recent observations of
Profs. Safarik, of Prague; Schiaparelli, of Mi-
lan ; and Young, of Princeton. The polar com-
pression, according to these astronomers, is
about TV. This is greater than that of Jupi-
ter, and nearly equal to that of Saturn— a fact
indicative of a rapid rotation. Prof. Young

has also observed certain spots or markings on
the surface of the planet, similar to those on
Jupiter and Saturn, by the continued exami-
nation of which the rotation period may pos-
sibly be determined.

Comets. — On the evening of February 23, 1883,
a comet was discovered by W. R. Brooks, of Red
House Observatory, Phelps, N. Y. The same
body was independently detected only a few
minutes later on the same evening by Dr. Swift,
of the Warner Observatory, Rochester. About
the first of March the comet was described as
nearly round, and with a very condensed nu-
cleus. According to some observers, it had a
granular appearance, somewhat resembling a
resolvable nebula. It had a faint tail, about 18'
in length. From observations made at Cam-
bridge, Mass., on February 24th, March 5th,
and March 17th, and one at Albany, N. Y., on
March 5th, Messrs. Chandler and Wendell, of
Cambridge, computed the following elements :

Perihelion passage = 1888, Feb. 18 '9357, G. M. T.

Longitude of perihelion 29" 00' 00"

Longitude of ascending node 278 7 41

Inclination 78 4 40

Perihelion distance 0-7599

On the night of September 1st, W. R. Brooks
observed a small object, which he at once sus-
pected to be a comet. Cloudy weather pre-
vented satisfactory observations till the night
of the 3d, when his suspicions were fully con-
firmed. The comet was circular, more than a
minute in diameter, had a well-defined 'star-
like nucleus, and was without a tail. From
about two weeks' observations at the Dudley
Observatory, Albany, N. Y., Prof. Lewis Boss
found the elements of the comet's orbit so
nearly coincident with those of the comet dis-
covered by Pons on the 20th of July, 1812, as
to leave no doubt of their identity. This fact
was announced on the evening of September
19th. The sameness of the two bodies, how-
ever, had been independently shown one day
earlier by the Rev. George M. Searle, of New
York. Mr. Searle's conclusion — reached by a
method different from that employed by Prof.
Boss — was at once forwarded to Harvard Col-
lege, where it was received on the morning of
September 20th. Marked changes of structure
in approaching the «un were observed within
three weeks from the date of its discovery. In-
dications of a nucleus were seen at Harvard on
the night of September 21st. The next night its
appearance was greatly changed ; the bright-
ness being nearly equal to that of an eighth-
magnitude star. On the night of the 23d it
had lost its stellar .aspect, had become blurred,
had a rather distinct nucleus, and was begin-
ning to develop traces of a tail. The perihelion
passage will occur about 1884, January 25th.

Attention has been called to the fact that
the elements of this comet strikingly resemble
those of De Vico's comet of 1846, with the ex-
ception that the ascending node of the one co-
incides with the descending node of the other.
This close coincidence of orbits has been thought
to indicate a common origin.

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

Periodicity of Comets. — At the session of the
Paris Academy of Sciences on January 8, 1883,
M. Zenger read a paper on the periodicity of
comets. The theory proposed includes the fol-
lowing propositions :

1. Comets have originated in the sun.

2. Their origin has been in some way con-
nected with the sun's rotation.

3. Portions of the matter forming the solar
protuberances have been thrown out into space
by enormous explosive force. From the mat-
ter thus ejected large meteorites might gather
about them such quantities of the coronal sub-
stance as to constitute comets.

4. The periods of comets are multiples of
half the rotation period of the sun.

M. Zenger has collected a number of facts
which he regards as evidence in favor of his
hypothesis.

The Great Comet of 1882, and the Speetroseopic
Method of determining Motions in the Line of Sight
— This comet afforded an excellent opportunity
for testing the accuracy of the spectroscopic
method of finding the rate of approach or re-
cession of the heavenly bodies. M. Thollon,
observing the comet's spectrum on September
18th, found the bright lines of sodium displaced
by an amount indicating a recession at the rate
of forty-seven miles a second. After the comet
had been observed for a sufficient length of time
to determine its orbit, its true rate of motion in
the line of sight was found to have been forty-
five miles a second. As the amount of dis-
placement was only estimated by M. Thollon,
not accurately measured, the agreement be-
tween the observed and calculated rates is
quite satisfactory. The comet's rate of reces-
sion, September 18, 1882, was about equal to
that of Vega as determined by the spectro-
scope.

Meteors. — The following large meteors were
observed during the year ending December 1,
1883:

On December 12, 1882, a large meteor was
seen from the United States steamer Alaska,
westward from San Francisco, latitude 38° 21',
longitude 134° 7' west; when about 10° above
the horizon it exploded with a loud detona-
tion, the glowing fragments plunging into the
ocean.

At Concord, N. H., one of the largest and
most brilliant meteors ever observed there was
seen on the afternoon of December 20, 1882,
between four- and five o'clock. It passed from
west to east, and was as plainly visible as me-
teors usually are after dark.

Payne's "Sidereal Messenger" for March,
1883, contains an account of a very brilliant
meteor which passed over Central Indiana. on
the evening of January 3d. From observations
at numerous points in Indiana and Illinois it
is concluded that the meteor first became visi-
ble over Grant county, Indiana, at a height of
about 85 miles, that it passed very nearly over
Kokomo and Lafayette, its height at the latter
place being 53 miles ; that its course was south

78° west, and that the length .of its visible track
was about 140 miles.

About six o'clock on the evening of February
5th a meteor three or four times as large as
Venus was seen at several points in Indiana. At
Bloomington, when first noticed, it was a few
degrees east of south, 18° or 20° above the
horizon. It disappeared behind a building, the
length of its visible track having been nearly
20°. At Martins ville, Morgan county, it was
first seen 5° west of south at an apparent eleva-
tion of 18°.

On the 16th of February a large meteoric
stone fell, a little before three o'clock in the
afternoon, between Cremona and Brescia, sink-
ing more than three feet into the earth. The
explosion was heard at a distance of 12 or 13
miles.

At Norwich, Conn., a meteor of great mag-
nitude was seen on the evening of February
27th. Its path was from the northeast to the
northwest.

Early on the morning of March 4th an im-
mense fire-ball darted across the heavens at Pe-
tersburg, Va., brilliantly illuminating the city.
Its course was northwest, and an explosion was
heard shortly after its passage.

At the meeting of the Royal Academy of
Vienna, on the 14th of June, 1883, Prof. G. von
Niessl read an elaborate discussion of the ob-
servations of a meteoric fire-ball seen at Brunn
and elsewhere, at about 7h' 30m- on the even-
ing of March 13, 1883. Dr. von Niessl finds
the radiant point of this meteor to have been
in right ascension 148° 30' and in south dec-
imation 9°. Its mean altitude was about 61
English miles, and its heliocentric velocity was
estimated at 50 miles a second. The meteor's
orbit about the sun was, therefore, an hyper-
bola. If it belong, then, to a meteoric cluster,
no member of the group can be expected to
return. Several other large meteors are known
to have appeared at nearly the same epoch.

On the evening of April 14th, at 7h- 30m • a re-
markably fine meteor was seen at Wooster, O.
When first noticed, its direction from the point
of observation was east-southeast, about 45°
above the horizon. It had at least twice the
apparent magnitude of Venus, and the line of
its motion would have cut the horizon a little
north of east. After a brief visible flight as a
single body, it suddenly burst into fragments —
twenty or more — all brilliant and pursuing the
same direction, but more slowly, and falling
somewhat below the line which the meteor
seemed at first to pursue.

At about 10h- 45m- on the evening of June
3d, a meteor whose apparent magnitude was
several times that of Venus was seen at sev-
eral points in England. At Ripon its length
of path while visible was about 120°, with the
middle point due east; direction of motion,
parallel to the horizon ; elevation, 20° ; length
of train, 25°. Another large meteor was seen
later in the same evening.

A splendid meteor was seen in the evening

26

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

twilight, in England, on the 6th of July, at 8h-
60™- Its coarse was from northeast to east, at
an altitude of 27° when first seen, and 22°
when it disappeared. Its motion was slow ;
the duration of visibility being six or seven
seconds. When first seen, its form was globu-
lar, but in a second or two it became elongated
as though the change were produced by the
resistance of the atmosphere. Its color was
at first a deep red, afterward a golden hue, and
just before disappearance, a brilliant white.

A meteor of intense brilliance was seen at
many points in New Zealand at 4h>46m- P.M.,
on July 12th. At Ohinitahi it was seen moving
slowly from the west in an easterly direction,
at an altitude of about 45°. Its appearance
was in broad daylight.

A meteoric fire-ball was seen in England at
8"- 25m- on the evening of August llth. It
moved easterly, and its color was a deep ame-
thyst.

A beautiful meteor, considerably brighter
than Venus, was seen in different parts of Eng-
land about ten o'clock on the evening of Au-
gust 19th. As seen near London by A. J. Mott,
" it passed along the eastern sky and vanished
over the summit of the Little Orme. The path
was northward, nearly horizontal, apparently
much foreshortened, for the motion was very
slow— not faster than that of balls falling from
a rocket; white light, slightly tinged with blue.
The meteor divided, and left one large and
several smaller portions behind it, all vanish-
ing together." According to Mr. Mott, the
meteor did not reach the earth, but after skim-
ming through the upper atmosphere at an alti-
tude of about seventy miles passed onward in
its orbit.

A splendid meteor was seen near London,
Eng., about nine o'clock on the evening of
October 6th. It passed from the northeast,
beneath the pole-star, to the west, where it
vanished instantaneously without bursting.
The nucleus measured at least five minutes of
arc in breadth, and was extremely brilliant.

Moleorif Showers. — So far as reported, no me-
teoric showers of any considerable note oc-
curred during 1883. The numbers seen were
small both in January and April ; while the
showers of August and November almost
totally failed. At Great Badow, Eng., H. Cor-
der kept watch on the nights of the 9th,
10th, and llth of August, with the following
results : On the 9th, in two hours and forty-
five minutes, 61 Perseids were counted, or 22
an hour. On the 10th, 113 were seen in two
hours. On the llth he watched the whole
night, counting 157 Perseids in five honrs; the
highest number in an hour being 43. The
radiant was in 46° R. A., and 56° N. declina-
tion.

Telescopic Meteors.— In March, 1883, W. F.
Denning, of Bristol, Eng., observed a num-
ber of telescopic meteors of the eighth or ninth
magnitude. These, as well as those seen dur-
ing former observations, were generally remark-

able for the slowness of their motion — a fact
probably due to their distance.

Double Stars. — In the " Sidereal Messenger ''
for November, 1883, S. W. Burnham has dis-
cussed the observations, by himself and oth-
ers, of the double star Delta Equulei. The
principal star of this wide pair is itself an ex-
cessively close binary system, the components
of which are very nearly equal. Mr. Burnham
finds the probable period a little less than
eleven years — much shorter than that of any
other binary star now known — shorter even
than the. period of Jupiter. Mr. Burnham re-
marks that " by reason of the rapid orbital
motion of this close pair, and its movement
through space, this is undoubtedly the most
important and interesting of all the sidereal
systems which have been investigated."

On the evening of October 5th, Prof. C.
A. Young, of Princeton, discovered the du-
plicity of a star in right ascension 16h- 29m-
26-38-, declination N. 58° 00' 49-9". The com-
ponents are of magnitudes 8 and 9|.

The last report of the Astronomer Royal,
W. H. M. Christie, contains some interesting
results derived from a discussion of the obser-
vations of Sirius from 1877 to 1883. A few
years since, the spectroscope indicated a rapid
recession of this star in the line of sight. A
comparison of observations, however, has led
to the conclusion that its rate of departure has
progressively diminished during the past six
years, and that the motion is now on the point
of being converted into one of approach — a
fact which seems incapable of any explanation
except on the theory of orbital motion.

Parallax of Certain Stars.— Prof. Asaph Hall,
Director of the Naval Observatory, Washing-
ton, D. 0., has recently completed a series of
observations for determining the annual paral-
lax, and hence the distance, of Alpha Lyras and
61 Cygni. In his reduction of these observa-
tions, Dr. Hall was assisted by Prof. Edgar
Frisby. The resulting value of the parallax of
the former star is 0*1 797", corresponding to a
distance more than a million times greater than
that of the sun from the earth. The parallax of
61 Cygni was found to be 0-4783", and hence its
distance is about 380,000 times that of the sun.
This value is very nearly identical with that
deduced from a series of Dunsink observations
extending over a much longer period. The
probable error is small in each determination.

At the session of the Astronomical Congress
in Vienna, September 14-16, 1883, Dr. Elkin
reported the result of some parallax determi-
nations, at the Cape of Good Hope by Mr. Gill
and himself; particularly of Sirius and Alpha
Centauri. The observers found the annual
parallax of the former four tenths of a second,
and that of the latter three fourths.

Mean Parallax of Stars of the First Magnitude.—
Dr. Gylden, of Stockholm, has been lately en-
gaged in a series of observations for finding
the annual parallax of the brightest stars. The
reduction has not yet been completed, but Dr,

ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS.

Gylden has reached the conclusion that the
mean parallax of stars of the first magnitude
i8 about one tenth of a second. With this re-
sult, the average distance of these bodies would
be two million times greater than that of the
sun — a distance requiring more than thirty-one
years for the transmission of their light to the
earth.

Distribntion of tbc Variable Stars.— In the a Ob-
servatory" for June, 1883, T. E. Espin, Vice-
President of the Liverpool Astronomical So-
ciety, concludes his interesting paper on the
distribution of the variable stars. (See " An-
nual Cyclopaedia" for 1882.) The shortest
period in his second class of variables is 135
days; the longest, 570. The variation in
brightness is from one to nine magnitudes.
The number of stars in relation to different
periods is as follows :

Period in dayg. Stars.

185-170 7

170-220 9

220-270 10

270-320... .. 15

Period In days. Stars.

820-870... .. 21

870-420 15

420^70 7

470-520 3

And the number of stars in relation to the va-
riation in magnitude is —

Var. mag. Stan.

5 27

6 25

7 6

Sand 9 3

From his examination of these tables Mr. Es-
pin infers :

1. That the number of stars increases with
the length of the period.

2. That the number of stars increases with
the variation in magnitude.

3. That more than two thirds of the varia-
ble stars of class second vary more than four
and less than six and a half magnitudes ; and,

4. That nearly two thirds of the variable
stars of class second have periods between 320
and 420 days.

Mr. Espin concludes as follows: "When,
nearly eighteen months ago, I commenced the
first of these papers, I believed that all cases
of stellar variation might, with the exception
of temporary stars, be included in classes first
and second. Lately, however, I have become
aware of the existence of a new class — stars
which have a small fluctuation in magnitude
once in several years. The observations of 63
Cygni first led me to this conclusion, and some
of the stars suspected of variation now under
observation go far to confirm it. For the
greater part of the time the light of these stars
is constant, but then it alters a magnitude or
so ; but, after a month or two, it returns to its
ordinary magnitude. Many of the stars sus-
pected of variation undoubtedly belong to this
class third, and it is obvious that only long and
careful determinations of magnitude during
many years can determine the periods and
variation of such stars.

" Summing up our results, then, we find
four classes of variable stars :

" Class I. With short periods and small va-
riation.

" Class II. Long period and great variation.

" Class III. Period of several years and small
variation.

" Class IV. Temporary stars."

The " Monthly Notices of the Royal Astro-
nomical Society " for March, 1883, contains a
note by the Rev. T. E. Espin, of Birkenhead,
Eng., on the variability of Beta Cygni and 63
Cygni. The former is placed in the table of sus-
pected variables in " Chambers's Astronomy,"
and this suspicion has been confirmed by Mr.
Espin. The change in brightness is not great
— about one magnitude — while the period,
though not well ascertained, is undoubtedly
several years. The period of 63 Cygni is about
five years, and the observe'd variation is from
the sixth to the 4'7 magnitude.

Dr. Peters's Star-Charts.— Dr. 0. H. F. Peters,
of Hamilton College, N. Y., has recently pub-
lished the first installment of a very elaborate
series of star-charts. They are to contain all
stars down to the 14th magnitude, as far as 30
degrees on each side of the equator, through-
out the whole of the twenty-four hours. Dr.
Peters has himself done all of the observing as
well as the draughting, and the charts are pub-
lished at his own expense, for gratuitous dis-
tribution. The construction of these charts
has occupied his time and attention for the
past twenty years. In his laborious observa-
tions, he not only carefully marked the place
of every one of the 60,000 stars or more al-
ready mapped, but, after receiving the proof,
he again compared the positions with the act-
ual condition of the heavens, so as to insure
the utmost possible accuracy. It has been
while engaged in this work that Dr. Peters has
picked up so great a number of small planets;
these interesting discoveries being merely inci-
dents connected with his systematic observa-
tions for another and, perhaps, more important
purpose.

Recent Papers on Astronomy. — The following
astronomical papers were read at the Minne-
apolis meeting of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, August, 1883 :

1. The Total Solar Eclipse of May 6, 1883; by
Prof. E. S. Holden.

2. Internal Contacts in Transits of Inferior Plan-
ets ; by Prof. J. E. Eastman.

3. Physical Phenomena on the Planet Jupiter ; by
Prof. G. W. Hough.

4. Observations of the Total Solar Eclipse of May
6, 1883 • by Dr. J. Janssen.

5. Orbit of the Great Comet of 1882 ; by Prof. Ed-
gar Frisby.

6. Some Observations on Uranus ; by Prof. C. A.
Young.

7. Observations on the Transit of Venus made at
Columbia College, New York" city ; by Mr. J. K.
Kees.

Astronomical Prizes. — At the annual meeting of
the Royal Astronomical Society, Feb. 9, 1883,
the society's gold medal was awarded to Dr.
B. A. Gould, Director of the Observatory at
C6rdoba, South America. "The work for

28 ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA.

AURORA BOREALIS.

which the medal was chiefly awarded may be
considered as an extension of Argelander's
scale of magnitudes to all the stars which can
be seen by a good eye, without instrumental
aid, between 10° north declination and the
south pole, together with a series of charts ex-
hibiting, on a stereographic projection, the
positions of all these stars to the sixth magni-
tude, and a proposed revision of the boundaries
of the southern constellations."

On presenting the medal, the president of
the society, E. J. Stone, F. R. S., delivered an
address in which the labors of Dr. Gould were
briefly reviewed, and concluding as follows:
" The ' Uranoraetria Argentina ' is a work of
very considerable extent ; it has been planned
with great care, and executed with the most
scrupulous attention to details. It will remain
an enduring record of the relative brightness
of the southern stars for its epoch ; and will be
accepted for many years as the chief authority
upon questions of their magnitude."

The "Comptes Rendus," vol. xcvi, No. 14,
announced that the French Academy of Sci-
ences had awarded the Lalande prize to M.
Souillart, Professor in the Faculty of Sciences
in Lille, for his investigations into the theory
of Jupiter's satellites. A prize of 2,000 francs
was given to Dr. W. Schur for his determina-
tion of the mass of Jupiter, and of the eccen-
tricities of the orbits of the first and second
satellites. The first Valz prize was awarded
to Dr. Huggins, of England, chiefly for his
spectroscopic determination of the motions of
stars in the line of sight. The stcond Valz
prize was given to M. Cruls, director of the
observatory at Rio Janeiro.

Llek Observatory.— The dome for the 12-inch
equatorial telescope of the Lick Observatory,
as well as buildings for the transit and the
photo- heliograph, was finished some months
since. The instruments have been mounted,
and are said to be in excellent working order.
The walls of the main building are approach-
ing completion, and arrangements are in prog-
ress for the reception of the great 36-inch
equatorial. The house for the meridian circle
has been begun, and a residence for the direct-
or and his assistants will be provided as soon
as practicable.

Potsdam Obsmatory. — Prof. H. C. Vogel,
Director of the Astrophysical Observatory of
Potsdam, has undertaken the preparation of a
complete spectroscopic star-catalogue. The
examination of the zone extending from 1°
south declination to 20° north has been com-
pleted, and the second zone, from 20° to 40°
north declination, will soon follow. " To pre-
pare such a catalogue," says Vogel, "is a duty
which the present generation owes to posterity.
The changes taking place in the stars are of
special interest to us, and are of importance to
science ; and although it may be conjectured
that changes in the spectra will show them-
selves soonest in those stars which have pro-
ceeded further in their development, that is,

in the red stars, yet this can not be positively
affirmed a priori. Equally with those wonder-
ful spectra of the red stars, which so enchant
the eye of the observer, will changes take
place in the course of time in the simple spec-
tra of the white and yellow stars, so that
investigations of as large a number of star-
spectra as possible, without limiting them to
particular classes of stars, are absolutely ne-
cessary for future researches."

The Annual Report of the Council of the
Royal Astronomical Society of London, read
February 9, 1883, contains an account of the
proceedings of the British observatories, public
and private, for the past year. Most of the
results, however, have been already given. At
the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, arrange-
ments have been made with the committee on
solar physics by which the gaps in the Green-
wich series of sun-pictures may be filled up by
photographs taken in India, thus rendering
the series almost perfectly continuous. The
Oxford University Observatory has been chief-
ly directed to the photometry of the brighter
stars of the northern hemisphere. At Mr.
Huggins's observatory, Upper Tulse Hill, the
director has obtained photographs of the sun's
corona without an eclipse. "In the longer
exposed plates," Dr. Huggins remarks, "the
outer corona with its rays of varying length
and peculiar rifts is seen ; in the plates with a
shorter exposure the inner corona, which is
more nearly uniform in height, may be seen
under suitable illumination. The average
heights of the outer and inner coronse agree
closely with the coronse as seen on the plates
taken in Egypt," during the total eclipse of
May 16, 1882.

AURORA BOREALIS. The phenomena of the
aurora borealis have recently been made the
object of several special studies. They have
long been regarded as of electrical origin, but
nothing was known of the source of the elec-
tric currents that produced them, or of the
manner of action under which the different
kinds of auroral phenomena were manifested.
M. de la Rive, a physicist of Geneva, set forth
the hypothesis, about 1850, that the earth is
charged with positive, and the upper strata of
the atmosphere with negative electricity, and
that two currents, very strong in the tropical
regions, are constantly proceeding toward the
polar regions, where they meet through the
medium of an air containing infinitesimal vesi-
cles of water and crystals of snow and ice, and
consequently having higher conducting pow-
ers. He constructed an apparatus by the aid
of which, establishing conditions similar to
those he regarded as fundamental to his the-
ory, he produced, on a minute scale, luminous
phenomena comparable in appearance to those
of the aurora.

Mr. Nordenskjold, the Swedish explorer,
when wintering near Bering Strait, in 1878,
observed on perfectly favorable nights a faint
luminous arc having its culminating point in

AURORA BOREALIS.

the north-northeast. His studies of this phe- A = 5,569 was observed, with soft variable

nomenon led him to the conclusion that the intensity. The galvanometer gave the detiec-

earth is provided with a permanent luminous tions, extremely variable in intensity, but never

corona, about 400 kilometres from the surface, ceasing, of a positive current from the " ut-

having its center correspondent with the mag- stromnings " apparatus to the earth. Ari °™
netic pole, and its plane perpendicular to the

terrestrial radius at that point. Its light is so
feeble that the slightest rival luminous mani-
festation— the light of the moon, for example,
or the presence of moisture or frost in the
air — is sufficient to extinguish it. Hence it is
not likely to be visible in inhabited lands, and
can be seen, even in the polar regions, only in
such favorable seasons as the one he enjoyed,
which was a season of minimum of auroras,
and then only rarely.

Prof. Lenstrbm's Experiments in Lapland.— Di-
rect and definite experiments to ascertain the
cause of the auroral displays have been made
by Prof. Selim Lenstrom, of the Fin-
nish Meteorological Station at Sodan-
kyla, Lapland. They were directed
especially to the variety of the mani-
festations which takes the form of tiny
flames or a phosphorescent luminosity
appearing around projecting objects,
such as mountain cones and ridges.
Prof. Lenstrom's first experiments
were made in 1871, when, with an
apparatus similar to the enlarged one
with which he produced the same re-
sults on a grander scale in 1882, he
succeeded in artificially inducing an
aurora on the top of the Luosmavaara
mountain, 520 feet above the surface
of Lake En are, in Lapland. Toward
the end of November, 1882, Prof. Len-
strom laid out on the summit of Mount
Oratunturi (lat. 67° 21', long. 27° 17'
32"), about 540 metres above the level
of the sea and twelve miles from the

On an-
other mountain, Pietarintunturi (lat. 68° 32'
5", long. 27° 17' 32"), 950 metres above the sea,
a smaller utstromnings apparatus was erected
in two parts, so arranged that the inner one
covered about 80 square metres, and the outer
one 320 square metres. On the 29th of Decem-
ber a single column of aurora, 120 metres in
height, appeared above the apparatus. The
current, as shown by the galvanometer, was
found in the case of this mountain to be " pro-
portionate to the surface-area laid out " ; and
observations of comparison between the two
mountains led to the conclusion that uthe elec-
tric current from the atmosphere increases

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observatory at Sodankyla, an instru-
ment which he called an " utstrom-
nings" or "discharging" apparatus.
It consisted of a bare copper wire
two millimetres m diameter, fitted at every
half-metre with points or nibs soldered upon
it. The wire was laid out in entwined squares,
or in the form of a rectangular helix, in such
a way that each innar coil was about a metre
and a half from the outer one, and was raised
on poles 2| metres high ; and the whole appa-
ratus covered a superficial area of 900 square
metres. From the inner end of this wire, an

PROFESSOR LENSTRSM'S UTSTRO'MNINGS APPARATUS. THE Con op
WIRES. — The insulators are indicated by the letters'. The open
end of the wire is shown at 0, while the inner end is connected
with the galvanometer.

rapidly with the latitude." Other researches
led to the inference that, while the condition
of the ground is of some influence, the terres-
trial current ceases at a certain latitude. Si-
multaneous measurements of the angles of ele-
vation were made, at Sodankyla, and at a sta-
tion four and a half kilometres north of that
place, for the purpose of determining the height
of the aurora. The measurements made the

insulated copper wire on poles, with telegraph angle at the southern station three degrees

insulators, led to the foot of the mountain,
where a connection was made at the station
with a galvanometer, whence another wire led
to a zinc disk in the earth. From the day the
apparatus was finished, a yellowish-white lumi-
nosity appeared almost every night around
the summit of the mountain, while nothing of
the kind was seen around any of the other
mountains. When tested with the spectro-
scope, the light gave a faintly continuous spec-
trum from D to F, in which the auroral line

larger than that at the northern one, a result
inconsistent with the supposition that the dif-
ference in angle represented a parallax of a
single object seen from two places; for in -that
case the larger angle would have been observed
at the northern station, and the difference
would have been slight. Prof. Lenstrom came
to the conclusion that the two observers did
not see the same aurora ; and comparing this
observation with others, that " measurements
of the height of the aurora calculated on those

30

AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA.

with a long base north and south, are always
erroneous, as the two observers never see the
same aurora." Occasionally the characteristic
auroral line was revealed in the spectroscope
when no aurora was visible to the eye ; and
the phosphorescent " shine," or diffused lumi-
nosity, was observed so regularly as to induce
the conclusion that that manifestation is a
nearly constant accompaniment of the winter
nights of Northern Lapland, and is of auroral
origin. From his observations as a whole,
Prof. Lenstrdm has drawn the conclusion that
"the experiments at Luosrnavaara in 1871 and
atOratunturi and Pietarintunturi in 1882 clear-
ly and undeniably prove that the aurora borealis
is an electric phenomenon," ; and also prove
" that aurora borealis may be produced in na-
ture by a simple contrivance assisting the elec-
tric current flowing from the atmosphere to
the earth."

Dr. Tromholt's Observations in Fionmarken.— Dr.
Sophus Tromholt, of Norway, spent the win-
ter of 1882-'83 at Kautokeino, in North Finn-
inurketi (latitude 69° north, longitude 23° east),
making observations in connection with the
Norwegian station at Bossekop, about one de-
gree north, and the much more distant Finn-
ish station at Sodankyla, southeast of his post,
for the purpose of obtaining the parallax of the
aurora. The station is peculiarly favorable, for
it is in a zone where the auroral displays at-
tain their maxima, and are nearly constant. He
made several attempts to photograph the phe-
nomena, but without success, even the most sen-
sitive English dry plates failing to give a trace
of a negative. This he believes to be because
of the exceedingly limited substance of light
possessed by the glow ; a flood of which, il-
luniiimting the whole heavens, would not alto-
gether possess a lighting power equal to that
of the moon when full. He has confidence in
the practicability of his plan for measuring the
height of the arc, and estimates it at 150 kilo-
metres; and he believes that its plane is to
be found far above that of the clouds. Prof.
Lenstrdm, while he admits that the height is
variable, is of the opinion that it has been
greatly overestimated. Dr. Tromholt expect-
ed to spend the winter of 1883-'84 in Northern
Irehmd, experimenting with Prof. Lenstrom's
" utstrdmnings " apparatus.

AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA. Consolidation.—
The movement for the consolidation of the
Australasian colonies into a federal union, on
the lines of the confederation of British North
America, i.s piining ground in Australia, and
receives the strongest encouragement from the
present Government of Great Britain. The
tendency toward union became apparent in
1883 in different acts of co-operation and
manifestations of a sense of common interests.
A second conference to discuss the question
to what extent confederation is practicable at
the present time met at Sydney in November.
The legislatures of the different colonies were
represented by delegates selected from their

number. The conference was appointed at
the suggestion of the Victorian Parliament and
Government. It arrived at no practical con-
clusions on the main question. The question
of the annexation of the Melanesian Islands
gives a new import to the movement. All the
colonies of Australia, through resolutions of
their legislatures during the year, called upon
the Imperial Government to occupy those isl-
ands to prevent their falling into the hands of
other powers. The British Government holds
out the hope that their wishes will be gratified
as soon as they shall combine in a strong po-
litical union, and show that they can, at some
future, time, take into their care and govern-
ance the new possessions, and meanwhile bear
their share of the cost of the occupation,
administration, and defense of these vast re-
gions.

Postal Union. — A conference of delegates from
all the colonies, except New Zealand, which
refused to join, was held at Sydney, for the
purpose of considering the question of adopt-
ing the arrangements of the Universal Postal
Union. The meeting was called at the in-
stance of Mr. Fawcett, the English Postmaster-
General, who wished to have the votes of Aus-
tralian delegates at the Lisbon conference in
1884, in order to help the interests of the Brit-
ish steamship lines. The Postal Union expects
to reduce the maximum rate of ocean postage
to ten cents a letter. The Sydney meeting took
action in conformity with Mr. Fawcett's views,
and appointed commissioners to attend the
congress. The effect of the proposed arrange-
ments will be to give the bulk of the business
of carrying Australian mails to the Peninsular
and Oriental Steamship Company, diverting
that portion which is carried across the United
States, and entailing losses on the colonies
which have mail contracts with the Pacific
Mail and other steamship companies. Such
losses the colonies agreed to share with one
another. •

Defenses. — The various colonies are proceed-
ing with the organization of a militia, and have
already spent large sums in a system of coast
defense fulfilling the latest requirements of
naval science. "The. approaches to the prin-
cipal ports are guarded by batteries mounted
with modern artillery and by sunken torpe-
does. A considerable fleet of powerful gun-
boats and torpedo-boats of improved construc-
tion is building for the colonial governments
in England. Victoria ordered two gunboats,
one of 530 tons' displacement and a speed of
12 knots, to carry a 25-ton gun, two smaller
guns in the stern, and improved Gatling guns ;
the other, with a displacement of 350 tons and
a speed of 10 knots, to be similarly armed,
with a lighter gun in the bow. South Aus-
tralia is having built a vessel which is rather a
cruiser than a gunboat, with a displacement of
900 tons and a speed of 14 knots, to be armed
with an 8-inch gun in the bow, four 6-inch
broadside guns, another in the stern, and five

AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA.

31

machine-guns. Queensland ordered two gun-
boats identical with the smaller Victorian ves-
sel. Victoria will have three torpedo-boats,
New Zealand four, Queensland two, and Tas-
mania one. One of the Victorian boats is the
largest yet constructed, except one built for
the Russian Government, being 113 feet long,
with a displacement of 58£ tons. It was
launched in 1883, and is armed with four large
Whitehead torpedoes and two Hodgkiss ma-
chine-guns. The smaller boats will be armed
with McEvoy spar torpedoes, or Whitehead
projectile torpedoes.

Annexation Schemes. — The impulse to colonial
extension observed in European Continental
nations, the result chiefly of their protection-
ist policy, and excessive expansion of indus-
trial activity, diverted the movement for Aus-
tralian confederation from its original purpose
in 1833. The prospect of a further ''division
of the world " became more imminent after
the British occupation of Egypt. France be-
gan the movement by casting about among the
unclaimed regions of the earth for compensa-
tion. The Australian colonists, who at this
time started embryonic military and naval es-
tablishments, and began to form a conception
of the power of union, determined to take a
stand against the establishment of any foreign
colonies in Australasia, and to claim for Austra-
lia pre-emptive rights to all the islands of the
Pacific. In the absence of a federal union, the
colonies began individually to agitate for the an-
nexation of the more important islands. Euro-
pean nations have for years debated over the
question of establishing colonial plantations in
Australasia. The party in Germany in favor of
colonizing has directed attention by turns to
every unoccupied group in Australasia, and near-
ly every other uncivilized region in the world.
German commerce has been extending in the
neutral markets, and the Government has given
some tentative aid and protection in Polynesia;
but the German Government is more cautious
in this respect than any other, and has resisted
every temptation to establish a dominion over
uncivilized races. Italy has discussed various
fields for colonizing, and claims a sort of pri-
ority in New Guinea, by virtue of the explora-
tions of Beccari ani D'Albertis. France, as
the only active colonizing power, was the most
dreaded by the Australians, and is the most
firmly seated in Australasia, possessing New
Caledonia, and having interests in the New
Hebrides. In 1878 France and Great Britain
entered into reciprocal engagements not to an-
nex the New Hebrides. Since then a private
company, composed of colonists of New Cale-
donia, has obtained trading concessions on
those islands, and acquired some of the smaller
ones by purchase. The colonists of New South
Wales urged the home Government to acquire
possession of the Solomon Islands and the New
Hebrides, in order to prevent them from be-
coming French penal colonies. In New Zea-
land the old agitation for the annexation of

the Friendly and Navigator groups was re-
newed. But the oligarchy of Queensland, who,
enriched by colored labor, consider it their
vocation to rule over native races, showed the
most impatient and aggressive spirit. They
conceived the ambitious design of annexing to
their little colony the great island of Papua,
with its vast population and inexhaustible
natural wealth. To establish a dominion over
Papua, and derive any material benefit from
the possession, would not only necessitate cruel
oppression, which the mother- country would •
not permit, but would cost a long struggle,
which would require considerable military re-
sources. The Papuans are a brave and vigor-
ous race, who live in large villages, cultivate
the soil, and hold the land by fixed proprie-
tary titles.

In May the British Foreign Office received a
dispatch from the Governor of Queensland,
saying that the Queensland Government, in
order to prevent other powers from occupying
Papua, had taken formal possession of that
island in the name of the Queen. The home
authorities, who had had knowledge of this
purpose since February, would not allow their
hand to be forced by the Queenslanders. They
repudiated the proceeding of the Governor,
which could only be consummated by the
power of Great Britain. Yet Lord Derby as-
serted the pre-emptive claim of England to
Papua, by declaring that they should " not view
it as a friendly act if any other country at-
tempted to make a settlement on that coast."
They obtained assurances that the French Gov-
ernment had no designs on the island. The
British Government would go no further than
to extend its jurisdiction over the southern
coast of New Guinea, between which and Aus-
tralia a considerable trade had sprung up, by
giving the High Commissioner of Feejee power
to enforce discipline over British subjects.

The western half of Papua was claimed by
Holland, by virtue of a cession from the Sultan
of Tidore, in the Moluccas, a title like that of
Portugal to the Congo Basin, which Great
Britain might acknowledge, if expedient, and
yet at any future time set aside. On the east-
ern end Lieut. Yule had raised the British flag
in 1848, as did Capt. Moresby on the islands
off the east coast in 1873.

The annexation of Papua by Great Britain
had been mooted about five years before, when
gold was discovered at Port Moresby on the
south coast. There was a rush of- gold-diggers
to the spot, but the new field was not as pro-
ductive as was supposed, and the hostility of
the natives made it dangerous for the miners
to remain and explore further. The Torres
Strait, which separates Papua from the north-
ern point of Queensland, is only 80 miles wide;
but Brisbane, the capital of the colony, is 1,000
miles from the coast of Papua. The island,
which Sir Thomas Moll wraith, the head of the
Queensland Government, and Sir Arthur Ken-
nedy, the Governor, attempted to add to the

32

AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA.

colony, which has already five square miles of
land to every male inhabitant, by a proclama-
tion issued without consulting the home au-
thorities, contains 812,000 square miles, and a
population of several millions. The suspicion
was generally entertained, and was intimated
in Lord Derby's sharp reply, that the colonists
wished to obtain an unlimited supply of black
labor, without the restraint which the imperial
authorities put upon the cruelties incident to
that traffic. The main business of the British
squadron on the Australian station is to police
the seas, so as to keep in check this slaving
trade. The island of Papua has never been ex-
plored, except along the coast, although D'Al-
bertis, Miklucho-Maklay, and Lawes have pene-
trated a short distance inland. Powell, who
lived eight years on the coast, considers it the
richest island in the world in natural resources.
Products which are obtainable in large quan-
tities, and some of which are already objects
of commerce, are tortoise-shells, pearl-shells,
ivory-nuts, gums, sandal- wood, camphor, sago,
arrowroot, ginger, sugar-cane, ebony, and bird-
of-paradise plumes. Tobacco is produced in
large quantities. Copper, tin, and gold have
been found, but of the mineral resources of
the island but little is known.

The British Colonial Office, after disposing
of the presumptuous act of the Governor of
Queensland, had a wider scheme of colonial
extension presented to its attention by agents
of all the colonies. They proposed the an-
nexation of Papua, the New Hebrides, the Solo-
mon Islands, and the islands in the neighbor-
hood of Papua, and of the little-known islands
to the north and northeast of Papua, compris-
ing all together an area of over 300,000 square
miles. The hope which Lord Derby held out
to the colonies was that they should unite
in a confederation and help to carry out their
annexation schemes with their own powers.
The conference of delegates from the legisla-
tures of the different colonies which was held
at Sydney in November to consider the ques-
tion of confederation turned its attention to
that of annexing the South Sea islands. The
conference resolved that it would be highly
injurious to the interests of Australia and the
• •mpiro to have any foreign power acquire
dominions in the southern Pacific, and there-
fore called upon England to take the initiative
in taking possession of that part of Papua not
H.-iiriird by Holland, and the neighboring isl-
ands, and to make arrangements with France
to preclude that power from making conquests
in these regions, and to induce it to relinquish
the New Hebrides to British possession. The
conference promised that Australia would bear
its fair share in the cost of these enterprises.

Victoria wos constituted a self-governing col-
ony in 1854. The Legislative Council, of 86
members, is elective by a limited franchise,
fixed by the law of 1881 at £10 annual rata-
ble value of freehold property or the occu-
pancy of rented or leased property rated at

£25 annual value for all except professional
men. The term of the members, who must
have property yielding £100 income, is nine
years, one third retiring every three years.
The members of the Legislative Assembly are
elected for three years by universal suffrage,
The bill of 1881 increased the electorate for
the Legislative Council from 33,105 to 110,000.
The electors for the Assembly number 176,022.

The Governor, who was appointed Dec. 10,
1878, and assumed office Feb. 27, 1879, is the
Hon. George Augustus C. Phipps, second Mar-
quis of Normanby, who has filled similar posts
in Nova Scotia, Queensland, and New Zealand.

The area of Victoria is 87,884 square miles.
The population on the 3d of April, 1881, was
862,346—452,083 males and 410,263 females-
including 12,128 Chinese and 780 aborigines.
The Chinese and natives have decreased greatly
in the past ten years. About half of the total
population live in towns. Those containing
over 10,000 inhabitants in 1881 were as fol-
low : Melbourne, 65,859 (including suburbs,
282,981); Sandhurst, 28,513; Emerald Hill,
25,374; Collingwood, 23,829; Richmond, 23,-
405; Fitzroy, 23,118; Ballarat, 22,411 ; Prah-
ran, 21,168; Hotham, 17,839; Wahalla, 16,-
147; Ballarat East, 14,849; St. Kilda, 11,654.
The population of Victoria formerly increased
rapidly by immigration, but owing to the with-
drawal of the system of assisted immigration
and other causes the influx has moderated
greatly.

The total imports in 1881 amounted to £16,-
718,521, the exports to £16,252,103. The
chief imports are woolen manufactures, live-
stock, sugar, cotton, clothing, and tea. More
or less grain is imported each year. The two
staple articles, wool and gold, make the prin-
cipal part of the exports. There were ex-
ported in 1881, 98,467,369 pounds of wool,
valued at £5,450,029, and gold bullion of the
value of £8,674,104. The quantity of gold
produced, which averaged 2,000,000 ounces
per annum in the first ten years after the dis-
covery of the mines in 1851, and fell to 1,500,-
000 ounces in 1867, and below 1,000,000 in
1876, slightly increased with the application
of the diamond - drill after 1878, while the
number of miners employed has decreased in
recent years. The number at the beginning
of 1882 was 38,136, including 7,941 Chinamen.
The value of the total quantity of gold pro-
duced since 1851 is estimated at £201,674,118.

The number of acres under cultivation in
1882 was 1,997,943. There were 4,919 acres
of vineyards. In March, 1881, the census of
live-stock gave 275,516 horses, 1,286,267
horned cattle, 10,360,285 sheep, and 241,936
pigs.

The mileage of railroads open to traffic at
the close of 1881 was 1,214 miles, all belong-
ing to the state. There were under construc-
tion 450 miles more. The system has been
built in great part since 1875. The total cost
was £18,603,830, the cost per mile £15,324;

AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA.

33

net revenue, 4'04 per cent. ; borrowed capital,
£17,609,207, on which the interest charge is
£918,218 ; gross earnings in 1881. £1,665,209 ;
expenditure, £913,572; profits, £751,637. Two
fifths of the receipts were from passenger and
three fifths from freight traffic.

The number of miles of telegraph lines com-
pleted at the end of 1881 was 3,349 ; the num-
ber of messages, 1,281,749. Since 1870 the
rate has been Is for ten words and Id. for
each additional word.

The revenue of the colony in 1881 was
£5,114,460, the expenditure £5,102,470. The
receipts for the year ending June 30, 1882,
were £5,770,000, the expenditure £5,690,000.
The public debt was £22,944,602 in 1881. In
June, 1883, the total liabilities amounted to
about £26,000,000. The net revenue from the
railways and water-works for which the debt
was incurred is stated by Mr. James Service,
the Colonial Treasurer and Premier, to be suf-
ficient to pay 4 per cent, on the total amount.

The O'Loghlen Ministry, which had already
lost its popularity, was defeated at a general
election in February in consequence of an un-
successful financial operation in London. The
ministry attempted to convert £3,800,000 of
6 per cent, bonds, falling due in October, 1883,
into a new loan at 4 per cent. The books for
a loan of £4,000,000 were accordingly opened
in London in January. In insisting upon is-
suing the bonds only at par, the Premier came
into collision with the English magnates of
finance. A mere fraction of the stock was
taken. The credit of Victoria had suffered
from the frequent comparisons made between
it and the more rapidly growing free-trade
colony of New Soath Wales, and through the
unpopularity in England of its protectionist
policy. The momentary financial embarrass-
ments of the Government, which had compelled
it to obtain advances of £2,000,000, gave a
colorable ground for the rejection of the loan.
The Victorians were more astonished than dis-
couraged, and attributed the result entirely to
the blunders of the Ministry. The Cabinet pre-
ferred to make an appeal to the country rather
than be voted out of office by the Parliament,
which was to meet Feb, 13th. With the con-
sent of the Marquis of Normanby a new elec-
tion was ordered. It took place in the latter
part of February. Only 14 Ministerialists were
returned ; Sir Bryan O'Loghlen himself lost his
seat. The Liberal Constitutionalist party, led
by James Service, elected 38 members, and
the Radical or Democratic party of Graham
Berry, 32. A coalition ministry was formed,
March 7th, as follows: Hon. James Service,
Premier, Colonial Treasurer, and Minister of
Public Instruction ; Hon. Graham Berry,
Chief Secretary; Hon. George Briscoe Ker-
ferd, Attorney - General ; Hon. Albert Lee
Tucker, Minister of Lands, Agriculture, etc. ;
Hon. Duncan Gillies, Commissioner of Rail-
ways and Roads; Hon. Alfred Deakin, Com-
missioner of Public Works ; Hon. J. F. Levien,
VOL. xxiir. — 3 A

Minister of Mines ; Hon. George D. Langridge,
Commissioner of Trade and Customs; Hon.
W. Anderson, Minister of Justice; Hon. Mr.
Sargood, without portfolio. The financial
statement made April 4th charged the former
Minister of Railroads with imprudence in en-
tering into contracts for rails and rolling-stock
to be manufactured in the colony beyond the
amounts sanctioned by Parliament, causing the
estimated expenditures to be exceeded. The
loan of £4,000,000 was placed by the new
Government, by acceding to the demands of
the London bankers, at only a slight discount,
the Government pledging itself to borrow not
more than £2,000,000 additional during that
year. The finances of the colony were de-
scribed by Mr. Service to be in no critical con-
dition, though the sales of public lands had
been declining for two or three years ; but the
maturity of the old debt, which would require
£3,000,000 more to be raised in 1884 and
£4,000,000 in 1885, puts a stop temporarily to
large expenditures on public works. The leg-
islative programme of the new ministry em-
braced the reform of the civil service by de-
livering it from political patronage and intrust-
ing official appointments to a permanent board ;
the creation of a board of commissioners to
manage the state railroads ; the extension of
the system of irrigation and water conserva-
tion by local authorities ; and the introduction
of pastoral leases to apply only to the " mallee
scrub " lands of inferior quality which are
overrun with rabbits, the leases for twenty
years being made conditional on the tenants'
exterminating noxious animals.

The tariff controversy was continued during
the year, and the Commission of Inquiry col-
lected evidence from all classes. Invidious
comparisons with the rapid growth of New
South Wales are not considered just by the Vic-
torians, as their colony has no unlimited sheep
pasturage to i.vvite immigration. The flocks
of Victoria have scarcely increased since 1873,
while those of New South Wales have nearly
doubled. Though the population of Victoria
increases slowly, the growth in wealth is
stfeady, and the progress is marked in agricul-
ture and cattle-raising. The herds increased
from 883,763 head in 1873, to 1,286,267 in
1881. The protected industries do not show
the same healthy growth, and the rural commu-
nity is becoming more and more dissatisfied
with the protective policy, which favors the
working-classes of the towns at its expense.

New South Wales, the oldest Australian colo-
ny, originally a penal settlement, and formerly
including the present colonies of South Aus-
tralia, Victoria, and Queensland, obtained re-
sponsible government in 1855. The Legislative
Council consists of 21 or more members, nomi-
nated by the Crown. The Legislative Assembly
consists of 108 members, elected by 72 constitu-
encies by universal suffrage and secret ballot.
The Governor is Lord Augustus W. F. 8. Lof-
tus, born in 1818, formerly British embassador

34

AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA.

to Austria, Germany, and Russia, who entered
upon the office Aug. 4, 1879. The ministry is
composed as follows: Colonial Secretary and
Premier, Hon. Alexander Stuart ; Treasurer,
Don. George Dibbs ; Minister of Justice, Hon.
Henry Cohen ; Minister of Public Instruction,
Hon. George H. Reed ; Attorney-General, Hon.
W. Bede Dalley; Minister of Public Works,
Hon. Henry Copeland ; Postmaster - General,
Hon. F. A. Wright, Minister of Mines, Hon.
Robert P. Abbott; Secretary for Lands, Hon.
James Squire Farnell; Vice-President of the
Council, Hon. Sir Patrick Jennings.

The area is 323,437 square miles. The popu-
lation in 1881 was 751,468, of whom 411,149
were males and 340,319 females. The immi-
gration in the seven years ending with 1880
averaged 10,000. The birth-rate is high. The
population of Sydney, the capita], in 1881, was
220,427, having increased 66-25 per cent, in ten
years.

There entered the port of Sydney, in 1881,
2,254 vessels, of the aggregate tonnage 1,456,-
289 tons. The tonnage of the port of Newcas-
tle was almost as large.

The total exports of New South Wales in
1881 amounted to £16,049,503, the imports
to £17,409,326, both larger than in any previ-
ous year. Over one third of the trade is with
Great Britain; the rest is mainly with the
other colonies. The leading export article is
wool, of which 87,739,914 pounds, valued at
£5,304,576, were shipped to England in 1881.
The chief exports next in order are tin, copper,
tallow, and preserved meat.

In March, 1882, the colony had 33,062,854
sheep, 2,180,896 cattle, 316,931 horses, and
213,916 swine. The total area under cultiva-
tion was 645,068 acres, about one half of which
was under wheat and maize. New South
Wales is richer than the other colonies in coal,
of which 1,775,224 tons were raised in 1881.
The gold production in 1881 was £550,111,
about the average of the last five years, having
suddenly fallen off from £2,097,740 in 1875,
and £1,589,854 in 1876.

In 1881 there were 995 miles of railroad in
operation, and 487 miles under construction.
Sydney has 11 £ miles of steam tramways, a
system which is to be extended to some of the
neighboring towns. The Colonial Treasurer
that though the railroads of New South
Wales were laid out and are rapidly extended
for the purpose of developing the country, and
•hhougfa the Government fixes the tariff lower
than in the other colonies for that object, yet
they return a higher rate of profit on the capi-
tal invested than any other railroads in the
world.

The telegraph lines completed at the end of
1881 were 14,278 miles, constructed at a cost
of £492,211.

The public revenue of New South Wales in
1881 amounted to £6,707,963, the expendi-
ture to £5,890.579. The estimated revenue
for 1882 was £6,240,000, the expenditure £5,-

960,000. The actual revenue was £7,062,873,
and showed a surplus of £1,846,000. The reve-
nue for 1883 was estimated at £6,819,200, the
expenditure at £6,483,000.

The public debt, increased by an issue of
£2,000,000, in 1882, was at the end of that year
£18,924,019. In 1882-'83 loans to the amount
of £3,000,000 were placed in London. The
sums expended by the colony on railroad and
telegraph construction amounted at the end of
September, 1882, to £17,078,654. The revenue
from these public works exceeds the interest
on the public debt. The railroad system could
be sold out to capitalists, according to the cal-
culation of Mr. Dibbs, for £25,000,000. Be-
sides the railroads and the public lands, the as-
sets of the colony include £12,000,000 owing
to it from conditional purchasers of land.

The financial policy of the new Cabinet, which
came into office in January, 1883, is to restrict
sales of land as much as possible pending the
new land legislation, thus reducing the surplus
revenue. A revision of the tariff is in pros-
pect after the land question is settled.

The Parliament of New South Wales was
suddenly and unexpectedly dissolved in Novem-
ber, 1882. The Government had placed before
Parliament a land bill, which was, with slight
amendments, a consolidation of the various
land laws embodying the system first intro-
duced by Sir John Robertson in 1861. The
Robertson policy was hailed at the time it was
adopted as a triumph of democratic principles.
It allows the free selection of lands by actual
settlers anywhere upon the tracts occupied on
pastoral leases 'as sheep-runs by " squatters,"
or Government leaseholders. This provision
has not prevented the building up of huge pas-
toral estates in accordance with the natural
and economical conditions which prevail in
Australia, nor promoted to any extent the im-
migration of settlers and the agricultural de-
velopment of the country. But it depreciated
the value of the public lands and prevented the
Government from obtaining the best value on
leases or sales. It has also brought about eco-
nomical conditions which are regarded with
grave apprehensions by the younger statesmen.
The squatters have been impelled by reason of
the insecurity of their tenure to strain their
credit in order to obtain the freehold of their
runs. The portions which they can not borrow
the means to buy at auction they endeavor to
keep out of the hands of actual settlers by in-
ducing dependents and dummies to free-select
the desirable sections. Illegal and violent
means are often resorted to for the purpose of
fighting away interloping settlers. The conse-
quence of this state of things is, the creation
of a class of large landholders more rapidly
than if the Robertson law did not exist, and
of landholders whose property is deeply mort-
gaged at heavy interest to absentee capitalists.
Sir Henry Parkes, the Premier, agreed to a
dissolution, although the Parliament had but
one year to run, and the adoption of the tri-

AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA.

35

ennial period was intended to prevent avoid-
able dissolutions, and although Sir Henry Rob-
ertson was alone responsible for pressing the
measure, and the country was with the coali-
tion ministry on every other question. The
party opposed to the perpetuation of the exist-
ing land system proposed to limit the right of
free selection on unsurveyed lands and allow a
large portion of the colony to remain under
pastoral leases, but without giving to squat-
ters the power of purchase. In the elections in
December, 1882, Mr. Watson, the Treasurer;
Dr. Kenwick, the Minister of Mines; and Mr.
Foster, the Minister of Justice, lost their seats;
Sir Henry Robertson was barely elected, and
Sir Henry Parkes was defeated in his own dis-
trict, and took the place of a candidate who
retired in his favor. A new ministry was
formed by Mr. Alexander Stuart.

A Commission of Inquiry reported in May
upon the facts governing the land question.
The territory of New South Wales is divisible
into three parts. The old settled portion, con-
sisting mainly of the land lying between the
sea and the Blue Mountains, contains 500,000
inhabitants, including 220,000 in Sydney and
117,000 in other towns, and has an area of 26,-
000,000 acres, of which 9,000,000 have been
alienated, consisting of all the best lands. This
land was not occupied in pastoral squatting
leases, but in the form of freeholds of moder-
ate size, with grazing rights over an additional
space. The result is stated to be a beneficial
division of the land and settlement by fami-
lies, with few estates exceeding 5,000 acres.
The second division, comprising the nearer in-
land districts as far as the Barwon river and the
confluence of the Murrumbidgee and the Mur-
ray, on the frontier of Victoria, is the largest
of the three, and contains the finest lands,
such as the rich plains of the Clarence and
Macleay rivers, and the valuable grazing dis-
tricts of New England, Liverpool Plains, Gwy-
dir, Dubbo, Deniliquin, the Upper Murray, Mo-
miro, and Twofold Bay. It has a total area
of 86,000,000 acres, and a population of 223,-
560 souls, of whom 88,178 live in the towns.
This region was settled under the land laws of
1862. The class-conflicts which arose between
the squatters and the free-selectors are said to
have wasted the resources of the settlers and
embittered social life. The quantity of land
which has passed into private ownership is
25,156,000 acres.' In the Deniliquin and Wag-
ga Wagga districts only one eighth or less of
the nominal owners remain on the land, much
more than half the farms ostensibly free-se-
lected for agricultural purposes having been
taken up at the procuration of lessees of pas-
toral runs. The third division contains the
broad plains, well adapted to pastoral pur-
poses, which are traversed by the Darling river.
This region contains but few inhabitants as
yet. Very few sales have been made to set-
tlers, and these are mostly of the same ficti-
tious character as in the second division. The

effect of the land laws, according to the com-
mission, has been not only to divide the rural
community into two hostile camps, and to waste
the lives and fortunes of numbers of persons in
litigation, but u the personal virtues of veracity
and honorable dealing have been tarnished by
the daily habit of intrigue, by the practice of
evading the law, and by declarations univer-
sally made in defiance of fact : self-interest has
created a laxity of conscience in these mat-
ters ; the stain attaches to men of all classes
and degrees."

The revision of the land laws inaugurated
by the Stuart ministry proceeds on the prin-
ciple of restricting the right of free selection
to a limited portion of each pastoral leasehold
and giving the squatter a more secure tenure
of the remainder. Under this system the Gov-
ernment expects to exact a considerably higher
rent from the squatters.

South Australia was invested with represent-
ative government in 1856. The Legislative
Council consists of 24 members elected from
four districts, one third of whom retire every
three years. The electoral qualifications are the
possession of real estate of £50 value or leased
premises of £20 annual value. The House of.
Assembly, elected by universal suffrage, con-
sists of 46 members. The Governor of South
Australia is Sir William C. T. Robinson, pre-
viously Governor of several minor colonies, ap-
pointed in November, 1882. The Executive
Council is composed as follows: Chief Secre-
tary, Hon. J. Cox Bray; Attorney-General,
Hon. John W. Downer; Chief -Justice, Hon.
S. J. Way; Treasurer, Hon. Lavington Glyde;
Commissioner of Crown Lands, Hon. Alfred
Catt; Commissioner of Public Works, Hon.
James Garden Ramsey ; Minister of Education,
Hon. John Langdon Parsons.

The estimated area of South Australia is
903,425 square miles. The population on April
3, 1881, was 279,865, of whom 149,530 were
males and 130,335 females, including 2,734
Chinese, but exclusive of the aborigines, num-
bering 6,346. The population of Adelaide, the
capital, was 38,479 without the suburbs.

South Australia is the leading agricultural
colony. The area under cultivation increased
from 739,714 acres in 1866 to 1,444,586 in
1876, and 2,613,903 in 1882, of which 1,768,-
781 acres were sown to wheat. The live-stock
census showed 159,678 horses, 314,918 horned
cattle, and 6,810,856 sheep.

The total exports in 1882 amounted to about
£5,280,000, the imports to £5,890,000. The
staple articles of export are wool, wheat, and
flour, and copper-ore. The wool exports were
valued in 1881 at £2,345,231, The grain ex-
ports were of the value of £82,092 in 1876 ;
£514,176 in 1877; £514,176 in 1878; £464,-
049 in 1879; £1,025,077 in 1880; and £496,-
741 in 1881. The exports of copper in 1881
amounted to £179,731. Besides copper there
exist iron-ores of great richness.

There were 945 miles of railroad in opera-

36

AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA.

tion in July, 1882, and 174 miles in the course
of construction. The length of telegraph lines
completed at the end of 1881 was 4,946 miles.

An intercolonial railroad is projected which
will connect Adelaide with Melbourne. The
Murray Bridge or Callington route, chosen by
the Government, is criticised by many. The
large falling off in the grain exports has had a
depressing effect on the colony, and has affected
the revenue. A proposed property tax of a
penny in the pound is strongly opposed. The
land law has been amended so as to allow pur-
chasers on deferred payments to surrender
their holdings, with remission of the remaining
installments.

Queensland was separated from New South
Wales and endowed with responsible govern-
ment in 1859. The Legislative Council con-
sists of 30 life-members nominated by the
Crown, the Legislative Assembly of 55 mem-
bers elected for live years. Every tax -payer
has a vote, and every property-owner or lease-
holder one in the district in which the prop-
erty is situated as well as in the district in
which he resides.

The Governor of Queensland is Sir Anthony
Musgrove, formerly Governor of Jamaica, who
was appointed in 1883. The late Governor,
Sir Arthur Edward Kennedy, who held the
office six years, died after his recall, on the
voyage to England. The Ministry is composed
as follows: Colonial Secretary and Premier,
Hon. Sir Thomas Mcllwraith ; Colonial Treas-
urer, Hon. A. Archer; Secretary for Public
Works, Hon. John M. McCrossan; Secretary
for Public Lands, Hon. Patrick Perkins ; Post-
master-General, Hon. Boyd Dunlop Morehead.

The area of Queensland is 668,224 square
miles. The coast line measures 2,250 miles.
The population in 1881 was 213,525, divided
into 125,325 males and 88,200 females, includ-
ing 11,229 Chinese engaged in the gold-mines
and 6,848 Polynesians, but not including the
aborigines, estimated at 20,585. The capital,
Brisbane, had 31,109 inhabitants. The immi-
gration from the United Kingdom declined
after the introduction of Chinese and Polyne-
sian laborers.

The total imports in 1881 amounted to
£3,601,906, the exports to £3,289,253. The
leading article of export is wool, which is
shipped to England to the value of over £800,-
000 a year.. Preserved meat and tallow are
also exported. The cultivation of cotton and
sugar-cane, recently introduced, is growing
rapidly. The total area under cultivation in
the beginning of 1883 was 128,875 acres, of
which 28,026 acres were planted to sugar-cane.
The live-stock at the beginning of 1882 num-
bered 194,217 horses, 3,618,513 cattle, 8,292,-
883 sheep, and 56,438 hogs. There are several
coal mines worked in the colony. The value
of the gold product declined from £1,306,431
in 1877, ten years after the discovery of gold,
to £925,012 in 1881.

At the beginning of 1882 there were 800

miles of railroad in operation, and 200 miles in
process of construction. A trans-Australian
line from Bisbane to Port Darwin was begun
in 1882. The telegraph mileage was 6,279.

In Queensland, besides the appropriation of
the land by monopolists, there exists the form
of slavery 'known as "indentured labor," an
evil now found in no other Australian colony.
The culture of sugar in the sub-tropical por-
tion of the colony is so profitable that free
white settlers who penetrate beyond the occu-
pied districts to raise the cane and evaporate
the juice are better repaid than in any other
occupation now open in Australia. Yet the
laws allowing bound labor are kept on the
statute-book by the influence of the large
planters, on the plea that the product can only
be cultivated by colored labor, and that colored
labor can only be made effective by special
sanctions. Until recently, veritable slavers
supplied the labor market by enticing away or
capturing in violent raids the natives of the
Polynesian islands. But an outcry was made
in England which led to a parliamentary in-
quiry. The revelations of these piratical raids
and of the cruelties and frauds practiced upon
the Kanakas in Queensland, which resulted in
the appointment of a commission, consisting of
Sir A. Gordon and the two naval commanders
on the station, to consider means of punishing
crimes committed on the Pacific islands by
British subjects, discouraged further importa-
tions of Pacific- islander s. The planters then
turned to Ceylon and Southern India. Cinga-
lese and Bengalee coolies are brought by specu-
lators, to whom they have, or are supposed to
have, contracted their labor for a term of
years, and are by them transferred to the sugar-
planters. The employment of colored labor is
restricted by statute to the sugar-estntes on the
northern coast. The term of service is limited
to three years, after which they have to be
sent back at the expense of their employers.
The white laborers, who through a low fran-
chise exert great political power, and to please
whom a tax of £10 a head is imposed on Chi-
nese immigrants, are in favor of restricting
colored labor. The laborers are subjected to
official inspection: Nevertheless, as the na-
tive races are not permitted to testify in the
courts, they are not protected against any form
of cruelty or injustice. According to a statis-
tical statement cited by Lord Lamington, there
were imported into Queensland, within a com-
paratively few years, the large number of 17,-
329 black laborers.

Tasmania, constituted a self-governing colony
in 1871, has two Houses of Parliament, elected
by suffrage limited by property qualifications
of different degrees. The Govornor is Maj.-
Gen. Sir G. Cumine Strahan, transferred from
the governorship of the Windward Islands in
August, 1880. The head of the responsible
ministry is Hon. William R. Giblin. The rev-
enue in 1881 was £502,417; expenditure, £466,-
313 ; estimated revenue in 1883, £530,000 ; ex-

AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

37

penditure, £457,242. The public debt, raised
for the construction of public works, was on
Dec. 31, 1881, £2,003,000, bearing interest at
6 per cent.

The area is estimated at 26,215 square miles,
or 16,778,000 acres, including the adjacent isl-
ands. The population in 1881 was 115,705, of
whom 61,162 were males and 54,543 females.
The increase in eleven years was but 16,377.
The aborigines are entirely extinct. The ex-
ports in 1881 amounted to £1,555,576, the im-
ports to £1,438,524. The chief articles of ex-
port are wool and tin, and more recently gold.
The valuable deposits of tin and iron and the
discovery of gold have given a slight impetus
to enterprise and immigration, but in agricul-
ture the colony has receded ; barley, the quality
of which is superior, is the only crop except
potatoes that has increased.

New Zealand was organized in six provinces
in 1852, and united under a Governor and Gen-
eral Assembly in 1875. The members of the
Legislative Council are appointed by the Crown
for life. The House of Representatives con-
sists of 95 members elected by household suf-
frage. The Maoris are represented by four
members elected by themselves.

The Governor is Maj.-Gen. Sir William Fran-
cis Drummond Jervois, transferred from South
Australia in November, 1882.

The Premier, Mr. Whittaker, resigned the
office in 1883 — not, however, for political rea-
sons. He was succeeded by Maj. Atkinson, the
Colonial Treasurer.

The area of New Zealand is estimated at
105,342 square miles. Two thirds of the total
surface is good agricultural or grazing land.
The census of 1881 gave the total population
as 534,032, including the Maoris, who num-
bered 44,099, divided into 24,370 males and
19,729 females; of the rest, 269,605 were males
and 220,328 females. The Chinese numbered
5,004. The towns with more than 10,000 in-
habitants were Dunedin (24,372 — with suburbs,
48,802), Auckland (16,664— with suburbs, 39,-
966), Wellington (20,563), and Christchurch
(15,213 — with suburbs, 30,719). The popula-
tion of New Zealand is increasing faster than
that of any of the Australian colonies, both by
immigration and by a high birth-rate.

The total imports in 1881 amounted to £7,-
457,045, the exports to £6,060,866. The quan-
tity of wool exported was 59,368,832 pounds;
value, £3,477,993. Grain and flour were
shipped to Great Britain in 1881 to the value of
£913,581. Gum and preserved meat are, ex-
cept gold, the next most considerable articles
of export. There were in April 1881, in the
colony 161,736 horses, 698,637 cattle, 12,985,-
085 sheep, and large numbers of hogs and
poultry. The New Zealand gold-fields, discov-
ered in 1857, and yielding at the height of their
production in 1877, £1,496,080, produced in
1881, £996,867.

The railway system of New Zealand was
begun in 1872. In 1882 there were 875 miles

completed on the South Island and 458 on
the North Island. When completed, the sys-
tem is to have 2,075 miles of line, and will
cost £1 6,OOU,000. The capital already expend-
ed in 1883 was about £11,500,000. The rail-
roads in the South Island already return 3 per
cent, on the outlay, those in the North Island
If per cent. There were 3,824 miles of tele-
graph open to traffic in March, 1882.

The revenues of the Government are derived
partly from customs receipts, etc., and partly
from sales of public lands, depasturing licenses,
export duties on gold, and mining licenses.
The latter category, called the territorial rev-
enue, was, down to 1879, nearly as productive
as the ordinary sources of revenue. In 1882
the ordinary revenue amounted to £3,488,170,
the territorial revenue to £317,063 ; total
revenue, £3,805,233. The total expenditure
was £3,590,233. The estimated revenue for
the year ending March 31, 1883, is £3,393,-
500 ; expenditure. £3,478,639. The public debt
amounted in 1882 to £29,946,711. At the end
of March, 1883, it was £30,357,000, not de-
ducting the sinking fund, amounting to £2,571,-
000. Notwithstanding the magnitude of its
liabilities, the colony obtained a loan of £1,-
000,000 in London in 1883 at 4 per cent, at a
very slight discount. This state of the credit
allows the considerable floating debt to be con-
verted at a reduced interest.

The Government has introduced proposals
in the Legislature to change the constitution of
the Legislative Council, making it an elective
body, as in the older colonies, instead of the
members being appointed for life by the Gov-
ernor.

The difficulties with the Maoris in the west-
ern part of the North Island have ceased.
The natives have abandoned their attitude of
exclusion and isolation, and given pledges of
peaceful submission to the laws. The pressure
of public opinion in England has put some re-
straint upon the oppressive and confiscatory
instincts of the colonists. Improvements are
being introduced in the Maori country, and in-
tercourse between the natives and the white
settlers who have penetrated there has a bene-
ficial influence on both races. The harbor of
Kawhia, after being closed for twenty years,
was opened again without opposition from the
natives. A government township was laid out
at that place. Surveys for roads and railways
have extended into parts of the country where
formerly no European was suffered to travel.

AESTRIA-HUNGARY, an empire constituted
since 1867 as a dual monarchy. The Cisleithan
Kingdom, or Austria, and the Transleithan, or
Hungary, are connected by a common army,
navy, and diplomacy, and in the person of the
hereditary sovereign. The house of Hapsburg
has reigned over Austria for six hundred years,
and has possessed the Hungarian crown for
more than half that period. Franz Josef I.,
reigning Emperor of Austria and King of
Hungary, was born Aug. 18, 1830, and sue-

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

ceeded his uncle, Ferdinand I., who abdicated
in 1848. The heir-apparent is the Archduke
Rudolf, horn Aug. 21, 1858.

Government — The common affairs of the two
monarchies, restricted to military defense and
foreign policy, are regulated by the Delega-
tions, consisting of 120 members, chosen in
equal numbers from the Austrian and Hun-
garian legislatures — 20 from the upper and 40
from the lower house of each. The common
Ministers, responsible Jo the Delegations, are
as follow: Minister of Foreign Affairs and
of the Imperial Household, Count G. Ka^nocky
de Korospatak, born in 1832, Minister to Rome,
187U-'80, and then at St. Petersburg until he
was called to the head of the administration,
Nov. 21, 1881 ; Minister of War for the whole
empire, Count Bylandt-Rheydt, appointed June
21, 1876; Minister of Finance for the whole
empire, Baron von Kallay, appointed June 4,
1882.

Area and Population. — The total aiea of the
Austrp-Hungarian Empire, exclusive of the
occupied provinces, is 240,942 square miles;
the total population was returned in the cen-
sus of Dec. 31, 1880, as 37,786,246, or 159 to
the square mile. The population increased in
eleven years in Cisleithania, 8*5 per cent. ; in
Hungary only 1'24 per cent. In Transylvania
there was an actual decrease of 70,000. The
area and population of the separate provinces
of the two monarchies were as follow :

PROVINCES OF THE EMPIRE.

Square
miles.

Population.

AUSTRIAN MONARCHY :
Lower Austria (Unter der Ens)
Upper Austria (Ober der Ens)

7,654
4631

2,330,621
759 620

Salzburg

2 767

1 63 570

Btyria (Steiermark)

8 670

1 21s'597

Carinthia (Karntcn)

4' 005

843 780

Carniola (Krain)

8*856

481 248

CoastLand

8084

647 934

Tyrol and Vorarlberg

11324

912 549

Bobemia (Bohmen)

20060

5 56o'si9

Moravia (Mahren) ....

8 588

2 153 407

Silesia (Scblesien)

1 987

565 475

Galicia (Gali/ien)

80307

5 958*907

Bukowina

4'035

571 671

Dalmatia (Dalmatien)

4940

476 101

Total, Austria ....

115908

22 144.244

KINGDOM OP HUNGARY:
Hungary Proper.. ..

87048

11 644 574

Croatia and Slavoma, with Militwy
Frontier.. .

16 778

1 892 899

Transylvania (Siebenburgen) . . .

21 215

2 084 048

Town of Flume

g

Total, Hungary

125089

15 642 002

Total, Austria-Hungary

240,942

87,786,246

The Principality of Liechtenstein in the
Austrian Alps, with an area of 68 square
miles and 9,124 inhabitants, is nominally inde-
pendent, and its people are not subject to tax-
ation or military duty. The provinces of Bos-
nia and Herzegovina and the Sanjak of Novi-
Bazar, were placed provisionally under the
administration of the common authorities by
the Berlin, Treaty of 1878. Their population
numbered 1,328,453, of whom 448,613 were

Mohammedans, 496,761 Greek Orthodox Chris-
tians, 209,391 Roman Catholics, and 3,439 Jews.

The population of the cities in Austria and
Hungary containing over 50,000 inhabitants,
was as follows— In Austria: Vienna, 726,105,
with suburbs, 1,103,857; Prague, 162,323;
Trieste, 144,844; Lemburg, 109,726; Gratz,
97,791; Brtinn, 82,660; Krakau, 66,095. In
Hungary: Buda-Pesth, 3CO,551 ; Szegedin,
73,675; Holdmezo-Vasarhely, 50,966; Maria-
Theresiopel, 61,367.

Among the population of Cisleithania, the
principal religious confessions were represented
by the following numbers: Roman Catholics,
17,693,648; Greek Catholics, 2.533,323 ; Israel-
ites, 1,005,394; Greek Oriental, 492,088 ; Evan-
gelicals of the Augsburg Confession, 289,005 ;
of the Helvetic Confession, 110,525.

The percentage of the various nationalities
was as follows : Germans, 36-75 per cent. ;
Czechs, 23-77; Poles, 14-86; Ruthenians, 12--
81 ; Slovenes, 5'23 ; Italians. 3'07 ; Serbs and
Croats, 2-58 ; Roumanians, -88 ; Magyars, -05.
The Israelites have increased since 1869 22-58
per cent., the Italians 13-19 per cent., the Poles
9-97 per cent., the Czechs 8-69 per cent., the
Serbs and Croats 7'77 per cent., the Ruthe-
nians 7-71 per cent., and the Germans 7'25 per
cent. The Slovenes have decreased consider-
ably, owing to their adoption of the nationality
of the Germans in Carinthia and Lower Styria,
and in the coast-lands of that of the Italians,
who received accessions also from the Serbo-
Croats.

The percentage of the population of Austria
who could neither read nor write was 44-5,
among the males 43-2, among the females 45-8;
percentage of those who could read only 6*1,
among males 4-6, among females 7"5 ; percent-
age of those who could read and write 49*4,
among males 52-2, among females 46'7. In
the Bukovina the percentage of illiterates was
89-7, in Dalmatia 89-3, in Galicia 81-1, in Is-
tria 77'8, in Borizia and Gradisca 60-3, in Car-
niola 54-1, in Trieste 38-9, in Carinthia 47'6,
in Styria 37'3, in Bohemia 22'6, in Moravia
24-3, in Silesia 25-8, in Salzburg 22-9, in Tyrol
22-7, in Lower Austria 21, in Upper Austria
20-2. and in Vorarlberg 16'2.

The following table gives the millesimal
proportions of the population of the Cisleithan
lands engaged in the various classes of em-
ployments, including families and dependents :

PROFESSIONS. Per mille.

Agriculture . 588'20

Industry and mining 264-25

Mercantile employments and transportation 55 -,64

Professions requiring a higher education 83-54

Property-owners and pensioners 81-67

Laborers 18-11

Employed in educational and charitable institutions. 5'54

With no known occupation 3-05

Total 1000-00

Statistics collected by the Hungarian Gov-
ernment bureau show that the ratio of the
Magyar- speaking portion of the population has
increased only 1 per cent, in sixty years. In

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

39

the capital, where the Germans are more pli-
ant in changing their language than the Slavic
population of the provinces, particularly since
the recent Magyar agitation has made it more
to their interest to do so, the extension of the na-
tional language has been greatest. The propor-
tion of children under five years of age speaking
the Magyar tongue in Buda-Pesth is 47 per
cent., against 45 -7 per cent, among persons be-
tween fifty and sixty years of age. Of the Ger-
mans in Hungary as many as 21 per cent, are
acquainted with the Magyar language ; but of
the Slovaks not 10, and of the Roumanians and
Ruthenians not 6 per cent. The German lan-
guage is extensively cultivated, over 10 per
cent, of the Magyars acquiring it tor commer-
cial intercourse or education and travel. In
the kingdom there are 817,668 non-Magyars
who can speak Hungarian, and 791,670 non-
Germans who speak German. The progress
of education has been remarkable, 46 per cent,
of the 10,844,000 above the age of seven being
able to read and write in 1880, against only 25
per cent, in 1870.

Commerce, Industry, and Agriculture. — The total
value of the imports and exports of the Austro-
Hungarian Empire for the last three years re-
ported, was as follows, in florins :

YEAR.

Import!.

Export..

18T9...

551,390,000

675.140.000

1880

607 640 000

666 370 000

1881

634,420,000

717390 000

The export of flour, which averaged, just
before the enactment of the German corn-du-
ties, about 2,400,000 metric quintals, has fallen
to half that quantity. Owing to the active
trade in live hogs with Servia, the imports
and exports of live animals were considerably
larger in 1881 than in the preceding year. The
commercial treaty with Servia, ratified in June,
1882, secures the entrance of certain Austrian
products at half the ordinary duties, and on the
other hand a reduction of the Austrian duties
on live hogs, and Servian wines, prune-brandy,
etc. The exceptional treatment of German
partly manufactured products, which was kept
up as compensation for possible advantages to
be extended to Austria-Hungary in the German
tariff, ceased from the beginning of 1883 to
operate as regards textile manufactures im-
ported for printing, dyeing, or bleaching, the
most important branch of this trade. The im-
portation of lard and pork products showed a
great decrease in 1881, in consequence of the
prohibition of American pork. The export of
wines, stimulated in 1880 by the failure of the
French vintage, decreased from 905,841 to 438,-
213 metric quintals. The import of petroleum
increased from 1,150,000 to 1,480,000 metric
quintals. Cotton and other textile materials
were imported in considerably larger quanti-
ties than in the preceding year. The contin-
ued large importation of yarns strengthened
the spinners in their demand for a protective

duty. A marked improvement in the indus-
trial situation and the consumptive capacity
of the people is indicated by a larger impor-
tation of raw stuffs of various kinds, of colo-
nial wares, of machinery, of textile manufac-
tures, and of articles of luxury, and an increased
exportation of textiles, paper manufactures,
fine leathers, chemical products, etc.

More than half the export and import com-
merce of the Austrian Empire is with Ger-
many, next to which the chief market is Rou-
mania, which receives 50,000,000 florins of the1
exports, and furnishes 40,000,000 florins of the
imports. Italy and Russia follow, but with a
much smaller trade.

Precious Metals. — The movement of the pre-
cious metals in 1881, as compared with the
previous year, was as follows, in florins:

SPECIE.

Imports.

Exports.

Excess of
imports.

1880:
Gold

22,200,000

3,200,000

19,000,000

Silver

1,100,000

15,400,000

8,300,000*

Total.

29 300 000

18,600,000

10,700,000

1881:
Gold

19,800,000

2,200,000

17,600,000

Silver

16 100 000

1 200000

14 900 000

Total

85,900,000

3,400,000

32,500,000

, — The Hungarian Legislature passed
a law in 1881, denounced by the Constitutional
party in the Austrian House of Deputies as an
infringement of the customs-union, which re-
quires a declaration to be made of all goods
imported into or exported from the kingdom.
According to the statistics collected for the last
eight months of 1881 in pursuance of this regu-
lation, Hungary has a balance decidedly in its
favor in the trade with Austria as well as with
other countries. The returns exhibit the total
value of imports as 185,800,000 florins, of which
139,080,000 florins came from Austria ; and the
total value of exports as 242,800,000 florins,
of which 165,250,000 florins were shipped into
Austria.

Hungary. — Although in the social life of Hun-
gary certain vestiges of feudalism survive the
development of liberal political institutions,
she strives to keep abreast of economical prog-
ress; people and Government uniting their
efforts to develop all their resources under the
pressure of American competition. The great
richness of the Hungarian soil is counterbal-
anced by adverse geographical and climatic
conditions which warn them against remain-
ing a purely agricultural state. It is only by
gigantic protective works and a more and
more intensive culture that they can still Lold
their own. The invention of the Hungarian
method of flour-milling, made necessary by the
hard quality of their wheat, which has since
been adopted and improved in the United
States, marked the beginning of industrial de-
velopment. A regular line of vessels from

* Excess of exports.

40

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Fiume facilitates the export of Hungarian flour,
which is now largely consumed in England.
The new beet-sugar culture and manufacture
are not sufficient to supply the home demand ;
but high-wines and refined spirits are exported
as far as Spain. The wine production repays
the encouragement bestowed upon it by the
Government. The wines are produced in
greater quantities, and of better and more uni-
form quality, and are shipped by the cargo to
Bordeaux to replace the diminished growths of
France. The number of persons engaged in in-
dustrial occupations proper increased between
1870 and 1880 from 784,378 to 908,958, or
14 per cent., while the whole population in-
creased only by a small fraction.

Manufactures. — Unable to resort to protection,
owing to the customs-union with Austria, Hun-
gary employed other methods of encouraging
industry. Hungarian manufacturers have the
preference in Government and municipal or-
ders, if they can produce articles of satisfactory
quality. In the iron industry there are the im-
perial railroad works at Oravicza and Resitza,
for which the best technical skill in France was
imported; the shops of the Hungarian state
railroad, which excel in the production of iron
bridges ; and various private establishments
which stand on the highest plane of technical
art. Leather, paper, pottery, and glass are also
manufactured successfully on a large scale; but
the important branch of textile industry is
represented only by factories which subsist on
the Government commissions for the supply
of the army, although the country 'produces
an abundance of wool of superior quality. By
a law which went into effect on Jan. 1, 1882,
industrial establishments which found new in-
dustries, or utilize products previously wasted,
are exempted from all public dues and taxes.
This and other measures of the kind led to the
establishment of some two hundred factories
in new branches. In museums, industrial exhi-
bitions, a national school of mechanical draw-
ing, a. technical school for wood- workers, in-
dustrial evening-schools, etc., the Government
has co-operated with private individuals in fos-
tering technical education and industrial art.
A review of the industrial progress already at-
tained is to be made in a national exposition
in 1885.

Live-Stork. — The live-stock census of the em-
pire shows that horned cattle, which decreased
between 1857 and 1869, increased between the
latter date and 1880 from 7,425,212 to 8,584,-
077; while sheep, in consequence of the Aus-
tralian production, decreased from 5,020,398
to 3,841,340. American competition and the
German protective tariff are beginning to ex-
ercise a depressing effect on the wheat- grow-
ing, flour-milling, and cattle-raising interests of
Hungary and Austria. There have been actual
importations of American wheat.

Mining.— The total net value of the product
of the mines and furnaces, after deducting the
value of the ores, together with that of the sa-

lines, was 83,790,373 florins in 1881, as against
79,988,819 florins in 1880.

Railways. — The total length of railways in
the empire, open to traffic in 1882, was 11,480
miles, of which 7,130 were in Austria and
4,350 in Hungary. There were, besides, 177
miles in Bosnia. The length of railway owned
or operated by the state, at the close of 1881,
was 2,912 kilometres, or 24 per cent, of the
total mileage. To this was added on the 1st
of January, 1882, the Empress Elizabeth rail-
road, 922 kilometres in length, which was taken
over into the management of the state under
a convention providing for its eventual acqui-
sition. On the 1st of July, 1882, a railroad
bureau was created for the direction of the
state railroads. The total receipts of the Aus-
tro-Hungarian railroads in 1881 were 215,-
950,000 florins, of which 47,950,000 florins were
from passengers, and 168,000,000 florins from
freight.

Telegraphs.— The length of telegraph lines in
1881 was 21,735 miles in Austria, with 56,862
miles of wires, and 9,032 miles in Hungary,
with 32,380 miles of wires. The number of
messages carried in 1881 was 8,865,030, in-
cluding 584,059 official dispatches.

Post-Office. — The number of letters forwarded
by the post-office in 1881 was 248,509,000,
besides 47,858,000 postal-cards in Austria, and
in Hungary 74,218,000 letters and 13,623,000
postal- cards.

Shipping. — The merchant marine in 1882
numbered 70 ocean-steamers, of 16,145 horse-
power and 62,387 tons ; 42 coasting-steamers,
of 2,179 horse-power and 4,472 tons; and
8,294 sailing-vessels and fisliing-smacks of 259,-
970 tons. The crews numbered 27,187 men.
The Austro-Hungarian Lloyd, which owns the
large steamers and does the greater part of the
carrying trade between Austria and the East
through 'the Suez canal, receives a subsidy of
1,730,000 florins per annum.

The number of vessels entering the Austrian
and Hungarian ports, Trieste and Fiume, in
1881, was 47,045, of 5,911,885 aggregate ton-
nage, of which 19,415, of 4,947,399 tons, were
steamers; the number of departures was 46,-
907, tonnage 5,913,720, cf which 19,392, of
4,942,078 tons, were steamers. The tonnage
entering Austro-Hungarian ports under the
national flag was 5,197,855 ; under the British
flag, 402,164; under the Italian, 201,603.

Finance. — The budget estimates of revenue
and expenditures for common affairs in 1882
place the total at 117,149,549 florins, of which
the contributions from the two halves of the
empire make up 113,824,679 florins (one florin
= 50 cents). Of the total sum, 101,591,380 flor-
ins are devoted to the army, 9,177,829 florins
to the navy, 4,328,900 florins to the diplomatic
service, 1,926,040 florins to the financial ad-
ministration, and 125,400 florins, to the finan-
cial control.

The estimates for 1883 make the expendi-
tures 184,661,988 florins, of which 102,413,318

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

florins are required for the army, 9,162,224 BRANCHES OF EXPENDITURE.

florins for the navy, 4,246,900 florins for for- Ministry of Finance

eign affairs, and 1,962, 661 florins for the finance « Commerce '. '. '. '. '. '.'. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '.

ministry. There are extraordinary expenses Board of Control 155000

for the army in Bosnia. The contributions to KSL'SXSff. ' '.

be assessed on the tWO parts of the empire Cisleithan portion of common expenditure

are 99,991,763 florins Total diture of 1882

The expenses of the civil administration of
Bosnia and Herzegovina for 1883 are estimated The Hungarian budgets from 187V to 1882

at 7,039,809 florins, including the following 8now an average annual deficit of nearly 23,-

items: public highways, 239,500 florins; wor- 000,000 florins. The estimated revenue for

ship, 162,503 florins ; education, 91,889 florins ; 1882 was as follows :

military forces, 251,034 florins; gendarmerie, SOURCES OF REVENUE. Florin..

1,114,475 florins. The receipts are estimated ^K^^d'^^^\\'\\\\\\\\\:::\\: ifsj^?

at 7,217,819 florins, of which the tithes pro- State domains, mines, and railways 36,137,116

duce 2,250,000 > florins; the > ™-tax, 600,- BtSS^^""r.i 7.

000 florins; sheep-tax, 247,000 florins; cus- —L-J

torns, 702,000 florins; tobacco-tax, 1,896,000 Total revenue of 1882 301,967,214

florins; salt, 867,135 florins; octroi, 43,000 The following were the estimated expendi-

florins; and stamps, 300,000 florins. tures under the principal heads :

The estimates communicated to the Delega- BRANCHES OF EXPENDITURE. norm.,

tions for 1884 call for 4,383,110 florins for Royal household 4,650.000

foreign affairs, 102,413,639 florins for the army, ^^^^^y::::::::::::::::::::-- t^S

including 6,876,005 florins of extraordinary ex- Ministry >• ad latm " 5^346

penditure, 9,470,977 florins for the navy, 174,- Ministry of Finance

400 and 125,747 florins respectively for the Wnf.^^\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\r.

financial administration and control, and 1,973,- Education and 'worship.' .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.. 4^02,647

450 florins for pensions. The total expendi- " pStoWki 28 sSIJi

tures are estimated at 115,170,880 florins, the " Agriculture and Commerce'. '. '.'.'.'.'.'.'. 8'628,'913

net surplus Of the customs applicable to the Public debt and pensions 61,913,035

, 1 ,_ n ££ a . , Guaranteed interest to private railways 10,900000

common expenses at 17,633,570 florins, and Transleithan portion of the common expenditure

the contributions of the two states at 98, 107,- °f the empire 68,392,174

799 florins. For the army of occupation in Miscellaneous expenses 66081,085

Bosnia and Herzegovina, 7,307,000 florins are Total expenditure of 1883 328,235,311

asked. The cost of th9 civil administration of The ordinary expenses for 1883 were esti-

the occupied provinces is estimated at 7,356,- raated at 288,800,000 florins, the ordinary rev-

267 florins, and the revenue from the.provinces enues at 280,700,000 florins. The budget for

lr A * • "J?' 1884 Places the ordinary expenditures at 298,-

The Austrian Government is very tardy m 200,000 florins, and the revenues at 295,500,-

pubhshmg the accounts of actual receipts and 000 florins; the total expenditures at 329 200 -

expenditures. The budget estimates in recent 000 florins, and the total revenues at 308,900 -

years show invariably a deficit, averaging since QOO florins

1876 some 37,500 000 florins a year The es- p^ Debt.-The public debt of the Austrian

timated revenue for 1882 is 448 Io5,793 flor- Empire was aireadv large at the end of the Na-

ms; expenditures, 485,720,951 Horins. The poleonic wars. After 1848 it increased again

principal heads of revenue are as follow : rapidly from 1,250,000,000 florins to 3,000,000,-

SOURCES OF REVENUE. Fionns. 000 florins in 1868. The war of 1866 added

Direct taxes 92,970,000 300,000,000 of new loans, which were offset

SM monody* ::::::::'.. :::::::::::::::::::::: Sffiooo b? the amonnt of the Lombardo- Venetian debt

Tobacco monopoly .........'... 6s',947^2oo assumed by the kingdom of Italy. At the

juTciaifees SSo'cM seParation of Austria and Hungary an agree-

state lottery !""!!.""".! I !!.'.'"! 20222'ooo nient was made, in May, 1868, renewed with

Excise duties 88,i67',ooo certain modifications in 1877, whereby 70 per

^^^^^:::^:^^ i'oW <»at. of the total charges of the debt fell upon

Miscellaneous receipts 4il628'899 Austria and 30 per cent, upon Hungary. Since

Total revenue of 1882 448 155 793 ^8^8 the two kingdoms have kept their finances

separate. The deficits in Hungary constantly

The following are the estimated expenditures recurring since 1867, have been funded in a

of the several departments: special debt, amounting in. 1881 to the enor-

BRANCHES OF EXPENDITURE. Florins. nious sum of 1,045,319,600 florins. Austria

Imperial household 4,650,000 has a large amount of floating liabilities arising

&sraathabinet Chancery ' ' ' t Jjj'gg from the same cause, given in a return for Jan.

Council of Ministers .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' ' .' .' .' ' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' i 'o48^2io * » 1 882> as 41 1 , 998, 744 florins, represented by

Ministry of the interior !T,fi80,T6B a depreciated paper currency amounting to

pSrEducaSand Worship' i! n'jK 320,434.947 florins, and interest-bearing treas-

Agricuiture 11,519^408 ury notes amounting to 91,563,797 florins, into

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

which form the later deficits were converted.
The debt of the whole empire and of the Aus-
trian monarchy, on the 1st of July, 1882, was
8,280,055,699 florins, of which the consolidated
debt, bearing interest, represents 3,038,116,776
florins; non-interest-bearing, 115,756,604 flor-
ins; floating liabilities, 112,183,618 florins; and
annuities, 13,998,701 florins. The total annual
charge of the Austrian and common debts
amounted in 1882 to 158,365,020 florins, of
which the share borne by Hungary was 30,317,-
753 florins.

An operation for the conversion of the Hun-
garian debt was begun in 1881, in which year
160,000,000 florins of 6 per cent, gold bonds
were redeemed by the issue of a 4 per cent.
loan which was taken at a fixed price of 77f.
The operation was suspended on account of
the monetary crisis, and resumed again in 1883,
when 300,000,000 florins were converted on
slightly less favorable terms than before.

Tariff. — By agreement between the Austrian
and Hungarian governments an increase in the
tariff on petroleum, coffee, and tea was adopted
as a means of reducing the chronic deficits in
both countries. These enhanced duties, which
fall with excessive severity on the laboring
classes, went into operation in 1882. The im-
port duty on petroleum was increased from 3f
to 10 florins per metric quintal. In addition
to this an excise duty on refined petroleum of
6i florins per 100 kilos was imposed by the
Hungarian Government. The increased reve-
nue in both halves of the empire from the new
petroleum duty is calculated at 6,000,000 flor-
ins. The duty on coffee is increased from 24
to 40 florins per metric quintal, and on tea from
50 to 100 florins, from which changes an in-
creased yield of 6,500,000 florins is expected.

Taxes. — A bill for Ihe amendment of the in-
come-tax, carried through by the Austrian Gov-
ernment, forms part of a plan for the reform
of the whole system of direct taxation. The
revision of the land and house taxes had already
been accomplished. The new income-taxes are
much simpler than the former system, which
even the officials had difficulty in understand-
ing in all its details. A progressive scale is
established for incomes derived from trades and
professions. Besides the other taxes on special
kinds of income, every one receiving more than
700 florins a year of net income pays a personal
income-tax calculated on a progressive scale.
The changes afe expected to augment the reve-
nues, which the chronic deficits in the budget
render necessary in Austria as well as in Hun-
gary. In both halves of the empire the indirect
taxes, consisting of stamps, fees, and imposts
on articles of consumption, have been pushed
to the extreme limit, with the exception, per-
haps, of the sugar and spirit taxes. The in-
come-tax in Hungary is higher than in almost
any other country, being 12 per cent, on incomes
from stocks and bonds.* The revision of the

* It is exceeded only in Italy, where Incomes from funded
securities pay 18- S per cent.

Austrian system of taxes, the fourth within
eighteen years, turns to this source which is
already so fully utilized in the sister kingdom.
The new land-tax is apportioned among the
different provinces, and is assessed at 37,500,-
000 florins for fifteen years from 1881. The
new personal income-tax is intended to replace
all other methods of extraordinary or supple-
mentary taxation. The rate is variable, and
is fixed in the budget annually, according to
the requirements of the Government. Incomes
from enterprises which are required to furnish
an official exhibit of their finances, and which
are taxed at their source, are not subject to
the personal income-tax. This variable extraor-
dinary tax is supplementary to the scheme of
the ordinary direct taxes, which covers system-
atically the five classes of objects approved by
modern national economists, viz., land, houses,
income from investments, trades, and salaries.
The land-taxes are copied after the Prussian
system. The cadastral survey and valuation,
begun in 1869, was completed in 1881, at a
cost of 20,000,000 florins. The yield of the
land-tax is not greater than before. The house-
tax is assessed on town property according to
its renting value, and upon rural dwellings ac-
cording to the number of rooms they contain.
Mud and thatch cabins pay 75 kreutzers (37£
cents), houses with a single room 1 florin 50
kreutzers (75 cents), with two rooms 1 florin
70 kreutzers, up to villas and castles with forty
rooms, which pay 220 florins ($110) per annum,
and 5 florins more for each additional room.
This class-tax on dwellings is higher, and the
progression somewhat steeper than under the
old law. The new income-tax affects all in-
comes from invested capital which are not taxed
under other heads, or expressly exempted from
taxation by special laws, as are the interest on
deposits in the postal savings-banks, and the
revenues of charitable institutions, of public
schools, and incomes not exceeding 300 florins.
The law requires every one to give any desired
information respecting his own income or that
of another. The tax is 5 per cent., except on
dividends derived from corporations, which pay
10 per cent. Industrial and commercial con-
cerns are taxed according to their mean profits,
beginning with 3 per cent, on 1,500 florins, and
ascending to 10 per cent, on over 50,000 florins
annual profit. The tax on earnings does not
touch incomes below 300 florins. Up to 500
florins the rate is 0*2 per cent., ascending to1 10
per cent, for salaries or professional earnings
exceeding 5,000 florins.

Army and Navy. — The total war strength of
the Austro-Hungarian army in the beginning
of 1883 was about 1,250,000 men, including
245,000 Austrian Landwehr and 205,000 Hun-
garian Honveds. The standing army is under
the control of the common Minister of War,
while the militia is looked after by the Minis-
ters of National Defense in the two king-
doms. The system of army organization agreed
to by the two states and embodied in the law

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

43

of Dec. 5, 1868, is that of universal liability to
arms, on the model of the German army. The
term of service is three years in the standing
army and seven years in the reserve, with a
liability to serve two years more in the Land-
wehr. The reorganization of the army, be-
gun in 1883, introduces the territorial system,
dividing the empire into fifteen corps cVar-
mee districts, subdivided into recruiting pre-
cincts. The 102 regiments of infantry, of four
battalions, will each be stationed in the dis-
trict from which it is recruited. The stand-
ing army numbered in -the beginning of 1882
251,455 men on the peace footing and 779,597
including the reserves. The active army was
made up as follows : infantry, 144,738 men ;
yagers, 16,136; cavalry, 42,271 ; field-artillery,
20,223 ; fortress artillery, 7,110 ; engineers,
5,296; pioneers, 2,672; staff and departmental
services, 13.009 ; total, 251,455.

The Austro- Hungarian navy consisted, in
1882, of 13 iron-clad war-vessels, 37 steamers,
chiefly small and constructed for coast-defense,
6 sailing-vessels, and 12 torpedo-boats. Of the
armored vessels, ten are sea-going cruisers.
The largest is the Custozza, a broadside ship
of 7,060 tons, covered with 9J-inch plates, and
armed with eight 18-ton Krupp guns. Of more
modern type is the Tegethoff, of 7,390 tons,
armored with steel 13 inches thick, with six
25-ton Krupp guns ranged broadside and in a
turret. The Erzherzog Albrecht has 8| inch
plates and eight 18-ton Krupp guns. The navy
was manned in July, 1882, by, 6,270 officers and
men, who can be doubled in the event of war.
The navy is recruited by a levy on the sea-
faring population, subject to the same term of
service as in the army, supplemented by enlist-
ments. Austria has a strongly fortified naval
harbor at Pola, which has been enlarged so
as to be enabled to contain the entire fleet,
and another naval port at Trieste, where the
arsenals are situated.

Foreign Relations.— The situation of Austria-
Hungary in its relations to foreign powers and
the peace of Europe, though more difficult
than that of any other country, is becoming
more secure through the strengthening of the
league of peace of which the German Chancel-
lor is the author. The dangerous feelings which
were rife in both Russia and Italy in the preced-
ing year were less noticeable in 1883. The bond
betweeh the Governments of Austria and Italy
seems to grow more acceptable to the Italian
people, although a large section do not yet give
up the idea that there are still scores to se'tle
with their old enemy. The Irredentist demon-
strations continued in the early part of the year,
but subsided later. The Russian strategic' rail-
roads and rumored massing of troops on the
frontier created great alarm in the beginning
of the year, but the visit of the Russian minis-
ter, M. de Giers, at Vienna, and the manifes-
tations of pacific intentions for the present on
the part of the Czar tranquillized this feeling.
The source of the danger, however, the situa-

tion of the south Slav peoples, became still more
evident in 1883. The King of Servia, by becom-
ing the protege of Austria, effectually alienated
his subjects, who after his return from a visit
to Vienna, in August, broke out in open revolu-
tion. The pretender, Karageorgevich, fortified
by Russian support and a matrimonial alliance
with the Prince of Montenegro, hovered on the
borders, ready to seize the throne. The occu-
pied provinces remained tranquil during the
year. The refugees nearly all returned from
Montenegro. In the autumn the recruiting
proceeded without objection. The difficulties
with the Roumanian Government were not de-
cided at the Danubian conference in a manner
satisfactory to Roumania, but negotiations be-
gun at Vienna with M. Bratiano in the fall
promise to remove some of the causes of jeal-
ousy. (See DANUBE, EUROPEAN COMMISSION OF
THE.) The Roumanian Minister apologized for
his hostile declarations of the preceding year.
A boundary commission began the adjustment
of certain disputed points of the frontier line
between Hungary and Roumania. One of the
occasional quarrels between the frontier guards
on both sides of the line created a sensation in
October, until it was known that the partici-
pants were alone responsible. The Hungarian
Government was intrusted with the duty of re-
moving the obstacles to navigation at the Iron
Gate in the Danube.

Still more important to Austria than the ar-
rangement of the affairs of the Danube, was
the decision arrived at by the Conference d
quatre and arranged with the Turkish Gov-
ernment regarding the speedy completion of
the Turkish lines of railroad to connect with
the Austro- Hungarian system.

The Danube and Turkish Railways.— In the
eighteenth century, and down to the middle
of the nineteenth, Austria enjoyed a commer-
cial primacy in Turkey which was originally
won by her successful wars against the Otto-
mans, and which her geographical position
enabled her to maintain. The political ascend-
ency in the lands of the divided Ottoman Em-
pire has since been borne away by Russia and
the Western powers, and in the commercial
arrangements subsequently entered into Aus-
tria has seen her geographical advantages neu-
tralized and the trade pass into the hands of
the more enterprising merchants of England,
France, and Belgium. This Levantine trade
is, however, of vital importance to Austria and
Hungary, unfavorably situated as they are with
regard to the ocean commerce. By the Paris
Treaty of 1856, Austria was compelled to share
the control over the navigation of the Danube
with France, Great Britain, the German states,
Russia, Italy, and Turkey." The acte public
of 1865 took away the remaining privileges
which the Commission of Riverain States se-
cured to Austria, and the Pontus conference
of L871 confirmed the prolongation of the Eu-
ropean commission till April 24, 1883. The
Treaty of Berlin in 1878 extended the jurisdio-

44

AUSTRIA HUNGARY.

tion of the commission up to the Iron Gate,
gave Roumania a voice which it has used
against Austria, and delivered over to Russia,
with the Kilia arm and the Stari-Stamboul
mouth, the possible military command of the
mouth of the Danube and control of its com-
merce. The deepening of the mouth of the
Danube by the European commission was in
reality detrimental to Austrian commercial in-
terests. The stoppage of navigation during the
winter months, the shoal and shifting chan-
nel in the wide stretch between Pressburg and
Gonyd, and the rapids of the Iron Gate, de-
prive the Danube of value as an outlet for Aus-
trian commerce. Before the improvement of
the mouth, Austrian merchants monopolized
the markets of the lower valley. Since British
and French vessels are enabled to ascend the
river, the Austrians have been driven step-
by step from this profitable field. In the sea-
traffic Austria has lost ground in the same pro-
portion. The overland exports to Turkey, in-
ciuding Servia and Roumania, increased only
16,000,000 florins in the sixteen years from
1864 to 1880. Of the imports of all Turkish
ports in the ten years ending with 1872, Eng-
land furnished 48 per cent., France 15 per
cent., Germany 7£ per cent., and Austria not
7 per cent. In the ten years between 1867
and 1877 the trade with Turkey showed a rapid
decline. In the former year 13 '3 per cent, of
the import, and 22' 1 per cent, of the export
trade of the Austrian Empire was with Tur-
key; but in 1876 the proportions were 11-6
and 18 per cent, respectively, while the tran-
sit trade declined 30 per cent. The Austrian
tonnage on the lower Danube declined from
86,000 in 1879 to 50,000 in 1881, while the
British increased from 1 36,000 to 332,000. Of
the tonnage which passed through the Sulina
mouth in 1872, 30 per cent, was British and 11
per cent. Austrian; while in 1881, 63 percent,
was British and 6 per cent. Austrian.

The long-projected railroad connection with
Turkey was expected to give Austria the op-
portunity to regain the position which was
lost through the errors of her diplomatists and
the incapacity of her merchants. In 1869,
Baron Hirsch, the famous Austrian railroad
financier, undertook to construct for the
Turkish Government a line of railroad which
should extend through the length of Turkey
and connect under the most favorable condi-
tions with the 'Austrian net- work. The con-
cessions provided for a railroad from Con-
stantinople via Adrianople and Philippopolis,
through Bosnia to the Save, where it would
connecfwith the Southern railroad of Austria.
Branch roa^ls were to connect the trunk-line
with Salonica, Dedeagatch, and Shumla. The
Constantinople end was built to beyond Philip-
popolis, the Salonica branch constructed, and
the Novi-Banjaluka section finished, by 1872.
A convention was concluded for the continu-
ation of the east end from Bellova to Sophia
and Nish, and the extension of the Salonica

branch from Uskub to meet the Bulgarian sec-
tion at Mitrovitza, which it was intended to
continue from Nish by way of Mitrovitza,
Novi Bazar, ^erajevo, Travnik, Banjaluka, and
Novi, to join the Austrian railroad at Agram.
Baron Hirsch finished the Salonica road up
to Mitrovitza, and constructed the Bulgarian
branch to Tirnova. British intrigues and the
rival interests of the Austrian and Hungarian
states prevented the work from being carried
any farther. The portions thus far completed
opened up the whole interior of the Balkan
Peninsula to British commerce, while Austria-
Hungary derived no benefit from them. When
the Porte showed an inclination to complete
the connection with the Austrian railroads, it
was persuaded to divert the line for supposed
strategical reasons, and adopt the project of
a difficult mountain railway from Sophia to
Uskub. The Hungarians were strongly op-
posed to the Hirsch project, desiring that the
connection with the Continental system should
be through Hungary, and the Government
went so far as to make surveys for a direct
line from Pesth through Semlin and Belgrade
to Nish. The territorial changes consequent
upon the Russo-Turkish War increased the
divided interests and strategical questions.
The Berlin Congress, instead of deciding the
question of the railroads, left it in an almost
hopeless tangle by referring it to the Confe-
rence d quatre, making it depend upon the
mutual agreement of Austria - Hungary, the
Porte, Servia, and Bulgaria. The Austro-
Servian railroad convention was concluded as
early as April 9, 1 880. In this, Servia bound
itself to construct within three years a rail-
road connecting with the Pesth-Semlin line
and running from the Hungarian boundary
near Belgrade up the Marava valley to Nish,
and there dividing so as to connect with the
Turkish railroads by two branches, one run-
ning to the Bulgarian boundary toward Bel-
lova, where it would join the Constantinople
line, and the other to the Turkish boundary
to meet an extension of the Salonica-Mitro-
vitza railroad. The work was not completed
at the term agreed upon, June 3, 1883, nor is
it yet decided where the junctions with the
Turkish and Bulgarian railroads are to be.
The Conference d quatre, at its sittings in 1881
and 1882, debated fruitlessly the questions of
the international postal and telegraph services,
tariff regulations, etc. A note communicated
to the Turkish Government by the Austrian
embassador in the early part of 1883, com-
plains of the delay in carrying out the decis-
ions of the Conference d quatre, and making
the extensions to connect with the Servian
and Bulgarian roads. It declared that the
Porte had not yet determined the route by
which the Yamboli line was to reach the Bul-
garian railroad at Shumla, and neither accept-
ed nor rejected the Servian proposal of the
Vranja route for the connection of the Saloni-
ca-Usknb road with the Servian system. The

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

45

alternative is the Pristina route, by which the
continuation already constructed to Mitrovitza
would be utilized. The Austrians were desir-
ous that the conuection with the Salonica
road should be taken in hand first, instead of
the extension of the Yamboli branch into
Bulgaria, which latter would serve Roumanian
and Russian interests and promote British
rather than Austrian commerce. The passage
of the railroads through Hungary, Servia, and
Bulgaria, instead of directly from • Austria
proper into Turkey, deprived them of many
of the expected advantages to Austrian com-
merce and industry, while favoring the rival
Hungarian interests. Th« protracted discus-
sions of the Conference d quatre led at last to
the adoption of a railroad convention which
was signed May 9, 1883. The route agreed
upon for the line which will connect Vienna
with Constantinople, passes through Semlin,
Belgrade, Nish, Pirot, Caribrod, Sophia, Ba-
kerel, and Bellova., to Sarembey, the present
terminus of the railroad from Constantinople.
The road from Salonica is to join the Servian
railroad from Belgrade to Vranja, by means
of a railroad to be constructed from the latter
place to a point on the Salonica railroad in
the neighborhood of Pristina, or wherever the
surveys indicate the most favorable route, the
point of junction to be settled upon by the
Porte within a year. The 15th of October,
1886, is set as the term at which both lines
must be completed. The gauge is to be the
same as that of the Austrian railroads, the
signal system and other modes of operation
are to follow those of Austria, and in the
customs arrangements every facility is given
to commerce -and travel. The tariffs per kilo-
metre are to be identical in the countries
through which the roads pass. At least one
express daily is to run in each direction be-
tween Vienna and Pesth and Constantinople,
and Vienna and Pesth and Salonica, at a speed
of at least 35 kilometres (22 miles) an hour.

Austria. — Austria proper, or Cisleithania, has
been governed since the recognition of Hun-
garian independence by a twofold Legislature,
a central body, called the Reichsrath, and local
assemblies, or Provincial Diets, for the indi-
vidual provinces. Tue Reichsrath consists of
an upper house, or House of Lords, and a low-
er houso, or House of Deputies. The House
of Lords is composed of the princes of the
blood royal, 14 in number in 1882 ; the terri-
torial nobility, numbering 53 ; the archbishops
(10) and bishops of princely rank (7) ; and life-
members appointed by the Emperor for distin-
guished merit and ability, in number 105. The
Abgeordnetenhaus, or House of Deputies, con-
sists, under the electoral law of 1873, of 353
members elected by four different constitu-
encies: 1, the people of the rural districts ; 2,
the people of the towns ; 3, the chambers of
commerce in the large towns; 4, the large
landed proprietors. The franchise in the popu-
lar urban constituencies was extended by a

law enacted in 1882 to all male persons paying
five florins in direct taxes. The Provincial
Diets are composed as follows : 1. the archbish-
ops and bishops of the Roman Catholic and
Oriental Greek Churches and the chancellors
of the universities ; 2, representatives of the
landed aristocracy, elected by all proprietors
paying taxes to the amount of 100 florins; 3,
representatives of towns, elected by all the
burgesses ; 4, representatives of chambers of
commerce and trade-guilds; 5, representatives
of rural communes elected indirectly through
electoral colleges. The provinces are seven-
teen in number: Lower Austria, Upper Aus-
tria, Salzburg, Styria, Tyrol, Vorarlberg, Bohe-
mia, Dalmatia, Galicia, Carinthia, Carniola,
Bukovina, Moravia, Silesia, Gorizia, Istria, and
Trieste.

The Reichsrath has power to legislate on
matters of customs, trade and commerce, bank-
ing, posts, telegraphs, and railroads, subject to
royal approval, to scrutinize the public accounts
and discuss all bills of taxation and expendi-
ture, and to ratify all legislation relating to
military service. Members of both houses
have the right of initiative. The presiding
officers in both bodies are nominated by the
Emperor. The Reichsrath must be convened
annually, and, in case of dissolution, new elec-
tions must take place within six months. The
Provincial Diets legislate on matters of local
administration and taxation, particularly agra-
rian regulations, public works, the church,
schools, and public charity.

The Cabinet is composed as follows : Presi-
dent of th« Council and Minister of the Inte-
rior, Count Eduard Taafe, born in 1833, who
held the same portfolio in a former ministry,
1867-'70, and was appointed chief of the pres-
ent Cabinet Aug. 19, 1879 ; Minister of Public
Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs, Baron S.
Conrad D'Eybesfeld, appointed Feb. 17, 1880;
Minister of Finance, Dr. J. Dunajewski, ap-
pointed June 26, 1880 ; Minister of Agricul-
ture, Count Julius Falkenhayn, appointed Aug.
19, 1879 ; Minister of Commerce and National
Economy, Baron F. Pino von Friedenthal, ap-
pointed .Jan. 14, 1881; Minister of National
Defense, Maj.-Gen. Count S. von Welsersheimb,
appointed June 25, 1880 ; Minister of Justice,
A. Prazak, appointed Jan. 14. 1881; Minister
without Portfolio, F. Ziemialkowski, appointed
Aug. 12, 1879.

Political Chronicle.— The Czechs, whose posi-
tion was strengthened by the Bohemian elec-
tions of 1883, continued to press their victory
over the German party, which showed a still
more bitter and irreconcilable spirit. Pro-
vision was made for the establishment of a
Czechish medical faculty in the University of
Prague. Although the Czechs and Slovenes
elected representatives to the Reichsrath who
for four years have dictated radical changes
in the laws of the empire for the benefit of
their races, yet the provincial legislation
has remained in the hands of the old German

46

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

majority. Finally, the ministry gave heed
to the frequent memorials from Bohemia and
Carniola, and ordered new elections for the
Diets of those provinces, in which an over-
whelming majority of Autonomistic candidates
were returned. In Galicia the Ruthenians
have the same complaints to make against the
Poles which the latter and the other Slavs for-
merly made against the Germans. To them
alone of all the Slav races the triumph of the
federalistic principle signifies the extirpation
of their national characteristics. They are
about equal in number with the Poles, but form
the poorer and politically weaker class. They
formerly voted with the German Centralistic
party, and looked to it for protection, but, los-
ing hope of relief from that quarter, are gradu-
ally abandoning their opposition, relying on
the hope that the combination of parties which
has saved from extinction all the other nation-
alities will not be so inconsistent as to help
crush out theirs. In the elections of 1883 the
Polish Federalistic party carried everything
before them. A sign that the Germans will
soon abandon their efforts to recover the domi-
nant position which enabled them to impose
German civilization upcn the unwilling Slavs
by political means, is seen in the growth of a
German national spirit manifested in demands
for the autonomy of the German communi-
ties of Austria which are in danger of being
ingulfed in the " Slavic deluge." Many of the
Jews in Austria, who formerly counted them-
selves as Germans, have turned with the popu-
lar current, and adopted other nationalities.
The Germans also begin to show the same fa-
cility as in other countries to merge their na-
tionality, now that it secures them no advan-
tage, in that of alien races.

As the Saxons of Transylvania complain of
Magyar oppression, the German party in Bo-
hemia anticipate similar grievances, and have
broached the subject of the division of the
province into separate German and Czechish
administrative districts. These incidents of
the race struggle are but superficial manifesta-
tions. The preponderance of German thought
and the spread of German influence through
commercial, political, and intellectual channels
still continues in Austrian lands and extends
through southeastern Europe, although Magyar
and Slav politicians attempt to revive the in-
fluence of French ideas, and during the year
gave expression to this sentiment in frequent
newspaper articles and a number of political
manifestoes. The combination of Czechs,
Poles, and Conservatives, which has carried
through the federalistic policy, obtained in
1883 for the first time a majority in the Aus-
trian Delegation, which, according to the usual
custom, is not elected by the whole House, but
by the deputations of the several provinces, to
each of which a certain number of seats in the
Delegation are allotted.

Socialism.— Austria has hitherto prided itself
on its freedom fr'om socialistic agitation. But

for a year or two past it has seen evidences of
a wide-spread socialistic propaganda, and has
been startled by eccentric crimes committed
by revolutionary desperadoes, by riotous dem-
onstrations in the streets of Vienna, and by
murderous encounters between the police and
socialists. In November, 1882, the breaking
up by the police of a shoemakers' trades-union
was the occasion of a riot in Vienna, in which
the cavalry were called out, and charged on
the mob. The following month there was a
monster trial of socialists in Prague, \vhich re-
sulted in the conviction of forty-five persons.
Another band, twenty-nine in number, were
brought to trial at Vienna in March, 1883. To
some of these a singular crime was brought
home. They had murdered and robbed a shoe-
maker in July, 1882, in order to obtain money
to spread the inflammatory teachings of Johann
Most's " Freiheit." All the prisoners except
the two implicated in the crime were acquitted,
because there is no law against socialism in
Austria, and convictions can only be pro-
nounced for high treason or disturbance of the
public peace. A general strike of the bakers
in Vienna caused some excitement and much
inconvenience, until the Government came to
the relief of the public and crushed the strike
by supplying the city with bread made by the
army bakers. On December 15th a commissary
of police who had attended socialistic gather-
ings, in conformity with a law requiring all
meetings, however private, to be held under
police supervision, was murdered in a suburb
of Vienna.

The socialistic ferment, which has penetrated
into Austria, has stimulated politicians to pro-
pose remedial measures. The Government in-
troduced into the Reichsrath, in the session
which opened Dec. 5, 1882, a trade-regulation
act, an employers' liability act, and a. project
for accident insurance. Even the Left sacri-
ficed the principle of non-interference so far
as to accept the trade act with its provisions
for compulsory benefit associations. Another
law intended to counteract the unrestricted
supremacy of capital, which was passed, im-
poses limitations on joint -stock companies.
The Liberals, who here as in Germany have
been accused of indifference to the welfare of
the humble classes, brought forward a scheme
which embraced industrial, agrarian, and poor-
law reforms. They proposed to establish sick-
funds, accident insurance, and superannuation
pensions for industrial operatives at the sole cost
of employers. The poor laws they wished to
amend so as to enlarge the districts or facilitate
the acquirement of a domicile, as now relief to
the sick or hungry is often refused on account
of non-residence, and in some cases persons are
sent away from cities where there are hospitals
to carry contagious diseases into their rural
parishes. The agrarian question is one of great
moment and difficulty in Austria, but is not
likely to find the same reconstructive disposi-
tion on the part of the ruling factions as the

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

47

question between capital and labor, for it
touches the interests and the prejudices of the
land-owners. The class of cottagers who are
half peasants and half laborers, and who have
sunk into abject proletarianism, is increasing.
When their useless parcels of ground are ever
given up, they do not pass into the hands of
the farming class, which is too poor to acquire
them, but are added to the estates of great
laud-owners or the country-seats of city resi-
dents. The effect of overgrown estates, a
numerous dependent proletariat, and taxes
which bear heavily upon the small farmers,
who are already handicapped by an uncertain
climate and a dearth of credit facilities, is to
perpetuate negligent methods and a stationary
routine which leave Austria ill prepared to
stand the stress of American competition.

School Laws. — An amendment of the school
law was carried in the Reichsrath, which
makes some alterations in the system of ele-
mentary instruction of a reactionary character,
to meet the views of the clerical and feudal-
istic elements in the majority of the House of
Deputies. The number of days of obligatory
attendance can be greatly reduced at the re-
quest of a commune. Religious instruction is
made a more important branch, and is to be
imparted in the faith of the majority of a com-
mune. The Poles, who, because they hold the
balance of power in the Reichsrath, can usually
impose their will on the Government, secured
the exemption of Galicia from the provisions
of the new school ordinance.

Hungary. — The kingdom of Hungary possess-
es an ancient constitution, consisting of funda-
mental statutes enacted at various dates since
the foundation of the kingdom in the ninth
century. The Constitution was abrogated after
the rebellion of 1848, restored in 1860, and ex-
tended to its ancient limits in 1867, when the
national independence of Hungary was finally
re-established. The Hungarian Diet consists of
an upper chamber, called the House of Mag-
nates, and a lower, called the House of Repre-
sentatives. The House of Magnates was com-
posed in 1882 of 2 royal princes, 50 archbish-
ops and bishops of the Roman Catholic and
Greek Churches, 672 peers and dignitaries of
Hungary and Transylvania, 5 regalists from
Transylvania, and 2 deputies of Croatia — in all,
731 members. The House of Representatives,
elected directly by all citizens who pay eight
florins in direct taxes, consisted in 1882 of 334
deputies from Hungarian districts and towns,
75 from Transylvania, 34 delegates from Croa-
tia, and 1 from Fiume.

The executive power is exercised by a respon-
sible ministry, composed as follows : President
of the Council, Koloman Tisza de Boros-Yeno,
who has been chief minister since Feb. 25,
1877 ; Minister of Finance, Count Gyula Sza-
pary, appointed Dec. 6, 1878; Minister of Na-
tional Defense, Count Gedeon Raday, appointed
Oct. 10, 1882; Minister ad latus to the King,
Baron Bela d'Orczy, appointed Aug. 12, 1879 ;

Minister of the Interior, Koloman Tisza ; Min-
ister of Education and Public Worship, Dr.
August de Trefort, appointed Feb. 26, 1877 ;
Minister of Justice, Dr. Theodor Pauler, ap-
pointed Dec. 6, 1 878 ; Minister of Public Works
and Communications, Baron de Kemeny, ap-
pointed Oct. 14, 1882; Minister of Agriculture,
Industry, and Commerce, Count Szechenyi, ap-
pointed Oct. 14, 1882; Minister for Croatia
and Slavonia, Count de Bedekovich, appointed
Feb. 26, 1877.

Political Chronicle — One of the first acts of
the Hungarian Parliament, which met in Octo-
ber, 1882, was to remove from the committee
of education the elements that opposed making
the Magyar tongue the national language of
instruction. The chief contest was over the
classical and scientific intermediate schools of
Transylvania, and the educational supervision
of the Evangelical Church in that province.
The bill, elaborated in the committee, and car-
ried March 17th by a large majority, prepares
the way for the substitution of Hungarian for
German in these schools, and Roumanian for
the intermediate schools in which Roumanian
is the language of instruction. It requires all
candidates for teachers' positions in the inter-
mediate schools of the monarchy to submit to
a government examination conducted in the
Magyar tongue. Three of the four years of
preparatory study may be passed in foreign
universities, but the final examination must be
passed in a Hungarian university, and requires
a literary training in the national language.

The Ritual Murder Case. — A criminal trial which
was held in June shows that the antipathy
against the Jews in eastern Europe, though
springing from economical motives, contains
an element of superstitious hatred known else-
where only from the legends of the middle
ages. In the village of Tisza-Eszlar, a Chris-
tian girl, named Esther Solymossy, suddenly
disappeared in the spring of 1882. The rumor
was started that the Hebrews of the village
had murdered her to obtain the blood of a
Christian virgin, which, according to the an-
cient fable, they mix in their Passover cakes.
A malicious petty magistrate, Bary, who had
charge of the preliminary examination, influ-
enced or suborned a Jewish boy, named Mo-
ritz Scharf, to accuse Salomon Schwartz, and
some other Jewish butchers, of cutting her
throat, and a number of others, among them
his own father, of being witnesses and accom-
plices in the crime. The girl had been sent to a
neighboring village to purchase dye. The last
that was seen of her was in the vicinity of the
synagogue on her return. The Jews were in
the temple that morning trying candidates for
the office of butcher to the 'congregation. Mo-
ritz Scharf testified that he saw the murder
through thekey-hole of the entrance-door. Two
women declared that they heard cries and sobs.
On this evidence the nccused were brought to
trial. The body of a drowned girl was found
in the river Theiss three months after Esther

48

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

Solymossy's disappearance. It was clad in her
garments, and was recognized as her remains
by her father and others; but her mother,
pastor, school-teacher, and numerous acquaint-
ances denied the identity. A commission of
medical experts reported that it was the corpse
of an older person than Esther, and of one not
accustomed to hard labor. A second commis-
sion, composed of university professors, found
that the marks of physical development did
not indicate an age of more than fourteen
years. The evidence of the body, the modifi-
cation of the statements of neighbors who heard
cries, and the confused and contradictory tes-
timony of the Hebrew boy under cross-exami-
nation, would have abundantly exculpated the
prisoners if additional suborned testimony had
not strengthened the theory that the corpse
was a spurious one placed in the river by mem-
bers of the Jewish congregation to defeat the
evidence against the accused. Two Jewish
raftsmen confessed that they had been em-
ployed to convey the dead body and deposit
it in the water where it was found. The pub-
lic prosecutor, Szeyffert, declared in taking the
case that he did not believe in a ritual mur-
der, and only took part in order to have the
evidence sifted and the truth brought out. Be-
yond this the Government did not intervene in
the proceedings. The prosecution was con-
ducted by lawyers retained by anti-Semitic par-
tisans. The trial was interrupted by exhibi-
tions of popular passion, and an anti-Semitic
outbreak was feared. The trial ended in the
acquittal of the ten prisoners. The efiect was
eventuallv to confine the anti-Semitic move-
ment in ^Hungary more within logical bounds.
The excitement continued, however, for some
time after the trial, and in various places in
North Hungary outburstsof fanaticism occurred.
At Tisza-Eszlar there were incendiary fires.
At Presburg, riots, like those of the preceding
year, required the services of the military to
suppress. The Scharf family were mobbed out
"t IV-th, and their advocate, Dr. Eotvos, was
the object of angry demonstrations at Nyiregy-
haza. At Zala Egersseg, in Western Hungary,
serious riots, in which the neighboring peas-
antry took a prominent part, began Aug. 23d,
and lasted several days. The garrison of the
town were unable to preserve order or to pre-
vent the mob from sacking the Jewish quar-
ter. In a riot at Szegitvar, Sept. 2d, artisans
broke into and wrecked the stores of Jewish
shopkeepers, and were fired upon by the po-
lice, but not cowed until the arrival of troops.
The Hungarian Government maintained
throughout the anti-Jewish agitation a firm
attitude, and not only employed every means
to <|ii.-|l disorder, but gave no countenance
to the popular demands for the repeal of
Jewish emancipation or any class legislation
directed against the Jews. Yet Minister Tisza
acknowledged that there was a Jewish ques-
tion of an economical nature, and that the
evils would not cease until the social causes

were removed. The public - houses through-
out the country are kept by Jews. They
combine with their trade that of the money-
lender, and with other usurers, all of the
Hebrew race, keep the peasantry in a condi-
tion of economical subjection. The Govern-
ment brought in bills designed to abate the
evils, one of which deprives wine and liquor
sellers of legal remedies for the collection of
debts for drink, and another is a usury law
with severe penalties and elaborate safeguards.
The Croatian Troubles. — The Hungarians, who
have observed with a feeling of indifference
if not with sympathy the victories of the
Czechs over the German Centralists, and the
federalistic movement among the other Slav
nationalities in Austria, were confronted in
1883 with a Slavic question of their own. The
results of the Russian "War, and the provisional
occupation of Bosnia by Austria, were to
arouse in Servia the ambition of uniting the
Serbic race into one kingdom; then, since
Austria was not likely to relinquish the occu-
pied provinces, to excite hopes in Montenegro
of becoming the head of a great Serbic nation
under the protection of Russia ; and, next, of
stirring with similar aspirations the petty na-
tionality of the Croats. The Great Croatian
idea looks to the creation of a third member
of the Dual Monarchy, a South Slav monarchy
with its capital at Agram. The Croats have
certain grounds for considering themselves the
fittest instrument for the mission of Austria
among the South Slavs. Their fidelity and
attachment to the Hapsburg dynasty are pro-
verbial. They claim to have been of great
assistance in rescuing the dynasty in the con-
flict with the rebel Magyars in 1848. Since
then the Croats have progressed in intelligence
and culture as much as or more than the Mag-
yars. The development is in the direction
which was given it nnder German control
before their incorporation, sorely against their
inclination but in obedience to the will of the
monarch, in the kingdom of Hungary. They
have not been treated with oppression by the
Hungarian Government, but have been per-
mitted to retain their old laws as to land,
inheritance, and the election of magistrates.
They are not fairly represented in the Hun-
garian House of Magnates, owing to the same
electoral system which denies to the Germans
their just quota of representatives in the Cis-
leithan legislative bodies. The Croatian depu-
ties in the lower house have, however, exercised
an influence on the Hungarian Government
which is out of proportion to the importance
of their province, because they have always
voted with the ministry, and on several occa-
sions when the opposition was strong their
vote saved the Government from defeat. The
incorporation of the Military Frontier, which
operation was completed in 1882 and 1883,
increased the importance of the province, and
gave an impetus to the movement for the union
of the districts inhabited by Servians and

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

49

Croats, in Dalmatia, Slavonia, Istria, Carniola,
and Carinthia, with Croatia and the Military
Frontier, to form a Croatian kingdom under
the Austrian crown, to which Bosnia and
Herzegovina could be added, with the expec-
tation that the other Balkan lands inhabited
by the Serbic race would gravitate toward this
great state in the future permutations of the
Eastern question. The Servians of Croatia
and the Austrian provinces, who differ from
the Croats, not in language or race, but in
religion and political tendencies, were strong-
ly opposed to the occupation of Bosnia. They
sympathize with the idea of a Great §ervia.

In August began a series of violent Croatian
demonstrations in A gram and different parts
of the country. The first act was the tearing
down of the Hungarian arms from the door
of the Finance Office in the capital. These es-
cutcheons with bilingual inscriptions had re-
cently been put up — an act which was sus-
pected of being the commencement of a policy
for the suppression of the Croatian language
and institutions. Magyar inscriptions and
signs were destroyed by rioters in all the towns.
The military were called into requisition, and,
in consequence, the disturbances became more
violent. Some districts were placed under
martial law. In Maria Bistrica, in a collision
between gendarmes and Croat peasants, sev-
eral rioters were killed. The Ban of Croatia,
Count Prejacsevich, who had not been a pop-
ular administrator, showed sympathy with the
movement and declined to replace the Hun-
garian arms with the obnoxious Magyar in-
scription on the front of the government
buildings. He was obliged to resign his office
in consequence, and now received popular ova-
tions as a great patriot. There were signs of
the Slavic ferment in the neighboring Austrian
provinces. In the beginning of the year Baron
Jovanovich created an uproar in Dalmatia by
ordering the official communications between
civil servants to be made in German. By an
act of the Reichsrath this order was subse-
quently rescinded. In Darenzo, where the
Istrian Provincial Diet meets, a Croat depu-
ty made an attempt to debate in his national
tongue instead of in Italian, which is the official
language. The Dalmatian deputies obtained
the enactment by the Reichsrath of a law di-
recting judicial proceedings in their province
to be held in the Servian or Croatian dialects,
instead of in Italian. The troubles in Croatia
attained the magnitude of an insurrection. The
Emperor did not nominate a Ban to succeed
Count Prejacsevich, but appointed a royal
commissioner with extraordinary' powers to
restore civil order. The Minister for Croatia,
Bedekovich, resigned his portfolio. Gen. Ram-

VOL. XXIII. 4 A

berg was selected for this service. In the Za-
gorien district, encounters took place between
the military and the rioters, and the troops were
repelled at Krapina, Toplitz, and Sopo. The
commissioner i<sued a proclamation stating
that the bilingual official notices would be con-
tinued, to demonstrate the fact that political
questions were not to be settled by street riots.
The escutcheons were replaced on the govern-
ment buildings at Agram on t!ie 7th of Sep-
tember, and on the following day occurred
another riot. The economic distress of the
people made them more susceptible to the en-
ticements of agitators, and complicated the
movement with socialistic and anti-Semitic
demonstrations. The men at the head of the
Imperial and Hungarian governments were not
inclined to proceed to extremes, and the troops
used great forbearance. The suspension of ex-
ecutions tor the collection of taxes caused a par-
tial subsidence of the agitation.

After Agram was tranquillized, an insurrec-
tion broke out in the Military Frontier, which,
like the one in Zagorie, was of an agrarian na-
ture. At Farkasevinez an anti-Magyar riot
occurred on the 20th of September, and ten
peasants were killed by the soldiery. Persons
concerned in the riots at Agram were brought
to trial and, September 30th, sentenced to short
terms of imprisonment. At the meeting of the
Hungarian House of Deputies on the 1st of
October, the Croatian deputies refused to take
part in the proceedings pending the settlement
of the question of the escutcheons. They for-
mulated the national demands, which embraced
the restitution of the escutcheons with Croa-
tian legends only, the recall of the royal com-
missioner and the appointment of a Ban, the
establishment of constitutional government,
the convocation of the Croatian Diet, and the
immediate discussion of the compromise law
under which Croatia was attached to Hun-
gary. The Premier announced a policy of con-
ciliation and of willingness to discuss and rem-
edy any grievances. The complaints of unfair
taxation were shown to be groundless as far as
the Central Government was concerned, but not
as regards the local authorities. Peculations
of the magistrates of their own appointment
aggravate the burden of taxes. All intentions
of suppressing the language, nationality, or au-
tonomic rights of Croatia were disclaimed.
After a spirited debate, the Parliament ap-
proved the proposal of the ministry to replace
the demolished escutcheons without any in-
scriptions, letting those remain which bore
Croatian inscriptions. The royal arms were
accordingly erected on the 16th of October,
after the disturbances were over, without
either Magyar or Croatian legends.

60

BAPTISTS.

B

BAPTISTS. The "American Baptist Year-
Book" for 1883 gives tables of statistics of
the regular Baptists of the United States, of
which the summary of the footings is as
follows: Number of associations, 1,167"; of
churches, 26,931 ; of ordained ministers, 17,-
090 ; of members, 2,394,742 ; number of addi-
tions by baptism during 1882, 94,680; number
of Sunday-schools, 15,138, with 130,606 officers
and teachers and 1,065,195 pupils, and 13,804
baptisms in the Sunday-schools. Amount of
benevolent contributions reported, $5,219,396.
Increase of members during the year, 58,720.
The educational institutions of which the
" Year-Book " gives reports include 8 theo-
logical seminaries, with 45 instructors and 451
students ; 33 colleges and universities, with
291 instructors and 4,177 students; and 52
academic institutions and seminaries for young
men and young women, with 391 instructors
and 6,554 students.

The numerical summaries of the regular Bap-
tists in other countries are as follow :

Churches.

Ordained

ministers.

Members.

North America (outside of the
United States)

809

595

99477

South America (Brazil)

g

4

'225

Europe . . .

8,108

224T

842240

Asia?.....

660

822

58410

Africa

87

88

6682

Australasia . .

124

82

10122

Total for the world

81,812

20,378

2,905 848

Whole number of associations, 1,268.

The number of other Baptist churches than
the regular Baptists in the United States is as
follows :

Churches.

Ministers.

Members.

Anti-Mission Baptists . . .

900

400

40000

Church of God.. ..

400

850

80 000

Free-will Baptists

1,485

1286

76*706

Seventh-day Baptists

87

103

8 606

Six-principle Baptists .

20

17

2 075

Bible Convention. — The regular anniversary
meetings of the Northern Baptist benevolent
societies of the United States were preceded
by a " Bible Convention," which was called in
accordance with action taken by the several
societies at their anniversaries in 1882, "to
consider and decide what the Baptist denomi-
nation ought to do in reference to translations,
versions, and the circulation of the Bible in all
lands, and through what organizations this ob-
ject shall be effected." The convention met at
Saratoga Springs, N. Y., May 22d. The Hon.
James L. Howard, of Connecticut, presided.
Resolutions were adopted, as follow :

Whereas, In the year 1883, the Baptists of America
resolved to give to the heathen the pure Word of God
in their own languages, and to furnish their mission-
aries with all the means in their power to make their

translations as exact a representation of the mind of
the Holy Spirit as may be possible ; and

Whereas, Their missionary translators were in-
structed to endeavor by earnest prayer and diligent
study to ascertain the exact meaning of the original
text, and to express that meaning as exactly as the
nature of the language into which they translate the
Bible will permit ; therefore,

Resolved, 1. That this convention earnestly reaf-
firms these positions as sound and obligatory.

2. That as_these principles are defined, it is the
duty of American Baptists to circulate versions made
upon these principles in all languages, as far as such
versions can be secured.

3. That as there are differences of opinion in our
denomination touching the several versions now ex-
isting in English, on the score of fidelity, it is the right
of every Baptist to use that version which best com-
mends its faithfulness to his conscience in the sight
of God.

4. That while; in the judgment of this convention,
the work of revision is 'not yet completed, whatever
organization or organizations shall be designated for
the prosecution ofhome Bible work among American
Baptists should now circulate the commonly received
version ; the new Kevised Eevision with the correc-
tions of the American revisers incorporated in the
text, and the translation of the American Bible
Union, according to demand, and that all moneys
especially designated for the circulation of either of
these should be faithfully appropriated in Tieeping
with the wish of the donor.

Furthermore, the convention expressed its
judgment that the Bible work of the Baptists
should be done by the two existing societies,
the foreign work by the American Baptist
Missionary Union, and the domestic work by
the American Baptist Publication Society ;
that the Missionary Union "should more fully
recognize the necessity of accurate translation
and wide distribution of the Word of God in
foreign lands," and should use every effort to
enlarge its means ; that the Publication Soci-
ety should establish a new department, to be
designated as the Bible Department, with a
special secretary, to be charged with the duty
of collecting and expending funds for home
Bible work:

That as a guarantee that all the chief views cur-
rent in our denomination shall be represented in the
conduct of our home* Bible work, and as a provision
for a settlement of the questions which have arisen
with regard to the administration of that work, the
American and Foreign Bible Societies be requested
to name three persons to be voted for as managers of
the Publication Society, and that upon the election
of these persons as such managers, the American and
Foreign Bible Societies be requested, in the interest
of Baptist unity, to dissolve and thenceforth cease
to exist as a separate organization ;

and that the Publication Society should estab-
lish such relations with the American Baptist
Home Mission Society that the missionaries of
the latter body may .co-operate with it in the
circulation of the Bible.

The American and Foreign Bible Society, at
its annual meeting, May 24th, determined to
accept the advice of the convention, and to
make arrangements to disband as a separate

BAPTISTS.

51

organization, and turn over its work to the
Publication Society and the Missionary Union.
The other societies concerned in the proposed
scheme also resolved to accept the functions
which its execution would impose upon them.
American Baptist Missionary Union.— The annual
meeting of the American Baptist Missionary
Union was held at Saratoga Springs, N. Y.,
May 24th. The Rev. George Dana Boardman,
D. D., presided. The receipts of the Union
for the year had heen $327,800, and its ex-
penditures $316,410. The condition of the
missions is exhibited in the following table:

MISSIONS.

1 8

|'S

Native
preachers.

Churchei.

!

i

ASIATIC MISSIONS.
Burmah

99
15

485
87

471

27

1,649
145

24,094
1 851

Telugus, India
Chinese

87

25

95

48

89
89

2,074
129

22,277
1,685

12

19

9

69

289

Totals

188

684

585

4,066

50146

Africa

2

1

7

429

EUROPEAN MISSIONS.
Sweden

813

350

331
146

4,510
1,992

22,616

28038

France

9

9

69

759

Spain

4

8

7

150

3

1

1

7

Totals

679

490

6,579

51,570

Grand totals...

190

1.364

1,082

10,645

102,145

A newspaper statement had charged the
treasurer of the society with taking advan-
tage, in settlements with the missionaries, of
the differences in exchange in the valuation of
dollars and rupees at the expense of the mis-
sionaries and to the profit of the treasury.
This charge was answered by the chairman of
the committee of finance, who, after a special
examination of the subject and of the treas-
urer's accounts, reported that "for tweuty-
three years previous to 1878 the changing of
dollars into rupees favored the missionaries on
the field by the appreciation of the rupee,
while for three years afterward the Union
gained by the depreciation of the value of the
rupee. To remove all cause for dissatisfaction
by the missionaries in 1879, the Union now
changes its dollars into pounds sterling and
then into rupees, so that the missionaries now
receive the full amount of their salary of
dollars in rupees. All of the gain during five
years in the depreciation of the rupee is strict-
ly accounted for by the treasurer's report."
Resolutions were adopted expressing satisfac-
tion with the statement, and " unqualified con-
fidence " in the late treasurer.

American Baptist Home Mission Society.— The an-
nual meeting of the American Baptist Home
Mission Society was held May 25th. The Hon.
James L. Howard presided. The total receipts
of the society for the year had been $283,-
944 ; the permanent and trust funds held by it
amounted to $497,535 ; and an indebtedness
was returned of $49,967. Six hundred and

seven missionaries had been employed, of whom
362 were laboring among American, 100 among
foreign, and 37 among other populations ; and
they had supplied 1,762 churches and out-sta-
tions. The fourteen schools among the colored
people and the Indians, and in Mexico, em-
ployed 112 teachers, and were attended by 2,713
students. Besides forty-four States and Ter-
ritories in the United States, the society had
prosecuted its work in British Columbia, Mani-
toba, and Mexico. Its work among Scandi-
navians was conducted in nine States and Ter-
ritories, among French in six States, and among
Germans in seventeen States and Territories ;
and missionaries had been appointed repre-
senting ten nationalities or people, viz., Ameri-
cans, Germans, Swedes, Danes, Norwegians,
French, Mexicans, Indians, negroes, and Chi-
nese. The Indian University, in the Indian
Territory, was in a flourishing condition, and
was attended by 42 young men and 53 young
women.

The Woman's Baptist Home Mission Society
had received during the year $22,000 in cash
and $4,524 in goods, and had disbursed $22,-
348. It had employed 26 missionaries, 6 mis-
sionary teachers, and 10 Bible-women, who
were laboring among the Indians, the freed-
men, Scandinavians, Germans, and Mormons.

American Baptist Publication Society.— The anni-
versary of the American Baptist Publication
Society was held May 28th. The receipts of
the society for the year had been $399,673 in
the business department, and $122,246 in the
missionary department. Forty-five new pub-
lications had been issued, and 122,300 Bibles
had been distributed.

Southern Baptist Convention. — The Southern
Baptist Convention met at Waco, Texas, May
llth. The Rev. P. H. Mell was chosen presi-
dent. The principal business of the meeting
consisted in a review of the progress of the
missionary and benevolent work of the South-
ern Baptist churches. The income of the Board
of Missions for the year had been $56,805,
and the board had a balance of $6,100 in its
treasury. Reports were made of the condition
of the several missions, as follow : The Mexi-
can mission had 65 church-members, of whom
13 had been baptized during the year. Two
missionaries, with three assistants, besides na-
tive helpers, were employed at eight stations.
In Brazil, four missionaries, all foreign, were
employed at the stations of Santa Barbara and
Bahia, where were 50 church-members, and in
which five persons had been baptized during the
year. Three missions were sustained in China,
employing 34 missionaries, and with them were
connected 587 church-members. In Africa were
seven missionaries, at five stations, with 100
church-members and 194 pupils in schools. The
missions in Italy included ten stations, at which
were 14 missionaries and evangelists, and with
which were connected 220 members. Seven
missionaries had been sent out by the board
during the year.

BAPTISTS.

The Home Mission Board reported that it
employed 95 laborers, who had supplied 276
churches and stations and baptized 245 persons,
had organized 55 Sunday-schools with 2,680
teachers and pupils, and bad collected $844 for
missions, and $2,000 for church-building pur-
poses. The board had received co-operation
in its work from the Baptist State organiza-
tions of Georgia, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkan-
sas, Florida, Texas, and Missouri. A favorable
report was made of the Indian Muscogee mis-
sion. During the thirty years that the late prin-
cipal missionary, the Rev. Dr. Buckner, labored
in it, an average of one church was organized and
one minister was ordained for every year, and
75 conversions took place annually. The num-
ber of members was now 2,600. The subscrip-
tions in behalf of the theological seminary
had been sufficient to pay its expenses during
the past three years, and the institution had
now a surplus. It had been attended by stu-
dents from every Southern State except Mary-
land, and from other States and from Mexico.

German Baptist Conferences. — In the German
Baptist conferences, six new churches were
organized in 1882, making 168 in all connected
with the conferences, with a membership of
30,442, against 28,956 in the previous year.
The number of baptisms during the year was
2,967. The number of Sunday-schools had
increased during four years from 178, with 691
teachers and 8,954 pupils, to 402, with 1,146
teachers and 8,954 pupils.

Baptist Convention in the Indian Territory.— A
Baptist Convention, composed of the associa-
tions and churches of nil the Indian nations
settled in the Indian Territory, was organized
in Tahlequah, Cherokee Nation, in June. Rep-
resentatives were present of the Cherokees,
Creeks, and Seminoles, of the Plains Indians
at the Wichita agency, and of other bodies,
making in all seven Indian tribes, of three
races and five languages, whose delegates par-
ticipated in the proceedings. This organiza-
tion was recognized and approved by the Choc-
taw and Chickasaw Association at its annual
meeting in October.

Baptist Autumnal Conference.— The second Bap-
tist Autumnal Conference was held in Boston,
Mass., November 13th, 14th, and 15th. The
Rev. Alvah Hovey, D. D., presided. The fol-
lowing topics were considered in papers read
by appointed essayists and in general discus-
sions: "Church Architecture" (Rev. C. J.
Baldwin and Pvev. J. R. Thomas); "The So-
cial Element in Church Life and Church
Work " (Rev. W. E. Hatcher, D. D. ; Rev. J.

B. Simmons, D. D. ; Hon. J. M. S. Williams; J.

C. Hiden, D. D. ; and Rev. Mr. Rhoades) ; " The
Sanitary Provisions of the Mosaic Code "
(George H. Fox, M. D.) ; " Christianity and the
Body " (President S. L. Caldwell, of Vassnr Col-
lege) ; " Christianity in Politics " (Rev. E. P.
Gould, D. D.) ; " The Divorce Question " (Rev.
H. S. Barrage. D. D. ; Judcre Buchanan, of New
Jersey ; President A. Owen, of Denison Uni-

versity) ; " Modern Biblical Criticism " (Rev.
T. J. Conant, D. D. ; Prof. Howard Osgood,
D. D. ; Prof. D. G. Lyon, Rev. J. A. Smith,
D. D., and Prof. D. J. Hill); "The Coming
Ministry" (President E. Dodge, of Madison Uni-
versity ; Rev. J. C. Hiden, D. D., and Rev. P.
S. Moxon); " Worldliness " (Rev. T. Edwin
Brown, D. D. ; Rev. H. M. King, D. D., and
Rev. A. C. Dixon).

Convention of Liberal Baptists. — A convention
of "Liberal" or "Open-Communion" Bap-
tists, the call for which was signed by repre-
sentative men of the Free- will Baptist Church,
the Free Baptists of New Brunswick and of
Nova Scotia, the Church of God, the General
Baptists, and the Separate Baptists, met in
Minneapolis, Minn., October 2d, with the de-
clared object of promoting a more intimate ac-
quaintance and a closer union among the dif-
ferent branches of the church in whose name
it was held. The Rev. O. B. Cheney, of Maine,
was chosen president of the convention. A
paper which was read on the subject of "The
Liberal Baptists of America," sketched the rise
of the General Conference of the Free-will
Baptists of New England, with which 78,000
members are now connected, and described
other Free Baptist organizations, as follows:

In 1823 a movement, under Elder Stimson, began
in Indiana. The people took the name of " General
Baptists," and now have in the Western States not
less than ISjOOO members. About 1828 a few churches
separated from the United Baptists and took the
name of " Separate Baptists." Churches have been
planted by them, and we now know of ten associa-
tions, with a membership of not less than 7,000 com-
municants. We also have Free Christian Baptists
in Nova Scotia and the Free Baptists of New Bruns-
wick. The people known as the " Church of God,"
organized in Pennsylvania in the year 1830j now em-
brace upward of 30',000 members, and sustain several
newspapers and institutions of learning. If we give
a summary, the showing is : Free Baptists, 78,000 ;
Church of God, 30,000 ; Nova Scotia and New Bruns-
wick, 14000- General Baptists, 13,000; Free Bap-
tists in North Carolina.10,000 ; Separate Baptists,
7,000 ; Free Baptists in Western States, 5,000 : total,
157,000.

A report from the business committee,
which was adopted, opened with a declaration
that "the several associations of churches of
Jesus Christ in America, who hold the evan-
gelical faith, practicing believers' baptism, and
excluding no recognized Christian from the
Lord's table, are one by the strongest ties., that
of a common faith and spirit, unity of purpose,
mutual respect, and paternal love, and hence
should be one in formal fellowship and meth-
ods of co-operation." The action of the con-
vention embodied recommendations that a
year-book be published, representing all bodies
of Liberal Baptists; that a quarterly publica-
tion, or magazine, be established; that there
be co-operation in the support of foreign mis-
sions; that Liberal Baptist literature be cir-
culated ; that the convention be perpetuated
by the election of an executive committee au-
thorized to represent the Liberal Baptist bodies
and to call another convention ; that the sev~

BAPTISTS.

53

eral bodies be urged to correspond with one
another ; and that the cause of education be
given every possible encouragement. An ex-
ecutive committee was appointed, of which the
Rev. G. H. Ball, of New York, is chairman.

Free-will Baptist Church.— The twenty-fifth Gen-
eral Conference of the Free-will Baptist Church
was held in Minneapolis, Minn., in October.
The Rev. Ransom Dunn, D. D., was chosen
moderator. The most important business trans-
acted was the discussion of the resolutions of
the General Convention of the Open-Com-
munion Baptists, which were approved, and,
so far as they affect the Free-will Baptist
Church, adopted. A new charter and consti-
tution for the Foreign Missionary Society were
adopted, by the operation of which the scope
and power of that organization, and its ca-
pacity to hold property, are expected to be
greatly increased. Among the important
changes made in the constitution are the incor-
poration of provisions for the representation of
the several denominations or organizations of
open-communion Baptists in the Executive
Board of the society, and for the admission of
women to full membership and on equal terms
with men. The society began the year with a
deficiency of several thousand dollars, but was
able to show a surplus above all expenditures
on closing its accounts. The mission is in
Orissa and Bengal, India, and returned 551
communicants. Twenty members had been
added by baptism during the year. The whole
number of pupils in the schools was 3,089 ; of
whom 347 were Christians, 1,043 Hindoos, 261
Moslems, and 1,438 Santals. Measures were
taken for the organization of a church exten-
sion department of the Home Mission Society.
A committee was appointed to draft a course
of study for general use among ministers, and
to encourage the organization of ministers' con-
ferences for discipline and study. The confer-
ence recommended that a pastor or stated sup-
ply of a church, whose membership is else-
where, be amenable to the church with which
he is laboring, as if he were a member of it.
Provision was made for the organization of a
Ministers' Relief Association. An offer by Mr.
M. A. Shepherd of property valued at $50,000
as a gift for a publishing and school fund was
accepted, and steps were taken toward making
an application of the sum. A committee was
appointed to revise the constitution of the Gen-
eral Conference. Gratification was expressed
over the revival of friendly feeling between the
North and the South. Interest was declared
in the education of freedmen and in civil-ser-
vice reform. Efforts for the suppression of
obscene literature were commended, and the
action of the Government in refusing the use
of mails for the circulation of such matter was
approved.

Seventh-Day Baptist Church.— According to the
statistical reports presented to the Seventh-
Day Baptist General Conference, in Septem-
ber, the whole number of members of the

church for 1883 was 8,611, showing a net in-
crease during the year of 8. The whole number
of baptisms reported was 151. Nine churches
had been organized, making the whole num-
ber of churches connected with the denomina-
tion 99. The number of Sabbath-schools was
86, and they returned 5,773 scholars. The de-
nomination is represented in England by the
Mill- Yard Church, London, instituted in 1654,
and returning for 1883, 14 members, and the
Natton Church, Tewkesbury, instituted in 1663,
and returning 4 members. It has also mission
churches at Shanghai, China, with 18 members,
and at Haarlem, Holland, with 19 members.
The American Sabbath Tract Society had re-
ceived during the year $8,968, and disbursed
$7,109, and had distributed 179,534 pages of
tracts. The operations of the society were
carried on by the distribution of tracts and
periodicals in the United States, England, and
Holland, and by the use of tents, in which
preaching services were conducted, carried
from place to place. Under its direction are
published a general religious weekly newspa-
per, the "Sabbath Recorder," and two jour-
nals of a more special character. The publica-
tion of a quarterly periodical is contemplated.
The Seventh-Day Baptist Education Society
returned the amount of its funds and receipts
at $45,303. Only Milton College, Wis., and
Alfred University, N". Y., made detailed
statements of their condition. The whole
number of students in these two institu-
tions was 733. The receipts of the missionary
society were $8,154, in addition to which the
society returned a permanent fund of $1,454.
Twenty-six missionaries were employed to visit
41 churches and 94 other preaching-places, in
various parts of the United States, and report-
ed in connection with the missions, 336
" Sabbath-keeping " families, 937 church-mem-
bers, with 936 in Bible classes, and 23 added by
baptism during the year. An American mis-
sionary and his wife, two native preachers, a
Bible-woman, and three day-school teachers
were employed in connection with the mission
at Shanghai, China, and a woman medical mis-
sionary was to be sent out. Three day-schools
returned fi6 scholars. A boarding-school was
to be established. One missionary was em-
ployed at Haarlem, Holland, who returned 4
additions to the church, and Bible-schools at
Haarlem and Workum with 24 scholars. The
accounts of the Seventh-Day Baptist Memorial
Fund were balanced at $9,564.

The Seventh-Day Baptist General Conference
met at Adams, N. Y., September 19th. W. A.
Rogers presided. The Committee on Denomina-
tional History reported that an autobiography
of Elder Alexander Campbell and a number of
papers on the u Ward family " had been pub-
lished during the year. Measures were taken
for the establishment of a " Seventh-Day Bap-
tist headquarters " in connection with the as-
sembly-grounds at Chautauqua. Resolutions
were passed against the system of licensing

54

BAPTISTS.

the traffic in intoxicating liquors, and demand-
ing that "the evil shall be prohibited, not
protected, by the laws of the land."

Baptist Chnrebes of Canada.— The Baptists of
the Dominion of Canada fall naturally into
two grand divisions, viz., the Baptists of On-
tario, Quebec, and Manitoba, and the Baptists
of the Maritime Provinces. Owing to the
great distance between the eastern and the
western portions of Canada, intimate denomi-
national relations between the two sections
have never been established, and they have
united in no branch of denominational work.

In Ontario, Quebec, and Manitoba, the Bap-
tist denomination holds numerically the fifth
place among the religious bodies, being out-
ranked by Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Pres-
byterians, and Methodists. The statistics of
the denomination for 1883 are: Number of
ministers, 260 ; of church-members, about 27,-
000; of adherents, about 125,000. Of these
about three fourths are in the Province of
Ontario, one sixth in the Province of Quebec,
and the remainder (500 or less) in the North-
west. About 26,000 of these are known as
"Regular Baptists," and are included in 15
associations, which make restricted communion
a term of fellowship. Outside of these .asso-
ciations are 25 or 30 churches with a member-
ship of about 1,100, which differ in certain
minor points from the associated churches.

Each province has a Home Mission Conven-
tion of its own. The Ontario Convention
(founded in 1852) expends about $6,000 annu-
ally in assisting feeble churches, and in open-
ing up new fields within the province. Dur-
ing the conventional year 1881-'82, 28 mis-
sionaries were employed, who occupied 63
stations and received 250 persons into the
fellowship of the mission churches. The Can-
ada Baptist Missionary Convention, East (or-
ganized in 1859), expends nearly $2,000 annu-
ally in home evangelization. During the year
1881-'82, 18 missionaries were employed, who
occupied 47 different stations and baptized
52 converts. The Regular Baptist Missionary
Convention of Manitoba and the Northwest
(organized in 1881) has for its aim the early
occupancy of the Canadian Northwest, and has
secured the co-operation of the American Bap-
tist Home Mission Society, the American Bap-
tist Publication Society, the Baptist Missionary
Convention qf the Maritime Provinces, and of
individuals and churches in Ontario and Que-
bec.

For foreign mission work there is one gen-
eral society, the Regular Baptist Foreign Mis-
sion Society of Ontario and Quebec (founded
in 1866), and two women's auxiliary societies,
one for Ontario and one for Quebec. These
support a vigorous mission among the Telugus
of India at an annual expense of about $12,000,
of which amount the women's societies con-
tribute nearly one third. The missionaries re-
port 292 baptisms during the year 1881 -'82.
A seminary has been founded at Samulcotta

for the training of native preachers and teach-
ers. The Grand Ligne Mission among the
Roman Catholic French of the Province of
Quebec receives contributions from Ontario,
Quebec, the United States, etc. It has occu-
pied a considerable number of stations, and
sustains a school.

Woodstock College, founded in 1857, is pro-
vided with a fund of $100,000 for grounds and
buildings, and an endowment subscription of
$85,000, of which more than $30,000 have been
paid in. It furnishes four independent courses
of study, and admits on equal terms students of
both sexes. Toronto Baptist College was found-
ed in 1879 by the aid of a gift and a pledge of
support from Senator William McMaster, as a
theological seminary, and has absorbed the for-
mer theological department of Woodstock Col
lege. It has a building valued at $80,000, and
four organized chairs of instruction. It was
opened in 1881, and had eighty-one students
during the first year.

The work of publication is conducted by the
Standard Publishing Company, which has a
capital stock of $100,000. The dividends from
$45,000 of this stock, which was furnished by
Senator McMaster, have been devised by him,
provided they be not more than 6 per cent., to
the Home and Foreign Missionary Societies
and the Superannuated Ministers' Fund.

The Baptist Union of Canada (organized in
1862) is composed of officers of the denomi-
national societies and colleges and of pastors
and delegates of churches, and meets annually
for the promotion of fraternal relations and
the discussion of topics affecting the welfare
and progress of the denomination.

In the maritime provinces the Baptists con-
stitute a much larger proportion of the popu-
lation, and are actually more numerous than in
the western provinces. In New Brunswick
they are outnumbered only by the Roman
Catholics; in Nova Scotia, only by the Roman
Catholics and Presbyterians; and in Prince
Edward Island they rank fourth. The numeri-
cal strength of the denomination is, according
to the statistics for 1883 : Number of ministers,
188 ; churches, 348 ; church-members. 37,423 ;
and of adherents, about 175,000. The work
of the denomination in home missions, foreign
missions, education, ministerial relief, etc., is
transacted through the Baptist Convention of
the Maritime Provinces. The Home Mission
Board, in 1881-'82, assisted, at an expense of
nearly $5,000, in the support of 58 missionaries,
occupying 50 fields of labor and serving 97
churches, in which 282 persons were baptized.
Two churches were organized during the year.
The Foreign Missionary Board expends $10,-
000 a year, and supports three missionary fami-
lies and a Zenana worker among the Telugus
of India. The Ladies' Aid Societies furnished
more than one third of the missionary contri-
butions for 1881-'82. The literary institutions
of the convention are the University of Acadia
College, and Hortoii Academy, where students

BELGIUM.

55

are prepared for the college. Acadia College
has buildings and grounds valued at $100,000,
and an endowment fund of nearly $100,000,
with an indebtedness of $30,000. It has a
literary department with seven professors, and
a small theological department. At Horton
Academy separate departments are provided
for young men and young women.

English Baptist Missions.— The English Baptist
Missionary Society received, during the year
ending with its anniversary in April, £60,722.
It had begun the year with a debt of £9,000,
the larger part of which had been liquidated,
but, as the operations of the society had been
at the same time much enlarged, its books still
showed a deficit of £4,575. Reports were
made at the anniversary, of the condition of
missions in India, Ceylon, China, Japan, West
Africa (Cameroons and Victoria) ; the new
Congo mission in Central Africa, where eleven
missionaries were employed; the West India
islands, and Norway, Brittany, and Italy, in
Europe. Colleges were maintained for Hindoo
and Urdoo speaking young men at Delhi, and
for Bengalis at Serarapore, India, and at Cal-
abar, Jamaica. At the autumnal meeting of
the Baptist Union, held in Leicester, in Oc-
tober, the debt of the society was reported to
be all discharged. It was also announced that
fourteen missionaries were to be sent to China,
sufficient funds having been promised to assure
their outfit and annual maintenance.

The Baptist Zenana Mission, which is affili-
ated with this society, labors particularly among
the women in India. It is supported by wom-
en, and employs 32 women as visitors to the
Zenanas, and 50 Bible women and native teach-
ers, and maintains 20 schools, which are regu-
larly attended by 800 pupils.
BASUTOLAND. See CAPE COLONY.
BECHUANALAffD. See CAPE COLONY.
BELGIUM, a constitutional monarchy in West-
ern Europe. The King has power to convoke
and dissolve the Legislature, and to conclude
treaties ; but treaties affecting the interests of
the nation require legislative sanction. The
House of Representatives is elected in the
ratio of one member to at least 40,000 inhab-
itants, by citizens paying direct taxes to the
amount of 43 francs, which restricts the fran-
chise to about one thirteenth of the adult male
population. The deputies are elected for four
years, one half of the terms expiring every two
years. All laws relating to finance and mili-
tary service must originate in this Chamber.
The members of the Senate are elected in the
same way as the deputies ; their number is
exactly half that of the deputies, and their
terms are twice as long. The reigning sov-
ereign is Leopold II., born April 9, 1835, who
succeeded his father, Leopold I., December
10, 1865.

The Cabinet. — The present Cabinet consists of
the following members: Minister of Foreign
Affairs and President of the Council, Hubert
J. W. Frere-Orban, appointed June 19, 1878 ;

Minister of Justice, Jules Bara, appointed June
19, 1878 ; Minister of War, General Gratry,
appointed Nov. 8, 1880 ; Minister of Public
Works, Sabier Olin, appointed April 5, 1882;
Minister of the Interior, Rolin Jaequemyns,
appointed June 19, 1878; Minister of Finance,
Charles Graux, appointed Nov. 8, 1880; Min-
ister of Public Instruction, Pierre van Hum-
beeck, appointed June 19, 1878.

Area and Population. — The area of Belgium is
29,455 square kilometres, or 11,373 square
miles. The area and population of the nine
provinces into which the kingdom is divided,
according to a census taken Dec. 31, 1880, were
as follow :

PROVINCES.

Square
miles.

Population.

1,093

577,282

Brabant
West Flanders

1,268
1 249

985,274
694,764

East Flanders

1,158

881,816

1,487

977,562

Lie<*e

1,117

663,607

981

210,851

1,706

209,118

1,414

322,620

Total

11 373

5519844

The density of population is 485 per square
mile, exceeding that of any other country in
Europe. In 1878 the number speaking French
was reported as 2,256,860 ; Flemish, 2,659,890 ;
both languages, 340,770; German, 38,070 ; Ger-
man and French or Flemish, 28,980. Since the
separation of Belgium from the Netherlands in
1830, the increase of population has been at the
rate of one per cent, per annum. One fifth of
the population follow agricultural pursuits, and
one fifth trade and manufactures. The number
of freehold proprietors in 1880 was 1,181,177,
an increase of 29 per cent, since 1846. The pop-
ulation not only increases rapidly by natural in-
crement, but in recent years by immigration to
a slight extent. The population of Brussels,
the capital, in 1880, was 394,940. There were
six other cities with over 40,000 inhabitants:
Antwerp, 169,112; Ghent, 131,431; Liege,
123,131; Bruges, 44,501; Mechlin, 42,381;
Verviers. 40,944.

Religion. — The entire population, with the ex-
ception of about 15,000 Protestants and 3,000
Israelites, profess the Roman Catholic religion.
The dissenting bodies not only enjoy full reli-
gious liberty, but their ministers, like the Roman
Catholic priests, receive salaries from the state
treasury. These salaries of the clergy, rang-
ing from 600 to 1,360 francs for the parish
priests, are supplemented by fees and contri-
butions. By the census of 1880 there were
1,559 convents, containing 1,346 male and 20,-
645 female inmates.

Education. — The public-school system of Bel-
gium has been for years the subject of bitter
controversy between the Government party
and the Clericals. The clergy have retained
in a large measure the control of the education
of the people, by maintaining schools supported

56

BELGIUM.

by private contributions, in opposition to the SOORCTS OF REVENUE, isu.

state schools. The educational work is done SsStai":'.:::"'.:::::::::::::::::'.::'.'.'.'. i^S

largely by Jesuits. The public schools are Trade licenses ;. 6,200,000

supported by the communes, the Government g^;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. I::::::::::::::::: 21,700:000

and the provinces.- The expenditure in I860 succession duties 18,860,000

amounted to 34,888,000 francs about half of E^anr.^n^.^.pW,,. ............ ^gooo

which was defrayed by the state. Accoi ding Exci9e on beer and vinegar 9,304,750

to the military returns, about one sixth of the Excise on sugar

recruits are unable to 'read or write. Among g^S^^!8^^8 ;;;;;;; :;;;•;:;;;;

the younger generation the proportion is con- post-office 8,145,400

siderably less A law was passed in 1883 g^'SS^^Und ::::::! 1M«,«

making Flemish the language ot instruction Miscellaneous receipts 15,021,620

in the intermediate schools in the Flemish

parts of the country, but providing for pre- Total revenue 299,571,760

paratory departments in which both French The expenditure for the various departments

and Flemish are to be taught. was estimated as follows :

Commerce. — The general commerce in 1881 BRANCHES OF EXPENDITURE, isss. Francs.

was 2,787,831,075 francs' worth of imports, Interest on public debt 97,519,119

anrt 0 J_fiO R94. 9*7fi frnru'«> nf ftirnnrtq • thft sne- Civil list and dotations 4,847,175

and A4bU,bZ4,ZfO nancs exports , me spe Ministry of Justice 16084,111

cial commerce by imports to the value 01 Foreign Affairs

1,629,871,040 francs, and exports to the value lnt^?orT- * • • v-

of 1,302,670,100 francs, the first representing g*Jj l^S*™. '. .' i :::::

the consumption of foreign and the second War 44,764,900

the exportation of domestic products The Gen ameriJinaDce.;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;::;;;;;;:;: 'fcgjg

largest import trade is with France and the Miscellaneous expenditure 1,653,500

next with the United States, followed by Ger-
many, the Netherlands, Great Britain, and Total expenditure 324,352,818

Russia. Of the exports, France takes the The national debt amounted in 1882 'to

largest share, followed by Great Britain, Ger- 1,799,566,644 francs. Of this, 219,959,632

many, and the Netherlands. francs, bearing 2£ per cent, interest, and 710,-

The coal-mines of Belgium produce about 956,082 francs, bearing 4 per cent, interest, rep-

16,000,000 tons per annum, supporting large resent the share of Belgium in the old debt of

metallurgical and other industries, and furnish- the Netherlands. The rest was contracted for

ing about 4,000,000 tons for export, chiefly to railroads and other works of public utility.

France. Loans of 1873-'78, amounting to 381,628,500

The carrying-trade is mainly in the hands of francs, pay 3 per cent.; 134,719,000 francs,

the British. The mercantile marine in the be- issued in 1880, pay 4 per cent.; and 340,742,-

ginning of 1882 numbered 68 vessels, of 75,- 155 francs of railroad annuities pay 4| per

666 tons, including 42 steamers, of 65,224 cent. All the debts except the old 2£ per

tons. cents have sinking funds provided for their

Commanleations.— Of 4,182 kilometres (2,600 extinction. By a law of 1879, the 4£ per cent,
miles) of railroad at the end of 1881, 2,888 debt was ordered to be converted into one at
kilometres were operated by the state and 4 per cent. Treasury notes bearing 4 per cent.
1,294 by private companies. The working interest were issued in 1881 for floating liabili-
expenses in 1881 were 62'4 per cent, of the ties amounting to 31,000,000 francs. In May,
gross receipts of the state railroads, being 3'9 1883, a new loan of 100,000,000 francs was
per cent, greater than four years before, owing issued. Sums aggregating as much as that
to the purchases of unprofitable lines. The have recently been appropriated for the Ant-
net earnings in 1881 were $4,540 per mile. werp harbor improvements, the erection of

The total length of telegraph lines in Janu- schools, etc. To prevent the recurring defi-

ary, 1882, was 5, 693 kilometres; of wires, 25,- cits, the Government in the session of 1883

404 kilometres. The number of messages in brought in a bill imposing additional taxes on

1881 was 6,861,985. coffee, tobacco, spirits, etc.; but the coffee-tax

The post-office carried in 1881, 77,627,488 was withdrawn, that on alcohol rejected, and

private letters and 20,301,762 postal-cards, the mutilated bill finally passed by a majority

besides 12,891,656 official letters, 40,538,000 of only six votes. Among the new taxes is one

packages, and 82,573,000 newspapers. The on securities, and another on operations of the

receipts were 12.301,321 francs, and the ex- stock exchange,

penses 7,425,683 francs. Politics and Legislation. — The struggle be-

Finanee. — The expenditure of the Govern- tween the Liberals and Clericals occupied in

ment has exceeded the revenue every year 1883 the political arena, as in former years.

since 1876. The budget for 1882 estimates The more advanced Liberals proposed to cut

the revenue at 296,647,709 francs, and the ex- down the salaries of bishops and abolish can on -

penditure at 310,755,895 francs. For 1883 ries and vicarships. The Government toned

the estimated revenue from the various down these demands, and carried an amend-

sources was as follows : ment providing for the extinction of the canon-

BELGIUM.

BENSON, EDWARD W.

57

ries on the demise of the incumbents, and the
withdrawal of the salaries of vicars found to be
superfluous, at the discretion of the Govern-
ment. The clergy protested against the with-
drawal of subventions which were already too
small, and which were only an indemnity for
the ecclesiastical domains of which the Church
was robbed in 1790. Minister Barras retorted
that on that supposition their salaries would
be a mockery, instead of being paid as they
were for public services, and that the Church
had other and secret sources of income. A
law was passed taking away the exemption
from military duty enjoyed by seminarists arid
the inmates of religious houses. An electoral
reform law provoked the opposition of the
clergy, not less than the bills which affected
them directly. This extends the right to vote
in communal and provincial elections to all
citizens who can pass an examination corre-
sponding to the standard in the state element-
ary schools. This radical measure was intro-
duced by the Government in fulfillment of a
pledge made to the group of advanced Liber-
als in return for their support of the new taxes.
The Bernard Affair. — In the su;nmer a note-
worthy trial took place, originating in circum-
stances connected with the conflict between
the ecclesiastical and civil authorities. The
Bishop of Tournai, Monseigneur Dumont, one
of the most uncompromising adherents of the
Syllabus, was in 1879 deprived of his spirituali-
ties by the Pope, on the ground that he was
insane. Monseigneur du Rousseaux was ap-
pointed apostolical administrator of the dio-
cese. The Belgian clergy have amassed enor-
mous funds from gifts and fees, the legal title
to which rests with the incumbents of the ec-
clesiastical offices for the time being, and is
transferred by them to their successors by sim-

Sly handing over the property. Monseigneur
umont was, by a ruse, and before he knew of
his disgrace, deprived of the possession of the
episcopal palace, and of the custody of the
diocesan funds. Bishop du Rousseaux, having
knowledge of the intention of the deposed
bishop to bring a suit to recover the funds of
the diocese and test the legality of his dis-
missal, committed the episcopal treasury and
documents into the keeping of Canon Bernard,
with directions to place them out of the reach
of Bishop Dumont. Although Tournai is the
smallest and poorest of the six Belgian sees,
yet the portable funds in the treasury amounted
to more than 5,000,000 francs. Canon Bernard,
after first consulting M. de Landtsheere, who
was Minister of Justice in the last Conservative
Cabinet, ran away with the securities and ac-
counts to America, and deposited most of them
in safety-vaults in New York and Boston.
About 1,700,000 francs of the private funds of
Monseigneur Dumont were sent back to Bel-
gium in charge of a Montreal attorney, named
Goodhue, who was arrested on his arrival.
The Belgian Government applied for his ex-
tradition, and he was arrested at Havana and

sent back to Belgium on a charge of embezzle-
ment. The securities were also obtained with
some difficulty and held by the Belgian Gov-
ernment, subject to the decision of the court.
Canon Bernard was honorably acquitted at his
trial in August, as it was shown that he had
not misappropriated the property, but had
acted throughout in obedience to the orders W
his superiors, although they were only gen-
eral orders to conceal the account-books and
securities, and so in taking them out of the
country he had acted on his own discretion.
This act was repudiated by Bishop du Rous-
seaux, who, when convinced that it was illegal,
himself instituted the extradition proceedings.
BENSON, Edward White, an English clergy-
man, born in Birmingham, July 14, 1829. He
was educated by private tutors and at the
Birmingham Grammar-School, and gained an
open scholarship at Trinity College, Cambridge.
After a brilliant college career, in which he
gained the senior chancellor's medal, the mem-
bers' prize, a first class in the classical tripos,
and a senior optime in the mathematical tri-
pos, he graduated in 1852. He entered into
holy orders, and became a master at Rugby,
where he taught with marked success, and
instituted some reforms. On the establish-
ment of Wellington College, for sons of de-
ceased .army officers, he was chosen head-
master. Within, a year he threw the school
open to non-foundationers, and made the cur-
riculum the most liberal, if not the best, in
England. He also made it a model in the mat-
ter of ventilation, drainage, dormitories, etc.
In 1868 he became prebend of Lincoln, and in
1874 chancellor of the cathedral. When in
1877 the diocese of Truro was created, being
set off from that of Exeter, Dr. Benson was
made its first bishop. " Under his administra-
tion a divinity school was founded, which has
attained great popularity, and the church of
St. Mary's, in Truro, was restored, beautified,
and converted into a cathedral, at a cost of one
million dollars. In connection with his dio-
cesan work in Truro, he adopted and carried
out the principle of employing lay help in the
church, both in the reading of prayers and
in preaching. He made himself familiar with
the history and interests of the diocese, and
performed his duties with so much industry
and personal interest as to infuse new vigor
into the religious life of the people. He made
his administration also acceptable to the Non-
conformists, and won their confidence to a de-
gree which was only temporarily diminished by
his hasty words of censure against the Libera-
tion Society a few weeks before his nomina-
tion for the archbishopric. He was preacher
to the University of Cambridge from 1864 to
1871, and to that of Oxford in 1875-76. Aft-
er the death of Archbishop Tait in December,
1882, Bishop Benson was chosen to succeed
him, and his consecration as Archbishop of
Canterbury, Primate of all England, took place
March 29, 1883. Archbishop Benson has con-

58

BLACK, JEREMIAH S.

EDWARD WHITE BENSON. ARCHBISHOP OP CANTERBURY.

tributed to the " Speaker's Commentary," has
written much for periodicals, and has pub-
lished in book-form "Work, Friendship, Wor-
ship," three sermons (London, 1872); "Boy-
Life " (1874) ; " Singleheart " (1877) ; " Living
Theology " (1878) ; and " The Cathedral in the
Life and Work of the Church " (1879).

BERNARD AFFAIR, The. See BELGIUM.

BLACK, Jeremiah Sullivan, an American jurist
and statesman, born in the Glades, Somerset
co., Pa., Jan. 10, 1810; died at his home in
York, Pa., Aug. 19, 1883. His ancestry was
partly Irish and Scotch. James Black, his
grandfather, came to America from the north
of Ireland, and settled in Somerset co., Pa.,
where, in 1778, Henry Black, father of Jere-
miah, was born, and where he lived. Henry
Black was a man of note in his day.

Jeremiah's early education was obtained at
school near his home, on his father's farm, and
he displayed in youth a decided turn for intel-
lectual and literary pursuits. He studied law,
was taken into the office of Chauncey For-
ward, a prominent lawyer in Somerset co.,
and was admitted to the bar in 1833 . In 1838
he married a daughter of Mr. Forward. After
an active and successful practice of eleven
years, he was raised to the bench. In politics
he was a Democrat, claiming to be after the
Jeffersonian pattern, and he was nominated,
in 1842, by a Democratic Governor, for Presi-
dent Judge of the district in which he lived.
This post he held for nine years. In 1851
Judge Black was elected to be one of the Su-
preme Court judges of Pennsylvania. After
serving the short term, three years, he was re-

BLAKE, EDWARD.

59

elected, in 1854, for a full term, fifteen years.
On the accession of James Buchanan to the
presidency, in 1857, Judge Black became At-
torney-General. He was very industrious and
successful, in connection with Edwin M. Stan-
ton, in protecting the interests of the nation
against false claimants to grants of land made
by the Mexican Government to settlers in
California before that country came under
the control of the United States. When the
secession crisis arrived, Judge Black showed
himself to be considerably in advance of the
weak and vacillating President. Buchanan
held that there was no authority which could
coerce a State, if it chose to secede and set
up as an independent government for itself.
His Attorney-General was clear that it was
the absolute duty of the Government to put
down insurrection anywhere and everywhere,
under whatever plea or pretense it might be
attempted to be justified, and that the Con-
stitution contained no provision for a disso-
lution of the Union by secession or in any
other wise. Gen. Cass having resigned as
Secretary of State in December, 1860, Judge
Black was appointed to fill the vacancy, Edwin
M. Stanton taking the post of Attorney-Gen-
eral. He occupied this position during the
remainder of Buchanan's administration, and
it is claimed, in his behalf, by those intimately
acquainted with the history of that critical
period, that he was mainly instrumental in
saving the Government from absolute disrup-
tion and falling into the hands of the seces-
sionists.

In March, 1861, when Abraham Lincoln be-
came President, Judge Black retired from
public life. He was appointed United States
Supreme Court Reporter, but soon resigned
that position, and entered again upon the
practice of law at his home, near York, Pa.
He was engaged in several prominent law-
suits during the last twenty years of his life,
and retained his vigor and professional skill
even to the close of his career. The Vander-
bilt will contest, the Milliken case, and the
McGarrahan claim, were among the more
noted cases in which he was engaged. Be-
sides more strictly professional duties, Judge
Black found time for contributing to current
literature. He furnished an account of the
Erie railway litigation, argued the third-term
question in magazine articles, and had a lively
newspaper discussion with Jefferson Davis.

Judge Black generally enjoyed good health,
but an operation having become necessary, it
was successfully performed, yet superinduced
pyaemia, which was the immediate cause of his
death. His religious views were those of the
Campbellites, or Disciples of Christ. He left
a wife, two sons, and two daughters, these last
being married. One of his sons was elected
Lieutenant- Governor of Pennsylvania, in 1882 ;
the other resides in Texas and is a lawyer.

BLAKE, Hon. Edward, a Canadian lawyer and
statesman, born in the county of Middlesex,

Ontario, in October, 1833. He is of Irish ex-
traction, being descended, on his father's side,
from the Blakes of Cashelgrove, Gal way, and
on his mother's from William Hume, M. P. for
Wicklow, who during the rebellion of 1798
was shot by a party of rebels of whom he was
in pursuit. William Hurne Blake, his father,
emigrated to Canada immediately after his
marriage, and took up his residence near Pe-
terborough. He was accompanied by his bro-
ther, a clergyman of the Episcopal Church ;
and on the appointment of the latter to a
charge in the county of Middlesex, both fami-
lies migrated westward, and settled in what
was then an almost unbroken forest. Here
Edward Blake was born, in a log-cabin ; but
the family removed to Toronto when he was a
year old, and there his father became an emi-
nent lawyer. The son followed, professionally,
very closely in his footsteps, as did also his
younger brother, Samuel Hume Blake, who
never entered public life, but was raised at a
very early age to the post of Vice-Chancellor
in the court over which his father formerly
presided.

Edward Blake was educated" at Upper Cana-
da College and University College, Toronto,
and graduated in the University of Toronto.
He was called to the bar in 1856, and rose with
extraordinary rapidity to the very foremost
position as a chancery practitioner; and dur-
ing the ten years which elapsed before confed-
eration took place he had gained such a position
that he became, in 1867, a candidate for elec-
tion at once to the House of Commons of the
Dominion and to the Legislative Assembly of
Ontario. In both positions he astonished even
his most intimate friends by his extraordinary
capacity for work. He was chosen leader of
the Opposition in the t)ntario Assembly very
soon after it began its course, and during the
whole of the first parliamentary term, though
at the head of a small minority of the House,
he kept the ministry almost constantly at a
disadvantage. He frequently introduced bills
which his legal experience and political saga-
city suggested, and many of these were voted
down, at the instance of the Government,
only to be taken up afterward and carried
through as Government measures. One of
the principles which Mr. Blake most persist-
ently kept before the public was the obligation
resting on the Government to give the people's
representatives as much detailed knowledge as
possible of the destination of public moneys
before they are voted by Parliament. This
very principle was the final issue on which the
Sandfield-Macdonald Government was defeated
in 1871, and it therefore became the most, im-
portant plank in the platform of its successor.
Of the bills first introduced by Mr. Blake, and
afterward taken up by the Government, was
that which provided for the trial of contested
elections by the courts instead of by partisan
committees of Parliament. This system came
into operation for the first time in the Prov-

60

BLAKE, EDWARD.

BLOOD.

ince after the general election of 1871, with
the' result of unseating an unusually large num-
ber of the members-elect. While many of the
seats were vacant from this cause, the Legisla-
ture was convened, and Mr. Blake asked from
it and obtained a severe condemnation of the
Government for its policy of voting a large
sum in aid of railways, without first specifying
the roads to be aided and the amount to be
granted to each. This censure of the adminis-
tration led to a change of Government, and
Mr. Blake took office as Premier. He kept it,
however, for only a single session, as an act
passed by the Dominion Parliament to abolish
dual membership rendered it necessary lor him
to choose between the two positions which he
had filled for four years.

His most noted speech in the Ontario Assem-
bly was one in support of a resolution respect-
ing the shooting of Scott by the Red river
insurgents, under the leadership of Louis Kiel,
in 1870. The'setting in motion of a new Con-
stitution naturally gave rise to some friction,
and not a few direct conflicts of opinion. The
Constitution embodied in the British North
America Act is distinctly federal in form, but
it would, at the outset, have been easy to im-
part to it in practice a tendency toward cen-
tralization. Against every manifestation of
such a tendency Mr. Blake steadily set his
face. His summing up of the evidence against
•Sir John Macdonald, in the great "Pacific
Scandal" case in 1873, decided the fate of the
Conservative ministry.

He took office as»a member of the Macken-
zie ministry, without a portfolio, but he soon
withdrew to devote himself to his private busi-
nees and the recuperation of his health. He
afterward held, under Mr. Mackenzie, from
1875 to 1877, the office of Minister of Justice,
and in that capacity initiated and carried
through a mass of important legislation. It
fell to his lot also to discuss, by correspond-
ence with the Secretary of State for the Colo-
nies, Lord Carnarvon, a somewhat important
point in connection with the relation of Cana-
da to the mother-country. Long after the Red
river insurrection was repressed, the final dis-
posal of the chief insurgents continued to be a
difficult question, owing to uncertainty as to
what had been really promised to them. Lord
Dufferin undertook to cut the Gordian knot by
an exercise of the royal prerogative under his
"instructions," without taking the advice of
his ministers. A request was then sent to the
Imperial Government to amend the instruc-
tions, so that thereafter the prerogative of par-
don, like all other prerogatives, should be ex-
ercisable by the Governor only on the advice
of his ministers. To this Lord Carnarvon de-
murred, but Mr. Blake's potent arguments at
last convinced the imperial authorities of the
absurdity and danger of leaving the way open
to a foolish Governor to create serious trouble
between the two countries, and the obnoxious
instruction was modified as desired.

The general election of 1878 was disastrous
to the Mackenzie administration, and among
other defeated candidates was Mr. Blake, who
had sat for South Bruce for two Parliaments.
He remained out of the Commons for one
session, and, when he returned to it as member
for West Durham, he was chosen leader of the
Liberal party.

Mr. Blake has always enjoyed in an eminent
degree the confidence of his fellow-members of
the Law Society of the Province, of which
corporation he has for years been the presid-
ing and chief executive officer. He has been
equally fortunate in securing the suffrages of
his fellow graduates of the Provincial Univer-
sity, who have repeatedly elected him by ac-
clamation to the position of Chancellor.

BLOOD. The Mechanism of the Arrest of Hsemor-
rhage. — Recent investigation of the blood has
led to the discovery of a new element in its
composition of great practical importance, in
the shape of small granular bodies differing
greatly from both the red and the white blood-
corpuscles. Andral, by examining blood with
the microscope, either pure or mixed, as it
came from the vein, with one seventh of its
weight of sulphate of sodium, found that all
the fibrin was held in suspension under the
form of little white corpuscles 3^T mm. in di-
ameter. To these corpuscles filaments were
added at the moment of solidification. Many
other observers, also, have seen in the blood
in process of coagulation these little pale gran-
ules, either single or agminated, and the fila-
ments of fibrin. In 1873 M. Ranvier also pro-
nounced on the nature of these little bodies.
"It is probable, without being proved," he
said, "that these angular granulations which
exist in the blood are little masses of fibrin,
and that they become the centers of coagula-
tion, as a crystal of sulphate of sodium placed
in a solution of the same salt becomes the cen-
ter of crystallization."

Such was the state of our knowledge upon
this subject whtn, in 1877, M. Hayem an-
nounced that there existed in the blood pecul-
iar little elements having the singular property
of undergoing instant alteration when they
came from the body, more especially when
they carne in contact with a foreign substance.
As these elements are destined to become the
red corpuscles of the blood, he proposed for
them the name of hromatoblasts, believing them
to be the same as those already described by
other observers, only more or less altered in
appearance. He also believed that the process
of coagulation was intimately connected with
the modifications of these elements. In works
which he published from 1877 to 1881 he in-
sisted upon the viscosity which the bsemato-
blasts acquired when they were no longer in
their normal condition, adhering then to one
another, and to any foreign body with which
they came in contact. It is only after having
undergone a manifest metamorphosis, of which
this state of viscosity is the first degree, that

BLOOD.

61

they become the principal points of ^departure
and of attachment of the filaments of fibrin. He
also discovered that all the conditions known as
having an effect in retarding or preventing co-
agulation also prevented these alterations of
the haematoblasts, and vice versa.

Pursuing this study, he was led to examine
the manner in which the flow of blood result-
ing from the wound of a vessel is arrested.
He believed that the haematoblasts took an
active part in the process. In the case of a
wound of a blood-vessel, the haemorrhage, at
first rapid, gradually - decreases, and then
ceases. To explain this favorable result, the
contraction of the wall of the vessel has been
invoked. This is real, and even energetic, for
arteries of medium and small caliber, but al-
most nothing for the veins. But this contrac-
tion can not of itself close the wound. It is
evident that, in the arrest of haemorrhage ap-
parently by the formation of a clot, there is
something peculiar, the mechanism of which
needs explanation. In fact, during a haainor-
rhage, the blood which passes between the lips
of the wound in the blood- vess3l is always new,
and when collected in a vessel it is transformed
into a gelatinous mass only after several min-
utes ; why, then, does it form a solid plug be-
tween the lips of a wound, which soon opposes
an obstacle to all issue of blood? TJpon this
point M. Hayem has endeavored to throw some
new light. After exposing the jugular vein of
a dog, a small wound is made in the vessel, and
the haemorrhage is allowed to cease spontane-
ously ; immediately after, a ligature is applied
to the peripheral extremity of the vessel. It is
easy then to draw from the little wound a clot
shaped like a nail, the point of which pene-
trates into the lumen of the vessel, the head
resting upon the outer wall of the vein. By
immediately placing this coagulum in a liquid
which fixes the elements of the blood, its dif-
ferent parts may be examined with the micro-
scope. The point and central portion are
grayish, viscous, and composed of partly granu-
lar and partly amorphous matter. The granu-
lations are composed of enormous masses of
haemato blasts already altered, but still very dis-
tinct one from the other, while the amorphous
matter results from th-^ confluence into one com-
mon and coherent mass of the haamatoblasts
which have undergone the greatest change. The
head of the nail, which is red on the exterior,
contains in its-center a prolongation of the vis-
cous haematoblastic matter, and at the periph-
ery the fibrillary meshes hold a great num-
ber of red corpuscles. In all the central, and,
properly speaking, obstructive part, there are
very few white corpuscle*. It is, therefore,
evident that the fibrin is added to a central
nucleus composed almost entirely of haemato-
blasts. The formation of this nucleus may be
studied in the mesentery of a living frog under
the microscope. After having brought into
the field of the microscope a vein of medium
caliber, with transparent walls, an incomplete

section of the vessel is made with the point of
a fine scalpel. An abundant haemorrhage is
produced, and, for a few seconds, nothing is
observable but a mass of blood. Soon the
blood flows more slowly, and is confined by a
crown of elements attached to each other and
adhering to the wall of the vessel. A few mo-
ments later the orifice of the wound is sur-
mounted by a sort of whitish excrescence,
through the elements of which the red blood-
corpuscles insinuate themselves with difficulty.
Far from being formed, as several observers
have said, of the white blood-corpuscles, the
wall consists of haematoblasts which have been
retained during the flow of blood. At the mo-
ment when the haemorrhage ceases, these have
already become altered, and, continuing the
observation, they may be seen to undergo all
the changes described by the author.

The obstructing hsematoblastic button holds
only an insignificant number of white blood-
corpuscles. These are spherical, smooth, not
adhesive, for by continuing the observation for
a few moments they may be seen to separate
themselves from the mass of haematoblasts by
means of their own inherent contractility.
They do not appear to participate at all in the
arrest of the flow, and they still possess their
physiological properties and normal anatomical
character, while the haematoblasts of the ob-
structing plug are already greatly modified.
In this process the edges *of the wound seem
to play the part of foreign bodies. It is easy,
moreover, to determine how the haematoblasts
act with regard to a foreign body directly in-
troduced into the circulation. By means of a
slightly curved needle, carrying a thread of
silver or platinum, the external jugular vein of
an animal (dog) is pierced in such a way that
about one centimetre . of the cord remains
within the lumen of the vessel. When the
operation is well done, hardly a drop of blood
will escape from either the point of entrance
or exit of the needle. After two or three
minutes — a length of time sufficient in the dog,
in which the haematoblasts are very vulnerable
— the segment of the vein traversed by the
cord is separated by the aid of two ligatures,
the first placed on the peripheral end, the sec-
ond on the central. The trunk of the vein
containing the thread is immediately detached
and opened after being plunged into a liquid
which fixes the elements of the blood. Already
the thread is surrounded by a grayish mass, a
little reddish here and there, composed of in-
numerable hsematoblasts, the more readily rec-
ognizable the shorter the time that the thread
has been in contact with the circulating fluid.
When the thread is left for a longer time in
the vessel, and the muff which surrounds it
has become more voluminous, the constitution
of the muff is entirely analogous to that of the
haemostatic nail already described.

The haematoblasts thus play an important
r6le in the mechanism of the arrest of haemor-
rhage. These elements are alterable to the

BLOOD.

BOLIVIA.

extent that, coming in contact with the edges
of a wound, they become adhesive, as when in
contact with a foreign body. In accumulating
little by little around the open orifice of a ves-
sel, they form there an obstacle at first insuffi-
cient ; then, the first haeinatoblasts being ar-
rested, they retain in their turn those which
issue with the blood coming constantly in con-
tact with them; the orifice of the wound re-
tracts little by little, until finally it is complete-
ly closed by a solid and fixed plug. The other
elements of the blood and the formation of
fibrin only participate in this process in a sec-
ondary and accessory manner. The blood,
then, contains within itself a powerful haemo-
static agent, and, were it possible to remove
from the normal blood all of the hsernatoblasts,
the wound of a vessel would cause a hemor-
rhage which would have no tendency to cease
spontaneously.

These experimental facts have a practical
application of importance. All foreign bodies
alter and retain the haematoblasts, and in this
way is easily explained the formation of intra-
vascular clots in living persons by the contact
of diseased points in the cardiac or vascular
walls. In the same way may be understood
the haemostatic action of foreign substances
brought into contact with the surface of the
wound, notably those of a pulverulent or
spongy nature. According to the experiments
of M. Hayem the modifications of the haema-
toblasts are favored by an elevation of tem-
perature, and are extremely active at a tem-
perature a little above that of the body. He
asks if this may not explain the good effects
of hot-water injections and applications in the
treatment of hemorrhages. For, to the action
of water, which is in itself effective upon the
haomatoblasts, is added that of heat. Again,
for blood to cease flowing it must contain
hsematoblasts, and these must be impression-
able to the contact of foreign bodies. In
animals like the horse, whose blood is only
slightly coagulable, the haamatoblasts are modi-
fied with comparative slowness. Again, these
elements may undergo alterations in number
and quality in cases of disease, and it may be
concluded that in certain cases the constitution

of the blood itself may be a predisposing cause
of haemorrhage following the least vascular
injury. That singular malady known as haemo-
philia, the victims of which are known in
popular language as " bleeders," is perhaps pre-
cisely the consequence of a particular state of
the haematoblasts.

A practical example of the importance of
this view may be given. The case is one of
extreme and frequently repeated bleeding from
the nose, and the patient is at the point of death
from the loss of blood. For thirty years the
patient has been subject at intervals to such
attacks. On examining the blood, the fact of
the relative rarity of the haematoblasts, and of
their feeble vulnerability, is apparent — the
changes which they undergo out of the organ-
ism occurring much more slowly than natural.
It is suspected, therefore, that the bleeding,
which has lasted for three weeks, and which
returns whenever the plug is removed from
the nose for a few hours, is due to these
changes ; and that by transfusing into the pa-
tient a certain quantity of normal blood con-
taining active haematoblasts, the condition may
be modified to advantnge. A small quantity of
venous blood is, therefore, injected into the
patient's veins, and the nose-bleed is imme-
diately and definitely arrested. The plugs are
removed, but the bleeding does not return. It
is evident that the conveying into the blood
of the patient new and healthy blood from
another body has effected a cure, and the active
element in the cure is probably the haBmato-
blasts.

BOLIVIA (Republica de Bolivia), an independent
state of South America, whose limits before
the war on the Pacific were between latitudes
10° and 24° south, and longitudes 57° 25' and
TO0 30' west. The western limit has still to be
negotiated between Bolivia and Chili. It is
bounded on the north and northeast by Brazil,
on the south by the Argentine Republic and
Chili, and on the west by Peru.

The republic previous to the war was divided
into nine departments, which, with their areas
in square miles, capitals, and population (exclu-
sive of 250,000 savage Indians), were approxi-
mately as follows :-

DEPARTMENTS.

Area.

Population.

Capitals.

Population.

Atacama...
Ben!

70,178
150,000

10,830
70,200

Cobija...
Trinidad

2,500
4835

Chuqulsaea ,
Cochabaroba
LaPaz

72,798
26,808
43051

275,722
473,717

Sucre
Cochabamba

26,624
44,908

Oruro
Potosi
Santa Cruz. ..

21.600
54,297
144 077

140!866

876,394

Oruro
Potosi

8,492
25,774

Tarija " "
Total

114,484
697,288

180,940
2,824,150

Tarija

8,375

The result of the war between Bolivia and
Peru on the one hand, and Chili on the other,
terminated in 1883, has been to deprive Bolivia
of its former outlet on the Pacific, Cobija, but
the treaty of peace which was being negotiated
between Bolivia and Chili at Santiago, at the

close of that year, may still lead to a territorial
rearrangement which shall give Bolivia the
coveted port or ports. Should Bolivia be dis-
appointed in this respect, Brazil is said to be
ready to facilitate Bolivian trade through San
Antonio on the Madeira river. Brazil would

BOLIVIA.

63

engage to render the Madeira navigable for a
distance of 400 miles, from its junction with
the Amazon to San Antonio, and no transit
dues of any kind would be levied by Brazil on
goods forwarded to and from Bolivia. There
was a rumor early in 1883 that a secret treaty
had been actually concluded between the two
governments to that effect as early as Septem-
ber, 1882. The real present outlet is to the
Atlantic, through the Argentine Republic.

The President of the Republic is Gen. Cam-
pero (since June, 1880), the First Vice-Presi-
dent is Dr. Aniceto . Arce, and the Second
Vice-President, Dr. B. Salinas. The Cabinet
in 1883 was compossd of the following minis-
ters : Interior and Foreign Affairs, Sefior P. J.
Silvetti; Finance, Sefior A. Quijano ; Public
Worship, etc., Dr. P. H. Vargas ; War, General
J. M. Rendon.

The United States Minister resident at La
Paz is Mr. Richard Gibbs.

The Bolivian Envoy Extraordinary and Min-
ister Plenipotentiary at Washington is Dr. L.
Cabrera, with Dr. A. Aramayo as Secretary
of Legation. The Bolivian Consul-General at
New York is M. Obarrio; Consul at New Or-
leans, J. P. Macheca; and at San Francisco, F.
Herrera.

In order to understand the position of Bo-
livia at the close of 1883, it will be necessary
to review chronologically the events in Bolivia
and Peru, of which the negotiation of a treaty
of peace between Bolivia and Chili was the last.

The War on the Pacific in 1883. — In December,
1882, a convention was made and ratified at
Santiago, between Italy and Chili, to the effect
that all claims of Italian subjects arising out of
the war in Bolivia and Peru should be deter-
mined by arbitration.

On April 20, 1883, the Congress assembled at
Cajamarca closed its sessions after authorizing
the Government to order an election to be
held upon the basis of the census of 1882, for
the nomination of a Constituent Assembly.

In May the partisan general Caceres had sev-
eral engagements with Chilian detachments,
being defeated in two of them, at Balconcillo
and Pampas de Sicaya, by Canto, and on May
22d in one at Larma by Garcia.

On May llth a ra-ovisional treaty of peace
was signed between Jovino Novoa on the
part of Chili, and Lavalle on the part of Gen.
Iglesias, the Peruvian commander. (The con-
ditions submitted to by Peru will be found
under CHILI, in this volume.)

On May 20th the opposition Congress of the
Calderon-Montero faction in Peru assembled
at Arequipa, on which occasion Gen. Monte-
ro delivered his message, in which he praised
the faithfulness of Bolivia, and declared that
he did not consider the time to have come for
making peace. The message contained this
passage : " At the time it became evident that
the belligerents would be unable to arrive at
an understanding through direct negotiation,
Peru accepted the good offices of the United

States. But after a year's useless negotiations,
after the energetic and comforting assurances
of Gen. Hurlbut, the measured and diplomatic
utterances of Mr. Trescott, and the impudent
and hostile declarations of Mr. Logan, we be-
came convinced that the United States were
unable to be useful to us in any manner what-
soever."

June 2d, the people of Oerro de Pasco ad-
hered to the Cajamarca peace proclamation of
Iglesias. June 3d, at a meeting held at San
Mateo (province of Nuarochiri) under the
chairmanship of Jose Maria Sanchez, Peru-
vian citizens there present pronounced in favor
of peace. A similar declaration was simul-
taneously made at Huaraz (department of Anca-
cho) and at Recuaz, for peace and Iglesias.
On June llth the Congress assembled at Are-
quipa confirmed the following nominations:
President, Garcia Calderon ; Vice-President,
Montero; Second Vice-President, Caceres.
And on June 16th a new Cabinet was formed.
A few days later Gen. Montero reviewed the
troops under his command, and soon after a
force was sent by him to Moquegua, under the
command of Canevaro, 1,200 strong, and in-
cluding 200 horse under the Cuban Cespedes,
to operate against Tacna.

Toward the close of June the Chilian forces
evacuated Pacasmayo, and the Chilian colo-
nel, Y. Garcia, occupied Trujillo, where the
Peruvian flag was hoisted.

Early in July the Chilian President, Santa
Maria, delivered his message to Congress, at
Santiago, containing the following passage :
" Prior to the war, Bolivia had become an in-
strument of Peruvian intrigues and greediness,
because that country had become dependent
on Peru, which, for the past fifty years, stood
as a sort of door-keeper of Bolivia, owning
as Peru did the province of Moquegua, and
thus, through the routes leading from Arica
and Tacna to La Paz, controlling the only
practicable communication between the inte-
rior of Bolivia and the Pacific. If the rela-
tions between Peru and Bolivia remained the
same as they were then in this respect, now
that the war has been carried by us to a safe
issue, we should at all times in the future be
exposed to the risk of seeing Bolivia attack
us again at the instigation of Peru. It is no
secret that politics are very uncertain in Bo-
livia, and any government capable of exercis-
ing efficient pressure on the latter may easily
render Bolivia amenable to its purposes. Un-
der these circumstances we owe it to our own
safety in the future to deprive Peru forever
of the means to do mischief in this respect.
This is the chief reason why Chili insists, not
on annexing the province, of Moquegua, but on
temporarily occupying, and eventually acquir-
ing the same from Peru by purchase. All
friends of a durable peace can not fail to ad-
mit that we have a right to insist on these
conditions which present a guarantee of real
tranquillity. These demands are not those

64

BOLIVIA.

of a rapacious conqueror, they are merely the
dictates of a wise policy whose object is to
secure a lasting peace." The Peruvian gen-
eral, Canevaro, presided over a meeting at Mo-
quegna, and declared to the citizens there as-
sembled that he was tired of the war.

On July 10th a crushing victory was achieved
by the Chilian forces, led by Col. Gorostiaga,
over the Peruvian partisan troops under Gen.
Caceres at Huamachuco. In this action 1,600
Chilian soldiers were engaged against over 4,000
Peruvians, the loss of the latter being 900
killed and many wounded, while the Chilians
lost 56 killed and 104 wounded, including four
officers. The Peruvians lost a number of offi-
cers, including Gen. Siloa, 11 pieces of artil-
lery, and 800 rifles. The action lasted from 6
A. M. to 2 p. M. As soon as the news reached
Gen. Lynch, the Chilian commander-in- chief,
he sent a message to President Iglesias inviting
him to Lima.

Commander Lynch subsequently published
a decree calling on all officers formerly serving
under Caceres to appear at headquarters, or be
treated as spies.

On August 10th Castro Zaldivar proceeded
from Lima to join Gen. Iglesias, in order to
undertake an important mission which the lat-
ter wished to put him in charge of. On Aug.
13th Iglesias issued a decree levying a capita-
tion tax of $1, silver, per head.

Aug. 15th the Chilian commander at Hu-
ancayo chastised 3,000 pillaging Indians, and
killed and wounded 800 of them. Simultane-
ously a mutiny, broken out among Peruvian
troops in the province of Chan cay, was prompt-
ly quelled. On Aug. 20th Gen. Iglesias made
his entry into Trujillo, and was enthusiastically
received by the population. On Sept. llth the
citizens of Cafiete and the troops in the Paca-
ran district recognized the authority of Igle-
sias. On Sept. 15th the Chilian Minister of
Foreign Affairs, Aldnnate, left Valparaiso on
his way to Callao to hasten the pacification of
Peru. Two days later the steamer Amazon
arrived at Payta with 600 Chilian infantry,
sent by rail to Sullam, and thence to Piura,
which place was occupied the next day. Sept.
18th, 3,000 monteneros were defeated by the
Chilians at Huancayo, leaving 200 killed and
wounded on the field. In the mean time news
was received from the department of lea that
peace reigned there.

On Oct. 4th, 870 Peruvian officers submitted
to the Chilian authorities, and Puno was occu-
pied; on the 9th, Casma, a port of the Am-
cache district, declared in favor of peace. Ten
days subsequently the city guard was reorgan-
ized at Lima.

On Oct. 20th the Chileno-Peruvian peace
was signed at Ancon, and on the 24th Gen.
Iglesias entered Lima as Presidente regen era-
dor, Gen. Lynch having prior to this left for
Barranco, near Chorrillos. On Oct. 28th Ad-
miral Garcia y Garcia was appointed Peruvian
minister in France and England. On the 29th

Arequipa surrendered, and Montero fled to
Bolivia, where a cold reception awaited him.
Prior to his flight he resigned the command in
favor of Caceres. The Peruvian minister, Bus-
tamante y Salazar, left for Bolivia, and Gen.
Osma, the Peruvian Minister of War, went to
Arequipa.

On Nov. 9th the Chilian army of occupation
was concentrated at Arequipa, and the Bolivi-
an army at Oruro — the same day that the Bo-
livian envoy, Guijarro, left for Tacna to confer
about peace with the Chilian envoy, Lillo. A
week later Col. Lorenzo Iglesias, in garrison at
Lima, marched with an adequate force to Chic-
layo and Cajamarca, to quell an incipient ris-
ing. At the close of November a decree was
promulgated declaring null and void all official
acts of the Arequipa government from Jan. 1,
1883. This was particularly aimed at the Are-
quipa Congress of July, 1883.

The President of the United States, in his
annual message of Dec. 4th, expressed himself
about events on the west coast to the follow-
ing effect :

The contest between Bolivia, Chilij and Peru has
passed from the stage of strategic hostilities to that of
negotiation in which the counsels of this Govern-
ment have been exercised. The demands of Chili for
absolute cession of territory have been maintained
and accepted by the party of Gen. Iglesias to the ex-
tent of concluding a treaty of peace with the Govern-
ment of Chili in general conformity with the terms
of the protocol signed in May last between the Chili-
an commander and Gen. Iglesias. As a result of the
conclusion of this treaty. Gen. Iglesias has been for-
mally recognized by Chili as President of Peru, and
his government installed at Lima, which has been
evacuated by the Chilians. A call has been issued by
Gen. Iglesias for a representative Assembly to be
elected on the 13th of January, and to meet at Lima
on the 1st of March next. Meanwhile the provisional
Government of Gen. Iglesias has applied for recogni-
tion to the principal powers of America and Europe.
When the will of the Peruvian people shall be mani-
fested, I shall not hesitate to recognize the Govern-
ment approved by them.

On Dec. 7th Gen. Lynch went to Chorrillos.
The declaration of the Chilian President, that
he would carry out the treaty with Peru in its
entirety, had meanwhile strengthened the po-
sition of Iglesias materially. But he still had
the Indian trouble in the interior to contend
with. These Indians, led by a few unscrupu-
lous menT were ready to adopt any pretext for
their crimes, although their real motive was
based upon their hatred of their so-called op-
pressors, inherited by their fathers from the
time of the Spaniards. This hatred is the
point that Caceres depended upon to win
power among them. He speaks the Quichua
language, which gives him great prestige among
them. Meanwhile Gen. Bermudez, the Peru-
vian commander, occupied Ayacucho, and the
Chilian envoy, Monte, went to Buenos Ayres
on Dec. 12th. The Bolivian peace commis-
sioners, Baptista and Bosto, arrived at Santi-
ago, Chili, accompanied by the Argentine and
Brazilian ministers. One of the conditions
contained in their instructions reads as follows:

BOLIVIA.

BRAZIL.

65

On goods for Bolivia, Chili will take 20 per cent,
of the customs duties, and Bolivia the remainder;
railways to be constructed from Iquique to Lake Aul-
lagas, and from Mejillones or Antofagasta to Potosi;
the colonization of the country along the river Desa-
guadero to be effected, and the ratification of the
frontier line passing the Desaguadero river to the
Argentine line, Chili to permit the passage of Boliv-
ian troops through its territory in the event of a war
between Bolivia and a power not on her frontier.

On Dec. 14th President Iglesias wrote to
Caceres, assuring him of his personal security,
should he feel disposed to capitulate. Puga
was beaten by the Peruvian Government troops
at Stollon, and Gen. Caceres took position with
2,000 men two leagues from lea. The United
States minister at Lima asked permission for an
American man-of-war to take soundings on the
Peruvian coast.

Toward the close of the year 1883 the outlook
in Peru became quite gloomy once more, ow-
ing to C&ceres's continuing to play a double-
handed and treacherous game. While pre-
tending to wish to visit Lima, he incited the
Indians to plunder and murder. Two scenes
of savagery, as barbarous as those which oc-
curred during the mutiny in India, were enact-
ed in the region which he pretended to gov-
ern. The Chilians, adhering to the terms of
peace, declined to interfere.

The slight reduction of the import duties,
after the departure of the Chilians, who had
raised them to 50 per cent., caused consider-
able disappointment and some discontent in
Peru. The finance minister of Iglesias re-
duced the duties from 50 per cent, to 35 per
cent., thereby causing a check on importation.
Many articles, formerly entering duty free, such
as agricultural machinery, printing-presses and
paper, etc., now pay a heavy duty. It thus
happened that, in spite of the pacification of
the country, buyers from the interior were
scarce at Lima, although there was a good as-
sortment of all sorts of merchandise. The
paper money current had nevertheless im-
proved at the close of December from fifteen
paper dollars for one silver dollar, to twelve
for one.

Another great difficulty which President
Iglesias encountered was financial distress.
Letters received at Luna during the last week
of the year 1883 stated that, according to ad-
vices from La Paz, the Bolivian capital, the
national guard had entered on active service ;
three battalions had been pushed forward to-
ward the Peruvian frontier on the way to Tacna,
7,500 men were marching from the interior in
the same direction, and the regular army —
8,000 strong — was being concentrated at the
capital. It was added that these movements
might be interpreted as either to mean resist-
ance to a possible but not probable Chilian
invasion, or to effect a coup de main on the
Peruvian territories of Arequipa and Mollendo.
It was stated that the Peruvians of Arequipa
and Puno were so thoroughly convinced of
their danger that they had offered to form the
VOL. xxni. — 5 A

vanguard of the Chilian army should a march
on the Bolivian capital be decided upon.

Finance. — In August Gen. Campero, President
of Bolivia, read his message before the assembled
Congress in La Paz. He said that the expendi-
tures of the republic, during the fiscal year
ended, amounted to $3,300,528, while the in-
come did not exceed $2,527,515, leaving a defi-
cit of $803,012, to cover which a loan would
have to be made. He added that the scrupu-
lous punctuality with which Bolivia had at-
tended to the settlement of all her pecuniary
obligations had replaced the credit of the re-
public on a firm basis both at home and abroad,
so that there were not wanting overtures from
Europe for placing a Bolivian loan in that
market. It was at the same time said that great
activity prevailed on the banks of the Beni
river in gathering India rubber for export,
which commanded on the spot 70 cents Boliv-
ian silver coin, the cost of freight to San An-
tonio on the Madeira being 12 cents. A large
transit trade was also going on between Potosi
and the Argentine frontier.

Commerce. — Bolivian imports and exports in
1883 went almost exclusively via the Argen-
tine Republic. No official statistics having
been published, showing the imports and ex-
ports of Bolivia during the war, the amount of
goods which entered the country in normal
times has to be calculated upon the duties col-
lected at the custom-houses. According to
these, the import would not exceed $6,150,000,
while the export amounted to $9,381,917 in
1881, the bulk of it being silver, $6,897,130,
other metals, $1,136,787, and the balance cin-
chona-bark (quinine), India-rubber, etc.

Telegraphs. — There is a line from Chililaya, on
Lake Titicaca, to La Paz and Oruro, 183 miles
in length. It is intended to extend this line to
Cochabamba and Sucre.

BRAZIL (Imperio do Brazil). (For details re-
lating to area, territorial divisions, population,
etc., reference may be made to the "Annual
Cyclopaedia" for 1878.)

The Emperor is Dom Pedro II, born Dec. 2,
1825 ; proclaimed April 7, 1831 ; regency until
July 23, 1840; crowned July 18, 1841; mar-
ried Sept. 4, 1843, to Theresa Christina Maria,
daughter of the late King Francis I of the Two
Sicilies.

The new Cabinet, formed after the resigna-
tion of the one presided over by Viscount
Paranagua, was, on May 24, 1883, composed
of the following ministers : President of the
Council of Ministers and Minister of Finance,
Senator Councilor of State, Lafayette Rodri-
gues Pereira; Interior, Francisco Antunes Ma-
ciel ; Justice, Francisco Prisco de Souza Para-
izo ; Foreign Affairs, Councilor Francisco de
Carvalho Scares Brandao ; War, Antonio Joa-
quim Rodrigues, Jr. ; Navy, Antonio de Al-
meida Oliveira; Agriculture, Commerce, and
Public Works, Councilor Affonso Augusto Mo-
reira Penna.

The Council of State was composed of the

66

BRAZIL.

following members in ordinary : The Princess
Imperial, Donna Isabel ; Prince Gaston d'Or-
le"ans, Count d'Eu; the Senators Viscount de
Abaete", Viscount de Muritiba; Viscount de
Bom Retiro; Viscount de Nictheroy; Sena-
tor J. J. Teixeira; Vice-Admiral J. K. de
Lamare ; Dr. P. J. Soares de Souza ; Senator
M. P. S. Dantas; Councilor Martin Francisco;
Councilor J. C. de Andrade ; Senator J. L. V.
Cansansao de Sinimbu ; and of members ex-
traordinary : Senators Viscount de Parana-
gua ; Affonso Celso; L. A. Vieira da Silva;
J. B. da 0. Figueiredo, and Lafayette.

The President of the Senate, which com-
prises 58 members elected for life, was J. L.
Lima Duarte; and the Vice- President, A. M.
de Barros.

The President of the Chamber of Deputies,
with 122 members elected for four years, was
Councilor J. F. de Moura ; and the Vice-Presi-
dent, J. L. Lima Duarte.

The presidents of the several provinces were
as follow: Alag6as, Dr. H. M. Salles; Ama-
zonas, Dr. J. L. da Cunha Paranagud ; Bahia,
Councilor Pedro Luiz P. da Souza; Ceara,
Dr. Satyro ; Espirito Santo, Dr. A. P. 1ST. Ac-
cioly; Goyaz, Dr. A. G. Pereira; Maranhao,
Dr. J. A. P. Ovidio; Matto-Grosso, Baron de
Bacovi; Minas - Geraes, Dr. A. G. Ohaves;
Para, Viscount de Maracaju; Parahyba, Dr.
J. A. do Nascimento; Parana, Dr. 0. A. C.
de Oliveira Ballo; Pernambuco, Dr. J. M. de
Freitas; Piauhy, Dr. F. P. Salles; Rio Grande
do Norte, Dr. F. M. Vianna ; Rio de Janeiro,
Councilor B. A. Gaviao ; Sta. Catharina, Dr.
F. 0. de F. Sonto ; Sao Paulo, Baron de Gua-
jara; Sao Pedro do Sul, Councilor J. J. d' Albu-
querque ; Sergipe, Dr. F. G. C. Barreto.

The Archbishop of Bahia, the Rt. Rev. L.
A. dos Santos (1880) is Primate of all Brazil;
and there are eleven bishops : those of Para,
Sao Luiz, Fortaleza, Olinda, Rio de Janeiro,
Sao Paulo, Porto Alegre, Marianna, Diarnan-
tina, Goyaz, and Cuyaba.

The Brazilian Minister Plenipotentiary and
Envoy Extraordinary to the United States is
Councilor Lopes Netto ; the Secretary of Lega-
tion, J. G. Valente; and the Consul- General
of Brazil at New York, for the Union, is Dr.
Salvador de Mendoaca.

Temporary changes in the Brazilian legation
at Washington are said to be due mainly to the
disposition on the part of Brazil to serve the
interests of peace between Chili and Peru.
Senhor Netto, Brazilian minister to the United
States, left Washington for Chili about the
middle of August, with instructions to express
to the Chilian Government the anxiety of Bra-
zil to have a satisfactory peace established be-
tween Peru and Chili, and that he was author-
ized to act as a mediator to this end, if his
services were desired. Under his instructions
he is to remain in Chili for two years, and,
while there, is to attend to some pending Bra-
zilian claims.

The United States Minister to Brazil is Hon.

T. A. Osborn, and the Consul- General at Rio
de Janeiro, C. C. Andrews.

Army. — The actual strength of the army in
1883 was 11,333. The distribution of the sev-
eral arms was as follows: Artillery, 1,951 ;
cavalry, 2,140; infantry, 7,242; 2,149 more
soldiers would have to be enlisted to complete
the number fixed by law. The artillery counts
three mounted regiments, four foot battalions,
and one battalion of sappers ; the cavalry, five
regiments, one squadron, and four companies ;
the infantry, twenty-four battalions and eight
companies.

Navy.— -The navy, in 1883, consisted of seven
steam-ironclads, one steam-frigate, seven steam-
corvettes, sixteen steam-gunboat?, two sail of
the line, and two smaller crafts, with an aggre-
gate of 3,148 men, and a total armament of
123 guns. There was, besides, one school-ship ;
and one ironclad and five gunboats were being
built.

The personnel of the navy consisted of 15
general staff-officers, 378 first-class officers, a
sanitary corps 68 strong, 91 pursers, 79 guar-
dians, and 181 engineers; an imperial marine
corps 2,922 strong, a naval battalion of 450
men, and 1,520 apprentices; total, 5,704 men.

The Frontier Dispute. — There is a long-pending
dispute between France and Brazil, concerning
the precise border-line between the French and
Brazilian Guianas, specially relating to the ter-
ritory between the Oyapok and Amazon riv-
ers. It seems that the Treaty of Utrecht as-
signed to France a portion of Guiana not
clearly defined, nor did the treaty of 1815 es-
tablish the boundary with any greater precis-
ion. These lands are isolated by one of the
branches of the Amazon in its delta, and are
represented as being quite valuable for grazing
purposes.

Postal Service. — The number of letters for-
warded by the Brazilian Post-Office in 1881-
'82 was 35,815,869, against 31,228,635 in 1880-
'81 ; the number of post-offices was 1,610. The
gross amount of postages collected amounted
in 1881-'82 to 1,513,872 milreis, and the ex-
penditure was 1,741,721 milreis.

Railroads. — The first railroad in Brazil, the
Macia, 18 miles in length, went into operation
on Dec. 16, 1853. There are at present 2,400
miles in operation and 2,200 being built. The
Government owns and administers several lines,
and, as a rule, guarantees an income of 7 per
cent, on the necessary capital invested in the
construction of private roads, i The number of
miles of railroad owned and in operation by the
Government is 800 ; and it also has nearly the
same number of miles of railroad in course of
construction. Most of the rails with which
the roads have been made were imported from
England, while a part of the rolling-stock was
brought from the United States. The roads are
surveyed and built almost wholly by Brazilian
engineers.

Under the provisions of a recent law the
Government grants concessions to railroad

BRAZIL.

67

companies, with the following chief condi-
tions : After the Government is satisfied that
the capital of a new company applying is suffi-
cient, an annual interest of 7 per cent, is guar-
anteed, the latter payable half-yearly during
thirty-two years. While the construction of
the line proceeds, the Government pays inter-
est on the sums of money it considers neces-
sary; the latter are deposited in a bank, and
can only be drawn as wanted. The state grants
gratuitously to such companies all Government
lands that may be requisite for the lines, depots,
entrepots, shops, etc., designated in the con-
tract. The companies are allowed to import
duty-free all material and, for twe"nty years,
coal and all other fuel.

In return for these privileges the companies
engage to forward at reduced rates all Gov-
ernment officials, luggage, and material, and,
if called upon to do so, furnish the Govern-
ment whatever information it may wish to ob-
tain respecting the business of the line.

From the moment the dividends exceed 8 per
cent, per annum, the excess is equally divided
between the Government and the company;
but this participation of the Government in
the excess of profits ceases as soon as the sums
of money advanced for interest are paid back.
Should the dividend at any time exceed 12 per
cent, during two consecutive years, the com-
panies, if called upon by the Government to
do so, bind themselves to reduce their freight
rates. If the construction capital be procured
abroad, the exchange is fixed at 27^. per mil-
reis. The following are the leading com-
panies that have gone into existence on this
basis :

LINES BUILT UNDER GOVERNMENT GUARANTEE.

LINES.

Length,
in
kilome-
tre«.

Rate of
interest
guaran-
teed, per
cent.

Capital,
in
milreis.

Natal to Nova Cruz

121

7

5,496,052

Conde d'Eu

121

7

6,000,000

Eecife to Sao Francisco
Eecife to Liraoeiro
Maceio to Imperatriz
Bahia to Sao Francisco
Bahia Central

124
121

88
124
802

7
7
7
7

7

14,977,965
5.000,000
4,553,000
16,000,200
13 000 000

Campos to Carangola
Sao Paulo to Rio Janeiro
Santos to Jundiahy
Paranagua to Coritiba

847
281
139
109

7
7
7
7

6.000,000
10,000,000
23,555,850
11 492 042

Dona Theresa Christina
Dom Pedro I
Kio Grande do Sul to Cacequy .
Cacequy to Uruguayana ...... .
Quarahim to Staquy

112

120
225
259
186

7
6
6
6
6

5,451,000
4,000,000
13,521,423
10,000,000
6,000.000

Kio to Minas

168

7

16150000

Total

2,892

171,197,532

All these lines have been built with English
capital, with the exception of two, the Recife-Li-
moeiro, which is Brazilian, and the Paranagua-
Coritiba, which is French.

Telegraphs. — The first telegraph lines were
laid in 1852, but not till 1866 did Petropolis
and Rio de Janeiro receive telegraphic commu-
nication. Now, Rio has two telephone lines,

and the empire counts land telegraphs of a to-
tal length of 7,419 kilometres of line and 13,-
250 of wire, communication being established
by means of 136 stations. The number of tele-
graphic messages sent in 1881-'82 was 739,906 ;
the gross receipts were 1,241,770, and the ex-
penses 1,632,549 milreis.

Trade-Marks* — Brazil protects the trade-marks
of persons domiciled in the country and -for-
eigners having in Brazil an establishment of
commerce or industry. Foreigners who do not
possess branch houses or manufactories in
Brazil receive no benefit from the law, except
in cases where treaties of reciprocity exist be-
tween Brazil and iheir own country.

Foreign trade-marks are registered at the
office of the secretary of the Tribunal of Com-
merce at Rio de Janeiro.

The legal effect of the registry continues for
fifteen years, and may be renewed for another
term of the same duration.

A Floating Cathedral. — A floating cathedral on
the Amazon river is the most novel idea con-
ceived and to be carried out by enterprising
missionaries in Brazil. The matter has been
taken in hand by the Catholic Bishop of Par&
and Amazonas. The best architects and ship-
builders of Europe are to construct it complete
and in magnificent style, and it is to be bap-
tized " Christopher," because it is to carry
Christ over the waters. It is to. attend to the
spiritual wants of the whites and Indians in-
habiting the banks of the great river.

Emancipation. — A new issue is steadily forc-
ing its way into Brazilian politics, and will, at
no distant day, form a disturbing factor of
vital importance to the country. Thus far there
has been no abolition party and no division be-
tween the old parties on that question. Since
the beginning of the present year a new move-
ment has set in which promises to change all
this. In the northern provinces, especially in
Ceara, the popular sentiment in favor of aboli-
tion has been worked up to such a pitch that
the people are voluntarily emancipating their
slaves. Ceara has already liberated about
6,000 slaves, and may free all before the close
of the year. As this movement is principally
confined to the northern provinces, it is not
improbable that the abolition of slavery in
Brazil will be transformed into a sectional
issue at no distant day, and that it will lead to
troubles which will have an important influ-
ence upon the future of the country.

Slavery. — In July, 1883, there were in Brazil
1,346,648 slaves. When the gradual abolition
decree of Sept. 28, 1871, was passed, there
were officially registered 1,547,660 slaves; since
then about 130,207 slaves have died, the Gov-
ernment has liberated 12,898, private individ-
uals and savings-banks 56, 056, and 1,851 slaves
have bought their freedom themselves. The
average value of slaves is at present about
$375, so that the amount of slave property still
existing in Brazil represents a value of some-
thing like $505,000,000. The provinces in

68

BRAZIL.

which the greatest number of slaves has been
liberated are Rio de Janeiro and the neutral
district, 23,002; Rio Grande do Sul, 9,100;
Minas-Geraes, 7,108; Bahia, 7,037; Sao Paulo,
6,681; Pernambuco, 5,649; Para, 4,709; Ma-
ranhao, 4,644, and Ceara, 4,272. In other
provinces the number ranges between 99 and
1,871.

Immigration. — The immigrants in the first six
months of 1883 numbered 14,225, among whom
were about 700 Germans, 6,000 Portuguese,
and 5,000 Italians. Only 2,500 were agricul-
turists.

Tbe " Rio News," of July 15, 1883, expresses
itself about immigration into and naturaliza-
tion in Brazil to the following effect :

According to the " Diario Official " 5,309 foreigners
have become naturalized in Brazil ^not including colo-
nists) in the period between 1825 and 1882— a period of
fifty-seven years. There is a significance in this result
which will not be unnoticed when comparisons are
made with the enormous number of foreigners natu-
ralized in the United States during the same period.
When it is considered that these fifty-seven years com-
prise the entire reign of the present Emperor, whom
the civilized world has been pleased to call one of
the most enlightened and liberal monarch s of the age,
that they have been years of only briefly interrupted
peace, and that during all this time Brazil has had a
very large population of foreigners engaged in com-
mercial and industrial pursuits, the greater part of
whom could easily have been transformed into Bra-
zilian citizens, there is certainly very little cause for
satisfaction, what with her incubus of slavery, her
great landed estates, her religious intolerance, her
jealousy of foreigners, her vices of administration
and her oppressive exactions upon commerce and in-
dustry, she has shut out this great stream of wealth
and population which has been steadily flowing by
her doors all these years, until now, in her weakness,
she is able to secure only the scattering drops which
the rushing current casts upon her shores. It is not
altogether a pleasant theme for consideration, for it is
a living proof that the reign of Dom Pedro II has
been very far from liberal and enlightened, and that
the dominant policy which has thus far controlled
Brazil has resulted only in shutting her out from the
progress of the world and hi retarding her national
growth.

Naturalization. — The new bill relating to. nat-
uralization of foreigners in Brazil, stipulates
that all foreigners residing for three years in
the country shall thereby become and be consid-
ered Brazilian citizens, unless during the inter-
val they have made a declaration before their
consul that they do not wish to relinquish the
nationality of their native country. The time
of residence for acquiring Brazilian citizenship
will even be' reduced to two years, if the for-
eigner marries a Brazilian or holds office under
the Government. The naturalized citizen is
to be eligible to municipal office and other
public functions, and may even become regent
of the empire. This law would place Brazil
even above the Argentine Republic in point of
liberality toward foreigners, and the proba-
bility is that the latter will follow the example.
The Brazilian press unanimously approves of
the project.

Finances. — In financial matters the present
situation of Brazil is no less critical, and the

danger is even more imminent. Her public in-
debtedness has been steadily increasing until it
is now much greater than her income warrants,
and her expenditures are largely and regularly
in excess of her revenue. There has been no
annual surplus since 1856-'57, only two since
1846-'47, and only four since 1886-'37. Ac-
cording to an abstract of the national budgets
during the period between 1827 and 1879-'80
inclusive, the aggregate of these deficits
amounts to about $350,000,000. The interest
charged upon her funded debt is now nearly
two fifths of the total revenue.

These statements will, of course, excite sur-
prise abroad, simply because of the high credit
which Brazil enjoys in the London market.
The Brazilian Government is scrupulously care-
ful to meet the interest charges on its foreign
debt promptly and fully, for which reason its
funds are quoted high and excite no distrust.
To do this, however, new loans have been
floated, apolices (bonds) of internal indebted-
ness have been issued, taxation has been in-
creased, and local creditors have been com-
pelled to wait years for the payment of their
accounts. And then, too, these loans and in-
vestments in London are nearly all in the
hands of a small circle of capitalists known as
the " Brazilian ring," at whose head is the fa-
mous house of Rothschilds; and this ring is
very careful not only to place investments on
the market to the best advantage, but also to
suppress every item of information detrimental
to Brazilian credit. To this end journals and
journalists are subsidized (a deficiency credit
has been under discussion in the Brazilian
Legislature, in which two subsidized London
journalists are specially mentioned), flattering
articles are published in the newspapers and
reviews, and everything is made easy and com-
fortable for all the parties concerned.

An epitome of all the imperial budget laws
since 1823 has been published in the "Diario
Official " by Senator Castro Carreira. A com-
parison with the annual reports of the Min-
ister of Finance shows that its figures are cor-
rect, or as nearly so as careless typographical
work will admit. This epitome includes quin-
quennial summaries and abstracts of public
indebtedness, which are of great value in com-
parisons. In order to make this abstract cover
the period of the present system of "public
improvements," beginning with the construc-
tion of the Dom Pedro II railway, and also
to comprise these quinquennial 'debt abstracts,
it is necessary to take the fiscal year 1855-'56
as a starting-point. During the preceding five
years the aggregate revenue of the Govern-
ment had been 176,376.699 milreis, and the
aggregate expenditure 182,607,684, leaving a
deficit of 6,230,985. The total indebtedness
of the empire at the end of this period
(1854-'55), including the 1852 foreign loan
of £1,040,600, was as follows, the Brazilian
milreis at par being equivalent to 54J cents
United States gold:

BRAZIL.

Foreign debt, 4i * and 5 per cent

Internal debt, 4, 5, and 6 per cent

Total.... 109,704,381

Overdue amortization 552,675

.During the five years from 1855-'56 to
1859-'60, inclusive, the reign of reckless ex-
penditure on public works began, and since
then there has been but one single year
(1856-'57) in which the revenue has exceeded
the expenditures. Some of these works were
necessary, and either have been or will be pro-
ductive; but in great part they have been
unnecessary and enormously expensive. The
best of these investments has been the Dom
Pedro II railway, upon which the Govern-
ment has expended, not including interest on
investment, over £10,000,000. In this period
three foreign loans were made, aggregating
£3,407,500, while the internal debt was slightly
decreased. The aggregate deficit for the five
years was 14,766,501 milreis, the average an-
nual revenue being 45,653,024 milreis, and
the expenditure 48,606,324. With that year,
1860-'61, anew portfolio was added to the Im-
perial Cabinet, that of "Agriculture, Commerce,
and Public Works" — a department which
was designed to preside over and develop the
wealth-producing industries of the nation, bat
which has succeeded only to the extent of
mischievous interference and burdensome ex-
pense. In 1860-'61 its operations were cov-
ered by the modest expenditure of 3,871,544
milreis ; in 1880-'81 this annual expenditure
was 36,798,932. In the last year of this quin-
quennium (1864-'65) a war broke out between
Brazil and Paraguay, which lasted through the
succeeding five years. But one foreign loan
was contracted, amounting to £3,855,300, but
the internal debt was increased to 84,265,751
milreis by the issue of 6 per cent, apolices. A
large amount of paper money was also put into
circulation. The aggregate deficit of the five
years amounted to 39,291,247, the average an-
nual receipts being 52,591,518, and the expen-
ditures 60,449,967.

In the next five years (1865-'66 to 1869-'70)
the expenditures of the Government were
enormously increased by the war with Para-
guay, the total cost of which is calculated to
have been 613,183,263 milreis. The extraor-
dinary credits of the Government during this
period amounted to 297,901,468 milreis," taxa-
tion was largely increased, and new issues of
paper money were made. The aggregate defi-
cit amounted to 324,308,487, the average an-
nual revenue was 75,378,204, and the expendi-
ture 140,239,901. One foreign loan, amounting
to £6,963,600, was raised in London, and the
internal debt was largely increased by the issue
of 6 per cent, apolices. The total public debt
(1870) was as shown in the next column.

In the five years following there was a large
falling off in the expenses of the War and

* The loan of 1852, amounting to 9,201,004 milreis, was the
only one issued at 4* per cent.

Milreis. Milreis

51,760,214 Foreign debt, 4, 4J, and 5 per cent 118,186,525

57,944,117 Internal debt, 4, 5, and 6 per cent , 288,590,558

Total ; 851,727,078

Overdue amortization 2,054,162

Navy Departments, but the steady increase in
those of Agriculture and Finance kept the total
up to an unwarranted high figure. Although
this was a period of peace, the expenditures
were largely disproportionate to the revenue,
the aggregate deficit for the five years being
56,612,024 milreis. Extraordinary credits were
authorized to a total of 70,426,709, more paper
money was issued, and taxation was again in-
creased. One loan of £3,459,600 was placed
in London, and the internal debt was increased
to 289,562,250 milreis. The average annual
revenue was 102,850,543, and the expenditures
114,173,147.

In the last quinquennial period under review,
there was a steady increase in the expenditures
of the Department of Agriculture, and the ag-
gregate expenditures of all the departments
largely exceeded those of the five years of the
war. This period included the great drought
of Ceara, in which there was so great a loss of
life and property, and upon which the Govern-
ment expended 60,503,848 milreis for public
relief. A large part of this expenditure, how-
ever, was swallowed up by speculators and dis-
honest public officials, of whom the Govern-
ment has the names of 1,539, with evidence of
guilt, not one of whom has ever been prose-
cuted . The aggregate deficit of these five years
was 208.226,627 milreis, the average annual
revenue 101,489,514, and the expenditure 149,-
134,839. The extraordinary credits footed up
to 194,252,407, a large issue of paper money
was made, and the internal debt was increased.
One loan was made in London (1875) amount-
ing to £5,301,200, and a national loan was
made in 1879 amounting to 51,885,000 milreis.
At the close of this period (1880) the state of
the public debt was as follows:

Foreign debt (estimated at 27<2.), 4, 4$, and 5 per

cent 144,059,479

Internal debt, 4, 5, and 6 per cent 416,306,722

Total 560,366,201

Overdue amortization 3,364,972

Paper currency (April 1, 1880) 189,199,591

Public deposits (finance report, 1880) 52,956.885

Treasury bills (April 80, 1880) 11,632,700

Total 817,520,349

Tabulating the aggregate quinquennial revenue
receipts, expenditures, and deficits of this period
of twenty-five years, gives the following result :

QUINQUENNIUM.

Receipt*.

Exp nditnres.

Deficits.

Milreis.

Milreis

Milreis

1855-56 to 1859-'60.
1860-'61 to 1864-'65.
1865-'66 to 1869-'70.

228,265,120
262,957,f'S9
876,891.019

243,031,621
- 802,248,^36
701,199,505

14,766,501
89.291,247
824,808.486

1870-'71 to 1874-'75.
1875-176 to 1879-'80.

514,253,712
537,447,569

570,865,737
745,674,196

56,612,025
208,226,627

Totals .....

1,919,815,009

2,563,019,895

643,204,886

Average annual deficit, 25,728,195 milreis.
Since 1879-'80 only the accounts of the year

70

BRAZIL.

following have been definitely settled, from
which it appears that the receipts were 127,-
076,363, the expenditures 138.583,090, and the
deficit 11,506,727. For 1881-'82 the Govern-
ment admits a deficit of 5,054,000 ; hut on
removing some 7,000,000 milreis of Treasury
bills, deposits, etc., from the revenue, and
nearly 1,000,000 from the expenditures, which
had no place there, the actual deficit amounts
to 10,315,847. For 1882-'83 the Government's
estimate places the deficit at 6,104,000 ; but
as the revenue receipts include 17,666,800 of
Treasury bills emitted, 141,200 in nickel coins,
and 3,500,000 of deposits for special purposes,
the deficit really amounts to 27,412,000 milreis
as shown on the minister's report. For the
current year the " Jornal do Commercio " cal-
culates that the deficit on actual appropriations
will be 28,366,066, making a total of 62,249,-
842 for the two years covered by the budget
law now in force.

On the 19th of September, after a session ot
139 days, the General Assembly of Brazil was
formally adjourned. Although the financial
state of the country is most critical, the impe-
rial budget laws for the ensuing year were not
passed, and no measures were adopted to aid
or relieve the public Treasury. Supplementary
or deficiency credits were passed, to an aggre-
gate of 18,000,000 milreis ($9,000,000), one of
which was for a deficit of 12,000,000 milreis
in the public relief expenditures of the Ceard
drought of 1878-'80. As the public depart-
ments are now running under the budget laws
of 3882, which were prorogued to 1883 be-
cause the General Assembly failed to pass the
regular annual appropriations, it is evident
that this fail-are of last session can not be
otherwise than inimical to a proper fiscaliza-
tion of the public expenditures.

Revenue of the Provinces.— The following table
shows the revenue of each province in 1882-
1883, the total being 32,662,058 milreis, of
which 17i per cent., altogether 5,688,943 mil-
reis, were spent on public instruction :

PROVINCES.

Revenue.

Proportion
per cent,
spent on
public in-
struction.

Propor-
tion per
cent, of
pupils.

Amazonas . .

Milreis.
1 664 UOO

6' 79

4 1

Par&

2.742,000

13-5

5-6

Piauhy

733,596
849421

14-8
10 '9

1-7
1*1

Cearti
Rio Grande do Norte

808.700
308 827

24-5
26 '4

1-4
t'5

Parahyba

18'8

Pernambuco
Alagoas

*,786!457
002 o55

26-4
20*9

2-8
2*6

Serpipe

716 658

16-9

8*8

BahlaT. ....

3 484' 687

15'9

1*8

Esplrito Santo

858 9%

25 '7

4. i

Rio de Janeiro
Sao Paulo

6,258,684
8 743 460

19-9
14 -2

4-2
2'1

Minas-Geraes . . .

s'o^'^o

24' 6

8'4

ParanA

'797'oflO

14*5

Santa Catharina

342 854

26' 6

8*8

Rio Grande do 8ul
Goyaz

2,917,280
222 234

18-7
16'1

2-0

Matto-Grossd .

241 '286

21 "6

8*8

In 1854 the total number of primary schools
in the provinces was 4,014; in 1883 it had
increased to 6,180, the increase being about
two per cent, per annum.

The Mint — Under provisions of the law of
1849 there have been coined since that year,
to the close of 1882, 44,948,083 milreis gold
and 18,979,927 milreis silver. From 1703 to
1883 the mint at Rio de Janeiro has coined
262,139,212 milreis gold and 35,508,316 milreis
silver.

Commerce. — According to the List " relatorio "
of the Minister of Finance, the foreign trade of
Brazil (official values), during the fiscal years
1880-'81 and 1881-'82, was approximately as
follows, the minister stating that full reports
had not been received from all the provinces :

MERCHANDISE.

1880- '81.

1881-'83.

Imports

Milreis.
ISO 458 700

Milreis.
18-1 118 300

Exports

233,567 700

216709800

Total

414,026,400

400 828 100

From this it will be seen that the total for-
eign trade of the country is about 400,000,000
milreis, or, in round numbers, about $200,000,-
000 at the par of exchange. During the past-
fiscal year (1882-'83), although no general sta-
tistics of that year have been compiled, it
is certain that the above totals were greatly
reduced. The imports were considerably de-
creased because of the general stagnation in
business and the increase in taxation. Toward
the end of 1882 a new surtax of 10 per cent,
was imposed on imports, and the customs-ware-
house charges were largely increased. The im-
mediate result of this step was a decrease in
imports, both on account of the enhanced cost
of goods and the additional costs of storage.
Under the new warehouse charges, importers
are limiting their receipts to current demands,
and are keeping their stock reduced to the
narrowest limits possible. In exports, with
the exception of coffee, and possibly rubber,
there was also a large falling off', owing to the
failure of crops in the northern provinces, and
to the general decline in many branches of in-
dustry. In the rubber-trade it is possible that
the exportation was also reduced through the
attempt to "corner" the market, though at
the sjime time production has gone on steadily
increasing. The customs revenue, however,
shows a large increase, though how much of
this is due to enhanced values it is difficult to
say. In the absence of complete and trust-
worthy statistics it is impossible to form any
accurate opinion as to the trade of the whole
empire. The official reports, as complete as
they ever appear, are always from three to
five years behind, and the customs returns
from the provinces are both irregular and con-
fusing. They are neither accurate nor uni-
form. Taken all together, the customs receipts
of last year will show a large falling off from
the two or three preceding years. The causes

BRAZIL.

71

are political, financial, and industrial. For the
past three or four years the state of business
has been steadily going from bad to worse.
The long-credit system gave facilities for trans-
acting business long after the interior became
really insolvent, and thus postponed the crash.
Recently, however, the importers have begun
to realize the extra-hazardous character of this
system of long credits, and have, therefore,
been steadily cutting them down. Five years
ago a "cash" house (and ''cash" here means
five or six months' credit) was the exception ;
now the long-credit house is the exception, and
business is being reduced to a cash basis as
rapidly as outstanding credits will permit.
This step, however, was postponed too long,
for the outstanding credits are still enormous,
and the interior is practically bankrupt.

Three years ago great difficulties were en-
countered in making collections in the prov-
inces. There was very little money afloat, the
masses were earning nothing, and everybody
was in debt. This state of affairs was princi-
pally due to the bad management and extrav-
agance of the large coffee and sugar planters,
upon whose industries nearly the entire busi-
ness of Central Brazil depends. Demoralized
by the pernicious influences of African slavery,
and recklessly over-confident because of the
prosperity enjoyed by the cotton-planters dur-
ing the years of high prices caused by the
American civil war, and by the coffee-planters
from 1871 to 1873, the great proprietors of the
country plunged headlong into extravagant
expenditures.

The foreign-trade movement in Brazil is of-
ficially given as follows :

YEAR.

Import.

Export.

1879-'80

Milms.

277,893,800

Milreis.
313 357 100

1880-'81

259 412 000

309 131 000

1831-'82

275 541 600

800 180 900

Average

270,949,100

807,556,300

The ensuing table shows the coastwise trade :

IMPORT AND EXPORT IN MILREIS.

1879-'80 . 180,712,800

1880-'81 ; 155,843,600

1881-'82 174,899,400

Average

170,485,200

DIRECT EXPORT AND IMPORT OF GOODS AT RIO DE JA-
NEIRO.

Export.

Import.

To and from Germany.

Milreis.
10 309 960

Milreis.
8 332 540

The West Indies

' 21 '366

Austria

168 '^97

147 062

Belgium

8 1 06*794

4 370 494

Cape of Good Hope .... ...

1 354 242

80

Canada

British Channel

166 127

Chill

S2''2'76

552 001

China

7658

Argentine Republic

1.305,461

8 522 684

Denmark

415 699

Uruguay . . .

1,524,256

5.599.728

FISCAL YEAR 1881-';

COUNTRIES.

FISCAL YKAR 1881-182.

Export.

Import.

United States

Milreis.
00,178,415
9,035,092
602,911
T,114,9'26
7,657

MflreU.
8,085,190
16,697,657

87,615.874
403.666
181,629
754,097

4,566
40

Gibraltar

United Kingdom

Spain

Holland

Italy

102,759

429,781

Mediterranean

Mexico

Paraguay

68

Peru

Africa ... . .

Portugal

2,841,145
71,820
1,440
124,049
3,024

6,547,997

Natal

48,588
242,920

Scandinavia

Turkey . .

Other countries

Totals

88,34(5,309

93,085,687

Trade of the United States with Brazil.— The im-
port of merchandise and specie into the United
States from Brazil during the fiscal year ended
June 30, 1883, was $44,488,459, the domestic
export from the United States to Brazil was
$9,159,330, and the re-export of foreign goods
and specie thither was $92,764. The principal
imports from Brazil into the United States
during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1882,
consisted of coffee, 315,465,986 pounds; cocoa,
1,456,665 pounds; horse-hair, 690,770 pounds;
India-rubber, 11,348,618 pounds; sugar, 228,-
683,398 pounds; wool, 493,505 pounds, and
hides represented by a value of $1,445,541.
The total import of Brazilian merchandise was
$48,801,878.

The export of domestic goods from the
United States to Brazil in the same year com-
prised the ensuing chief items: Flour, 618,908
barrels, worth $4,546,224; cotton goods, 6,-
993,979 yards, worth $709,756 ; iron and steel
manufactures, $711,090; petroleum, 5,473,525
gallons, worth $663,575; lard, 3,698,462
pounds, worth $491,252; soap, 2,573,453
pounds, worth $134,783, and lumber and
wooden-ware, $355,628, the total domestic ex-
port summing up $9,035,452. Re-export of
foreign goods thither, $117,110.

The Rise in Coffee in 1883.— Fair Rio coffee
stood in the New York market at 8£ cents on
•January 1, 1883 ; on November 21st it had ad-
vanced to 12£ cents. The gradual improve-
ment in the value of coffee had begun in all
consuming countries as early as October, 1882,
when good ordinary Java had declined in Hol-
land to the lowest ebb it had reached since
1848, say 25 centimes per half kilogramme ; on
November 20, 1883, it had advanced in Rotter-
dam to 33 centimes, the total rise in that mar-
ket thus having been 32 per cent., while the
improvement in Rio coffee in the New York
market had been, as shown above, about 50
per cent. This greater advance in Brazil coffee
in the leading American markets as compared
with the advance in the leading European mar-
ket in Java coffee, was due to the fact that

BRAZIL.

BRITISH COLUMBIA.

Brazil had a short crop in 1883. In part it
was also due to a more active speculative
movement in New York and Rio than in Hol-
land and Europe generally, in this staple article
of consumption.

EXPORT 0¥ COFFEE FROM RIO DURING THE TWELVEMONTH
ENDED JUNE 80.

DESTINATION.

1880.

1881.

1889.

1883.

To European ports
United States

Total...

Tom.
61,719
110,485

172.154

Tom.

181,079
128,581

254.660

TOM.
94,410
134,800

229.210

TOM.
112,081
152,557

•Jti4,f)8S

OF COFFEE FROM SANTOS.

TOM.

1877 41.104

1878 68,078

1879 68,979

1880 68,786

1881 80,414

1882 104,006

In 1882 there were fifty cotton-mills in op-
eration in Brazil, having 2,305 looms and 77,-
328 spindles, employing 3,082 operatives, and
having a capital invested of 8,632,000 milreis.
They produced 22,076,000 yards of goods.

Cattle-raising. — The southern portion of the
province of Rio Grande do Sul is the best suit-
ed for stock-raising. Land in this locality is
difficult to obtain, it being generally heredita-
rily transmitted. Should it, however, come
upon the market, the owners of adjoining prop-
erty will make almost any sacrifice to obtain
it rather than have a stranger settle in the
neighborhood. Land is worth from $10 to $20
for each braca of frontage by 2,000 bracas
deep (a braca is 7 feet 2£ inches). Stock-cat-
tle are worth, one with the other, $5 to $6 ;
for butchery they bring from $2.50 to $13.
They are generally sold at the breeding-grounds,
as the means of transportation are of the most
primitive kind and the cost large. The slaugh-
ter last year amounted to 260,000 head, against
275,000 the year before.

Rio Grande's Hide-Shipments to New York.— The
following tables show the proportion of import
of hides and kips into New York from Rio
Grande, as compared with other sources of

1882.

1881.

1880.

Buenos Ayres . . .

158 146

892 018

420 061

Montevideo.

fll~ '!''4

i i go 400

Rio Grande... .

109' 558

68 898

Other ports '

1 30S'741

1 296 961

1 516 559

Domestic ports
Total

858J78
2,574,527

851,728
8,289,599

410,587
8,428,675

RECEIPTS OF HIDES AND KIPS IN NEW YORK FROM JAN
UARY 1ST TO DECEMBER 31 ST.

1883.

1889.

1881.

Buenos Ayres . . .
Montevideo.

147,104

378 877

158,146

892,013

Rio Grande ....

86152

Other ports....

1 "">•' 71"

Domestic ports

404 644

Total........ .«

2,819,522"

2,574,527

8,289,599

Brazilian Woods. — Some investigations by M.
Thanneur show that Brazil is rich in woods
for engineering purposes. The " yandubay " is
exceedingly hard and durable; the "couru-
pay " is also very hard and rich in tannin ; the
" quebracho " is, however, more interesting
than any, and grows abundantly in the forests
of Brazil and La Plata. It resembles oak in
the trunk and is used for rail way- sleepers,
telegraph-poles, piles, and so on. It is heavier
than water, its specific gravity varying be-
tween 1-203 and 1-333. The color at first is
reddish, like mahogany, but grows darker with
time. Being rich in tannin, it is employed for
tanning leather in Brazil, and recently has
been introduced for that purpose into France.
A mixture of one third of " quebracho " and
two thirds of ordinary tan gives good re-
sults.

Diamond-Mining. — The discovery of the first
deposits of gold in the province of Minas-Geraes,
the most productive in Brazil, led to the search
for diamonds as early as the close of the sev-
enteenth century, the first being found at Ser-
ro. The fever spread, and moving northward
into virgin country founded the village of
Tijuco, the Diamantina of to-day, the center of
diamond-mining in Brazil. M. A. de Bovet,
professor at the School of Mines of Ouro-
Preto, Brazil, has recently, in the " Annales
des Mines," Paris, published an exhaustive ac-
count of a visit to that section. Diamonds are
found in the provinces of Minas-Geraes, Ba-
hia, Parana, Matto-Grosso, and Goyaz. In
Minas they are mined at Diamantina, Grao
Mogol, Bagagem, Conceicao, Cocaes, and other
points, the first named, however, being the
most important. Diamonds are found in a
rounded gravel, having peculiar characteris-
tics, which is called by the miners u cascalho."
It is a mass of small pebbles, chiefly quartz,
mixed with very little clay. If examined with
care it will be found to contain a large num-
ber of minerals, many of which are present in
the cascalho from all the districts.

BRIDGES. See ENGINEERING.

BRITISH COLUMBIA. This, the most western
province of Canada, extends from the United
States on the south to the Northwest Terri-
tories on the north, or from the forty-ninth to
the sixtieth parallel of latitude, and from the
Pacific ocean on the west to the main ridge of
the Rocky mountains, as far north as parallel
54°, and thence to the sixtieth parallel along
meridian 120° W. on the east.

Area and Population.— British Columbia is in
its infancy. With a territory of 341,000 square
miles, it had in 1881 a population of only 49,-
459, of whom 4,350 were Chinese, and 25,661
Indians. Victoria, the. capital, is on the south-
ern end of Vancouver island, on the straits of
Juan de Fuca. Its population is 6,000. There
are no other towns of note. The chief villages
are: Esquimalt, near Victoria; Nanaimo, on
the Gulf of Georgia; New Westminster and
Port Moody, near the mouth of the Eraser;

BRITISH COLUMBIA.

73

Hope, Yale, Lytton, Kamloops, Lilloet, Rich-
field, Cariboo, and Quesnel, in the Fraser val-
ley, and Cassiar, in the northern part of the
province.

Geography. — The Rockies run in three near-
ly parallel chains, although in some localities
they almost unite. Between these ranges are
rough valleys, or narrow plateaus containing
small tracts of arable land, besides larger areas
suitable for grazing. Its timber is chiefly the
far-famed Douglas pine, though in many locali-
ties, especially along the mainland and Vancou-
ver island shores, the sturdy hard- woods are
found growing to a considerable size. Between
the Rockies and the Cascades or Coast-range, is

a broad, irregular plateau nearly one hundred
miles in width, forming another district of
"oases." In its valleys are found slopes,
openings, and expansions, such that while, on
the one side, grass grows luxuriantly, and oats,
barley, and wheat ripen, on the other the ice
is packed in the gorges throughout the year.
But as rain falls very rarely on this plateau,
the ice is of value in supplying moisture neces-
sary to mature fall wheat and other grains.

Meteorology.— T lie following table, illustrating
the temperatures and rainfalls of some of these
plateau valleys, compared with Esquimalt on
the straits of Juan de Fuca, is from official re-
ports of the Canadian Government :

LOCALITIES.

II

B

ii

Esquimalt

Plateaus, inland.

Deg.

48-42

47-79

57-98
68-41

Deg.
89-46
26-01

Deg.

89-17

29-84

Per cent.
58
46

Inches.
28-41

10-10

SK

Deg.
17-2
-9-4

Deg.
85
105

D«g.

8

Deg.

62-9
108-2

The cause of the dry climate of the plateaus
is found in the wide and high Coast-ranges,
which intercept the moisture of the westerly
winds. It may rain for several days over the
western slope of these mountains, while not a
drop falls on the eastern, only fifty miles dis-
tant. The clouds fly eastward, but appear in-
capable of forming rain. However, on the
Gold and Selkirk ranges of the Rockies rain
falls abundantly.

Along the mainland shore and on Vancouver
island are many large tracts of land admirably
suited for farming, and toward the head of the
Fraser and in the Thompson valley many agri-
cultural and grazing farms are established.

Forests. — The plateau valleys and the pla-
teaus are, as a rule, thinly wooded, although
the Douglas pine and various hard-woods afford
supplies far in excess of the present or the pro-
spective demands. On the coast, and in Van-
couver, however, the trees are of an enormous
size, rivaling the giant pines of California.

Metals. — The province abounds in minerals,
the most precious and vrluable having already
been found in paying quantities. It was only
in 1857 that the first gold was discovered in
British Columbia. The gold is found in nug-
gets, three brought forth in 1877 being worth
$40, $90, and $130, respectively. In other places
it is. found in thin scales, the rocks in all such
cases being igneous. Hitherto gold-mining has
been conducted in the primitive way, washing
the sand or gravel of the streams, and collecting
the proceeds. In places a lucky miner averages
$20 to $100 a day ; but, as the claims are
small, good luck does not last long. From ex-
periments conducted in San Francisco, it seems
there are localities where the quartz yields 1-21
ounce of gold, 2'43 ounces of silver, and sever-
al pounds of copper to the single ton. Some
specimens of silver-ore have yielded $300 a ton,

but ordinary specimens furnish 8*25 ounces of
silver and -6 ounce of gold. Native silver pel-
lets have often been found, hut in isolated locali-
ties. Copper is found in rich veins in several
places already, and also in ores. It occurs in a
native state in the Thompson river district.

Coal. — Coal is very abundant. The extensive
fields of Nanaimo or Vancouver are worked,
while many others on the mainland are await-
ing development. The following are the ex-
ports of coal mined in British Columbia for the
year 1882 :

DESTINATION.

To United States . . . .

188 756

$688 585

To Sandwich islands

12,170

40,857

To China

5670

19845

To Mexico .

8960

13860

Total

210,556

$713,147

During the same year British Columbia ex-
ported to the United States $723,225 worth of
gold-quartz.

Education. — The system of free public educa-
tion was established in British Columbia in
1872. During the first ten years of their exist-
ence the total expenditure for public schools
amounted to $480,395. Up to the end of 1882
only 50 school-houses had been erected, and
provision was made for 64 teachers for 1883.
The number of pupils enrolled in 1882 was
2,653, with an average daily attendance of
1,359. There is one high-school in the prov-
ince, with a registered attendance of 74. The
education department is presided over by a
chief superintendent, who acts under the di-
rection of the Lieutenant-Governor in Council,
through the Provincial Secretary. The indi-
vidual schools are controlled by school boards,
consisting of three members each,, who are
elected by resident male freeholders and house-

BULGARIA.

holders. The compulsory clauses of the school
law require every child between the ages of 7
and 12, inclusive, to attend school for at least
six months in the year. The penalty inflicted
on the parent or guardian for non-compliance
is $5 for the first offense, and $10 for each sub-
sequent conviction.

BULGARIA, a principality created by the Treaty
of Berlin, signed July 13, 1878, out of a por-
tion of the Christian provinces of Turkey. The
treaty provided that it should be an autono-
mous principality, tributary to Turkey, and
under the suzerainty of the Sultan, with a
Christian government, a prince elected by the
people, and a national militia. By unanimous
vote of the Constituent Assembly, Prince Alex-
ander of Battenberg, brother of the then Em-
press of Russia, and grand-nephew of the Ger-
man Emperor, was elected hereditary prince
as Alexander I, April 29, 1879. The Constitu-
tion of 1879 vests the legislative authority in
a single Chamber, the Sobranje, or National
Assembly, elected by universal suffrage in the
proportion of one deputy to every 10,000 in-
habitants, and gives the Prince power to ap-
point additional members not to exceed half the
number elected by the people. The duration
of the National Assembly was fixed at four
years, but the Prince could dissolve it at any
time and order new elections. The Constitu-
tion was suspended by Prince Alexander in
1881, who dissolved the National Assembly,
and, by despotic use of the military power and
falsification of the returns, procured the elec-
tion of a Grand National Assembly, the body
intrusted with the power to make changes in
the Constitution, which, by a vote of July 13,
1881, clothed the Prince with autocratic legis-
lative, and executive powers for seven years.

Statistics. — The area of Bulgaria is estimated
at 24,360 square miles. The population, as
returned in the census of Jan. 1. 1881, was
1,998,983, of whom 1,023,730 were males and
975,253 females. • As regards religion, 68-8 per
cent, were Christians, 30'7 per cent. Moham-
medans, and 0-5 per cent. Israelites ; in respect
to nationality, 66'7 per cent, were Bulgarians,
30-6 per cent. Turks, 1-3 per cent. Roumani-
ans, 0-5 per cent. Greeks, 0'5 per cent. Israel-
ites, 0'3 per cent. Germans, and O'l per cent,
of other nationalities. In 1883 the emigration
of the Mohammedan element recommenced on
a large scale. The capital, Sofia, contained 20,-
541 inhabitants ; Rustchuk, 26,867 ; Varna,
24,649 ; Shumla, 22,921. There were nine oth-
er towns of over 10,000 inhabitants. The main
occupation of the people is agriculture. The
exports of grain are about 1,500,000 tons per
annum. Other articles of export are wool, tal-
low, hides, and timber. Coal and iron mines
exist, but are almost entirely undeveloped.
There is a railroad between Rustchuk and Var-
na, 140 miles in length.

Army.— The army has been the subject of
particular attention on the part of Prince Al-
exander. In order to increase the reserve ar-

my as rapidly as possible, the period of service
with the colors is only two years, instead of
four. The army was trained by Russian of-
ficers, who fill most of the superior commands.
Bulgarian officers have been educated at the
Military Academy at Sofia to take their places
as speedily as practicable. The number of
Russian officers in 1882 was 376. In the au-
tumn of 1883 there were 185 Russian officers
still on the lists, and 400 of Bulgarian nation-
ality. The total strength of the army was
16,500 men.

Political Review.— Prince Alexander, when by
a state-stroke he abolished representative gov-
ernment, placed himself under the direction
and tutelage of the Russian court. He soon
found that his Russian mentors would give
him no chance to exercise his statecraft, but
pursued aims which were more in harmony with
the ideas of the Radical party which he had
expelled than with his own. The coup d^etat
placed it in the power of the Russians to
strengthen their grasp upon the country. Al-
exander had made his cousin, the Russian Em-
peror, the arbiter between himself and his
subjects, expecting when endowed with auto-
cratic power to guide the policy of the country
by balancing the interests of Russia and Aus-
tro-German interests against each other, and
thus secure the independent position guaran-
teed by the Treaty of Berlin. Instead of the
personal government at which he aimed, he
was forced to submit to the dictation of Rus-
sian guides who sympathized with the Pan-
bulgarian and radical ideas of the popular party
which they had aided the Prince in excluding
from the seats of government witli the bayo-
net. Zankoff and Balabanoff, the Radical lead-
ers, from their near place of exile in Eastern
Roumelia, and in clandestine visits in the coun-
try, were able to carry on a lively agitation
for the overthrow of the Prince. Hitrovo,
the Russian consul-general, who had planned
the arrangements of the coup d'etat, and many
of the Russian officers, openly fraternized with
the Prince's enemies. Kryloff, the Russian
general, who was Minister of "War, refused to
issue an order forbidding officers of the army
to take part in these antagonistic demonstra-
tions. Alexander journeyed to St. Petersburg,
and threatened to lay down the crown if he was
obliged to submit to such indignities, where-
upon the Emperor recalled the obnoxious offi-
cials, and gave the Prince for advisers Generals
Soboleff and Kaulbars, who were supposed to
be free from Panslavistic tendencies, admon-
ishing him at the same time to be sparing in
the exercise of his autocratic powers.

The ministry which was formed in July,
1882, consisted of Gen. Soboleff, Premier and
Minister of the Interior; Gen. Kaulbars, Min-
ister of War ; Natshevich— a Bulgarian, whose
appointment as Minister of the Interior a year
before in the place of the Russian Lieut-Col.
Remlingen, who was dismissed, had provoked
angry menaces from Hitrovo — Minister of Fi-

BULGARIA.

75

nance ; Vulkovich, Minister of Public Works
and Minister of the Exterior ad interim ; Gre-
koff, Minister of Justice ; and Tesharoff, Min-
ister of Education. The new National Assem-
bly, a simply consultative body, contained 80
members, elected by the indirect system.

The Conservative party became gradually
imbued with the same jealous distrust of Rus-
sian supremacy which the Liberals professed.
The latter represented the sentiments of the
bulk of the population, among whom gratitude
toward their Russian deliverers, and affinity for
the popular ideas agitating Russia in contra-
distinction to the ideas of liberty and reform
which prevail in Western Europe, co-existed
with a jealous spirit of resistance to the domi-
nation of the Russian Government.

The Russian generals worked tor a time in
harmony with their Conservative colleagues.
But in January, 1883, a difference arose re-
garding the projected line of railroad from So-
fia to Rustchuk. On their insistance, Vulko-
vich retired from the ministry, being succeeded
by Stoiloff, a man of similar patriotic Bulga-
rian sentiments. The pretext for the dismissal
of Vulkovich was the action of the Govern-
ment in the matter of a Radical demonstration,
for which action Soboleff was himself chiefly
responsible. Zankoff, who had been kept in
prison for many months, was a few weeks be-
fore allowed to leave the country. He returned
to Rustchuk, and was received with public
manifestations of sympathy. The demonstra-
tion was suppressed by the prefect. The Gov-
ernment, trying to satisfy all parties, dismissed
the prefect and reimprisoned Zankoff. Other
subjects of dispute arose, particularly the ques-
tion of employing the civil power to execute a
disciplinary decree pronounced against Mile-
tius, Archbishop of Sofia, by the Bulgarian
Synod. Soboleff acquiesced in the forcible
seclusion of the prelate, but fearing the effect
in Russia, where the act might be construed as
an indignity committed upon a high dignitary
of the Holy Orthodox Church, threw the
blame upon his colleagues. In March, Stoi-
ioff, Gregoff, and Natshevich sent in their res-
ignations. A working Cabinet was formed,
in which a Russian, P -ince Hilkoff, was given
the Ministry of Public Works, and other Rus-
sians or partisans of the generals the other
posts. The rupture between the Conserva-
tives and the Russian ministers became com-
plete. When the Prince went to Moscow to
attend the coronation of the Emperor, after
first visiting the Sultan at Constantinople and
stopping at Athens, he found there a deputa-
tion from the National Assembly, a deputation
of Liberals, and his two Russian ministers, all
desirous of laying their grievances before the
Emperor. When, after the ministerial crisis
in March, the Russian generals took the gov-
ernment of the country entirely into their own
hands, they found themselves isolated. The
contracts which they distributed among Rus-
sians rendered them unpopular. They rejected

the authority of the Prince, and represented at
St. Petersburg that constitutional government
ought to be restored. They approached the
Radicals, who demanded the restitution of the
constitution of Tirnova. The Prince, who
submitted tamely to the open insubordination
of the Russian ministers, resisted the return to
regular government, because he would not
govern with a Radical ministry and Assembly.

The only hope of emerging from the lawless
condition under which the country suffered,
with no sovereign power capable of exercising
authority, was by a compromise and fusion of
the two warring political parties. The Russian
emissaries were under standing orders to bring
about a return to a constitutional regime as the
chief part of their task. The Liberal leaders
were recalled from exile, and in August they
held consultations with the chiefs of the Con-
servative party. Their demand for the convo-
cation of a Grand Sobranje, for the re-estab-
lishment of the constitution of Tirnova, was
inacceptable.

The Russian Government sent M. Jonin as
extraordinary embassador to direct the set-
tlement of the question of the Constitution.
Prince Alexander quarreled outright with his
chief minister, and attempted to dismiss him
and form a ministry of Bulgarian Conserva-
tives. The Russian generals thereupon showed
the Prince orders from the Emperor not to
leave the country, even at the Prince's com-
mand. Jonin then presented an ultimatum,
demanding that the Prince should lay down
his autocratic powers, call a Great Sobranje
within six months, for the adoption of a Con-
stitution, and in the mean time leave the ad-
ministration entirely in the hands of the two
generals. Alexander finally complied with the
demand by issuing a manifesto on Sept. llth,
announcing the appointment of a commission
to elaborate a Constitution which would be
laid before a Great National Assembly.

The Prince, in order to avoid the humiliation
of resigning the sovereignty to the Russian
agents, made up his mind at last to come to
terms with the Liberal party. Zankoff and
Balabanoff, on behalf of the Liberals, and
Natshevich and Grekoff, the Conservative lead-
ers, effected a compromise, whereby the con-
stitution of Tirnova was restored by proclama-
tion, subject to revision by the Great Sobranje,
but the legislative powers were to be exercised
by the extraordinary Sobranje elected in De-
cember, 1882, as to some extent they virtually
had been all along, instead of by a new So-
branje elected under the old Constitution. This
course was urged in a resolution of the Nation-
al Assembly in which both parties united their
votes. By this turn of affairs, General Sobo-
leff was taken by surprise, and rendered power-
less. The entire episode was prearranged by
the Prince and the political leaders, all parties
suddenly sinking their differences for the pur-
pose of escaping the dictation of the obnoxious
Russian agents. Giving the anomaly of gov-

76

CABLES.

erning under the Constitution with a National
Assembly not constitutionally elected as their
ground, the Soboleff-Kaulbars ministry, con-
sisting of the two generals, Burmoff, Agura,
Prince Hilkoff, and K. Zankoff, handed in their
resignation, Sept. 19th. Stoianoff, whom the
Prince had insisted on placing in charge of the
Ministry of Justice, in opposition to the Rus-
sians, did not sign the paper. A Bulgarian
ministry was formed, with Drogan Zankoff at
the head, the man who had passed the last two
years in prison and in banishment, and had
visited Bulgaria only by stealth to agitate for
the deposition of the Prince. Stoiloff received
the portfolio of Justice.

Over the nomination of a Minister of War,
Prince Alexander was again involved in strife
with the Russian diplomatic representative.
With both the political parties at his back,
their fierce rivalries reconciled by the national
danger of sinking into a Russian dependency,
he was emboldened to refuse both the officers
given to him to choose from, and select Gen.
Lessovoy for the position. But the admoni-
tions of M. Jonin caused him to yield the point,
and accept Lieut.-Col. Redigher. A spirited
contest over the control of the army ensued.
Soboleff and Kaulbars had succeeded in gather-
ing a party with Panslavistic tendencies, a part
of whose programme was the confederation of
the Balkan states. This party was now strong-
er, and carried on an active opposition to the
Prince under the encouragement of Jonin and
the leadership of Karaveloff, a more extreme
and consistent Radical than Zankoff and his
associates.

Alexander, in his disputes with the Russian
agents, had several times received the hint that
he might lose his throne. Suggestions had

been thrown out to the people that Prince
Waldemar of Denmark, brother of the Empress
of Russia, would make a popular ruler. The
Russian agents succeeded in throwing Prince
Alexander into a dangerous passion by the re-
call to Russia, without warning, of Adjutant-
Gen. Lessovoy, and another officer. The
Prince discharged every Russian officer on his
staff, and, when Col. Redigher refused to carry
out the order, he took away his commission
and demanded the resignation of his portfolio,
threatening, in case he refused, to have him
conducted across the frontier. The Russian
Government did not resent it, but secured a
more definite control over the Bulgarian army.
The Bulgarian Government arrived at an un-
derstanding with Baron Kaulbars, the Emper-
or's aide-de-camp, and accepted a convention,
signed for three years, whereby the Bulgarian
Minister of War is to be appointed by the
Prince, subject to confirmation by the Emper-
or. Russian officers are not allowed to accept
civil appointments, nor to take part in political
affairs, and are subject to the Minister of War,
who is answerable to the Russian diplomatic
representative.

Legislation.— The Sobranje, after receiving
legislative authority, immediately applied itself
to the settlement of the debt to the Russian
Government for the cost of the occupation,
and to the railroad convention with Austria.
This convention (see AUSTRIA), though opposed
by the Russian representatives, could not well
be avoided, as it was an affair of the European
concert. The terms for the payment of the
indemnity for the Russian occupation in the
Turkish War, amounting to 10,618,250 paper
rubles, were settled by a treaty entered into
with Russia.

c

CABLES, INTERNATIONAL PROTECTION OF
SUBMARINE. When the first attempt to lay
an Atlantic cable was made in 1864, France,
Brazil, Hayti, Italy, and Portugal entered
into an agreement recognizing the neutrality
of the cable, and accepting the obligation not
to injure or destroy it, even for military pur-
poses, in the event of war. This treaty fell
through with the cable project. In 1869 the
United States Government called a conference
at Washington, to consider the international
relations of the ocean telegraphs and their
regulation in war and peace. The American
Government prepared a project which pro-
Tided for the protection of the cables and their
neutrality in war-time; but the outbreak of
the Franco-German war prevented the meet-
ing of the conference. In 1871 Cyrus W.
Field submitted a similar proposal to the
conference in Rome, and the Italian ministry
undertook to lay it before the European gov-
ernments. Only one answer was received, a
favorable one from the Austrian Government.

Confidential inquiries proved it to be out of
the question to expect the majority of the
powers to agree to the inviolability of the
cables in time of war. The Institute of Inter-
national Law accepted the situation, in dis-
cussing the matter at their meeting at Brus-
sels, in 1879, and proposed a treaty to pro-
vide for the arrest and punishment of persons
who injure cables on the high seas, and the
neutralization of cables running between neu-
tral countries. They proposed that persons
suspected of injuring a cable should be subject
to arrest by naval vessels of any of the pow-
ers, but that they should be brought to trial
in the country of the vessel on which they are
taken. They also suggested that measures
taken to interrupt cable communication in
war-time should not extend, unless it should
be unavoidable, to the injury of the cable;
and if it does, that the same government
should repair the damage when peace is re-
stored.
In 1881 several cables were badly injured

CALIFORNIA.

77

in the North Sea. The English subjects who
were interested appealed to their Govern-
ment to secure reparation, but their request
was received coldly. The conference held
at the Hague in 1881 for the regulation of
the North Sea fisheries, in which the Nether-
lands, Germany, France, Great Britain, Bel-
gium, Sweden, and Denmark took part,
adopted a resolution recommending the gov-
ernments to take measures to prevent the
injury of submarine cables by fishermen.

When this question came up at the Electrical
Congress at Paris, in 1881, the French Gov-
ernment proposed a conference for the dis-
cussion of the subject. The conference met
Oct. 16, 1882, in Paris. Representatives of
France, Austria, Germany, Great Britain,
Italy, Russia, the Netherlands, Belgium, Den-
mark, Switzerland, Turkey, Norway, Sweden,
Spain, Portugal, Greece, Servia, Roumania,
the United States, Colombia, British India,
Japan, China, Mexico, Nicaragua, the Argen-
tine Republic, and Costa Rica were partici-
pants. The conference confined itself to the
subject of the protection of cables in time of
peace. After long deliberations, a compromise
project was adopted. Any person who inten-
tionally or through criminal negligence in-
jures or breaks a submarine cable, is de-
clared an offender against the law. The
courts of the country to which the vessel be-
longs upon which the illegal act is committed,
are to have jurisdiction of the offense.

CALIFORNIA. State Government.— The State
officers during the year 1883 were the follow-
ing: Governor, George Stoneman, Democrat;
Lieutenant-Governor, John Daggett ; Secre-
tary of State, T. L. Thompson ; Treasurer, W.
A. January; Comptroller, John P. Dunn ; Su-
perintendent of Public Instruction, W. T.
Welcker; Attorney-General, C. E. Marshall;
Surveyor-General, H. I. Willey. Judiciary :
Supreme Court— Chief -Justice, Robert F. Mor-
rison ; Associate Justices, M. H. Myrick, E.
W. McKinstry, E. M. Ross, J. D. Thornton, J.
R. Sharpstein, S. B. McKee.

Legislative Session. — The Legislature, consisting
of 30 Democrats and 10 Republicans in the
Senate, and 58 Democrats, 21 Republicans, and
one Independent in the House, met on the 8th
of January and adjourned on the 13th of
March. Among the measures passed were the
following :

Bills in aid of the State University ; the road law ;
concerning tax-sale redemptions ; classifying munici-
pal corporations ; providing for a preparatory course
tor the university in the common-school system ; a
new and good street law ; in aid of decrepit veterans
of the Mexican War ; in aid of foundling asylums ; in
aid of viticulture ; in aid of horticulture and the de-
struction of fruit insect-pests ; protecting food-fish ;
settling contests as to preferred labor claims ; provid-
ing for a wall at the Folsom Prison ; a fair municipal
government bill ; giving boards of health control
over drainage-fittings for houses • a county govern-
ment bill, about equally balanced between good and
ill provisions ; in aid of silk-culture ; to prevent the
introduction of contagious diseases into the State ;

providing additional accommodations for the insane ;
requiring the insane with sufficient estates to pay for
their care : giving a fit salary to the Clerk of the State
Board of Equalization ; providing for better invest-
ment of school moneys ; aiding the State Agricultural
Society ; aiding the Mining Bureau ; paying some just
claims ; aiding the industrial education of the deaf
and dumb and the blind ; providing for the care and
repair of State buildings, and aiding State normal
schools ; and submitting the text-book question to a
vote ; some few amendments to the Code, of no par-
ticular significance, the best being a new provision for
authentication of marriage : the repeal of the Sunday
law ; the oleomargarine bill ; the Statistical Bureau
bill ; the street rail way -ticket bill ; the Lake Tahoe
forestry bill, limited to a small region, and hence
tending to prevent general remedies being applied;
the legislative and congressional partisan appor-
tionment bills ; the bill legislating out of office Ee-
publican Harbor Commissioners; vacating a judicial
office in Mono instead of impeaching the incumbent;
the hair-cutting bill for county prisoners ; for the
destruction of wild animals ; as to refunding the in-
debtedness of cities ; auditing the accounts of the In-
surance Commissioner; the jurisdiction of justices;
as to juvenile offenders ; as to the method of submit-
ting constitutional amendments ; as to drawbridges
in cities ; purchasing portraits of Governors ; as to
the manner of assessing railroad property.

The following are the new congressional
districts: 1st — Del Norte, Humboldt, Trinity,
Siskiyou, Shasta, Modoc, Lassen, Plumas, Sier-
ra, Tehama, Colusa, Mendocino, Lake, Sonoma,
and Napa counties; 2d — Butte, Sutter, Yuba,
Nevada, Placer, El Dorado, Amador, Calave-
ras, San Joaquin, Stanislaus, Merced, Tuo-
lumne, and Mariposa; 3d — Yolo, Sacramento,
Solano, Contra Costa, Marin, and Alameda;
4th — part of San Francisco ; 5th — part of San
Francisco, and all of San Mateo, Santa Cruz,
and Santa Clara ; 6th — San Benito, Monterey,
San Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, Ventura,
Kern, Los Angeles, San Diego, San Bernardi-
no, Alpine, Tulare, Fresno, Mono, and Inyo.

The Governor's Views. — Gov. Stoneman was
inaugurated on the 10th of January. In his
address he expressed the following views re-
garding the regulation of freights and fares, the
Sunday law, the Chinese question, prison re-
form, and irrigation :

Three years have now elapsed since the people
solemnly expressed their views upon the subject of
the regulation of fares and freights, and delegated to
a commission, chosen under the new organic law, the
authority to execute their expressed will. It is to be
deeply regretted that the retiring Railroad Commission
has entirely neglected and refused to take any posi-
tive steps toward enforcing its powers. It is to be
earnestly hoped that the incoming Commission will
prove to be composed of men of sufficient .courage and
sagacity to meet this issue in a spirit of fairness ; to
deal justly by the transportation companies and can-
didly by the people. I wish it to be distinctly under-
stood that all the power and influence of the Execu-
tive department ot the government will be cheerfully
exercised on behalf of the commission to bring the
issue between the people and the transportation com-
panies to a final and satisfactory termination. The
question of the regulation of fares and freights is the
great living issue of the day, and no postponement of
its solution to a future time will prove satisfactory
either to the people of this State or the Union. The
question of the power of the State to fix and regulate
the charges for fares and freights upon transportation
lines within the State has passed beyond the line of

78

CALIFORNIA.

legitimate argument. As to the policy of enforcing
the power of the State to regulate fares and freights
there can not, since the result of the late election, ba
flirther doubt.

Sumptuary laws are and ever have been opposed to
Democratic teachings, and find no support among
liberal-minded people. For many years sections 299,
300, and 391, of the I'enal Code, commonly called the
" Sunday law," have been on our statute-books.
Under slightly varying torms this law has been in
existence in this State during the major portion of the
past quarter of a century. Now and then spasmodic
efforts have been made to enforce it, but without suc-
cess. In every contest before the courts the condition
of public opinion has been shown by the fact that the
law has been practically placed on trial, and not the
particular defendant at the bar. In cases where the
testimony adduced has been conclusive that the al-
leged offense has been committed, juries have almost
uniformly refused to convict — a state of facts never
before observed with reference to any other portion
of our criminal jurisprudence. Such is the condition
of the sections above cited. It is unwise to encumber
the statute-books with an enactment which experience
has proved can not be enforced. The result at the
late election is an emphatic indorsement of the atti-
tude of the now dominant party on this important
subject, and our duty in the premises is perfectly
clear. We all concede that those sections of our
Codes which provide for certain holidays and non-
judicial days are essential to happiness and health.
The repeal of the " Sunday law " will in no wise inter-
fere with the permanency or effect of our civil legis-
lation in the matter of a day of rest. Nor is there
any disposition to disturb those penal enactments
which are intended to protect religious assemblages
from all unseemly interference.

Within the past year Congress has granted to the
people of this coast partial relief from the much-de-
plored evil of Chinese immigration. There are some
who affect to believe this important question finally
settled by the statute referred to. There are those
who evince a desire to nullify its effect by a loose con-
struction of its terms and an inefficient execution of
its provisions. The law had hardly taken effect when
another bill was introduced into the Senate of the
United States, and I believe is now pending in that
body, under which many thousands of Chinese now
serving under labor contracts in the West India
islands might be permitted to cross the territory of
the United States to their homes in the Chinese Em-
pire. Considering that we have no power to deport
the Chinese, if they were once permitted to land in
this country, they might remain here permanently.
Against this new danger the people of this coast will
depend upon their representatives in Congress to
guard.

The congregate system of imprisonment, which,
owing to the peculiar construction and want of cell-
room in our prisons, is necessarily in vogue therein,
is, in my opinion, not conducive of the moral well-
being of the prisoner. The most important object of
penal confinement ought to be to effect a reformation
of the prisoner. 1 would respectfully recommend that,
if practicable, a system of isolation and solitary con-
finement be instituted among those of the most vicious
character. In the absence of such a system of isola-
tion, San Quentin Prison, from its geographical posi-
tion, might be made a distributing prison. All con-
victs should be sentenced to that institution in order
that they may be registered and graded, the prison
directors selecting those for distribution to Folsom
and any other branch prison hereafter established.
After careful study and examination of past records,
the comparatively good should be retained and the
vicious and incorrigible confined at another prison, so
far as the interests of the State may permit. This
system, strictly carried out, would form a perfect rec-
ord of the antecedents and disposition of all convicts
within the State. This system is not only essential

for the good of the prisoner and for the guidance of
the directors, but would enable the district attorneys
of each county to be always able to procure a complete
record to embody in their information or indictments
the number of convictions of each defendant, it' any
such there be, as they are now compelled by law to do
under what is known as the " Prior-Conviction Act."
In a large portion of the State, agricultural interests
are being developed by the aid of irrigation. The
history of all countries dependent upon irrigation
shows that this practice has necessitated the enact-
ment of laws especially designed for the protection
and regulation of irrigation, the maintenance of order,
equity, and economy in^the appropriation and use of
waters, and that the subject has been one of the most
difficult to deal with in legislation. Our own experi-
ence,, limited though it be, is sufficient to establish
this fact, as our courts arc crowded with litigation
growing out of irrigation practices, which constitute a
serious drawback to our prosperity.

Finances. — The receipts for the thirty-second
fiscal year (1881) were $4,751,573.66, and for
the thirty-third fiscal year (1882), $4,698,-
654.41. Of these, for the thirty-second year,
$3,636,008.23, and for the thirty-third, $3,-
685,367.60, came from property-taxes; and
from poll-taxes, for the thirty-second year,
$316,869,48, and for the thirty-third year,
$248,816.30.

During the two years the disbursements on
account of the State were :

FUNDS.

Thirty-second
fiscal year.

Thirty-third
fiscal year.

General

$2243567 38

$1 828 826 88

School

1 797312 51

1 888'579 98

State school land.

28 690 56

8 825 51

Interest and sinking
University

Consolidated fund, University. .
State Library

314,745 00
71,800 25
33,500 00
11 859 88

310,555 83
81,496 59
12,000 00
5980 47

Supreme Court Library . .

2 878 40

1 914 85

Election reward

2(0 00

Condemnation

8.000 00

287 943 61

Harbor improvement

482 8S4 79

165 248 07

Mining Bureau
Indian War bond
Construction fund, Drainage
District No 1

11,730 00
218 73

76046 45

10,700 00

Levee I >istrict No. 5
Funded debt of 1373

14,740 00

10,240 00
99,000 00

Total .

$5885612 56

$4418362 18

Less general fund wan-ants is-
sued and canceled during the
thirty-second fiscal year

721 00

Total

$5384891 56

$4418862 13

For the thirty-second year the disbursements
exceeded receipts $633,317.90, but forthe thirty-
third year the receipts exceeded disbursements
$280,292.28. The Comptroller says, " The nat-
ural inference to be drawn from the fact that in
any one year the disbursements exceeded the
receipts, is that the finances of the State were
not in a healthy condition, but this would be
unjust, as such disbursements were made from
not only incoming moneys, but from moneys
accrued in previous years to the funds where
the discrepancy occurs."

It cost $16,101.90 to carry convicts to prison
in the thirty-third fiscal year, and $22,500 for
transportation of insane patients to the asy-
lums.

CALIFORNIA.

79

The following tables show the assessed val-
ues of the several classes of property in the
State for the years 1881 and 1882 respectively:

ASSESSED VALUES OF PROPERTY FOR 1881.

Value of real estate ...$348,869,810

Value of improvements on real estate 1 lo,218,041

Value of personal property, exclusive of money.. 146,180,978

The amount of money 13,597,566

Value of railroads operated in more than one
county 84,829,664

Total $658,691,059

TAX-RATE FOR 1881.

For general fund '. . . 87 • 7 cents— $2,190,084

For school fund 22 • 4 cents— 1 ,300,000

For interest and sinking fund 5'4 cents- 815,000

Total 65-5 cents— $3,805,084

ASSESSED VALUES OF PROPERTY FOR 1882.

Value of real estate -v^ .,~~~,—

Value of improvements on real estate 114,516,747

Value of personal property, exclusive of money.. 120,848,453

The amount of money 12,702,056

Value of railroads operated in more than one
county 27,602,313

Total $607,472,262

TAX-RATE FOR 1882.

For general fund 27 • 8 cents— $1,488,735

For school fund 24-3 cents— 1,800,000

For interest and sinking fund 7 • 5 cents — 398,000

Total 59-6cents— $3,186,735

The counties paid to the State for taxes in 1881,
$4,230,075.68, and in 1882, $4,144,659.93.

From other sources the State received, for
1831, $52,497.98, and for 1882, $553,994.48,
making a total of all receipts from all sources
for the thirty-second year, of $4.751,573.66,
and for the thirty-third year of $4,698,654.41.

The amount of outstanding warrants, June
30, 1882, was $286,749.69 ; balance in Treas-
ury, $1,016,021.77. On the financial condition
of the State, Gov. Perkins, in his valedictory
message, says:

The State has taxable property of the assessed value
of about $610,000,000. Her interest - bearing debt
amounts to $3,293,500. Of that debt the State owns,
holding in trust for educational purposes, $2,690,000.
This leaves only $603,500 of her bonds in private
hands; and there is now in the Treasury, and pro-
vided for by taxes already levied, something more
than $500,000 applicable to their purchase or redemp-
tion. That showing is a good one for a Common-
wealth that has expended within the past ten years
more than $4,000,000 upon public buildings, more
than $4,500,000 for charities, and more than $2,000,-
000 for public education.

Within fifteen years our expenditures for educational
purposes have increased from the annual average of
$275,000 to that of the current fiscal year— $2,029,-
974 ; expenses, ordinary and extraordinary, have been
met ; permanent improvements of great value have
been made; taxation has not been excessive, com-
paratively speaking, and the public debt has been
steadily reduced.

During the present administration the ordinary ex-
penses of government have been light, the extraor-
dinary ones great. The public institutions have been
ably and economically managed. The various offices
have been efficiently filled and prudently conducted.
The expenditures for all purposes have averaged $4,-
244,038 annually. For the five years preceding, the
annual average expenditure was $3.633,902. The in-
creased average expenditure yearly has been $610,136.
Such increase is owing in part to extraordinary ap-
propriations made — and, in my opinion, wisely made

—for various purposes ; but is owing mainly to our
growth as a community, which has naturally necessi-
tated greater outlay.

For charities, the annual expenditures were, for five
years preceding this administration, $433,870. The
average for the past three years has been $623,262.
For public education, the average yearly outlay tor
the five fiscal years immediately preceding my inau-
guration was $1,880,628. During my term of office,
the average annual outlay for the same purposes has
been $1,783,948. The increased annual average, there-
fore, for these two items alone, amounts to $592,865
— which is within $17,000 of the total increased
average.

The State Board of Equalization was provided for
under the Constitution for the purpose, in part, of ef-
fecting an equalization of the assessment of the prop-
erty of the State. From the report of the board it
would appear that it has not been able, through de-
fects in the law, and decisions of the Supreme Court,
in raising the assessment of the State to the true
standard of value in money. Thus, while, exclusive
of railroads, the assessment of 1880 exceeded that of
1879 in the sum of $103,068,642. the assessment of
1881 and 1 882 did not increase in the proportion which
was expected from the known progress of the State
in material wealth and industrial pursuits. The as-
sessment of 1881 was below that ol 1880 $36,278,541.
The assessment of 1882 shows a decrease below that
of 1880 of $55,158,105, and below that of 1881 of
$18,879,564.

I entered upon the duties of my office with defi-
ciency bills amounting to more than $218,000. A
part of this sum was for increase in salaries of the
judiciary, and expense of Railroad Commission and
Board of Equalization, that were created by the new
Constitution, and began life the middle of the fiscal
year. The Legislature of 1880 appropriated $414,000
more than it levied a tax to raise. Hence resulted the
tax levy for 1881 of 65-5 cents as against that for 1880
of only 59 cents. The last Legislature paid all these
accumulated debts ; there was a falling off in the
assessed value of property of $51,000,000, and yet, as
the result of prudent economy in outlay, the tax levy
for 1882 was reduced to 56-6 cents ; and to-day our
public buildings are all in a most excellent state of
preservation ; and one of our prisons almost placed
upon a self-sustaining basis."

California contributes $190,000 annually to
twenty orphan asylum societies toward the
expense of caring for the children. The insane
asylums cost $458,000, and the State prisons
$450,000.

Viticulture.— The Board of Viticultural Com-
missioners has performed its labors with credit
to itself and profit to the State. Established
but three years, it has seen the increased plan-
tation of from 50,000 to 60,000 acres of land
in.vines, which plantations were made mainly
through the encouraging influence of this
board, it being also instrumental in choice of
the vines planted and the locations selected.
The actual present value of these new planta-
tions is over $15,000,000, and the increased
value by this reason given to the surrounding
properties must be fully as much more. The
impetus thus given to the plantation of vine-
yards still continues. The present plantations
will yield the producers after the next vintage
not less than six and a half million dollars per
annum. There are now planted not less than
100,000 acres of vineyards, of which, probably,
7,000 are planted with the choicest of import-
ed vines.

80

CANADA, DOMINION OF.

Eteftion Returns. — The result of the election
in November, 1882, was as follows: For Gov-
ernor, Stoneman, Democrat, 90,724 ; Estee, Re-
publican, 67,175 ; McDonald, Prohibitionist,
5,765 ; McQuiddy, Greenbacker, 1,020. All
the State officers elected were Democrats. The
Democrats also elected two Congressmen- at-
large, four district Congressmen, three Railroad
Commissioners (one in each district), and three
members of the State Board of Equalization
(first, third, and fourth districts). In the sec-
ond district the Republicans elected the mem-
ber of this board. The following is the vote
for district Congressmen :

ada, when considered in degrees of longitude,
its breadth in miles is only 3,200 from extrem-
ity to extremity, and from ocean-port to ocean-
port, only 2,200. From Port Nelson, on Hud-
son bay, to the mouth of the Skuna river, in
British Columbia, is only 1,360 miles.

The physical features of Canada, considered
as a whole, are very regular. The northeastern
coast-line is deeply indented by Hudson and
James bays, while its eastern one is broken
irregularly by the Gulf of St. Lawrence and
the Bay of Fundy.

The lakes of Canada are detailed in the fol-
lowing table :

DISTRICT.

Democratic.

Republican.

Other.

First

22,788

14,847

656

Second

20,229

19,246

556

Third

21,807

19,478

1,266

Fourth

23105

18,387

710

CANADA, DOMINION OF. The Dominion of
Canada, the largest and in many respects the
most important colony of Great Britain, com-
prises the greater portion of the North Ameri-
can continent lying north of the United States.

Geography. — Its boundaries are : on the south,
the United States and the Great Lakes ; on the
west, from the Straits of Juan de Fuca, latitude
48°, to Dixon Entrance, latitude 55° N., in the

NAME.

Area
in
miles.

Depth
in
feet.

Latitude
center.

Nipigon

1,650

850

50°

Simcoe
Nipissing

300
550

704
634

44° 25'
46° 15'

Temiscamingue

350
567

650

47" 15'
44° 80'

St John

500

50

48° 80'

Great Bear*

14,000

230

66°

Great Slave*

20,000

580

62°

Athabasca*

Wollaston*

5,000
2000

600
600

59"
58°

Deer* . ...

8,000

500

57°

Winnipeg

10,000

700

52° 80'

Winnipegosis

2,800

728

52° 80'

Manitoba

2000

720

51°

Woods...

500

977

49" 30'

Pacific ocean, and from Dixon Entrance to
the Arctic ocean, in latitude 70°, the United
States Territory Alaska ; on the north lies the
Arctic ocean ; while on the northeast and east
are Baffin bay, Davis straits, the Atlantic ocean,
Labrador, Straits of Belle Isle, and the Gulf of
St. Lawrence. Labrador, though part of the
mainland, is under the administration of New-
foundland. Included within these boundaries
are 3,370,000 square miles of land.

Notwithstanding the great breadth of Can-

The provinces of Canada are :

NAME.

Area In

miles.

Population
in 1881.

Capital
of province.

Ontario

220000

1 928 228

Quebec

188 000

1 359 027

Quebec

New Brunswick
Nova Scotia
Manitoba

27,000
20,000
123000

821,233
440,572
65954

Fredericton.
Halifax.
Winnipeg.

British Columbia....
Pince Edward

341,000
2,000

49,459
108,891

Victoria.
Charlottetown.

* Great Bear, Great Slave,' Athabasca, Wollaston, and Deer
are not properly surveyed yet, hence the areas, etc., are only
approximate. They are all shallow.

CANADA, DOMINION OF.

(For details concerning the various provinces,
eee the articles under their respective names.)

Territories. — To the east of British Columbia
lie the four new Territories of Canada, viz.,
Athabasca, Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Assini-
boia. By an Order in Council, dated May,
1882, these were erected out of the Northwest
Territories, for the convenience of settlers and
for postal and other purposes.

Assiniboia.— The District of Assiniboia, about
95,000 square miles in extent, is bounded on
the south by the 49th parallel ; on the east by
the western boundary of Manitoba, meridian
101 1 ; on the north by the southern boundary
of Saskatchewan, the 52d parallel of latitude ;
and on the west by the eastern boundary of
Alberta, near meridian 111^.

Saskatchewan. — The District of Saskatchewan,
about 114,000 square miles in extent, is bound-
ed on the south by Assiniboia and Manitoba ;
on the east by Lake Winnipeg and the Nel-

son river ; on the north by the 55th parallel of
latitude ; and on the west by Alberta, me-
ridian 11 1£.

Alberta.— The District of Alberta, about 100,-
000 square miles in extent, lies between the
49th parallel on the south and the southern
boundary of Athabasca, the 55th parallel, on
the north ; and between the western bounda-
ries of Assiniboia and Saskatchewan, meridian
111^, on the east, and the eastern boundary of
British Columbia on the west.

Athabasca. — The District of Athabasca, about
122,000 square miles in extent, lies between
Alberta on the south and the 60th parallel of
latitude on the north ; and between the eastern
boundary of British Columbia, meridian 120,
on the west, and the meridian forming the
eastern boundary of Alberta, continued north
until it intersects the Athabasca river, thence
that river, Lake Athabasca, and Slave river, to
the 60th parallel.

TERRITORIES.

NAME.

Area in miles.

Most important placet.

Assiniboia

95,000

Saskatchewan. ....
Alberta

114,000
100,000

Walsh and Pelly, Broad view,' Medicine Hat, and Touchwood
Battleford, Cumberland, Prince Albert, Saskatchewan, Forts Pitt, Carlton, and La
Corne.
Fort Macleod, Edmonton, Victoria, Rocky Mountain House Forts Calgary Sas-

Athabasca
Keewatin

122,000
360,000

katchewan, Old Bow, and Assiniboine.
Dunnegan, Vermilion, Peace Kiver, Athabasca, Forts Macleod, and Lesser Slave.
Fort York, Fort Churchill Norway and Oxford

The remaining portions of Canada, unoffi-
cially named Northwest, North, and Northeast
Territories, include nearly one half of it. The
capital of the organized Territories is Regina.
Formerly it was Battleford, but it was changed
in 1882 to its present site.

Population. — The official census shows that
Canada contained, in 1881, 4,324,810 souls.
The following table exhibits the countries in
which these were born, with the number from
each:

England

169,504

Russia

6,376

Adventists

7,211

185 526

Spain

215

Baptists

296,525

Scotland
Canada

115,062
3,715,492
8143

Sweden, Norway.
United States....

2,076
. . 77,753
14169

Brethren
Koman Catholics . .
Anglican

8,831
1,791,982
574.818

France
Germany

4,389

25,328

Total...

.. 4.324,810

Congregational
Disciples

26,900
20,198

Italy '

111

Refor'd Episcopal.

2,596

Jews

2,898

TVia frvllrKTT

;r

Lutherans...

46,350

cording to origin or nationality of parents :

21,394

4,383

30,412

881,301

African

Chinese

Dutch

English

French

German 25<319

Icelandic 1,009

Indian 108,547

Irish 957,403

Italian 1,849

Jewish 667

Russian 1,227

Scandinavian 4,214

Scotch 699,863

Spanish 1,172

Swiss 4,588

Welsh 9,947

Others 43,536

Total 4,324,801

Ontario 1,923,288 Prince Ed. Island

Quebec 1,359,027 Manitoba 65^954

Nova Scotia 440,572 British Columbia. . . 49,459

New Brunswick . . . 321,233 Territories 56,446

NOTE.— This is the census of 1881. Since that date Mani-
toba and the Territories have increased by immigration over
150,000 (1883).

The following statement shows the total
number of the adherents to the various churches
in Canada. (For more extended information
concerning the leading denominations, see the
articles under their respective titles.)

Methodists 742,981

Pagans 4,478

Presbyterians 686,165

Quakers 6,553

Unitarians 2,126

Universalists 4,517

Not given 110,191

Total 4,324,801

Indians. — There are nearly 108,000 Indians
in the Dominion, distributed as follows:

Ontario 15,780

Quebec . 11,071

Nova Scotia 2,219

New Brunswick 1,416

Prince Ed. Island. ... 290

Manitoba & N. W. Ter. 35,726

Athabasca District. . . 2,398

British Columbia .... 35,052

Rupert's Land 3,770

Total 107,722

In this table Canadians and Americans are
classed under the various headings, English,
French, Irish, Dutch, etc.

By provinces, the following is the classifica-
tion of the population :
VOL. xxin. — 6 A

Of the above, 46,962 reside on reserves, and
cultivate 75,365 acres of land.

Schools are maintained for the children of
Indians chiefly at the expense of the Dominion
Government. The attendance at them is as
follows:

CANADA, DOMINION OF.

Ontario . ..1,907 N. W. Territories 971

Quebec 404 British Columbia 662

Nova Scotia 107

NewBrunswick 67 Total 4,126

Prince Ed. Island 18

History and Government. — The Dominion of
Canada was founded on the 1st of July, 1867,
by the federal union of the provinces, Nova
Scotia, New Brunswick, and the Canadas, Up-
per and Lower. By the act of Union the Can-
adas were named Ontario (Upper), and Quebec
(Lower). The " British North America Act"
is the name given to the Imperial statute creat-
ing the Dominion. In that statute authority
is given to create the province of Manitoba.
By virtue of that, and succeeding imperial and
Canadian statutes amending it, that province
was admitted into the Dominion in 1870, being
formed out of that part of the Hudson Bay Ter-
ritory known as Assiniboia Colony, or earlier
as Selkirk Settlement. This Assiniboia was not
the same as the present Territory of Assini-
boia, but more nearly corresponded to the pres-
ent Manitoba. In 1871 British Columbia was
admitted into the Dominion, and in 1873 Prince
Edward Island. The Territories were acquired
in 1870, by transfer from the Hudson Bay Com-
pany.

The form of government in Canada is in
theory monarchical, but in practice republi-
can. It consists of a legislative and an execu-
tive power. The legislative power is a Parlia-
ment composed of a House of Commons, a Sen-
ate, and a Govern or- General. The members
of the House of Commons are elected by popu-
lar vote. At the time of the Confederation,
this House consisted of 181 members, of whom
82 were elected from Ontario, 65 from Que-
bec, 19 from Nova Scotia, and 15 from New
Brunswick. These numbers are readjusted
according to each decennial census, subject to
the following rules : Quebec has the fixed
number of 65 members. There shall be as-
signed to each of the other provinces such a
number of members as will bear the same pro-
portion to the number of its population (ascer-
tained at such census) as the number 65 bears
to the number of the population of Quebec (so
ascertained). In the computation of the num-
ber of members for a province, a fractional
part not exceeding one half of the whole num-
ber requisite for entitling the province to a
member, shall be disregarded ; but a fractional
part exceeding one half of that number shall
be equivalent to the whole number. On any
such readjustment the number of members
for a province shall not be reduced unless the
proportion which the number of the popu-
lation of the province bore to the number of
the aggregate population of Canada at the then
last preceding readjustment of the number of
members for the province is ascertained at the
then latest census to be diminished by one-
twentieth part or upward. Such readjustment
shall not take effect until the termination of
the then existing Parliament.

After the census of 1881 the readjustment

stood as follows: Quebec, 65; Ontario, 92;
Nova Scotia, 21; New Brunswick, 16; Mani-
toba, 5; British Columbia, 6; Prince Edward
Island, 6; total, 211.

The members continue in office for a period
of five years from the day of the return of the
writs, subject, however, to an earlier dissolu-
tion by the Governor-General. The meetings
of the House of Commons are presided over by
one of its own members, elected Speaker. To
become a member of Parliament no property
qualification is necessary, but every member
must be either a native-born or legally natu-
ralized British subject. In 1874 voting by bal-
lot was introduced, and the law for the pre-
vention of bribery and other corrupt practices
at elections was made more stringent than for-
merly. The elections, except those for British
Columbia, Manitoba, and some of the remote
or thinly settled districts of Ontario and Que-
bec, take place, according to law, on the same
day throughout the Dominion.

The Senate of Canada, at the time of con-
federation, was composed of 72 numbers, 24
being appointed from Ontario., 24 from Que-
bec, 12 from New Brunswick, and 12 from
Nova Scotia. The present (1884) status of the
Senate is: Ontario, 24; Quebec, 24; Nova
Scotia, 10 ; New Brunswick, 10 ; Manitoba, 3 ;
British Columbia, 3; Prince Edward Island,
4; total, 78. By the British North Amer-
ica Act, the number of Senators is limited to
the present number 78, unless Newfoundland
should enter the Dominion, in which case pro-
vision is made to allow the number to reach
82. The chief qualifications to be a Senator
are : to be thirty years of age ; to be either a
native-born or a naturalized British subject;
to hold, over and above all mortgages or
charges of any kind, property valued at
$4,000 ; to be a resident in the province for
which he is appointed ; in Quebec, to be resi-
dent in the electoral district for which he is
appointed. Senators are appointed for life
(subject to certain conditions) by the Gov-
ernor-General in Council, or practically by
the Premier or leader of the government of
the day, who recommends the appointment.
A Senator is disquajified by non-attendance
in the Senate for two consecutive sessions.
The Governor - General is appointed by the
Government of Great Britain ;md Ireland, and
represents the Queen. Wherever the Gov-
ernor-General is named it is clearly under-
stood, and is so stated in the British (North
America Act, that it refers to the Governor-
General acting by and with the consent of
the Queen's Privy Council for Canada. His
special or independent functions are few. He
has the privilege of declaring " according to
his discretion, but subject to the provisions
of the British North America Act, and to in-
structions from the British Government, either
that he assents in the Queen's name to a bill
that has passed both the House of Commons
and the Senate, or that he withholds the

CANADA, DOMINION OF.

83

Queen's assent, or that he reserves the bill
for the signification of the Queen's pleasure."
When the Governor-General, in the Queen's
name, assents to any bill, he sends by the first
opportunity an authentic copy of the act to
one of the principal Secretaries of State for
the Government of Great Britain and Ireland,
and if the Queen in Council within two years
after the receipt thereof thinks fit to dis-
allow the act, such disallowance, being sig-
nified by the Governor - General, annuls the
act from and after that day. The salary of
the Governor - General is £10,000 sterling
($50,000), payable out of the Consolidated
Revenue Fund of Canada. The legislative
jurisdictions of the Canadian and the Provin-
cial legislatures are clearly defined— in this, as
indeed in the general plan of confederation,
much has been modeled after the general
Constitution of the United States. The prov-
inces stand nearly in the same relation to the
Dominion that the individual States do to the
Union. But there is one very important dif-
ference, that all matters not specifically men-
tioned as coming under the exclusive jurisdic-
tion of the various provinces, belong exclusive-
ly to the Dominion.

This division of legislative jurisdiction has
been the subject of considerable controversy
between the province of Ontario and the
Dominion. One point of dispute, the control
of the liquor -traffic, was finally settled by ap-
peal to the Privy Council of Great Britain in
the autumn of 1883. The Government of
Canada claimed that the powers exercised by
the provinces of not only raising a revenue
from the sale of liquor- licenses, but also of
limiting the hours and modes of such sale,
were in excess of their privileges, and conse-
quently in the session of 1883 the Dominion
Parliament passed a general liquor law. This
law did not in itself interfere with the provin-
cial laws, but while asserting the right of the
federal authority in such matters, imposed
double liquor laws on the provinces. A test
case was submitted to the Privy Council of
Great Britain and Ireland, with the result that
Ontario, and hence all the provinces, is con-
firmed in the right of Uniting the hours and
modes of selling, as well as of levying the
revenue on shops, saloons, etc.

Another subject of contention was in the
matter of escheats. The province of Ontario
claimed, on the death without heirs of a per-
son named Mercer, that his property reverted
to the province. The Canadian Government
claimed it as reverting to Canada. As in the
former case, the Privy Council sustained the
province of Ontario. Several questions in-
volving disputed jurisdiction are still pending,
so that before many years the relative duties
and powers of both federal and provincial
legislatures will be definitely settled.

Viscount Monck was Governor • General
when the Dominion was established. He
was succeeded in 1868 by Sir John Young.

Lord Dufferin was appointed in 1872, and re-
tained the office for nearly seven years. The
Marquis of Lome was Governor-General from
1878 to 1883, when he was succeeded by the
Marquis of Lansdowne. The administration of
justice is intrusted to judges appointed for
life, i. e., during good behavior, but removable
by the Governor - General on address of the
Senate and House of Commons. The Gov-
ernor-General in council appoints the judges
of the Superior, District, and County Courts in
each province, except those of the Probate
Courts in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.
These judges must be selected for the prov-
inces of Ontario, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick,
Prince Edward Island, British Columbia, and
Quebec, from the bars of those provinces.
There is a Supreme Court of the Dominion,
which is a general Court of Appeal.

Militia. — The militia of Canada are under the
control of a Minister of Militia and Defense,
who is responsible to Parliament. The militia
consists of all male inhabitants of Canada of
the age of 18 years and upward to 60, not ex-
empted or disqualified by law, and being Brit-
ish subjects ; but the Government may require
all male inhabitants capable of bearing arms to
serve, in case of a levy en masse. The militia-
men are divided into four classes, as follow :
1. Unmarried men and childless widowers from
18 to 30 years of age. 2. Unmarried men and
childless widowers from 30 to 45 years of age.
3. Widowers with children and married men
from 18 to 45 years of age. 4. Those from 45
to 60 years of age. These shall serve in order
as above. The militia is divided into active
and reserve land force, and active and reserve
marine force. The active land force is com-
posed of corps raised by voluntary enlistment ;
corps raised by ballot ; corps composed of men
raised by voluntary enlistment and of men bal-
loted to serve. The active marine force is
similarly raised, and is composed of seamen,
sailors, and persons whose usual occupation is
upon any vessel navigating Canadian waters.

Canada is divided into 12 military districts,
each under the supervision of a deputy adju- .
tant- general assisted by brigade-majors. These
districts are subdivided into brigade divisions,
and these still further into regimental and com-i
pany subdivisions. The militia is to be enrolled
each year by the officers of the reserve militia.

The active militia consists of cavalry, artil-
lery, engineers, mounted infantry, infantry and
marine corps, a total number (all volunteers)
of about 36,000 men.

The term of service is three years. These
turn out annually for twelve days' drill, as a
rule, in brigade camps, where they undergo a
fairly good training (under canvas) in their
duties. The strength of the regiment is usually
from 6 to 10 companies of 42 men and 3 offi-
cers each. There is an officer commanding
the militia, selected from the regular army of
Great Britain, and holding rank therein of
colonel or a superior rank. He ranks as ma-

84

CANADA, DOMINION OF.

jor-general in the militia, and receives a salary
of $4,000.

There is a permanent college, the Royal Mili-
tary College of Canada, at Kingston. Its ob-
jects are to impart a complete education in all
branches of military tactics, fortification, engi-
neering, and general scientific knowledge.

Finances.— The total debt of Canada, which
in 1867 was $93,046,052, in 1882 was $205,-
365,252, and bore an average interest of 3*82
per cent. The amount of debt payable in
Canada was $73,242,377, consisting of pro-
vincial debts assumed, savings-bank deposits
($14,229,000), Dominion stock, etc., and $15,-
807,910 of Dominion notes. The debt payable
in London, which in 1867 amounted to $67,-
069,116 and bore an average interest of 5*55
per cent., had grown by 1882 to $132,122,875,
the rate of interest having been reduced to
4-39 per cent. Where, in the first year of
confederation, the major portion of the for-
eign debt bore 6 per cent, interest, the portion
paying so high a rate had, by 1882, been re-
duced to $9,254,000, and the large sum of $89,-
060,000 bore only 4 per cent., the remainder
bearing. a rate of 5 per cent. No less than
$4,000,000 of debt was retired in the year last
named.

The Consolidated Fund of Canada is com-
posed of her public works, such as canals, wa-
ter-power, railways, railway debts, harbors,
and river and lake improvements, together
with all securities, cash, bankers' balances,
lands, mines, and royalties, as well as the
revenues from customs, excise, and public
lands. The receipts on account of this fund,
in 1882, were $33,383,000, of which $21,-
581,000 were from customs, and $5,884,000
from excise. The further receipts were
$23,000,000, consisting of Dominion notes,
savings-bank and other loans. The expendi-
ture on Consolidated Fund account was $27,-
067,000, otherwise, $29,000,000, of which
$12,000,000 went in redemption of debt. The
sum of $7,351,000 was expended in 1882 on
capital account, two thirds of which was for
railways, the remainder on canals, telegraphs,
and Dominion lands. The post-office savings-
banks show an increase during 1882 equal to
$2,260,000 over 1881. The number of ac-
counts is 25,633 greater (51,463 is the total
number), and the average amount at the credit
of each depositor has grown from $97 to $184
in fifteen years.

Banking. — Canadian banks resemble most
closely the joint-stock banks of Scotland, which
first came into existence early in the last cen-
tury ; with, however, the important difference
that where each individual proprietor in the
latter is liable to the full extent of his property
for the obligations of the bank, the Canadian
shareholder is, like the American one, liable
only for double the amount of his shares. In
some particulars, both of banking and cur-
rency, the United States model has been fol-
lowed. The decimal currency system of dol-

lars and cents, used for a hundred years by
their American neighbors, was adopted by
Canadians twenty years ago.

The banking system of Canada is not, cer-
tainly, a copy of the cash- credit or personal
security system of Scotland, where one can get
credit from a bank if sureties will vouch for
him. Nor is the system closely allied to what
may be described as the mortmain or funded
security plan of English bankers, under which
one must either deposit title-deeds to land or
hand over Government or other stock, to ob-
tain a loan. Loans are freely made by Cana-
dian banks on stocks and bonds, but lending
upon real estate is left to the loan societies.
The largest item by far among the assets of the
banks is their discounts of promissory notes
bearing two or more names. The rate of in-
terest charged has ranged of late years from
7 to 9 per cent. ; to-day it ranges from 6 to 8,
7 per cent, being the legal rate.

Early in 1870 the banks ceased to issue notes
of a smaller denomination than $4, and in the
next year the $1 and $2 notes were issued by
the Government, as they have since continued
to be. Offices of the Receiver-General and
Government savings-banks were opened in
various cities, for the issue and redemption of
the small notes and for the sale of Dominion
stock. Assimilation of the currency of the
various provinces was provided for by Hincks's
act of 1870, and the British silver coins, which
up to that time had circulated in Canada, were
arranged to be withdrawn.

By the act of 1871 banks were required to
hold not less than one third of their cash re-
sources in Dominion notes, which are procura-
ble in exchange for gold at all times. The
Government was constituted the chief specie-
reserve-provider and comptroller. An amend-
ment of April, 1882, provided that any ex-
cess over $9,000,000 — to which amount the
issue of Dominion notes was at that time lim-
ited— may be held by the Receiver-General
partly in specie and partly in deposits in char-
tered banks, the proportion being 20 per cent,
in specie and 80 per cent, in deposit receipts.
By the act of 1871 banks were exempted from
tax upon their circulation.

Among the twelve heads of departments
who administer the affairs of Canada at Ot-
tawa, not the least important is the Minister of
Finance, a minister of the Crown, who is
charged with the direction and control of the
public accounts, revenue and expenditure, and
financial affairs generally of the country, ex-
cepting customs and inland revenue, which have
separate ministers. The banks and the currency
are under the control of this department.

The paid-up capital of the twenty-seven
banks of Canada at the date of confederation
(1867) was under $30,000,000; their circula-
tion, $10,000,000 ; deposits, $38,000,000 ; and
discounts, $53,000,000. The number of banks
had grown by 1883 to forty, whose aggregate
capital exceeded $61,000,000 ; circulation, $34,-

CANADA, DOMINION OF.

85

000,000; deposits, $106,000,000; and discounts, of Canada, with the amount and value of their
$145,000,000. shares, their capital, and reserve funds in

The following is a list of the chartered banks March, 1883 :

BANKS.

When
chartered.

Amount
per share.

Capital paid.

Rest.

Yearly
diridend.

Cash value
per shai*.

Bank of British North America

1886

£50

$4,866,666

$1,215,000

Per cent.
6

$273 50

1867

$50

6 000 000

1 650000

g

68 25

Commercial Bank of Windsor Nova Scotia

40

260,000

78000

8

1871

50

1,500,000

750000

10

100 87

Eastern Townships Bank

1859

50

1,397,659

270,000

1

60 00

1872

100

500000

250 000

8

170 00

1874

100

2,691 610

1,800 000

1

158 25

1872

20

500,000

30000

6

21 60

Bank of Hamilton . . .... . ....

1872

100

852,580

185 000

7

116 00

Imperial Bank of Canada

1875

100

1,472,000

504,000

8

144 00

1855

50

1 000 000

240 000

5

4 00

25

500 000

125 000

7

1860

100

2,000,000

*

Maritime Bank ... .

1872

100

697,800

55 00

1864

100

5,698,696

750,000

7

Merchants' Bank of Halifax

1869

100

1 000 000

180 000

7

180 00

Molson's Bank

1855

50

2,000 000

425,000

7

1818

200

11,999,900

5,500,000

12

Bank of New Brunswick

100

1,000,000

400,000

8

140 00

Bank of Nova Scotia

1882

200

1 000 000

325 000

8

150 00

Ontario Bank

1857

100

1 500 000

225 000

6

1818

100

2,500 000

325 000

7

Bank of Ottawa . .

1874

100

600,000

60,000

6

People's Bank of Halifax

1864

20

600,000

50,000

6

110 00

People's Bank of New Brunswick

50

150,000

1873

40

200,000

32,000

6

108 00

Standard Bank of Canada

1875

50

762,510

80,000

7

Bank of Toronto . ...

1855

100

2,000,000

1,000,000

8

Union Bank of Halifax

1864

50

500,000

80,000

6

114 00

1865

100

2 000 000

7

Union Bank of Prince Edward Island

1863

500,000

120 00

1864

100

388,970

20,000

8

110 00

St Stephen's Bank, New Brunswick

1836

100

200,000

1882

161 439

Bank of British Columbia

1869

70

245,021

85,560

6

La Banque Ville Marie

464,250

226 090

257 850

685,200

Total...

$60,873,241

$16,034,560

....

Building and Loan Societies. — The loan compa-
nies of Canada play an important part in her
money-lending system. They were established
as building societies after the English plan,
the design being to assist investors to acquire
land or to build houses by making payments
in regular installments? to that end ; but they
have for the most part changed their method
Of late years, and now lend upon the security
of real estate the money which they receive
from depositors in Canada, and debenture-
holders in the United Kingdom, in addition to
their paid-up capital. In 1846 legislation was
granted in Upper Canada favoring such socie-
ties. About 1847 very similar acts were passed
by Quebec and New Brunswick, and in 1849
by Nova Scotia.

The growth of societies of this kind, both in
number and extent, has been remarkable, es-
pecially in Ontario. In the first return of their
operations made to Government in 1863, only
eleven permanent building societies were in-
cluded, having a total capital of $1,208,000,
deposits of $365,000, and mortgage loans of
$1,500,000. There were, besides, at this time
terminable building societies whose aggregate
capital was $873,000. By 1873 the number of
societies shown in this yearly return had grown
to twenty-three; their capital to 6,376,000;

deposits to $2,869,000, while the value of the
mortgages they held exceeded $9,500,000. It
was soon found possible to borrow money in
Britain, however, at lower rates and in larger
sums than was possible at home; and in 1874
a Dominion act was passed granting power to
such societies to issue debentures. Several of
the leading companies at once became borrow-
ers in the Scottish and English money-mar-
kets, and the additional capital obtained gave a
decided impetus to the working of such lead-
ing corporations. By a return to Government
for the calendar year 1880, it appears that at
least eighty such societies were then in exist-
ence in the Dominion ; capital, $24,495,975 ;
deposits, $11,713,633; loans secured on real
estate, $56,612,200.

Insurance Companies. — There are in Canada
sixty-nine insurance companies, some of which
do more than one kind of insurance. The na-
ture of the business done by them is as fol-
lows : companies doing life-insurance, 39 ; fire,
29 ; inland marine, 6 ; ocean, 3 ; accident, 5 ;
guarantee, 2; plate-glass, 1; steam-boiler, 1.
The deposits for the protection of policy-hold-
ers, held by the Keceiver- General in trust for
these companies, according to the last official
report, amounted to $7,032,377.53. •

The total net amount insured by fire-policies

86

CANADA, DOMINION OF.

in force in Canada at the end of 1881 was $462,-
210,968. The premiums received by all compa-
nies for fire-insurance during 1881 amounted
to $3,827,116. Of this amount Canadian com-
panies received $1,206,476 ; English companies,
$2,353.258; and American companies, $267,388.

The total amount received in premiums by
marine companies during 1881 was $3,131,-
925.97. Of the 39 life companies, 9 are Cana-
dian, 18 British, and 12 American. The total
amount of life-insurance in force at the end of
1881 was $103,290,932. Of this amount $46,-
041,591 is in Canadian companies, $20,983,092
in English companies, and $36,266,249 in
American companies. In all 62,857 persons
are insured. The following was the surplus
of assets over liabilities of the Canadian com-
panies in existence at the end of 1881 : Canada
Life, $451,752 ; Citizens', $20,513 ; Confedera-
tion, $235,916 ; Mutual Life, $42,107 ; North
American, $59,831 ; Ontario Mutual, $27,495;
Sun, $127,324 ; Toronto, $37,510.

Agriculture. — The total value of the agricul-

tural exports from the Dominion for 1881 was
$21,268,327. The several provinces exported
these products as follows: Ontario, $11,426,-
692; Quebec, $8,242,024; Nova Scotia, $526,-
004; New Brunswick, $141,772; Manitoba,
$21,367; Prince Edward Island, $910,222.

The agricultural products were sent almost
entirely to England and the United States;
$9,490,890 to the former, and $10,631,374 to
the latter. Fourteen countries in all shared in
these exports. The chief productions of the
soil exported were as follow :

ARTICLES.

Bushels.

Value.

Barley

8,800,579

$6,621 188

Beans

108 923

117 708

Oats

2 926 532

1 191 873

Peas

4 245 590

3 478 003

Rye

Potatoes

870,296
2 295 307

783,840
830 218

"Wheat

2 523 678

2 593 8''0

Fruit (sreen)

334538bbh

645658

Flour (of wheat)

439 728 "

2173108

Hay . . .

168,381 tons.

1 813 208

Malt

25,51 5,754 iu.

649,857

ACRES OF LAND OCCUPIED, AND NUMBER OF OWNERS AND OF TENANTS.

PROVINCE.

Total occupied.

Total

improved.

Under crops.

In pasture.

Gardens and
orchards.

Total owners.

Total tenants.

Ontario

19,259,909

11,294,109

8,370,266

2,619,088

804,805

169,140

36,690

Quebec

12,625,877

6,410,264

4,147,984

2,207,422

54,858

123,932

12,344

New Brunswick

3 809 621

1,253,299

849,678

392,169

11,452

33,901

2,786

Nova Scotia

5,396,382

1.880,644

942,010

917,010

21,624

51,710

3,929

Prince Edward Island

1,126,653

596,731

467,211

126,935

2.585

12,736

842

British Columbia.

441 255

184 885

83657

98457

2955

2410

313

Manitoba ... ....

2,384,337

250,416

230,264

17,197

2771

8,742

301

Total ...

45 358 141

21 899 181

15 112 284

6 385 562

401 335

403 491

57 245

Forest Products* — The total value of the pro-
ductions of the forest exported in the year
1881 was $24,960,012. The several provinces
exported as follows: Ontario, $t>,576,332;
Quebec, $12,785,223; Nova Scotia, $1,325,-
280; New Brunswick, $4,068,241; British
Columbia, $162,747; Prince Edward Island,
$42,189.

Mineral Products.— The total value of the
mineral products exported from Canada in
1881 was $2,767,829. The following state-
ments show the amount of each mineral ex-
ported :

Coal.

420 055

$1 123 091

Gold-bearing 'quartz
Gypsum

130961

'767,818

119 399

M ineral oils gallons

2456

681

Antimony-ore

46

8921

Copper- ore

19802

150*412

Iron-ore

44677

114850

Manganese-ore

2,101

38788

Silver-ore

34494

Phosphates

15601

239 498

Halt . . bushels

253 555

Sand and gravel
Stone and marble
Other minerals

55,860
28,189

12,511
81,924
41,481

Fisheries.— The exports of fish and articles
produced from tish and other marine animals,
amounted in 1881 to $6,867,715. The value
exported from the various provinces was as

follows: Ontario, $128,839; Quebec, $747,-
549; Nova Scotia, $4,278,731; New Bruns-
wick, $786,400; Manitoba, $3,930; British
Columbia, $400,984; Prince Edward Island,
$521,282.

Manufactures. — A great impetus has been
given to manufacturing interests throughout
the Dominion by the protective act known as
the National Policy. In addition to supplying
the demand of Canada itself with a very large
part of the articles necessary in every depart-
ment of life and labor, the manufacturers are
now able to compete successfully in some im-
portant lines with other countries. The amount
of capital invested was $165,302,623; hands
employed, 254,935; total value of products,
$309,676,068. Manufactures were exported
from Canada in 1881 to twenty-seven other
countries, the total value being $3,075^,095.

The value of the principal articles manufac-
tured for export was as follows :

Agricultural implements , . . $31,269

Biscuits 17,228

Carriages 46,442

Clothing , 9.952

Cordage, ropes, and twine 12,031

Extract of hemlock-bark 190,068

Furs 3,223

Grindstones 85,755

Gypsum or plaster, ground 13,888

Iron : Stoves 3,809

Other castings ". 14,387

Scrap . . 191,210

Other, and hardware 84,713

CANADA, DOMINION OF.

87

Junk and oakum 35,1T7

Leather : Sole and upper 41 6,902

Boots and shoes 101,727

Liquors : Ale, beer, and cider 20,824

Whisky 2,598

Other spirits 8,264

Machinery 40,201

Oil-cake 39,474

Organs . 27,612

Bags.. ..'.'. 49,044

Sewing-machines 165,452

Ships sold to other countries 848,018

Starch 32,691

Steel, manufactures of 148,656

Stone and marble, wrought 13,802

Tobacco 44,803

Wood : Furniture 100,3s7

Doors, sashes, etc '. 22,280

Other manufactures of 291,657

Shipping. — The total number of vessels regis-
tered in the Dominion, Dec. 31, 1881, 4was
7,394, measuring 1,310,896 tons, register ton-
nage. The total estimated value of these ves-
sels was $39,326,880. Three hundred and
thirty-six new vessels were built in the Do-
minion during 1881, measuring 74,060 tons,
register tonnage, and valued at $3,332,700.

The merchant shipping of the Dominion is
now exceeded by that of three other countries :
Great Britain, the United States, and Norway.

Exports. — The exports from Canada amount
annually to about $100,000,000. They consist
chiefly of the products of the forest, the mine,
agriculture, and animals.

The rapid increase in the export trade of the
Dominion during the years 1880 and 1881 is
shown by the following table:

COUNTRIES.

1879.

1880.

1881.

Great Britain
United States
France

$36,295,718
27,165,501
714,875

$45,846,062
83,349,909

812,829

$53,751,570
86,866,225
662,711

Germany

112,090

82,237

84,932

Spain

50,596

60,727

46.653

135,748

165,885

108,594

Italy
Holland
Belgium
Newfoundland
British West Tndies . . .
Spanish West Indies. . .
French West Indies. ..
Other W. India islands.

148,472
9,713
40,430
1,641,417
1,955,584
1,237,598
219,121
88,367
741,442

163,787
102,592
688,811
1,510,300
1,906,053
1,319.588
223,973
94,489
789,940

145,997
215,754
258,433
1,523,469
1,787,813
1,167,612
111,175
80,769
732,111

China and Japan
Australia
South Africa

56,551

290,762
45,515

87,546
139,901

82,178

19,761
146,363
81,644

Other countries

541,755

534,651

499,237

Totals

$71,491,255

$87,911,458

$98,290,823

In 1882 the largest share of Canadian exports
went to the United States, while the greater
portion of the imports came from Great Brit-
ain. Thus :

COUNTRIES.

Exports.

Imports.

United States

Per cent.
46'94

Per cent.
42-86

Great Britain

44-33

44-91

Other countries

8-73

12-33

Railways. — Although the railway system of
Canada is yet in its infancy, immense and
rapid strides have been made in recent .years,
as the following statistics show. The total
mileage on June 30. 1882, was :

M.I.,.

Increase
during year.

Eailways in operation
Railways having the track laid. . .

7,530-44
589-00
8 189-16

269-98
203-70
279-16

Total

11 253-60

The nominal capital on June 30, 1882, was :

Ordinary share capital $142,936,524 C3

Preference share capital 71,531,940 40

Bonded debt 92,487,932 42

Aid from Government and municipalities. . . 108,655,412 85

Total $415,611,810 30

This shows an increase of $26,326,109.99
over the previous year.

The number of passengers carried during the
year ending June, 1882, was 9,352,335, an in-
crease of 2,408,664, or 34'68 per cent. The
freight handled was 13,575,787 tons, an in-
crease of 1,510,364 tons, or 12'51 per cent.

The earnings of the railways for 1881-'82
are:

Increase for year.

Passengers $10,018,478 $1,795,224

Freight 17,729,945 *

Mails and express 1,037,460 91,301

Other sources 235,857 90,525

Earnings of roads not detailed 6,049 267

Totals $29,027,789 $1,977,817

The operating expenses are :

Maintenance $4,614,041 Increase, $498,943

Working and repairing of

engines 6,834,530 " 850,810

Working and repairs of cars. 2,219,015 " 153,801

General operating expenses. . 8,643,933 " 896,428

Expenses of roads not de-
tailed 79,183 Decrease,

Total.' $22,390,708 Net inc'e, $2,269,290

Thus the earnings show an increase of $1,-
040,280, and the working expenses of $2,269,-
290, over the previous -year.

The net profits were :

Receipts $29,027,789

Expenses 22,890,708

Net profit $6,637,081

The construction of the Canada Pacific Rail-
way was one of the conditions under which
British Columbia entered into the union of
provinces. It was at first the intention to
make the work a Government enterprise, and
as such it was begun. In 1881, however, the
road was transferred to a company. By the
terms of contract, this company was bound
to complete the line through Canadian terri-
tory, from Callander in Ontario to Port Moody
in British Columbia. As the most difficult
parts cf the road were not at that time com-
pleted, it was only on receipt of great privi-
leges and subsidies that the company undertook
the work. An important .privilege granted to
the company is that " for twenty years from
the issue of the charter (1881), no line of rail-
way shall be authorized by the Dominion Par-
liament to be constructed south of the Canada

* Though the increase in freight in tons was 12-51 per cent.,
yet the receipts for freight show a decrease of $937,037 as
compared with the previous year.

88 CANADA, DOMINION OF.

CAPE COLONY AND SOUTH AFKICA.

Pacific Railway, from any point at or near the
Canada Pacific Railway, except such line as
shall run southwest, nor to within fifteen miles
of latitude 49. And in the establishment of
any new province in the Northwest Territories
provision shall be made for continuing such
prohibition." This clause was intended to bar
the entrance into the United States of any
other road; in other words, to force trade
through Canada via the Canada Pacific Rail-
way, or, if through the United States, over
their lines. The province of Manitoba claims
that, as it was organized as a province before
the passage of that act, the clause is of no effect
in its territory ; therefore rival lines are being
projected to the Dakota border from Manitoba.

The lands of the company in the Northwest
are offered on terms as favorable as the Gov-
ernment's, and already some millions of acres
have been disposed of.

Recent investigations, coupled with the ex-
perience of 200 years, have proved that Hud-
son bay is navigable, and its ports are open for
at least six months each year. This route is
attracting attention among capitalists and busi-
ness men in Great Britain, and two railways
are in course of construction from Winnipeg
to York Factory. The distance from Liverpool
to York Factory, or Fort York, is a little less
than to Montreal.

Canals. — The canal system of Canada is ex-
tensive, locks being required to overcome the
rapids on the St. Lawrence river as well as
Niagara Falls. These are the important canals
of Canada, but minor ones are in use to render
navigable the Ottawa, the Rideau to Kingston,
the Trent river and lakes, the Richelieu to
Lake Champlain, and thence to Albany, and
other waters. The Trent valley, the Georgian
bay and Ontario, or the Huron and Ontario
canal, is intended ultimately to connect the
Georgian bay waters with those of Lake On-
tario.

The following table indicates the cost of the
canals from the outset, as well as their earn-
ings for the year 1882 :

CANALS.

Total cost.

Earnings for
1882, including
tolls, rents, etc.

Lachlne

$8 168 718 09

N

Beauharnois
Cornwall

1,624,632 01
2 522 519 81

Williamsburp-I.e., Farrar's,
Kapide, and Galops
St. Lawrence river below
Montreal, dredging, etc
Welland .

1,826,312 54

131,404 08
20 809 365 09

• $114,578 00

8t. Ann's..

'539't>43 (5Q

Carillon and Grenville
Culbuto

2,885'853 92
812 577 28

I 58,511 05

Eideau

4,132' 670 10

7 882 26

Chambly. . .

651 745 01

St. Peter's

585747 19

'926 74

Burlington Buy . . .

8 807 90

Survey of Bale Verte

9992 78

Total

$48,418,602 87

$326,029 03

Art Education. — Industrial drawing finds a
place in the programme of school studies of

every province of the Dominion. The object
aimed at is practical drawing. Nothing of a
purely artistic nature is taught in the public
schools, but only such drawing as can be done
by all who attend school. Teachers are com-
pelled to pass an examination on this subject
before obtaining their certificates.

Art education, in the strictest sense of the
application of the term art, is not neglected.
In both Ontario and Quebec the Government
makes a liberal grant in aid of art-schools. In
Ontario there are three of these special schools of
art— in Toronto, London, and Ottawa. In Que-
bec there are a number of smaller institutions
aided by the Government grant, which is made
through the Society of Arts and Manufactures.
The Marquis of Lome and the Princess Louise
did a great deal for the encouragement of paint-
ing in Canada, and it was through their inter-
est in the subject that the Royal Academy of
Artists was established. This society holds an
annual exhibition in some of the large cities of
the Dominion, and has done much to develop
the taste of the people, and to direct general
attention to the subject of art.

Medical .Education. — The various medical col-
leges throughout the Dominion are in a very
efficient condition as regards the theoretical
part of the work, but not quite so fully up to
the present requirements of complete medical
education in a practical point of view. In all
the universities and colleges a full four-years'
course of study is required, and in some of the
colleges there is a summer session. On the
more important subjects — as medicine, surgery,
and anatomy — there are two courses of six
months each. The degrees and licenses grant-
ed by the different universities and colleges in
Canada are accepted by licensing bodies of
Britain, and admit the holder of such degree
or license to examination for a qualification to
practice in Britain without further attendance
upon lectures. A student who obtains the
degree of M. B. or M. D. from a Canadian
university, is not eligible for practice until he
has also obtained the diploma of the licensing
body for the province in which he intends to
practice. On account of this regulation, nearly
all the students take the examinations of the
university with which their college is affiliated,
and also that of the Council of the College of
Physicians and Surgeons, for the necessary
license to practice. Students must spend at
least three winter sessions in hospital work,
and at least six months of a summer term with
a regular physician in practical compounding
and dispensing, in order to be admitted to the
final examination of the council. No qualifi-
cation whatever from the United States admits
to practice in Canada; and only such from
Britain as can be registered there as a qualifi-
cation in medicine and surgery.

CAPE COLONY AND SOIJTH AFRICA. The Cape
of Good Hope is a British colony at the south-
ern extremity of the continent of Africa. It
was first settled by the Dutch, and passed into

CAPE COLONY AND SOUTH AFRICA.

the possession of Great Britain during the Na-
poleonic wars. It has had a responsible gov-
ernment since 1872. The Parliament consists
of a Legislative Council of 21 and a House of
Assembly of 68 members, both elected by vot-
ers qualified by a certain amount of income.
The Governor is Sir Hercules G. R. Robinson,
appointed in 1880. The Prime Minister is T.
0. Scanlen.

Area and Population. — The area of Cape Colony
proper is estimated at 199,950 square miles.
Its population in 1875- was 720,984, of whom
236,873 were of European origin. The great
majority of the European population are de-
scendants of the original Dutch, French, and
German settlers. The colored population con-
sists chiefly of Kaffirs and Hottentots. The
rest are half-breeds and imported Malay labor-
ers. Cape Colony includes a large extent of
annexed native districts, some parts of which
contain a considerable white population. In-
cluding Basutoland, which was placed under
the administration of the colonial authorities
in 1875, but again detached in 1883, the total
area of Cape Colony was 441,750 square miles,
and its total population 1,618,211. These
dependencies and annexed districts comprise
Griqualand West with an area of 17,800 square
miles and a population of 45,277 ; the Trans-
gariep, or Damara and Namaqua Lands, having
an area of 200,000 square miles, and a popula-
tion of about 250,000 ; and the Transkeian dis-
tricts, otherwise called Kaffirland proper, with
an area of 17,000 square miles, and a popula-
tion of 475,000. The area of Basutoland is
7,000 square miles, and its population 127,000.

Commerce. — The commerce of Cape Colony
in 1881 consisted of exports to the value of
£4,220,706, and imports to the value of £9,227,-
171. Wool is the only important export arti-
cle, constituting nearly nine tenths of the total
exports. Minor articles of export are copper-
ore, ostrich-feathers, and sheep-skins. The
quantity of wool shipped to England in 1881 was
47,165,019 pounds. The number of sheep in
the colony in 1875 was 9,836,065. There were
961 miles of railway open on the 1st of Janu-
ary, 1882.

Finance. — The revenue of the colony in 1881
was £4,835,189, including money borrowed ;
the expenditure, £5,472,263. There was a
debt in 1882 of £15,441,700.

Natal. — Natal, formerly a part of the colony
of the Cape of Good Hope, was detached and
made a crown colony in 1856, administered by
a Governor with the assistance of an Execu-
tive Council and a Legislative Council, the lat-
ter consisting, since 1879, of 13 official and 15
elective members. The area is estimated to be
21,150 square miles. The population in 1881
was computed to be 408,280, comprising 25,271
of European descent, mostly English, 362,477
natives, and 20,536 coolies. There was a de-
crease in both the white and native population
since 1877. The exports in 1881, chiefly wool,
amounted to £474,934 ; the imports to £1,194,-

992. The revenue of the colony amounted in
1881 to £518,924 ; the expenditure to £492,-
338; the public debt to £1,631,701. The Gov-
ernor is Sir Henry Ernest Bulwer.

Transvaal State.— The Transvaal State, or South
African Republic, independent since 1852, was
annexed to the British crown in 1877. After
the Transvaal war complete autonomy was re-
stored by the convention of Aug. 3, 1881, but
suzerain rights were preserved with respect
to foreign affairs, giving the British Govern-
ment supreme control over the relations of the
republic with the native races. The area is
110,183 square miles. The white population
is from 40,000 to 45,000, descendants of the
original Dutch and Huguenot settlers of the
Cape. The native population numbered, in
1879, 774,930. A triumvirate, composed of
S. J. P. Kruger, M. W. Pretorius, and P. J.
Joubert, was elected, Dec. 13, 1880, and in-
vested with extraordinary powers. Kruger
was elected regular President in 1883.

Orange River Republic. — The Orange Free State
achieved independence in 1854. It has an area
of 41,320 square miles. The white population,
according to the census of March 31, 1880, was
61,022 ; the native population, 72,496. The
Orange Republic has no debt, but possesses a
considerable estate in lands, buildings, and ac-
cumulated funds. The imports in 1 88 1 amount-
ed to £2,583,738, the exports to £4,001,658.
Wool is the chief product ; the quantity ex-
ported in 1881 was 30,353,025 pounds.

Separation of Basntolaud from Cape Colony. — The
principal question of the year at the Cape of
Good Hope was the rearrangement of the af-
fairs of Basutoland. The Basutos are a tribe
of the Bechuana race which inhabits the east-
ern part of the South .African elevation. In
the beginning of the century they possessed,
besides the present Basutoland, a large part of
what is now the Orange Free State. There
Mosele, with his Matabele warriors, fell upon
them and annihilated the whole tribe, except
those who escaped to the inaccessible region
in which the Orange river takes its rise. The
Boers moved into the deserted plains in the
third decade of the century, broke the power
of the Matabeles, and formed a bulwark for
the Basutos, behind which they grew again
into a numerous people. They were reminded
by the needs of their now redundant popula-
tion that the Free State Boers were settled
upon lands which had once been their own.
The circumstance that no boundary had ever
been agreed to between the Free State and
Basutoland left the way open for disputes. The
Basutos began an aggressive course, as usual,
by cattle- stealing. The Boers retaliated, and
a long border war followed, in which forays
for the capture of cattle and the destruction
of crops, rather than the taking of life, were
the distinguishing feature. The Basutos, under
the tuition of French missionaries, had made
astonishing progress in civilization, and pos-
sessed in their chief, Moses, a leader of char-

90

CAPE COLONY AND SOUTH AFRICA.

acter and ability. When the war had lasted
six years, and both sides suffered severely
from the losses of property, a peace was con-
cluded between Moses and the Free State in
1858. The cause of the war remained, and
in 1865 the Basutos felt strong enough to
attempt another incursion. The Boers mus-
tered in force and, driving Moses and his peo-
Cinto the mountain stronghold of Thaba
igo, laid waste the whole country. Thou-
sands of the Basutos perished of hunger. In
April, 1866, Moses signed a new treaty of
peace which transferred to the Boers a large
section of Basutoland. The Basutos, however,
remained on the ceded tract, on the pretext of
gathering the harvest, until the Boers, perceiv-
ing that they intended to break their engage-
ment, again took up arms in August, 1867,
and would have totally annihilated the Basuto
tribe if the Governor of Cape Colony had not
interfered. The Boers were informed that the
Basutos had been at their request received as
British subjects, March 12, 1868. Baffled and
indignant, they were obliged to accept the
treaty of Aliwal, in February, 1869. This de-
prived them of the compensation for their
losses and the fruit of their victories, but on
the other hand took from the Basutos a strip
of land of which they had been in undisputed
possession prior to 1865.

As long as the Governor's agent was the
only British authority in the newly annexed
Basutoland, all went smoothly. When six
magistrates were sent to supplement and re-
strain the authority of the six sub-chiefs, signs
of dissatisfaction appeared. The discovery of
diamonds in the northwest part of the Orange
Free State in 1869, and the annexation of this
district by Great Britain in November, 1871,
gave another turn to the fortunes of the Basu-
tos. High prices were paid in Kimberley for
all the maize, oats, and barley they could raise,
and the young men who went to work by
thousands in the diamond-fields returned in
a few months with breech-loading rifles and
with money in their pockets. Reduced to a
mere remnant, impoverished and degraded, the
Basutos increased in numbers to nearly 130,-
000 in 1875, and in wealth in an astonishing
progression, possessing in that year 35,000
horses, 217,000 head of cattle, 300,000 sheep,
215,000 goats, and paying as much as £16,500
in direct and indirect taxes.

By the action of the Cape Parliament in
1871, the annexation of Basutoland was ap-
proved ; but upon the adoption of responsible
government in the following year the question
whether the colony should accept the incor-
poration or repudiate the act of the Governor
and cut loose from Basntoland was reopened.
The colonists were not inclined at first to re-
fuse the responsibility, as the Basutos were not
only increasing rapidly in wealth, but through
the efforts of the French, and now of English
missionaries, advanced rapidly in knowledge
and refinement. In 1877 the war with the

Gaikas and Gulaekas of British Kaffraria
broke out. The circumstance that a large
portion of the hostile Kaffirs were armed with
rifles, opened the eyes of the British to the
mistake of allowing the sale of fire-arms in
Kimberley to colored persons. The Cape colo-
nists, remembering that they were surrounded
by unfriendly natives, and that the blacks out-
numbered them two to one within their own
borders, were carried away with the mingled
feelings of panic and arrogance which any col-
lision with the natives awakens in English
settlers. The Cape Parliament passed a law
which not only restricted the sale of arms to
natives, but required a large portion of them
to deliver up the rifles which they already
possessed. Soon after the close of the Gaika
war the Basutos were commanded to comply
with the disarmament. To require these peace-
able and faithful subjects to give up for a nom-
inal compensation the arms which were their
proudest possession, which they had earned
with months of toil in the scorching sands of
the diamond - diggings, and which they had
official permits to purchase and keep, was to
them both an injustice and an indignity. Some
of them delivered up their fire-arms to the
half-dozen officials, for which they were re-
warded with the epithet of " loyal," but the
great majority paid no attention to the procla-
mation, and were dubbed " rebels." Negotia-
tions with the recalcitrant Basutos, in part
carried on in person by the Prime Minister
without result, made their refusal appear in a
more serious light, so that the Cape Govern-
ment felt driven to compel obedience by mili-
tary force. The British Government had taken
a stand against lending English troops to fight
any more ''little wars" for the colonists in
South Africa. The Cape Colonists had an
opportunity, therefore, of putting to the trial
their new conscription laws. Every citizen
between 20 and 45 years of age owes military
service, those between 20 and 30 being subject
to the first, and the rest to a second levy. The
magistrates were directed to select the quotas
by lot. The law was very loosely adminis-
tered. Many of the substantial citizens were
exempted on a specious excuse of corporal dis-
ability, and most of those who were drawn
sent purchased substitutes. An army of from
8,000 to 10,000, lacking training and military
experience, and without the first notion of
discipline and obedience, was thus collected
and sent into Basutoland. The rain fell in-
cessantly in the summer season of 1880-'8/l,
fuel was not obtainable, and, except raw meat,
all food was very scarce. The Basutos har-
ried them, but avoided a close engagement.
Under the privations and the wearying guard
duty the army began to melt away, whole
companies deserting and returning to their
homes without penalty or disgrace. Despair-
ing of chastising the Basutos with such troops,
the government, sustained by a growing senti-
ment in the country against the disarmament

CAPE COLONY AND SOUTH AFRICA.

91

act and the war, concluded a peace with the
Basutos by which everything was left as it
was before the war.

The triumphant Basutos felt a natural con-
tempt for the poor-spirited or treacherous
members of the tribe who had sided with the
British. Toward the end of 1882 one of the
rebel chiefs fell upon a loyal Basuto, took his
cattle, and put to death his women and chil-
dren. In this condition of affairs, the pres-
ence of British resident magistrates and po-
lice whose authority was despised was only a
sign of impotence. The Parliament was sum-
moned to an extraordinary session in January,
1883, for the consideration of a ministerial
proposition to recall the resident authorities
and leave the Basuto nation complete inde-
pendence in the management of its internal
affairs, reserving simply the control of its ex-
ternal politics, that is, its relations with the
Orange Free State. With a slight modification
the act was passed by a bare majority. The
cost of the inglorious Basuto war of 1880-'81
was about £4,000,000. The sub-agents were
not recalled. The policy of the Government
was denned by the Premier, T. C. Scanlen, to
be to build up a government by which the
people would be able to manage their own
affairs. He admitted that, if they failed in the
new experiments, there was no course left but
abandonment.

Mr. Scanlen had many conferences with
the chiefs, ending with a pitso or assembly at
Matsieng, on the 24th of April. Letsea and
the friendly natives accepted the Government
proposals, but Masupha and other malcontents
angrily refused to accede to the new scheme
of modified supervision. At a conference
called by the agent of the Cape Government
only about 2,000 persons were represented.
Convinced that the Basutos desired to have no
further connection with the colony, the Cape
authorities concluded to terminate relations
with them, and hand over the responsibility
for the future management of the troublesome
dependancy to the British Government. As
Cape Colony thus laid down the task of govern-
ing Basutoland, which had cost more than
£3,000,000, and sine 3 the Basutos were not
able to stand alone, the Imperial Government
announced its willingness to take them again
under its control and protection, as prior to
1869, on the conditions that the great majority
of the Basutos desired it ; that they and Cape
Colony should bear the principal part of the
expenses, and that the Orange Free State
should co-operate in keeping order along its
boundaries. The British Government did not
propose to establish a costly administration of
Europeans and govern .Basutoland as a crown
colony, but to guide and protect the natives in
governing themselves in accordance with their
own customs. Cape Colony undertakes to pay
£20,000 a year toward the expenses of admin-
istration. The bill ratifying the arrangement
passed the Cape Legislature in July, after a

prolonged discussion. In order to be further
relieved of its financial embarrassments, the
Cape ministry would be glad to transfer to the
crown the Transkei also, with its large popu-
lation of Kaffirs.

Natal Legislation. — A change was made in the
Constitution of Natal, approaching self-govern-
ment. The number of members in the Legisla-
tive Council was increased from 20 to 30. The
elected members bear nearly the same propor-
tion to the nominated members as before, being
23 to 7, as against 15 to 5. The franchise,
which was confined to holders of real estate of
£50 value, or £10 rental, is liberalized, the
limitations being a residence of three years and
the possession of an income of £96 a year by
male British subjects or naturalized aliens.
From natives an educational test is required in
addition.

Znlnland.— Cetewayo was reinstated in his
kingdom on Jan. 29th, in the presence of a con-
course of Zulus, but he was only given a seg-
ment of the territory over which his rule for-
merly extended. The chief Usibepu was left
in possession of the district allotted to him.
It was left free to all the chiefs and people to
return to their allegiance to Cetewayo, or to
receive lands outside of his kingdom. For
such a large section, called the Zulu Native Re-
serve, was set apart.

The restoration of a portion of his former
dominions to Cetewayo turned out to be as
great a blunder as the other acts of the British
Government in connection withZululand. In-
stead of leading to the tranquilization of the
country — which the British by splitting it up
into petty dominions under thirteen different
chiefs, had involved in chronic guerilla war-
fare— the result was an internecine conflict
between Cetewayo on the one part, and Usi-
bepu, in league with all the adversaries of the
restored monarch, on the other. Cetewayo
was anxious to avoid fighting, but the English
in Natal and his rivals in Zululand were deter-
mined to destroy, while his hot-headed par-
tisans were not averse to the struggle.

Not many weeks after the return of Cete-
wayo the Usutu party, composed of the young-
er and more ardent partisans of Cetewayo,
marched in a large body, mustering 80 com-
panies, against Usibepu in the northeastern
corner of Zululand, the chief who, under the
Wolseley settlement, received the wives of the
imprisoned king. Usibepu withdrew before the
superior force into the bush in the heart of his
country, where he prepared an ambush for the
invaders. While he lay in waiting with 20
companies and his picked guard of five compa-
nies, called the Mauhlagazus, small bands flying
before the Usutus led them on, flushed with
victory and burning the abandoned kraals, into
the ambuscade at Baugonono kraal. Usibepu
fell upon the advancing column without warn-
ing. In accordance with Zulu tactics, he closed
in on half of the army, and cut .it to pieces.
The remaining portion fled in a disorganized

CAPE COLONY AND SOUTH AFRICA.

rout, followed for a long distance by the Mauhla-
gazus. Cetewayo denied all knowledge and
responsibility as to the ill-fated expedition, but
he immediately began to drill soldiers for an-
other conflict with Usibepu, until he had about
six thousand. When he was moving forward
with his force, Usibepu and Oham fell upon him
with all their warriors and defeated him with
great carnage.

After some preliminary fighting, in which
Oham and his warriors were hard pressed by
Cetewayo's bands, a decisive battle occurred
on July 21st, in which the king's newly or-
ganized military force was crushed. Usibepu,
with an army equipped with the aid of the
people of Natal and partly led by white men,
descended upon Ulundi, Cetewayo's capital.
The king's army was cut to pieces, all his pos-
sessions captured, his town destroyed, and he
himself severely wounded. He was carried
away into concealment by his people, and was
long supposed to have been killed. Umny-
amana and the Usutus kept up the struggle
until they were reduced by Usibepu and ac-
knowledged his supremacy. Cetewayo kept
out of the way of his enemies, and entered
into communications with the British relative
to surrendering himself into their protection.
Finally, when assured of the safety of such a
course, he delivered himself up and was taken
to Natal in October.

Border War in Bechnanaland.— The Transvaal
Boers have severely tried the Liberal Govern-
ment, which rendered back to them their inde-
pendence, by continuing their encroachments
in Bechuanaland and assisting the chiefs who
were friendly to them to drive tho allies of
the British off their lands. The troubles in
Bechuanaland,* which lies on the west and
southwest of the Transvaal, date back to 1872-
'73. After the discovery of diamonds in 1871,
Great Britain, which had recognized the inde-
pendence of the two Boer- republics in 1852
and 1854, and by the Sand River Convention
had bound itself never to encroach north of
the Vaal river, broke the treaties by annexing
the diamond-fields, and began its interference
in the affairs of Bechuanaland. The Bechu-
ana nation was divided into two parties, one
headed by the chiefs Montsiva and Manko-
roane and the other by Moshette and Mas-
souw. Mankoroane, chief of the Batlapins,
and Massouw, chief of the Korannas, laid

* The Bechuanas are tho negroes among whom Moffat and
Livingstone labored. They are akin to the Basutos in race,
and are more intelligent and far more advanced in civiliza-
tion than the other Kaffir races. They have schools and
churches, are clothed, and many of them are to some extent
located. They have separate property in land, and had
nado considerable progress in industry and agriculture be-
fore the Trek Boers arrived in the country north of the Vaal.
The chiefs, unless they led the people in the arts of peace,
lost their power and influence. Many of them, including all
of the four leaders in this intestine conflict which was pro-
voked by white adventurers, have at various times requested
the British Government to take their country under its pro-
tection. Nearly all of the internal quarrels of the Bechuanas
are over disputed claims to chieftainship. They are not of a
predatory disposition like the Kaffirs in the east, and have
never committed cattle-raids in the Transvaal.

claim to the same territory, while Montsiva
disputed with Massouw the position of para-
mount chief of the Baralongs. The South
African Republic recognized the claims of Mo-
shette and Massouw, and by virtue of having
subdued Moselekatsie, the Matabele conqueror
of the country, and of a cession executed by
the chief of the Korannas, the most ancient
inhabitants, took the country under its protec-
tion by annexing it to the Transvaal state.
The British Government, by the Keate award,
refused to recognize the annexation, gave a
portion of the country to Mankoroane, and ac-
knowledged Montsiva as paramount chief of
the Baralongs. This award, if not made in
the interest of white land-speculators, had the
effect of delivering the country over to their
machinations and prolonging the tribal dis-
putes. Bechuanaland was to have been re-
united with the Transvaal upon its annexation,
through Sir Theophilus Shepstone, to British
South Africa.

In the Transvaal war which resulted from
this act, Montsiva and Mankoroane sided with
the British and aided them by furnishing shel-
ter and supplies, although the direct military
assistance of the blacks was refused by the
English. Moshette and Massouw sympathized
with the Boers. In the convention of 1881,
by which the British under the auspices of the
Liberal party withdrew from the Transvaal, a
new boundary-line was drawn. This line cut
off a large portion of the annexed territory
from the Transvaal and even separated from
the Boer state a number of farms and settle-
ments belonging to its citizens. It was ob-
jected to and declared impracticable at the
time of signing the convention, and has been
the subject of frequent reclamations since.
The British Government paid no attention to
these diplomatic representations. Bechuana-
land was at once plunged into warfare and an-
archy by the boundary settlement insisted
upon by the British Government for the sake
of their native allies and the white abettors
and advisers of the latter. Montsiva ordered
Moshette and Massouw to vacate their lands
and find homes ^within the new boundary-line
of the Transvaal. In league with Mankoroane
he made war upon them in May, 1881, to com-
pel them to give up the disputed territory.
The white volunteers and speculative foment-
ers of the war who were engaged on both
sides were to be paid in farms in the rich pas-
ture-lands of the disputed territory. There
was a brief cessation of hostilities; but when
the war broke out again in October of that
year the Boer filibusters or volunteers took an
important part in the operations on the side of
chiefs who were in possession.

The Boer Government agreed to place a
guard on the frontier, to prevent Boer volun-
teers from crossing, but their efforts to pre-
serve neutrality lacked earnestness or efficien-
cy. Montsiva and Mankoroane were defeated
and forced to sign a treaty, in 1882, which

CAPE COLONY AND SOUTH AFRICA.

CARLISLE, JOHN G.

placed their territory under the protection of
the Transvaal, and granted lands to Boers who
had taken part in the war. This treaty lacks
the ratification of the suzerain power. The
frontier war did not cease. English filibusters
rushed in, on the pretext of supporting the
cause of the worsted party. The white par-
ticipants increased, until Bechuanaland was
occupied by adventurers from the Transvaal,
the Orange Free State, and the English colo-
nies. The cattle and the lands adjacent to the
streams were taken away from the natives be-
longing to the defeated party. Many of the
Bechuanas were reduced to starvation. The
Transvaal Government excused the aggres-
sions of the Dutch on the ground
that the boundary-line fixed by the
Pretoria convention was unfair and
injurious to the Boers. When Mr.
Fox, their Secretary of State, was
called to account for signing a treaty,
he replied that his action was not in
violation of the convention, but was
the consequence of a defect in the
convention.

In February, 1888, Lord Derby,
British Colonial Secretary, proposed
that the Cape Government should
organize a police to prevent the
incursion of British subjects into
Bechuana-land. Sir Hercules Rob-
inson replied that the only remedy
would be to send a military force
to occupy the country and clear it
of white filibusters. The lands which
were seized by the Boers, and from
which Mankoroane and Montsiva
and their people were expelled, were
those which they had formerly held,
but of which the Pretoria conven-
tion had deprived them. The pre-
tended volunteers of Moshette and
Massouw who retook the lands by
force, had the approval of the Trans-
vaal Government and people, and
the sympathy of all the Dutch in
South Africa. When Sir Hercules
Robinson proposed that the dis-
turbed district shou'd be guarded
by a mounted police, the expense
of which should be divided between
the British Government, the Cape
of Good Hope, the Orange Free State, and the
Transvaal Republic, the Cape Government were
unwilling, the Orange Free State declined on
the ground that its Constitution forbade such
a use of its forces, and Triumvir Kruger an-
swered for the Transvaal that his colleagues
were absent, at the same time expressing his
surprise that a remedy should be proposed that
was worse than the disease, and saying that the
cause of the difficulty is the boundary-line fixed
by the convention. A commission constituted
by the Yolksraad, the 3d of June, 1882, to put
an end to the controversy, was instructed to
regard the boundary as established in the dis-

allowed treaties with Moshette and Mont-
siva.

Mankoroane, no longer lord of his territory,
which was in part apportioned out among the
white volunteers, made a formal appeal to the
British Government to annex his country. On
the confines of the Transvaal the marauders,
Dutchmen from all parts of South Africa, and
English adventurers, many of them deserters
from the British army, had set up an indepen-
dent republic, under the name of Stellaland,
and elected a president of their own. This com-
munity of outlaws numbered about 2,000 souls.

CARLISLE, John Griffin, an American states-
man, born in Campbell co., Ky., Sept. 5, 1835.

JOHN GRIFFIN CARLISLE.

He received a common-school education, and
became a teacher. Afterward he studied law,
and in 1858 was admitted to the Kentucky bar,
where he gradually built up an extensive and
lucrative practice. He was elected to the low-
er house of the Legislature in 1859, and to the
State Senate in 1866 and 1869. He was a dele-
gate to the National Democratic Convention
held in New York in 1868, he was Lieuten-
ant-Governor of Kentucky from 1871 to 1875,
and in 1876 was a presidential elector. He
was elected to Congress the same year, taking
his seat in March, 1877, and has been a mem-
ber ever since. He soon became prominent as

94

CARPETS.

a Democratic leader, especially as a member of
the Committee of Ways and Means, and at-
tracted attention by an able speech on revenue
reform. This and the revival of American
shipping he looks upon as the important ques-
tions now before the country. In the speech
referred to he said : " In the broad and sweep-
ing sense which the use of the term generally
implies, I am not a free-trader. Of course,
that is understood. At least it should be. I
will add that in my judgment it will be years
yet before anything in the nature of free trade
would be wise or practicable for the United
States. When we speak of this subject we
refer to approximate free trade, which has no
idea of crippling the growth of home indus-
tries, but simply of scaling down the iniquities
of the tariff schedule, where they are utterly
out of proportion to the demands of that
growth. After we have calmly stood by and
allowed monopolies to grow fat, we should not
be askt-d to make them bloated. Our enor-
mous surplus revenues are illogical and op-
pressive. It is entirely undemocratic to con-
tinue these burdens on the people for years and
years after the requirements of protection have
been met and the representatives of these in-
dustries have become incrusted with wealth.
This is the general proposition on which I
stand." On the organization of Congress in
December, 1883, Mr. Carlisle received the
Democratic nomination for Speaker of the
House of Representatives, and was elected.

CARPETS. Progress of the Industry.— No bet-
ter carpets are made in America now than
were made twenty years ago. Indeed, as early
as 1851 an American inventor — the late Eras-
tus B. Bigelow, of Massachusetts — showed
English weavers (who were then making more
and better carpets for general use than any
other people) that success in weaving body-
Brussels carpets by power had been fully
achieved in America.

Specimens of Bigelow Brussels carpets were
exhibited at the Great Exhibition in London
in 1851, but not till after the prizes had been
awarded. In a supplement to their report the
jury said : " The specimens of Brussels carpet-
ing exhibited by Mr. E. B. Bigelow are woven
by a power-loom invented and patented by
him, and are better and more perfectly woven
than any hand-loom goods that have come
under the notice of the jury. This, however,
is a very small part of their merit, or rather that
of Mr. Bigelow, who has completely triumphed
over the numerous obstacles that presented
themselves, and succeeded in substituting
steam-power for manual labor in the manu-
facture of five-frame Brussels carpets. Several
patents have been taken out by different invent-
ors in this country for effecting the same object ;
but as yet none of them have been brought into
successful operation ; and the honor of the
achievement, one of great practical difficulty
as well as of great commercial value, must be
awarded to a native of the United States."

The Centennial Exhibition.— The American Cen-
tennial Exhibition gave a great and lasting im-
petus to carpet manufacture; the exhibit of
foreign carpets stimulating our manufacturers,
color artists, and weavers to an emulation
which, in the brief period since elapsed, has
transformed a struggling industry into one of
the most stately proportions. This expansion
has been evidenced in Philadelphia especially
by the remodeling of old and the erection of
new factories, the undertaking of hitherto
rare and costly fabrics, and the substitution
on an extensive scale of power for hand
looms.

Looms. — English manufacturers adopted the
Bigelow patents, and till within a recent period
continued furnishing us with body-Brussels
carpets for which we had first provided them
a power-loom. At home, meanwhile, the Bige-
low Carpet Company held fast to their dis-
covery, and remained, until the lapse of their
patent-rights, the principal power-loom body-
Brussels weavers in the United States.

It is safe, too, to assert that all looms now
employed in England and the United States in
the weaving of body-Brussels, Wiltons, and
tapestry-Brussels carpets may be traced, in the
principles of their construction, to the original
Bigelow loom. This is largely true, too, of in-
grain-weaving. Mr. Bigelow invented a loom
for ingrains, which produces a fabric of great
excellence, and is now in general use in the
older New England factories. Besides the
Bigelow Company, two manufacturing firms,
E. S. Higgins & Co., of New York city, and
John and James Dobson, of Philadelphia, are
entitled to the distinction of first undertaking
on a large scale the production of high-grade
power-woven carpets in America. Indeed, E.
B. Bigelow's patent for weaving body-Brussels
and tapestry carpets was first employed by
E. S. Higgins & Co. on tapestries only, and
subsequently the present Bigelow Company
applied the invention to Brussels and Wilton
fabrics. In Philadelphia, no carpets other than
common ingrains were made prior to 1872.

Since Mr. Bigelow's time but one ingrain-
loom has been invented in the United States
which has proved wholly free from objection,
and been regularly adopted. This is known
as the "Murkland loom," the invention of
William Murkland, of Massachusetts, who died
a few years since. The Murkland loom is
noted for its fine shading qualities, for its great
productiveness, ease of manipulation, and gen-
eral adaptation to ingrain weaving, to which
it is confined. It is now used almost wholly
by new manufacturers.

Equally ingenious, though less adapted to
general use, was the Duckworth ingrain-loom,
produced under the patronage of Messrs. E.
S. Higgins & Co., by John C. Duckworth, a
young inventor who died in 1882.

A signal triumph, and by far the most impor-
tant, lately achieved in America in mechanism
for high-grade carpet- weaving, was the loom

CARPETS.

95

for moquette carpets, invented and patented by
Halcyon Skinner, of the Alexander Smith &
Sons Carpet Company, at Yonkers, N. Y. A
loom capable of such results as the Skinner loom
produces, emphasizes strongly our singular suc-
cess in first furnishing power-looms to makers
of fine carpets in other lands.

New Fabrics.— Since the Centennial Exhibi-
tion three important additions bave been made
to our carpets. These are the moquette, che-
nille-Axminster, and Smyrna fabrics.

Moquette is made by -power, the two latter
by hand, only. Moquette ranks among the
best and most luxurious of pile-fabrics, being
singularly receptive to colors, and capable of
the most subtile and pleasing color treatment.
Upon its introduction, the mystery and gla-
mour which had long attached to the finer car-
pets manufactured abroad quite vanished.

Chenille-Axminster, long known in England,
is made in Philadelphia, but only on the most
limited scale. It ranks second to none in many
elegant essentials, but can not take its proper
rank until made by power. A loom for this
purpose has recently been perfected by an
English firm.

Smyrna, a very thick, reversible chenille fab-
ric, resembling in texture certain Turkish car-
petings shown at the Centennial Exhibition,

was easily reproduced here, and has rapidly
found favor with American dealers and con-
sumers. It is made almost wholly in Philadel-
phia, and, though made in lengths for sale by
the yard, it is most used in rugs. The Gov-
ernment departments at Washington have
adopted this new and useful covering.

Statistics. — Carpet- weaving in America has so
advanced within the past few years as to ren-
der the exhibit of the census of 1880 wholly
insufficient as a basis upon which to estimate
the present magnitude of the industry. Dur-
ing the past four years, in Philadelphia alone,
numerous extensive carpet-factories, many of
them of imposing proportions, have been
erected and put in motion, while in New Eng-
land the Lowell, Hartford, Bigelow, Roxbury,
and Worcester companies, the Sanford Mills at
Amsterdam, N". Y., and the Alexander Smith &
Sons Carpet Company, at Yonkers, have each
added very materially to their structures and
manufacturing facilities. Vastly more of capi-
tal and labor are now employed in varieties of
fabric, richness and excellence of texture, and
consequent increased value of annual product,
than at any period of our history. With this
caution, we append for comparison the cen-
sus statistics of the United States relating to
carpets for 1870 and 1880 :

CAEPET MANUFACTURES (OTHER THAN RAG) OF THE UNITED STATES.

Factories.

Hands employed.

C»i

tal.

Value of product.

1870.

1880.

18?0.

1880.

18?0.

1880.

18?0.

188O.

Connecticut

3

2
1
1

1

*2

10
237

1,188

1,654

$1,530,000

$3,085,000

$1,200

Maine

Maryland

1

6
3
2
18
184
3

12

2,200
170
147
3,424
4,941
19

75
3,908

'243

5,622
11,043

10,000
8,250,000
810,000
155,000
4,251,750
3,026,500
2,500

10,000
4,637,646

lb3,66ji)
6,422,158
13,400,000

$14,000
4,4S7,525
'299,750
193,656
4,976,835
9,758,171
4,550

50,000
6,337,629

179,500
8,419,254
20,300,445

New York

Other States

Totals

215

260

12,098

22,545

$12,540,750

$27,657,804

$21,761,573

$87,788,587

Imports.— Government statistics for twelve
.years past show a steady decrease in the im-
ports of carpets. The following table is from
official sources :

IMPORTATION OF CARPETb INTO THE UNITED STATES,
1872 TO 1883 INCLUSIVE.

FISCAL YEARS ENDING JUNE 30.

Square yards.

Value.

1872

5,072,247

$5,797,183

1878

3,915,997

4.388,257

1874 . .

8.122,503

3,649,863

1875 ;

2,314,788

2.648,932

1876

1.118,736

1,521,692

1877

638,589

674,011

1878

278,262

398,389

1879

257,686

867,105.

1880

1,443,535

1,237,431

1881 .

991,947

1,064,076

1882

715,583

949,670

1883

834,939

1,053,912

The increase in the import values of 1880,
1881, 1882, and 1883 is attributable mainly to
the sudden demand (begun about 1880) for
Oriental rugs and carpet " squares," the " an-

tiques " of which have been eagerly sought for
and at prices generally greatly in excess of
their intrinsic worth. Present imports are
largely composed of these Eastern rugs, the
makers of which are striving very particularly
to retain America as a permanent market.

Exports. — Excepting desultory shipments to
Mexico and South America, the exports of
carpets from the United States are as yet
small. The two countries named increase
their demand each year. In South America
our floor oil-cloths are highly esteemed, and
the trade with Philadelphia is growing.

Tariff.— The United States tariff act of 1882
reduced considerably the duties formerly im-
posed on foreign carpets, and has resulted in
the formation of a national association of man-
ufacturers, whose object is to deter further
legislation of the kind and to look generally
to the conservation of the industry. Since the
passage of the act referred to, certain English
carpets, which had wholly disappeared from

96

CARPETS.

our markets, have again been offered and sold
here, but at prices not below those asked for
similar goods of American origin.

Location of Factories.— The late A. T. Stewart
lived to see the decadence of the trade in for-
eign carpets (first largely undertaken by him
in New York), and, determining on manufac-
ture, built, just prior to his death in 1876,
an extensive carpet-factory at Groversville,
Dutchess co., N. Y. The first roll of carpet
from his looms was finished about the day of
his death. The Glenham Carpet-Mills, such
being their name, now have a capacity for
operating 200 power-looms, and for producing
annually 2,000,000 yards. Body-Brussels, Wil-
ton, tapestry- velvet, and tapestry-Brussels car-
pets, also rugs and mats of the same fabrics,
besides ingrain carpets, are produced by the
Stewart Mills.

It is noteworthy that while New York city
distributes through its jobbing houses the
greater percentage of the carpets made in the
United States, yet only one carpet-factory of
importance — that of E. S. Higgins&Co. — exists
in the city proper. This was among the first
important factories established in the United
States, and has expanded into enormous pro-
portions, covering now several acres of ground,
and giving daily employment to more than
two thousand persons.

The particular locations of factories com-
prised in the preceding, statistics, also the sev-
eral carpet fabrics made at each point in the
several States, are substantially as follow :

LOCATION.

No. of
facto-
ries.

Fabrics produced.

Philadelphia, Pa....

237

Body-Brussels, Wilton, tapestry-

Brussels, ingrain, and Vene-

•Han

Baltimore, Md

2

tian.
Ingrain wool carpets and jute

mattings.

Little Falls, N. J...

1

Tapestry-velvet, Wilton, and

Paterson, N. J . . .
New York, N.Y...

1
1

Smyrna.
Jute carpets and mattings.
Body-Brussels, tapestry-Brus-

Brooklyn, N. Y...
Yonkers, N.Y

1
1

sels, Wilton, and ingrain.
Jute carpets and mattings.
Moquette and tapestry-Brussels,

Poughkeepsie, N.Y.
Rifton Glen, N.Y. .

1

1

and rugs of same.
Ingrains.
Ingrains.

Amsterdam, N. Y. .

2

Tapestry-Brussels (extensively),

tapestry-ingrain, body-Brus-

Auburn, N. Y

2

Ingrains.

Bridgeport, Conn...

1

Ingrains.

Hartford, Conn, ....

1

Body-Brussels, Wilton, and mo-

Roxbury, Mass

1

quette.
Tapestry-velvet and tapestry-
Brussels.

Clinton, Mass . . .
Medford, Mass
Palmer, Mass
Lowell, Mass

1

1
1
1

Body-Brussels and Wiltons.
Tapestry-Brussels.
Body- Brussels and Wiltons.
Body-Brussels, Wiltons, and in-

Lowell, Mass . . .
Worcester, Mass...

1

2

grains.
Ingrains only.
Body-Brussels and Wiltons.

New York city has now one factory making jute carpets.

Advance in carpet-weaving since 1870, at
points other than Philadelphia, has been shown
more by enlargement of the old factories and
the making of new fabrics than by the starting

of absolutely new industries. In Philadelphia,
not only have these improvements been ob-
served to a most remarkable degree, but new
factories, considerably more than the last sta-
tistics disclose, and of a most important kind,
have been added to the old. The factories,
too, reckoned as such in the census of 1870
were, in reality, many of them petty ingrain
mills, employing rude hand-looms and pro-
ducing a low grade of goods. These have
largely been transformed into dignified indus-
tries, power being used instead of hand- weav-
ing, and better goods produced. In Philadel-
phia, twelve years ago, only ingrain carpets
were made; now there is no fabric known to
the art, save the one of moquette and the pro-
ductions of the East, which does not leave
Philadelphia looms.

The annexed table shows the comparative
state of the industry in Philadelphia in the
two years, 1870 and 1882, according to the
United States census and the city census re-
spectively :

COMPARISON OF RETURNS OF CARPET MANUFACTURES
IN PENNSYLVANIA (BEING PHILADELPHIA).

1870.

1889.

Establishments

184

237

Number of persons employed
Capital

4,941
$3 169 500

11,043
$13 400 000

Wages

1 910 963

4 085 920

Product

9 788 787

20 300 445

Rugs.— Notwithstanding the positive revival
apparent in the use of rugs, both as accom-
paniments and as substitutes for carpets, the
number of American manufacturers who seri-
ously undertake the production of fine rugs
has been surprisingly small. The Glenham
Mills (A. T. Stewart's) were, probably, the first
regularly to manufacture Wilton, body-Brus-
sels, tapestry - velvet, and tapestry - Brussels
rugs, and these to some extent are still con-
tinued by them. The Alexander Smith & Sons
Carpet Company make successfully moquette
and tapestry-Brussels rugs, and this concern
and the Glenham Mills are the only houses in
America making in variety high-grade, power-
loom rugs. Kitchenman & Neall and A. Cam-
eron, of Philadelphia, weave chenille- Axmin-
ster rugs of superior fineness by hand.

Carpet-Wools. — Numerous experiments have
proved that wools best adapted to carpets can
not be profitably produced, if produced at all,
in the United States. The grades most em-
ployed are from wild and sterile regions in
Russia, Turkey, and Asia, where carpet-sheep
and shepherd exist in the most primitive man-
ner. Colorado and Texas yield certain wools
which find a limited market in our carpet-mills ;
but as yet we are mainly dependent upon the
sources just named. Strong efforts have been
made to influence the remission by Congress of
the duties imposed upon foreign carpet-wools,
and this, if accomplished, would somewhat
cheapen our carpet-product, and would also en-
able us, it is contended, to compete more sue-

CARPETS.

CENTRAL AMERICA.

97

cessfully with foreign companies in an export
trade.

Rag and List Carpets.— These, the first floor-
coverings made in America, have by no means
disappeared. The German settlements of Penn-
sylvania excel in them, and produce rag car-
pets the texture and colorings of which show
of late years a very decided advance.

Wages. — Carpet- weavers, as a rule, earn good
wages, and live in as much comfort as journey-
men in any other industry. The factory re-
gion of Philadelphia is well provided with
comfortable brick dwellings, which rent at rea-
sonable figures, and like satisfactory conditions
exist around the mills of New England and
New York. Practiced weavers earn fifteen to
twenty dollars a week. A large percentage of
the weavers are of English, Scotch, and north
of Ireland origin or descent, and some of the
most conspicuous successes in Philadelphia
have been by foreigners, who started there as
humble toilers on rude hand looms. Not a few
such are to-day the owners of factories of great
magnitude.

Noteworthy Events. — Certain important changes
which have happened within a brief period
can best be illustrated by reference to particular
industries: The Alexander Smith & Sons Car-
pet Company, at Yonkers, from being former-
ly ingrain-makers only, will, during 1884, have
350 looms engaged on tapestry- Brussels, and
218 looms on moquette carpet ; the whole hav-
ing a total daily capacity of 27,500 yards ; 500
hands will also be added, in 1884, to their
working-force, making the total of persons
employed 3,000. Homer Brothers, of Phila-
delphia, who in 1876 began on Brussels with
six looms, have but just finished a factory
of vast proportions, and are now among the
largest Brussels producers in the world. They
have undertaken, also, the weaving of tapestry-
Brussels. John Bromley & Sons, noted in-
grain-weavers, of Philadelphia, have of late
discontinued all but the Brussels manufacture,
and have an extensive factory whose founda-
tion was laid in the humblest way. John &
James Dobson, at the Falls of the Schuylkill,
have now body- Brussels, Wiltons, velvets, and
tapestries on their lir ^s, and conduct an indus-
try famous here and abroad for its magnitude
and the variety of its products. McCallum,
Crease, & Sloan, of Philadelphia, one of the
oldest and most successful firms making in-
grains only, now weave Brussels and Wilton
carpets of the highest standard, and are just
completing an extensive factory. Ivins, Dietz,
& Magee, Philadelphia, have completed and
entered a stately Brussels and ingrain mill, and
will reintroduce a costly fabric once made by
them, known as tapestry-ingrain. The Low-
ell Manufacturing Company, at Lowell, Mass.,
have of late doubled the number of their Brus-
sels-looms, enlarged their mill, and placed them-
selves in the front rank on this fabric. The
Hartford Carpet Company, in addition to Brus-
sels and ingrains, has begun the manufacture
VOL. xxni. — 7 A

of moquette, and alone shares the honor with
the Smith Company, at Yonkers, of making
this fabric in the United States. Hon. Stephen
Sanford (Amsterdam, N. Y.) has reared an in-
dustry of great extent, employing 200 looms
on tapestry carpets.

These facts indicate, not the movements
merely of individuals and firms, but are cited
rather to show recent enterprise in directions
limited a few years since to the efforts of per-
haps a half-dozen firms. The achievements
of numerous others, though hardly less signal,
must of necessity be omitted here.

Cocoa-Matting.— Floor-matting and foot-mats
made in East India from the cocoa-fiber, and
formerly imported fully manufactured from
that country, are now woven equally well in
America, and factories are successfully em-
ployed on these goods in Brooklyn, N. Y.,
Philadelphia, and Chester, Pa. Cocoa-fiber is
admitted into the United States free of duty,
and the fabrics made from it are found prefer-
able to those produced in India.

Floor Oil-Cloths. — The consumption of floor
oil-cloths, which diminished considerably with
the cheapening of carpets, has revived very
greatly, especially in the South and West, and
the annual yield of the medium class of goods
is greater by far than at any former period.
The floor-cloth industries of the several States
are as follow : Maine, 3 ; Massachusetts, 2 ;
New York, 6 ; New Jersey, 4 ; Pennsylvania,
3 ; total in the United States, 18. There is
also on Long Island, N. Y., a factory engaged
in making linoleum, a cork floor-cloth, used
for like purposes as the ordinary floor oil-
cloth.

The jute fabrics, or "foundations," used in
the manufacture of floor oil-cloths, are im-
ported mainly from Scotland. The Dolphin
Company's jute-mill, at Paterson, N. J., and
that of the Planet Mills, in Brooklyn, N. Y.,
have each successfully made the canvas on
which the wide cloths, 18 to 24 feet in width,
are prepared. The Chelsea Jute Works, of New
York city, for the first time in America, are
now about producing power-woven, narrow-
width jute canvas or burlap. (See JCTE.)

Fewer factories are engaged in making sheet
oil-cloths — goods 12 to 24 feet wide — than ex-
isted ten years ago, and the production conse-
quently has been very much lessened. Out of
the oil-cloth factories enumerated, three only
give particular attention to the sheet-widths.
Narrow-width oil-cloths, 3 to 7i feet wide, on
the contrary, are made in vastly larger quanti-
ties than ever before, their low price and use-
ful qualities rendering them exceedingly popu-
lar. A machine for printing the colors, of re-
cent invention, has been adopted by one or
two firms, which secures a more rapid produc-
tion than by the block or hand method of
printing.

CENTRAL AMERICA. The following five in-
dependent republics constitute the Spanish-
speaking portion of Central America :

98

CEREBRAL LOCALIZATION.

STATES.

Area in §quare
kilometres.

Population.

Per

kilometre.

Active
army.

Militia.

Capitals.

Popula-
tion.

121 140

1 252 497

10

2,180

33,229

Guatemala

58456

Salvador

18720

554,785

80

1400

18,500

San Salvador

14,059

183 800

275 815

2

703

9,600

Managua

9000

.w icara^ua

120480

350 000

3

843

81,500

Tegucigalpa .

12000

Costa Kica

51,760

185,000

4

500

All men between

18 and 55.

San Jos6

12000

Total . . .

445900

2,618,100

There was a plan on foot in 1883 to reunite
the five republics in one confederacy, to be
called the United States of Central America.
This scheme was started in Guatemala, which,
under President Don Rufino Barrios, has a
tendency to exercise a sort of hegemony over
the remaining states, and the idea proba-
bly originated in the mind of Gen. Barrios
himself, who has an ambition to be elected
President of the Union, should the project
meet with the assent of the people at large.
For the present the plan has failed, owing, as
was supposed, to the avowed or secret jealousy
and intrigues of Don M. A. Soto, ex- President
of Honduras, while he was the executive of
that republic. Don M. A. Soto, however, left
his country, and retired into voluntary exile in
the summer of 1883, residing in San Francisco,
California, where he published some letters
provoking replies from Gen. Barrios. Finally,
he resigned his office. The alleged main ob-
stacle to the projected union thus seems to
have disappeared. (See articles on the several
republics.)

CEREBRAL LOCALIZATION. The whole tend-
ency of recent anatomical study has been to-
ward greater accuracy in minute details. Such
knowledge as was to be gained by the scalpel
and forceps in the way of dissection has long
since been acquired. The microscope still re-
mains, however, and much is to be learned of
the minute anatomy and functions of parts the
gross appearances and relations of which have
long been understood.

The theory of *• cerebral localization," briefly
stated, is this : The brain is not a homogene-
ous organ, but a mass composed of a certain
number of diverse organs, to each of which be-
long certain definite physiological properties
and functions. The object of recent study has
been to locate these different functions each in
its own portion of the nerve-substance of the
brain: In a crude way, the general fact of a cer-
tain amount of cerebral localization has long
been admitted. For example, the sense of sight
has been located in a certain portion of the
cerebrum, as has the sense of smell in another.
The gray matter of the cerebral hemispheres
was supposed to be especially associated with
mental power, and the amount of the former to
be an index of the amount of the latter. The
nerve-fibers of the medullary portion and the
large ganglia at the base of the brain were sup-
posed to be especially connected with the act of
locomotion. Further than this, paralysis limited
to the leghad been connected with disease of one
of the large ganglia (the corpus striatum) and

the adjacent medullary fibers at the anterior
portion of the organ ; while paralysis limited
to the arm had been similarly associated with
disease of another ganglion (the optic thala-
mus), and the* surrounding medullary fibers at
the posterior part of the brain. It was known
that, when the arm and leg were both affected,
the disease would probably be found in the
base of the brain, rather anteriorly if the leg
were chiefly affected, and posteriorly if the
paralysis were greater in the arm. The re-
spective functions of the anterior and pos-
terior tracts of the spinal cord were also
known, and the cerebellum or smaller brain,
to which the posterior or sensory tracts of the
cord were traced, was held to be on this ac-
count the especial seat of sensation. In 1863
a still further advance was made in locating
the cerebral center of articulate speech. The
disease known as aphasia consists either in a
loss of the memory of words, so that the suf-
ferer is unable either to speak or write the
particular word he wishes to use, or else in
a loss of the power to articulate a particu-
lar word or words, though the sufferer re-
members them perfectly, and can write them
correctly. In either of these cases it is evi-
dent that the diseased point in the brain must
be either at the center controlling the muscles
of articulation, or in the center of articulate
speech itself. Careful examinations of the
brains of such patients resulted- in locating
the lesion at a certain point in the anterior or
middle portion of the frontal lobe of the left
side, known as the "island of Reil," and sup-
plied with blood by the left middle cerebral ar-
tery. It was at first supposed to follow neces-
sarily from these investigations that the func-
tion of speech was confined to the left side of
the brain ; that as speech is learned by use, in
most persons only one side of the brain had
been educated for that purpose; and that as a
person is right-handed as respects movements,
he is left-handed as respects the faculty of
speech. More thorough study has weakened
the supposed force of the first discoveries, and
although it still seems to be a fact that in most
cases the center of speech is in the left anterior
portion of the brain, there have been several
reported cases of aphasia in which the lesion
was plainly at the corresponding point on the
opposite side.*

These and a few other similar conclusions
constituted about all that was definitely known
as to the functions of the different parts of the
brain till within the past few years. The field
of study has always been attractive, both for

CEREBRAL LOCALIZATION.

99

the anatomist and the physiologist, and their
labors have been well repaid. The following
account of the experiments of Dr. R. W. Ami-
don, of New York, may be of interest. They
were based upon the following propositions:
1. Marked local variations in the temperature
of the cephalic contents may be demonstrated
by the use of specially constructed surface-
thermometers. 2. Cerebral cortical localiza-
tion is now sufficiently far advanced to warrant
the assertion that the psycho-motor centers for
one half of the body occupy a certain area in
the cerebral cortex of the opposite hemisphere.
3. Functional activity of an organ implies in-
creased blood-supply and tissue-change, and

ft

cured to the head by buckles. The desirable
points in the subject to be experimented upon
are, a well-shaped head, thin hair, well-devel-
oped and trained muscles, power of facial ex-
pression, especially of unilateral facial move-
ments, and the ability to contract individual
muscles, and moderate intelligence. A man is
preferable to a woman, and a European to an
African.

The arrangements being completed, the sub-
ject of the experiments is made to exercise re-
peatedly a certain muscle or set of muscles;
for example, to move repeatedly the right arm.
The thermometer which registers an increase
of temperature as a result of the movements is

FIG. 1. — LATERAL VIEW OF THE HUMAN BRAIN, SHOWING ITS LOBES AND FISSURES. (After Ferrier.)
F, frontal lobe; P, parietal lobe ; O, occipital lobe ; T, temporo-sphenoidal lobe; S, fissure of Sylvius ; S', horizontal portion;
8", ascending portion of the same ; c, sulcus centralis, or fissure of Eolando ; A, anterior central convolution, or ascend-
ing frontal; B, posterior central convolution, or ascending parietal ; F,, superior; F2, middle; F3, inferior frontal con-
volution ; /j, superior ; /2, inferior frontal sulcus ; /3, sulcus praecentralis; P,, superior parietal lobule, or postero-parietal
lobule; P2, inferior parietal lobule, viz. : P2, gyrus supra-marginalis ; P2', gyrus angularis ; p, sulcus intra-parietalis ;
c, m, termination of the calloso-marginal fissure ; O1 first, O2 second, O3 third occipital convolutions ; po, parieto-oc-
cipital fissure ; o, sulcus occipitalis transversus ; o2, sulcus occipitalis longitudinalis inferior ; Tx first, T2 second, T3 third
temporo-sphenoidal convolutions ; tl first, #2 second temporo-sphenoidal fissures.

consequent elevation of the temperature of that
organ. 4. Willed contraction of muscles pre-
supposes an increased activity of the volitional
motor-center of those muscles in the cerebral
cortex. From this it was natural to make the
deduction that voluntary activity in a periph-
eral part would cause a rise of temperature in
the psycho-motor center for that part, which
might be indicated by thermometers applied to
the skull over such center. Numbers of self-
registering surface-thermometers were applied
to the surface of the skull to be tested, by pass-
ing them through holes in rubber straps se-

supposed to be placed over the part of the
brain controlling such movements, and in this
way the cerebral center for movement of the
arm is localized.

This is but one of the many means of investi-
gation which have been employed in the study
of this question. A study of Fig. 1 will show
the normal arrangement of a human brain as
seen from the side ; and Fig. 2 shows what has
been accomplished in the way of localization
as regards the surface of the organ — what is
known in anatomy as the gray matter of the
cerebral convolutions, or of the cortex. These

100

CEREBRAL LOCALIZATION.

results, as concisely stated by Raimey, may be
briefly summarized as follows :

1. The cortex is capable of artificial stimula-
tion, and the functions of certain areas may
thus be accurately determined. 2. A well-de-
fined relation exists between the cortex and
certain muscular groups. 3. The excitable re-
gion of the cortex, where motor effects are
chiefly produced, may be said to be localized
in the following parts, some of which may be
seen by reference to the figure: The center

movements of the forearm and hands (6) ; for
extension and forward movement of the arm
and hand (5) ; centers for complex movements
of the arms and legs when acting together (2,
3, 4). The ascending parietal convolution pre-
sents, from above downward, four centers for
complex movements of the hand and wrist (a,
&, c, d), such as the use of individual fingers,
etc. The superior parietal convolution pre-
sents the center which presides over the move-
ments of the leg and foot, as in the act of

Pro. 2. — SAME VIEW OF THE HTTMAN BEATW, SHOWING THE AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CONVOLUTIONS. (After Ferrier.)
1 (on the postero-parietal [superior parietal] lobule), advance of the opposite hind-limb as in walking; 2, 3, 4 (around the
upper extremity of the fissure of Rolando), complex movements of the opposite leg and arm, and of the trunk, as in
swimming ; o, "ft, c, d (on the postero-parietal [posterior central] convolution), individual and combined movements
of the fingers and wrist of the opposite hand : prehensile movements ; 5 (at the posterior extremity of the superior
frontal convolution), extension forward of the opposite arm and hand ; 6 (on the upper part of the antero-parietal or as-
cending frontal [anterior central] convolution), supination and flexion of the opposite forearm ; 1 (on the median portion
of the same convolution), retraction and elevation of the opposite angle of the mouth by means of the zygomatic muscles;
8 (lower down on the same convolution), elevation of the ala nasi and upper lip with depression of the lower lip, on the
opposite side; 9, 10 (at the inferior extremity of the same convolution. Broca's convolution), opening of the mouth with
9, protrusion, and 10, retraction of the tongue — region of aphasia, bilateral action ; 11 (between 10 and the inferior ex-

, ,

side ; 12 (on the posterior portions of the superior and middle frontal convolutions), the eyes open widely, the pupils
dilate, and the head and eyes turn toward the opposite side; 13, 13 (on the supra-marginal lobule and angular gyrus),
the eyes move toward the opposite side with an upward 13, or downward 13- deviation ; the pupils generally contracted
(center of vision) ; 14 (of the infra-marginal, or superior [first] temporo-sphenoidal convolution), pricking of the opposite
ear, the head and eyes turn to the opposite side, and the pupils dilate largely (center of hearing). Ferrier, moreover,
places the centers of taste and smell at the extremity of the temporo-sphenoidal lobe, and that of touch in the gyrus
uncin-itus and hippocampus major.

for movements of the lips and tongue lies at
the base of the third frontal convolution, near
the fissure of Silvius (9 and 10 on figure). On
the first and second frontal convolutions there
is a center (12) for lateral movements of the
head, for elevation of the eyelids, and for dila-
tation of the pupil. The ascending frontal
convolution presents, from below upward, the
following centers: for elevation and depres-
sion of the corners of the mouth (8 and 7) ; for

walking. The sensory region of the cortex is
confined to the parietal, temporal, and occipital
lobes of the cerebrum. In it certain centers
have been definitely located by Terrier which
are not as yet accepted as fully proved.

It may be asked whether these facts, which
have resulted from physiological experiment
and from faradization, are of any practical
value at the bedside. Their value may easily
be shown. In a case of brain-disease, where

CEREBRAL LOCALIZATION.

101

the faculty of speech is affected to any extent,
it is safe to conclude that the lesion must he in
one of three places nearly connected with each
other — the island of Reil, the base of the third
frontal convolution, or the white substance ly-
ing between the third frontal convolution and
the base of the cerebrum. It will also, in most
cases, be upon the left side, as already shown.
Paralysis of motion affecting only the upper
extremity, leads to a location of the lesion on
the side of the brain opposite the affected arm,
and either confined to or involving the ascend-
ing convolutions of the frontal and parietal
lobes. In the same way, the affected point
may be predicted, with an approach to cer-
tainty, in paralysis of the leg, of the muscles of
the face, of ithe eyes, etc. Supposing, now, that
a patient affected with certain forms of paraly-
sis, either of motion or sensation, with diffi-
culty of speech, or with a certain variety of
strabismus, gives a history of an injury at some
time long passed, to the head. The surgeon
concludes that as a result of such injury the
bones of the skull have become gradually
thickened until the pressure of new bone upon
the brain-substance is causing the symptoms
which he observes. From the muscles and
parts affected he is enabled, in some cases with
almost absolute exactness, to predict where
the thickened bone on the inner surface of the
skull will be found, and by the use of the tre-
phine upon this point he may cure the disease
— a result which could not be obtained with-
out the accurate knowledge which has resulted
from the study of cerebral localization. Ab-
scess in the substance of the brain, following
a few weeks after an injury is by no means
uncommon. Such abscesses may be treated as
abscesses are in other parts of the body, by
opening them and allowing pus to escape, pro-
vided only thay can be located with sufficient
exactness, so that the trephine may first be
used to remove a portion of the skull and thus
allow the plunging of a knife into the brain-
substance and reaching the abscess-cavity.
Suppose that a person who has been injured
on the head develops aphasia, or the loss of
words, after a few weeks. The indications are
all in favor of the diagnosis of an abscess in
the anterior part of the brain on the left side,
and -an operation at this point may save the
patient's life, and has done so.

The surgical importance of these discoveries
may be still further exemplified. Thus, if a
person receive a severe injury on one side of
the head, and there follows a paralysis of the
hand and arm on the same side of the body,
instead of on the opposite side, any surgical
interference is contraindicated ; for the reason
that, were the injury to the brain confined to
the seat of the wound, the paralysis would be
on the opposite side of the body ; but, being on
the same side, it is proved that the brain-injury
must be on the opposite side ; in other words,
that the brain has been extensively damaged, so
extensively that the side opposite the point of

injury is also deeply affected, and therefore sur-
gical interference is probably useless. Again,
the completeness of the paralysis may indicate
that the brain-disease is not confined to the
surface, but has involved the deeper portions,
and that the operation of trephining is likely
to do little if any good.

The celebrated " American crow-bar case,"
which was for a time looked upon with incre-
dulity as a " Yankee invention," has recently
been appealed to as an argument against the
fact of cerebral localization, and as a proof that
the most extensive injury may be done to that
portion of the brain supposed to be the center
of voluntary motion, without causing paraly-
sis. The case was that of a man, aged twen-
ty-five years, who was tamping a blasting-
charge in a rock with a pointed iron bar three
feet seven inches long, 1£ inch in diameter,
and weighing 13J pounds. The charge ex-
ploded prematurely, and the bar entered with
its pointed end at the left angle of the patient's
jaw, passed through the skull and out at the
forehead, and was picked up at some distance,
covered with blood and brain. The patient
was stunned, but within an hour after the ac-
cident he was able to walk up a long flight of
stairs, and give an intelligent account of the
injury to the surgeon who attended him. He
ultimately recovered, after an illness which it
was supposed must necessarily end fatally, and
lived twelve and a halt years, dying of epilep-
tic convulsions, without medical supervision.
The skull was subsequently exhumed, and may
now be seen in the Medical Museum of Harvard
University.

The case is generally cited as one in which
the man suffered no permanent damage from
the injury, either mental or bodily ; but a more
careful study of it, made by Charcot, proves
quite the contrary, and in fact brings it within
the ranks of the proofs of cerebral localization.
An examination of the parts of the brain which
must have been lacerated by the projectile,
proves that the whole track of the bar was
in the prse-frontal region, and that the absence
of paralysis was exactly what should have been
anticipated from experimental research. The
outer root of the olfactory bulb may also have
been injured, and if such were the case there
should have been a partial loss of the sense of
smell ; but on this point the history is silent.
There should have been also more or less intel-
lectual disturbance, and on this point the his-
tory by Dr. Harlow is conclusive : " His con-
tractors, who regarded him as the most efficient
and capable foreman in their employ previous
to his injury, considered the change in his mind
so marked that they could, not give him his
place again. The equilibrium of balance, so to
speak, between his intellectual faculties and
animal propensities seems to have been de-
stroyed. He is fitful, irreverent, indulging at
times in the grossest profanity (which was not
previously his custom), manifesting but little
deference to his fellows, impatient of restraint

102

CHADBOUKNE, PAUL A.

or advice when it conflicts with his desires, at
times pertinaciously obstinate yet capricious
and vacillating, devising many plans of future
aspiration, which are no sooner arranged than
they are abandoned in turn for others ap-
pearing more feasible. A child in his intel-
lectual capacity and manifestations, he has the
animal passions of a strong man. Previous
to his injury, though untrained in the schools,
he possessed a well-balanced mind, and was
looked upon by those who knew him as a
shrewd, smart business man, very energetic
and persistent in executing all his plans of
operation. In this regard bis mind was radi-
cally changed, so decidedly that his friends
and acquaintances said he was ' no longer

CIIADBOURNE, Paul Insel, an American edu-
cator, born in New Berwick, Me., Oct. 21,
1823 ; died in New York city, Feb. 23, 1883.
He was graduated at Williams College, at the
head of his class, in 1848, and became. a teacher
in Willis's Academy, Freehold, N. J. From

PAUL ANSEL CHADBOUBNB.

Freehold he went to the Theological Seminary,
EastWindsor, Conn., and after graduation went
to Exeter, Mass., where he married. His wife
and two children survive him.

Mr. Chadbourne next became tutor in his
Alma Mater, »nd in 1853 was raised to the
professorship of Chemistry and Natural His-

tory. It is worthy of note that he was also,
without giving up his chair at Williams, elected
to the same chair in Bowdoin College, and did
the duty of both for seven years. He served
as professor in the Berkshire Medical College,
Mass., and for thirteen years was Chemical Lec-
turer in Mount Holyoke Seminary.

In 1855 he visited Newfoundland. Two
years later he was at the head of a scientific
party iu Florida; and two years after this he
visited Europe. For the purpose of studying
the geysers and volcanoes, he extended his tour
to Iceland. In 1869 he made a journey to
Greenland, for exploration and research.

With all his devotion to science and learn-
ing, Dr. Chadbourne was a careful observer of
public affairs, and quite as anxious to do his
share in this line of duty as in any other. He
was elected to the Senate of Massachusetts in
1865, and in 1876 was a delegate-at-large to
the Republican National Convention. For the
benefit of his health he removed to the West,
and was soon after elected President of the
University of Wisconsin. He dis-
charged the duties of this post for
three years, and then passed two
years in examinations and experi-
ments among the Eocky Mountain
mines.

At this date (18V2)he was chosen
to succeed the venerable Dr. Mark
Hopkins as President of Williams
College. His occupancy of this of-
fice may be called the great work of
his life. Under his able and skill-
ful oversight the college prospered
greatly ; the number of its students
was increased, and funds were liber-
ally poured in for its support. He
held the office for nine years, with
unvarying success, after which he
resigned, in order to carry out some
extensive literary plans which he
was very desirous to execute.

Dr. Chadbourne was first Presi-
dent of the Massachusetts Agricult-
ural College, and in 1882 was re-
elected to that post. He also held
it at the time of his death. He was
a member of the Massachusetts His-
torical Society, of the Albany Insti-
tute, and of other learned societies
abroad as well as at home. Two
honorary degrees were conferred
upon him by Amherst College, and
the degree of M. D. by the Berk-
shire Medical College. He was the
author of several books, among
which were " Natural Theology,"
"Instinct in Animals and Man," and the "Re-
lations of Natural History." He was chief
editor of an elaborate work entitled "The
Public Service of the State of New York."
He was actively interested in manufacturing
enterprises, as well as financial operations,
and was a marvel to those who knew the

CHAMBERS, WILLIAM.

CHAMBORD, COMTE DE. 103

amount and number of works to which he
put bis hand and carried through successfully,
despite the infirmities of body and the perils
of uncertain health. He started for a vi.4t to
New York on the 13th of February, ^but, be-
fore leaving the cars, he was seized with what
proved to be a fatal attack. He was carried
to the residence of his brother-in-law, Mr. A.
Schenck, peritonitis ensued, and he died on
Friday, the 23d.

Dr. Chadbonrne was a man of mark in many
ways. As a scholar of varied acquirements,
and an educator of rare skill and ability, he
has had few equals in his day. Activity and
zeal were specially prominent in his career,
and his experiences of life were multiform.
He was born in Maine, fitted for college in
New Hampshire, and graduated at college in
Massachusetts. He traveled extensively in his
own country as well as in foreign lands. His
life was full of adventure, of singular vicissi-
tudes, and of noble, memorable work. He
served four institutions of learning, three of
them as president. He led parties for scien-
tific exploration and research; he managed
large and important business enterprises ; and
he published a number of learned scientific
books. He was a theologian, too, of no mean
power, and his mind and heart were at rest in
possessing and enjoying those truths firmly
held by the denomination with which he was
connected.

CHAMBERS, William, a Scottish author and
publisher, born at Peebles in 1800, died in
Edinburgh, May 20, 1883. At the age of thir-
teen, after receiving the education which the
schools of his native town afforded, he was
apprenticed to a printer in Edinburgh. Three
years later he opened a book-stall, and be-
fore 1832, when his brother Robert joined
him, he eked out the profits of a small trade
by working at case and press, and in 1830 pub-
lished his " Book of Scotland," an elaborate
and comprehensive account of the usages and
institutions, the schools, social system, and
civil and religious organization of that coun-
try. Previous to this time the brothers united
in preparing a " Gazetteer of Scotland," which
was written in the intervals of business and
published in 1832. In February of that year
appeared the first number of the " Edinburgh
Journal," designed " to supply intellectual
food of the best kind, and in such a form and
at such a price as must suit the convenience
of any man in the British dominions." It
almost immediately attained a circulation of
50,000, whereupon the brothers united their
business (Robert having also carried on a small
book-store) into one establishment. The " Jour-
nal " has remained for fifty- two years one of the
most widely circulated of British periodicals,
and is at present conducted by Robert Cham-
bers, son and nephew of the original found-
ers. In 1834 W. & R. Chambers began the
publication of a series of scientific and histori-
cal treatises, written in a popular style, under

the title of "Information for the People," the
average sale of the numbers of which was more
than 100,000 copies. They were followed by
the " Biographical Dictionary of Eminent
Scotsmen " (1835) ; " Cyclopaedia of English
Literature" (1844); the "Popular Edition of
Standard English Works," "Papers for the
People," "Miscellany," "Repository of In-
structive and Entertaining Tracts," and other
similar collections — all of which were in a
cheap form, and were widely read. " Cham-
bers's Educational Course," which has been
completed by degrees, includes works in al-
most every branch of knowledge, and was fol-
lowed by " Chambers's Encyclopaedia " (10
vols. 8vo, , 1860-'68; new edition, 1871-*72)—
all of which were in whole or part edited by
William Chambers and his brother. The for-
mer contributed numerous essays to the "Jour-
nal," of which he was for many years after his
brother's death the editor, and gave his im-
pressions of the United States in a work enti-
tled " Things as they are in America " (repub-
lished in New York in 1854). He was also the
author of " Slavery and Color in America,"
"Peebles and its Neighborhood," "About
Railways," " Wintering at Mentone," " Youth's
Companion and Counselor," and "Improved
Dwelling-Houses for the Humble and other
Classes in Cities," suggested by his experiments
in improving the dwellings of his tenantry on
his estate of Glenormiston, near Peebles. He
presented to his native town, at a cost of $150,-
000, a substantial building and an excellent
library, known as the " Chambers Institution,"
and served two terms as Lord Provost of Edin-
burgh. In 1872 he published his last work,
entitled "Robert Chambers, with Autobio-
graphical Reminiscences."- The crowning act
of his long career was the restoration, at a
cost of $150,000, of the interior of the old
Cathedral Church of St. Giles, Edinburgh, to
its former state of grandeur. Three days be-
fore the cathedral was to be reopened with
appropriate ceremonies, the restorer was no
more. The publishing-house of W. & R. Cham-
bers is the largest in Scotland, employing more
than three hundred persons.

CHAMBORD, Comte de (Henri Charles Ferdinand
Marie Dieudonne d'Artois, Due de Bordeaux), the
last of the principal line of Bourbons, and,
under the laws of the old French monarchy,
heir to the throne of France, died at Frohs-
dorf, in Lower Austria, Aug. 24, 1883. He
was born in the Tuileries, Sept. 29, 1820, eight
months after his father, the Due de Berry, son
of the Comte d'Artois, afterward Charles X,
was assassinated by a political fanatic. The'
birth of a prince in the continuation of the
elder line, the one which preserved, untainted
by any compromise with the Revolution, the
traditions and principles of the monarchy, was
hailed with ostentatious demonstrations by the
royalists. The infant received the surname
"Child of a Miracle," and was christened De-
odonatus, or " God given." A national sub-

104

CHAMBORD, COMTE DE.

scription was opened, and with the proceeds
the beautiful castle and estate of Chambord
were purchased, and presented to the Prince
as a public offering. The title of Due de Bor-
deaux was given him out of compliment to the
city which was the first to proclaim the Bour-
bons after the fall of Napoleon. He was now
created Count de Chambord by the King, his
great-uucle.

The birth of the Prince occurred at the time
when a reaction against liberal ideas had set in,
the main cause of the revival of royalist ideas
being the murder of his father. The Duke of
Orleans, who was descended from Philippe of

COMTE DE CHAMBOBD.

Orleans, second son of Louis XIV, and was the
son of Philippe Egalite of the Revolution, stood
heir to the murdered Duke in default of male
issue. He was the hope of the party of liberal-
constitutional ideas. Between the throne and
the Duke of Orleans were, in the regular line of
succession, the Comte d'Artois, brother to the
reigning King, the infirm Louis XVIII, and
the Comte's surviving eldest son, the childless
Due d Angouleme. It was in the hope of de-
stroying the elder branch of the Bourbons that
the saddler Louvel assassinated the Due de Ber-
ry, under the portico of the Opera-House, Feb.
13, 1820. The< Liberal ministers were driven
from office, and the supporters of the Duke of

Orleans were accused of inspiring the crime.
When the Duchesse de Berry gave birth to a
prince, the report was circulated by the Lib-
erals that the child was a changeling.

The education of Henri was planned to fos-
ter in his mind the principles of absolutism
and divine right. The chiefs of the ancient
nobility, who served him as tutors and gov-
ernesses, filled his brain with their romantic
ideas of the ancient regime. When he was in
his fifth year his grandfather succeeded the
shrewd and prudent Louis XVIII, as Charles
X, and the glories of the old monarchy were
revived, and, in the exhibitions of royal splen-
dor, the handsome little prince was
made a central figure. Dressed in
white and blue until he was six
years old, in token of his dedication
to the Virgin Mary, he reviewed his
regiment of hussars, and distributed
boons and pardons to suppliant
crowds. In 1830 Charles X, with
the assistance of his minister, Prince
Polignac, attempted to reassume the
prerogative of the kings of France.
After twice dissolving the Liberal
Chamber, he issued an ordinance,
on the 25th of July, 1830, abrogat-
ing the charter of 1815. At the end
of three days of barricade-fighting,
the royal troops were beaten by the
people of Paris. The Duke of Or-
leans accepted the crown as King
of the French, and the deposed mon-
arch journeyed slowly in royal state
to Cherbourg, still expecting to be
restored to the throne by an upris-
ing of the provinces, and then set
sail with all his family, followed by
a frigate, which had orders to sink
the ship if she should put back for
the coast of France.

The proscribed King set up a court
in the palace of Holyrood, at Edin-
burgh, until the ministry of William
IV gave him to understand that there
were political inconveniences attend-
ing the^stay of the royal family in
Great Britain. Before settling at
Hradjin, near Prague, where they
next established themselves, the
Duchesae de Berry, & princess of energetic
character and adventurous spirit, undertook
an expedition into France, for the purpose
of heading a movement to place her son
on the throne. With her boy she landed se-
cretly in the Vendee. The plans of the ex-
pedition were well laid, and the Legitimists
formed in a military body without detection.
But the Breton peasants did not flock to the
white flag as was expected, not understanding
the grounds for upsetting one Bourbon King
to establish another. In a single engagement
with the King's troops the insurgent band was
routed. The Duchess was betrayed into the
hands of the Government, anc1, when confined

CHAMBORD, COMTE DE.

105

in the Chateau de Blaye, was discovered to be
pregnant, and declared that she had contracted
a secret marriage with an Italian, Count Luc-
chesi-Palli. This episode not only brought the
cause of Henri V into ridicule, but separated
the young pretender thenceforward from his
mother, as Charles X could never forgive her
misalliance. Henri, who was safely brought
back from the unlucky expedition by faithful
adherents, was placed by his grandfather un-
der the guardianship of the Duchesse d'Angou-
leme, a woman of strong will and masculine
nature, while the Duchesse de Berry, who was
a princess of Naples, was banished to the land
of her nativity.

Chateaubriand, the celebrated expositor of
clerico-royalist theories, filled with ideas simi-
lar to those which stirred Disraeli, Bismarck,
and other statesmen, made the pilgrimage to
Prague, in the hope of taking the direction of
the young prince's education and bringing him
up to become a democratic ruler, who should
realize under the old patriarchal forms the
popular aspirations of the Revolution, which
the bourgeoisie, after becoming the dominant
class under Louis Philippe, had selfishly for-
gotten. But democratic ideas were regarded
with dread and aversion by the people sur-
rounding the young Due de Bordeaux. He
was trained by his tutor, the Duo de Damas,
in doctrines at variance with the whole move-
ment of the century, and in the hope of sim-
ply restoring the old order as he was taught
to conceive it by clerical guides, who made
him believe that the kings of France were all
men of saintly character, and that the dalliance
of the aristocracy with Voltairean heresies was
the cause of the fall of the monarchy. Henri
grew up a religious devotee, completely igno-
rant of the world, and possessing ideas of the
religious nature of the kingly office which cre-
ated astonishment in the courts of Europe,
when in his twentieth year he made a tour by the
counsel of Cardinal Lambruschini, who fearegl
the effects of his ascetic devotions upon the
mind of the Prince. The family lived for some
years at Goertz, or Goritz, in Istria, where
Charles X died in 1836. When he was twenty-
one years old he was thrown from his horse
and sustained a fracture of the thigh, which
made him slightly lame for life and unfitted
him for robust exercise. The same year the
Duchesse d'Angouleine purchased the castle
and estate of Froschdorf, or Frohsdorf, forty
miles from Vienna. The Comta de Chambord
(which was the title that the Prince was called
by after the expulsion ojf his family from
France) was not able to leave his bed for two
years after his accident. Shortly after his own
raishap, the popular Due d'Orleans, Louis Phi-
lippe's heir, was thrown from his carriage and
killed, leaving the infant Comte de Paris as
next heir) with the prospect of a regency un-
der the Due de Nemonrs, who was not popular.
In November, 1843, as soon as he left his sick-
bed, he took up his residence in London, and

publicly
take the

called upon his partisans to come and
take the oath of allegiance. The Legitimist
members of the Chamber and the House of
Peers, with thousands of others, flocked to his
mansion in Belgrave Square to pay homage to
Henri V. A vote of condemnation passed by
the Chamber on the conduct of these deputies
had the effect of exposing the weakness of Louis
Philippe's tenure of the throne and the seem-
ing hopefulness of Chambord's prospects. The
censured deputies resigned, and were all re-
elected. It became the fashion in Paris to
praise the Comte, and rave over the glories of
the old regime. He strengthened his position
and augmented his great fortune by marrying
Maria Theresa, daughter of the Duke of Mo-
dena, in 1847.

With the brilliant Berryer to lead his party,
which grew in numbers and importance up to
the Revolution of 1848, there was an oppor-
tunity, if Chambord had been daring, unscru-
pulous, and despotic, and willing to sacrifice
his principles to expediency, of obtaining the
crown after the ignominious overthrow of
Louis Philippe, though scarcely of holding it.
But Chambord's lack of courage and decision
of character kept him from making the attempt.
It was necessary that he should pledge himself
to rule constitutionally, a condition which he
had already accepted in letters and addresses,
and in the columns of his organs.

The communistic outbreak of June decided
the fate of the second republic. After its rig-
orous suppression by Cavaignac, a Chamber
was elected containing a strong group of Le-
gitimists, and a large number who were ready
to rally around Chambord, provided he would
issue a manifesto embodying a charter of popu-
lar representation. He appointed many meet-
ings with his political friends, and made fre-
quent promises to adopt this course, but when-
ever the moment for decision arrived he escaped
from his political advisers to meditate in some
monastery and take priestly counsel. Prince
Louis Napoleon canvassed the country, and se-
cured the election to the presidency. The Le-
gitimists voted for him, to keep out Cavaignac.
The Comte de Chambord could not bring him-
self to renounce the absolutist theory of the mon-
archy by right divine and the re-establishment
of the old ecclesiastico-feudal order. He shrank
still more from the employment of military
force. There was no hope of re-erecting the
old Bourbon throne under any compromise or
possible concessions without a sharp, sangui-
nary conflict with the democracy of the cities.
While Thiers, Guizot, and Berryer were labor-
ing to bring about a fusion between the Legiti-
mists and Orleanists, which advanced to the
point of direct negotiations with the Comte de
Chambord at Wiesbaden after the death of
Louis Philippe, and while Marshal Bugeaud,
the first general of the French army at the
time, held 50,000 of the choicest troops ready
to strike at the orders of Henri Cinq, Prince
Bonaparte strengthened his grasp on the cen-

106

CHAMBORD, COMTE DE.

tralized administrative machinery, and two
years later destroyed the hopes of the royalists
by liimseif establishing an absolute monarchy,
and subsequently assuming the duty of defend-
ing the temporal power of the Pope. The
Comte de Chambord still expected that the
French people would fall at the feet of their
hereditary sovereign, and accept him uncondi-
tionally.

His wavering conduct during this crisis dis-
gusted his adherents. Yet many still upheld
his pretensions as embodying the principles of
Legitimist!). In his comfortable retirement at
Frohsdorf, where he maintained a stately court
as a king in exile, he entertained courteously
all who came from France. He enjoyed sport,
following the hunt in a carriage, but occupied
his mind chiefly with ecclesiastical antiquities,
acquiring a remarkable acquaintance with the
shrines of all countries and the religious relics
they contained. The imperial court of France
always treated him with deep respect, as a
means of conciliating the old nobility, who
kept aloof from the Tuileries, and after a
while he seemed to be completely forgotten.
When he abandoned the hope of having chil-
dren', not only was the chief motive for estab-
lishing his claim to the throne taken away
from him, but a deterrent sentiment took its
place. Like all his family, Chambord hated
the house of Orleans. The fall of the empire
in 1870 drew him from his retirement at the
age of fifty to resume the active role of a pre-
tender. The crown was almost thrust upon
him by his energetic partisans, and the dangers
threatening the Church gave his cause a politi-
cal significance which was lacking in 1848-'52,
but he performed his part in a more reluctant,
vacillating, and half-hearted way than before.
After Sedan, he issued from Geneva a mani-
festo bewailing the fate of France, rather than
announcing his enndidacy. The royalists were
politically active in the midst of the war, and
the precipitate election of February, 1871, they
turned to their advantage.

After the suppression of the Commune, the
Comte resided for a time in his castle at Cham-
bord. He wrote a series of letters disclaiming
any intention of abolishing the tricolor, or rep-
resentative government, or political equality,
or of reviving church tithes. After launch-
ing a second manifesto, he withdrew to Mari-
enbad. On 'the understanding that the Comte
de Chambord would accept the crown as a
constitutional monarch, and would appoint the
Comte de Paris his heir, the Legitimists pur-
sued their efforts to undermine the Thiers re-
public, and in the winter of 1872 they went to
Bruges to pay homage to the pretender. Thiers'
declared that he would prosecute the actors in
this demonstration, and have Chambord es-
corted across the frontier if he showed him-
self in France. On May 24, 1873, the royal-
ist cabal overthrew Thiers, and on the 5th of
August the C6mte de Paris went to Frohsdorf
in acknowledgment of the claims of the head

of the family. In October the Comte de
Chambord was at Versailles, and everything
was ready for the coup de main which his
friends urged upon him. The royalist major-
ity in the Assembly would hail him King by
acclamation, if he would only enter the hall
and declare himself; while Marshal MacMah on
stood ready to uphold his rights with the
army. But he shrank from such a course,
perceiving that the French people were not
in sympathy with the restoration of the Bour-
bons. A deputation from the Right waited
upon him at Salzburg and made a formal offer
of the crown in the name of the parliamentary
majority. The Prince, racked by the old ques-
tions, wavered and vacillated as before. To
the delegates he replied that he accepted the
crown, arid would leave it to the National As-
sembly to frame a Constitution. His friends
supposed that all difficulties were removed,
and state carriages and decorations were ready
on the 25th of October for the solemn entry
of the King. Six da}s later his official organ,
I? Union, published a manifesto declaring that
he would never disown the white flag of Henri
IV, or consent to become "the King of the
Revolution."

The Orleanists were indignant. The re-
publicans praised the Prince for his consist-
ency of character and firmness of principle.
The slender group of pure royalists clung still
closer to the Comte de Chambord.

The Royal Succession. — The legitimate suc-
cessor to the French throne is now the Comte
de Paris, chief of the Orleans branch, who
was formally accepted as such in the meeting
between the heads of the two houses at Frohs-
dorf in 1883. Still the question can be raised
by the dwindling party which adheres to the
principles of feudalism and absolutism, whether
the Spanish Bourbons, who are the eldest
branch by descent, do not come legally next
in the order of succession, since they are cut
off from the Spanish throne.

The cadet branch of Orleans is almost as old
as the Bourbon dynasty, being sprung from
Philippe, Duke of Orleans, second son of Louis
XIII, who was the son and successor of Henri
IV, the first of the line. All the other living
Bourbons are descended from Louis XIV, the
elder son of Louis XIII. The appended genea-
logical table on page 107 exhibits the relation-
ship of the various branches of the Bourbon
family.

The house of Orleans has many living mem-
bers, descended from Louis Philippe. His eld-
est son, who was accidentally killed, July 13,
1842, left two sons; the eldest, Louis Philippe,
Comte de Paris, born Aug. 28, 1838, has a son,
Louis Philippe Robert, born Feb. 6, 1869. His
brother, the Due de Chartres, has two sons.
His uncle, the Due de Nemours, has sons and
grandsons; and of his other uncles, the Prince
de Joinville, the Due de Montpensier, and the
Due d'Aumale, the two former have male
issue.

CHANZY, ANTOIKE E. A.

107

Louis XIII. (d. 1643).
I

Louis XIV. (d. 1715).

Louis, the Grand- Dauphin
(d. 1711).

Philippe,
Due d'Orleans
(d. 1701).

I

Philippe,

Louis, Due de
Bourgogne

Philippe V. of Spain,
Due d'Aniou

Due d'Orleans,
the Regent
(d. 1723).

(d. 1712).

(d. 1746).

I
Louis Joseph
Philippe

1

1 |

| |

(d 1793).

Louis XVI.
(d. 1798).

Louis XVII.

Louis XVIII. Charles X.
(d. 1821). (d. 1836).

Henri, Comte

Charles III. Philippe (d.
of Spain 1765). [Ducal
(d. 1788). line of Parma.]

Louis Philippe,
King of the
French

(d. 1795).

de Chambord

1 1 J

(d. 1850).

[principal line,
or branch of
Artois. ex-
tinct in 1883].

Charles IV. Ferdinand I. The Infante
(d. 1819). (d. 1825). Gabriel
| [Branch of the (d. 1788).

[Branch of
Orleans.]

1 1 Two Sicilies.] [Cadet branch
Ferdinand Don^arlos ofBp^ rep-

the children

Isabella II. Don Carlos of the Infante
(b. 1822). Sebastian.]

Alfonso XII. |
Don Carlos

(b. 1848).

Prince Jaime

(b. 1S70),

[principal line

of Spain].

CHANZY, Antoine Eugene Alfred, a French gen-
eral, died in Chaldns, January 4th. He was
born at Nouart, in the Ardennes, on the 18th
of March, 1823. His father was a captain of
cuirassiers. He entered the navy at the age of
sixteen, and a year and a half later joined a
regiment of artillery ; was then received into
the Academy of St. Cyr, and in 1843 was com-
missioned sub-lieutenant of zouaves, was given
a lieutenancy in the line in 1848, became cap-
tain in 1851, and was then appointed chief of
the Arab bureau in Hemsan. He became chief
of battalion in 1856, fought in the Italian cam-
paign, and as lieutenant-colonel took part in
the Syrian expedition. Being promoted to a
colonelcy, he commanded a regiment stationed
at Rome, and in 1864 was transferred back to
Algiers, and became general of brigade and
commandant, first of Bel- Abbes and then of
Hemsan.

At the beginning of the German war he
went to Paris, and asked to be assigned to a
command, but Marshal Leboeuf ignored him.

After the surrender of the imperial army at
Sedan, and the investment of Paris, when the
Government of National Defense marshaled
the raw bodies made up of the remaining fight-
ing material of the country, in the hope of still
redeeming vanquished France, Ohanzy was
made a general of division, as most of the su-
perior officers of the army were prisoners of
war. After the retirement of General d' Aurelle
de Paladines he was selected by Gambetta as
" the true soldier revealed by events " to lead
this second Army of the Loire in its stubborn
resistance.

He has been spoken of as the one great
soldier produced by France in 1870-'71, and
the magnificent stand he made against the

huge German forces in the region of the Loire
gained the respect and admiration of Europe.
The quality of his troops at this time was of
the poorest, and discipline scarcely existed.

With Chanzy in immediate command under
the direction of Gen. d' Aurelle, a new spirit was
breathed into this mass. The Sixteenth Corps,
joined with the Fifteenth, was now given the
name of the Army of the Loire, and, by Nov. 1,
1870, it held the country to the north of the
river, between Beaugency, Blois, and Marche-
noir. D'Aurelle now resalved to march on
Orleans, which had been captured by a raid
from Paris, and, if possible, to cut off a Bava-
rian detachment, which was the only hostile
body in his path. For this purpose he ad-
vanced his two corps, combining his operations
with a French division which was to descend
on Orleans from the upper Loire. These
movements led to the battle of Coulmiers, the
one French victory gained in the war, and
though, owing to the delay of the distant
French wing, the Bavarians contrived to effect
their escape, they were rudely handled and
badly beaten. Chanzy was in command of the
French left, but, through the mistake of a cav-
alry leader, his operations were not brilliant.

The apparition of a victorious army per-
plexed the counsels of the Germans at Ver-
sailles; and it is now known that the French
commander might have struck with great ef-
fect. The Bavarian detachment, not 20,000
strong, was literally the only hostile force be-
tween D'Aurelle and the capital of France, and
had that general advanced boldly with his
60,000 or 70,000 men, he would almost cer-
tainly have crushed Von der Tann, very prob-
ably have defeated the Grand Duke of Meck-
lenburg, who was hurriedly sent off with a

108

CHANZY, ANTOINE E. A.

few thousand men to attempt to reach his
Bavarian colleague, and might possibly have
raised the siege of Paris, for Von Moltke con-
templated even this contingency. D'Aurelle,
however, fell back on Orleans, his object be-
ing to make the position an intrenched camp
of formidable strength, and a base tor future
offensive movements. Ohanzy protested against
this, urged his chief to advance to the line of
the Coulie and be ready to assume the offen-
sive, and especially entreated him to attack in
detail Von der Tann, the Grand Duke, and
Prince Frederick Charles, as, gathering togeth-
er from wide distances and presenting their
flanks to their collected enemy, these generals
slowly converged on Orleans.
By the close of November, the Fifteenth

ANTOINE EUGENE ALFRED CHANZT.

and Sixteenth Corps had been reenforced by
the Seventeenth, the Eighteenth, and the
Twentieth, and the French army, 200,000
strong, filled the region around and in front of
Orleans. The purpose of D'Aurelle was to
await the attack of the enemy in his in-
trenched camp. Gambetta, however, believ-
ing himself as capable of directing armies as he
was of levying troops, having heard that Tro-
chu was about to make a great effort to break
out of Paris,,insisted upon a general movement
in the very teeth of Prince Frederick Charles.

For this purpose the Eighteenth Corps was
prematurely thrown forward on Beaune-la-
Rolande, the Twentieth failing to give it sup-
port, while the Fifteenth, the Sixteenth, and
the Seventeenth were ordered to make what
really was a flank march within reach of a foe
at this moment all but concentrated. The
Eighteenth Corps was at once defeated ; and
then the "Prince, by a masterly movement, com-
bined with his supports on the left, fell on the
French center, the Fifteenth Corps, and shat-
tered it after a brave resistance. This stroke
forced Chanzy, who up to this time had gained
slight advantages, to fall back with the Six-
teenth on the Seventeenth Corps ; the German
commander followed up his success with ener-
gy and skill, and the result was that the Fif-
teenth Corps was -all but ruined as
a military force ; Orleans and the in-
trenched camp were carried, and the
Army of the Loire was rent in twain,
the Eighteenth and Twentieth Corps
being driven across the river, while
the Sixteenth and Seventeenth and
the wreck of the Fifteenth were ral-
lied by Chanzy on the northern bank.
A succession of false movements had
inflicted a ruinous defeat on France ;
neither the defensive strategy of
D'Aurelle nor the bolder plans of
his able lieutenant had had a chance
to be carried out.

D'Aurelle was dismissed. The di-
vided parts of the Army of the Loire
were separated into two bodies, the
first army given to Bourbaki, and
the second remaining under Chanzy,
whose forces had been strengthened
by the Twenty -first Corps, and by a
flying column from Tours. By Dec.
6th he had placed the army between
Marchenoir, Josnes, and Beaugency,
having skillfully chosen a strong de-
fensive line, with his flanks covered
by a great forest and the Loire. He
was forthwith attacked by Prince
Frederick Charles, who, having en-
tered, Orleans on the 4th and 5th,
turned against the enemy hanging
on his flank, no doubt confident of
easy success ; but his calculations
were completely baffled. In a series
of stern and sustained engagements,
Chanzy for four days repelled his as-
sailant, inflicting considerable loss, and though
the Prince was reenforced from Orleans by a
detachment under the Grand Duke of Meck-
lenburg, he made no impression on his heroic
enemy, until a demonstration from the Loire
and Blois placed a German corps on the French
rear.

Chanzy's skill was not more remarkable
than his confidence and tenacious energy;
his presence electrified his young levies, and
from this moment he held absolute sway over
the hearts of officers and men. The astonish-

CHANZY, ANTOINE E. A.

ing efforts which he made once more discon-
certed the strategists of "Versailles. The great
sortie from Paris had, no doubt, failed ; out it
had cost tb.3 Germans thousands of lives, and
the proud city still defied its enemy. D'Au-
relle had succumbed with Orleans; but afresh
army had arisen from the wreck, and it had
found a chief who could make it accomplish
feats that seemed impossible to professional
soldiers.

While Ohanzy was making his heroic stand,
exposed to the whole weight of his enemy's
force, Bourbaki did nothing, and declared that
he could not detach a man from his quarters at
Bourges to aid his colleague. This remissness
enabled the Germans to make the movement
along the Loire which endangered the flank of
Chanzy when it had been found impossible to
break his front, and it compelled him to leave
his position. The great object of the French
Government was to direct a relieving force on
Paris, already besieged for four months. Ac-
cordingly, Chanzy resolved to ascend from the
Loire toward the capital by the northwest,
and by the 13th of December the French army
was in position around Vend6me.

On Dec. 15th Chanzy was attacked again,
Prince Frederick Charles having rightly judged
that he was the foe to strike down at all cost.
The French made a gallant resistance ; but on
the second day their right wing was turned,
and shattered by an attack in flank. Chanzy
decided on a retreat to Le Mans, a strong posi-
tion upon the Huisne, and a strategic point of
no little value, his. object being still to attain
Paris. He drew off his army without difficul-
ty, and having been re-enforced by a Breton
detachment, he reached Le Mans on Dec. 20th.
During three weeks of incessant fighting he
had held the main German army at bay. Hav-
ing soon established his army on the Huisne, he
threw out posts to the Bruye ami the Loire.
Meanwhile Prince Frederick Charles had fallen
back, holding a long line from Oh art res to Or-
leans, his worn-out troops being in sore dis-
tress. A pause in the contest now occurred.

The position of France was very far from
hopeless, but another interference of Gambet-
ta's brought disaster. He rejected the judi-
cious scheme of the general, and adopted the
fatal project of detaching the First Army far
to the east in order to raise the yiege of Belfort
and reach the German communications with
the Rhine. Bourbaki, thus sent off to destruc-
tion amid the snows of the Jura, freed Prince
Frederick Charles from an enemy on his flank,
and enabled him to turn his whole forces against
the one chief he had found invincible. Draw-
ing together his army and that of the Grand
Duke, the German commanders in the first
week in January began to move toward Le
Mans and the Huisne. The advanced posts of
Chanzy were gradually driven in, though not
without a tenacious resistance ; but his trust
was in his positions on the Huisne, which he
had strengthened with remarkable skill, and

CHEMISTRY.

109

he fell back on them with unabated confidence.
He had still 90,000 men, against 60,000 or 70,-
000 Germans ; but his troops were not to be
compared to their foes. The attack began on
Jan. 10th, but the decisive effort was made
next day ; and the Prince struck home with his
full strength. The defense was stern and sus-
tained ; Chanzy's tenacity, and his strong posi-
tions, made up for the defects of his soldiers,
and after ten hours of desperate fighting the
French were still in possession of their lines.

A sudden attack, made after nightfall, by
a German corps, discomfited the Breton lev-
ies, and placed a hostile force on Chanzy's
flank. Scenes of confusion and panic followed,
an effort to drive away the enemy failed ; and
Chanzy was compelled to make a general re-
treat. Although part of the French army dis-
banded, and several thousand were taken pris-
oners, it was in tolerable order within two
days. By the 20th, having been scarcely pur-
sued, so heavy had been the loss of the Ger-
mans, Chanzy was once more in a good position,
around Laval and upon the Mayenne, and hav-
ing been joined by a new corps, he still expected
to make, as quickly as possible, good use of
his force, and to march to the relief of Paris.
But the fall of that city on Jan. 28th, and the
catastrophe of Bourbaki's army, prevented him
from attempting that march. He received the
thanks of the Assembly at Versailles, and held
afterward high command.

After the close of the war he was elected
deputy to the National Assembly for Ardennes,
and became the leader of the Left Center, de-
claring in favor of the republic from " patri-
otic and rational " grounds. Gen. Chanzy was
reputed to be attached to the cause of the
Orleanist monarchists, and it is certain that
through his secret protection the Orleans princes
entered the army under assumed names, and
fought in the final campaign. After he was
appointed on the committee of defense, on July
29, 1872, and placed in command of the Sev-
enth Army Corps, he took no further part in
political discussions.

On June 15, 1873, he was appointed Gov-
ernor-General of Algeria, where he had diffi-
culties with his subordinates, and declared a
state of siege in the commune of Algiers. On
Dec. 10, 1875, he was made a Senator, and in
the election for President on Jan. 30, 1879,
received 99 votes. On Feb. 18, 1879, he was
appointed embassador to St. Petersburg, his
political activity and ambition having awakened
distrust in France. He was a persona grata
at the Russian court, and his suspected roy-
alist proclivities led to his recall toward the
close of 1881. From Feb. 19, 1882, he com-
manded the Sixth Army Corps at Chalons.

CHEMISTRY. Chemical research during 1883
can not be said to have exhibited very marked
progress in any one department, nor has it
yielded much that is particularly striking in
the way of new discoveries. There has. been
clearly apparent, however, on the part of those

110

CHEMISTRY.

devoted to the advancement of chemistry, a
disposition to test the later results of investiga-
tion, with a view to the elimination of error,
and the compacting and strengthening of the
foundations of the science. This is seen in
the study and discussion, by eminent authori-
ties, of such questions as the variability of the
law of definite proportions ; the principles that
should govern in the simplification and ex-
tension of the nomenclature; the revision of
atomic weights; and the verification of old
and the introduction of new and improved
methods of analysis ; while much valuable
work has also been done in simplifying and
perfecting methods and processes in the several
departments of practical and applied chemistry.
Chemical Philosophy. — In a paper presented to
the Chemical Society of Paris, Boutlerow al-
luded to the announcement by Schiitzenberger,
that in analyzing some hydrocarbons, the sum
of the carbon and hydrogen was 101 for 100
parts of material ; the result under other con-
ditions being normal. The question thus raised,
as to whether the law of definite proportions
may not, like Boyle's and Mariotte's laws, vary
within small limits, Boutlerow has undertaken
to examine by a series of experiments. If we
disregard the physicist's theory that atoms are
definite indivisible particles, the atomic weight
of an element represents merely that weight of
matter which carries a fixed quantity of chemi-
cal energy. The quantity of forms of energy
other than chemical is not determined by the
mass of the portion of matter in which they
reside. The energy may increase while the
mass remains the same, as when the velocity
of a moving body increases, and it is suppos-
able that chemical energy varies similarly to a
very slight extent. This would make possible a
variation in the composition of compounds, but
the varieties would be identical as far as their
chemical properties are concerned. The prop-
erties of a compound result simply from the
reciprocal action of the mutually saturated
combined elements, and this state of saturation
would remain unchanged in these varieties,
since the quantities of chemical energy acting
on each side are still the same, only the mass
of the carriers changing. This paper was fol-
lowed by a statement from Schtitzenberger of
his views on the subject. His researches would
seem to show that within the very narrow
range thropgh which a body may vary in com-
position, is a ratio which gives the maximum
stability, and this ratio represents the normal
composition. Crystallization imposes a rigid
constancy of combining proportions, but the
composition of bodies can generally be varied
by varying the circumstances under which
they are formed. Among the cases enumer-
ated by Schtitzenberger are the following : 1.
Hydrocarbons, such as are obtained from Cau-
casian petroleum, or even turpentine, when
burned in a combustion-tube with CuO and a
current of oxygen, show always a loss of car-
bon of 1 to H per cent, when effected at a low

temperature and under circumstances where
no carbonous oxide or empyreumatic products
could escape. 2. When diamond is burned at
a high temperature in pure oxygen, the carbon
dioxide formed has oxidizing properties which
it does not possess when produced by the com-
bustion of an organic compound at the ex-
pense of CuO. 3. Barium carbon ate obtained
by precipitating baryta-water pure, boiling,
by an excess of CO2, washing and drying at
100°, then at 440°, contains, as Berzelius
showed, 21*7 per cent. CO2 for 78*5 per cent.
BaO. Heated to a red heat in a current of
dry oxygen, it increases considerably in weight
without losing CO2; and the product gives
22-0 to 22-05 of CO2 to 76'6 of BaO. 4. Nu-
merous analyses of metallic oxides show varia-
tion in composition within narrow limits, ac-
cording to their mode of formation. HgO
derived from the nitrate produces, in oxidizing
formic acid, more carbon dioxide than the pre-
cipitated oxide. Ferric oxide obtained from
the nitrate gives the atomic weight 54 for Fe,
from the formula Fe2O3 ; while the ferric ox-
ide obtained by roasting ferrous oxalate gives
56. The same differences are observed with
tin, manganese, load, cadmium, zinc, and cop-
per oxides.

Prof. A. W. Williamson, in his address at
the British Association, on " Chemical Nomen-
clature," remarked that the chief object sought
in the nomenclature had been to state in a
name, as briefly as possible, certain important
facts. The first condition and requirement of
a nnine was that it should call to mind, without
ambiguity, some particular thing or one partic-
ular idea. The more a name could be defined
and shortened the better it would be for chem-
istry. In the modern progress of the science —
particularly in the department of the carbon
compounds — the purpose of obtaining clearness
and avoiding ambiguity in the nomenclature
had been, with few exceptions, satisfactorily
attained ; but the chief object of convenience
had not been reached to an equal extent in
giving names to some of the more complex
compounds. Some of the names told their story
in a manner really free from any ambiguity, but
in a very long and inconvenient word. On the
other hand, the systematic process had been
adopted to a considerably less degree in the
names of common substances, which in the
case of the older names were based upon facts
indeed, but upon facts which were by no
means the only ones to be recalled. Other
names had grown up which were purely em-
pirical, which did not recall any particular
properties, but seemed with great convenience
and without ambiguity to indicate the body. It
was sometimes proper to change a name un-
der the sanction of new information, but this
should be done as little as possible, especially
when a name once given had come to be used
in relation to a particular substance. When
changes tended to introduce confusion, they
were necessarily injurious to the progress of

CHEMISTRY.

Ill

science. The best way to obtain a name was
as the result of experiment, and then there
could be no ambiguity. Names intended to
indicate molecular constitution had better be
avoided, because investigations in this direc-
tion had not arrived at finality. The chemists
of fifty years ago were as confident as the
chemists of the present day in the matter of
nomenclature; and therefore the more they
could obtain names without ambiguity and
without liability to change in the future, the
more probable was it that such names would
stand and continue to be used.

New Substances. — Jannay, working under the
direction of Von Meyer, has produced, by the
action of hydroxylamine upon various ketones,
a new class of organic bodies which he calls
acetoxims. The term acetoxim is applied to
a body containing the group ONOH= com-
bined on both sides with carbon. If hydrogen
saturates on one side, a body is formed to which
Jannay gives the name aldoxim. The simplest
acetoxirn is dimethyl-acetoxim, CH3 — CNOH—
CI:Is,or acetoxim proper, analogous to dimethyl-
ketone or acetone, and is produced by the action
of hydroxylamine upon acetone in the cold in
aqueous solution. It is easily soluble in water,
alcohol, and ether, fuses at 59° to 60°, and
boils at 134-8°. Petraczek has studied the
aldoxirns in the same laboratory, and describes
ethyl-aldoxim C9H,NO, or CH3-CNOH-H,
and others. They are formed by the action
of hydroxylamine upon the respective alde-
hydes.

Von Lippmann has examined the incrusta-
tions formed upon the pans in which beet-juice
is evaporated. Besides finding in them citric,
aconitic, tricarballylic, and malonic acids, he
has isolated a new acid, which was obtained
by fractional solution in ether and evaporation.
The resulting sirup, after standing two years,
became a mass of needle-shaped crystals soluble
in water, alcohol, and ether, and having the
formula C8H8O8. The acid is tribasic, and
appears to be identical with the oxycitric acid
described by Pawolleck as obtained from chlor-
citric acid.

Divers and Shimos6 have obtained a new
oxide of tellurium by heating in a vacuum the
compound of sulphur trioxide and tellurium
until it decomposes. It is a solid body which,
on heating, decomposes into tellurium dioxide
and free tellurium, and appears to have neither
acid nor basic properties. It is stable in ordi-
nary dry air, is black with a brown shade, has
a graphitic luster when pressed, is represented
by the formula TeO, or a multiple of it, is de-
composed by potassium hydrate on boiling, and
by hydrochloric and sulphuric acids in the cold,
is oxidized readily by nitric acid, and colors
sulphuric acid red as it dissolves it, the solution
giving a deposit of tellurous sulphate. The
same chemists have also obtained, by the action
of sulphur trioxide on tellurium, tellurium stil-
phoxide, as an amorphous solid, of a beautiful
red color, transparent in thin layers, which

softens at about 30° without melting, and is
quite stable when kept in close tubes. Its com-
position is represented by the formula SOsTe,
and it is decomposed by water into tellurium,
tellurium monoxide, tellurous acid, sulphurous
and sulphuric acid. It appears to exist in two
modifications, as the red variety is at 90° con-
verted instantaneously into a brown substance
of identically the same composition.

Victor Meyer was led by certain observa-
tions to the conclusion that some difference
existed between the benzene obtained from
coal-tar and that from benzoic acid. He con-
tinued his experiments, and succeeded in isolat-
ing from coal-tar benzene a peculiar substance
containing sulphur, which he calls thiophene.
It is a light, limpid, very mobile oil, with a
slight odor suggesting that of benzene. It does
not solidify in a mixture of ice and salt. It
dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid, giving
a deep-brown solution. Its derivatives under
the action of various reagents resemble the
corresponding derivatives of benzene, and their
constitution is similar, except that they are de-
rived from a mother-substance containing sul-
phur. It is stable toward alkalies and even
toward the alkali metals. All commercial ben-
zene contains thiophene.

Dr. Albert R. Leeds has formed from the
union of oenanthol with the aromatic bases
the oils of closely related physical properties,
cenantholaniline, a reddish mobile oil of pleas-
ant ethereal smell, cenantholxylidine and cenan-
tholnaphthylamine. The ethereal smell of the
latter oil is very pronounced and agreeable, and
resembles the odor of pineapple. The process-
es of the formation of these substances are ac-
companied by great energy and a remarkable
elevation of temperature. . The compounds are
permanent, and can be sublimed with only
partial decomposition. By the sublimation of
xylidinacrolein was obtained an oil with an
unpleasant smell and very bitter taste, which
forms crystalline salts with sulphuric, hydro-
chloric, and other acids. From the hydro-
chloric salt was obtained an oil of reddish
color and unpleasant smell, having the compo-
sition of cryptidine. This is the first attempt
to isolate this member of the pyridine series,
only its salts having been obtained before, and
it is of further interest as being accomplished
by a process of synthesis.

New Processes. — Dr. A. R. Leeds has described
an actinic method for the determination of
organic matter in potable water, which he
considers more accurate than any of the other
methods in common use. It depends upon
the fact that compounds of silver are not de-
composed by light when they are in solution
in water, unless organic matter is present in
the water also ; and upon the other fact that
stable organic bodies, like sugar, starch, gum,
etc., have very little influence, while decompos-
ing substances precipitate the silver very rap-
idly. The amount of silver thrown down can
be readily weighed, and the relative amounts of

112

CHEMISTRY.

organic matter present in the water thus deter-
mined.

While the method of testing sugar for the
presence of starch glucose by the optical sac-
charometer is satisfactory, it can be applied
only by the very few persons who have such an
instrument. Mr. P. Casamajor has described
a process which can he applied by using such
means as are at the command of every one,
and is effective for the detection of adultera-
tion with either anhydrous or hydrated glu-
cose, as follows: Take two beaker-glasses, or
two teacups ; in one put a quantity of the sus-
pected sugar, and in the other put about the
same quantity of a sugar known to be refined
sugar, free from adulteration. Add, cautiously
and gradually, a quantity of water to each
sugar sufficient to make each equally and de-
cidedly moist, and stir the sugar to mix it well
and get it uniformly wet. Then place both
cups in hot water — at any temperature be-
tween 50° and 100° 0. In about ten minutes
the pure sugar will appear more moist than
when cold, while the other sugar, if it con-
tains a sufficient amount of starch-glucose, will
have sunk into a pasty, sticky mas?, analogous
to the fill-mass of sugar-refiners. The appli-
cation of heat is not indispensable, as a differ-
ence may be obtained by allowing the two su-
gars to stand several hours after being moist-
ened, but with heat the effect is immediate,
and is much more marked. If the two samples
of sugar are allowed to stand in the cups after
they have cooled down, the pure sugar will
look drier on becoming cold, while the adul-
terated sugar will continue in the state of a
pasty, sticky mass. This test is founded on the
property possessed by cane-sugar of forming
viscous, uncrystallizable compounds, of which
molasses is an example, when mixed with many
organic or inorganic compounds, among which
are anhydrous and hydrated glucose. As long
as a mixture of cane-sugar and starch-glucose
is sufficiently dry, it may look fairly enough,
as the elements which form molasses are kept
from combining by want of water. Hence
adulterators are careful to dry their sugars be-
fore mixing with glucose. Indeed, one char-
acteristic of adulterated sugars is, that they are
drier than refined sugars of the same grade,
which are known as coffee-sugars, and are
always sold moist.

Peter Claesson proposes a new method for
determining sulphur in organic substances by
effecting the complete oxidation of the sub-
stance in a current of oxygen and nitric oxide
— i. e., nitrogen tetroxide gas. A combustion-
tube somewhat longer than the furnace is
drawn out at one end and bent at a right an-
gle. Next to the bend is placed a roll of plat-
inum gauze; beyond this a boat containing
fuming nitric acid ; beyond which follow a sec-
ond and a third roll of platinum gauze, and
beyond this the sulphur-boat and a fourth roll
of platinum gauze. The bent end of the tube
dips into water in a small flask, and the other

end is closed with a stopper admitting the con-
necting tubes to the oxygen and nitric oxide
supplies. After filling the tube with the mixed
gases the platinum roll on either side of the
nitric-acid boat is heated to low redness, then
the boat farthest from the substance. The
tube is then heated. The color of the tube
between the two boats serves as an indicator ;
if the red color disappears, the combustion
must go more slowly. The nitric acid in the
boat acts as a reserve ; the hot gases in pass-
ing over it always take up enough oxygen
compounds to complete the oxidation of any
unburned particles. At the end of the com-
bustion the heating is extended forward until
all the nitric acid and the sulphuric acid formed
in the reaction have distilled over into the
flask. After cooling, the contents of the flask
and the washings of the tube are evaporated
to dryness, and after dilution with water the
sulphuric acid is determined as barium sul-
phate.

C. Bohmer has described a new method of
estimating nitric- oxide gas obtained by the re-
duction of nitric acid. It is hased on the fact,
which the author had shown in an earlier
paper, that chromic acid is an excellent ab-
sorbent for nitric oxide. The nitrate or nitric
acid is decomposed in the usual way, and the
resulting gas, after being dried by calcium
chloride, is absorbed in a Liebig's potash-bulb
containing chromic acid, and the nitric oxide
is determined by the increase in weight.

\V. Ilalberstadt has proposed a new method
for the separation of vanadic acid from met-
als, which is based on the fact that, when a
mixture of the acid and metals is heated with
ammonium oxalate and acetic acid, the metals
are precipitated as oxalates, while the acid
sought for remains in solution. The hydro-
chloric-acid solution of vanadic acid is evapo-
rated to dryness, the residue is heated with a
solution of ammonium oxalate in water, and a
few drops of strong acetic acid are added till all
has dissolved. The liquid is poured into a beak-
er and heated over a free flame, while acetic acid
is added drop by drop — not too rapidly, for
then the precipitate is difficult to wash — until
the precipitate ceases to form. After filtering
off the precipitate and washing with a mixture
of equal parts of strong acetic acid, alcohol,
and water, the filtrate is evaporated to dryness
in a weighed platinum dish, and the residue is
heated slowly to expel volatile ammonium
salts, and then the remaining vanadium oxide
is converted into vanadic acid by heating in a
current of oxygen. The method gives good
results in the presence of barium, calcium,
zinc, or lead, but not with cobalt, nickel, man-
ganese, magnesium, bismuth, copper, or cad-
mium.

Mollenda determines, volumetrically, the
phosphoric acid in superphosphates by finding
the amount of a standard solution of sodium
carbonate necessary to neutralize the acid
phosphate of calcium, which forms the solu-

CHEMISTRY.

113

ble portion of the superphosphate. In order
to prevent the precipitation of calcium car-
bonate from any sulphate of calcium that may
be present, the entire amount of calcium is
precipitated by sodium oxalate, and the acidity
of the resulting mono-sodium phosphate is de-
termined. If free sulphuric or phosphoric acid
is present in the superphosphate, sodium car-
bonate is added before titration. until the
liquid becomes slightly turbid.

Mr. L. Marquardt has described a new meth-
od for the quantitative determination of fusel-
oil in brandy. The oil is extracted with chlo-
roform, and the product is oxidized with bi-
chromate of potash, distilled, and treated with
barium carbonate. The chloroform and the
excess of barium carbonate are removed, when
the baryta and the barium chloride are deter-
mined by means of nitric acid. The quantity
of amylic alcohol or fusel-oil is calculated from
the baryta.

G. Larsen has shown that copper and zinc
can be separated by one precipitation with hy-
drogen sulphide if hydrochloric acid is added
to the hydrogen sulphide with which the pre-
cipitate is washed. Emil Berglund finds that
the method holds good when the amount of
hydrochloric acid added to the wash- water is
smaller than recommended by Larsen, and fur-
ther, that zinc is not precipitated with copper
if the amount of hydrogen sulphide in the wash-
water is small.

Spring has communicated the results of ex-
periments in producing sulphides by exposing
various metals mixed with sulphur, both finely
divided, to a pressure of 6,500 atmospheres.
Magnesium after six pressings, each time being
reduced to filings, gave a gray homogeneous
mass having a weak metallic luster. Zinc, after
three pressings, gave a sulphide resembling the
natural blende ; iron, after four pressings, gave
a block which was hardly touched by the file,
and appeared homogeneous under the micro-
scope. Cadmium sulphide was formed easily
in three pressings, in a yellowish-gray, homo-
geneous mass. Bismuth sulphide and antimo-
ny sulphide were formed in two pressings, and
lead sulphide still more easily ; copper and tin
yielded the sulphide in th-ee pressings. Silver
required from six to eight pressings before a
homogeneous mass could be obtained. Alumi-
num and carbon gave imperfect results. Spring
has drawn the conclusion from his experiments
that allotropic states are only different con-
ditions of polymerization, in which the chemi-
cal activity decreases as the process goes on.

The method almost exclusively employed for
estimating the halogens in organic compounds,
that of Carius, consists in heating the substance
in a sealed tube with fuming nitric acid and
silver nitrate. R. T. Plimpton and E. E. Graves
propose, in the case of volatile compounds, a
method by which the substance is introduced
into a U-tube through which illuminating gas
and air are passed, as in a Bunsen burner. The
volatile substance evaporates and burns with
VOL. xxin. — 8 A

the gas at a tip on one end of the tube, while
the halogens are left partly tree and partly in
combination with hydrogen. The evaporation
is sometimes aided by warming the tube with
hot water or otherwise. The temperature is
raised or lowered so that the substance may
always be detected in the flame, yet not in
sufficient quantity to make the flame luminous.
The products of combustion are aspirated
through a bent funnel tube and collected in
dilute caustic soda ; this is boiled with sulphur-
ous acid to reduce chlorates, etc., and the halo-
gens are then precipitated with silver nitrate.
The success of the experiment depends upon
the regular volatilization of the compound.

Mr. W. G. Strype, of Wicklow, Ireland, has
devised a method of purifying the hydrochloric
acid used in the manufacture of chlorine from
sulphuric acid before admitting it into the
chlorine-stills, by which the difficulties arising
in this manufacture from the accumulation
of calcium sulphate are to a large extent ob-
viated. His process depends upon the fact that
while calcium sulphate is somewhat freely
soluble in hot hydrochloric acid, it is only
slightly soluble in the cold acid.

Successful experiments have been made by
M. J. Garnier at works near Rouen, France,
with a new process for removing arsenic and
antimony from copper. It comprises the em-
ployment of a sole of chalk and tar, over which,
for each separate operation, is placed a falsa
sole of limestone and manganese peroxide.
With the melting of the copper, a generation
of carbonic acid and oxygen begins from the
upper sole, which oxidizes the charge. As
soon as the metal is sufficiently liquid, the
lime and manganese ' protoxide rise and dis-
solve the arsenic acid. By this one operation
the amount of arsenic, according to M. Gar-
nier, is reduced to one-fifth. Subsequent fu-
sions with basic fluxes are said almost com-
pletely to eliminate the arsenic.

Dr. Sidersky bases a method for the separa-
tion of calcium from strontium on the state-
ment that on adding a mixture of sulphate and
oxalate of ammonium to a solution of stron-
tium, the latter is all precipitated as sulphate ;
while, if the mixture is added to a calcium salt,
only oxalate is precipitated. If it is added to a
solution containing both strontium and calcium,
the former is precipitated as sulphate and the
latter as oxalate. The two precipitates are
separated by the solubility of the oxalate in
acids.

Otto F. von der Pfordten has published a
new method for the estimation of tungstic acid
.by reduction with zinc and hydrochloric acid
to tungsten dioxide. The reduction is best
effected by using a 27-per-cent. solution of hy-
drochloric acid. The solution first becomes
blue, then a black-green, and finally a dark
brownish-red, the end product being tungsten
dioxide, which is determined by titration with
potassium permanganate. The method has the
disadvantage that only very small quantities of

114

CHEMISTRY.

tungstic acid can be used in the reduction, so
that the percentage of error may easily become
large.

Industrial €hemistry. — The manufacture of or-
ganic coloring-matters from coal-tar has made
enormous progress within recent years, but the
activity of chemists has been exerted to a
much higher degree in developing the appli-
cation of the direct products of tar- distillation
than in bettering the methods of obtaining
those products. Several of the coal-tar hydro-
carbons have found extensive practical appli-
cations in the manufacture of the azo colors.
The azo compounds, containing the group — N
=N — in combination with two aromatic nuclei,
are all colored, but the azo hydrocarbons them-
selves have no affinity for animal and vege-
table fibers, and hence can not be used as dyes.
On the other hand, such of their derivatives as
contain amido or hydroxyl groups are color-
ing matters. Some of these have long been
known, but, with the exception of aniline yel-
low and Bismarck-brown, the azo compounds
were not made use of until 1876. Since then,
a great number of new ones have been made,
many of which have been patented and manu-
factured on a large scale. The oxyazo colors
are made from a diazo salt and the combina-
tion of a phenol with an alkali metal. The
amidoazo colors are made on a large scale by
the action of nitrous acid on a free amine, or,
when this is not practicable, by the action of
a diazo salt on an amine. By means of these
reactions the number of azo colors which may
be formed from aromatic compounds contain-
ing amido and hydroxyl groups is almost in-
finite. The popularity of these colors has
become so great that the demand for the hy-
drocarbons used in making them has vastly in-
creased, and their price has risen considerably,
while attention has been given to means of
producing them in greater abundance and in
the state of purity in which they have to be
to secure perfect colors.

The manufacture of soda by the ammonia
process has been greatly increased within a few
years past. Tables of the relative amounts of
soda manufactured in different countries by
the Leblanc and the ammonia processes, pre-
pared by Mr. Walter Weldon, show that out
of a total of 708,725 tons, representing the an-
nual products of Great Britain, France, Ger-
many, Austria, Belgium, and the United States,
163,225 tons are manufactured by the ammonia
process and 545,500 tons by the Leblanc pro-
cess. A new enterprise has been begun for the
working of the Leblanc process in connection
with the extraction of copper and iron from
Spanish and Portuguese pyrites, in which the
sulphuric acid evolved in that manufacture
will be made economically available. The Rio
Tinto Company is building factories in France
for the exploitation of a combined process in
which copper and oxide of iron will be relied
upon as the'products of chief importance, while
soda and hydrochloric acid will be made as

by-products. Thus, at first soda was the only
product of the Leblanc process that had com-
mercial importance; then in time a demand
grew up for chlorine, and the hydrochloric
acid formed during the process became val-
uable ; next, soda ceased to be profitable, and
became a kind of by-product that continued to
be made because chlorine could not be made
without it. Now Leblanc soda, says Mr. Wel-
don, gives no profit at all, and chlorine none
to speak of ; and both have come to be regarded
as secondary products, to be made only inciden-
tally, and only because making them is essen-
tial to the application to certain ores of the wet
method of extracting copper. The difficulty ot
obtaining a supply of ammonia commensurate
with the extension of the demand, which it was
at one time thought would hinder the speedy
development of the ammonia process for mak-
ing soda, has been removed — so completely
that, notwithstanding the great increase in the
development of the process, the price of am-
monia is falling. It is now obtained commer-
cially from coke-ov ens ; and Mr. William Fer-
rie has introduced with success a method for
collecting it from the gases of blast-furnaces
in which raw coal is used. From two of the
sixteen blast-furnaces at the Gartsherry Iron
Works in Scotland, ammonia and tar are now
regularly collected at the rate of twenty
pounds of ammonium sulphate per ton of coal
consumed. Thus it appears to be possible to
collect and utilize as ammonia a portion at
least of the nitrogen of nearly all the fuel
burned for industrial and domestic purposes. A
suggestion has been made that the soda-maker
shall entirely cease to use raw coal as fuel, but
shall convert all his coal into coke, collecting
for sale the oil and ammonia evolved during
the conversion, and himself using for heating
purposes the gases evolved during the coking
operation and the coke itself. It is believed
that the soda-maker might by this mode of
proceeding obtain his fuel virtually for noth-
ing. In the Leblanc process the chlorine of
the salt decomposed is yielded as hydrochloric
acid ; in the ammonia process it is yielded as a
somewhat dilute solution of calcium chloride.
This is a matter of small importance in Eng-
land, where hydrochloric acid is produced in
excess; but on the Continent, where the de-
mand for chlorine is greater than the supply,
it operates against the Leblanc process. M.
Solvay is accordingly about to try at his am-
monia-soda works in Dombasle, France, a pro-
cess for obtaining hydrochloric acid from cal-
cium chloride. Having concentrated by evap-
oration the mixed solution of calcium and so-
dium chlorides which is the residual product
of the ammonia process, he mixes it with clay
into balls, dries the balls and heats them to
redness in a current of steam, whereby he ob-
tains a mixture of the vapor of water and the
vapor of hydrochloric acid, which he dries by
passing through a very strong solution of bi-
chloride of calcium.

CHEMISTRY.

115

The Societe de St. Croix at Lisle is manu-
facturing potash upon a large scale by the
trimethylamine process, which is similar in
principle to the ammonia process for the man-
ufacture of soda. The latter process can not
be used for the manufacture of potash, by rea-
Bon of the too great solubility of hydro-potassic
carbonate in solution of ammonium chloride.
Bicarbonate of potash is, however, but very
slightly soluble in chloride of trimethylamine.
Besides the nature of the ammonia employed,
the chemistry of this process appears to differ
from that of the ammonia process also in the
fact that, instead of using a bicarbonate as in
that process, the sesquicarbonate, the highest
carbonate of trimethylamine that can be ob-
tained at present in a free state, is employed,
and the reactions are more complex. The tri-
methylamine process is limited in its applica-
tion, for it is available for the manufacture of
potash only from potassium chloride, while the
Engel process is efficient either with that salt
or with the sulphate.

G. Archibald describes a new industrial
method of preparing paper-pulp, which has
been patented in the United States and Canada.
Wood or straw is cut to pieces, macerated with
milk of lime, transferred to a digester after
twenty-four hours, and saturated with sulphur-
ous acid, with the simultaneous application of
a pressure of five atmospheres for one or two
hours. The material is then washed with water
and again treated under pressure with three
per cent, calcium chloride and half per cent,
aluminum sulphate. After these substances
have been washed out, the pulp resembles cot-
ton in appearance, and can be employed for
manufacturing the finer grades of paper at once.
The process requires about three hours after the
treatment with milk of lime.

A.Houzeau and Fr.Goppelsroeder have traced
the active agency in grass- bleaching, which
Schoenbein ascribed to ozone, to peroxide of
hydrogen. The proportion of this substance in
the air was found to differ, according to a va-
riety of circumstances ; and the preponderating
influence in its production is believed to be
light. Atmospheric precipitations, particularly
hoar-frost, contain considerable quantities of it ;
and the quantity that came to the earth within
four months was found to amount to 62-9 mil-
ligrammes per square metre. The ordinary pro-
cesses of open-air 'and wax-bleaching are at-
tended with so many inconveniences in delays
that the production of the effective agent in a
concentrated form was suggested as a manifest
remedy. The peroxide of hydrogen is superior
to all other media for oxidation in bleaching,
in that it can be used without inconvenience
and without any danger of injuring the fiber.
It may be concentrated from its solutions by
freezing out, or by evaporation in a vacuum
over sulphuric acid, at a temperature of from
69° to 68° Fahr. Diluted solutions of it are
equal to solution of chlorine in effect, and will
keep for months in a temperature not exceed-

ing 77° Fahr., if protected from the light. All
products which are to be bleached by this
substance must be submitted to a preparatory
treatment, the purpose of which is to render
them capable in every part of being moistened
with the watery solution.

Dr. Max Schaffner and Mr. W. Helbig, of the
Aussig Works, Bohemia, have applied a pro-
cess for recovering sulphur from alkali-waste,
which, while it requires no acid, saves the
whole of the sulphur originally contained in
the waste, and in addition all of the calcium as
carbonate. It includes three operations, the
first of which consists in heating fresh waste
with solution of magnesium chloride in a closed
iron vessel furnished with a mechanical agi-
tator, when two double decompositions take
place — calcium sulphide and magnesium chlor-
ide into calcium chloride and magnesium sulph-
ide ; and a reaction of the last upon some of the
water present to produce magnesia and sulphu-
reted hydrogen. The sulphureted hydrogen is
evolved in a continuous stream until the charge
of waste is completely decomposed, and then
there remains in the boiler a solution of cal-
cium chloride holding in suspension an equiva-
lent of magnesia. In the second operation,
one third of the sulphureted hydrogen is
burned into SO2 and steam, and these products
are mixed with the other two thirds and passed
through a solution of calcium chloride, whence
is derived a thin magma, consisting of solu-
tion of calcium chloride holding in suspension
free sulphur. The third operation consists in
injecting carbonic dioxide into the solution of
calcium chloride, holding magnesia in suspen-
sion, which had been obtained as the residual
product of the first operation, thereby repro-
ducing the quantity of magnesium chloride
which had been begun with, and at the same
time regenerating all the calcium carbonate
which had been employed for the production
of the black ash, of which the waste had been
one of the constituents. Mr. Alexander Chance,
of Birmingham, has applied a modification of
the third part of the process, by which all of
the sulphnreted hydrogen evolved in the first
operation is burned, and the resulting sulphur-
ous oxide is sent into the vitriol chambers, by
which the cost of the process is reduced simply
to the cost of the operation of reducing the
magnesium chloride.

MM. Benker and Lasne have introduced a
process for economizing nitrous compounds in
the manufacture of sulphuric acid, which con-
sists in the reduction of the nitric peroxide in
the chamber gases before they reach the Gay-
Lnssac tower into nitrous anhydride (N2OS),
which forms a stable compound with sulphuric
acid. This is done by injectytg into the con-
duit conveying the exit gases from the last
chamber to the foot of the Gay-Lussac tower,
a regulated quantity of sulphurous oxide, ac-
companied with just the quantity of vapor of
water necessary to form, with the SOa + NOa,
nitro- sulphuric acid. Another plan for accom-

116

CHEMISTRY.

plishing the same object consists in making
the gases which have traversed the ordinary
Gay-Lussac tower afterward traverse several
supplementary towers, supplied with weaker
sulphuric acid than is supplied to the Gay-
Lussac tower itself.

Domestic Chemistry.— F. P. Hall, of the Mas-
sachusetts Institute of Technology, has pub-
lished in the "American Chemical Journal"
the results of some investigations on the cor-
rosion of fruit-cans and tin-foil by the acids of
the articles of food inclosed in them. Acetic,
tartaric, and citric acids dissolved more tin
and lead (in some cases twice as much) from
sheets of pure metal than from alloys. In
glass-stoppered bottles from which the air was
as well excluded as it is from ordinary fruit-
cans, the action was less than in loosely- cov-
ered beakers, but still considerable. Three
cans tli at had been emptied were let stand
two weeks with acid in them, at the end of
which time the tinning had been taken off up
as far as the acid reached. There was dis-
solved by

Tin.

Lead.

Acetic acid

Grammes.
0'41T8

Grammes.

0-0117

Tartaric acid

1'0430

0 ' 0878

Citric acid.

0-6828

0-1559

Hence a can once opened should be emptied
immediately, as corrosion thereafter takes place
very rapidly. Analyses of the " bright plate "
of which cans and other tinware are made,
showed no admixture of lead in the tinning,
and no tinware could be found made of "terne
plate," the sort that is understood to be coated
with an alloy of tin and lead. The solder of
the cans, however, contains a large amount of
lead, and vegetable acids act on this as well as
on the pure tin of the plate.

Twelve specimens of tin-foil obtained from
dealers were analyzed. Only threfe of these
were sold for pure tin, and they proved to be
as represented; the others, some of which
were called ** composition foil," gave from 60
to 95 per cent, of lead. Nine specimens that
had been in use gave various results. Two
from different kinds of compressed yeast con-
tained no lead, and a piece of foil from a cake
of chocolate bought at a street stand was also
pure. A piece of embossed foil from a fancy
cake of chocolate gave 80 per cent, of lead,
and in two specimens from Neufchatel cheese
were found respectively 73-19 and 75-27 per
cent. " The use of a foil containing about 75
per cent, of lead for wrapping the so-called
Neufchatel and other soft cheese is certainly
reprehensible. Owing to the acid in or de-
veloped in the cheese, the foil becomes crum-
bly, and even when the cheese is first covered
with greased paper, particles of the oxidized
foil are very likely to become attached to the
cheese as it is used."

Mr. William Thomson, F. E. S. E., having
investigated a case of lead-poisoning arising

from the use of unsuspected water-pipes of
lead, was induced to examine the merits of
the tin-lined pipes. A pipe, the coating of
which was from -j^ to -fa of an inch thick,
to his surprise, gave evidence of contamina-
tion to the water that passed through, and
the lining was found to contain a large
proportion of lead. A similar pipe from an-
other manufactory revealed the same impu-
rity. These pipes were found to have been
made by pouring tin down the side of a strip
of lead in introducing it as lining. In the
course of the process the tin had dissolved a
considerable quantity of lead. Such pipes are
used to a considerable extent in drawing beer,
and are in danger of contaminating the liquor,
particularly that portion of it which, standing
in them over night, is sold to the first customer
in the morning. In another kind of lead pipe,
called "tinned-lead pipe," the inside coating is
made by filling the first few inches of the lead
pipe, while still very hot, with molten tin,
which remains molten and washes the inner
surface of the lead tube as it is produced. The
quantity of this " tin " increases as the pipe is
drawn out, by melting the lead with which it
is in contact and carrying it along, and ulti-
mately the lining consists chiefly of lead. Mr.
Thomson has observed that aerated waters are
contaminated with lead much more often and
in many cases to a much greater extent than
would be expected, considering the pains which
is taken in preparing the articles. Manufac-
turers admit the fact, but say that it is impos-
sible to procure the substances free from me-
tallic contamination at anything like reason-
able cost.

M. Gustave Le Bon has been carrying on in-
vestigations upon the action of antiseptics,
from which he concludes that the disinfectant
power of any antiseptic appears to be the more
feeble as the putrefaction is the more ad-
vanced. If an aqueous solution containing
one tenth its weight of minced meat be taken
as the normal solution, it will exhale during
the first stages of putrefaction an extremely
fetid odor, which, however, can be destroyed
by a comparatively small amount of antiseptic.
At the end of about two months new bodies
with a special odor will be developed, which
require for their destruction quantities of the
same antiseptic at least twice as great as at
first. If the power of antiseptics be measured
by taking as a means of comparison their dis-
infectant properties upon a given weight of
the normal solution already mentioned, the
most powerful disinfectants will be shown to
be potassium permanganate, chloride of lime,
sulphate of iron acidulated with acetic acid,
phenol, and the glyceroborates of sodium and
potassium. There is no parallelism between
the disinfectant action of an antiseptic and its
action on microbes. Potassium permanganate,
which is one of the most powerful disinfect-
ants, exercises no appreciable action on mi-
crobes. Alcohol, which checks the develop-

CHEMISTRY.

117

ment of microbes, exerts only a very feeble
disinfectant action upon tbe products of putre-
faction. There is likewise no parallelism be-
tween the power of preventing putrefaction
and that of checking it when it has begun.
Phenol and alcohol are excellent preservative
agents, bnt have only a slight action upon
putrefaction in progress ; with the exception
of a very few substances which are powerful
toxic agents, such as mercuric chloride, the
greater number of antiseptics, and notably
phenol, have only a very feeble action upon
bacteria. M. Le Bon even regards phenol as
one of the best liquids which can be employed
to preserve living bacteria for a long time.
The experiments made upon cadaver alkaloids
can not serve to decide the question as to
whether the volatile alkaloids which give to
putrefaction its odor are poisonous, for such
experiments have generally been made by in-
troducing into the system putrefaction prod-
ucts containing bacteria, to which the effects
observed may be attributable. M. Le Bon's ex-
periments were made upon frogs placed in jars,
at the bottom of which was a very thin layer
of his normal liquid. At the beginning of the
putrefaction the liquid, although it emitted a
very fetid odor, swarmed with bacteria, and
was very virulent if injected under the skin,
had no appreciable effect upon the frogs ; but
the same liquid, two months old and no longer
having virulent properties, killed in a few min-
utes the animals that breathed its exhalations.
In fact, the virulent power of a body in putre-
faction and the toxic power of the volatile
compounds which it gives off seem to be in an
inverse ratio to each other. The extremely
minute quantity of the products of advanced
putrefaction necessary to kill an animal by
simple mixture with the air it breathes is a
fact that shows these volatile alkaloids to be
extremely poisonous.

Atomic Weights. — Nilson has calculated the
atomic weight of thorium from the sulphate,
which he obtained from Arendal thorite by
successive treatment with hydrochloric and
sulphuric acids. The purified salt was twice
precipitated with ammonia, and washed and
dissolved in hydrochloric acid, and then con-
verted into an oxalate ana ignited. The snow-
white oxide was converted into sulphate, and
this was allowed to crystallize by the sponta-
neous evaporation of its solution. Large, trans-
parent, brilliant crystals were thus obtained,
which were permanent in the air and had the
composition Th(SO4)2(H20). For the estima-
tion of the atomic weight a weighed quan-
tity of the pulverized salt was heated to expel
its crystal water, again weighed, and then
again heated to a full white heat. The sul-
phuric oxide was entirely expelled, leaving the
pure thorium oxide, which was again weighed.
From the data thus obtained the atomic weight
was calculated. Assuming the quadrivalence
of thorium, the means of two series of obser-
vations are, respectively, 232-43 and 232*37.

Cleve, taking the mean of twelve experi-
ments upon the synthesis of yttrium sulphate
with pure material, proved to be free from
terbia, has redetermined the atomic weight of
yttrium to be 88'9±'027, or, if SO8=80, then
Yt=89'02. The last figure suggests a fairly
close conformity with Prout's law.

Clemens Zimmermann has prepared uranium
by reducing a mixture of potassium or sodium
with chloride of uranium, by heating in a char-
coal crucible. Thus prepared, its atomic weight
has been calculated to be 240, or greater than
that of any other known metal. Uranium has
the color and luster of silver, but is harder, and
gives out sparks when struck with a hammer.
It oxidizes gradually when exposed to the air,
burns when heated on platinum-foil, and is dis-
solved by nitric acid. Its specific gravity has
been determined at 18'7.

Analytic Chemistry. — The properties of hydro-
gen dioxide as an oxidizing agent have been
found useful in a variety of analyses. It oxi-
dizes arsenious acid to arsenic acid, and phos-
phorous acid to phosphoric acid, and decom-
poses hydrogen sulphide with the formation of
water and free sulphur. If, however, it acts
in ammoniacal solution, such as ammonium
sulphide or sodium sulphide, the liquid be-
comes warm, and is gradually decolorized with-
out deposition of sulphur ; but that sub-
stance is instead oxidized to sulphates and hy-
posulphates. With sulphide of tin, antimo-
nium and arsenic in ammonium sulphide, the
addition of hydrogen dioxide causes oxidation
of the ammonium sulphide, with at first pre-
cipitation of the other sulphides, ending, on the
addition of an excess of the reagent and heat-
ing, in their more or less complete transforma-
tion into oxides. The conduct of hydrogen di-
oxide toward ammonium sulphide, or the action
of hydrogen sulphide gas on ammoniacal hy-
drogen dioxide, maybe employed in qualitative
analysis for destroying an excess of those sul-
phides, and in quantitative analysis for deter-
mining amounts of gaseous or dissolved hydro-
gen sulphide, or for the determination of sulphur
or metals in sulphides. The property of oxi-
dizing hydrogen sulphide easily and completely
in alkaline solution may be taken advantage
of in the estimation of chlorine, bromine, and
iodine in liquids containing hydrogen sulphide.
Metallic sulphides which are oxidized directly
by hydrogen dioxide may be estimated by the
amount of sulphuric acid formed in the solu-
tion. Such metals are arsenic, antimony, zinc,

copper, and cobalt. The estimation of metala
by this means is capable of more extended ap-
plication than the direct oxidation of the sul-

phide. Pure metallic sulphides are seldom
obtained in analysis, but more frequently mix-
tures with free sulphur. The amount of free
sulphur does not affect the quantity of hydro-
gen sulphide liberated by an acid, and hence
the advantage of determining the latter. It is
absorbed in a peculiar apparatus, described by
the authors. Foremost among the metals that

118

CHEMISTRY.

may be conveniently determined in this way,
are antimony, tin, cadmium, and iron.

A question has arisen in the examination of
the various processes for the analysis of water,
whether a loss of volatile organic matter may
not occur during the evaporation and boiling
which are necessary, particularly in the ammo-
nia process. Mr. Charles W. Marsh has made
experiments to determine this question, to which
attention was more strongly directed, while the
investigations were going on, by the observa-
tion by Prof. Ira Remsen of such a loss in his
analysis of the Farm-pond water of Boston.
Out of twenty- six analyses which he performed
for this purpose by the Wanklyn process, the
sum of the free and the albuminoid ammonias
was equal to the u total ammonia " in only
four. In one of the four the sum apparently
exceeded the "total," betraying probably a
slight error in the estimation. These results
prove that something in the water escapes con-
version into ammonia. To determine whether
this was something that escaped condensation,
or something that would be found in the dis-
tillate, ten other analyses were made, the dis-
tillates of which were redistilled with perman-
ganate and nesslerized. It appeared in eight
of the last analyses that the excess of ammonia
obtained where the whole of the water was
distilled with the permanganate directly, over
the sum of the free and albuminoid ammo-
nia as usually obtained, was due to some vola-
tile, condensible, nitrogenous compound, from
which as much ammonia could be obtained by
the action of boiling permanganate after its
distillation from the original water as before.
A modification of the usual ammonia process
is suggested by these experiments.

MM. Ed. Heckel and Fr. Schlagdenhauffen
have made analyses of the kola-nut (Stercularia
acuminata), and found that it is richer in cafe-
ine than the most esteemed coffees, and that
this base is all included in a free state, and
not combined, as in coffee, with an organic
acid ; that it contains a very appreciable quan-
tity of theobromine, which operates to augment
the action of the cafeine; that a notable quan-
tity of glucose, of which cacao exhibits no
trace, is present; that the quantity of amidon
is triple what it is in the seeds of theobroma;
that fatty matter is much less abundant than
in cacao ; and that a specific tannin and a red
coloring-matter are present.

The difficulties which have hitherto pre-
vented the isolation of levulose in a satisfac-
tory state of purity have been overcome by
Messrs. Jungfleisch and Lefranc, who have
succeeded in preparing the pure substance in
crystalline form, and have studied its proper-
ties. Thus crystallized, it consists of fine, color-
less, silky needles, which sometimes attain the'
length of ten millimetres, and usually radiate
from a central point, forming spherical groups.
When freed from mother- liquor and dried over
sulphuric acid, their composition is represented
by the formula CJInO«. When moistened with

alcohol and exposed to the air, levulose is deli-
quescent, but when perfectly dry it is very
slightly hygroscopic. It fuses at about 95°, and
at 100° loses water gradually, yielding ether
derivatives. Its rotary power varies very rap-
idly with the temperature, and varies in a still
greater degree with the dilution of the solu-
tion.

Mr. Clifford Richardson, of the United States
Department of Agriculture, has made a series
of analyses of grasses of the United States, for
the purpose of determining the relations of cul-
tivated and wild grasses to each other, and the
variations in composition which one species
may present when grown on different soils and
in different climates. His analyses embraced
77 of wild grasses, 21 of grasses from one farm
in Pennsylvania, 19 of grasses from the grounds
of the Department of Agriculture, and 6 of
orchard-grass from various localities. Against
the results he has placed, for comparison, the
averages of those obtained by Wolff from the
analyses of German grasses. The analyses
plainly show that all our American grasses
are strikingly different in composition from
similar German varieties, chiefly in that the
content of nitrogen is smaller, and the amount
of fiber is diminished, while the amount of
nitrogen free extract is larger, and the fat is
slightly increased. The nutritive range in the
American grasses is, then, much wider than
in the German grasses. In the American
grasses the wild varieties are of much less nu-
tritive value than the cultivated sorts. The
average composition of orchard-grass is not
equal to that of the better-cultivated grasses,
and the quality of the latter is improved as the
cultivation is higher — a fact shown by the
superior quality of the grasses grown in the
highly-fertilized grounds of the department.
The tables of the analyses also show that the
amount of nitrogen in the non- albumin old form
is larger in the wild grasses than in the culti-
vated varieties, and that it vane's somewhat
inversely as the quality of the grass. In the
analysis of a single species (orchard -grass), from
different localities, it appeared that the amount
of non -albuminoid nitrogen does not increase
with an increase in the total amount of nitrogen
in the grass, for the poorer species had more
than twice as much, relatively to the total nitro-
gen, as the more cultivated ones; and the varia-
tions in the non-nitrogenous elements do not
show any regularity dependent on climate and
surroundings. Analyses of meadow fox-tail at
four stages of growth showed that the total
nitrogen diminishes regularly from early to late
stages ; that the albumen diminishes nearly in
the same way, but remains constant for quite
a long period at the time of blooming ; and that
the non-albuminoid nitrogenous substances,
while decreasing rapidly from the first stage
at which the grass was collected, to nothing at
full bloom, increase again slightly after bloom.
The fiber increases toward maturity, while the
fat decreases. The substances making up the

CHEMISTRY.

119

" free-nitrogen extract " vary less regularly.
Sugars appear in- larger amount in the young
plant than in the other stages. The same is
the case with the organic acids.

Animal Chemistry. — Accompanying the forma-
tion of nitrogenous tissue in the vegetable
organism, occurs a corresponding increase of
phosphoric acid, and in the excretory products
of the animal kingdom a definite quantity of
nitrogen has been found to be accompanied by
a relative amount of phosphoric acid. Again,
when less nitrogen is excreted than is taken in
the food, less phosphoric acid is also passed off,
and from these data Kossel has inferred the
existence of a compound of albuminous matter
with phosphoric acid. The nucleins approach
nearest to such a composition. Kossel has re-
cently undertaken a quantitative determination
of nuclein by estimating the nuclein-phosphoric
acid.

His percentages of acid found in various tis-
sues are always largest in the case of organs
containing most cell-nuclei; thus, in the spleen
of the ox was found '636 per cent, of nuclein-
phosphoric acid, in the liver '390 per cent., and
in the pancreas -580 per cent., while in ox-mus-
cle was found only '092 per cent., and inhuman
blood merely a trace. It has been suggested
that the amount of nnclein might be deter-
mined from the quantity of its decomposition
products, viz., guanine, xanthine, and hypo-
xanthine, but Kossel has found that the quan-
tity of hypoxanthine, though in proportion to
the quantity of nuclein in some organs, bears
no such relation in the muscles ; thus the mus-
cle of the fowl yields much hypoxanthine, but
has a very small content of nuclein. He also
points out that the organs especially engaged
in the nutritive and regenerative processes of
the body contain far more phosphoric acid in
the form of nuclein than the looomotot appa-
ratus. Two so-called nucleins, those from cow's
milk and the yolk of egg, which do not come
from cell-nuclei, differ from those found in liv-
ing tissue in yielding no xanthine, hypoxan-
thine, or guanine.

. The exact chernioal nature of the peptones
has been much discussed, and no agreement of
opinion has been reached upon it. In fact, the
numerous results recorded are so strikingly at
variance with each other that the theories on the
subject have been, from time to time, very much
modified. These differences may be partly ac-
counted for by reference to the great diversity
of conditions under which the experiments have
been conducted. According to Berth's analysis,
there is but little difference between albumen
(Wurz's formula) and the peptone formed from
it. From a great number of analyses of pep- .
tones prepared by fractional precipitation with
alcohol and ether, Herth has drawn conclu-
sions in favor of the individuality of the pep-
tones, and infers that there is no ground for
belief in the theory that they are a mixture of
several closely-related bodies. Adamkiewicz
concludes from his studies that chemically the

peptones are nothing but albuminates which
differ from ordinary albumen by containing a
diminished content of inorganic salts and a
somewhat different molecular formation, but
the grounds on which he bases his view are
controverted by Maly and Herth, who found
no evidences of a materially diminished quan-
tity of salts ; and Aronson has shown that the
uncoagulability of the peptones —their most
striking feature — is wholly independent of in-
organic salts. Herth concludes that the analyti-
cal data give no idea of the actual alterations
which albumen undergoes in its transforma-
tion into peptones, and thinks it possible that
a rearrangement of the atoms takes place ; but
he has few supporters. Henninger believes,
after a long investigation, with Wurz and
Hoppe-Seyler, that the formation of peptones
is due to a process of hydration. He has also
attempted to produce albumen again from his
peptones by a process of dehydration, and has
succeeded in forming syntonin, the next modi-
fication of albumen. .This result has been con-
firmed by Hoffineister, who has, by dehydrating
fi brine-peptone and dissolving the product in
cold water, obtained a flocculent residue show-
ing all the reactions of albumen. Maly holds
that there is only one principal product of di-
gestion, one peptone, which differs but slightly
from the mother- substance in composition.
Kossel inclines to the belief that more than
one peptone can originate from a single albu-
men, and that these bodies which we now term
peptones do not actually possess a chemical in-
dividuality. As regards the nature of peptone,
whether it is an acid or a base, the preponder-
ance of evidence is on the side of its being an
acid, while it is capable of acting both as an
acid and as a base. Henninger regards the
peptones as feeble ami do -acids, and, as such,
capable of acting either as acids or bases. The
combination of peptones with acids is formed
directly whenever an acid is added to a solu-
tion of peptone, and the compound is a salt of
the peptone corresponding to the acid em-
ployed. Peptones also combine with salts,
forming a very loose union.

R. H. Chittenden has given an account of an
examination for arsenic of a human body dis-
interred for the purpose nearly six months after
burial, in order to ascertain the actual amount
of poison in the whole body, and at the same
time to glean all possible facts relative to its
distribution. The analysis was performed by
oxidizing a weighed amount of the sampled or-
ganic matter with nitric and sulphuric acids
at elevated temperatures, and ultimately ob-
taining the arsenic and weighing it in the
metallic state, the results being verified when
possible by duplicate analyses. From the
amount of arsenic found in the portion exam-
ined, the content of the entire organ or por-
tion of tissue was calculated. By this method,
the internal organs were found to contain
1'1694 grain of arsenious oxide, and the rest
of the body 1-9498, making a total of 3'1192

120

CHEMISTKY.

grains for the whole body. A striking feature
of the results was the irregular distribution of
the arsenic in the muscular tissue,%which va-
ried from nothing in the bone up to a quarter
of a grain per pound in the muscle of the
back, whereas, in cases of chronic poisoning, or
where arsenic is habitually used, the distribu-
tion is generally quite regular. The irregu-
larity is regarded as indicative of the arsenic
having been taken but a short time before
death, particularly as the larger proportions of
poison in the muscular tissue were observed in
the parts nearer to the great vessels and or-
gans. It is usual in cases of chronic poisoning
to find a considerable proportion of the poison
in the kidneys. In the present case only a
small proportion was found there, while the
tongue and throat contained nearly three times
as much, or nearly as much as was contained
in the entire left arm. It has been asserted
that the presence or absence of arsenic in the
brain is an index as to whether the poison was
introduced into the body before or after death.
The finding of arsenic in the brain may be re-
garded as proof that its introduction was not
post mortem, but its absence can not be held to
prove the contrary. The amount of arsenic
found in the brain in the present case can be
regarded only as indicating that it was taken
in a form readily soluble and diffusible.

Passive and Active Oxygen. — Moritz Traube
has published a discussion of the circumstances
under which oxygen experiences the remark-
able change of passing from the ordinary pas-
sive to the active condition. Considering the
formation of hydrogen dioxide under the influ-
ence of the slow oxidation of metals in the
presence of water and air, he concludes, from
such experiments as he has made, that the
process is not one of the oxidation of water,
but a reduction process, in which the dioxide
is probably formed by the addition of hydrogen
directly to oxygen. Oxygen, at the ordinary
temperature, is characterized by great passivi-
ty, but in the animal body it becomes active,
and has the power of effecting oxidations at
temperatures below 40° C. (104° F.), which it
can otherwise effect only at a red heat. Re-
garded from this stand-point, the adult animal,
which neither loses nor gains in weight, plays
the part of a catalytic body, which, without
suffering material change in composition, causes
at low temperatures, by means of the oxygen of
the air, the almost complete combustion of
enormous quantities of food. Plants also, or,
in general, all organisms down to and includ-
ing bacteria and fungi, possess the same prop-
erty, though to a much less extent; and there
does not exist an organism which is indifferent
toward oxygen. Herr Traube further assumes
that he has pointed out, " with conclusive rea-
sons," that the real hearth of the respiratory
processes in animals is not the blood, but the
tissues of the body, above all, the muscles ; that
the oxygen taken up in the lungs is set free in
the capillaries of the body, and enters as dis-

solved gas into the tissues of the individual or-
gans ; and that in this way each individual
organ breathes independently at the expense
of the free oxygen. Thus, not only do organ-
isms as a whole have the power to make oxy-
gen active, but each of their organs, indeed
each individual cell; or, rather, they contain
substances which have the power. Hence the
problem of active oxygen is in the highest de-
gree important, as well for physiology as for
chemistry.

Constancy of the Amount of Carbonic Acid in the
Air. — Very careful determinations of the propor-
tion of carbonic acid in the atmosphere at dif-
ferent places have been made by M. J. Reiset,
with a particular view to answering the ques-
tions : For a given place is there more or less
carbonic acid in the air on a clear day than on
a cloudy day ? Is there a difference in the pro-
portion between day and night, or between win-
ter and rammer? Is there more or less car-
bonic acid at the bottom of a mountain than at
the top? Is there more or less in the air near
the sea than in the inland country ? etc. His
tests were made by the precipitation of car-
bonate of baryta by passing a known volume
of air through a solution of baryta. His investi-
gations have led to the conclusions that the
maxima in the proportion of carbonic acid
always correspond to cloudy, foggy, or misty
weather; that air collected in the night con-
tains more carbonic acid than that collected
during the day, and that the minima of the
acid correspond to days of fine weather, with
bright sunlight and absence of clouds. Investi-
gations to ascertain the effect of vegetation on
the proportion were made difficult by the
rapid diffusion of the gas in the air, and the
variations were hardly appreciable. They in-
dicated, however, a diminution of the propor-
tion over growing fields. The presence of a
flock of three hundred sheep near the ap-
paratus on a certain day of fine weather,
caused a notable increase in the proportion
of the acid. A number of analyses were made
near the Pare Monceau in Paris. During the
month of May, when fires began to be extin-
guished, the mean was found to be 30-57 per
100,000 of air. The maximum, 35-16, was
obtained on the 27th of January, 1879, dur-
ing the period of most active combustion ; the
minimum, 29'13, was obtained May 31, 1875.
The normal variations in proportion are gen-
erally between 28 and 30 per 100,000 of air,
and are more sudden and more numerous dur-
ing the summer. Determinations made by
MM. Muntz and E. Aubin, in the city of Paris
and in the open country near Vincennes,
gave results substantially agreeing with those
of M. Reiset, and indicate that carbonic acid
is uniformly distributed throughout the lower
strata of the atmosphere, while variations in
the proportion occur only between very nar-
row limits, and are due to local influences.
MM. Muntz and Aubin also applied their analy-
ses to the upper strata, fixing their station

CHILI.

121

on the summit of the Pic du Midi in the Pyre-
nees, 9,422 feet above the sea. Notwithstand-
ing that during the course, of the experiments
the direction of the wind and the state of the
atmosphere varied frequently, the proportion
was found to be constant, and to give as the
mean of a large number of observations 2*86
parts by volume of carbonic acid to 10,000
parts of air.

A New Form of Phosphorus. — Messrs. Ira Rem-
sen and E. H. Keifer, by distilling phosphorus
in an atmosphere of purified hydrogen and
condensing the vapor on cold water, obtained
a white phosphorus, differing very greatly in
appearance from ordinary phosphorus, which
floated on the water in a snow-white layer
about a quarter of an inch in thickness, and
which was changed to ordinary phosphorus
very easily, as by putting it into warm water.
The white phosphorus thus obtained is light
and plastic. If placed on a piece of bibulous
paper, so that the water is absorbed from it,
it gives off dense white furnes and melts, but
does not take fire, and is then nothing but
ordinary phosphorus. It dissolves readily in
carbon bisulphide, and melts at exactly the
same point as ordinary phosphorus, when it is
transformed into it. It thus seems to bear
the same relation to ordinary phosphorus as
flowers of sulphur to roll-brimstone. It is also
much less susceptible to the influence of light
than ordinary phosphorus. Bottger describes
another white phosphorus, which, however,
appears to be quite different from this.

CHILI (Repnblica de Chile). The area of por-
tions of Patagonia and the Tierra del Fuego,
acquired by the treaty made between Chili and
the Argentine Republic, at Buenos Ayres, on
July 23, 1881, is estimated at 215,725 square
kilometres, which would increase the area of
Chili to 537,187 kilometres, without counting
the province of Tarapaca, ceded to Chili by
Peru in the treaty of peace made at Ancon,
signed Oct. 20, 1883, and containing the ensu-
ing stipulations :

1. Peru cedes to Chili, forever and uncon-
ditionally, the department of Tarapac'a to the
Quebrada .de Camarones.

2. The territories of Tacna and Arica will,
for a term of ten years, remain subject to
Chilian authority. At the close of this term
the vote of the people is to be taken in those
localities, and direct suffrage to decide whether
the same are to return to Peru or remain Chili-
an. In either case, the country to which they
will thenceforth be definitively annexed en-
gages to pay to the other an indemnity of
$10,000,000.

3. Chili solemnly engages to carry out all
the clauses in the treaty relating to the guano
and nitrate-of-soda trade, and to pay over to
the creditors of Peru 50 per cent, of the net
proceeds accruing to the Chilian exchequer out
of the working of these two products, until
either the indebtedness is canceled or the de-
posits of said products are exhausted. Those

discovered henceforward on the territory an-
nexed shall be the exclusive property of Chili.
Beyond this, Chili is not responsible for any
Peruvian indebtedness.

4. As regards the island of Lobos, Chili is
to continue administering the same until the
expiration of the contract having reference to
the sale of 1,000,000 tons of guano. The island
shall then revert to Peru. Finally, Chili en-
gages to cede to Peru, upon ratification of this
treaty of peace, the 50 per cent, due the latter
out of the net proceeds of the Lobos island
guano-sales. The treaty to be ratified, and the
exchange of ratifications to be effected at Lima
within one hundred and eighty days from date.
Till then Chili is authorized to maintain in
Peru an army of occupation, toward the main-
tanance of which Peru engages to pay the
general-in-chief $300,000 silver coin monthly.

A cable message, dated Lima, Jan. 8, 1884,
stated that this monthly indemnity would be
considerably modified in view of the financial
condition of Peru.

A cable dispatch, dated Dec. 11, 1883, an-
nounced that the Bolivian commissioners had
arrived at Santiago, Chili, and that forty-eight
hours after their presentation a treaty of peace
was signed between Chili and Bolivia. A brief
sketch of the vicissitudes of the war in 1883,
and its close, will be found under BOLIVIA.

On Jan. 1, 1882, the population of .Chili was
estimated at 2,223,434; a year later, at 2,239,180.

The capitals of the provinces were counted in
1882, and the number of inhabitants set against
each is as follows: Santiago, 190,000; Val-
paraiso, 95,000; Talca, 19,000; Concepcion,
19,000; Chillom, 16,000; Cauquenes, 13,000;
Serena, 13,000; Copiap6, 12,000; San Felipe,
11,500; Curico, 11,000; Linares, 8,000; An-
geles, 8,000; Lebu, 7,000; Ancud, 6,000; Val-
divia, 6,000; Angal, 5,000; Puerto Montt,
4,000 ; and Punta Arenas, 1,000.

The President of the Republic is Sefior Don
Domingo Santa- Maria, inaugurated Sept. 18,
1881, for the usual term of five years.

The Cabinet was composed of the following
ministers : Interior, Sefior J. M. Balmaceda, in
office since April 12, 1882; Foreign Affairs
and Colonization, Sefior L. Aldunate, since
April 12, 1882; Justice, Public Worship, and
Instruction, Sefior J. E. Vergara, since Sept.
18, 1881 ; Finance, Sefior P. L. Cnadra, since
April 12, 1882; War and Navy, Sefior C. Cas-
tellon, since Sept. 18, 1881.

The Chilian Envoy Extraordinary and Min-
ister Plenipotentiary to the United States is
Don Joaquin Godoy, accredited June 23, 1882 ;
the Chilian consul at New York is Sefior D..
de Castro.

The United States Envoy Extraordinary and
minister at Santiago is Dr. C. Logan, accredited
in 1882 ; the United States consul at Valparaiso
is Mr. Lucius P. Foote.

Army. — Don Benjamin Vicufia Mackenna in-
troduced a bill into the Senate creating one gen-
eral of division and two brigadier-generals, for

122

CHILI.

the reason that, prior to the war, on Sept. 12,
1878, the force of the army did not exceed
3,122 men, that during the war the army of
occupation alone counted 25,000, and that dur-
ing the summer of 1883 the Chilian army still
numbered 17,408 men, while the number of
generals was the same as in 1878 and in 1854,
when the army counted only 3,000 men. The
regular army comprised, in 1882, 9 generals,
19 colonels, 77 lieutenant-colonels, 114 majors,
198 captains, and 562 lieutenants, together 979
officers ; ten battalions (9,040 men), three regi-
ments (1,500 men) horse, and two regiments
(2,214 men) artillery ; total strength of army,
12,921. The National Guard counts 31,113
men enlisted, 17,912 of whom perform service.

Navy.— The navy, in 1883, embraced two
iron-clad frigates, one monitor, two corvettes,
two gunboats, and two cruisers, carrying, to-
gether, 53 guns, having a joint tonnage of
10,611, and 3,260 horse-power — the whole
equipped by 1,728 sailors.

The navy furthermore comprises two steam-
ers, one transport, five pontoons, five small
steamers, and eleven torpedo-boats.

Navy officers : One vice-admiral, four coun-
ter-admirals, eleven captains of ships-of-the-
line, fourteen captains of frigates, twenty-two
of corvettes, forty lieutenants, and forty -two
enrolled cadets.

Finances. — The President, in his annual mes-
sage, remarked with reference to the deprecia-
tion of the paper money in circulation in Chili,
and the low ruling of it as compared with the
exchange on Europe, that this unfavorable
feature must be due in part to the general
trade relations between Chili and foreign coun-
tries, the outstanding amount of paper money
being comparatively small.

The latest report of the Minister of Finance
renders an account of the actual workings of
the Treasury in 1882. According to this docu-
ment, the ordinary revenue reached the aggre-
gate of $40,107,209, being an increase of $3,-
672,488 over that of 1881. The extraordinary
revenue amounted to $1,849,825, thus increas-
ing the income of the nation in 1882 to $41,-
957,035. As, at the same time, the ordinary
and extraordinary expenditure did not exceed
$41,620,137, there was an excess of receipts of
$306,897. The budget for 1884 estimates the
income at $44,365,000, and the outlay at $46,-
536,550. -

Foreign Debt— On Dec. 31, 1882, the foreign
debt of Chili amounted to $34,878,000. The
amount set aside toward the sinking fund for
1884 is $1,567,000. These sinking-fund opera-
tions have at no time, according to what the min-
ister states, been less than 2£ per cent, in a year,
but in some years they reached 14£ per cent.

CHILIAN FOREIGN INDEBTEDNESS.

1870 $27,843.000

1871 27,079,500

1872 2fi,2S2,000 _.

1878 86,818,500 1880.

1874. . . > 25.689,000 1 1881

1875 80,168,000,1882.

1876 88,809,000 1 1888.

1877 $87,400,500

1878 85,908.000

1879 84,870,000

84,870,000

84,870,000

84,870,000

84,870,000

As nearly all the foreign loans have been
contracted for railroad purposes, the minister
appends to his report a statement of the actual
value of the Government railroads on Dec. 31,
1882:

Line from Valparaiso to Santiago $17,878,290

" Santiago to Curico 9,298.924

" " t urico to Angol 8,198,818

" " Chilian to Taicahuano 4,795,904

Total $40,171,846

The Minister of Finance has appointed a
committee of investigation to report on exist-
ing mining laws, and a revision of the same.
The committee is to give its opinion on the
ensuing queries: Whether it is advisable to
create a national mining bureau ; if so, the
committee is to suggest what sphere of action
should be assigned to it, and where it should
have its seat ; whether the export duty on
mineral products should be modified, and to
what extent the import duty on mining mate-
rial and sheet-iron, examining at the same time
to what extent the public revenue would be
affected by such changes ; what new privileges
may be safely extended to mining industry so
as to foster its development; to what extent
transportation should be increased and per-
fected between the mines and the coast. Fi-
nally, the committee is ordered to procure com-
plete statistics bearing on every branch of min-
ing industry in all its details. The minister
feels confident that great results will be reached
if this important branch of the public wealth
receives the attention it deserves at the hands
of the Government and people of Chili, and
for this purpose the bureau is proposed to be
created.

Another committee has been appointed to
lay down the basis for a revision of the tariff,
the members of the committee being mer-
chants of leading nationalities. .

National Legislation.— A bill was passed to secu-
larize the cemeteries, which caused a great deal
of commotion among orthodox Catholics, espe-
cially the female portion thereof, and at Santi-
ago the ladies personally petitioned the Presi-
dent en mAsse to intercede in behalf of threat-
ened faith while the bill was under debate.
Other bills elicited almost as much interest
among the public at large, among them one
reforming public instruction, another legaliz-
ing civil marriage, one granting certain privi-
leges to parties building a dry-dock at Valpa-
raiso, one creating the new province of O'Hig-
gins in the department of Rancagua, one or-
dering a special medal to be struck to reward
the soldiers participating in the crowning vic-
tory of the war, the battle of Huamacucho, of
July 10, 1883 ; finally, a pension bill in favor
of all soldiers who fought on the Chilian side
in the late war.

On the other hand, the Senate rejected the
bill limiting the coastwise trade to the Chilian
flag.

Railroads.— Tn 1882 the total length of gov-
ernment lines was 949 kilometres (equal to 598

CHILI.

123

miles), and of private lines 906 kilometres
(equal to 571 miles) ; together, 1,855 kilo-
metres, or 1,169 miles.

Postal Service. — The number of post-offices,
in 1882, was 370, forwarding during the year
altogether 10,204,097 letters, 19,950 sample
packages, 13,786 legal documents, 493,572
government dispatches, and 11,046,534 news-
papers ; together, 21,777,939 items of mail
matter, the gross amount of postage collected
being $378,749.

'Telegraphs. — The telegraphic service was, in
1882, carried on in 136 offices, 127 of which
were under government management ; the total
length of lines was 9,493 kilometres (equal to
5,981 miles), of which 8,943 kilometres were
government lines. The number of messages
sent was 433,475 ; of these 159,999 were gov-
ernment dispatches, and 273,476 private. The
gross amount collected for telegrams was
$378,749.

Immigration. — To hasten the settlement of
Villa-Rica, the new city founded in the center
of the Indian territory of Araucania, now be-
ing civilized, the Government has made a con-
tract with Don Francisco de B. Echeverria for
the introduction from Europe of 2,000 families
from the Basque provinces of Spain. Mean-
while the agent of Chilian colonization in Eu-
rope has contracted for the immigration into
Chili of numerous families belonging to the
farming class in Germany.

College Reforms.— The Minister of Public In-
struction is elaborating a reform project for
the School of Arts and Trades at Santiago,
preference to be given to the more practical
branches of education in that college, and for
this purpose, professors and machinists of note
are, if possible, to be engaged abroad, and ma-
chinery, etc., is to be procured for practical
demonstration.

Trade-Marks in Chili.— Chili provides for the
protection of trade-marks both to residents and
foreigners. The registry of the marks is in-
scribed on the register of the office of the Na-
tional Society of Agriculture. The Chilian
definition of a trade-mark is somewhat vague,
and is comprised under the two heads, trade-
marks applied to articles as products of indus-
try, and marks applied to objects of traffic, the
one relative to marks indicating ownership, as
concerns the manufacturer, and the other that
of distinctive ownership on the part of the
dealer. The registry must be renewed every
ten years.

New Pass over the Andes.— The recent discovery
of a pass across the mountain-chain which di-
vides Chili from the Argentine Republic may
possibly exert an important influence upon the
future of South America. This pathway has
long been known to the Indians of the mount-
ain-region, but they have hitherto kept it a
secret. For more than 1,000 miles the Andes
extend between Chilian and Argentine terri-
tory, at an average elevation of 13,000 feet
above sea-level. When the dispute in regard

to the possession of Patagonia, a few years
ago, threatened to bring the two republics to
blows, it was seen that any war between them
must be fought out at sea, the passage of the
Andes, by any openings then known, being im-
possible against a hostile force. An Argentine
army, to maintain itself at all, would have
needed to emerge from the mountains upon
Chilian soil somewhere near its objective point
— that is to say, Valparaiso and Santiago,
which are comparatively near each other, and
would be included in any plan of invasion.
The practicable passes thus became limited to
the Patos and the Cumbre, for those farther
north would not only give an invading army a
dangerously long line of communication with
its base, but are too difficult of ascent, and in
some cases are approached over barren regions.
The only pass to be seriously thought of, in
fact, was La Cumbre, which is almost opposite
Valparaiso, or on the same parallel ; and yet
its height, its extreme narrowness for many
miles, its continued windings and abrupt as-
cents, would make it defensible by 1,000 good
men against an invading army from either side.

But the newly discovered Bariloche Pass,
being near Lake Nahuelhaspi, puts an entirely
new face on the question of transandean com-
munication. It is situated where the continent,
narrowing greatly, forms the peninsula of
Patagonia ; it is approached easily across the
pampas, and from the westernmost Argentine
post at Nahuelhaspi the distance is only a few
score miles to the Pacific coast.

The commercial importance of this pass,
however, far outweighs all military considera-
tions. The two enterprising republics have
removed their only serious source of dissension
by a peaceful division of Patagonia, and hence-
forth the one can pursue its development as an
Atlantic and the other as a Pacific country.
Both have long sought railroad communica-
tion across the Andes. One such road, in
fact, has already been undertaken between
Buenos Ayres and Santiago, designed to pierce
the mountains by way of Mendoza, through
one of the passess already spoken of. The ex-
treme difficulties of this route have impeded
its construction ; but a road starting from the
Gulf of San Matias and crossing northern
Patagonia through the Bariloche Pass would
have only half the length of the more north-
erly route, and would traverse a region where
the peculiar relations of the mountains to the
two oceans cause the storms to be usually of
rain rather than snow, the route being in about
42° S. lat., and hence in a temperate climate.
The great drawback seems to be that it trav-.
erses a region infested with ho.stile Indians.

Of course, a most important consideration
is the exact height of the new pass ; but since
it is known that the Andes in Patagonia fall
off to an average altitude little more than half
that of a few miles farther north, the route
seems certain to yield advantages in this par-
ticular.

124

CHILI.

Agricultures — M. A. F. de Fontpertuis writes They have been worked to a depth of 1,800 :

about the economical condition and agricultu- 2,200 feet. The amalgamating of silver-or

ral and mineral resources of Chili, in an article is carried on in great establishments at ai

published in the " Economiste Francais" : Out near Copiap6.

of the 2,200,000 inhabitants more than two Nitrate.— The belief prevailed^for a long tin

thirds are agriculturists; and the eight central that the province of Tarapaca was the on

provinces, Santiago, Colchagua, Curic6, Talca, portion of the Atacama desert producing z

Maule, Linares, Xuble, and Concepcion, alone trate enough to make it worth while exportii

contain a farming population of 1,400,000 the same, but the high taxes imposed by Pei

souls. While the country between Valparaiso caused explorers to prospect the southern po

and Santiago resembles the plains of northern tion of the desert in Bolivia and in the nort

Italy, the resemblance is merely superficial, for ern part of Chili. In this manner the nitra

even in its best portions the soil of Chili is deposits at Antofagasta were discovered, and

poor; immense plains are uncultivated, and great impulse was given to the nitrate industi

the methods of culture are most primitive, be- there; but the rivalries arising led to the la

ing in this respect the very reverse of those war.

in use in northern Italy. In both countries Commerce. — Chilian foreign commerce near

there is a lack of rainfall, and they have to re- doubled during the four years following 1871

sort to irrigation. The destruction of forests - — —

has been such in Chili that in some regions on Total foreign trade. increwe. Increa

the coast there are during a year 335 days of percet

drought, 12 days of a light and 18 days of a 1878 H&ffftH

heavy rainfall. The plain of Chili, it is true, Jg;:; «$$"} f^gt £%

is traversed by numerous water-courses, such issi 108,878,168 21,682,245 24-se

as the Rio-Bio, Chilian, Maule, Nuble, and 1882

many more, receiving their water from the

snow of the Andes, but their fertilizing action IMPORT.

is limited to a restricted area, and the art of ' i&sz. 1881.

irrigation is only properly understood in the —

more northern provinces, Talca and Curico. gysea |BJ'JSffi

Out of 34,245,500 hectares of land only 7,891 ,- Overland A°60'842

200 are arable, and of these only one seventh Total... $53,502,214 $46,973,981

is under culture, and even in this portion cul-
tivation is to a notable extent slothful. Dem- EXPORT.

ocratic economists in Chili attribute this state i«««> TTTI

of affairs to the large land-holdings by descend- _

ants of the conquerors, and insist, not without Products of the mines $56.137,670 $47,145.757

some reason, that these large " hacendados - SSW-SSSS*::'::: "'^ "S3

or landed proprietors have been a calamity Ee-export 997.674 1,459,651

for Chilian agriculture. Fortunately, some ^^f-,::::: \S$>™ #8$
.time ago the law of primogeniture was abol-
ished, and since then landed property gets to Total $71,374,126 $61,904,282

be gradually better distributed among the

farming population. This change has also had Chilian custom-houses yielded in 1882 tl

the good effect of causing many of the large ensuing amounts of revenue :

proprietors to settle down on their lands and import duties collected $11,802,8

cultivate them, instead of living in luxury at Ten per cent additional 689,8

the capital. Yet there have been till now wBSta^.:^.r.:C/.^:V/.:V/;V.".:V/.:;y.: SSa

comparatively few small prosperous farmers, Light-house and tonnage dues....... '.'.....'..... 7i,'9

and the system of long leases has not even vet g£SK£SSi*".iii-a::: ""-"- ,,«tl

been introduced. Export duty on nitrate of soda 7,C92,3

Mining. — Copper is found in a great many

localities, especially in the provinces of Co- Total -• $22,896,2

quimbo, Aconcagua, Santiago, Nuranco, Chi- ^THIRTY-EIGHT YEARS OF CHILIAN FOREIGN TRADE.

loe, and in Atacama, although in the latter two ' "

gold and silver predominate. Caldera is the *£*£££ £*£*£

chiet port of the last-named province. Copi-

ap6, its capital, is in the center of a long, nar- 1844-1858, 10 years.. $21,000,000 $19

row valley, which might be fertile if it were JltlSlS « " "'o%oro II

not so badly irrigated, and surrounded by many 1874-1881, 8 " .. 73,000,000

silver-mines partially abandoned because ex- "

bausted. The richest mines were formerly the Anglo-German Competition. — A French me

Charnacillo, turning out, during the compara- chant reports from Iquique under date of Ms

lively short period of 47 years from 1832 to 15, 1883 : "Although French goods are gene:

1879, no less than $240,000,000 worth of pure ally very much liked in Chili, the trade bet wee

silver, but these are now nearly exhausted. France and this coast has notably declined du

CHILI.

CHINA.

125

ing the past twenty years, while Anglo- Ger-
man merchants, more active than French, have
succeeded in substituting their manufactures
for ours. But this is not the only success
which English and German merchants can
boast of: with abundant means and good Eu-
ropean banking connections at their disposal,
they have boldly gone into the nitrate industry
and exportation, so that the bulk of this article
now goes to Liverpool and Hamburg. Nor
is this due to any very great superiority of
theirs in the way of steamship lines, for we
have our fine Havre line of steamers regularly
touching at all ports on the west coast. The
causes for this decay of French trade in this
direction lie deeper, and we have to search for
them in France, where both merchants and
manufacturers trouble themselves too little
about the changes going on in these distant
countries on the Pacific, and, instead of estab-
lishing branch houses or agencies in them, and
thus pushing the export trade to them, they
cling to time-worn methods, and are thus oust-
ed from connections once valuable."

EXPORT OF NITRATE OF SODA DURING THE FIRST
TEN MONTHS.

1883.

1882.

1881.

To the north of Europe —
" Mediterranean
" United States, At-
lantic coast
44 United States, Pa-
cific coast

Quintals.
8,339,838
161,206

769,194
157,390

Quintals.
7,299,715
120,074

909,778
140,289

Quintals.
4,548,264
85,126

879,437
125,985

Total

9,433,678

8,469,856

5,588,812

Chilian Trade with England, France, and the United
States. — The import from Chili into the United
States in 1881 was $1,435,970 worth of goods
against $13,288,071 from Chili into England,
and $5,478,793 into France, while the export
from the United States to Chili was $1,614,836,
from England $13,075,526, and from France
$6,364,464. In 1882 the import from Chili
into the United States was $1,810,487, and the
export from the latter to the former $1,774,-
645 worth of goods.

During the fiscal year ended June 30, 1883,
the United States imported from Chili only
$435,584 worth of goods, specie, and bullion,
and exported thither $2,837,551 worth of do-
mestic goods and $22,945 foreign ditto. This
shows an extraordinary increase of domestic
exportation from the United States to that
country in a single twelvemonth.

During the fiscal year ended June 30, 1882,
the United States imported from Chili 67,018,-
386 pounds of nitrate of soda, and 2,534,219
pounds of wool, and exported thither of do-
mestic goods 5,259,858 yards of cotton goods ;
$304,335 worth of machinery and hardware ;
1,188,700 gallons of petroleum; 567,560 pounds
of lard ; 373,585 pounds of refined sugar, and
$263,687 worth of lumber and wooden-ware,
besides numerous other articles.

Merchant Marine. — There were sailing under

the Chilian flag, in 1883, 131 sea-going vessels,
of a total tonnage of 53,070, comprising 27
steamers, which aggregated 12,512 tons.

CHINA, an empire in Asia, officially called
Chung Kwoh (" The Middle Kingdom "). The
Government is organized on patriarchal prin-
ciples laid down in the books of Confucius and
other ancient sacred writings. The supreme
power is vested in the Emperor. There are
two high advisory bodies which guide the pol-
icy of the Emperor. One is the Neko, or In-
ner Council, consisting of four members and
two assistants, who see that the enactments
are in harmony with the laws of the sacred
books. Two of the active members and one
of the juristic assistants must be chosen from
the Manchu, and the other half of the Council
from the Chinese race. Under the supervision
of the Neko are the six boards of government,
which have charge respectively of the civil ser-
vice, finance, ceremonies, the army, justice, and
public works. The practical direction of affairs
has passed into the charge of a body called the
Council of State (Chun-chi-chu), which is free
from the rigid constitution and procedure of
the Neko. The same men are often found in
both councils, and also serving in some of the
six ministries or other high charges of state.
Besides the six ministries, there is a board of
censors, whose duty it is to investigate all the
departments of state and review the acts of
government; a ministry for the administra-
tion of the dependent states; the military
administration of Peking, which also superin-
tends the police service ; and an office for the
administration of foreign affairs. The eighteen
provinces have each a governor, who in the
case of most of them is subordinated to a gov-
ernor-general placed over two or three prov-
inces.

The Emperor is Kwangsu, the ninth ruler of
the Tartar dynasty which conquered China in
1644. The law of succession prescribes that
each Emperor shall appoint his successor from
among the sons of the princes of the royal
house. Kwangsu was not regularly appointed,
the late Emperor having died suddenly, but
was by the management of the Empress dow-
ager and his father, Prince Rung, proclaimed
Emperor, Jan. 22, 1875, in the fourth year of
his age.

The members of the Council of State are
Prince Kung, Pao Yun, Li-hung-tsao, Ching-
lien, and Weng-tung-ho. The Prince Kung is
president of the ministry for foreign affairs.

Area and Population. — The total area of the
eighteen provinces is 1,534,953 square miles,
and the total population, as given in the latest
official returns. 362,447,183; being 236 per
square mile. The density of population in the
province of Kiangsu is as great as 850 per
square mile; in Anhwei, 705; in Chekiang,
671 ; in Pecheli, the capital province, 475 ; in
Shantung, 444. The least thickly inhabited
provinces are Szechuen, with 128 inhabitants
per square mile, Kwangsi with 93, Kwei-

126

CHINA.

chow with 82, Yunnan with 51, and the great
province of Shenking with only 10 persons to
the square mile.

The dependencies of China, not including
Corea, which is practically independent in its
internal and external affairs, subject to a suze-
rain control that is kept almost entirely in
abeyance, have an estimated area and popula-
tion as follow :

DEPENDENCIES.

Square miles.

Population.

Manchuria

862 818

12000000

Mongolia

1 288 085

2 000 000

Thibet

648 734

6 000 000

152'958

'eoo'ooo

East Turkestan

481800

580 000

Total

2878835

21 180 000

The greater part of the Hi, or Kulja, terri-
tory in Jungaria was receded to China by the
treaty concluded with Russia, Feb. 24, 1881,
but 4,340 square miles were annexed to Eussia,
which received also 8,120 square miles on the
Black Irtysh.

The population of Peking, the capital, is esti-
mated variously at from 500,000 to 1,650,000.
Several cities in the interior are supposed to
contain over 1,000,000 inhabitants. The esti-
mated population of the treaty ports is as fol-
lows: Canton, 1,600,000; Tientsin, 950,000;
Foochow, 630,000; Hangchow, 600,000;
Shanghai, 350,000; Ningpo, 260,000; Takao
and Taiwan, 235,000; Nanking, 150,000;
Chinkiang, 135,000; Amoy, 95,600; Tamsui,
90,000; Wenchow, 83,000; Kelung, 70,000;
Niuchwang, 60,000 ; Wuhu, 60,000 ; Kiukiang,
53,000; Chefoo, 35,000; Ichang, 34,000 ; Swa-
tow, 30,000; Kiungchow, 30,000; Pakhoi,
25,000.

The number of foreigners residing in the
treaty ports in 1882 was reported as 4,894, of
whom 2,402 were English, 474 Germans, 472
Japanese, 410 Americans, 335 French, 202
Spaniards, and 599 of other nationalities.

Commerce and Agriculture.— The annual value
of the foreign commerce for the past six years
was as follows, in taels (1 Haikwan tael=
$1.50):

YEAR.

Imports.

Exports.

1877...

78 283 8%

67 445 022

1878

70 fi04 027

67172179

1879...

82 227 424

72 281 262

1880...

79293452

77'883'587

1881.

91 'MO 877

71 452 974

18S2

77'?15228

67 836 846

The imports in 1882 from Great Britain, Hong-
Kong, East India and other British possessions
amounted to 67,640,000 taels; the exports to
Great Britain and British dependencies to 40,-
301,000 taels; the imports from the United
States to 3,277,000 taels, as against 3,300,000
in 1881 ; the exports to the United States to
8,420,000 taels, as against 10,222,000; the im-
ports from Continental countries, not includ-
ing Russia, to 2,484,000 taels ; the exports to
Continental Europe to 8,752,000 taels ; the ex-

ports to Russia by ship to Odessa, 946, 00(
taels, overland via Kiachta, 3,286,000 taels
imports from Japan, 4,442,000 taels ; export:
to Japan, 1,767,000 taels ; imports from am
exports to other countries, 1,644,000 and 3,
865,000 taels respectively. The main part o:
the import trade is through Shanghai, whicl
does also the largest export trade, Canton com
ing next, and after it Foochow and Hangchow
The following table gives an analysis of th<
foreign trade of 1881 and 1882, showing th<
values imported and exported of the differem
classes of merchandise, in taels :

IMPORTS.

1881.

1888.

Opium

37 590 000

26 746 000

Cotton goods

26 046 000

22 707 000

Woolen goods

5 854 000

4 496'oOO

Metals, and manufactures of
All other . . .

4,829,000
17 590 000

4,701,000
19 065 000

Total

91 911 000

77 715 000

EXPORTS.

1881.

1888.

Black tea

26 201 000

25 878 000

Green tea

5 107 000

4'o9l'oOO

Brick tea

1 468 000

1 804'000

Silk and manufactures .

26 868 000

22 837 000

Sugar

2 5^4 000

8 013 000

All other

9 225 000

10 124 000

Total

71,453 000

67 837 000

Chinese trade has suffered for a year or tw<
.from various causes. In 1882, in consequent
of excessive speculation in joint-stock enter
prises, occurred a financial crisis. Interest ros<
at times in 1882 to 30 and 35 per cent. Man}
failures happened in consequence. The im-
ports of gray and white shirtings were less bj
a million pieces than in 1881, and prices wen
10 per cent, lower. Opium imports fell of
9,000 chests. The reformatory efforts of th<
Chinese Government and the use of theSzech-
uen product have nearly expelled the Indiar
drug from northern China. The quantity im-
ported at the northern ports was but little
more than a third as much as in 1879. The
yield of silk has fallen off to an alarming ex-
tent. The cause is supposed to be the ravages
of a disease of the silk-worm similar to thai
which prevails in Europe. The falling off was
considerable in 1882; but in 1883 the quantity
fit for export was not more than half as much
as in average years. The cultivation of the
sugar-cane is extending in southern China in
the country back of Amoy, Swatow, and Can-
ton, and on the island of Hainan and the south-
ern part of Formosa. The exports of sugar go
mostly to Australia and Japan. In certain dis-
tricts along the East river as much as 40 per
cent, of the area is planted to sugar, exciting
the anxiety of conservative native economists,
who see the more necessary rice-culture neg-
lected for the more profitable new product.

In 1882, notwithstanding the general depres-
sion in trade, there was a further develop-
ment of the tendency which first showed itself
a year or two before, on the part of Chinese

CHINA.

127

native merchants and capitalists, to invest in
enterprises carried on by foreign companies.
Companies were started with native capital,
under purely native management, for the work-
ing of coal, copper, and other mines. The
numerous projects started in this speculative
period include also gold and silver mining, and
paper, glass, and cotton manufactories. Chi-
nese capital was invested even in remote en-
terprises carried on by foreigners in Perak,
North Borneo, Selangor, and Colorado, and
much of it was consequently lost.

Navigation. — The movement of shipping in
Chinese ports is shown in the following table,
which gives the number and tonnage of the
vessels arriving and of those sailing under each
flag, added together :

]

L881.

3

882.

FLAG.

Vessels.

Tons.

Vessels.

Tons.

British

18,416

10,332,248

14,337

10,814,779

1,632

728,027

1,864

882,856

American

870
103

224,780
185 784

762
192

167.801
172,381

Japanese

227

185,892

250

194,584

Chinese

6297

4,767,188

6429

4,775,969

Other

642

266,464

895

380,482

Total .'

28,187

16,640,278

24,729

17,388,852

Of the total number of ships entered and
cleared in 1882, 19,607, of an aggregate ton-
nage of 16,102,574, were steamers, against
18,170, of 15,350,954 tons, in 1881.

Communications.— The only railroad in 1882
was one eight miles long, running to the Kai-
ping coal-mines. Besides short local lines, there
was completed in 1881 a telegraph line from
Tientsin to Shanghai, 950 miles. A line from
Shanghai to Canton was under construction in
1883.

Finance. — The accounts of the Imperial Gov-
ernment are not made public. The approxi-
mate yield of the various sources of revenue
is estimated as follows:

SOURCES OF REVENUE. Taels.

Land-tax ' 18,000,000

Land-tax paid in kind 18,100,000

Likin (new impost on merchandise) 20,000,000

Customs under Administration of Progress ...... 12,000,000

Customs under native administration 8,000,000

Salt 5,000,000

Sale of titles of rink 7,000,000

Other sources 1,400,000

Total 79,500,000

In 1882 the European custom-house admin-
istration collected import duties to the amount
of 4,684,007 taels; export duties, 8,068,435
taels; pilotage, 740,078 taels; tonnage dues,
279,799 taels ; transit toll, 313,353 taels— total,
14,085,672 taels.

The Chinese Government raised a foreign
loan of 13,500,000 taels in 1874. Of this 7,-
000,000 taels have been repaid. There are
domestic debts amounting to 30.000,000 taels.

Army and Navy. — The army has been divided
since the Manchu conquest into the Banner
army and the Green Flag militia. The for-
mer, recruited from an hereditary military class,

and constituting the garrison with which the
Tartar conquerors long held the country in
unwilling subjugation, is the most efficient
branch, and may be considered as the regular
army of China. Much attention has been paid
in recent years to the improvement of its
organization, training, and equipment. First
American and French, and subsequently Brit-
ish military men, have been its instructors in
tactics. The Bannermen are divided into three
branches, one recruited from the descendants
of the Manchu army, one from their Mongol
and one from their Chinese allies who helped
conquer China. The Manchus are the most
numerous, and are the subjects of the greatest
care, as the majority of the officers and of the
Board of War belong to this race. Their effi-
cient force is 67,800 men, that of the Chinese
or Hankiun Bannermen 27,000, and that of
the Mongols, 21,100 — making altogether 115,-
900 men. Of these, about one half are sta-
tioned in the Pecheli province, and the rest
distributed through the empire to form the
Tartar garrisons in the chief cities. The war
strength of the Banner army can be largely
augmented, since there were five times the
present numbers on the rolls thirty years ago.
The Chinese Government has further fighting
material at its disposal in the frontier tribes
and the Mongols of Mongolia, who alone can
be levied on for 200,000 men, one third of
them mounted. The national militia, or Green
Flag troops, have formerly been discouraged
by the military caste, and are still kept in a
state of military inefficiency through the not
groundless fears of the Peking Government of
the danger of the dynasty from a powerful
national army. For many years Li Hung
Chang has devoted great -pains to the training
of the Tartar force in the capital province by
European tacticians. About 70, 000 troops h a ve
thus been made capable of rapid military move-
ments. The number of troops in the empire
who are trained in the European way, and
armed with modern weapons, is between 100,-
000 and 200,000. The forts which guard the
approaches to the capital are defended by a
large number of Krupp and Armstrong guns.

The Chinese Government some time ago ac-
quired several European naval vessels, and has
recently been at great expense to secure others
of a more perfect type, which are being con-
structed at Kiel. In 1880 the fleet contained
two frigates, a corvette, and 47 gunboats, with
transports and smaller craft — the total arma-
ment consisting of 283 guns.

Political Situation. — The diplomatic dispute
with France regarding the suzerainty of China
over Annam absorbed the attention of the rul-
ing powers in China in 1883 (see TONQTJIN).
Li Hung Chang, the liberal minister, who has
had much to do with guiding the foreign policy
of China for several years past, was recalled
by the Empress Regent from the three years'
seclusion into which he had just entered to
mourn the loss of his mother, according to the

128

CHINA.

national custom. After the failure of the ne-
gotiations of M. Tricou at Shanghai, the direc-
tion of the Tonquin business passed out of the
hands of Li and the peace party into those of
Prince Kung and the anti-foreign court party,
who opposed a bolder and more resolute re-
sistance to the demands of France.

Canton Riots. — In September serious anti-
European riots broke out in Canton. The
Chinese are accustomed to see crimes punished
with extreme severity, while the foreign con-
suls are loath to enforce rigorously the laws of
their own countries when dealing in the exer-
cise of extra-territorial jurisdiction with acts of
violence committed upon Chinamen by Euro-
peans. The populace of Canton were already
excited to a dangerous pitch by the news of
the French repulses in Tonquin and the war-
like attitude of the Peking Government, when
two flagrant instances of shielding Europeans
from justice wrought them into fury. An
Englishman, an official in the Chinese custom-
house, fired a gun into a crowd of Chinese who
were making a disturbance, killing one native
and wounding two others. The Chinese were
excited over a rumor that this man, whose
name was Logan, was being screened, and, as
in many previous similar cases, would escape
the consequences of his crime. A day or two
later a Portuguese sailor from a British ship
killed a Chinaman. In this case the consul re-
fused to arrest. When the embittered people
saw the vessel depart with the homicide on
board, September 10th, they pushed in a great
crowd to the foreign quarter and attacked
stores and houses. The merchants armed
themselves with rifles, and fired a volley into
the crowd, killing five and wounding many
others. This rendered the mob more desper-
ate, and they plundered and set fire to four-
teen warehouses, English, German, French,
and American, and four dwellings, and only
ceased upon the arrival of the Chinese troops.
Tumultuous crowds gathered the next day, but
committed no further acts of violence. The
foreign residents had fled on board vessels in
the harbor. After the arrival of two British,
one French, and five Chinese gunboats, they
returned to their homes. The Chinese author-
ities thereafter preserved order in Canton, but
the irritation continued. The condemnation of
Logan to seven years' imprisonment for man-
slaughter was to the minds of the Chinese
equivalent to his escape.

Floods. — China suffered in 1883 from inunda-
tions which caused great suffering and loss of
life. The Yellow river burst through the em-
bankments and overflowed the lower country
over hundreds of square miles. The country
surrounding Tientsin and lying between that
city and the capital was also flooded by the
overflow of the rivers. The Government made
considerable grants of rice to the homeless and
starving peasantry, and encouraged private do-
nations by, offers of brevet rank. A scheme
for the improvement of the protective works

CHRISTIANITY, GROWTH OF.

on the Yellow river has been adopted by the
Government. The execution of a more thor-
ough system of stream regulation for the Yel-
low river in accordance with the principles o]
modern engineering would avoid for the future
the periodical disasters in this country which
have occurred since early times.

CHRISTIANITY, Growth of.— On the day oi
Pentecost, the number of converts to Chris-
tianity was 3,000. At the end of the first cen-
tury the number had reached 300,000. In the
year 323, when the Emperor Constantine was
converted and began to encourage Christianity
and suppress heathenism, the number of Chris-
tians was 10,000,000 ; at the latter part of the
sixth century, 20,000,000; at the close of the
eighth century, 30,000,000. During the next
two centuries the growth was 20,000,000, mak-
ing 50,000,000 at the close of the tenth cen-
tury. Then from the close of the tenth to the
close of the eleventh century the gain was
20,000,000, making the number, at that date,
70,000,000. The next hundred years witnessed
a growth of 10,000,000. Thus, for about thir-
teen hundred years there had been a steady
gain, and the number now reached 80,000,000.
But during the next century there was a de-
cline of 5,000,000 ; then followed, for the same
period, a similar gain, making the number at
the close of the fourteenth century the same
as at the close of the twelfth, viz., 80,000,000.
In the days of Luther the number reached
100,000,000. Thus, from the tenth to the fif-
teenth centuries the number of Christians had
doubled. At the close of the eighteenth cen-
tury the number had again doubled, i. e., be-
came 200,000,000. From 1800 to 1880 the
number again doubled, reaching 400,000,000.
Hence we see that the last three periods in
which Christianity doubled were 500 years,
300 years, and 80 years, respectively. These
figures include all nominal Christians, compris-
ing the Greek, the Roman Catholic, and the
Protestant churches. From 1800 to 1880 it is
estimated that the Greek Church gained 25 per
cent., the Roman Catholic Church 80 per cent.,
and the Protestant 170 per cent.

In 1792 William Carey originated the mod-
ern foreign missionary movement. He became
a- great Oriental scholar, and lived to see the
Bible, in whole or in part, spread among the
people of India in forty dialects. He aroused
an active missionary spirit among the English
Baptists, and his dictionaries, grammars, and
other works, in the Bengalee, Sanskrit, and
other tongues of India, not only prepared the
way for the rapid spread of the gospel, but also
brought him distinguished honor from the Brit-
ish Government. Since the days of Carey,
Christianity has advanced in India, China,
Japan, Africa, and in other fields, with re-
markable rapidity. The number of Christ's
followers at this date (1883) is. without doubt,
450,000,000. The converts in foreign fields are
now numbered by hundreds of thousands, and
are gaining rapidly every year. In 1830 there

CHRISTIANITY, GROWTH OF.

CIVIL RIGHTS.

129

were only 50,000 Christians in heathen lands;
now there are more than 2,000,000. In 1830
the Bible was read in 50 languages and dia-
lects ; now in 250, and 150,000,000 Bibles are
in circulation. In 1813 Judson arrived in Bur-
mah, and in 1819 he baptized the first convert.
Jn that province to-day there are 25,000 commu-
nicants, and about 76,000 adherents to the faith.
In 1850 there were in India about 14,000 com-
municants, and 91,000 nominal Christians.
To-day there are 114,000 communicants and
about 420,000 nominal Christians. In the prov-
ince of Madras, ten years ago, the number of
Christian adherents was 161,000; to-day the
number is 300,000. And throughout India,
China, Africa, and other lands, the gospel is
spreading at a rate never equaled since the
days of the apostles. According to Gibbon,
imperial Rome, at the time of her greatest ex-
tent, ruled about 120,000,000 people ; but to-
day Christian nations govern 650,000,000.

"While the progress of Christianity has been
very marked throughout the whole world, in
the United States, where it has had an open
field and perfect freedom, its gain has been
greater than in any other land. During the
past eighty-three years— and particularly dur-
ing the past three decades — the growth has
been more rapid than in any former period.
Eighty years ago students in Yale and Harvard
Colleges were accustomed to call themselves by
the names of French and German infidels. In
Yale College, infidel students used to combat
President Dwight with their views in the
class-room. Only a very small portion of the
students in the colleges of the country at that
time were church-members. In 1745 there
were only four church-members among the
students of Yale. But a wonderful change has
taken place in that college since.

From 1870 to 1880 Harvard graduated over
1,400 young men, and only two of the number
registered themselves as "skeptics." In 1830
26 per cent, of the students of New England
colleges were church-members. In 1880, out
of 12,063 students in sixty-five colleges in the
United States, 50 per cent, were professors of
religion. En 1800, the population of the United
States was about 5,000,0^0, and the number of
communicants in the various churches was
364,000, averaging one to fifteen of the popu-
lation. In 1880, with a population of 50,000,-
000, the number, of communicants was over
10,000,000, averaging one to five of the popu-
lation. These numbers include the communi-
cants in Protestant churches alone. In 1800
there was about one clergyman to every 2,000
of the population. In 1880 there were 69,870
ordained ministers in the Evangelical churches
of the United States, averaging one to every
720 of the population.

From 1850 to 1880 the increase of the Ro-
man Catholic population (not enrolled commu-
nicants) was 4,753,000. During the same pe-
riod the increase in the number of communi-
cants in the Protestant churches was 6,500,000.

VOL. XXIII. — 9 A

In 1850, in Boston, Mass., and vicinity, within
a radius of ten miles, there were 19,838 com-
municants in the Baptist, Congregational, and
Methodist churches combined. In 1880 the
membership of those churches had increased
to 45,752, being a gain of 230 per cent.

From the year-books of the principal de-
nominations in the United States we gather
the following general summary for 1883 :

DENOMINATIONS.

Ministers

Church-
member*.

Adventists

10T
501
167

17,090
400
1,253
600
103
16
1,578
450
8,728
1,240
28
8,782
8,579
85
200

11,100
68,500
17,169
2,394,742
*40,000
77,927
*33,000
8,611
1,450
60,000
45,000
887,619
76,000
8,000
591,821
844,888
6,811
56,000
*40,000

80,000
128,229
285,202
18,862
288,111
116,077
*80,000
1,799,593
867,375
391,044
*300,000
125,000
123,054
2,918
159,547
117,027
*20.000
12,735
18,750
8,837
*5.000
*3,000
9,928
8.994
600,695
127.01T
113,750
5,000
85.448
10,322
11,000
6,700

6,510
163,669
80.156
t6,882.954
. *700
*20,000
86,238

Adventists, Second

Adventists Seventh-Day

Baptists

Baptists, Anti-Mission

Baptists Free-Will

Baptists, Christian Order, etc
Baptists Seventh-Day.

Baptists, Six- Principle

Baptists, German (Tunkers)

Baptists Church of God

Congre°pationalist8

Christians, Northern

Disciples of Christ (Campbellites)

Episcopal, Protestant

Episcopal, Reformed

Friends, Orthodox

Friends, Unitarian (Hicksite)

Lutherans, German Evangelical (State
Church of Prussia)

430
847
849
141
1,117
475
450
11,294
4,045
2,051
2,000
688
1,358
82
1,257
926
250
289
225
50
80
40
70
92
5,218
1,070
1,489
50
780
107
100
80

90

751
569
6,546

Lutherans, General Synod

Lutherans General Council

Lutherans, General Synod (South)
Lutherans, Synodical Conference

Lutherans, Independent Synods . .

Mennonites

Methodist Episcopal North

Methodist Episcopal South

Methodist Episcopal, African

Methodist Episcopal, African. Zion
Methodist Episcopal, Colored

Methodist, Protestant

Methodist, Protestant Colored

Methodist, United Brethren

Methodist, Evangelical Association

Methodist, Wesleyan

Methodist, Free

Methodist, Congregational

Methodist, Primitive

Methodist, Independent

Methodist Union Episcopal, Colored . . .
Moravian
New Jerusalem (Swedenborgians) . . ....
Presbyterians North

Presbyterians, South . .

Presbyterians, Cumberland

Presbyterians, Cumberland, Colored
Presbyterians United

Presbyterians, Reformed

Presbyterians, Welsh Calvinistic
Presbyterians, Reformed, General Synod
Presbyterians, Associate Reformed Syn-
od of the South
Reformed German ...

Reformed, Dutch. . . .

Roman Catholics

Schwenkfeldians.

Unitarians .

434
718

Universalists

* Estimated.

t Roman Catholic population.

CIVIL RIGHTS. In 1 875 Congress passed an
act to secure civil rights to colored citizens. It
became a law March 1st of that year. On
October 15, 1883, certain of its sections were
declared unconstitutional by the United States
Supreme Court.

The law was entitled " An act to protect all
citizens in their civil and legal rights." Its
preamble recited that " it is essential to just

130

CIVIL RIGHTS.

government that we recognize the equality of
all men before the law, and hold that it is the
duty of Government in its dealings with the
people to mete out equal and exact justice to
all, of whatever nativity, race, color, or per-
suasion, religious or political ; and it being the
appropriate object of legislation to enact great
fundamental principles into law, therefore be
it enacted," etc. The first sections of the act
are as follows :

SECTION 1. That all persons within the jurisdiction
of the United States shall be entitled to the full and
equal enjoyment of the accommodations, advantages,
facilities, and privileges of inns, public conveyances
on land or water, theatres, and other places of public
amusement ; subject only to the conditions and limi-
tations established by law, and applicable alike to citi-
zens of every race and color, regardless of any previous
condition of servitude.

SEC. 2. That any person who shall violate the fore-
going section by denying to any citizen, except for
reasons by law applicable to citizens of every race
and color, and regardless of any previous condition
of servitude, the full enjoyment of any of the accom-
modations, advantages, facilities, or privileges in said
section enumerated, or by aiding or inciting such de-
nial, shall for every such offense forfeit and pay the
sum of five hundred dollars to the person aggrieved
thereby, to be recovered in an action of deot, with
full costs; and shall also, for every such offense, be
deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and, upon convic-
tion thereof, shall be fined not less than five hundred
nor more than one thousand dollars, or shall be im-
prisoned not less than thirty days nor more than one
year:

Provided, That all persons may elect to sue for the
penalty aforesaid, or to proceed under their rights at
common law and by State statutes ; and having so
elected to proceed in the one mode or the other, their
right to proceed in the other .jurisdiction shall be
barred. But this provision shall not apply to crimi-
nal proceedings, either under this act or the criminal
law of any State :

And provided further, That a judgment for the pen-
alty in favor of the party aggrieved, or a judgment
upon an indictment, shall be a bar to either prosecu-
tion respectively.

These sections were held unconstitutional so
far as they apply to the States. The Territo-
ries and the District of Columbia are subject
to the complete legislative control of Congress.
Whether the act of 1875 is valid as applied to
cases arising in the Territories and the Dis-
trict of Columbia, is a question which the Court
said was not before it, and which therefore it
refused to decide. There is room for question
whether the act of 1875 being unconstitutional
in part— that is, as to the States— will stand as
constitutional in part — that is, as to the Terri-
tories and the District of Columbia. But there
is no doubt of the constitutional power of Con-
gress to enact a civil-rights law applicable alone
to the Territories and the District of Columbia.
The Court further remarked that whether Con-
gress in the exercise of its power to regulate
commerce among the States might or might
not enact a law governing civil rights in pub-
lic conveyances— by land and water — passing
from one State to another, was also a question
not before it, and it is one on which the Court
expressed ao opinion. It is believed, however,
that Congress has such power.

The third section of the act of 1875 relate!
to procedure in cases arising under sections 1
and 2. It falls with those sections. Sectioi
4 is as follows :

That no citizen possessing all other qualificationi
which are or may be prescribed by law shall be die
qualified for service as grand or petit juror in anj
court of the United States, or of any State, on account
of race? color, or previous condition of servitude ; anc
any officer or other person charged with any duty ir
the selection or summoning of jurors who shall ex-
clude or fail to summon any citizen for the cause
aforesaid shall, on conviction thereof, be deemec
guilty of a misdemeanor, and be fined not more thar
five thousand dollars.

This section is held constitutional by tb«
Supreme Court on grounds which will be ex-
plained farther on.

The constitutionality of the first two sec-
tions was tested in five cases brought from the
Federal circuit courts in different parts of the
country. In two of these cases the accommo-
dations of a hotel had been denied to negroes
in Kansas and Missouri on account of theii
color ; in two, admission to seats in the dress-
circle of a San Francisco theatre and to seats
in a New York theatre had been refused to col-
ored persons; and one was a suit brought in
Tennessee against the Memphis and Charleston
Railway Company for not permitting a colored
woman to ride in a car set apart for white
persons. As all of these cases involved the
same constitutional question, these were con-
sidered together in one opinion by the United
States Supreme Court.

It is conceded that before the adoption of
the thirteenth amendment to the Federal Con-
stitution Congress had no power to pass a civil-
rights law such as that of 1875. If it exists at
all, the authority must be derived from the
thirteenth amendment or the first or the last
section of the fourteenth amendment. This is
the thirteenth amendment :

SECTION 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servi-
tude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the
party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist
within the United States, or in anyplace subject to
their jurisdiction.

SEC. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this
article by appropriate legislation.

The first and last sections of the fourteenth
amendment are :

SECTION 1. All persons born or naturalized in the
United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof,
are citizens of the United States and of the State
wherein they reside. No State shall make or en-
force any law which shall abridge the privileges or
immunities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall
any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or prop-
erty, without due process of law ; nor deny to any per-
son within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the
laws.

SEC. 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce,
by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this ar-
ticle.

Considering these two amendments in their
inverse order, the Court holds that the four-
teenth prohibits State but not individual action
against the civil rights of colored citizens, and
that it empowers Congress to protect these

CIVIL RIGHTS.

131

rights when denied or abridged by a State, but
not when invaded by individuals. As the act
of 1875 was intended to punish persons for
violating the civil rights of colored citizen.*,
when these rights were not denied by the
State, its enactment was held to be an exer-
cise of power not given to Congress by the
fourteenth amendment. The meaning of this
amendment and the reasons on which the
Court based its decision are set forth in the
following extracts from the opinion prepared
by Justice Bradley :

The first section of the fourteenth amendment
(which is the one relied on), after declaring who shall
be citizens of the United States, and of the several
States, is prohibitory in its character, and prohibitory
upon the States. It declares that " no State shall
make or enforce any law which shall abridge the priv-
ileges or immunities of citizens of the United States ;
nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty,
or property without due process of law ; nor deny to
any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection
of the laws." It is State action of a particular char-
acter that is prohibited. Individual invasion of indi-
vidual rights is not the subject-matter of the amend-
ment. It has a deeper and broader scope. It nullifies
and makes void all State legislation and State action
of every kind which impairs the privileges and im-
munities of citizens of the United States, or which in-
jures them in life, liberty, or property without due
process of law, or which denies to any of them the
equal protection of the laws. It not only does this,
but, in order that the national will, thus declared,
may not be a mere brutumfulmen, the last section of
the amendment invests Congress with power to en-
force it by appropriate legislation. To enforce what ?
To enforce the prohibition. To adopt appropriate
legislation for correcting the effects of such prohibited
State laws and State acts, and thus to render them
effectually null, void, and innocuous. This is the legis-
lative power conferred upon Congress, and this is the
whole of it. It does not invest Congress with power
to legislate upon subjects which are within the domain
of State legislation ; but to provide modes of relief
against State legislation, or State action, of the kind
referred to. It does not authorize Congress to create
a code of municipal law for the regulation of private
rights ; but to provide modes of redress against the
operation of State laws, and the action of State officers,
executive or judicial, when these are subversive of the
fundamental 'rights specified in the amendment. Posi-
tive rights and privileges are undoubtedly secured by
the fourteenth amendment ; but they are secured by
way of prohibition against State laws and State pro-
ceedings affecting those rights and privileges, and by
power given to Congress to legislate for the purpose of
carrying such prohibition inoo effect ; and such legis-
lation must necessarily be predicated upon such sup-
posed State laws or State proceedings, and be directed
to the correction of their operation and effect. A quite
full discussion of this aspect of the amendment may
be found in U. S. vs. Cruikshank, 92 U. S. Reports,
542 ; Virginia vs. Rives, 100 Id., 313, and Ex-parte
Virginia, 100 Id., 339. . . .

Until some State law has been passed, or some State
action through its officers or agents has been taken,
adverse to the rights of citizens sought to be protect-
ed by the fourteenth amendment, no legislation of the
United States under such amendment, nor any pro-
ceeding under such legislation, can be called into activ-
ity : for the prohibitions of the amendment are against
State laws and acts done under State authority. Of
course, legislation may, and should be, provided in
advance to meet the exigency when it arises ; but it
should be adapted to the mischief and wrong which
the amendment was intended to provide against : and
that is, State laws, or State action of some kind, ad-

verse to the rights of the citizen secured by the amend-
ment. Such legislation can not properly cover the
whole domain of rights appertaining to life, liberty,
and property, defining them and providing for their '
vindication. That would be to establish a code of mu-
nicipal law regulative of all private rights between
man and man in society. It would be to make Con-
gress take the place of the State Legislatures and to
supersede them. . . .

An inspection of the law shows that it makes no
reference whatever to any supposed or apprehended
violation of the fourteenth amendment on the part of
the States. It is not predicated on any such view. It
proceeds ex directo to declare that certain acts com-
mitted by individuals shall be deemed offenses, and
shall be prosecuted and punished by proceedings in
the courts of the United States. It does not profess
to be corrective of any constitutional wrong commit-
ted by the States; it does not make^ its operation to
depend upon any such wrong committed. It applies
equally to cases arising in States which have the just-
est laws respecting the personal rights of citizens, and
whose authorities are ever ready to enforce such laws,
as to those which arise in States that may have vio-
lated the prohibition of the amendment. In other
words, it steps into the domain of local jurisprudence,
and lays down rules for the conduct of individuals in
society toward each other, and imposes sanctions for
the enforcement of those rules, without referring in
any manner to any supposed action of the State or its
authorities.

If this legislation is appropriate for enforcing the
prohibitions of the amendment, it is difficult to see
where it is to stop. Why may not Congress with
equal show of authority enact a code of laws for the
enforcement and vindication of all rights of life, lib-
erty, and property ? If it is supposable that the States
may deprive persons of life, liberty, and property with-
out due process of law (and the amendment itself does
suppose this)j why should not Congress proceed at
once to prescribe due process of law for the protection
of every one of these fundamental rights, in every pos-
sible case, as well as to prescribe equal privileges in
inns, public conveyances, and theatres ? . . .

Civil rights, such as are guaranteed by the Consti-
tution against State aggression, can not be impaired
by the wrongful acts of individuals, unsupported by
State authority in the shape of laws, customs, or judi-
cial or executive proceedings. The wrongful act of
an individual, unsupported by any such authority, is
simply a private wrong, or a crime of that individual ; t
an invasion of the rights of the injured party, it is
true, whether they affect his person, his property, or
his reputation ; but if not sanctioned in some way by
the State, or not done under State authority, his rights
remain in full force, and may presumably be vindi-
cated by resort to the laws of the State for redress. . . .

If the principles of interpretation which we have
laid down are correct, as we deem them to be (and
they are in accord with the principles laid down in
the cases before referred to, as well as in the recent
case of United States vs. Harris, decided at the last
term of this court), it is clear that the law in question
can not be sustained by any grant of legislative power
made to Congress by the fourteenth amendment.
That amendment prohibits the States from denying
to any person the equal protection of the laws,"and
declares that Congress shall have power to enforce,
by appropriate legislation, the provisions of the amend-
ment. The law in question, without any reference to .
adverse State legislation on the subject, declares that
all persons shall be entitled to equal accommodations
and privileges of inns, public conveyances, and places
of public amusement, and imposes a penalty upon any
individual who shall deny to any citizen such equal
accommodations and privileges. This is not correct-
ive legislation ; it is primary and direct ; it takes im-
mediate and absolute possession of the subject of the
right of admission to inns, public conveyances, and
places of amusement. It supersedes and displaces State

132

CIVIL RIGHTS.

legislation on the same subject, or only allows it per-
missive force. It ignores such legislation, and assumes
that the matter is one that belongs to the domain of
• national regulation.

We have discussed the question presented by the
law on the assumption that a right to enjoy equal ac-
commodations and privileges in all inns, public con-
veyances, and places of public amusement, is one of
the essential rights of the citizen which no State can
abridge or interfere with. Whether it is such a right
or not, is a different question, which, in the view we
have taken of the validity ot the law on the ground
already stated, it is not necessary to examine.

The Court then took up the thirteenth
amendment, which abolishes slavery. Even
admitting that this clothed Congress with
power to pass laws necessary and proper for
abolishing all badges and incidents of slavery,
it could not be held, the Court said, that deny-
ing to colored persons equal accommodations
and privileges of hotels, public conveyances,
and places of amusement, imposed upon them
any badge of slavery or servitude. "Such an
act of refusal," says the opinion, "has nothing
to do with slavery or involuntary servitude,
and if it is violative of any right of the party,
his redress is to be sought under the laws of
the State ; or if those laws are adverse to his
rights and do not protect him, his remedy will
be found in the corrective legislation which
Congress has adopted, or may adopt, for
counteracting the effect of State laws, or
State action, prohibited by the fourteenth
amendment. It would be running the slavery
argument into the ground to make it apply to
every act of discrimination which a person
may see fit to make as to the guests he will
entertain, or as to the people he will take into
his coach or cab or car, or admit to his con-
cert or theatre, or deal with in other matters
of intercourse or business. Innkeepers and
public carriers, by the laws of all the States,
so far as we are aware, are bound, to the
« extent of their facilities, to furnish proper
accommodation to all unobjectionable persons
who in good faith apply for them. If the laws
themselves make any unjust discrimination,
amenable to the prohibitions of the fourteenth
amendment, Congress has full power to afford
a remedy under that amendment and in ac-
cordance with it."

The grounds for setting aside the first two
sections of the act of 1875, under the four-
teenth amendment, do not apply to the fourth
section,' and this was conceded to be constitu-
tional, as had been expressly held in the Vir-
ginia jury cases. The section prohibits any
discrimination on account of color in the sum-
moning or selection of jurors. Such discrimi-
nation, the Court points out, can be made only
by law, for which the State is responsible. It
can not be made by individuals without the
authority of State laws. It may be made by
statute, or, in the absence of any statutory dis-
qualification on account of color, colored jurors
may be excluded by a judge or some other officer
of the law. In either case the discrimination is
effected by the agency of the State.

Eight of the nine justices concurred in £
judgment of the Court. An elaborate dissei
ing opinion was rendered by Justice Harla
of Kentucky, who maintained that the th:
teenth as well as the fourteenth amendme
conferred upon Congress the power whi
was exercised in passing the civil - rights a
of 1875. "The opinion in these cases,"
remarked, " proceeds, as it seems to me, upi
grounds entirely too narrow and artifici
The substance and spirit of the recent amen
ments of the Constitution have been sacrific
by a subtile and ingenious verbal criticism
He then pointed out that in the Dred Scott ca
the Supreme Court had held that negroes we
not a part of the people of the United State
that they were not entitled to the privileg
and immunities of citizens ; that, in the la
guage of Chief-Justice Taney, "they had ]
rights which the white man was bound to i
spect." He cited' an earlier case — Prigg i
Pennsylvania— to show that the Court, in u
holding the constitutionality of the iugiti
slave law, had conceded to Congress a pow
which was not expressly granted by the Co
stitution, but was derived from it by.implic
tion. The purpose of the thirteenth amen
ment, he said, was to abolish slavery with i
its badges and incidents, and to establish ui
versal freedom. There was a fixed pnrpo
to place beyond doubt the power of Congre
to legislate in furtherance of these ends. TJ
power to enforce the provisions of the amen
ment was therefore expressly granted, and n
left to implication. He said :

The thirteenth amendment, my brethren concet
did something more than to prohibit slavery
an institution, resting upon distinctions of race, a]
upheld by positive law. They admit that it esta
lished and decreed universal civil freedom throug
out the United States. But did that freedom, th
established, involve nothing more than exempt!
from actual slavery? Was nothing more intend
than to forbid one man from owning another
property ? Was it the purpose of the nation simp
to destroy the institution, and then remit the rac
theretofore held in bondage, to the several States i
such protection, in their civil rights, necessarily grp1
ing out of freedom, as those States, in their discretio
choose to provide \ Were the States, against whc
solemn protest the institution was destroyed, to
left perfectly free, so far as national interference w
concerned, to make or allow discriminations agair
that race, as such, in the enjoyment of those fund
mental rights that inhere in a state of freedom ? Hi
the thirteenth amendment stopped with the swee
ing declaration, in its first section, against the exie
ence of slavery and involuntary servitude, except f
crimCj Congress would have had the power, by ii
plication, according to the doctrines of Prigg vs. Cor
monwealth of Pennsylvania, repeated in Straader ?
West Virginia, to protect the freedom thus establishe
and consequently to secure the enjoyment of such en
rights as were fundamental in freedom. But that
can exert its authority to that extent is now ma<
clear, and was intended to be made clear, by the e
press grant of power contained in the second secti<
of that amendment.

That there are burdens and disabilities which co:
stitute badges of slavery and servitude, and that t
express power delegated to Congress to enforce, 1
appropriate legislation, the thirteenth amendmei

CIVIL RIGHTS.

133

may be exerted by legislation of a direct and primary
character, for the eradication not simply of the in-
stitution, but of its badges and incidents, are propo-
sitions which ought to be deemed indisputable. They
lie at the very foundation of the Civil-Rights Act of
1866.

"I do not contend," continued Justice Ilar-
lan, " that the thirteenth amendment invests
Congress with authority, by legislation, to regu-
late the entire body of the civil rights which
citizens enjoy, or may enjoy, in the several
States. But I do hold that since slavery, as
the Court has repeatedly declared, was the
moving or principal cause of the adoption of
that amendment, and since that institution
rested wholly upon the inferiority, as a race,
of those held in bondage, their freedom neces-
sarily involved immunity from, and protection
against, all discrimination against them, be-
cause of their race, in respect of such civil
rights as belong to freemen of other races.
Congress, therefore, under its express power
to enforce that amendment, by appropriate
legislation, may enact laws to protect that
people against the deprivation, on account of
their race, of any civil rights enjoyed by other
freemen in the same State; and such legisla-
tion may be of a direct and primary character,
operating upon States, their officers and agents,
and also upon, at least, such individuals and
corporations as exercise public functions and
wield power and authority under the State.
What has been said is sufficient to show that
the power of Congress under the thirteenth
amendment is not necessarily restricted to
legislation against slavery as an institution up-
held by positive law, but may be exerted to
the extent, at least, of protecting the race, so
liberated, against discrimination, in respect of
legal rights belonging to freemen, where such
discrimination is based upon race."
_ He then contended that the denial to colored
citizens of the equal accommodations and privi-
leges of hotels, public conveyances, and places
of amusement, presents a discrimination on
account of color, which is a badge of servi-
tude whose imposition Congress is empowered
by the thirteenth amendment to prevent.
u They are burdens which lay at the very foun-
dation of the institution of slavery as it once
existed. They are not to be sustained, except
upon the assumption that there is still, in this
land of universal liberty, a class which may
yet be discriminated against, even in respect
of rights of a character so essential and so
supreme that, deprived of their enjoyment, in
common with others, a freeman is not only
branded as one inferior and infected, but, in
the competitions of life, is robbed of some of
the most essential means of existence ; and all
this solely because they belong to a particular
race which the nation has liberated. The thir-
teenth amendment alone obliterated the race-
line, so far as all rights fundamental in a state
of freedom are concerned."

Justice Harlan proceeded to maintain that
power was given to Congress by the fourteenth

amendment also to enact such a civil-rights
law as that of 1875. He said :

The assumption that this amendment consists
wholly of prohibitions upon State laws and State
proceedings in hostility to its provisions, is unauthor-
ized by its language. The first clause of the first sec-
tion— ** all persons born or naturalized in the United
States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citi-
zens of the United States, and of the State wherein
they reside" — is of a distinctly affirmative character.
In its application to the colored race, previously liber-
ated, it created and granted, as well citizenship of the
United States as citizenship of the State in which
they respectively resided. It introduced all of that
race whose ancestors had been imported and sold as
slaves, at once, into the political community known
as the "people of the United States." They be-
came, instantly, citizens of the United States, and of
their respective States. Further, they_ were brought,
by this supreme act of the nation, within the direct
operation of that provision of the Constitution which
declares that " the citizens of each State shall be en-
titled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in
the several States" (Art. IV, sec. 2).

The citizenship thus acquired, by that race, in vir-
tue of an affirmative grant by the nation, may be pro-
tected, not alone by the judicial branch of the Govern-
ment, but by congressional legislation of a primary
direct character ; this, because the power of Congress
is not restricted to the enforcement of prohibitions
upon State laws or State action. It is, in terms dis-
tinct and positive, to enforce " the provision* of thie
article" of amendment; not simply those of a pro-
hibitive character, but the provisions — all of the pro-
visions— affirmative and prohibitive, of the amend-
ment. It is, therefore, a grave misconception to sup-
pose that the fifth section of the amendment has ref-
erence exclusively to express prohibitions upon State
laws or State action. If any right was created by
that amendment, the grant of power, through appro-
priate legislation, to enforce its provisions, authorizes
Congress, by means of legislation, operating through-
out the entire Union, to guard, secure, and protect
that right. . . .

Although this Court has wisely forborne any at-
tempt, by a comprehensive definition, to indicate all
of the privileges and immunities to which the citizens
of each State are entitled, of right, to enjoy in the
several States, 1 hazard nothing, in view ot former
adjudications, in saying that no State can sustain her
denial to colored citizens of other States, while within
her limits^ of privileges or immunities, fundamental
in republican citizenship, upon the ground that she
accords such privileges and immunities only to her
white citizens and withholds them from her colored
citizens. The colored citizens of other States, within
the jurisdiction of that State, could claim, under the
Constitution, every privilege and immunity which
that State secures to her white citizens. ... No
State may, by discrimination against a portion of its
own citizens of a particular race, in respect of privi-
leges and immunities fundamental in citizenship, im-
pair the constitutional right of citizens of other States,
of whatever race, to enjoy in that State all such privi-
leges and immunities as are there accorded to her
most favored citizens. A colored citizen of Ohio or
Indiana, being in the jurisdiction of Tennessee, is en-
titled to enjoy any privilege or immunity, funda-
mental in citizenship, which is given to citizens of
the white race in the latter State. It is not to be sup- "
posed that any one will controvert this proposition.

But what was secured to colored citizens of the
United States — as between them and their respective
States— by the grant to them of State citizenship ?
With what rights, privileges, or immunities did this
grant from the nation invest them ? There is one, if
there be no others — exemption from race discrimina-
tion in respect of any civil right belonging to citizens
of the white race in the same State. That,' surely, is
their constitutional privilege when within the juris-

134

CIVIL RIGHTS.

diction of other States. And such must be their con-
stitutional right in their own State, unless the recent
amendments be "splendid baubles." thrown out to
delude those who deserved fair and generous treat-
ment at the hands of the nation. Citizenship in this
country necessarily imports equality of civil rights
among citizens of every race in the same State. It is
fundamental in American citizenship that, in respect of
such rights, there shall be no discrimination by the
State, or its officers, or by individuals or corporations
exercising public functions or authority, against any
citizen because of his race or previous condition of
servitude.

After repeating that the opinion of the ma-
jority proceeds on the ground that the power
of Congress to legislate for the protection of
the rights and privileges secured by the four-
teenth amendment can not be brought into
activity except with the view, and as it may
become necessary, to correct and annul State
laws and State proceedings hostile to such
rights and privileges, and that, in the absence
of State laws or State action adverse to such
rights and privileges, the nation may not ac-
tively interfere for their protection and secu-
rity, Justice Harlan adds :

If the grant to colored citizens of the United States
of citizenship in their respective States, imports ex-
emption from race discrimination, in their States, in
respect of the civil rights belonging to citizenship,
then, to hold that the amendment remits that right to
the States for their protection: primarily, and stays
the hands of the nation, until it is assailed by State
laws or State proceedings, is to adjudge that the
amendment, so far from enlarging the powers of
Congress — as we have heretofore said it did — not only
curtails them, but reverses the policy -which the Gen-
eral Government has pursued from its very organiza-
tion. Such an interpretation of the amendment is a
denial to Congress ot the power, by appropriate legis-
lation, to enforce one of its provisions. In view of
the circumstances under which the recent amendments
were incorporated into the Constitution, and especial-
ly in view of the peculiar character of the new rights
they created and secured, it ought not to be presumed
that the General Government has abdicated its author-
ity, by national legislation, direct and primary in its
character, to guard and protect privileges and immu-
nities secured by that instrument. Such an interpre-
tation of the Constitution ought not to be accepted if
it be possible to avoid it. Its acceptance would lead
to this anomalous result : that whereas, prior to the
amendments, Congress, with the sanction of this court,
passed the most stringent laws — operating directly
and primarily upon States and their officers and agents,
as well as upon individuals — in vindication of slavery
and the right of the master, it may not now, by legis-
lation of a like primary and direct character, guard,
protect, and secure the freedom established, and the
most essential right of the citizenship granted, by the
constitutional amendments. I venture, with all re-
spect for the opinion of others, to insist that the na-
tional Legislature may, without transcending the limits
of the Constitution, do for human liberty and the
fundamental rights of American citizenship what it
did, with the sanction of this court, for the protection
of slavery and the rights of the masters of fugitive
slaves. If fugitive-slave laws, providing modes and
prescribing penalties, whereby the master could seize
and recover his fugitive slave, were legitimate exer-
tions of an implied power to protect and enforce a
right recognized by the Constitution, why shall the
hands of Congress be tied, so that — under an express
power, by appropriate legislation, to enforce a consti-
tutional provision, granting citizenship — it may not,
by means of direct legislation, bring the whole "power
ot this nation to bear upon States and their officers,

and upon such individuals and corporation? exercising
public functions as assume to abridge, impair, or
deny rights confessedly secured by the supreme law
of the land?

Justice Harlan further maintained that the
decision of the Court was erroneous, even con-
ceding that Congress has power to legislate
only against hostile State action. He pointed
out that the court had held, in Ex-parte Vir-
ginia (100 U. S. Reports), that the fourteenth
amendment means that no agency of the State,
or of the officers or agents by whom its au-
thority is exercised, shall deny to any person
equal protection of the laws, and then said:
"In every material sense applicable to the
practical enforcement of the fourteenth amend-
ment, railroad corporations, keepers of inns,
and managers of places of public amusement,
are agents of the State, because amenable, in
respect of their public duties and functions, to
public regulation. It seems to me that, within
the principle settled in Ex-parte Virginia, a
denial, by these instrumentalities of the State,
to the citizen, because of his race, of that equal-
ity of civil rights secured to him by law, is a
denial by the State within the meaning of the
fourteenth amendment. If it be not, then that
race is left, in respect of the civil rights under
discussion, practically at the mercy of corpora-
tions and individuals wielding power under
public authority."

Justice Harlan conceded that Congress has
no authority to regulate the social rights of
men and races in the community, but he
claimed that the rights covered by the law
of 1875 were not social but legal. He set
forth his views on this point as follows:

I agree that Government has nothing to do with
social, as distinguished from technically legal, rights
of individuals. No government ever has brought, or
ever can bring, its people into social intercourse
against their wishes, "vv hether one person will per-
mit or maintain social relations with another is a
matter with which government has no concern. I
agree that if one citizen chooses not to hold social in-
tercourse with another, even upon grounds of race,
he is not and can not be made amenable to the law
for his conduct in that regard ; for no legal right of
a citizen is violated by the refusal of others to main-
tain merely social relations with him. What 1 affirm
is that no State, nor the officers of any State, nor any
corporation or individual wielding po'wer under State
authority for the public benefit or the public conven-
ience, can, consistently either with the freedom es-
tablished by the fundamental law, or with that equal-
ity of civil rights which now belongs to every citizen,
discriminate against freemen or citizens, in their civil
rights, because of their race, or because they once
labored under disabilities imposed upon them as a
race. The rights which Congress by the act of 1875
endeavored to secure and protect are legal, not social,
rights. The right, for instance, of a colored citizen
to use the accommodations of a public highway, upon
the same terms as are permitted to white citizens, is
no more a social right than his right, under the law,
to use the public streets of a city, or a town, or a turn-
pike-road, or a public market, or a post-office? or his
right to sit in a public building with others, of what-
ever race, for the purpose of hearing the political
questions of the day discussed. Scarcely a day pass-
es without our seeing in this court-room citizens of
the white and black races sitting side by side, watch-

CIVIL RIGHTS.

OOLENSO, JOHN W.

135

ing the progress of our business. It would never
occur to any one that the presence of a colored citizen
in a court-house, or court-room, was an invasion of
the social rights of white persons who may frequent
such places. And yet, such a suggestion would be
quite as sound in law — I say it with all respect — as is
nie suggestion that the claim of a colored citizen to
use, upon the same terms as is permitted to white
oitizenSj the accommodations of public highways, or
public inns, or places of public amusement, estab-
lished under the license of the law, is an invasion of
the social rights of the white race.

The opinion of Justice Harlan closes with
the expression of these views :

My brethren say that, when a man has emerged
from slavery, and by; the aid of beneficent legislation
has shaken off the inseparable concomitants of that
state, there must be some stage in the progress of his
elevation when he takes the rank of a mere citizen,
and ceases to be the special favorite of the laws, and
when his rights as a citizen, or a man, are to be pro-
tected in the ordinary modes by which other men's
rights are protected. It is, I submit, scarcely just to
say that the colored race has been the special favorite
of the laws. What the nation, through Congress, has
•ought to accomplish in reference to that race, is—
what had already been done in every State of the
Union for the white race — to secure and protect rights
belonging to them as freemen and citizens, nothing
more. The one underlying purpose of congressional
legislation has been to enable the black race to take
the rank of mere citizens. The difficulty has been to
compel a recognition of their legal right to take that
rank, and to secure the enjoyment of privileges be-
longing, under the law, to them as a component part
of the people for whose welfare and happiness gov-
ernment is ordained. At every step in this direc-
tion the nation has been confronted with class-tyran-
ny, which a contemporary English historian says is,
of all tyrannies, the most intolerable, " for it is ubi-
quitous in its operation, and weighs, perhaps, most
heavily on those whose obscurity or distance would
withdraw them from the notice of a single despot."
To-day it is the colored race which is denied, by cor-
porations and individuals wielding public authority,
rights fundamental in their freedom and citizenship.
At some future time it may be some other race that
will fall under the ban. If the constitutional amend-
ments be enforced, according to the intent with which,
as I conceive, they were adopted, there can not be in
this republic any class of human beings in practical
subjection to another class, with, power in the latter
to dole out to the former just such privileges as they
may choose to grant. The supreme law of the land
has decreed that no authority shall be exercised in this
country upon the basis of discrimination, in respect
of civil rights, against freemen and citizens because
of their race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
To that decree— for the due enforcement of which, by
appropriate legislation, Congress has been invested
with express power — every one must bow, whatever
may have been, or whatever now are, his individual
views as to the wisdom or policy, either of the recent
changes in the fundamental law, or of the legislation
which has been enacted to give them effect.

The decision of the Court, and the dissenting
opinion of Justice Harlan, gave rise to much
discussion throughout the country. By some
the opinion of the majority was freely criti-
cised, but it appears to have been generally ac-
cepted as a sound as well as a final interpreta-
tion of the Constitution. The fact was recog-
nized that the Court simply reaffirmed a prin-
ciple which it had more than once previously
affirmed, and had advanced as far back as the
session of 1875-"T6. On the meeting of Con-

gress, Senator Wilson, of Iowa, proposed this
constitutional amendment:

Congress shall have power, by appropriate legisla-
tion, to protect citizens of the United States in the ex-
ercise and enjoyment of their rights, privileges, and
immunities, and to assure to them the equal protection
of the laws.

The New York Penal Code contains these
provisions concerning civil rights :

SECTION 381. A person who either on his own ac-
count, or as agent or officer of a corporation? carries on
business as innkeeper, or as common earner of pas-
sengers, and refuses, without just cause or excuse, to
receive and entertain any guest, or to receive and
carry any passenger, is guilty of a misdemeanor.

SEC. 383. No citizen of this State can, by reason
of race, color, or previous condition of servitude, be
excluded from the equal enjoyment of any accommo-
dation, facility, or privilege furnished by innkeepers
or common carriers, or by owners, managers, or les-
sees of theatres or other places of amusement, by
teachers and officers of common schools and public in-
stitutions of learning, or by cemetery associations. The
violation of this section is a misdemeanor, punishable
by a fine of not less than fifty dollars nor more than
five hundred dollars.

CIYIL-SERVICE REFORM BILL. See CON-
GRESS and KEFOEM IN THE CIVIL SERVICE.

COLENSO, John William, an English clergyman
and colonial bishop, born in St. Austell, Corn-
wall, Jan. 24, 1814 ; died in D'Urban, or Port
Natal, South Africa, June 20, 1883. He en-
tered St. John's College, Cambridge, and in
1836 was graduated as second wrangler and
Smith's prizeman, and became a fellow of his
college.' Two years later he was appointed
assistant-master of Harrow School, which post
he held until 1842. During these years he
prepared books on arithmetic and algebra,
which, being adopted as text-books in schools
and universities, yielded him a handsome in-
come. From 1842 to 1846 he resided at his
college, and then became rector of Forncett
St. Mary, Norfolk. Besides giving due atten-
tion to his parish work and duties, Colenso pub-
lished other mathematical works, a volume of
"Village Sermons," and a treatise on the com-
munion service in the Prayer-Book, with selec-
tions from the writings of F. D. Maurice.

On the 30th of November, 1853, Dr. Colenso
was appointed Bishop of Natal, South Africa,
being the first to occupy that see. His " Ten
Weeks in Natal " was published two years
after he left England, and his " Translation
of the Epistle to the Romans, commented on
from a Missionary Point of View," appeared
in 1861. It is not known clearly how long
Bishop Colenso had been engaged in studying
the Old Testament, with reference to critical
points at issue ; but it is quite likely that the
matter had been before him for -years. At any
rate, he considered it a duty, as appears from
his course, to put forth views which at once
excited severe animadversion and astonishment
at his lapse from Anglican orthodoxy, and his
adoption of German rationalism and neology.

The first part of "The Pentateuch and Book
of Joshua critically examined" appeared in

136

COLENSO, JOHN W.

COLLISIONS, MARINE.

1862. As was to be expected, this assault on
the accuracy, veracity, and authorship of the
books of Mo?es was at an early day brought
before the authorities of the Church in Eng-
land, and both Houses of Convocation of the
Province of Canterbury condemned it in 1864,
as containing " errors of the gravest and most
dangerous character." That work was re-
viewed in several of the prominent organs of
free thought and of orthodox religion (chiefly
the u Westminster " and " Quarterly" Reviews).
On the one hand, Colenso was praised without
stint, as a noble champion of truth and a fear-
less critic of the Old Testament; on the other,
he was censured with corresponding severity,
as one who showed himself ignorant and pre-
sumptuous beyond all excuse ; and it was
urged that no honorable and upright man
would be willing to continue to minister at
the altars, or receive emoluments from a
church, whose doctrines on inspiration and
other fundamental points he denied and was
holding up to public odium.

The next step on the part of the Church in
South Africa was the presenting and summon-
ing Bishop Colenso for trial, and, on his refusal
to appear, the deposing him from his bishop-
ric by the metropolitan, Bishop Gray of Cape
Town. Dr. Colenso resolved not to submit to
the ecclesiastical authorities in the colony, and
the result was that this case was brought on
appeal before the courts in England. The
matter was argued at length, and it was de-
cided by the Privy Council, in March, 1865,
that the deposition was "null and void in
law," the ground of the decision being that
the crown has no legal power to constitute
a bishopric, or to confer coercive jurisdiction
within any colony possessing an independent
legislature; and that, as the letters - patent
purporting to create the sees of Cape Town
and Natal were issued after these colonies had
acquired legislatures, the sees did not legally
exist, and neither bishop possessed in law any
jurisdiction whatever. Notwithstanding this
decision, the bishops forming the Council of
the Colonial Bishopric's Fund refused to pay
Dr. Colenfo the income of the see of Natal.
He accordingly appealed to the Court of
Chancery, and the Master of the Rolls de-
livered a judgment, Oct. 6, 1866, ordering the
payment in future of his income, with all
arrears and interest. Thus the income was
secured to him for life, and, so far as the de-
cision of the civil courts could affect it, he re-
mained in possession of the see as its bishop.
The Church in South Africa, however, held
that he was lawfully and fully deposed, and
would have no intercourse or fellowship with
him. Dr. Colenso ministered to those who
thought him right and supported him ; while
the orthodox portion of the church commu-
nity looked upon him as one deprived of all
power lawfully to exercise the functions of the
episcopal office. Nevertheless, the occupant
of the see of Natal had numerous sympa-

thizers in England, and in the summer of 1866
a meeting of the subscribers to the " Colenso
fund " was held in London, when £3,300 were
presented to him, as a token of respect and
good-will, on his going back to Africa.

Ten years later he made another visit to
England, in order to report to the proper
authorities the condition of church affairs in
Cape Colony ; to ascertain, if possible, his re-
lationship to the new Bishop of Cape Town ;
and to arrange other matters in the existing
anomalous condition of church life and work
in that distant field. During his stay in
England, the Bishops of Oxford, Lincoln, and
London inhibited him from preaching in their
respective dioceses, as one having no lawful
authority to preach. Dr. Jowett, however,
whose sympathies doctrinally were with Co-
lenso, invited him to preach in the chapel of
Balliol College, that chapel not being within
the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Oxford.

Dr. Colenso's later life was passed quietly
in Natal. He was noted for his kindly interest
and zeal in behalf of the Zulus and Boers.

He published at intervals the remaining parts
of his work on the Pentateuch and the Book
of Joshua. In 1866 a volume of discourses
appeared, entitled " Natal Sermons." Besides
these he prepared and had printed a Zulu
grammar and Zulu dictionary, a Zulu transla-
tion of the New Testament and other parts of
the Bible and Prayer-Book, with several edu-
cational works for the instruction of the
Zulus. His latest publications were, "The
New Bible Commentary, by Bishops and other
Clergy of the Anglican Church, critically ex-
amined" (1871) ; the sixth part of" The Penta-
teuch and the Book of Joshua critically ex-
amined " (1872) ; and " Lectures on the Penta-
teuch and the Moabite Stone " (1873).

COLLISIONS, MARINE. The increasing fre-
quence of marine disasters with the extension
of steam navigation leads to a general demand
for more effective precautions against collision.

Proposed Navigation Laws. — Since quick pas-
sages attract more custom to navigation com-
panies than a reputation for safety, it has been
proposed to sjiarpen the penalties for infrin-
ging the maritime laws against rapid sailing in
bad weather. In Germany, where the laws
are already exceptionally stringent, the sugges-
tion is made to bring such infraction within
the provisions of the statutes against murder
and attempted murder. The captain only
would be liable to indictment, although the
ship-owner is primarily and principally respon-
sible. A remedy would be found in making
them liable in cases of disaster to pecuniary
damages, in the same manner as railroad com-
panies. It is equally desirable to restrict
the rate of speed. The terms " half -speed "
and " slow " are indefinite, owing to the differ-
ence in the speed of different vessels. To in--
sure the highest degree of safety, steamers
should be prohibited, in fogs, driving snows,
and on dark nights, from going faster than

COLLISIONS, MARINE.

137

the rate required for steering. This can be
accurately determined for each vessel. The
present English law requires steam-vessels to
have both a steam-whistle and a fog-horn, and
in a fog to go at moderate speed and sound
their whistles frequently. Masters neglecting
the rules are liable to prosecution, and in the
event of a collision are punishable for willful
neglect.

Signal-Lights. — The use of electric lights is
not regarded with much favor by seamen. It
is not yet proved that the electric light will
penetrate a fog much farther than the ordina-
ry lamps, in such a manner as to indicate its
distance and location. It would probably ob-
scure the red and green side-lights, unless they
could also be provided with electric lamps, and
the colored side-lights are considered absolute-
ly indispensable. If colored electric lights
could be produced, and the electric light should
prove to be sufficiently clear and distinct to be
made out at a greater distance than oil and pe-
troleum lamps, the risk of colliding with other
steamers and large vessals carrying electric
lanterns would be lessened, but the danger of
running down smaller craft which must use
the ordinary lights would be enhanced, as the
blinding effects of the electric light would ren-
der it difficult to distinguish the colored lights
in the neighborhood of one lighted with elec-
tricity. There is danger also of confounding
an electric top-light with a light-house lantern.
More practical is the suggestion to hang the
white light of a ship as high as possible, and to
maintain a watch at the mast-head in foggy
weather. The fog is usually thickest near the
surface of the water.

Sound-Signals.— The proposal of a system of
sound-signals to indicate the course of ves-
sels approaching one another meets with gen-
eral approval. By combinations of short and
long blasts, on the principle of the Morse al-
phabet in telegraphy, sixteen of the thirty-two
directions marked on the compass, which
would be sufficient for all practical purposes,
could be readily and. intelligibly signaled. If
only eight points of the compass were em-
braced in the signals, the advantages would be
unquestionable, and every sailor would under-
stand the signs. George Read, in England,
has devised a simple apparatus for automati-
cally signaling the course of a vessel by means
of colored lanterns suspended from the ends of
a spar which changes its position in obedience
to the movements of the helm.

Steering-Gear and Brakes — Certain improve-
ments in construction have been proposed
to enable steamers to mind their helm more
readily, or slow up more quickly. The ship's
brakes proposed by two or three different in-
ventors will accomplish either object. They
consist of two strong plates fastened by hinges
to the ship's sides, opposite each other, and
are ordinarily folded forward against the side
of the vessel ; but the chains holding them can
be paid out until they stand at right angles

to the wall, and quickly reduce the momentum
of the ship. If one only is released, it acts as
a rudder to turn the course of the ship to that
side. A brake of this kind, designed by John
McAdam, of New York, consists of a flat rect-
angular plate of iron on each side of the ship,
close to the rudder. When folded, these fins
fit into the dead-wood. Powerful springs,
worked from the pilot-house by a trigger,
draw the pins which hold the brakes in place,
and the pressure of the water immediately ex-
tends them until they stand at right angles to
the sides of the ship. A windlass winds them
back again. When tried in November on the
steamer Florence in New York harbor, going
at a speed of ten knots against the tide, they
brought the ship to a dead stop within her
own length, the engines being reversed at the
instant the brakes were applied.

A second rudder in the bow, which can be un-
fastened in foggy weather, but is ordinarily a
rigid continuation of the keel, has been suggest-
ed as another contrivance for improving the
steering capacity of ocean -steamers. A third
device is the lattice-keel, which has been used
for many years on river-steamers in the Weser
and Elbe. The stern part of the keel, called the
dead-wood, consists of grating instead of solid
plates, so tnat in turning the greater part of the
water passes through the openings and offers no
resistance to the sidelong motion of the ship.

Water-tight Compartments. — The complete
avoidance of collisions is impossible. Con-
sequently means must be provided to diminish
the dangers in case of collision. Naval iron-
clads are constructed with double hulls, be-
sides water-tight compartments. In the large
passenger-steamships it is usually attempted to
render the ship secure from sinking by dividing
the interior into water-tight compartments by
vertical walls or movable doors. These com-
partments must not be so large that the filling
of one or two of them with water will sink
the ship, the walls must be strong enough to
withstand the pressure of the column of water,
tight enough to prevent the escape of water
into the neighboring compartments, and, if
adjustable, they must be closed at the time of
danger. These conditions are rarely fulfilled,
and there is probably no iron steamship which
would not sink if struck by a ship in certain
quarters.

Life-saving Appliances. — The number of life-
boats usually provided is sufficient to hold all
hands on trading-vessels, but on the passenger-
steamers which cross the Atlantic there is not
davit-room for boats enough to seat the pas-
sengers and crew. Moreover, it often happens
that only the boats on one side or in one part
of the ship can be lowered. Cork jackets and
swimming-belts are of little value when acci-
dents occur in mid-ocean or in winter. The
laws require that life-preservers should be pro-
vided in sufficient numbers, and kept unfast-
ened in handy places. The life-preservers
which must be carried on the Atlantic emi-

138

COLOMBIA.

grant-steamers take up room that is sometimes
desired for the cargo, and their stowage often
occasions inconvenience. They are usually
packed between the deck-beams, and it may
be that in the crowded space between decks
they sometimes harbor the germs of infection.
It is necessary that passengers should be made
acquainted with the use of life-preservers. In
the catastrophe of Jan. 19, 1883, when the
English coal-steamer Sultan collided with the
German passenger- steamer Cirnbria, only a
small portion of the life-preservers came into
use, and those were of little avail, as the swim-
mers soon perished in the cold. The four
boats which set out from the sinking vessel
rescued 65 persons, but the rest of the passen-
gers and crew, who numbered altogether 522,
were lost. Life-rafts are now regarded by
many as preferable in most respects to boats
or any other life-saving appliances.

The inspection of foreign passenger- vessels
in the United States is assigned to boards of
inspectors at six of the principal ports. The
boards at Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New
Orleans, and San Francisco consist of two in-
spectors each, that at New York of six. Rules
for their guidance were issued by Secretary of
the Treasury Folger on March 10, 1883. The
law requires that the tackle for disengaging the
life-boats should be capable of being worked
by a single person, and so disposed that the
boats can be launched, both ends being lowered
at once, when the ship is going at full speed.
This provision is not insisted upon, as no work-
able single-hand disengaging apparatus has yet
been invented. The rule of the British Board
of Trade respecting the number of life-boats
to be carried is, that there should be six or
seven boats, 1,892 cubic feet in total capacity,
for vessels of 1,500 tons, and an additional
boat with the capacity of 495 feet for every
500 tons additional. For the larger Atlantic
steamers, running up to 8,500 tons, this re-
quirement is incapable of fulfillment. Even if
it could be carried out, the total complement
of boats would accommodate less than half the
number of persons usually carried on the emi-
grant-steamers.

Mid-Ocean Disasters.— To enable vessels in dis-
tress to be relieved in the Atlantic ocean, the
adoption of fixed routes or lanes for all ships
crossing between Europe and America is advo-
cated, one for the east- and one for the west-
bound navigation. To guard against collisions
with icebergs, which was the probable cause
of the loss of several steamships, a delicate in-
strument on the principle of Edison's heat-
measurer has been devised by an English in-
ventor, which can herald a sudden fall of the
temperature by means of an automatic alarm.

COLOMBIA (Rtados Unidos de Colombia), (For
statistics relating to area, see " Annual Cyclo-
paedia" for 1877.) The republic is composed
of nine States and five Territories, the States
being Antioquia, Bolivar, Boyaca, Cauca,
Cundinamarca, Magdalena, Panama, Santan-

der, and Tolima. The names of the Territo-
ries are Bolivar, Casanare, Goajira, Providen-
cia, and San Martin. The form of government
is democratic, and the system federal.

The executive of the confederacy is Presi-
dent Dr. Jose E. Otalora. The Cabinet is
composed of the following ministers : Secre-
tary of State, Sefior Ezequiel Hurtado ; War,
Senor Juan N. Mateus ; Finance, Sefior Anibal
Galindo; Public Works, Sefior Manuel Laza
Grau ; Foreign Affairs, Sefior Antonio Rol-
dan ; Public Instruction, Sefior J. V. Uribe ;
and Treasury, Sefior Alejandro Posada.

On Sept. 2, 1883, Dr. Nunez was elected
President, and he will be inaugurated in Feb-
ruary, 1884. Dr. Nufiez is fifty years of age.
He was First Consul-General at Liverpool, and
subsequently President of the State of Bolivar.
He was a candidate for the presidency of
Colombia in 1875, when Dr. Parra was elect-
ed, but in 1879 he was elected President, his
successor being Gen. Zaldera, who died on
Dec. 21, 1882, and whose successor was Dr.
Otalora, the present occupant of the presi-
dential chair.

The United States minister at Bogot6 is Mr.
W. L. Scruggs.

The population of Colombia is estimated at
4,000,000 souls.

According to the last census, the population
of the capitals of the States was as follows:
Panama, 36,000; Santa Marta, 3,500; Carta-
gena, 7,800; Socorro, 16,000; Medellin, 20,-
000; Tunja, 5,471; Bogota, 40,883; Ibague,
10,346; and Popayan, 8,485.

The General Government possesses the
right of intervention in matters relative to
lines of interoceanic communication at pres-
ent existing, or which in the future may be
opened in the territory of the Union, and in
the navigation of rivers flowing through more
than one State, or which pass to or from a
neighboring power.

The Magdalena river flows into the Atlantic
at a point called the Bocas de Ceniza. At a
distance of fifteen miles from its mouth, on the
left bank, is the city of Barranquilla, the seat
of an extensive import and export trade.
Barranquilla is connected with the port of
Sabanilla by means of a railroad fourteen
miles in length. The Bocas de Ceniza, which
for a long time were obstructed by a sand-bar
at the entrance, are now open to easy access
by vessels of large tonnage, and, on account of
the privileges conceded of late years by Con-
gress to the commerce of the country, they are
frequently visited by steamers and sailing-ves-
sels from abroad. Owing to the shifting of
the bar, however, steamers do not at present
enter the river. To aid the entry of sailing-
craft, the Government has established a tug-
boat service.

For the purpose of navigation the Magda-
lena is divided into the upper and lower Mag-
dalena. The former is included between the
cities of Neiva and Honda, 200 miles, and tl>e

COLOMBIA.

139

latter comprises the portion from Caracoli to
the mouth of Ceniza. The distance between
the Laguna de las Pampas and Barranquilla is
515 miles. The waters of the Magdalena are
entirely free to commerce, and there are at
present seventeen steamers navigating it.

Stern-Wheel Steamers. — Messrs. Yarrow & Co.,
of Poplar, England, have built a steamer of
this kind specially for the Magdalena. A speed
of thirteen miles an hour has been obtained
in river-steamers of this class, the length being
120 feet, by 24 feet beam, and the draught 12
inches. A speed of fifteen miles an hour is
attained by vessels 130 feet in length, by 28
feet beam, and a draught of 15 inches. The
dimensions of this new steamer are, exclusive
of the wheel, 150 feet in length, by 31 feet
beam, with an estimated draught of 15 inches.

Army. — The standing army of Colombia, or
National Guard, numbers about 3,000 men.

Finances. — The national budget for the fiscal
year 1883 estimated the income from import
duties at $3,800,000 ; from the salines, at $1,-
100,000; from other sources of revenue, $1,-
344,000, constituting a total of $6,244,000, while
the expenditure was fixed at $6,744,000, the
outlays figuring therein with $1,800,000 to be
spent by the Treasury Department, and $1,-
400,000 by that of the army and navy.

A message sent in to Congress by President
Otalora, in July, 1833, attracted much atten-
tion ; in this document he said :

The monetary crisis becomes more serious every day,
and members must adopt some definite plan respect-
ing the State indebtedness by consolidating the dif-
ferent issues. Our creditors must be more interested
in this matter than ourselves, because otherwise ulti-
mately it will be impossible to avoid further issues
of obligations against branches assigned for other
services. Since we are unable to cover the millions
of the enormous deficit against the Treasury, we must
endeavor to maintain the value of our bonds by as-
suring the punctual payment of current interest until
such time as the financial situation shall improve. It
is also requisite that the principal bases should be
fixed by law, upon which, without awaiting subse-
quent authorization from Congress, final arrangements
can be effected in Europe for the acknowledgment and
payment by the canal company and the railroad com-
pany of the credits we hold against them for indem-
nity due as under the contracts for the concessions.
It would not be wise that such law should place a
limit on our rights, thus prejudicing our suits ; but
you must give "a vote of confidence to the Executive,
which will come to . no arrangement which has not
been carefully and thoroughly studied by the Cabinet
and its officers. The agent intrusted with the ad
referendum agreement has already been instructed to
dispose of the funds as follows : $1,000,000 to be given
to the National Bank, to enable it to effect discounts at
5 per cent. ; $500,000 to be devoted to the payment of
overdue interest on foreign bonds under an agreement
which shall insure the acceptance of such payment at
the rate of 3 per cent., commencing in the first place
at 1 per cent. ; $500,000 for the purchase of articles
required for the schools, clothing and armament for
the army, and for various objects of art to be placed
in the Capitol, and the balance to be devoted to the
construction or a railroad from Bogota to the Magda-
lena.

The amount of duties collected by the Fed-
eral custom-houses during the fiscal year 1882-

'83 was $4,350,478, being $45,512 in excess of
what the revenue from this source had been
the preceding year.

The public indebtedness of the confederacy
stood on Aug. 31, 1882, as follows:

A. Foreign debt (consolidated) | 4Q K7ft rftn

B. Horn! debt (loan of 1878).. f $9,570,500

Consolidated debt 5,588,801

Floating debt 425,388

" "8 per cent 1,813,250

" " not bearing interest ... 580,710

Antioquia and Girardot railroads 578,500

Treasury bonds 26,368

Bonds for which the state's salt-works and cus-
toms receipts are pledges 1,165,049

Other outstanding bonds 1,668,011

Indemnity to foreigners 253,450

Purchase-money for Barranquilla railroad 420,000

Total $21,589,527

Banks* — The Bank of Bogota, in ten years,
has paid a little over 100 per cent, in divi-
dends. The Bank of Colombia, in five years,
has paid 83 per cent. The Banco Popular, in
three years, has paid over 55 per cent. The
national Government has no supervision over
any of the banks except the National Bank,
which is nothing more than an institution es-
tablished for the purpose of discounting the
Government's own obligations. As an exam-
ple, the Government fails to pay the pensions
for five or six months; those who should re-
ceive them are suffering from want, and the
National Bank steps in and offers to discount
them. In this way the Government makes a
large profit. Nearly if not all the stock of
the National Bank is owned by the Govern-
ment. All the other banks derive their powers
from State governments, and are never taxed,
except in case of a revolution, when they are
all liable to be visited by the various chiefs.
The only security for the- circulation of the
banks is' the individual liability of the stock-
holders. There are four banks doing business
in Barranquilla. Three of them have a com-
bined capital of $',000,000, the other being a
branch of the National Bank of Bogota. The
private banks are organized under the laws of
the State of Bolivar, which are much the same
as were those of the State of New York twenty-
five years ago. The majority of the capital
of the American Bank belongs to citizens of
the United State.0, being divided as follows:
American citizens, $295,000 ; British subjects,
$260,000 ; Colombians, $10,000. The rates of
discount are : 90 days, 8 per cent. ; 180 days,
9 per cent. ; rates of interest, 3 per cent, and
4 per cent, for 180 and 90 days; rates of ex-
change on New York, 27 per cent, and 28 per
cent, for sight drafts, and 25 and 26 per cent,
for 60 and 90 days' drafts ; on London, 24 per '
cent, and 25 per cent. Toward the close of
1883 another bank with a large capital was to
be established at Barranquilla.

Contested Limits. — There being a long-pending
dispute about the precise frontier line between
Colombia and Venezuela, the Governments
have submitted the difference to the arbitration
of Don Alfonso XII, King of Spain, who has
accepted the office, and by virtue of a decree is-

140

COLOMBIA.

sued in November, 1883, appointed a commit-
tee of inquiry composed of five members. The
investigation will have to take for a basis of
its deliberations the frontier treaty between
the two republics, of Sept. 14, 1881. Frontier
disputes having so frequently led to disastrous
wars between Spanish- American republics, the
tendency is to avail themselves in the future of
amicable arbitration.

Postal Service.— There were forwarded in
1879-'80 altogether 463,832 letters and 413,-
350 newspapers, and $2,283,974 in coin, be-
sides 4,920 kilogrammes of gold-dust and 14,-
348 kilogrammes of bar-silver.

Railroads. — There were in operation in 1883
the ensuing lines of railway: 1. The Panama
railroad, 47 miles; 2. The 17 miles from Sa-
banilla to Barranquilla, in the State of Boli-
var; 3. Of the Oucuta-Puerto Villamizar line
(on the Zulia river), 38 miles were being built,
and part of it — 12 miles— from Villamizar to
Altoviento, were in operation; 4. The line
from Buenaventura to Cordoba, 13 miles; 5.
The line from Puerto Berrio to Zabaletas, 20
miles: together, 110 miles in operation. There
was formed in New York in 1883 " The Bogo-
ta City Railway Company," a company pro-
posing to establish in the Federal capital and
elsewhere in the State of Cundinamarca a sys-
tem of tramways and narrow-gauge railroads,
with a capital of $2,500,000.

Telegraphs.— Length of lines in 1879-'80,
2,960 kilometres; and number of telegrams
forwarded, 150,204.

The Panama Canal. — The progress of the work
on the Panama canal at the end of October,
1883, is shown by the following statement :
" The total length of the canal is 74 kilometres,
from the Atlantic to its mouth in the Pacific,
at the islands of Naos and Flamenco. It is di-
vided into twelve sections, the most important
of which are those of Colon, Gorgona, Obispo,
Emperador, Culebra, and Paraiso. These united
sections employ daily 80 steam-excavators, 40
locomotives, and 300 tip-wagons. There are
90,000,000 cubic metres to be excavated. The
grand cutting, about two thirds of which has
already been excavated, is the cutting between
Obispo and Paraiso. The force employed upon
the work is upward of 10,000 men, and the ex-
cavation up to the 1st of October amounted to
more than 2,500,000 cubic metres. During these
latter months of the bad season the excava-
tions have amounted to about 350,000 metres a
month. This figure will be quintupled during
the fine season, which begins in December, and
next year (1884) nearly all of the necessary
machinery will be at work, and the excavations
will amount to 4,000,000 metres a month. The
working force will be augmented to 15,000
men.

" At Colon the port works are nearly com-
plete. The Terre Pleine, with the breakwater,
destined to diminish the effect of the heavy
seas at the entrance of the canal, is finished.
An entire town has appeared there, with a

collection of workshops, warehouses, and con-
necting railways for the reception and dis-
tribution of the material. The earth from
Terre Pleine was taken to Monkey Hill, where
a great cutting has been specially opened, with
the object of filling up the lagoons at the bot-
tom of the Bay of Colon to improve its sanitary
condition. This cutting at Monkey Hill will
itself be enlarged into Terre Pleine, and will
become an annex for stores, workshops, ware-
houses, etc. The port of Colon is dredged
continually by three machines, lifting together
daily from 6,000 to 7,000 metres. One of these
dredges can work during the worst weather,
and can lift 3,000 metres a day. From Colon
to Gatun the contractors are Messrs. Huerne
& Slavin, of San Francisco. These engineers
must, with three machines of 120 horse-power
each, open the first section in six months be-
tween Colon and Gatun, a distance of nine
kilometres. The first of these machines is able
to excavate 6,000 metres a day. The Pacific
opening, between the mouth of the Rio Grande
and Paraiso, is contracted for by the Franco-
American Trading Company. The first ma-
chine of the American system will begin to
work in a few days, and will be supplemented
by others, which will be necessary to finish this
part of the canal, from Gatun to Bahia del Sol-
dado, in two years. On the Atlantic side the
company are working two machines, furnishing
a minimum of 4,000 cubic metres a day.

"The Hercules, an American dredge, is at
length at work on the Panama canal, and is
giving satisfaction. The average day's work
at present may be set down as about 6,000 cu-
bic metres."

Since the establishment of the canal-works
the population of Panama has increased enor-
mously. Including Colon and Panama, the At-
lantic and Pacific termini of the canal, togeth-
er with the villages between them, there is a
population of 36,000, half of whom are ne-
groes from Jamaica. The climate during the
dry season — December to April — exhibits a
steady temperature of about 82° Fahr. ; but
during the rest of the year, when rain and
storms prevail, it is much hotter. Accidents
from lightning are common, and are likely to
continue, for in the city of Panama there is not
a lightning-rod to be found. There is no mut-
ton in the country, and, when any lucky resi-
dent is able to procure a joint, he invites his
friends to partake of the unusual delicacy. The
Indian equivalent for the word Panama is
" plenty offish," and plenty there is, with the
difference that those which are taken from the
Atlantic side of the Isthmus are far superior to
those on the Pacific side, which are not firm,
and become tainted very soon after they leave
the water. The Isthmus for fifty years had
been free from earthquake-shocks till Septem-
ber, 1882. On Aug. 29, 1883, earthquakes were
felt in Salvador, Colombia, and Ecuador, while
at Talcahuano, Chili, on August 28th, the water
rose two feet above high- water mark, and al-

COLOMBIA.

COLORADO.

141

most immediately afterward fell three feet.
During the last week in August noises such as
that produced by continuous firing during a
battle, were heard at Ohiman, within sixty
miles of Panama, in all the towns on the Bo-
gota plateau, and at Manabi, in Ecuador. On
September 2d the sun at Panamd and Guaya-
quil was discolored, almost at the moment when
the fearful eruptions and earthquakes were
destroying a portion of Java and adjacent isl-
ands. On September 10th, a sharp earthquake,
which did no damage, was felt in Lima, and
was about coincident with that felt in the
Western United States the same morning.

In July, 1883, the dispute between the Feder-
al Government of Colombia and the canal com-
pany, with reference to the payment of the po-
lice force, which is required to maintain order
and good government along the line of work,
had been amicably terminated in Bogota by
Sefior Anibal Galindo, the Secretary of the
Treasury at the time, and Settor Felipe Paul,
the representative of the canal directory. Un-
der this arrangement the canal company agrees
to pay the Federal Government the expenses,
estimated at $80,000 per annum, of maintaining
a force of 300 men, to be stationed along the
canal line, and leaves for future discussion the
amount to be paid should more men be neces-
sary. This contract, which also permitted the
treasurer to draw at sight for $50,000 on ac-
count, had been submitted to the Executive.

Pearl-fishing. — The pearl-fishery in the bay of
Panama is being pushed on with great vigor,
and with a good deal of success. Many fine
specimens have lately been found, including a
very finely shaped one called the u Lesseps,"
weighing nearly 200 grains. It is about the
most important that has been in the European
market for many years, and takes its place in the
list of the largest-known pearls in theworld.

Commerce. — The total foreign trade (import
and export) of Colombia, during a decade, has

been : Annual average.

1871-'73 $92,676,800 $18,535,360

1876-'80 107,094,400 21,418,380

Import,

Export.

1878-'79

$10,787,654

$13,711,511

1879 '80

10 387,003

13 804 981

1880-'81

12,071 480

15 886 944

1881-'82

12,355.555

18,514,116

The United States consular report, having
reference to the export trade from the United
States of Colombia to the United States, in
1882, remarks about India-rubber : " The de-
clared value of rubber exported for the last
eleven years to the United States is $1,470,085,
and the weight, in tons of 2,240 pounds, 1,-
994. Although the difficulties in procuring
this valuable forest product are becoming
yearly greater, yet the recent high prices pre-
vailing in the foreign markets have stimulated
its gathering. N"ew and accessible forests have
been discovered. When a tree is found by the
rubber-hunters, it is immediately felled, in or-

der to secure all the sap it contains. This un-
wise practice will undoubtedly continue until
all the forests are completely exhausted. The
present price for rubber in the market of Car-
tagena is $900 per ton of 2,240 pounds.

"Owing to the unsatisfactory prices ruling
in the foreign markets for ivory-nuts, their ex-
portation has largely decreased. Thousands
of tons of these nuts lie under the trees, only
awaiting some one to come and cart them
away ; most of these nuts are procured from
the San Bias coast and Atrato river and its
tributaries."

Fustic. — " The exportation of the yellow dye-
wood called fustic has increased more than any
other article on the list, caused mainly by the
people being compelled, on account of the lo-
custs, to relinquish agricultural pursuits, and
seek a livelihood by getting out the products
of the forest. The supply is nearly inexhaust-
ible, and easy of access. The price per ton,
delivered at Cartagena, is $13 to $16."

Cedar. — " Several New Orleans and Boston
timber firms have sent agents to this district,
and the result of their investigations of these
vast timber-forests have been so highly satis-
factory that the houses they represent are mak-
ing arrangements to get out cedar and mahog-
any on a large scale. The field is wide enough
for any number of firms without their respect-
ive interests coming in conflict. The mahog-
any of this country is of fair quality, but infe-
rior to the St. Domingo product. The quality
of the cedar is excellent, and bears comparison
with that procured in Mexico and Cuba. Ce-
dar-logs are placed free on board here, at $45 a
thousand feet. The same wood can be pro-
cured at Cispate Bay, a goad anchorage for ves-
sels of large tonnage, for $25 to $30 a thou-
sand, delivered alongside vessel.

"The value of gold-dust that was cleared
through the Cartagena custom-house for the
year 1882 was only $94,628; this, however,
does not constitute the real value of the dust
exported, as it is always underestimated on
account of the steamers charging so much per
cent, extra tariff, and frequently large amounts
of the dust are placed in the personal charge of
the captain. If the truth were known, the value
is probably nearer $500,000 than $100,000. Car-
tagena receives annually about $600,000 of gold-
dust from the Choco (Atrato) regions."

The import of merchandise, specie, and bul-
lion from Colombia into the United States dur-
ing the fiscal year ended June 30, 1882, was
$5471,455 ; the domestic export from the latter
to the former, $6,719,787; and the re-export of
foreign goods, $149,184 worth.

Maritime Movement.— There entered Colom-
bian ports in 1881-'82 altogether 1,059 sailing-
vessels, of a joint tonnage of 67,876, and 618
steamers, measuring jointly 765,825 tons.

COLORADO. State Government.— The State offi-
cers during the year 1883 were: Governor,
James B. Grant, Democrat; Lieutenant-Gov-
ernor, W. H. Meyer ; Secretary of State, Mel-

142

COLORADO.

vin Edwards; State Treasurer, Fred. Walsen;
Superintendent of Public Instruction, J. 0.
Shattuck; State Auditor, John C. Abbott; At-
torney-General, B. F. Urmy. Supreme Court :
William E. Beck, Wilbur F. Stone, and Joseph
0. Helm, Justices.

Legislative Session.— The Legislature convened
at the beginning of January, and remained in
session about two months. After a prolonged
contest, Thomas M. Bowen (Republican) was
elected United States Senator for the long
term, and H. A. W. Tabor (Republican) for
the short term. Among the measures that be-
came laws were the following:

An act to secure the collection and publication of

r 'cultural and other statistics ; an act to submit to
people at the next general election for members of
the Legislature, amendments to the Constitution re-
lating to the compensation of members, the length of
sessions, and the conduct of business ; appropriating
$318.000 for the ordinary expenses of the executive,
legislative, and judicial departments for the years 1883
and 1884; submitting to the people at the election in
November, 1883, the question of creating a bonded in-
debtedness of $300,000 toward the erection of a Capitol;
to regulate the working and inspection of coal-mines ;
creating Delta, Mesa, and Montrose counties from
Gunnison ; Eagle and Garfield counties from Summit,
and Uncornpahgre county from Ouray ; changing the
name of Uncompahgre county to Ouray, and of Ouray
county to San Miguel ; to enable counties to refund
railroad-aid bonds; to provide for the drainage of
lands for agricultural and other purposes ; to regulate
primary elections ; to establish a State Bureau of
Horticulture ; and to establish an insurance depart-
ment and regulate the insurance companies doing
business therein.

Finances.— The reports of the Auditor and
State Treasurer show that the financial affairs
of the State are in a more satisfactory condi-
tion than at any previous period. These re-
ports represent the condition of the State
Treasury, Nov. 30, 1882, to be as follows:

Warrants outstanding: «13g 551 28

Certificates of indebtedness '..'.'. 95,'l3T 00

Totaldebt $288,688~28

Deduct cash in Treasury 188,616 65

Indebtedness over cash in Treasury $45,071 63

Amount due State on taxes payable Jan. 1, 1883.. $41T 762 73
Deduct outstanding indebtedness 45,071 63

Balance due above indebtedness $372,691 10

The above amount, representing what is due
the State on taxes payable Jan. 1, 1883, does
not include delinquent taxes of former years,
from which a large sum will be collected.

The following is a more recent statement :

Receipt..

Disbursements.

1883:
A prill 1th, balance....

$293,760 11
17,629 51
91,972 72
fi.%450 04
28.225 95
26.985 75
17,378 37
9,041 11

May ;;

116,770 12
82,714 99
96,287 32
19,824 85
62,651 83
16.978 63
9,816 17

$305,088 91
240,399 65

•June

July '

August

September. .

October 22d

October 22d, balance

Total

$545,438 56 $545,438 56

The assessed value of property in 1881 wa§
$96,135,305; in 1882, $104,440,683.

State Institutions. — The number of convicts in
the Penitentiary, Nov. 30, 1878, was 146, and
on the 30th of November, 1880, there were 226,
being an increase of nearly 55 per cent, in the
two years. The reports of the officers of the
Penitentiary show that the number of convicts
on the 30th of November, 1882, was 332, an in-
crease of 42£ per cent, during the two years. In
January, 1883, there were 329, of whom 36 were
life-convicts. So long as there continues to be
such a large accession to the number of con-
victs, requiring frequent enlargement of the
institution for their accommodation, the Peni-
tentiary must continue to be a burden to the
tax-payers. During the last two years 114 new
cells have been constructed, making, in the
aggregate, cell accommodations for only 284
prisoners. The erection of a new cell-building
has been begun. Several large and substantial
buildings have been constructed during the
two years. These buildings have all been the
work of convict-labor.

The commissioners have estimated the ex-
penses for the years 1883 and 1884 as follows:

Material for two cell buildings $50,000

Material for building for convicts under contract 5,000

Material for remodeling a building for State work-
shops 10,000

Appropriation to pay for land already purchased 2,500

Appropriation to pay for more lime-land 3,000

Material for gates, etc., for extension of wall 1,000

Maintenance and expense of prison 223,380

$304,880
Earnings estimated for two years 100,000

Appropriation asked $204,880

An additional building for the Mute and
Blind Institute has been erected at a cost ot
over $20,000. The number of inmates at the
beginning of the year was 44. A new building
for the Insane Asylum at Pueblo is in course
of erection. When this is completed, there will
be accommodation for 125 patients.

During the two years ending Nov. 30, 1882,
57 patients were received and 46 discharged,
making a net gain of 11, which, added to the
number on hand at the beginning of the term,
38, makes 49. The percentage of recoveries
has been about 53.

The Legislature, in 1881, provided for the es-
tablishment of the State Industrial School at
Golden. Its purposes were to educate and re-
form young persons who have fallen into the
ways of crime, rather than to confine them in
jails. The large number who have been sent
there by the various district courts and police
magistrates throughout the State, shows that
the greatest necessity existed for such an insti-
tution. The report of the officers of the school
shows that 81 pupils had been sent there at
the close of 1882 ; that the terms of five had
expired, and that there were then 75 pupils at
the institution.

Education. — The rapid increase in population
during the past two years has occasioned the
organization of many new schools. About 100

COLORADO.

143

new districts have been organized, and nearly
as many school-houses have been erected. Many
of these buildings are large, expensive struct-
ures. There are 370 school-houses in the
State, valued at $1,235,491, having seating ca-
pacity for 26,470 pupils. According to the
school census of 1882, there were in the State
49,208 children between the ages of 6 and 21
years, of which number 31,738 were enrolled
in the public schools. The permanent school
fund of the State now amounts to $75,200.37,
being an increase during the past two years of
about $40,000. This fund is invested in inter-
est-bearing State securities, and the interest
received therefrom, together with money re-
ceived from the rental of school lands, is dis-
tributed to the several counties of the State
according to the school population. During
the past two years $30,604.68 of such money
has been thus distributed. The State Library
contains 7,107 volumes.

The university at Boulder was the first edu-
cational institution established by the Legisla-
ture. The number of students now exceeds
100, and six were graduated from the classical
course of the college department in 1882.

The report of the State School of Mines
shows that the number of students is more
than double that of two years ago.

The agricultural interests of the State, which
until recently have been overshadowed by min-

ing and other interests, are now beginning to
command attention. Now the climate is .un-
derstood, irrigation is practiced intelligently,
and the appliances for destroying the pest of
farming communities are well understood. But
owing to the scarcity of water for irrigation,
only a limited amount of lands can be culti-
vated, and Colorado can never become an agri-
cultural State. The first State Legislature es-
tablished an Agricultural College at Fort Col-
lins. Under the economical supervision of the
managers, very commendable results have been
attained with the appropriations made by the
State. The present value of the college prop-
erty, at what is considered a low estimate, is
as follows :

Buildings and farm .. $28,960 00

Fixtures and personal property 21,611 12

Total $50,571 12

The cost to the State has been 48,000 00

The number of students in attendance in
1881 was 62; in 1882 there were 95. The
college farm, which contains 240 acres, has
been fenced, irrigating-ditches have been con-
structed, and a portion of the land has been
brought under cultivation. Some blooded
stock has been procured, and many trees plant-
ed. In September, 1882, a department of me-
chanics and drawing was established.

Mining. — The following table gives the prod-
uct of precious metals at the periods named:

YEAR.

Gold.

Silver.

Copper.

Lead.

Total.

1859-'70

$27213081 00

$330 000 00

$40000 00

$27 583 081 00

1870

2000000 00

650 000 00

20 000 00

2 680 000 00

1871

2 OOO'OOO 00

1 029 046 00

30000 00

3019046 00

1872

1 725 000 00

2015000 00

45000 00

$5 000 00

8790000 00

1873

1 750 000 00

2 185 000 00

65000 00

28*000 00

4028000 00

1874

2002,437 00

3096,028 00

90 197 00

7367-6 00

5262883 00

1875

2161 475 02

8 122 912 00

90000 00

60 000 00

5434387 02

1876

2' 726 315 82

8315592 00

70000 00

80000 00

6 191 807 82

1877

8 148 707 56

8 726 879 33

93 796 64

247000 00

7216288 53

1878

3 490 334 86

6 341 807 81

89000 00

686924 73

10 558 116 90

1879... .

8,193,500 00

15 885 000 00

532362 00

19,110.862 00

1880

3 206 500 00

18 615 000 00

1 678 500 00

23 500 000 00

1881 . .

22203508 72

1882

26000000 00

$166,607,575 99

The following is a condensed tabulated state-
ment of the bullion output of Lake county and
Leadville from 1860 to J.-m. 1, 1883, and is as
nearly correct as it is possible to make it :

FIRST PERIOD.

I880-TO. gold from placers $6,400,000 00

1874, gold and silver... 145,00000

1875, gold and silver 113,000 00

1876, gold, silver, and lead 85,000 00

1877, gold, silver, and lead 555,330 00

1878, gold, silver, and lead 8,152,925 00

Total $10,451,255 00

SECOND PERIOD.

1879, sold, silver, and lead $10,833,740 69

1880, gold, silver, and lead 14,187,697 00

1881, gold, silver, and lead 13,170,576 00

1882, gold, silver, and lead, first quarter 4,048.618 00

1882, gold, silver, and lead, second quarter. . . . 8,769,300 00

1882, gold, silver, and lead, third quarter 4,575,340 00

J882, gold, silver, and lead, fourth quarter (es-
timated) 4,000,000 00

. Total $54,085,271 69

Grand total...

Coal- mining is fast becoming one of the chief
industries of this State. The counties of Las
Animas, Fremont, Boulder, Jefferson, Gunni-
son, Huerfano, El Paso, Park, and La Plata are
large producers of coal. The following table
will be of interest as showing the growth of
the coal output of the leading mines of south-
ern Colorado, from the time they were opened
to the end of the year 1882 :

Tons.

1873 12.187

1874. 18,092

1875 15,278

1876 20,316

1877 44,410

Tons.

1878 82.140

1879 120,102

1880 221,373

1881 350,944

1882 511,289

No exact figures concerning the output of
the coal-mines of northern Colorado have been
obtainable. It is safe to say, however, that
the product of the "Welch banks, at Louisville,
and the Boulder valley, at Erie, have been in-
creased 50 per cent, over 1881. The Star and

144

COLORADO.

Marshall banks, as well as the South Park
mines, at Como, likewise show an increase.

The Gunnison anthracite coal-fields near
Crested Butte have been recently brought un-
der development. The coal is a red-ash, free-
burning anthracite, resembling most nearly the
Lykens valley coal of Pennsylvania.

AsricDltore aod Stock-raising.— The acreage of
southern Colorado was 149,509 ; value of prod-
ucts, $2,862,595. The acreage of northern
Colorado was 342,998; value, $6,905,374.

RECAPITULATION OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS FOR THE
YEAR 1882.

ARTICLES.

Acreage.

Number of bushels..

Value.

Wheat...
Oats

101,125
84.951

1,538.740 at $ 0 85
1,088.287 at 60

$1,803,679
649,972

Cora

30,475

600,058 at 85

510,050

Barley

10,516

261,185 at 1 00

261,185

Bye

4,335

78,080 at 1 10

85,833

Potatoes
Hay

8,655
264,950

844,000 at 75
256,450 at 15 00*

633,000
3,846,750

Vegetables
Small fruits

85,000
2,500

at 60 00
at 150 00

2,100,000
377,500

Total

492 507

$9,767,969

*Tons.

The extent of territory devoted to cattle-
raising has become very large, and there is
range enough in this State to support 1,500,000
cattle. The assessors return the number of
cattle now in the State as less than 500,000,
but it is not believed that these reports are
correct. The following table gives the assess-
ors' returns for a number of years :

Cattle in 1 871 ... . . 1 45,916 Cattle in 1880 541 ,568

Cattle in 1 875. 299,515 Cattle in 1 881 411,970

Cattle in 1878.... ..498.279 Cattle in 1882 428,948

Cattle in 1879...

But that there were in 1878-'80 more cattle
than at present is doubtful. It is claimed that
the vast region between the Gunnison and
Grand rivers on the north, and the Uncompah-
gre, the Dolores, and the San Miguel on the
east and south, extending 50 miles in one direc-
tion and 150 in another, and comprising nearly
5,000,000 acres, furnishes an excellent and al-
most unoccupied region for stock-growing. It
is reached by the Denver and Rio Grande rail-
road, and is within driving distance from the
Union Pacific.

According to estimate, 100,000 head were,
in 1882, shipped out of the State, while the
home consumption amounted to 60,000. The
value of these is placed at above $6,000,OQO.

According to the assessors' returns, there
were, in 1882, 11 per cent, more sheep in
Colorado than a year before. The assessors
returned in 1879, 779,229 ; in 1880, 782,629 ;
in 1881, 624,502 ; and in 1882, 706,048. It is
thought that the number of sheep now in the
State is over 1,000,000. Their value is esti-
mated at $2,500,000. It is estimated that dur-
ing 1882 the wool-clip amounted to 5,000,000
pounds, worth $1,000,000 ; and that 100,000
wethers, worth $350,000, were consumed or
shipped to Eastern markets — a total income
from sheep of $1,350,000.

There is considerable difference between the
sheep of the southern part of the State and
those of the northern part, the latter being
much the better. In a division of this kind,
Colorado Springs is about on the dividing
line.

Railroads. — The rapid growth of the railroad
system of the State is shown in the annexed
table :

1870 ,

1871

1872

1873

1874.'

1875

1876

Miles. |

328

1878

4R3

1879

fi08

1880

68?,

1881

807

1882 .

957

Miles.
1,045
1,165
1,208
1,531
2,208
3,088

The subjoined table shows the miles in op-
eration at the beginning of 1883 :

Miles.

Union Pacific and branches 1,170

Denver and Eio Grande 1,281

Atchison, Topeka and Santa F6 281

Burlington 182

Denver and New Orleans 134

Denver, Utah and Pacific 40

Total.

Temperance. — A State Temperance Conven-
tion was held in Denver in October, which
adopted a platform containing the following:

We recognize it to be the duty of every real friend
of humanity and all true reform, to refrain totally
from the use of alcoholic drink of every description,
and that no countenance be given to its manufacture
or sale by license, either high or low ; and that the
only proper and just way to treat such a monster evil
is to prohibit it by the plainest and strongest statutes,
enforced by the severest penalties, just as all other
crimes are dealt with in the body politic.

Resolved, That steps should at once be taken to
prepare a bill providing for an amendment to the Con-
stitution of this State, having prohibition for its foun-
dation, and that a committee of five be appointed by
this convention to further this end.

State Capital. — At the general election in No-
vember, 1881, the city of Denver was selected
as the permanent capital of the State. The
litigation which has been pending for several
years past concerning the title of the State to
the block on Capitol hill, known as "Capitol
square," has been finally determined in favor
'of the State by the Supreme Court of the United
States.

Resources and General Condition. — Colorado,
now in its twenty -fifth year, counts a settled
population of 300,000, and a taxable valuation
of $110,000,000, representing an actual prop-
erty value of $200,000,000. It is traversed by
nearly 3,000 miles of railroad. Its growth in
importance as a grazing State becomes yearly
more manifest by its largely increased ship-
ments of live-stock, while its available farming
area is being constantly added to by the rapid
extension of its system of irrigating canals.
Not so generally understood, however, is the
vast extent of its coal and iron deposits, now
in the first stage of development.

The area of the State is, in round figures,
104,000 square miles, distributed (approximate-
ly) as follows :

COLORADO.

COMMERCE, ETC., AMERICAN. 145

Agricultural lands 6,000,000

Pastoral lands 25,000,000

Mineral and timber lands 85,000,000

Statistics. — The mileage and assessment of
railroads have been as follow :

YEAR.

Miles.

Assessed value.

18T8

1,085-68

$5,013,685

1879

1218-60

7 687 459

1880

1885-61

8 688 668

1881

1,584-10

11 638 055

1882

2 245 --29

17 788 158

1883

2750-76

20 146 864

The total assessed number of live-stock in
the State is: Cattle, 511,940; sheep, 834,127;
other stock, 110,045. Assessed value, $12,-
321,109.

It is believed that this does not represent
over 50 per cent, of the stock actually within
the State.

The gross product of the State from all
sources, for the year 1882, was as follows :

Gold, silver, and lead bullion ................... $26,750,800

Agriculture .................................... 9,175,000

Coal and coke .................................. 5,000,000

Iron and steel .................................. 4,500,000

Cattle, sheep, hides, and wool ................... 5,000,000

Manufactures .................................. 10,000,000

Total ...................................... $60,425,800

The State has no bonded debt. Its total in-
debtedness on Nov. 24, 1883, consisted of

Warrants outstanding ............................ $524,045

Certificates of indebtedness ........................ 19,836

Total ......................................... $543,881

The revenue of the State for the current year
(collectable January, 1884, and thereafter) will
amount to $583,125.

The annual bullion shipments for five years
were:

1878, gold, silver, and lead ....................... $10,556,116

1879, gold, silver, and lead ....................... 19,110,862

1880, gold, silver, and lead ....................... 23,500,000

1881, gold, silver, and lead ....................... 22,203,500

1882, gold, silver, and lead ....................... 26,750,800

The mining products of Colorado for the
year 1883 (gold, silver, copper, and lead) were :

COUNTY. Amount.

Boulder $400,000

Chaffee , 800,000

Custer 800,720

Clear Creek 2,000,000

Dolores 200,008

Eagle 930,000

Fremont 20,000

Gilpin 2,208,980

Grand 10,000

Gunnison 650,000

Hinsdale 390,000

Lake...

COUNTY.

La Plata

Ouray

Park

Piiikin

Rio Grande

Routt

Saguache

San Miguel

San Juan

Summit...

Amount.
$128,000
700,616
400,000
125.000
182,000
75,000
100,001
225,000
418,956
350,000

Total $26,306,131

The State Engineer says : " The mileage of
new irrigating canals completed since June 1,
1882, and those still under construction Dec.
1, 1883, is as follows:

Miles.

Arapahoe county 86

Douglas county . 15

Larimer county 104

Weld county !.'.".....! 135

A total of 340 miles, which it is estimated will
bring under water 350,000 fresh acres. Large
additions are also being made to the system in
Rio Grande, Conejos, and Costilla, and canals

VOL. XXIII. — 10 A

have been begun in the new counties of Mesa,
Montrose, and Delta, all of which will greatly
increase the' available acreage next year "
COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION, AMERICAN. The

total volume of foreign commerce in the year
ending June 30, 1883, was larger than in any
year in the history of the country, exceeding by
about $2,000,000 that of 1881. The total value
of the exports and imports of merchandise in
1883 was $1,547,020,316. Compared with the
commerce of other countries it is only exceeded
by that of Great Britain, which aggregated $3,-
497,boO,000 in 1882, and that of France, where
the special commerce in 1882 amounted to
$1,713,000,000; exceeding in volume that of
Germany, which in 1881 amounted to $1,480,-
000,000. Including the imports and exports
of specie, the total volume of the foreign com-
merce in 1883 was $1,607,330,040, being lesi
than in 1881, when it aggregated $1,675,024,-
318, and less also than in 1880, when it was
$1,613,770,633, but greater than in 1882, when
it was $1,567,071,700. In 1874 the borrow-
ing period which followed the war came to an
end, and the extension of railroads greatly
facilitated the exportation of agricultural prod-
ucts. Since that year there has been a con-
stant excess of exports over imports, and since
1876 a large annual excess of merchandise ex-
ports. The entire movement of foreign com-
merce for these ten years is shown in the fol-
lowing tables. The value of the total exports
and imports of merchandise, with the annual
excess of exports or imports, was each year as
follows :

YEAR.

Exports.

Imports.

Excess of
exporti.

1874

$586 283 040

$567 406 342

$18 876 698

1875

513 442 711

538 005 486

1876

540 384,671

460 741 190

79 643 481

1877

602,475 220

451 323126

151 152 094

1878

694,865,766

487,051,532

257 814 234

1879

710 489 441

445 777 775

264 661 666

1880

835 638 658

667 954 746

167 683 912

1881

902,377,346

642,664 628

259712718

1882

750 542 257

724 639 574

25 902 688

1888

823 889 402

723 180 914

100 658 488

* Excess of imports.

The annual values of domestic products ex-
ported and of foreign commodities re-export-
ed, in the total values given above, were as
follow :

• YEAR.

Domestic

exports.

Foreign
axportf.

1874

$569,433,421

$16,849 619

1875

499 284 100

14 158 611

1876 . ...

525,582,247

14 802 424

1877

589,670,224

12 804 996

1878

680 709 268

14 156 498

1879

698 340 790

12 098 651

1880

823,946,853

11 692 305

1881

888 925 947

18 451 399

1882

733 289 782

17'302'525

1888

804,223 632

19 615 770

The total value of gold and silver coin and
bullion imported and exported, and the annual
net exports or imports of specie, were as fol-
low:

146

COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION, AMERICAN.

YEAR.

ExporU.

Import..

Excess of
exports.

1874

$66,680,405

$28.454,906

$38,175,499

1875

92,132,142

20,900,717

71,231,425

1616

56.506,802

15,986,681

40,569,621

1877

56,162,237

40,774,414

15,367,828

1878

88,740,125

29,821,314

8,918,811

1879

24,997,441

20,296,000

4,701,441

1880

17,142,919

93,084,810

75,891,391*

1881

19,406,847

110,575,497

91,168,650*

1882

49,417,479

42,472,390

6,945,089

1888 ...» .

81,820,338

28,489,891

8,330,942

* Excess of imports.

The total value of exports and imports, in-
cluding specie, with the annual excess of ex-
ports, was each year as follows :

YEAR.

Export*.

Imports.

Excess of
exports.

1874

$652,913,445

$595,861,248

$57,052,197

1875

605,574,853

558,906,158

51,668,700

1876

596,890,973

476,677,871

120,213,102

1877

658,637,457

492,097,540

166,539,917

1878

728 605 891

466 872 846

261 733 045

1879

735 436,882

466 078 775

269 368 107

1880

852,781,577

760,989,056

91 792 521

1881

921,784,193

753,240,125

168,544,068

1882

799,959,736

767,111,964

32,847,772

1883

855,659,735

751 670 305

108,989 430

Classification of Exports.— The exports of each
of the general classes of domestic products in
1883, as compared with the preceding fiscal
year, were as follow :

DOMESTIC EXPORTS.

1888.

1888.

Agricultural products

Manufactures

$552,219,819
108 132,481

$619,269,449
111,890,001

Mineral products. ... .

56,278,887

51,444,857

Products of the forests

9,138,984

9,976,143

Products of the fisheries
All other commodities

6,197,752
6,271,859

6,276,375
5,866,807

Total . .

$733 239 782

$804 228 632

The agricultural exports constituted 77 per
cent, of the total exports of domestic produce;
manufactures, 13'91 per cent. ; products of the
mines and petroleum, 6*40 per cent. ; forestry
products, 1-24 per cent. ; products of the fish-

eries, 0*78 per cent. ; and all other commodities,
0-67 per cent.

The increased exportation of domestic mer-
chandise in 1883, over that of the preceding
year, was due to the more abundant crops.
The increased exportation of cotton and cereals
not only accounts for the increment, but, with
an increase in the value of manufactured prod-
ucts exported, makes good a large decrease in
the exports of provisions, due in part to the
failure of the corn-crop in 1881 and in part to
the prohibition of American pork products by
Continental governments; and offsets, more-
over, a very considerable falling off in the
value of the petroleum exports, mainly due to
excessive production and a decline in price.

From the founding of the republic to the
civil war, agricultural products constituted usu-
ally over 80 per cent, of the total annual ex-
ports of domestic merchandise. During the
ten years, 1870-'79, they averaged about 77 per
cent., the percentage which they bore in 1883.
The vast exports of grain in 1880 and 1881,
from superabundant crops, to supply the defi-
ciency of the crops in Europe, brought the
percentage up to 83*25 and fe2'63; while in
1882, with a diminished yield in the United
States and better harvests in Europe, it fell
below the average, to 75 '31 per cent.

The four main classes of agricultural prod-
ucts— breadstuffs, raw cotton, provisions, sind
tobacco — with mineral-oil, constitute the five
leading classes of domestic exports. Cotton
was for half a century or more by far the most
important, until the exports of grain and pro-
visions increased, after the great extension of
railroads. In 1878 the grain exports began to
exceed in value those of cotton, but in 1882,
when the grain-crop had suffered more than
the cotton- crop, and again in 1883, with a bet-
ter grain-crop, cotton reasserted its supremacy.
The annual exports of these five leading classes
of domestic products in the past ten years were
as follow :

YEAR.

Breadstuff).

Cotton, raw.

Provision*. ,

Mineral-oil.

Tobacco, and manu-
factures of.

1874...

$161 1 OS 8(54

$211 223580

$78 828 990

$41 245 815

$32 968 528

1875...,

111 458265

190 638 625

81 348 401

80 078 568

27 844 470

1876...,

181 181 '555

192' 659' 2 62

gg'g8i'747

82 915 786

25 570 538

1877

117806476

171 118508

114 991 749

61*89488

82'o20'214

1878...,

181 777841

180'03l'484

46 574 974

28'484'482

1879...

210 855 528

162 304 250

116'858 650

40 305 249

28 215 240

1880

288 036 835

211 585 905

127'o43'242

86 218 625

18'442' 278

1881...

270 382 519

24 7' 695' 7 46

40'315'609

2o's78'884

1882

182'670'528

199 812'644

51 '232' 706

2l'430'869

1888

208^040^850

24I328',721

107',8SS',387

4^918'079

22,095,229

The value of the exports of products of man-
ufacture in 1883 amounted to $111,890,001, as
against $1 03,1 32,481 during the preceding year,
and was larger than during any previous year
in the history of the country, having increased
from $45,658,873 in 1860. The exports of
manufactured articles constituted, however,
only 2 per cent, of the total annual value of
manufactures produced in the country, accord-
ing to the census of 1880.

Agricultural Exports. — The following is a list
of the values exported during the year ending
June 30, 1883, of the principal articles of ex-
port which are products of domestic agricul-
ture :

ARTICLES. Values.

Cotton, unmanufactured $247,828,721

Bread and breadstuffs 208,040,850

Provisions 107,888,287

Tobacco, unmanufactured 19,488,066

Animals, living 10.789,268

Oil-cake 6, 061 ,699

COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION, AMERICAN.

147

ARTICLES. Value*.

Hops '. $5,616,870

Seeds 4,311,919

Tallow 8,248,749

Hides and skins 1,220,158

Hair, unmanufactured 448,897

Lard-oil 853,184

Hay 261,614

Cotton-seed oil 216,779

Sugar, brown . . 148,957

Wine 77,280

All other agricultural products 4,828,551

Total $619,269,449

In the class of bread and breadstuff's, the ex-
ports of wheat amounted to $119,879,341;
wheat -flour to $54,824,459; Indian corn to
$27,756,082 ; rye to $1,657,998 ; raaizena, fari-
na, and similar food preparations to $987,829 ;
Indian-corn meal to $980,798; bread and bis-
cuit to $829,281 ; and barley, oats, and other
small grain and pulse and rye-flour, together,
to $1,125,062.

Of the live-animal exports, horned cattle rep-
resented $8,341,431; sheep, $1,154,856; mules,
$486,560; horses, $475,806; hogs, $272,516;
and other animals and fowls, $58,099.

The fruit exports comprised apples of the val-
ue of $1,085,230; dried apples of the value of
$786,800 ; other fresh and dried fruit of the val-
ue of $447,395 ; and canned or preserved fruit
of the value of $686,517.

Of the total value of the exports of pro-
visions, bacon and haras represented $38,155,-
952; lard, $26,618,048; cheese, $11,134,526 ;
fresh beef, $8,342,131 ; pork, $6,192,268 ; pre-
served meats, $4,578,902; salted and cured
beef, $3,742,282 ; butter, $2,290,665 ; potatoes
and other vegetables, $694,676 ; and condensed
milk, eggs, and fresh mutton, together, $443,-
657.

Exports of Manufactures. — The following were
the principal manufactured articles exported
in 1883 :

ARTICLES. Values.

Wood, manufactures of $20,996,804

Iron and steel manufactures 19,024,894

Cotton, manufactures of 12,951,145

Leather, and manufactures of 7.923,662

Spirits of turpentine 4,366,229

Agricultural implements 8,883,919

Drugs, chemicals, and medicines 3,306,195

Sugar and molasses 8.266 581

Sewing-machines 8,061,639

Tobacco, manufactures of 2,657,163

Spirits, distilled 1,982,883

Cars, railroad 1.900,903

Carriages and carts 1,607,502

Paper and stationery. . . .'. 1,589,908

Copper, manufactures of 1,404,233

Ordnance stores l'876 611

Clocks.... 1,316,086

Musical instruments 1,203,612

Books and other publications 1,018,188

Glass and glassware 998^857

Dye-stuffs 877,601

Hemp, manufactures of 799,935

Fancy articles ... 785,928

Wearing apparel 770,460

Cordage, rope, etc 749,505

Soap .

ARTICLES. Value*

Paintings and engravings $387,157

Wool, manufactures of 866,214

Perfumery 856,016

Starch 825,575

Scales and balances 817,642

Brass, manufactures of 287,847

Printing-presses and type 267,375

The articles not here enumerated which were
exported to the value of over $100,000 were
stone and china ware, candles, blacking, hats
and bonnets, tin and manufactures of, trunks
and valises, varnish, brooms and brushes, ves-
sels sold to foreigners, watches, volatile and
essential oils, pig-iron, matches, and lime and
cement.

Mineral Exports. — The following were the val-
ues of the principal articles of export in 1883,
which were products of mining, including
mineral-oils :

ARTICLES. Values.

Mineral oil: Refined $40,555.492

Crude 8,914,941

Residuum 442,646

Coal : Anthracite 2,648,033

Bituminous 1,593,214

Quicksilver 1,020,827

Copper-ore 943,771

Other mining products

Mathematical and optical instruments 682,246

India-rubber manufactures 569,296

Beer, ale, and porter 490,442

Paints and painters' colors 470,289

Plated-ware 444,608

Jewelry, etc 422,854

Lamps 408,743

Marble and stone, manufactures of 389,371

Total $51,444,557

Exports of Products of Forestry and the Fisheries.

— The values of the products of forestry ex-
ported in 1883 were as follow :

ARTICLES. Value?.

Timber, sawed and hewed $3,102,232

Logs, masts, spars, etc 2,401,021

Other wood and timber 294,151

Eosin and turpentine 3,068,132

Tarandpitch 174,686

Ginseng 848,398

Tan-bark 87,528

Total r $9,976^143

The values exported of the various products
of the fisheries were as follow :

ARTICLES. Values.

Oils, animal : Sperm. . . , $290,417

Whale and other fish 115,490

Provisions : Fish, dried or smoked 882,830

Fish, fresh. 72,875

Fish, pickled 872.385

Fish, other cured 8,202,412

Oysters 629,636

Spermaceti 66,651

Whalebone 599,550

All other articles 44,129

Total , $6,276,375

Of the non - classified exports of domestic
merchandise, amounting to $5,366,807, the
principal items were fertilizers of the value
of $1,082,501, and furs and fur-skins of the
value of $3,935,603.

The values of the various articles imported
during the year ending June 30, 1883, were as
follow :

ARTICLES. Values.

Sugar $91,539,330

Molasses, melada, etc 7,787,065

Wool, paw 10,949,381

Wool, manufactures of 44,274,952

Silk, raw 14,043,340

Silk, manufactures of 36,764,276

Chemicals, dyes, drugs, etc 43,126,285

Coffee 42,050,513

Iron and steel, and manufactures of. 40,796,007

Cotton manufactures

148

COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION, AMERICAN.

ARTICLES. Values.

Eawcotton $800,532

Hides andskins 27,640,030

Tin, and manufactures of. 28,917,837

Linen manufactures and flax 19,737,542

Fruits and nuts 19,318,041

Tea 17,302,849

India-rubber, gutta-percha, and manufactures of 15,844,302

Breadstuffs and farinaceous food 15,880,605

Wood, and manufactures of. 14,857,578

Leather, and manufactures of. 13,104,415

Jute and grasses, raw and manufactured 12,606,513

Wines, spirits, and cordials 12,308,307

Tobacco, and manufactures of 11,771,596

Provisions, including eggs, tish, and potatoes. . 10,653,273

Earthen, stone, and china ware 8,620,527

Fancy goods, perfumery, and cosmetics 8,358,471

Furs, dressed and undressed 7,959,759

Glass and glassware 7,762,543

Precious stones 7,692,385

Products of the United States brought back .... 6,514,999

Paper materials 5,829,876

Hemp, and manufactures of. 5,118,508

Buttons and button materials 4,223,161

Animals, living 4,042,367

Books, engravings, and other publications 8,651,590

Btraw and palm-leaf, manufactures of 3,565,137

Paintings, lithographs, and statuary 8,403,874

Metals, and manufactures of, not elsewhere

specified 2,897,972

Oils, of all kinds 2,736,753

Watches and watch materials 2,522,111

Hair, and manufactures of. 2,496,699

Spices 2,474,088

Household and personal effects of persons arriv-
ing from foreign countries 2,815,353

Coal, bituminous 2,085,972

Paper, and manufactures of, not elsewhere

specified 1,958,113

Seeds 1,702,345

Salt 1,674,803

Musical instruments 1,652,528

Paints, of all kinds 1,336,229

Bristles 1,228,543

Cocoa 1,213,371

Clothing 1,182,355

Beer, ale, and porter. 1,122,010

Marble and stone, and manufactures of. 1,01 1,363

Cork-bark and wood, unmanufactured 933,935

Jewelry, etc 912,625

Guano, except from bonded islands 535,742

Brass, and manufactures of.. 530,281

Bolting-cloths 418,711

Copper, and manufactures of 894,765

Barks, used for tanning '343,998

All other articles 27,384,337

Total $723,180,914

The total value of the merchandise entered for
consumption, during the fiscal year 1883, was
$700,829,673, of which $493,916,384 was duti-
able and $206,913,289 free of duty. The total
amount of duty collected was $210,637,293,
which was a larger sum than was collected in
any previous year, except in 1882 and 1872.
The average rate of duty collected was 42-64
per cent, pf the values of the dutiable mer-
chandise and 30-05 per cent, of the values of
both free and dutiable. The average ad 'valo-
rem rate of duty collected in 1882 was 42 '75
per cent. ; in 1881, 43-25 ; in 1880, 43'56 ; in
1879, 44-95 ; in 1878, 42-81 ; in 1877, 42'95 ; in
1876, 44-80; in 1875, 40-69; in 1874, 38-61.
The total value of merchandise entered for con-
sumption in 1882 was $716,213,948, of which
$505,491,967 was dutiable and $210,711,981
free of duty.

Undervaluation of Imports.— American consuls
in Europe report many details of a fraudulent
practice of undervaluation in the declarations
of the export value of dutiable merchandise
brought into the United States, whereby large

sums are lost to the Treasury. For the pur-
pose of practicing this method of evasion,
the European manufacturers and wholesale
dealers maintain agents in the United States,
to whom all their shipments are consigned,
thus depriving American merchants of their
trade by closing -the market to the regular im-
porter. The protective intent of the tariff laws
can in this way be defeated, for, when the
American manufacturer lowers his prices, his
foreign competitor need only make his ficti-
tious invoices lower, to retain his advantage.
The American agency or commission-house
accounts to him for the selling price, so that
the consignor sustains no loss by undervalua-
tion. Many foreign houses refuse to furnish
price-lists to American purchasers, referring
them to their branch establishments in the
United States, while some have specially pre-
pared price-lists to show to American mer-
chants. In 1883 the Treasury Department
employed experts at various consulates to as-
certain the wholesale market value of certain
classes of merchandise. Their reports enabled
appraising officers at the ports to scrutinize in-
voices more carefully, which in many cases led
to the collection of increased duties and fines.
Fictitious discounts and unusual commissions,
allowances for pretended defects and imper-
fections, etc., are among the devices by which
goods are got through the custom-house at
valuations below the market price, shippers
and consignees sharing in the profit. Half the
profits from the large trade in silk manufac-
tures with Switzerland are said to be derived
from the evaded duties. The consul at Brad-
ford, England, excited the animosity of the
manufacturers by reporting instances of under-
valuation. The consul at St. Galjen, Switzer-
land, was threatened with appeals to the Swiss
Federal authorities or the United States Con-
gress, against his surveillance over the private
business affairs of merchants. At Crefeld, in
Germany, lists of prices in dollars are presented
to American purchasers of velvets, the prices
being payable in New York to the agents of
the associated manufacturers. The velvet
manufacturers of Basle resort to the practice,
which is also common elsewhere, of including
in an undervalued invoice a quantity of cor-
rectly-valued goods, which the appraisers are
to examine first, and then in the hurry of busi-
ness to pass the lot. The invoicing of East
India cashmere wool as common wool, as prac-
ticed at Liverpool, illustrates another method
pf evasion. Silks, aniline dyes, wool, velvets,
incandescent lamps, chemicals of several kinds,
silver filigree-work, ribbons, gloves, plush,
seal-skins, worsted yarns, ladies' cloaks, wool-
en cloths, paper-hangings, varnishes, fine pot-
tery, cotton ties and hoop-iron, and many
other articles, are in the category of fraudu-
lently invoiced imports in respect to which the
consuls have particular accounts of undervalu-
ation.
The practice is suspected to be general

COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION, AMERICAN.

149

throughout Europe, and is not denied by many
merchants, some of them of the highest stand-
ing, who consider it legitimate thus to defraud
the United States revenue, and treat it as an
impertinent inquisition for consuls to obtain
lists of prices and ascertain the facts of the
cost of production, to be communicated to cus-
toms officials. The undervaluations range from
10 to 60 per cent.

The Treasury authorities have no remedy
against the consignees, even upon evidence of
undervaluation, as either civil or criminal ac-
tions must be based upon proofs of complicity
in the frauds. In most cases, reappraisement
is equally fruitless, and is likely to result ad-
versely to the Government in the absence of
evidence of the export values in Europe, which
is carefully and systematically concealed from
the knowledge of the commercial representa-
tives of the United States.

Commercial Intercourse with Foreign Countries. —
Of the total export and import trade of 1883,
the share of Great Britain was 39*69 per cent. ;
of France, 10*13 per cent. ; of Germany, 7'98
per cent. ; of Cuba and the other West India
islands, 7'85 per cent. ; of British North Amer-
ica, 5-91 per cent. ; of Brazil, 3'47 per cent. ; of
Belgium, 3*29 per cent. ; of the Netherlands,
2'01 per cent. ; of Mexico, 1*60 per cent. ; of
Spain, 1-60 per cent. ; of China, T57 per cent. ;
of Italy, 1-44 per cent.; of Russia, 1'40 per
cent. ; of the East Indies, T40 per cent. ; of
Japan, 1*19 per cent. ; of Australia, Colombia,
the Hawaiian Islands, Spanish possessions other
than Cuba and Porto Rico, the Argentine Re-
public, Guiana, and Venezuela, between one
half and 1 per cent, each ; of Central America,

COUNTRIES.

Imports into
the United
States.

Exports from
the United
States.

Exports in
excels of
imports.

Great Britain and Ireland.
Russia

Dollars.
188,622,619
•2.599,995
7,794,345
57,377,728
8,177,128
12,253,733

4,021,395
23,161,200
1.093,476
302,886
435,584
1,918,894

44,740,876
5,171,455
1,831,171

Dollars.
425,424,174
19,141,751
16,931,287
66,169,929
16,587,620
18,919,583

9,795,656
27,778,975
5,485,037
4,508,876
2,860,496
8,777,759

46,580,253
6,868,971
2,824,548

Dollars

286,801,555
16,541,756
9,136,942
8,792,201
8,410,497
6,665,850

5,774,261
4,617,775
4,391,561
4,205,990
2,424,912
1,858,865

1,839,877
1,697,516
993,377

Spain
Germany
Mexico

Netherlands -

British possessions in Aus-
tralasia

Belgium

Denmark

Chili

Hong-Kong
British North American

United States of Colombia.
Sweden and N orway
Gibraltar

British possessions in Af-
rica
Azore, Madeira, and Cape

1,840,020

2,438,069

598,049

Miquelon, Langley, and St.

Danish West Indies
Hayti

2,971,515

8,223", i6i

25l',5S6

Liberia

Portuguese possessions in
Africa

859,831

8,141,714

2,281,883

Total...

365,178,846

682,451,799

817,283,958

Portugal, Hong-Kong, Uruguay, the Dutch
East Indies, Denmark, Austria, Sweden and
Norway, British South Africa, Turkey, Chili,
and Peru, between one fifth and one half of 1
per cent.

The foregoing table gives the values of the
imports of merchandise from and exports to
those countries in the commerce with which,
in 1883, there was a balance in favor of the
United States.

The following table exhibits the commerce
in 1883 with those countries the imports from
which exceeded in value the merchandise ex-
ported to them from the United States :

COUNTRIES.

Imports into
the United
States.

Exports from
the United
States.

Imports in
excess of
exports.

Cuba

Dollars.
65,544,534
97,989,164
44,488,459
19,467,800
20,141,331
15,098,890

10,617,563
8,238,461
5,946,429
5,901,724
5,477,493
5,121,315
6,192,111
3,980,110
2,526,918
11,909.658
2,984,923
2,895,857
2,168,967

Dollars.
15,103,703
58,682,223
9,252,094
2,185,804
4,080,322
3,376,434

324,474
3,776,065
2,035,156
2,403.705
2,164,708
2,003,467
8,543,196
1,452,818
493,894
10,813,558
1,779,904
1,813,555
1,869,703

Dollars.
50,440,831
89,806,941
35,236,365
17,281,996
16,061,009
11,722,456

10,293.089
4,462,396
3,911,273
8,498,019
8,312,785
8,117,848
2,648,915
2,527,292
2,033,024
1,596,100
1,205,019
1,082,302
799,264

France ... . ....

Brazil

British East Indies

Japan

Spanish possessions, other
than Cuba and Porto Rico.
Hawaiian Islands
British Guiana
Venezuela

Porto Kico

Central American States . .
Argentine Republic

Peru

Italy

French West Indies
Turkey

Dutch West Indies

Dutch East Indies
British West Indies

2,645,917
8,736,112
1,417,519
8,515,813

2,407,131
8,502,158
1,201,874
8,115,662

238,786
283,959
215,645
5,400,151

All other countries

Total . . .

358.007:068

141.881,603216,625,465

Trade of the Principal Customs Districts.— The

export and import trade of the port of New
York in 1883 amounted to $857,430,637, be-
ing 55-43 per cent, of the total value of the
foreign commerce of the United States. The
exports from that port were of the total value
of $361,425,361; the imports of the value of
$496,005,276. The foreign commerce of Bos-
ton amounted to $134,908,824, or 8'72 per
cent, of the total commerce of the country, the
exports from there being valued at $62,356,749
and the imports entering that port at $72,552,-
075. The share of New Orleans in the total
commerce was $104,704,076, or 6'77 per cent.,
of which $95,107,314 were exports and only
$9,596,762 imports. The share of San Fran-
cisco was $90,661,950, or 5'86per cent., divided
into exports of the value of $44,959,420 and
imports of the value of $45,702,530. Phila-
delphia's commerce amounted to $71,886,300,
4-65 per cent, of the total, $38,147,744 being
exports and $33,738,556 imports. Baltimore's
share was $69,602,530, or 4'50 per cent., of
which $55,003,351 were exports and $14,599,-
179 imports. Galveston, Savannah,. Charles-
ton, and Norfolk exported $29,629,047, $22,-
813,347, $22,573,227, and $18,445,548, and

150

COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION, AMERICAN.

imported $1,511,712, $483,281, $498,891, and
$186,355, their respective shares in the total
foreign trade being 2'10, 1-50, 1'49, and T29
per cent.

The value of the imports of merchandise at
interior points of the United States without
appraisement at ports of first arrival was, dur-
ing the last fiscal year, $16,594,934, as against
$13,360,066 during the previous year. The
total value of the direct exports from Chicago
to foreign countries amounted to $33,750,000
during the year 1882. In 1883 the exports of
Chicago are reported as $3,723,548 and the
imports as $649,090. The exports from Min-
neapolis, St. Louis, and other interior points
which are shipped direct to foreign countries
are not officially reported. From Huron, Mich.,
and the district of Minnesota, exports were
shipped of the value of $10,948,590 and $7,-
169,185, the imports entered at those districts
being $2,906,247 and $1,085,213 ; while at Os-
wego, N. Y., and Vermont district imports
were received of the values of $8,341,324 and
$6,194,886, the amounts of their exports being
respectively $1,465,170 and $1,809,521. The
proportional shares in the aggregate commerce
of the United States in 1883 borne by those
customs districts which transacted less than 1
per cent, and more than y1^ of 1 per cent, of
the total were as follow: Huron, 0'90 per
cent; Oswego, 0'63 ; Minnesota, Minn., 0*53 ;
Vermont, Vt., 0'51 ; Buffalo Creek, N. Y.,
0-37; Portland, Me., 0-33 ; Charnplain, N. Y.,
0-33; Wilmington, N. C., 0'32; Detroit,
Mich., 0-31 ; Chicago, El., 0'28 ; Willamette,
Ore., 0-26; Richmond, Va., 0'22; Niagara,
N. Y., 0-21 ; Mobile, Ala., 0-21 ; Miami, Ohio,
0-20; Oregon, Ore., 0-19; Oswegatchie, N. Y.,
0-19; Corpus Christi, Tex., 0'18; Brazos de
Santiago, Tex., 0-14; Pensacola, Fla., 0-14;
Puget Sound, Wash., 0-12; Brunswick, Ga.,
0-10; Yorktown, Va., O'lO.

Shipping and Navigation.— The aggregate ton-
nage of the American merchant marine in
1883 and the three years preceding, compared
with the tonnage at quinquennial periods since
1850, was as follows :

Tons.

YEAR.

Sail.

Steam.

Total.

1850....
1855

Tons.
8,009,507
4441 716

Tons.
525.947

Tons.
8,535,454

I860....

4 485 931

867 937

1865....

4 029 643

1 067 1 89

1870....

3 171 412

1 075 095

4 246 507

1875.

3 6S5'o64

l'l68'669

1880. ..

2 856 476

1 911 558

1881

2'792736

1 264 998

1882....

2 810107

1135^8'76

1883

2,822,293

1,413,194

4,235,487

Under sailing-vessels in the above returns are
included barges and canal-boats, the tonnage
of which in 1883 amounted to 435,736 tons.
The shipping which constituted the mercantile
marine of the United States was distributed
between the foreign and coasting trades and
the fisheries as follows :

Foreign trade

Coasting trade 2,888,854

Whale-fisheries 82,414

Cod-fisheries 95,038

Total 4,285,487

The tonnage of sailing and steam vessels
built in the United States in 1883 and the
three years preceding was as follows:

YEAR.

Sailing-vessels.

Steam-vessels.

Total tonnage.

1880....

78556

78858

157 409

1881

162 888

118 070

280 458

1882

160 427

121 842

282 269

1888.

158 200

107 229

265*429

There were built in 1883 33 ships, against 31
in 1882, 29 in 1881, 37 in 1879, 71 in 1877, 114
in 1875, and 28 in 1873 ; 2 brigs, against 2 in
1882, 3 in 1881, and 10 in 1879 ; 567 schooners,
against 473 in 1882, 317 in 1881, 256 in 1879,
337 in 1877, 502 in 1875, and 611 in 1873;
and 227 sloops, canal-boats, and barges,
against 363 in 1882, 314 in 1881, 494 in 1879,
352 in 1877, 340 in 1875, and 1,221 in 1873.
The number of steam-vessels constructed in
1883 was 439, 502 in 1882, 444 in 1881, 335
in 1879, 265 in 1877, 323 in 1875, and 402 in
1873. Of the total tonnage of vessels built in
1883 there were built on the seaboard 210,349
tons, against 188,083 in 1882; on the New
England coast alone, 110,226 tons, against 93,-
965 in 1882 ; on the Mississippi river, 26,443
tons, against 35,817 ; and on the Great Lakes,
28,638 tons, against 58,369. The tonnage of
iron vessels built in 1883 was 39,646, of which
2,033 tons were sailing-vessels ; in 1882 40,-
140 tons, nearly all steam-vessels; in 1881,
28,356 tons; in 1880, 25,582 tons; in 1879,
22,008 tons; in 1878, 28,960 tons; in 1877,
5,927 tons; in 1876, 21,346 tons; in 1875, 21,-
632 tons; in 1874, 33,097 tons; in 1873, 26,-
548 tons; in 1872, 12,766 tons; in 1871, 15,-
479 tons; in 1870, 8,281 tons; in 1868, 4,584
tons; in 1868, 2,801 tons.

The tonnage of American and foreign ves-
sels entered at American seaports each year,
from 1864 to 1883 inclusive, was as fol-
lows:

YEAR.

American.

Foreign.

Total.

1864

Tons.
1,655,484

Tons.
2,512,047

Tons.
4,167,481

1865

1,615,317

2,211,610

8,826,927

1366

1,891,453

8,111,084

5,008.487

1867

2.145,691

3,120,695

5,266,386

1868

2.465,695

3,105,826

5.571,521

1869

2,459,836

3,572,644

6,081,980

1870

2,452,226

8.817,963

6,270,189

1871

2 608/91

4,890,606

6,994,197

1872

2,5=4,646

5,185,340

7,769,986

1873

. 2,443.285

5,951,464

8,894,749

1874

2,914,942

7,094,713

10,009,655

1875

2,887,158

6,255,985

9,143.188

1876. ...

2,927,780

6,788,124

9,715,904

1877

2,957,791

7,448,697

10,406,488

1878
1879. . .

8,009,487
3,049,744

8,521,090
10,718.394

11,580,527
18,768,188

1880
1881

8,140,169
2 919 149

12,112,160
12 711 392

15,251,829
15,630,541

1882...

2,968,290

11,688,209

14,656,499

1888....

2.834.681

10.526.176

13,360,857

COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION, AMERICAN.

151

The share of each nation in the total ton-
nage entered at American ports in 1883, as
compared with 1856, was as follows:

FLAG.

1856.

1883.

Increase.

British

Tons.
985,886

Tons.
6,775,526

Tons.
5,889,640

166 88T

1126 113

959 276

Norwegian and Swedish.. .
Italian

20,6-22
15,677

694,240
417,728

673,618
402,051

French. ....

23,935

876,890

352,955

Spanish

62,813

254,422

191,609

1,477

147 848

146 871

Belgian

200

827,539

827,889

40

71,950

71,910

Dutch.

16,892

165,976

149,084

Danish

5,838
4,727

98,954
19493

98,116
14,766

All other fla^s

14,819

49,497

84,678

Total foreign

1,269,763

10,526,176

9,256,413

Total American

3,194,275

2,834,681

859,594*

Aggregate

4,464,038

18,860,857

8,896,819

* Decrease.

Of 1,190 steam- vessels, carrying 44,205,000
bushels of grain from the port of New York
during the calendar year 1883, there were 786
British, carrying 29,441,951 bushels; 93 Bel-
gian, carrying 5,734,018 bushels; and 170
German, carrying 4,248,485 bushels; the re-
mainder carrying mostly Dutch, French, Dan-
ish, Italian, but none of them American colors.
Of 166 sailing-vessels, carrying 4,252,946
bushels, only two were American ships. Out
of 113,343,163 bushels carried in 1880, 63,376,-
584 bushels were shipped from New York by
sail, but in 1883 the proportion had declined to
4,252,936 out of 48,457,945 bushels.

The American steam tonnage entering Amer-
ican ports in 1883 was 1,300,727 tons, against
1,356,790 in 1882, 1,240,578 in 1881, 1,195,-
900 in 1880, 1,118,459 in 1879, 1,092,103 in
1877, 1,141,734 in 1875, 870,192 in 1873, 836,-
456 in 1870, 298,311 in 1866, and 153,230 in
1864. Of the foreign tonnage 6,646,338 tons
were steam in 1883, 7,163,237 in 1882, 6,391,-
126 in 1880, 3,142,723 in 1875, 1,680,704 in
1870, and 642,576 in 1865.

In 1856 the tonnage of American vessels
entered at our seaports from foreign countries
amounted to 3,194,27% tons, and constituted
71^ per cent, of the total tonnage entered ; and
in 1868, three years after the termination of
the war, the tonnage of American vessels
entered constituted 44'26 per cent, of the to-
tal tonnage entered, but of the total tonnage
entered at seaports of the United States from
foreign countries during the last fiscal year, 79
per cent, consisted of foreign tonnage, and
only 21 per cent, of American tonnage.

The amount of American tonnage entered
has exhibited but little change since 1868, but
the tonnage of foreign vessels entered has in-
creased from 3,105,826 tons in 1868 to 10,526,-
176 in 1883. In other words, foreign ship-
owners have been able to secure the entire
increase in the foreign carrying-trade of the
United States, which increase has been very
large. These facts show that the decadence of

American shipping is not at the present time
due to incidents of the late war, but to causes
which are persistent.

The iron ship, especially the iron steamer,
has, to a great extent, superseded the wooden
ship, and owing to certain conditions of min-
ing, labor, skill, and capital, iron vessels can
be more advantageously constructed in Eu-
rope, particularly in Great Britain, than in the
United States. How small, relatively, is the
iron tonnage built in the United States is
shown by the fact that during the year 1882
there were 130 iron and steel sailing-vessels
built in Great Britain and Ireland, the total
tonnage of which was 132,340 tons, and 568
iron and steel steam-vessels built, the total
tonnage of which was 520,437 tons, a total of
698 iron and steel sailing and steam vessels,
the aggregate tonnage of which was 652,777
tons, or sixteen and a half times the total iron
tonnage built in the United States.

The small progress made in the United
States in the building of iron and steel vessels
is even more strikingly exhibited by the fact
that, of the 39,646 tons built in American
ship-yards during the year ended June 30,
1883, 18,530 tons were for the home trade,
which under the navigation laws of the
United States is confined exclusively to Amer-
ican vessels, and only 21,116 tons for the for-
eign trade, which under the principles of
maritime reciprocity, now prevalent among
commercial nations, ig free to the ships of all
nations.

Daring the fiscal year 1883, 30 per cent, of
the exports of merchandise was carried in
sailing-vessels, 67 per cent, in steam-vessels,
and 3 per cent, in cars and other land vehicles.
Of the imports, 24 per cent, was brought in
sailing-vessels, 72 per cent, in steam- vessels,
and 4 per cent, by land.

During the fiscal year 21 '4 per cent, of the
exports from the United States of wheat and
wheat-flour was from the Pacific coast. The
rates of transportation by sea from Pacific
coast ports to Europe were exceptionally low
during the season of 1883. The current rate
on the 5th of November, 1883, from San Fran-
cisco to Liverpool, was only £1 12*. 6d. per
ton of 2,240 pounds. This was lower than
the average monthly rate during any month
since June, 1872. The reduction in the ocean
freight rates from the Pacific coast to Europe
prevented the expected diversion of wheat to
the rail-line from California to New Orleans,
to be shipped thence by vessels to European
ports. The lowering of the rates by sea was
the result of the low quotations of wheat in
the European markets, which were due to the
large stocks then on hand, and the expectation
of supplies from other countries as well as
from America.

The percentage of the tonnage entered at all
American seaports which was entered at each
of the principal ports in 1883, as compared
with 1870 and 1860, was as follows:

152 COMMERCE, ETC., AMERICAN.

CONGREGATIONALISTS.

PORTS.

1860.

1870.

1883.

New York
Boston

89-47
14-87

49-88
12-66

48-27
10-06

Baltimore

8-78

4-34

6-69

San Francisco.

4-70

6-29

6-64

Philadelphia

8'70

4'79

6-42

New Orleans.

12-65

7-81

5-50

Portland

2-30

2-80

1-35

Galveston

•65

•50

1-15

1-85

1-87

1-05

Charleston

2-58

•58

1-01

Mobile
All other ports

8-22
10-88

1-12
8-91

•51
11-35

Total

100-00

100-00

100-00

Railroads and Transportation. — The cost of trans-
porting grain and provisions from the interior
to the seaboard is an important element in the
foreign commerce of the United States. With
the advantage of a level country, and under
the spur of competition for such an enormous
traffic, between the various trunk lines, among
themselves and with alternative water-routes,
the system of land-carriage in the United States
has been brought to a higher degree of com-
mercial economy and efficiency than that of
any other country. The great markets of
Europe are more accessible to the farmers of
the Western prairies than to those of many

Earts of the Continent of Europe or of certain
arming districts in the British Islands. Be-
sides great reductions in the time and cost of
transportation, commerce has been promoted
by arrangements made by the railroad lines
with one another and with ocean-steamship
lines, by which merchandise can be transport-
ed over two or more connecting lines from the
point of shipment to the point of delivery,
without the necessity of any supervision on
the part of shipper or consignee. The reduc-
tion in the cost of inland transportation has
been the main cause of the increase in the
value of the exports of cereals from $84,586,-
273 in 1872, to $208,040,850 in 1883, and in
the value of the provision exports from $59,-
696,670 to $107,388,287. The extent of the
reduction can be seen in the following tabular
statement of the average freight charges per
bushel of wheat from Chicago to New York
by the lake, the Erie Canal, and the Hud-
son river ; by the lake to Buffalo and thence
by rail to New York city, and all the way by
rail, for the calendar years from 1868 to 1882
and for the, first ten months of 1883 :

YEAR.

Lake and oanal.

Lake and rail.

All rail.

1868....

Cent,.
25'8

Cents.

Cents.

1869....

24*1

25* 0

1870
1871....

17-5
21 "6

22-0

33-8

1872....

26' 6

1878,...

19-2

26 '9

83*2

1874....

14-2

1875....

11'4

1876....

9'7

1877....

7'5

1878....

10-1

1879

13-0

1880...

13*2

1881

8*6

1882

8'7

10*9

1888

9*16

The increase in the rates of 1883 over those
of the foregoing year was due to the fact that
the grain movement was much larger. The
low rates in 1881 were exceptional, being due
to the war of rates going on in that year be-
tween the trunk lines. The secret "special"
rates at which merchandise was transported
were actually much lower than the quoted av-
erage of 14-6 cents. In 1882 agreed rates were
generally maintained. In 1883 the prospects
of a smaller crop than in 1882 and of lower
export prices caused variations from the sched-
ule rates to be made privately by the different
roads, until finally they worked somewhat
more harmoniously under a reduced tariff,
established by Commissioner Fink.*

CONGREGATIONALISM. The following is a
summary of the statistics of the Congregational
churches in the United States as given in the
J' Congregational Year-Book " for 1883. It
includes the additional returns received after
the regular tables of the " Year-Book " were
made up : Number of churches, 1,024 ; of min-
isters, 3,723 ; number of members, 387,837; of
persons in Sunday-schools, 454,968 ; number of
additions during the year by profession of faith,
13,552 ; number of baptisms, 5,322 of infants,
6,005 of adults. Of the ministers, 919 are re-
turned as pastors and 1,607 as "acting pas-
tors " ; of the churches, 2,914 as supplied with
pastors, and 1,023 as " vacant." The benevo-
lent contributions reported by 2,994 churches
amounted to $1,383,685 ; the "home expen-
ditures" of 2,256 churches were $2,934,027.
The seven theological seminaries, at And over,
Mass., Bangor, Me., Chicago, 111., Hartford,
Conn., Oberlin, O., Oakland, Cal. (Pacific),
and New Haven, Conn. (Yale), returned in
all 39 professors, 24 instructors and lecturers,
and 272 students, with graduating classes of 25
members and 3 "resident licentiates." The
Territories of Idaho and Montana are repre-
sented in the statistical tables for the first time
this year — Idaho with one church of ten mem-
bers, and Montana with four churches.

American Congregational Union.— The thirtieth
annual meeting, of the American Congrega-
tional Union was held in the city of New York,
May 10th. The receipts for the year had been
$100,518. Grants amounting to $66,658 had
been voted to 150 churches in 25 States and
Territories, and grants amounting to $177,263

* The managers of the East and West trunk lines agreed
in 1877, after their mutual arrangements had in every instance
been disregarded, to submit to Mr. Albert Fink the task of
arranging a pool or combination, apportioning a percentage
of the total traffic to each road, and fixing the rate to be
charged by each. He has continued to discharge the office ot
arbitrator and intermediary with varying success. The first
agreement related to the .west-bound freight, but the pooling
arrangements have since been extended to almost all the
business of the roads. The roads are not restricted as to the
quantity of business they do, but the receipts beyond the al-
lotted proportion are paid into the pool and divided. When
the traffic is large, the railroads usually keep to their agree-
ments, and their complicated accounts are adjusted through
the office of Commissioner Fink ; but, when business falls
off, evasions are practiced surreptitiously, which are likely to
lead to a war of rates, as in 1881. when earnings estimated to
amount to $30,000,000 were sacrificed.

CONGREGATIONALISTS.

153

had been paid to 91 churches in 23 States and
Territories. The sum of $14,404 had been con-
tributed expressly to aid in the building of par-
sonages; and grants in aid of that object had
been made to 14 churches.

American Home Missionary Society.— The anni-
versary of the American Home Missionary So-
ciety was held at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., June
5th. The receipts for the year ending April
1st had been $370,981, which, with a balance
of $27,935 in the treasury at the beginning of
the year, made the society's entire available
resources $398,916. The expenditures in pay-
ment of missionaries had been $354,105. The
whole number of ministers in the service of
the society was 1,150, and by their aid 2,659
congregations and mission districts had been
supplied. Three missionaries had served con-
gregations of colored people, 16 had preached
in their own language to Welsh, nine to German,
and three to French congregations, while two
had served Indian congregations. Two thou-
sand and eight Sunday-schools, having 106,638
pupils, were under the special care of mission-
aries. Two hundred and thirty-three new
schools had been formed. One hundred and
one churches had been organized, and 43
churches had become self-supporting during
the year ; and 3,558 members had been re-
ceived on profession of faith. A woman's de-
partment auxiliary to the society had been
organized.

American Board. — The seventy -fourth annual
meeting of the American Board of Commis-
sioners for Foreign Missions was held at De-
troit. Mich., Oct. 2d. The total receipts of
the board for the year had been $523,426, or
$61,155 more than the receipts of the previous
year. From the fund bequeathed by Mr. Otis
had been received also, for evangelistic enlarge-
ment, $7,613 ; for educational enlargement,
$29,683 ; and for new missions in Africa, Chi-
na, and Mexico, $30,286 ; making in all, $67,-
568. Adding this sum, the whole amount at
the disposal of the Prudential Committee had
been $1,591,488. Four missionaries and twelve
assistant missionaries had been added during
the year to the force in the field, and fourteen
returned missionaries, after a period of rest in
the United States, had gone back to their work.
The following general summary of the condi-
tion of the missions is taken from the u Annual
Survey " of the board. Number of missions
(West Central Africa, Zulu, Umzila, European
Turkey, Western Turkey, Central Turkey, East-
ern Turkey, Maratha, Madura, Ceylon, Hong-
Kong, Foochow, North China, Shanse, Japan,.
Micronesia, Northern Mexico, Western Mexico,
Spain, and Austria), 20 ; of stations, 80 ; of out-
stations, 742.

Laborers employed. — Number of ordained
missionaries (6 being physicians), 154; of phy-
sicians not ordained, men and women, 9 ; of
other male assistants, 7 ; of other female assist-
ants, 263 ; whole number of laborers sent from
the United States, 433 ; number of native pas-

tors, 144 ; of native preachers and catechists,
369 ; of native school-teachers, 1,014 ; of other
native helpers, 300 ; total of native laborers,
1,827; whole number of laborers connected
with the missions, 2,260.

The Press.— Papers printed, as far as re-
ported, 32,000,000.

The Churches. — Number of churches, 278 ;
of church-members, as nearly as can be learned,
19,364; added during the year, 1,737; whole
number from the tirst, as nearly as can be
learned, 89,323.

Educational Department. — Number of high
schools, theological seminaries, and station-
classes, 58, with 2,086 pupils; of boarding-
schools for girls, 40, with 1,538 pupils ; of
common schools, 832, with 31,016 pupils;
whole number of pupils, 35,625.

The Missionaries and the Armenian Churches. — The
matter of complaints which were made by the
members of the churches formed among the
Armenians, in the Eastern Turkey mission,
against the management and administration
of the affairs of the mission, received a full
discussion. The subject of the complaint had
been brought before the board at the meeting
of the previous year, and a committee had
been appointed then to inquire into it. This
committee had appointed a sub-committee to
visit the mission, and by conferences with the
Armenian members of the churches and the
missionaries to inform themselves at the origi-
nal sources concerning the nature and merits
of the complaints. From the various reports
and documents presented it appears that the
Armenians considered that their 'churches had
in fact passed out of the stage of mission
stations, and had become or were becoming
fully developed churches, and they felt that the
management of the mission ought to be modi-
fied in recognition of the changed conditions.
They asked that they be given a general civil
and secular organization to meet the requisi-
tions of Turkish law, and a representative ec-
clesiastical organization ; that the missionaries
become ecclesiastically connected with the na-
tive churches, so as to be in fellowship with
them and amenable to church discipline there ;
that all native institutions connected with the
churches should be encouraged by pecuniary
help and moral support; that a central theo-
logical seminary, equal to those in America,
be established, with natives among the teachers
and directors, and means be provided for the
higher education of young men, cheaper than
it can be obtained at Robert College ; that a
larger proportion of native laborers be enlisted
in the departments of evangelistical, literary,
and educational work, with a gradual with-
drawal of missionaries ; and that in the several
departments of work, natives should have an
equal voice with missionaries in representa-
tion on the committees and in the councils,
and in discussing and voting on all .questions,
including those of the appropriation and dis-
position of funds. After hearing a series of

154

CONGEE G ATION ALISTS.

reports, in which the views of both sides were
presented, the board resolved :

1. That in accordance with the suggestion of the
visiting deputation that, as a preparation for the with-
drawal in our time of its missionaries from the work
among the Armenians, the board favor the admission
of representatives of native churches in Turkey in
conferences concerning the practical work of evan-
gelization, education, and publication^ including esti-
mates for necessary expenses, reserving, however, to
the mission, as the responsible agents of the board on
the field, final action respecting the distribution of
funds drawn from the treasury of the board, sub-
ject, of course, to the approval of the Prudential
Committee.

2. That there is a pressing need for a large-hearted
and even generous co-operation with our native breth-
ren everywhere, its particular form and method being
shaped by the circumstances of each locality, but such
as may assure them of our Christian love, and fit
them most speedily to assume the entire support and
management of the evangelization of their respective
fields.

American Missionary Association.— The thirty-
seventh annual meeting of the American Mis-
sionary Association was held in Brooklyn, N.Y.,
October 30th. The ordinary receipts of the
society for the year had been $312,567, or
$14,983 more than those of the previous year.
Further sums amounting to $13,500 had been
received toward the endowment funds of the
chartered institutions of the association and
the proposed Arthrington mission in the region
of the Upper Nile, which with $10,918 ex-
pended upon Stone Hall, Atlanta University,
made the total amount that had been at the
disposal of the Executive Committee, $337,003.
In the work of rearranging and consolidating
the missions of this society and other societies
with which it has fraternal relations, the Mendi
mission in West Africa, with its special fund and
the steamer John Brown, had been transferred
to the United Brethren, whose mission at
Shengay is contiguous to it. The Arthrington
mission, with its fund, had been offered to the
Board of the United Presbyterian Church of
North America, which was conducting a suc-
cessful mission in Egypt. That board was
ready to take up the mission, and intended to
establish its base of operations at Khartoum,
while Mr. Arthrington desired to have it pushed
farther up the Nile to Fatiko. The Dakota
mission of the American Board, with the ex-
ception of. the Sisseton agency, which had
been undertaken by the Home Board of the
Presbyterian Church in the United States of
America, had been received by this association.
It included 4 stations, 9 schools, 5 churches,
12 missionaries, 25 teachers, one native pastor,
12 native teachers, 271 church-members, 356
pupils, and 584 Sunday-school scholars. The
old mission of the association in Washington
Territory had one missionary, two churches, 36
Indian and 13 white members, and two Sun-
day-schools, with 95 scholars. The mission to
the Chinese in California returned 19 schools,
with 40 teachers, 14 of whom were Chinese,
and an enrollment of 2,823 pupils. One hun-
dred and seventy-five Chinese had professed to

cease from idolatry. Work among the negrces
was prosecuted in twelve of the Southern
States, and in Kansas and the District of Co-
lumbia. The schools include eight chartered
institutions in as many States, twelve high and
normal schools, and forty-two common schools,
which together reported 279 teachers and
9,640 pupils. Seventy students^ were pursuing
a theological course, and twenty a course in
law. Departments in industrial training were
maintained at Charleston, S. C., Macon and
Atlanta, Ga., at Fisk University, Nashville,
and at Memphis, Tenn. ; and at Talladega, Ala.,
and Tongaloo, Miss. Six new churches had
been added, making the whole number of
churches in the South connected with the as-
sociation 89, with 5,974 members and 9,406
Sunday-school scholars. These churches had
raised for church purposes, during the year,
$12,027. The Ecclesiastical Association of
Mississippi, with six churches, had been added
to the State bodies of this character connected
with the society, making the whole number
eight. They represent an average of eleven
churches each.

Triennial Council of the Congregational Churches. —
The fifth Triennial Council of the Congrega-
tional Churches of the United States met in
Concord, N. H., October 10th. About three
hundred delegates were in attendance. The
Rev. Dr. Arthur Little, of Chicago, was chosen
moderator. The council has no authority, but
is a voluntary body, for discussion and inter-
change of reports and opinions in the effort to
ascertain the condition and feelings of the
churches, and for the purpose of making such
recommendations as may seem good to it. Rep-
resentations were made, with statements of
their wants, of the condition of the several
Congregational benevolent societies, including
the American Board of Commissioners for
Foreign Missions, the College and Education
Society, the American Missionary Association,
the American Home Mission Society, the Con-
gregational Sunday-school and Publishing So-
ciety, the American Congregational Union,
and the New West Commission. The general
statistical returns showed that there had been
a net gain in the denomination during the past
three years of 262 churches and 5,079 mem-
bers ; that the additions to churches by pro-
fession averaged 12,500 annually; that the
contributions for Sunday-schools during the
past year had amounted to $300,000, and the
contributions for charitable objects to more
than $6,000,000, and that there were 874 more
churches than there were clergymen to supply
them. A committee of seven members had
been nppointed at the previous meeting of the
council to select a commission of twenty-five
persons for the purpose of framing a creed
or statement of belief to be submitted to the
churches for their approval. The committee
reported that it had appointed the commission,
and was discharged. The commission had not
yet completed the preparation of a creed. A

CONGREG ATION ALISTS.

155

resolution was passed urging it to complete and
publish its work as speedily as practicable. A
resolution was introduced advising that the
terra "acting pastor" and its abbreviation,
"A. P.," be dropped from the nomenclature
and statistics of the denomination, and that all
ministers in regular connection with some as-
sociation or conference of churches, or minis-
ters who accept calls to pastorates given by a
formal vote of the churches, be enrolled as
pastors, and all others be enrolled with their
appropriate designations. This gave way to a
resolution, which was adopted, directing the
secretary, in preparing the "Year-Book," to
follow the designations of pastor or acting pas-
tor, adopted in the minutes of the several State
bodies. The object of the measure is to remove
the distinction previously recognized between
pastors who have been installed with the ad-
vice of a council and those who have not been
so installed. A statement was made respect-
ing the growth of Congregational churches in
the South, showing that, while only about
twenty churches had been formed among the
white people of the South (outside of Missouri
and the District of Columbia), nearly one hun-
dred churches had been established among the
colored people, and were organized in confer-
ences covering the Southern States. A com-
mittee was appointed to prepare a draft of a
bill for the establishment of a Bureau of In-
dian Education, and to press it upon the atten-
tion of Congress.

Congregationalists in Great Britain.— The " Con-
gregational Year-Book " for 1883 gives the num-
ber of members of the Congregational churches
in England and Wales as 387,619. showing a net
gain during the year of 1,934. The number of
churches was 3,936, and the number of min-
isters 3,723, of whom 918 were pastors, 1,607
acting pastors, and 1,198 not in pastoral work.
The number of baptisms during the year was
5,999 of adults, and 5,322 of infants.

London Missionary Soeiety. — The receipts of the
London Missionary Society for 1882 were£127,-
627, and a balance in favor of the society of
£539 was returned on the year's accounts.
The number of missionaries in connection with
the society was 166, 15 of whom were women.
Reports of missionary operations were made at
the anniversary in May, from China, Mongolia,
India, where 5,804 pupils in schools were re-
turned; Madagascar; South Africa, including
the Cape Colony and the country north of the
Orange and Vaal rivers, extending almost to
the Zambesi ; Central Africa, including the
country of the Tanganyika-lake ; the West In-
dies, including Jamaica and British Guiana;
the South Sea islands, including the Samoa and
Loyalty groups ; Tahiti, and a number of small-
er islands; and Few Guinea, where, under the
direction of four European missionaries and
eight teachers, natives of the Loyalty islands,
remarkable progress was claimed to have been
made in eight years. A deputation had been
sent out to visit the mission-fields of the so-

ciety, beginning with India, and going thence
to China and South Africa. Another deputa-
tion had been sent out, with a representative del-
egated by the Congregational Union of England
and Wales for the same object, to inquire into
the condition of the native churches of Jamaica
and British Guiana, from which the society had
been gradually withdrawing its aid, but which
had asked for continued support. On the rec-
ommendation of the deputation, the directors
of the society, at a time later than the anniver-
sary meeting, adopted a plan of continued but
gradually diminishing support for three years
longer.

Congregational Union of England and Wales.— The
meeting of the Congregational Union of Eng-
land and Wales for the spring was held May
llth. The subject of lay agency was dis-
cussed, with many expressions in favor of ex-
tended lay preaching. A resolution was adopted
respecting the Affirmation Bill, declaring :

That the Assembly hereby records its extreme re-
gret at the reactionary votes by which a majority of
the House of Commons has rejected the Affirmation
Bill, checked the course of Liberal legislation com-
menced fifty years ago in the repeal of the Test and
Corporation Acts, and carried still further in the Act
of Roman Catholic Emancipation and the relief of
Jewish disability ; and at the same time expresses
gratitude to the minority who were faithful to the
principle of religious liberty, and especially to their
venerated leader, the Prime Minister; for his exposi-
tion and defense of those principles with an eloquence
so lofty and in a spirit so eminently Christian.

A scheme was adopted relative to examina-
tions of young people on the three subjects of
Scripture history and doctrine, Christian evi-
dences, and ecclesiastical polity, and a special
committee was appointed fo attend to the per-
fection and execution of it.

The forty-fourth autumnal session of the
Union was held in Sheffield, beginning October
9th. The Rev. Principal, A. M. Fairbairn, D. D.,
presided, and delivered the opening address,
the subject of which was "Christianity in the
Nineteenth Century." The committee of the
Jubilee Fund reported that £100,000 sterling
had been added to the fund, and it now stood
at £280,000. Of it there had been promised
£27,826 to the Congregational Church Aid So-
ciety; £125,000 for the liquidation of church
debts ; £46,781 for Congregational Church ex-
tension in London, and £1,830 to various Con-
gregational institutions, besides £17,500 for the
liquidation of the debts of the Yorkshire col-
leges, while £24, 000 were not yet appropriated.
The special committee appointed at the spring
session of the Union, on the subject of the ex-
amination of young people in Scriptural knowl-
edge, reported that it had appointed central
bodies of examiners on the subjects specified in
the scheme approved at that meeting, and had
divided the country into eight districts, for each.
of which a body of eight examiners had been
appointed. A report was made of the work oi!
the "Senatus Academicus" of associated theo-
logical colleges of England and Wales, which

156

CONGREGATIONALISTS.

had been instituted four years previously for
promoting a higher standard of theological at-
tainment by means of examinations. Eight
Congregational colleges and one Baptist college
had entered into the arrangement, and were
represented in the Senatus by their professors
and three other delegates each. Four annual
examinations had been held, at which 69 can-
didates had presented themselves, 57 of whom
had satisfied the examiners.

Congregationalisms in Australia. — The Congrega-
tional churches of Australia make returns of
members as follows: In New South Wales,
48 churches, 12,995 adherents, 6,229 Sunday-
school scholars; Victoria, 45 churches, 15,447
adherents, 7,370 Sunday - school scholars ;
South Australia, 45 churches, 9,860 adherents,
4,390 Sunday-school scholars; Queensland, 20
churches, 5,650 adherents, 2,784 Sunday-school
scholars; Tasmania, 29 churches, 4,835 adher-
ents, 2,246 Sunday-school scholars ; total, 187
churches, 48,747 adherents, and 23,019 Sunday-
school scholars.

The Jubilee of Congregationalism in Aus-
tralia and Tasmania was celebrated by an in-
tercolonial conference of the churches, which
was held in Sydney. The establishment of a
Jubilee Fund was determined upon, of $100,-
000, to be applied to the payment of church
debts and the foundation of a Ministers' Relief
Fund. Ninety thousand dollars were sub-
scribed to this fund during the sessions of the
conference.

Congregationalism in Canada.— As early as 1753
a congregational church gathered in Halifax,
N. S. The name by which it was subsequently
known, Mather Church, indicates its New Eng-
land origin. A large Scotch Presbyterian ele-
ment eventually came into Nova Scotia, and
after the revolution settlement — during which
many of the old New England settlers returned
to their Massachusetts home — a Presbyterian
minister was called to the pastorate. Eventu-
ally, by act of Parliament, the property of
Mather Church was secured to ''St. Matthew's
Presbyterian Church," and Congregationalism
lost its identity in Halifax.

The men who planted the British flag over
the French forts of Acadie were very largely
Massachusetts Puritans, and their chaplains
generally accompanied the troops, as the
French were Roman Catholics.

At present, there are in the two provinces
of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, with
their population of 750,000, twenty-one Con-
gregational churches, sixteen ministers, and an
acknowledged adherence of 5,000 souls. By
ft bequest from Mrs. Gorham, of Liverpool,
N. S., a Congregational College was estab-
lished in that town, but want of sufficient
means, with the burning of the college build-
ing, has caused that interest to be closed and
its funds to be appropriated, as the bequest
provided, for mission purposes.

In 1775 a Mr. Jones, a Welshman and a
Whitefieldite, connected with the Royal Artil-

lery, gathered a church at St. John's, N. F.,
which continues to this day in active opera-
tion, and is the center of a missionary work in
that island. A mission on the Labrador coast is
worked from the church at St. John's. There
are now one settled pastor and three ordained
missionaries in Newfoundland connected with
Congregationalism.

In what are known as the Eastern townships
of the present province of Quebec, settlers
from Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Ver-
mont came in, forming the nucleus of Congre-
gationalism in that section. The first remem-
bered church gathered on Stanstead plain in a
log barn, 1798, near the site of the present
church-building. The churches in this locality,
though in working connection with the Cana-
dian churches, take much of their tone from
the New England brethren, representing the
Congregationalism of Massachusetts rather than
that of England.

In 1801 Mr. Bentom, sent to the Canadas by
the London Missionary Society, established a
Congregational church in the city of Quebec.
No clergyman other than of the Anglican and
Papal communions could lawfully baptize, mar-
ry, or officiate in a public burying-ground with-
out license from the authorities, and the license
or register was renewed annually. After re-
ceiving his register two years, Mr. Bentom was
refused the third. For daring to print a pam-
phlet against this, he was arrested, fined £50,
and imprisoned for six months. It was not till
several years after that these disabilities were
removed by act of Parliament. The Quebec
church eventually, like that of Halifax, was
merged into* a Presbyterian church, though
another Congregational interest was imme-
diately started, which continued till the pres-
ent time, when the Protestant exodus from
Quebec has closed it for a season.

Generally speaking, Congregationalism in the
present provinces of Ontario and Quebec dates
from the arrival, under the auspices of the Eng-
lish Colonial Missionary Society, of Mr. John
Roaf in Toronto, and of Dr. Henry Wilkes in
Montreal, about 1836. Around these gentle-
men gathered the Zion churches, which, for
life, liberality, influence, and social rank, were
second to none in the provinces. Zion Church,
Toronto, after having "hived off" four other
churches, has just erected a new building.
Emanuel Church, Montreal, is virtually the
old Zion of that city. ,In 1873, scattered
throughout the provinces of Ontario and Que-
bec, 85 churches were reported, 67 ministers,
and a membership of 4,500 : in 1883 the church-
es numbered 90, ministers 67, and members
6,000, with two churches established in the
new province of Manitoba. Most of the
churches and ministers of these provinces are
associated in a Union which meets annually for
conference only.

^There is one theological college connected
with the denomination, of which the first tutor
or professor was Rev. A. Lillie, D. D., whose

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (PBESIDENT'S MESSAGE.)

157

name must be associated with those of Dr.
Wilkes and Mr. Roaf in the pioneer work of
Congregationalism in the old Canadas.

Congregationalism has proved itself in Can-
ada more powerful as a principle permeating
other bodies than as a distinct organization.
It can only claim, in a population of 4,250,000,
a following of 27,000. Many considerations
may tend toward explaining its comparatively
small following in an Anglo-Saxon colony, see-
ing that it is truly the preponderating power
in English nonconformity, and has a large place
in the churches of the United States. Scotch
emigration (700,000 in Canada claim Scottish
descent) would represent Presbyterianism, Eng-
lish emigration the Anglican and Methodist
churches; the well-to-do class, representing
English independence, having hitherto supplied
little toward the stream of emigration. Con-
sequent on this, the few who did emigrate
would seldom find churches of their own order,
and finding no overshadowing establishment
in this land of liberty, would, with their catho-
lic spirit, find a home in sister denominations.

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. The second ses-
sion of the Forty- seventh Congress began on
Monday, Dec. 4, 1882 ; and the second annual
message of the President was submitted, as
follows:
To the Senate and Home of Representatives of the

United States :

It is provided by the Constitution that the President
shall from time to time give to the Congress informa-
tion of the state of the Union, and recommend to their
consideration such measures as he shall judge neces-
sary and expedient.

In reviewing the events of the year which has
elapsed since the commencement of your sessions, I
first call your attention to the gratifying condition of
our foreign affairs. Our intercourse with other powers
has continued to be of the most friendly character.

Such slight differences as have arisen during the
year have been already settled or are likely to reach an
early adjustment. The arrest of citizens of the United
States in Ireland under recent laws which owe their
origin to the disturbed condition of that country has
led to a somewhat extended correspondence with the
Government of Great Britain. A disposition to re-
spect our rights has been practically manifested by
the release of the arrested parties.

The claim of this nation in regard to the super-
vision and control of any interoceanic canal across the
American Isthmus has continued to be the subject of
conference.

It is likely that time will be more powerful than
discussion in removing the ^ divergence between the
two nations, whose friendship is so closely cemented
by the intimacy of their relation and the community
or their interests.

Our long-established friendliness with Eussia has
remained unshaken. It has prompted me to proffer
the earnest counsels of this Government that measures
be adopted for suppressing the proscription which the
Hebrew race in that country has lately suffered. It
. has not transpired that any American citizen has been
subjected to arrest or injury, but our courteous re-
monstrance has nevertheless been courteously re-
ceived. There is reason to believe that the time is
not far distant when Kussia will be able to secure
toleration to all faiths within her borders.

At an international convention held at Paris in 1880,
and attended by representatives of the United States,
an agreement was reached in respect to the protection

of trade-marks, patented articles, and the rights of
manufacturing firms and corporations. The formu-
lating into treaties of the recommendations thus
adopted is receiving the attention which it merits.

The protection of submarine cables is a subject
now under consideration by an international confer-
ence at Paris. Believing that it is clearly the true
policy of this Government to favor the neutralization
of this means of intercourse, I requested our minister
to France to attend the convention as a delegate. I
also designated two of our eminent scientists to attend
as our representatives at the meeting of an interna-
tional committee at Paris, for considering the adoption
of a common unit to measure electric force.

In view of the frequent occurrence of conferences for
the consideration of important matters of common in-
terest to civilized nations, I respectfully suggest that
the Executive be invested by Congress with discre-
tionary powers to send delegates to such conventions,
and that provision be made to 'defray the expenses
incident thereto.

The difference between the United States and Spain
as to the effect of a judgment and certificate of natu-
ralization has not yet been adjusted ; but it is hoped
and believed that negotiations now in progress will
result in the establishment of the position which
seems to this Government so reasonable and just.

I have already called the attention of Congress to
the fact that in the ports of Spain and its colonies
onerous fines have latelv been imposed upon vessels
of the United States for trivial technical offenses
against local regulations. Efforts for the abatement
ot these exactions have thus far proved unsuccessful.

I regret to inform you also that the fees demanded
by Spanish consuls in American ports are in some
cases so large, when compared with the value of the
cargo, as to amount in effect to a considerable export
duty, and that our remonstrances in this regard have
not as yet received the attention which they »eem to
deserve.

The German Government has invited the United
States to participate in an international exhibition of
domestic cattle to be held at Hamburg in July, 1883.
If this country is to be represented, it is important
that in the early days of this session Congress should
make a suitable appropriation for that purpose.

The death of Mr. Marsh, our late minister to Italy,
has evoked from that Government expressions of
profound respect for his exalted character and for his
honorable career in the diplomatic service of his coun-
try. The Italian Government has raised a question
as to the propriety of recognizing in his dual capacity
the representative of. this country recently accredited
both as secretary of legation and as consul-general at
Koine. He has been received as secretary, but his
exequatur as consul-general has thus far been with-
held.

The extradition convention with Belgium, which
has been in operation since 1874, has been lately sup-
planted by another. The Senate has signified its
approval, and ratifications have been duly exchanged
between the contracting countries. To the list of ex-
traditable crimes has been added that of the assassi-
nation or attempted assassination of the chief of the
state.

Negotiations have been opened with Switzerland
looking to a settlement by treaty of the question
whether its citizens can renounce their allegiance and
become citizens of the United States without obtaining-
the consent of the Swiss Government.

I am glad to inform you that the immigration of
paupers and criminals from certain of the cantons of
Switzerland has substantially ceased and is no longer
sanctioned by the authorities.

The consideration of this subject prompts the sug-
gestion that the act of Aug. 3, 1882, which has for
its object the return of foreign convicts to their own
country, should be so modified as not to be open to
the interpretation that it affects the extradition of
criminals on preferred charges of crime.

158

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (PRESIDENT'S MESSAGE.)

The Ottoman Porte has not yet assented to the in-
terpretation which this Government has put upon the
treaty of 1830 relative to its jurisdictional rights in
Turkey. It may well be, however, that this difference
will be adjusted by a general revision of the system
of jurisdiction of the United States in the countries of
the East — a subject to which your attention has been
already called by the Secretary of State.

In the interest of justice toward China and Japan,
I trust that the question of the return of the indem-
nity fund to the governments of those countries will
reach at the present session the satisfactory solution
which I have already recommended, and which has
recently been foreshadowed by congressional discus-
sion.

The treaty lately concluded with Corea awaits the
action of the Senate.

During the late disturbance in Egypt the timely
presence of American vessels served as a protection
to the persons and property of many of our own citi-
zens and of citizens of other countries, whose gov-
ernments have expressed their thanks for this as-
sistance.

The recent legislation restricting immigration of
laborers from China has given rise to the question
whether Chinese proceeding to or from another coun-
try may lawfully pass through our own.

Construing the act of May 6, 1882, in connection
with the treaty of Nov. V. 1880, the restriction would
seem to be limited to Chinese immigrants coming to
the United States as laborers, and would not forbid a
mere transit across our territory. I ask the attention
of Congress to the subject for such action, if any, as
may be deemed advisable.

This Government has recently had occasion to
manifest its interest in the Kepublic of Liberia by
seeking to aid the amicable settlement of the bound-
ary dispute now pending between that republic and
the British possession ol Sierra Leone.

The reciprocity treaty with Hawaii will become
terminable after Sept. 9, 1883, on twelve months' no-
tice by either party. While certain provisions of
that compact may have proved onerous, its existence
has fostered commercial relations which it is impor-
tant to preserve. I suggest, therefore, that early
consideration be given to such modifications of the
treaty as seem to be demanded by the interests of our
people.

In view of our increasing trade with both Hayti and
Santo Domingo, I advise that provision be made for
diplomatic intercourse with the latter by enlarging
the scope of the mission at Port-au-Prince.

I regret that certain claims of American citizens
against the Government of Hayti have thus far been
urged unavailingly.

A recent agreement with Mexico provides for the
crossing of the frontier by the armed forces of either
country in pursuit of hostile Indians. In my mes-
sage of last year I called attention to the prevalent
lawlessness upon the borders and to the necessity
of legislation for its suppression. I again invite the
attention of Congress to the subject.

A partial relieffrom these mischiefs has been sought
in a convention, which now awaits the approval of
the Senate, as does also another touching the estab-
lishment of the international boundary between the
United States and Mexico. If the latter is ratified,
the action of Congress will be required for establish-
ing suitable commissions of survey. The boundary
dispute between Mexico and Guatemala, which led
this Government to proffer its friendly counsels to
both parties, has been amicably settled.

No change has occurred in our relations with Ven-
ezuela. I again invoke your action in the matter of
the pending awards against that republic to which
reference was made by a special message from the
Executive at your last session.

An invitation has been received from the Govern-
ment of Venezuela to send representatives in July,
1883, to Caracas, for participating in the centen-

nial celebration of the birth of Bolivar, the founder of
South American independence. In connection with
this event it is designed to commence the erection at
Caracas of a statue of Washington, and to conduct an
industrial exhibition, which will be open to American
products. I recommend that the United States be
represented, and that suitable provision be made
therefor.

The elevation of the grade of our mission in Cen-
tral America to the plenipotentiary rank, which was
authorized by Congress at its late session, has been
since effected.

The war between Peru and Bolivia on the one
side and Chili on the other began more than three
years ago. On the occupation by Chili, in 1880, of
all the littoral territory of Bolivia, negotiations for
peace were conducted under the direction of the
United States. The allies refused to concede any
territory, but Chili has since become master of the"
whole coast of both countries and of the capital of
Peru. A year since, as you have already been ad-
vised by correspondence transmitted to you in Janu-
ary last, this Government sent a special mission to the
belligerent powers to express the hope that Chili
would be disposed to accept a money indemnity for
the expenses of the war, and to relinquish her de-
mand for a portion of the territory of her antago-
nist.

This recommendation, which Chili declined to fol-
low, this Government did not assume to enforce ; nor
can it be enforced without resort to measures which
would be in keeping neither with the temper of our
people nor with the spirit of our institutions.

The power of Peru no longer extends over its
whole territory, and in the event of our interference
to dictate peace would need to be supplemented by
the armies and navies of the United States. Such in-
terference would almost inevitably lead to the estab-
lishment of a protectorate — a result utterly at odds
with our past policy, injurious to our present interests,
and full of embarrassments for the future.

For effecting the termination of hostilities upon
terms at once just to the victorious nation and gener-
ous to its adversaries, this Government has spared no
efforts save such as might involve the complications
which I have indicated.

It is greatly to be deplored that Chili seems re-
solved to exact such rigorous conditions of peace and
indisposed to submit to arbitration the terms of an
amicable settlement. No peace is likely to be lasting
that is not sufficiently equitable and just to command
the approval of other nations.

About a year since, invitations were extended to
the nations of this continent to send representatives
to a peace congress to assemble at Washington in
November, 1882. The time of meeting was fixed at a
period then remote, in the hope, as the invitation itself
declared, that in the mean time the disturbances be-
tween the South American republics would be adjust-
ed. As that expectation seemed unlikely to be realized,
I asked in April last for an expression of opinion from
the two Houses of Congress as to the advisability of
holding the proposed convention at the time appointed.
This action was prompted in part by doubts which
mature reflection had suggested whether the diplo-
matic usage and traditions of the Government did not
make it fitting that the Executive should consult the
representatives of the people before pursuing a line
of policy somewhat novel in its character., and far-
reaching in its possible consequences. In view of the
fact that no action was taken by Congress in the
premises and that no provision had been made for
necessary expenses, I subsequently decided to post-
pone the convocation, and so notified the several gov-
ernments which had been invited to attend.

I am unwilling to dismiss this subject without assur-
ing you of my support of any measures the wisdom
of Congress may devise for the promotion of peace on
this continent and throughout the world, and I trust
that the time is nigh when, with the universal assent

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (PBESIDENT'S MESSAGE.)

159

of civilized peoples, all international differences shall
be determined without resort to arms by the benig-
nant processes of arbitration.

Changes have occurred in the diplomatic represen-
tation of several foreign powers during the past year.
New ministers from the Argentine Eepublic, Austria-
Hungary, Brazil, Chili. Chuia, France, Japan, Mexi-
co, the Netherlands, and Russia, have presented their

For civil expenses $18,042,386 42

For foreign intercourse 1,301,588 19

For Indians 9,786,747 40

For pensions 61,845,193 95

For the military establishment,
including river and harbor
improvements and arsenals. 43,570,494 19
For the naval establishment,
including vessels, machin-
ery, and improvements at

navy-yards 15,032,046 26

For miscellaneous expendi-
tures, including public build-
ings, light-houses, and col-
lecting the revenue 84,539,237 50

For expenditures on account
of the District of Columbia..
For interest on the public debt.

3,330,543 87
71,077,206 79

Total ordinary expenditures. $257,981,439 57

redentials. The missions of Denmark and Venezu-
ela at this capital have been raised in grade. Switz-
erland has created a plenipotentiary mission to this
Government, and an embassy from Madagascar and
a minister from Siam will shortly arrive.

Our diplomatic intercourse has been enlarged by
the establishment of relations with the new kingdom
of Servia, by the creation of a mission to Siam, and by
the restoration of the mission to Greece. The Shah

of Persia has expressed his gratification that a charge

d? affaires will shortly be sent to that country, where Leaving a surplus revenue of. $145,543,810 71

the rights of our citizens have been hitherto court e- Which, with an amount drawn from the cash

ously guarded by the representatives of Great Britain. balance in the Treasury of 20,737,694 84

I renew my recommendation of such legislation as !»,.«„„

will place the United States in harmony with other Making ; $166,281,505 55

maritime powers with respect to the international was applied to the redemption of—

rules for the prevention of collisions at sea. Bonds for the sinking fund $60,079,1 50 00

In conformity with your joint resolution of the 3d of Fractional currency for the sinking fund .... 58,705 55

August last, I have directed the Secretary of State to Loan of July and August, 1861 62,572,050 00

address foreign governments in respect to a proposed t^fj loanof 1881 <?7 194 4?o n

conference for considering the subject of the univer- Loanof 1858 looo 00

sal adoption of a common prime meridian to be used Loan of February, 1861 . '. '. '. '. . . . . ! . " '. '. '. . . '. '. '. 303,'000 00

in the reckoning of longitude and in the regulation Five-twenties of 1862 2,100 00

of time throughout the civilized world. Their re- Five-twenties of 1864 7,40000

plies will, in due time, be laid before you. Five-twenties of 1865 , 6,500 0(

An agreement was reached at Paris in 1875 between len ^j1^^8-^^8^ ^KT'^O o

the principal powers for the interchange of official Consols of 1867 408 250 0

publications through the medium of their respective Consols of 1868 '.['.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. 14l'400 00

foreign departments. Oregon war debt 675',250 00

The admirable system which has been built up by Old demand, compound-interest, and other

the enterprise of the Smithsonian Institution affords a notes 18,350 00

practical basis for our co-operation in this scheme, and

an arrangement has been effected by which that insti- Total $166,281,505 55

tution will perform the necessary labor, under the di- The foreign commerce of the United States during

rection of the Department of State. A reasonable com- the last fiscal year, including imports and exports of

pensation therefor should be provided by law. merchandise and specie, was as follows :

A clause in the act making appropriations for the EXPORTS.

diplomatic and consular service contemplates the re- Merchandise . $750,542,257

organization of both branches of such service on a Specie : 49,417,479

salaried basis, leaving fees to inure to the benefit of ~ , , *»QO Qf.n -Qft

the Treasury! I cordially favor such a project, as Total $799,959,786

likely to correct abuses in the present system. The IMP<^?TSv A. A-,nA con KTA

Secretary of State will present to you af'an early day

a plan for such reorganization. . ' L_J__

A full and interesting exhibit of the operations of Total $767,111,964

the Treasury Department is afforded by the report of Excegg of ortg over imports of merchandise,

the secretaries. $05 902 §§3

It appears that the ordinary revenues from all * T'Mg 'excegg ig legs than it hag been before for any

sources tor the fiscal year ended June 30, 1882, were of the previou8 six years ^ appears by the following

as lollow : toble . v

From customs $220 410,730 25 Excess of exports

From internal revenue 146,497.595 45 «ver imPorts of

From sales of public lands 4,753,140 37 YEAR ENDED JUNE 30— merchaudise

From tax on circulation and deposits of na- 1876 $.9,043.481

tionalbanks 8,956,79445 1877 151,152,094

From repayment of interest by Pacific rail- 1878 2o7,814,234

way companies '. 840,55487 1879 264.661,666

From sinking fund for Pacific railway com- 1880 167,683,912

panies ... f 796,271 42 1881 2MH«

From customs fees, fines, penalties, etc 1.343,348 00 18S2 2o,90J,b83

From fees— consular, letters patent, and lands. 2,638,990 97 During the year there have been organized 171 na-

From proceeds of sales of Government prop- tional banks, and of those institutions there are now.

<"-f" 314,959 85 - . .. , -

From Indian trust funds ................... 5,705,248 22

From deposits by individuals for surveying

public lands ............................. 2,052,306 36

From revenues of the District of Columbia.. 1,715,176 41

From miscellaneous sources ................ 3,383,445 43

Total ,»viinarv r«r>pint« suos 19 n 9™ 9«

nary receipts ................. $403,525,250 1

.The ordinary expenditures for the same period

1, 1882, was $324,656,458.

I commend to your attention the Secretary's views
in respect to the likelihood of a serious contraction of
tm-s circulation, and to the modes by which that re-
gult ^^ in his' j udgment5 be averted.

In respect to the coinage of silver dollars and the
retireme£t of sil ver certificates I have seen .nothing to
alter but much to confirm the sentiments to which I
gave expression last year.

160

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (PBESIDENT'S MESSAGE.)

A comparison between the respective amounts of
silver-dollar circulation on Nov. 1, 1881, and on Nov.
1, 1882, shows a slight increase of a million and a half
of dollars. But during the interval there had been in
the whole number coined an increase of twenty-six
millions. Of the one hundred and twenty-eight mill-
ions thus far minted, little more than thirty-five mill-
ions are in circulation. The mass of accumulated
coin has grown so great that the vault-room at pres-
ent available for storage is scarcely sufficient to con-
tain it. It is not apparent why it is desirable to con-
tinue this coinage, now so enormously in excess of the
public demand.

As to the silver certificates, in addition to the
grounds which seemed last year to justify their re-
tirement may be mentioned the effect which is likely
to ensue from the supply of gold certificates for whose
issuance Congress recently made provision, and which
are now in active circulation.

You can not fail to note with interest the discussion
by the Secretary as to the necessity of providing by
legislation some mode of freeing the Treasury of an
excess of assets in the event that Congress fails to
reach an early agreement for the reduction of taxa-
tion.

'I heartily approve the Secretary's recommendation
of immediate and extensive reductions in the annual
revenues of the Government.

It will be remembered that I urged upon the atten-
tion of Congress at its last session the importance of
relieving the industry and enterprise of the country
from the pressure of unnecessary taxation. It is one
of the tritest maxims of political economy that all
taxes are burdensome, however wisely and prudently
imposed. And though there have always been among
our people wide differences of sentiment as to the
best methods of raising the national revenues, and
indeed as to the principles upon which taxation
should be based, there has been substantial accord in
the doctrine that only such taxes ought to be levied as
are necessary for a wise and economical administra-
tion of the Government. Of late the public revenues
have far exceeded that limit, and unless checked by
appropriate legislation such excess will continue to
increase from year to year. For the fiscal year ended
June 30, 1881, the surplus revenue amounted to $100,-
000,000 ; for the fiscal year ended on the 30th of June
last the surplus was more than one hundred and
forty-five millions.

The report of the Secretary shows what disposition
has been made of thes"e moneys. They have not only
answered the requirements of the sinking fund, but
have afforded a large balance applicable to other re-
ductions of the public debt.

But I renew the expression of my conviction that
such rapid extinguishment of the national indebted-
ness as is now taking place is by no means a cause
for congratulation; it is a cause rather for serious
apprehension.

If it continues, it must speedily be followed by one
of the evil results so clearly set forth in the report of
the Secretary.

Either the 'surplus must lie idle in the Treasury or
the Government will be forced to buy at market rates
its bonds not then redeemable, and which, under
such circumstances, can not fail to command an enor-
mous premium, or the swollen revenues will be de-
voted to extravagant expenditure, which, as experi-
ence has taught, is ever the bane of an overflowing
treasury.

It was made apparent in the course of the animated
discussions which this question aroused at the last
session of Congress that the policy of diminishing
the revenue by reducing taxation commanded the
general approval of the members of both Houses.

I regret that because of conflicting views as to the
best methods by which that policy should be made
operative none of its benefits have as yet been
reaped.

In fulfillment of what I deem my constitutional

duty, but with little hope that I can make valuable
contribution to this vexed question, I shall proceed to
intimate briefly my own views in relation to it.

Upon the showing of our financial condition at the
close of the last fiscal year I felt justified in recom-
mending to Congress the abolition of all internal-rev-
enue taxes except those upon tobacco in its various
forms and upon distilled spirits and fermented liq-
uors, and except also the special tax upon the manu-
facturers of and dealers in such articles.

I venture now to suggest that unless it shall be as-
certained that the probable expenditures of the Gov-
ernment for the coming year have been underesti-
mated, all internal taxes, save those which relate to
distilled spirits, can be prudently abrogated.

Such a course, if accompanied by a simplification
of the machinery of collection, which would then be
easy of accomplishment, might reasonably be expected
to result in diminishing the cost of such collection by
at least two millions and a half of dollars, and in the
retirement from office of from 1,500 to 2,000 per-
sons.

The system of excise duties has never commended
itself to the favor of the American people, and has
never been resorted to except for supplying deficien-
cies in the Treasury when, by reason of special exi-
gencies, the duties on imports have proved inadequate
for the needs of the Government. The sentiment of
the country doubtless demands that the present excise
tax shall be abolished as soon as such a course can be
safely pursued.

It seems to me, however, that, for various reasons,
so sweeping a measure as the total abolition of inter-
nal taxes would for the present be an unwise step.

Two of these reasons are deserving of special men-
tion :

First, it is by no means clear that even if the exist-
ing system of duties on imports is continued without
modification, those duties alone will yield sufficient
revenue for all the needs of the Government. It is
estimated that one hundred millions of dollars will be
required for pensions during the coming year, and it
may well be doubted whether the maximum annual
demand for that object has yet been reached. Un-
certainty upon this question would alone justify, in
my judgment, the retention for the present of that
portion of the system of internal revenue which is
least objectionable to the people.

Second, a total abolition of excise taxes would al-
most inevitably prove a serious if not an insurmount-
able obstacle to a thorough revision of the tariff and
to any considerable reduction in import duties.

The present tariff system is in many respects un-
just. It makes unequal distributions both of its bur-
dens and its benefits. This fact was practically rec-
ognized by a majority of each House of Congress in
the passage of the act creating the Tariff Commis-
sion. The report of that commission will be placed
before you at the beginning of this session, and will,
I trust," afford you such information as to the condi-
tion and prospects of the various commercial, agricul-
tural, manufacturing, mining, and other interests of
the country, and contain such suggestions for statu-
tory revision, as will practically aid your action upon
this important subject.

The revenue from customs for the fiscal year ended
June 30, 1879, amounted to $137,000,000.

It has in the three succeeding years reached, first,
$186,000,000, then $198,000,000, and finally, as has
been already stated, $220,000,000.

The income from this source for the fiscal year
which will end on June 30, 1883, will doubtless be
considerably in excess of the sum last mentioned.

If the tax on domestic spirits is to be retained, it is
plain, therefore, that large reductions from the customs
revenues are entirely feasible. While recommending
this reduction, I am far from advising the abandon-
ment of the policy of so discriminating in the adjust-
ment of details as to afford aid and protection to do-
mestic labor. But the present system should be so

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (PRESIDENT'S MESSAGE,)

161

revised as to equalize the public burden among all
classes and occupations and bring it into closer har-
mony with the present needs of industry.

Without entering into minute detail, which under
present circumstances is quite unnecessary, I recom-
mend an enlargement of the free list so as to include
within it the numerous articles which yield inconsid-
erable revenue, a simplification of the complex and
inconsistent schedule of duties upon certain manufac-
tures, practically those of cotton, iron, and steel, and
a substantial reduction of the duties upon those arti-
cles, and upon sugar, molasses, silk, wool, and woolen
goods.

If a general revision of the tariif shall be found to
be impracticable at this session, I express the hope
that at least some of the more conspicuous inequalities
of the present law may be corrected before your final
adjournment. One of them is specially referred to
by the Secretary. In view of a recent decision of the
Supreme Court, the necessity of amending the law
by which the Dutch standard of color is adopted as
the test of the saccharine strength of sugars is too
obvious to require comment.

From the report of the Secretary of War it appears
that the only outbreaks of Indians during the past
year occurred in Arizona and in the southwestern
part of New Mexico. They were promptly quelled, and
the quiet which has prevailed in all other parts of the
country has permitted such an addition to be made to
the military force in the region endangered by the
Apaches that there is little reason to apprehend trouble
in the future.

Those part? of the Secretary's reports which relate
to our sea-coast defenses and their armament suggest
the gravest reflections. Our existing fortifications are
notoriously inadequate to the defense of the great
harbors and cities for whose protection they were
built.

The question of providing an armament suited to
our present necessities has been the subject of consid-
eration by a board, whose report was transmitted to
Congress at the last session. Pending the considera-
tion of that report, the War Department has taken no
steps for the manufacture or conversion of any heavy
cannon, but the Secretary expresses the hope that
authority and means to begin that important work
will be soon provided. I invite the attention of Con-
gress to the propriety of making more adequate pro-
vision for arming and equipping the militia than is
afforded by the act of 1808, which is still upon the
statute-book. The matter has already been the sub-
ject of discussion in the Senate, and a bill which seeks
to supply the deficiencies of existing laws is now upon
its calendar.

The Secretary of War calls attention to an embar-
rassment growing out of the recent act of Congress
making the retirement of officers of the army compul-
sory at the age of sixty-four. The act of 1878 is still
in force, which limits to four hundred the number of
those who can be retired for disability or upon their
own application. The two acts, when construed to-
gether, seem to forbid the relieving, even for absolute
incapacity, of officers who do not fall within the pur-
view of the latter statute, save at such times as there
chance to be less than four hundred names on the re-
tired list. There are now four hundred and twenty.
It is not likely that Congress intended this result,
and I concur with the Secretary that the law ought to
be amended.

The grounds that impelled me to withhold my sig-
nature from the bill entitled " An act making appro-
priations for the construction, repair, and preservation
of certain works on rivers and harbors," which became
a law near the close of your last session, prompt me
to express the hope that no similar measure will be
deemed necessary during the present session of Con-
gress. Indeed, such a measure would now be open
to a serious objection in addition to that which was
lately urged upon your attention. I am informed by
the Secretary of War that the greater portion of the

VOL. XXIII. 11 A

sum appropriated for the various items specified in
that act remains unexpended.

Of the new works which it authorized, expenses
have been incurred upon two only, for which the total
appropriation was $210.000. The present available
balance is disclosed by the following table :
Amount of appropriation by act of Aug. 2, 1882 . . $18,738,875
Amount of appropriation by act of June 19, 1882 . 10,000

Amount of appropriation for payments to J. B.

Eads 304,000

Unexpended balance of former appropriations. . . 4,738,268

Total $23,791,188

Less amount drawn from Treasury between July
1, 1882, and Nov. 30, 1882 6,056,194

Total $17,734,944

It is apparent by this exhibit that so far as concerns
most of the items to which the act of Aug. 2, 1882,
relates there can be no need of further appropriations
until after the close of the present session. If, how-
ever, any action should seem to be necessary in re-
spect to particular obiects, it will be entirely feasible
to provide for those objects by appropriate legislation.
It is possible, for example, that a delay until the as-
sembling of the next Congress to make additional
provision for the Mississippi river improvements
might be attended with serious consequences. If
such appear to be the case, a just bill relating to that
subject would command my approval.

This leads me to offer a suggestion which I trust
will commend itself to the wisdom of Congress. Is
it not advisable that grants of considerable sums of
money for diverse ana independent schemes ot in-
ternal improvement should be made the subjects of
separate and distinct legislative enactments I It will
scarcely be gainsaid, even by those who favor the
most liberal expenditures for such purposes as are
sought to be accomplished by what is commonly
called the river and harbor bill, that the practice of
grouping in such a bill appropriations for a great di-
versity of objects, widely separated, either in their
nature or in the locality with which they are con-
cerned, or in both, is one which is much to be depre-
cated unless it is irremediable. It inevitably tends
to secure the success _of the bill as a whole, though
many of the items if separately considered could
scarcely fail of rejection. By the adoption of the
course I have recommended, every member of Con-
gress, whenever opportunity should arise for giving
his influence and vote for meritorious appropriations,
would be enabled so to do without being called upon
to sanction others undeserving his approval. So also
would the Executive be afforded thereby full oppor-
tunity to exercise his constitutional prerogative of op-
posing whatever appropriations seemed to him objec-
tionable, without imperiling the success of others
which commended themselves to his judgment.

It may be urged in opposition to these suggestions
that the number of works of internal improvement
which are justly entitled to governmental aid is so
great as to render impracticable separate appropriation
bills therefor, or even for such comparatively limited
number as make disposition of large sums of money.
This objection may be well founded, and whether it
be or not, the advantages which would be likely to
ensue from the adoption of the course I have recom-
mended may perhaps be more effectually attained by
another, which I respectfully submit to Congress as
an alternative proposition.

It is provided by the constitutions of fourteen of
pur States that the Executive may disapprove any
item or items of a bill appropriating money ; where-
upon the part of the bill approved shall be law, and
the part disapproved shall fail to become law, unless
repassed according to the provisions prescribed for
the passage of bills over the veto of the Executive.
The States wherein some such provision as the fore-
going is a part of the fundamental law are Alabama,
California, Colorado. Florida, Georgia, Louisiana,
Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, New

162

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (PRESIDENT'S MESSAGE.)

York, Pennsylvania, Texas, and West Virginia. I
commend to your careful consideration the question
whether an amendment of the Federal Constitution
in the particular indicated would not afford the best
remedy for what is often grave embarrassment both
to members of Congress and to the^Executive, and is
sometimes a serious public mischief.

The report of the Secretary of the Navy states the
movements of the various squadrons duringthe year,
in home and foreign waters, where our officers and
seamen, with such snips as we possess, have continued
to illustrate the high character and excellent discipline
of the naval organization.

On the 21st of December, 1881, information was re-
ceived that the exploring steamer Jeannette had been
crushed and abandoned in the Arctic ocean. The
officers and crew, alter a journey over the ice, em-
barked in three boats for the coast of Siberia. One
of the parties, under the command of Chief- Engineer
George W. Melville, reached the land, and, falling in
with the natives, was saved. Another, under Lieut. -
Commander De Long, landed in a barren region near
the mouth of the Lena river. After six weeks had
elapsed all but two of the number had died from fa-
tigue and starvation. No tidings have been received
from the party in the third boat, under the command
of Lieut. Chipp, but a long and fruitless investigation
leaves little doubt that all its members perished at
sea. As a slight tribute to their heroism I give in
this communication the names of the gallant men who
sacrificed their lives on this expedition : Lieut.-Com-
mancler George W. De Long, Surgeon James M.
Ambler, Jerome J. Collins, Hans Halmer Erichsen,
Heinrich H. Kaacke, George W. Boyd, Walter Lee,
Adolph Dressier, Carl A. Gortz, Nelse Iverson, the
cook Ah Sam, and the Indian Alexy. The officers
and men in the missing boat were Lieut. Charles W.
Chipp, commanding ; William Dunbar, Alfred Sweet-
man, Walter Sharvell, Albert C. Kuehne, Edward
Star, Henry D. Warren, and Peter E. Johnson.

Lieut. Giles B. Barber and Master William H.
Scheutze are now bringing home the remains of Lieut.
De Long and his comrades, in pursuance of the di-
rections of Congress.

The Eodgere, fitted out for the relief of the Jean-
nette, in accordance with the act of Congress of March
3, 1881, sailed from San Francisco June 16th, under
the command of Lieut. Robert M. Berry. On No-
vember 30th she was accidentally destroyed by fire,
while in whiter quarters in St. Lawrence bay, but
the officers and crew succeeded in escaping to the
shore. Lieut. Berry and one of his officers, after
making a search for the Jeannette along the coast ot
Siberia, fell in with Chief- Engineer Melville's party,
and returned home by way of Europe. The other
officers and the crew of the Rodgers were brought
from St. Lawrence bay by the whaling-steamer North
Star. Master Charles F. Putnam, who had been
placed in charge of a depot of supplies at Cape Serdze,
returning to his post from St. Lawrence bay across
the ice in a blinding snow-storm, was earned out to
sea and lost, notwithstanding all efforts to rescue him.

It appears, by the Secretary's report, that the avail-
able naval force of the United States consists of thirty-
seven cruisers, fourteen single-turreted monitors, built
during the rebellion, a large number of smooth-bore
guns and Parrott rifles, and eighty-seven rifled can-
non.

The cruising-vessels should be gradually replaced
by iron or steel ships, the monitors by modern ar-
mored vessels, and the armament by high-power
rifled guns.

The reconstruction of our navy, which was recom-
mended in my last message, was begun by Congress
authorizing, in its recent act, the construction of two
large, unarmored steel vessels of the character recom-
mended by the late naval advisory board, and subject
to the final approval of a new advisory board to be
organized as provided by that act. I call your atten-
tion to the recommendation of the Secretary and the

board that authority be given to construct two more
cruisers of smaller dimensions, and one fleet dispatch-
vessel, and that appropriations be made for high-
power rifled cannon, for the torpedo service, and for
other harbor defenses.

Pending the consideration by Congress of the policy
to be hereafter adopted in conducting the eight large
navy-yards and their expensive establishments, the
Secretary advocates the reduction of expenditures
therefor to the lowest possible amounts.

For the purpose of affording the officers and seamen
of the navy opportunities for exercise and discipline
in their profession, under appropriate control and
direction, the Secretary advises that the Light-House
Service and Coast Survey be transferred, as now or-
ganized, from the Treasury to the Navy Department ;
and he also suggests, for tlie reasons which he assigns,
that a similar transfer may wisely be made of the
cruising revenue-vessels.

The Secretary forcibly depicts the intimate connec-
tion and interdependence of the navy and the com-
mercial marine, and invites attention to the continued
decadence of the latter, and the corresponding trans-
fer of our growing commerce to foreign bottoms.

This subject is one of the utmost importance to
the national welfare. Methods of reviving American
ship-building, and of restoring the United States flag
in the ocean carrying-trade, should receive the im-
mediate attention of Congress. We have mechanical
skill and abundant material for the manufacture of
modern iron steamships hi fair competition with our
commercial rivals. Our disadvantage in building
ships is the greater cost of labor, and in sailing them
higher taxes and greater interest on capital, while the
ocean highways are already monopolized by our for-
midable competitors. These obstacles should in some
way be overcome, and for our rapid communication
with foreign lands we should not continue to depend

any

foreign ports, our facilities for extending our com-
merce are greatly restricted, while the nations which
build and sail the ships, and carry the mails and pas-
sengers, obtain thereby conspicuous advantages in
increasing their trade.

The report of the Postmaster-General gives evidence
of the satisfactory condition of that department, and
contains many valuable data and accompanying sug-
gestions which can not fail to be of interest

The information which it affords, that the receipts
for the fiscal year have exceeded the expenditures,
must be very gratifying to Congress and to the people
of the country.

As matters which may fairly claim particular atten-
tion, I refer you to his observations in reference to
the advisability of changing the present basis for fix-
ing salaries and allowances, of extending the money-
order system, and of enlarging the functions of the
postal establishment so as to put under its control the
telegraph system of the country, though from this
last and most important recommendation I must with-
hold my concurrence.

At the last session of Congress, several bills were
introduced into the House of Representatives for the
reduction of letter postage to the rate of two cents per
half ounce.

I have given much study and reflection to this sub-
ject, and am thoroughly persuaded that such a reduc-
tion would be for the best interests of the public.

It has been the policy of the Government, from its
foundation, to defray, as far as possible, the expenses
of carrying the mails by a direct tax in the form of
postage. It has never been claimed, however, that
this service ought to be productive of a net revenue.

As has been stated already, the report of the Post-
master-General shows that 'there is now a very con-
siderable surplus in his department, and that hence-
forth the receipts are likely to increase at a much
greater ratio than the necessary expenditures. Unless

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (PBESIDENT'S MESSAGE.)

163

some change is made in the existing laws, the profits
of the postal service will, in a very few years, swell
the revenues of the Government many millions of
dollars. The time seems auspicious, therefore, for
some reduction in the rates of postage. In what
shall that reduction consist ?

A review of the legislation which has been had
upon this subject during the last thirty years, dis-
closes that, domestic letters constitute the only class
of mail matter which has never been favored by a
substantial reduction of rates. I am convinced that
the burden of maintaining the service falls most un-
equally upon that class, and' that more than any
other it is entitled to present relief.

That such relief may be extended without detriment
to other public interests, will be discovered upon re-
viewing the results of former reductions.

Immediately prior to the act of 1845, the postage
upon a letter composed of a single sheet was as fol-
lows:
If conveyed— Cents.

30 miles or less 6

Between 30 and 80 miles 10

Between SO and 150 miles 12^

Between 150 and 400 miles 18|

Over 400 miles 25

By the act of 1845, the postage upon a single letter
conveyed for any distance under 300 miles was fixed
at 5 cents, and for any greater distance at 10 cents.

By the act of 1851, it was provided that a single
letter, if prepaid, should be carried any distance not
exceeding 3,000 miles for 3 cents, and any greater dis-
tance for 6 cents.

It will be noticed that both of these reductions
were of a radical character, and relatively quite as
important as that which is now proposed.

In each case there ensued a temporary loss of reve-
nue, but a sudden and large influx of business, which
substantially repaired that loss within three years.

Unless the experience of past legislation in this
country and elsewhere goes for naught, it may be
safely predicted that the stimulus of 331 per cent,
reduction in the tax for carriage, would at once in-
crease the number of letters consigned to the mails.

The advantages of secrecy would lead to a very
eral substitution of sealed packets for postal cards
1 open circulars, and in divers other ways the vol-
of first-class matter would be enormously aug-
nted. Such increase amounted in England, in the
t year after the adoption of penny postage, to more
in 125 per cent.

As a result of careful estimates, the details of which

n not be here set out, I have become convinced that

.e deficiency for the first year after the proposed re-
duction would not exceed 7 per cent, of the expendi-
tures, or $3,000,000, while the deficiency after the
reduction of 1845 was more than 14 per cent., and
after that of 1851 was 27 per .icnt.

Another interesting comparison is afforded by sta-
tistics furnished me by the Post-Office Department.

The act of 1845 was passed in face of the tact that
there existed a deficiency of more than $30,000. That
of 1851 was encouraged by the slight surplus of $132j-
000. The excess of revenue in the next fiscal year is
likely to be $3,500,000.

If Congress should approve these suggestions, it
may be deemed desirable to supply to some extent
the deficiency which must for a time result, by in-
creasing the charge for carrying merchandise, which
is now only sixteen cents per pound. But even with-
out such an increase, I am confident that the receipts
under the diminished rates would equal the expendi-
tures after the lapse of three or four years.

The report of the Department o'f Justice brings
anew to your notice the necessity of enlarging the
present system of Federal jurisprudence, so as effectu-
ally to answer the requirements of the ever-increasing
litigation with which it is called upon to deal.

The Attorney-General renews the suggestions of
his predecessor, that in the interests of justice better

provision than the existing laws afford should be made
in certain judicial districts for fixing the fees of wit-
nesses and jurors.

In my message of December last I referred to pend-
ing criminal proceedings growing out of alleged frauds
in what is known as the star-route service of the Post-
Office Department, and advised you that I had en-
joined upon the Attorney-General and associate coun-
sel, to whom the interests of the Government were
intrusted, the duty of prosecuting with the utmost
vigor of the law all persons who might be found
chargeable with those offenses. A trial of one of
these cases has since occurred. It occupied for many
weeks the attention of the Supreme Court of this Dis-
trict, and was conducted with great zeal and ability.
It resulted in a disagreement of the jury, but the cause
has been again placed upon the calendar, and will
shortly be retried. If any guilty persons shall finally
escape punishment for their offenses, it will not be
for lack of diligent and earnest efforts on the part of
the prosecution.

1 trust that some agreement may be reached which
will speedily enable Congress, with the concurrence
of the Executive, to afford the commercial community
the benefits of a national bankrupt law.

The report of the Secretary of the Interior, with its
accompanying documents, presents a full statement
of the varied operations of that Department. In re-
spect to Indian affairs, nothing has occurred which
has changed or seriously modified the views to which
I devoted much space "in a former communication to
Congress. I renew the recommendations therein con-
tained as to extending to the Indian the protection of
the law, allotting land in severally to such as desire
it, and making suitable provision for the education of
youth. Such provision, as the Secretary forcibly
maintains, will prove unavailing unless it is broad
enough to include all those who are able and willing
to make use of it. and should not solely relate to in-
tellectual training, but also to instruction in such
manual labor and simple industrial arts as can be
made practically available.

Among other important subjects which are included
within the Secretary's report, and which will doubt-
less furnish occasion for congressional action, may be
mentioned the neglect of the railroad companies to
which large grants of land were made by the acts of
1862 and 1864 to take title thereto, and their conse-
quent inequitable exemption from local taxation.

No survey of our material condition can fail to sug-
gest inquiries as to the moral and intellectual progress
of the people.

The census returns disclose an alarming state of il-
literacy in certain portions of the country where the
provision for schools is grossly inadequate. It is a
momentous question for the decision of Congress
whether immediate and substantial aid should not be
extended by the General Government for supplement-
ing the efforts of private beneficence and of State and
Territorial legislation in behalf of education.

The regulation of interstate commerce has already
been the subject of your deliberations. One of the
incidents of the marvelous extension of the railway
system of the country has been the adoption of such
measures by the corporations which own or control
the roads as has tended to impair the advantages of
healthful competition and to make hurtful discrimina-
tions in the adjustment of freightage.

These inequalities have been _ corrected in several'
of the States by appropriate legislation, the effect of
which is necessarily restricted to the limits of their
own territory.

So far as such mischiefs affect commerce between
the States, or between any one of the States and a
foreign country, they are subjects of national concern,
and Congress alone can afford relief.

The results which have thus far attended the en-
forcement of the recent statute for the suppression of
polygamy in the Territories are reported by the Secre-
tary of the Interior. It is not probable that any addi-

164

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (PRESIDENT'S MESSAGE.)

tional legislation in this regard will be deemed de-
sirable until the effect of existing laws shall be more
closely observed and studied.

I congratulate you that the commissioners, under
whose supervision those laws have been put in opera-
tion, are encouraged to believe that the evil at which
they are aimed may be suppressed without resort to
such radical measures as in some quarters have been
thought indispensable for success.

The close relation of the General Government to the
Territories preparing to be great States may well en-
gage your special attention. It is there that the Indian
disturbances mainly occur, and that polygamy has
found room for its growth. I can not doubt that a
careful survey of Territorial legislation would be of
the highest utility. Life and property would become
more secure. The liability of outbreaks between In-
dians and whites would be lessened. The public
domain would be more securely guarded and better
progress be made in the instruction of the young.

Alaska is still without any form of civil govern-
ment. If means were provided for the education of
its people and for the protection of their lives and

g'operty, the immense resources of the region would
vite permanent settlements and open new fields for
industry and enterprise.

The report of the Commissioner of Agriculture pre-
sents an account of the labors of that department dur-
ing the past year, and includes information of much
interest to the general public.

The condition of the forests of the country and the
wasteful manner in which their destruction is taking
place give cause for serious apprehension. Their
action in protecting the earth's surface, in modifying
the extremes of climate, and in regulating and sustain-
ing the flow of springs and streams, is now well under-
stood, and their importance in relation to the growth
and prosperity of the country can not be safely disre-
garded. They are fast disappearing before destructive
fires and the legitimate requirements of our increasing
population, and their total extinction can not be long
delayed unless better methods than now prevail shall
be adopted for their protection and cultivation. The
attention of Congress is invited to the necessity of ad-
ditional legislation to secure the preservation of the
valuable forests still remaining on the public domain,
especially in the extreme western States and Terri-
tories, where the necessity for their preservation is
greater than in less mountainous regions, and where
the prevailing dryness of the climate renders their
restoration, ifthey are once destroyed, well-nigh im-
possible.

The communication which I made to Congress at its
first session in December last contained a somewhat
full statement of my sentiments in relation to the
principles and rules which ought to govern appoint-
ments to public service.

Eeferring to the various plans which had thereto-
fore been 'the subject of discussion in the National
Legislature (plans which in the main were modeled
upon the system which obtains in Great Britain, but
which lacked certain of the prominent features whereby
that system is distinguished), I felt bound to intimate
my doubts whether they, or any of them, would afford
adequate remedy for the evils which they aimed to
correct.

I declared, nevertheless, that if the proposed meas-
ures should prove acceptable to Congress they would
receive the unhesitating support of the Executive.

Since these suggestions were submitted for your
consideration there has been no legislation upon the
subject to which they relate : but there has meanwhile
been an increase in the public interest in that subject ;
and the people of the country, apparently without
distinction of party, have in various ways and upon
frequent occasions given expression to their earnest
wish for prompt and definite action. In my judgment

I may add that my own sense of its pressing im-
portance has been quickened by observation of a

practical phase of the matter, to which attention has
more than once been called by my predecessors.

The civil list now comprises about 100,000 persons,
far the larger part of whom must, under the terms of
the Constitution, be selected by the President, either
directly or through his own appointees.

In the early years of the administration of the Gov-
ernment the personal direction of appointments to the
civil service may not have been an irksome task for
the Executive ; but now that the burden has increased
fully a hundred-fold it has become greater than he
ought to bear, and it necessarily diverts his time and
attention from the proper discharge of other duties no
less delicate and responsible, and which, in the very
nature of things, can not be delegated to other hands.
' In the judgment of not a few who have given study
and reflection to this matter, the nation has outgrown
the provisions which the Constitution has established
for filling the minor offices in the public service.

But whatever may be thought of the wisdom or ex-
pediency of changing the fundamental law in this re-
gard, it is certain that much relief may be afforded,
not only to the President and to the heads of the de-
partments, but to Senators and Representatives in
Congress, by discreet legislation. They would be
protected in a great measure by the bill now pending
before the Senate, or by any other which should em-
body its important features, from the pressure of per-
sonal importunity and from the labor of examining
conflicting claims and pretensions of candidates.

I trust that before the close of the present session
some decisive action may be taken for the correction
of the evils which inhere in the present methods of
appointment, and I assure you of my hearty co-
operation in any measures which are likely to conduce
to that end.

As to the most appropriate term and tenure of the
official life of the subordinate employes of the Govern-
ment, it seems to be generally agreed that whatever
their extent or character, the one should be definite
and the other stable, and that neither should be regu-
lated by zeal in the service of party or fidelity to the
fortunes of an individual.

It matters little to the people at large what compe-
tent person is at the head of this department or of that
bureau, if they feel assured that the removal of one
and the accession of another will not involve the re-
tirement of honest and faithful subordinates, whose
duties are purely administrative and have no legiti-
mate connection with the triumph of any political prin-
ciples or the success of any political party or faction.
It is to this latter class of officers that the Senate bill,
to which I have already referred, exclusively applies.

While neither that bill nor any other prominent
scheme for improving the civil service concerns the
higher grade of officials, who are appointed by the
President and confirmed by the Senate, I feel bound
to correct a prevalent misapprehension as to the
frequency with which the present Executive has dis-
placed the incumbent of an office and appointed
another in his stead.

It has been repeatedly alleged that he has in this
particular signally departed from the course which has
been pursued under recent administrations of the Gov-
ernment. The facts are as follow :

The whole number of executive appointments during
the four years immediately preceding Mr. Garfield's
accession' to the presidency was 2,696.

Of this number, 244, or 9 per cent., involved the re-
moval of previous incumbents.

The ratio of removals to the whole number of ap-
pointments was much the same during each of those
four years.

In the first year, with 790 appointments, there were
74 removals, or 9-3 per cent. ; in the second, with 917
appointments, there were 85 removals, or 8'5 per
cent. ; in the third, with 480 appointments, there were
48 removals, or 10 per cent. ; in the fourth, with 429
appointments, there were 37 removals, or 8'6 per cent.
In the four months of President Garfield's adminis-

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (CiviL-SEEVioE REFOBM.)

165

tration there were 390 appointments and 89 removals,
or 22 '7 per cent. Precisely th e same number of remov-
als (89) has taken place in the fourteen months which
have since elapsed, but they constitute only 7 '8 per
cent, of the whole number of appointments (1,118)
within that period, and less than 2-6 of the entire list
.of officials (3,459), exclusive of the army and. navy,
which is filled by presidential appointment.

I declare my approval of such legislation as may be
found necessary for supplementing the existing pro-
visions of law in relation to political assessments.

In July last I authorized a public announcement
that employes of the Government should regard them-
selves as at liberty to exercise their pleasure in making
or refusing to make political contributions, and that
their action in that regard would in no manner affect
their official status.

In this announcement I acted upon the view which
I had always maintained and still maintain, that a
public officer should be as absolutely free as any other
citizen to give or to withhold, a contribution for the
aid of the political party of his choice. It has, how-
ever, been urged, and doubtless not without founda-
tion in fact, that by solicitation of official superiors
and by other modes such contributions have at times
been obtained from persons whose only motive for
giving has been the tear of what might befall them if
they refused. It goes without saying that such con-
tributions are not voluntary, and in my judgment
their collection should be prohibited by law. A bill
which will effectually suppress them will receive my
cordial approval.

I hope that however numerous and urgent may be
the demands upon your attention, the interests of this
District will not be forgotten.

The denial to its residents of the great right of suf-
frage in all its relation to national, State, and muni-
cipal action, imposes upon Congress the duty of afford-
ing them the best administration which its wisdom
can devise.

The report of the District commissioners indicates
certain measures whose adoption would seem to be
very desirable. I instance in particular those which
relate to arrears of taxes, to steam railroads, and to
assessments of real property.

Among the questions which have been the topic of
recent debate in the halls of Congress none are of
greater gravity than those relating to the ascertain-
ment of the vote for presidential electors and the
intendment of the Constitution in its provisions for
devolving executive functions upon the Vice-Presi-
dent when the President suffers from inability to dis-
charge the powers and duties of his office.

I trust that no embarrassments may result from a
failure to determine these questions before another
national election.

The closing year has been replete with blessings for
which we owe to the Give- of all good our reverent
acknowledgment. For the uninterrupted harmony of
our foreign relations, for the decay of sectional ani-
mosities, for the exuberance of our harvests and the
triumphs of our mining and manufacturing indus-
tries, for the prevalence of health, the spread of in-
telligence and the conservation of the public credit,
for the growth of the country in all the elements
of national greatness —for these and countless other
blessings — we should rejoice aad be glad. I trust
that under the inspiration of this great prosperity our
counsels may be harmonious, and that the dictates of
prudence, patriotism, justice, and economy may lead'
to the adoption of measures in which the Congress
aad the Executive may heartily unite.

CHESTER A. ARTHUE.

WASHINGTON, December 4, 1882.

Civil-Service Reform. — One of the most impor-
tant subjects brought up for consideration dur-
ing the session was the bill for the reform of
the civil service, which had fallen by the way
in the previous session. It was reported in

the Senate Dec. 12th fr.im the Committee on
Civil Service and Retrenchment, with various
amendments, which were agreed to without de-
bate. Mr. Pendleton, of Ohio, who originally
introduced the bill and had charge of it, opened
the discussion of the measure as amended. He
said:

"The necessity of a change in the civil ad-
ministration of this Government has been so
fully discussed in the periodicals and pam-
phlets and newspapers, and before the people,
that I feel indisposed to make any further ar-
gument. This subject, in all its ramifications,
was submitted to the people of the United
States at the fall elections, and they have spok-
en in no low or uncertain tone.

u I do not doubt that local questions exerted
great influence in many States upon the result;
but it is my conviction, founded on the ob-
servation of an active participation in the
canvass in Ohio, that dissatisfaction with the
methods of administration adopted by the Re-
publican party in the past few years was the
most important single factor in reaching the
conclusion that was attained. I do not say
that the civil service of the Government is
wholly bad. I can not honestly do so. I do
not say that the men who are employed in it
are all corrupt or inefficient or unworthy.
That would do very great injustice to a great
number of faithful, honest, and intelligent pub-
lic servants. But I do say that the civil ser-
vice is inefficient ; that it is expensive ; that it
is extravagant ; that it is in many cases and
in some senses corrupt ; that it has welded the
whole body of its employes into a great politi-
cal machine ; that it has converted them into
an army of officers and men, veterans in political
warfare, disciplined and trained, whose sala-
ries, whose time, whose exertions at least
twice within a very short period in the history
of our country have robbed the people of the
fair results of presidential elections.

" I repeat, Mr. President, that the civil ser-
vice is inefficient, expensive, and extravagant,
and that it is in many instances corrupt. Is it
necessary for me to prove facts which are so
patent that even the blind must see and the
deaf must hear ?

"At the last session of Congress, in open
Senate, it was stated and proved that in the
Treasury Department at Washington there are
3,400 employes, and that of this number the
employment of less than 1,600 is authorized by
law and appropriations made for their pay-
ment, and that more than 1,700 are put on or
off the rolls of the department at the will and
pleasure of the Secretary of the Treasury, and
are paid not out of appropriations made for
that purpose but out of various funds and bal-
ances of appropriations lapsed in the Treasury
in one shape or another, which are not by law
appropriated to the payment of these employes.
I was amazed. I had never before heard that
such a state of affairs existed. I did not be-
lieve it was possible until my honorable col-

166

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (OIVIL-SEKVICE REFORM.)

league rose in his place and admitted the gen-
eral truth of the statement and defended the
system as being necessary for the proper ad-
ministration of the Treasury Department.

" Mr. President, we see in this statement
whence comes that immense body of public
officials, inspectors, detectives, deputies, ex-
aminers, from the Treasury Department who
have for years past been sent over the States
for the purpose of managing presidential con-
ventions and securing presidential elections at
the public expense.

" I hold in rny hand a statement made be-
fore the committee which reported this bill,
showing that in one of the divisions of the
Treasury Department at Washington, where
more than nine hundred persons were em-
ployed, men and w^omen, five hundred and
more of them were entirely useless, and were
discharged without in any degree affecting the
efficiency of the bureau. I do not intend to
misstate any fact to-day if I can avoid it, and
therefore 1 read from the testimony taken be-
fore the committee. Every gentleman can find
it if he has not it already on his table. The
statement to which I refer I read from page
121 of report of committee No. 576 :

" The extravagance of the present system was well
shown in the examination of the Bureau of Engraving
and Printing by a committee of which 1 was chair-
man. Of a force of 958 persons, 539, with annual sal-
aries amounting to $390.000, were found to be super-
fluous and were discharged. The committee reported
that for years the force in some branches had been
twice and even three times as great as the work re-
quired. In one division a sort of platform had been
built underneath the iron roof, about seven feet above
the floor, to accommodate the surplus counters. It
appeared that the room was of ample size without this
contrivance for all the persons really needed. In an-
other division were found twenty messengers doing
work which it was found could be done by one. The
committee reported that the system of patronage was
chiefly responsible for the extravagance and irregu-
larities which had marked the administration of the
bureau, and declared that it had cost the people mil-
lions of dollars in that branch of the service alone.
Under this system the office had been made to sub-
serve the purpose of an almshouse or asylum.

" In consequence of this report the annual appropria-
tion for the Printing Bureau was reduced from $800,-
000 to $200.000, and out of the first year's savings was
built the fine building now occupied by that bureau.

" And again, on page 126, this same gentle-
man says : ,

" My observation teaches me that there is more press-
ure and importunity for these places [that is, the
$900 clerkships], and that more time is consumed
by heads of departments, and these haying the ap-
pointing power, in listening to applications for that
grade than for all the other places in the departments
combined ; and that when it is diwcretionart with a
department to appoint a man or a woman, the choice
is usually exercised in favor of the woman. I know
a recent case in the Treasury Department where a va-
cancy occurred which the head of the bureau deemed
it important to fill with a man. It was a position
where a man's services were almost indispensable :
but the importunity was so great that he was com-
pelled to accent a woman, although her services were
not required. In consequence of this importunity
for places for women a practice has grown up in the
Treasury Department of allowing the salaries of the

higher grades of clerkships to lapse when vacancies
occur, and of dividing up the amount among clerks,
usually women, at lower salaries. In the place of a
male clerk at $1,800 a year, for instance, three women
may be employed at $600. Often the services of a
man are required in its higher grade, while the wom-
en are not needed at all ; but as the man can not
be employed without discharging the women, he can
not be had. The persons employed in this way are
said to be ' on the lapse.' Out of this grew the prac-
tice known in departmental language as ' anticipating
the lapse.'

" In the endeavor to satisfy the pressure for place
more people are appointed on this roll than the sala-
ries then lapsing will warrant, in the hope that enough
more will lapse before the end of the fiscal year "to
provide funds for their payment. But the funds al-
most always run short before the end of the year, and
then either the ' lapse ' appointees must be dropped
or clerks discharged from the regular roll to make
place for them. In some instances, in former admin-
istrations, the employes on the regular roll were com-
pelled, under terror of dismissal, to ask for leaves of
absence, without pay, for a sufficient time to make
up the deficiency caused by the appointment of un-
necessary employes ' on the lapse.' Another bad
feature is that these ' lapse ' employe's being appoint-
ed without regard to the necessities of the work, for
short periods and usually without regard to their quali-
fications, are of little service, while their employment
prevents the filling of vacancies on the regular roll,
and demoralizes the service.

" In one case thirty -five persons were put on the
' lapse fund ' of the Treasurer's office for eight days
at the end of a fiscal year, to sop up some money
which was in danger of being saved and returned to
the Treasury.

" Says this gentleman further :

" I have no doubt that under a rigid application of
this proposed system the work of the Treasury De-
partment could be performed with two thirds the
number of clerks now employed, and that is a moder-
ate estimate of the saving.

"Mr. President, a Senator who is now pres-
ent in the chamber and who will recognize
the statement when I make it, though I shall
not indicate his name, told me that the Secre-
tary of one of the departments of the Govern-
ment said to him, perhaps to the Committee on
Appropriations, at the last session, that there
were seventeen clerks in his department for
whom he could find no employment ; that he
did need one competent clerk of a higher grade,
and if the appropriation were made for that
one clerk, at the proper amount, according to
the gradations of the service, and the appropria-
tion for the seventeen were left out, he could,
without impairing the efficiency of his depart-
ment, leave those seventeen clerks off the roll ;
but if the appropriation should be made, the
personal, social, and political pressure was so
great that he would be obliged to employ and
pay them, though he could find no employ-
ment for them.

" Need I prove, Mr. President, that which is
known to all men, that a systematic pressure
has been brought upon the clerks in the de-
partments of the Government this year to ex-
tort from them a portion of the salary that is
paid to them under a system which the Presi-
dent himself scouts as being voluntary, and
that they are led to believe and fairly led to
believe that they have bought an<l paid for the

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (OIVIL-SEKVICE KEFOEM.)

167

offices which they hold, and that the good faith
of those who take from them a portion of the
salary is pledged to their retention in their
positions ?

"I have said before upon the floor of the
Senate that this whole system demoralizes
everybody who is engaged in it. It demoralizes
the clerks who are appointed. That is inevi-
table. It demoralizes those who make the ap-
pointment. That also is inevitable. And it
demoralizes Senators and -Representatives, who,
by the exercise of their power as Senators and
Representatives, exert pressure upon the ap-
pointing power.

" I am disposed to speak with due modera-
tion and with respect for every gentleman who
sits in this chamber. I certainly desire, in a
statement like this, not to make personal re-
flections upon anybody; but I say that this
system, permeating the whole civil service of
the country, demoralizes everybody connected
with it, the clerks, the appointing power, and
those who, by their official position and their
relation* to the executive administration of the
Government, have the influence necessary to
put these clerks in office.

" Mr. President, how can you expect purity,
economy, efficiency to be found anywhere in
the service of the Government if the report
made by this committee to the Senate has even
the semblance of truth ? If the civil service
of the country is to be filled up with super-
fluous persons, if salaries are to be increased
in order that assessments may be paid, if mem-
bers of Congress having friends or partisan
supporters are to be able to make places for
them in public employment, how can you ex-
pect Senators and Representatives to be eco-
nomical and careful in the administration of
the public money ?

" Mr. President, it was these methods of ad-
ministration, it was these acts of the Repub-
lican party, which made it possible for the
Democratic party, and other men who prized
their country higher than they did their party,
to elect in Ohio a Democratic ticket by eight-
een to twenty thousand majority, and elect
sixteen out of the twenty-one members of
Congress assigned to that State.

" Under the impulse of this election in Ohio,
upon these facts and influences which I have
stated as being- of great importance there, it
became possible for the Democratic party and
its allies, whom I have described, to elect a
Democratic Governor in New York, in Massa-
chusetts, in Kansas, in Michigan, and various
other States in which there has been none but
a Republican Governor for many years past.
The same influences enable us, having acces-
sions to onr ranks from Iowa and Wisconsin
and Michigan and Pennsylvania, to have at the
beginning of the next session of Congress an
aggregate of perhaps sixty or more Democratic
majority in the House of Representatives.

"I beg the Democratic party throughout
the country not to mistake this result of last

fall as a purely Democratic triumph. It was
achieved by the Democratic party with the
assistance of men of all parties upon whom
their love of country sat heavier than their
love of party. It was a protest made by an
awakened people, who were indignant at the
wrongs which had been practiced upon them.
It was a tentative stretching out of that same
people to find instrumentalities by which those
wrongs could be righted.

u The people demanded economy, and the
Republican party gave them extravagance.
The people demanded a reduction of taxation,
and the Republican party gave them an in-
crease of expenditure. The people demanded
purity of administration, and the Republican
party reveled in profligacy ; and when the Re-
publican party came to put themselves on trial
before that same people, the people gave them
a day of calamity.

" I beg that my colleagues on this side of the
chamber may remember, I desire that our party
associates throughout the country shall remem-
ber, that the people will continue to us their
confidence and increase it, that they will con-
tinue to us power and increase it, just in the
proportion that we honestly and fairly and
promptly answer to the demands which the
people have made, and which were thus re-
sponded to by the Republican party. They
asked revenue reform, and they received none.
They asked civil- service reform, and they ob-
tained none. They asked that the civil ser-
vice of this Government should not, either as
to its men or its expenditures, be made the
basis upon which political contests were to be
carried on, and they received for answer that
that was an old fashion and a good method of
political warfare. I beg gentlemen upon this
side of the chamber to remember that, if they
desire to escape the fate which now seems to
be impending upon their adversaries, they must
avoid the example which those adversaries have
set them,

"Mr. President, the bill which I have the
honor to advocate to-day, and which is re-
ported by a committee of the Senate, is the
commencement, in my humble judgment, of
an attempt to answer to one of the demands
which the people have authoritatively made.
I speak advisedly. It is the commencement of
an attempt to organize a system which shall
respond to one of the demands which the peo-
ple have made.

"I suppose the most enthusiastic supporter
of this bill will not pretend that it is perfect.
I suppose he will not pretend that upon the
adoption of this bill a system will immediately
spring into life which will perfect and purify
the civil service of the Government. But it is
the commencement of an attempt to lay the
foundations of a system which, if it shall an-
swer in any reasonable degree the expectation
of those who by experience and faithful study
have framed it, it will in the end correct the
abuses to which I have alluded, and which have

168

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM.)

been delineated by no enemy of the Republi-
can party or of the Administration in the re-
port which I have read to the Senate.

"The bill has for its foundation the simple
and single idea that the offices of the Govern-
ment are trusts for the people ; that the per-
formance of the duties of those offices is to be
in the interest of the people ; that there is no
excuse for the being of one office or the paying
of one salary except that it is in the highest
practicable degree necessary for the welfare of
the people ; that every superfluous office-holder
should be cut off; that every incompetent
office - holder should be dismissed ; that the
employment of two where one will suffice is
robbery ; that salaries so large that they can
submit to the extortion, the forced payment,
of 2 or 10 per cent, are excessive and ought
to be diminished. I am not speaking of purely
voluntary contributions.

" If it be true that offices are trusts for the
people, then it is also true that the offices
should be filled by those who can perform and
discharge the duties in the best possible way.
Fidelity, capacity, honesty, were the tests es-
tablished by Mr. Jefferson when he assumed
the reins of government in 1801. He said then,
and said truly, that these elements in the pub-
lic offices of the Government were necessary
to an honest civil service, and that an honest
civil service was essential to the purity and
efficiency of administration, necessary to the
preservation of republican institutions.

u Mr. Jefferson was right. The experience
of eighty years has shown it. The man best
fitted should be the man placed in office, es-
pecially if the appointment is made by the
servants of the people. It is as true as truth
can be that fidelity, capacity, honesty, are es-
sential elements of fitness, and that the man
who is most capable and most faithful and
most honest is the man who is the most fit,
and he should be appointed to office.

" These are truths that in their statement
will be denied by none, and yet the best means
of ascertaining that fitness has been a vexed
question with every administration of this
Government and with every man who has
been charged with the responsibility of its
execution. We know what is the result. Pass
examinations have been tried; professions have
been tried ; honest endeavors have been tried ;
a disposition to live faithfully up to these re-
quirements has been tried ; and yet we know,
and the experience of to-day shows it, that they
have all made a most lamentable failure. We do
know that now so great has been the increase of
the powers of this Government and the number
of officers under it that no President, no Cab-
inet, no heads of bureaus, can by possibility
know the fitness of all applicants foi the subordi-
nate offices of the Government. The result has
been, and under the existing system it must
always be, that the President and his Cabinet
and those who are charged with the responsi-
bility have remitted the question of fitness to

their own partisan friends, and those partisan
friends have in their turn decided the question
of fitness in favor of their partisan friends.
The Administration has need of the support of
members of Congress in carrying on its work.
It therefore remits to members of Congress of
its own party the questions of appointment to
office in the various districts. These gentle-
men, in the course of their political life, natu-
rally (I do not find fault with them for it) find
themselves under strain and pressure to secure
a nomination or a renomination or election,
and they use the places to reward those whose
friends and families and connections and aids
and deputies will serve their purpose.

"I put it to gentlemen, particularly to my
friends on this side of the chamber, because
you have not the opportunity to exercise this
patronage as much as our friends on the
other side, whether or not the element of
fitness enters largely into the questions of ap-
pointment in your respective districts and
States. It can not be. The necessities of the
case prevent it. The pressure upon men who
want to be elected prevents it. The demands
that are made by partisan friends and those
who have been influential and potent in secur-
ing personal triumph to gentlemen who may
happen to be in such relation to the appointing
power that they have the influence to secure
appointment prevents it. The result is, as I
have stated, that instead of making fitness,
capacity, honesty, fidelity, the only or the es-
sential qualifications for office, personal fidel-
ity and partisan activity alone control.

" When I came to the Senate I had occasion
more than ever before to make some investiga-
tion upon this subject, and I found to my sur-
prise the extent to which the demoralization
of the service had gone. I saw the civil service
debauched and demoralized. I saw offices dis-
tributed to incompetent and unworthy men as
a reward for the lowest of dirty partisan work.
I saw many men employed to do the work of
one man. I saw the money of the people shame-
fully wasted to keep up electioneering funds
by political assessments on salaries. I saw the
whole body of the public officers paid by the
people organized into a compact, disciplined
corps of electioneerers obeying a master as if
they were eating the bread of his dependence
and rendering him personal service.

'*! believed then, and I believe now, that
the existing system which, for want of a better
name, I call the ' spoils system,1 must be killed,
or it will kill the republic. I believe that it is
impossible to maintain free institutions in the
country upon any basis of that sort. I am no
prophet of evil, I am not a pessimist in any
sense of the word, but I do believe that if the
present system goes on until 50,000,000 people
shall have grown into 100,000,000, and 140,000
officers shall have grown into 300,000, with
their compensation in proportion, and all shall
depend upon the accession of one party or
the other to the presidency and to the execu-

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (CIVIL-SEEVIOE REFORM.)

169

tive functions, the presidency of the country,
if it shall last in name BO long, will be put up
for sale to the highest bidder, even as in Rome
the imperial crown was put up to those who
could raise the largest fund.

" I beg gentlemen to believe that whatever I
may have said as to the relations of parties I do
not approach the question of the reform of the
civil service in any mere partisan spirit. It was
because I thought I saw this danger, because I
believed that it was imminent, because I be-
lieved then as I do now that it is destructive
of republicanism and will end in the downfall
of republican government, that I felt it my
duty to devote whatever ability I had to the
consideration of this subject. It was that
which induced me a year or two ago to intro-
duce a bill which after the best reflection, the
best study, the best assistance that I could get
I did introduce in the Senate, and which, in
some degree modified, has come back from the
Committee on Civil Service Reform, and is
now pending before this body.

" Mr. President, it is because 1 believe the
4 spoils system ' to be a great crime, because I
believe it to be fraught with danger, because
I believe that the highest duty of patriotism is
to prevent the crime and to avoid the danger,
that I advocate this or a better bill if it can be
found for the improvement of the civil service.

" I am told, and I am sure that I am not far
out of the way, if I am not exactly accurate,
that the number of such offices does not exceed
thirty or perhaps thirty-five, and that the num-
ber of persons who are employed in them, to-
gether with those in the departments here,
will not exceed 10,000.

" I said that this was a tentative effort ; that
it was intended to be an experiment, and it is
because it is tentative, because it is intended
to be an experiment, that the committee
thought it advisable in its initial stages to
limit it, as they have limited it, in the bill.
The bill does not apply to elective officers of
course, nor to officers appointed by the Presi-
dent by and with the advice and consent of
the Senate, nor to the military, nor to the
naval, nor to the judicial establishment. It
applies simply now to those officials who are
employed in the departments here and in the
large offices of the Government elsewhere,
first, because as an experiment it was thought
that it gave scope enough to test its value and
labor enough to employ all those who are en-
gaged in putting it in operation until its merits
shall be fairly tried and it shall commend it-
self either to the approval or the condemna-
tion of the American people.

" There was another reason. The heads of
offices and bureaus, where the number of em-
ployes is small, can themselves personally
judge of the fitness of persons who are appli-
cants for appointment, knowing as they do
more or less in their narrow communities
their antecedents, their habits, and their modes
of life.

"The bill does not touch the question of
tenure of office or of removal from office. I
see it stated by those who do not know that it
provides for a seven years' tenure of office.
There is nothing like it in the bill. I see it
stated that it provides against removals from
office. There is nothing like it in the bill.
Whether or not it would be advisable to fix
the tenure of office, whether or not it would
be advisable to limit removals, are questions
about which men will differ ; but the bill as it
is and as we invoke the judgment of the Sen-
ate upon it contains no provisions either as to
tenure of office or removals from office. It
leaves those questions exactly where the law
now finds them. It concerns itself only with
admission to the public service; it concerns
itself only with discovering in certain proper
ways or in certain ways— gentlemen may differ
as to whether they are proper or not — the fit-
ness of the persons who shall be appointed. It
takes cognizance of the fact that it is impos-
sible for the head of a department or a large
office personally to know all the applicants, and
therefore it provides a method by which, when
a vacancy occurs by death, by resignation, by
the unlimited power of removal, a suitable
person may be designated to fill the vacancy.
It says in effect that when a vacancy occurs
in the civil service of the lowest grade, every-
body who desires entrance shall have the right
to apply. Everybody, humble, poor, without
patronage, without influence, whatever inay be
his condition in life, shall have the right to go
before the parties charged with an examination
of his fitness and there be subjected to the test
of open, regulated, fair, impartial examination.

"Now, Mr. President, recurring to what I
have said as to the scope of this bill, to the
officers who are embraced in it, to the avoid-
ance of the question of removal and tenure, I
have only to say that the machinery of the bill
is that the President shall call to his aid the
very best assistance, with or without the con-
currence of the Senate— for that is a matter
about which gentlemen perhaps would differ,
and upon it I have no very fixed opinion — that
the President shall, with the concurrence of
the best advice which he can obtain, form a
plan, a scheme of examination free for all, open
to all, which shall secure the very best talent
and the very best capacity attainable for the
civil offices of the Government. The -method
adopted in the bill is by competitive examina-
tion. That method has been imperfectly tried
throughout the country. I have here the state-
ment of the Postmaster of New York who ha&
given much attention and has had great expe-
rience in this matter. I have here his state-
ment that the business of his office increased
150 per cent, within a certain number of years,
and the expenses increased only 2 per cent.

"Says Mr. Pearson, 'To be specific, while
the increase in the volume of matter has been
from 150 to 300 per cent., the increase in cost
has only been about 2 per cent.'

170

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (CIVIL-SEKVICE REFOEM.)

" Mr. Graves, whose testimony I read before,
has stated as the result of the efforts which
were made by Gen. Grant during the period
that he was allowed any funds for the purpose
of putting this scheme into operation, that the
expenses of the departments here can be re-
duced at least one third.

"I have heard it said that this system of ex-
amination proposes to present only a scholastic
test; that it proposes only to give advantage
to those who are college-bred, and have had
the advantage in early life of superior educa-
tion. The committee investigated that subject
to some extent, and I have here the result in
the city of New York. Says Mr. Hurt :

" Taking seven hundred and thirty- one persons ex-
amined, 60 per cent, of the appointees selected from
them had been educated simply in the common
schools of the country ; 33| per cent, had received
what they call academic or high-school education ;
and 6i per cent, a collegiate education. In all the
statistics in regard to common-school education there
is one little weakness resulting from the fact that we
have to throw in that class men who have had hardly
any education, men who will say. ' I went to school
until I was eleven years old,' or ' I went to school in
the winter,' or something of that kind. We have to
throw them in that class, and it rather reduces the
average standing in that category. As to the matter
of age, we have very thoroughly exploded that objec-
tion. There have been some young men of twenty-
one and twenty-two who have come in, but the aver-
age has been above thirty, and it is astonishing that
it is the men above thirty who make the best time on
examination, who show a facility to get through work
quickly.

" He goes on to say :

" Yet about two thirds of the appointees had a com-
mon-school education ; had not even an academic ed-
ucation.

" Of course these examinations must be
proper; of course they must be regulated
upon common- sense principle^ ; of course they
must be conducted to test the fitness of the
men who are to be appointed to particular of-
fices. You have tests everywhere. To-day
the law requires that there shall be a test of
examination in the various departments here
in Washington. They are pass examinations ;
they are imperfect ; they are insufficient ; they
are not thorough. Mr. Graves himself says
that the only examination in his case was that
the superior in the department looked over
his shoulder while he was writing and said,
4 1 think you will pass.' That was when he
entered the service twenty-odd years ago.

''If you have examinations, why not have
competitive examinations? If you have pri-
vate pass examinations, why not have open ex-
aminations ? If examinations are to be made
in the departments by subordinates of the de-
partments, why not have them made by re-
sponsible examiners amenable to the authority
of the President under a system devised by the
best intelligence that can be supplied ?

" I hear the system of competitive examina-
tion spoken of as if it were something extraor-
dinary. Within the last fifteen years it has
gotten to be a custom that I might almost say

is universal that when a member of Congress
has the right to appoint a cadet to West Point
or to the Naval Academy he asks his constitu-
ents to compete for it. Formerly it was never
done ; it was looked on as the mere perquisite
of a member of Congress. I appointed a gen-
tleman to West Point who graduated at the
head of his class, and now is an active and vig-
orous spirit of the Military Academy. I ap-
pointed him simply upon my own personal
examination and knowledge. It would not be
done now ; it could not be done now ; the pub-
lic sentiment is against it. The public senti-
ment of the district that I then represented
would not permit it; but open competitive
examinations are demanded, and everybody
having the requisite qualifications of age and
health and vigor can compete for the appoint-
ment.

" Why not apply that system to the Execu-
tive Departments of this Government ? What
earthly reason can there be why when you de-
sire to appoint the best and fittest man for the
place that is vacant he should not subject him-
self to the competition of other people who
desire to have that place ? Of course, as I said
before, this all goes upon the basis that there
shall be reasonable examination and reasonable
competition."

Mr. Hawley, of Connecticut, followed in the
same strain. He said : " This is ' a bill to' reg-
ulate and improve the civil service of the
United States.1 It is not a new subject, nor is
the bill itself, in its essential particulars, new
to the Senate or to the public. Something is
to be done upon this subject. Beyond all
manner of question there is something to be
done. The experience of this country as to
the evils of the existing system, the experience
of other countries in the trial of improved sys-
tems and aside from any evils that exist among
us, the extraordinary growth of this country,
render the continuance of the present system
utterly impossible. All these things combined,
with a stronger and stronger manifestation of
puhlic sentiment from year to year, show, as I
said, that something is to be done.

" When our country began with what I may
call the present system, which is a lack of sys-
tem, there were 350,000 square miles of terri-
tory; there are now 4,000,000 square miles.
There were 3,000,000 of people ; there are now
55,000,000 of people, or will be by next June,
and there has been an addition of 25 States.
In 1801 there were 906 post-offices; there are
now 44,848. There were 69 custom-houses;
there are now 135. The revenues were less
than $3,000,000; now they are $400,000,000.
Our ministers to foreign countries were 4 ; they
are now 33. Our consuls were 63 ; they are
now 728. A thousand men then administered
the Government; it now requires more than
100,000.

"In many offices, I might say in every one
of the departments and bureaus of the Govern-
ment, the chief might, origirally, well be re-

CONGKESS, UNITED STATES. (CIVIL-SEEVIOE REFORM.)

171

quired to have personal acquaintance with the
character, the mental abilities, the fitness in
general of his appointees. To require or ex-
pect any such knowledge now is quite ridicu-
lous indeed, with a Treasury Department alone
that has more than 3,000 employes, and single
subordinate offices outside of Washington that
have nearly twice as many employes as the
whole Government had ninety years ago.

" The doctrine of old was a better doctrine
than that we have lately practiced. It taught
that the power and duty of making removals
were vested in the President alone. It may be
the theory now, but it is not wholly acknowl-
edged to be such by the Tenure-of-Office Act,
and in practice it is certainly not the law.
Fidelity and efficiency were the measures of
tenure, as capacity and character were the
tests for appointment.

"Here are some figures which have been
made familiar during the discussion of this
question. Washington made only nine remov-
als, and all for cause ; John Adams only nine,
and none, it would seem, by reason of political
cause ; Jefferson only thirty-nine, and none of
them, as he declared, for political reasons;
Madison only five; Monroe only nine; John
Quincy Adams only two, and all for cause.
In general, the Government was very honestly
and admirably administered.

"There has been a constant an;l a steady
growth of the idea that offices might be used
to strengthen candidates and to reward active
workers. The doctrine that 'to the victors
belong the spoils' became (though it always
provoked a smile) the practical rule of the
country. The evils of the existing system can
not be denied by any man, whatever his posi-
tion, with regard to any of the pending meas-
ures for civil-service reform. They are ob-
vious, more clearly obvious to members of
Congress than to anybody else. They are
obvious in the suffering and humiliation of the
employes. The condition of the majority of
them is pitiable. They are under a sort of
degradation that we have no right to impose
upon our friends and neighbors and fellow-
citizens. They are only partially secured in
their positions by their character and by the
good work they may do. How well we know
that they do not depend upon those things to
maintain them in place; that they are con-
stantly coming to members of Congress and
applying to influential friends everywhere to
strengthen what they call their 'influence,' till
the word 'influence' has become a cant term,
a slang term among them. ' Who is your in-
fluence?' is the phrase. 'I have none. My
influence is dead.' Or, 'My influence was in
Congress ten or fifteen years ago, and he is not
in political life now, or he has no influence
himself ' ; ' I must get some influence,' etc.,
etc. These are the every-day phrases among
the employes ; and whenever a new chief of
a bureau comes in, not to say a now Cabinet
officer or a new President, there is a hurrying

and a scurrying among all the terrified flock to
strengthen themselves in position ; not by the
good record they may have or the good char-
acter they may have maintained, but by the
recommendations of political friends. By this
system the inefficient are kept in longer than
they would be otherwise. These are facts so
well known that I ought to ask pardon for re-
peating them.

" The man who is less efficient than his fel-
lows, conscious that he has less of character or
of ability, or of both, than they, is the man
who is almost certain to have the largest pile
of papers in support of his position. And
thereby it becomes exceedingly difficult to re-
move him. More persons are needed for the
same labor than there would be under some
ideal system, I do not say what. We can
imagine that if they were appointed purely for
efficiency and character and maintained for
that, fewer persons — I do not pretend to say
how many, because no man knows; the esti-
mates are quite at random ; some say a quarter
less, some say a half — would do the work
equally well.

" Moreover, there is unnecessary expense.
The salaries must be kept higher in accordance
with obvious laws of economy, because people
will not enter into an uncertain service for the
price they would be willing to take if they
were guaranteed long continuance, or life ser-
vice. A young man who comes here for one,
two, three, four, or five years, is very hungry
indeed to get his ten, twelve, or fourteen hun-
dred dollars a year. If he had any guarantee
of long service, or of service during good be-
havior (and absolutely no minute longer than
that), there would be in abundance young men
of capacity willing to come here and begin at
six, seven, eight, or nine hundred dollars a
year, trusting to a well-graded system for pro-
motion to nine, ten, eleven, or twelve hundred
dollars, as they continued in the service. Our
present system is therefore, in that sense,
wasteful and extravagant.

" There is another matter upon which I need
not dwell in this audience, and that is the tor-
ment of the legislative branch. Senators know
this well. I am happy to say I know a little
less of it than some of my neighbors; but
those who represent large States, especially if
they are within easy reach of Washington, de-
serve our commiseration and should every
Sunday, in the old fashion of New England,
ask for the prayers of the congregation. Their
desks are piled with letters, from scores upon
scores, and their constituents sometimes stand'
in their corridors in the same proportions.
How large a share and how painful a share of
our troubles and anxieties are due to this mat-
ter of office-seeking, we all know too well.
We are all under the necessity of hearing in-
numerable applications for office, of reading
and preparing papers that will sustain them, of
calling in person, and perhaps repeatedly, to
enforce applications, of writing innumerable

172

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM.)

letters in reference to the matter ; of re-en-
forcing the support that an employ^ has; or
of seeking to restore those who are discharged
in times of reduction or for an alleged or a
real falling below the standard, or discharged,
perhaps, to give place to a protege of some
more favored or more ardent politician.

"We listen to the appeals of the utterly des-
titute. The widow comes here whose husband
has been a long time a clerk or public servant
somewhere, and it is impossible not to sympa-
thize, it is impossible not to say that it would
be reasonable, if she were well qualified, that
she should have a clerkship. She has a de-
pendent family; she has, perhaps, dependent
relatives. You know there are scattered about
these departments many who are the children
of men well known in the public service of the
United States, and among whose honors it was
that they went out of that service penniless,
whose misfortune it was that they left depend-
ent relatives. No man can say, ' I will close my
eyes and shut my ears to these appeals.' He
can not do it. He may put himself upon the
cold ground that 'it is my duty to be studying
public measures, to be reading and thinking
about and preparing for the great measures
that concern the whole country ' ; but he comes
up from his breakfast-table and finds his room
full of cases that he must at least hear.

" Nor is this a matter that embarrasses one
party alone. I have known gentlemen — yes, I
see one now in the chamber, not a member of
my own party, whom I have heard cry out
against the burden, the painful labor that
pained and oppressed him, and, in the vexation
of the moment, declare that he would leave
this hall, and go back to his farm and his
happy home. There is something wrong about
all this. This Government is not running a
great charitable establishment ; and yet, if it is
to employ people in subordinate positions, you
will say that equitably nobody has a better
claim than a widow, or daughter, or sister, or
brother of some old-time public servant, whose
family for many years has been accustomed to
the service of the United States, knows what
it is, and can discharge the duties well; or
than the dependent relative of some faithful
soldier.

' There , must be some relief. I said there
will be. I say there can be one easily found,
theoretically. Every man here, whether op-
posed to civil-service reform, in the ordinary
language, or in favor of it, sees that he can de-
vise some plan by which these things can be
very much bettered. Well, practically there
has been, in a limited area in this country, a
vast improvement, and that area can be ex-
tended. I forbear to illustrate by the example
of Great Britain, chiefly because many of the
circumstances there are quite different. The
ancient history of the civil service is different ;
the relations of executive and legislative power
are different. They have an avowed life-term ;
they have pensions ; they have a right of pen-

sion that grows with the years of service, anal-
ogous to what the army calls the 'old fogy
ration.' There are various provisions there
for which our public sentiment is not ripe, I
am sure.

"Now, the bill before us does not attempt
to reach the whole possible field of civil-service
reform. Say there are a hundred acres over
which you may imagine that it could spread.
We know we have established it well in one
or two or three of the hundred acres, and we
know perfectly well that there are ten or fif-
teen acres quite analogous in conditions in
which it can be equally well established ; and
these are about the proportions of what the
present bill proposes to do. It makes no ex-
periment ; there is not a thing to be done here
in this bill that has not been done, that is not
being done every month, in the post-office and
custom-house at New York, and to a limited
extent in other places.

" The bill contains within itself a power of
indefinite extension according to the judgment
of the commissioners or the chief executive offi-
cer. Now, do not let us indulge in any ideal
views on this subject — ideal in the direction of
optimism or otherwise. You hear some of the
ardent and enthusiastic friends of this measure,
just as you will hear in all cases of change or
reform, believing that all the evils of the civil
service will vanish the moment you shall have
put an iron framework of some description upon
the statute-book. That is not to be so. There
are to be evils, there are to be misfortunes,
there are to be, if you choose, weaknesses and
corruptions, no matter what system you may
adopt. But I protest a great deal more vigor-
ously against an extreme denunciation of the
existing system of the country. It has become
the fashion — and I take the opportunity to say
it here — it has become the fashion, very largely
among a class of men who have, or claim for
themselves, and may to some extent be admitted
to have, a culture superior to the average — the
literary, the dilettante fashion — to speak of the
whole public service of this country as corrupt.
I have read, and you all have lately, and you
will read frequently, in articles by these gentle-
men contributed to the journals and the re-
views, and in their speeches and letters, con-
stant reference to the ruinous condition of this
country and to the corrupt state of the whole
public service, to the degradation of politics.
These men will say, and visitors from other na-
tions will hear them and go home and write,
that gentlemen here can not enter into political
affairs, and that if such and such things were
different the hien of culture and education and
standing in the community, the gentlemen ol
America, would go into politics. They have
no right to this language. The gentleman, the
true gentleman, sir, if he sees that his country
needs the reform he alleges, if he believes
that its politics are in the low, mean, and cor-
rupt condition often described, will charge into
the middle of the fray ; he will put himself into

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (CiviL-SEEvioK REFOBM.)

173

politics. I have an unutterable contempt for
the man who justifies his neglect of his public
duties by talking about the dirty waters of
politics. If they are dirty, and he thinks he
knows what they ought to be, and that if he
were controlling them they would be better,
then he is a coward and next door to a moral
traitor if he does not come in with all his soul,
and not simply sit on the fence and scold the
rest of us who are in, and who are conscious of
as high and honorable motives, conscious of as
devoted worship of the Constitution and the
laws and the glory of our country as any man
in the republic.

" Sir, this country is not in a ruinous condi-
tion; it is the most magnificent nation that ever
lived under the sun. There are fifty -five mill-
ions of people here ; some of us now here will
be living when they shall number one hundred
millions of people. The nation has gone
through the most glorious war known in his-
tory. I am not now speaking of it at all in a
partisan way. If you go to the very essence of
it on both sides, it was a contest over the very
fundamental question of society and of govern-
ment. It was a case where forty millions of
people took up the sword by the hundred
thousand, and even by the million, to settle
controversies, not concerning the control of
the Suez canal or the Bosporus, or this, that,
or the other mere territorial or trade question,
but to decide upon the political and social
foundations on which the future hundreds of
millions of this continent shall rest.

" Look at our general financial condition.
There is not a nation in the world that does
not envy us the embarrassment under which
we labor to-day, the embarrassment of an ex-
traordinary and excessive revenue. We are
pained by what ? By debts that stagger and
shake us? No; by the question of how we
shall reduce our revenue, and how we shall
cease to reduce our debt, which we have di-
minished some $1,200,000,000 since the great
war closed. I affirm that throughout the great
branches of the public service in general the
work of the Government is well done, by men
who desire to do it well. I appeal to the
records of the collection of our revenue ; I ap-
peal to the figures of the reduction of our debt ;
I appeal to the facility with which we borrow
money, and to the matchless credit this nation
has now in every money market of the world.
I appeal in other fields to the general provisions
of our Constitution and of our fundamental
laws to show that the rule of the country, how-
ever imperfect the practice of it may be, is ab-
solute and universal freedom, equality, justice.
These things the people worship ; these things
are in words in our Constitution and laws ;
they are essentially in the hearts of our people,
and toward the perfection of the administra-
tion of them we are steadily aiming and march-
ing. I believe in my country ; I believe it is
an honest country, as honest as ever lived : I
believe it is the strongest and freest and best ;

and, if I may say it, it has as good a civil service
as any other country, or a better one.

" At the same time I am ardently in favor of
this bill and measures of this description, to be
followed steadily in search of better things. I
said, do not let us indulge an idea that we can
make a perfect system and eliminate all evils
or possibilities of evil. We can lay out some
general lines under which the civil service shall
be administered, without attempting to fill up
the minute details. The more you do that, the
more you embarrass the officers charged with
the execution of the plan, and the more you
relieve them from personal responsibility. I
would say generally : ' Within such and such
lines you shall conduct it. We do not tell you
what you shall do in this, that, and the other
minute affair, because the duties and proprieties
will vary in each of these cases ; but we hold
you, the President, or this Cabinet officer, or
that chief of a minor bureau, or the head of a
post-office or custom-house — we hold you re-
sponsible for the thorough administration of all
affairs under you under these general rules.'

" Sir, I think perhaps the most perfect human
machine in the world is a regiment fully organ-
ized, with ranks full, and fully equipped. For
every duty there is a man ; for every man there
is a duty, well graded, well related. If every
man but half tries to do his duty there is no
more charming movement in the world, not
even that of the finest chronometer, than that
of a regiment ; and the essence of military or-
ganization— which military organization we are
not expected to copy in civil affairs, but which
nevertheless can teach us a great deal — one
of the essential things of it at least is the re-
sponsibility of chiefs. The general of division
or of a corps rides through a camp and per-
ceives one regiment perfect in the performance
of duty ; another slovenly, dirty, with ill-regu-
lated ranks and ignorant of duty. He does not
stop to rebuke individual men. He rides back
to his tent and sends word to the colonel, and
that colonel makes that a better regiment speed-
ily or he goes.

" In general analogy to that must be any
good system of civil service which we shall im-
pose, for if you attempt to tie the hands of the
chief of a bureau or the chief of a department
in the civil service against removals and against
what you may choose to call punishment, and
against some control of promotion also, just to
that extent you relieve him from responsibility ;
just to that extent you fortify the subordinate
against him, and he will encounter insolence
and negligence and freely-expressed criticisms'
and defiance. I think no man who has had
military experience would consent to take
charge of a bureau of 100 persons without
having something of the power of prompt re-
moval and promotion vested in his own hands.
This bill does not seek to remove those entirely,
by any means.

" It is said that the President has power to
do what we propose to do here. So he has,

174

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM.)

substantially. He has it, I might say, generally
and without reference to any particular statute,
from the fact of his being the Chief Executive,
from the general provisions of the Constitution.
And we put into the statute-book in 1871 (see
section 1753) these words :

" The President is authorized to prescribe such regu-
lations for the admission of persons into the civil ser-
vice of the United States as may best promote the
efficiency thereof, and ascertain the fitness of each
candidate in respect to age, health, character, knowl-
edge, and ability for the branch of service into which
he seeks to enter ; and for this purpose he may em-
ploy suitable persons to conduct such inquiries, and
may prescribe their duties, and establish^ regulations
for the conduct of persons who may receive appoint-
ments in the civil service.

" Under that provision the President might,
perhaps, do nearly all that one can here require
or expect the executive department to do ; but
the difficulty is that it is almost impossible to
do these things with the tacit and yet actual
opposition of the leading body of political men
in the country, and without the cordial sanction
of Congress. For two years Congress gave Gen.
Grant the money necessary to conduct a reform
iu the civil service, to pay his commission, etc.,
and then he asked for it in vain three years
in succession. He abandoned the effort, saying
frankly to Congress that if this work was not
sanctioned by the vote of the legislative body,
if the country really did not demand it, he
should be obliged to surrender his efforts. And
yet in the report made in that very year by the
able civil-service commission these points are
considered as established by their two or three
years' practice. I have no doubt they were,
because here in my hand is the volume of tes-
timony (Report 576) given before the committee
of which I have the honor to be chairman, dur-
ing the last session, largely from the custom-
houses of New York, Boston, and Baltimore,
and the post-office of New York, and it shows
that similar results are attained to-day. These
are the results the civil-service commission
claimed to have reached, and in Gen. Grant's
message of April 18, 1874, the statements were
ad opted with the specific approval of the Cabi-
net, as the message asserts :

" 1. They have, on an average, where examinations
apply, given persons of superior capacity and char-
acter to the service of the Government, and have
tended to exclude unworthy applicants.

" 2. They have developed more energy in the dis-
charge of duty, and more ambition to acquire informa-
tion connected with official functions on the part of
those in the service.

'_' 3. They have diminished the unreasonable solici-
tation and pressure which numerous applicants and
their friends, competing for appointments, have before
brought to bear upon the departments in the direction
of favoritism.

" 4. They have, especially where competition ap-
plies, relieved the heads of departments and of bureaus,
to a large extent, of the necessity of devoting to persons
soliciting places for themselves or for others time
which was needed for official duties.

" 5. They have made it more practicable to dismiss
from the service those who came in under the civil-
service examinations, when not found worthy, than it
was or is to dismiss the like unworthy persons who

had been introduced into the service through favor or
dictation.

" 6. They have diminished the intrigue and pres-
sure, before too frequent, for causing the removal of
worthy persons for the mere purpose of bringing
other, perhaps inferior, persons into the service.

'•For these reasons the committee on this
subject has reported in favor of continuing it.
I have indicated our reasons for proposing a
bill to vindicate and strengthen the Executive
in carrying this reform into practical effect.
And here is the bill."

Mr. Hoar, of Massachusetts, also advocated
the passage of the bill. He said :

"Unless I much mistake the signs of the
time, the country and Congress are now agreed
in support of this measure. We are to be con-
gratulated even upon some of the events which
have taken place recently, much as we may
have originally disapproved them, in so far as
they have tended to bring about so much una-
nimity between the different political parties
upon this question. From the necessity of the
case, no reform in the civil-service administra-
tion of the country which takes it out from the
domain of politics can ever be permanently ac-
complished to which both of the great parties
in the country are not committed. From the
necessity of the case, the party which has been
in the minority, and whose opponents have
possessed the administration, must, when these
measures are accomplished, entitle itself to the
respect and confidence of the country by a con-
siderable act of immediate self-denial.

" Under the present system the civil service
of the country is made up, and always will be
made up, largely of the adherents of a single
political party, and if the opponents of that
party are so short-sighted as to admit that the
principal object of their existence is to displace
their political opponents and to gain those of-
fices for themselves, by resistance to any well-
considered scheme of reform in this particular,
the evil will never be overcome. One half, or
nearly one half, the American people are asked
to indicate and emphasize their patriotism and
their fitness for the administration of the coun-
try by denying and disdaining the use of a weap-
on of which they have felt the edge and the
weight for many years. There is no doubt of
it. It has got to be met ; and unless there be
statesmanship enough, and confidence in the
capacity of the American people to recognize
and to reward statesmanship enough, to waive
that objection, the evils which now exist and
prevail must be taken to be incurable.

"I think we are to be congratulated upon
the indication of so far substantial unanimity
in the passage of this measure, that the gentle-
man whose name is connected with it is an
honored and distinguished leader of one side,
that the chairman of the committee which re-
ports it is an honored and distinguished leader
on the other side, and that a President of the
United States not identified heretofore special-
ly in the public mind with this reform, prom-
ises in advance to give his signature and his

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (CIVIL-SERVICE REFOEM.)

175

support to the measure if Congress shall agree
upon it.

" When the Senator from Ohio (Mr. Pendle-
ton) addressed the Senate, the other day, he
directed some very eloquent and very severe
reproaches against the Republican party.
These reproaches were by no means wholly
undeserved. They ought to be met not by
counter-reproaches, not by undertaking to
show by way of set-off similar conduct, or
similar misconduct, on the part of his party,
but by admitting and conceding the fact that
this system which has come down to us from
the very origin of party government in this
country has gone on, sometimes operating bet-
ter and sometimes operating worse, until it
has reached a point where some of the abuses
to which it is liable have excited the attention
of the American people and caused a demand
for their reform.

" When Mr. Jefferson came into power in
1801, as I said the other day, he encountered
the same condition of things that the Demo-
cratic party encounters to-day. He declared
that he found the civil offices of the country
filled without an exception by the opponents
of his administration, and he was obliged to
hold back a wave and torrent of indignation
from his own associates, demanding the use of
the civil service of the country to establish its
party in power. I have upon my desk here
the correspondence between Mr. Jefferson's At-
torney-General and himself with regard to the
appointments in the State of Connecticut, in
which a large committee of leading Connecti-
cut Republicans sst forth the political proscrip-
tion under which they have labored for the
past twelve years, during Adams's and Wash-
ington's administrations, at the hands of the
Connecticut Federalists, and recommending the
exercise of the President's power of removal
to cure that condition.

" Mr. Jefferson replies in one letter he thinks
the Connecticut Federalists will find that he
can be as intolerant as they can ; in another he
proposes to exercise the power of removal in
regard to all United States district attorneys
and marshals and to st^nd at the porch of the
courts ; in a third, that lie proposes to turn out
all the men who sympathize with Hamilton and
the Essex junta, whom he regards as incura-
ble, fit only for -a mad-house; and in another
that he shall regard activity in the late revolu-
tion (that is, the revolution which had placed
him in power) as a good reason for a political
appointment, and activity on the other side as
a good reason for a political removal. He says
that he advises his correspondent to give him
a list of the obnoxious Federalists in his State,
and ' leave the rest to me.' When these things
are done, and the Republican party — as it was
then called, the Jefferson party — has attained
its fair and just proportion of the civil offices
in the country he hopes then, and it is in that
connection he uttered his famous sentence, to
be able to inquire, as to the person to be ap-

pointed to office, * Is he honest, is he capable,
is he faithful to the Constitution ? '

u I will have the letter of Mr. Lincoln, At-
torney-General of the United States under Mr.
Jefferson, placed in the 'Record,' so that it
may be read by the Senate and by the public
without my reading it. The Attorney-General
recommends to Mr. Jefferson that he shall not
make all his removals at once, because, he says,
that will make £11 the officers removed and all
their friends unite in opposition to his adminis-
tration ; that he had better remove by degrees
and let the process extend over a year or two,
because then the first batch will be the only
ones that will complain, and those who are left,
with their friends, will stand by the Adminis-
tration, thinking they are to escape.

" So that it is an entire injustice to say that
when Mr. Marcy, under Jackson, made his
coarse and well-known statement, that 'to the
victors belong the spoils,' he was introducing
for the first time this vicious system. He was
avowing not a new system, but was frankly
stating a -system which had so far preceded the
accession of Mr. Jefferson to power in 1801
that when he came in he did not find, he said,
a single one of his political associates in office.

" As I said, the thing which the Democratic
party is asked to do in giving Its assistance to
this measure is an immediate and present sac-
rifice for the permanent and enduring welfare
of this country, and the question of its fitness
ever to be trusted with administration will in
my judgment be very largely determined by the
American people at some time in the future as
it shall itself decide this question.

" It is, I think, fairly to be said in extenua-
tion (if it were desirable. to enter into an ex-
tenuation of the conduct of those who have
been charged with administration in this coun-
try) that it is only within a very recent period
that there has been any substantial and ade-
quate support in public opinion of this reform.
President Grant entered upon the administra-
tion of the Government on the 4th of March,
1869, in my opinion penetrated with an ear-
nest desire to elevate the civil service of the
country not only above corruption but above
party. The first important political event of
his administration was the warfare of the lead-
ers of this body when he attempted to con-
struct the Circuit Court of the United States in
favor of their claim to exercise their patronage
and to control the Executive in that particular.

"Again and again down to 1874 President
Grant urged upon Congress the necessary ap-
propriation and the necessary legislation to
enable him to elevate the civil service of the
country above party. The result is shown in
President Grant's message of 1874, an extract
from which, I think, was read by the honorable
Senator from Connecticut. If so, I shall not
read it again. In it President Grant declares
that he shall regard the refusal by the. legis-
lative power of the continuance of the small
appropriation of $25,000 in aid of his measure

176

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (CiviL-SEEVicE REFOBM.)

as a final judgment by Congress against its ex-
pediency, and gives notice that he should there-
after abandon the attempt.

" Now, the time has come when these two
belligerents are asked to agree to disuse in our
political conflicts hereafter an instrument of
warfare which has been so injurious to the
public interest hitherto. We wish if we can
now, taking advantage of the present earnest
condition of public sentiment, excited on this
subject, to stereotype these expressions of pub-
lic opinion into a statute which may be per-
manent.

" Mr. President, I expect to support the bill
of the committee, and, without entering upon
the details which have been so much discussed,
and which will be discussed further I dare say,
I expect to support it for these reasons : First,
that it is the measure agreed upon by the large
majority of persons who have made special
study of this cause. I do not propose to sur-
render to any man or to any body of men the
prerogative or the duties of the members of
this body; but I think in discharging our du-
ties, taking upon ourselves as we must the
ultimate responsibility of every measure, it is
proper that a large respect should be had for
the opinion of those persons who have specially
studied for ye#rs the evil which we are seek-
ing to remove, who have specially studied the
proper remedy, and to whose efforts the exist-
ing public sentiment on the subject is largely
due.

"Next, the bill commends itself to my judg-
ment because it proceeds with a statesmanlike
caution in making the necessary experiment and
proceeding from step to step. It is applicable
to only a few of the great public offices in the
country besides the seven departments exist-
ing in the city of Washington. It applies, I
think, to about thirty offices only out of Wash-
ington and to the departments here, and it
permits the President, if he see fit, to extend
gradually, as experience shall warrant, there
being full opportunity for the legislative power
to amend or supply any defects in this bill
hereafter, until finally, if it is found expedient,
it shall embrace the entire civil service of the
country so far as it can be properly applied.

"Again, it is a measure justified by experi-
ence in the great offices at New York, and to
some extent in Boston and in the Department
of the Interior here. It is difficult to raise a
practical objection to any detail of the bill to
which an answer is not found in the reports of
the experience of Mr. James and Mr. Pearson
in the post-office in the city of New York.
Every public officer to whom there comes any
responsibility in putting on trial this scheme
becomes a convert to its practicability and its
wisdom. Every public officer under whose
administration this scheme is permanently en-
forced becomes, as the months and years go
by, a more enthusiastic and emphatic adherent
of this plan.

"The measure commends itself to me also

because it carefully and wisely avoids all the
disputed constitutional questions which have
been raised in the discussion of this subject.
It nowhere trenches upon the constitutional
power of the President under any definition or
limitation, even the largest and broadest, of
the executive powers which is to be found in
our constitutional discussions. The President's
right to make rules, to apply rules, to change
rules, the President's responsibility growing
out of his constitutional duty to see that the
laws are faithfully executed, are not impaired,
and in my judgment can not be impaired by
legislation. I do not understand that it has
been the purpose of the honorable Senator
from Ohio in reporting this bill in any degree
to infringe upon the constitutional prerogative
of the Executive.

" It does not assert any disputed legislative
control over the tenure of office. The great
debate as to the President's power of removal,
the legislative power to establish a tenure of
office with which the President could not in-
terfere, which began in the first Congress,
which continued during the contests of the
Senate with Andrew Jackson, revived again at
the time of the impeachment of Johnson, and
again in the more recent discussion over the
Tenure-of-Office Bill in the beginning of the
administration of President Grant, does not in
the least become important under the skillful
and admirable provisions of this bill.

"It does not even (and that is a ciiticism
made upon it, but in my judgment it is one of
its conspicuous merits) deal directly with the
question of removals, but it takes away ev-
ery possible temptation to improper removals.
What Executive, what head of a department,
what influential public man anywhere can seek
in the least to force a worthy and deserving
public officer from his office merely that there
may be a competitive examination to fill his
place — to fill a place at the bottom of the list,
not to fill his place, as is well suggested?

"Now, Mr. President, while this avoids the
use of any doubtful constitutional power or
mechanism to create a removal, it, as I have
said, cures the great abuse which has existed
recently by removing the temptation to an
improper removal. In my own judgment the
abuse of improper, cruel, and unjust removals
of worthy and deserving public officers is an
abuse almost or quite equal to the other against
which this bill directly aims, the use of the
civil service of the country as a political in-
strumentality.

" I congratulate the Senator from Ohio, I
congratulate the Senator from Connecticut, I
congratulate the country, on the auspicious
circumstances under which this bill has been
presented ; and, whatever else may happen, I
believe if this system shall be inaugurated now,
the session of this winter will be one of the
marked and conspicuous eras in the political
history of the country, as the time when the
two great political parties were willing, under

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (CiviL- SERVICE REFORM.)

177

the spur and excitement of an aroused public
opinion, to unite in laying down for the perma-
nent welfare of the country a weapon of offense
and of defense which had come down to them
from the past, and whose present use in the
immediate future might seem to be so conven-
ient. I believe the adoption and inauguration
of this scheme, if it shall prove successful, as I
confidently expect, will be regarded in the fu-
ture by the American people almost as the
adoption of a new and a better Constitution."

Mr. Brown, of Georgia, opposed the civil-
service reform vigorously. He said: UI ad-
mit it is very important that there be a bet-
ter system of administration inaugurated than
we have had for many years past. I do not
think, however, that the bill now before the
Senate, if passed, will inaugurate any such
system. I think it will prove a mere delusion.
If we pass it we excite popular expectation,
and popular expectation will be greatly disap-
pointed in the workings of the system. I have
heard the British system spoken very highly
of; many eulogies passed upon it. It has been
said by advocates of this bill — probably not on
the floor, but again and again outside of the
chamber — that we should adopt something
similar to that system, if not the exact system
itself.

" Now, Mr. President, the forms of the two
governments are entirely different, the circum-
stances are different, and the surroundings are
different. The system that -may work well
there in a limited monarchy, the policy of
which is to maintain an aristocracy, even a

ided aristocracy, is not appropriate to a re-

blican form of government like ours.

" In Great Britain the executive is heredi-

y. The incumbent derives his right, not by
tion of the subjects or citizens of that coun-
but by birthright. The upper house of

e British Parliament is not elected, but those
who occupy seats there, unlike this body, are
dependent upon the accidents of birth for them,
noi upon any special merits or personal quali-
fications that they may have, but the duke
takes his seat because he is the son of the for-
mer duke.

"That is not our American system. It is
very consonant, however, with that system to
adopt a civil-service rule that, while the execu-
tive is for life and hereditary and the higher
branch of the legislative department holds for
life and is hereditary, will make the subordi-
nate officers hold for life. I say it is consistent
and compatible with that system. It is not so
here. Under our republican system no man
takes anything by hereditary right, but the way
is open to the son of the humblest peasant
within the broad limits of our domain, if he
has merit and energy and ability, to occupy
the highest position in the Government. Our
theory is that men are to be promoted on ac-
count of merit and qualifications. It may not
always be carried out — of course it can not
always be— but that is the nature of the sys-
VOL. xxin. — 12 A

tern and that is the general practice. It is com-
patible, therefore, with that system to leave
the changes in the legislative department, in
the executive department, and in every depart-
ment except the judicial, to the frequent muta-
tions of parties and to the supposed merits of
the competitors who compete for the prizes.
In all the departments, legislative and execu-
tive, qualification is supposed to be looked to.
Election of Representatives and the higher offi-
cers is the general idea. Why in the face of
that should we establish for the subordinate
officers in the different executive departments
and in all the larger offices within the limit of
the United States a system of lifetime tenure
for the very large class of persons who fill
those places ? I say it is not compatible with
our very form of government. It is one step
in the direction of the establishment of an aris-
tocracy in this country, the establishment of
another privileged class.

" It may be said, however, and I believe that
sentiment was uttered only a few days ago,
though not in the language I use, probably,
that it takes away from persons who hold these
positions the inducement to be active politi-
cians. In some cases that might be the work-
ing of it; but bear in mind, Mr. President, it
leaves it in the power of every one of them to
become an active politician, and if the spirit of
the system is carried out as claimed by the
Senator from Massachusetts (Mr. Hoar), the
officers can be as active as they choose on one
side, and one side alone, and run no risk of los-
ing their positions. It builds up a powerful
class supported out of the Treasury of the
United States, out of the taxes of the people,
and places in their hands- the power, if they
choose to exercise it — and there is a great deal
of human nature in man, so that they proba-
bly would exercise it — the power to do much
to control the future rulers and destinies of
this Government.

" I am not very fresh from my reading of
Roman history ; but as I recollect it there was
a period in the history of that government
when it became necessary to establish the prae-
torian guard to protect the ruler against the
populace. It would naturally enough have been
claimed that that guard would take no part in
the politics of Rome, and yet in the workings
of time that praetorian guard became the mas-
ter of Rome and assumed control of the gov-
ernment. As they protected the sovereign,
they dictated who should be the sovereign, and
for alarge enough amount of money they would
displace one sovereign to make room for an- '
other. How do we know that we may not build
up a similar class here when we build up a
lifetime aristocracy in office, or when we es-
tablish a lifetime tenure of office ? It is con-
trary to the very genius and spirit of our Gov-
ernment.

" If there be really in the popular mind a
demand for any such bill as is usually termed
civil-service reform, it is a bill to make perma-

178

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (OiviL- SEE VICE REFORM.)

nent the positions of those who hold offices, to
confine removals to cause alone. The class
who ask for it, I think, are a very small minor-
ity of the American people. At the same time
they ask for it in that spirit and with that
purpose, and they would consider themselves
mocked if this bill is passed containing no pro-
tection for the incumbents against removal
without cause. What good does it do as a
measure of reform if the power of removal is
unlimited and without cause at the mere will
or whim of the appointing power ? The civil-
service reformers who are most clamorous for
action, and who are in earnest about the mat-
ter, would consider such a measure, if that is
all it means, as a trick, a sham, a delusion.

" But it requires a competitive examination,
say the Senators on the other side, before you
put a man into office. There again the bill is
a cheat and a mockery. It does no such thing
in spirit and substance. For fear there might
come a day when a Democratic Executive
would administer the affairs of this Govern-
ment, and that day might not be very distant,
there is a careful provision in this bill that it
shall apply only to the lowest class who are to
hold office. There shall be a competitive ex-
amination for the lowest grade only; that 4s
free to all ; and the Senator from Massachu-
setts who took his seat a few minutes ago very
earnestly stated that that was one of the strong
features in it.

" Now, I believe that there is a very large
number of employes in the departments at
present, occupying different positions in them,
some of them high positions, who are not fit
for those places, morally, intellectually, or in
any other manner ; but the charmed circle is
not to be disturbed. If there chances to be
one of the lower clerkships vacant, then the
doors are thrown wide open by this bill and
every American citizen may come up and com-
pete for it. It will not do to go higher than
that, for too many Democrats might get in.
You Democrats can come up and compete for
the lowest clerkships that are to be filled ; but
if a vacancy occurs above that, then the Repub-
lican employes and officers already in office,
and they alone, can apply for the advancement
or promotion. That is the civil-service reform
that this bill gives to the country ; that is the
share that the Democratic party gets in it. I
repeat it, under the provisions of this bill the
competition is only general for the lowest office
that can become vacant. There a Democrat
stands a chance to get in this lowest position,
but if fifty vacancies occur above it only the
present incumbents, the Republican office-hold-
ers, can compete for the promotion. That is
what it holds out to the Democratic party. That
is our share in its benefits.

" Now, I am going to talk plainly to Demo-
crats. It is not required for us to mince words
here, for the country very well understands
this whole question. The Republican party
have had the offices of this Government for

the last twenty-two years consecutively. The
Executive has been Republican, and they have
had the distribution of the offices and places.
They still have it. True, an avalanche has
swept over the country, and with it the strong-
est condemnation of the practices of that party.
It is true this was in the off year, and not the
presidential year, but prudent, sagacious men
on the other side of the chamber understand
this as well as we do on this side. If we make
no great blunders — and I know I have heard
it said on the other side that they rely a great
deal on Democratic blunders, for we sometimes
make them — unless the Democracy is guilty of
great folly on some important questions there
can be, to my mind, and I think to the minds
of Senators generally, but little doubt that the
next President of this republic will he a Dem-
ocrat.

" I am speaking now to Democrats. How
do you go into that campaign ? Suppose you
put my honorable and worthy friend from
Ohio (Mr. Pendleton), or my honorable friend
from Delaware (Mr. Bayard), or any other one
of the prominent and able gentlemen mentioned
for the place, in nomination for the presidency,
and you go before the Democratic masses of
the United States and tell them that you are
handicapped ; that all the offices that amount
to anything, the higher and more important
places, are already disposed of. ' Disposed of
how ? ' they will inquire. ' Why, the Republi-
can party have had them for twenty-two years,
and seeing that there was a probability of a
change of administration ' — to put it in no
stronger light— 'they have hedged, and they
have taken good care of themselves ; they
have passed a civil-service bill and Democrats
have helped them to enact it ; and we have it
on the statute-book now that there is no Dem-
ocrat to be put into office in any of the execu-
tive departments except in the lowest positions.
Above them the Republicans alone may com-
pete with each other for the places ; but there
is no chance for a Democrat.'

"• In a free republican government like this
those who belong to both parties fight for office
as well as principle. Do you believe that the
Democratic leaders in all the different States
would work with the same energy, and zeal,
and ability as they would if you held out to
them a chance of a change of the offices, with
the change of the Executive ? It would be con-
trary to all the history of the past to expect
any such work.

" I know it has been replied to this that the
Democratic candidate would not likely have so
strong opposition from the Republican office-
holders in office. I have no faith in that. The
Republican office-holders are usually ardent,
true Republicans ; they believe in the princi-
ples and practices of their party, and they want
to promote and perpetuate them, and they he-
lieve that that party has a sort of divine right
to the offices of this Government, and they
will be as true to their party in the campaign

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (CIVIL-SERVICE REFOBM.)

179

as the needle is to the pole, while you deaden
the energies of the Democratic leaders from
the lowest to the highest by taking away any
inducements you would otherwise hold out to
them to fight with the view of reaping any of
the rewards of success. They would vote the
ticket patriotically as true Democrats, but they
would not exert themselves as they would do if
they believed there would be a general change,
or even a change of one half the persons hold-
ing the offices.

" I say, then, take it any way you will, I do
not see, with great deference to my friend from
Ohio, why at this time a Democrat should vote
for this bill; certainly not without important
amendments, that destroy the aristocracy of
Republican office-holding that this bill pro-
vides for. Will Democrats vote for it when it
closes the doors of the competitive examination
against Democrats for every position except
the very lowest? I do not wonder that our
Republican friends are very unanimous, and
very anxious at this time for the passage of
this bill. The only wonder I have is that it
has taken them so long to reach this point.
The first four years when they were in power
were years of war. It was then no time to
discuss civil service.

" Perhaps the next two or three years ought
not be counted, during the stormier period of
reconstruction ; but take off six years from
twenty-two and it leaves about sixteen years
of peace, when Senators and Representatives
were in condition here to consider the best in-
terests of the whole country. It has taken
them sixteen years to reach the point of, as
they consider, a real civil-service reform.
Well, now, to show the humbuggery in this
whole affair, there was a very good civil-ser-
vice statute put upon the book some years
ago when Gen. Grant was President, and the
law was not only enacted but the machinery
was provided. The three commissioners — I
believe three was the number — were appoint-
ed. As is contemplated by the act, they went
to work ; civil-service reform, it was said, was
going to be given to the country then. Broad
plenary powers were given to the President.
There were some very patriotic and able gen-
tlemen, too, on the commission. One of them
was from my own State, Judge D. A. Walker,
an honored name, a worthy gentleman, a true
Republican. They worked and did, no doubt,
the best they knew how; and what real sub-
stantial reform did the country see? It be-
came so much of a mockery that Congress in
a few years afterward refused to appropriate
the salaries of the commissioners. It was
seen to be a deception and a fraud in practice,
whatever might have been intended and how-
ever .sincere President Grant might have been
in his purpose to carry it out in good faith. It
failed. It was an inglorious failure ; and
matters went on as matters will go on in this
Government.

"This is a republican government; it is

democratic in form, and you have to change
the nature of the government and change hu-
man nature also before you will be able to
adopt in practice here any Utopian theories
about civil service.

" I do not laud the sentiment mentioned by
the honorable Senator from Massachusetts,
which he attributes to Mr. Marcy, that * to the
victors belong the spoils.' He said it was
rather coarse. Probably it was ; but yet to a
very great extent it has been the system prac-
ticed from the first day of the inauguration of
this Government : and whatever you may put
upon the statute-book it will be the system
practiced until its funeral-knell is sounded.
And no party in this Government ever prac-
ticed the spoils system with more zeal and en-
ergy than the Republican party has. ' To the
victors belong the spoils ' has been its constant
motto in practice; and still would be, if im-
pending defeat did not stare it in the face.
There may be some reforms, some of the worst
features may be cut off; but in the main the
Executive who comes into power when his
party has long been deprived of power will
find a way, and the heads of departments
under him will find a way to give to his follow-
ers the benefit of the offices or a large propor-
tion of them.

" I say the argument is legitimate, that, give
the measure all you claim for it, then as Dem-
ocrats you should not vote to handicap your
candidate, and you should not vote to retain
in office for life those who have held the posi-
tions for so long a time, and who are your po-
litical enemies. But if it is not true that it
will be executed or that it amounts to anything,
then this is a vain business^in which we are en-
gaged, and we had better spend our time in
something that is of some practical utility.

"The preamble of this bill promises very
finely. I desire to read it :

" Whereas, common justice requires that, so far as
practicable, all citizens duly qualified shall be allowed
equal opportunities, on grounds of personal fitness,
for securing appointments ^ employment, and promo-
tion, in the subordinate civil service of the United
States.

" That is very broad. It would seem to be
a very good doctrine. But I confess I was
struck when I looked further over and saw
that in the very teeth of that recital, of _ the
proper principle the competitive examinations
are limited to the lowest grade of offices.
That means, I suppose, that it is justice in
case of the lowest grade to give everybody a
chance ; but above, that the benefit must be
confined to the inner circle, those who have
held office a long time and want to continue to
hold it ; in other words, to Republicans.

" Again, the preamble says:

"Whereas, justice to the public likewise requires
that the Government shall nave the largest choice
among those likely to answer the requirements of the
public service.

" That is good doctrine, but the body of the

180

CONGKESS, UNITED STATES. (CIVIL-SEEVICE REFORM.)

act is in the teeth of it. The Government
should have the largest choice among those
likely to answer the requirements as to quali-
fications for office, and yet you limit the choice
of the Government in the body of the bill to
the lowest grade.

" Again :

" Whereas, justice, as well as economy, efficiency,
and integrity in the public service, will be promoted
by substituting open and uniform competitive exam-
inations for the examinations heretofore held in pur-
suance of the statutes of 1853 and 1855.

" Economy, efficiency, and the integrity of
the service will be promoted, says the pream-
ble, by substituting competitive examinations,
and yet the body of the bill denies the compet-
itive examination, so far as the public gen-
erally are concerned, to all persons except for
the lowest grade of offices. But reference has
been made here to the letter and doctrines of
Mr. Jefferson on this question. He has been
cited as authority, and he is very high author-
ity on any subject that he ever handled. There
are certain expressions in his letter to Mr. Lin-
coln that are warped to mean that removals
should take place for cause only, and that
qualifications and fitness alone should be looked
to. Mr. Jefferson made very important qualifica-
tions of that doctrine in that letter. I propose
to read a portion of it. He speaks of the action
of the leaders of the Federal party at that time,
and says (see his letter to Levi Lincoln, dated
25th of October, 1802, vol. iv, Jefferson's
Works, page 450) :

" They are trying slanders now which nothing
could prompt but a gall which blinds their judgments
as well as their consciences. I shall take no other re-
venge than by a steady pursuit of economy and peace,
and by the establishment of republican principles in
substance and in form, to sink Federalism into an
abyss from which there shall be no resurrection for it.
I still think our original idea as to office is best ; that
is, depend for the obtaining a just participation on
•deaths, resignations, and delinquencies.

" But Mr. Jefferson says more than that :
" This will least affect the tranquillity of the people
and prevent their giving in to the suggestion of our
enemies, that ours has been a contest for office, not for
princ.iple. This is rather a slow operation — [and if
he had been confined to the lowest grade ot office
alone he would have thought it a great deal slower]
— but it is sure if we pursue it steadily, which, how-
ever, has .not been done with the undeviating resolu-
tion I could have wished.

" Mr. Jefferson only waited for deaths, res-
ignations, and delinquencies. When these
came, a Eepublican, as the Democrats were
then called, was to be put into office. He de-
clares that was very slow. And what does
this bill do ? It waits in the same manner for
deaths, resignations, or delinquencies, but only
in the lower grades. It does not give us the
chance of putting in a Democrat in every grade
that becomes vacant, because the competitive
examination must be from those in office at
the time ; for all above the lowest grade. It
confines us to the lowest grade. What would
Mr. Jefferson have said if there had been an

attempt to confine him to the lowest grade in'
filling offices where vacancies occurred in the
manner already designated? He would have
thought it was a great deal slower than the
slowness of which he complained.
" Again, he said :

"To these means of obtaining a just share in the
transaction of the public business shall be added one
other, to wit, removal for electioneering activity.

" What would he have said to the hundreds
of clerks who are given time when elections
come on to go to Ohio, and the extreme limits,
wherever there is a Eepublican State, to take
an active part in controlling the State elections ?
Would he not have swept the last one of them
from office ? He adds 4 Or open and indus-
trious opposition to the principles of the pres-
ent Government, legislative and executive.'

" If they took an active part in politics
against him, or if they were open in opposi-
tion to ^he principles of the party in power
administering the Government, they were to
go by the board. Hear him again :

"Every officer of the Government may vote at
elections according to his conscience ; but w$ should
betrav the cause committed to our care were we to
permit the influence of official patronage to be used
to overthrow that cause. Your present situation will
enable you to judge of prominent oifenders in your
State, in the case of the present election.

" ' Prominent offenders in your State.' That
is, those who had taken a prominent part
against his party in Connecticut. That was
what he meant, and it would be left to Mr. Lin-
coln to judge of those who had been prominent
in that way. Then he adds, ' I pray you to
seek them, to mark them, to be quite sure of
your ground, that we may commit no error or
wrong, and leave the rest to me.'

" He was President and said : 'Seek them;
mark them ; be quite sure of your ground, and
then leave the rest ' to him ; he would take
care of it. Again he says :

" I have been urged to remove Mr. Whittemore, the
surveyor of Gloucester, on grounds of neglect of duty
and industrious opposition. Yet no facts are so dis-
tinctly charged as to make the step sure which we
should take in this. Will you take the trouble to
satisfy yourself on this point ? I think it not amiss
that it should be known that we are determined to
remove officers who are active or open-mouthed against
the Government, by which I mean the Legislature as
well as the Executive.

"Mark his language. He thought it not
amiss that it should be known that they were
determined to remove from office those who
had been active and open-mouthed against the
Government whether in the legislative or the
executive department. That was the sort of
civil service that Mr. Jefferson advocated ; that
was the advice he gave to his friend Lincoln,
of Connecticut ; and mind you, he says, ' Mark
them, and leave the rest to me.' And s"o it
will be, no matter what civil-service bill you
may pass; whenever the President and the
heads of departments desire to do so, they will
mark them, and they will find a way of getting
rid of them.

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (CIVIL-SBRVICE REFOBM.)

181

• " Now, Mr. President, one word as to the
natural inherent justice of this case aside from
all political views of it, or any partisan view ;
what is right, what is just. According to this
preamble, it is right and just that men should
take their chances in procuring office, and have
a fair chance in accordance with their ability,
their intelligence, and their fitness for the place ;
all tax- payers and all citizens should stand upon
grounds of equality, taking chances alike, with
no favored class and no proscribed class.

" What is the state of things in this repub-
lican Government of ours? There are now,
it is said, about 55,000,000 people ; there are
about 110,000 officers and persons holding em-
ployment under the Government, and those
places are held by Republicans almost invari-
ably. It is true the Senator from Massachu-
setts told us a while ago that the President of
the United States now stands pledged to sign
and support a measure for civil-service reform.
"Why does he stand so? What new-born idea
has put him on that platform ? I speak kindly
of him personally, for I have great regard for
him ; but his political course we have a right
to discuss. Wh.at administration, at any time
since tbe foundation of this Government, has
ever been more proscriptive, so far as appoint-
ments to office are concerned ? How many
Democrats has he left in, holding offices of any
importance? Some of his predecessors were
more liberal on that subject. But when he
came in I presume those having influence re-
quired of him that he should make a clean
sweep, and he has made it as near as any ad-
ministration ever can.

" What, then, is the modest proposition here ?
It is to give to the Republican party, accord-
ing to the theory of the advocates of the bill,
especially the theory of the Senator from Mas-
sachusetts, a permanency in these offices. What
is the Republican party of this country? It
is a minority of the people of this country.
In 1876 Samuel J. Tilden was elected President
of these United States, and he got a popular
majority of about 250,000. In 1880 James A.
Garfield was legally and constitutionally elected
President of these United States, but he was
elected by a plurality only ; adding the Demo-
cratic vote and the Greenback vote together,
he was beaten on the popular vote by over
300,000 majority.' The Republican party, then,
are a minority of the people of the United
States, and yet they hold to-day almost all the
offices connected with the Government of the
United States. Is it right, Mr. President, as a
naked question of justice, equity, and fair play,
that this state of things should continue ? They
have had this advantage for twenty-two years.
How long has this minority a divine right to
govern this country ?

" No, if we are to have a just and equitable
civil-service reform, let it be a reform of the
abuses of the party that has so long wielded
the power of the Government, and let that
reform be put upon the basis that in future

competitive examinations, when you ascertain
the two highest, the Democrat shall be pre-
ferred until one half the office-holders are
Democrats. I can see an equity in that ; not
if you confine it, however, as this bill does, to
the lowest grade of officers ; but if you will
throw all the offices in these departments open
to competition when vacancies occur, and then
take the two highest and give the preference
to the Democrat until the Democrats have half
the offices, there is something like a just and
equitable civil service. You would have to
give the Greenback party some portion ; but I
am willing to meet this question anywhere
upon the equity and justice of the case. I do
not fear to go before the populace upon it, and
say that I do not favor this policy of civil ser-
vice, because of its injustice, its inequality, and
its want of equity. The Democrats perform
their part of the duties and bear their part
of the burdens of this Government ; they pay
their portion of the taxes ; they do their part
of the military service ; in a word, they do
faithfully the duties incumbent upon citi-
zens.

" Why is it, then, that they should be pro-
scribed not only for the long period, when it
has already been so, but for all future time?
Why are they not worthy of their part in the
patronage and offices of the Government if
they bear their part in the burdens of the
Government? Will some Senator who is so
anxious for this civil-service reform please tell
me why it is that the Democrats have no equity,
no rights as a class? I know it has become
popular to prate about civil-service reform.
We have had it in Presidents' messages and in
reports of heads of the departments until it is
in everybody's mouth, and yet how delusive !
In practice it amounted to nothing from the
very commencement, and now this bill pro-
poses to make it an engine of inequality, injus-
tice, and wrong to the larger half of the tax-
payers and voters and people of the United
States.

"I will give my sanction to no such meas-
ure, and if no other man in this chamber votes
against it I will pride myself in recording my
vote against a measure that proscribes a ma-
jority of the people of the United States, with
which majority I act, and drives them from
public positions for almost a generation to
come, opens the way to the lowest grades that
we may come into the lowest positions only,
and leaves the balance to those already in, who
are all Republicans. I treat it on its equities,
I treat it on its justice, and denounce it as un-"
fair, as fraught with wrong, injustice, and in-
equality, and I ask any one who can to defend
it as a principle of equity. If the Democracy
had been twenty-two years in power, and had
the control of the offices and patronage of this
Government, I say to my colleagues on this
side you would hear a different voice-from the
other side, in my opinion ; I think they would
see, and have no difficulty in reaching the con-

182

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (CiviL- SERVICE REFORM.)

elusion, that the bill was unjust, unequal, and
ought not to pass.

" But there is another provision in connec-
tion with this bill which may require some at-
tention. The country has been greatly shocked
by the practices of the Republican party, by
their levying assessments upon subordinates in
the various offices of the Government to be
used for political purposes, and both sides seem
now to agree on the propriety of enacting strin-
gent laws against such a practice in future.
In other words, we propose in future to make
it highly penal, if not a penitentiary crime, for
any officer or committee to do what the Re-
publican committee did in the last campaign.
And while I deny that the great majority of
the people of the United States have either
clamored or called for a civil-service measure
of the character contemplated by this act, I
admit that there is a general demand for the
enactment of a Jaw to punish, and punish se-
verely, the practice of soliciting and virtually
compelling donations of part of their salaries
from subordinates in the different departments.
But why pass a civil-service bill of the charac-
ter of this to get that provision into it? Why
not meet the question fairly and squarely, like
bold, sensible men, and amend the penal code
of the United States by the enactment of a
law providing ample punishment for those who
practice this system in future ? No civil-service
bill is necessary. It wants a penal statute to
make the infamous practice a high misde-
meanor, if not a felony. Those who claim that
the people at the last election not only con-
demned the corrupt methods and practices of
the Republican party, but that they demand
the so-called civil-service reform contemplated
by this bill as a remedy, make a great mistake.
The corrupt practices have been condemned.
The people have spoken in thunder-tones of
condemnation and denunciation, which can
neither be ignored nor misunderstood. They
denounce the admitted malpractice of Repub-
lican officials, and demand a remedy. But
what remedy ? Not that we pass a law to con-
tinue the perpetrators of these great wrongs in
office for life or a term of years. The party to
which they belong has held power twenty-two
years. It is time there was a change. And the
people demand, as a remedy for existing abuses,
a change of officials. They demand that the
unfaithful public servants, whose maladminis-
tration can not be denied, be hurled from pow-
er, and that their places be filled by honest,
capable men, who will reform the public service
by a return to the purer and better methods
practiced by the fathers of the republic; who
will cut off all surplus and unnecessary officials,
clerks and employes ; and all extravagant waste
of the public treasure, which is wrung by taxa-
tion from the labor of the people."

Many Senators participated in the debate on
the passage of the bill; but the discussion,
though long, was not interesting, and frequent-
ly degenerated into partisan recriminations.

Senators Voorhees, Vest, and Oockrell, espe-'
cially took occasion to bring out the record
of the party in power, in contrast with the
principles of the measure. The bill finally
passed the Senate, Dec. 27, 1882, by the fol-
lowing vote:

YEAS— Aldrich, Allison, Anthony, Bayard, Came-
ron of Pennsylvania, Cameron of Wisconsin, Cock-
rell, Coke, Conger, Davis of Illinois, Davis of West
Virginia, Edmunds, Frye, Garland, George, Gorman,
Groome, Harrison, Hawley, Hill, Hoar, Jackson,
Jones of Florida, Jones of Nevada, Lamar, Lapham,
Logan, Miller of California, Miller of New York,
Merrill, Pendleton. Platt, Plumb, Eollius, Sewcll,
Vest, Walker, Windom— 38.

NAYS — Brown, CalhJonas, McPherson, Morgan — 5.

ABSENT — Barrow, Beck, Blair, Butler, Camden,
Chilcott, Dawes, Fair, Farley, Ferry, Grover, Hale,
Hampton, Harris, Ingalls, Johnston, Kellosrg, Mc-
Dill, McMillan, Mahone, Maxey, Mitchell, Pugh,
Eansom, Saulsbury, Saunders, Sawyer, Sherman,
Slater, Vance, Van Wyck, Voorhees, Williams— 33.

In the House, the bill was referred to the se-
lect committee on civil- service reform, and re-
ported back without amendment by Mr. Kas-
son, of Iowa, Jan. 4, 1883. He at once moved
the previous question, which was carried, and
after a brief discussion the measure passed the
House by the following vote :

YEAS — Aldrich, Anderson, Barr, Bayne, Beach, Bel-
ford, Belmont, Beltzhoover, Berry, Bingham, Bis bee,
Blanchard, Bowman, Bragg, Briggs, Buck, Buckner,
Julius C. Burrows, Jos. H. Burrows, Butterworth,
Calkins, Campbell, Candler, Cannon, Carlisle, Car-

rter, Cassidy, Caswell, Chace, Clark, Cobb, Sam'l
Cox, Wm. E. Cox, Crapo, Cravens, Cullen,
Curtin, Lowndes H. Davis, Deering, De Motte,
Deuster, Dezendorf, Dingley, Ermentrout, Erret,
Sewell S. Farwell, Fisher. Flower, Ford, Frost,
George, Godshalk, Grout, Guenther, Gunter, Hall,
Jno. Hammond, Hardy, Harmer, Benj. W. Harris,
Haseltine, Haskell, Hatch, Hepburn, Herbert, Abram
S. Hewitt, G. W. Hewitt, Hill, Hiscock, Hitt, Hob-
litzell, Holman, Houk, Humphrey, Jacobs, Jadwin,
Geo. W. Jones, Phineas Jones, Jorgensen, Kasson,
Kelley, Ketcham, Klotz, Lacey, Lewis, Lindsey, Lord,
Matson, McClure, McCook, McKinley, Eobt. M. Mc-
Lane, Jas.H. McLean, Miles, Miller, Morey, Morrison,
Morse, Moulton, Mutchlcr, Neal, Nolan, Norcross,
O'Neill, Payson, Peelle, Peirce, Pettibone, Phelps,
Pound, Eanney, Beed Wm. W. Bice, Eich, D. P.
Eichardson, Bitchie, Bobeson, Geo. D. Eobinson,
Wm. E. Eobinson, Eosecrans, Byan, Scoville, Scran-
ton, Sherwin, Otho E. Singleton, Skinner, A. Herr
Smith, J. Hyatt Smith, Speer, Spooner, Springer,
Stockslager, Talbott, Taylor, P. B. Thompson,
Wm. G. Thompson, Amos Townsend, Tyler, Upde-
graff, Urner, Vance, Van Aernam, Van Horn, Wads-
worth, Wait, Walker, Ward, Washburn, Watson,
Webber, Chas. G. Williams, Willis, Willits, Wilson,
Walter A. Wood.— 155.

NAYS — Aiken, Athcrton, Atkins. Blackburn, Bland,
Bliss, Blount, Brumm, Buchanan, Caldwell, Clements,
Culberson, Dunn, Forney, Garrison, Geddes, N.
J. Hammond, Hardenbergh, Hoge, Hubbs, Keima,
King, Knott, Leedom, Le'Fevre, Manning, Marsh,
McKenzie, McMillin, Mills, Moore, Gates, Eeagan,
Jas. S. Eobinson, Eoss, Smalls, Sparks, Steele,
Thomas, Henry G. Turner, Oscar Turner, Upson,
Warner, Wellborn, Whitthorne, Thos. Williams,
Geo. D. Wise.— 47.

NOT VOTING— Armfield, Barbour, Black, Brewer,
Browne, Cabell, Camp, Chapman, Clardy, Colerick,
Converse, Cook, Cornell, Covington, Crowley, Cutts,
Darrall, Davidson, Geo. E. Da'vis, Dawes, Dibrell,
Dowd, Dugro, Dunnell, Dwight, Ellis, Evins, Chas.

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (CIVIL-SERVICE REFORM BILL.)

183

. B. Farwell, Fulkerson, Gibson, Henry S. Harris,
Hazelton, Heilman, Henderson, Herndon, Hooker,
Horr, House, Hubbell, Hutehins, Jaa. K. Jones,
Joyce, Laddj Latham, Lynch, Mackey, Martin,

J. S. Richardson, Robertson, Russell, Scales, Shack-
elford, Shallenberger, Shelley, Shultz, Siinonton,
Jas. W. Singleton, Dietrich C. Smith, Spaulding,
Sione, Strait, R. W. Townsend, Tucker, Valentine,
Van Voorhis, West, White, Morgan R. Wise, Beni.
Wood, Young -87.

January 16th the bill was approved by the
President. It is as follows:

An act (S. 133) to regulate and improve the civil
service of the United States.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representa-
tives of the United States of America in Congress as-
sembled, That the President is authorized to appoint,
by and with the advice and consent of the Senate,
three persons, not more than two of whom shall be
adherents of the same party, as ^civil-service commis-
sioners, and said three commissioners shall constitute
the United States civil-service commission. Said
commissioners shall hold no other official place under
the United States.

The President may remove any commissioner ; and
any vacancy in the position of commissioner shall be
so filled by the President, by and with the advice and
consent of the Senate, as to conform to said conditions
for the first selection of commissioners.

The commissioners shall each receive a salary of
$3,500 a year. And each of said commissioners shall
be paid his necessary traveling expenses incurred in
the discharge of his duty as a commissioner.

SECTION 2. That it shall be the duty of said commis-
sioners: 1. To aid the President, as he may request,
in preparing suitable rules for carrying this act into
effect, and when said rules shall have been promul-
gated it shall be the duty of all officers of the United
States in the departments and offices to which any
such rules may relate to aid, in all proper ways, in
carrying said rules, and any modifications thereof, into
effect.

2. And, among other things, said rules shall provide
and declare, as nearly as the conditions of good ad-
ministration will warrant, as follows :

1. For open, competitive examinations for testing
the fitness of applicants for the public service now
classified or to be classified hereunder. Such exami-
nations shall be practical in their character, and so far
as may be shall relate to those matters which will
fairly test the relative capacity and fitness of the per-
sons examined to discharge the duties of the service
into which they seek to be appointed.

2. That all the offices, places, and employments so
arranged or to be arranged in classes shall be filled by
selections according to grade from among those graded
highest as the results of such competitive examina-
tions.

3. Appointments to the public service aforesaid in
the departments at Washington shall be apportioned
among the several States and Territories and the Dis-
trict of Columbia upon the basis of population as ascer-
tained at the last preceding census. Every applica-
tion for an examination shall contain, among other
things, a statement, under oath, setting forth Ms or
her actual bona fide residence at the time of making
the application, as well as how long he or she has been
a resident of such place.

4. That there shall be a period of probation before
any absolute appointment or employment aforesaid.

5. That no person in the public service is for that
reason under any obligation to contribute to any po-
litical fund, or to render any political service, and that
he will not be removed or otherwise prejudiced for
refusing to do so.

6. That no person in said service has any right to

use his official authority or influence to coerce the
political action of any person or body.

7. There shall be non-competitive examinations in
all proper cases before the commission, when compe-
tent persons do not compete, after notice has been
given of the existence of the vacancv, under such rules
as may be prescribed by the commissioners as to the
manner of giving notice.

8. That notice shall be given in writing by the ap-
pointing power to said commission of the persons
selected for appointment or employment from among
those who have been examined, of the place of resi-
dence of such persons, of the rejection of any such
persons after probation, of transfers, resignations, and
removals, and of the date thereof, and a record of the
same shall be kept by said commission.

And any necessary exceptions from said eight funda-
mental provisions of the rules shall be set forth in
connection with such rules, and the reasons therefor
shall be stated in the annual reports of the commis-
sion.

3. Said commission shall, subject to the rules that
may be made by the President, make regulations for,
and have control of, such examinations, and, through
its members or the examiners, it shall supervise and
preserve the records of the same ; and said commis-
sion shall keep minutes of its own proceedings.

4. Said commission may make investigations con-
cerning the facts, and may report upon all matters
touching the enforcement and effects of said rules and
regulations, and concerning the action of any examiner
or board of examiners hereinafter provided for, and
its own subordinates, and those in the public service,
in respect to the execution of this act.

5. Said commission shall make an annual report to
the President for transmission to Congress, showing
its own action, the rules arid regulations and the ex-
ceptions thereto in force, the practical effects thereof,
and any suggestions it may approve for the more
effectual accomplishment of the purpose of this act.

SBC. 3. That said commission is authorized to em-
ploy a chief examiner, apart of whose duty it shall be,
under its direction, to act with the examining boards,
so far as practicable, whether at Washington or else-
where, and to secure accuracy, uniformity, and justice
in all their proceedings, which shall be at all times
open to him.

The chief examiner shall be entitled to receive a
salary at the rate of $3?000 a year, and he shall be
paid his necessary traveling expenses incurred in the
discharge of his duty.

The commission shall have a secretary, to be ap-
pointed by the President, who shall receive a salary
of $1,600 'per annum. It may, when necessary, em-
ploy a stenographer and a messenger, who shall be
paid, when employed, the former at the rate of $1,600
a year, and the latter at the rate of $600 a year. The
commission shall, at Washington, and in one or more
places in each State and Territory, where examinations
are to take place, designate and select a suitable num-
ber of persons, not less than three, in the official ser-
vice of the United States, residing in said State or
Territory, after consulting the head of the department
or office in which such persons serve, to be members
of boards of examiners, and may at any time substi-
tute any other person in said service living in such
State or Territory in the place of any one so selected.
Such boards of examiners shall be so located as to
make it reasonably convenient and inexpensive for
applicants to attend before them ; ,and where there
are persons to be examined in any estate or Territory,
examinations shall be held therein at least twice in
each year.

It shall be the duty of the collector, postmaster, and
other officers of the United States, at any place put-
side of the District of Columbia where examinations
are directed by the President or by said board to be
held, to allow the reasonable use of the public build-
ings for holding such examinations, and in all proper
ways to facilitate the same.

184

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (OIVIL-SEEVICE REFORM BILL.)

SEO. 4. That it shall be the duty of the Secretary of
the Interior to cause suitable and convenient rooms
and accommodations to be assigned or provided, and
to be furnished, heated, and lighted, at the city of
Washington, for carrying on the work of said com-
mission and said examinations, and to cause the neces-
sary stationery and other articles to be supplied, and
the necessary printing to be done for said commission.

SEC. 5. That any said commissioner, examiner, copy-
ist, or messenger, or any person in the public service
who shall willfully and corruptly, by himself or in co-
operation with one or more other persons, defeat, de-
ceive, or obstruct any person in respect of his or her
right of examination according to any such rales or reg-
ulations, or who shall willfully, corruptly, and falsely
mark, grade, estimate, or report upon the examina-
tion or proper standing of any person examined here-
under, or aid in so doing, or who shall willfully and
corruptly make any false representations concerning
the same or concerning the person examined, or who
shall willfully and corruptly furnish to any person
any special or secret information for the purpose of
either improving or injuring the prospects or chances
of any person so examined, or to be examined, being
appointed, employed, or promoted, shall for each such
offense be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon
conviction thereof shall be punished by a fine of not
less than $100, nor more than $1,000, or by imprison-
ment not less than ten days, nor more than one year,
or by both such fine and imprisonment.

SEC. 6. That within sixty days after the passage of
this act it shall be the duty of the Secretary of the
Treasury, in as near conformity as may be to the classi-
fication of certain clerks now existing under the one
hundred and sixty -third section of the Eevised Stat-
utes, to arrange in classes the several clerks and per-
sons employed by the collector, naval officer, surveyor,
and appraisers, or either of them, or being in the pub-
lic service, at their respective offices in each customs
district where the whole number of said clerks and
persons shall be altogether as many as fifty. And
thereafter, from time to time, on the direction of the
President, said Secretary shall make the like classi-
fication or arrangement of clerks and persons so em-
ployed, in connection with any said office or offices,
in any other customs district. And, upon like request,
and for the purposes of this act, said Secretary shall
arrange in one or more of said classes, or of existing
classes, any other clerks, agents, or persons employed
under his department in any said district not now
classified ; and every such arrangement and classifica-
tion upon being made shall be reported to the Presi-
dent.

2. Within said sixty days it shall be the duty of the
Postmaster- General, in general conformity to said one
hundred and sixty-third section, to separately arrange
in classes the several clerks and persons employed or
in the public service at each post-office, or under any
postmaster of the United States, where the whole num-
ber of said clerks and persons shall together amount
to as many as fifty. And thereafter, from time to
time, on the direction of the President, it shall be the
duty of the Postmaster- General to arrange in like
classes the clerks and persons so employed in the
postal service in connection with any other post-office ;
and every such arrangement and classification upon
being made shall be reported to the President.

3. That from time to time said Secretary, the Post-
master-General, and each of the heads of departments
mentioned in the one hundred and fifty-eighth section
of the Eevised Statutes, and each head of an office
shall, on the direction of the President, and for facili-
tating the execution of this act, respectively revise any
then existing classification or arrangement of those in
their respective departments and offices, and shall, for
the purpose of the examination herein provided for,
include in one or more of such classes, so far as prac-
ticable, subordinate places, clerks, and officers in the
public service pertaining to their respective depart-
ments not before classified for examination.

SEC. *J. That after the expiration of six months from ,
the passage of this act no officer or clerk shall be ap-
pointed, and no person shall be employed to enter or
be promoted in either of the said classes now existing,
or that may be arranged hereunder pursuant to said
rules, until he has passed an examination, or is shown
to be specially exempted from such examination in
conformity herewith.

But nothing herein contained shall be construed to
take from those' honorably discharged from the mili-
tary or naval service any preference conferred by the
seventeen hundred and fifty -fourth section of the Ee-
vised Statutes, nor to take from the President any
authority not inconsistent with this act conferred by
the seventeen hundred and fifty-third section of said
statutes; nor shall any officer not in the executive
branch of the Government, or any person merely em-
ployed as a laborer or workman, be required to be
classified hereunder ; nor, unless by direction of the
Senate, shall any person who has been nominated for
confirmation by the Senate be required to be classi-
fied or to pass an examination.

SEC. 8. That no person habitually using intoxicat-
ing beverages to excess shall be appointed to, or re-
tained in, any office, appointment, or employment to
which the provisions of this act are applicable.

SEC. 9. That whenever there are already two or
more members. of a family in the public service in the
grades covered by this act, no other member of such
family shall be eligible to appointment to any of said
grades.

SEC. 10. That no recommendation of any person
who shall apply for office or place under the provis-
ions of this act which may be given by any Senator
or member of the House of Eepresentatiyes, except as
to the character or residence of the applicant, shall be
received or considered by any person concerned in
making any examination or appointment under this
act.

SEC. 11. That no Senator or Eepresentative or Ter-
ritorial Delegate of the Congress, or Senator, Eepre-
sentative, or Delegate elect, or any officer or employe"
of either of said Houses, and no executive, judicial,
military, or naval officer of the United States, and no
clerk or employe" of any department, branch, or bu-
reau of the executive, judicial, or military or naval
service of the United States shall, directly or indirect-
ly, solicit or receive, or be in any manner concerned
in soliciting or receiving, any assessment, subscrip-
tion, or contribution for any political purpose what-
ever, from any officer, clerk, or employe of the United
States, or any department^ branch, or bureau thereof,
or from any person receiving any salary or compensa-
tion from moneys derived from the Treasury of the
United States.

SEC. 12. That no person shall, in any room or build-
ing occupied in the discharge of official duties by any
officer or employe" of the United States mentioned in
this act, or in any navy-yard, fort, or arsenal : solicit in
any manner whatever, or receive any contribution of
money or any other thing of value for any political
purpose whatever.

SEC. 13. No officer or employe" of the United States
mentioned in this act shall discharge, or promote, or
degrade, or in any manner change the official rank
or compensation of any other officer or employe", or
promise or threaten so to do, forgiving or withholding
or neglecting to make any contribution of money or
other valuable thing for any political purpose.

SEC. 14. That no officer, clerk, or other person in
the service of the United States shall, directly or indi-
rectly, give or hand over to any other officer, clerk, or
person in the service of the United States, or to any
Senator or member of the House of Eepresentatives,
01* Territorial Delegate, any money or other valuable
thing on account of or to be applied to the promotion
of any political object whatever.

SEC. 15. That any person who shall be guilty of
violating any provision of the four foregoing sections
shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall,

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (REDUCTION OF POSTAGE.)

185

on conviction thereof, be punished by a fine not ex-
ceeding $5.000, or by imprisonment for a term not
exceeding three years, or by such fine and imprison-
ment both, in the discretion of the court.

Reduction of the Rates for Letter - Postage.— In

the Post-Office Appropriation Bill, as reported
from the House Committee on Appropriations,
there was a provision for the reduction of post-
age on letters from 3 cents to 2 cents per half-
ounce, recommended by the Committee on the
Post-Offices and Post- Roads. The proposition
was discussed at some length in both branches
of Congress. Mr. Bingham, of Pennsylvania,
in advocating the measure, Dec. 14, 1882, be-
fore the House, said :

"I desire, before the House passes judgment
upon the question of reduction of postage in-
corporated in the bill now before us, to submit
some facts as well as some figures (figures
which have been verified by the Post- Office
officials and found correct), warranting and
justifying the proposition, reported by the
Committee on the Post-Office and Post-Roads,
for a reduction of the rate of letter-postage
from 3 cents per half-ounce to 2 cents per half-
ounce, or fraction thereof, as the law for the
future, and that this measure should go into
effect on the 1st of January, 1884, that date
being fixed as the time the reduction could be
made without the necessity of a deficiency in
the present bill ; for at the end of the next fis-

" year, June 30, 1884, there will be under a 2-

nt rate no deficiency called for by the Post-
ce Department to be appropriated from the

easury.

"Taking the estimates submitted by the
epartment of the amount of business which

ill be done during the next fiscal year, it will
,000,000. The way that is reached is by
a sum total of the sales of postage-stamps and
stamped envelopes during the past year and
10 per cent, added for the current year and 10
per cent, of increase for the next fiscal year.
That 10 per cent, is an average estimate of the
increase of the postal business of the country,
and is added for this and the next year.

" It is believed, Mr. Chairman, so far as an
examination of the discussion of this question
has been common to the newspaper press and
the great monthly leading publications of the
country, that in view of the vast sums of money
flowing into the 'Treasury of the Government
at the present time, not only from the Post-
Office Department but from the various other
sources of revenue which come to the Govern-
ment from the systems of taxation to whish
the people are subject, now is the time for the
reduction of letter-postage from 3 cents to 2
cents, and that such legislation will find a hearty
approval from every community and section of
the country.

" Sir, in order that the House may under-
stand that 2-cent postage is not a temporary
expedient or an unduly considered proposition
of to-day, the Committee on the Post-Office
and Post-Roads in their bill reported to this

House one week ago, asking that this reduction
might take effect on the 1st of January, 1884,
referred to the history of postage, and devel-
oped in the investigation information of a
character that can with directness, and to my
mind convincing force, be called to the atten-
tion of this House, without reference at this
time to the several reductions of postage on
letter matter since the first act of Congress
fixing rate of postage on domestic letters,
Feb. 20, 1792, was passed. It seems but just
that the recommendation under date of Nov.
30, 1850, of Postmaster-General N. K. Hall,
and the approval of the same by President
Fillrnore, should receive attention.

"Ex-Postmaster-General Hall, in his report,
1850, makes the following recommendation :

" A considerable reduction of letter-postage and the
adoption of a uniform inland rate are desired by
a large portion of the people of the United States.
... 1 recommend that the inland letter- postage be
reduced to 3 cents the single letter when prepaid, and
be fixed at the uniform rate of 5 cents when not pre-
paid; and also that the Postmaster-General be re-
quired to reduce this prepaid rate to 2 cents the single
letter whenever it shall be ascertained that the rev-
enues of the department, after the reductions now
recommended, shall have exceeded its expenditures
by more than 5 per cent, for two consecutive fiscal
years.

" President Fillmore, under date of Dec. 2,
1850, calls the attention of. Congress to the
recommendations of his Post-master General, in
this language :

" I am happy to find that the fiscal condition of the
department is such as to justify the Postmaster-Gen-
eral in recommending the reduction of our inland let-
ter-postage to 3 cents the single letter when prepaid
and 5 cents when not prepaid. He also recommends
that the prepaid shall be reduced to 2 cents whenever
the revenues of the department, after the reductions,
shall exceed its expenditures by more than 5 per cent,
for two consecutive years.

" Congress acted upon the recommendation
of President Fillmore and Postmaster-General
Hall, and for the first time gave to the people
a uniform inland rate and adopted the 8-cent
postage for all distances not exceeding 3,000
miles.

" The conditions suggested in 1850 are now
almost literally fulfilled, and the reduction to
the 2-cent rate has found equally as able and
sincere indorsers in the several recommenda-
tions of gentlemen who have carefully investi-
gated the subject.

"In 1862 a committee, appointed by the
merchants and business men of New York,
presented a petition to Congress asking for
postal reform and a reduction of rates in letter
matter. The paper is so able- and comprehen-
sive that I ask the indulgence of the House
while I read several paragraphs pertinent to
the question at issue. The committee use this
language :

" The committee to whom it was referred to prepare
an address to the people of the United States upon
the necessity of postal reform, and also as 'to the na-
ture and extent of the changes that should be intro-
duced into our postal system, beg leave to report :

186

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (REDUCTION OF POSTAGE.)

" There is no feature that more peculiarly character-
izes the Government under which we live, there is
nothing perhaps upon which its peculiar character
depends more than the rapid, constant, and general
intercommunication between its citizens. Unlike the
countries of Europe, no material obstacle of dialect,
much less of language, interposes itself from one end
of the republic to the other; no class privileges or
prejudices separate one portion of the community
trom another; the methods of communication are
various and extensive ; and it may safely be affirmed
that there is no country in the world where there is
the same uniformity of habits, opinions, and modes
of action as in the United States. Of the various
methods of communication that of rapid, punctual,
and safe correspondence by mail is the most impor-
tant and the most highly valued by the citizen. Were
our post-office the most efficient and the best conducted
in the world, and were it at the same time the most
expensive branch of the General Government, it is be-
lieved that no one would object to the cost, whatever
it might be.

" 1 ollowing the exarm

ments of the Old World, the framers of our Constitu-
tion invested Government with a monopoly of mail
operations. The people of the United States have
never seen fit to revoke that power. It then unques-
tionably becomes the duty of Government to bring
our postal establishment to the highest possible state
of efficiency ; but the almost unanimous voice of pub-
lic opinion declares that our post-office is entirely in-
adequate to meet the wants ot the people. . . .

" With very material reductions of postage that we
have had within the last twelve years, "\ye do not be-
lieve we have established that rate which will best
accommodate the public and give the highest rev-
enue. All experience, both in our own and other
countries, demonstrates clearly that the number of
letters written and sent by mail is in proportion to
the facilities of transmission and in an inverse ratio
to the cost of postage. The postal statistics of every
nation show conclusively that, however great the re-
duction of postage, the revenue and profits have in-
variably increased. . . .

" It might not be unreasonable to maintain, with the
economy of management attending a uniform rate of
postage and the vast increase of correspondence that
would attend a material reduction of charges, that the
Post-Office would sustain itself under the uniform
rate of 1 cent. One half of the postal revenue of
Great Britain being clear profit, shows that this rate
would be abundantly able to support the post-office in
that country. Without, however, instituting a direct
comparison between that country and this, we are
fully convinced that a uniform rate of two cents a
letter is the most equitable and convenient charge
that can be made ; a rate that will eventually produce
the largest revenue, and a rate justified by every
consideration of justice, economy, and sound na-
tional policy. . . .

" With most persons of ample means three cents
would not . be considered a high rate of postage, but
with large numbers of the poorer and humbler classes
that charge unquestionably abridges correspondence
and retards business and social intercourse.

" Hon. A. D. Ilazen, Third Assistant Post-
master-General, uses this language in a public
document concerning a discussion of postal
questions :

" The deficiency of revenue from the Treasury to
meet the expenditures was only 7*5 per cent, at the
close of the last year ; and with a gain of more than
10 per cent, in receipts over expenditures during the
past three years, it is not improbable that the postal
service, will be self-sustaining within the next three
years. More than this : with the increasing intelli-
gence of our people ; with a continuation of our pres-
ent business prosperity ; with the rapidly-growing
density of our population, more especially in the

sparsely-settled regions of the country ; with wise
and faithful administration of the Government, the
way will be paved not only for a still greater efficiency
of the service, but for a reduction of postage, even on
the basis of an equality between the postal receipts
and the postal expenditures. The present decade
may witness a reduction of the domestic letter rate of
postage from three to two cents upon these conditions.
The Post-Office Department must continue to keep
pace with the development and growth of the ma-
terial interests of the country : if it would deserve
to remain the ' cherished favonte ' with the Ameri-
can people.

"Again, ex-Postmaster-General James uses
this language in his official report :

" If these suggestions are deemed worthy of con-
sideration and Congress carries them out, the reduction
of letter-postage from three to two cents will be possible
within three years. I believe the reduction could be
accomplished without a proportional diminution of
receipts, which followed the adoption of three -cent
postage in 1851. The people have shown their ap-
preciation of cheap postage. The introduction of the
postal-card, instead of diminishing the receipts, has, on
the whole, largely increased them. Two-cent postage
would. I believe, after one or two years' trial, pro-
duce the same result. It is my deliberate judgment
that two-cent postage is possible in the near future.

" This was under date of Nov. 15, 1881.

" The message of President Arthur, submit-
ted to this House under date of Dec. 4, 1882,
is strong, forcible, and clear in its distinct and
unequivocal recommendation of the 2-cent rate.

" The proposition is a simple one, that any
reduction, large or small, in the rate of post-
age that may be directed by legislation will
benefit the masses of the people. I assert, Mr.
Chairman, that the mere statement of the
proposition carries its own conclusion. The
census enumeration of 1880 gives the statistics
showing the average degree of education of
the people, and the statistics of the Post-Office
Department show to what extent the people
have exercised their educational opportunities
and have availed themselves of the facilities
of the Post-Office Department.

"As illustrating the extent to which the
mails of the country are used, the following re-
port, which has been incidentally referred to
by the gentleman from Kansas in his debate
with the gentleman from Massachusetts, for
the year ending Dec. 30, 1880, will best indi-
cate that which I am referring to, and will ex-
plain the general as well as special effects of
postage relief which the people of each and
every State will enjoy when the reduction
recommended is accomplished. The table I
refer to, and which I will append as a part of
my remarks, and which is a part of the report
as emanating from the Committee on the Post-
Office and Post-Roads, is based upon the result
of an actual count of mail matter originating at
all the post-offices and railway post-offices of
the United States during the first seven days
of December, 1880. I use the data of Decem-
ber, 1880, because no count has been made for
the year 1881. And right in that connection,
before referring to the table, I want this com-
mittee to understand the exact relations that
the American people hold with the people of

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (REDUCTION OF POSTAGE.)

187

other nations and governments of the world in
the use of the mails as a means of communica-
tion. The number of post-offices are in the
following relative proportion, and I will insert
the table in full in my remarks in order that
the details may be examined.

"I quote from the report of the Superin-
tendent of Foreign Mails for the year ending
July 30, 1882:

" It appears by these statistics that the relative rank
of the principal union countries, in respect to the fol-
lowing particulars, was as follows :

" 1. in number of post-offices the United States ranks
first, with 42,989 offices ; then Great Britain, with
14,549 ; Germany, with 9,460 ; France, 5,942 ; Japan,
4,665; Russia, 4,458; British India, 4,409; Austria,
4,025 ; Italy, 3,328 ; Switzerland, 2,852 ; Spain, 2,642 ;
Hungary, 2,301 ; Sweden, 1,785 ; the Netherlands,
1,316; Norway, 924; Mexico, 897 ; Belgium, 792 ;
Portugal, 755 ; Denmark, 560.

"2. In respect to the relative proportion between the
number of post-offices and that of population the
principal countries of the union rank as follow:
Switzerland has an average of 993 inhabitants to each
post-office ; the United States, 1,167 to each office ;
Norway. 2,078 ; Great Britain, 2,372 ; Sweden, 2,565 ;
the Netherlands, 3,085 ; Luxemburg, 3,175 ; Den-
mark, 3,537 ; Germany, 4,778 ; Austria, 5,498 ;
France. 6,211 ; Portugal, 6,285 ; Spain, 6,333 ; the
Argentine Republic, 6,400 ; Belgium, 6,991 ; Hun-
gary, 7,258 ; Japan, 7,701 ; Italy, 8,545.

"'3. In number of letter-boxes for reception of cor-
respondence the principal countries rank as follow:
France, 57,960 letter-boxes ; Germany, 57,782 ; Great
Britain, 27,782; the United States, 18,460; Italy,
11,550; Spain, 9,406; Austria, 8,013 ; Russia, 7,957;
Japan, 6,935; British India, 6,392; Belgium, 5,456:
Switzerland, 5,270 ; Denmark, 3,382 ; Hungary, 3,263*
the Netherlands, 3,047; Sweden, 2,700; Portugal,
1,303.

"4. In number of letters conveyed in the mails the
principal countries rank as follow: Great Britain,
1,176,423,600 letters ; the United States, 847,830,029 ;
Germany, 522,689,800 ; France, 488,462.763 ; Austria,
174,999,000; Italy, 151,471,018; British India, 118,-

A»7O /(QQ • "PnooSo QO /l*1 A>7R • fi-noin RR RO^ fiQ • -

36,898,795; Sweden, 27,130,454 ; Denmark, 22,011,999;
Portugal, 14,124,919.

" 5. In number of postal-cards conveyed in the mails
the.principal countries rank as follow : The United
States, 275,324,224 postal - cards ; Germany, 135,-
135,100 ; Great Britain, 122,884,000 ; Austria, 36,026,-
000 ; France, 27,540,065 ; Japan, 19,884,451 ; Italy,
19,714,710; Belgium, 14,720,342; the Netherlands,
13,775,947; Hungry, 12,965,458: British India,
7,471,984 ; Switzerland, 6,649,297 ; Russia, 4,682,544 ;
Sweden, 1,250,081 ; Roumania, 685,802 ; Portugal,
252,751 ; Norway, 209,014 ; Denmark, 173,128 ; Spam,
161,986 ; Luxemburg, 155,883.

" 6. In respect to the number of letters and postal-
cards per eacn inhabitant the principal countries rank
as follow : Great Britain, 37 '6 to eacn inhabitant : the
United States, 22'S; Switzerland, 22-4; the Nether-
lands, 17'1 ; Belgium, 16-2 ; Germany, 15'6 ; France,
14'9 ; Denmark, 12'6 ; Luxemburg, 11*7 ; Austria,
11-1 ; Sweden, 6'9 ; Italy, 6-6 ; Norway, 5*7 ; Spain,
4-1; Portugal, 3'3 ; Greece, 1'7; Japan, 1-6; Rou-
mania, 1-2; Russia, 1-1.

"7. In number of newspapers conveyed in domestic
mails the principal countries rank as follow : The
United States, 730,269,063 newspapers ; Germany,
420,944,000; France, 285,691,654; Great Britain,
133,790,100; Russia, 83,233,945; Italy, 81,060,778;
Austria, 75,282,900; Belgium, 64,680,000; Switzer-
land, 49,967,736 ; the Netherlands, 33,682,452 ; Hun-
gary, 27,722,577 ; Denmark, 25,007,457 ; Sweden,

21,087,036 ; Japan, 17,596,758 ; British India, 11,251,-
021 ; Norway, 10,402,002 ; Argentine Republic, 7,500,-
000; Greece, 1,688,841.

" Several of the bills that have received the at-
tention of the post-office committee indicate one
ounce as the basis or minimum weight for the
tirst rate of postage. It is not considered that
the change from one half ounce to one ounce
as the basis would afford relief to the great
body of correspondents. "While the large busi-
ness houses and firms would enjoy the reduc-
tion, the average letter would not be carried for
a less rate. Nor is it deemed advisable at this
time to embrace the two propositions of an in-
crease in weight and a reduction in rate in
the legislation recommended. The half ounce
weight is the basis in the Universal Postal
Union, now embracing all the civilized coun-
tries and colonies of the world except Bolivia
and the British Australasian colonies. The
half-ounce is also the basis for the domestic
rate of postage in the principal countries of the
world.

" The official reports of the Post-Office De-
partment for the year ended June 30, 1882,
show a marked surplus over expenditures. A
small surplus, $132,202.65, however, occurred
in the year 1851, and again in the year 1865,
when it amounted to $861,430, doubtless occa-
sioned by the suspension of mail service in the
Southern States. During the year ended June
30, 1851, the receipts amounted to $6,410,-
604.33, and the expenditures to $6,278,401.68.
In the year 1852 the receipts were $5,184,-
526.84, and the expenditures $7,108,459.04,
leaving a deficiency of $1,923,932.20, or 27 per
per cent., to be supplied from the general
Treasury. This deficiency steadily grew, prin-
cipally by reason of largely increased expendi-
tures, until 1860, nearly one half of the expen-
ditures for which year were paid out of the
Treasury.

'k During the four years of the war, from 1861
to 1865, the receipts fell only 4'7 per cent, short
of the expenditures. In 1865 alone, as before
indicated, there was a small surplus of receipts.
The restoration of service in the Southern States
again increased the burden on the Treasury, so
that in 1868 28'3 per cent, of the expenditures
were supplied from that source. From this
point the tendency was generally toward lower
deficiencies, but still in 1875 the Treasury con-
tributed 20-2 per cent, of the expenditures. In
1879 the deficiency was 10-1 per cent., and for
1881 the receipts fell 7 per cent, short of the ex-
penditures. This deficiency was not only wiped
out during the last year, but a surplus of 3-6
per cent, of the receipts will remain after ex-
tinguishing all the liabilities for the year.

"I believe the introduction of the postal-card
for 1 cent contributed largely to the increase
of the revenues of the Post-Office Department.
But I go further and will say that I believe
that when we reduce the postage on letters to
2 cents, many who have recognized the econ-
omy of saving 2 cents as between the letter

188

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (REDUCTION OF POSTAGE.)

and the postal-card, and now use the postal-
card as a means of economy and thereby save
2 cents of postage, will under the 2-cent rate
for letters give up the postal-card, in order to
secure secrecy in their correspondence.

" From the establishment of the Government
the principle has been recognized and the effort
of every administration has been directed to
the making of the postal service self-support-
ing, while at the same time every facility pos-
sible has been extended to the people. In the
British service, as well as in our own, the rate
charged for the transmission of mail matter
was based on the estimated absolute service'
rendered, the distances the mail was carried
being the basis of the rate charged. The act
of Congress of 1851 qualifiedly changed the
existing statutes and made the inland service
uniform in the rate charged for distances less
than 3,000 miles. The limit, however, of 3,000
miles was wiped out by the act of 1863, which
gave us the uniform rate of 3 cents the half-
ounce or fraction thereof, and which is the stat-
ute enforced to-day. The people have never
complained when the deficiency in the postal
service required appropriations from the Treas-
ury. Nor, on the other hand, has any special
effort been made to secure large surplus re-
sults, greater conveniences, larger facilities,
and cheaper rates of postage for all classes of
mail matter seem to have been recommended
and to have formed a part of every Postmaster-
General's report for many years.

" General Hazen, in a paper submitted to
me, asserts that the department is surely on a
paying basis, and as the receipts are increasing
at a much greater rate than the expenditures,
the general Treasury will at an early day, un-
less there should be a change in the present
conditions, be a large gainer from the profits
of the postal service. If, however, the theory
be correct that the earnings should not be per-
mitted to exceed the outlays of the service, the
question is squarely presented as to how the
balance shall be maintained. If the present
profits could be used advantageously to extend
facilities and to afford conveniences to the pub-
lic not now enjoyed, there can be scarcely a
doubt of the popular willingness to have them
applied in this direction.

"Popular as has been the idea of a self-sus-
taining service, public opinion has ever sanc-
tioned the granting of needful sums from the
Treasury, rather than the usefulness of the
service should be impaired by a lack of means
from the postal revenues. But the expendi-
tures for the coming year have been estimated
upon the full measure of the public require-
ments, as well as the same can now be antici-
pated, and yet they fall considerably short of
the estimated revenues. The result promises
to be a large increase on the present profits.
The time would seem to be auspicious, there-
fore, for a reduction in the rates of postage.

"In reference to the effect of reduction in
postage the experience of the past has been

found instructive. The changes in rates of
domestic matter were comparatively unimpor-
tant up to the 1st of July, 1845. In order that
the several changes in the domestic rates may
be fully understood by the House I have in-
serted in my remarks a part of the report of
the Committee on the Post-Office and Post-
Roads, which cites the various statutes since
1792, when the first statute was enacted cover-
ing the first postage on letter matter. Then
gentlemen can see for themselves the gradual
changes and observe the many reductions:

1. February 20, 1792, was the first act fixing rates
of postage on domestic letters, and established the
following rates, to take effect June 1, 1792 :

Act February 20, 1792, section 9, by land: For
every single letter not exceeding 30 miles, 6 cents.

For every single letter over 30 miles, and not ex-
ceeding 60 miles, 8 cents.

For every single letter over 60 miles, and not ex-
ceeding 100 miles, 10 cents.

For every single letter over 100 miles, and not ex-
ceeding 150 miles, 12i cents.

For every single letter over 150 miles and not ex-
ceeding 200 miles, 15 cents.

For every single letter over 200 miles, and not ex-
ceeding 250 miles, 17 cents.

For every single letter over 250 miles, and not ex-
ceeding 350 miles, 20 cents.

For every single letter over 350 miles, and not ex-
ceeding 450 miles, 22 cents.

For every single letter over 450 miles, 25 cents.

For every double letter, double the said rates.

For every triple letter, triple the said rates.

For every packet weighing one ounce avoirdupois
to pay at the rate of four single letters for each ounce,
and in that proportion for any greater weight.

2. Act March 2, 1799, section 7, establishes a Gen-
eral Post-Office at the seat of Government of the
United States.

For every letter composed of single sheet of paper
conveyed not exceeding 40 miles, 8 cents; over 40
miles, and not exceeding 90 miles, 10 cents ; over
90 miles, and not exceeding 150 miles, 12i cents ; over
150 miles and not exceeding 300 miles; 17 cents; over
300 miles, and not exceeding 500 miles, 20 cents ; over
500 miles, 25 cents.

Double letter or two pieces of paper, double rates.

Triple letter or three pieces of paper, triple rates ;
and for every packet composed of tour or more pieces
of paper, or other thing, and weighing 1 ounce avoir-
dupois, quadruple rate, and in same proportion for
greater weights.

3. Act April 30, 1810, section 11 : Bates of postage
on letters and packets :

Cents.

Single sheet of paper, less than 40 miles 8

Single Bheet of paper, 40 to 90 miles 10

Single sheet of paper, 90 to 150 miles 12$

Single sheet of paper, 150 to 300 miles 17

Single sheet of paper, 800 to 500 miles 20

Single sheet of paper, over 500 miles 25

Double letters or two pieces of paper, 'double rates ;
triple letters or three pieces of paper, triple rates;
every packet composed of four or more pieces of paper
or other thing, and weighing one ounce avoirdupois,
quadruple rate ; and in same proportion for greater
weight.

4. Act April 9, 1816, section 1 : Eates of postage
after May 1, 1816 : Cents<
Every letter composed of a single sheet of paper, less

than 30 miles 6

Over 30 miles and not exceeding 80 miles 10

Over 80 miles and not exceeding 150 miles 12f

Over 150 miles and not exceeding 400 miles 18 j

Over400miles 25

Every double letter or two pieces of paper, double

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (REDUCTION OF POSTAGE.)

189

Every triple letter or three pieces of paper, triple
rates.

Every packet containing four or more pieces of
paper or one or more other articles, and weighing one
ounce avoirdupois, quadruple these rates, and in that
proportion for all greater rates.

5. Act of March 3, 1825, section 13 : Same as act of
April 9, 1816.

6. Act March 3, 1845, section 1 : After July 1, 1845.

Postage on letters : For every single letter in manu-
script, or marks and signs, by mail, under three hun-
dred miles, 5 cents ; over three hundred miles, 10
cents ; double letter, double rates ; treble letter, treble
rates; quadruple letter, quadruple rates; and. every
letter or parcel not exceeding one half ounce in weight
shall be deemed a single letter, and every additional
weight of one half ounce or less shall be charged with
an additional single postage.

7. Act March 3, 1851, section 1 : Rates of postage
on letters : From and after June 30, 1851, in lieu of
rates of postage now fixed by law, there shall be
charged the following rates :

Every single letter, in writing, marks, or signs, by
mail, not exceeding three thousand miles, prepaid
postage, 3 cents ; not prepaid, 5 cents : for any greater
distance, double these rates.

8. Act March 3, 1855, section 1 : In lieu of the rates
of postage now fixed by law, there shall be charged
the following rates :

For every single letter, in manuscript or paper of
any kind, in writing, marks, or signs, conveyed in
the mail between places in the United States, not ex-
ceeding 3,000 miles, 3 cents ; and for any greater dis-
tance, 10 cents ; for a double letter, double rates ;
treble letter, treble rates ; quadruple letter, quadruple
rates ; every letter or parcel not exceeding one half
ounce in weight shall be deemed a single letter, and
every additional weight of one half ounce or less shall
be charged an additional rate.

9. Act March 3, 1863, section 22, fixes the rate of
postage on domestic letters not exceeding one half
ounce in weight at 3 cents, and 3 cents additional for
each additional half ounce or fraction thereof, to be
prepaid by postage-stamps affixed.

Taking distance into account, it will be observed
that the reduction in the charges was very great if the
comparison is made on the rates prior to July 1, 1845,
and the rates fixed to take effect July 1, 1845. The
rates established by the act of March 3, 1851, also

lark a great reduction.

Although a temporary loss of revenue followed these

vro reductions, it was speedily followed in both cases
ay a large increase.

" I again avail myself of the valuable figures
)f Mr. Hazen, Third Assistant Postmaster-
General :

For several years prior to 1845 the revenues were
lmost stationary in amount; indeed, for the four

rears ended June 30, 1845, the total amount was

""4,433.64 less than for the four years immediately
ceding that period. For the year ended June 30,

L845, the revenue was $4,289,841.80, and for the next
ear, under the reduced rates, it was $3,487,199.35,

showing a falling off of $802,642.45. For the year

1847 it increased to $3,880,309.23, and for the year

1848 to $4,555,211.10, or $265,369.30 more than for
the year 1845, the entire recovery of the loss of rev-
nue from the reduction hi the rates having thus oc-
curred within three years. The increase continued
at a rapid pace, so that for the year ended June 30,
1851, the revenue was $6,410,604.33, being $2,120,-
762.53, or 49'4 per cent., more than for the last year
(1845) under the old rates, and $2,923,404.98, or 83'8
percent., more than for the first year (1846) of the
new rates.

The immediate loss of revenue by the act of March
3, 1851, was still greater, but this, too, was speedily
recovered. The falling off in the first year of the
change was $1,226,077.49, the entire receipts for the

year ended June 30, 1852, having been $5,184,526.84.
For the year ended June 30, 1854, the revenue
amounted to $6,255,586.22, or only $155,018.11 less
than for the year 1851, the loss by the reduction of
the rates having been nearly recovered in three years.
For the year 1855 the revenue was $231,531.80 more
than for 1851. The increase steadily continued, and
for the year ended June 30, 1860, the revenue was
swelled to $8,518.067.40, being $2,107,463.07, or 32'8
per cent., more than for the year 1851, and $3,333,-
540.562 or 64-2 per cent., more than for 1852.

Again, during the eight years from 1837 to 1845
there were no material changes in the rates of postage,
and yet the revenue for 1845 was $655,826.41, or 13'2
per cent., less than for 1837, while the revenue for the
year ended June 30, 1853, was $950,882.90. or 22-1
per cent., over that of 1845, notwithstanding that both
of the great reductions in the rates of postage had
occurred during the intermediate eight years.
^ For the year 1882 the receipts were more than eight
times as much as for 1852, and the increase alone for
1882 over 1881 was only $93,514.66 short of the entire
receipts for the year ended June 30, 1852, the first
year of the 3-cent rate. Some idea of the immediate
loss by a reduction from 3 cents to 2 cents in the rate
of letter-postage may be obtained from the issues of
the ordinary 3-cent adhesive stamps and stamped
envelopes.

It is true that many letters calling for more than
one rate of postage bear the higher denominations of
stamps, but it is also true that many 3-cent stamps
are used for parcels of merchandise and other matter
not belonging to the first class. The amount of 3-cent
stamps used in this way will probably exceed that of
the larger stamps used on letters, so tnat a diminution
of 331 per cent, in the value of the 3-cent stamps
would represent the maximum loss on an equal volume
of business. The number of the ordinary 3-cent
stamps and stamped envelopes issued during the fiscal
year ended June 30, 1882, was 849.159,950. An in-
crease of 10 per cent, on these would give 934,075,945
as the issue for the current year. This latter number
increased by 10 per cent, would give 1,027,483,539 for
the next fiscal year. One cent taken from the value
of each of these would amount to $10,274,835.39.

"Now the act of 1863 fixed the rate of post-
age on domestic letters not exceeding one half
ounce in weight at 3 cents, and 3 cents addi-
tional for each additional half ounce or fraction
thereof, to be prepaid by postage-stamps. The
recommendation of the Committee on the
Post-Office and Post-Roads, which I am glad
to see has been almost literally adopted in this
bill, makes a simple change in the law of 1863,
that of the reduction of rate from 3 to 2 cents
per half ounce, and the same shall go into ef-
fect the 1st of January, 1884.

" It is claimed that the stimulus of the lower
rate would be felt at once, and that there
would be a large increase of letters mailed,
which is the history of all legislation that per-
tains to a reduction on domestic matter. It is
probable that a cheaper letter rate would tend
also in a measure to dispense with a large
number of postal-cards for written commune
cations. In view also of the- fact that sealed
communications invite closer attention by the
recipients than do open ones, it is not improb-
able that to some extent circulars would be
inclosed under a seal at the 2-cent rate. Tak-
ing these special reasons into account, it is
believed by the Post-Office Department that
the loss of revenue for the first year may be
safely put at $8,000,000, leaving the revenue

190

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (REDUCTION OF POSTAGE.)

for the year at $42,670.456.27 instead of $50,-
670,456.27, as already estimated upon the basis
of existing rates. This estimate of $42,670,-
456.27 for the year 1884 on a 2- cent rate is
$3,393,594.89, or 7'3 per cent., less than the
estimated revenue for 1883, and it is $794, 046. 12
more than the actual revenue for 1882.

" Unless the experience of past reductions
in this and other countries should be at fault
in this instance, the reduction now proposed
in the letter rate will be speedily followed by
a large augmentation of business, and it will
at no distant day prove to have been an eco-
nomic measure of the highest importance to
the postal service as well as to the country."

The appropriation bill, containing the pro-
vision for the reduction of letter-postage, to
go into effect Jan. 15, 1884, was passed by the
House Dec. 20, 1882, and was taken up for dis-
cussion in the Senate Jan. 17, 1883. Among
the opponents of the proposed reduction was
Senator Platt, of Connecticut, who said : " I be-
lieve that this proposition to reduce postage
from 3 cents to 2 cents upon sealed letters is
premature, and I desire that Congress shall have
the opportunity for a second sober thought be-
fore the law goes into operation. I will en-
deavor in the briefest manner possible to give
my reasons why I think this proposed reduction
is premature.

" In the first place, if postage is to be reduced
there are other directions in which the re-
duction is as imperatively demanded as in this
direction. The additional postage of 1 cent
upon drop-letters in cities having free delivery
is a real burden upon the business correspond-
dence of those cities. 'I think it should receive
first attention, as I will endeavor to show as I
proceed. It doubles the postage upon letters
as a penalty for having free delivery which the
Government ought not only to give without
additional pay but ought very largely to ex-
tend.

" Then I think the postage on unsealed let-
ters, business correspondence in unsealed let-
ters, might be reduced to 2 cents quite as prop-
erly as this reduction; but I think that the
whole scheme of the reduction of postage at
this time is premature. I know that there
seems to be the opinion prevailing in Congress
and in certain newspapers that there is a very
general demand for this reduction in letter-post-
age. I confess I have not heard it out of Con-
gress and out of the newspapers. I have not
heard it among the people, and I do not believe
that the people esteem it to be any hardship
upon them to pay 3 cents postage upon a letter
sent to any part of this country. "Where one
person has spoken to me on that subject ten
persons have spoken to me on other matters
connected with the post-office system, and I
think the general desire among the people is
that there shall be no reduction of postage till
the revenues of the Post-Office Department
have been expended to develop and perfect the
post-office system and give the people greater

conveniences than they now have, and make
that system more efficient.

" I make no criticism upon the Post-Office
Department. The growth and development of
the post-office system has been great. Post-
masters-General have done all that they could
under the disposition in Congress not to make
large expenditures for the Post-Office Depart-
ment so long as there was a deficiency. Many
improvements which they would have desired
to introduce and have recommended to Congress
time and time again they have not been able to
carry out because Congress would not make
the necessary appropriations, and the reason
given in Congress for not making the necessary
appropriations always has been that the Post-
Office Department entailed a large deficiency.
Now, for the first time in twenty years, I think,
the Post-Office Department is self-sustaining,
and we have arrived just at that point where
we ought to improve this system, where we
ought to make it more efficient, where we
ought to study the convenience of the people
and see that the United States is not behind
the rest of the world in the conveniences which
it affords to the people through this postal sys-
tem.

" Now, allow me to refer to some minor mat-
ters. The matter of office accommodations at
the third and fourth class offices is a matter in
which there may be very great improvement.
The convenience to the people can be wonder-
fully enhanced. I will not weary the Senate
by going into detail. It is within the personal
observation of every Senator who is familiar
with the post-offices in the smaller places, that
the conveniences might be increased 100 and
200 per cent, with very little additional expense.
I think it ought to be done. I think the ex-
penses necessary to make this increase should
be borne now when the department is self-sus-
taining. If it is not done now it never will be.

u Another thing that I wish to speak of is
this: We should have more frequent mail?.
Take New England and the Middle States, and
Senators will be surprised to learn, I think,
that certainly one fifth of the mail routes in the
New England and Middle States are less than
daily. Is there any reason why in these
States, where a railroad reaches usually within
ten or fifteen miles of every town, every town
should not have a daily mail? I know towns
in my own State, within eight or ten miles of
a railroad, that have but a semi-weekly mail.
I have endeavored to have it increased to a
daily mail, but I have been met continually
with the statement that Congress would not
appropriate sufficient money for that purpose,
and the reason Congress would not do it was
because there was a deficiency in the Post-
Office Department. Take the towns and cities
that are situated upon railroads, the mails car-
ried upon railroads should be increased in fre-
quency. A town of three or five thousand
inhabitants, situated upon a railroad, should
never be dependent upon one daily mail. And

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (REDUCTION OF POSTAGE.)

191

upon this point, there is no reason why we
should not have special mail facilities by fast
trciins. That subject, which was discussed
here yesterday, points what I am saying upon
this matter. The speed of mails should be in-
creased. We should carry mails as fast as pas-
sengers are carried in this country, and we
should not stand here higgling and debating
whether we will spend $185,000 in a year to
increase the speed of mails, to make it possible
to send a letter to Chicago or St. Louis and get
an answer a day quicker than we should other-
wise. What the people want in these matters
is to be well served, served as well as it is pos-
sible that they shall be served, no matter what
the expense is. Take the matter of box-rents.
The whole subject of box-rents needs read-
justing. They need to be cheapened. We
want better offices, better box accommoda-
tions, better service at offices.

" But, Mr. President, there is another thing
that we want still more. We want the free
delivery of the mails extended, and largely ex-
tended." There are in the United States, ac-
cording to the census, 246 cities of over 10,000
inhabitants. In those cities very nearly one
quarter of the population of the United States
resides. There is no reason why the Govern-
ment should not deliver in every one of those
cities of the United States, without the addi-
tional charge of one cent upon each drop-let-
ter, the letters received in those cities, at the
doors of the individuals to whom they are ad-
dressed. Oh, but, Senators say, that will cost
money. Indeed, it will cost money, but I de-
sire that the Post-Office revenues shall not be
reduced until a convenience like that shall be
extended just as far as it is practicable to ex-
tend it.

" I find by the Postmaster-General's report
that only 112 cities now have free delivery. The
law only makes it obligatory upon the Post-
master-General to give a free delivery of letters
in cities of 30,000 inhabitants, and makes it
discretionary with him to allow it in cities
where the population is 20,000, or the gross
revenues are $20,000. I think that that law
should be repealed. I fm,i by the Postmaster-
General's report, desirous as he has been and
desirous as Congress has been that there should
be no deficiency in the Post-Office Department
any longer, that this free-delivery system has
been extended to but three cities in the United
States during the past fiscal year.

"Take my own State. From recollection, I
say that there are something over fifteen towns
and cities having a population compact, I think,
within a mile or two of the post-office to the
farthest delivery, ranging in population from
five to twenty-five thousand inhabitants. I
think it much better to spend the surplus rev-
enues of the Post-Office Department in seeing
that within such towns and cities as those let-
ters are delivered at the doors of those to whom
they are addressed without extra charge for
the service, rather than that postage should be

reduced. I believe that the people think so
too. I do not believe that the people are
clamoring at the doors of Congress to reduce
postage from three cents to two cents until
these improvements have been adopted. In
Great Britain more than 90 per cent, of the
letters are delivered to the individuals at their
residences or places of business, and I think,
without extra charge. It is a principle of the
English system that the delivery of letters
shall be universal.

" More than 90 per cent, of the letters going
through the British Post-Office are delivered
at the doors of the persons to whom they are
addressed. In the early history of the postal
system in England it was the law that it should
be so done. As far back as 1794 there are
cases in the reports where actions were brought
against postmasters for not delivering letters
wherever they were addressed, and it was de-
cided to be the law of England that they should
be so delivered. It was the law in this coun-
try during the Confederate Congress. Letter-
carriers were always appointed in this country
at the discretion of the postmaster to deliver let-
ters without additional charge, until this free-de-
livery system, as it is called, came into vogue.
It should be one of the fundamental principles
of a well-regulated postal system that every
letter should be delivered to the individual
addressed, where it is possible and practicable
that it should be done. It would be an im-
provement which the people would hail with
joy, ten times the joy that they will hail the
reduction of postage, but it never will be done
until the Post-Office is not only self-sustaining
but earns a surplus revenue. I can not, with
the pressure of time that there is upon the
Senate, stop to dwell upon these things; I can
merely outline them ; I can merely call the
attention of Senators to what I believe to be
the real desire of the people upon this ques-
tion, and I will, when I close, propose an
amendment to change the existing law with
reference to the free delivery of letters.

"But there is another subject to which I de-
sire to allude, a subject in which there is
already a great interest, a growing interest, an
interest that will grow and make a voice that
will have to be heard and heeded in the halls
of legislation, and that is the question of the
transmission of messages by electricity, by the
telegraph. The telegraph to-day is the rich
man's mail. The time is coming, and it is
hastening rapidly, when the people of this
country will demand that it shall be no longer
the rich man's mail, but that it shall be brought
within the reach and ability of every individ-
ual in this land. I can not understand how it
is that a Government like ours, that professes
to be in advance of the world, that boasts of
its progressive spirit and tendencies, that boasts
of its invention, that boasts of the utilization
of the arts and sciences in its borders, should
fall back on the slow railroad and steamboat
for the transmission of its messages, and allow

192

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (REDUCTION OF POSTAGE.)

quick transmission to be in the hands of a sin-
gle corporation substantially in this country.

"I said that the telegraph to-day was the
rich man's mail. The transmission of letters
and messages is a Government function, it
pertains to the Government, and it ought
never to have been suffered to go out of the
hands of Government. We ought just as much
to utilize the telegraph as to utilize the sending
of letters by the railway. Formerly letters,
were carried on foot or on horseback. I re-
member when the saddle-bags thrown across
the horse contained the letters which were
sent through the country. Then we adopted
the steamboat and then the railroad, and then
we insist that we shall have fast trains. Why ?
that we may get a letter to California in a
week and get an answer in a week, and the
Government proposes to do it for three cents.
The Government can send a letter of twenty
words to California and get an answer in a
single day at an expense, I verily believe, of
not more than 25 cents. Ought not the Gov-
ernment to doit? Can the Government ex-
cuse itself for not serving the people with this
new means of communicating messages ?

;'I said that the transmission of messages
by electricity was mainly in the hands of a
single corporation. I am not continually talk-
ing about monopolies, but I do say that this
business of carrying letters, of transmitting
messages, is a monopoly which belongs to the
Government of the United States and not to
corporations, and if those gentlemen who are
troubled with the power and the increasing
power of monopolies, and justly troubled, de-
sire to look about for the greatest monopoly
of the world in proportion to its capital, they
will find it in this same telegraph company.
Its receipts the last year were $17,000,000 and
its acknowledged profits were $7,000,000, more
than 40 per cent, of its receipts. I s;iy its ac-
knowledged profits ; what its real profits were
no one knows.

"If the Government, as it ought to have
done under the statute of 1866 authorizing it
to do so, had taken control of the telegraph
system of this country it would have saved last
year $7,000,000 to the people of this country;
and that is a better saving than the saving
which they propose to effect upon postage, be-
cause with that saving would have come the
added convenience, as the telegraph would have
been brought within the reach of the humblest
individual. If an individual in common life
now receives a telegraphic dispatch he fears
that it means death or disaster. Jf the Gov-
ernment in 1866 had taken the telegraph, it
would be a common means of communication
between the common people of this country
to-day.

'* The enormous profits which are lost to the
individuals of the country and are put in the
pockets of the stockholders of this corpora-
tion are nothing to what they are expected to
be. The president of the corporation in his

last annual report estimates that the receipts
of the company in the year 1887 will be be-
tween $31,000,000 and $32,000,000, and the
profits $16,000,000.

"I insist upon it that there should be no
diminution of the revenues of the Post-Office
Department until its surplus funds have been
used at least to make a fund for the purchase,
at an appraised value, of the telegraph lines of
the United States. Looking forward five years
to 1887, taking the report and estimate of the
president of that corporation in the year 1887,
it would save $16,000,000 to the people of the
United States and afford them vastly increased
facilities for corresponding with each other.
I have no time to elaborate this proposition to-
day. I believe that when the people come to
think of these matters they will vastly prefer
that the convenience of the present system
shall be extended; that new improvements
shall be adopted ; that the frequency of mails
shall be increased; that the speed of mails
shall be increased ; that free delivery shall be
extended almost indefinitely; and that Con-
gress shall take steps before the coming storm
to see to it that the control of the telegraph
system of this country passes into the hands of
the Government."

Mr. Edmunds, of Vermont, offered an amend-
ment proposing to strike out the whole clause
of the bill relating to the reduction of letter-
postage, on the ground that legislation of a
general nature in an appropriation bill was in
violation of rule 29, which is as follows :

No amendment which proposes general legislation
shall be received to any general appropriation bill;
nor shall any amendment not germane or relevant
to the subject-matter contained in the bill be received ;
nor shall any amendment to any item or clause of such
bill be received which does not directly relate there-
to; and all questions of relevancy or amendments
under this rule, when raised, shall be submitted to
the Senate and be decided without debate ; and any
amendment to a general appropriation bill may be laid
on the table without prejudice to the bill.

The amendment was rejected by the follow-
ing vote, which shows the attitude of the Sen-
ate on the question of postal reduction :

YEAS — Anthony, Blair, Cameron of Pennsylvania,
Cameron of Wisconsin, Davis of Illinois, Edmunds,
Hawley, Hoar, Jones of Florida, Lapham, Miller of
New Y ork, Morrill, Platt, Kollins, Sherman— 15.

NAYS — Barrow, Beck, Brown, Call, Camden.Cock-
rell, Coke, Conger, Dawes, Frye, Garland, George,
Gorman, Groome, Hale, Hampton, Harris, Harrison,
Hill, Ingalls, Johnston, Jonas, Kellogg, Lamar, Mc-
Dill, McMillan, Mahone, Maxey, Morgan Pendleton,
Plumb, Pugh, Sewell, Slater, Vance, Van Wyck,
Vest, Voorhees, Walker, Williams— 40.

ABSENT— Aldrich, Allison, Bayard, Butler, Chil-
cott, Davis of West Virginia, Fair Farley, Ferry,
Grover, Jackson, Jones of Nevada, Logan, McPher-
son, Miller of California, Mitchell, Eansom, Sauls-
bury, Saunders, Sawyer, Windom — 21.

January 20th. the bill passed the Senate with
several important amendments. One of them
changed the date of the proposed reduction in
the rate of letter-postage ; another added an
appropriation for fast mails ; another provided

CONGEESS, UNITED STATES. (!NTKENAL REVENUE AND TAEIFF.) 193

an appropriation for steamboat mail service;
and another struck out the following provision
of the original bill :

Provided, That for the better accomplishment of
the objects of the acts authorizing the construction of
the railroads hereinafter referred to, and the better to
secure to the Government the use and benefit of the
same, the acts authorizing the building and construc-
tion of those railroads which have received, in addi-
tion to land grants, Government aid by the loan or
guarantee of bonds by the United States, and all other
acts, parts of acts, and provisions having relation
thereto, are hereby so altered, amended, and modified
that hereafter the compensation paid or allowed for
the carrying and transportation of the United States
mails by such railroad companies, or their assigns or
successors, shall be fixed by the Postmaster- General,
at a rate not exceeding that fixed by him or allowed
by law to other railway companies of the same class
to which the United States have furnished aid by
grant of land, right of way, or otherwise.

The House non-concurred in these amend-
ments, and three conference committees in
succession discussed the points of difference,
and failed to come to a complete agreement.
The last committee fixed Oct. 1, 1883, as the
date for the reduction of the rate of letter-
postage ; and finally, on March 2d, the House
receded from its non-concurrence in the strik-
ing out of the provision in regard to the land-
grant railroads and the insertion of an appro-
priation for fast mails. The next day the
measure as amended was approved by the

T\ • ~t ** •*

President.

Internal Revenue and Tariff Legislation.— The Tar-
iff Commission appointed under the act of Con-
gress, approved May 15, 1882, made a report to
the House of Representatives Dec. 4, 1882, and
the report submitted became the basis of the
legislation for tariff revision that took up so
great a part of the session. The report, after a
general view of the tariff problem, took up each
class of articles and gave an account of the con-
dition of trade in them and the nature of the
action to be taken with respect to duties levied
on them, and the data on which such action was
based. It closed with a schedule of proposed
duties and a statement of proposed amend-
ments to the revised statutes. The reduction
which the committee recommended averaged
not less than 20 per cent. In some cases it
was slight; in others no reduction was at-
tempted at all; and in many instances there
was a scaling down of from 40 to 50 per cent.
On the report of the commission as a basis,
the House Committee of Ways and Means re-
ported a tariff bill Jan. 16, 1883, which was
taken up and elaborated with great care; but
in the mean while, a bill to reduce internal
revenue taxation which had passed the House
and had been referred to the Finance Com-
mittee of the Senate, was reported back to that
body Jan. 4, 1883, with amendments virtually
revising the whole tariff system and the ma-
chinery for carrying it out, which amend-
ments were based also upon the report of the
tariff commission. The Senate entered upon
the discussion of this measure with zeal, and
VOL. xxin.— 13 A

debated it item by item at great length. It
was passed Feb. 20, 1883, by the following
vote:

YEAS— Aldrich, Allison, Anthony, Barrow, Bay-
ard, Blair, Brown, Camden Cameron of Wisconsin,
Conger, Davis of Illinois, Davis of West Virginia,
Dawes, Edmunds, Frye, Gorman, Hale, Harrison,
Hawley, Hoar, Ingalls, Jackson, Jones of Florida,
Jones of Nevada, Kellogg, Logan, McMillan, McPher-
spn, Miller of California, Miller of New York, Mor-
rill, Platt, Plumb, Rollins, Sawyer, Sewell, Sher-
man, Slater, Tabor, Van Wyck, Windom— 42.

NAYS— Beck, Call, Cockrell, Coke, Farley, Gar-
land, George, Hampton, Harris, Maxey, Mitchell,
Pendleton, Pugh, Ransom, Vance, Vest, Voorhees,
Walker, Williams— 19.

ABSENT — Butler, Cameron of Pennsylvania. Fair,
Ferry, Groome. Grover, Johnston, Jonas, Lamar,
Lapham, McDill, Mahone, Morgan, Saulsbury, Saun-
ders— 15.

It was determined by the majority in the
House to abandon the tariff bill of that body
and act upon the internal - revenue bill as
amended by the Senate, and in order to facili-
tate the consideration of the measure in the
House, the Committee on Rules reported Feb.
24, 1883, the following amendment to the rules
of that body :

During the remainder of this session it shall be in
order at any time to move to suspend the rules, which
motion shall be decided by a majority vote, to take
from the Speaker's table House bill No. 5538, with
the Senate amendment thereto, entitled "A bill to
reduce internal-revenue taxation," and to declare a
disagreement with the Senate amendment to the
same, and to ask for a committee of conference there-
on, to be composed of five members on the part of the
House. If such motion shall fail, the bill shall re-
main upon the Speaker's table unaffected by the de-
cision of the House upon said motion.

^ After a brief but bitter opposition, this spe-
cial rule was adopted Feb. 27th. As a ques-
tion of privilege,Mr. Hammond, of Georgia, then
submitted the* following resolution :

Resolved, That the substitute of the Senate (H. R.
5538) entitled " An act to reduce internal- revenue
taxation, and for other purposes," under the form of
an amendment to the bill of the House (H. R. 5538)
entitled "An act to reduce internal-revenue taxation,"
containing a general revision and repeal of laws im-
posing both import duties and internal taxes, is in
conflict with the true intent and purposes of that
clause of the Constitution which requires " all bills
for raising revenue shall originate in the House of
Representatives"; and that therefore said bill so
amended do lie upon the table.

And be it further resolved, That the Clerk of the
House be and is hereby directed to notify the Senate
of the passage of the foregoing resolution.

On motion of Mr. Haskell, of Kansas, the
following preamble and resolution were sub-
stituted and adopted :

Whereas, House bill 5538, entitled " An act to re-
duce internal revenue taxation, and for other pur-
poses," under the form of an amendment in the Sen-
ate, to title 33 of the Revised Statutes, which provides
for duties on imports, has been so modified and
changed by the introduction of new provisions, con-
taining among other things a general revision of the
statutes referred to so as both to increase and reduce
duties on imports, and in many instances to repeal
and in others to amend the laws imposing import du-
ties; and

194

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (INTERNAL REVENUE AND TAEIFF.)

Whereas in the opinion of this House it is believed
that such changes and alterations are in conflict with
the true intent and purpose of the Constitution, which
requires that all bills for raising revenue shall origi-
nate in the House of Representatives : therefore,

Resolved, That if this bill shall be referred to a
committee of conference, it shall be the duty of the
conferees on the part of the House on said committee
to consider fully the constitutional objections to said
bill as amended by the Senate herein referred to, and
to brin» the same, together with the opinion or the
House in regard thereto, before said committee of con-
ference, and if necessary, in their opinion, after hav-
ing conferred with the Senate conferees, said confer-
ees on said committee may make report to the House
in regard to the objections to said bul herein referred
to.

The House non-concurred in the Senate
amendments to the original bill, and a confer-
ence committee was appointed Feb. 27th. Two
of the conferees on the part of the Senate,
Messrs. Bayard and Beck, asked, March 1st, to
be excused from service on learning the nature
of the conditions imposed by the House upon
its representatives in the conference committee,
holding that such instructions were a breach
of senatorial privilege. March 2d the report
of the conference committee was submitted in
the Senate. It was sharply criticised by lead-
ing Democrats, but was finally concurred in by
the following vote :

YEAS — Aldrich, Allison^ Anthony, Blair, Cameron
of Wisconsin, Conger, Davis of Illinois, Dawes, Ed-
munds, Frye, Harrison, Hawley, Hill, Hoar, Ingalls,
Jones of Nevada, Kellogg, Lapnam, Logan, McDill,
McMillan, McPherson, Mahone, Miller of New York,
Morrill, Platt, Plumb, Rollins, Sawyer, Sewell, Sher-
man, Windom— 32.

NATS — Barrow, Bayard, Brown, Butler, Call, Cam-
eron of Pennsylvania, Cockrell, Coke, Fair, Garland,
George, Gorman, Groome, Harris, Jackson, Jonas,
Jones of Florida, Lamar, Maxey, Morgan, Pendleton,
Pugh, Ransom, Saulsbury, Slater, Vance, Van Wyck,
Vest, Voorhees, Walker, Williams— 31.

ABSENT — Beck, Camclen, Davis of West Virginia,
Farley, Ferry, Grover, Hale, Hampton, Johnston,
Miller of California, Mitchell, Saunders, Tabor— 13.

March 3d the report of the conference com-
mittee was taken up in the House, and con-
curred in by the following vote :

YEAS — Aldrich, Anderson. Barr, Belford, Beltz-
hoover, Bingham, Bisbee, Bliss, Bowman, Brewer,
Briggs, Browne, Buck, Julius C. Burrows, Joseph H.
Burrows, Butterworth, Calkins, Camp, Candler, Can-
non, Carpenter-Caswell, Chace, Crapo, Crowley, Cul-
len, George R. Davis, Deering, De Motte, Dezendorf,
Dingley, Doxey. Dunnell, Dwi£rhtL Ermentrout,
Charles B. Farwell. Sewell S. Farwell, Fisher, Fulker-
son, George, Godshalk, Grout, Guenther, Hall, John
Hammond, Hardenbergh, Hardy, Harmer, Benja-
min W. Harris, Henry S. Harris, Haskell, Hazelton,
Heilman, Henderson, Hepburn, Hill, Hiscock, Hitt,
Horr, Houk, Hubbs, Humphrey, Jacobs, Jadwin,
Phineas Jones, Jorgensen, Joyce, Kasson, Kelley,
Ketcham, Klotz, Lacey, Ladd, Lewis, Lindsey, Lord,
Lynch, Mackey, Marsh, Mason, McCoid, McCook,
James H. McLean, Miles, Moore, Morey, Morse,
Mutchler, Neal, Norcross, O'Neill, Pacheco, Page,
Parker, Payson, Peele, Peirce, Pettibone, Pound,
Randall, Ranney, Ray, Reed, Rich, D. P. Richard-
son, Ritchie, Robeson, George D. Robinson, Ross,
Ryan, Scoville, Scranton, Sessinghaus, Shallenber-
ger, Shelley, Sherwin Shultz, Skinner, Smalls,
AaHerr Smith, Dietrich C. Smith, J. Hyatt Smith,
Spaulding, Speer, Spooner. Steele, Stone, Strait,

Thomas, Amos Townsend, Tyler, Updegraff, Valen-
tine, Van Aernam, Van Horn, Van Voorhis, Wads-
worth, Wait, Walker, Ward, Washburn, Watson,
Webber, West, White, Charles G. Williams, Willits,
Wilson, George D. Wise, Morgan R. Wise, Walter

A. Wood, Young— 152.

NAYS — Aiken, Armfleld, Atherton, Atkins, Bar-
bour, Bayne, Beach, Belmont, Berry, Blackburn,
Blanchard, Bland, Blount, Bragg, Brumm, Buchanan,
Buckner, Cabell, Caldwell, Campbell, Carlisle,
Cassidy, Chapman, Clark, Clements, Cobb, Colerick,
Converse, John C. Cook, Philip Cook, Covington,
Samuel S. Cox, William R. Cox, Culberson, David-
son, Lowndes H. Davis, Dawes, Deuster, Dibrell,
Dowd, Dugro, Dunn, Ellis, Errett, Evins, Flower,
Ford, Forney, Garrison, Geddes, Gibson, Gunter,
N. J. Hammond, Haseltine, Hatch, Herbert, Abram
S. Hewitt, Hoblitzell, Hoge, Holman, House, Hub-
bell, Hutchins, George W. Jones, James K. Jones,
Kenna, King, Knott, Latham, Leedpm, Le Fevre,
Manning, Martin, Matson, McKenzie, McKinley,
Robert M. McLane, McMillin, Miller, Mills, Money,
Morrison, Moulton, Muldrow, Murch, Reese, John

B. Rice, Theron M. Rice, J. S. Richardson, Rob-
ertson, James S. Robinson, William E. Robinson,
Rosecrans, Scales, Simonton, Otho R. Singleton,
Sparks, Springer, Stockslager, Talbott, EzraB. Tay-
lor, Joseph D. Taylor, P. B. Thompson, R. W. I
Townshend, Tucker, Henry G. Turner, Oscar Tur-
ner, Upson, Urner, Vance, Warner, Wellborn,
Wheeler, Whitthorne, Thomas Williams, Willis—
116.

NOT VOTING — Black, Clardy, Cornell, Cravens,
Curtain, Darrall, Herndon, G. W. Hewitt, Hooker,
McClure, Mosgrove, Nolan, Gates, Paul, Phelps,
Phister, Prescott, Reagan, William W. Rice, Russell,
James W. Singleton, William G. Thompson, Benja-
min Wood — 23.

The measure was approved by the President
the same day and became a law. It is as fol-
lows:

An act to reduce internal revenue taxation and for
other purposes :

Be ^t enacted by tJie Senate and House of Representa-
tives of the United States in Congress assembled :

That the taxes herein specified, imposed by the laws
now in force, be and the same are hereby repealed,
as hereinafter provided, namely : On capital and de-
posits of banks, bankers, and national banking asso-
ciations, except such taxes as are now due and payable ;
and on and after the first day of July, eighteen hun-
dred and eighty-three, the stamp tax on bank checks,
drafts, orders, and vouchers, and the tax on matches,
perfumerv, medicinal preparations, and other articles
imposed "by Schedule A following section thirty-four
hundred and thirty-seven of the Revised Statutes:
Provided, That no drawback shall be allowed upon
articles embraced in said schedule that shall be ex-
ported on and after the first day of July, eighteen
hundred and eighty -three : Provided, further, That \
on and after May fifteenth, eighteen hundred and j
eighty-three, matches may be removed by manufact- ,
urers thereof from the place of manufacture to ware-
houses within the United States without attaching
thereto the stamps required by law, under such regu-
lations as may be prescribed by the Commissioner of !
Internal Revenue.

SEO. 2. That on and after the first day of May,
eighteen hundred and eighty-three, dealers in leaf-
tobacco shall annually pay twelve dollars ; dealers in (
manufactured tobacco shall pay two dollars and forty ;
cents ; all manufacturers of tobacco shall pay six dol-
lars : manufacturers of cigars shall pay six dollars :
peddlers of tobacco, snuff and cigars shall pay special
taxes as follows : Peddlers of the first class, as now
defined by law, shall pay thirty dollars ; peddlers of
the second class shall pay fifteen dollars ; peddlers of
the third class shall pay seven dollars and twenty
cents ; and peddlers of the fourth class shall pay

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (INTERNAL REVENUE AND TAEIFF.)

195

three dollars and sixty cents. Eetail dealers in leaf-
tobacco shall pay two hundred and fifty dollars, and
thirty cents for each dollar on the amount of their
monthly sales in excess of the rate of five hundred
dollars per annum : Provided, That farmers and pro-
ducers of tobacco may sell at the place of production
tobacco of their own growth and raising at retail di-
rectly to consumers, to an amount not exceeding one
hundred dollars annually.

SEC. 3. That hereafter the special tax of a dealer in
manufactured tobacco shall not be required from any
farmer, planter, or lumberman who furnishes such to-
bacco only as rations or supplies to his laborers or em-
ployes in the same manner as other supplies are fur-
nished by him to them : Provided, That the aggregate
of the supplies of tobacco so by him furnished shall
not exceed in quantity one hundred pounds in any
one special tax year ; that is, from the first day of May
in any year until the thirtieth day of April in the
next year : And provided further, That such farmer,
planter, or lumberman shall not be, at the time he is
furnishing such supplies, engaged in the general busi-
ness of selling dry goods, groceries, or other similar
supplies in the manner of a merchant or storekeeper
to others than his own employe's or laborers.

SBC. 4. That on and after May first, eighteen hun-
dred and eighty-three, the internal taxes on snuff,
smoking and manufactured tobacco, shall be eight
cents per pound ; and on cigars which shall be manu-
factured and sold or removed for consumption or sale
on and after the first day of May, eighteen hundred
and eighty -three, there shall be assessed and collected
the following taxes, to be paid by the manufacturer
thereof: On cigars of all descriptions, made of to-
bacco or any substitute therefor, three dollars per thou-
sand ; on cigarettes weighing not more than three
pounds per thousand, fifty cents per thousand : on
cigarettes weighing more than three pounds per thou-
sand, three dollars per thousand : Provided, That on
all original and unbroken factory packages of smok-
ing and manufactured tobacco and snuif, cigars, che-
roots, and cigarettes held by manufacturers or dealers
at the time such reduction shall go into effect, upon
which the tax has been paid, there shall be allowed a
drawback or rebate of the full amount of the reduc-
tion, but the same shall not apply in any case where
the claim has not been presented within sixty days
following the date of the reduction ; and such rebate
to manufacturers may be paid in stamps at the re-
duced rate ; and no claim shall be allowed or draw-
back paid for a less amount than ten dollars. It shall
be the duty of the Commissioner of Internal Eeve-
nue, with the approval of the Secretary of the Treas-
ury, to adopt such rules and regulations and to pre-
scribe and furnish such blanks and forms as may be
necessary to carry this section into effect.

SEC. 5'. That from and after the passage of this act
every manufacturer of toVoco or snuff shall, in ad-
dition to all other requirements of law, print on each
package, or securely affix by pasting on each package
containing tobacco or snuff manufactured by or for
him, a label on which shall be printed the number of
the manufactory, the district and State in which it is
situated, and these words :

NOTICE.

The manufacturer of this tobacco has complied with
all requirements of law. Every person is cautioned,
under penalties of law, not to use this package for
tobacco again.

SEC. 6. That on and after the first day of July, eight-
een hundred and eighty-three, the following sections
shall constitute and be a substitute for title thirty -
three of the Eevised Statutes of the United States.
TITLE XXXIII.

DUTIES UPON IMPORTS.

SEC. 2491. All persons are prohibited from import-
ing into the United States from any foreign country,
any obscene book, pamphlet, paper, writing, adver-
tisement, circular, print, picture, drawing, or other

representation, figure, or image on or of paper or other
material, or any cast, instrument, or other article of
an immoral nature , or any drug or medicine, or any
article whatever, for the prevention of conception, or
for causing unlawful abortion. No invoice or package
whatever, or any part of one, in which any such ar-
ticles are contained shall be admitted to entry ; and
all invoices and packages whereof any such articles
shall compose a part are liable to be proceeded against,
seized, and forfeited by due course of law. AH such
prohibited articles in the course of importation shall
be detained by the officer of customs, and proceedings
taken against the same as prescribed in the following
section : Provided, That the drugs hereinbefore men-
tioned, when imported in bulk and not put up for any
of the purposes hereinbefore specified, are excepted
from the operation of this section.

SEC. 2492. "Whoever, being an officer, agent, or em-
ploye" of the Government of the United States, shall
knowingly aid or abet any person engaged in any vio-
lation of any of the provisions of law prohibiting im-
porting, advertising, dealing in, exhibiting, or sending
or receiving by mail obscene or indecent publications
or representations, or means for preventing conception
or procuring abortion, or other articles of indecent or
immoral use or tendency, shall be deemed guilty of a
misdemeanor, and shall for every offense be punish-
able by a fine of not more than five thousand dollars
or by imprisonment at hard labor for not more than
ten years, or both.

SEC. 2493. Any judge of any district or circuit court
of the United States, within the proper district, before
whom complaint in writing of any violation of the
preceding sections is made, to the satisfaction of such
judge, and founded on knowledge or belief, and, if
upon belief, setting forth the grounds of .such belief,
and supported by oath or affirmation of the complain-
ant, may issue, conformably to the Constitution, a war-
rant directed to the marshal, or any deputy-marshal,
in the proper district, directing him to search for, seize,
and take possession of any such article or thing here-
inbefore mentioned, and to make due and immediate
return thereof, to the end that the same may be con-
demned and destroyed by proceedings which shall be
conducted in the same manner as other proceedings in
the case of municipal seizure, and with the same right
of appeal or writ of error.

SEC. 2494. The importation of neat cattle and the
hides of neat cattle from any foreign country into the
United States is prohibited : Provided, That the oper-
ation of this section shall be suspended as to any for-
eign country or countries, or any parts of such country
or countries, whenever the Secretary of the Treasury
shall officially determine, and give public notice there-
of, that such importation will not tend to the intro-
duction or spread of contagious or infectious diseases
among the cattle of the United States ; and the Secre-
tary of the Treasury is hereby authorized and empow-
ered, and it shall be his duty, to make all necessary
orders and regulations to carry this law into effect, or
to suspend the same as therein provided, and to send
copies thereof to the proper officers in the United
States, and to such officers or agents of the United
States in foreign countries as he shall judge necessary.

SEC. 2495. Any person convicted of a willful viola-
tion of any of the provisions of the preceding section
shall be fined not exceeding five hundred dollars, or
imprisoned not exceeding one year, or both, in the
discretion of the court.

SEC. 2496. No watches, watch-cases, watch-move-
ments, or parts of watch-movements, or any other
articles of foreign manufacture, which shall copy or
simulate the name or trade-mark of any domestic man-
ufacturer, shall be admitted to entry at the custom-
houses of the United States, unless such domestic
manufacturer is the importer of the same. And in
order to aid the officers of the customs in enforcing
this prohibition, any domestic manufacturer who has
adopted trade-marks may require his name and resi-
dence and a description of his trade-marks to be re-

196

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (DUTIES ON IMPOBTS.)

corded in books which shall be kept for that purpose
in the Department of the Treasury, under such regu-
lations as the Secretary of the Treasury shall pre-
scribe, and may furnish to the department fac-similes
of such trade-marks ; and thereupon the Secretary of
the Treasury shall cause one or more copies of the
same to be transmitted to each collector or other proper
officer of the customs.

SEC. 2497. No goods, wares, or merchandise, unless
in cases provided for by treaty, shall be imported into
the United States from any foreign port or place, ex-
cept in vessels of the United States, oi*in such foreign
vessels as truly and wholly belong to the citizens or
subjects of that country of which the goods are the
growth, production, or manufacture ; or from which
such goods, wares, or merchandise can only be, or
most usually are, first shipped for transportation. All
goods, wares, or merchandise imported contrary to
this section, and the vessel wherein the same shall be
imported, together with her cargo, tackle, apparel,
and furniture, shall be forfeited to the United States ;
and such goods, wares, or merchandise, ship, or ves-
sel, and cargo shall be liable to be seized, prosecuted,
ana condemned, in like manner, and under the same
regulations, restrictions, and provisions, as have been
heretofore established .for the recovery, collection, dis-
tribution, and remission of forfeitures to the United
States by the several revenue laws.

SEC. 2498. The preceding section shall not apply
to vessels, or goods, wares, or merchandise, imported
in vessels of a foreign nation which does not maintain
a similar regulation against vesstels of the United
States.

SEC. 2499. There shall be levied, collected, and paid
on each and every non-enumerated article which bears
a similitude, either in material, quality, texture, or
the use to which it may be applied, to any article
enumerated in this title as chargeable with duty, the
same rate of duty which is levied and charged on the
enumerated article which it most resembles in any of
the particulars before mentioned ; and if any non-
enumerated article equally resembles two or more enu-
merated articles on which different rates are charge-
able, there shall be levied, collected, and paid on such
non-enumerated article the same rate of duty as is
chargeable on the article which it resembles paying
the highest duty; and on all articles manufactured
from two or more materials the duty shall be assessed
at the highest rates at which the component material
of chief value may be chargeable. If two or more
rates of duty should be applicable to any imported
article, it shall be classified for duty under the high-
est of such rates: Provided, That non-enumerated
articles similar in material and quality and texture,
and the use to which they may be applied, to articles
on the free list, and in the manufacture of which no
dutiable materials are used, shall be free.

SEC. 2500. Upon the reimportation of articles once
exported of the growth, product, or manufacture of
the United States, upon which no internal tax has
been assessed or paid, or upon which such tax has
been paid and refunded by allowance or drawback,
there shall be levied, collected, and paid a duty equal
to the tax imposed by the internal-revenue laws upon
such articles.

SEO. 2501 . A discriminating duty of ten per centum
ad valorem^ in addition to the duties imposed by law,
shall be levied? collected, and paid on all goods, wares,
and merchandise which shall be imported on vessels
not of the United States ; but this discriminating duty
shall not apply to goods, wares, and merchandise
which shall be imported in vessels not of the United
States, entitled, by treaty or any act of Congress, to
be entered in the ports of the U nited States on pay-
ment of the same duties as shall then be paid on
goods, wares, and merchandise imported hi vessels ot
the United States.

SEC. 2502. There shall be levied, collected, and paid
upon all articles imported from foreign countries, and
mentioned in the schedules herein contained, the rates

of duty which are, by the schedules, respectively pre-
scribed, namely :

SCHEDULE A. — CHEMICAL PRODUCTS.

Glue, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Beeswax, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Gelatine and all similar preparations, thirty per
centum ad valorem.

Glycerine, crude, brown or yellow, of the specific
gravity of one and twenty-five hundredths or less at
a temperature of sixty degrees Fahrenheit, not puri-
fied by refining or distilling, two cents per pound.

Glycerine, refined, five cents per pound.

Fish-glue or isinglass, twenty-five per centum ad
valorem.

Phosphorus, ten cents per pound.

Sc^ap, hard and soft, all which are not otherwise
specially enumerated or provided for in this act, and
castile soap, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Fancy, perfumed, and all descriptions of toilet soap,
fifteen cents per pound.

Sponges, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Sumac, ground, three tenths of one cent per pound,
and sumac extract, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Acid, acetic, acetous, or pyroligneous acid, not ex-
ceeding the specific gravity of one and forty-seven
one thousandths, two cents per pound ; exceeding the
specific gravity or one and forty-seven one thousandths,
ten cents per pound.

Acid, citric, ten cents per pound.

Acid, tartaric, ten cents per pound.

Camphor, refined, five cents per pound.

Castor beans, or seeds, fifty cents per bushel of fifty
pounds.

Castor-oil, eighty cents per gallon.

Cream of tartar, six cents per pound.

Dextrine, burnt starch, gum substitute, or British
gum, one cent per pound.

Extract of hemlock, and other bark used for tan-
ning, not otherwise enumerated or provided for in
this act, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Glucose, or grape-sugar, twenty per centum ad va-
lorem.

Indigo, extracts of, and carmined, ten per centum
ad valorem.

Iodine, resublimed, forty cents per pound.

Licorice, paste or roll, seven and one half cents per
pound ; licorice-juice, three cents per pound.

Oil of bay-leaves, essential, or bay rum essence or
oil, two dollars and fifty cents per pound.

Oil, croton, fifty cents per pound.

Oil, flaxseed or linseed, and cotton-seed oil, twenty-
five cents per gallon ; seven and one half pounds
weight to be estimated as a gallon.

Hemp-seed oil and rape-seed oil, ten cents per gallon.

Soda and potassa, tartrate, or rochelle salt, three
cents per pound.

Strychnia, or strychnine, and all salts thereof, fifty
cents per ounce.

Tartars, partly refined, including lees crystals, four
cents per pound.

Alumina, alum, patent alum, alum substitute, sul-
phate of alumina, and aluminous cake, and alum in
crystals or ground, sixty cents per hundred pounds.

Ammonia, anhydrous, liquefied by pressure, twen-
ty per centum ad valorem.

Ammonia aqua, or water of ammonia, twenty per
centum ad valorem.

Ammonia, muriate of, or sal-ammoniac, ten per
centum ad valorem.

Ammonia, carbonate of, twenty per centum ad va-
lorem.

Ammonia, sulphate of, twenty per centum ad va-
lorem.

All imitations of natural mineral waters and all ar-
tificial mineral waters, thirty per centum ad valorem.

Asbestus, manufactured, twenty-five per centum ad
valorem.

Baryta, sulphate of, or barytes, unmanufactured,
ten per centum ad valorem.

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (DUTIES ON IMPORTS.)

197

Baryta, sulphate of, or barytes, manufactured, one
fourth of one cent per pound.

Refined borax, five cents per pound.

Pure boracic acid, five cents per pound ; commer-
cial boracic acid, four cents per pound ; borate of lime,
three cents per pound ; crude borax, three cents per
pound.

Cement, Roman, Portland, and all others, twenty
per centum ad valorem.

Whiting and Paris white, dry, one half cent per
pound ; ground in oil, or putty, one cent per pound.

Prepared chalk, precipitated chalk, French chalk,
red chalk, and all other chalk 'preparations which are
not specially enumerated or provided for in this act,
twenty per centum ad valorem.

Chromic acid, fifteen per centum ad valorem.

Clirornate of potash, three cents per pound.

Bichromate of potash, three cents per pound.

Cobalt, oxide of, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Copper, sulphate of, or blue vitriol, three cents per
pound.

Iron, sulphate of, or copperas, three tenths of one
cent per pound.

Acetate of lead, brown, four cents per pound.

Acetate of lead, white, six cents per pound.

White lead, when dry or in pulp, three cents per
pound.

When ground or mixed in oil, three cents per pound.

Litharge, three cents per pound.

Orange mineral, and red lead, three cents per
pound.

Nitrate of lead, three cents per pound.

Magnesia, medicinal, carbonate of, five cents per
pound.

Magnesia, calcined, ten cents per pound.

Magnesia, sulphate of, or Epsom salts, one half of
one cent per pound.
Potash :

Crude, carbonate of, or fused, and caustic potash,
twenty per centum ad valorem.

Chlorate of, three cents per pound.

Hydriodate, iodide and iodate of, fifty cents per
pound.

Prussiate of, red, ten cents per pound,

Prussiate of, yellow, five cents per pound.

Nitrate of, or saltpeter, crude, one cent per pound.

Nitrate of, or refined saltpeter, one and one half
cent per pound.

Sulphate of, twenty per centum ad valorem.
Soda:

Soda-ash, one quarter of one cent per pound.

Soda sal, or soda crystals, one quarter of one cent
per pound.

Bicarbonate of, or super-carbonate of, and salera-
tus, calcined or pearl ash, one and one half cents per
pound.

Hydrate, or caustic, one cent per pound.

Sulphate, known as salt jake, crude or refined, or
niter cake, crude or refined, and Glauber's salt, twen-
ty per centum ad valorem.

Soda, silicate of, or other alkaline silicate, one half
of one cent per pound.
Sulphur:

Refined, in rolls, ten dollars per ton.

Sublimed, or flowers of, twenty dollars per ton.

Wood-tar, ten per centum ad valorem.

Coal-tar, crude, ten per centum ad valorem.

Coal-tar, products of, such as naphtha, benzine,
benzole, dead oil, and pitch, twenty per centum ad
valorem.

All coal-tar colors or dyes, by whatever name
known and not specially enumerated or provided for
in this act, thirty-five per centum ad valorem.

All preparations of coal-tar, not colors or dye, not
specially enumerated or provided for in this act, twen-
ty per centum ad valorem.

_ Logwood and other dyewoods, extracts and decoc-
tions of, ten per centum ad valorem.

Ultramarine, five cents per pound.

Turpentine, spirits of, twenty cents per gallon.

Colors and paints, including lakes, whether dry or
mixed, or ground with water or oil. and not specially
enumerated or provided for in this act, twenty-five
per centum ad valorem.

The pigment known as bone-bkck, and ivory-drop
black, and bone-char, twenty-five per centum ad va-
lorem.

Ochre and ochrey earths, umber and umber earths,
and sienna and sienna earths, when dry, one half of
one cent per pound; when ground in oil, one and
one half cent per pound.

Zinc, oxide of, when dry, one and one fourth cent
per pound.

Zinc, oxide of, when ground in oil, one and three
fourths cent per pound.

All preparations known as essential oils, expressed
oils, distilled oils, rendered oils, alkalies, alkaloids,
and all combinations of any of the foregoing, and all
chemical compounds and salts, by whatever name
known, and not specially enumerated or provided for
in this act, twenty-five per centum ad valorem.

Preparations : all medicinal preparations known as
cerates, conserves, decoctions, emulsions, extracts,
solid or fluid } infusions, juices, liniments, lozenges,
mixtures, mucilages, ointments, oleo-resins, pills, plas-
ters, powders, resins, suppositories, sirups, vinegars^
and waters, of any of which alcohol is not a compo-
nent part, and which are not specially enumerated or
provided for in this act, twenty-five per centum ad
valorem.

All barks, beans, berries, balsams, buds, bulbs, and
bulbous roots, and excrescences, such as nutgalls, fruits,
flowers, dried fibers, grains, gums, and gum-resins,
herbs, leaves, lichens, mosses, nuts, roots and stems,
spices, vegetables, seeds (aromatic, not garden seeds),
and seeds of morbid growth, weeds, woods used ex-
pressly for dyeing, and dried insects, any of the fore-
going of which are not edible, but which have been
advanced in value or condition by refining or grind-
ing, or by other process of manufacture, and not spe-
cially enumerated or provided for in this act, ten per
centum ad valorem.

All non-dutiable crude minerals, but which have
been advanced in value or condition by refining or
grinding, or by other process of manufacture, not spe-
cially enumerated or provided for in this act, ten per
centum ad valorem.

All ground or powdered spices not specially enu-
merated or provided for in this act, five cents per
pound.

All earths or clays, unwrought or unmanufactured,
not specially enumerated or provided for in this act,
one dollar and fifty cents per ton.

All earths or clays, wrought or manufactured, not
specially enumerated or provided for in this act, three
dollars per ton ; china clay, or kaolin, three dollars
per ton.

Proprietary preparations, to wit: All cosmetics,
pills, powders, troches, or lozenges, sirups, cordials,
bitters, anodynes, tonics, plasters, liniments, salves,
ointments, pastes, drops, waters, essences, spirits, oils
or preparations or compositions recommended to the
public as proprietary articles, or prepared according
to some private formula, as remedies or specifics for
any disease or diseases, or affections whatever, affect-
ing the human or animal body, including all toilet
preparations whatever, used as applications to the hair,
mouth, teeth, or skin, not specially enumerated or pro-
vided for in this act, fifty per centum ad valorem.
Alcoholic preparations :

Alcoholic perfumery, including cologne-water, two
dollars per gallon and fifty per centum ad valorem.

Distilled spirits, containing fifty per centum of an-
hydrous alcohol,, one dollar per gallon.

Alcohol, containing ninety -four per centum anhy-
drous alcohol, two dollars per gallon.

Alcoholic compounds, not otherwise specially enu-
merated or provided for, two dollars per. gallon for
the alcohol contained and twenty-five per centum ad
valorem.

198

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (DUTIES ON IMPOBTS.)

Chloroform, fifty cents per pound.

Collodion, and all compounds of py roxyline.by what-
ever name known, fifty cents per pound ; rolled or in
sheets, but not made up into articles, sixty cents per
pound, and when in finished or partly finished arti-
cles, sixty cents per pound and twenty-five per cen-
tum ad valorem.

Ether, sulphuric, fifty cents per pound.

Hoffman's anodyne, thirty cents per pound.

lodoibrm, two dollars per pound.

Acid, tannic and tannin, one dollar per pound.

Ether, nitrous, spirits of, thirty cents per pound.

Santonine, three dollars per pound.

Ainylic alcohol, or fusel-oil, ten per centum ad
valorem.

Oil of Cognac, or cenanthic ether, four dollars per
ounce.

Fruit ethers, oils, or essences, two dollars and fifty
cents per pound.

Oil or essence of rum, fifty cents per ounce.

Ethers of all kinds, not specially enumerated or
provided for in this act, one dollar per pound.

Coloring for brandy, fifty per centum ad valorem.

Preparations: All medicinal preparations known
as essences, ethers, extracts, mixtures, spirits,' tinct-
ures, and medicated wines, of which alcohol is a com-
ponent part, not specially enumerated or provided for
in this act, fifty cents per pound.

Varnishes of all kinds, forty per centum ad valo-
rem ; and on spirit varnishes, one dollar and thirty-
two cents additional per gallon.

Opium, crude, containing nine per cent, and over
of morphia, one dollar per pound. The importation
of opium containing less than nine per cent, morphia
is hereby prohibited.

Opium, prepared for smoking, and all other prepa-
rations of opium not specially enumerated or provided
for in this act, ten dollars per pound ; but opium pre-
pared for smoking, and other preparations of opium
deposited in bonded warehouses shall not be removed
therefrom for exportation without payment of duties,
and such duties shall not be refunded.

Opium, aqueous extract of, for medicinal uses, and
tincture of, as laudanum, and all other liquid prepara-
tions of opium, not specially enumerated or provided
for in this act, forty per centum ad valorem.

Morphia or morphine, and all salts thereof, one dol-
lar per ounce.

SCHEDULE B. — EARTHENWARE AND GLASSWARE.

Brown earthenware, common stoneware, gas-re-
torts, and stoneware not ornamented, twenty-five per
centum ad valorem.

China, porcelain, parian, and bisque, earthen, stone,
and crockery ware, including plaques, ornaments,
charms, vases, and statuettes, painted, printed, or
gilded, or otherwise decorated or ornamented in any
manner, sixty per centum ad valorem.

China, porcelain, parian, and bisque ware, plain
white, and not ornamented or decorated in any man-
ner, fifty -five per centum ad valorem.

All other earthen, stone, and crockery ware, white,
glazed, or edged, composed of earthy or mineral sub-
stances, not specially enumerated or provided for in
this act, fifty-five per centum ad valorem.

Stoneware, above the capacity of ten gallons, twen-
ty per centum ad valorem.

Encaustic tiles, thirty-five per centum ad valorem.

Brick, fire-brick, and roofing and paving tile, not
specially enumerated or provided for in this act,
twenty per centum ad valorem.

Slates, slate-pencils, slate chimney-pieces, mantels,
Blabs for tables, and all other manufactures of slate,
thirty per centum ad valorem.

Koofing-slates, twenty-five per centum ad valorem.

Green and colored glass bottles, vials, demijohns,
and barboja (covered or uncovered), pickle or pre-
serve jars, and other plain, molded, or pressed green
and colored bottle glass, not cut, engraved, or paint-
ed, and not specially enumerated or provided for in

this act, one cent per pound ; if filled, and not other-
wise in this act provided for, said articles shall pay
thirty per centum ad valorem in addition to the duty
on the contents.

Flint and lime glass bottles and vials, and other
plain, molded, or pressed flint or lime glassware, not
specially enumerated or provided for in this act, forty
per centum ad valorem ; if filled, and not otherwise
in this act provided for, said articles shall pay, exclu-
sive of contents, forty per centum ad valorem in ad-
dition to the duty on the contents.

Articles of glass? cut, engraved, painted^ colored,
printed, stained, silvered, or gilded, not including
plate - glass, or looking - glass plates, forty - five per
centum ad valorem.

All glass bottles and decanters, and other like ves-
sels of glass; shall, if filled, pay the same rates of
duty, in addition to any duty chargeable on the con-
tents, as if not filled, except as in this act otherwise
specially provided for.

Cylinder and crown glass, polished, not exceeding
ten by fifteen inches square, two and one half cents
per square foot ; above that, and not exceeding six-
teen by twenty-four niches square, four cents per
square foot j above that, and not exceeding twenty-
four by thirty inches square, six cents per square
foot ; above that, and not exceeding twenty-four by
sixty inches square, twenty cents per square foot ; all
above that, forty cents per square foot.

Unpolished cylinder, crown, and common window-
glass, not exceeding ten by fifteen inches square, one
and three eighths cents per pound ; above that, and
not exceeding sixteen by twenty-four inches square,
one and seven eighths cents per pound ; above that,
and not exceeding twenty -four by thirty inches
square, two and three eighths cents per pound ; all
above that, two and seven eighths cents per pound :
Provided, That unpolished cylinder, crown, and com-
mon window - glass, imported in boxes containing
fifty square feet, as nearly as sizes will permit, now
known and commercially designated as fifty feet of
g^lass, single thick and weighing not to exceed fifty-
hve pounds of glass per box, shall be entered and
computed as fifty pounds of glass only ; and that said
kinds of glass imported in boxes containing, as nearly
as sizes will permit, fifty feet of glass, now known
and commercially designated as fifty feet of glass,
double thick and not exceeding ninety pounds hi
weight, shall be entered and computed as eighty
pounds of glass only ; but in all other cases the duty
shall be computed according to the actual weight of

Fluted, rolled, or rough plate-glass, not including
crown, cylinder, or common window-glass, not ex-
ceeding ten by fifteen inches square, seventy-five
cents per one hundred square feet ; above that, and
not exceeding sixteen by twenty-four inches square,
one cent per square foot ; above that, and not exceed-
ing twenty-four by thirty inches square, one cent and
a half per square foot ; all above that, two cents per
square foot. And all fluted, rolled, or rough plate-
glass, weighing over one hundred pounds per one
hundred square feet, shall pay an additional duty on
the excess at the same rates herein imposed.

Cast polished plate-glass, unsilvered, not exceeding
ten by fifteen inches square, three cents per square
foot; above that, and not exceeding sixteen by twen-
ty-four inches square, five cents per square foot;
above that, and not exceeding twenty-four by thirty
inches square, eight cents per square foot; above
that, and not exceeding twenty-four by sixty inches
square, twenty -five cents per square foot ; all above
that, fifty cents per square foot.

Cast polished plate-glass, silvered, or looking-glass
plates, not exceeding ten by fifteen inches square, four
cents per square foot ; above that, and not exceeding
sixteen by twenty-four inches square, six cents per
square foot ; above that, and not exceeding twenty-
four by thirty inches square, ten cents per square
foot ; above that, and not exceeding twenty-four by

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (DuxiEB ON IMPOBTS.)

199

Bixty inches square, thirty-five cents per square foot ;
all above that, sixty cents per square toot.

But no looking-glass plates or plate-glass, silvered,
when framed, shall pay a less rate of duty than that
imposed upon similar glass of like description not
framed, but shall be liable to pay, in addition thereto,
thirty per centum ad valorem upon such frames.

Porcelain and Bohemian glass, chemical glassware,
painted glassware, stained glass, and all other manu-
factures of glass or of which glass shall be the com-
ponent material of chief value, not specially enumer-
ated or provided for in this act, forty-five per centum
ad valorem.

SCHEDULE 0. — METALS.

Iron-ores, including manganiferous iron-ore, also
the dross or residuum from burnt pyrites, seventy-five
cents per ton. Sulphur-ore, as pyrites, or sulphuret
of iron in its natural state, containing not more than
three and one half per centum of copper, seventy-five
cents per ton: Provided, That ore containing more
than two per centum of copper shall pay, in addition
thereto, two and one half cents per pound for the cop-
per contained therein.

Iron in pigs, iron kentledge, spiegeleisen, wrought
and cast scrap-iron, and scrap-steel, three tenths of
one cent per pound, but nothing shall be deemed
scrap-iron or scrap-steel except waste or refuse iron
or steel that has been in actual use and is fit only to be
remtmufactured.

Iron railway-bars, weighing more than twenty-five
pounds to the yard, seven tenths of one cent per
pound.

Steel railway-bars and railway-bars made in part
of steel, weighing more than twenty-five pounds to
the yard, seventeen dollars per ton. .

Bar-iron, rolled or hammered, comprising flats not
less than one inch wide, nor less than three eighths
of one inch thick, eight tenths of one cent per pound ;
comprising round iron not less than three fourths of
one inch in diameter, and square iron not less than
three fourths of one inch square, one cent per pound ;
comprising flats less than one inch wide, or less than
three eighths of one inch thick ; round iron less than
three fourths of one inch and not less than seven six-
teenths of one inch in diameter, and square iron less
than three fourths of one inch square, one and one
tenth of one cent per pound : Provided, That all iron
in slabs, blooms, loops, or other forms less finished
than iron in bars, and more advanced than pig-iron,
except castings, shall be rated as iron in bars; and pay
a duty accordingly ; and none of the above iron shall
pay a less rate of duty than thirty -five per centum ad
valorem : Provided further, That all iron bars, blooms,
billets, or sizes or shapes of any kind, in the manufac-
ture or which charcoal is used as fuel, shall be subject
to a duty of twenty-two dollars per ton.
t Iron or steel tee rails, weighing not over twenty-
five pounds to the yard, nine tenths of one cent per
pound ; iron or steel flat rails, punched, eight tenths
of one cent per pound.

Round iron, in coils or rods, less than seven six-
teenths of one inch in diameter, and bars or shapes of
rolled iron not specially enumerated or provided for
in this act, one and two tenths of one cent per pound.

Boiler or other plate iron, sheared or uusheared,
skelp-iron, shearea or rolled in grooves, one and one
fourth cents per pound ; sheet-iron, common or black,
thinner than one inch and one half and not thinner
than number twenty wire gauge, one and one tenth
of one cent per pound ; thinner than number twenty
wire gauge and not thinner than number twenty-
five wire gauge, one and two tenths of one cent per
pound ; thinner than number twenty-five wire gauge
and not thinner than number twenty-nine wire gauge,
one and five tenths of one cent per pound ; thinner
than number twenty-nine wire gauge, and all iron
commercially known as common or black taggers iron,
whether put up in boxes or bundles or not, thirty per
centum ad valorem: And provided, That on all 'such
iron and steel sheets or plates aforesaid, excepting on

what are known commercially as tin-plates, teme-
plates, and taggers tin, and hereafter provided for,
when galvanized or coated with zinc or spelter, or
other metals, or any alloy of those metals, three fourths
of one cent per pound additional.

Polished, planished, or glanced sheet-iron, or sheet-
steel, by whatever name designated, two and one half
cents per pound : Provided, That plate or sheet or
taggers iron? by whatever name designated, other
than the polished, planished, or glanced herein pro-
vided for, which has been pickled or cleaned by acid,
or by any other material or process, and which is cold-
rolled, shall pay one quarter cent per pound more
duty than the corresponding gauges of common or
black sheet or taggers iron.

Iron or steel sheets, or plates, or taggers iron, coat-
ed with tin or lead, or with a mixture of which these
metals is a component part, by the dipping or any
other process, and commercially known as tin-plates,
terne-plates, and taggers tin, one cent per pound :
corrugated or crimped sheet iron or steel, one and
four tenths of one cent per pound.

Hoop, or band, or scroll, or other iron, eight inches
or less in width and not thinner than number ten
wire gauge? one cent per pound.; thinner than num-
ber ten wire gauge and not thinner than number
twenty wire gauge, one and two tenths of one cent
per pound ; thinner than number twenty wire gauge,
one and four tenths of one cent per pound : Provided,
That all articles not specially enumerated or provided
for in this act, whether wholly or partly manufactured,
made from sheet, plate, hoop, band, or scroll iron
herein provided for, or of which such sheet, plate,
hoop, band, or scroll iron shall be the material of
chief value, shall pay one fourth of one cent per pound
more duty than that imposed on the iron from which
they are made, or which shall be such material of
chief value.

Iron and steel cotton-ties, or hoops for baling pur-
poses, not thinner than number twenty wire gauge,
thirty-five per centum ad valorem.

Cast-iron pipe of every description, one cent per
pound.

Cast-iron vessels, plates, stove-plates, andirons, sad-
irons, tailors' irons, hatters' irons, and castings of iron
not specially enumerated or provided for in this act,
one and one quarter of one cent per pound.

Cut nails and spikes, of iron or steel, one and one
quarter of one cent per pound.

Cut tacks, brads, or sprigs, not exceeding sixteen
ounces to the thousand, two and one half cents per
thousand ; exceeding' sixteen ounces to the thousand,
three cents per pound.

Iron or steel railway fish-plates, or splice-bars, one
and one fourth of one cent per pound.

Malleable iron castings, not specially enumerated
or provided for in this act, two cents per pound.

Wrought-iron or steel spikes, nuts, and washers,
and horse, mule, or ox shoes, two cents per pound.

Anvils, anchors or parts thereof, mill-irons and
mill-cranks of wrought-iron, and wrought-iron for
ships, and forgings of iron and steel, for vessels,
steam-engines, and locomotives, or parts thereof,
weighing each twenty-five pounds or more, two cents
per pound.

Iron or steel rivets, bolts, with or without threads
or nuts, or bolt-blanks, and finished hinges or hinge-
blanks, two and one half of one cent per pound.

Iron or steel blacksmiths' hammers and sledges,"
track-tools, wedges, and crowbars, two and one half
of one cent per pound.

Iron or steel axles, parts thereof, axle-bars, axle-
blanks, or forgings for axles, without reference to
the stage or state of manufacture, two and one half of
one cent per pound.

Forgings of iron and steel, or forged iron, of what-
ever shape, or in whatever stage of manufacture, not
specially enumerated or provided for in this act, two
and one half cents per pound.

Horseshoe-nails, hob-nails, and wire nails, and all

200

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (DUTIES ON IMPORTS.)

other wrought-iron or steel nails, not specially enu-
merated or provided for in this act, four cents per
pound.

Boiler tubes, or flues, or stays of wrought-iron or
steel, three cents per pound.

Other wrought-iron or steel tubes or pipes, two and
one quarter cents per pound.

Chain or chains of all kinds, made of iron and steel,
not less than three fourths of one inch in diameter,
one and three quarter cents per pound; less than
three fourths of one inch and not less than three
eighths of one inch in diameter, two cents per pound ;
less than three eighths of one inch in diameter, two

or over in length, six cents per pound ; one inch and
less than two inches in length, eight cents per pound ;
over one half inch and less than one inch in length,
ten cents per pound ; one half inch and less in length,
twelve cents per pound.

Iron or steel wire, smaller than number five and
not smaller than number ten wire gauge, one and one
half cents per pound ; smaller than number ten and
not smaller than number sixteen wire gauge, two
cents per pound; smaller than number sixteen and
not smaller than number twenty-six wire gauge, two
and one half cents per pound ; smaller than number
twenty-six wire gauge, three cents per pound : Pro-

and one half cents per pound. vided, That iron or steel wire, covered with cotton,

Cross-cut saws, eight cents per linear foot. silk, or other material, and wire commonly known as

Mill, pit, and drag saws, not over nine inches wide, crinoline, corset, and hat wire, shall pay four cents

per pound in addition to the foregoing rates : And
provided further, That no article made from iron or
steel wire, or of which iron or steel wire is a compo-
nent part of chief value, shall pay a less rate of duty
than the iron or steel wire from which it is made

ten cents per linear foot ; over nine inches wide,
teen cents per linear foot.

Circular saws, thirty per century ad valorem.

Hand, back, and all other saws, not specially enu-
merated or provided for in this act, forty per centum
ad valorem.

Files, file-blanks, rasps, and floats of all cuts and
kinds, four inches in length and under, thirty-five
cents per dozen ; ovar four inches in length and under
nine inches, seventy-five cents per dozen ; nine
inches in length and under fourteen inches, one dol-
lar and fifty cents per dozen ; fourteen inches in length
and over, two dollars and fifty cents per dozen.

Steel ingots, cogged ingots, blooms, and slabs, by
whatever process made ; die blocks or blanks ; billets
and bars and tapered or beveled bars ; bands, hoops,
strips and sheets, of all gauges and widths ; plates of
all thicknesses and widths ; steamer, crank, and other
shafts ; wrist or crank-pins ; connecting-rods and

Cm-rods ; pressed, sheared, or stamped shapes, or
ks of sheet or plate steel, or combination of steel
and iron, punched or not punched; hammer-molds
or swaged steel : gun-molds, not in bars ; alloys used
as substitutes for steel tools; all descriptions and
shapes of dry sand, loam, or iron-molded steel cast-
ings ; all of the above classes of steel not otherwise
specially provided for in this act, valued at four cents
a pound or less, forty-five per centum ad valorem ;
above four cents a pound and not above seven cents
per pound, two cents per pound ; valued above seven
cents a pound and not above ten cents per pound, two
and [one fourth] three fourths cents per pound ; val-
ued at above ten cents p_er pound, three and one fourth
cents per pound : Provided, That on all iron or steel
bars, rods^strips, or steel sheets of whatever shape,
and on all iron or steel bars of irregular shape or sec-
tion, cold-rolled, cold-hammered, or polished in any
way in addition to the ordinary process of hot-rolling
or hammering, there shall be paid one fourth cent per
pound in addition to the rates provided in this act,
and on steel circular saw-plates there shall be paid one
cent per pound in addition to the rate provided for in
this act.

Iron or steel beams, girders, foists, angles, chan-
nels, car-truck channels, TT, columns and posts, or
parts or sections of columns and posts, deck and bulb
beams, and building forms, together with all other
structural shapes of iron or steel, one and one fourth
of one cent per pound.

Steel wheels and steel-tired wheels for railway pur-
poses, whether wholly or partly finished, and iron or
steel locomotive, car, and other railway tires, or parts
thereof, wholly or partly manufactured, two and one
half of one cent per pound ; iron or steel ingots,
cogged ingots, blooms or blanks for the same, without
regard to the degree of manufacture, two cents per
pound.

Iron or steel rivet, screw, nail, and fence- wire rods,
round: in coils and loops, not lighter than number
five wire gauge, valued at three and one half cents or
less per pound, six tenths of one cent per pound.
Iron or steel, flat with longitudinal ribs for the manu-
facture of fencing, six tenths of a cent per pound.

Screws, commonly called wood screws, two inches

either wholly or in part : And provided further, That
iron or steel wire cloths, and iron or steel wire net-
tings, made in meshes of any form, shall pay a duty
equal in amount to that imposed on iron or steel wire
of the same gauge, and two cents per pound in addi-
tion thereto. There shall be paid on galvanized iron
or steel wire (except fence-wire), one half of one cent
per pound in addition to the rate imposed on the wire
of which it is made. On iron-wire rope and wire
strand, one cent per pound in addition to the rates
imposed on the wire of which it is made. On steel-
wire rope and wire strand, two cents per pound in ad-
dition to the rates imposed on the wire of which it is
made.

Steel not specially enumerated or provided for in
this act, forty-five per centum ad valorem : Provided,
That all metal produced from iron or its ores, which
is cast and malleable, of whatever description or form,
without regard to the percentage of carbon contained
therein, whether produced by cementation, or con-
verted, cast, or made from iron or its ores, by the
crucible, Bessemer, pneumatic, Thomas-Gilchrist,
basic, Siemens-Martin, or open-hearth process, or by
the equivalent of either, or by the combination of two
or more of the processes, or their equivalents, or by
any fusion or other process which produces from iron
or its ores a metal either granular or fibrous in struc-
ture, which is cast and malleable, excepting what is
known as malleable iron castings, shall be classed and
denominated as steel.

No allowance or reduction of duties for partial loss
or damage in consequence of rust or of discoloration
shall be made upon any description of iron or steel, or
upon any partly manufactured article of iron or steel,
or upon any manufacture of iron and steel.

Argentine, albata, or German silver, unmanufac-
tured, twenty-five per centum ad valorem.

Copper, imported in the form of ores, two and one
half cents on each pound of fine copper contained
therein ; regulus of and black and coarse copper, and
copper cement, three and one half cents on each pound
of fine copper contained therein ; old copper, fit only
for remanufacture, clippings from new copper, and all
composition metal of which copper is a component
material of chief value not specially enumerated or
provided for in this act, three cents per pound ; cop-
per in plates, bars, ingots, Chili or other pigs, and m
other forms, not manufactured, or enumerated in this
act, four cents per pound ; in rolled plates, called bra-
zier's copper, sheets, rods, pipes, and copper bottoms,
and all manufactures of copper, or of which copper
shall be a component of chief value, not specially
enumerated or provided for in this act, thirty-five
per centum ad valorem.

Brass, in bars or pig. old brass, and clippings from
brass or Dutch metal, one and one half cent per
pound.

Lead-ore and lead-dross, one and one half cent per
pound.

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (DUTIES ON IMPOSTS.)

201

Lead, in pigs and bars, molten and old refuse lead
run into blocks and bars, and old scrap-lead, fit only
to be remanufactured, two cents per pound.

Lead, in sheets, pipes, or shot, three cents per
pound.

Nickel, in ore, matte, or other crude form not ready
for consumption in the arts, fifteen cents per pound
on the nickel contained therein.

Nickel, nickel-oxide, alloy of any kind in which
nickel is the element of chief value, fifteen cents per
pound.

Zinc, spelter, or tutenegue, in blocks or pigs, and
old worn-out zinc, fit only to be remanufactured, one
and one half cent per pound ; zinc, spelter, or tute-
negue hi sheets, two and one half cents per pound.

Sheathing, or yellow-metal, not wholly of copper,
nor wholly nor in part of iron,'ungalvanized, in sheets,
forty-eight inches long and fourteen inches wide, and
weighing from fourteen to thirty-four ounces per
square foot, thirty- five per centum ad valorem.

Antimony, as regulus or metal, ten per centum ad
valorem.

Bronze powder, fifteen per centum ad valorem.

Cutlery, not specially enumerated or provided for
in this act, thirty-five per centum ad valorem.

Dutch or bronze metal, in leaf, ten per centum ad
valorem.

Steel plates, engraved, stereotype plates, and new
types, twenty-five per centum ad valorem.

Gold-leaf, one dollar and fifty cents per package of
five hundred leaves.

Hollow- ware, coated, glazed, or tinned, three cents
per pound.

Muskets, rifles, and other fire-arms, not specially
enumerated or provided for in this act, twenty-five
per centum ad valorem.

All sporting breech-loading shot-guns, and pistols
of all kinds, thirty-five per centum ad valorem.

Forced shot-gun barrels, rough-bored, ten per cen-
tum ad valorem.

Needles for knitting or sewing machines, thirty-
five per centum ad valorem.

Needles, sewing, darning, knitting, and all others
not specially enumerated or provided for in this act,
twenty-five per centum ad valorem.

Pen-knives, pocket-knives, of all kinds, and razors,
fiftv per centum ad valorem ; swords, sword-blades,
and side-arms, thirty-five per centum ad valorem.

Pens, metallic, twelve cents per gross ; pen-holder
tips and pen-holders, or parts thereof, [forty] thirty
per centum ad valorem.

Pins, solid-head or other, thirty per centum ad
valorem.

Britannia ware, and plated and gilt articles and
wares of all kinds, thirty -five per centum ad valorem.

Quicksilver, ten per centum ad valorem.

Silver-leaf, seventy-five cents per package of five
hundred leaves.

Type-metal, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Chromate of iron, or chromic ore, fifteen per cen-
tum ad valorem.

Mineral substances in a crude state, and metals un-
wrought, not specially enumerated or provided for La
this act, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Manufactures, articles or wares, not specially enu-
merated or provided for in this act, composed wholly
or hi part of iron, steel, copper, lead, nickel, pewter,
tin zinc, gold, silver, platinum, or any other metal,
and whether partly or wholly manufactured, forty-five
per centum ad valorem.

SCHEDULE D. — WOOD AND WOODEN-WARES.

Timber, hewn and sawed, and timber used for spars
and m building wharves, twenty per centum ad va-
lorem.

Timber, squared or sided, not specially enumerated
or provided for in this act, one cent per cubic foot.

sawed boards, planks, deals, and other lumber of
nemlock, white-wood, sycamore, and bass-wood, one
dollar per one thousand feet, board measure; all

other articles of sawed lumber, two dollars per one
thousand feet, board measure. But when lumber of
any sort is planed or finished, in addition to the rates
herein provided, there shall be levied and paid for
each side so planed or finished, fifty cents per one
thousand feet, board measure.

And if planed on one side and tongued and grooved,
one dollar per one thousand feet, board measure.

And if planed on two sides, and tongued and
grooved, one dollar and fitly cents per one thousand
feet, board measure.

Hubs for wheels, posts, last-blocks, wagon-blocks,
ore-blocks, gun-blocks, heading-blocks, and all like
blocks or sticks, rough-hewn or sawed only, twenty
per centum ad valorem.

Staves of wood of all kinds, ten per centum ad va-
lorem.

Pickets and palings, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Laths, fifteen cents per one thousand pieces.

Shingles, thirty-five cents per one thousand.

Pine clapboards, two dollars per one thousand.

Spruce clapboards, one dollar and fifty cents per
one thousand.

House or cabinet furniture, in piece or rough, and
not finished, thirty per centum ad valorem.

Cabinet-ware and house furniture, finished, thirty-
five per centum ad valorem.

Casks and barrels empty, sugar-box shocks, and
packing-boxes, and packing-box shocks, of wood, not
specially enumerated or provided for in this act, thirty
per centum ad valorem.

Manufactures of cedar- wood, granadilla, ebony,
mahogany, rose-wood, and satin-wood, thirty-five per
centum ad valorem.

Manufactures of wood, or of which wood is the chief
component part, not specially enumerated or provided
for in this act, thirty -five per centum ad valorem.

"Wood, unmanufactured, not specially enumerated
or provided for in this act, twenty per centum ad
valorem.

SCHEDULE E. — SUGAR.

All sugars not above No. 13 Dutch standard in color
shall pay duty on their polariscopic test as follows,
viz. :

All sugars not above No. 13 Dutch standard in color,
all tank bottoms, sirups of cane-juice or of beet-juice,
melada, concentrated melada, concrete and concen-
trated molasses, testing by the polariscope not above
seventy-five degrees, shall pay a duty of one and forty
hundredths cent per pound, and for every additional
degree or fraction of a degree shown by the polari-
scopic test, they shall pay four hundredths of a cent
per pound additional.

All sugars above No. 13 Dutch standard hi color
shall be classified by the Dutch standard of color, and
pay duty as follows, namely :

All sugar above No. 13 and not above No. 16 Dutch
standard, two and seventy-five hundredths cents per
pound.

All sugar above No. 16 and not above No. 20 Dutch
standard, three cents per pound.

All sugars above No. 20 Dutch standard, three and
fifty hundredths cents per pound.

Molasses testing not above fifty-six degrees by the
polariscope, shall pay a duty of four cents per gallon :
molasses testing above fifty-six degrees, shall pay a
duty of eight cents per gallon.

Sugar-candy, not colored, five cents per pound.

All other confectionery, not specially enumerated
or provided for in this act, made wholly or hi part of
sugar, and on sugars after being refined, when tinc-
tured, colored, or in any way adulterated, valued at
thirty cents per pound or less, ten cents per pound.

Confectionery valued above thirty cents per pound,
or when sold by the box, package, or otherwise than
by the pound, fifty per centum ad valorem.

SCHEDULE F. — TOBACCO.

Cigars, cigarettes, and cheroots of all kinds, two
dollars and fifty cents per pound and twenty-five per

202

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (DUTIES ON IMPOSTS.)

centum ad valorem ; but paper cigars and cigarettes,
including wrappers, shall be subject to the same du-
ties as are herein imposed upon cigars.

Leaf-tobacco, of which eignty-five per cent, is of the
requisite size and of the necessary fineness of texture
to be suitable for wrappers, and of which more than
one hundred leaves are required to weigh a pound, if
not stemmed, seventy-five cents per pound ; if
stemmed, one dollar per pound.

All other tobacco in leaf, unmanufactured, and not
stemmed, thirty-five cents per pound.

Tobacco-stems, fifteen cents per pound.

Tobacco, manufactured, of all descriptions, and
stemmed tobacco, not specially enumerated or pro-
vided for in this act, forty cents per pound.

Snuff" and snuff-flour, manufactured of tobacco,
ground, dry, or damp, and pickled, scented or other-
wise, of all descriptions, fifty cents per pound.

Tobacco, unmanufactured, not specially enumerated
or provided for in this act, thirty per centum ad va-
lorem.

SCHEDULE G. — PROVISIONS.

Animals, live, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Beef and pork, one cent per pound.

Hams and bacon, two cents per pound.

Meat, extract of, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Cheese, four cents per pound.

Butter, and substitutes therefor, four cents per
pound.

Lard, two cents per pound.

"Wheat, twenty cents per bushel.

Eye and barley, ten cents per bushel.

Barley, pearled, patent, or hulled, one half cent per
pound.

Barley-malt, per bushel of thirty-four pounds,
twenty cents.

Indian corn or maize, ten cents per bushel.

Oats, ten cents per bushel.

Corn-meal, ten cents per bushel of forty-eight
pounds.

Oatmeal, one half cent per pound.

Eve-flour, one half cent per pound.

Wheat-flour, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Potato or corn starch, two cents per pound ; rice-
starch, two and a half cents per pound ; other starch,
two and a half cents per pound.

Eice, cleaned, two and one fourth cents per pound ;
uncleaned, one and one half cent per pound.

Paddy, one and one fourth cent per pound.

Eice-flour and rice-meal, twenty per centum ad va-
lorem.

Hay, two dollars per ton.

Honey, twenty cents per gallon.

Hops, eight cents per pound.

Milk, preserved or condensed, twenty per centum
ad valorem.
Fish:

Mackerel, one cent per pound.

Herrings, pickled or salted, one half of one cent per
pound.

Salmon, pickled, one cent per pound; other fish,
pickled, in barrels, one cent per pound.

Foreign-caught fish, imported otherwise than in
barrels or half-barrels, whether fresh, smoked, dried,
salted, or pickled, not specially enumerated or provid-
ed for in this act, fifty cents per hundred pounds.

Anchovies and sardines, packed in oil or otherwise,
in tin boxes measuring not more than five inches long,
four inches wide, and three and one half inches deep,
ten cents per whole box ; in half-boxes, measuring
not more than five inches long, four inches wide, and
one and five eighths deep, five cents each ; in quarter-
boxes, measuring not more than four inches and three
quarters long, three and one half inches wide, and
one and a quarter deep, two and one half cents each ;
when imported in any other form, forty per centum
ad valorem.

Fish preserved in oil, except anchovies and sardines,
thirtv per centum ad valorem.

Salmon, and all other fish, prepared or preserved,

and prepared meats of all kinds, not specially enu-
merated or provided for in this act, twenty-five per
centum ad valorem.

Pickles and sauces, of all kinds, not otherwise spe-
cially enumerated or provided for in this act, thirty-
five per centum ad valorem.

Potatoes, fifteen cents per bushel of sixty pounds.

Vegetables, in their natural state, or in salt or brine,
not specially enumerated or provided for in this act,
ten per centum ad valorem.

Vegetables, prepared or preserved, of all kinds, not
otherwise provided for, thirty per centum ad valorem.

Chiccory-root, ground or unground, burnt or pre-
pared, two cents per pound.

Vinegar, seven and one half cents per gallon. The
standard for vinegar shall be taken to be that strength
which requires thirty-five grains of bicarbonate of
potash to neutralize one ounce troy of vinegar ; and
all import duties that may by law be imposed on vine-
gar imported from foreign countries shall be collected
according to this standard.

Acorns and dandelion-root, raw or prepared, and
all other articles used or intended to be used as coffee,
or as substitutes therefor, not specially enumerated
or provided for in this act, two cents per pound.

Chocolate, two cents per pound.

Cocoa, prepared or manufactured, two cents per
pound.
Fruits :

Currants, Zante or other, one cent per pound.

Dates, plums, and prunes, one cent per pound.

Figs, two cents per pound.

Oranges, in boxes of capacity not exceeding two
and one half cubic feet, twenty-five cents per box; in
one half boxes, capacity not exceeding one and one
fourth cubic feet, thirteen cents per half- box; in
bulk, one dollar and sixty cents per thousand ; in
barrels, capacity not exceeding that of the one hun-
dred and ninety -six pounds flour-barrel, fifty-five cents
per barrel.

Lemons, in boxes of capacity not exceeding two and
one half cubic feet, thirty cents per box ; in one half
boxes, capacity not exceeding one and one fourth
cubic feet, sixteen cents per half-box ; in bulk, two
dollars per thousand.

Lemons and oranges, in packages, not specially
enumerated or provided for in this act, twenty per
centum ad valorem.

Limes and grapes, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Eaisins, two cents per pound.

Fruits, preserved in their own juices, and fruit-
juice, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Comfits, sweetmeats, or fruits preserved in sugar,
spirits, sirup, or molasses, not otherwise specified or

Erovidcd for in this act, and jellies of all kinds, thirty-
ve per centum ad valorem.

Nuts:

Almonds, five cents per pound ; shelled, seven and
one half cents per pound ; filberts, and walnuts, of
all kinds, three cents per pound.

Peanuts or ground beans, one cent per pound;
shelled, one and one half cent per pound.

Nuts of all kinds, shelled or unshelled, not specially
enumerated or provided for in this act, two cents per
pound.

Mustard, ground or preserved, in bottles or other-
wise, ten cents per pound.

SCHEDULE H. — LIQUORS.

Champagne, and all other sparkling wines, in bot-
tles containing each not more than one quart and more
than one pint, seven dollars per dozen bottles ; con-
taining net more than one pint each and more than
one half pint, three dollars and fifty cents per dozen
bottles ; containing one hah0 pint each, or less, one
dollar and seventy-five cents per dozen bottles; in
bottles containing more than one quart each, in addi-
tion to seven dollars per dozen bottles, at the rate of
two dollars an dtwenty-five cents per gallon on the
quantity in excess of one quart bottle.

Still wines in casks, fifty cents per gallon ; in bot-

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (DUTIES ON IMPORTS.)

203

MOT, one dollar and sixty cents per case of one dozen
bottles containing each not more than one quart and
more than one pint, or twenty-four bottles containing
each not more than one pint ; and any excess beyond
these quantities found in such bottles shall be sub-
ject to a duty of five cents per pint or fractional part
thereof : but no separate or additional duty shall be
collected on the bottles : Provided, That any wines
imported containing more than twenty-four per cen-
tum of alcohol shall be forfeited to the United States :
Provided further, That there shall be no allowance for
breakage, leakage, or damage pn wines, liquors, cor-
dials, or distilled spirits.

Vermuth, the same duty as on still wines.

Wines, brandy, and other spirituous liquors im-
ported in bottles', shall be packed in packages contain-
ing not less than one dozen bottles in each package ;
and all such bottles, except as specially enumerated
or provided for in this act, shall pay an additional
duty of three cents for each bottle.

Brandy, and other spirits manufactured or distilled
from grain or other materials and not specially enu-
merated or provided for in this act, two dollars per
proof gallon ; each and every gauge or wine gallon of
measurement shall be counted as at least one proof
gallon ; and the standard for determining the proof of
brandy and other spirits or liquors of any kind im-
ported shall be the same as that which is defined in
the laws relating to internal revenue ; but any brandy
or other spirituous liquors imported in casks of less
capacity than fourteen gallons shall be forfeited to the
United States.

On all compounds or preparations of which distilled
spirits are a component part of chief value, not spe-
cially enumerated or provided for in this act, there
shall be levied a duty not less than that imposed
upon distilled spirits.

Cordials, liquors, arrack, absinthe, kirschwasser,
ratatk,andother similar spirituous beverages or bitters,
containing soiritSj and not specially enumerated or
provided for in this act, two dollars per proof gallon.

No lower rate or amount of duty shall be levied,
collected, and paid on brandy, spirits, and other spir-
ituous beverages than that fixed by law for the de-
scription of first proof; but it shall be increased in
proportion for any greater strength than the strength
of first proof; ana all imitations of brandy or spirits
or wines imported by any names whatever shall be
subject to the highest rate of duty provided for the
genuine articles respectively intended to be represent-
ed, and in no case less than one dollar per gallon.

Bay-rum or bay-water, whether distilled or com-
pounded, one dollar per gallon of first proof, and in
proportion for any greater strength than first proof.

Ale, porter, and beer, in bottles or jugs of glass,
stone or earthenware, thirty -five cents per gallon ;
otherwise than in bottles or iugs of glass, stone, or
earthenware, twenty cents per gallon.

Ginger ale or ginger beer, twenty per centum ad
valorem, but no separate or additional duty shall be
collected on bottles or jugs containing the same.

SCHEDULE I. — COTTON AND COTTON GOODS.

_ Cotton thread, yarn, warps, or warp-yarn, whether
single or advanced beyond the condition of single, by
twisting two or more single yarns together, whether
on beams or in bundles, skeins or cops, or in any
other form, valued at not exceeding twenty -five cents
per pound, ten cents per pound ; valued at" over twen-
ty-five cents per pound, and not exceeding forty cents
per pound, fifteen cents per pound ; valued at over
forty cents per pound, and not exceeding fifty cents
per pound, twenty cents per pound ; valued at over
fifty cents per pound and not exceeding sixty cents
per pound, twenty -five cents per pound ; valued at
over sixty cents per pound and not exceeding seven-
ty cents per pound, thirty-three cents per pound;
valued at over seventy cents per pound and not ex-
ceeding eighty cents per pound, thirty-eight cents per
pound ; valued at over eighty cents per pound, and

not exceeding one dollar per pound, forty- eight cents
per pound ; valued at over one dollar per pound, fifty
per centum ad valorem.

On all cotton cloth not bleached, dyed, colored,
stained, painted, or printed, and not exceeding one
hundred threads to the square inch, counting the
warp and filling, two and one half cents per square
yard ; if bleached, three and one half cents per square
yard ; if dyed, colored, stained, painted, or printed,
four and one half cents per square yard.

On all cotton cloth, not bleached, dyed, colored,
stained, painted, or printed, exceeding one hundred
and not exceeding two hundred threads to the square
inch, counting the warp and filling, three cents per
square yard ; if bleached, four cents per square yard ;
if dyed, colored, stained? painted, or printed, five cents
per square yard : Promded, That on all cotton cloth
not exceeding two hundred threads to the square inch,
counting the warp and filling, not bleached, dyed, col-
ored, stained, painted, or printed, valued at over eight
cents per square yard ; bleached, valued at over ten
cents per square yard ; dyed, colored, stained, paint-
ed, or printed, valued at over thirteen cents per square
yard, there shall be levied, collected, and paid a duty
of forty per centum ad valorem.

On all cotton cloth exceeding two hundred threads
to the square inch, counting the warp and filling, not
bleached, dyed, colored, stained, painted, or printed,
four cents per square yard ; if bleached, five cents
per square yard, if dyed, colored, stained, painted, or
printed, six cents per square yard : Provided, That on
all such cotton cloths not bleached, dyed, colored,
stained, painted, or printed, valued at over ten cents
per square yard ; bleached, valued at over twelve cents
per square yard ; and dyed, colored, stained, painted,
or printed, valued at over fifteen cents per square
yard, there shall be levied, collected, and paid a duty
of forty per centum ad valorem.

On stockings, hose, half-hose, shirtSj and drawers,
and all goods made on knitting-machines or frames,
composed wholly of cotton, and not herein otherwise
provided for, thirty-five per centum ad valorem.

On stockings, hose, half-hose, shirts, and drawers,
fashioned, narrowed, or shaped wholly or in part by
knitting-machines or frames, or knit by hand, and
composed wholly of cotton, forty per centum ad valo-
rem.

Cotton cords, braids, gimps, galloons, webbing, gor-
ing, suspenders, braces, and all manufactures of cot-
ton not specially enumerated or provided for in this
act, and corsets, of whatever material composed, thir-
ty-five per centum ad valorem.

Cotton laces, embroideries, insertings, trimmings,
lace window-curtains, cotton damask, hemmed hand-
kerchiefs, and cotton-velvet, forty per centum ad va-
lorem.

Spool-thread of cotton, seven cents per dozen spools,
containing on each spool not exceeding one hundred
yards of thread ; exceeding one hundred yards on each
spool, for every additional one hundred yards of thread
or fractional part thereof in excess 01 one hundred
yards, seven cents per dozen.

SCHEDULE J. — HEMP, JUTE, AND FLAX GOODS.

Flax-straw, five dollars per ton.

Flax, not hackled or dressed, twenty dollars per
ton.

Flax, hackled, known as " dressed line," forty dol-
lars per ton.

Tow, of flax or hemp, ten dollars per ton.

Hemp, manila, and other like substitutes for hemp
not specially enumerated or provided for in this act,
twenty-five dollars per ton.

Jute- butts, five dollars per ton.

Jute, twenty per centum ad valorem ; sunn, Sisal
grass, and other vegetable substances, not specially
enumerated or provided for in this act, fifteen dollars
per ton.

Brown and bleached linens, ducks, canvas, pad-
dings, cot-bottoms, diapers, crash, huckabacks, hand-

204

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (DUTIES ON IMPOSTS.)

kerchiefs, lawns, or other manufactures of flax, jute,
or hemp, or of which flax, jute, or hemp shall be the
component material of chief value, not specially enu-
merated or provided for in this act, thirty-five per
centum ad valorem.

Flax, hemp, and jute- yarns, thirty- five per centum
ad valorem.

Flax or linen thread, twine, and pack-thread, and
all manufactures of flax, or of which flax shall be the
component material of chief value, not specially enu-
merated or provided for in this act, forty per centum
ad valorem.

Flax or linen laces and insertings, embroideries, or
manufactures of linen, if embroidered or tamboured
in the loom or otherwise, by machinery or with the
needle or other process, and not specially enumerated
or provided for in this act, thirty per centum ad va-
lorem.

Burlaps, not exceeding sixty inches in width, of
flax, jute, or hemp, or of which flax, jute, or hemp, or
either of them, shall be the component material of
chief value (except such as may be suitable for bag-
ging for cotton), thirty per centum ad valorem.

Oil-cloth foundations, or floor-cloth canvas, or bur-
laps exceeding sixty inches in width, made of flax,
jute, or hemp, or of which flax, jute, or hemp, or
either of them, shall be the component material of
chief value, forty per centum ad valorem.

Oil-cloths for floors, stamped, painted, or printed,
and on all other oil-cloth (except silk oil-cloth), and
on water-proof cloth, not otherwise provided for, for-
ty per centum ad valorem.

Gunny-cloth, not bagging, valued at ten cents or
less per square yard, three cents per pound ; valued
at over ten cents per square yard, four cents per
pound.

Bags and bagging, and like manufactures, not spe-
cially enumerated or provided for in this act (except
bagging for cotton), composed wholly or in part of
flax, hemp, jute, gunny-cloth, gunny-bags, or other
material, forty per centum ad valorem.

Bagging for cotton, or other manufactures not spe-
cially enumerated or provided for in this act? suitable
to the uses for which cotton- bagging is applied, com-
posed in whole or in part of hemp, jute, jute-butts,
flax, gunny-bags, gunny-cloth, or other material, and
valued at seven cents or less per square yard, one and
one half cents per pound ; valued at over seven cents
per square yard, two cents per pound.

Tarred cables or cordage, three cents per pound.

Untarred manila cordage, two and one half cents
per pound.

All other untarred cordage, three and one half cents
per pound.

Seines and seine and gilling twine, twenty-five per
centum ad valorem.

Sail-duck, or canvas for sails, thirty per centum ad
valorem.

Kussia and other sheetings, of flax or hemp, brown
or white, thirty-five per centum ad valorem.

All other manufactures of hemp, or manila, or of
which hemp or manila shall be a component material
of chief value, not specially enumerated or provided
for in this act, thirty-five per centum ad valorem.

Grass-cloth and other manufactures of jute, ramp,
China and Sisal grass, not specially enumerated or
provided for in this act, thirty -five per centum ad va-

8CHEDULE K. — WOOL AND WOOLENS.

All wools, hair of the alpaca, goat, and other like
animals, shall be divided, for the purpose of fixing
the duties to be charged thereon, into the three fol-

Class one, clothing wools.— That is to say, merino,
mestiza, metz or metis wools, or other wools of me-
rino blood, immediate or remote, down clothing wools,
and wools of like character with any of the preceding,
including such as have been heretofore usually im-
ported into the United States from Buenos Ayres,
New Zealand, Australia, Cape of Good Hope, Kussia,

Great Britain, Canada, and elsewhere, and also in-
cluding all wools not hereinafter described or desig-
nated in classes two and three.

Class two, combing wools. — That is to say, Leices-
ter, Cots wold, Lincolnshire, Down combing wools,
Canada long wools, or other like combing wools of
English blood, and usually known by the terms here-
in used, and also all hair of the alpaca, goat, and other
like animals.

Class three, carpet wools and other similar wools.—
Such as Donskoi, native South American, Cordova,
Valparaiso, native Smyrna, and including all such
wools of like character as have been heretofore usually
imported into the United States from Turkey, Greece,
Egypt, Syria, and elsewhere.

The duty on wools of the first class which shall be
imported washed shall be twice the amount of the
duty to which they would be subjected if imported
unwashed ; and the duty on wools of all classes which
shall be imported scoured shall be three times the
duty to which they would be subjected if imported
unwashed. The duty upon wool of the sheep, or hair
of the alpaca, goat, and other like animals, which
shall be imported in any other than ordinary condi-
tion, as now and heretofore practiced, or which shall
be changed in its character or condition for the pur-
pose of evading the duty, or which shall be reduced
in value by the admixture of dirt or any other foreign
substance, shall be twice the duty to which it would
be otherwise subject.

Wools of the first class, the value whereof at the
last port or place whence exported to the United States,
excluding charges in such port, shall be thirty cents
or less per pound, ten cents per pound ; wools of the
same class, the value whereof at the last port or place
whence exported to the United States, excluding
charges in such port, shall exceed thirty cents per
pound, twelve cents per pound.

Wools of the second class, and all hair of the alpaca,
goat, and other like animals, the value whereof, at
the last port or place whence exported to the United
States, excluding charges in such port, shall be thirty
cents or less per pound, ten cents per pound ; wools
of the same class, the value whereof at the last port
or place whence exported to the United States, ex-
cluding charges in such port, shall exceed thirty cents
per pound, twelve cents per pound.

Wools of the third class, the value whereof, at the
last port or place whence exported to the United
States, excluding charges in such port, shall be twelve
cents or less per pound, two and a half cents per
pound; wools of the same class, the value whereof,
at the last port or place whence exported to the
United States, excluding charges in such port, ^hall
exceed twelve cents per pound, five cents per pound.

Wools on the skin, the same rates as other wools,
the quantity and value to be ascertained under such
rules as the Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe.

Woolen rags, shoddy, mungo, waste, and flocks, ten
cents per pound.

Woolen cloths, woolen shawls, and all manufactures
of wool of every description, made wholly or in part
of wool, not specially enumerated or provided for in
this act, valued at not exceeding eighty cents per
pound, thirty-five cents per pound and thirty -five per
centum ad valorem ; valued at above eighty cents per
pound, thirty-five cents per pound, and in addition
thereto forty per centum ad valorem.

Flannels, blankets, hats of wool, knit goods, and all
goods made on knitting-frames, balraorals, woolen and
worsted yarns, and all manufactures of every descrip-
tion, composed wholly or in part of worsted, the hair
of the alpaca, goat, or other animals (except such as
are composed in part of wool), not specially enumer-
ated or provided for in this act, valued at not exceed-
ing thirty cents per pound, ten cents per pound ; val-
ued at above thirty cents per pound, and not exceed-
ing forty cents per pound, twelve cents per pound ;
valued at above forty cents per pound, and not ex-
ceeding sixty cents per pound, eighteen cents per

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (DUTIES ON IMPORTS.)

205

pound ; valued at above sixty cents per pound, and
not exceeding eighty cents per pound, twenty-four
cents per pound ; and in addition thereto, upon all the
above-named articles, thirty -five per centum ad valo-
rem ; valued at above eighty cents per pound, thirty-
five cents per pound, and in addition thereto forty per
centum ad valorem.

Bunting ten cents per square yard, and in addition
thereto, thirty -five per centum ad valorem.

Women's and children's dress-goods, coat-linings,
Italian cloths, and goods of like description, composed
in part of wool, worsted, the hair of the alpaca, goat,
or other animals, valued at not exceeding twenty cents
per square yard, five cents per square yard, and in ad-
dition thereto, thirty-five per centum ad valorem ;
valued at above twenty cents per square yard, seven
cents per square yard, and forty per centum ad va-
lorem ; if composed wholly of wool, worsted, the hair
of the alpaca, goat, or other animals, or of a mixture of
them, nine cents per square yard and forty per centum
ad valorem, but all such goods with selvedges, made
wholly or in part of other materials, or with threads
of other materials introduced for the purpose of chang-
ing the classification, shall be dutiable at nine cents
per square yard and forty per centum ad valorem :
Provided, That all such goods weighing over four
ounces per square yard shall pay a duty of thirty-five
cents per pound and forty per centum ad valorem.

Clothing, ready-made, and wearing-apparel of every
description, not specially enumerated or provided for
in this act, and balmoral skirts, and skirting, and
goods of similar description, or used for like purposes,
composed wholly or in part of wool, worsted, the hair
of the alpaca, goat, or other animals, made up or manu-
factured wholly or in part by the tailor, seamstress,
or manufacturer, except knit goods, forty cents per
pound, and in addition thereto, thirty-five per centum
ad valorem.

Cloaks, dolmans, jackets, talmas, ulsters, or other
outside garments for ladies and children's apparel, and
goods of similar description, or used for like purposes,
composed wholly or in part of wool, worsted, the hair
of the alpaca, goat, or other animals, made up or manu-
factured wholly or in part by the tailor, seamstress, or
manufacturer (except knit goods), forty-five cents per
pound, and in addition thereto, forty per centum ad
valorem.

f Webbings, gorings, suspenders, braces, beltings,
bindings, braids, galloons, fringes, gimps, cords, cords
and tassels, dress-trimmings, head-nets, buttons, or
barrel-buttons, or buttons of other forms for tassels or
ornaments, wrought by hand or braided by machin-
ery, made of wool, worsted, the hair of the alpaca,
goat, or other animals, or of which wool, worsted, the
hair of the alpaca, goat, or other animals is a compo-
nent material,, thirty cents per pound, and in addi-
tion thereto, fifty per centum ad valorem.

Aubusson, Axminster, and chenille carpets, and
carpets woven whole for rooms, forty-five cents per
square yard, and in addition thereto, thirty per centum
ad valorem.

Saxony, Wilton, and Tournay velvet carpets, forty-
five cents per square 'yard, and in addition thereto,
thirty per centum ad valorem.

^ Brussels carpets, thirty cents per square yard, and
in addition thereto, thirty per centum ad valorem.

Patent velvet and tapestry velvet carpets, printed
on the warp or otherwise, twenty-five cents per square
yard, and m addition thereto, thirty per centum ad
valorem.

Tapestry Brussels carpets, printed on the warp or
otherwise, twenty cents per square yard, and in addi-
tion thereto, thirty per centum ad valorem.
t Treble ingrain, three-ply, and worsted-chain Vene-
taan carpets, twelve cents per square yard, and in ad-
dition thereto, thirty per centum ad valorem.

Yarn Venetian, and two-ply ingrain carpets, eight
cents per square yard, and in addition thereto, thirty
per centum ad valorem.

Druggets and bookings, printed, colored, or other-

wise, fifteen cents per square yard, and in addition
thereto, thirty per centum ad valorem.

Hemp or jute carpeting, six cents per square yard.

Carpets and carpetings of wool, flax, or cotton, or
parts of either or other material, not otherwise herein
specified, forty per centum ad valorem; and mats,
rugs, screens, covers, hassocks, bedsides, and other por-
tions of carpets or carpetings, shall be subjected to the
rate of duty herein imposed on carpets or carpeting
of like character or description : and the duty on afl
other mats not exclusively of vegetable material,
screens, hassocks, and rugs, shall be forty per centum
ad valorem.

Endless belts or felts for paper or printing-machines,
twenty cents per pound and thirty per centum ad va-
lorem.

SCHEDULE L. — SILK AND SILK GOODS.

Silk, partially manufactured from cocoons, or from
waste silk, and not further advanced or manufactured
than carded or combed silk, fifty cents per pound.

Thrown silk, in gum, not more advanced than sin-
gles, tram, organzine, sewing-silk, twist, floss, in the
gum, and spun silk, silk threads or yarns, of every
description, purified or dyed, thirty per centum ad
valorem.

On lastings, mohair cloths, silk twist, or other manu-
factures of cloth, woven or made in patterns of such
size, shape, or form, or cut in such manner as to be fit
for buttons exclusively, ten per centum ad valorem.

All goods, wares, merchandise, not specially enu-
merated or provided for in this act, made of silk, or
of which silk is the component material of chief value,
fifty per centum ad valorem.

SCHEDULE M. — BOOKS, PAPERS, ETC.

Books, pamphlets, bound or unbound, and all print-
ed matter, not specially enumerated or provided for in
this act, engravings, bound or unbound, etchings, illus-
trated books, maps, and charts, twenty-five per cen-
tum ad valorem.

Blank-books, bound or unbound, and blank- books
for press-copying, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Paper, sized or glued, suitable only for printing-
paper, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Printing-paper, unsized, used for books and news-
papers exclusively, fifteen per centum ad valorem.

Paper, manufactures of, or of which paper is a com-
ponent material, not specially enumerated or provided
for in this act, fifteen per centum ad valorem.

Sheathing-paper, ten per centum ad valorem.

Paper boxes, and all other fancy boxes, thirty-five
per centum ad valorem.

Paper envelopes, twenty-five per centum ad valo-
rem.

Paper-hangings and paper for screens or fire-boards,
paper antiquarian, demy, drawing, elephant, foolscap,
imperial, letter, note, and all other paper not specially
enumerated or provided for in this act, twenty-five per
centum ad valorem.

Pulp, dried, for paper-makers' use, ten per centum
ad valorem.

SCHEDULE N. — SUNDRIES.

Alabaster and spar statuary and ornaments, .ten per
centum ad valorem.

Baskets and all other articles composed of grass,
osier, palm-leaf, whalebone, or willow, or straw, _not
specially enumerated or provided for in this act, thirty
per centum ad valorem.

Beads, and bead ornaments of all kinds, except am-
ber, fifty per centum ad valorem.

Blacking of all kinds, twenty-five per centum ad va-
lorem.

Bladders, manufactures of, twenty-five per centum
ad valorem.

Bone, horn, ivory, or vegetable ivory, all manufac-
tures of, not specially enumerated or provided for in
this act, thirty per centum ad valorem.

Bonnets, hats, and hoods for men, women,, and
children, composed of chip, grass, palm-leaf, willow,
or straw, or any other vegetable substance, hair,

206

CONGKESS, UNITED STATES. (DUTIES ON IMPORTS.)

whalebone, or other material, not specially enumerated
or provided for in this act, thirty per centum ad va-
lorem.

Bouillons, or cannetille, metal threads, fil£, or ge-
spinst, twenty -five per centum ad valorem.

Bristles, fifteen cents per pound.

Brooms of all kinds, twenty -five per centum ad va-
lorem.

Brushes of all kinds, thirty per centum ad valorem.

Bulbs and bulbous roots, not medicinal, and not
specially enumerated or provided for in this act,
twenty per centum ad valorem.

Burr-stones, manufactured or bound up into mill-
stones, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Buttons and button-molds, not specially enumerated
or provided for in this act, not including brass, gilt,
or silk buttons, twenty-five per centum ad valorem.

Candles and tapers of all kinds, twenty per centum
ad valorem.

Canes and sticks for walking, finished, thirty-five
per centum ad valorem ; if unfinished, twenty per
centum ad valorem.

Card-cases, pocket-books, shell boxes, and all simi-
lar articles, of whatever material composed, and by
whatever name known, not specially enumerated or
provided for in this act, thirty-five per centum ad va-
lorem.

Card-clothing, twenty-five cents per square foot ;
when manufactured from tempered steel wire, forty-
five cents per square foot.

Carriages, and parts of, not specially enumerated or
provided for in this act, thirty-five per centum ad va-
lorem.

Chronometers, box or ship's, and parts thereof, ten
per centum ad valorem.

Clocks, and parts of clocks, thirty per centum ad
valorem.

Coach and harness furniture of all kinds, saddlery,
coach, and harness hardware, silver-plated, brass,
brass-plated, or covered, common, tinned, burnished,
or japanned, not specially enumerated or provided for
in this act, thirty-five per centum ad valorem.

Coal, slack or culm, such as will pass through a
half-inch screen, thirty cents per ton of twenty-eight
bushels, eighty pounds to the bushel.

Coal, bituminous, and shale, seventy-five cents per
ton of twenty-eight bushels, eighty pounds to the
bushel. A drawback of seventy-five cents per ton
shall be allowed on all bituminous coal imported into
the United States which is afterward used for fuel on
board of vessels propelled by steam which are engaged
in the coasting trade of the United States, or in the
trade with foreign countries, to be allowed and paid
under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treas-
ury shall prescribe.

Coke, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Combs, of all kinds, thirty per centum ad valorem.

Compositions of glass or paste, when not set, ten per
centum ad valorem.

Coral, cut, manufactured, or set, twenty-five per
centum ad valorem.

Corks and cork-bark, manufactured, twenty-five per
centum ad valorem.

Crayons of all kinds, twenty per centum ad valo-
rem.

Dice, draughts, chess-men, chess-balls, and billiard
and bagatelle balls, of ivory or bone, fifty per centum
ad valorem.

Dolls and toys, thirty-five per centum ad valorem.

Emery-grains and emery manufactured, ground,
pulverized, or refined, one cent per pound.

Epaulets, galloons, laces, knots, stars, tassels, and
wings, of gold, silver, or other metal, twenty-five per
centum ad valorem.

Fans, of all kinds, except common palm-leaf fans, of
whatever material composed, thirty-five per centum
ad valorem.

Feathers, of all kinds, crude or not dressed, colored
or manufactured, twenty-five per centum ad valorem ;
when dressed, colored, or manufactured, including

dressed and finished birds, for millinery ornaments,
and artificial and ornamental feathers and flowers, or
parts thereof, of whatever material composed, for mil-
linery use, not specially enumerated or provided for
in this act, fifty per centum ad valorem.

Finishing powder, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Fire-crackers, of all kinds, one hundred per centum
ad valorem.

Floor-matting and floor-mats, exclusively of vege-
table substances, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Friction or lucifer matches of all descriptions, thirty-
five per centum ad valorem.

Fulminates, fulminating powders, and all like ar-
ticles, not specially enumerated or provided for in this
act, thirty per centum ad valorem.

Fur, articles made of, and not specially enumerated
or provided for in this act, thirty per centum ad va-
lorem.

Gloves, kid or leather, of all descriptions, wholly or
partially manufactured, fifty per centum ad valorem.

Grease, all not specially enumerated or provided for
in this act, ten per centum ad valorem.

Grindstones, finished or unfinished, one dollar and
seventy-five cents per ton.

Gunpowder, and all explosive substances used for
mining, blasting, artillery, or sporting purposes, when
valued at twenty cents or less per pound, six cents per
pound ; valued above twenty cents per pound, ten
cents per pound.

Gun-wads, of all descriptions, thirty- five per centum
ad valorem.

Gutta-percha, manufactured, and all articles ofj not
specially enumerated or provided for in this act, thirty-
five per centum ad valorem.

Hair, human, bracelets, braids, chains, rings, curls,
and ringlets, composed 01 hair, or of which hair is the
component material of chief value, thirty-five per cen-
tum ad valorem.

Curled hair, except of hogs, used for beds or mat-
tresses, twenty -five per centum ad valorem.

Human hair, raw, uncleaned and not drawn, twenty
per centum ad valorem. If clean or drawn, but not
manufactured, thirty per centum ad valorem ; when
manufactured, thirty-five per centum ad valorem.

Hair-cloth, known as " crinoline-cloth," and all
other manufactures of hair not specially enumerated
or provided for in this act, thirty per centum ad va-
lorem.

Hair-cloth, known as " hair-seating," thirty cents
per square yard.

Hair pencils, thirty per centum ad valorem.

Hats, etc., materials for : Braids, plaits, flats, laces,
trimmings, tissues, willow sheets and squares, used
for making or ornamenting hats, bonnets, and hoods,
composed of straw, chip, grass, palm-leaf, willow,
hair, whalebone, or any other substance or material,
not specially enumerated or provided for in this act,
twenty per centum ad valorem.

Hat- bodies of cotton, thirty-five per centum ad va-
lorem.

Hatters' furs, not on the skin, and dressed furs on
the skin, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Hatters' plush, composed of silk or of silk and cot-
ton, twenty-five per centum ad valorem.

Hemp-seed and rape-seed, and other oil-seeds of
like character, other than linseed or flaxseed, one
quarter of one cent per pound.

India-rubber fabrics, composed wholly or in part of
India-rubber, not specially enumerated or provided
for in this act, thirty per centum ad valorem.

Articles composed of India-rubber, not specially
enumerated or provided for in this act, twenty-five
per centum ad valorem.

India-rubber boots and shoes, twenty-five per cen-
tum ad valorem.

Inks of all kinds and ink -powders, thirty per cen-
tum ad valorem.

Japanned ware of all kinds, not specially enumer-
ated or provided for in this act, forty per centum ad
valorem.

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. ' (ARTICLES DUTY-FREE.)

207

Jet, manufactures and imitations of, twenty-five
per centum ad valorem.

Jewelry of all kinds, twenty-five per centum ad
valorem.

Leather, bend or belting leather, and Spanish or
other sole-leather, and leather not specially enumer-
ated or provided for in this act, fifteen per centum ad
valorem.

Calf-skins, tanned, or tanned and dressed, and
dressed upper leather of all other kinds, and skins
dressed and finished, of all kinds, not specially enu-
merated or provided for in this act, and skins of mo-
rocco, finished, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Skins for morocco, tanned, but unfinished, ten per
centum ad valorem.

All manufactures and articles of leather, or of which
leather shall be a component part, not specially enu-
merated or provided for in this act, thirty per centum
ad valorem.

Lime, ten per centum ad valorem.

Garden-seeds, except seed of the sugar-beet, twenty
per centum ad valorem.

Linseed or flaxseed, twenty cents per bushel of fifty-
six pounds ; but no drawback shall be allowed on oil-
cake made from imported seed.

Marble of all kinds, in block, rough, or squared,
sixty-five cents per cubic foot: veined marble, sawed,
dressed, or otherwise, including marble slabs and
marble paving-tiles, one dollar and ten cents per cu-
bic foot.

All manufactures of marble not specially enumer-
ated or provided for in this act, fifty per centum ad
valorem.

Musical instruments of all kinds, twenty -five per
centum ad valorem.

Paintings, in oil or water colors, and statuary not
otherwise provided for, thirty per centum ad valorem.
But the term " statuary," as used in the laws now in
force imposing duties on foreign importations, shall
be understood to include professional productions of a
statuary or of a sculptor only.

Osier, or willow, prepared for basket-makers' use,
twenty-five per centum ad valorem.

Papier-mache, manufactures, articles, and wares of,
thirty per centum ad valorem.

Pencil^ of wood filled with lead or other material,
and pencils of lead, fifty cents per gross, and thirty
per centum ad valorem ; pencil-leads, not in wood,
ten per centum ad valorem.

Percussion-caps, forty per centum ad valorem.

Philosophical apparatus and instruments, thirty-
five per centum ad valorem.

Pipes, pipe-bowls, and all smokers' articles what-
soever, not specially enumerated or provided for in
this act, seventy per centum ad valorem ; all common
pipes of clay, .thirty-five per centum ad valorem.

Plaster- of-Paris, when ground or calcined, twenty
per centum ad valorem.

Playing-cards, one hundred per centum ad valorem.

Polishing-powders of every description, by what-
ever name known, including Frankfort black, and
Berlin, Chinese, fig, and wash blue, twenty per cen-
tum ad valorem.

Precious stones, of all kinds, ten per centum ad va-
lorem.

m Rags, of whatever material composed, and not spe-
cially enumerated or provided for in this act, ten per
centum ad valorem.

Eattans and reeds, manufactured, but not made up
into completed articles, ten per centum ad valorem.

Salt, in bags, sacks, barrels, or other packages,
twelve cents per one hundred pounds ; in bulk, ei^ht
cents per one hundred pounds : Provided, That ex-
porters of meats, whether packed or smoked, which
have been cured in the United States with imported
salt, shall, upon satisfactory proof, under such regu-
lations as the Secretary of the Treasury shall pre-

sribe, that such meats have been cured with imported
salt, have refunded to them from the Treasury the
duties paid on the salt so used in curing such exported

meats, in amounts not less than one hundred dollars :
And provided further, That imported salt in bond
may be used in curing fish taken by vessels licensed
to engage in the fisheries, and hi curing fish on the
shores of the navigable waters of the United States,
under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treas-
ury shall prescribe ; and upon proof that the salt has
been used for either of the purposes stated in this pro-
viso, the duties on the same shall be remitted.

Scagliola. and composition tops for tables or for
other articles of furniture, thirty-five per centum ad
valorem.

Sealing-wax, twenty per centum ad valorem.

Shells, whole or parts of, manufactured, of every
description, not specially enumerated or provided for
in this act, twenty-five per centum ad valorem.

Stones, unmanufactured or undressed, freestone,
granite, sandstone, and all building or monumental
stone, except marble, not specially enumerated or pro-
vided, for in this act, one dollar per ton ; and upon
stones as above, hewn, dressed, or polished, twenty
per centum ad valorem.

Strings : All strings of catgut, or any other like
material, other than strings for musical instruments,
twenty-five per centum ad valorem.

Tallow, one cent per pound.

Teeth, manufactured, twenty per centum ad va-
lorem.

Umbrella and parasol ribs, and stretcher-frames,
tips, runners, handles, or other parts thereof, when
made in whole or chief part of iron, steel, or any other
metal, forty per centum ad valorem ; umbrellas, para-
sols, and shades, when covered with silk or alpaca,
fifty per centum ad valorem; all other umbrellas,
forty per centum ad valorem.

Umbrellas, parasols, and sunshades, frames and
sticks for, finisned or unfinished, not specially enu-
merated or provided for in this act, thirty per centum
ad valorem.

Waste, all not specially enumeratad or provided for
in this act, ten per centum ad valorem.

Watches, watch-cases, watch-movements, parts of
watches, and watch-materials, not specially enumer-
ated or provided for in this act, twenty-five per centum
ad valorem.

Webbing, composed of cotton, flax, or any other
materials, not specially enumerated or provided for in
this act, thirty-five per centum ad valorem.

THE FREE LIST.

SEC. 2503. The following articles when imported
shall be exempt from duty :

CHEMICALS.

Albumen, in any form or condition ; lactarine.

Aconite.

Ambergris.

Annotto, roncou, rocou, or Orleans, and all ex-
tracts of.

Balm of Gilead.

Blood, dried.

Bones, crude, not manufactured, burned, calcined,
ground, or steamed.

Bone-dust and bone-ash for manufacture of phos-
phate and fertilizers.

Carbon, animal, fit for fertilizing only.

Guano, manures, and all substances expressly used
for manure.

Musk, crude, in natural pod.

Civet, crude.

Cochineal.

Dyeing or tanning : Articles in a crude state used
in dyeing or tanning, not specially enumerated or
provided for in this act.

Fish-skins.

Hide-cuttings, raw, with or without hair, and all
glue-stock.

Hoofs.

Horns, and parts of horns, unmanufactured, and
horn strips and tips.

208

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (ARTICLES DUTY-FREE.)

Ipecac.

Fish-sounds or fish-bladders.
Leather, old scraps.
Leeches.

Rennets, raw or prepared.
Argal, or argol, or crude tartar.
Asafcetida.

Barks, cinchona, or other barks used in the manu-
facture of quinia.
Brazil paste.
Camphor, crude.

Cassia, cassia-buds, cassia vera, unground.
Charcoal.

Cinnamon, and chips of, unground.
Cloves and clove-stems, unground.
Cocculus indicus.
Cudbear.

Curry and curry-powder.
Cutch.
Divi-divi.
Dragon's-blood.
Ergot.
Gambier.

Ginger-root, unground.
Indigo and artificial indigo.
Iodine, crude.
Jalap.
Kelp.

Lac dye, crude, seed, button, stick, and shell.
Lac spirits.

Licorice-root, unground.

Litmus, prepared or not prepared.

Mace.

Madder and munjeet or Indian madder, ground or
prepared, and extracts of.

Manna.

Myrobolan.

Orchil, or orchil liquid.

Nutmegs.

Nux vomica.

Ottar of roses.

Salicine.
Oils:

Almond.

Amber, crude and rectified.

Ambergris.

Anise, or anise-seed.

Aniline, crude.

Aspic, or spike lavender.

Bergamot.

Cajeput.

Caraway.

Cassia and cinnamon.

Cedrat.

Camomile.

Citronella or lemon-grass.

Civet.

Fennel.

Jasmin e; or jessamine.

Juglandium.

Juniper.

Lavender.

Lemon.

Limes.

Mace.

Neroli, or orange-flower.

Orange. •

Palm and cocoanut.

Poppy.

Kosemary, or anthoss.

Sesame or sesamum-seed, or bene.

Thyme or origanum, red or white ; valerian.

Pepper, unground, of all kinds.

Pimento, unground.

Saffron and safflower, and extract of, and saffron
cake.

Selep, or saloup.

Storax, or styrax.

Turmeric.

Turpentine, Venice.

Valonia.

Vegetable and mineral wax.

Wood-ashes, and lye of, and beet-root ashes.

Ashes used for medicinal, chemical, or manufactur-
ing purposes, not specially enumerated or provided
for in this act.

Alizarine, natural or artificial.

Agates, unmanufactured.

Apatite.

Asbestus, unmanufactured.

Arsenic.

Antimony-oret crude sulphide of.

Arsenic, sulphide of, or orpiment.

Arseniate of aniline.

Baryta, carbonate or witherite.

Bauxite.

Aniline salts or black salts and black tares.

Bromine.

Cadmium.

Calamine.

Cerium.

Cobalt, as metallic arsenic.

Chalk and cliff stone, unmanufactured.

Feldspar.

Cryolite or kryolith.

Iridium.

Kieserite.

Kyanite or cyanite, and kainite.

Lime, citrate of.

Lime, chloride of, or bleaching-powder.

Magnesium.

Magnesite, or native mineral carbonate of magnesia.

Manganese, oxide and ore of. ^

Mineral waters, all not artificial.

Osmium.-

Palladium.

Paramne.

Phosphates, crude or native, for fertilizing pur-
poses.

Potash, muriate of.

Plaster-of-Paris or sulphate of lime, unground.

Quinia, sulphate of, salts of, and cinchonidia.

Soda, nitrate of, or cubic nitrate.

Strontia, oxide of, and proto-oxide of strontian, and
strontianite, or mineral carbonate of strontia.

Sulphur, or brimstone, not specially enumerated or
provided for in this act.

Sulphur lac or precipitated.

Tripoli.

Uranium, oxide of, verdigris or subacetate of copper.

Drugs, barks, beans, berries, balsams, buds, bulbs,
and bulbous roots and excrescences, such as nut-
galls, fruits, flowers, dried fibers ; grains, gums and
gum-resin; herbs, Cleaves, lichens, mosses, nuts,
roots, and stems ; spices, vegetables, seeds aromatic,

state, and not advanced in value or condition by re-
fining or grinding, or by other process of manufac-
ture, and not specially enumerated or provided for in
this act.

Vaccine virus.

Crude minerals, not advanced hi value or condition
by refining or grinding, or by other process of manu-
facture, not specially enumerated or provided for in
this act.

SUNDRIES.

Aluminium.

Amber beads and gum.

Annuals, brought into the United States tempora-
rily, and for a period not exceeding six months, for
the purpose of exhibition or competition for prizes
offered by any agricultural or racing association ; but
a bond shall be first given in accordance with the
regulations.

Animals specially imported for breeding purposes,
shall be admitted free upon proof thereof satisfactory
to the Secretary of the Treasury, and under such

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (AKTICLES DUTY-FREE.)

209

regulations as he may prescribe : and teams of
mals, including their harness and tackle, and the

ani-

and the ve-
hicles or wagons actually owned by persons emigrat-
ing from foreign countries to the United States with
their families, and in actual use for the purpose of
such emigration, shall also be admitted free of duty,
under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treas-
ury may prescribe.

Asphaltum and bitumen, crude.

Arrowroot.

Articles imported for the use of the United States,
provided that the price of the same did not include
the duty.

Bamboo reeds, no further manufactured than cut
into suitable lengths for walking-sticks or canes, or
for sticks for umbrellas, parasols, or sunshades.

Bamboo, unmanufactured.

Barrels of American manufacture, exported filled
with domestic petroleum, and returned empty, under
such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury may
prescribe, and without requiring the filing of a dec-
laration at time of export of intent to return the same
empty.

Articles the growth, produce, and manufacture of
the United States, when returned in the same condi-
tion as exported. Casks, barrels, carboys, bags, and
other vessels of American manufacture, exported
filled with American products, or exported enipty and
returned filled with foreign products, including
shooksj when returned as barrels or boxes ; but proof
of the identity of such articles shall be made under
regulations to be prescribed by the Secretary of the
Treasury ; and if any of such articles are subject to
internal tax at the time of exportation, such tax shall
be proved to have been paid before exportation and
not refunded.

Bed-feathers and downs.

Bells, broken, and bell-metal broken and fit only
to be remanufactured.

Birds, stuffed.

Birds, and land and water fowls.

Bismuth.

Bladders, crude, and all integuments of animals
not specially enumerated or provided for in this act.

Bologna sausages.

Bolting-cloths.

Books, engravings, bound or unbound, etchings,
maps, and charts, which shall have been printed and
manufactured more than twenty years at the date of
importation.

Books, maps, and charts imported by authority or
for use of the United States or for the use of the
Library of Congress ; but the duty shall not have
been included in the contract of price paid.

Books, maps, and charts specially imported, not
more than two copies in any one invoice, in good
taith, for the use of any society incorporated or es-
tablished for philosophical, literary, or religious pur-
poses, or for the encouragement of the fine arts, or for
the use or by order of any college, academy, school, or
seminary of learning in the United States.

Books, professional, of persons arriving in the
United States.

Books, household effects, or libraries, or parts of li-
braries, in use, of persons or families from foreign
countries, if used abroad by them not less than one
year, and not intended for any other person or per-
sons, nor for sale.

Breccia, in blocks or slabs.

Brime.

Brazil pebbles for spectacles, and pebbles for spec-
tacles, rough.

Bullion, gold and silver.

Burgundy pitch.

Burr- stone, in blocks, rough or unmanufactured,
and not bound up in millstones.

Cabinets of coins, medals, and all other collections
of antiquities.

Castor or castoreum.

Catgut strings, or gut-cord, for musical instruments.
VOL. xxni. — 14 A

Catgut or whip-gut, unmanufactured.

Coal, anthracite.

Coal-stores of American vessels, but none shall be
unloaded.

Cobalt, ore of.

Cocoa, or cacao, crude, and fiber, leaves, and shells.

Coffee.

Coins, gold, silver, and copper.

Coir and coir yarn.

Copper, old, taken from the bottom of American
vessels compelled by marine disaster to repair in for-
eign ports.

Copper, when imported for the United States Mint.

Coral, marine, unmanufactured.

Cork-wood, or cork- bark, unmanufactured.

Cotton.

Curling-stones, or quoits.

Cuttle-fish bone.

Diamonds, rough or uncut, including glaziers' dia-
monds.

Diamond dust or bort.

Dyeing or tanning articles, in a crude state, used
in dyeing or tanning, not specially enumerated or
provided for in this act.

Eggs.

Esparto or Spanish grass, and other grasses, and
pulp of, for the manufacture of paper.

Emery-ore.

Fans, common palm-leaf.

Farina.

Fashion-plates, engraved on steel or on wood, col-
ored or plain.

Felt, adhesive, for sheathing vessels.

Fibrin, in all forms.

Fire-wood.

Fish, fresh, for immediate consumption.

Fish, for bait.

Flint, flints, and ground flint-stones.

Fossils.

Fruit-plants, tropical and semi-tropical, for the pur-
pose of propagatio_n or cultivation.

Fruits, green, ripe? or dried, not specially enumer-
ated or provided for in this act.

Furs, undressed.

Fur-skins of all kinds, not dressed in any manner.

Glass, broken pieces, and old glass which can not
be cut tor use, and tit only to be remanufactured.

Glass-plate, or disks unwrought, for use in the
manufacture of optical instruments.

Goat-skins, raw.

Gold-beaters' molds, and gold-beaters' skins.

Gold-size.

Grease, for use as soap-stock only, not specially
enumerated or provided for.

Gunny-bags, and gunny-cloth, old or refuse, fit only
for remanufacturing.

Gut and worm-gut, manufactured or unmanufac-
tured.

Guts, salted.

Gutta-percha, crude.

Hair, horse or cattle, and hair of all kinds, cleaned
or uncleaued, drawn or undrawn, but unmanufactured,
not specially enumerated or provided for in this act ;
of hogs, curled for beds and mattresses, and not fit
for bristles.

Hide-rope.

Hides, raw or uncured, whether dry, salted, or
pickled, and skins, except sheep-skins with the wool
on, Angora goat-skins, raw, without the wool, un-
manufactured, asses' skins, raw or unmanufactured.

Hones and whetstones.

Hop-roots, for cultivation.

Hop-poles.

Ice.

India-rubber, crude, and milk of.

India malacca joints, not further manufactured than
cut into suitable lengths for the manufactures into
which they are intended to be converted.

Ivory, and vegetable ivory, unmanufactured.

Jet, unmanufactured.

210

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (ARTICLES DUTY-FREE.)

Joss- stick, or joss- light.

Junk, old.

Lava, unmanufactured.

Life -boats and life-saving apparatus, specially im-
ported by societies incorporated or established to en-
courage the saving of human life.

Lithographic stones, not engraved.

Loadstones.

Logs, and round, unmanufactured timber, not spe-
cially enumerated or provided for in this act, and
ship-timber, and ship-planking.

Maccaroni and vermicelli.

Magnets.

Manuscripts.

Marrow, crude.

Marsh-mallows.

Medals of gold, silver, or copper.

Meerschaum, crude or raw.

Mica and mica waste.

Models of inventions and other improvements in
the arts ; but no article or articles shall be deemed a
model or improvements which can be fitted for use.

Moss, sea-weeds, and all other vegetable substances
used for beds and mattresses.

Newspapers and periodicals.

Nuts, cocoa, and Brazil or cream.

Oakum.

Oil-cake.

Oil, spermaceti, whale, and other fish oils of Amer-
ican fisheries, and all other articles the produce of
such fisheries.

Olives, green or prepared.

Orange and lemon peel, not preserved, candied, or
otherwise prepared.

Ores, of gold and silver.

Palm-nuts and palm-nut kernels.

Paper stock, crude, of every description, including
all grasses, fibers, rags of all kinds, other than wool,
waste, shavings, clippings, old paper, rope-ends, waste
rope, waste bagging, gunny-bags, gunny-cloth, old or
refuse, to be used in making, and fit only to be con-
verted into paper, and unfit for any other manufac-
ture, and cotton waste, whether for paper stock or
other purposes.

Parchment.

Pearl, mother of.

Personal and household effects, not merchandise, of
citizens of the United States dying abroad.

Pewter and Britannia metal, old, and fit only to be
remanufactured.

Philosophical and scientific apparatus, instruments,
and preparations, statuary, casts of marble, bronze,
alabaster, or plaster-of-Paris, paintings, drawings,
and etchings, specially imported in good faith for the
use of any society or institution incorporated or estab-
lished for religious, philosophical, educational, scien-
tific, or literary purposes, or encouragement of the
fine arts, and not intended for sale.

Plants, trees, shrubs, and vines of all kinds not
otherwise provided for, and seeds of all kinds, except
medicinal seeds not specially enumerated or provided
for in this act.

Plants, trees, shrubs, roots, seed- cane, and seeds
imported by the Department of Agriculture or the
United States Botanical Garden.

Platina, unmanufactured.

Platinum, unmanufactured, and vases, retorts, and
other apparatus, vessels, and parts thereof, for chem-
ical uses.

Plumbago.

Polishing-stones.

Pulu.

Pumice and pumice-stone.

Quills, prepared or unprepared.

Eailroad-ties, of wood.

Eattans and reeds, unmanufactured.

Eegalia and gems, statues, statuary, and specimens
of sculpture, where specially imported in good faith
for the use of any society incorporated or established
for philosophical, literary, or religious purposes, or

for the encouragement of the fine arts, or for the
use or by order of any college, academy, school,
seminary of learning, or public library in the United
States.

Eoot-flour.

Eotten-stone.

Sago, sago crude, and sago-flour.

Sauerkraut.

Sausage-skins.

Sea-weed, not otherwise provided for.

Seed of the sugar-beet.

Shark-skins.

Shells of every description, not manufactured.

Shingle-bolts and stave-bolts, provided that head-
ing-bolts shall be held and construed to be included
under the term stave-bolts.

Handle-bolts.

Shrimps, or other shell-fish.

Silk, raw, or as reeled from the cocoon, but not
doubled, twisted, or advanced in manufacture in any
way.

Silk cocoons and silk waste.

Silk-worms' eggs.

Skeletons, ancl other preparations of anatomy.

Skins, dried, salted, or pickled.

Snails.

Soap-stocks.

Sodium.

Sparterre, for making or ornamenting hats.

Specimens of natural history, botany, and mineral-
ogy, when imported for cabinets, or as objects of taste
or science, and not for sale.

Spunk.

Spurs and stilts, used in the manufacture of earth-
en, stone, or crockery ware.

Straw, unmanufactured.

Sugar of milk.

Sweepings of silver and gold.

Tamarinds.

Tapioca, cassava, or cassada.

Tea.

Tea-plants.

Teasels.

Teeth, unmanufactured.

Terra alba, aluminous.

Terra japonica.

Tin-ore, bars, blocks, or pigs, grain or granulated.

Tonquin, Tonqua, or Tonka beans.

Tortoise and other shells, unmanufactured.

Turtles.

Types, old, and fit only to be remanufactured.

Umbrella-sticks, crude, to wit, all partridge, hair-
wood, pimento, orange, myrtle, and all other sticks
and canes in the roughj or no further manufactured
than cut into lengths suitable for umbrella, parasol,
or sunshade sticks or walking-canes.

Vellum. '

Wafers, unmedicated.

Wearing apparel, in actual use, and other personal
effects (not merchandise), professional books, imple-
ments, instruments, and tools of trade, occupation, or
employment of persons arriving in the United States.
But this exemption shall not be construed to include
machinery or other articles imported for use in any
manufacturing establishment, or for sale.

Whalebone, unmanufactured.

Woods, poplar, or other woods, for the manufacture
of paper.

Woods, namely, cedar, lignum-vitse, lancewood,
ebony, box, granadilla, mahogany, rose-wood, satin-
wood, and all cabinet-woods, unmanufactured.

Works of art, painting, statuary, fountains, and
other works of art, the production of American art-
ists. But the fact of such production must be verified
by the certificate of a consul or minister of the United
States indorsed upon the written declaration of the
artist ; paintings, statuary, fountains, and other works
of art, imported expressly for presentation to national
institutions, or to any State, or to any municipal cor-
poration, or religious' corporation or society.

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (THE TAEIFF LAW.)

211

Yams.
Zafler.

SEC. 2504. Whenever any vessel laden with mer-
chandise in whole or in part subject to duty has been
sunk in any river, harbor, bay, or waters subject to
the jurisdiction of the United" States, and within its
limits, for the period of two years, and is abandoned
by the owner thereof, any person who may raise such
vessel shall be permitted to bring any merchandise
recovered therefrom into the port nearest to the place
where such vessel was so raised, free from the pay-
ment of any duty thereupon, and without being
obliged to enter the same at the custom-house ; but
under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treas-
ury may prescribe.

SEC. 2505. The produce of the forests of the State
of Maine upon the Saint John river and its tributa-
ries, owned by American citizens, and sawed or hewed
in the province of New Brunswick by American citi-
zens, the same being unmanufactured in whole or in
part, which is now admitted into the ports of the
United States free of duty, shall continue to be so
admitted under sucli regulations as the Secretary of
the Treasury shall, from time to time, prescribe.

SEC. 2506. The produce of the forests of the State
of Maine upon the Saint Croix river and its tributa-
ries, owned by American citizens, and sawed in the
province of New Brunswick by American citizens,
the same being unmanufactured in whole or in part,
and having paid the same taxes as other American
lumber on that river, shall be admitted into the ports
of the United States free of duty, under such regu-
lations as the Secretary of the Treasury shall, from
time to time, prescribe.

SEC. 2507. Machinery for repair may be imported
into the United States without payment of duty, under
bond, to be given in double the appraised value there-
of, to be withdrawn and exported after said machinery
shall have been repaired ; and the Secretary of the
Treasury is authorized and directed to prescribe such
rules and regulations as may be necessary to protect
the revenue against fraud, and secure the identity and
character of all such importations when again with-
drawn and exported, restricting and limiting the ex-
port and withdrawal to the same port of entry where
imported, and also limiting all bonds to a period of
time of not more than six months from the date of the
importation.

SEC. 2508. All paintings, statuary, and photo-
graphic pictures imported into the United States for
exhibition by any association duly authorized under
the laws of the United States, or of any State, for the
promotion and encouragement of science, art, or in-
dustry, and not intended for sale, shall be admitted
free of duty, under such regulations as the Secretary
of the Treasury shall prescribe. But bonds shall be
given for the payment to the United States of such
duties as may be imposed by law upon any and all of
such articles as shall not b'e re-exported within six
months after such importation.

^SEC. 2509. All works of art, collections in illustration
of the progress of the arts, science, or manufactures,
photographs, works^ in terra-cotta, Parian, pottery, or
porcelain, and artistic copies of antiquities in metal or
other material, hereafter imported in good faith for
permanent exhibition at a fixed place by any society
or institution established for the encouragement of
the arts or science, and not intended for sale, nor for
any other purpose than is hereinbefore expressed,
and all such articles imported as aforesaid, now in
bond, and all like articles imported in good faith by
any society or association for the purpose of erecting
a public monument, and not for sale, shall be ad-
mitted free of duty, under such regulations as the
Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe : Provided.
That the parties importing articles as aforesaid shall
be required to give bonds, with sufficient sureties,
under such rules and regulations as the Secretary of
the Treasury may prescribe, for the payment of law-
ful duties which may accrue should any of the articles

aforesaid be sold, transferred, or used contrary to the
provisions and intent of this act. '

SEC. 2510. All lumber, timber, hemp, manila, wire
rope, and iron and steel rods, bars, spikes, nails,
and bolts, and copper and composition metal which
may be necessary for the construction and equipment
of vessels built in the United States for foreign ac-
count and ownership or for the purpose of being em-
ployed in the foreign trade, including the trade be-
tween the Atlantic and Pacific ports of the United
States, after the passage of this act, may be imported
in bond, under such regulations as the Secretary of the
Treasury may prescribe ; and upon proof that such
materials have been used for such purpose, no duties
shall be paid thereon. But vessels receiving the bene-
fit of this section shall not be allowed to engage in
the coastwise trade of the United States more than
two months in any one year, except upon the pay-
ment to the United States of the duties on which a
rebate is herein allowed : Provided, That vessels built
in the United States for foreign account and owner-
ship shall not be allowed to engage in the coastwise
trade of the United States.t

SEC. 2511. All articles of foreign production needed
for the repair of American vessels engaged exclusive-
ly in foreign trade may be withdrawn from bonded
warehouses free of duty, under such regulations as the
Secretarv of the Treasury may prescribe.

SEC. 2512. That no duty shall be levied _ or col-
lected on the importation of peltries brought into the
Territories of the United States by Indians, nor on
the proper goods and effects, of whatever nature,
of Indians passing or repassing the boundary-line
aforesaid, unless the same be goods in bales or other
large packages unusual among Indians, which shall
not be considered as goods oelonging to Indians,
nor be entitled to the exemption from duty afore-
said.

SEC. 2513. There shall be levied,' collected, and
paid on the importation of all raw or unmanufactured
articles, not herein enumerated or provided for, a
duty of ten per centum ad valorem ; and all articles
manufactured, in whole or in part, not herein enu-
merated or provided for, a duty of twenty per centum
ad valorem.

SEC. 7. That sections twenty-nine hundred and
seven and twenty- nine hundred and eight of the Ee-
vised Statutes of the United States and section four-
teen of the act entitled " An act to amend the customs
revenue laws, and to repeal moieties," approved June
twenty-second, eighteen hundred and seventy-four,
be and the same are hereby repealed, and hereafter
none of the charges imposed by said sections or any
other provisions of existing law shall be estimated in
ascertaining the value of goods to be imported, nor
shall the value of the usual and necessary < sacks,
crates, boxes, or coverings of any kind be estimated
as part of their value in determining the amount of
duties for which they are liable : Provided, That if
any packages, sacks, crates, boxes, or coverings of
any kind shall be of any material or form designed to
evade duties thereon, oV designed for use otherwise
than in the bona fide transportation of goods to the
United States, the same shall be subject to a duty of
one hundred per centum ad valorem upon the actual
value of the same.

SEC. 8. That section twenty-eight hundred and
forty-one of the Revised Statutes of the United States
is hereby amended and shall on and after the first
day of July, eighteen hundred and eighty-three, be
as follows :

SEC. 2841. Whenever merchandise imported into
the United States is entered by invoice, one of the
following oaths, according to the nature of the case,
shall be administered by the collector of the port, at
the time of entry, to the owner, importer, consignee,
or agent : Provided, That if any of the invoices or
bills of lading of any merchandise imported in said
vessel, which should otherwise be embraced in said
entry, have not been received at the date of the entry,

212

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (THE TARIFF LAW.)

the affidavit may state the fact, and thereupon such
merchandise of which the invoices or bills of lading
are not produced shall not be included in such entry,
but may be entered subsequently.

OATH OF CONSIGNEE, IMPOBTEB, OB AGENT.

I, , dp solemnly and truly swear (or

affirm) that the invoice and bill of lading now pre-

senteu by me to the collector of are the true

and only invoice and bill of lading by me received, of
goods, wares, and merchandise imported in the

, whereof is master, from ,

for account of any person whomsoever for whom I am
authorized to enter the same ; that the said invoice
and bill of lading are in the state in which they were
actually received by me, and that I do not know nor
believe in the existence of any other invoice or bill of
lading of the said goods, wares, and merchandise ;
that the entry now delivered to the collector contains
a ,iust and true account of the said goods, wares, and
merchandise, according to the said invoice and bill of
lading ; that nothing has been, on my part, nor to my
knowledge, on the part of any other person, concealed
or suppressed, whereby the United States may be de-
frauded of any part of the duty lawfully due on the
said goods, wares, and merchandise ; that the said in-
voice and the declaration therein are in all respects true,
and were made by the person by whom the same pur-
ports to have been made, and that if, at any time
hereafter, I discover any error in the said invoice, or
in the account now rendered of the said goods, wares,
and merchandise, or receive any other invoice of the
same, I will immediately make the same known to
the collector of this district. And I do further sol-
emnly and truly swear (or affirm) that, to the best of
my knowledge and belief (insert the name and resi-
dence of the owner or owners), is (or are) the owner
(or owners) of the goods, wares, and merchandise
mentioned in the annexed entry ; that the invoice
now produced by me exhibits the actual cost (if pur-
chased) or fair market value (if otherwise obtained)
at the tune or times and place or places when or
where procured (as the case may be), of the said
goodSj wares, and merchandise, including all cost for
finishing said goods, wares, and merchandise to their
present condition, and no other or different discount,
bounty, or drawback but such as has been actually
allowed on the same.

OATH OF OWNEB IN CASES WHEEE MERCHANDISE HAS
BEEN ACTUALLY PUBCHASED.

I, , do solemnly and truly swear (or

affirm) that the entry now delivered by rne to the col-
lector of contains a just and true account of the

goods, wares, and merchandise imported by or con-
signed to me, hi the , whereof is

master, from ; that the invoice which I now

produce contains a just and faithful account of the act-
ual cost of the said goods, wares, and merchandise, in-
cluding all cost of finishing said goods, wares, and
merchandise to their present condition, and no other
discount, drawback, or bounty but such as haa been
actually allowed on the same ; that I do not know or
believe in the existence of any in voice or bill of lading
other than those now produced by me, and that they
are in the state in which I actually received them.
And I further solemnly and truly swear (or affirm)
that I have not in the said entry or invoice concealed
or suppressed anything whereby the United States
may be defrauded of any part of the duty lawfully due
on the said goods, wares, and merchandise ; that the
said invoice and the declaration thereon are in all re-
spects true, and were made by the person by whom
the same purports to have been made ; and that if at
any time hereafter I discover any error in the said in-
voice or in the account now produced of the said goods,
wares, and merchandise, or receive any other invoice
of the same, I will immediately make the same known
to the collector of this district.

OATH OF MANUFACTDBEB OB OWNEE IN CASES WHERE
MEBCHANDISE HAS NOT BEEN ACTUALLY PUBCHASED.

J,

, do solemnly and truly swear (or

affirm) that the entry now delivered by me to the col-
lector of contains a just and true account of

goods, wares, and merchandise imported by or con-
signed to me in the , whereof is

master, from ; that the said goods, wares, and

merchandise were not actually bought by me, or by
my agent, in the ordinary mocle of bargain and sale,
but that, nevertheless, the invoice which I now pro-
duce contains a just and faithful valuation of the same,
at their fair market value, at the time or times and
place or places when and where procured for my
. account (or for account of myself or partners) ; that
the said invoice contains also a just and faithful ac-
count of all the cost for finishing said goods, wares,
and merchandise to their present condition, and no
other discount, drawback, or bounty but such as has
been actually allowed on the said goody, wares, and
merchandise ; that the said invoice and the declaration
thereon are in all respects true, and were made by the
person by whom the same purports to have been
made ; that I do not know nor believe in the existence
of any invoice or bill of lading other than those now
produced by me, and that they are in the state in
which I actually received them. And 1 do further
solemnly and truly swear (or affirm) that I have not
in the said entry or invoice concealed or suppressed
anything whereby the United States may be defrauded
of any part of the duty lawfully due on the said goods,
wares, and merchandise, and that if at any time here-
after I discover any error in the said invoice, or in the
account now produced of the said goods, wares, and
merchandise, or receive any other invoice of the same,
I will immediately make the same known to the col-
lector of this district.

SEC. 9. If upon the appraisal of imported goods,
wares, and merchandise, it shall appear that the true
and actual market value and wholesale price thereof,
as provided by law, can not be ascertained to the sat-
isfaction of the appraiser, whether because such goods,
wares, and merchandise be consigned for sale by the
manufacturer abroad to his agent in the United States,
or for any other reason, it shall then be lawful to ap-
praise the same by ascertaining the cost or value of
the materials composing such merchandise, at the
time and f>lace of manufacture, together with the ex-
pense of manufacturing, preparing, and putting up
such merchandise for shipment, and in no case shall
the value of such goods, wares, and merchandise be
appraised at less than the total cost or value thus as-
certained.

SEC. 10. That all imported goods, wares, and mer-
chandise which may be in the public stores or bonded
warehouses on the day and year when this act shall
go into effect, except as otherwise provided in this
act, shall be subjected to no other duty upon the entry
thereof for consumption than if the same were im-
ported respectively after that day j and all goods,
wares, and merchandise remaining in bonded ware-
houses on the day and year this act shall take effect,
and upon which the duties shall have been paid, shall
be entitled to a refund of the difference between the
amount of duties paid and the amount of duties .said
goods, wares, and merchandise would be subject to if
the same were imported respectively after that date.

SEC. 11. Nothing in this act shall in any way
change or impair the force or effect of any treaty be-
tween the United States and any other government,
or any laws passed in pursuance of or for the execu-
tion of any such treaty, so long as such treaty shall
remain in force in respect of the subjects embraced in
this act ; but whenever any such treaty, so far as the
same respects said subjects, shall expire or be other-
wise terminated, the provisions of this act shall be in
force in all respects in the same manner and to the
same extent as if no such treaty had existed at the
time of the passage hereof.

SEC. 12. That in respect of all articles mentioned

.

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (TnE TAEIFF LAW.)

213

._ Schedule E of section six of this act, this act shall
take effect on and after the first day of June, anno
Domini eighteen hundred and eighty-three.

SEC. 13. That the repeal of existing laws, or modi-
fications thereof embraced in this act shall not affect
any act done, or any right accruing or accrued, or
any suit or proceeding had or commenced in any civil
cause, before the said repeal or modifications ; but all
rights and liabilities under said laws shall continue
and may be enforced in the same manner as if said
repeal or modifications had not been made ; nor shall
said repeal or modifications in any manner affect the
right to any office, or change the term or tenure there-
of. Any offenses committed, and all penalties or for-
feitures or liabilities incurred under any statute em-
braced in or changed, modified, or repealed by this
act may be prosecuted and punished in the same man-
ner and with the same effect as if this act had not
been passed. All acts of limitation, whether appli-

forfeitures embraced in or modified, changed, or re-
pealed by this act, shall not be affected thereby ; and
all suits, proceedings, or prosecutions, whether civil
or criminal, for causes arising or acts done or commit-
ted prior to the passage of this act, may be commenced
and prosecuted within the same time and with the
same effect as if this act had not been passed.

Amend the title so as to read, " An act to reduce
internal-revenue taxation, and for other purposes."

The discussion of this measure in both
Houses was so extended that any abstract
of it would be out of the question. The de-
bate on the adoption of the conference com-
mittee's report was brief, and mainly confined
to the Democrats. The exceptions taken to
the report, as deviating from the policy of the
Senate bill, were set forth by Mr. Beck, of
Kentucky, whose argument was as follows :

"I will speak of iron-ore first, because it
illustrates more prominently and plainly than
anything else what I desire to prove as to the
outrageous character of this report. When
the Senate of the United States — I will begin
with our own action — had this question under
discussion, many of the most intelligent men
of the country, notably Hon. Abram S. Hew-
itt, laid facts before the country and before
Congress to show that it was indispensable
to the great iron industries of this country, as

House of Representatives, with Mr. Kelley at
its head, I suppose I may now speak of the
action of the House, as their acts are freely
discussed, and I suppose their action is under
review, said 50 cents per ton was the true
rate of taxation on iron-ore. There was no
disagreement between the House of Repre-
sentatives and the Senate as to iron-ore.

" No committee of conference, dealing just-
ly with both Houses and representing the ex-
pressed will of both Houses of Congress, could
decently assume, when the two Houses had
disagreed or had agreed, to change the rate of
taxation upon which they had agreed. Yet
this conference committee so called, acting, as
I think, in defiance of the order of the Senate

increased the duty on iron -ore, that both
Houses had agreed should not be taxed more
than 50 cents a ton, to 75 cents a ton, or 50
per cent, increase on the tax agreed on ; and
what is the effect of that usurpation of un-
warranted authority? One case illustrates the
whole — 577,118 tons of iron-ore were import-
ed last year; by adding 25 cents a ton to the
cost of it the conference have added to the tax
on that raw material $144,279.50, assuming
that the same quantity will be imported.

" Why was this done ? By what authority?
Obeying whose orders? What disagreeing
vote did they adjust ? The House had voted
50 cents ; the Senate had voted 50 cents ; they
had agreed. The conferees arbitrarily over-
threw what both Houses had agreed upon,
and added a tax upon the importations of this
raw material of $144,279.50, and we are to be
told that we must hurry this report through
because of the late hour of the session, and
allow that outrage to be perpetrated without
question, and without being even told by the
chairman of the committee why it was done ;
indeed, he carefully concealed the fact, merely
saying that there was no material increase of
taxation in any of the changes they had made,
when there is 50 per cent, increase of duty

imported iron - ore had many qualities that upon the leading article out of which the iron
iron-ore found in this country does not pos-
sess, that it should be imported free of duty,

of this country is made, and that was done by
him and his associates in defiance of the de-

as when so imported it is used for the purpose liberate action of the House and of the still
of mixing with our own native ore, the for-

n ore being low in phosphorus and there

ng a great deal of phosphorus in our own.
He proved to my satisfaction that it would
extend and cheapen the manufacture of our
iron products and increase the uses to which
our native ores could be applied.

more deliberate action of the Senate, all of
which was well known to the conferees.

" An effort was next made to make the tax
a dollar a ton. That was voted down ; 85
cents was tried; 75 cents was tried; 60 cents
was tried. At a dollar, if I mistake not, the
vote was 11 in favor to 37 against it. Then

" Earnest efforts were made on the part of the motion was made to make it 75 cents, and

some Senators, notably the Senator from Vir-
ginia (Mr. Mahone), to increase the duty on
ore above 50 cents, which the commission
said was the true rate, which the Senate
committee said was the true rate, which the
Senate as in Committee of the Whole deter-
mined was the true rate, and voted down
upon the yeas and nays by overwhelming
majorities every effort to increase it. The

15 voted in the affirmative and 34 in the nega-
tive upon a call of the yeas and nays. Sixty
cents was tried, and the Senate persistently
refused to increase it above 50 cents, and the
House upon a vote refused to increase it above
50 cents a ton. The proposition to increase
the tax was tried again on the 16th day of
February in the Senate, on the motion of the
Senator from Michigan (Mr. Conger); he

214

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (THE TAEIFF LAW.)

sought to make the duty 85 cents. The pro-
priety of the increase was reargued and every
effort was made upon a call of the yeas and
nays to tax iron-ore higher than 50 cents a ton.
It was again voted down by an overwhelming
majority.

"In view of all these undoubted facts I ask
the Senate, and I intend to appeal to the coun-
try even from the Senate, what right had that
body of men who were sitting in secret coun-
cil, authorized only to act upon disagreeing
votes between the two Houses and to sustain
the action of the Senate by all honorable
means, to consider the tax on iron-ore, on
which the Houss and Senate had agreed, and
raise the duty on it 50 per cent., and then
come here without even deigning to state the
facts and tell us that we must adopt the report
they have made, right or wrong — -fas et nefas
— or we are obstructors of public business?

"I aver, and the silence of the four or the
five or whatever the number who agreed to
this report gives consent to the truth of my
statement, that they have imposed an increased
tax of 50 per cent, on all the iron-ore that
comes into the country beyond what either
the House or the Senate had imposed, and
when the House and Senate were agreed.

" If these admitted facts do not condemn
this whole report and stamp it as a thing abso-
lutely unfit for the Senate to indorse, I do not
think any argument of mine will. There is
not a Senate conferee who will venture to rise
in his place and either justify it or excuse it.
It stands confessed as a plain violation of their
known duty.

"Passing from that, though one illustrates
all, look at the action of the conference com-
mittee relative to glassware, one of the first im-
portant things touched in the report. Let me
examine their action in that regard.

" This is the language of the present law :

" Earthen, stone, or crockery ware, white, glazed,
edged, printed, painted, dipped, or cream- colored,
not otherwise provided for, 40 per cent.

"That, of course, relates to earthen, stone,
and crockery ware. The plainest character of
designs on paper can be painted and pasted on
plain crockery, and when placed in the furnace
the paper is burned out and the paint or print
remains.. That is the whole process; there is
no skill or intellect involved ; it is done by the
plainest, simplest process; the designs are
painted by the hundred or thousand on pieces
of paper and burned in ; the paper, as I said,
burns off and leaves the paint or print. Yet
the conference committee, without any rea-
son in the world that I can see, have taken
that class of cheap goods out of the schedule
where the Senate placed them at 50 per cent.,
which is 25 per cent, increase on the duty
under the present law, because it was said we
had given importers the benefit of a reduction
of taxes, by taking the duty off the packages,
which on the cheapest classes of goods amount
to, say, 10 per cent. Our confereea have taken

these goods from the schedule of 50 per cent,
and placed them in the schedule of 60 per
cent., an increase of 50 per cent, on the pres-
ent rate, along with china, porcelain, parian,
and bisque ware, and the other decorations
that ornament the mantel-pieces of the rich.

•' I have never heard the revenues of the
Government spoken of as being worthy of con-
sideration by any gentleman on the other side
during this whole discussion. 1 have never
heard the rights of the consumers of this coun-
try spoken of as being worthy of considera-
tion while extravagant taxes were being im-
posed. The whole question has been, How
much can the iron-men afford to take off; how
much will the cotton schedule, how much will
the woolen schedule bear reduction, or shall
they be increased above present rates? And
when Senators examine into the pretended re-
ductions, they will prove to be increases in
nine cases out often, all assertions to the con-
trary notwithstanding. The swarms of lobby-
ists who are now here and have been for weeks,
are all begging for more bounty, more protec-
tion, or rather more taxation on the people to
enrich themselves. These are the plates [ex-
hibiting] that the conference committee have
put up to a 60 per cent, tax after the Senate
had peremptorily refused to consider all the
propositions urged when we had these matters
under consideration.

•' Yet the chairman tells us that they are
making this increase of taxation in the interest
of economy, carefully retraining from stating
the facts, and frowning upon any attempt to
expose their acts as improper and factious op-
position. Of that plain crockery-ware, as you
will observe by looking over the schedule that
we have before us, furnished by the Treasury
Department, there were goods imported last
year to the value of $4,400,000, at 40 per cent.
The duty which the people paid on them was
$1,775,294. By the provision now proposed
on the same amount of importation at 60 per
cent, they will have to pay $2,662,941, or an
increase of $887,648 over the present high war
tariff that everybody says ought to be reduced,
and they will have to pjiy $443,824 by this
change of rate on the same importations more
than they would have to pay under the bill as
it passed the Senate at 50 per cent. That is
called a slight modification, a very slight in-
crease, so in significant that the chairman seemed
to think that the report should be concurred in
without a word. He did not even think that
it was worth while to tell us what he and his
co-conferees had done.

" Turn to another change in the glass sched-
ule and see what the autocrats of the confer-
ence have done. We struggled over the ques-
tion of taxing bottles time and again, first in
Committee of the Whole, and next in the Sen-
ate; that question was brought up in season
and out of season. We settled it at 30 per
cent., and provided that bottles in which apol-
linaris and other natural mineral waters came

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (THE TAEIFF LAW.)

215

lould be free. No man ventured to make an
argument worth calling such against that pro-
vision. It was admitted that when a bottle
once reaches this country, whether it has apol-
limiris water in it or anything else, it competes
when it reaches here with the domestic manu-
facture of bottles precisely to the same extent
whether it comes free or pays a tax. We all
agreed that if the people wanted these waters
they had a right to have them.

" We thought there were some things the
people ought to have without being taxed to
death, and that the water of the springs of the
world that they might prefer as conducive to
their health or their pleasure ought not to be
taxed; all agreed that was right. Yet this
conference committee, this secret conclave —
they were in no proper sense conferees, yet I
shall speak of them as such — not only imposed a
heavy tax upon all the bottles in which apolli-
naris and other waters come, as you will see
by turning over to the free-list, but they in-
creased the tax upon all the other bottles used
in tliis country from the present tax of 30 per
cent, to about 100 per cent., although we had
voted down the proposition to do so, as I have
stated, every time it was offered, both in com-
mittee and in the Senate, until every advocate
of the increased tax had given it up. Yet
these gentlemen secretly and wrongfully bring
it back with the tax of 100 per cent, on these
things. I regard their action as an outrage, in
flagrant disregard of the known will of Con-
gress.

u The Milwaukee brewer who bottles 100,-
000 barrels annually, consumes almost as many
bottles as are imported into the United States
in a year. The Senate of the United States
refused to increase the tax above 30 per cent.
But our would-be masters, disregarding our
will, have increased it to a cent a pound, or
100 per cent, upon all that class of bottles in
the interest of the bottle-makers, adding to the
tax paid by a single brewer who bottles 100,-
000 barrels of beer annually over $200,000, in
order to put the money into the pockets of
some of their friends. Tlv^y have, I repeat, in
plain violation of the orders of the Senate,
placed the bottles in which apollinaris, vichy,
and other natural waters are imported, on the
taxable list, and whether they will impose a
charge on them of one cent a pound or whether
they will be taxed at 30 per cent, ad valorem,
will depend upon a careful construction of the
conflicting clauses contained in the conference
report, which, if Senators will read, they will
see were inserted, if not for the purpose, cer-
tainly with the effect of deceiving and of re-
quiring the Treasury Department to give the
manufacturer here the benefit of the doubt and
thus force the officials to decide that they shall
pay 100 per cent. ; because after the long and
apparently successful struggle that we made
not to allow the highest duty to be imposed in
doubtful cases, the conferees provide — and I
believe that was the point at which the Sena-

tor from Delaware and myself left the confer-
ence, it being the first important change in our
tariff amendment, as there was no question in
regard to the internal-revenue taxes which
both Houses had acted on, and as to which no
difference of opinion was developed, I suppose
the relief given there is relied on to carry
through on the single vote to which we are
now confined all the atrocities of the tariff
amendments :

" If two or more rates of duty should be applicable
to any imported article, it shall be classified for duty
under the highest of such rates.

" They have one rate of 30 per cent, for bot-
tles filled ; that is, they shall pay 30 per cent,
ad valorem in addition to the duties on the
contents. Yet the conference committee in-
sert another amendment in these words :

" All glass bottles and decanters, and other like
vessels oi glass, shall, if filled, pay the same rates of
duty, in addition to any duty chargeable on the con-
tents, as if not filled, except as in this act otherwise
specially provided for.

" That is one cent a pound, or 100 per cent,
ad valorem on common bottles. One of these
conflicting provisions in regard to bottles makes
them pay 30 per cent, if filled, and another
provision makes them pay the same duty
whether filled or not. By the general clause
as to the highest rate in doubtful cases they
will be required to pay 100 per cent., in my
opinion. If that is not a trick I 'do not know
what to call it. I do not intend to charge any
Senator with trickery, but the provision they
have made that whenever there is a doubt, or
it can be construed that there are two or more
rates applicable to the article it shall pay the
highest, these two conflicting provisions will
give the officials a chance to tax it at the high-
est rate.

" I will speak next of pig-iron. The Senate
of the United States had a long and earnest
discussion as to the propriety of a general re-
duction of tax in the iron schedule, as all
agreed that reasonably cheap pig-iron was in-
dispensable to enable the people to obtain
cheap finished products. We agreed upon $6
per ton as being the proper rate to charge on
pig-iron, with a like rate on scrap-iron, both
steel and cast. It was debated long and ably
in all its aspects. I have the debate before me.
I had expected to read part of it, but -I find
that I can not. We agreed upon a duty of $6
a ton. After a while, when we had gone
through the bill in Committee of the Whole, the
Senator from Ohio threatened to vote against
the bill, and to defeat all our efforts at giving
the people any relief in internal or tariff taxa-
tion unless we increased the tax on pig-iron
and upon such articles in the iron schedule as
he demanded. I will read(from his speech be-
fore I close. He read telegrams from Hon.
Henry B. Payne, of Cleveland, and .others,
telling him to vote against the bill, and he
said he would obey their orders unless we
obeyed his.

216

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (THE TARIFF LAW.)

"I repeat that the Senator from Ohio threat-
ened the Senate with the defeat of the whole
bill. After all sorts of efforts, and when he
had drawn the party whip over the heads of
his followers with an audacity I had never
seen equaled in any public assembly, by threats
and every other means that a great, bold par-
liamentary leader can assert over the men who
look up to him, he finally succeeded in having
$6.50 imposed as the tax upon pig-iron.

" That was the last cent he could obtain by
promises, flattery, or threats, but his resources
were not exhausted. The conference com-
mittee met, and under the lead of the Senator
from Ohio, I may safely assume, at his dicta-
tion, they have imposed a tax upon pig-iron
of $6.72 per ton and insist that we must accept
it. What is the effect of that? Of scrap and
pig iron 763,761 tons were imported last year.
Seventy-two cents increase over the $6 that
the Senate had agreed upon until the Senator
from Ohio drove his party up to an increase,
would be $549,905. Twenty-two cents per
ton — being the difference between this report
and $6.50, the highest point to which the Sena-
tor could induce the Senate to advance after
all the coercion he could impose upon his fol-
lowers— 22 cents per ton on 763,761 tons is
$169,027 additional tax that this conference
committee has placed upon pig-iron ; and we
all know that we have to accept that report as
a whole or reject it.

"What next? Take railway-bars. I want
the conferees on the part of the Senate to tell
the Senate why they have imposed the tax
they have in the report they present for our
acceptance. Let me show what they have
done. This is another undoubted usurpation
of power by the conference committee. Steel
railway-bars were put by the Senate at seven
tenths of one cent a pound when weighing
more than twenty-five pounds to the yard.
That is $15.68 per ton. The House voted on
that question also; if we are to look to the
House, it imposed a tax of $15 per ton on rails.
The House voted for a tax of 68 cents a ton
lower than the Senate on steel railway-bars,
the House bill providing for a duty of $15 and
the Senate bill $15.68 a ton. Bear these facts
in mind.

"What did the conferees do? They have
imposed a tax upon steel railway-bars of $17
per ton. The Senate had imposed a tax of
$15.68, the House $15. The conferees, pur-
porting to meet for the purpose of reconciling
the disagreeing votes between the two Houses,
imposed a tax on that article of $17 per ton,
or $2 more than the House had imposed upon
it and $1.82 more than the Senate had imposed
upon it. I again ask any of them to rise now
and tell the Senate by what authority they
seek to impose a higher tax on this important
article than either House imposed. I charge
them with a gross violation of their power and
a usurpation of authority not granted to them
in doing so.

" The amount of importation of that class of
steel rails during the last year was about 200,-

000 tons. The report of the conference as
to the tax upon that article is an increase of
$400,000 on last year's imports over what the
House had agreed to impose upon it, and of
$264,000 over what the Senate had imposed
upon it ; and yet under pretense of reconciling
the disagreeing votes of the two Houses they
imposed an additional tax upon the people of
$400,000 more than the House of Representa-
tives had demanded and $264,000 more than
the Senate had said ought to be imposed. If
that is not an outrage upon the rights of this
people, if it is not a violation of the known
duty of the committee, while pretending to
reconcile the disagreeing or conflicting votes
between the two Houses, by placing a tax
higher than either House had suggested, then

1 do not understand what it is, and can hardly
characterize it as I ought in parliamentary lan-
guage.

" Again, the Senate agreed upon a duty on
bar-iron not less than three quarters of an inch
in diameter and square iron not more than
three quarters of an inch square of $20 per
ton, and upon round iron less than three quar-
ters of an inch square of $22 per ton ; the con-
ferees have increased th'at tax from $20 per
ton in the one instance to $22.40 per ton, and
in the other from $22 a ton to $24.64 per ton ;
the original rates were fixed by the Senate with
the aid and by the vote of the Senator from
Ohio, one of the conferees. We had a right to
suppose that he would adhere to his own votes,
yet after so voting and advocating the lower
rates, saying that his friend from Georgia (Mr.
Brown) was right in imposing these rates, he
now turns round in secret conference and im-
poses upon all the iron rolled, hammered, or
otherwise advanced an additional tax of $2.40
a ton upon one class and $2.64 upon the other.

" Again, Mr. President, passing on to anoth-
er clause, light steel rails, of which there is a
very large importation, to wit, a class of rails
used for street-railways, tramways, narrow-
gauge roads, and inclined planes, in short all
thnt class of rails generally used by the smaller
and poorer corporations, by the municipal au-
thorities, or by individuals, of which the impor-
tation last year was $2,658.997 in value and the
revenue $1,414,910, the Senate of the United
States imposed a duty of eight tenths of a
cent per pound upon all that class of goods,
or $17.92 per ton. 1 have not had an oppor-
tunity of examining what the House did in that
regard, if their bill is to be considered. It
seems to be worthy of consideration, according
to the chairman's view, whenever the conferees
think they find some excuse for their conduct
by referring to what the House has done, and
claim that the House had no bill when they
increase taxes beyond what either House im-
posed.

"Under the present law iron bars for in-
clined planes, as the official statement in my

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (THE TARIFF LAW.)

217

hand shows, the rate is seven tenths of a cent
a pound, or 53 per cent, ad valorem. The
Tariff Commission proposed seven tenths of a
cent a pound, and the Senate imposed a tax of
eight tenths of a cent a pound. This so-called
conference committee taxed them above what
the Tariff' Commission reported, above the
present law, above the action of the Senate.
They have divided the paragraph into two
parts and placed nine tenths of a cent a pound
upon a portion of them, increasing them from
$17.92 per ton to $20.16, and upon the balance
of them, where they are punched, to one cent
a pound or $22.40 per ton. Upon a portion of
these goods they make an increase of $2.24 a
ton, and upon the balance there is an increase
of $4.60 ; and this, though the Senate proposi-
tion for taxation upon all this class of articles
was higher than the present law and higher
than the Tariff Commission report. In this
miserable sham conference, after all we have
done, on articles that were imported last year
to the value of $2,658,977, paying a revenue
of $1,414,910, they make an increase of $2.24
a ton on half and of $4.60 upon the other half,
without any reason that I can see unless it is
to pile up burdens still higher upon every man
or corporation that sees tit to -build a street
railway, a tramway, or anything of the sort.
Yet we are asked to set aside the Senate bill
and agree to a report full of such monstrosi-
ties, which they seek to pass, as though it was
an improvement upon what we had done.

" I will pass over a good many of the changes
they have made without comment. They have
increased the tax on boiler-iron, on line 569,
$2.20 a ton. They have increased the tax upon
polished, planished, or glanced sheet-iron or
sheet-steel $11.20 a ton, although that matter
was twice carefully considered ; and the Sena-
ator from Massachusetts (Mr. Hoar) at last read
documents to prove that that class of iron ought
to be reduced to two cents per pound. It was re-
duced on his recommendation, and yet the con-
ferees have put it up again, taxing it $11.20 a
ton more, and inserting a proviso which I have
not time to consider carefully, but it means
mischief. Let me read it to the Senate. It is
a new proviso inserted by them :

" Provided, That plate or sheet or taggers iron, by
whatever name designated, other than the polished,
planished, or glanced herein provided for, which has
been pickled or cleaned by acid, or by any other ma-
terial or process, and which is cold-rolled, shall pay
one quarter cent per pound more duty than the cor-
responding gauges of common or black sheet or tag-
gers iron.

" We struck that proviso out after deliberate
consideration in the Senate, or in committee,
because it was shown that all that iron had to
be rolled, and the imposition of that additional
tax was such a wrong that not one of these
gentlemen dared to urge its adoption in the
Senate ; it was stricken out, as the debate will
show, on proof by gentlemen on this floor that
the proviso ought not to be retained. Yet
when they get themselves in secret conclave,

and with nobody to contradict or expose them,
and their report has to be voted on as a whole,
because a portion, however vicious or corrupt,
if you please, can not be stricken out without
defeating the whole measure, they make a bill
to suit themselves and their friends. Knowing
that there are so many things in the bill that
so many men are interested in, they trust that
the Senate can not afford to defeat their report.
" Skipping a good many things, I come now
to a matter that attracted my attention the
moment my eye rested upon it, because it is a
subject that the Senate thoroughly understands.
The Senator from Ohio, as the Senate will re-
member, near the close of the discussion brought
before us a new amendment to the iron sched-
ule. He presented it on a Saturday morning.
I rose to oppose it and said that I did not quite
comprehend the full extent and effect of it,
but I thought I could find out if I had time al-
lowed me until Monday morning. There were"
funeral ceremonies to be held at five o'clock
that day, and it went over. I had examined it
before it was called up on Monday, and when
it was understood that the proposition of the
Senator from Ohio was to increase the duties
on all steel not otherwise enumerated from
the present rate of 30 per cent, ad valorem to
45 per cent, ad valorem ; that it sought to
change the duties on all the classes of Bessemer
steel however made, whether by the pneumatic,
Thorn as-Gilchrist, basic, Siemens-Martin, or
any other process, imposing a tax of 45 per
cent, upon a certain grade, changing classifica-
tions and adding to the duties on them by in-
direct methods, the Senate refused to accept
his amendments. Upon a full, fair, and free
discussion in this body, and an explanation of
the effect of his propositions, we defeated him
in his efforts to tax steel 45 per cent., and held
it at 30. We defeated the proposed increase
to 45 per cent, duty upon Bessemer steel and
made it 40. We kept him from raising the
duty on crucible steel and changing the classifi-
cation in the way he proposed, greatly to the
disgust of the Senator from Ohio. Yet after
that defeat, perhaps smarting under it, wanting
to take revenge on the country and on the
Senate, he goes into this so-called conference
committee and has restored in this report every
provision that the Senate had voted down after
full debate when he sought to impose them
upon us. In the amendments that I have ex-
hibited from this conference report he has
placed all the manufactures of steel at the
points I have indicated. I say he; I speak of
the Senator from Ohio, because he is the leader
of this movement in courage and audacity and
intellect. I know who drove the conference ;
I see the tracks, though he does not sign the
report; I know who had iron-ore and pig-iron
increased. It is a Sherman-Mahpne tariff now,
as to all the paragraphs in the iron schedule.
Senators will observe that in the report all our
action in the Senate as to steel is overthrown
and the defeated proposition of the Senator

218

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (THE TARIFF LAW.)

from Ohio is substituted. I never knew a more
insolent, not to say insulting, proposition made
by one member of a body to the body that has
trusted him with power and ordered him to
maintain its position. There was no House
disagreeing vote to meet or combat, the wishes
of the Senate and the rights of the people
were simply disregarded, and the private wishes
and interests of the conferees consulted. Let
me read from the report :

" All of the above classes of steel not otherwise spe-
cially provided for in this act, valued at 4 cents a
pound or less, 45 per cent, ad valorem ; above 4 cents
a pound and not above 7 cents per pound, 2 cents per
pound ; valued above 7 cents and not above 10 cents
per pound, 2* cents per pound ; valued at above 10
cents per pound, 3i cents per pound.

"'Forty-five' is substituted for '40,' '4
cents 'for '5,' "T' for '9' — in short, all our
work is disregarded. I explained the effects
of the proposed amendments on the 20th of
February, and can not better show the effect
of the report than by reading now what I said
then:

"Now, the Senator from Ohio proposes upon all
steel embraced in this class — ' Above 4 cents a pound
and not above 7 cents, 2 cents per pound.'

" Therefore his proposition is to add $22.40 a ton
on all that class of steel valued at over 4 and not over
5 cents a pound. That, 1 expect, embraces a large
class of steel used in this country, or why the pro-
posed change in classification ? "i et we were told on
Friday night that there was to be no increase on the
lower grades by the amendment. I have read the
lines fixing 1 cent a pound on all these steels made
by the Bessemer process as agreed to in Committee
of the Whole and in the Senate. The Senator from
Ohio has changed the classification. Why, I do not
know, except to suit the iron- masters. He has changed
it so as to put $22.40 a ton additional upon all that
class of Bessemer steel that is valued not above 5 cents
and above 4. Why that was done perhaps he can
explain.

" What next does he do ? The Senate bill in the
lines that he last proposes to strike out, as to crucible
cast-steel ingots and these other matters, makes this
provision :

" ' Crucible cast-steel ingots, cogged ingots, blooms,
and slabs, etc., valued at 5 cents per pound or less,
li cent per pound.'

" The Senator from Ohio promises whenever it is
valued at over 4 cents to make that crucible steel pay
2 cents per pound, so that on that class of goods he
adds $11.20 per ton ; and on all that is valued^between
4 and 5 cents a pound by a change of classification,
$22.40 per ton on the lower grades of Bessemer steel
by striking out the lines he first proposed to strike
out; and now, by the lines he last proposes to strike
out, and the valuation that he puts and the tax he im-
poses, $11.20 a ton on all crucible steel valued between
4 and 5 cents per pound. That is the next step.

" What next does he do ? The Senate provided that
upon all crucible cast-steel valued at 5 cents and not
above 9 cents per pound, the tax should be 2 cents per
pound ; valued at above 9 cents a pound, 2f cents per
pound. That is the maximum, with only two classi-
fications above 5 cents. What does the Senator from
Ohio propose ? On steel valued at from 4 to 7 cents
a pound, 2 cents a pound ; from 7 to 11, 2* cents a
pound ; and from 11 up, 34 cents a pound.

" I have shown that he has put $22.40 a ton by the
change of classification on the lower grades of Besse-
mer steel ; that he has put $11.20 a ton on the grades
of crucible steel valued between 4 and 5 cents, and he
now proposes to change the duty on that valued be-
tween 4 and 7 cents to 2 cents a pound, the Senate

having placed it from 5 to 9 at 2 cents a pound, he
proposes from 7 to 11 to fix the rate at 2f cents a
pound. In other words, he increases three fourths
of a cent a pound or $16.80 a ton upon all that grade
of steel valued at from 7 and not more than 9 cents a
pound, and there is where another large importation
is made, as you will see if you look at the tables. Six-
teen dollars and eighty cents per ton over the Senate
bill is proposed upon all steel with from 7 to 9 cents
a pound, and then he makes a classification we have
not made at all, because from 9 up we made all at 21
cents, and he makes it from 7 to 11, 21 cents ; and
from 11 up, 3i cents. So that upon all steel of all
sorts valued at above 9 cents a pound he adds $16.80
.per ton.

" How many millions that adds to the taxes of this
people I do not know. It is all done for the benefit
of a very few establishments in Pittsburg and else-
where, whose owners confess that they drew this bill,
and who are now seeking to urge Senators to defeat it
unless they add to its already onerous taxation all they
want.

"I showed during that debate what would
be the effect of an increase on steel from 30 to
45 per cent. I will again read from my speech
of that date :

" I have looked over it since Saturday, and I will
state how I understand this amendment will leave the
bill if adopted. The clause as to ' steel not specially
enumerated or provided for in this act' is to be de-
layed lor a few minutes, but it is part of the amend-
ment. Steel not otherwise provided for under the ex-
isting law now pays 30 per cent, ad valorem. Under
that the importations for the year 1882 amounted hi
value to $5,742,512, and the duty paid was $1,723,352.
The Senator from Ohio now proposes to increase this
tax to 45 per cent.

" Though we defeated all his propositions
then, he has them in such a shape now that
we can not even get a separate vote on them,
though he could not insert them after discus-
sion in the Senate. He can do it in secret,
though defeated when Senators representing
States and tax-payers could meet him face to
face in fair debate.

" I stated further, in February :

"If the same value of imports continue, the duty
that he proposes to impose would be $2,584,930, or an
increase of duties on the same value of goods of $761,-
578 ; and of course all the products of this country,
which is perhaps six times as much as the imports, or
perhaps ten times as much, will be increased in the
same ratio. In other words, 50 percent, is to be added
to the duties now imposed by law, by the amendment
of the Senator from Ohio, upon all steel not otherwise
provided for in this act which is consumed in this
country, whether made at home or abroad.

"Substantially the same presentation was
made by the Senator from Alabama and the
Senator from Texas, and perhaps by other Sen-
ators, the Senator from North Carolina, I have
no doubt, though I do not recollect that he
participated in regard to that item, but he was
always ready and able, and I assume he took
part in it. I know the Senator from Dela-
ware did ; in short, the Senate rejected all the
amendments of the Senator from Ohio which
he has now put into this conference report. I
say it requires an audacity that few men pos-
sess to insert into a conference report every
defeated amendment after the exposure that
was made as to the effect of the increased tax-

CONGE ESS, UNITED STATES. (THE TARIFF LAW.)

219

ion upon the people, and ask us to accept it
or tell the country that we shall be responsible
for the defeat of this bill without even ventur-
ing a word of explanation or deigning to tell
us that a majority of the House conferees even
asked to have it done. I hardly think they did.

"I shall vote against this report for this
among other causes. It is made up against
the interest of the people of this country,
against the will of both Houses of Congress.
I have shown that as to steel rails the taxation
imposed is beyond what either House voted;
I have shown that as to iron-ore that the two
Houses had agreed, arid yet 50 per cent, more
taxation is sought to be imposed, and hundreds
of thousands of dollars added by this confer-
ence committee to the burdens of the people.
I propose to vote against it, and my word for
it, if this report could be defeated we should
tell the House of Representatives, as we truly
can, that ' we have sent you a better bill in our
amendment than this conference report pro-
poses. You had far better vote for the Senate
amendments that your leaders would not allow
you even a chance to concur with us in, believ-
ing that they would frame in secret a worse
bill than the Senate had sent ; they knew that
they would satisfy the pig-iron men and the
great manufacturing monopolists of the coun-
try better than the action of the Senate would
if we reject this conference report as we ought
to do because of the outrageous provisions in
it' — rny word for it, the House to-morrow
morning will demand a right to vote upon the
question of concurring in the amendments
originally sent them by the Senate which are
now upon their table, and will say to their
conferees as I now say to ours, ' You h-ive
transcended your duty in seeking to imposa
taxes upon this people beyond what either
House had demanded.' That House will take
up the Senate bill to-morrow morning, and, in
spite of its defects and of the high -protective
monopolists, will pass it before high noon to-
morrow, as an improvement upon this report
and a bill infinitely better than this is.

"If \ve force upon the He use of Representa-
tives by voting for this conference report a
bill that is made worse wherever it has been
touched, that is not improved anywhere, and
deprive them of the right which they have
never yet had of voting upon the amended bill
we originally sent them, we are simply joining
hands with these monopolists in forcing a
worse bill upon the House of Representatives
than is now upon their table, that they can vote
for in half an hour after we reject this. 1 intend
to be no party to any such coercion upon the
House, and submit to no such dictation here as
this report attempts.

"Why, Mr. President, look for a moment at
the sugar schedule. What have they done
with it? If I were to take up this report in
detail I could scarcely expose one half of its
enormities before Congress expired. The chair-
man said just now in his blandest way that a

slight increase of tax had been imposed on
sugar between No. 13 and No. 16 ; that the
refiners wanted more than they had got, but
he thought the committee of conference had
done reasonably well for them. What do they
do ? Without touching any other item in the
sugar schedule they provide :

" All sugar above No. 13 and not above No. 16 Dutch
standard, 2 -/7 5 cents per pound.

"Or $2.75 per one hundred pounds. The
Senate had made the duty on that 2-50 cents.
The Senate indeed had voted for 2*40 by a vote
taken by yeas and nays of nearly 40 to less
than 20, according to my recollection. It was
first reported before the change at 2'65. The
sugar-refiners never publicly asked for more
than 2-65. They thought 2-50 was too low ;
they feared the low tariff on foreign sugars
would destroy their monopoly. There might
be competition from abroad at 2'50, and they
begged for 2'65. The Senate voted for 2-40
on a call of the yeas and nays after full debate
by an overwhelming majority. Recollect that
the sugars between No. 13 and No. 16 Dutch
standard are the table sugars of this country,
the only sugars in which the mass of consum-
ers have a direct interest. All the other grades
go to the refiner. Thirteen to 16 are the su-
gars people can use in spite of the refiner
and without his aid, and that the plain people
do use. Two sixty-five one hundredths was all
the refiners asked that ever I heard of, and I be-
lieve I have now in my pocket a dozen dis-
patches when they thought I was to be on the
conference committee, begging for 2-65. I do
not care to read the names of the m.en, but
here they are ; Senators can look at them.
The conference committee have made it 2*75
cents per pound.

" That is simply giving the sugar-refiners the
monopoly of the sugar business of the country.
If not done on purpose, it was done at the dic-
tation of large sugar-refiners whom I can name.
It is the worst outrage in this bill. No man
can justify it. You will observe that under
the existing law there are hardly any impor-
tations of sugar above No. 13. Turn to the
schedule again and look at it ; but I have
looked at that so often that I may as well as-
sume that the Senate understands it. If neces-
sary I will hand the figures to the reporter.

" All the sugar that is imported substantially
comes in under No. 13, and this increase from
2£ to 2f cents a pound gives to the sugar-re-
finer an absolute monopoly of the sugar in this
co.untry, and imposes burdens upon the many
who consume sugar all over America of mill-
ions upon millions of dollars. This is done ex-
actly in the same spirit that the other high
taxes were imposed, to build up great monopo-
lies at the expense both of the revenue and of
the consumers of the country.

"The refiners desired an increase from 2'50
to 2-65. Of course they would ask for 3 ; they
would ask for anything ; but 2*75, an increase
of 25 cents on the 100 pounds on that grade of

220

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (AMERICAN SHIPPING.)

sugar, is nothing more nor less than a propo-
sition in the interest of the absolute monopoly
of sugar-refiners. There is not a man on the
conference committee who will venture to rise
in his place and defend this action in the face
of the debates we had, in the face of the votes
we took, and he will not dare to say that he
either did or would have ventured upon this
floor to have proposed to impose a tax. on su-
gar graded from No. 13 to No. 16 at 2 '75 cents.
The Senator from Vermont himself begged me
to make it 2*50, declaring publicly that 2'50
was satisfactory to him after we had voted the
tax at 2'40. Many of my friends on this side
of the chamber who had voted for 2*40 with
me were quite annoyed when I begged them
to yield to the urgent request of the Senator
from Vermont, as perhaps we had put it a lit-
tle too low at 2'40. I remember well that the
Senator from Texas was not very much pleased
at the change being consented to.

" Now, sir, notwithstanding the Senator from
Vermont did not venture to ask us to go above
2-50, and no sugar-refiner ever pretended that
he could decently ask us to go above 2'65, and
all the telegrams I received when they thought I
was to be. a member of the committee said that
2-65 was all they would ask, the Senator from
Vermont and his confreres on the committee
give them 2'75, making their monopoly ab-
solute, making them masters of the sugar
business of America, and putting every sugar-
consumer absolutely at their mercy ; yet the
chairman of the conference calls with apparent
confidence on the representatives of the people
and the States to adopt and sanction that
among other outrages. I propose to be as re-
spectful as I can be consistent with truth, but
if any milder word than robbery of the people
to enrich already gorged monopolies will ex-
press rny opinion I do not at this moment recall
it. The conferees give the refiners one fourth
of a cent a pound on all the sugar consumed
in this country by excluding competition. The
combination of refiners, of course, charge the
people one quarter of a cent more than they
could under our bill. The sugar consumed
annually exceeds 2,000,000,000 pounds, worth
over $85,000,000. This robbery or rather
sneaking larceny of one quarter of a cent a
pound from the people is a gift, in defiance of
our often-expressed will, of over $5,000,000.
That alone ought to condemn this report and
the men who seek to force it upon us, if all else
was right."

American Shipping.— Early in the session a bill
was reported from the Committee on Com-
merce for the removal of certain burdens on
the American marine and the encouragement
of the American foreign trade. It was based
on the report of the joint select committee on
American shipping, appointed at the previous
session, end came up in the House for discus-
sion Jan. 6, 1883, and was read as follows:

Be it enacted, etc., That section 4131 of the Revised
Statutes be amended so as to read as follows :

"SEC. 4131. Vessels registered pursuant to law,
and no others, except such as shall be duly qualified
according to law tor carrying on the coast trade and
fisheries, or one of them, shall be deemed vessels of
the United States, and entitled to the benefits and
privileges appertaining to such vessels ; but they shall
not enjoy the same longer than they shall continue to
be wholly owned by citizens and to be commanded
by a citizen of the United States."

SEC. 2. That section 4219 of the Revised Statutes be
amended by striking out the following words in the
last clause : " And any vessel any officer of which
shall not be a citizen of the United States shall pay
a tax of 50 cents per ton."

SEC. 3. That section 4580 of the Revised Statutes be
amended so as to read as follows :

" SEC. 4580. Upon the application of any seaman to
a consular officer for a discharge, if it appears to such
officer that said seaman is entitled to his discharge
under any act of Congress or according to the gen-
eral principles or usages of maritime law as recog-
nized in the United States, the officer shall discharge
said seaman, and require from the master of said ves-
sel, before such discharge shall be made, payment of
the wages which may then be due said seaman. When
a seaman is discharged by reason of inability to per-
form his duties, whether in consequence of illness or
other causes, the master shall be required to pay him
only the wages due at the time of discharge. But if
any seaman is discharged in consequence of any hurt
or injury received while in the service of the ship, or
illness caused by a want of such food, water, accom-
modations, medicines, or antiscorbutics as are required
by law, the master shall be required to pay the ex-
pense of providing the necessary surgical and medical
advice, with attendance and medicines, until said sea-
man is cured, or dies, or is brought back to some port
in the United States."

SEC. 4. That section 4583 of the Revised Statutes be
amended so as to read as follows:

" SEC. 4583. No payment of extra wages shall be
required, upon the discharge of any seaman in a for-
eign country upon the termination of his agreement,
or in cases where vessels are wrecked or stranded, or
condemned as unfit for service. If any consular officer,
upon the complaint of any seaman "that he has ful-
filled his contract, or that the voyage is continued
contrary to his agreement, is satisfied that the con-
tract has expired, or that the voyage has not been
continued by circumstances within the control of the
master, he shall discharge the mariner ; but in case
the consular officer shall be satisfied that the master
has designedly continued the voyage, he shall require
from said master the payment of one month's extra
pay over and above the wages due at the time of dis-
charge ; but in case the master of the vessel shall
provide said seaman with adequate employment on
board some other ship bound to the port at which he
was originally shipped, or to some other port, as may
be agreed upon by him, or furnish the means of send-
ing him back to such port, or provide him with a pas-
sage home, or deposit with the consular officer such a
sum of money as is by such officer deemed sufficient
to defray the expenses of his subsistence and passage
home, then no payment of extra wages shall be re-
quired."

SEC. 5. That section 4582 of the Revised Statutes be
amended so as to read as follows :

" SEC. 4582. Whenever a vessel belonging to a citi-
zen of the United States is sold in a foreign country,
and her company discharged, it shall be the duty of
the master to produce to the consul or officer the certi-
fied list of his ship's company, and also the shippiug
articles, and to pay to said consul or officer for every
seaman so discharged one month's pay over and above
the wages which may then be due to such seaman ;
but in case the master of the vessel so sold shall pro-
Tide such seaman with adequate employment on
board some other ship bound to the port at which he
was originally shipped, or to such other port as may

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (AMERICAN SHIPPING.)

221

be agreed upon by him, or furnish the means of send-
ing back to such port, or provide him with a passage
home, or deposit with the consular officer such a sum
of money as is by such officer deemed sufficient to
defray the expenses of bis subsistence and passage
home, then no payment of extra wages shall be re-
quired."

SEC. 6. That section 4600 of the Revised Statutes
be amended so as to read as follows :

" SEO. 4600. It shall be the duty of consular of-
ficers to reclaim deserters and discountenance in-
subordination by every means within their power,
and where the local authorities can be usefully em-
ployed for that purpose, to lend their aid and use their
exertions to that end in the most effectual manner.
In all cases where deserters are apprehended consular
officers shall inquire into the facts ; and if he is satis-
fied that the desertion was caused by unusual or cruel
treatment, the seaman shall be discharged, and re-
ceive in addition to his wages to the time of his dis-
chargCj one month's pay, or the master shall provide
him with adequate employment on board some other
ship bound to the port at which he was originally
shipped, or to such other port as may be agreed upon
by nim, or furnish the means of sending him back to
such port, or provide him with a passage home, or
deposit with the consular officer such a sum of money
as is by such officer deemed sufficient to defray the
expenses of his subsistence and passage home. And
the officer discharging him shall enter upon the crew-
list and shipping articles the cause of discharge and
the particulars in which the cruelty or unusual treat-
ment consisted, and the facts as to his discharge, or
re-engagement, as the case may be, and subscribe his
name thereto officially."

SEC. 7. That section 4581 of the Revised Statutes be
amended so as to read as follows :

" SEO. 4581. That if any consular officer, when dis-
charging any seaman, shall neglect to require tne
payment of and collect the extra wages and charges
required to be paid in the case of the discharge of
any seaman, he shall be accountable to such seaman
to the full amount thereof ; and if any seaman shall,
after his discharge, have incurred any expense for
board or other necessaries at the place of" his dis-
charge, before shipping again, such expense shall be
paid out of the wages to which, he shall be entitled,
which shall be retained for that purpose, and the
balance onlv paid over to him."

SEC. 8. That section 4584 of the Revised Statutes
be amended so as to read as follows :

" SEC. 4584. Whenever any consular officer, upon
the discharge of any seaman, receives the wages due
to said seaman, he shall at once pay the same to the
said seaman, except as provided by section 4581 of
the Revised Statutes."

SBC. 9. That section 4578 of the Revised Statutes be
amended so as to read as follows :

" SEC. 4578. All masters of vessels belonging to citi-
zens of the United States and bound to some port of
the same are required to take such destitute seamen
on board their vessels,, at the request of the consuls,
vice-consuls, commercial agents, or vice-commercial
agents, respectively, and to transport them to the port
in the United States to which such vessel may be
bound, on such terms, not exceeding $10 for each
person, as may be agreed between the master and the
consul or officer. But for long voyages and peculiar
iisabled condition of such seamen there shall be al-
lowed to the master or owner of such vessel such
reasonable compensation, not to exceed 30 cents per
day, in addition to the allowances herein provided, as
shall be deemed equitable by the collector of the port
m the United States which the vessel may first reach,
the same to be paid under such regulations as may be
prescribed by the Secretary of the Treasury. Every
such master who refuses the same, on the request or
order of such consul or officer, shall be liable to the
United States in a penalty of $100 for each seaman so
refused. The certificate of any such consul or officer,

given under his hand and official seal, shall be pre-
sumptive evidence of such refusal in any court of law
having jurisdiction for the recovery of the penalty.
No master of any vessel shall, however, be obliged to
take a greater number than two men to every one hun-
dred tons burden of the vessel on any one voyage."

SEC. 10. That no fees shall hereafter be charged by
any consular officer for any certificate, manifest, or
other official service to American vessels engaged in
the foreign trade, or to the owners, officers, or seamen
of such vessels. Consular officers who are now paid
in whole or in part by fees shall make a detailed re-
port to the Secretary of the Treasury of the services
performed in accordance with this section, with the
fees heretofore allowed in such cases, and shall be en-
titled to receive the amount thereof in the same man-
ner as is provided by law in case of other compensa-
tion payable by the United States.

SEC. 11; That it shall be, and is hereby, made
unlawful in any case to pay any seaman wages in ad-
vance of the time when he has actually earned the
same, or to pay such advance wages to any other per-
son, or to pay any person any remuneration for the
shipment of seamen. Any person paying such ad-
vance wages or such remuneration, shall lc>e deemed
guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction shall
be punished by a fine not less than four times the
amount of the wages so advanced or remuneration so
paidj and may be also imprisoned for a period not ex-
ceeding six months, at the discretion of the court.
The payment of such advance wages or remuneration
shall in no case absolve the steamer, ship, or vessel,
or the master or owner thereof, from full payment of
wages after the same shall have been actually earned,
and shall be no defense to a libel suit, or action for
the recovery of such wages : Provided, That this sec-
tion shall not apply to such fees as by any law of the
United States may be collected by any shipping com-
missioner or other officer of the United States for the
shipment of seamen. This section shall apply as well
to foreign vessels as to vessels of the United States ;
and any foreign vessel, the master, owner, consignee,
or agent of which has violated this section, or induced
or connived at its violation, shall be refused a clear-
ance from anv port of the United States.

SEC. 12. That every vessel mentioned in the pre-
ceding section shall also be provided with a stop-
chest, which shall contain a complement of clothing
for the intended voyage for each seaman employed,
including boots or shoes, hats or caps, under-clothing
and outer clothing, oiled clothing, and everything
necessary for the wear of the seaman : also a full sup-
ply of tobacco and blankets. Any of the contents of
the slop-chest shall be sold, from time to time, to any
or every seaman applying therefor, for his own use,
at a profit not exceeding 25 per cent, of the reasonable
wholesale value of the same at the port at which the
voyage commenced.

SEC. 13. That all masters and owners of vessels
shall have the right to ship and pay off the men they
employ.

SEC. 14. That section 2514 of the Revised Statutes
be amended so as to read as follows :

" SEC. 2514. That all articles and materials of for-
eign production needed for the repair of vessels en-
gaged in the foreign trade, including the trade between
the Atlantic and Pacific ports of the United States,
and all ship stores, cordage, rigging, canvas for sails,
and coal to be used and consumed on board of any
such vessel, may be withdrawn from bonded ware-
houses free of duty, under such regulations as the
Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe."

SEC. 15. That no vessel engaged in commerce with
the Dominion of Canada or the Republic of Mexico
shall be subject to tonnage tax or duty, nor shall con-
sular certificates be required from the same.

SEC. 16. That instead of the assessment of 40 cents
per month, authorized by sections 4585 and 4587 of
the Revised Statutes of the United States, there shall
hereafter be assessed and collected 20 cents.

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (AMERICAN SHIPPING.)

SEC. 17. That the individual liability of a ship-
owner shall be limited to the proportion of any or all
debts and liabilities that his individual share of the
vessel bears to the whole.

SEC. 18. That when any vessel, whether steam or
sail, shall be constructed and equipped in the United
States for the foreign trade, including the trade
between the Atlantic and the Pacific ports of the
United States, in whole or in part of materials of the
production of the United States, the owner or owners
of such vessel shall be entitled to receive and collect
from the United States a drawback or sum equal in
amount to the duty which would have been collected
upon imported materials of like description and of
equal quality with the American materials used in the
construction, equipment, engines, boilers, and other
appurtenances of such steam or sail vessel: Provided,
That in ascertaining such drawback the duties on
such iron or steel materials shall be computed on iron
and steel advanced in manufacture not beyond the
point of plates, angles, bars, and rods : And provided
further, That this section shall apply only to vessels
commenced after the passage of this act.

SEC. 19. That such sums shall be paid in the same
manner and from the same funds as drawbacks on
customs duties, and under such regulations as may be
adopted from time to time by the Secretary of the
Treasury, and shall be adjusted and the amount there-
of determined prior to the registry of such ship or

SEC. 23. That all acts and parts of acts in conflict
with this act are hereby repealed

Mr. Cox, of New York, opened the discussion
on the part of the minority of the committee :

" Mr. Speaker, in most cases, either of social
or physical grievance or disease, the way to
reach the remedy is to study the causes so as
to remove them. The sickness even unto
death of our marine is a partial exception to
this mode of treatment. Many of the causes
which produced the effect which we deplore
have done their worst and have expired as ac-
tive energies. To their operation have been
added new causes, which congressional su-
pineness and injurious policies have intensified.
So that, indeed, it may be said that if our
navigation and commerce are to be restored
the remedy must be as heroic as the case is
desperate.

" It is beyond doubt that the origin of our
navigation laws was a compact with slavery.

SEC. 20. That the certificate of registry of every
such ship or vessel shall be entitled u Certificate of
registry under an act to remove certain burdens on
the American merchant marine, to encourage the
American foreign carrying trade, and so forth," and
shall contain a prohibition of such ship or vessel en-
gaging in the coasting trade, except between ports on
the Atlantic and ports on the Pacific. Every such
certificate ^ shall have indorsed upon it the amount
paid or adjusted to be paid to the owner under this
act. Every renewal of the registry shall be in like
form. Should any vessel so registered be about to
engage in the coasting trade, other than that between
ports on the Atlantic and ports on the Pacific, the
owners must first surrender such certificate of regis-
try, repay to the collector of customs to whom the
certificate is surrendered the sum indorsed thereon,
and take out a new certificate of registry or of enroll-
ment in ordinary form. Should any ship or vessel,
registered as hereinbefore provided, engage in the
coasting trade other than that between ports on the
Atlantic and ports on the Pacific, without surrender
of such certificate, as hereinbefore provided, or with-
out repayment of the amount indorsed thereon, or
without taking out a new certificate of registry or en-
rollment in ordinary form, she shall be subject to a
fine of double the amount indorsed on such original
certificate of registry ; which fine shall be a lien on
such ship or vessel, and shall be ascertained and col-
lected at suit of the United States in rem in admiralty
against such ship or vessel in the district court of the
United S.tatcs for the proper district ; such suit to be
governed by the laws, rules, and regulations pertain-
ing to other suits in admiralty.

SEC. 21. That when a steam or sailing vessel is
built m the United States for foreign account, wholly
or partly of foreign materials on which import duties
have been paid, there shall be allowed on such vessel,
when exported, a drawback equal in amount to the
duty paid on such materials, to be ascertained under
such regulations as may be prescribed by the Secre-
tary of the Treasury. Ten per cent, of the amount of
Buch drawback so allowed shall, however, be retained
for the use of the United States by the collector pay-
ing the same.

SEC. 22. That all registered ships, steamers, or ves-
sels employed exclusively in the foreign carrying-
trade, including the trade between the Atlantic and
Pacific ports of the United States, are hereby exempt-
ed from all or any State or municipal taxation.

This David A. Wells has shown most vividly
in his volume on the 'Mercantile Marine.'
New England was engaged in shipping and in
transporting and selling slaves to the South.
She desired to hold the monopoly of that trade.
This she procured for a period, by the exten-
sion of the time for the extinction of the slave-
trade to 1808. The compact was completed by
the navigation laws of 1790 and 1792. Ton-
nage dues and imposts gave to the American
the entire commerce and prohibited foreign
ship-owners from engaging in our trade.
Again, in 1816, 1817, and 1820 the odious
British navigation laws against which our
fathers rebelled, were re-enacted by Congress.
Every discrimination possible was made
against foreigners.

" These laws, whose origin is found in the
horrors of the middle passage, and whose his-
tory is a part of the most disgraceful experi-
ence of our country, have ceased to protect
American shipping.

" Indeed, the protection of these laws, by the
whirligig and revenges of time, is given to the
foreigner, to the Briton. We drive to him
the carrying of our persons and property ;
load him with largesses of freight and fare,
and forbid our own people from enjoying even
a share in the hundred and odd millions which
our laws transfer out of our produce and pro-
ducers to the pocket of the foreigner! If this
be done to protect our ship builder, it fails;
if it be done to protect our ship-owner, it fails.
The owner if he would build here must do it at
a loss of 15 or 30 per cent. If he would buy, he
must buy ships only thus built. Thus builder
and owner are burdened by the clinging of this
Old Man of the Sea. If we can build as cheap
here as abroad, we need no protection ; if we
can not build as cheap here as abroad, who can
afford to buy ? The sea is open field, where
the guerdon falls to him who can procure his
vessel in the best market.

" This open competition, as to the purchase
and use of ships of all kinds, has changed, or

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (AMEEIOAN SHIPPING.)

ought to change, the laws which govern our
marine. The laws of eighty years ago are not
suited to our changed condition. Those laws
suited sail, not iron or steam. As soon think
of returning to the stage-coach or the footman
for land conveyance, or to the skin boat of the
Esquimaux or junk of the Chinese for sea
transportation, as to run the ocean-fleet of to-
day under the ancient laws. Nay, as well
think of discarding the new motors of physics
and their energies as return 'even to the wooden
paddles of the early Ounarder, with its petty
1,200 tonnage and its little subsidy.

" Thus the very causes which produced our
disasters are as obsolete and inoperative as the
slave-trade itself. The very model upon which
our navigation laws were molded has been
shattered, and our shipping to-day, with all
these restrictions, guards, and prohibitions, is
as useless and uninteresting as the 'fat weed
that rots on Lethe's wharf.'

"It matters, therefore, little, to examine
into the causes which produced the decay of
our marine. When we see other nations im-
proving their marine by liberal policies while
our Government has neglected to adopt them,
the solution is easy. As well expect the boor
of Russia, with his old modes of farming his
wheat, to compete with the American farmer
with his new implements of labor and time-
saving, as the United States rival Germany and
England in shipping without the marine in-
strumentalities which these nations employ.

• " It matters more to examine the existing
obstacles to the resuscitation of our shipping
interests. Can we remove them if we find
them ? Are they of such a nature that enacting
or repealing laws will bring the desired relief?

" One stubborn obstacle which time and so-
cial changes alone can remove is referred to in
the minority report. It is the diversion of our
energies to other pursuits more profitable.

" 'It is not likely,' say the minority, k that
any great increase or revival will take place
until we have reached the maximum in other
lines of labor and enterprise, especially in agri-
culture. When that point is reached and our
energies are diverted to other pursuits, the
ocean may have its olden attraction and re-
muneration for our people.'

" The census reports our marvelous opu-
lence in flock and field, in mine and mill. We
are producers of food for ourselves and man-
kind ; oil, gold, silver, and coal, and railroads
beyond the wildest dreams, all the results of
natural wealth and applied industry ; yet we
are so poor th:it the $140,000,000 of the carry-
ing-trade, whose Pactolian current should be
ours, is turned from us. At the end of the fis-
cal year 1882 we had a tonnage of 4,165,933 in
that business, of which 1,292,294 was in the
foreign carrying-trade. Yet the coasting trade
grew and railroad transportation grew. In
ten years from 1871 to 1881 the miles of rail-
road leaped up from 60,283 to 104,813, and
exports from our farms more than quadrupled.

223

Export has grown wonderfully, but your rail-
road magnate is petted by bonds and lands and
monopolizing charters. He may own a rail-
road and not hide his property under a foreign
flag. He may not ignore his civic right, while
the American ship-owner must cringe down
below the hatchway while the Spanish flag of
blood and gold, or the British union-jack, or
the Norwegian and German ensigns, float over
his clandestine property.

" It is notorious that not a little of foreign
tonnage is owned by Americans. The form in
which it is hidden, by corporations and mort-
gage, is explained in the testimony.

" The ' Red Star ' line between Antwerp and
the United States is nine tenths owned in
Pennsylvania. Their ships are building on the
Mersey. They asked proposals from our ship-
builders, and found them 15 per cent, more
than the foreign ship-builders ; and they were
compelled to go under foreign flags.

" In fact, the best part of the capital of our
country employed in shipping or ship-using is
under alien flags.

" Another and kindred reason for the loss
of our carrying-trade and the failure to restore
it, is that other countries have laid hands on
that which slipped from us in our preoccupa-
tion during the civil war. For others, vessels
are now at work; for others, vessels are being
built on the best models. The seamen, the
skill, the capital, and the enterprise of others
hold the lines of sea adventure. Possession,
with its concomitant advantages, is not ours.
We have to struggle valiantly for what others
have already.

" So that, Mr. Speaker, to remove this mount-
ain in our path we must remodel the whole
industrial system of our own half- hemisphere,
and we must turn and overturn natural laws of
supply and demand in other spheres of labor
and locality. This being impossible, what re-
mains for us except tentative legislation, the
repeal of burdens on navigation here, of a lia-
bility on a ship-owner there, a reasonable com-
pensation for mails, in many directions ; and as
the best thing, in the judgment of our wisest
economists and merchants, freedom for all
stores and materials and liberty to purchase
vessels wherever we please to buy.

" If these remedies fail, then the country
must await some catastrophe in the shape of
a great foreign war, which, like the Crimean,
calls our marine into being and activity; but
even then we must have the right to buy freely,
else it will be useless to regard the opportunity.
Or perhaps some exceptional progress may
be made in the building of ships or the motive
power of its enginery. This may give us a
fresh start and added momentum, such as Eng-
land received in her iron-ship building.

u One needed reform is to do at our ports
what other countries do — allow unlimited ware-
housing of goods, that shippers and merchants
may make up a variety of cargo. AVe have a
law which forfeits to the Government (section

224

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (AMEEIOAN SHIPPING.)

2971 Revised Statutes) goods in bonded ware-
houses after three years. It is a blow at for-
eign commerce.

uNot the least among the efficient causes
which embarrass our shipping are the taxes
placed upon our ships in foreign ports. Spain
is especially odious on this account.

" I do not therefore greatly rely upon any
method proposed by the majority for the re-
vival of onr ship-building and ship-using, al-
though I must commend the perspicuous en-
ergy and intelligence of the gentleman from
Maine (Mr. Dingley). They urge through his
bill and report, various schemes besides those
in the reported bill, but make no section in the
bill to carry them out ; as, for instance, a system
of postal charge, of apprenticeship, and a board
of trade.

" State as well as Federal legislation is need-
ed. There are certain necessities for the revival
of navigation and commerce, which do not de-
pend upon congressional legislation. They are
under State and municipal control, such as
pilotage, wharfage, harbor-masters' dues, quar-
antine fees, port-wardens' duties. But these,
like the other minor matters of the bill of the
committee, are but feeble auxiliaries in the labor
of regaining our mercantile supremacy.

" The relief, whatever it is, must come as
well to the ship-using as to the ship-building
interest. Even if we remove all the burdens
upon the use of ships, it will avail nothing so
long as the ships can not be bought or made as
cheaply at home as abroad.

" If, therefore, our tariff laws will not allow
us to build nor our navigation laws to buy, of
what use is the bill of the majority? What is
the necessity of taking burdens from the run-
ning of vessels which we have not and can not
buy or build ?

" Hence the minority report explicitly says
that —

" "While the committee are generally agreed upon
the measures proposed, the minority are constrained
to notice the fact that the most vital and prominent re-
lief, by the freedom of materials for ships from customs
dues, and the right to purchase ships abroad, is utterly
ignored in the majority report. In the opinion of the
minority, nothing could be more futile, not to say ab-
surd, than to deal with a vital disease by remedies
which only affect the superficial ailments whose re-
moval would leave the patient in as dangerous a plight
as ever. .

" Go on, gentlemen ! Modify your shipping
laws, remove burdens, extend privileges, copy
the British code! We will aid you in the ex-
periment as far as you go, and would bid you
go further, to fare better. Compensate for
mail service; make ship-supplies free; adapt
your rules to the new class of seamen ; make
a new and inexpensive consular code for their
discharge and return home; prohibit the ad-
vance wages and ' blood-money ' ; allow a Nor-
wegian or Italian to be an American mate ;
limit the liability of ship-owners; reduce the
hospital-tax ; modify the tonnage-tax, or repeal
it altogether ; erase from every State statute

the local taxation on shipping ; ay, even erect
a bureau like the British Board of Trade as
the special cherub to keep watch over poor
Jack ; do all these as your committee suggest.
Do more! Out of your treasury, or out of
the tonnage fund, mostly collected from foreign
shipping, make a sort of allowance for the use
of certain American materials in building ships ;
and yet, like the young man in Scripture, one
thing ye will lack. You may copy the English
statute?, as liberalized in 1849 in allowing Eng-
lishmen to buy ships where they pleased, and
in 1854, when they opened their coasting trade
to all the world. 'Begin,' as your majority
say Great Britain did (p. 8), ' begin a complete
revision of the merchant-shipping statutes, so
as to remove every obstacle and give every fa-
cility,' and then you may have some dim hope
of the resurrection of our wrecked marine!

" I pause here, Mr. Speaker, to ask, first,
what are our navigation laws? Wherein do
they obstruct the revival of our shipping?

" Briefly they are : That a vessel of the United
States engaged in the foreign trade must be
registered to entitle it to the rights and privi-
leges of a vessel of the United States ; and to
be so registered must be built within the
United States and belong wholly to citizens
of the United States, or be captured in war and
condemned as a prize, or be adjudged forfeited
for breach of the laws of the United States,
being wholly owned by citizens of the United
States. No vessel can be registered, or, if
registered, entitled to the benefits and privi-
leges of a vessel of the United States, if owned
in whole or in part by any citizen of the United
States who usually resides in a foreign country,
during the continuance of such residence, un-
less he be a consul of the United States or
agent for a partner in some house of trade
consisting of citizens of the United States,
actually carrying on trade within the United
States, or if owned in whole or in part by any
naturalized citizen of the United States who
resides more than one year in the country from
which he came, or for more than two years in
any foreign country, unless he be a consul or
agent of the United States. No vessel regis-
tered as a vessel of the United States licensed
or authorized to sail under a foreign flag and
to have the protection of any foreign govern-
ment during the existence of the rebellion can
be deemed or registered as a vessel of the United
States, or to have the rights and privileges of
such vessels, except under provisions of law
especially authorizing such register. A regis-
ter may be issued to a vessel built in a foreign
country when such vessel shall be wrecked in
the United States and be purchased and re-
paired by a citizen of the United States, if
the repairs equal three fourths of the cost of
such vessel when repaired.

"The navigation laws are practically dead
for the purpose of their being. Let us —

"... rise on stepping-stones
Of their dead selves to higher things.

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (AMERICAN SHIPPING.)

225

" Is it not, Mr. Speaker, marvelous that in
this majority report the confession is naively
made that our merchant shipping laws remain
the same as they were originally framed more
than fourscore years ago, and that they were
all that were needed so long as the English
laws were the same ? And yet the majority
stop short of the one prominent and majestic
feature of the newly-constituted English sys-
tem— liberty to build and buy ! The majority
say that ' our error was in not imitating Eng-
land in so modifying our laws as to give the
American marine the same advantages in this
respect that English shipping was given under
English laws ' ; and yet it would perpetuate
the error by a blindly selfish persistence in the
very laws which England repealed ! Well, sir,
if England is to be our exemplar, if her mari-
time success is a sign that her laws worked
beneficently, then let the obstructions which
she removed be removed by us. This the mi-
nority propose in the amendments for free ma-
terials and free ships.

" Without, therefore, arguing at length any
of the lesser propositions in the majority re-
port, it is enough to say that the acquiescence
in most of the measures proposed was hearty
and earnest by the whole committee ; while the
reluctance as to one proposition, the 'draw-
back,' so called, was somewhat mitigated by
the belief that the amendment for free materi-
als might prove more acceptable. And if, as
the minority hope, both should be adopted,
little harm could result, as the nullification of
the bad consequences of the one would be
nearly perfect by the adoption of the other.
Or, if there should be an option allowed the
builder to choose either the ' drawback ' or
free materials under my amendment, the adop-
tion of the drawback thus coupled would not
be without some utility. But if no compro-
mise be tendered in the interest of freedom of
materials or ships, I want no allowance fixed on
the Treasury, no leech to draw its blood such
as this drawback will then be.

" The minority had no power to prevent the
adoption of the drawback proposed, had they
been inclined to balk the majority in this ex-
periment. All the minority could do was to
append the proviso to it ; that it should only
apply to ships begun after the passage of the
act.

' This drawback proposition came from the
San Francisco Board of Trade. It was offered
by the gentleman from California (Mr. Page).
It was drafted by an experienced merchant,
Mr. Hopkins. It was not written on the Dela-
ware, nor in the interest of the Pacific Mail
Steamship Company, as will appear by the fact
that their interests are somewhat adverse, be-
cause the section is not applicable either to
ships already afloat or on the stocks, but only
to those which shall have been begun after the
passage of the act.

"The reason given for this clause of the bill
reported, and which is most controverted, is
VOL. xxiii.— 15 A

set forth by its author, in the speech made be-
fore the San Francisco Board of Trade. That
speech is entitled to much emphasis. As the
sixth of the ninety-three seaports of the United
States, San Francisco owned only twelve of
the five hundred and fifty vessels loaded at her
port for Europe during the harvest year end-
ing June 30, 1882. For that period she paid
in freights to Europe by sea, $16,069,789 ; and
to and from all ports of the Pacific coast, $25,-
000,000. Nearly all of these sums went to for-
eigners, When this appeal for self-interest was
made with the patriotic fervor aroused by the
thought of our flag, the committee gave the
suggestion much favorable thought. Nor would
I reproach myself for acquiescence in the entire
report could I reconcile it with my old and ma-
tured ideas as to protection.

" In urging this measure the San Francisco
traders evidently felt the orphanage of navi-
gation and the hopelessness of asking for a re-
peal of the navigation laws. Which way soever
they looked they saw the image of protection,
like Pluto's countenance — iron and inexorable.
Piteously they pleaded that their plan was 'not
a subsidy levied on many industries to benefit
a few, but simply the payment of a debt due
by the many enterprises which are prospering
by means of the tariff to the one which has
been ruined by it.' They pleaded as those who
owned the cargo which was jettisoned to save
the vessel, and that they should be made good
by a general average contribution.

" In this rhetorical masquerade they meant
to say : ' Behold us, the victims of your rob-
bery ! True, you may have robbed us under
pleasing disguises ; your self- seeking may have
made your larcenies unwitting; still, as pirates
of the land you have destroyed our fair and
free trade upon the water. And as you have
thriven upon this piracy, be generous to your
despoiled victims, as you have in your coffers
the loot you stole from us. Be patriotic and
devoted in this paramount matter and in our
death-agony! No longer continue to help
Great Britain at our expense, after rifling us
for the general welfare ! '

"It is upon such reasoning as this that we
are asked to allow this drawback; and if there
be, as Bastiat held, a reciprocity in brigand-
age, let us steal back from those who. stole
from us, that we may have some compensation
for our losses by the restoration of something
of our own. Let us cultivate a mutuality in
rascality ! (Laughter.)

"Having, then, shown the origin, animus,
and raison d'etre of this so-called drawback in
a bill to revive shipping, may I not ask:

"1. Why a tariff which kills an industry so
momentous as ship-building should be contin-
ued? I have shown in the minority report
how the tariff directly ruins ship-building by
its enormous burdens on the materials. I have
given in Exhibit B a list of the taxes, ad valo-
rem, on the principal materials used in steam-
ship manufacture. They range from 20 to 67

226

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (AMERICAN SHIPPING.)

per cent. These should be imported free, fash-
ioned and ready for being put together in the
vessel. Certainly, the portion of the labor to
be done in putting the parts together may riot
amount to much ; but if it do not, then the
cost of the vessel is less. This is a desidera-
tum not to be despised in a desperate case like
that of our ship-building, where such odds fa-
vor our competitors.

"2. May I not ask why a tariff which kills
commerce should be continued? The people
are giving answer ; but whatever that answer
is, the entire and beneficent revision of the
tariff, with the resultant reduction in the
price of materials and labor, is not contem-
plated. Nor is the revival of commerce on a
large and normal scale likely to happen as the
sequence of our tariff reform.

"Commerce means barter, exchange; buy-
ing and selling, both. If we would sell our
products abroad, we must buy abroad. The
tariff, by preventing importations or exchanges,
as in the South American examples which the
report of the minority shows, destroys com-
merce. Commerce being absent, of what use
is the ship or its revival? Of what use is the
telescope if there were no stars, or the spindle
without cotton, or any instrumentality with-
out that which gives it employment ? So that
when we revive commerce by revising the
tariff, which is the grand obstacle to recipro-
cal trade, we make, and make profitable, the
means of commerce — namely, ships.

"But it will be said that the revisal of the
tariff, especially as to iron, steel, cable and
cordage, sail-duck, plank, deals, lumber, wire-
rope, rivets, tubes, bolts, pipes, iron screws,
etc., touches other interests, and that these
are 'protected,' and that the protection is
riveted upon our Government as an American
policy. This would seem to have been and to
be our shackled condition. Nor do I see how
to free and enlarge either ship-building or com-
merce except by the liberalization of our bar-
barous and prohibitive tariff. The San Fran-
cisco traders are more politic. They accept
the outrage as accomplished ; they regard the
tariff as perpetuated. Hence they ' beg ' — that
is their word — to have the loot returned to
them, to draw back the plunder and place it
where it will do the most good.

"Well, I say to them, and to my constitu-
ents who have been largely interested in both
building and using vessels, that just now there
is no chance to so revise the tariff on the com-
posite parts of a ship as to allow us to make
it as cheap here as it can be made or bought
abroad.

'^'Nor is it possible just now to so revise our
tariff as to make our trade with other coun-
tries mutual, and thus have incoming as well as
outgoing cargoes, which bring paying freightage.

"What then? This and only this as the
remedy for the revival of both* ship- building
and ship-using: purchase in the open market
of the finished ship. Eepeal the odious navi-

gation laws, so as to allow registry free of
duty as to all vessels the same as if built and
owned here.

"If I am answered that this will destroy
our ship-building, I answer —

"1. That as to wooden ships and ships that
are ' auxiliary,' having steam and sail, such as
Maine is now making for California, we are
assured that we can build as acceptably and as
cheaply as any other nation. The last year's
showing in Maine demonstrates that her ship-
yards are doing well ; there being 80,000 tons
completed and on the stocks since last year.
They need no bounty.

U2. That as to iron or steel vessels, could
we be worse off than we are now by any
change of fact or law ? The catalogue of our
iron and steel vessels is the humiliation of our
enterprise. It is the one bar sinister on our
escutcheon.

" If it be said again that the repeal of the
navigation laws will destroy our ship-yards,
we reply that there is nothing on our stocks
of much general consequence in iron ship-
building; and since the business will not re-
munerate without subsidies or bounties or
general taxes on all the people for one inter-
est, let us try the experiment which other
nations have tried successfully, namely, buy
abroad, since we can not fyuild at home.

"It is argued that, because a great many
poor ships are built in England, those are the
ships that we would buy if we could! Un-
doubtedly there are many poor carriages built
in England. We are at liberty to import land
vehicles, while we can not import vehicles to
be used on the water. When we do import
carriages we import the best. The Americans
are not fools. Let the buyer of a horse or a
ship beware. Why should not trade and
labor be left a little to natural laws? Are
there not regulations more powerful than
Congress can make? Repeal burdens and re-
straints; stop the talk about stimulation;
practice non-intervention— these are maxims
only less radical and wholesome than the nat-
ural prescripts which ordain them.

" Could we have seen ten or twenty years
ago to-day what others saw, we might have
had to-day a splendid fleet of screw-steamers
under our flag. The earnings might have
been saved to us. We relied on our own
ship-yards, and in 1881 but eight of the 44,463
tons of steamers built on our seaboard were
for the ocean, or only 1 per cent, of the Brit-
ish tonnage built the same year. Our citizens,
had they been allowed, would have bought the
ships of iron and steel we could not build.
One of the oldest ship-builders and owners of
the United States, formerly a member here,
writes me that had we had the privilege of
buying iron ships there would to-day have
been two hundred of them under our flag;
and he says:

" I do not believe there would have been many
more ships in the world than at present, only we

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (AMERICAN SHIPPING.)

227

should have had our share ; our sons would have had
employment, and our country would have been so
much richer. I have three sons, masters of ships. I
shall never build another wooden ship ; but I would,
if I could, go into the iron ships ; they last longer.
There have oeen great improvements in them the past
five years, and we would have received the benefit of
them.

" Why not allow the merchant, if he thinks
he can do it, to get his ship abroad, and try at
least to run it ? He will not charge the Treas-
ury for his failure and loss.

" In time, as in Germany, the ownership
leads to repair, and repair to building. The
number of ship-yards and workshops increases,
and the tonnage leaps up under this impulse.
That which seemed a mustard-seed becomes a
mighty tree. Every nation has tried the free-
ship experiment but the United States, and we
are lowest to-day in our proportionate share of
the navigation of the world. No one can say
it is a failure until it is tried. All other
schemes —and especially its opposite, protec-
tion— have been tried and failed. The com-
mercial eminence of Great Britain, not to speak
of Germany, France, Italy, and Norway, is
supreme logic for the trial of the experiment.
Germany is the best illustration ; she has not
as good coal and iron as we have, but she be-
gan to buy her ships on the Clyde, as we might
have done a score of years ago. She is now
building her own iron steamships. She builds
now more than she buys. She has never sub-
sidized. Her tonnage in 1856-'57, when ours
began to decline, was but 166,000 tons; last
year she had 950,000; ours in eleven years
dropped from 4,400,000 to 600,000, and all its
vast income was lost.

"Last week I read that a new steel steam-
ship, the Rugia, of 6,500 tons, was turned out
for our trade from the Vulcan Works at Stet-
tin, warranted for the safety of 1,200 passen-
gers, with steel life-boats and steam steering-
gear and a refinement in the reversal of her
engines in seven seconds.. German growth has
been in iron screw-steamers, which she began
to buy abroad. They could not afford to wait,
this phlegmatic people, fcr their own ship-
yards to arise, but began to repair in the black-
smith shops and little foundries of their ' free
towns,1 and now, where the little furnace
glowed, mighty engines are made to mate the
ocean in its wildest tempest !

" Even Japan has a fleet of fifty-seven iron
steamers, and China leaves us laggard and
unprogressive. Fifty years of Cathay — nay,
twenty years— is worth more than a century
of our experience.

" Twenty years ago Norway and Sweden
traded with us and had but 20,000 tons in the
trade ; now they have 850,000. The Viking is
abroad, and we are stupidly looking on. Every-
body is making money out of our carrying and
commerce but ourselves. What avails it that
ours is the largest carrying-trade of any na-
tion since we do not do the work ? It adds to
the humiliation.

" It makes the humiliation worse to consider
the losses in money as well as the prestige at
sea.

" The gentleman from Pennsylvania (Mr.
Randall) has called upon the Treasury for the
amount of ocean freights on exports and im-
ports during the year ending June 30, 1882.
Much loose understatement will be set at rest
by the report. It may be reached by the av-
erage percentage on the values. What, then, is
the result ?

" Aggregate of exports and imports for the fiscal
year (exclusive of specie) was $1,475,132,831, and the
freights on this at 20 per cent, would be $295,036,566.
Only about 22 per cent, of the carrying trade is down
in American bottoms, so that our freight account for
the year would stand thus : Keceived by American
ship-owners, $42,903,044 ; received by foreign ship-
owners, $252,128,521. Making every deduction for
foreign trade with Canada,' Mexico, the West Indies,
Hawaiian Islands, Central America, etc., this enor-
mous outlay appears.

"Looking at the wall of adamant which
shuts us in from all the world and shuts the
world out from us in this once famous enter-
prise of ours, can we draw hope from the
prospect? The gigantic results of a hundred
years of national existence and energy are not
discouraging. Over mountains and through
valleys, upon rivers, across continents and un-
der oceans, our enterprises by rail and tele-
graph have developed our resources. They
astound by their marvels. And yet halting on
the shores of two vast oceans we have said to
the land, or rather the voice of either ocean
has said to these enterprises and products of
the mine and field : ' Thus far, but by our
help no farther. The illimitable ocean is be-
yond, and its trident is in another's grasp.'
Upon the west we face the Orient, rich in the
elements of commerce. We had hoped once
that the Pacific would have been an American
lake. That hope is dead. On the east we al-
most touch Europe, with its teeming indus-
tries, peoples, and civilizations; but they come
to us in their own vessels, and bear away our
produce. In this we have no pay, part, nor
lot. On the south we were reaching across
gulf and sea to the tropics at our doors and to
the republics of our continent. Once we had
mutual relations with the Dominion on our
north ; but this and all such visions of material
supremacy and splendor have faded. ' The
ocean-coast still gives us its thunderous line of
breakers, its seven thousand miles and more,
indented with harbors of safety and bays of
wondrous beauty. The net-work of our hun-
dred thousand miles of railway still trembles
with its immense freight, the garnered opu-
lence of our sky, sun, soil, and mine. Cotton,
corn, and petroleum — the triumvirate of our
common weal — head the stately procession in
which a thousand forms of labor and graces of
art move and chant their praises to our smil-
ing and copious land.

"The time was when amid the glory and
pride of our country our models of ships and

228

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (AMEEIOAN SHIPPING.)

adventure at sea were the theme of lyre and
the praise of eloquence. It was comfort and
wealth in peace, hope and safety in war.

"It was the horn of plenty and the nursery
of seamen, for the maintenance of our inde-
pendence and rights. Why should America
not have her part in these glories of the sea ?
Was she not discovered by the genius, daring,
and devotion of Columbus? Were not our
colonies created into commonwealths by the
men who braved the dangers of the sea to found
here new empires? Our country is born of
the sea ! Its freedom is of the wind and wave.

" Shall these praises be forever an echo of
the past? Are we to take no part in the en-
lightenment and progress in science and art,
of which commerce is the procreant cause and
infallible gauge ? Has the sea rolled back and
away from us at the command of the insolent
monarchs of capital ?

" To one born inland the sea has a weird and
wondrous mystery. I have studied its moods
as a lover those of his mistress. Through the
generosity of my fellow-legislators here, we
have been able to mitigate somewhat of its ter-
rors. Its enchantment has led me over liquid
leagues on leagues to remotest realms. Not
alone does it enchant because of its majestic
expanse, its resistless force, its depth and unity,
its cliffs, bays, and fiords, its chemical quali-
ties, its monstrous forms, its riches and rocks,
its tributes, its graves, its requiem, its murmur
of repose and mirror of placid beauty, but for
its wrath, peril, and sublimity. These have
led adventurous worthies of every age, by sun,
star, and compass over its trackless wastes, and
returned them for their daring, untold wealth,
and the eulogy of history.

" But it is for its refining, civilizing, elevat-
ing influences upon our kind that the ocean
lifts its mighty minstrelsy. Unhappy that na-
tion which has no part in the successes of the
sea! Happy in history those realms, like Tyre,
Sid on, Carthage, Greece, Italy, Spain, and Nor-
way, whose gathered glories are symboled in
the trident! Happy in the present are those
nations who, under the favoring gales of com-
merce, the fostering economies of freedom,
and the unwavering faith in the guidance of
Providence, bear the blessings of varied indus-
try to distant realms and bring back to their
own the magnificent fruits of ceaseless inter-
change ! Happy that nation whose poet can
raise his voice to herald the hope and human-
ity of its institutions in the grandeur of the fa-
miliar symbol of Longfellow :

" Sail on, 0 Union, strong and great !
Humanity with all its fears,
With all the hopes of future years,
Is hanging breathless on thy fate !

"^Amid this divided marine dominion, in
which one power alone has half the rule of the
ocean, shall America sit scepterless and forlorn
— dethroned, ignoble, dispirited, and disgraced?
The ensign of our nationality takes its stars
from the vault of heaven. By them brave men

sail. It is now an unknown emblem upon the
sea. We welcome every race to our shores in
the vessels of other nations. Our enormous
surplus, which feeds the world, is for others
to bear away. We gaze at the leviathans of
commerce entering our harbors and darkening
our sky with the pennons of smoke ; but the
thunder of the engines is under another flag
and the shouting of the captains is in an alien
tongue. Others distribute the produce, capital-
ize the moneys, gather the glories, and elevate
their institutions by the amenities and benigni-
ties of commerce ; and we, boasting of our in-
vention, heroism, and freedom, allow the jail-
ers of a hated and selfish policy to place gyves
upon our energy, and when we ask for liberty
to build and for liberty to buy, imprison our
genius in the sight of these splendid achieve-
ments.

u Mr. Speaker, if you would that we should
once more fly our ensign upon the sea, assist
us to take off the burdens from our navigation
and give to us the first, last, and best— the in-
dispensable condition of civilization by com-
merce— liberty."

Mr. Dingley, of Maine, representing the ma-
jority of the committee, said : " Mr. Speaker, I
agree with the gentleman who has just taken
his seat (Mr. Cox, of New York) that there is
no subject before Congress more important
than that to which this bill addresses itself.
The humiliating fact which confronts us is that
the American carrying-trade is rapidly declin-
ing and the American flag gradually disappear-
ing from the ocean. The following statistics
of the Treasury Department tell the story more
strikingly than any language can do :

YEARS.

American
tonnage
in foreign
trade.

American
tonnage in
coastwise
trade.

Value of export*
and imports.

Per cent,
carried in
American

vessels.

1840...
1845
1850
1855
1860

762,838
904,476
1,439,694
2,348,358
2,^79,396

1,176,694
1,223,218
1,797,825
2,543,255
2,644,867

$231,227,465
231,901,170
330,037,038
536,625,366
762,288,550

82-9
81-7
72 5
75-6
66-5

1865

1,518,350

8,381,522

604,412,996

27-7

1870

1 ,448 846

2 638,247

991,896,889

85-6

1875...

1,515,598

3,219,698

1.219,434,544

25-8

18SO

1,314,402

2,637,686

1,613,770,633

17-4

1881
1882

1,297,035
1,259,492

2,646,011

2,873,638

1,675.024,318
1,567,071,700

16-0
15-5

u By reference to this table it will be seen
that the coastwise trade of the United States
is prospering, as well as all our other protected
interests. Restricted as it is to American ves-
sels, without competition from abroad, it occu-
pies precisely the same position as all other
domestic interests. While the statistics show
only a small gain in tonnage over that exhib-
ited in 1855, yet there has been such an in-
crease of steamers as to add materially to the
actual carrying-tonnage of vessels engaged in
the coastwise trade of the country. In 1855,
estimating one ton of steam-vessels as equal to
four of sailing-vessels, which is very near the
fact as to vessels engaged in the coastwise trade,

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (AMERICAN SHIPPING.)

229

we had the equivalent of 4,581,451 tons of sail-
ing-vessels engaged in the coastwise trade.

" In 1881 we had on the same basis the
equivalent of 5,975,078 tons, showing a gain
in the actual carrying capacity of our coastwise
tonnage of 1,393,627 tons, or 30 per cent. It
is to be borne in mind also that this increase
has been in the face of the fact that the freight
capacity of competing railroads has increased
120 per cent, during the last decade. So far,
then, as the coastwise trade is concerned it is
in a prosperous condition, and while some bur-
dens have been pointed out which should be
removed, yet on the whole we may point to it
as having to-day more than three times the
tonnage of the United Kingdom of Great Brit-
ain engaged in similar coastwise trade.

" But it is when we turn to our foreign car-
rying-trade that we find a humiliating story,
told by the statistics of the Treasury Depart-
ment. The salient facts of these statistics are
these : In 1840 82'9 per cent, of all the exports
and imports of the United States was carried
in American vessels, but in 1882 only 15*5 per
cent, was thus carried. Here in forty-two
years lias been a decline of 67*4 per cent, in
the foreign carrying-trade of the United States.

"Looking still closer, as to the time when
this decline took place, we find that 16'4 per
cent, of it was before the civil war, and 12'2
por cent, since the war, and that the enormous
decline of 38*7 per cent, took place during the
four years of the conflict. It will thus be seen
that the decline of our carry ing- trade dates
from 1855, and that the decadence before the
war was as great as the decline which has
taken place since the war.

" We also find, looking at this period, that
the decline in the construction of vessels for
employment in the foreign trade was as rapid
before the war as during any other period
since in the history of this country. In 1855
there were 507 vessels .built in the United
States for the foreign carrying-trade, the high-
est point reached in our history. In 1856 the
number declined to 463; in 1857 to 307; in
1858 to 108 ; and in 1859 to 107.

"I allude to these facts, Mr. Speaker, in or-
der to remove the impression which has ob-
tained in many quarters, that the decline of
our foreign carrying:trade began with the war.

" Now, Mr. Speaker, without going further
into the details of that decline, it is important
we should be enabled to -fix specifically the
cause or causes of this decline in order to pro-
vide a remedy for it.

" And in the first place I wish to show that
the cause of this decadence was not, as my
friend from New York (Mr. Cox) alleges, be-
cause our commerce has declined. That gen-
tleman was pleased to say that the high tariff
of 1861 had caused a decline of our commerce,
and that a decline in our exports and imports
f.o be carried necessarily had resulted in giving
ocean-carriers less to do.

" It is not true, Mr. Speaker, that there has

been any decline in the foreign commerce of
this country since the war. At no period in
the history of this country has our foreign
commerce increased more rapidly than since
1865. From 1850 to 1880 the population of
this country increased 115 per cent., while our
foreign commerce increased during that same
period 400 per cent., showing that our exports
and imports have increased over our popula-
tion nearly 300 per cent.

" The gentleman from New York was pleased
to intimate that the tariff of 1861 had repressed
our foreign commerce, which the tariff of 1846
had fostered, and to give this as a reason for
the decline of our foreign carrying-trade. But
the facts are against him. During the fifteen
years from 1846 to 1861, the foreign commerce
of this country increased $525,000,000 ; but
between 1865 and 1880 this commerce in-
creased $1,000,000,000. In 1855 the imports
and exports of the United States were $536,-
625,366, of which about $405,000,000 were
carried in American vessels, and only $131,-
000,000 in foreign vessels. In 1880 the exports
and imports of the United States were $1,613,-
770,633, of which American vessels carried
only about $280,000,000. If American vessels
had carried the same proportion of the imports
and exports of the United States in 1880 which
they did in 1855, there would have been $1,-
200,000,000 for American tonnage, but instead
of that our vessels actually carried less than
one fourth of that.

" Looking more closely at the figures, we
find that neither the so-called revenue tariff of
1846, nor the modified revenue tariff of 1857,
nor the so-called protective tariff of 1861, has
exerted any influence over the rise and fall of
our foreign carrying-trade. Under the tariff
of 1842 our carrying-trade prospered; under
the tariff of 1846 it prospered for nine years,
and then steadily declined during the remain-
ing six years before the tariff of 1861 was
enacted.

" So, Mr. Speaker, we must look for the
causes of the decline of our foreign carrying-
trade beyond the tariff. Our exports and im-
ports, which represent commerce, have been
spread out in every direction, and yet our
American • carrying-trade has been constantly
declining, and consequently it is not any de-
cline of commerce which has caused the 'diffi-
culty.

" But my friend from New York was pleased
to say that the tariff of 1861 prevented any
successful competition with the ship-builders
of the Clyde in the construction of iron vessels,
the inference being that if we had continued
the tariff of 1846 all would have been well.

" Let us look at this claim. The duty on
iron imposed by the tariff of 1846 was 30 per
cent., and the duty on iron imposed by the tar-
iff of 1861 averaged about 40 per cent. .Now,
this difference of 10 per cent, in these tariffs
made a change in the cost of the iron used in
ship-building of only a little more than one

230

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (AMEEICAN SHIPPING.)

quarter of a cent per pound. What would one
quarter of a cent a pound have done for us in
the competition with English iron- ship build-
ers ? Nothing at all. Consequently the diffi-
culty in the construction of iron vessels under
the tariff of 1846 was practically as great as
the difficulty in their construction under the
tariff of 1861.

" I have alluded to this point merely to
show that the causes" of the decline of the
American foreign carrying-trade are outside
of any controversy between the friends of a
tariff for revenue and a tariff for protection.

" Prof. Sumner, perhaps the ablest advocate
of free trade in the United States, thus brushes
aside the tariff argument of the gentleman
from New York :

" No doubt these changes (from wood to iron and
sails to steam ) have been the chief cause of the decline
of ship-building in this country, and legislation has
had only incidental effects. It is a plain fact of his-
tory that the decline in ship-building began before
the war and the high tariff. — North American Review,
No. 132.

"It is important, Mr. Speaker, that we
should brush aside all of these things which
have nothing to do with the problems under
consideration, and endeavor to come down to
the facts we are investigating and ascertain the
causes and devise nemedies for the difficulty.

" The gentleman from New York was pleased
to intimate that one great cause of the success
of the British carrying-trade as against that of
the United States, was due to the fact that in
1849 Great Britain modified her navigation
laws so as to admit to registry under her laws
foreign-built vessels. Now, I have to reply to
that suggestion that the facts show quite oth-
erwise. This modification of the British law
took place in 1849, it is true; and as its influ-
ence was exerted at once, we should reason-
ably expect, from the importMnce assigned to
the free-ship remedy, a steady gain from that
time forward of British tonnage as against
American. But an investigation "will show the
fact is exactly the reverse. From 1849 for
three years the merchant-marine of the United
States increased more rapidly, as compared
with that of the United Kingdom, than ever
before in the history of this country. Between
1849 and 1855 the merchant marine of the
United States increased 1,877,985 tons, and
that of the United Kingdom only 894,828. It
was during this period of six years' operation
of the free-ship policy of Great Britain that
the American merchant marine enjoyed its
highest prosperity. This prosperity would
have increased after 1855 had it not been for a
new factor which appeared in the revolution
then fairly inaugurated from wood to iron and
sails to steam.

" Even Mr. W. S. Lindsay, the most promi-
nent promoter of the British legislation of
1849, is compelled to admit, in his 'History of
Merchant Shipping,' that it was in fact the
revolution from wood to iron and sails to

steam, and not the free-ship law, that gave the
English merchant marine the advantage of our
own which has resulted so disastrously to
American tonnage. Speaking of the results
of the first year's operations of this law, he
says:

" Our [the British] ship-owners naturally viewed
with great alarm. the rapid strides made by American
shipping. Nor were their fears allayed by a reference
to the Board of Trade returns, wherein it appeared that
while the increase of British shipping had in the year
previous to repeal been 393,955 tons, 'there had been a
decrease in the year after repeal of 180,576 tons. Our
position appeared, therefore, critical j and had it not
been for the resources we held within ourselves [re-
ferring to iron, coal, and cheap labor] and the indom-
itable energy of our people, foreign shipping might
then and there have gained an ascendency which
might not afterward have been easily overcome. . . .
We had one advantage which our great American com-
petitor did not possess. We had' iron in abundance,
and about this period we were specially directing our
attention to the construction of iron ships to be pro-
pelled by the screw.

"Speaking subsequently of the contest for
supremacy of the seas between 1853 and 1854,
the same distinguished English ship-builder
says:

" A very large amount of capital had been invested
by Americans in the famous ships employed in the
California trade ; but even these before the close of
1854 were becoming unremunerative, owing to the
competition of British iron and screw steamers, which
were the main weapon whereby we bade defiance to
the competition of all other nations in the general
ocean race then just commenced. — Lindsay's " Mer-
chant Shipping/' page 358.

" Could we have a stronger confirmation of
the fact that it was not the free- ship policy
which England inaugurated in 1849 that gave
her an advantage over us, but that it was solely
the accidental revolution in the. ocean carrying-
trade which saved her from being distanced
more and more by our wooden clipper-ships?
We are thus brought to the conclusion that
the inception of the decline of our foreign car-
rying-trade between 1855 and 1861 was due to
two causes :

" 1. The great change in over-ocean trans-
portation wliich was gradually being made
from wooden vessels to iron, and from sails to
steam and the screw-propeller — a change which
gave England, with her cheap labor and her
mines of coal and iron near the sea-shore, a
greater advantage than we had when wood
was the only material of which vessels were
built.

" 2. The adoption in 1854 of the policy of
removing every burden from and giving every
possible advantage to her merchantmen, coup-
led with liberal appropriations in the form of
postal pay, as well as subsidies, to secure the
establishment of steamship lines to all parts • f
the world; while at the same time the Ameri-
can Government neither lifted a burden nor
offered any encouragement to her marine.

" It was not until 1855-'56 that these causes
began to exert a marked influence and to
change the current of the foreign carrying-

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (AMEKICAN SHIPPING.)

231

trade. Prof. Sumner agrees substantially with
this view, and I may add that even Mr. Wells,
in his work on the American merchant marine,
concedes that these were the real, substantial,
and efficient difficulties which came upon us
and changed the current of our foreign carry-
ing-trade.

" So long as wooden sailing-vessels con-
trolled the foreign carrying-trade of the world
we had an advantage in the construction of
vessels over any other nation in the world.
We had the cheaper material, and this superior
cheapness of material enabled us to bridge over
the difference in labor; for it must be remem-
bered that in the construction of a wooden
vessel, as compared with the construction of
an iron vessel, the wood or timber when it is
cut from a tree is further advanced toward the
completion of a vessel than is the iron when
the ore has been dug from the mines, smelted,
and rolled or hammered into bars, angles, and
plates. The amount of labor to be put upon
the wooden vessel after the tree has been
felled is less than one half of the amount of
labor that is required to build the iron vessel
after the ore is taken from its bed.

"Therefore, Mr. Speaker, so long,as we oc-
cupied the vantage-ground, possessed when
wooden sailing-vessels ruled the sea, no nation
could cope with us.

"At that time, also, all our laws relating to
our merchant marine were precisely the same,
with the same difficulties, with the same dis-
criminations as the English laws. But in 1852,
1853, and 1854 the Parliament of England be-
gan the revision of her merchant shipping laws,
and removed every burden from her vessels
engaged in the foreign trade ; while we looked
on, too confident in the position we occupied.
And there, Mr. Speaker, was the fatal error in
the policy of this country. From 1855 to 1861
there was a steady decline year by year, as
rapidly as at any time since the war, in our
foreign carrying-trade. • If the American Con-
gress at that time had come forward and lifted
all the burdens, and amended the shipping
laws so as to give the same advantages to our
vessels as the English Government gave to
their vessels, and if in addition to that the
American Government had given such generous
mail contracts for the establishment of mail
steamship lines as the English Government i
giving, then we should not have to-day
lament over so humiliating a decadence of
American shipping.

"But more than that, Mr. Speaker. In 1861
came the terrible conflict of arms, the civil
war, which engrossed the energies and the
capital of this country for four long years.
Instead of building up our shipping and our
resources, we were tearing down; instead of
constructing vessels, we were destroying them
with powder and shot and shell. But what
was England doing all that time? She looked
on and laughed at our. discomfiture. She let
the Alabama sail out of her ports without bin-

was
to

drance, and more than one third of all our
tonnage engaged in the foreign carrying- trade
was swept from the ocean, either by capture,
or by sale to avoid capture.

" During this time England was intrenching
herself in the position she occupied. She was
building up great iron ship-yards, and getting
an advantage difficult to overcome.

" If our hands had not been tied during that
time, unquestionably we should have adopted
some policy that would have met the advances
of England in this race on the ocean. But we
could do nothing, and when the war closed we
saw not only one third of our ships swept from
the ocean, but also the iron ship-yards of Great
Britain firmly established, and built up, too, by
every possible encouragement. We saw dock-
yards built from tonnage taxes exacted in part
from American vessels that entered British
ports, with all the ingenuity that could possi-
bly be devised, even going so far in order to
establish steamship lines that she made con-
tracts with various navigation companies to
put on steamship lines, engaging that the Gov-
ernment would secure to the proprietors of the
lines 8 per cent, dividend.

" This was the course of England at the time
when our hands were tied. And then, when
we came out of the war, Mr. Speaker, our
hands were again tied — tied because of the in-
direct results of the war. Bear in mind that
we came out of the conflict with a depreciated
currency and inflated prices. *We came out
with speculation raging over the land, and the
result was that, with the engrossment of the
public mind in the problems of reconstruction,
it was practically impossible until the resump-
tion of specie payments, and until the large
profits that arose from the opening of the far
West and from the building of railroads had
passed away, and until the rate of interest on
capital came back to the normal figure, and
even below — it was impossible, I say, until
about the year 1878 or 1879, for us to adopt
any efficient measures that could have built up
the American foreign carrying-trade.

" It seems to me, Mr. Speaker, that instead
of being amazed at the rapid decline of the
American foreign carrying-trade under these
circumstances, we should almost wonder that
it has stood the trial so well.

" Now, Mr. Speaker, having discussed what
seems to me to be the causes of the difficulty in
which we are placed, I wish to approach next
the question of remedies. The foreign carry-
ing-trade, unlike the coastwise trade, and un-
like any other business we have in this coun-
try, is an unprotected trade. 'It must be car-
ried on on the highway of the ocean, where
competition from all nations meets it on a com-
mon platform. No possible device that we can
make, no possible legislation that is open to us
after our maritime reciprocity treaties have
been entered into — for it must be remembered
that while formerly there was a 10 per cent,
discriminating duty in favor of imports in

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (AMEEICAN SHIPPING.)

American vessels, long ago treaties entered
into at a time when wooden sailing-vessels
enabled us to control the ocean, have prevent-
ed us from making any arrangement or giving
any preference to American vessels over ves-
sels of foreign nations.

"Consequently we are in this difficulty in
respect to the tonnage-tax. If we abolish the
tax as to American vessels, by that very act
we abolish it as to foreign vessels. We can
not take a single step in the direction of en-
deavoring to protect our own vessels by direct
legislation, without giving the same advantage
to the foreign vessels that come into competi-
tion with them. While giving every other in-
terest in the country the benefit of the protec-
tion of either a high or a low tariff, we com-
pel our vessels engaged in the foreign trade to
go out upon the highway of the ocean and
meet the open competition of other nations.

"Of course it is too late for us to go back
now on the policy of maritime reciprocity,
which was adopted in the days when we could
control the ocean. We have to devise reme-
dies in spite of these difficulties.

"There are two things that must be done if
we are to revive the American foreign carry-
ing-trade. What are they? First, we must
by our legislation or otherwise make it possi-
ble for a vessel floating the American flag to
carry our exports and imports as cheaply as
the vessel of any other nation can do. The
nation which will do the carrying-trade of the
world the most efficiently and cheaply will se-
cure it, and in securing it will control the ocean.

" Then, after we have done that, we must
also make it possible for an American ship-
owner or would-be ship-owner to obtain ves-
sels for his trade at no higher cost to him than
to our foreign competitors. I need not argue
those two propositions; they are self-evident.
The problem for us to solve, therefore, is how
to do these two things.

" First, as to the running of vessels after they
are built ; for obviously there can be no useful
end attained by any policy to secure cheap ves-
sels to American ship-owners or would-be ship-
owners unless after they obtain those vessels
they can run them as cheaply as our English
rivals.

" Now, some one has said — not in the course
of this debate, but it has been said— that there
was no difficulty in that direction. I wish to
say, Mr. Speaker, that the greatest difficulties
lie right here. And yet the difficulties are such
that they can be not entirely but largely over-
come by legislation.

" I wish to cite as proof that there is diffi-
culty here this simple fact : for ten years we
have been enabled to build first-class wooden
vessels as cheaply as any other nation in the
world, quality for quality. In my own State
of Maine, and even in the' district which I rep-
resent, during the last year over 40,000 tons of
wooden vessels, the finest ever constructed,
were euccessfully built. To be sure, a large

portion of those vessels were for the coast-
wise trade ; but some of them were for the for-
eign trade.

" The fact has developed itself unmistakably
that the only reason we do not extend that
trade further, that we do not build more wooden
vessels for the foreign trade, is that after we
have built them we can not run them as cheaply
as our foreign competitors.

" Why not ? It has been said that the ques-
tion of wages of seamen is one that meets us
here and can not be overcome. I wish to show
you, Mr. Speaker and gentlemen, that in the
foreign carrying-trade the question of wages,
especially as to sailing-vessels, is not one that
seriously interferes with us. And why? The
American vessel engaged in the foreign carry-
ing-trade a large proportion of the time is in
foreign ports, and so has the privilege of en-
gaging her seamen at any pert she may visit. It
may be that in shipping men at San Francisco
and New York there is a slight discrimination
— not much, by-the-way — because from the na-
ture of the case, competing upon the ocean on
the same platform, wages of seamen have been
brought down to a common standard. The
difference in price between the wages of sea-
men in New York and Liverpool is trifling.
Practically, with the liberty which a vessel has
when it enters a foreign port to ship a new
crew, it may be said that so far as sailing-ves-
sels are concerned this is not an element that
enters seriously into the question.

" So far as steamships are concerned, which
from the very nature of the trade require a
permanent crew, there is some difficulty, but
not enough to seriously interfere with the ex-
tension of our foreign carrying-trade.

"Then, what are the difficulties in the way?
I may say to you, Mr. Speaker, that they are
largely difficulties which legislation has erected
or may remove. I wish to call attention to
some of those difficulties, difficulties which this
bill, unanimously reported by both the Joint
Select Committee on Shipping and the Com-
mittee on Commerce, has sought to remove.

" When the committee came to consider the
problem of how to build iron vessels under
such a condition of facts, there was one prin-
ciple which they unanimously accepted, and
that was that no policy having reference to
the supply of iron steamships to revive the
American foreign trade would be wise or suc-
cessful unless it looked to the building, ulti-
mately at least, of iron steamships in our own
country. There was no difference of opinion
on that point. All said we must look to that
result, and that any policy which could not
accomplish this would be a fatal one — fatal,
first, because all history proves that no com-
mercial state ever maintained its supremacy on
the ocean unless it built its own vessels as well
as sailed them ; and, secondly, because in time
of peace no nation could maintain its commer-
cial independence unless it had the facilities
within its own grasp and its own control for

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (AMERICAN SHIPPING.)

233

shipping its own merchandise. Suppose a war
to-day should break out in Europe, and Eng-
land should engage in conflict with a country
able to put cruisers upon the sea — privateers, it
may be — when 85 per cent, of the produce of
the West is being shipped in foreign, mainly
in English vessels — in such an event all the
produce of the West shipped in English vessels
would be liable to seizure and confiscation by
the power engaged in war with Great Britain.
Therefore, I say in such a case as that, the
American people, and particularly the people of
the West, would suffer more than the belliger-
ents themselves.

" Again, thirdly, no policy is wise or safe
which contemplates resorting to foreign coun-
tries for the purpose of obtaining our ships for
our American marine, because no nation can
maintain its independence and defend itself in
time of war unless it is able to improvise and
build its own vessels. Consider for a moment
in what situation we should have been placed
in 1862 if we had been obliged to send to Eng-
land to have the little Monitor built for us.
What would have become of our ports, of
which the gentleman from New York (Mr.
Hewitt) spoke so eloquently the other day, if
at the breaking out of the war we had been
obliged to resort to the nation which tried to
crush us ? For it must be borne in mind that
the mercantile marine is the militia of the sea,
occupying the same position on the ocean that
the State militia do on the land. No nation
ever maintained its power upon the ocean un-
less it had a commercial marine of its own.
Therefore I say to you that it is more than a
question of business, more than a question of
whether we shall have a part of this carrying-
trade. It is a question of whether the nation
shall be able to defend itself; it is a question
of national security and national independence.

u.No policy, therefore, that looks to making
this nation dependent upon a foreign nation,
upon a nation like England, for the supply of
vessels for its merchant marine can be wise or
safe.

" This to my mind is the serious objection
to the proposition of the gentleman from New
York (Mr. Cox) to authorize the purchase and
American registration of foreign-built ships.
Such a policy can not develop iron-ship build-
ing here, for the simple reason that it is impos-
sible for any ship-builder to pay 60 per cent,
more for labor here and build ships in close
competition with the Clyde. There can be
only one way in which our builders could hope
to compete on the free-ship basis, and that is
by cutting down the wages of our laborers 60
per cent. This is simply impossible.

'Therefore I say that the free- ship plan can
not develop iron-ship building in this country."
It could do it in Germany, where wages are as
low as in England, or lower, but it could not
do it in the United States, with our wages for
labor. It may as well be said first as last that
the free-ship plan would be practically a de-

cision to give up the attempt to build our own
vessels.

" That provision of our navigation laws which
restricts the right of American registry to ves-
sels built in this country was not the narrow,
unstatesmanlike, and unwise legislation which
the gentleman from New York represents it to
be. It was enacted at the very foundation of
the Government, in response to the following
suggestion of Washington to Congress :

" We should not overlook the tendency of a war,
and even preparations for a war, among the nations
most concerned in active commerce with, this country
to abridge the means and thereby at last enhance the
price of transporting its valuable productions to their

contingencies by such encouragement to our own
navigation as will render pur commerce and agricult-
ure less dependent on foreign nations.— Washington's
Second Annual Address, December 8, 1790.

" Those laws have stood from that day to
this. They have come down to us with the
official approval of Washington himself. They
come to us with the indorsement of Jefferson,
of Adams, of Madison, of Monroe, of all the
fathers of the republic. They come to us in
this shape because the fathers of the republic
said we could not successfully defend ourselves
unless we built up a merchant marine con-
structed in our own country.

" Two lines of policy were considered by the
committee, both of which looked to making it
feasible to build our ships at home. One policy
proposed, and that which I think all the mem-
bers of the committee would be willing to ac-
cept as a complement to the section which has
been reported, is to provide that materials ad-
vanced to the point of bars, angles, rods, etc.,
may be imported in bond duty free when they
are to be used in the construction of vessels for
the foreign trade.

uBut the committee were conscious that
with a free-material clause standing alone,
with 3,000 miles of ocean between us and
England, it would not be wise to make us en-
tirely dependent upon England for the mate-
rials for the construction of our ships. We
believe there should be coupled with a plan of
that kind some provision which would enable
our builders to use materials produced in this
country by American workmen at higher-cost
labor.

" The committee recommend the adoption of
a section providing for the importation of ma-
terials from foreign countries duty free, and
another section providing for a drawback, so
called, whenever the materials used are of
American production, a drawback to the ex-
tent of the duty on the foreign material of the
same kind. This drawback would practically
cover the difference between the cost of build-
ing an iron steamship in this country and in
England, which is about 30 per cent. This
drawback would practically come from the
tonnage-tax, which, as I have already said, we

234

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (AMERICAN SHIPPING.)

should be willing to abolish if five sixths of it
did not fall on foreign vessels.

"The committee believed that we might
use this tax in the way of building up our own
commercial marine, so as to enable our ship-
builders to use American materials, by giving
them a drawback to the amount of the duty,
at the same time giving builders the privilege
of importing materials in bond duty free. We
were thus for placing home materials and for-
eign materials on substantially the same plat-
form, and giving the ship-builder or rather the
ship-owner, for the drawback goes to the origi-
nal owner of a vessel, the choice of American
or foreign materials, without discriminating
against home materials.

"The committee believed that this pro-
vision, without taking any money from the
Treasury, which comes from ordinary sources
of revenue, and giving the ship-owner the ad-
vantage of importing in bond materials duty
free from foreign countries, or of using home
materials, would be likely to build up iron-ship
building in this country, and revive the Amer-
ican foreign carrying-trade. Such was the
opinion of the San Francisco Board of Trade,
which proposed the plan, and such is the
opinion of the New York maritime associa
tions and ship-owners of experience.

" A million and a half of dollars annually
comes from the tonnage-tax, and in the next
five years the tax will amount in the aggregate
to ten millions of dollars. It is a tax five
sixths of which is paid by foreign vessels, and
which we may properly use to encourage the
development of the American merchant ma-
rine.

"It is true that the Government of Great
Britain, as a government, does not impose
what is called a tonnage-tax, but it imposes
a light-dues tax, which, as I have said, is really
a tonnage-tax. More than this ; in the case of
a large proportion of the cities of Great Britain
having harbors or rivers capable of improve-
ment, the corporation of the city is authorized
to impose a tax upon all tonnage that may en-
ter the port, for the purpose of paying the ex-
penses of such river or harbor improvements.

" Take, for instance, the river Clyde, which
was originally but a brook, so to speak. The
corporation of Glasgow was authorized to
deepen' and widen the channel of that river
and to build docks, with the view of fitting
that river to be the center of the iron-ship yard
system of the world. The corporation of
Glasgow is authorized to impose upon every
vessel entering the port a tonnage-tax for the
purpose of defraying the expense of improv-
ing the river. American vessels entering the
Clyde to-day pay to the corporation of Glas-
gow a tax which is used to defray the expenses
of deepening and widening the river and pre-
paring it not only for navigation but also for
the iron-ship yard center of the world.

" Gentlemen may say that Great Britain
herself has not done this ; but the Government

of Great Britain has authorized the corporation
of Glasgow to do this work — to widen and
deepen the channel of the river and to build
dock-yards; the Government of Great Britain
has authorized the imposition of a tonnage- tax
upon American as well as other vessels enter-
ing that port, for the purpose of defraying the
expenses of improving that river. Yet gen-
tlemen sometimes tell us that Great Britain has
not aided in all these enterprises; that she has
let her shipping severely alone, allowing her
own local communities even to deepen and
widen her rivers. But, in point of fact, Great
Britain has authorized her municipal corpora-
tions to do what she has not done herself— to
collect from the merchant marine of the world
a tonnage-tax to pay the expenses of river and
harbor improvements. What she has done
through her city corporations she has to all in-
tents and purposes done for herself.

" Now, Mr. Speaker, it seems to me wise
that Congress, imposing as it does a tonnage-
tax which, if circumstances permitted, we
should be glad to abolish, should take the
amount -of this tax and devote it, not to the
widening or deepening of any river with the
view of building up commerce and furnishing
facilities for ship-yards, but indirectly expend
it for the purpose of enabling the people of our
country to build their own vessels, while at
the same time we establish our merchant ma-
rine so that we shall not be dependent upon
the other nations of the world. It seems to
me that this may be done without taking a
single dollar of the revenue that may be de-
rived from any of the ordinary sources of tax-
ation. And it may be limited, if you please,
to the amount which may be collected from
the tonnage-tax, because if the mode of col-
lecting the tax be changed to "the English sys-
tem of a tax on each entry, instead of one mill-
ion and a half we would have two million
dollars and over. Thus we shall imitate the
policy of Great Britain in principle, however
different may be the application.

"I wish simply to say in conclusion that
this is more than a local question. It is not a
question of building up a ship-yard here and
there. It is not alone a question of building
up even a most beneficent industry in our
country. It is more than that, it is a national
question which reaches every part of this coun-
try. The great West is interested in this ques-
tion if possible more than any other part of the
Union, because so large a portion of our ex-
ports is produced there. It is indispensable to
her that there should be an American mer-
chant marine, not simply to compete with a
foreign merchant marine, but an American
merchant marine upon which we may rely in
time of war. It is more even than that. It is
a question of national safety. While Great
Britain to-day is doing all she can to develop
her iron-ship yards, while she is building 81
per cent, of all her war-vessels and war-engines
in private iron and steel-ship yards, why should

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (AMERICAN SHIPPING.)

235

we not do something for the encouragement
of our merchant marine ? It is a matter which
concerns the safety of the nation; it concerns
our independence; it concerns our national
prestige.

u When I was abroad in Europe, going from
port to port, I saw so rarely the American flag
that it was the source of humiliation to me,
for I felt the nation was better known by the
flag which floated from the mast-heads of its
ships and exerted a greater influence in conse-
quence of that than anything else. We are
known abroad by the flag which floats in for-
eign harbors. Our influence is felt abroad in
proportion to the extension of our merchant
marine. Our commerce is more or less de-
pendont on it, as well as our independence in
peace and our safety in war. I beg of you,
gentlemen, therefore, however many differ-
ences of opinion there may be as to methods,
to be willing to try something, to take a step
forward in this matter, for if we go on ten
years more in the way we have been going on
for twenty-five years past, the American mer-
chant marine and the American flag will have
faded from the ocean."

Mr. Springer, of Illinois, argued that there
was nothing in the Constitution to authorize
the prohibition of State or municipal taxation
on vessels engaged in the foreign trade.

In Committee of the Whole, section 11 of the
bill as reported was amended by adding a pro-
viso "that this section shall not apply to ves-
sels engaged in the whaling business." An
amendment proposed by Mr. Murch, of Maine,
by way of substitute, and designed to maintain
the practice of paying advance wages to sea-
men, was rejected. The following further
amendment to section 11 was then adopted:

And that all laws or parts of laws requiring the pay-
ment of any remuneration to the shipping commis-
sioner for the shipment of seamen, if snipped by said
master or owners, be and the same are hereby re-
pealed: Provided, That the. duties of the shipping
commissioner at home port* shall be performed by
the- collectors of the several ports of the United
States, and that no fees shall be charged for such
services. .

Section 15 was stricken out. Section 16 was
amended to read :

That instead of the assessment of forty cents per
month upon seamen engaged in the foreign carrying-
trade, authorized by sections 4585 and '4587 of the
Revised Statutes of the United States, there shall here-
after be assessed and collected twenty cents.

Section 17 was amended to read as follows:

SEC. 17. That the individual liability of a ship-
owner shall be limited to the proportion' of any or all
debts and liabilities that his individual share of the
vessel bears to the whole. And the aggregate liabili-

es of the owners of the vessels on account of the same
shall not exceed the value of such vessel : Provided.
lhat this provision shall not affect the liability of any
owner incurred previous to the passage of this act,
nor prevent any claimant from joining all the owners
in one action. Nor shall the same apply to wa°-es

ie to persons employed by said ship-builder.

For section 14 the following substitute was
adopted :

That section 2514 of the Revised Statutes be amend-
ed so as to read as lollows :

That all materials of foreign production, to be
manufactured in this country into articles needed for
and used in the construction, equipment, repairs, or
supplies of American vessels employed or to be em-
ployed exclusively in the foreign trade, including the
trade between the Atlantic ports and Pacific ports of
the United States, may be withdrawn from bonded
warehouse free of duty, under sucli regulations as the
Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe; and if the
duty shall have been already paid on such materials
so used, the same shall be refunded and repaid to the
owner or owners of such vessel so using them or their
legal representatives.

Section 15 was amended by adding the fol-
lowing provision :

Provided, That nothing in this section shall be
construed to repeal section 2793 of the Revised Stat-
utes : And provided also, That the aggregate duty
imposed under this section in any one year upon any
vessel engaged in no other foreign trade than the
trade between the United States and the Dominion of
Canada or the Republic of Mexico, or any ports or
places south of Mexico down to and including Aspin-
wall and Panama, or any ports or places in the West
India Islands, shall not exceed 30 cents per ton.

The following new sections were added to
the bill :

Whenever any fine, penalty, forfeiture, exaction,
or charge arising under the laws relating to ves-
sels or seamen has been paid under protest to any
collector of customs or consular officer, and applica*-
tion has been made within one year from such pay-
ment for the refunding or remission of the same,
the Secretary of the Treasury, if on investigation he
finds such fine, penalty, forfeiture, exaction, or charge
was illegally, improperly, or excessively imposed,
shall have the power, either before or after the same
has been covered into the Treasury, to refund so
much of said fine, penalty, forfeiture, exaction, or
charge as he may think proper from any moneys in
the Treasury not otherwise appropriated.

That section 2906 of the Revised Statutes be amend-
ed by striking out the words " propelled in whole or
in part by steam" ; so that the section as amended
shall read as follows :

SECTION 2966. When merchandise shall be import-
ed into any port of the United States from any for-
eign country in vessels, and it shall appear by the
bills of lading that the merchandise so imported is to
be delivered immediately after the entry of the ves-
sel, the collector of such port may take possession of
such merchandise and deposit the same in bonded
warehouse ; and when it does not appear by the bills
of lading that the merchandise so imported is to be
immediately delivered, the collector of the customs
may take possession of the same and deposit it in
bonded warehouse, at the request of the owner, mas-
ter, or consignee of the vessel, on three days' notice
to such collector after the entry of the vessel. .

That section 2S72 of the Revised Statutes be amend-
ed bv adding thereto the following :

When the license to unload between the setting
and risinar of the sun is granted to a sail ing- vessel
under this section, a fixed, uniform, and reasonable .
compensation may be allowed to the inspector or in-
spectors for service between the setting and rising of
the sun, under such regulations as the Secretary of
the Treasury may prescribe, to be received by the
collector from the master, owner, or consignee of the
vessel, and to be paid by him to the inspector or in-
spectors.

On the adoption of section 18 a vigorous de-
bate occurred, various gentlemen opposing it
as creating a subsidy to ship-builders, and others
pressing strongly for a substitute in favor of

236

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (THE FITZ-JOHN PORTER CASE.)

free ships, Finally, the following substitute
was adopted : yeas, 135 ; nays, 85 ; not vot-
ing, 69 :

SECTION 18. When any American vessel shall be
constructed, equipped, repaired, refitted, or supplied
with ship's stores for the foreign trade, including the
trade between the Atlantic and Pacific ports of the
United States, in whole or in part, of materials of the
production of the United States, the owner or owners
of such vessel shall be entitled to receive and collect
from the United States a drawback or sum equal in
amount to the duty which would have been collected
on imported materials of like description and of equal
quality with the American materials used in the con-
struction, equipment, engines, boilers, attachments,
and other appurtenances of such vessel, including re-
pairs, outfits, and supplies : Provided, That in ascer-
taining such drawback the duty shall be computed
on iron and steel advanced in manufacture not be-
yond the point of plates, angles, bars, and rods : Pro-
vided also, That such drawback on any article shall
not exceed the difference between the market price
of such article hi the collection district in which the
vessel shall be built, repaired, refitted, or supplied,
and the market price of a similar article in the city of
Glasgow, or the river Clyde, and shall not exceed
$10 per ton admeasurement in the case of the original
construction of any sailing-vessel, and $25 per ton in
the case of the original construction of any vessel pro-
pelled in whole or in part by steam ; and, in the ag-
gregate, the drawback or sum paid under this section
shall not in any one year exceed the amount of ton-
nage-tax collected in such year: And provided fur-
ther, If^the fund herein provided in any one year is
insufficient to pay in full the amount of claims pre-
ferred against it, then it shall be prorated among the
claimants and accepted by them in full payment of all
claims against the United States arising' out of this
law: And provided further, That this '"section shall
apply only to vessels commenced, repaired, refitted,
or supplied after the passage of this act.

That from and after the 1st day of April, 1883, any
citizen or citizens of the United States may purchase
the whole of any steam or sail vessel constructed
mainly of steel or iron, no matter where said vessel
may have been built, whether within the United
States or in a foreign country, or whether said vessel
may have been owned in whole or in part by an alien
or aliens ; and said vessels shall be registered free of
duty as to the hull, spars, appliances, outfit, and equip-
ment (including boilers, engines, and machinery, if a
steam- vessel) as a vessel of the United States by the
collector in any port of entry of the United States to
whom application for such registry may be made by
said citizen or citizens, in the same manner as though
said vessel had been built in the United States : Pro-
vided, however, That this section shall apply only to
vessels of more than 1 ,500 tons registry, to be employed
in the foreign carrying-trade exclusively, and not in
the coastwise trade, excepting between ports on the
Atlantic- and ports on the Pacific ocean: Provided,
That all or any part of the materials, whether wood,
steel, or iron, copper, yellow metal, bolts, spikes,
sheathing, treenails, canvas for sails, whether flax or
cotton, rigging and cordage, whether hemp, manila
hemp, or iron wire ; anchors and cables, iron plates,
castings,, and forgings, angle-irons, beams, masts,
yards, rivets, bolts, nuts, screws, engines, boiler plates
and tubes, and machinery, and all other materials
and appliances which may be necessary for the con-
struction and equipment, in whole or in part, of ves-
sels to be built and furnished in the United States
after the 1st day of April, 1883, for the foreign trade,
including the ^ trade between Atlantic and Pacific
p^orts, may be imported in bond under such regula-
tions as th6 Secretary of the Treasury may prescribe ;
and upon proof that such materials have been used
for such purpose, no duties shall be collected or paid
thereon.

Section 22 was stricken out altogether, in
deference to the opinion of those who opposed
its constitutionality.

Finally, the measure was amended by strik<
ing out the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twen-
tieth sections relating to subsidies and free
ships, and the machinery for carrying out the
subsidy and free-ship provisions. The vote on
this radical change was as follows :

YEAS — Anderson, Armfield, Atherton, Atkins, Barr
Bayne, Berry, Bingham, Bisbce, Blackburn, Bland,
Blount, Bowman, Briggs, Brumm, Buchanan, Buck,
Julius C. Bui-rows, Butterworth, Cabell, Caldwell,
Campbell, Carlisle, Chace, Clardy, Clark, Clements
Cobb, Converse, Cook, Covington, William R. Cox,
Crapo, Cravens, Crowley, Culberson, Cullen, Curtin,
George R. Davis, Dawes, Dezendorf, Dingley, Ellis
Ermentrout, Errett, Ford, Forney, Frost, decides,
Godshalk, Grout, Hall, N. J. Hammond, Harmer,
Benj. W. Harris, Haseltine, Haskell, Hatch, Heil-
man, Herbert, Hill, Hitt, Holman, House, Hubbs,
Humphrey, Jacobs, Jaclwin, Geo. W. Jones, Phineas
Jones, Joyce, Kelley, Ketcham, Klotz, Knott, Lacey,
Ladd. Latham, Le Fevre, Lewis, Lindsey, Lord,
Lynch, Mackey, Matson, McClure, McKin'ley, Jas.
H. McLean, McMillin, Miles, Miller, Mills, Money,
Moore, Morey, Morrison, Mosgrove, Moulton, Murch,
Mutchler, Neal,Norcross,Oates ,0'Neill, Peelle,Peirce,
Pettibone, Phister, Prescott, Randall, Ranney, Ray,
Reed, Reese, John B. Rice, Theron M. Rice, Wm.
W. Rice, Rich, Ritchie, Geo. D. Robinson, Jas. S.
Robinson, Russell, Ryan, Scranton, Shallcnbcrger,
Jas. W. Singleton, Otho R. Singleton, Skinner,
Smalls, A. Herr Smith, Sparks, Spooner, Springer,
Stcele, Stockslager, Taylor, Thomas, P. B. Thomp-
son, Wm. G. Thompson, Amos Townsend, R. W.
Townshend, Henry G. Turner, Oscar Turner, Ty-
ler, Vance, Van Aernani, Van Horn, Van Voorhis,
Wait, Walker, Ward, Warner, Watson, Webber,
Wellborn, Whitthorne, Chas. G. Williams, Willis,
Willits-159.

NAYS — Aiken, Aldrich, Barbour, Beach, Belmont,
Bliss, Bragg, Buckner, Candler, Cannon, Carpenter,
Cassidy, Samuel S. Cox, Cutts, Lowndes H. Davis,
Deering, De Motte, Dowd, Dwight, Evins, Sewell S.
FarwelT, Flower, Garrison, Guenther, Hardenbergh,
Hardy, Hepburn, G. W. Hewitt, Hoge, Jorgensen,
Kasson, King, Leedom, McCoid, McCook, Robt. M.
McLane, Morse, Nolan^ Page, Parker, Payson,
Phelps, Scoville, Sherwin, Simonton, Dietrich C.
Smith, Speer, Stone, Strait, Tucker, Updegraff, Up-
son, Wadsworth, Walter A. Wood. — 54.

NOT VOTING— Belford, Beltzhoover, Black, Blan-
chard, Brewer, Browne, Jos. H. Burrows, Calkins,
Camp, Caswell, Chapman. Colerick, Cornell-Darrall,
Davidson, Deuster, Dibrell, Dugro, Dunn, Dunnell,
Chas. B. Farwell, Fisher, Fulkerson, George, Gib-
son, Gunter, John Hammond, Henry S. Harris, Ila-
zelton, Henderson, Herndon, Abram S. Hewitt, His-
cock, Hoblitzell, Hooker, Horr, Houk, Ilubbell,
Hutchins, James K. Jones, Kenna, Manning, Marsh,
Martin, Mason, McKenzie. Muldrow, Pacbeco, Paul,
Pound, Reagan, D. P. Richardson, J. S. Richardson,
Robertson, Robeson, Wm. E. Robinson, Rosecrans,
Ross, Scales, Shackclford, Shelley, Shultz, J. Hyatt
Smith, Spaulding, Talbott. Urner, Valentine.Wash-
burn, West, White, Williams, Thomas, Wilson,
George D. Wise, Morgan R. Wise, Benjamin Wood,
Young— VB.

The bill as amended then passed the House,
Jan. 12, 1883. It came up for consideration in
the Senate March 3, 1883, and was amended by
striking out sections 13, 14, 15, and 22. It then
passed that body.

The Fitz-Jobn Porter Case.— The bill for the re-
lief of Fitz- John Porter came up in the Senate

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (THE FITZ-JOHN PORTER CASE.)

237

3. 28, 1882. It authorized the President to
nominate and, by and with the advice and con-
sent of the Senate, to appoint Fitz-John Porter,
late a major-general of the United States vol-
unteers and a brevet brigadier-general and colo-
nel of the army, to the position of colonel in
the army of the United States, of the same
grade and rank held by him at the time of his
dismissal from the army by sentence of court-
martial promulgated Jan. 27, 1863, and, in his
discretion, to place him on the retired-list of
the army as of that grade, the retired-list being
thereby increased in number to that extent.
It was reported by tbe majority of the Military
Committee and was in charge of Mr. Sewell, of
New Jersey. Mr. Logan, of Illinois, presented
a minority report in opposition to it.

Mr. Sewell of course based his argument on
the finding of the advisory board appointed
April 12, 1878, by President Hayes, and con-
sisting of Maj.-Gen. J. M. Schofield, Brig.-Gen.
Alfred H. Terry, and Col. and brevet Maj.-
Gen. George W. Getty. He read many peti-
tions, opinions, and memorials, in favor of the
restoration of Fitz-John Porter, and cited the
conclusions of the advisory board as follows :

These charges and specifications certainly bear no
discernible resemblance to the facts of the case as now
established. Yet it has been our duty to carefully
compare with these facts the views entertained by the
court-martial, as shown in the findings and in the re-
view of the case which was prepared for the informa-
tion of the President by the Judge-Advocate-Gencral,
who had conducted the prosecution, and thus to clear-
ly perceive every error into which the court-martial
was led. We trust it is not necessary for us to submit
in detail the results of this comparison, and that it will
be sufficient for us to point out the fundamental errors,
and, to sat/ that all the essential facts in evert/ instance
stand out in the clear and absolute contrast to those
supposed facts upon which Gen. Porter was adjudged
guuty.

The fundamental errors upon which the conviction
of Gen. Porter depended may be summed up in few
words. It was maintained, and apparently established
to the satisfaction of the court- maitial, that only about
one half of the Confederate army was on the "field of
Manassas on the 29th of August, while Gen. Lee, with
the other half, was still beyond the Bull Run Mount-
ains; that Gen. Pope's army, exclusive of Porter's
corps, was engaged in a severe and nearly equal con-
test with the enemy, and only needed the aid of a
flank attack which Porter was expected to make to in-
sure the defeat and destruction or capture of the Con-
federate force in their front under Gen. Jackson ; that
McDowell and Porter, with their joint forces, Porter's
leading, had advanced toward Gainesville, until the
bead of their column had reached a point near the
Warrenton turnpike, where they found a division of
Confederate troops, "seventeen regiments," which
Buford had counted as they passed through Gaines-
ville, marching along the road across Porter's front,
and going toward the field of battle at Groveton ; that
McDowell ordered Porter to at once attack that col-
umn thus moving to join Jackson, or the flank and rear
of the line if they had formed in line, while he would
take his own troops by the Sudley Springs road and
throw them upon the enemy's center near Groveton ;
that Porter, McDowell having then separated from
him, disobeyed that order to attack, allowed that di-
vision of the enemy's troops to pass him unmolested,
and then fell back and retreated toward Manassas
Junction ; that Porter then remained in the rear all
me afternoon, listening to the sounds of battle and

coolly contemplating a presumed defeat of his comrades
on the center and right of the field ; that this division
of the enemy having passed Porter's column and
formed on the right of Jackson's line, near Groveton,
an order was sent to Porter to attack the right flank or
rear of the enemy's line, upon which his own line of
march must bring him, but that he had willfully dis-
obeyed, and made no attempt to execute that order ;
that in this way was lost the opportunity to destroy
Jackson's detached force before the other wing of
Gen. Lee's army could join it. and that this junction
having been effected during the night of the 29th, the
defeat of Gen. Pope's army on the 30th thus resulted
from Gen. Porter's neglect and disobedience.

Now, in contrast to these fundamental errors the
following all-important facts are fully established :

As Porter was advancing toward Gainesville, and
while yet nearly four miles from that place and more
than two miles from the nearest point of the Warren-
ton turnpike, he met the right wing of the Confederate
army, 25,000 strong, which had arrived on the field
that morning and was already in line of battle. Not
being at that moment quite fully informed of the ene-
my's movements, and being then under orders from
Pope to push rapidly toward Gainesville, Porter was
pressing forward to attack the enemy in his front,
when McDowell arrived on the field with later infor-
mation of the enemy, and later and very different or-
ders from Pope, assumed the command, and arrested
Porter's advance. This later information left no room
for doubt that the main body of Lee's army was al-
ready on the field and far in advance of Pope's army
in preparation for battle. Gen. McDowell promptly
decided not to attempt to go farther to the front, but
to deploy his column so as to form line in connection
with Gen. Pope's right wing, which was then engaged
with Jackson. To do this Gen. McDowell separated
his corps entirely from Gen. Porter's, and thus relin-
quished the command and all right to the command of
Porter's corps. McDowell did not give Porter any
order to attack, nor did he give him any order what-
ever to govern his action after their separation.

It does not appear from the testimony that he con-
veyed to Gen. Porter in any way the erroneous view
of the military situation which was afterward main-
tained before court-martial, nor that he suggested to
Gen. Porter any expectation that he would make an
attack. On the contrary, the testimony of all the
witnesses as to what was actually said and done, the
information which McDowell and Porter then had re-
specting the enemy, and the movement which Mc-
Dowell decided to make, and did make, with his own
troops, prove conclusively that there was left no room
for aoubt in Porter's mind that his duty was to stand
on the defensive, and hold his position until McDow-
ell's movement could be completed. It would have
indicated a great error of military judgment to have
done or ordered the contrary, in the situation as then
fully known to both McDowell and Porter.

Gen. Pope appears, from his orders and from his
testimony, to have been at that time wholly ignorant
of the true situation. He had disapproved of the send-
ing of Kicketts to Thoroughfare Gap, to meet Long-
street on the 28th, believing that the main body of Lee's
army could not reach the field of Manassas before the
night of the 30th. Hence he sent the order to Porter,
dated 4.30P.M., to attack Jackson's right flar.k or
rear. Fortunately, that order did not reach Porter
until about sunset, too late for any attack to be made.
Any attack which Porter could have made at any time
that afternoon must necessarily have been fruitless of
any good result.

Porter's faithful, subordinate, and intelligent con-
duct that 'afternoon saved the Union army from the
defeat which would otherwise have resulted that day
from the enemrfs more speedy concentration. The
only seriously critical period of that campaign— name-
ly, between il A. M. and sunset of August 29th — was
thus safely passed. Porter had understood and ap-
preciated the military situation, and, so far as he had

238

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (THE Fm-Jonx POETEE CASE.)

acted upon his own judgment, his action had been
wise and judicious. 1'or ihe disaster of the succeed-
ing day he was in no degree responsible. Whosoever
else may have been responsible, it did not flow from
any action or inaction of his.

The judgment of the court-martial upon Gen. Por-
ter's conduct was evidently based upon greatly erro-
neous impressions, not only respecting what that
conduct really was, and the orders under which he
was acting, but also respecting all the circumstances
under which he acted. Especially was this true in re-
spect to the character of the battle of the 29th of August.
That battle consisted of a number of sharp and gallant
combats between small portions of the opposing forces.
Those combats were of short duration, and were
separated by long intervals of simple skirmishing and
artillery duels. Until after six o'clock only a small
p_art of the troops on either side were engaged at any
time during the afternoon. Then, about sunset, one
additional division on each side was engaged near
Groveton. The musketry of that last contest, and
the yells of the Confederate troops about dark, were
distinctly heard by the officers of Porter's corps ; but
at no other time during all that atternoon was the vol-
ume of musketry such that it could be heard at the
position of Porter's troops. .No sound but that of ar-
tillery was heard by them during all those hours when
Porter was understood by the court-martial to have
been listening to the sounds of a furious battle raging
immediately to his right. And those sounds of artil-
lery were by no means such as to indicate a general
battle.

The reports of the 29th and those of the 30th of
August have somehow been strangely confounded
with each other. Even the Confederate reports have,
since the termination of the war, been similarly mis-
construed. Those of the 30th have been misquoted
as referring to the 29th, thus to prove that a furious
battle was goin- - ~1?1- ^ ^ — ^— *_

inactive on the
of his own troops
sustain the original error under which he was con-
demned. Gen. Porter was in effect condemned for
not having taken any part in his own battle. Such
was the error upon which Gen. Porter was pronounced
guilty of the most shameful crime known among sol-
diers. We believe not one among all the gallant sol-
diers on that bloody field was less deserving of such
condemnation tlian he.

Mr. Sewell added : " I am interested in this
case of Fitz-John Porter, because I served in
the Army of the Potomac during the entire
period he was connected with it from its forma-
tion, and because I know the man and his repu-
tation as a soldier.

" General Porter entered West Point, and
graduated high in his class in 1845. He was
assigned to duty as second lieutenant of the
Fourth. Artillery, in which regiment he served
in the war with Mexico, taking part in the bat-
tles of Cerro Gordo, Contreras, Molino del Rey,
the sieges of Vera Cruz and Chapultepec, and
in the capture of the city of Mexico, in which
struggle he was wounded at the Garita of Belin.
For his services in these battles he was twice
brevetted. In 1857 we find him serving on the
staff of Gen. Johnson as chief of staff.

u At the breaking out of the late war Gen.
Porter, upon his return from Texas with the
remnant of troops stationed there, was as-
signed to duty in Pennsylvania with the gen-
eral charge of keeping the roads open to the
capital at a critical period of our history, which
duty was performed to the satisfaction of the

Government. While at Harrisburg he was in-
strumental in organizing and forwarding troops
for the protection of the capital: and learning
through Gov. Curtin that the arsenal and other
public property at St. Louis was liable to fall
into the hands of the secessionists of Missouri,
and being cut off from telegraphic communica-
tion with Washington, he assumed the responsi-
bility and telegraphed in the name of the Sec-
retary of War to muster in the Missouri vol-
unteers, under the command of Capt. Lyon,
for the protection of public property.

" Mr. President, it required not only a good
soldier, but a strong man, to assume such re-
sponsibilities. It was not the act of one luke-
warm in the service of his country. His action
was warmly approved by Gen. Scott and the
Secretary of War on his reporting the case.
Gen. Porter's next service was as chief of staff
with Gen. Patterson, after which, upon the or-
ganization of the Army of the Potomac, he was
assigned to the command of a division, and had
charge of the siege of Yorktown until it fell,
when he was placed in command of the Fifth
Army Corps, with which he fought the bat-
tles of New Bridge, Hanover Court-House,
Gaines's Mills, Turkey Bridge, and Malvern.
For his services in this campaign he was pro-
moted major-general of volunteers and brevet
brigadier-general in the regular army. Upon
the abandonment of the Peninsula by the Army
of the Potomac, Gen. Porter reported to Gen.
Pope at Bealeton, Aug. 26, 1862. The charges
and specifications under which he was tried re-
fer to the period between this date named and
the 31st of August.

" I have endeavored, in answer to the mi-
nority report presented by the honorable Sen-
ator from Illinois (whom 1 had hoped would be
by this time, as was another great soldier, con-
vinced by a study of the case), to show the in-
nocence of Gen. Porter.

" Personally, Mr. President, I believe, as was
reported by the board, that Gen. Porter did his
whole duty on the occasion referred to, and par-
ticularly in connection with the order to move
his command at one o'clock, and what is known
as the 'four-thirty order.' I will say more.
From my knowledge of the man as a soldier
and a gentleman I do not believe it possible that
he could be guilty of directly or indirectly con-
tributing to the defeat of his comrades in arms
by the non-performance of his duties as he un-
derstood them.

" The reputation of Gen. Porter in the army
was that when he had a company it was the best
in the battalion ; when he commanded a regi-
ment it was the best in the brigade; when
commanding a brigade it was the best in the di-
vision; and his corps, the fifth, was the pride
of the Army of the Potomac. This man, whom
the records show as I have quoted them, pushed
the movements of his corps from the Peninsula
in order to sustain Pope, making the junction
four days sooner than his orders would have
required. This does not bear on the face of it

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (THE FITZ-JOHN POBTER CASE.)

239

any probability that, having pushed his com-
mand ahead of time, he would fail within the
next few hours to give that prompt succor to
the army of Gen. Pope which he had been
making forced marches to accomplish.

"No, Mr. President, these things are incon-
sistent. Fitz-John Porter was sacrificed to a
public sentiment which at that time required
somebody should suffer, that somebody should
be made an example of for the mismanagement
of military affairs.

"He comes now before the only tribunal
which can give him justice, after twenty years
of suffering under what he believes, under what
I believe, and what a large portion of the
American people believe to be an unjust sen-
tence. Gen. Porter only asks that he may be
restored to that army in which he served so
faithfully, and in which he was one of its
brightest ornaments."

In conclusion, he made an article of Gen.
Grant's in the "North American Review " for
December, 1882, a part of his argument.

Mr. Logan, of Illinois, spoke for several days
against the bill. He began by making a letter
of his own in reply to Gen. Grant's article a part
of the record. Touching the alleged disobedi-
ence of the order to march on the night of Aug.
27, 1862, he said : " The Senator who votes that,
Fitz-John Porter was not convicted properly
and legally, votes that he obeyed that order or
that it was impossible to obey it ; any one who
votes to relieve this man from the sentence of
that court-martial votes in the face of all the
testimony that was given even by his own
friends, and votes that the court-martial found
him guilty when he ought to have been found
not guilty, when in fact the evidence shows
that he never attempted to obey the order.
The law says that he must obey it, that he sub-
jects himself to the death-penalty if he does not
obey; and yet he did not obey it, he did not
try to obey it. He violated the law and vio-
lated the order ; and yet, forsooth, you say he
is not guilty ! Well, if gentlemen can do that,
it is for them to say and not for me ; but that is
the fact, and there is the l.«w. Under the law
and the evidence the judgment of that court-
martial was as righteous a judgment as ever
was given. It was just, it was right, because
it was in accordance with the law and in ac-
cordance with the evidence.

" If commanders of divisions and corps are to
be permitted to be judges for themselves as to
whether they will obey an order or not, then I
would not give a straw for all the armies of the
United States. If a corps commander may say
an order need not be obeyed, why can not his
brigade commander or division commander say
the_ same, and why can not their colonels and
their captains say the same ? What kind of an
army would you have if you gentlemen were all
division commanders or corps commanders and
were off some miles, the enemy was approach-
ing, and the commanding general should send
orders to each one of you to concentrate at day-

light to-morrow morning, for the reason that
he expected either to make an attack or to
be attacked, and each man should say, l Well, it
is too dark : I will not go until to-morrow morn-
ning,' and no one of you started? If one of
you may disobey an order, all may. Suppose
no one starts, and the general is left there with
a small force to fight the next morning, nobody
to come to his rescue, nobody to obey his or-
ders, what kind of an army would you have?

" Oh, but some gentlemen say one of the
great chiefs of the world has said he could not
move because the road was obstructed ; there-
fore we must give a judgment that he could
not. I should like to put some of the sworn
statements of that chief against his published
statements which are not sworn to.

"Take the history of the world from the
time we have had wars, and you can not find
such an excuse as is given here by Fitz-John
Porter for not moving, that there were wagons
in the road. I could give instance after instance
where marches were made after night, where
marches were made in rain-storms, where bat-
tles were fought after night, and I could recite
numbers of instances where armies moved and
corps moved without orders to the sound of
battle, if it were necessary, but I will not give
the instance for reasons that will be -well un-
derstood.

" One of the greatest battles fought during
the whole campaign called the Atlanta cam-
paign was fought without one single order be-
ing given by the commanding general ; but they
were not Fitz-John Porters who commanded
the corps there. The general in his report of
that battle said that all of his orders were an-
ticipated. That battle was fought from early
dawn until nine o'clock at night without orders
from the general commanding the army, and it
was successfully fought. They took the max-
im of Napoleon, 'March to the sound of the
enemy's guns,' and that was why Napoleon
always had his army on the field first, because
that was a standing order. His corps com-
manders marched to the sound of the enemy's
guns, and hence the army was always concen-
trated before the army of the enemy.

'k Wherever successful battles have been
fought in history they have been -fought by
officers knowing their duties and performing
them without waiting for orders. Why, sir,
I could cite instances — I did in my remarks
before, and I do not wish to repeat now what
I said then — instance after instance where
marches were made at the dead hour of the
night, when the clouds were lowering and no
moon and no stars giving light. Here is a man
who sits before me (Mr. Miller, of California)
who marched one night ten miles, when it was
raining, with 6.000 men to oppose 60,000, and
to hold them there until the General of the
Army could take his position and get ready, to
fight. And yet this man Porter would not
move for fear he would be drowned in a mud-
hole ! "

240

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (THE FITZ-JOHN PORTER CASE.)

Touching the alleged failure of Porter to
obey what is known as the joint order of
McDowell and Pope of Aug. 29, 1862, and
what is known as the 4.30 order of the snme
day, Mr. Logan took new ground. He did not
maintain that Porter could, as Pope imagined,
attack Jackson's left before the arrival of
Longstreet, but he maintained that it was his
duty to obey orders at all hazards, and that if
he had done so his attack, even if his corps
were sacrificed, might have given the Union
army as a whole the victory. He said :

"On the 29th of August, 1862, as shown by
the almanac, the sun set at 6.36 P.M. If it
was sundown no sooner than 6. 30, there is not
a man in the Senate-chamber but what knows,
unless it was a rainy night or a very cloudy
night, or something of that kind, that it was
daylight I might say almost up to eight o'clock.
There was nothing in the world in the month
of August at that time, when the sun set at
6.36, to prevent the movement of troops for
two hours later than the time he claims he re-
ceived this order. If he could not have done
any better he might have sent part of his com-
mand. If he had even lost a part, if they had
been captured, it would have been carrying out
the order to some extent, it would have been
showing his desire at least to feel the enemy ;
but he did not even do that. The only order
he gave after receiving this order was to put
his troops in position at once to attack, and
the very moment the order was given, before
the two regiments were put in position, he
gave an order for them to come back and go
into camp for the night.

"That was the manner in which he obeyed
the order ; and yet we are told that he did not
disobey this order ; that he did not violate the
order ; that he ought to be excused ; that he
was wrongfully convicted ; that Mr. Lincoln
did wrong in signing the warrant to convict
him ; that Garfield did wrong on the court-
martial to convict him ; that everybody has
been wrong ever since except the few people
who lately have got very sentimental and be-
gin to talk about time, about twenty years
having passed. True, twenty years have
passed, and if it was left to me one hundred
and twenty years would pass before ever I
would reverse a court-martial that had the
facts before them as that one did that excited
the country in reference to the wrongs that
this man had perpetrated upon our army.

" Mr. President, there is one thing that I de-
sire to mention to the Senate. The military
law, in order to have an efficient army, must
be, in the first place, a stringent law, and, in
the second place, it must be rigidly enforced
and executed. The articles of war that exist
in this country to-day are similar to the arti-
cles of war in countries where the best armies
exist. These articles of war are based on those
of ancient Rome, where the best army the
world has ever seen was organized.

44 The only theory of an army is that when

organized it must be composed of men who
rtiake that their profession, so that when they
go into the army they go with their lives in
their hands ; they must go without regard to
whether they will be killed or die with yellow
fever or anything else. They must go into the
army with the understanding that they will go
wherever they are ordered. If they are or-
dered down on the border of Texas when the
yellow fever is raging, and there is a necessity
for their going there to protect the borders,
they must go ; that is the rule. If it was left
to them, of course they would not go ; and the
border might be overrun.

44 So the rule is that an order must be obeyed.
It is not a question as to whether the man
who obeys the order shall die, be shot, shall
never return home again, but the question fur
him is, ' How can I obey the order ? How am
I to do it ?' The only way to do it is to try to
do it. If it is a lawful order he is bound, at
least, to attempt to obey it. So it was in ref-
erence to these orders. If this man on the
night of the 27th had taken his troops at one
o'clock and moved them for the six miles when
there was nothing on the road, and could not
have gotten any farther, and it was impossible
for him to pass any farther, that would have
been an excuse to his commanding officer that
he tried to obey it, that he started at one o'clock ;
but he did not do it. Hence he did not try to
obey the order, he treated the order as a dead
letter. So as to the joint order and the 4.30
order, instructing him to push forward in the
direction of Gainesville, and also to attack. If
he had gone forward, if he had moved forward
until he struck the enemy, had fired into the
enemy, and found them too heavy for him, and
had to fall back, then there might have been an
excuse for it. He could have said, ' I tried, but
my force was not heavy enough.'

4' If he had fought and been whipped, and
come back and said, ' I am whipped ; I had to
surrender, or I had to retreat,' that would have
been all right ; but the idea that a man shall
come back and say, ' I did not attack because
if I had I would have been whipped,' is prepos-
terous. No soldier that is fit to command an
army will ever make any such excuse. If you
allow this to be an excuse for disobedience
of orders, you may organize your army just as
soon as you choose; you may organize 50,000
or 100,000 men and send them down on the
border of Mexico, if we should be in trouble
with our sister republic — God knows I hope
we never shall be — but if it should be in the
sickly season, and you order that army down
there with this man excused, with this man
restored to the army, having disobeyed these
orders, every man who chooses to say so says,
* I will not go ; I will not go because the yel-
low fever is an obstruction ' — why is it an ob-
struction?— 'I shall die; I will not obey the
order.' You go before a court-martial, and
they say the order should be obeyed ; but yon
go before Congress and say, ' I could not obey

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (THE FITZ-JOHN POETEK CASE.)

241

because the yellow fever was so bad ; if I had
gone there I would have died.'

" Within a few weeks the Secretary of the
Navy ordered the trial by court-martial of a
naval officer for leaving his post during the
prevalence of yellow fever. The court sen-
tenced him to be dismissed the service, and the
President approved the sentence. Is he to be
restored on this principle ? Why not, if Por-
ter is ?

" Fitz-John Porter says, in substance : ' If I
had gone in there they would have eaten me
up ; they would have whipped me ; I would
have been killed, and many of my troops, and
therefore I did not go.' Is not the other equally
as good an excuse ? Suppose you send an army
down on the frontier. They undertake to cross
the river and go into our sister republic on ac-
count of war. An officer says : ' I can not cross
that river, because the enemy has over there
25,000 men; I am not able to contend with
those 25,000; therefore I can not cross the
river; if I do I shall be whipped.' Suppose
Gen. Zachary Taylor, with his 6,000 men at
the battle of Buena Vista, when 20,000 Mexi-
can soldiers, armed and equipped, appeared on
the hill-side to assault him — suppose he had
said, ' I can not fight them ; they are too strong
a force'?

" But Zachary Taylor fought them with 6,000
men, and he whipped them. So with Scott,
when the city of Mexico surrendered to him,
with the few troops that he had there that
morning. One or two Senators who are here
present now were there that morning and know
that that surrender was made to Scott when
he only had a handful of men present. We
might go on through history from time out of
mind almost to the present day and show that
if this had been an excuse wars would not have
amounted to anything, but, as once said, would
have been a 'failure.'

" Mr. President, I have a summing up of this
evidence and much more evidence that I have
already prepared which I want to put into my
remarks bearing on these points, but I will not
take the time of the Senate to read it. I am
not strong enough to-day after being so unwell
as I was last night to continue much longer ;
hence I shall pass by this portion of my re-
marks and incorporate the summary in the
'Record,' if there is no objection to it.

" In conclusion, I want to ask Senators on
both sides of this chamber, and I want some
one to tell me, why it is that when this case
comes up it seems to be decided on political
grounds. What is there in this case of poli-
tics ? It is a mere question as to whether this
man was properly convicted or improperly
convicted. It is not a question that politics
should enter into at all. It is the case of a man
who was convicted during the war, while a
great many of you gentlemen were down South
organizing your courts-martial and trying your
own officers if they misbehaved. You tried
them according to the laws which you consid-
VOL. xxin. — 16 A

ered ruled and governed your army at that
time. We tried ours on our side according to
the rules which governed our army at that
time and govern it now.

u Is it possible that history is going to record
the fact that with this man as guilty as he was
of violating the orders sent to him, each and
every one, upon which he was convicted, that
our friends, because they differ with us in poli-
tics, because this man is of the politics they
are, are going to decide without reference to
the facts or without reference to the law that
the judgment of this court-martial should be
reconsidered, set aside, and this man put back
in the army? There is no other ground on
which you can do it. It is a prejudice against
the court, against the parties at the time, and
nothing else. I hope that does not exist; I
hope that will not exist any longer ; it should
not.

" I do not think it comes with the best grace
for men who tried their own disobedient offi-
cers in their own way to use their power and
influence to restore officers whom we dismissed
from our service in the army in order to dis-
grace the courts which convicted them and the
President who signed the warrants. I do not
think it is policy for men to come here and
undertake to reverse that which was done ac-
cording to fact and according to law. Let
those men who were derelict in duty on our
side, whom we dealt with, go. They are of
no service to you and none to us. They are
of no more service to the country. They may
serve themselves, but no one else.

" I should like to know the difference be-
tween restoring this man to the army to-day
and restoring any other man in the United
States. If you were asked to restore some
men it would cause a good deal of feeling per-
haps, because they were dismissed from the
service peremptorily. This man was dismissed
from the service lawfully and properly. More
than that, the precedent which you establish in
opening courts-martial after twenty years is a
very dangerous one. It is a bad precedent,
one that will live to trouble those who estab-
lish it.

" Some say, Why not restore this man on the
ground of mercy? Mercy does not apply to
this case. Mercy applies to that which has
been done, that is, to the pardoning of this
man and relieving him from the sentence
which was inflicted upon him which prevented
him from holding an office. That has been
done as an act of mercy. This is not an act ot
mercy. This is an act declaring the law differ-
ent from what it is, declaring the evidence dif-
ferent from what it was, and declaring the
court finding and the law and the evidence
wrong. It is an act and declaration on the
part of the Congress of the United States as a
court reversing the decision of a former court.

" Mr. President, I protest most seriously
against the establishment of this precedent. I
protest most earnestly against the establish-

242

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (THE Frrz-JoHN POETEE CASE.)

ment of this precedent on lines which have
attempted to be drawn heretofore. I protest
against the establishment of this precedent be-
cause in my judgment it is a reversal of the
law as it existed at the time, of the evidence,
of the facts as they really were at the time of
the finding of the court and as they are to-day.
I protest against it further because it is a dis-
organizing and disrupting influence that will
enter into the army of the United States,
which army is for your protection as well as
for mine.

" The armies that are now to be used are
not against you or against me, but in favor of
our country, in favor of the one common Gov-
ernment under which we all live ; and in fact
to-day we should all take pride in the army,
small as it is, and try to make it efficient ; try
to make it a grand army ; try to make it a
brave, a generous, a bold, and a fearless army.
We can not do that by relieving unworthy men
from embarrassment, and putting them back
in the army along by the side of men who
fought and won their spurs.

" Mr. President, this can not be done with-
out, as I said, carrying with it an influence
that will be detrimental in its effects upon the
Army of the United States. And, sir, let me
say to our Republican friends on this side of
the chamber, it is but a recent thing that so
many lawyers have flocked around the city of
Washington for the purpose of engineering a
case of this kind ; it is but a recent thing that so
many men have been brought into play for the
purpose of forcing this upon Congress. It is
unusual in all its bearings and in all its aspects ;
it is unusual in the influence that has been
worked up and attempted to be brought to
bear ; it is unusual in the circumstances which
now surround us.

u With the views I entertain concerning this
case, believing as I do that this man disobeyed
lawful orders, that he disobeyed those orders
with a view of destroying Gen. Pope ; that he
disobeyed those orders without reference to the
effect it would have upon the people of the Uni-
ted States ; that he did it for the purpose of hav-
ing Pope relieved and some one else put in his
place who would be more congenial to him (Por-
ter)— believing as I do that this man out of his
prejudice against McDowell urged Patterson
not to fight Johnston, which lost the first battle
of Bull Run ; that he refused to obey the first or-
der he received from Pope to move to the field,
refused to obey both orders that he received to
push forward and attack — believing all these
facts to be completely proved by the evidence,
and knowing the law to be what it is, author-
izing the court to inflict the penalty of death,
and when they inflicted the milder penalty —
believing that they let this man off with a
much less penalty than would have been ad-
judged had he been tried by a court-martial
In any foreign country — with all these facts
before me, with the knowledge I had of the
generosity of President Lincoln, with the

knowledge I had of the big-heartedness of
Gen. Garfield, with the knowledge I had of
Gen. Hunter, with the knowledge I had of the
other officers who sat upon that court-martial,
before I would give a vote to restore this man
to the army and let him live the balance of his
days on the bounty of the tax-payers of this
country, I would go across the Potomac river
and kneel down by that tomb on which is in-
scribed ' Here sleep the unknown dead ' ; I
would go among those little white headstones
that mark the place where those boys sleep
who fell on the battle-field of Groveton on the
29th of August, and I would there in the
presence of those whitening bones on my
knees pray to Almighty God to forgive me for
the wrong that I am about to do to the dead
who have gone, and the wrong I am about to
inflict on this country, on the law, and on the
facts, by the restoration of this man to his
place as an officer of the army. Sir, I would
stand in the rays of the majestic king of day
and appeal to the sainted spirit of Abraham
Lincoln, who has gone before us, and say, ' In-
asmuch as in examining this case you thought
this man was guilty and signed the order, and
when he appealed to you again on the re-ex-
amination of this case you declined to take any
action in it, before giving this vote for his res-
toration to the army I appeal to you to take
my hand and help me through this trouble and
forgive me for perpetrating the wrong against
your good name.' "

Mr. McPherson, of New Jersey, in defense of
Porter, said :

" Mr. President, this is not a new question
in the Senate. It is old as my term here, and
is likely to outlive me.

" It has been forcibly and ably discussed by
Senators from my State and by many other
Senators who have made it a special study. I
would not now rise to add a single word to
what has been so well said by my colleague,
except to protest against the seeming desire on
the part of some Senators to withhold longer
from Gen. .Porter that measure of relief so
long denied, and to which he is so justly en-
titled.

" Gen. Porter, a distinguished, capable, and
we believe faithful soldier in the Army of the
United States, who had fought many battles
for his country, not one against her, had been
tried and condemned as a traitor. It is pleas-
ant to recount the triumphs of a long and
brilliant service as it is painful to follow the
unhallowed steps which led to his disgrace
and utter defeat.

" To a proud and manly spirit, conscious of
no wrong, how bitter must have been the dis-
appointment, and how doubly keen the shaft
which pierced his heart when the fatal cruel
words were spoken which sent him forth in
disgrace from the army he had served branded
with infamy!

" I need not speak of the spirit of jealousy
and envy, of political and personal hatreds and

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (THE Fixz-Joim POKTEE CASE.)

243

animosity, which characterized the period at
which Gen. Porter was required to confront
his accusers at the bar of military justice.

" Nor need I speak that other word, inca-
pacity, which never fails to reach for a victim
to shield it from public contempt and indigna-
tion. To say that Gen. Porter suffered all this
is but recounting the truths of history.

"Nearly twenty years have come and gone,
long and weary years to Gen. Porter and his
beloved family, since his brother officers pro-
nounced upon him that terrible doom which
has grown darker with time. During all this
time Gen. Porter has stood at the doors of the
temple consecrated to justice asking, not for
mercy, only for justice, and it has been de-
nied. What was his as a right has been de-
nied him even as a privilege.

"But, thank Heaven, new light is slowly
but surely breaking over the dark and dismal
sea he has been forced to sail. Boards of mili-
tary officers, not supposed to be his friends, of
high renown, have so far as they lawfully
could reversed the unjust judgment and turned
the calcium light upon the workings of the
past. Gen. Grant, distinguished alike for his
ability and courage in war and the gallantry of
his heart and mind in peace (to his everlasting
honor be it said), bears living witness to the
justice of his cause.

"One by one the plague-spots which red-
dened the horizon of his military glory are
fading away, and Gen. Porter stands to-day
robed in white, without stain, even in the eyes
of those who had been his bitterest accusers.

" But this is not enough. The records of
this country, in whose cause he fought and by
whose fault he suffered, if not corrected, will
hand down to his children's children and their
children for all time the deep damnation of
their father's shame. His country itself struck
the cruel blow. Congress alone can heal the
wound.

" Is there a man here whose conscience does
not tell him, with the weight of testimony we
hear, that. there are not at least sufficient facts
to cover this case with the mantle of a doubt ?
Is there a jurist here who has not charged from
the bench time and time over that to doubt was
to acquit ? Is there a lawyer here who has not
in thunder-tones demanded for his client, as a
right recognized and respected the world over,
the benefit of a doubt? Is there a Senator
here who has followed in his mind's eye the ca-
reer of Gen. Porter from camp to camp, from
battle-field to battle-field, on the long and toil-
some march by day and by night, who in his
heart believes he was guilty of treason? If
not, and the proofs seem to be wanting, it is
your duty to pass this bill.

I have not the physical health nor indeed
the inclination to follow the Senator from Il-
linois in his wanderings after testimony upon
which with his construction he might justify
his vote against this bill. We leave the con-
elusions of the Senator from Illinois side by

side with the conclusions of the advisory board,
made up as it was of three distinguished officers
of the army, some of whom at the outset of the
investigation believed in his guilt, and who
could not be convinced to the contrary with-
out the strongest evidence. With all the facts,
new and old, before it this board reported
unanimously in his favor, and have forever
settled the question of Gen. Porter's innocence
in the hearts and convictions of the people
of this country. Let now this Senate do its
plain, simple duty, and undo this wrong, so far
as it is possible to do it, by passing this bill."

Mr. Hawley, of Connecticut, said: "Mr.
President, I am not going to speak upon this
bill. I intend to vote in accordance with the
views presented by the Senator from Illinois
(Mr. Logan). I am convinced that I ought to
do so. I never have had any hesitation as to
which was the right way to vote, so far as I
am concerned, except for a time after the
Schofield board made its report. I am person-
ally acquainted with a member of that board.
I am long and intimately acquainted with Gen.
Alfred H. Terry. I have known him well for
more than twenty-five years. I served with
him or near him during the whole war ; and I
only rise to express my deprecation of an inti-
mation made by my honorable friend the Sen-
ator from Illinois, an implication that the board
might possibly have been influenced by im-
proper motives ; that the questions likely to
arise concerning promotion might have had
something to do with their judgment. It
should be put upon record, I think — at least I
take leave to do so — that my friend Gen. Terry
earnestly begged to be excused from that board.
He told the Secretary of War that his judgment
was made up ; that he was against Porter ; that
he thought Porter was rightfully convicted,
and that he was not the man to go upon that
board. They still insisted, and he went there
with that prepossession. If there be an honor-
able man in the world it is Gen. Terry, and
that he came out of that board with the rec-
ommendation he did was the only thing that
ever staggered my judgment in the case. I have
recovered from that; I am obliged to differ
with some of the dearest friends I have in the
world, whose motives I can not for a moment
question, but I am equally sure that I am right ;
and that is the misfortune."

Mr. Cameron, of Pennsylvania, said: "Mr.
President, it is not my habit to give explana-
tions for votes that I cast, nor is it my inten-
tion now to depart from that rule, for it makes
but little difference how plausible 'are the argu-
ments which may be given on any subject; it
is the vote itself or its result which counts.

" My object in now rising is to speak of my
personal knowledge of Gen. Porter's connec-
tion with the war in its early history. I be-
lieve that I can state a few facts which came
under my own observation which will go far,
very far, to show that he, at the darkest mo-
ment of our great struggle, proved himself

244

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (THE FITZ-JOHN PORTEB CASE.)

as patriotic as any man in the history of the
nation.

"Fitz-John Porter, in April, 1861, then a
major on the staff of Gen. Scott, was sent by
the War Department to Harrishurg, Pa., to
aid the State authorities in organizing and for-
warding the troops of that State to the seat of
war at Washington. He had not been in the
State forty-eight hours before communication
by mail and telegraph was cut off between the
two cities, and he was left to act upon his own
responsibility. He was equal to the emergency.
Not only did he perform the duties to which
he had been assigned in Pennsylvania with
great zeal, tact, industry, and wonderful vigi-
lance, as will be and has been testified to by
the then State authorities, who were them-
selves without any military experience, but,
knowing the utterly helpless condition of the
authorities at Washington, he assumed author-
ity in the name of the commanding general,
and directed the movements of troops from
other States — particularly the troops from the
State of Ohio — who were en route to Washing-
ton and passing through Pennsylvania. He
never seemed to eat or to sleep, but was eter-
nally on the alert, cheering the men by his zeal
and his confidence, aiding the authorities by ad-
vice, and instructing them how to bring order
out of chaos.

" It became my duty to take charge of the
railroad from Harrisburg to Baltimore, and
while so engaged an incident occurred in my
office which impressed me greatly at the time,
and which, it has always seemed to me, should
atone to a great extent for any errors Gen.
Porter may have committed, if any, at a later
period of the war. It was to a great extent
through him, in my judgment, that the services
of Gen. George H. Thomas were secured to
the side of the Union.

"Gen. Thomas, then Major Thomas, was
stationed at Carlisle Barracks ; there were at
the same time two other majors of the army
stationed at the same place, I have forgotten
their names (but that is immaterial, for the
records of the War Department will show),
when an order was received from the War
Department by a messenger who came across
the country, directing Major Porter to send
the troops then at Carlisle to Washington, with
directions to have them cut their way through.
It is the language of this order which makes
me say that this was at one of the darkest
periods of the war. The capital of the nation
was menaced by an enemy camping within a
few^ miles of it, and had but a handful of men
for its protection.

"Porter, with a quick perception of the
gravity of the situation, and showing a thor-
ough knowledge of the fitness of the man for
the duty to be performed, selected Thomas
from the three majors, and ordered him to re-
port to him at my office in Harrisburg, that
being Porter's headquarters. Thomas arrived
there promptly the same evening. When in-

formed of the duty to be performed, Thomas
hesitated, and then began a conversation be-
tween the two officers which continued until
morning, and made a lasting impression on my
mind. Thomas argued against the war, taking
the ground that the trouble had been brought
upon the country by the abolitionists of the
North, and that while deploring it as sincerely
as any man could, the South had just cause for
complaint; Porter took the position that he,
Thomas, as a soldier had no right to look at
the cause of the trouble, but as an officer of
the United States army it was his duty to de-
fend his flag whenever it was attacked, wheth-
er by foes from without or from within. Por-
ter pleaded as zealously, as eloquently, as I have
ever heard any man plead a cause in which his
whole heart was engaged, and it was this plead-
ing which caused Thomas to arrive at a decis-
ion.

"I do not say that Thomas refused to obey
his orders, but I do say that he hesitated and
would much have preferred that the duty had
devolved upon another. Thomas was a Virgin-
ian, and had, as many other good and patriotic
men, great doubts as to the advisability of the
Government coercing the States back into the
Union that had by their Legislatures formally
withdrawn, but having that night decided to
remain with the Union, from that time for-
ward there was no doubt, no hesitancy, no
wavering, but an earnest, hearty support to the
side which had for its motto the maintenance
of the Union, and to-day his name is among
the brightest, best, and purest of its military
heroes. If Fitz-John Porter was to any extent
instrumental in saving this great name to our
list of military heroes, I ask should not this
country be grateful to him ? I think it should.

" As to Fitz-John Porter's action at the sec-
ond battle of Bull Run, for which he was tried,
I confess my inability to judge. Able military
men differ, both sides, in my belief, being
equally sincere in their convictions, and both
sides being anxious to do Porter justice and
justice only, as they view his acts. That there
is a prejudice against Porter in the minds of
many good people I know, and an instance
which came under my notice within the last
few days will fully illustrate it.

" I received a letter from a very worthy and
intelligent gentleman residing in Harrisburg,
in which he states that he has been reliably
informed that at the time Mr. Lincoln passed
through Harrisburg, in February, 1861, Fitz-
John Porter was with him, and when it was
determined that Mr. Lincoln would go via
Philadelphia by night instead of by day, direct
through Baltimore, that Porter protested most
violently ; and then the writer propounded the
question, ' Did not Porter know of the mob
which was waiting to meet him on ,his arriv-
al?' I replied to his letter as follows :

" I am in receipt of your letter of the 4th instant
and note what you say in reference to Fitz-John Por-
ter's opposition to President Lincoln's route to Wash-

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (THE FITZ-JOHN PORTER CASE.)

245

ington via Philadelphia in 1861. You are mistaken
as to that. Fitz-Jonn Porter was not in Harrisburg
at that time, nor did he reach there until after the
President's proclamation calling for 75,000 troops in
April, 1861. The officers who were detailed to ac-
company the President were Gen. Sumner, then Col.
Sumner, and Gen. John Pope, then Capt. Pope.
What their views were with regard to Mr. Lincoln's
change of route I do not recollect, but certainly Fitz-
John Porter was not in Harrisburg at that tune nor
was he until six weeks after.

" I believe Fitz-John Porter to have been a
loyal soldier of the Union, and whatever mis-
takes he committed were of the head and not
of the heart ; and therefore in justice to him
I make this statement."

Mr. Lapham, of New York, said: "Mr.
President, I desire to detain the Senate for
but a very few moments before the vote is
taken on this measure.

"The decision of the court-martial which
pronounced Col. Porter guilty was made on
the 10th of January, 1863. On the 21st of
that month it received the approval of Presi-
dent Lincoln. That court-martial, which is
admitted to have been a legally constituted
body, composed of able men, was in session a
period of forty-five days. They sat here in the
city of Washington, almost in sight of the
scenes of the transactions which constituted
the basis of the charges against Ool. Porter.'
~ had all the facilities possible to ascer-

n the exact condition of affairs, and they
the recollection of men fresh from the
?ene of action. That judgment stands unre-
rersed, and under the law irreversible. So far

it has been executed, it is beyond recall by
my power on earth ; so far as it is unexecuted,
" President of the United States, on the ap-
lication of Gen. Porter, has granted him a par-
Ion, the exercise of the pardoning power being
~ie only relief attainable.

"The advisory or Schofield board was called
id investigated this case in the year 1878.
?hey sat at West Point, and I desire to call
attention of the Senate to one of their find-
, which is the key to this whole question,

my view of it. They say :
" The evidence of bad animus in Porter's case
ceases to be material in view of the evidence of his
soldierly and faithful conduct. But it is our duty^ to
say that the indiscreet and unkind terms in which
Gen. Porter expressed his distrust of the capacity of
his superior commander can not be defended. And
to that indiscretion was due, in very great measure,
the misinterpretation of both his motives and his con-
duct and his consequent condemnation.

" Now, I am unwilling by my vote to assent
to the proposition that there was such a grave
indiscretion committed on the part of the
court-martial or on the part of the President
of the United States. The fact that Porter was
disloyal to his commanding officer is found by
this advisory board as a fact which can not be
excused, and that this is the foundation of the
whole of Porter's disobedience of the orders of
his superior commanding general. It all rests
there. Porter's fall was the ' first fruit of his
disobedience' and its legitimate result.

"The advisory board committed a grave
error in saying that the court-martial were
guilty of an indiscretion or that President Lin-
coln was guilty of an indiscretion. Mr. Porter
was dismissed the service at a time when we
wanted generals, and when there was no other
reason for dismissing him but a conviction ; he
was guilty. We do not want any more gen-
erals now. He has, by the action of the Presi-
dent, been relieved from the sentence and ren-
dered eligible to office, but this bill proposes
to go further than that, and create a place for
him, an extra position not provided for by the
law as it now stands. I can not consent to that.
I would as quick think of going to the city of
Springfield, in Illinois, and tearing the granite
base from the monument which has been erect-
ed to the memory of our martyred President,
and razing it to the ground, as 1 would consent
to or aid in tearing his signature from the
judgment of the court-martial, as confirmed by
him and executed until its execution was ar-
rested by the interposition of the pardoning
power."

Mr. Hoar, of Massachusetts, said : " I do not
propose to enter at this late period upon a
discussion of this case, but it seems to me
proper that I should state very briefly the
views which will govern me and have already
governed me in casting my own vote.

" I need not say that it has been one of the
most painful public responsibilities I have ever
encountered. I am bound by my duty as a
Senator to act upon a question which involves
the consideration of evidence relating to a sci-
ence ; relating to military transactions which
are very far removed from my own ordinary
experience and from the studies to which my
life has been given.

" I suppose a soldier called upon to deal
with the question of the conduct of a lawyer
in a complicated patent cause, or a question in-
volving contingent remainders, would not find
himself much more puzzled than I have been
in attempting to master some of the details
which relate to the important, intricate, rapid
military operations of the three or four days
which have been under discussion in this de-
bate. But still I am forced to do my best, and
I am bound to do it conscientiously, fearlessly,
without regard to any personal consequences
or anything else but the fact and the law as
they shall appear to my .mind upon such study
as I have been able to give.

"Now, Mr. President, what is the precise
attitude of this case? In the year 1863 a mili-
tary tribunal, composed of able and upright'
soldiers, condemned this officer for grave mili-
tary offenses, sentenced him to be cashiered
and sentenced him to be incapable of holding
any office of honor, trust, or profit under the
United States during the remainder of his life.
I regard that judgment as the final judgment of
a constitutional court. It is true that courts-
martial, whether in the army or in the navy,
like all other human mechanisms, are a very

246

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (THE Fixz-JonN POETEE CASE.)

imperfect method for the administration of
justice. Their rules of evidence are not those
which prevail in common-law tribunals. They
have no jury. The prosecution selects the
court. The action is had hastily, and when
the act is done there is an end.

" But I do not either criticise that arrange-
ment or mention it as affording any reason
whatever for failing to pay the same respect
to the conclusions of this court as if they were
the conclusions of the Supreme Court of the
United States, or of a Circuit Court where a
jury had been empaneled. The experience
and wisdom of civilized nations have been un-
able to devise any better system than this for
the trial of military or naval offenses. The
soldier who goes into battle, who takes his life
in his hand, who exposes his health and life,
who abandons all the ordinary occupations ot
life, exposes himself also, for the public good,
and as a public necessity, to having his rights,
his conduct, his life affected by tribunals of this
class. They are the best, and no soldier has a
right to complain.

" But it is also true that the pardoning power,
as I believe, for the sentences of such courts is
properly lodged in the President of the United
States ; and it is also true that Congress has
the undoubted clear constitutional right, if it
conceive any injustice has been done, to permit
the restoration to the army or navy of an offi-
cer whom a court-martial has caused to be dis-
missed. Since I have been in the Senate, nu-
merous cases have arisen where officers cash-
iered for drunkenness have been restored, by
permission of an act of Congress, to their for-
mer rank in the army or navy, Congress act-
ing, if not with absolute unanimity, by large
and emphatic majorities.

"Now, what are we asked to do? We are
not asked now to reverse the judgment of this
court-martial. We are not asked to give or
provide for a new trial, as we were asked two
or three years ago. In my own judgment that
can not lawfully be done, even by the consent
and on the motion of the accused himself.
Gen. Porter is out of the army, and I do not
think, even by his consent, we could provide
for a retrial of this cause. If we could, the
tribunal retrying it might now sentence him to
be shot — a man in time of peace, a man not
belonging to army or navy, without a trial by
jury or right of appeal to the higher courts.

" But the last Chief Magistrate of the United
States, Mr. Hayes, being of opinion that by the
access to Confederate testimony one half of the
case previously unknown might be disclosed,
summoned, for his advice and to his assistance,
a board composed of high and intelligent army
officers. As has been well said, that board was
not a lawful board in the sense of having power
to administer oaths or to render a binding judg-
ment; but it was the only course open to the
President of the United States to have these
facts investigated by some competent authority,
for his information and for ours. That board

made its report, and upon that report the pres-
ent President of the United States, Mr. Arthur,
has pardoned the offense.

" I do not agree with those Senators who
think it is a condemnation of, much less an
insult to, the memory of President Lincoln
or to the memory of President Garfield, a
member of the original court, or anybody else,
to grant this officer the relief which is asked.
Was it ever heard before that the Executive,
in issuing a pardon, especially a pardon on
newly-discovered evidence, insulted the court
or jury who found the original verdict or passed
the original sentence? Is every new trial grant-
ed by a court with a different verdict an insult
to the original court, especially when it is upon
newly-discovered evidence? Suppose Presi-
dent Lincoln should have disapproved the find-
ing of the original tribunal, as he did of many
a court-martial. I have yet to learn that a dif-
ference in judgment, not on the same facts but
on the same facts taken with others, is any re-
proach to the person with whom you so differ.

" The present head of the army, as I have
said, under his official executive responsibility,
has thought fit to pardon this officer and to re-
mit what remains of the sentence, and that is
the only action which in the least modifies or
trenches upon, or can modify or trench upon,
the act of the original court- martial.

" Now it is asked, giving such weight as we
choose to the action of the President, giving
such weight as we choose to the newly-adduced
evidence, giving such weight as we choose to
the opinion of the head of the army at the close
of the rebellion and the executive head of the
army for eight years after the rebellion ended,
that we shall pass an act which simply permits
hereafter the President and the Senate, if they
see fit, to restore this man to the army so far
as that he may be placed upon the retired list,
at the discretion of the President. In other
words, this present bill does not deal with the
question of the guilt or innocence of Fitz-Jolm
Porter in terms and technicality ; it only author-
izes the President of the United States here-
after, with the advice and consent of the Sen-
ate, to treat him as a person eligible to the
office which he formerly held, under the par-
ticular circumstances.

" Is there sufficient reason for such action ?
I do not, of course if I were capable, I should
not at this time undertake to go over the evi-
dence in detail ; but this thing is true, as it
seems to me : Gen. Porter was condemned by
that court-martial in ignorance of such facts
in regard to the military situation of the 28th
and 29th of August, 1862, as could be learned
from the reports and testimony of men who
were opposed to him in those days.

" In the judgment of these high military au-
thorities, including the President of the United
States charged with his official responsibility,
that newly-disclosed evidence makes a new case.
I am not now speaking of the 6.30 order of
the afternoon of the 27th, but of the charge of

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (THE FITZ-JOHN POETBH CASE.)

247

a failure to attack, a failure to advance and go
to the assistance of the troops in battle, and
the charge of having retreated during the ac-
tion, whether you call it a battle or a series of
actions, on the 28th of August ; and these high
military authorities declare that upon the study
which they have given this has become a new
and different case. The case on which this
man was tried is not the case which is now
presented to those who in any responsible sit-
uation have to try it.

" Mr. President, it seems to me, on a full ex-
amination of this evidence, that the evidence
is such as to afford a fair support to that opin-
ion. I recognize the great military authorities
that are opposed to it. I do not think if I were
to select mere authority on which my judgment
was to be guided that I should select two men
in the United States on whom I would place
higher reliance than two members of the pres-
ent Committee on Military Affairs, the Senator
from Illinois (Mr. Logan) and the Senator from
Connecticut (Mr. Hawley). The Senator from
Illinois is himself an illustrious soldier. He is
himself accustomed to deal with evidence as a
lawyer. The training of his life, both civil and
military, has fitted him to deal with such ques-
tions. And I do not think that any authority
on the other side as mere authority is entitled
to greater weight than his. I should also place
very great reliance in such a case upon the
opinion of my distinguished and illustrious
friend from Connecticut, who concurs with
the Senator from Illinois in this case. But it
does seem to me, looking at the case as well as
I am able to do, that the newly-discovered evi-
dence, whether the conclusion as to Porter's
guilt or innocence might be the same, does
lake out a case so different in the circum-
ices that it warrants us in passing a law
rhich shall permit the President if he see fit,
id the Senate if hereafter it shall see fit, to
How this man for the little remnant of his
lays to be restored to his old profession.
" Then yon. come to the specification in re-
ird to the disobedience of orders on August
Tth — the 6.30 order. Who can believe that if
le other facts in the cace had been out of the
ray the court or President Lincoln ever would
have sentenced this man to the severe punish-
ment to which he was sentenced on that find-
ing alone? Whether it be true or not true
that the military law required an attempt to
march over that road that night, encumbered
with wagons to the extent to which it was, the
extent being in dispute, or not; or whether
that officer, being an officer with a separate
command, receiving his order from a superior
ignorant of the precise condition of things
which he had to meet — whether the military
law and custom permitted him under such cir-
cumstances a discretion or not, this thing is, it
seems to me, well established, that a very large
number of able, honest, experienced military
men were in the habit of exercising and in the
habit of permitting the exercise of such dis-

cretion ; and who can believe that he being
wrong in an opinion in regard to a state of
facts in which, if he was wrong, Grant is
wrong, in which if he was wrong Longstreet is
wrong, in which if he was wrong Terry is wrong,
in which if he was wrong Schofield is wrong
and Getty is wrong — who can believe that if
this single specification stood alone, General
Porter would have been condemned with this
severity of sentence ?

" Mr. President, we are not wiping out the
sentence of Fitz-John Porter. That man has
tasted for twenty years the bitterness of that
judgment. No cup of death was ever presented
to human lips which, it seems to me, could be
so bitter as that which has been the daily and
the nightly draught for twenty years of this
officer, who, at least, once and some time de-
served well of the republic.

" Will the Senator from Illinois say that the
President of the United States, in pardoning
this man, meant to affront or did affront the
great and mighty shades of Lincoln and of Gar-
field? He thought that in the doubt upon this
question it was time at least that justice should
stop and that mercy should have her place.
Over that name honored for generations in the
military and naval history of this country — you
can hardly look upon the stars and stripes on
our flag that you do not think of the name of
Porter — for twenty years has rested the burden
of this shame, worse than death, worse than
torture, and no act of Congress, no act of God
can wipe that away.

" Not Fate herself can o'er the past have power,
But what has been has been.

" And he has had, in shame and agony — he
has had his hour.

" Now, Mr. President, I do not know what
bitter passion, I do not know what prejudice,
I do not know what honest love of country, I
do not know what feeling of a patriotic and
generous soldiery may be encountered by the
vote I am about to cast. I know this, that I
would rather incur almost anything myself
than to incur the disapprobation of some men
whom I shall seriously grieve by the conclu-
sion to which I have come. It is not an easy
thing for a Republican, a partisan, a man
whose life has been given to the advocacy and
the support of the doctrines of this party, to
incur the disapprobation and the condensa-
tion of his political friends who sit about him
on a great question of state ; but I thank God
that after hesitation and doing my best to dis-
cover what my duty requires he has given me
the grace to perform it.

"I do not believe, studying- this testimony,
that the burden of this condemnation ought to
rest longer upon the head of this man unless
on such re-examination of the facts as it will
be the duty of President Arthur hereafter to
give, and on such re -examination of the facts
as it will be the duty of the Senate .hereafter
to give, one or the other (for it will require
the concurrence of both to restore him) should

248

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (INOEEASE OF PENSIONS.)

be of opinion that he ought not to be re-
stored.

" So thinking, Mr. President, I believe that
if Abraham Lincoln sat in this seat to-day and
could read the testimony which has come from
the reports of Longstreet and of Lee, chang-
ing, as it seems to me, so materially the mili-
tary situation of that day, the vote of Abra-
ham Lincoln, with his kind heart, with his
sound sense, and his fearless independence in
doing right, would be cast as I mean to cast
my own."

The bill was passed by the following vote:

YEAS— Barrow, Beck, Brown, Butler, Call, Cam-
den, Cameron of Pennsylvania, Cockrell, Coke, Da-
vis of West Virginia, Farley, Garland, George, Gor-
man, Groome, Hampton, Hoar, Jackson, Jonas, Jones
of Florida, Lamar, Maxey, -Morgan, Pen dleton, Pugh,
Ransom, Saulsbury, Sewcll, Slater, Vance, Vest,Voor-
hees, Walker— 33.

NATS— Aldrich, Anthony, Blair, Cameron of Wis-
consin, Chilcott, Conger, Davis of Illinois, Dawes,
Edmunds, Frye, Hale, Harrison. Hawley, Hill, In-
galls, Kellogg, Logan, McDill, McMillan, Miller of
California, Miller of New York, Morrill, Platt, Plumb,
Kollins, Sawyer, Windorn — 27.

ABSENT — Allison, Bayard, Fair, Ferry, Grover, Har-
ris, Johnston, Jones of Nevada, Laphain, McPher-
son, Mahone, Mitchell, Saunders, Sherman, Van
Wyck, Williams— 16.

The preamble was then adopted by a sepa-
rate vote. It was as follows :

Whereas, The board of Army officers convened by
the President of the United States by special orders
numbered 78; headquarters of the Army, April 12,

1878, to examine into and report upon the case of Fitz-
John Porter, late a major-general of the United States
volunteers and a brevet brigadier-general and colonel
of the Army, having, by their report of March 19,

1879, stated that, in their opinion, "justice requires at
his [the President's] hands such action as may be ne-
cessary to annul and set aside the findings and sen-
tence of the court-martial in the case of Maj.-Gen.
Fitz-John Porter, and to restore him to the position
of which that sentence deprived him, such restora-
tion to take effect from the date of dismissal from the
service" ; and

Whereas, The President, on the 4th day of May,
1882, remitted so much of the sentence of said court-
martial remaining unexecuted as " forever disquali-
fied the said Fitz-John Porter from holding any office
of trust or profit under the Government of the United
States " : Therefore, that justice may be done the said
Fitz-John Porter, and to carry into eifect the recom-
mendation of said board.

The consideration of the measure was ob-
jected to in the House, Jan. 17th, and so it
failed.

Increase of Pensions. — The House bill increas-
ing the rate of pensions of soldiers that have
lost an arm or a leg in the service was taken
up in the Senate Feb. 26th. It was as fol-
lows:

Beit enacted, etc,, That from and after the passage
of this act all persons on the pension-roll, and all
persons hereafter granted a pension, who, while in
the military or naval service of the United States, and
in the line of duty, shall have lost one arm, one hand,
one leg, or one foot, or shall have suffered disability
equal thereto, shall be entitled to a pension of $40 per
month.

It was discussed at some length, and vari-
ous amendments were proposed and defeated,

among them one for pensioning veterans of the
Mexican and Indian wars up to 1856. In dis-
cussing this question, Mr. Hoar, of Massachu-
setts, said:

" I hope the Senator will not insist on em-
barrassing this question with that which re-
lates to a wholly different war. I am in favor
of pensioning every surviving veteran of the
Mexican War on precisely the same terms, or
on better terms, than were allowed to veterans
of the Revolution, at the same distance of time
from the close of that war, or on the same
terms, or better terms, than were allowed to
veterans of the War of 1812, at the same dis-
tance of time from the close of that war, or on
the same terms that are allowed to veterans of
our late war ; but I am not in favor of putting
upon the pension-roll of this country surviving
veterans of the Mexican War whose disabilities
have not been removed, and who contemptu-
ously refuse to have their disabilities removed.
I have no desire to say anything which will ex-
cite angry debate or unpleasant recollections,
but the Senate know very well what 1 refer to
when I make this observation ; and, if it be-
comes necessary, it is a subject which I shall
discuss with great plainness.

" This proposition would put upon the pen-
sion-roll persons who contemptuously refuse
the amnesty of the Government. It would put
upon the pension-roll also men who are rich,
hale, strong, in active and robust middle life,
when that never has been done by this Gov-
ernment in regard to the veterans of any oth-
er war. The veteran of the Revolution was
obliged to prove, for nearly forty years after
that war closed, his need, and to accompany
his proof with a schedule of his real and per-
sonal property. I should not for one be dis-
posed to make such a requisition in regard to
any living survivng veteran. The veteran of
the War of 1812 was not put upon the pension-
roll without regard to his need until the young-
est surviving veteran of that war had reached
the age of seventy-eight years and most of them
had reached the age of over eighty-four years,
so that age itself was a disability. The de-
pendent father, the dependent mother, of the
soldier of our late war for the Union is obliged
to prove that dependence and need in order to
obtain a pension ; and the veteran himself,
though twenty years have elapsed, does not
receive a pension except in case of a disability.
Why should the survivors of the Mexican War
and of the Indian wars be singled out from
every other class of soldiers, and have a bounty
extended to them which we have not extended
to anybody else ?

" I wish to call attention to the fact that the
Senate, as I believe, has been ready, this side
of the chamber has been ready (of course those
soldiers are upon the pension-rolls under the
general pension law), to extend to the veterans
of the Mexican and Indian wars a liberal poli-
cy, which will enable all those who are in need
and who are under no existing disability to re-

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (INCREASE OF PENSIONS.)

249

ive the pension of the Government if they
desire it."

Mr. Call, of Florida, said : " Mr. President,
I do not propose to detain the Senate with any
discussion on this question. For four years I
have been endeavoring to get some little tardy
justice done to the veterans of the Indian wars
and to those of the war with Mexico. Bill after
bill, resolution after resolution, has been re-
ferred to the Committee on Pensions, but no
report has ever been obtained, either favorable
or unfavorable.

" I apprehend that nobody can deny, upon
the principles upon which this bill is proposed
to be voted for, that the survivors of the Mexi-
can War and the survivors of the Indian wars,
that conquered the territory from the savages
and acquired it from foreign countries, ought
to be pensioned, especially those who are in
destitution, those who are a disgrace to the
country, because they are left to strive in ab-
solute penury and want, as time after time,
year after year, bill after bill, resolution of
legislature after legislature are brought to
Congress appealing for this small meed of jus-
tice to men who have served their country gal-
lantly and well, and who are in absolute need
and destitution. I therefore think that there
can be no question that as a matter of doing jus-
tice to soldiers of another war this is a proper
amendment to be attached to this bill.

" There never has been an occasion when I
have not aided in granting reasonable pensions
through the system of special bills, which is
the appropriate and proper system of relief,
because a man may have lost one leg or one
arm or some other member of the body and
still be a capable and an efficient man, able to
take care of himself and to acquire a living.
A remedy has always been afforded, and it is
the proper way to afford relief by special bill
in Congress for a special case. I have never
refused and I have voted time and again upon
special bills for the relief of pensioners whose
cases were special, and who required a larger
amount than the amount appropriated by the
general bill. In my judgment that is the
proper system. No man who has been a sol-
dier and who has done his duty gallantly and
well and is in a state of suffering, should be al-
lowed to want for the adequate means of sub-
sistence and comfortable support. The system
of special bills is the only mode in which his
particular case can be reached ; it can not be
done by a general bill.

'" As I said, it does not follow because a
man has lost one arm or one leg that he is not
a more capable and efficient man than those
not so wounded. He may have lost none, and
yet be the victim of the most severe and ex-
treme suffering and incapacity.

u In my opinion the bill does not meet the
necessities of the soldiers. I for one have al-
ways voted and I am always willing to vote to
the full extent of the capacity of this country
to pay, and to pay liberally, every soldier who

is in need that amount which is necessary for
his comfortable support. That is the reason
why this amendment should pass, pensioning
the survivors, now but few in number, of the
Mexican War and of the Indian wars. The
legislature, I believe, of every State at differ-
ent times has passed resolutions recommend-
ing it.

" If the Senator from Massachusetts can see
in the present condition of the country, twen-
ty years after the war of the rebellion, a neces-
sity for putting upon the amendment some
condition which shall attach to persons who
have not applied for and received an amnesty,
let the amendment be proposed, and if it is
the pleasure of a majority of the Senate that
it shall be passed, let it be done. There is no
reason why this amendment should not be
passed. If he wishes to apply to it terms which
shall limit it to the indigent soldiers, to those
who are in absolute destitution, let such an
amendment be proposed."

Mr. Morgan, of Alabama, said : " It is true
that the veterans of the Mexican War have
been a long time lingering here, petitioning
the Congress of the United States for some
recognition of their services. They perish one
by one. A great many of them are living
now in the last remnants of their lives in ab-
ject poverty. I know some of them myself
who are in extreme necessity. The Congress
of the United States refuses to allow them an
opportunity even to prove that they are in a
necessitous condition, and, while doing that,
Congress is adding by this bill more than twice
the amount of money which the Senator from
Florida proposes to pay them by way of addi-
tion to men who are already receiving pen-
sions and have been enjoying the bounty of
this Government for years together.

"This is a crying, shocking injustice. It
is an outrage upon the respectability of the
American character. It is an act of base in-
gratitude, and it is done by men who received
and have in their possession a domain brought
as a dower to the people of the United States
greater than Caesar ever brought to Rome.

" No set of men have ever suffered in the
cause of their country so heroically, so pa-
triotically as the soldiers of the Mexican War,
for the reason that they are the only class of
men who have been called to invade a foreign
country. All the other men who have fought
and bled and suffered on this continent have
done so in defense of their own homes and
firesides; they have done so in respect to a
principle which animates every honorable man
in the world. A man who will not fight for
his own homestead and for his own family
and his own fireside is not worthy of the re-
spect of mankind ; he is not worthy of their
confidence or of their bounty. When he has
done so I am willing that the country shall be
liberal and generous toward him. When you
carry your flag into a foreign country, and it
is followed by the brave men who volunteer

250

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (!NOBEASE OF PENSIONS.)

in the service of your country, and they come
back bearing it in victory and triumph to
their own Government, laying at the feet of
power in the Government of the United States
a domain the richness of which is incalculable,
beyond all calculation, then for us to turn to
those old men when they are perishing one by
one, and tell them that we will not grant them
$8 a month with which to buy their bread, will
only prove the ingratitude and the baseness of
this generation.

" When that subject is presented a Senator
rises on this floor and makes a threat that he
will make some very plain remarks about the
political opinions of some of the men who
fought when that Senator was a boy, perhaps
a youth at college somewhere. For the pur-
pose of preventing the Government of the
United States from giving those men an op-
portunity to keep out of the poor-house the
Senator says that he will have some plain re-
marks to make about something that they
have done since that time. Let him make
his remarks; let him wage his war against
those men.

"We have no right to deny to those men
this contribution to their necessities in their
old age and in their infirmity; it makes no
difference what their opinions may be, it
makes no difference what they have done
against this country. If one of them had been
consigned to the penitentiary and had served
out his term he would have a right to claim
the bounty of this Government for services
which he rendered before the stigma of con-
viction fell upon him. If one of them was
engaged in the rebellion and has since been
pardoned by the general amnesty of the Gov-
ernment of the United States, he is restored to
all his rights and privileges as freely and as
fully as the Senator from Massachusetts.

"This complaint against one or two indi-
viduals in the United States is constantly
paraded here for the purpose of gaining an
opportunity to deny justice to thousands and
tens of thousands, I am afraid there are, of the
survivors of the Mexican War.

" There are about 8,000 of them. While we
are bestowing money under a bill which Sena-
tors variously estimate at from five million to
fifty million dollars to men who have done
nothing except to serve their country around
their own firesides and protect and defend
them against a domestic foe, while those men
professed to be, and I have no doubt were act-
ing in obedience to one of the highest instincts
and impulses of every honorable spirit in the
world, while we are rewarding them and do-
ing it properly for the service they rendered,
we are refusing to reward the men who car-
ried our flag into a foreign country, and who
came back to us loaded with an empire of
wealth the like of which no country ever ac-
quired before with so little expenditure of
blood or of treasure.

" Sir, the results of the Mexican War to the

people of the United States in actual dollars
and cents are greater than any conquest that
can be named which has been achieved in a
single war by the Anglo-Saxon people; and
we, the inheritors of this vast wealth, with
overflowing coffers, with a Treasury that we
are trying to deplete by every measure that
we know, now refuse the bread of life to the
poor men who bore this banner in their youth
to victory in a foreign land, and have returned
only to experience the truth that this country
is ungrateful to them.

" I have now said all that I expect to say on
this occasion about this bill. I expect the
proposition again to be trampled under foot,
again to be voted down, and it will be two
years, yes, it will be five times two years, be-
fore the Senate of the United States will get
its consent to give those men $8 a month; and
while we are refusing that we will run back
upon the pension-list and we will vote a sum
of money that amounts to $100,000,000 a year
to men who have got no higher claim to the
gratitude of this country than that they fought
for their own homesteads, their own families,
and their own firesides."

Mr. Voorhees, of Indiana, said : " Mr. Presi-
dent, there is one part of the amendment of
the Senator from New Hampshire that I accept,
and that is that the beneficiaries of this pro-
vision shall take the oath of allegiance. I care
nothing for that, but I would ask no man to
proclaim his indigence. I would ask no man
to certify to his destitution and poverty. That
is mean charity.

" Men who have rendered distinguished ser-
vices that the whole world recognizes should
not be brought to the block, as it were, to cer-
tify that they are poor and want their pauper's
soup-bowl filled by Government charity.

" Whether we have gone as far from the
scenes of the Mexican War as we did from
those of the Revolutionary War or the War of
1812 before we granted pensions is not the
question. The soldiers of the Mexican War
achieved such success in a material sense as
should disarm the economy or the avarice, or
whatever else you may call it, of members of
Congress. If a statue of gold were erected at
full life-size to every surviving Mexican soldier
it would not be one-quarter of 1 per cent, of
what they have given this Government. Let
me repeat it : If a statue of gold, life-size,
were erected by our Government to every
surviving soldier who fought the battles in
Mexico, it would not cost one-quarter of 1
per cent, of that which they acquired for this
Government. I state that simply materially
considered, considered in point of dollars and
cents ; but when you estimate the glory which
they gave this country throughout the world.
the renown which they achieved, it can not
be estimated even in statues of gold.

"I was deeply impressed with the letter
read by the Senator from Tennessee (Mr. Jack-
son), stating that while we are asking addition-

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (!NCKEASE OF PENSIONS.)

251

al vaults and chambers to relieve those that
are now plethoric with the precious metals ac-
quired by the valor of those men, the remnant
of whom we are speaking for, it is objected
to, and there is a parsimonious and higgling
spirit in regard to allowing them anything.

"I once before on this floor took occasion
to speak of this question as it really exists, and
that is as a sectional question. New England
had but little share in the Mexican War. We
might as well tell the truth while we are go-
ing along. State after State in New England
had no concern in it. The State of the Sena-
tor from Massachusetts had but little share in
it except by purchased troops. Other States
in New England had not one single soldier
there.

" I intend to advertise the country again of
the fact that New England was opposed to
that war and had no troops there. I will
qualify that expression to this extent : when I
say that New England had no troops there I
do not mean literally that there was nobody
there from New England, but I do mean that
New England gave no support to the Mexican
War. I mean further that I can take a map
and outline the boundaries of this Government
as it would have been if New England had had
her policy. She fought Jefferson. Jefferson
purchased Louisiana, with her outlying, vast,
and vague boundaries, and New England
wanted to impeach him. James K. Polk,
another Democratic President, fought the war
with Mexico, and New England fought him.

" The results of Jefferson's purchase are
known and the results of the Mexican War are
known.

" If the policy of New England had pre-
vailed, if the old Federal idea had obtained,
this day and this hour I would hold up on the
floor of the Senate the map of the United
States bounded on the west by the Mississippi
river. The Senator from Massachusetts well
knows that fact. I challenge him to show a
single instance where New England has ever
advocated the advancement of the standard
of this country beyond tho Mississippi river.
When I say that I say it with regard, so far as
he is personally concerned, because I call to
mind while saying it a most liberal, broad, and
national letter of his last summer on the sub-
ject of the improvement of the Mississippi
river. I do not include him in any criticism of
the policy of the past, but I speak of the past
as it is. If this hour the policy of the old Fed-
eral party was stamped upon the map of the
United States, it would be found as it is hung
up in the office of the Commissioner of the
Land-Office, at the Department of the Interior.
I have looked upon it, and I proclaim here
that every step beyond, every step on the sun-
set side of the Father of Waters, is due to the
spirit, policy, action, and legislation of the
Democratic party, and in direct hostility and
triumph over the policy of New England and
the Federal party of that section.

" I find every time that the question of pay-
ing these old veterans who exist in a few num-
bers in each county in the United States ex-
cept New England, ten or fifteen in the various
counties, poor, humble, waiting — whenever a
question arises here to do something for them,
however small, it is encountered by that section
of the country which had neither sympathy,
action, nor men in that movement.

" I do not know that the amendment of the
Senator from Florida is to obtain to-night. I
expect not. It will be obstructed in some way.
I did not intend to advocate a single amend-
ment to the original bill 1410, that came
here from the House, nor did I. I opposed
every one of them. I voted against the amend-
ment of the Senator from New Hampshire,
which I thought very well of. I opposed the
amendment of the Senator from Connecticut,
which is not entirely objectionable, but I
wanted this bill that came from the House,
pure and simple, to help one-legged and one-
armed men, to pass, and so I voted against
amendments that were in themselves merito-
rious.

"But now, inasmuch as the amendment of
the Senator from Connecticut has been adopt-
ed, I shall vote for one more ; I shall vote for
this amendment offered by the Senator from
Florida. I would not vote for it, much as I
approve of it, if the bill had not already been
amended; I would keep it pure and clean;
but whenever the question of paying the sur-
vivors of the Mexican War comes before the
Senate I shall adhere to what I have heretofore
said, that I shall meet this question, always
raised on the part of New England in the in-
terest of economy, but I think in the interest
of an ancient policy on their part, as I have
met it here to-night."

Mr. Edmunds, of Vermont, said : "I do not
know any reason why a professional man who
is destitute and who served his country should
be excluded from the benefit of his country's
gratitude, while the man who is not a profes-
sional man should receive it. That is not the
way to tempt professional people and mercan-
tile people, and all the other body of people ex-
cept day-laborers, to uphold the flag of their
country. The amendment itself, therefore, if it
means what my friend thinks it does, proceeds
upon a false theory, in my view. But no matter
for that, I do not want to take up time about
that.

" The difference between the case we have
in hand, the men whose legs and arms are gone,
and the case the Senator from Mississippi states,
is this : In this case we know that these people
are in their present condition in consequence of
their service ; the indigent survivors of the Mex-
ican War who do not already have pensions for
disability incurred in the line of duty are indi-
gent, are sick, or in trouble, not because they
were soldiers of the United States, but because
like the rest of mankind they are subject to the
infirmities of human nature and to the changes

252

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. (BILLS PASSED.)

and chances of this mortal life. I do not mean
to say that that is not a reason why our grati-
tude should be applied to them, but I say it
marks a clear distinction that we ought to ob-
serve— unless we mean to destroy this bill for
the benefit of those whose legs and arms are
gone, which I can not impute to the Senator
from Mississippi, a distinction that we ought
to observe, and not embarrass one thing that
we all agree about, I hope, by another that is
not so clear.

" Now, when you come to the question of
pensioning people who have served their coun-
try in war because they are now in need, what
difference do years make? Why should not the
soldier of the Union of 1861 to 1865 who is now
indigent, and in trouble and distress, be just
as much entitled to the gratitude of his country
as the soldier of the Mexican War who is now
indigent and in trouble and distress, I should
like to know? I am unable to see that time
has any thing to do with that question. I should
be glad to have somebody explain how it can
have.

" We did pension all the survivors of the
Revolutionary War fifty or sixty years after-
ward, because they, like a great many other
things that happened at that time, as long peri-
ods of years went on, became mere monuments
of national glory, a few people scattered here
and there that the country was able and glad
to decorate them with this honor, as well as to
provide for them in their old age. I repeat that
in my opinion there is no distinction in prin-
ciple between providing for the indigent sol-
diers of the war for the Union, if I may call it
so— others call it the war between the States,
the civil war, and so on — there is no distinc-
tion in principle that can be made between the
Mexican soldiers and the soldiers of 1861-'65
if you put it on the ground of necessity. But I
say in either case that the question that is be-
fore the Senate on this House bill as amended
is an entirely different one from the one pro-
posed by the Senator from Mississippi, and if
I did not know his patriotic impulses 1 should
suspect that the effect might be (as I am afraid
it may be, though the purpose may be a legiti-
mate and parliamentary purpose) to destroy
this measure for the people who stand before
our eyes, maimed for all their lives in the ser-
vice of their country, to have this little addition
to their support, by getting up a question of
this kind."

Finally, Feb. 28th, an amendment was adopt-
ed to strike out all after "duty," and insert the
following :

Shall have lost one hand or one foot, or been totally
or permanently disabled in the same, or otherwise so
disabled as to render their incapacity to perform man-
ual labor equivalent to the loss of a hand or a foot,
shall receive a pension of $24 per month ; that all per-
sons now on the pension-roll, and all persons hereaf-
ter granted a pension, who in like manner shall have
lost either an arm at or above the elbow, or a leg at
or above the knee, or shall have been otherwise so
disabled as to be incapacitated for performing any

manual labor, but not so much as to require regular
personal aid and attendance, shall receive a pension
of $30 per month : Provided, That nothing contained
in this act shall be construed to repeal section 4699 of
the Revised Statutes of the United States, or to change
the rate of $18 per month therein mentioned to be
proportionately divided for any degree of disability
established for which section 4695 makes no provision.

The bill was then passed by the following
vote :

YEAS — Aldrich, Allison, Blair, Cockrell, Confer,
Davis of Illinois, Dawes, Hale, Harrison, Hill, Hoar
Ingalls, Lapham, Logan, McDill, McMillan, Miller
of New York, Mitchell, Morrill, Platt, Plumb, Eollins,
Saivyer, Sewell, Sherman, Vest, Voorhees — 27.

NAYS— Barrow, Bayard, Beck Call, Coke, Garland,
George, Harris, Jonas, Maxey, Morgan, Pugh, Walker,
Williams— 14.

ABSENT — Anthony, Brown, Butler, Camden, Cam-
eron of Pennsylvania, Cameron of Wisconsin, Davis
of West Virginia, Edmunds, Fair, Farley, Ferry,
Frye, Gorman, Groome, Grover, Hampton, Haw ley,
Jackson, Johnston, Jones of Florida, Jones of Ne-
vada, Kellogg, Lamar, McPherson, Mahone, Miller
of California, Pendleton, Ransom, Saulsbury, Saun-
ders, Slater, Tabor, Vance, Van Wyck, Windom— 35.

March 2d, the House concurred in the Senate
amendment, and March 3d the President ap-
proved the bill, and it became a law.

Bills Passed. — Apart from the measures al-
ready considered, the regular appropriation
bills, and bills of a private character, the fol-
lowing measures were passed at the second
session of the Forty-seventh Congress and re-
ceived the approval of the President :

To provide for the erection of a monument to the
memory of Maj.-Gen. the Baron de Kalb.

To permit grain brought by Canadian farmers to be
ground at mills in the United States adjacent to Cana-
dian territory under such rules and regulations as may
be prescribed by the Treasury Department.

To extend the time for filing claims for horses and
equipments lost by officers and enlisted men in the
service of the United States and for other purposes.

To reimburse the State of Oregon for moneys paid
by said State in suppression of Indian hostilities dur-
ing the Modoc War in the years 1872 and 1873.

In relation to certain fees allowed registers and re-
ceivers.

To amend section 3362 of Revised Statutes.

Prescribing regulations for the Soldiers' Home, lo-
cated at Washington, in the District of Columbia, and
for other purposes.

To amend an act donating public lands to the sev-
eral States and Territories which may provide colleges
for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts.

To authorize the construction of certain bridges and
to establish them as post-roads.

To increase the fees of witnesses in United States
courts in certain cases.

Authorizing the Commissioner of the Freedman's
Savings and Trust Company to examine and audit cer-
tain claims against said company, and to pay certain
dividends barred by the act of Feb. 21, 1881, and for
other purposes.

To amend section 3780 of the Revised Statutes.

To encourage the holding of a World's Industrial
and Cotton Centennial Exposition in the year 1884.

To amend sections 6 and 7 of the act providing for
the publication of the Revised Statutes and the laws
of the United States, approved June 20, 1876.

Providing for the termination of articles numbered
18 to 25, inclusive, and of article numbered 30 of the
treaty between the United States of America and her
Britannic Majesty concluded at Washington, May 8,
1871.

CONGRESS, UNITED STATES.

CONNECTICUT.

253

To refund to the State of Georgia certain moneys
expended by said State for the common defense m

To afford assistance and relief to Congress and the
Executive Departments in the investigation of claims
and demands against the Government.

Making Saint Vincent, in the State of Minnesota, a
port of entry in lieu of Peinbina, in the Territory of
Dakota.

To amend section 4214 of the Revised Statutes, relat-
ing to yachts.

To amend section 1860 of the Revised Statutes so as
to exclude retired army officers' from holding civil of-
fice in the Territories.

Amending sections 1926 and 1927 of the Revised
Statutes so as to extend the limits of the .jurisdiction of
justices of the peace in the Territories of Washington,
Idaho, and Montana.

Relating to exportation of tobacco, snuff, and cigars
in bond free of tax to adjacent foreign territory.

To exclude the public lands in Alabama from the
operation of the laws relating to mineral lands.

Authorizing and directing the Postmaster-General
to readjust the salaries of certain postmasters in ac-
cordance with the provisions of section 8 of the act of
June 12, 1866.

Supplementary to an act approved Dec. 17j 1872,
entitled "An act to authorize the construction of
bridges across the Ohio river, and to prescribe the
dimensions of the same."

To amend the act entitled " An act to repeal the
discriminating duty on goods produced east of the
Cape of Good Hope," approved May 4? 1882.

To authorize the construction of bridges over the
Ogeechee, Oconee, Ocmulgee, Flint, and Chattahoo-
chee rivers in the State of Georgia.

To authorize the construction of a bridge across the
Thames river near New London, in the State of Con-
necticut.

_ To establish a railroad-bridge across the Illinois
river, extending from a point within five miles of Co-
lumbiana, in Greene county, to a point within five
miles of Farrowtown, in Cafhoun county, in the State
of Illinois.

For the allowance of certain claims reported by the
accounting officers of the United States Treasury De-
partment.

To establish certain post- routes.

To amend an act entitled " An act to authorize the
itruction of a bridge across the Missouri river at
most accessible point within five miles above the

y of Saint Charles, Missouri," approved April 14,

To create three additional land districts in the Ter-
ry of Dakota.

To prevent the importation of adulterated and spu-
>us teas.

To adjust the salaries of postmasters.
Relative to the Southern Exposition to be held in
- city of Louisville, State of Kentucky, in the year

To authorize the construction of a bridge across the
uri river at some accessible point within ten
dies below and five miles above the city of Kansas
ity, Missouri.

Providing for a new mixed commission in accord-
ance with the treaty of April 26, 1866, with the United
States of Venezuela.

Validating certain contracts executed by the Post-
master-General.

To provide for the admission, free of duty, of arti-
cles for a special exhibition of machinery, tools, im-
plements, apparatus, etc., for the generation and ap-
plication of electricity, to be held at Philadelphia by
the Franklin Institute.

To admit free of duty a monument to Gen. "Wash-
ington.

Granting right of way to the Fremont, Elk Horn
Valley, and Missouri River Railroad Company across
the Niobrara military reservation, in the State of Ne-

braska, and authorizing the sale of a portion of said
reservation.

To ratify the issuance of duplicate checks in certain
cases by the Superintendent of the Mint of the United
States at San Francisco.

To authorize the Seneca nation of Indians, of the State
of New York, to grant title to lands for cemetery pur-

Authorizing the Committee on Printing to instruct
the Public Printer relative to the maps, etc., for the
census reports.

Granting right of way for railroad purposes and
telegraph line through the lands of the United States
included in the Fort Smith Military Reservation at
Fort Smith, in the State of Arkansas.

To authorize the Public Printer to make certain
purchases without previous advertisement.

To provide for extra work in the Government
Printing-Office in cases of emergency.

To rectify and establish the title of the United States
to the site of the military post at El Paso, Texas.

To attach the county of Hardeman, in the State of
Tennessee? to the Eastern Division of the Western
District ot Tennessee.

To cede to the first taxing district of the State of
Tennessee a certain lot of land situated in said district.

To provide for the binding of the Compendium of
the Tenth Census.

To confer upon the senior associate justice of the
Supreme Court of the District of Columbia, in the
absence or inability of the chief-justice of said court,
the power and duties now conferred upon said chief-
justice relative to the extradition of fugitives from
justice.

More effectually to suppress gaming in the District
of Columbia.

To punish larceny from the person in the District
of Columbia.

To amend certain sections of the Revised Statutes
relating to the District of Columbia.

To levy an assessment of the real estate in the Dis-
trict of Columbia in the year 1883, and every third
year thereafter, ibr purposes of taxation.

To increase the police force of the District of Co-
lumbia, and for other purposes.

Constitutional amendments were proposed
on the following subjects: To allow the veto
of separate items in appropriation bills ; to au-
thorize the veto of separate items in the River
and Harbor Bill ; to create a House of Electors
to confirm appointments in the civil service;
to amend the provisions for the election of
members of Congress ; to amend the provis-
ions for the election of President ; to provide
for woman suffrage ; and to give Congress
power to enforce contracts made by States.

CONNECTICUT. State Government— The follow-
ing were the State officers during the year :
Governor, Thomas M. Waller, Democrat ; Lieu-
tenant-Governor, George G. Sumner ; Secre-
tary of State, D. Ward Northrup ; Treasurer,
Alfred R. Goodrich; Comptroller, Frank D.
Sloat. Judiciary : Supreme Court, Chief-Jus-
tice, John D. Parks ; Associate Justices, Elisha
Carpenter, DwightW. Pardee, D wight Loomis,
and Miles T. Granger.

Legislative Session. — The Legislature convened
on the 3d of January, and adjourned on the
3d of May, the longest session on record in the
State.

The creation of a Board of Pardons was one of
the most important and most needed measures
of the session. The act provided as follows :

254

CONNECTICUT.

His Excellency the Governor, a Judge of the Su-
preme Court of Errors, to be designated for that pur-
pose by the judges of that court at their annual meet-
ing, and four persons to be appointed by the General
Assembly, one of whom shall be a physician, shall
constitute a Board of Pardons for this State.

A unanimous opinion will be necessary to a
pardon.

The new law which enlarges and explicitly
defines the duties of coroners makes a sweep-
ing change, and a radically new departure, in
the methods for the initial proceedings in prob-
able cases of murder or suicide.

The Governor's salary was raised a little,
made $4,000. The State tax was made 1£
mill. A new military code bill was passed ;
a bill to stop the auctioneering of town pau-
pers to the keeping of thrifty providers in
other towns also became a law; the act to
wind up the Townsend Savings-Bank passed ;
and so did a bill to compel dealers in oleomar-
garine to stamp their packages of that article
with that name, and put it up also in large
letters over the door.

A bill was passed to prevent a drunken father
from taking the wages of his minor son.

A so-called consolidation bill was passed
permitting any Connecticut railroad to unite
with any other road that is entirely outside of
this State, and to issue bonds, provided the
line thus formed shall make one continuous
route, and not be a parallel and competing line.

A bill to punish frauds in party primary
meetings was passed ; as was a bill to put a
stop to u baby-farming." The commission to
look into the irregularities of Secretary North-
rup, of the Board of Education, submitted, and
the legislature passed, a bill to reorganize that
board on a new basis. A bill that practical-
ly permits Sunday- evening concerts passed.
There was an appropriation of $5,000 for a
statue of Nathan Hale, to be placed on the
Capitol.

An important and just measure was enacted
empowering the judge, in divorce and other
cases of separation, to assign the child or chil-
dren to either parent, as he may decide.

Other measures passed were the following :
Bill relating to annual meetings of Superior
Court Judges; bill relating to pay of county
commissioners; bill amending the liquor law ;
resolution appropriating $2,500 for repairs at
the State Prison.

The Governor vetoed a bill reducing the tax
on the bonds and floating indebtedness of rail-
roads from one to one half of 1 per cent.

Biennial Sessions.— On this subject the Gov-
ernor, in his message to the Legislature of 1884,
says:

A proposed amendment to the Constitution, pro-
viding for biennial sessions of the General Assembly,
received a ma.iority vote of the last House of Kepre-
and will be presented to you for final legis-

it. As nothing has occurred since to add to the
strength of the argument then urged in its favor, it is
not likely, if again submitted, to be disposed of in a
different way. The objection to tbe present constitu-
tional provision is, I apprehend, founded more upon
the length than the frequency of sessions. If the pub-
lic business could be annually disposed of in six or
eight weekSj instead of occupying more than seven-
teen, as it did last year, there would be less difficulty
in obtaining the services, as legislators, of the hett
citizens of the State ; and few would favor abandon-
ing yearly sessions with their traditional and educa-
tional influences.

Finances.— The falling off in the income—
$102,638.17 — from the previous year, is largely
accounted for by the failure of certain railroad
companies to meet their taxes, and by the re-
duction of the amount heretofore paid by mu-
tual-insurance companies of the State, as au-
thorized by the act of 1882.

The funded debt was, Jan. 1, 1883 $4,590,600

There has been paid in reduction thereof during
the year 818,500

So that the amount of funded debt now is $4,272,100

Three and one half per cent, bonds of the
issue of Dec. 1, 1883, have been sold, amount-
ing to $1,068,500, at a premium of 6'85 per
cent., the largest ever received from the sale of
State bonds.

The balance in the Treasury,
Dec. 1. 1882, was $1,192,897 91

The income of the fiscal year,
ending Nov. 80, 1883, was. . . . 1,617,800 04

Received from sale of bonds . . . 525,197 50

$3,335,895 4ft

The expenditures were $1,630,526 65

Paid for State bonds redeemed .. 867,500 00

Balance on hand . . .

The people had an opportunity in 1879, after ex-
haustive discussion, to express their opinion of such a
proposed change in our organic law ; and the record
shows that more than two thirds of them voted against

Total $3,335,89545

Taxation. — On this subject the Governor says :
Under the law, as it is, if taxable property is not
returned to the assessors, and they fail to discover it,
it absolutely escapes all taxation ; for no provision
exists for the enforcement of a claim for taxation on
property which has been concealed from the assessors,
or inadvertently omitted from the grand list of a
town. A large amount of property, in this way, is
continually evading its part of the burden of public
expense. If a statute were enacted authorizing towns,
upon the discovery of unassessed property, to demand
and collect of the party, who failed to return it, the
amount— or double the amount— it would have been
liable for, if it had been properly listed, it would be
greatly for the advantage of citizens who comply with
the law.

Savings-Banks. — There is in the control and
management of the savings-banks of the State
the sum of $92,679,063.01, a larger amount than
ever before, and mostly belonging to the thrifty
industrial element of the population. There
has been an increase of 8,659 during the year
in the number of depositors, and of $3,155,973.-
22 in the amount of their deposits. The com-
missioners suggest that, in their opinion, this
interest needs no new legislation, except, it
may be, in relation to a class of investments
against which they have heretofore strongly
protested. It appears that some of these insti-
tutions have invested in simply promissory
notes, without collateral securities, the sum of
$4,030,766.79.

CONNECTICUT.

255

Railroads. — The permanent investment in rail-
roads has reached the enormous sum of $87,-
459,646.19. There are now, completed and in
use, within the State limits, 1,360 miles of
road, over which were carried, during the
year, 16,352,617 passengers, nearly a million
more than in any previous year. Their gross
earnings amounted to $16,234,942.44, yield-
ing an average profit of four and one half per
cent, on $56,953,678.25, their. aggregate capital.

The report of the Treasurer shows that these
corporations have paid — protesting, however,
against its excessiveness — the sum of $456,128.-
55 in taxes to the State.

Schools. — There was expended, during the last
fiscal year, in support of the common-school
system, $1,813,486.11, of which sum the State
and the school fund together furnished $336,-
289.50, and the balance was raised by local
taxation. More than 60 per cent, of the amount
derived from taxation comes from twenty-five
of the largest towns, and one third of it from
the six largest cities. There are in the State
149,466 children, between the ages of four
and sixteen, 120,537 of whom attended these
schools some portion of the year. The Gov-
ernor says :

I have heretofore expressed an apprehension that
our public schools, in the smaller towns of the State,
are not as good as they were thirty years ago. Fuller
information convinces me that such is the fact. In
more than half the towns there are fewer children
and less wealth than formerly ; but the same num-
ber of districts, school-houses, and schools are main-
tained. In the 1,447 districts of the State, 56 schools
average 5 or less pupils ; 346 schools average over 5
and do not exceed 10 ; 322 schools average over 10 and
do not exceed 15 ; 213 schools average over 15 and do
not exceed 20.

The building, constructed at the expense of
the State and the town of New Britain, is now
completed and occupied by the Normal School.
The junior class that entered in September is
unusually large. A model school is in success-
ful operation.

Conrts. — The judicial expenses, amounting to
$226,848.42, are $6,359.37 less than those of
the previous year. During the year ending
Dec. 1, 1883, the records show that the aggre-
gate sessions of the Superior Court, in the
trial of civil and criminal cases, occupied 790
days, scarcely more than one third of the time
of .the judges of that court, if they, unassisted,
did the whole of the service.

Agriculture.— In this State nearly 45,000 per-
sons, and more than $135,000,000 of capital,
are employed in agriculture. The changed
condition occasioned by the development, with-
in a few years, of railroad transportation, com-
pels the farmer of New England to avoid com-
petition with the cheap lands of the West, by
giving attention to such lines in his occupation
as require special knowledge and skill. To as-
sist in sustaining in Connecticut such a policy,
bounties have been given to agricultural socie-
ties ; an experiment station has been estab-
lished, the first in the country ; and the Storrs

Agricultural School, for the special education
of farmers, has been assisted by annual appro-
priations of money.

Fish-Culture and Shell-Fisheries— The action of
the State in creating commissions to supply
the lakes, rivers, and streams with a variety of
hVh, and to promote the cultivation of oysters,
has been productive of the most satisfactory
results. The Shell-fish Commission has, within
a few years, developed an industry that gives
employment to a large number of men, in-
volves large amounts of capital, and promises
to continually increase its proportions.

The Fish Commissioners express the opinion
that the present modes of fishing in Connecti-
cut river are so destructive as to threaten the
speedy extermination of shad, and in their
annual report they call upon the Legislature
to investigate the matter of the pollution of
the rivers and streams of the State by refuse
matter from mills and factories.

The commissioners review with regret the
temporary failure to secure a permanent res-
toration of the salmon to its old haunts in the
State. In 1874 New Hampshire, Vermont,
Massachusetts, and Connecticut combined to-
gether and placed in the tributaries of the
upper Connecticut about 1,000,000 young sal-
mon. In 1878, as was anticipated, the salmon
appeared in considerable numbers, averaging
about fifteen pounds each ; but, as it was a
very large and valuable fish, nearly all that
entered the river were taken. A few suc-
ceeded in making their way up to the foot of
Holyoke Dam, but were there stopped by this
impassable barrier. The result has been the
disappearance of the salmon, never to return
until a practicable fish-way shall be erected at
the Holyoke Dam.

Charities. — The State has, during the year,
wholly or partially, cared for 2,712 persons in
its hospitals and other humane institutions, at
a total expense of $257,261.17; and the people
have, it is estimated, at the same time con-
tributed, in local taxation, to the same class of
charities more than $500,000.

The Insane Hospital at Middletown is in-
tended to accommodate only 775 patients;
but at no time during the year were there
fewer than 842, while the average number
was 854. The hospital comprises several cot-
tages, besides the main building and annex.

The results of the school, established at
Middletown, in 1869, for the care and train-
ing of friendless and neglected girls, have been
exceedingly gratifying. The statistics show
that more than two thirds of its wards, in
number not less than 500, have been saved
from a life of degradation and vice. During
the year there were 48 commitments, and 54
girls were placed in country homes or among
relatives. .There are now in the school 192,
between the ages of eight and nineteen, dis-
posed of in families, occupying five separate
buildings.

License Law. — The returns of county commis-

256 CONVALLARIA MAIALIS.

COOPER, PETER.

sioners show that 2,971 licenses were issued
during the year, the total receipts from which
amounted to $263,073.94. There is more pop-
ular contentment now than ever with the gen-
eral provisions of the law relating to the manu-
facture and sale of intoxicating liquors.

Election. — On the 6th of November there
were elected twelve State Senators, a full
House of Representatives, and eight sheriffs.
A sheriff in each county was chosen, and
Senators in the odd districts. Five Republi-
can sheriffs were elected (Hartford, New Ha-
ven, Middlesex, New London, and Windham
counties) and three Democrats (Tolland, Fair-
field, and Litchfield counties). Ten Republi-
can and two Democratic Senators were elect-
ed. The legislature of 1884 will be consti-
tuted as follows :

Republicans.

Democrats.

Majority.

Senate

15

9

6

House . . .

154

95

59

CONVALLARIA MAIALIS. Recent experiments
with this drug seem to have established the fol-
lowing points : Its use is especially indicated in
organic disease of the heart, with feeble pulse
and decrease in the energy of its action ; to
lower the temperature of the body, to dimin-
ish the hyperasmia of the nervous centers, in-
crease arterial tension, promote the action of
the kidneys, and lessen the reflex action of the
nerves. It is contraindicated in cases of gas-
tric and intestinal derangement, in acute affec-
tions of the liver, kidneys, or spleen, in preg-
nancy, and in fatty degeneration of the heart.
Its physiological actions, as tested upon ani-
mals, are as follow : On the brain it causes a
tendency to somnolence, resulting from anemia
of the nerve-centers. On the kidneys it causes
marked increase in function. Placed in direct
contact with muscular tissue it completely de-
stroys its contractility. By its action on the
alimentary canal in large doses it causes sali-
vation, vomiting, and increase in the natural
muscular movements. It first causes a slight
increase, and then a more decided decrease, in
the animal temperature. On the respiration
it has a somewhat analogous effect, first in-
creasing the frequency, then causing a de-
crease, .and finally complete cessation.

COOPER, Peter, an American philanthropist
and merchant, born in the city of New York,
Feb. 12, 1791 ; died there, April 4, 1883. On
his father's side he was of English origin.
Both his grandfather and his father were sol-
diers in the Revolution. His maternal grand-
father. John Campbell, a successful potter in
New York, did good service in the Board of
Aldermen, and gave liberally of his means in the
interests of his native land. The father of Peter
Cooper was a hatter, and on the return of peace,
in 1783, resumed his business in New York.
Peter was the fifth of nine children, having six
brothers and two sisters. As his father's means
were limited, the lad received but few advan-

tages in the way of schooling. At the age of
seventeen he became an apprentice in a car-
riage-factory, and served his full time. He
manifested a talent for inventions, and also
adopted as a maxim for his future course,
never to be in debt. The next two years of
his life he spent in a woolen-factory at Hemp-
stead, Long Island, where he invented an in-
genious machine for shearing the nap from
cloth. It had a rapid sale during the war
of 1812, and yielded the inventor a large
profit.

In 1813 he married Miss Sarah Bedel, of
Hempstead. For a time he was engaged in
cabinet-making; then he opened a grocery, and
next purchased a glue and isinglass manu-
factory. This last business, in his hands, be-
came very profitable, and was continued by
him for half a century. Mr. Cooper's atten-
tion was early directed to the vast resources
of the United States for the manufacture of
iron, and in 1830 he erected extensive works
at Canton, near Baltimore. Subsequently, he
built a rolling and wire mill in the city of New
York, where he first successfully applied an-
thracite coal to the puddling of iron. While
in Baltimore he built, after his own designs,
the first locomotive-engine constructed on this
continent, and it was used successfully on the
Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. In 1845 he re-
moved the machinery to Trenton, N. J., and
erected the largest rolling-mill at that time in
the United States. In these works he was the
first to roll wrought-iron beams for fire-proof
buildings, and he used them afterward in his

freat monument, the Cooper Union in New
rork. He took into partnership with him his
son Edward, and his son-in-law, Hon. Abram
S. Hewitt, and the firm subsequently embraced
in its operations large mines of ore and coal,
quarries, forges, blast-furnaces, wire and roll-
ing-mills, chain, horseshoe, and open-hearth
steel works.

In the development and putting to practical
use this great element in our national progress,
as well as in the progress of the human family,
Peter Cooper took a large share, and his name
will be long honorably remembered in connec-
tion with the iron and coal industry.

The laying of the Atlantic cable was planned
by him, and accomplished by his persistent
efforts, even when his associates were discour-
aged and ready to give up in despair. ^Ten or
twelve years of toil under difficulties which few
men are able to overcome, of public ridicule,
of refusal of capitalists to invest anything in it,
of heavy outlays, and of apparent failure at
the last, when the cable parted and sank to the
bottom of the Atlantic— ten such years show
the stuff of which Peter Cooper was made.
In due time he reaped his reward. ^ The same
courageous and hopeful spirit was displayed in
various other ways when Mr. Cooper was a
member of the New York Common Council,
when he urged the construction of the Croton
Aqueduct, and when acting as a trustee of the

COOPER, PETER.

OOREA.

257

Public School Society, and as one of the com-
missioners of the Board of Education.

Having devoted much careful thought and
study to questions of finance and good gov-
ernment, Mr. Cooper made his views widely
known; and the result was that, when he was
in his eighty-sixth year, he was nominated by
the National Independent party as their candi-
date for President of the United States. But
the number of those who agreed with him as
to the currency question (commonly called
" Greenbackers ") was small.

Mr. Cooper's career was not marked by brill -
iantexploits of genius or intellectual superiority,
or by any of those startling performances which
attract the admiration of mankind. He was
an honest, industrious, faithful business man,
ever advancing in prosperous undertakings, and
at the same time keenly alive to all matters
relating to public interest and public improve-
ment. He amassed great wealth, and his aim
was to use his large resources for the benefit
of his fellow-creatures. Instead of waiting for
the time when he could keep his hold on his
wealth no longer, he chose to be his own ex-
ecutor, and to devote his money to the pur-
poses he wished, while he was alive and able
to secure their proper carrying out. He had
always lamented his lack of liberal education,
and the resolve seems early to have fixed itself
in his mind to do all in his power to provide
advantages and opportunities for culture to the
working-classes of his native city. From this
impulse arose that institution which has en-
deared his name and memory to thousands. He
first secured an admirable site at the junction of
Third and Fourth avenues, between Seventh
and Eighth streets, with full light on all its four
sides. From his own plans was erected the
imposing structure known as "The Cooper
Union for the Advancement of Science and
Art." He superintended the rise of this mas-
sive building, and spared no expense to render
it all that could be desired. On its completion,
Mr/Cooper, in April, 1859, executed a deed in
fee simple of this property to six trustees, who
were empowered to devote all rents and in-
come from it " to the instruction and im-
provement of the inhabitants of the United
States in practical science and art." After
due consideration, the trustees fixed upon
a. scheme which should " include instruction
in branches of knowledge by which men and
women earn their daily bread ; in laws of health
and improvement of the sanitary conditions of
families as well as individuals ; in social and
political science, whereby communities and na-
tions advance in virtue, wealth, and power ;
and finally in matters which affect the eye, the
ear, and the imagination, and furnish a basis
for recreation to the working- classes." Courses
of lectures were established on social and po-
litical science, free to all ; also, a free reading-
room and collections of works of art and science
were provided, and a school for instruction of
women in the arts of design, by which they
VOL. xxm. — 17 A

may gain an honorable livelihood. Still fur-
ther, so soon as funds are in hand, the trustees
purpose to establish a polytechnic school.

According to the last annual report of the
Cooper Union, the building cost $630,000 ; and
the total expenditures of the trustees on the
building and education, from 1859 to 1882 in-
clusive, have been $1,603,614.17. In 1861 pu-
pils who received certificates numbered 272 ;
in 1883 the number reached as high as 955.
In 1860 the number of teachers employed was
16 ; in 1882 it was 36. In 1860 the number
of readers in the reading-room was about 250,-
000; in 1882 it was 476,000. In 1860 the ex-
penditure was $30,800.71 ; in 1882 the expen-
ditures amounted to $54,421.42. The income
is chiefly derived from the rents of such parts
of the building as are used for business pur-
poses, and from an endowment by Mr. Cooper
of about $200,000. The founder's children
will add to this the sum of $100,000, in ad-
dition to the bequest of $100,000 in his will.

The last days of Peter Cooper were calm and
peaceful. He was a devout member of the
Unitarian denomination. The last sad offices
for the dead were very largely attended, and
the manifestations of grief at being called upon
to part with one so universally respected and
so widely beloved were striking and impres-
sive. Shortly before his death was printed a
volume entitled "Ideas for a Science of Good
Government, in Addresses, Letters, and Arti-
cles on a Strictly National Currency, Tariff,
and Civil Service. By Hon. Peter Cooper,
LL. D."

CORE! (officially called Chosen), a kingdom
of Eastern Asia, occupying the peninsula op-
posite the Japanese island of Niphon and bor-
dering on the Chinese province of Manchuria.
The King of Corea acknowledges the nominal
suzerainty of China, but has for ages preserved
a practical independence. The country still
pays a tribute to China, but the amount has
been reduced to a nominal sum. An embassy
visits Peking every year with certain prescribed
gifts, and receives in return the Chinese calen-
dar, which is accepted and employed by the
Coreans as a sign of dependence. On the ac-
cession of a new King, the Chinese Emperor
is notified, and his sanction for the investiture
is obtained.

At different times the country has been over-
run by both the Chinese and the Japanese.
The suzerainty of China was accepted the last
time as a protection against the Japanese, who
threatened to subjugate the country, claiming
suzerain rights, which were resisted by the
Coreans, based upon a conquest in the early
part of the Christian era. The object of the
Japanese invasions, which were the occasion
of accepting vassal relations to China, was to
use Corea as a base of military operations
against China, and the motive for acknowledg-
ing Chinese suzerainty was to avoid the claims
of supremacy asserted by Japan. The Japan-
ese Government has never renounced its title

258

COREA.

to suzerainty, and after the invasion maintained
a garrison in Fusan, kept that place open to
Japanese trade when intercourse was broken
off with all foreigners, exacted for a time an
annual tribute, and exerts to this day a certain
measure of political control. The relations
with China, established for purposes of mutual
protection, have continued to bear the charac-
ter of a friendly alliance, in which the condi-
tion of vassalage is treated simply as a matter
of form. For two hundred years China has
avoided complications with Corea, and has
never materially interfered with her affairs.
In the treaty of commerce between the United
States and Corea, the first clause contains a
recognition of the sovereign rights of China
over Corea, which became important again
and mutually advantageous when it was feared
that Russia or some other European power
might seek to establish a protectorate.

In consequence of the Japanese and Manchu
invasions which devastated and depopulated
the country, the Corean Government adopted
a policy of complete non -intercourse with for-
eigners. The mineral industries were purpose-
ly neglected, and the wealth of the country in
gold and silver was kept concealed by means
of rigorous laws against mining, so as to avoid
presenting temptations to new conquerors. This
policy of seclusion is the cause of the stagna-
tion and backwardness of the country, and
has kept the people in a condition of poverty.
The population of Corea is estimated at 11,-
000,000, and the number of habitations at
1,700,000.

Government. — The reigning King is Li Fin,
the twenty-eighth successor in a line which
has reigned for 492 years. The King is an
absolute monarch. He has three ministers who
hold office for life. There are six governmental
departments, which have cognizance respect-
ively of the appointment and dismissal of sub-
ordinate officers ; the supervision of finances,
taxation, and coinage ; the government of
schools, the examination of literary candidates,
and the regulation of ceremonies; the army,
manufacture of arms, and postal affairs; the
supervision of courts and the administration of
justice. The heads of departments are asso-
ciated with the three chief ministers in the
Council, of State, which makes a daily report
to the King of the results of its work. The
official class constitutes the nobility. There
are no hereditary titles, and though the aris-
tocratic families preserve their power and dis-
tinction, each man's rank is derived from the
highest office he has held. The attachment of
rank-distinction to official posts is the cause of
frequent changes in the offices, in order that
the titles of rank may be multiplied, and the
cause also of fierce rivalry between the differ-
ent families of the upper class for these posts
and their division into factions which keep up
a constant turmoil. Officials possess certain
special privileges, such as immunity from ar-
rest. They can only be summoned into court

on a writ from the Department of Justice.
The system of appointment is similar to that
which prevails in China. Literary examina-
tions are held at stated intervals, and three
classes of diplomas are awarded to the success-
ful candidates, which make them eligible to ap-
pointment in the corresponding grades of offi-
cial position. The common people take very
little part in public affairs.

The Army. — The army consists of a militia, in
which 1,300,000 are enrolled ; but this military
force is not effective, as the men are not drilled
and have no arms.

Education. — There are numerous private
schools, but no public system of education.
Nearly all of the common people can read and
write in the Corean language, in which many
simple books are printed. The language of
learning is Chinese, in which the upper classes
receive their literary education. After the
opening of the country to foreign intercourse
by the American treaty, the Government es-
tablished an English school at Seoul, the capi-
tal. The teachers were at first Chinese, edu-
cated in the United States. Subsequently Eu-
ropeans were engaged.

Customs and Institutions.— The titles to land
are derived from the Government, and are
carefully registered in public records. The
tenure depends on the payment of taxes, which
are levied in kind, and are an oppressive bur-
den on account of the extortions of officials.
The only coin in use is the copper cash, of
which 525 are equivalent to a Mexican dollar.
The roads are narrow and are unfitted for vehi-
cles, except the two- wheeled carts used to
transport merchandise. Bulls and Corean po-
nies are used as pack-animals. The wealthy
travel on horseback or in sedan-chairs.

Post-offices are maintained in the principal
towns, and on some of the highways the
Government provides post-houses for public
use.

The majority of the houses are only huts,
with mud walls and floors and thatched roofs.
The houses of the well-to-do have stone foun-
dations and flues running through them, which
serve as stoves. The building itself is of wood,
with a tiled roof. The floors, walls, and win-
dows are lined with paper.

The clothing of the common people is of
cotton or linen cloth. They are shod with
sandals made of straw or twine, with soles of
rawhide. Their conical hats are made of
horsehair. Their leg-coverings are wide trou-
sers divided below the knees and fastened
about the ankles. Their coat is a long, loose
tunic, with flowing sleeves. Their winter cloth-
ing is wadded.

A modified form of bondage exists. Some-
times people voluntarily enter the servile state
in order to escape extortion and oppression.
The artisans and laborers belong to powerful
guilds, which enable them to maintain a con-
siderable degree of comfort and independence.
The wages earned by laborers average about

COREA.

259

fifteen cents a day, and by artisans about
twenty-five cents. The chief domestic indus-
tries are the manufacture of silk, cotton and
linen cloths, stoneware and porcelain, hats,
shoes, paper, mats, fans, screens, combs, pipes,
brushes, tiles for roofing, furniture, and tools
for mechanical and agricultural uses. Cloths
are woven by hand, and pottery is made on
the wheel. With the exception of some handi-
crafts peculiar to the country, in which a high
degree of skill is exhibited, most of the pro-
ductions are rude and primitive. From speci-
mens of old bronze and porcelain, it is evident
that in former ages a higher stage of art and
skill existed. It was the Coreans who intro-
duced art and learning into Japan, and the
Japanese affirm that at the period of the last
emigration all the best workmen, driven away
by war and desolation, settled in their island.

Commerce, Products, and Resources. — Corea is a
mountainous country. From the Shanyan-alin
range, which extends along the western coast
from north to south, smaller ranges project,
which extend to the opposite shore. In the
western and central parts of the peninsula are
several plains which are exceedingly fertile.
The country is well watered, and in many
ptirts well wooded. The climate of Corea,
though the winters are severe in the north, in
general resembles that of Southern Europe.
The vegetation is exceedingly rich. Besides
many flowers which are peculiar to the coun-
try, a great number of flowering plants which
are cultivated in Europe grow wild. Among
the trees are three of commercial value — the
cork-oak, the mulberry, and the lac-tree, from
which a golden-yellow gum of the finest qual-
ity is obtained. The rich soil brings forth
every kind of fruit and grain. Cotton is raised
easily, and is found growing wild in many
spots, even in the mountains. Other products
are hemp, flax, tobacco, madder, and indigo.
The most important is the Corean ginseng,
prized above all other varieties. The occur-
rence of this root in the country is partly the
cause of the idleness and spirit of wandering
and adventure which pervade Corean society.
The finest quality brings $1,500 a pound in the
Chinese market.

The mineral wealth of the country surpasses
even its extraordinary agricultural resources.
The mines which were worked in former cent-
uries have been abandoned, except a few, which
are exploited in an inefficient manner by the
Government. The quest and digging of the
precious metals is forbidden on pain of death.
Of late years these laws have been executed
with the greatest rigor, but the temptations
to break them are so strong that considerable
quantities of gold are smuggled out of the
country. This metal, as well as silver, is found
in all parts of Corea. In the middle and north-
ern provinces there are many streams whose
beds are rich in gold-dust. The region next
to the Russian boundary has valuable coal-beds
and copper-mines, and contains sulphur, arsenic,

quicksilver, lead, tin, and iron, and also beau-
tiful varieties of marble and granite.

Of the domestic animals, the cattle are well
bred, and would compare favorably with those
of the United States. Bulls and cows are used
as beasts of burden. The horses are of a di-
minutive race, and poor in quality. The swine
are also inferior. Goats and sheep are not
often seen.

The commerce with Japan constituted the
entire foreign commerce of the country up to
the time of the opening of treaty-ports by the
recent treaties. The Japanese were allowed
only in a few places, none of them near the
capital, and were subjected to harsh restric-
tions. Seven ninths of the commerce was
with the remote port of Fusan. The total
value of the trade with Japan increased from
348,000 yen in 1877 to 3,827,000 yen in 1881,
aggregating for the five years 9,078,000 yen.
Most of the articles sold to the Coreans were
of European manufacture. The total imports
for the five years were valued at a little more
than 4,000,000 yen. Nearly half consisted of
cotton goods, chiefly shirtings, which were im-
ported to the value of over a million yen in
1881. The goods were almost entirely of Eng-
lish manufacture. This trade is capable of ex-
pansion, as the Coreans grow but little cotton
and possess only rude hand-looms. Besides
shirtings, cambrics and lawns found a demand.
There was also a market for drugs and dye-
stuffs. The chief article of Japanese produc-
tion imported was copper, from which the
clumsy currency of the country is made.
The Japanese merchants, in the absence of
any medium of international exchange, con-
ducted their trade chiefly by barter. Japanese
porcelain, copied exactly from Corean ware, is
imported in quantities and is preferred to the
domestic product. Tobacco is another leading
article of import. The most important staple
exported is rice, for which there is always a
demand in China, and at present prices in
Japan. Rice is sold in Corea at about one
third the price ic brings in Japan. Gold comes
next, of which, in spite of the prohibition, there
were nearly 1,000,000 yen exported in the five
years. Hides are the next largest export arti-
cle, and then peas of the kind from which the
" bean-cakes " of Northern China are prepared.
A coarse stuff from which the clothing of
women of the poorer classes in Japan is made,
raw silk and pongee, sea-weed, beche-de-mer,
silver, dried fish, and ginseng were the other
exports. The trade is carried on chiefly in
steamers that arrive at Fusan and at Gensan,
which is one of the largest cities, once or twice
a month. The commerce of the five years em-
ployed 401 steam and sailing vessels of Euro-
pean build, having a total capacity of 60,000
tons, and 1,700 junks of 20,000 tons.

Great expectations have been raised in Eu-
rope and America of the trade which may be
developed with " the hermit nation " after the
opening of its gates to foreign intercourse.

260

COSTA RICA.

The Government of Oorea is disposed to en-
courage the trade for the revenue it will yield.
One of the plans for developing commerce is
a museum of articles of foreign production,
such as machinery, mining and agricultural
implements, and all classes of fabrics which
merchants and manufacturers will send to be
put on exhibition, in the hope of finding a de-
mand in Oorea. According to the report of
the naval officers who accompanied the Ger-
man embassy which concluded the treaty of
commerce, the foreign trade of Corea is not
capable of assuming any considerable dimen-
sions. The people are described as having few
and simple wants, and not inclined to work
more than is necessary to satisfy their moder-
ate requirements. They are said to lead in
general a poor life, and are depicted as indo-
lent and uncleanly compared with the Japan-
ese, and lacking the diligence of the Chinese.
They say that agriculture and cattle-growing
are the chief and most profitable employments,
and describe the land as being fertile and well
cultivated.

The importation of shirtings of coarse qual-
ity is the only trade which is likely to develop
rapidly. This will fall to the English, unless
American manufacturers are able to compete
with them. For the Corean rice and for the
timber existing in large forests near the sea,
there is a market close at hand in Japan and
the north of China.

Commercial Relations. — The treaty of commerce
with the United States, signed in 1882, was
ratified in 1883. In this and the provisional
treaties made with England and Germany the
Corean Government was allowed to levy an
import duty of 10 per cent, on articles of ne-
cessity, and 30 per cent, on articles of luxury.
Pressure was brought through the Japanese
Government to have the scale altered to a
general tariff duty of 5 per cent., the same
rate as in the existing treaties between China
and Japan and the Western powers. This
limitation was exacted of China and Japan by
force, and it was expected that they would
support Corea in her desire to establish the
higher scale from motives of policy, in order
to obtain more liberal terms for themselves
when their treaties came to be revised; but
the wishes of the Western powers have, as
usual, prevailed. The Corean duties are pay-
able in Mexican dollars or Japanese silver yen,
instead of in the inconvenient Haikwan tael of
variable standard. A Corean embassy arrived
in the United States in September, 1883.

COSTA RICA. The President of Costa Rica
is Don Prospero Fernandez ; Vice-Presidents,
the ministers Seflores E. Figueroa, V. Guardia,
B. Soto, and M. Guardia. The Cabinet was
composed as follows in 1883 : Minister of the
Interior, Charitable Institutions, and Worship,
E. Figueroa ; Commerce and Finance, B. Soto ;
War and Navy, M. Guardia ; Interior and Jus-
tice, V. Guardia ; President of Congress, Sefior
J. M. Carazo ; Secretaries, V. C. Segreda and

J. Solan o ; President of the Supreme Court,
Dr. R. Orozco; commander-in-chief of the
army, Gen. H. Duran.

Finance. — In the budget estimates for the fis-
cal year ending April 30, 1884, the gross reve-
nue and expenditures were set down as follow :

$574,000
746,000

REVENUE.

From customs

From monopolies (spirits and tobacco)

From postal service, telegraphs, national printing-
office, railroads, etc 165,600

From direct taxation 101,000

From sundries 825

From unforeseen income 20,000

Total $1 ,607,4215

EXPENDITURE.

Department of the Interior $172,374

Police 36,232

Finance and Commerce 174,859

Justice 87,561

War 252.449

the Navy 33,900

Public Works 341,441

Public Instruction 180,110

Public Worship 19.340

Public Charities 1,660

Foreign Affairs 36,380

Collection of internal revenue, and
payments on account of internal

debt 1,167,824

Total $2,504,130

Deficiency 896,705

Public Debt. — The final treasury accounts for
the fiscal year ended April 30, 1880, stood as
follows: Liabilities: Public debt, $6,258,629,
of which foreign indebtedness, $5,463,285;
bills of exchange due, $176,886 ; paper money
issued, $105,915; sundry consolidated debts,
$161,682; internal loan, $140, 774, and float-
ing indebtedness, $210,087. Assets: $10,918,-
062, of which public improvements such as
railroads, etc., $10,281,778; tobacco and spir-
its in warehouses, $155,821 ; deposits in banks,
$156,788 ; money due by municipalities, $30,-
805 ; and other outstandings, $293,370.

In 1883 the foreign debt of Costa Rica
amounted to £3,276,000, on which no interest
had been paid since 1874 ; quoted on the Lon-
don stock exchange, those of the loan of 1871
(£940,300) at 17 and 19, and those of 1874
(£2,335,700), at 13 and 15 per cent. President
Don Prospero Fernandez has now made a prop-
osition to Mr. Minor C. Keith to make, if fea-
sible, an arrangement with the foreign bond-
holders, by pledging the customs revenue for
coupons due and not paid, and for the creation
of a sinking fund for the eventual liquidation
of the capital. After the arrangement is per-
fected, Mr. Keith is to procure a $6,000,000
loan to complete the principal railway line.

Customs collected — 1876-'77, $557,407; 1877-
'78, $846,691; 1878-79, $921,406; 1879-'80,
$800,957; 1880-'81, $647,803.

Railroads. — The following lines of railroad are
in operation : Alajuela-Cartago, via Heredia
and San Jose, 43 kilometres ; from Punta Are-
nas to Barranca, 14 kilometres ; and from Li-
montotheRioSucio, 113 kilometres; together,
170 kilometres. The gross earnings in 1882-'83
were $52,931 ; the expenses were $82,857.

CUBA.

261

Telegraphs.— There are in operation 727 kilo-
metres, the service being performed by 16 of-
fices. The lines are the following : 1. From
Oartago to the Nicaraguan frontier ma San
Jose, Heredia, Alajuela, Esparza, with branch
lines to Grecia, San Ramon, Punta Arenas,
Taboba, Liberia, Santa Cruz, and Nicoya (576
kilometres). 2. From Limon to San Jos6 (151
kilometres). Number of messages in 1882-'83,
27,589, of which inland private, 18,982 ; for
countries abroad, 1,304; Government mes-
sages, local, 7,248 ; beyond the country, 55.
Income, $4,940 ; expenses, $17,718.

Postal SerYice.— The income from postal ser-
vice in 1882-'83 was $50,000; the outlay,
$80,000.

Commerce. — Of the 336 vessels that entered
Oosta Rican ports in 1883, 21 were navigating
under the Costa Kican flag ; 213 hailed from
other Spanish- American countries; 39 were
American, 30 British, 14 German, 12 French,
and 7 of other nationalities.

In 1882 there entered the port of Punta
Arenas 100 vessels, 79 being steamers, 4 ships,
3 barks, 13 brigs, and 2 schooners ; 79 being
under the American flag, 7 French, 5 English,
2 Italian, 1 Danish, 1 Norwegian, and 5 Ger-
man ; the aggregate tonnage being 168,528.
Limon, on the Atlantic, has been declared a
free port for ten years to come.

The imports in the fiscal year 1879-'80 via
Punta Arenas amounted to $2,669,861 ; via
Limon during the first four months of 1880,
$133,500 ; the exports through Punta Arenas,
$3,524,810 during twelve months, and through
Limon, four months, $211,142.

The chief articles exported from Punta Are-
nas were: Coffee, 23,266,196 pounds, worth
$3,436,085 ; hides and skins, 276,279 pounds,
$50,603; India-rubber, 26,319 pounds, $10,-
390; and other goods, re-exports, comprised
$27,732.

The trade between the United States and
Central America in 1879-'83 was as follows:

FISCAL YEAR.

Imports.

Exports.

1879...

$2 "'/I 5S9

$1 110 608

1880...,

3 318 469

l'729'215

1881...

3 159 786

1 541 229

1882....

4 735 398

l'586'558

1883

5 121 315

1 936 813

Total

$18,581,557

$7,904,418

IMPORT OF CENTRAL - AMERICAN COFFEE AND INDIA-
RUBBER INTO THE UNITED STATES.

FISCAL YEAR.

Coffea.

India-rubber.

1878....

Pounds.
13 868 955

$181 170

1879...

11 '463 136

106 673

1880...,

19 2t>4,218

257 891

1881

15 858 327

467 370

1882...

22 449 112

1 027 015

Total.. .

gi> 393 7-43

$1 990 119

CUBA. The area of this Spanish West India
island is 43,220 square miles, and the popula-
tion, which, according to the census of 1862,

counted 1,359,238 souls, was shown by the
last census (1882) to have increased to 1,521,-
684, of whom 850,520 were males and 671,-
164 females. The six provinces into which
Cuba is divided comprise 33 "partidos judi-
ciales " and 130 " ayuntamientos." The prov-
ince of Havana counted 435,896 inhabitants;
that of Santa Clara, 321,397; Matanzas, 283,-
121; Santiago de Cuba, 229,821; Pinar del
Rio, 182,204; and Puerto Principe, 69,245.

The most populous ayuntamieutos are : Ha-
vana, 198,721 inhabitants; Matanzas, 87,760;
Santiago de Cuba, 71,307; Cienfuegos, 65,067;
Puerto Principe, 46,641; Holguin, 34,767;
Sancti Spiritus, 32,608; Guanabacoa, 29,789;
Trinidad, 27,654; Manzanillo, 23,208; Santa
Clara, 22,781; Pinar del Rio, 21,870; and
Colon, 20,398.

The male portion of the population is com-
posed of 571,766 Spaniards, 7,944 white for-
eigners, 46,698 Chinamen, and 252,660 colored
people. The female portion comprises 430,-
195 Spanish, 3,216 foreign, 84 Chinese, and
242,320 colored females. This gives a total of
998,961 persons of Spanish origin, 11,260 of
foreign, 46,872 Chinese, and 494,980 colored.

Army. — The commander - in - chief and Cap-
tain-General of the island is Don Ignacio Maria
del Castillo, born at Jalapa, Mexico, Feb. 9,
1817. He arrived from Spain at Havana on
Sept. 28, 1883, to take charge of this port.

The strength of the Spanish forces in Cuba,
by decree of the Minister of War at Madrid,
was fixed for 1883-'84 at 25,653 men.

Finances. — In 1878 Captain-General Martinez
Campos, after making the arrangement with
the insurgents at Lanjon, issued a decree vir-
tually suspending payments from the Cuban
Treasury up to July 1st of that year, and since
then no steps have been taken to liquidate the
indebtedness, the annual interest on which
amounts to $7,000,000. An issue of paper
money has been made to the amount of $60,-
000,000, and the premium on Spanish gold
fluctuates wildly at times; this depreciated
currency renders living, dear as it has been at
all times, still more expensive.

Subsequent to the collapse of the insurrec-
tion, a tax law was passed, which created eleven
kinds of taxation : (1) on the transfer of prop-
erty by inheritance, etc., of £ to 8 per cent., es-
timated to produce $1,091,000 per annum ; (2)
direct taxes (income-tax) of 16 per cent, on
the profits cleared by residents of cities, and
5 per cent, on sugar and tobacco planting;
receipts under this head being estimated at
$6,335,800 ; (3) on railway-traffic, to produce
$1,000,000; (4) on slaughtering, $592,800;
(5) on passports, $350,000; (6) import and ex-
port duties, and ship-dues, $21,359,400; (7)
indirect taxes, such as stamp-dues, $3,488,800 ;
(8) on lotteries, $3,477,000 ; (9) on the salaries
of Government officers; (10) a tax of $12 a
head which the owner of liberated slaves has
to pay if he retains them for domestic service,
$500,000; (11) a tax of 5 per cent, on the

262

CUBA.

budgets of all municipalities, $412,500. In
August, 1883, the " Gaceta Oficial " of Ha-
vana contained the following details of a dis-
patch from the Minister of the Colonies, Mad-
rid, to the Captain-General of Cuba:

All country property now pays 2 per cent., with-
out distinction. The reduction last year was granted
only to those cultivating sugar and tobacco. The
sur-tax on export duties is reduced from 10 per cent,
to 5 per cent, from July 1st. The duties on tobacco
exported from the Central and Oriental Departments
have been reduced 30 per cent. The additional tax
on all drinkables has been abolished and in place ol
it has been imposed a tax of 2 cents per litre for
casks and 3 cents per litre for bottles and jars. The
municipality has been authorized to raise 50 per cent,
on this tax.

This latter tax in reality substituted a 22
per cent, tax for what was 15 per cent, before.

The budget for 1881-'82 estimated the ex-
penditures at $34,635,843.

The previous year had left a deficit of $20,-
000,000. The year before had left a surplus
of $3,367,950. "

The budget estimate for the fiscal year 1882-
'83 stood : income, $34,442,979 ; outlay, $34,-
626,910.

Paper money (bank bills) is destroyed at
stated periods, in moderate amounts ($200,000
on Aug. 31, 1883), in accordance with the law
of amortization of July 7, 1882.

According to the new budget law, the ad-
ministration-general of the Treasury of the isl-
and of Cuba has been changed into a general
intend an cy at Havana, with six sub-intend-
ancies at Havana, Pinar del Rio, Matanzas,
Santa Clara, Puerto Principe, and Santiago
de Cuba.

According to a statement published at Ha-
vana in August, 1883, the royal lottery pro-
duced, during the last fiscal year, net profits
amounting to $5,302,519, against $5,295,679
during the previous year. In 1882-'83 the
administration drew with the unsold tickets,
$948,100, against $1,910,400 in the preceding
year. In the five lotteries drawn since July
1, 1881, there remained unsold 139 tk-kets on
July 1, 1832, which was equivalent to a loss
of $548,280 to the treasury.

On Nov. 14, 1883, the Cuban treasury, on
authorization from the home Government, se-
cured from the Spanish Bank of Cuba a loan
of $500,000 for six months, at the rate of 7i
per cent, interest per annum.

Havana Gas Companies. — At a meeting of share-
holders of the two gas companies of Havana,
on Aug. 31, 1883, the proposition made by
Setter Dorilla on behalf of several New York
capitalists, to lease the works of the two com-
panies for a term of twenty years, was ac-
cepted, the shareholders of the "Espafiola" to
receive 5 per cent, net yearly.

Emancipation.— On Nov. 15, 1883, the " Ga-
ceta Ofici&l," of Havana, published a royal
decree ordering that all doubts concerning
the application of any part of the law of
gradual abolition of slavery shall always be

resolved in the sense of the widest latitude for
the liberty of the slave; and that, therefore,
owners of slaves, when the latter have ac-
quired their freedom, shall not compel them
to pay indemnities for their children. The
decree argues that the law orders that under
no consideration shall the families of slaves be
separated; and that if parents were obliged,
when freed, to pay for the rescue of their
children, other sections of the law providing
for gradual abolition would be violated.

News was received from Havana in Novem-
ber, 1883, that the new Captain-General en-
deavors to carry out the recommendations of
the Liberal party in Cuba to do justice to the
30,000 slaves illegally held in bondage since
1870. He was also taking active steps to ease
the situation of the Cuban treasury, consoli-
date the floating debt, and carry out fiscal re-
forms.

Immigration. — Quite a movement was set on
foot by Sefior Isabal, on the occasion of the
meeting of the Geographical Congress, at Mad-
rid, during the latter part of 1883, to promote
white emigration from Europe and the Canary
Islands to Cuba; and this movement has uiet
with a hearty response from Santiago de
Cuba, where planters, merchants, and manu-
facturers met on Oct. 8, 1883, and took the
necessary measures toward co-operating with
their Peninsular colleagues.

Railroads and Telegraphs.— In 1880 there were
in operation 871 miles of railway. The length
of telegraphs in operation was 2,835 miles, and
the number of offices 187.

Political and Economical Statns.— The surrender
at Lanjon, Feb. 10, 1878, terminated the insur-
rection on the island after a ten-years' war,
during which, according to the estimate of
Captain- General Don Joaquin Jovellar, 200,000
combatants perished by the sword and disease,
and the cost to Spain and Cuba was $700,000,-
000. The strife ruined entire provinces ; those
of Santiago de Cuba and Puerto Principe, even
in 1883, still presented a painful spectacle of
impoverishment and desolation. In August,
1879, afresh rising took place, and was quelled
less by the Government forces than by public
opinion and the firm and resolute attitude of
the Liberal Autonomist party. The basis on
which the capitulation of Lanjon had been
agreed to, embraced the following conditions :
The island of Cuba is granted an organic
political and administrative regime equal to
the one which rules the island of Porto Rico ;
complete amnesty and liberation of all slaves
and Asiatic colonists who fought in the ranks
of insurrection ; Cuba to be permanently rep-
resented in the Cortes by her own deputies
duly elected, and thus to recover the privilege
of which she had been deprived in 1836. This
revival of political life caused the formation of
the now existing parties in Cuba. In August,
1878, the so-called Liberal party was organ-
ized, most of whose members are Creoles. Its
programme is the immediate, sweeping aboli-

CUBA.

263

tion of slavery, now disguised under the name
of " Patronato''; the fostering of white immi-
gration by families, but left to private initia-
tive ; the granting of the usual necessary lib-
erties; independence and decentralization in
municipal and provincial affairs ; the autonomy
of the colony, that is, its own administration
and free voting of taxes ; finally, free trade.

In order to oppose this Liberal- Autonomist
party, the " Constitutional Union " was formed,
mostly made up of Spaniards. It has for its
object : To preserve as long as possible com-
pulsory labor; to endow the colony with a
political and administrative regime analogous
to that of the Peninsular provinces ; and finally
to main-tain the system of protection.

The struggle between these two parties in
Cuba is most lively, especially as the Conserva-
tive party accuse the Liberals of being the
enemies of Spain, and treat them as such. The
Government is not an altogether passive spec-
tator of this political strife, but invariably
leans toward the Constitutional Union, to the
detriment of the Liberal Autonomists.

The prosperity of young societies known by
the names of colonies is dependent upon three
conditions: 1. The right of self-administra-
tion. 2. A good method of acquiring land and
a system of succession which, while it favors
the equality of conditions, facilitates a rapid
transfer of property and stimulates the occu-
pant of the soil to cultivate and improve it.
3. Moderate taxation — in other words, cheap
government.

Cuba does not yet possess the right of self-
administration, power concentrating in the
hands of the Captain- General and of the Min-
ister of the Colonies. This administrative cen-
tralization is felt throughout the details of local
existence and does not allow the vitality of the
country to find full scope, which is indisputa-
bly a great drawback. There is the pressure
on society of a numerous bureaucratic army,
devoid of fixed interests in the island. With
few exceptions, these office-holders are native
Spaniards. The fall of a cabinet in Madrid
frequently involves the dismissal of numerous
officers in the ranks of the administration, to be
replaced, not by individuals competent for their
new employ, but by those who belong to the
victorious party at home. This abuse has come
up for debate in the Cortes, and grave revela-
tions of immorality in financial matters have
been made relating to the local administration
of Cuba, causing the Minister of the Colonies
himself to promote radical reform.

The annual message of the President of the
United States, of December, 1883, contains the
following passages :

It is understood that measures for the removal of
the restrictions which now burden our trade with
Cuba and Porto Eico are under consideration by the
Spanish Government. The proximity of Cuba to the
United States, and the peculiar methods of adminis-
tration which there prevail, necessitate constant dis-
cussion and appeal on our part from the proceedings
of the insular authorities. I regret to say that the

just protests of this Government have not as yet pro-
duced satisfactory results.
I have alluded in my previous messages to the in-

Srious and vexatious restrictions suffered by our trade
the Spanish West Indies. Brazil, whose natural
outlet for its great national staple, coffee, is in and
through the United States, imposes a heavy export
duty upon that product ; our petroleum exports are
hampered in Turkey and in other Eastern ports by
restrictions as to storage and by onerous taxation.
For these mischiefs adequate relief is not always af-
forded by reciprocity treaties, like that with Hawaii
or that lately negotiated with Mexico, and now await-
ing the action of the Senate. Is it not advisable to
provide some measure of equitable retaliation in our
relations with governments which discriminate against
our own ? If, for example, the Executive were em-
powered to apply to Spanish vessels and cargoes from
Cuba and Porto Eico the same rules of treatment and
scale of penalties for technical faults which are ap-
plied to our vessels and cargoes in the Antilles, a
resort to that course might not be barren of good re-
sults.

United States Commercial Agent Ford, of Sa-
gua la Grande, in a report on the carrying-trade
between that port and the United States, says
that if, during the next four years, " American
tonnage continues to decrease and English steam
tonnage to increase at its present ratio, the
American flag will be seen only above the Uni-
ted States consulate, and the chief business of
the consular office will be merely to give cer-
tificates of invoices and to draw bills of health
for British steamers." In regard to discrimi-
nation against American vessels and in favor
of British vessels, Mr. Ford- makes the follow-
ing comparisons, and offers the following sug-
gestions as remedial measures :

In my judgment, it would be an act of wisdom in
our law-makers should they abolish all consular fees
now paid by American vessels, excepting those for
noting and extending protests ; and it would also
be well to annul the law allowing three months' extra
pay when a seaman is left in the hospital. The other
section relating to the three months' extra wages is a
just and equitable statute, and should continue in
force. To abolish that would entail endless annoy-
ance and trouble to consular officers, without benefit-
ing any one, helping not even the complaining ship-
masters. Another relief would be to allow eveiy thing
which enters into the construction of vessels to pass
free of duty, and to permit, under proper restrictions,
the withdrawing from bond of whatever is used on our

An additional disadvantage under which Amer-
ican vessels labor when brought in competition with
British vessels comes from our method of taking ton-
nage measurement. British vessels are measured
with deductions which are not allowed to American
vessels. I will give, as examples, two British steam-
ers which loaded in Sagua this year: the British
steamer Clandon, gross tons 1,971, net tons 1,286;
and the British steamer Leina, gross tons 1,732, net
tons, 1,141. These paid tonnage dues on their net
measurement. Had they been American steamers
(and up to July 1, 1882, no deductions were made for
even coal-space), dues would have been collected on
the gross tonnage. The difference in these charges
at $1 per ton is considerable, and the British steam-
ers thus secure over ours an advantage of about 50
cents per hogshead on their cargoes.

Commerce. — There were exported from Ha-
vana, in 1880 : 90,523 boxes, 219,323 bags, and
190,083 hogsheads of sugar ; 12,433 hogsheads,
of molasses ; 1,476 tierces of honey ; 9,873 pipes

264

CUBA.

of 125 gallons rum ; 8,779 arrobas of 25 pounds
Spanish wax; 12,464,936 pounds of tobacco,
and 153,141 thousand cigars. Instead of being
an exporter of coffee, Cuba now imports the
same from Porto Eico. Copper-ore is, how-
ever, likely to soon again become an export
article to England from the Cobre Mining Com-
pany's mines near Santiago de Cuba. The
working of these mines was stopped by the in-
surrection, but is now being resumed.

The amount of cigars shipped from Havana
to the United States during the year ended
Sept. 20, 1882, was $3,341,729 worth, of which
New York received $2,387,648; San Francisco,
$291,756 ; Chicago, $174,121 ; Boston, $144,-
604; and Philadelphia, $57,688.

CHIEF ARTICLES OF MERCHANDISE IMPORTED INTO
HAVANA.

ARTICLES.

Weight
measure.

Average during
the ten years,
1873-'82 In-
cluiive.

Jerked beef

Quintals of

Codfish, American
Codfish, European

lOli pounds
English.

291,253

88.881
68680

Flour

Barrels .. .

280 895

Kice from Spain

Quintals.

21 765

Eice from the East Indies . . .
Lard, American

867,991
148 411

Wine, Spanish

Pipes

94'646

Olive-oil.

Jars.

260 495

Hogshead-shooks, American.
American boards

Number .. .
Thousand feet

82,597
24028

American box-shooks .

257 723

Coal from Europe

Tons.

168677

Petroleum, American

Quintals

146,869

VESSELS ENTERED DURING THE FIVE YEARS FROM
1878 TO 1882 INCLUSIVE.

YEAR.

Total entries.

Spanish.

American.

1878. .
1879..
1880..
1881..
1882..

Vessels.
1,626
1,752
1,426
1.889
1,424

Tons.
979,949
1,103,439
1,018,140
1,114,085
1,258,181

Vessels.
582
569
491
502
528

Tom.
269,836
330,166
291,481
851,180
489,908

Vesseh.

740
859
663
573
570

Tons.
481,752
513,692
493,550
462,048
496,736

About the trade between Cardenas and the
United States, the American consular agent,
Nunez, remarks :

The export tonnage in English bottoms is increas-
ing, for the reason that the English vessels are gen-
erally steamers carrying heavy freight, and at less
rates than American vessels can afford to charter for.
It may not here be inappropriate to suggest that if
ever this island becomes an integral portion of the
United States, the impetus which that fact would give
to American ship-building would he very great. All
the tradej in such au event, would be coast-trade, and
in American bottoms. A growing article of export
from Cardenas is asphaltum, and it is claimed that
the Cardenas asphaltum is superior to that of any
other p_art of the world. There is much asphaltum
in the island of Cuba ; much of it is of questionable
quality and is called chapapote, but that which is ob-

tained at this port is dredged from the bed of the hay,
and at upward of sixty feet below the surface of the
water, and is supposed to be inexhaustible. It sells
for export at $30 per ton.

Sugar. — This industry has been thoroughly
revolutionized by the introduction of central
sugar-houses and new processes ; clayed sugars
have gradually gone into disuse, and centrifu-
gals and muscovadoes have taken their place,
as the ensuing table of exports fully demon-
strates :

YEAR.

BOX SUGAB.

MTJBCOYADOES, ETC.

Consisting of

To the
United
States.

Consisting of

To the
United

States.

1878.
1879.
18SO.
1881.
1882.

Total.

Tons.
71,390
72,858
45,846
35,057
37,069

Boxes.
875,735
883,465
241,295
184,512
195,102

213,020
135,347
115,202
94,008
93,604

Tons.
403,039
551,077
449,987
414,010
500,789

Hogsh'ds.
652,695
892,432
723,724
670,461
810,995

631,666

738,811
681,154
628,051

788,127

262,220

1,380,109

651,181

2,818,902 3,755,307

3,467,799

The tabular statement below exhibits the
fluctuating character of Cuban sugar-produc-
tion, and that the United States more and
more absorb it almost altogether :

YEAR.

Produc-
tion.

Stock
on hand
Jan. 1.

Local
consump-
tion.

Export to
the United
StaUs.

Export to
other coun-
tries.

Total
export.

1876..
1877..
187$..
1879..
1880..

Total.

Tons.
590,000
520,000
538,000
670,000
580,000

2,843,000

Tons.
14,150

11,008
19,200
27.200
22,900

Tons.
55.000
50,000
50,000
50,000
50,000

Tong.
486,903
419,000
430,521
481,972
405,000

Tons.
100.845
41,810
43,998
141,963
55,000

Tons.
537,548
460,810
474,427
723,935
460,000

94,453

255,000,2,173,396

383,616

2,656,715

TRADE BETWEEN THE UNITED STATES AND CUBA DURING
THE FIVE YEARS 1879 TO 1883.

YEAR.

* Imports.

Exports.

1879

$63,649,656

$12,201,691

1880

65 423 018

10 924 633

1881

63 003,404

10,999,276

1882

70,450,652

11,775,073

1883

65,544,534

14,567,918

Total

$328,071,264

$60,468,591

The chief articles of domestic production
imported from the United States during the
fiscal year ended June 30, 1882, were cattle
and horses, $580,592 ; breadstuffs (including
only 56,955 barrels of flour), $1,029,653 ; coal,
100,319 tons ($409,970); cordage, $205,110;
machinery and hardware, $1,572,076 ; provis-
ions, $2,840,480, which included 15,279,152
pounds of lard ; lumber, timber, and furniture,
$2,907,331 ; and paper and stationery, $223,-
814.

DAKOTA.

266

DAKOTA. Territorial Government,— The Terri-
torial officers during the year were : Governor,
N. G. Ordway; Secretary, George H. Hand,
succeeded by J. H. Teller ; Treasurer, William
H. Me Vay ; Auditor, L. M. Purdy, succeeded
by George L. Ordway ; Superintendent of
Public Instruction, William H. H. Beadle; At-
torney-General, Alexander Hughes.

Legislative Session. — The Legislature, contain-
ing 31 Republicans and 5 Democrats in both
Houses, convened on the 9th of January, and
adjourned on the 9th of March. The follow-
ing are extracts from the Governor's message :

During the two years that have elapsed since the
meeting of the last Legislature, our population has
increased from 150,000 to nearly 300,000 ; our taxa-
ble property has increased from $20,000,000 to $50,-
000,000 ; and the agricultural and mechanical devel-
opments have fully kept pace with this remarkable
increase of property and population.

The Territorial finances are in a most satisfactory
condition.

It is asserted that mines producing a revenue suf-
ficient to pay large dividends upon $15,000,000 or
$20,000,000 of stock or shares, are escaping their equal
share of taxation by the payment of taxes upon less
than one fifth of the actual value of the property. It
is also asserted that patents have been declined upon
lands granted by Congress to certain railroads run-
ning through the Territory, although the lands have
passed into other hands under contracts and are thus
kept out of the assessors' lists.

As a member of the Board of Equalization and As-
sessment, it has come under my observation that
gross inequality exists in assessing the land and per-
sonal property in the various counties. I am, there-
fore, constrained to believe that a large amount of
property in the Territory wholly escapes assessment.

The present laws give county commissioners al-
most unlimited power to mismanage the finances and
wreck a county. As a board of equalization, they
sometimes assume the authority, under the pretense
of revising the assessors' lists, to cut down the assess-
ments in certain cases nearly one half, without at-
tempting to find any property which has escaped as-
sessment, or that has been assessed too low, to make
up the deficiency — thus largely increasing' the rate
upon the property which remains unchanged. Under
the operation of this unequal system the Territorial
Board of Equalization and Assessment are compelled
to adopt a higher average rate than would be neces-
sary if a better system was provided.

There is now outstanding against various counties
in the Territory nearly $100,000 of Territorial taxes,
heretofore assessed upon delinquent counties, yet the
present laws provide no adequate means for the col-
lection of this large sum.

The failure of the officers of Yankton county to
meet the requirements of $200,000 of bonds issued to
aid iti the construction of a railroad, has caused severe
criticism and unfavorable comment during the discus-
sion of the bills for the admission and division of the
Territory. Certain enactments passed by the last
Legislative Assembly, although general in their pro-
vigions, intended to prevent the assessment of taxes,
have been widely and unfavorably commented upon
in the public press. The people of Yankton county,
previous to the last election, inaugurated a movement
to refund or liquidate these outstanding bonds, bear-
ing a high rate of interest, by the issuance, under
congressional authority, of a well-guarded low rate
oi interest bond which the revenues of the county

could meet as the interest and principal should fall
due.

There are now pending in both Houses of Congress
bills providing a comprehensive enabling act for di-
viding the Territory by the admission of the southern
half as a State ; also a bill for dividing the Territory
substantially upon the same line. It is not denied
that the southern portion of the Territory has the re-
quired number of inhabitants, who, if living in a
State, would be entitled to a member of the House of
Eepresentatives. It is not denied that the amount of
taxable property in the southern portion is fully equal
to that in any Territory that has been admitted as a
State.

After giving an official history of the floods
of 1881, the Governor recommends that provis-
ion be made to send assistance in any similar
emergency. He strongly urges the establish-
ment of an immigration, mining, and agricul-
tural board of three members, one for each
department, who shall collect statistics and
give information about the Territorial re-
sources. He calls attention to the probable
opening of the Big Sioux Reservation, and that
such legislation be taken as may be necessary.

The total number of bills sent to the Gov-
ernor was 335. In the Council about 250
bills were introduced, and nearly 300 in the
House. Of these 280 became laws, either by
signature or limitation. Among the most im-
portant bills which became laws are the bill
for capital removal ; for creating a tax com-
mission to inquire what property escapes taxa-
tion, and to suggest remedies and look after
delinquent taxes, of which there are large
amounts outstanding. The bill creating the
office of attorney-general is another important
measure. The educational bill is, perhaps, the
most important measure of the session. This
law adopts the civil township system and is
a much-needed measure. A bill of great conse-
quence to North Dakota is the one providing
a board of grain-inspectors to look after the
weighing and grading of grain.

The institutions for which provision was
made, either for building or running expenses,
or boih, were the following : Penitentiaries at
Sioux Falls and Bismarck; Hospitals for the In-
sane at Yankton and Jamestown ; universities
at Vermilion and Grand Forks; and normal
schools at Spear Fish and Madison; Agricul-
tural College at Brookings; School for the
Deaf and Dumb at Sioux Falls. The Agricul-
tural College was located at Fargo and the Re-
form School at Plankinton, but no appropria-
tions were made.

The capital- removal bill, as passed, provides
for the appointment of a commission of nine
to determine upon a suitable location for a
permanent capital. The commissioners are put
under $40,000 bonds to perform their duties
faithfully, and are to receive $6 a day for
their services, but the total amount of ex-
pense may not exceed $10,000. On or before

266

DAKOTA.

July 1st, a place is to be selected, and the town or
town site chosen is to give the Territory 160
acres of land and $100,000 in cash for public
buildings. A bill reorganizing the legislative
districts passed. Each district is entitled to
one councilman and two representatives.

Finances. — The statement of receipts and dis-
bursements for the fiscal years 1881 and 1882
is as follows :

RECEIPTS.

Balance in Treasury, Dec. 1, 1880 . $1,905 73

From counties, 1381 55,918 86

From counties, 1882 102,005 93

From railroads, 1881, for 1880 tax 22,583 89

From railroads, 1882, for 1881 tax 35,614 39

From telegraph companies, 1882 518 55

From sale of Insane Hospital bonds, 1881 41,540 00

From sale of Penitentiary bonds 51,522 50

From insurance companies for loss on Insane Hos-
pital 8,00000

From sale of codes, 1881 70 50

From sale of codes. 1882 65 00

From sundries, 1881 135 65

Total $314,878 00

DISBURSEMENTS.

For Auditor's warrants, 1881 $77,434 57

For Auditor's warrants, 1882 151,116 82

For interest on warrants, 1881 1.693 57

For interest on warrants, 1832

For interest on Insane Hospital bonds, 1882

For interest on Penitentiary bonds, 1882

For counties, proportion railroad-tax, 1881

For counties, proportion railroad-tax. 1882

For exchange and express charges, 1881

For exchange and express charges, 1882

Balance in Treasury, Nov. 30, 1882

693 00

2.400 00
1,900 20

22,594 66

25 05

148 65

43,463 90

Total ...................................... $814,878 00

LIABILITIES OF THE TERRITORY, NOV. 30, 1880.
Five-twenty 6 per cent. Insane Hospital bonds,

dated May 4, 1881 ............................. $40,000 00

Five-twenty 6 per cent. Penitentiary bonds, dated

May 1,1881 .................................. 50,000 00

Total ...................................... $90,000 00

ASSETS OF THE TERRITORY, NOV. 30, 1882.
Balance in general fund ......................... $41,149 29

Balance in Insane Hospital construction fund ____ 68

Balance in Penitentiary construction fund ........ 2,313 93

Total ..................................... $43,463 90

The assessed value of property in 1882 was
nearly $48,000,000.

Bonds to the following amounts were au-
thorized by the last session of the Legislature :

For permanent improvement Sioux Falls Peniten-

tiary ....................... , ......... ..... $30,000

Construction of Bismarck Penitentiary ............. 50,000

Deaf-Mute School at Sioux Falls .................... 12,000

Dakota University at Vermilion .................. 30 000

North Dakota University at Grand Forks ........... 30,000

Agricultural College at Brookings ................. 25,000

Hospital for the Insane, Yankton, permanent im-

provements ..................................... 77 SOD

Building the Hospital for the Insane at Jamestown. . 50^000

Total ......................................... $~304,500

Gov. Ordway, in his report for 1883, says:
Four years ago the Territory owed some $20,000 in
warrants, which securities, bearing 10 per cent, inter-
est, for want of funds, were selling at a large discount.
These warrants have all been paid off from current
revenues, leaving a handsome surplus in the Treasury,
and the Territory will have an outstanding indebted-
ness, when all the bonds provided for by the last two
legislatures are issued, of $394,500, bearino- but 5
per cent, annual interest ; substantially the

and

same amount outstanding against Yankton county,

but not as large an amount of indebtedness by one
third as Lawrence county owes. These two counties
have assets to show for tneir large indebtedness, ordi-
nary court-houses and jails, valued perhaps at $15,000
each. The Territory, on the contrary, will have t\\o
penitentiaries, two hospitals for the insane, two uni-
versities, two normal schools, one school for deaf-
mutes, and one and perhaps two agricultural colleges
all costing in round numbers $400,000, yet worth to
the people double that sum, and so located in the east,
west, north, and south that one great State or two
smaller ones can securely and safely be placed upon
these essential foundations. This total indebtedness
of the Territory could easily be paid and every Ter-
ritorial bond retired next year by the assessment of a
five-mill tax upon the assessable property in the Ter-
ritory, without the slightest shock to business enter-
prise. It has been thought, however, more just to
defer the payments for the erection of these institu-
tions until the public lands to be given to the State
under the " Burrows enabling act " shall become avail-
able.

Education. — The total school revenue of 34
counties, for the year ending March 31, 1882,
was $343,719, which the superintendent is satis-
fied a full report would have increased to $500,-
000. This sum is raised almost wholly by direct
taxation, since it does not seem from the re-
ports that the proceeds of bonds issued to ena-
ble districts to erect and furnish school-houses
were included in receipts to any considerable
extent. Reports from 33 counties show the
following statistics :

Total school districts organized 1,225

Total graded schools 40

Total ungraded schools 965

Number of school-houses 799

Value of same $525,877

Amount paid county superintendents 88,616

Average wages paid teachers, male 88

Average wages paid teachers, female 26

Total expenses of the office of Superintendent of
Public Instruction for salary, mileage, office, print-
ing, books, stationery, and postage 950

An agricultural college at Brookings, one
or two normal schools, Dakota University at
Vermilion, and Yankton College at Yankton,
have been established.

Capital Removal.— On the 2d of June the
commission for choosing a site for the Terri-
torial capital selected Bismarck, and on the
25th of August work was begun for the erec-
tion of the Capitol. On the llth of September
Gov. Ordway ordered the Territorial Auditor,
Secretary, and Treasurer to remove their offices
from Yankton to Bismarck. The Auditor com-
plied, but the Secretary and Treasurer refused
to remove. On the 15th of September the de-
cision of Judge Edgarton of the Supreme Court
declaring the appointment of the commission-
ers illegal, was made public. An appeal was
taken to the full bench, but it had not been
argued at the close of the year.

State Constitution.— On the 19th of June a con-
vention, comprising more than 400 delegates
from the southern portion of the Territory,
belonging to both political parties, assembled
at Huron to consider the question of calling a
constitutional contention. This body adopted
a preamble and resolutions, from which the
following extracts are taken :

Whereas, The Territory of Dakota, lying south of

DAKOTA.

267

tf e forty-sixth parallel of latitude, has at present a
population of more then 250,000 people, which, at its
ut rate of increase, will in another twelve months
number over 300^000 people, which is more than double
the population of any State heretofore admitted into the
Union out of the Territories, and more than that of
seven of the original States at the time of their admis-
sion ; and

Whereas, The said part of the said Territory covers
an area of 80,000 square miles, which is larger than
that contained in any State in the Union except seven ;
and

Whereas, The last Legislature of this Territory,
wisely acceding to and representing the general and
earnest wish of the people thereof, did enact a law
convening a constitutional convention at the Capitol
of the Territory in October next, for the purpose of
framincr a Constitution and State government for that
part of" Dakota south of the forty-sixth parallel, and
for forming all other tilings essential to the admission
of such part of Dakota into the Union of States ; and

Whereas, The said act of the Legislature was pre-
vented from becoming a law by the Territorial Execu-
tive declining to approve the same or return it to the
Legislature with, his objections, thus depriving that
body from taking further action relating thereto ;
therefore be it

fiesolved and ordained by the people of Dakota,
through their delegates in convention assembled :

SECTION 1. That for the purpose of enabling the
people of that part of Dakota south of the forty-sixth
parallel to organize and form a State government, and
make application for admission into the Union of the
States, a delegate convention is hereby called to meet
on Tuesday, Sept. 4, A. D. 1883, at 12 o'clock merid-
ian, for the purpose of framing a State Constitution,
republican in form, and doing and performing all other
things essential to the preparation of the Territory for
making application to the General Government for the
admission of such part of Dakota into the Union of
the States.

An address to the people in favor of the
convention was issued, and Sioux Falls was
fixed upon for the place of meeting. The dele-
gates were duly elected, and the convention
met on the 4th of September, and finished its
labors on the 19th. Important features of the
Constitution framed by it are the follow-
ing:

The name shall be the State of Dakota ; the bound-
aries begin where the forty-sixth degree of north lati-
tude intersects the western boundary -line of the State
of Minnesota, thence south to Nebraska, thence west
along the northern boundary of that State and to the
twenty-seventh degree of west bngitude, thence north
to the forty-sixth parallel, and east to the place of be-
ginning ; the seat of government shall be and remain
at Yankton until removed by law.

The right of trial by jury shall remain inviolate,
and extend to all cases at law without regard to the
anjount in controversy ; but a jury trial may be waived
by parties in all civil cases, and in all criminal cases
less than felony. No religious tests or amount of
property shall ever be required as a qualification for
any office of trust under the State, and no person shall
be rendered incompetent to give evidence in any court
of law or equity in consequence of his opinions on the
subject of religion, nor shall any money be drawn from
the Treasury for the benefit of religious societies or
theological seminaries ; no ex post jacto law, nor law
impairing the obligation of contracts, or retrospective
in its operations, or making any irrevocable grant of
special privileges, franchises, or immunities shall ever
be passed by the Legislature ; no law or duty shall be
imposed without the consent of the people or their
representatives in the Legislature, and all taxation
shall be equal and uniform ; no law shall be passed
granting to any citizen or class of citizens privileges or

immunities which, upon the same terms, shall not
equally belong to all citizens.

The number of members of the House of Eepresent-
atives shall never be less than fifty-five nor more than
eighty, and the number of Senators less than twenty-
five nor more than thirty-two. The sessions of the
Legislature shall be biennial. The terms of members
of the Legislature shall be two years, and their salary
three dollars a day, and ten cents mileage each way ;
they shall receive pay for no more than forty days at
one session, except in proceedings for impeachment,
and they shall receive no other perquisites. The
Legislature shall meet at the seat of government on
the first Tuesday after the first Monday of January.
No bill except appropriation bills shall be passed con-
taining more than one subject. The Legislature shall
not authorize any games of chance, lottery, or of gift
enterprise under any pretense, or for any purpose
whatever. The Legislature shall never grant any ex-
tra compensation to any public officer, agent, servant,
or contractor after the services shall have been ren-
dered or the contract entered into ; nor shall the com-
pensation of any public officer be increased or dimin-
ished during his term of office. The Legislature shall
not pass any local or special law authorizing the crea-
tion, repairing, or extension of liens, granting divorces,
changing names of persons or places, laying out or
opening highways, vacating grounds, providing for
tne election of municipal officers, exempting property
from taxation, granting to any private corporation, as-
sociation, or individual any special or exclusive privi-
leges, immunities, or franchises whatever. No act
shall take effect until ninety days after the adjourn-
ment of the session at which it passed, unless in case
of emergency.

The Supreme Court shall consist of three judges, to
be chosen from districts by qualified electors at large.
After five years the number of supreme judges may
be increased to five, and their terms shall be four
years. In case of re-election, it shall be eight years,
and the third successor's term shall be twelve years.

The right to divert and appropriate the unappro-
priated waters of any natural stream in the State to
beneficial uses shall never be denied. Priority of
appropriation shall give the better right to the extent
to which such waters shall be used, or intended in
good faith to be used, for such beneficial purposes.
Vested and accrued water rights shall be recognized
and protected ; provided that nothing in this article
contained shall change the rule of riparian ownership
in that portion of the State east of the Missouri river
All persons and corporations shall have the exclusive
right of way across public and private corporate
lands, for the construction of ditches, canals, and
flumes for the purpose of conveying water for do-
mestic purposes, for the irrigation of agricultural
lands, and for mining, milling, and manufacturing
purposes, and for drainage, upon payment of just
compensation.

All railroads, canals, and other transportation com-

,nies, are declared to be common carriers, and sub-
ect to legislative control. Every stockholder shall

ve the right to vote in person or by proxy the
number of shares of stock owned by him for as' many
persons as there are directors or managers to be
elected, or to cumulate said shares and give one
candidate as many votes as the number of directors
multiplied by the number of his shares of stock shall
equal, or to distribute them on the same principle
among the many candidates as he shall see fit. This
Constitution shall be submitted, at the election to be
held on the Tuesday next after the first Monday in
November, A. D. 1883, to the electors qualified by
this Constitution to vote at all elections.

On the 12th of September a convention of
delegates from the northern portion of the
Territory assembled at Fargo and passed reso-
lutions protesting against the action of the
convention held at Sioux Falls.

pani

cr

268

DANUBE, EUROPEAN COMMISSION OF THE.

At the election in November the Constitu-
tion was ratified by a majority of 5,552.

Progress during the Year. — Relative to the con-
dition and recent progress of the Territory,
Gov. Ordway, in his report for 1883, says :

The tide of immigration which set in strongly in
1880 has been constantly increasing, until during the
past year, I think, a fair estimate of the increase in
population would reach 100,000, while the increase of
assessable property has even been more marked than
the increase in the number of inhabitants.

The section properly denominated the " Corn Belt,"
running as far north as the 44th degree of north lati-
tude, and west to the 24th degree of longitude west
from Washington, has been unusually prosperous
during the past year. Flax and even wheat, which
sometimes blights during the extreme heated term.
have yielded handsomely. Sheep - husbandry and
stock-raisin** have both received a marked impetus
in what is Known as Southern Dakota, and general
farming is fast becoming the rule in that section.

The Black Hills mining region and the Great Sioux
Reservation, embracing the section of country lying
west of the 24th degree of longitude west from Wash-
ington, still remain somewhat isolated. The agri-
cultural developments, however, in the counties of
Pennington, Fail River, Custer, Lawrence, and Butte.
have increased wonderfully. Flour, vegetables, and
other agricultural products, formerly transported into
the Black Hills at heavy expense, have, during the
past year, been exported overland to Pierre and other
points on the Missouri river, and sold at remunera-
tive prices. The increase in stock and sheep hus-
bandry in this section during the past year has been
marvelous. The cattle-trade alone, west of the Mis-
souri river, absorbs many millions of dollars every
year.

The wheat belt, commencing at the 44th parallel of
north latitude and extending to the extreme northern
portion of the Territory; has maintained its well-
earned fame for producing the largest number of
bushels per acre of the best wheat grown on this
continent. The continued large returns to investors
in wheat-lands have largely increased the improved
acreage and carried up the price from $5 to $25 per
acre on the Northern Pacific Railway and in the Red
River valley. Even in the center of the Bad Lands,
on the Little Missouri river, a large amount of capital
has recently been invested in cattle and sheep, which
are said to find excellent feed and shelter in that
romantic and weird region.

The annual production of gold and silver in the
Black Hills region still continues, although, owing to
the scarcity of water and the necessity for having ex-
pensive mining machinery, the increase has not been
large during the past year.

Miscellaneous. — The yield of wheat in 1883
has been stated at 16,128,000 bushels, being
an average of 16 bushels an acre. In Novem-
ber, 1882, John B. Raymond, Republican, was
elected delegate to Congress by a vote of 38,-
151 against 9,034 for his Democratic opponent.
The following Territorial institutions have been
established : Hospital for the Insane, at Yank-
ton ; Penitentiary and School for Deaf-Mutes, at
Sioux Falls.

DANUBE, EUROPEAN COMMISSION OF THE, an
international corporate institution, exercising
certain sovereign powers, independent of the
Roumanian Government, over the Danube be-
low Galatz. It was originally created by the
Treaty of Paris, signed March 30, 1856, was
confirmed and endowed with larger powers by
the Treaty of Berlin, signed July 13, 1878, and
at the expiration of its term of full powers on

March 13, 1883, was reconstituted and extended
for twenty-one years, with power of perpetual
renewal. The jurisdiction of the commission
was extended over the middle Danube as far
as Braila. Its sovereign rights are derived
from the delegated authority of the seven con-
tracting powers and of Roumania. They con-
sist in the exercise of police control over the
river, the right to enact and issue regulations
which have the force of law, and powers to
levy imposts and to contract loans, and to em-
ploy its resources in public works for the im-
provement and conservation of navigation.
The seat of the commission is at Galatz. The
first regular meeting of the new Commission
was held on Nov. 3, 1883.

Finances. — The financial report of the Danu-
bian Commission for 1881 shows an excess of
receipts amounting to 842,095 francs. The
total receipts amounted to 3,448,190 francs, of
which 1,985,052 francs were derived from tax-
es, including 147,328 francs from pilotage and
light-house dues, and 1,463,138 francs from
other sources. The total expenditure was 2,-
606,095 francs, under the following main heads :

Francs.

Administration 289,458

Technical service 711,098

Service of the debt 1,111.665

Various charges _J493,854

Total 27606,095

The debts of the commission amounted, on
Jan. 1, 1882, to 2,781,911 francs, and consisted
of an advance made by the Sublime Porte,
which ceded the claim to Erlanger & Co.,
amounting to 2,469,371 francs, paying 4 per
cent., which was paid off at the end of 1883,
and a loan of 312,540 francs, extinguished in
1882. Besides a reserve fund of 1,000,000
francs and the surplus, in 1881, of 826,095
francs, the commission had a sinking fund of
264,856 francs, and a pilotage fund amounting
to 44,565 francs.

Trade and Navigation. — The shipments of grain,
which is the principal article of export, from
all the ports of the lower Danube, in 1882,
aggregated 6,629,843 quarters, against 5,401,-
441 quarters in 1881.

The total number of steam- vessels cleared at
Sulina in 1882 was 760, of 741,066 tons, against
770 of an aggregate tonnage of 653,016, in
1881 ; the total number of sailing-vessels in
1882 was 784, tonnage 110,179, against 941 of
140,438 tons in 1881. The tonnage of 1882 was
divided in respect to nationality as follows :

FLAG.

Steam-
tonnage.

Sail-
tonnage.

English

60T219

1 224

Greek

41 856

64787

Austrian

French

58734

Russian

48S9

3878

Turkish...

32 071

Italian .

2080

7,241

Roumanian •

1,488

German ....

9724

Danish

7,728

All others. .

8836

Total | 741,066 110,17»

DANUBE, EUROPEAN COMMISSION OF THE.

269

The points where sea-going vessels can load
with grain from the lower valley of the Dan-
ube, are the river-ports of Galatz and Braila,
and the adjacent ports of Kustendje and Var-
na on the Black sea. All the grain which
finds an outlet by the mouth of the Danube is
grown in Roumania and Bulgaria. The wheat
of Hungary and the whole upper valley of the
river is exported by other channels of com-
merce. In times of scarcity in Hungary, there
is a small movement of grain up-stream be-
yond the Iron Gate, which rarely exceeds 350,-
000 tons per annum, but which may be aug-
mented by the improvement of the channel in
the difficult stretch where it passes through
the Carpathians. There is a limited traffic in
manufactured goods from Germany, Austria,
and Hungary, which are shipped down the
river in the vessels of the Austrian Danube
Steam Navigation Company, a privileged cor-
poration which monopolizes all the through
traffic between Vienna and Galatz, and much
of the local traffic on the upper course of the
river. The freight-charges by this route are,
however, so high that the construction of Rou-
manian railroads has taken away a great part
of the traffic with the left bank, and the intro-
duction of English and Swiss manufactures by
the Sulina mouth has diminished the portion
which went to Bulgaria.

The whole tendency of modern progress is
to diminish the importance of the Danube as
a commercial highway. It is not used as an
outlet for Central-European commerce, which
finds its way by rail to the German ports on
the Baltic and the North seas, or to the Aus-
tro-Hungarian ports of Fiume and Trieste on
the Adriatic. Even to the countries traversed
by its lower and middle course it is only an
alternative route, which is losing importance as
railroads are extended. The Roumanian Gov-
ernment recently acquired the Kustendje-
Tchernevoda railroad, and intends to develop
Kustendje into its principal seaport. Grain
can be shipped across to and loaded in vessels
at Kustendje with great saving of time. A
bridge over the Danube at Tchernevoda will
connect this line with railways coming from
the north and west which are being construct-
ed. The completion » /f the Turkish, Servian,
and Bulgarian net-work connecting with the
Austro-Hungarian, for which Austria finally
succeeded in 1883 in getting a project adopted
(see AUSTRIA-HUNGARY), will alter the commer-
cial conditions of all Southeastern Europe, and
deflect a large part of the Danubian trade.

Projected Improvements of Navigation.— The en-
trance of the Danube was rendered passable
to ocean-going vessels by the European Com-
mission on the plans of Sir Charles Hartley.
The Sulina branch was deepened and rectified,
and a large volume of water which formerly
found an outlet by the St. George's mouth was
deflected into this channel. The flow of water
at the upper bifurcation, at Ismail Chatal, was
also regulated, and a portion of the waters of

the Kilia branch drawn into the navigable
channel. At the London Conference of 1883
a second commission was created, which was
charged with the task of improving the navi-
gation of the Danube from Braila, or Ibraila,
up to the Iron Gate. This long middle course
of the Danube differs very much from the
tranquil stream that traverses the plain below
Galatz and issues through the three branches
of the delta. It comprises over 450 miles of
shifting river-bed, about 300,000 acres in ex-
tent. The river is a rapid and turbulent
stream, which forms shoals and islands in a
few days or hours and constantly changes its
channel. It sweeps down immense quantities
of ice, moving it with sufficient force to crush
the sides of a ship. It is impassable for a
large part of the year on this account, and
navigation is sometimes dangerous for nine
months out of the twelve. It therefore lies
beyond the power of engineering skill to ren-
der the navigation of the middle Danube pass-
able to the class of vessels which ply up to the
river-ports below, or safe for any craft.

Above the Iron Gate, within the Austro-
Hungarian dominions, the Danube is the same
rapid and ice-swept stream, though less un-
stable in its channel than below. The two
parts of the river are separated by the difficult
and dangerous rapids of the Iron Gate. The
removal of the rocky obstructions at that
point is a formidable task, but the improve-
ment in the facilities of the river-traffic will
repay the outlay. This work has been under-
taken by the Hungarian "Government.

Danubian Questions. — The Treaty of Paris, con-
cluded in 1856, constituted two commissions —
the European Commission and the Riverain
Commission. To the European Commission
the control of the river was confided tempo-
rarily, and its powers were intended to last
but two years. The Riverain Commission was
created as a permanent institution, and was
expected to take over the functions of the
European Commission and to conduct the op-
erations for the improvement of the river and
regulate the navigation throughout its entire
course. As a matter of fact, the Riverain
Commission never exercised its powers, while
the European Commission was continued pro-
visionally, and after carrying out the improve-
ments at the Sulina mouth, and deepening that
channel to admit sea-going vessels, retained
jurisdiction over the navigation of the lower
reaches of the river below Galatz Until it was
formally recognized in the Treaty of Berlin,
and its" functions maintained and prolonged.
That treaty provided that Roumania should be
represented on the commission, and that the
powers of the commission should be exercised
as far as Galatz, in complete independence of
the territorial authorities. The same instru-
ment enacted that regulations in respect to
navigation, river police, and supervision above
Galatz as far as the Iron Gate should be framed
by the European Commission, with the assist-

270

DANUBE, EUROPEAN COMMISSION OF THE.

ance of delegates from the riverain states, in
harmony with those issued or to be issued for
the portion of the river below Galatz. The
treaty contained an article providing that one
year before the expiration of the term fixed for
the duration of the powers of the commission,
the powers should come to an understanding
in respect to the prolongation of its authority
or the modification of its constitution.

The prolongation of the European Commis-
sion and its retention of the powers which
were intended for the Riverain Commission
were mainly owing to the attitude of Rouma-
nia. That state was naturally jealous of the
anomalous assumption of rights superseding
its sovereignty over a river flowing through
its territory. It was particularly suspicious of
Austria, and strove to exclude its powerful
neighbor as far as possible from participation
in the proposed Riverain Commission, and to
deny her a share in the navigable portion of
the water-way, on the ground that within Aus-
trian territory the Danube is not navigable.
In point of fact, Austria has no important
commercial interests and but slight military
interest in the waters of the lower Danube.
On the middle Danube, however, she can claim
a preponderant interest through the privileged
and formerly subsidized Austrian Danubian
Steam Navigation Company, which monopo-
lizes the steam-traffic on that portion of the
river. She was actuated by her general Ori-
ental interests and by her moral position in
respect to her one great river, as much as by
her material interests in it, to assert the full
strength of her position. As Roumania re-
fused to accord her a commensurate share of
influence as a riverain power, she used her
voice as a great power to perpetuate the Euro-
pean control, sacrificing her exclusive riverain
rights rather than yield them up to the control
of a distrustful and possibly unfriendly combi-
nation of riparian states. The maritime pow-
ers of Western Europe, who were the real ben-
eficiaries of the improvements made by the
European Commission, were naturally inclined
to assert and extend the principle of interna-
tional control and perpetuate the institution
which gave complete security to freedom of
navigation and the facilities of commerce.

In 1882, when the time for anew settlement
of Danubian affairs was at hand, a serious at-
tempt was made to construct a mixed Riverain
Commission, composed of delegates from Aus-
tria-Hungary, Roumania, Servia, and Bulgaria,
to which should be committed the adminis-
trative management of the navigation above
Galatz, in harmony with the regulations of the
European Commission for the lower reaches.
At that time Austrian and Russian antagonism
was more salient than later. The Servian
Government was supposed to be subservient
to the wishes of Austria, while Bulgaria was
nnde* Russian control, and Roumania was re-
garded as susceptible to Russian influence
through her dread of Austrian domination.

Austria laid claim to the permanent presi-
dency and casting vote in the proposed Mixed
Commission. Roumania strenuously opposed
this proposition. The Roumanian Prime Min-
ister was even betrayed into the official ex-
pression of a hostile menace against the Haps-
burg monarchy. Great Britain objected to the
Riverain Commission, unless a general right
of appeal from its decisions to the Euro-
pean Commission was accorded. Barrere, the
French delegate on the commission, proposed
a compromise which was intended to ob-
viate the English objection to confiding the
management of the navigation of the middle
reaches, declared free up to the Iron Gate by
the Treaty of Berlin, to the exclusive admin-
istrative direction of the riverain states, and
also the Roumanian objection of giving Austria
the deciding voice. The Barrere avant-projet
was to create a fifth member in the Mixed
Commision, who should represent the Euro-
pean Commission. The delegates of the sig-
natory powers in the European Commission
were to succeed one another from year to
year in the alphabetical order of the names
of the countries. Roumania raised an ob-
jection to this proposal, viz., that Germany
(Allemagne) and Austria-Hungary (Autriche-
Hongrie) would by this arrangement control
the decisions of the new commission for the
first two years, thus enabling Austria's wishes
to prevail in drawing up the administrative
regulations.

While Roumania on her part was seeking to
shape the course of the diplomatic delibera-
tions so as to restrict as far as possible the in-
ternational control over her territorial waters
and prevent Austria from acquiring a direct-
ing influence in the management of the por-
tion yet to be improved and made free to all
nations, while the maritime powers were inter-
ested in extending the sphere of international
supervision and control, and while Austria
exerted herself to curb Roumanian preten-
sions and secure a preponderant riverain posi-
tion, Russia embraced the opportunity to bring
forward a claim which would perhaps not oth-
erwise have been entertained. This was to with-
draw the Oczakpv mouth of the Kilia branch
from the jurisdiction of the European Corn-
mission. When Bessarabia was receded to
Russia, her territorial rights were defined as
extending to the Thalweg of the Kilia branch.
This has been decided to lie along the Kiiia,
or southern arm of the Kilia branch. Both
banks of the Oczakov arm therefore belong
to Russia, while the southern arm forms the
boundary-line between Russia and Roumania.
The objections to abandoning the European
control of this outlet to Russia were twofold :
One was, that Russia, by establishing a for-
tified naval harbor there, could menace the
navigable outlet of the Danube ; the other
depended on a technical question in engineer-
ing. This was whether, if, as Russia purposed
doing, the Oczakov channel were deepened

DANUBE, EUROPEAN COMMISSION OF THE.

271

and rendered navigable, it might not be pos-
sible to deflect the waters of the Danube into
this channel and diminish the outflow of the
Sulina mouth, so as to destroy the works of
the Danubian Commission and give Russia
entire control of the navigation of the Dan-
ube. If, on the other hand, the flow of the
water is determined by the conformation of
the beds at Ismail Chatal, where the river bi-
furcates, and can be regulated only there, then
the opening of a second navigable outlet would
be an advantage to international commerce.
When M. Giors visited Vienna he secured the
acquiescence of Austria in this demand, and
accepted the views of the latter in regard to
the claims of Roumania.

London Conference. — It was necessary that the
divergent views of the powers should be har-
monized in some fashion before March, 1883,
in which month the mandate of the European
Commission would lapse by expiration of its
term. For the settlement of the terms of the
new treaty, Great Britain invited the signatory
powers to a conference at London, to begin
February 5th. The diplomatic representatives
of the powers at the court of St. James repre-
sented them in the conference. As the cabi-
nets had not yet come to an agreement as to
the basis on which some of the matters in con-
troversy were to be arranged, the conference
did not meet until three days after the date
set, and did not close until March 10th, three
days before the duration of the European Com-
mission ended. Count Karolyi represented
Austria ; Count von Munster, Germany ; M.
Tissot and M. Barrere, of the European Com-
mission, France; Earl Granville and Lord Ed-
mund Fitzmaurice, Great Britain ; Count Ni-
gra, Italy; Baron Mohrenheim, Russia; and
Musurus Pasha, Turkey. M. Ghika was pres-
ent to claim a seat as the representative of
Roumania. A seat on the European Commis-
sion was accorded to Roumania by the Berlin
Treaty, because Galatz was by the treaty in-
cluded in Roumanian territory, and the inter-
ests of that state in the navigation were large-
ly increased. Great Britain was willing to
accord Roumania an equal voice in the con-
ference, but the motion was negatived, on the
ground that the Berlir Treaty stipulated that
the signatory powers were to decide as to the
prolongation of the commission and the other
questions which came before the conference.
It was voted that Roumania and Servia should
have a seat and a consultative voice, but no
vote, in the deliberations. The Servian repre-
sentative availed himself of this permission,
but the Roumanian delegate declined to take
part in the conference on those terms. Bul-
garia, under the Treaty of Berlin, was to be
represented by the Turkish plenipotentiary.
The Bulgarian representatives who were pres-
ent were allowed to listen to the proceedings,
and a stipulation was made that the Turkish
embassador should lay before the conference
any communication they might wish to convey.

London Convention. — The new Danubian Con-
vention, which was signed at London, March 10,
1883, by the plenipotentiaries of the powers,
embraced the following provisions:

I. The jurisdiction of the European Commission is
extended from Galatz to Braila.

II. The powers of the European Commission are
prolonged tor a period of twenty-one years, dating
from April '24, 1883.

At the expiration of this period the powers of the
said commission will be renewed by tacit reinvest-
ment every three years, except in the case when one
of the high contracting parties gives notice, one year
prior to the expiration of one of these triennial periods,
of the intention of proposing modifications in its con-
stitution or in its powers.

III. The European Commission shall exercise no
effective control over those parts of the Kilia branch
of which both banks belong to one of the riparian
states on that branch.

IV. As to the portion of the Kilia branch which
flows between Kussian and Roumanian territory, and
for the purpose of insuring uniformity of authority in
the lower Danube, the regulations in force in the Su-
lina branch shall apply, under the supervision of the
delegates of Kussia and Roumania, to the European
Commission.

V. In case Russia or Roumania undertake works,
whether in the mixed arm, or between the two
banks which belong to them respectively, the compe-
tent authority shall give information to the European
Commission of the plans of these works, for the sole
purpose of determining that _ they will have no effect
on the condition of navigability of the other arms.

The works which have already been executed at the
Chatal of Ismail will remain in the charge and under
the control of the European Commission of the Dan-
ube.

In case of divergence of opinion between Russia or
Roumania and the European Commission with regard
to the plans of works to be undertaken in the Kilia
branch, or of divergence of opinion among the mem-
bers of the commission Avith regard to the proper
limits of the extension of the works at the Chatal of
Ismail, the matter will be submitted directly to the
powers.

VI. It is understood that no restriction shall be
made which will deprive Russia of the right to levy
tolls destined to cover the expenses of works under-
taken by her.

At the same time, with the view of safeguarding
the reciprocal interests of navigation in the Sulina
branch and the Kilia branch, the Russian Govern-
ment, for the purpose of insuring an understanding
on this subject, is to acquaint the governments repre-
sented in the European Commission of the toll regula-
tions it judges proper to introduce.

VII. The regulations for navigation, river police,
and supervision, elaborated June 2, 1882, by the Eu-
ropean Commission of the Danube, with the assistance
of delegates of Servia and Bulgaria, are adopted and
incorporated in the present treaty and declared appli-
cable to the part of the Danube between the Iron Gate
and Braila.

VIII. All treaties, conventions, acts, and arrange-
ments relative to the Danube and its mouths are
maintained in all of their provisions which are not
abrogated or modified in the foregoing stipulations.

IX. The present treaty will he ratified and the rati-
fications will he exchanged at London, within the
space of six months, or sooner, if practicable.

The following explanatory resolutions were
embodied in a protocol at the final sitting,
with the understanding that they have equal
effect with the provisions of the treaty :

1. It is agreed that the agents of the European Com-
mission can, for purposes of information, circulate in
the Kilia branch and its mouths.

272 DANUBE, COMMISSION OF THE.

DELAWARE.

2. It is unanimously agreed that the nomination of
a Bulgarian delegate to the Mixed Commission will
be submitted to the approval of the Sublime Forte,
and that the consigning of this right in the protocol
has the same efficacy as if it formed part of the treaty.

3. The dispositions of the regulations in their ap-
plication to the portion of the river between the Iron
Gate and Braila can not be interpreted as restricting
the rights of jurisdiction possessed by consuls over
the vessels of their countries resulting from treaties
between the riverain states and the powers as against
the local authorities.

The plenipotentiaries also unanimously
agreed that they accepted the fifth article of
the treaty as meaning that the tolls should not
go into operation until they were approved by
the powers.

The Mixed Commission.— The Barrere avant-
projet was the basis of negotiations concern-
ing the constitution of the Mixed Commission.
In the final action of the conference important
modifications in the scheme were made, to con-
ciliate the riverain states which objected to
the proposal. The order of rotation in which
the European representative is to be sent by
the European Commission to sit on the Mixed
Commission was changed ; and Austria, being
permanently represented on the latter, re-
nounced her claim to be represented in her
turn as a signatory power. Roumania likewise
was excluded from double representation. Al-
terations were made also in the regulations in
their application to the middle course, to meet
objections raised by Roumania and Bulgaria,
viz., the method of nominating sub-inspectors
of the river was changed, and also the manner
in which the river was to be divided for pur-
poses of management.

Roumanian Demands. — Roumania was far from
satisfied with the result of the London nego-
tiations. The presence within her territory of
foreign executive officers administering powers
superseding the authority of the national Gov-
ernment, was a source of ceaseless dissatisfac-
tion, particularly so because the arrangements
were entirely anomalous, as all regulations es-
tablished for other international and neutral-
ized rivers are administered by the territorial
authorities. She, moreover, persisted in her
objections to the fictitious position of Austria
in the Riverain Commission, and renewed her
claim to representation in a conference to de-
cide these special questions. Representations
were made to the cabinets, in which the follow-
ing demands were formulated :

m 1. The riverain states shall, in addition to the
Tghtsm the channel of the river conceded to them in
the London resolutions and their right to nominate
nver and harbor inspectors, also retain the executive
administration of the police and navigation regula-
tions ; yet, in order to obviate every irregularity the
International Commission shall exercise supervision
over the enforcement of the regulations and the ap-
pellate and supreme legal jurisdiction over the river.
2. Since the commission is not composed simply of
representatives of the riverain states, the qualifica-
is which entitle the participants to representation
shall be denned, to wit, Bulgaria, Roumania, and
bervia as riverain states, Europe through a delegate
ol the Danube Commission, Austria and Roumania

being debarred, and Austria individually and on the
ground of her preponderant share in the commerce of
the middle course of the Danube ; the expenses of the
commission to be at the charge of the riverain states
alone.

3. Full participation of Roumania in the delibera-
tions and decisions of the conference to discuss these
special questions.

The Roumanian opposition to the London
Treaty abated when it was found to be useless.
By the time the treaty was ratified, in August,
anti-Austrian sentiments were less potent in
Roumanian politics, and the jealousy of the
Roumanians was turned rather'toward Russia;
the Roumanian King visited Vienna, and over-
tures toward joining the triple alliance were in
progress.

DELAWARE. State Government.— The follow-
ing were the State officers during the year:
Governor, Charles C, Stockley, Democrat ; Sec-
retary of State, William F. Causey ; Treasurer,
John M. Houston; Auditor, Jesse L. Long;
Attorney-General, George Gray ; Superintend-
ent of Public-Schools, Thomas F. Williams.
Judiciary, Supreme Court: Chief -Justice, Jo-
seph P. Comegys; Associate Justices, L. E.
Wales, John W. Houston, and Edward Woot-
ton. Chancellor, Willard Saulsbury.

Legislative Session.— The Legislature convened
on the 2d of January, and adjourned on the
20th of April. On the 16th of January Gov-
ernor Stockley was inaugurated. Eli Sauls-
bury, Democrat, was re-elected United States
Senator. On the 23d the Legislature submit-
ted to the Chancellor and judges the following
questions :

1. Is it within the constitutional power of the Gen-
eral Assembly, by a concurrent vote of two thirds of
the members of each branch thereof, to provide for
the increase of the members of the Senate and House
of Representatives in the General Assembly, and to
apportion the members thereof unequally among the
several counties of the State ?

_ 2. Is it competent for the General Assembly to pro-
vide by law for the election of members of either
"branch or both branches of the General Assembly
from any or every county, from districts created by
law within such county, in lieu of the election thereof
upon general ticket throughout the county ?

The Chancellor was of the opinion that while
the Legislature could by a two-third vote in-
crease the number of Senators and Representa-
tives, the counties must be equally represented.
If it was desired to give one a greater number
than the others, a constitutional amendment
would be necessary. The Chief- Justice de-
cided the first question in the affirmative, and
the second in the negative. Judge Houston
agreed with the Chancellor, while Judges Wales
and Wootton concurred in the main with the
Chief- Justice. The subject was disposed of by
the passage of an act proposing amendments
to the Constitution for the purpose of increas-
ing the number of Senators and Representa-
tives in the General Assembly. It proposes
that " the House of Representatives shall con-
sist of 25 members, 11 of whom shall be chosen
from New Castle county, 7 from Kent county,
and 7 from Sussex county ; provided, that of

DELAWARE.

273

the 11 Representatives from New Castle coun-
ty, 4 shall be chosen by the citizens residing in
the city of Wilmington and 7 by the citizens
residing m the residue of said county » ; and
that "there shall be 4 Senators chosen from
each county, provided that of the 4 Senators
chosen from New Castle county, 2 shall be cho-
«pn hv thp mti7An« rpqidino- in tliA nitxr ^f Wil

9Y7 °* Wl1'
mmgton and 2 by the citizens residing in the

residue of said county."

The first election for representatives under

the amended Constitution is to be held in No-
u 1 oSfi
>ci, loco.

Other proposed constitutional amendments

A supplement to the act entitled "An act in rela-
to J<ree Schools" was passed at the last session

ng given considerable attention to the subject I am
satisfied that the object of the law will be more fully
and effectually attained by a further subdivision of
the 1/b.or1.of *e °ffice> and would therefore recom-
mend» ln lieu of a State Superintendent and assistant,
that there be three .superintendents, one for each
county.

In the matter of education, I most cheerfully concur
m the suggestions of my ^predecessor as to the manner
ot JI reasiaf ,the sch°o] fund, whereby the free-school
system would be rendered more efficient, and earnestly
recommend that such ample appropriations be made as
will promote and establish a more liberal and higher

were, one empowering the General Assembly standard of education among our citizens generally.
to pass an act providing for the incorporation l trust th this Legislature will consider well the
of cities and towns and one relating to the
judiciary. Among other acts are the folio wing :

An act to prevent the procurement of abortion.

An act in relation to corporal punishments. Allow-
ing the court to remit whipping in the case of youth-
fuF criminals and those recommended to mercv:

An act in relation to the requisition of fugitives
from justice. Similar to corresponding statutes of
other States

An act in relation to insane prisoners. Providing
for the appointment of a commission in lunacy and
the subsequent incarceration of the prisoner, ff ad-
judged insane, in jail or almshouse, according to the
gravity of his crime. Should he recover his sanity,
he is 1'iable to trial or sentence, as the case may be. ^

An act to authorize the New Castle lew court to
make a loan for the benefit of the trustees of the poor.

are clothed with the full rights of citizenship. What-
ever may be thought of the propriety of these amend-

' ient£> the/f have *™8 s!nce ^come J^8 of °ur com-
moij Constitution ; therefore, those who have been thus

^u-'tftf f6 "jSS"! to,the Erotectlon and be??-
fits wbl^,tlie lawof the land confers upon other citi-
fns" Wnat the State regards as good and essential
for one class of citizens it should for all. We believe
?he almost general opinion, throughout the State, is
i? lav?r -of the establishment of separate schools, as
the only just and proper system for the education and
best ."Crests of both races, and the opposition most
en?Phatlc , and pronounced against what are termed
mifed 8ch?° s' under an^ f™ *\ circumstances.
* m-yf .lament, a well-regulated i1.".^0"8' and
t l«*nse S78tem, promptly and faithfully exe-
n ever^ Picular, would more .effectuall

An act concerning private corporations. A general G ln ever^ Picuar, wou more .eectuay re-
incorporation act covering charters of all kinds except ,8tfrain the Sreat evils of '^temperance than other legis-
for towns, canal and railroad companies.

An act to authorize the New Castle levy court to
fund the floatin^ debt of said county.

An act to establish a State Library.

An act for the encouragement of immigration, and
to foster the agricultural interests of the State.

An act to provide for the education and training of
juvenile delinquents.

An act reulating the practice of medicine and sur-

,f

\hf Sffat mtcresj: which :. feel in the development
and buildin? uP.of the agricultural, manufacturing,
and mfcbanicar interests of the State impels me to
^'gently recommend the passage of a law creating a

Board of Immigration, clothed with all necessary
P™'f *? ^courage and afford proper and ample facih-
ties for immigration into our State.

Finances. — In January the Auditor made the
°f

An act to secure manufacturers of railroad equip- ^ '

meats and rolling-stock in making conditional sales General fund, balance .......................... $30,148 70

and certain contracts for the lease thereof. Licenses ...................................... 6,500 40

An act in reference to the competency of jurors in KeSalfd "S^^S™* *" %S ™

ses- . . Breakwater and Frankford Eailroad . . . 8,000 00

An act appropnating money for free schools and Bank dividends ................. 5000 00

for other purposes. Tax on bank-stock ............................ 2,00000

An act for the maintenance of colored schools. Collateral-inheritance tax ..................... 1,800 00

An . act in relation to contested elections other than 8ecret»ry of State ............................. 900 00

for members of the Gener il Assembly and Governor. g^^JSJ ^xies ....................... |g jjj|

An act amending the act to provide a uniform bal- SSdJ-tS ......................... ?no

lot for ^lection purposes. Gives a latitude of one ......................... 7°° °°

fourth inch in the size of ballots, and provides that Total estimated receipts .................... $110,648 74

imperfections of paper shall not vitiate a ballot. R-CTTMAT™ V^P™™-™*™

In act in relation to the election of assessors and Interest on ^JT "™. .*!™™!1^ . . . $25,000 00

msl>ect Interest on Delaware College scrip ............. '. 4.980 00

Twenty-four divorces were granted. Interest on school fund ......................... 9,405 00

.,,,., , . , Judiciary and law and equity reports ............ 13.00000

A local-Option Jaw, proposed by the State Salaries of State officers........ ............... 9^35000

Temperance Alliance, Was defeated. Librarian and Library ......................... . 500 (M)

_ Inaugural Views — Governor Stockley, in his AM^r^aaitowl^'M^iii::;::":::;;: 2,400 So

inaugural address, expressed the following Militia ............................. -. .......... 1,20000

views- Salary of Adjutant-General ................... 20000

State Board of Health ........................ 250 00

Should you approve of my suggestions in reference General Assembly (expenses) .................. 14.000 00

to the increase of the membership of the General As- Legislative allowances ........................ 8,000 00

sembly , then I would recommend a further amend- ?.ri°ti?f ' 8tatione.ry' etc ....................... 8>°00 00

ment, limiting the sessions thereof to the period of M^'nS^f1*^ ............ ' ............... 1 ^

sixty days, which, in my judgment, would afford am- ....................... ........ 1;600 °°

pie time for the transaction of all necessary business. Total ................................... '.

vot. xxiii. — 18 A

274

DENMARK.

Amount due the State :

From back tax and interest from the Junction and

Breakwater Railroad $38,886 86

From Breakwater and Fnmkford Kailroad 4,000 00

From Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore
Railroad.... 6,75000

Schools.— The statistics show a slight decrease
in the number of pupils attending school in the
school year of 1882 as compared with that of
1881, and likewise a decrease in the amount of
money raised by local taxation for school pur-
poses," though the aggregate sum appropriated
to schools in 1882 was larger than in 1881 by
reason of a considerable increase in the re-
ceipts of the general school fund. The average
monthly pay of teachers throughout the State
rose from $27.84 in 1880 to $30.95 in 1882.
The smallness of salaries and the shortness of
the school year, less than six months in Sus-
sex county, largely explains the inefficiency of
many schools. The total cost of educating
33,000 white children in the school year of
1881-'82 was $181,799.84. The number of
colored children in the State is a little less than
one sixth the number of white children. The
average enrollment is 10,000 less than the
number of children of the school year, and
the average daily attendance less than half the
latter number. The average cost per head of
educating the 23,450 white children enrolled
was $6.85.

DENMARK, a kingdom in Northern Europe.
The Constitution is embodied in the charter
of June 5, 1849, which was modified in 1855
and 1803, but restored in an altered form in
1866. The executive power is exercised by
the King through a responsible ministry, and
the legislative power by the Kigsdag or Diet.
The Upper House is called the Landsthing, and
consists of 66 members, of whom 12 are nomi-
nated for life by the Crown, from actual or
former representatives in the legislature, and
the remainder are elected indirectly by the
people for the term of eight years. The popu-
lar Chamber, called the Folkething, consists
of 102 members, elected by direct universal
male suffrage for three years. The only classes
debarred from the franchise are those who
have been recipients of public charity and per-
sons in service who have no households of
their own. The former class can regain the
right by repaying the sums received. The lim-
itation of age is thirty years. The Folkething
decides in the first instance on all money bills
presented by the Government. The Rigsdag
meets annually on the first Monday in October.
The Landsthing appoints every four years four
of its members to form with the judges of
the Supreme Court the Rigsret, which is the
highest tribunal and has cognizance of legisla-
tive impeachments.

The Government.— The reigning King is Chris-
tian IX, born April 8, 1818, fourth son of Duke
William of Schleswig - Holstein - Sonderburg -
Glucksburg. He was appointed to the suc-
cession by the Treaty of London, concluded
May 8, 1852., and the Danish law of succession

of 1853, and succeeded to the throne on the
death of Frederick VII, Nov. 15, 1863. The
heir -apparent is Prince Frederick, born June
3, 1843.

The ministry, first organized June 11, 1875,
is composed of the following members: J. B.
S. Estrup, Minister of Finance and President
of the Council ; E. V. R. de Skeel, Minister of
the Interior ; J. V. M. Nellemann, Minister of
Justice and Minister for Iceland; Baron O. D.
Rosenorn-Lehn, Minister of Foreign Affairs,
appointed Oct. 11, 1875; Commander N. F.
Ravn, Minister of the Navy, appointed Jan. 4,
1879, and since April 1, 1881, Minister of War;
J. F. Scavenius, Minister of Worship and Pub-
lic Instruction, appointed Aug. 24, 1880.

Area and Population. — The area of the king-
dom of Denmark is 13,784 square miles ; the
population, 1,969,039, of which number 234,-
850 live in the city of Copenhagen, 865,678
in the islands of the Baltic, and 868,511 in
the Peninsula of Jutland. The total popula-
tion was divided as to sex into 967,360 males
and 1,001,679 females. The increase in fifteen
years was 10'29 per cent, in the cities, and 5'99
per cent, in the rural districts. The propor-
tion who live by agriculture is 39'5 per cent.
The land is greatly subdivided under the opera-
tion of laws which forbid the consolidation of
farms into landed estates. The number of
marriages in 1879, the last year reported, was
14,287 ; births, 62,455 ; deaths, 38,531 ; excess
of births over deaths, 23,924. The emigration
is mainly to the United States, and has become
considerable in recent years. In 1868 there
were 765 emigrants; in 1869, 4,359; in' 1870,
3,525; in 1871, 3,906; in 1872, 6,893; in 1873,
7,200; in 1874, 3,322 ; in 1875, 2,088 ; in 1876,
1,581; in 1877, 1,877; in 1878, 2,972; in 1879,
3,103 ; in 1880, 5,667 ; in 1881, 7,985; in 1882,
11,614.

The dependencies of Denmark are the Faroe
Isles, of which the habitable ones, 17 in num-
ber, have an area of 512 square miles, and a
population returned in 1880 as 11,221 ; Iceland,
with an area of 40,300 square miles, of which
16,100 are habitable, and a population of 72,-
438 ; Greenland, with a habitable area of 33,800
square miles and 9,700 inhabitants ; and the
Danish Antilles, of which Santa Cruz has an
area of 82 square miles, St. Thomas of 33 square
miles, and St. John of 20 square miles, the pop-
ulation of the three numbering 33,763. Re-
turns dated Jan. 1, 1882, give the population
of Northern Greenland as 4,217, and of South-
ern Greenland as 5,484.

Commerce and Navigation. — The total imports
in 1881 amounted to 245,233,000 crowns, the
exports to 183,472,000 crowns. (The crown or
krone, the unit of account in the decimal cur-
rency, introduced in 1875, is half the value of
the old rigsdaler and equivalent to 26'8 cents.)
Of the total value of the imports, 58,970,000
crowns were from Great Britain, 91,141,000
crowns from Germany, and 24,848,000 crowns
from Sweden. Of the total exports, 63,760,000

DENMARK.

275

crowns went to Great Britain, 61,834,000
crowns went to Germany, and 27,963,000
crowns went to Sweden. The United States
was the next largest importing country, fur-
nishing 18,943,000 crowns of the imports, but
took only 1,619,000 crowns of Danish prod-
ucts in return. The imports and exports of
the general classes of merchandise in 1881
were valued as follows, in millions and tenths
of millions of crowns :

MERCHANDISE.

Imports.

Exports.

Articles of food . >

88-7

138'0

77-1

23-5

Manufactured products
Machinery, tools, and other means
of production

62-7

16-7

10-2

11-8

Total...

245-2

183-5

In 1880 the total imports amounted to 227,-
400,000 crowns and the total exports to 196,-
600,000 crowns.

The total tonnage of vessels entered at Dan-
ish ports in 1881 was 1,394,996 tons in the
maritime, and 343,554 tons in the coasting
trade. Of the former, 566,545 tons represent-
ed steam, and 828,451 tons sailing-vessels. The
total tonnage cleared was 1,444,263 tons in
the maritime, and 322,352 tons in the coasting
trade.

The mercantile fleet numbered in 1881 3,016
sailing-vessels, of 203,555 tons, and 202 steam-
ers, of 51,984 tons, as compared with 3,091
sailing-vessels, of 213,201 tons, and 188 steam-
ers, of 45,124 tons, in 1878.

The railroad mileage in 1882 was 810 miles
belonging to the state, and 1,105 miles be-
longing to companies. The length of telegraph
lines in operation in 1881 was 2,200 miles;
length of wires, 5,840 miles.

Army and Navy. — Obligatory personal military
service for all Danes was enacted by the law
of 1867 and the supplementary law of 1880.
Service begins at the age of 22 and lasts 16
years, 8 in the regular army, and 8 in the re-
serve. In the majority of cases infantry-men
remain with the colors only from 6 to 11
months, and cavalry-men 20 months, after
which they obtain leave of absence and are re-
quired only during the manoeuvres. The total
strength of the army on the war-footing in
1882 was 50,522, inclusive of officers.

The navy in 1882 comprised 2 iron-clad
frigates, with 44 guns; 3 floating batteries,
with 14 ; 3 casemated vessels, with 20 ; 3 tor-
pedo-vessels, with 7; and 2 frigates, 3 cor-
vettes, and 5 schooners, unarmored; 13 iron
gunboats, 2 wheel-steamers, and 9 torpedo-
boats ; together 44 steam-vessels, of 31,214 ag-
gregate horse-power, armed with 252 cannon.

Finances. — The closed accounts of the year
1880-'81 state the expenditures as 47,543,367
crowns, and the receipts as 51,745,463 crowns.
The budget for the year 1883-'84 gives the
estimated revenue as 51,932,822 crowns, of
which 5,272.532 crowns come from railroads,
interest on reserve funds, and other state prop-

erty, 1,136,676 crowns from the domains and
forests, 9,004,700 crowns from direct taxes on
lands, houses, and titles, 32,311,000 crowns
from indirect taxes, and the rest from the
state lottery and other sources. The expendi-
tures are set down at 48,335,885 crowns, of
which the public debt charges consume 9,821,-
700 crowns; civil pensions, 2,627,980; military
pensions, 730,011 ; the civil list and appanages,
1,225,760 ; the Department of Worship and In-
struction, 1,367,192; of Justice, 2,551,704; of
the Interior, 2,067,075; of War, 9,118,351; of
Marine, 5,833,989 ; of Finance, 3,046,768 ; Pub-
lic Works, 5,426,072 ; extraordinary expendi-
tures, 3,022,455.

The budget for 1884-'85, laid before the
Folkething Oct. 2d, estimates the revenue at
53,578,743 crowns and the expenditures at
51,631,698 crowns. The increase in the reve-
nues is derived from the indirect taxes, which
are becoming more productive every year.
The increased expenditures are due to the pro-
jected new railroads and the extensive system
of fortifications for which the plans have been
adopted.

The public debt on March 31, 1882, amount-
ed to 201,664,701 crowns, of which 187,907,034
crowns represented the domestic debt and 13,-
757,667 crowns foreign loans. The assets of
the state were valued at 84,306,206 crowns, of
which 40,728,814 crowns were capital expendi-
ture, 19,276,262 crowns reserve funds, and 24,-
301,130 miscellaneous assets. The cost of con-
struction of the state railroads was at that date
130,052,923 crowns. The public debt will
be reduced by April 1, 1884, to 197,000,000
crowns, making a total reduction of 38,000,000
crowns in fourteen years. The object of the
large reserve fund kept on hand "is to have
funds at the disposal of the Government in
any sudden emergency.

Constitutional Crisis. — The protracted conflict
between the King, supported by the Conserva-
tive party, and the Liberal party, which forms
the majority in the Folkething, and derives
its support from the rural population and the
democratic and socialistic masses in the capi-
tal, came no nearer to a solution in 1883. The
legislative deadlock became more serious. The
contest is over the prerogative of the King to
appoint his ministry, whom the Opposition
would require him to choose from the party
of the majority, in accordance with the doc-
trines of parliamentarism. The chief subject
at present in dispute between the King and the
Parliament is the proposed fortification of the
city of Copenhagen. The country party assert
that this project, the cost of which has grown
in the estimates from twenty to a hundred
millions, will transcend the-finaccial resources
of the country, while affording no security for
the military defense of the parts of the country
more in danger and for the integrity of the
kingdom. The items in the budget for the
defensive works were thrown out, as usual. In
April the Radicals endeavored to bring the con-

276

DENMARK.

stitutional question to an issue by an address to
the King expressing lack of confidence in the
ministry. The Landsthing adopted counter-
resolutions; and deputations of both Houses
waited on the King. The address of the
Folkething reminded the King that the min-
istry, since its constitution, had been unable to
obtain the assent of the legislature to any meas-
ure of importance except the annual budget ;
that in 1877 the expenditures for a part of the
year were met by the assumption by the Gov-
ernment of unconstitutional powers, and those
of 1881-'82 by occasional grants without a
regular finance law ; that the Government
had dissolved the Folkething four times, and
in each election an increased majority had
confirmed the position taken by the Opposi-
tion ; and that the country suffered great
detriment from the stagnation of public busi-
ness resulting from this never-ending conflict.
The vote of censure was carried in the Folke-
thing by a majority of 72 to 20, while the vote
of confidence in the Landsthing was supported
by 40 against 10. The King received the ad-
dresses of both Houses, and in his answer re-
buked the Folkething for defeating the legis-
lative efforts of the Government and rejecting
the plans for national defense, while he in-
formed the Landsthing that he would maintain
the constitutional order against the attacks of
the Opposition. To a deputation representing
a mass-meeting of 18,000 persons which sought
audience with the King in May, he replied that
only the legislative representation, by which
he understood both Chambers, could speak to
him in the name of the people, and reaffirmed
his right to choose his own ministers. All
through the year popular meetings were held
to protest against the attitude of the ministry.
The Government, which upheld the same doc-
trine of the royal prerogative that is advanced
by the German Government, though against no
such pronounced and general popular dissent
as is manifested in Denmark, attempted to
strengthen their position, which was growing
more and more untenable, by imitating the
tactics of Prince Bismarck. In the session of
the Rigsdag which opened Oct. 1st, the minis-
try brought in a bill to provide a system of old-
age insurance for the poorer classes after the
Folkething had tabled thirty ministerial meas-
ures. A scheme of superannuation annuities
was inaugurated twenty years before by Min-
ister Davidr but was afterward abandoned. A
Government refuge for the aged already exists.
The present proposition provides for the accu-
mulation of a fund by weekly voluntary pay-
ments, to be repaid in the form of annuities,
generally not exceeding 200 crowns, after the
age of fifty-five, or returned in other cases with
interest compounded at 2 per cent., the state
furnishing the guarantee and defraying the ex-
penses of administration. The Folkething did
not reject this bill off-hand as it did the others,
but debated it, referred it to a committee, and
finally voted against it on its merits.

Socialist Congress. — The German Social-Demo-
crats, while enjoying in the Reichstag the free-
dom of speech which the German Constitution
insures, and commanding a degree of attention
which is more than commensurate with their
numerical strength in the legislature, are
hunted by the police out-of-doors, and refused
every right of assembly, speech, and printing,
which would enable them to communicate
with their constituents and consult upon party
action. They not only dare not assemble in
Germany, but through the influence of the
German Government an asylum is likely to be
refused to them in the neighboring countries.
In 1883 they planned in secret to hold their
annual convention in Copenhagen, while the
German police and the public were led to sup-
pose that it would take place at Zurich. They
arrived unobserved and registered under as-
sumed names in the hotels. There were fifty-
six delegates, representing sixty districts of
Germany, among them the entire Social-Demo-
cratic delegation in the German Parliament
with two or three exceptions. There were
representatives also of the German Socialists
in England, France, and Switzerland. The
Danish police discovered the character of the
gathering on the second day, and warned them
to take a speedy departure. They closed their
three- days' session April 2d, and returned to
Germany. The deputies Von Vollmar and
Frohme were apprehended on landing at Kiel
by the German police, and their detention was
the subject of a discussion in the German Par-
liament. The Copenhagen Congress discussed,
among other party matters, the position to be
taken in the elections of 1884, and decided to
oppose out and out the socialistic legislative
projects of Prince Bismarck.

German Conscription of Sehleswig Danes. — Among
the difficulties which followed the high-handed
disposal of the Schleswig-Holstein -question by
Prussia, is the anomalous position of that por-
tion of the inhabitants of the annexed prov-
inces who elected under the treaty to remain
Danish subjects. A considerable proportion of
the more substantial Danish farmers in North-
ern Sehleswig availed themselves of the option,
crossing the frontier and residing in Denmark
long enough to preserve their rights of nation-
ality according to treaty, and then returning
to their homesteads. Their children are Dan-
ish subjects by birthright. This class now
numbers from 20,000 to 30,000 in North
Sehleswig, and is increasing. In some dis-
tricts one quarter or one third of the popula-
tion are Danish subjects by option, or descend-
ants of such. Disturbed at the increase of the
Danish community, the Prussian Government
issued a decree in January requiring the sons
of Danish subjects to embrace the German
nationality, and, as an indication of their in-
tention of becoming naturalized, to report
themselves for military service or to emigrate
on pain of forcible banishment. This order
created much excitement in Sehleswig and

DIAMONDS AND THE DIAMOND-TRADE.

277

Denmark. The young Danes of North Schles-
wig paid no attention to it. The feeling in
the province was manifested by the action of
their deputy to the Reichstag, who, in conse-
quence of the order, refused to take the oath of
allegiance to the Emperor.

DIAMONDS AND THE DIAMOND-TRADE. Dur-
ing the past ten years the diamond- trade of
the world has undergone great modifications.
The old sources of supply in India and Brazil
were practically exhausted many years before.
Very few new stones were discovered, and
diamond-mining had ceased to be remunera-
tive. The few stones brought to Europe were
almost wholly the remains of former findings
slowly brought forth from their hiding-places.
In 1868 diamonds were discovered in the in-
terior of Southern Africa, and the field was
soon found to be much larger and more pro-
lific than those of Golconda and Brazil had
ever been. The diamond region, vaguely known
as Griqualand, having an area of about 17,000
square miles, was formally annexed to the
British colony of the Cape. The actual dia-
mond-fields are of very limited extent, and are
scattered at wide intervals. The Kimberley
mine, hitherto the most productive of all, has
an extent of less than one square mile and a
half. It appears to be nearly exhausted, but
it is hoped that by digging deeper other dia-
mond-bearing strata will be reached. For a
dozen years and more the greater number of
diamonds have been derived from this quarter,
and it was supposed that so great an increase
of supply would materially depress the market
value.

A considerable proportion of the African
diamonds are of inferior grade ; of these there
is an over-supply, and we are told by the most
extensive diamond-dealer in New York that
''low-grade diamonds are a drug in the mar-
ket." He adds, however : " There is a constant-
ly increasing demand for choice stones, and
when such a one comes in our way we never
fail to buy it, if it can be had at anything like
a reasonable price ; for we are sure that we
need not wait long for a purchaser at almost
any price we choose to name."

The weight of diamonds is always expressed
in carats — a carat being equal to a little less
than 3^ grains troy; or, more exactly, one
ounce troy is equivalent to 150 diamond carats.
An ounce of pure gold is worth about $20 ; an
ounce of fine 1-carat diamonds would be val-
ued at from $20,000 to $60,000.

But the value of diamonds increases in the
geometrical ratio of their weight. The nom-
inal rule is, square the number of carats of
weight, and then multiply the product by the
value of a single-carat stone. Thus, supposing
a fine 1-carat stone to be worth $200, a similar
2-carat stone w,ould be $800 ; a 3-carat stone,
$1,800; and so on.

Rough diamonds are rarely brought to this
country, although they are admitted free of
duty; cut diamonds pay 10 per cent. They

are usually sent to Europe to be cut ; the chief
places being Amsterdam and Antwerp, in
which cities there are said to be not less than
6,000 workmen in this occupation. Diamond-
cutting, however, has been introduced into the
United States within a few years, and there
are probably about 100 diamond-cutters here.
There is every reason to anticipate that this
occupation will be rapidly extended. Suppos-
ing the rate of wages to be the same in New
York and Amsterdam, there woqld be a saving
of 10 per cent, on the entire cost of a diamond
by having it cut here. The actual cost of cut-
ting is much less than is generally supposed.
The cost of cutting a $14,000 brilliant was not
far from $150.

Diamonds always lose more or less, and
usually very considerably, in size and weight,
in the process of cutting, and to estimate the
probable amount of loss is one of the great
problems of the diamond -merchant; hardly
less important than the judging of the quality
of the stone, which can rarely be certainly
known while it is in the rough. The prices
of rough diamonds of low grade, at the Cape,
a year ago, averaged about $7.50 per carat ; they
are now quoted at about $13. Fine stones, of
course, bring much more. The diamond-mar-
ket at the Cape is mainly controlled by a num-
ber of European companies, with an aggregate
capital of $32,000,000. They operate measur-
ably in common ; work several of the principal
mines, loan money to individual miners, pur-
chase their findings, and transmit the stones
through their agents to all the markets, of
which the American is daily becoming more
and more important, although as yet it is con-
fined almost exclusively to cut gems of the
finer grades.

Imports. — There appears to be no means of
accurately estimating the value of the diamonds
annually brought into the United States; for
in the custom-house reports all kinds of jewels
are put nnder one head as "precious stones."
The reported value of these imports, in 1880,
was $6,698,000 ; in 1881, $8,090,000; in 1882,
$8,444,000 ; and probably much greater in 1883,
although the precise figures are not at hand.
Diamonds themselves probably do not consti-
tute a fourth, perhaps not an eighth, of this
amount. But even supposing that the yearly
importation of diamonds does not exceed
$1,000,000 or $1,500,000, the aggregate for
a series of years forms a very considerable
addition to the sum of our accumulated and
invested wealth ; for it must be considered
that whatever sum is thus laid up is one of
the most permanent of investments. And if
the purchases are judiciously made, this is one
of the safest of investments. Diamonds never
wear out; there is no known means of de-
stroying them except by burning them ; and
few things are less likely to be lost by acci-
dent. They may indeed be stolen, and are of
course a favorite object for thieves and burglars.
But the most successful diamond robbery is far

278

DIPLOMATIC CORRESPONDENCE OF THE UNITED STATES.

less profitable to the perpetrator than might
at first be supposed. The thief can not well
display his plunder upon his own person; and
he can rarely dispose of it except to some
dishonest purchaser, and for a sum much be-
low its real value. No reputable dealer will
purchase so costly an article unless he is sure
that the seller has a good title to it ; and the
whereabouts of any valuable stone is easily
learned.

There is little likelihood that the taste for
diamonds will diminish. Other precious stones
may come into fashion, but diamonds will never
go out of fashion ; for, more than any other
jewel, they combine the attractions which have
brought them into universal favor. And,
moreover, the number of those who are able
to indulge in this costly luxury increases far
more rapidly than do the products from any
probable source of future supply. This applies
more especially to the finer grades of stones ;
for inferior grades the opposite is true.

Connterfeits. — Diamonds are counterfeited so
skillfully that only an expert can detect them
with any certainty. There are imitations so
perfect that an expert could not detect the dif-
ference, by the eye alone, by gaslight, at the
distance of a few feet ; but, let him take one of
them into his hand and examine it closely, and
he will never be at a loss to distinguish the
genuine from the cleverest imitation.

The advertisements of "Parisian diamonds,"
or by whatever other name they may be called,
which are uin all respects equal to the genuine
ones," are fraudulent. It is said that some of
these consist of a "surface of pure diamond,"
deposited upon a solid crystal base. No such
thing is possible ; there is no means known to
science by which any such result can be pro-
duced. " Stage diamonds " are to be looked
at by gaslight and at a distance, and serve all
the purposes in view.

DIPLOMATIC CORRESPONDENCE OF THE UNIT-
ED STATES. The controversy between the Unit-
ed States Government and that of Great Britain
regarding the construction and validity of the
agreement of 1850, known as the Clayton-Bul-
wer Treaty, was continued at intervals during
the year. In a dispatch to Mr. West, British
Minister at Washington, dated Dec. 30, 1882,
Lord Granville, British Secretary of State for
Foreign Affairs, discussed the questions involved
at great length, and announced the conclusions
of liis Government as follow :

The conclusions arrived at by her Majesty's Gov-
ernment, after a careful consideration of the questions
raised in Mr. Frelinghuysen's dispatch, are that the
meaning and effect of Article VIII of the Clayton-Bul-
wer Treaty are not open to any doubt ; that the British
Government have committed no act in relation to
British Honduras, or otherwise, which can invalidate
that treaty, and justify the Government of the United
States in denouncing it, and that no necessity exists
for removing any of the provisions of that treaty.

There might, perhaps, be advantages in defining by
agreement the distance from each end of the canal
within which no hostilities should be committed by
belligerents, in 'order to maintain the freedom of the

passage through the Panama Canal, should that route
be completed, and when the time approached for its
completion her Majesty's Government would, no
doubt, be prepared to give its careful attention to the
question of concluding an arrangement with that ob-
ject, should such a proposal be made to them, but in
the present stage of the enterprise they conceive that
it would be premature to enter upon negotiations for
that purpose.

I have not thought it necessary to allude in this
dispatch to the u traditional continental policy " of
the United States as laid down in what is commonly
called the " Monroe doctrine," since Mr. Frelinghuy-
sen, in his note of the 8th of May last, in which he
explained the views which were entertained by his
Government on that subject, admitted that her Majes-
ty's Government was not called upon either to admit
or deny the views therein expressed.

You will state to Mr. Frehnghuysen that her Maj-
esty's Government are animated by the most sincere
desire to arrive at an amicable settlement of the ques-
tions which have given rise to this correspondence,
and that they note with great satisfaction the friendly
assurance with which he concludes his dispatch that
the diversity of opinion which now exists will not in
anywise impair the good understanding happily exist-
ing between the people and Governments or the United
States and Great Britain.

The following is the response of the Secre-
tary of State, transmitted through Mr. James
Russell Lowell, the American Minister in Lon-
don:

DEPARTMENT OF STATE. WASHINGTON, \
May 5, 1883. f

SIE : I inclose herewith copy of an instruction
from Lord Granville to her Britannic Majesty's Minis-
ter in Washington, dated Dec. 30, 1882, a copy of
which was handed to me by Mr. West, and which is
a reply to the agreement contained in my No. 368 to
you of May 8, 1882, on the subject of the Clayton-
Bulwer Treaty.

You will remember that my No. 368 showed that
the first seven articles of the treaty related to a par-
ticular canal then in contemplation, to aid the con-
struction of which the treaty was signed ; that the
United States, being then without the means to build
the canal, for which they had secured an exclusive
grant from Nicaragua, naturally turned _to England
lor capital, to secure which they were willing to sur-
render some of their exclusive privileges ; and that,
the canal never having been built, the reason for the
surrender of privilege has ceased, and the treaty with
Great Britain is voidable, being without considera-
tion or any object to which it is applicable.

Lord Granville in his instructions to Mr. West in
substance concedes that the first seven articles of the
treaty related to what was then known as the Nica-
ragua Canal, but intimates an uncertainty as to the
route. In this he is in error, for the line of the canal
was definitely fixed soon after the conclusion of the
treaty and accepted by both Governments.

His lordship, however, practically confines himself
to an assertion of rights under Article VIII, by which
the parties, u after declaring that they not only desired
in entering into the convention to accomplish a par-
ticular object, but also to establish a general principle,
agreed to extend their protection by treaty stipula-
tions to any other practical communications, whether
by canal or railway, across the isthmus which con-
nects North and South America, and especially to the
interoceanic communications, should the same prove
to be practicable, whether by canal or railway, which
are now proposed to be established by the way of Te-
huantepec or Panama," and he claims that this pro-
vision is in effect an agreement that all the prior pro-
visions with reference to the particular ship-canal —
the Nicaragua route— then in contemplation, should
be applied to any other canal thereafter constructed.
Citing treaties between the United States and some of

DIPLOMATIC CORRESPONDENCE OF THE UNITED STATES.

279

the Central American states, he contends that the
Government, having, since the Clayton-Bulwer Trea-
ty of 1850, entered into treaties which harmonize
with the "general principle," is estopped from deny-
ing that the eighth article has the construction and
effect lie contends for.

Lord Granville further holds that Article VIII is none
the less an agreement because it provides for further
treaty stipulations to carry it into effect. This argu-
ment has already been anticipated in nay No. 368, in
which it was shown that while the parties interested
agrecd,in Article VIII; to extend by further treaty stip-
ulations their protection over _other communications
across the isthmus, the immediate object of the arti-
cle was the protection of the communication " now "
[1850] proposed to be established by the way of Te-
nuantepec or Panama. None of the proposed com-
munications having been established, the reason for
the agreement has disappeared.

Further, the article provides for carrying out the
"general principle" by additional stipulations, which
have not been even discussed. Nor is there anything
in the eighth article which makes applicable to any
other route the provisions of the first seven articles,
covering the "particular object," viz., the Nicaragua
Canal.

The eighth article, therefore, is simply a declaration
of the intention entertained more than thirty years ago
by two nations to take up, at some subsequent period,
the negotiation of a treaty on a particular subject. In
order to carry out this, further treaties must be made
by the United States and England with each other
and with each of the Central American states through
which a canal may be built, defining in detail the stipu-
lations necessary to execute the general principles.

It can not be successfully contended, as is suggested
by Lord Granville, that the separate treaties made by
this country with some of the Central American states,
by which this Government agrees to guarantee neu-
trality, show an agreement to guarantee it jointly with
Great Britain, for that would involve the admission
that an express agreement to guarantee singly is in ef-
fect an implied agreement to guarantee jointly. Nev-
ertheless, it is not denied that the United States did
for many years try to induce Great Britain to fulfill
her part of the agreement of 1850, and it was only when
it became impossible for her Majesty's Government
to perform the promises which had led the United
States to make the treaty that the position now main-
tained was assumed.

If it be contended that even if the treaty may be
considered as lapsed as far as it relates to the specific
route by Nicaragua and the routes named in the eighth
article as contemplated in 1850 (by Panama and Tc-
huantepec), yet the treaty is binding so far as it relates
to other isthmian communications not specified and
not then contemplated, the answer is that the treaty
must be considered as a whole, and that the general
stipulations of the eighth article would never have
been made but for the stipulations as to the specified
routes then contemplated, and, that part of the treaty
having lapsed, the general stipulation as to any inter-
oceanic communication fails for want of consideration.

To reach the construction his lordship seeks to put
on the eighth article, its plain language must be dis-
regarded, and the consideration must DC ignored that
the article is as applicable to the Panama Kailroad as
to any other means of isthmian transit, and that by
acquiescence for many years in the sole protectorate
of the United States over this railway, Great Britain
has in effect admitted the justice of the position now
maintained by the President.

Passing the interpretation of Article VIII, you will
remember that I contended that the Clayton-Bulwer
Treaty is voidable because, while by Article I the two
nations expressly stipulated that neither of them would
occupy, colonize, or exercise any dominion over any
part of Central America, but Britain, at the same time,
has a colony, with executive and judicial officers, oc-
cupying a defined territory nearly equal in area to

three of the smaller States of the Union. It is true,
as was shown in my No. 368, that after the treaty had
been ratified by the Senate in the form in which it
now appears, and on the Fourth of July, 1850, Mr.
Clayton did exchange with Sir Henry Bulwer memo-
randa stating that the stipulation in Article I should
not apply to the " settlements in British Honduras
(Balize!," and it is also true that Mr. Clayton declined
to affirm or deny the British title in this " settlement"
or its alleged dependencies. Lord Granville now
claims that Honduras was then already (and to the
knowledge of this Government) a British "posses-
sion" or colony by conquest from Spain through

wer relative to a British settlement, appear to be in-
consistent with any such claim, for nowhere in them
can be found any statement which expresses or im-
plies that Great Britain claimed or the United States
admitted any such governmental control in the former
over Balize as is now advanced and as is necessarily
implied in the word " possession."

The date of the conquest of Balize alluded to by
Lord Granville is not stated, but the incident to which
he refers is supposed to be the repulse by a ship of the
royal navy and the settlers of an attempt in 1798 on
the part of Spain to take possession of the Honduras.
As the British settlers held under grants from Spain,
it seems hardly necessary to consider whether the suc-
cessful resistance of a tenant to an attempt to oust by
force, changes the tenure to one of full possession.
His lordship, however, meets this point by a plea of
possession through abandonment, saying, when peace
was signed, " most of the British conquests from Spain
were restored to her, but the settlement in Honduras,
like that of the Falkland Islands, was not given up,
and continued 011 the same footing as any other pos-
session under the British crown."

By the third article of the Treaty of Amiens of 1802
Great Britain engaged to restore all Spanish possessions
occupied or conquered by British forces. Balize was
not given up, because it was not a conquest, but a
settlement under Spanish grants and Spanish sover-
eignty. The parallel with the Falkland Islands does
not seem convincing, for these islands were ceded by
France to Spain in 1763. By Spain they were in
turn ceded absolutely to Great Britain in 1771, but
their possession was not abandoned until 1820. Buenos
Ayres occupied the islands as derelict and colonized
them later in 1831. After a difficulty between the
settlers and American sealing- vessels the United
States ship-of-war Lexington broke up the settle-
ment and removed the settlers to Buenos Ayres, and
it was not until 1883 that Great Britain enforcea her
claims under the cession of 1771.

As to Balize, however, there was no cession. If
the sovereignty of Spain was annulled by conquest in
1798, it was restored by the Treaty of Amiens in
1802, and while after this treaty and during the Bona-
parte occupation hostilities were renewed, the treaty
of 1803 provided that there should be peace between
Spain and Great Britain, and " also an entire ob-
literation of all hostilities committed during the late
war." Since the conclusion of this treaty Spain and
Great Britain have been at peace, and it is riot imagined
that Earl Granville will seek to show that a lawful
possession could be thereafter created for Great Brit-
ain by a violation of that treaty in time of peace. No
conquest of any part of Honduras is known to have
occurred after 1802; but if there were, the perpetua-
tion of this conquest would hardly comport with -the
reciprocal agreement of 1809 to. restore the status quo
ante bellum.

On the other hand it is known that the settlements
in the Balize were made under certain limited grants
from Spain, subject to her sovereignty, and that long
after the treaty of 1809 the occupation was generally
regarded simply as a " settlement," and was so called
by Lord Clarendon as late as 1854 in a note to Mr.

280

DIPLOMATIC CORRESPONDENCE OF THE UNITED STATES.

Buchanan, and so remained until May 12, 1862, when
by royal commission it was erected into a full colony
and subordinated to the Government of Jamaica.

If Great Britain has turned the " settlement " main-
tained for the cutting of logwood and mahogany into
an organized British colony — and this is admitted —
or if that settlement has encroached beyond the line
occupied by the settlers in 1850— and the reports from
Guatemala and Mexico tend to show that this has been
done — the action has been taken in contravention of
the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, and in violation of one
of its most important provisions. The insufficiency
of this part of Lord Granville's argument is shown
by the contention that through a postal convention
this Government has recognized the British position.
The negotiation of a postal convention in 1869 can
not be held to involve any admission of the political
status of the Balizc district. It is a strained con-
struction of such an agreement to hold that it works
an estoppel as to a matter not in the mind of either
party to the negotiation, and as to which both parties
were endeavoring to reach a satisfactory conclusion
through other and different channels- nor does the
Post-Office Department act politically in its dealings
with similar departments of other governments.

If, however, the United States had submitted to the
conversion of the Balize to a colony by her Majesty's
Government in violation of the treaty, that is by no
means a recognition of the binding force of the treaty
on the United States when thus violated.

In the conviction, thereforej that the arguments
heretofore presented by the United States remain un-
shaken, the President adheres to the views set forth
in the instruction to you of May 8, 1882.

Lord Granville concludes by saying in effect that
he does not answer that part of the instruction to you
which relates to the Monroe doctrine, because of my
observation that it is not necessary for her Majesty's
government to admit or to deny that doctrine. As
his lordship placed the claim of her Majesty's Gov-
ernment on the continued binding force of the Clay-
ton-Bulwer Treaty, limiting that doctrine, as we con-
tend, I ^think my remark was logical, and so far as
the United States are concerned their views on that
doctrine are sufficiently manifest.

You will assure Lord Granville that this Govern-
ment shares the sincere desire of that of her Majesty
to arrive at that amicable adjustment of the question
which can not fail to promote harmony and good-will
between the two countries, and which it is my duty
and pleasure, equally with his lordship, to do all in
my power to perpetuate and increase.

You will take an early occasion to read this in-
struction to Lord Granville, and, if he should so de-
sire, to leave a copy with him.
I am, etc.,

FREDERICK T. FRELINGHUYSEN.

The following is presumed to close the dis-
cussion for the present :

DEPARTMENT OF STATE, )
WASHINGTON, Nov. 22, 1883. }
James Russell Lowell, Esq., etc., London.

SIB: I inclose herewith a copy of an instruction
from Lord Granville to her Britannic Majesty's Min-
ister at Washington, dated Aug. 17, 1883, a copy of
which was handed me by Mr. West, and which is in
reply to my 586 to you of May 5, 1883, on the subject
of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. You will observe that
Lord Granville says that "Mr. Frelinghuysen still
contends that the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty is voidable
on two grounds— first, because the first seven articles
of the treaty related to a particular canal by the Nic-
araguan route only; and, secondly, because Great
Britain has. at the present day, a colony instead of a
settlement at Balize." Lord Granville's attention
should be called to the fact that this Government not
only holds the position to which he has referred, but
also holds, as stated to you in my instructions of May

8, 1882, and May 5, 1883, that for the purpose of ob-
taining the then needed capital to construct an inter-
oceanic canal by the Nicaraguan route, the United
States were willing to surrender a part of their exclu-
sive privileges in a canal by that route, and were also
willing to agree that, by subsequent treaty stipulation,
they would join with Great Britain in the protection
of the then proposed Tehuantepec, Panama, or other
interoceanic communication, and that the consider-
ation having failed, the treaty is voidable as to the
Nicaraguan route and as to the other routes.

Lord Granville raises the point that no time was
fixed by the convention within which such inter-
oceanic communications were to be made. While this
statement is correct, it is also true that it was contem-
plated that the canal was about to be constructed at
the time the treaty was negotiated, and that the sur-
vey therefor was then made, and that thirty-three
years have elapsed without Great Britain rendering
the consideration on which the treaty was based, and
this failure, we think, affects the treaty in the same
manner that a failure by Great Britain to give the con-
sideration within a definite time, had one been fixed
by the convention, would have affected it. The treaty
provides that neither the United States nor Great
Britain shall colonize or exercise any dominion over
any part of Central America. This was a most im-
portant provision. It is one of a cluster, restraining
one nation from Laving any advantage over the other
in regard to the police of the canal, such as the pro-
vision against alliance, against occupation and fortifi-
cation, and against taking advantage of any intimacy
or influence, and yet it is claimed that the treaty does
not prohibit the existence of a large, regularly organ-
ized British colony in Central America, while it does
prohibit the United States from having any pos-
session or colony^ there The color for this claim is,
that while the stipulation that neither of the two Gov-
ernments should colonize any part of Central America,
is most conspicuous, the declaration of Sir Henry Bul-
wer, prior to the exchange of the ratifications of the
treaty, states that "her Majesty does not understand
the engagements of that convention to apply to her
Majesty's settlement at Honduras or its dependen-
cies." This declaration can not be held to authorize
the subsequent colonization by her Majesty's Govern-
ment of a territory as large as three 'of our smaller
States. The declaration was made, not to change or
vary the treaty, but of abundant caution that it might
not be misunderstood. The meaning of the declara-
tion, we think, is that a mere settlement of British
subjects for the purpose of cutting mahogany and log-
wood at Honduras, under Spanish- American sover-
eignty, was not to be considered a British colony,
and thus be a violation of the treaty, and I fail to see
how, since the exchange of the ratifications of the
treaty, the organization of a colony with a full colonial
government, under the British sovereignty, can be
looked upon as authorized or allowed either by the
treaty or by Sir Henry Bulwer's declaration. The
two contracting powers are equally bound not to colo-
nize any part of Central America, and the declaration
itself of Sir Henry Bulwer, not being the exception of
any territory in Central America from the operation
of the treaty, but providing in effect that the settle-
ment should not be considered a British colony, tend-
ed to strengthen and not to destroy the mutual obliga-
tion not to colonize in Central America.

Lord Granville is correct hi saying that I stated in
my instruction to you of May 8, 1882, that her Majes-
ty's Government was not called upon either to admit
or deny the views therein expressed as to the Monroe
doctrine, and this was so for the reason there given,
to wit, because her Majesty's Government placed its
claim to join in the protection of the interoceanic
canal on a treaty which, if binding, certainly modified
the Monroe doctrine. But the fact that this Govern-
ment, for a promised consideration, modified by treaty
what is called the Monroe doctrine I think does not in
any manner affect that doctrine after the treaty has

DIPLOMATIC CORRESPONDENCE OF THE UNITED STATES.

281

fallen, because of its infraction and because of the fail-
ure of the consideration contemplated.

I observe that Lord Granville says that her Majesty's
Government have reached the conclusion that a pro-
longation of this discussion is not likely to lead to any
E-actical result, and also says that Great Britain has
rge colonial possessions and great commercial inter-
ests, which render any means of unobstructed and
rapid access from the Atlantic to the Pacific a matter
of the greatest importance to Great Britain. In the
conclusion of this discussion, you may say to Lord
Granville that this Government fully appreciates the
importance to Great Britain of an unobstructed and
rapid access from ocean to ocean, and has no disposi-
tion, as stated in my instruction to you of May 8, 1882,
to impede Great Britain in -the enjoyment of such an
access, and that this Government believes that the two
nations willj in due time, reach a satisfactory solution
of the questions that have been considered in this cor-
respondence. You may read this instruction to Lord
Granville, and leave a copy of it with him should he
desire it. I am, etc.,

FREDERICK T. FRELINGHUYSEN.

The trial and conviction in London of Pat-
rick O'Donnell, an alleged citizen of the United
States, for the murder in South Africa of James
Carey, was the occasion of considerable cor-
respondence covering the period from Septem-
ber 24th to December 15th.

Under the first-mentioned date Mr. Hoppin,
the American secretary of legation in London,
informed Secretary Frelinghuysen of the arrest
of Patrick O'Donnell, and of his anxiety to
have a solicitor appointed to undertake his de-
fense. He further informed the secretary that,
in response to a communication from the
deputy-governor of Millbank Prison, he had
stated that there was some doubt as to
O'Donnell's identity. He had added that,
supposing the prisoner's citizenship to be es-
tablished, he did not believe it to be the duty
of the United States Government under ordi-
nary circumstances to provide professional
legal assistance for one of its citizens accused
of crime in Great Britain, even if he were
destitute of means, and that there seemed to
be nothing in this case to make it an excep-
tion. He had therefore declined to instruct
some one to defend him, except under direc-
tions from the Department of State. Mr.
Hoppin inclosed in his communication the
letter of the governor in charge of Millbank
Prison, and his reply thereto. Under date of
Oct. 5, 1883, Secretary Frelinghuysen wrote
to Mr. Lowell, directing him to ascertain
whether O'Donnell was a citizen of the United
States, and, if so, to do whatever was neces-
sary to secure his proper defense. Inclosed
in this communication was a letter from the
Hon. John F. Finerty, of Illinois, transmitting
resolutions adopted at a meeting in Chicago,
urging upon the Secretary of State the ne-
cessity for immediate action by the United
States to vindicate the right of O'Donnell to
a fair trial. The reply of Secretary Freling-
huysen to Mr. Finerty was also inclosed, and
in it the Secretary said :

It is not doubted that the accused will receive a
fair trial according to the usual forms of law, which,
in England, are substantially those hi force in this

country, and that any proper aid to that end which
it is within their power to furnish will be given by
the representatives of the United States in London.
Such aid would be given, as a matter of course, with-
out specific instructions from this department, to any
American citizen accused of crime in any foreign coun-
try where this Government is represented.

Under date of Oct. 9, 1883, Secretary Fre-
linghuysen inclosed to Mr. Hoppin the request
of the Hon. John A. Logan and others that
William F. Hynes and William W. O'Brien be
authorized to appear in court on behalf of
O'Donnell. He also inclosed his reply there-
to, stating that he understood that Gen. Pry or
and ex-Judge Fullerton, of New York, were
to take part in the defense. Mr. Lowell being
absent from London, Mr. Hoppin replied to
the last communication, stating that he had
come to the conclusion that the certificate
of naturalization produced by O'Donnell was
either granted to some other person " bear-
ing the not unusual name of Patrick O'Don-
nell, or that it was fraudulently obtained by
the prisoner." It is possible, he said, that
the State Department may decide that the
simple fact of the prisoner's possessing a cer-
tificate of naturalization in his own name is
sufficient proof of his citizenship, without re-
gard to antecedent facts. It seemed to him
that O'Donnell's defense had been properly
secured, and that 'it was not necessary for him
to take any further steps in that direction.
It was hardly necessary for him to show the
immense inconvenience, if not absolute imprac-
ticability, of providing, as a matter of course,
professional assistance for destitute American
citizens accused of crime in all parts of the
United Kingdom. Such action would throw
upon the legation judicial duties which would
materially interfere with its legitimate work,
and would entail great expense upon the Gov-
ernment.

Under the date of October 23d, Mr. Hoppin
informed Secretary Frelinghuysen that he had
made further inquiries concerning O'Donnell's
alleged citizenship, and while it was impossible
for him to give an authoritative opinion upon
the question, he could say that he was im-
pressed with the apparent truth of O'Don-
nell's statements. The question of O'Don-
nell's citizenship was summed up in the fol-
lowing communication from the Secretary of
State to the President :

In response to your direction I have the honor to
inform you that an investigation was made of the
right of Patrick O'Donnell to claim citizenship in the
United States, the result of which I have the honor
to communicate to you herewith. The statements
made in behalf of O'Dorrnell's right to claim Ameri-
can citizenship are conflicting, tt is asserted that he
is a citizen, first, by the naturalization of his father,
Michael, while he, the son, Patrick, was yet a minor;
second, by reason .of service in the army of the United
States during the late civil war ; and third, by natu-
ralization as one who resided in the United States for
the three years next prior to his coming of age, and
continuously thereafter up to the time of his making
application for citizenship. The claim to citizenship
through his father's act rests upon his own' state-

282 DIPLOMATIC CORRESPONDENCE.

DODGE, WILLIAM E.

ments. No proof of the fact is found or furnished,
and it is not confirmed by other members of the fam-
ily that the father eveV was naturalized. Ha'd he
been, Patrick O'Donnell need not have applied for
natunili/ation. As to the second point, O'Donnell
himself says that an injury to his arm prevented his
enlistment in the army, but that he was employed
as a teamster in 1SG4 on a United States Government
supply-train in Colorado. It has not been thought
necessary to verify this btatement, for if true the fact
would not give him the right to naturalization as one
who had served in the army ; and, moreover, the cer-
tificate is not granted on the ground of his having
been a soldier. In support of the third allegation he
produces a certificate of his naturalization on Nov. 6,
1876, by the Probate Court of Lawrence co., Ohio.
This certificate was issued in conformity with section
2167 of the Revised Statutes, which provides that " any
alien being under the age of twenty-one years, who has
resided in the United States three years next pre-
ceding his arriving at that age, and who had con-
tinued to reside therein to the time he may make ap-
plication to be admitted a citizen thereof," may be
admitted on making the prescribed declaration at
that time instead of two years before naturalization.

It would appear that this certificate was irregu-
larly granted, for by O'Donnell's statement, made to
the United States charge d'affaires at London, he re-
turned to Ireland after attaining majority, and re-
mained there between 1868 and 1871, and conse-
quently had not continued to reside in the United
States from the time of his coining of age to the
time of making application to be a citizen, as he
must have done to conform to the requirements of
the statute. It is also uncertain whether he, in fact,
resided here for the three years next before attaining
majority. By his statement to Mr. Hoppin he is now
about forty-eight years old, which puts his birth about
1835. In the declaration of intention made at the
time of naturalization he declares that he was born
in 1838. He must therefore have attained majority
somewhere between 1856 and 1859. By his own
statements he came to this country with 'his mother
(his father being already here) when about four or
six years old (1 839-1 844"), returned to Ireland when
twelve years old (1847-1850), and came back to the
United States in 1861, when he must have been be-
tween twenty-three and twenty-six years old ; so that
between the extreme dates assigned \>y himself, the
three years next preceding his reaching majority
would appear to have been spent in Ireland. The
act of naturalization being, however, a judicial de-
cision, it can only be impeached according to the
rules established in the Spanish - American Com-
mission, by showing want or jurisdiction on the part
of the granting court, or fraud practiced by the ap-
plicant on the court, or that the naturalization was in
violation of treaty stipulations.

Patrick O'Donnelf has a certificate of naturaliza-
tion. He may have obtained it by mistake of the
court, or by his own mistake, or there may be mis-
takes in the statements he now makes, and yet be an
absence of fraud, and as the certificate is prima facie
evidence of citizenship, and as I do not see the evi-
dence that O'Donnell practiced a fraud upon the
court, the United States legation at London was in-
structed to consider O'Donnell's citizenship estab-
lished.

Under date of Dec. llth, Mr. Frelinghuysen tele-
graphed Mr. Lowell of the action of the House of
Kepresentatives, as contained in the resolution of
Dec. 10th, repeated his former instructions to consider
the citizenship of O'Donnell established, and conclud-
ed by saying: "There being in Great Britain no ju-
dicial examination or appeal of the proceedings at a
criminal trial possible, errors can only be corrected
through a new trial and by executive action upon
the sentence. Therefore this Government is anxious
that such careful examination be given to the proceed-
ings in this case as to discover an error should one

have been committed. You are, therefore, directed
by the President to request a delay of the execution
of the sentence, and that a careful examination of the
case be made by her Majesty's Government, that the
prisoner be permitted to present any alleged points of
error. ' '

_ On Dec. 15th Mr. Lowell telegraphed to Mr. Fre-
linghuysen, acknowledging the receipt on Dec. 12th of
his telegram of Dec. llth. and stating that he imme-
diately sent its substance to Lord Granville, who on
Dec. 13th acknowledged its reception and stated that
it had been referred to the proper authorities ; that on
the date of his telegram (Dec. 15th) Mr. Lowell re-
ceived the final decision in the following words :

" SIR : With reference to my letter of the 13th inst.,
I have now the honor to state to you that the counsel
for O'Donnell, having submitted such representations
as he thought advisable on behalf of the prisoner,
these representations and all the other circumstances
of the case have been carefully examined and consid-
ered in the manner usual in the case of capital convic-
tions, and her Majesty's Government find no grounds
upon which they would be justified in advising the
Crown to interfere with the sentence of the law or its
execution. I have, etc., GKANVILLE."

The resolution of Dec. 10th, referred to,
called on the Government to interpose, to pre-
vent, if possible, the carrying out. of the sen-
tence of death on O'Donnell, on the ground
that he had not had a fair trial.

DODGE, William Earl, an American merchant,
born in Hartford, Conn., Sept. 4, 1805; died in
New York city, Feb. 9, 1883.

The family from which he sprang was Eng-
lish, and the first of the name who emigrated
to America was William Dodge, of Dorsetshire.
He came to Salem in 1629, and was one of the
founders of the Massachusetts Bay Colony.
The father of William Earl was David Low
Dodge, who had been a successful merchant in
Hartford, and removed to New York city in
the same year in which his son was born. He
retired from business in 1827, and devoted the
rest of his life to literary and benevolent work.
Several valuable books were published by him ;
he was a zealous and energetic member of the
Presbyterian Church, and was an elder of the
old Wall Street Church. His wife was the
daughter of Rev. Aaron Cleveland, a minister
of some note.

William Earl Dodge entered upon active life
as helper to his father, when he was only a
boy. In early life he united with the Laight
Street Presbyterian Church. On reaching man-
hood he engaged in business for himself, with
a partner, the firm being Huntington & Dodge.
Three years later, he married a daughter of
Anson G. Phelps, and in 1838 entered into
partnership with his father-in-law, the firm
being Phelps, Dodge & Co., and he remained
one of the senior members until 1879.

Mr. Dodge was one of the first directors of
the Erie Railway, and fully appreciated its im-
portance in the near future ; but in the case of
this as well as of other corporations, he wholly
disapproved of compelling Sunday work from
the employes, and refused to serve in any
board which caused trains to be run on Sun-
day, or derived profit from Sunday labors. He
was one of the founders and promoters of the

DODGE, WILLIAM E.

DORE, GUSTAVE.

283

Mutual Life Insurance Company. He early be-
came a member of the Chamber of Commerce,
and was for three terms chosen to be its presi-
dent. He was an active manager and friend of

WILLIAM EARL DODGE.

the American Bible Society, was a trustee and
benefactor of Union Theological Seminary, and
was among the most zealous of the founders of
the Union League Club.

In 1844 Mr. Dodge found it necessary to
-make a voyage to Europe for his health. In
1872 he visited the East, and laid the corner-
stone of the Syrian Protestant College at Bey-
rout. He also visited England in 1881, and
made an eloquent and forcible address regard-
ing the English and Foreign Bible Society and
its works.

Mr. Dodge devoted both time and money to
the support of the Government during the civil
war, and was a member of the Thirty-ninth
Congress. Later, President Grant appointed
him one of the Indian Commissioners, and he
visited the Territories, and made himself per-
sonally acquainted with the Indian question in
all its important phases.

Active, unceasing benevolence and good- will
to men marked his whole course. He was spe-
cially a friend and helper of the freedmen, and
was a patron and benefactor of Lincoln Uni-
versity for colored men. He was President of

the National Temperance Society, and aided in
establishing in New York a temperance Chris-
tian home for men, and also a like home for
women. Only ten days before his last, fatal
attack he delivered in the Taber-
nacle, West Thirty -fifth street, an
interesting lecture entitled u Recol-
lections of Fifty Years."

Although now considerably be-
yond three-score years and ten, Mr.
Dodge in no wise slacked his efforts
to do good. Premonition came, the
Saturday before his death, in an at-
tack of angina pectoris. Yet, with
undaunted courage, he nerved him-
self for whatever work was before
him to accomplish. On Friday, Feb-
ruary 9th, he rose as usual ; but the
summons had come, and, supported
by the arms of his loved ones, he
was laid on his bed and passed away.
The funeral services were held on
the 12th inst., in the Church of the
Covenant, Park Avenue, of which
congregation he had for fifteen years
been an active and honored member.
In addition to unnumbered gifts
and charities during his lifetime, Mr.
Dodge left by will sums of $50,000,
$20,000, and $10,000 to various char-
itable and educational institutions. '
DORE, Gnstave, a French artist,
born in Strasburg, Alsace-Lorraine,
Jan. 10, 1833; died in Paris, Jan.
23, 1883. At a very early age he
manifested unusual talent and pas-
sion for drawing, and was sent to
the lyceum of his native city. He
was only eleven years old when his
first lithographs were published, and
excited much attention as coming
from a boy of that age. In the following year
he accompanied his father to Paris, and was
sent to the Charlemagne Lyceum, for the pur-
pose of completing his education and training
for the life that seemed to be opening to him.
In 1848 he published his first series of sketches,
" The Labors of Hercules," which were pre-
pared for the " Journal pour rire." They were
so satisfactory, and well adapted to the objects
of that journal, that the youthful artist became
one of its regular contributors.

At the age of twenty Dor6 began to exhibit
oil-paintings, and the next year (1854) he
established his reputation by illustrating the
works of Rabelais. He contributed largely to
the "Journal pour tous," which was founded
in 1856, and that same year he gave to the
public a series of charming pictorial com-
mentaries on Balzac's mirtlfful " Contes Drola-
tiques," and on the well-known legend of the
Wandering Jew. These latter, though hav-
ing a considerable element of the grotesque,
bear the stamp of Holbein and Albert Durer,
together with the quiet humor of Hogarth.
In 1861 he was .decorated with the Cross

284

DOES, GUSTAVE.

EARTHQUAKES, ETC., IN 1883,

of the Legion of Honor. His whole time and
attention were given to his profession, and he
worked with a diligence arid executed with
a rapidity almost incredible. His drawings
and sketches number by the thousands (esti-
mated at 45,000 to 50,000), and, however im-
perfect and extravagant some of them may

GUSTAVE DOK£

be, owing to this dashing style of production,
they yet display as a whole genius and power
in a high degree.

The most prominent of the works illustrated
by Dore" are those of Montaigne (1857), Taine's
"Voyage aux Pyrenees" (1859), Chateau-
briand's "Atala" (1862), Tennyson's "Idylls
of the King" (1866-'68), and the fables of La
Fontaine (1867). In 1861 he published seventy-

six large drawings in illustration and exposi-
tion of Dante's "Divina Commedia," accom-
panied by a blank-verse rendering of the text
by William Michael Kossetti ; and two years
later appeared a very remarkable series of folio
illustrations to " Don Quixote," which bear
the marks of careful study from Spanish life.
In 1865 he published his striking
illustrations of Milton's " Paradise
Lost," and during that and the fol-
lowing year completed a series of
illustrative sketches and paintings
on scenes and characters in the Bi-
ble. Among the oil-paintings ex-
hibited by Dore, and worthy of
note, are the "Two Mothers," "Al-
satian Women," " A Mountebank
with a Stolen Child," and some
landscapes. The most noteworthy
of his pictures are, scenes from Dan-
te, especially his " Paolo and Fran-
cesca di Rimini," the battles of the
Alma and Inkerman, in the Crimean
War (1855-'57), the "Rebel Angels
cast down" (1866), the "Gambling
Hall at Baden-Baden," the "Neo-
phyte" (1868), the "Triumph of
Christianity," and " Christ leaving
the Prsetorium," which latter meas-
ures thirty feet by twenty.

Dora's popularity was very great,
and his works have had a very large
sale. There was hardly any subject
which he did not undertake, from
sublime epics and the sacred scenes
and characters of Holy Writ, down
to the broadest farce, or nursery and
fairy tales. He had all the dash and
vivacity of the French race, and he
displayed marvelous vigor, imagina-
tion, and keen insight in his best
works. English critics complain of his defi-
ciency in taste and refinement, his lack of sen-
sibility and deep feeling, and his frequent care-
lessness and slovenliness. It must be admitted
that the criticism is in a measure just ; yet at
the same time Dor6 was one of the greatest
artists France has ever produced, and has fur-
nished to the world works of high order and
unquestionable merit.

E

EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANIC DISTURBANCES

IN 1883. The year 1883 witnessed, in addi-
tion to at least the usual number of disturb-
ances ^ of ordinary intensity, two memorable
and disastrous convulsions in two of the prin-
cipal seats of volcanic activity remaining on
the earth's surface— Southern Italy and the
island of Java. A strong earthquake-shock
was felt in Sicily early in May, and several
others at different times subsequent to the
eruption of Mount Etna in March. At Tabriz,

in Persia, an earthquake occurred on May 5th,
which caused considerable loss of life. One
in Mexico, on the 4th of August, caused 20
deaths. A village in Tyrol was badly dam-
aged by another. The shocks in Chios and
.Asia Minor, the scene of frequent seismic dis-
turbances, were more serious. There were
shocks in Cordova, Seville, Cadiz, and through-
out Anatolia, on October 24th, which were
supposed to be connected with the Anatolian
earthquake.

EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANIC DISTURBANCES IN 1883.

285

In Ischia. — A shock occurred on the island
of Ischia, in the Bay of Naples, at 9.50 p. M.
on the 28th of July. The towns of Casamic-
ciola, Forio, and Lacco Ameno were almost
entirely destroyed, with terrible loss of life.
Serrara, Fontana, and other smaller villages,
suffered much damage. The shock was felt
in the town of Ischia, where it was severe
enough to injure some of the buildings. The
vibrations traveled great distances, and were
even indicated by the seismograph in Rome.
The number of deaths was estimated at from
2,000 to 3,000 ; the number of persons maimed
and injured was about 600.

This island is one of the most attractive
bathing resorts in Europe. The resident popu-
lation is about 26,000, and there are usually
several thousand summer visitors; but there
were fewer than the ordinary number at the
time of the catastrophe. The village of Casa-
micciola is much visited for its thermal waters.
It was only two years since this place was
half destroyed by an earthquake, March 4,
1881 ; but its attractions as a sanitarium and
summering place were sufficient to outweigh
the dangers.

A pantomime performance was going on in
a summer-theatre in front of the large Manzi
health establishment, and in the hotels the
guests were assembled in the music and read-
ing-rooms, when the catastrophe occurred. In
fifteen seconds the village was a heap of ruins.
A deafening subterranean roar accompanied the
shock, which was followed by slighter vibra-
tions, that brought the tottering buildings to
the ground. Those who were not crushed
under the ruins, or struck down by falling
fragments after gaining the street, rushed with
cries of terror to the beach, and, seizing every
boat and floating thing, sought safety on the
water. In the theatre and hotels every light
was extinguished, and blinding clouds of dust
enveloped the whole village in darkness. The
Etablissement Manzi, Grand Hotel, Villa Sau-
vet, and Grande Sentinella escaped with com-
paratively little damage ; but the other hotels
and boarding-houses, among them the Piccola
Sentinella, the favorite inn of English and
American visitors, were destroyed, with most
of their numerous inmates.

The village of Casamicciola and the land-
scape surrounding it were so completely oblit-
erated that no feature of the topography could
be recognized. The ground was rent with deep
cracks several inches wide. Of most of the
houses and villas nothing was left but indistin-
guishable mounds. In some places landslips
carried away roads and vineyards.

Firemen and sappers and miners arrived im-
mediately to disinter the dead, and rescue those
who were still living under the debris. King
Humbert came with his staff to encourage and
aid the distressed, and public and private relief
was extended to the thousands who were de-

E rived of the means of subsistence. In Forio,
acco, and Serrara hundreds of peasants were

killed, and a great number of houses were de-
stroyed. Barano suffered considerable dam-
age. The census of 1881 makes the total num-
ber of inhabitants in the island 26,903, of whom
6,574 dwelt in the town of Ischia, which es-
caped injury. The population of the communes
in the main part of the island which were af-
fected was as follows: Forio, 6,791 ; Barano,
4,598; Casamicciola, 4,217; Serrano- Fontana,
1,972; Lacco Ameno, 1,761.

The island of Ischia is entirely of volcanic
formation, with the exception of a number
of argillaceous elevations of marine formation.
The village of Casamicciola was built upon
such a clayey deposit, produced by the disin-
tegration of the tufa of the volcano of Epomeo,
which stands in the center of the island. Lacco
stands partly upon this tufa, which forms the
foundation of the island, and partly upon an
overlying deposit of trachytic lava. Forio, on
the west coast, as well as the villages in the
south of the island, is built upon tufa. The
distribution of hot springs, stufas, or jets of
steam, and fumaroles on the island indicates
the existence of two clefts in the tufa, one ex-
tending in a curved east-and-west line near
the north coast, and the other crossing the
island in a transverse direction. Casamicciola
stood at about the intersection of the two lines
of fracture. At Casamicciola, Forio, and Lacco
Ameno the shock was at first vertical, then un-
dulatory, the wave traveling at Forio from
northeast to southwest, at Lacco Ameno from
southeast to northwest, and at Casamicciola
first from west to east "and then from north to
south. For several days previous to the earth-
quake slight shocks, accompanied with rum-
blings, were perceived. The springs of Gurgi-
tello, near Casamicciola, showed irregularities
of flow and temperature. The fumaroles of
Monte Cito, south of that village, which are
usually almost entirely inactive, gave strong
indications of volcanic action, emitting jets of
steam and sulphurous acid, and giving forth a
strange hissing sound.

The source of the disturbance is supposed to
be the expiring volcano of Mount Epomeo, the
residual activity of which is manifested in the
thermal springs and jets of gas and steam aris-
ing through the two fissures. Prof. Palmieri,
of Naples, attributed the excessive violence of
the shocks at Casamicciola to the existence of
great caverns underneath the spot, the sup-
ports of which were weakened by the action
of thermal waters, and gave way when agi-
tated by the seismic shock. Others explain
it on the hypothesis of the two fissures inter-
secting there, which would make Casamicciola
the center of any volcanic disturbance on- the
island, and upon the theory of Mallet. This
theory is, that a seismic wave passing from a
comparatively inelastic soil to one of great
elasticity changes its direction as well as its
velocity, and is partly refracted and partly re-
flected. East of Casamicciola, between it and
Ischia, are the volcanoes of Rotaro and Mon-

286

EAETHQUAKES AND VOLCANIC DISTURBANCES IN 1883.

tagnone and their trachytic deposits, as well
as the lavas of Arso. The wave passing from
the inelastic clayey soil into the trachytes was
greatly diminished in violence, which explains
the slightness of the damage in Ischia, while
its recoil was destructive to the buildings of
Casamicciola.

Erupt Km of Etna. — An eruption of Mount Etna
began March 20th, attended by ninety-two
shocks of earthquake the first day, followed by
slighter waves, and then, on the 22d and 23d,
by three severe shocks at Nicolisi. The prin-
cipal crater poured forth a dense cloud of smoke
and fine ashes and a column of fire. After
the shocks felt at Nicolisi, eleven new mouths
opened above that place, which emitted sand,
scoriae, lapilli, and smoke, accompanied by loud
roarings. Other shocks were felt, but the new
craters, after discharging a great quantity of
gas, became quiescent by the 30th. Earth-
quake convulsions continued intermittently for
several days.

Krakatoa Ernptton.— The activity of the Javan
volcanoes in August produced one of the most
terrific and disastrous convulsions of nature
known to history. The populous and produc-
tive island of Java is, as a seat of volcanic phe-
nomena, remarkable among all the volcanic re-
gions of the globe. There are forty-five active
craters on the island, besides those on the
adjoining volcanic isles of the Straits of Sunda,
the largest of which islands are Krakatoa, op-
posite the town of Anjer, and Sebocke and
Sebesie near the coast of Sumatra. On Kraka-
toa the Dutch Government maintained a fort
and garrison. The other small islands are un-
inhabited. There are multitudes of hot springs
and other forms of volcanic activity besides the
volcanoes themselves, notable among which are
the mud-volcano at Grobogan, the gas-fountains,
called the " holy fires," at Melati Derat, and the
Fakaraman or Guiva Upas (" Valley of Death").

Earthquakes and eruptions are of frequent
occurrence. The inhabitants experienced sev-
eral appalling disasters before the crowning ca-
tastrophe of 1883.*

On the night of Aug. 26th detonations from
the island of Krakatoa were heard at Batavia
and as far as Soerakerta. forty-five miles dis-
tant. In a few hours showers of stones and
ashes began to fall at Jogjakerta, Serang, Sou-
rabaya, and Samar.-mg. Red-hot stones fell
all through the night, and ashes shrouded the
towns in darkness. In Batavia there were al-
so showers. The bridges were destroyed and
all communications cut off with Anjer.

By morning the disturbance had extended
beneath the waters of the strait. The sea be-

* In 1878 there were sixteen distinct earthquakes registered
throughout the island. In 1843 Mount Guntur flung forth
80,000,000 tons of ashes and sand. By the great eruption of
Mount Galung-gung in 1822 no fewer than 114 villages were
laid waste, and 4,000 persons killed. In 1S67 an earthquake
caused the death of 1,OCO people of the town of Jogjakerta
alone. The eruption in 1S72 of Merapi, one of the most ac-
tive of the sixteen principal volcanoes, proved fatal to thou-
sands of the inhabitants of Kadu. In 1879 the Preanger Re-
gencies were con<njlsed by several severe shocks.

gan to boil and hiss, and huge waves were
dashed upon the opposite coast of Java. The
temperature of the water rose twenty degrees.

The rumblings became louder and more dis-
tinct in Java. At noon an eruption burst from
the Maha Meru, the largest of the Javan volca-
noes. Gunung, the crater of which is the
largest in the world, being four miles in diame-
ter, was soon involved. The eruptions extend-
ed to the Gunung Guntur and the minor cones,
until more than a third of the active craters
were in a state of eruption or gave signs of
breaking out.

The Gunung Guntur was wrapped in a lumi-
nous cloud just before dusk, and began direct-
ly to emit enormous jets of white acid and sul-
phurous mud, with smaller quantities of lava.
Detonations were heard in rapid succession.
After each explosion great volumes of ashes
and huge pieces of rock were hurled a great
distance in the air, and fell in the valleys on
all sides, covering the whole country and de-
stroying a vast number of people in their habi-
tations. The sea rose in great banks of water,
in response to the outburst of the volcanoes.
The clouds were surcharged with electricity,
and not fewer than fifteen large water-spouts
were witnessed at one time.

The eruption of the Gunung Tengger formed
an impressive scene. Above its top, which is
6,000 feet in altitude, stood a towering pillar
of flame. This volcano has been dormant since
1800, when an eruption buried 120 square
miles of country under a sheet of the white
sulphurous mud peculiar to the Javan volca-
noes. This crater now sent forth a constant
succession of glowing bowlders which hailed
down on the dwellings of the Chinese fish-
ermen and native agriculturists, destroying ev-
ery living thing.

The sides of the mountains opened in long
fissures, and great chasms appeared here and
there in the valleys. The showers of stones,
mud, and lava did not overwhelm the elevated
plains of Kediri and Bandong so completely
as they did the lower portions of the island.
The forests which covered a considerable por-
tion of northern Java were fired by the volca-
noes. The fields of coffee, rice, sugar, indigo,
and tobacco were covered with mud, stone,
and lava. Not a single crop was saved. As
the volcanoes became more violent, the sea
surged more tumultuously. The lava, as it
reached the shore and poured over the crags into
the sea, was congealed by the waves in fantas-
tic forms of variegated bright colors.

The large town of Telokbetong, in Sumatra,
was submerged by the tidal wave, and anni-
hilated with all its inhabitants. The fortress
and settlement of Anjer was overwhelmed by
the tidal wave which followed the eruption
of Krakatoa, and 200 white people were lost.
Of the 3,500 Europeans and Americans in Ba-
tavia, several hundred lost their lives; of the
25,000 Chinamen who lived along the shore in
front of the town, the greater part were swept

ECUADOR.

287

away by the waves. Tjiringin, south of Anjer,
on the coast, was destroyed by the waters.
Bantam, formerly a prosperous city, but sub-
sequently abandoned by its European and most
of its native inhabitants, was entirely sub-
merged, and from 1,200 to 1,500 persons were
drowned. The waters covered the island of
Serang, on which not a soul was left alive.
At Oheribon the falling of stones and flow of
lava caused considerable lossss of life and prop-
erty. Buitzenborg, Samarang, Jogjakerta, Sou-
rakerta, Sourabaya, and all the smaller towns
were partially destroyed. Some of the u thou-
sand temples " of Brambaman were destroyed,
and a number of the domes of the famous tem-
ple of Borobodo were crushed by falling rocks.

The volcanic disturbance altered the geo-
graphical features of the Straits of Sunda. The
great island of Krakatoa disappeared. Between
the sunken island and Sebesie emerged sixteen
new volcanic peaks. The Soengepan volcano
split into five. The mountain of Kramatan, a
high peak which formed the southeasterly
promontory of Sumatra, sank into the sea.
The changes were confined to the portion of
the strait lying between this point and Kraka-
toa, the upheaval in the center of this strip
producing a depression at both ends.

Alaskan Volcanoes. — Mount Augustin, near
Cook's Inlet, burst into activity in October,
and the eruption extended to two volcanoes,
lying westward of Mount Iliamua, which were
before considered extinct. Flames and smoke,
preceded by an explosion, began to issue from
the summit of Mount Augustin on the morning
of Oct. 6th. The sky was obscured, and pumice
ashes fell at the entrance of Cook's Inlet to
the depth of five inches. A tidal wave 30
feet high washed upon the shore in the mid-
dle of the afternoon, followed by two others 18
feet high. The sky was brilliantly illuminated
at night. The northern part of Mount Augustin
was torn away by the eruption and leveled to
the height of the surrounding cliffs. A new
island, 75 feet high and 1| mile lung, appeared
between Chernaboura Island and the mainland.

Earthquake in Anatolia. — Severe shocks of earth-
quake were felt on the 15th of October along
the coast of Asiatic Turkey, and on the island
of Chios. The town of Aivalik, in Anatolia,
was partly destroyed. Great damage was done
to the villages between Tchesme and Vourla,
and a large number of people were left roofless
and without means. The city of Smyrna suf-
fered injury to a slight extent, and the shock
was felt also at Syra on the Dardanelles. In
Chios a number of buildings were shattered
and people wounded. In Vourla, Alateuki,
Ovadere, and eight other villages near Tchesme,
57 persons were killed, 150 injure 1, and 14,678
rendered homeless.

ECUADOR. The modification of the territo-
rial division of this republic, alluded to in the
"Annual Cyclopaedia" for 1882, proves not to
be permanent, as since then the revolution has
triumphed, and the dictator, Ignacio de Vein-

temilla, after whom the new province was
named, has fled the country.

The provisional President of Ecuador is Sefior
Jose Maria Placido Caamaflo ; the provisional
Vice-President is Seftor Rafael Perez Pereja.

The new Cabinet at the close of 1883 was
composed of the following ministers : Interior
and Foreign Affairs, Setter Pablo Herrera;
Finance and Public Works, Seflor V. Lucio
Salazar ; War and Navy, Seflor Agustin Guer-
rera.

During the recent civil war and since its ter-
mination no later official returns relating to the
finances of Ecuador have been published, nor
has anything transpired with reference to the
foreign debt.

Events of 1883.— After some desultory war-
fare following the opening campaign and the
various engagements between the insurgent
forces and those of the Government, from Oc-
tober, 1882, to January, 1883, chronicled in the
"Annual Cyclopaedia " for 1882, the former
had gradually repelled the latter and ejected
them from Guayaquil, and in April, 1883, had
gathered at Guaranda, Babahoyo, Machala,
Santa Rosa, and Manabi, thus forming a vast
semicircle hemming in Guayaquil. Meanwhile
the provisional Government at Quito declared
Machala, south of Guayaquil, a port of entry,
reducing the import duties there by 25 per
cent, and the export duty by 50 per cent.

Early in May the combined insurgent or con-
stitutional forces made a forward movement on
Guayaquil, Gen. Alfaro's besieging army press-
ing from the west, while Generals Barona and
Flores came forward from the north, Generals
Salazar, Sarasti, and Landazuri from the east,
and Generals Secundino, Darguea, and Medina
moving onward from the south. A concentra-
tion for siege operations took place at Mapa-
singue.

On May 3d the Italian war-steamer Vittor
Pisani approached the insurgents' camp, and
the commander requested its captain to pro-
tect the lives of Italians and other foreigners
in the event of an assault on the besieged city,
which was promised him.

Representatives of Veintemilla under a mili-
tary escort took, on May 8l.h, forcible possession
of $320,000 on deposit in the vaults of the Bank
of Ecuador, Guayaquil, despite the protests of
foreign consuls and the commanders of British
and Italian men-of-war.

On May 15th Sefior Antonio Flores, son of
the first President of Ecuador, arrived at Guaya-
quil. He had been exiled by Veintemilla, and
on his arrival the latter proceeded to arrest
him, but was prevented by the commander of
the British sloop of war in the harbor, who
sent some boats with crews to protect Flores.

Being foiled in this attempt, Veintemilla
made offers to Flores to resign into his hands
the dictatorship, provided Flores would con-
tinue to oppose the Constitutionals and assist
Veintemilla in pacifying the country. These
offers were declined by Flores, who, on the

288

ECUADOR.

contrary, chose to join the insurgents. The
commander of the Constance thereupon placed
a boat at his disposal, which landed him at Sam-
barondon, one of the camps of the latter.

The besieging forces, 5,000 men strong, ap-
proached the fortifications of the city on May
22d. Some shots were exchanged, and the
next day shells were thrown into the place.
Veintemilla took part in the defense, and ex-
posed himself fearlessly on the ramparts. His
force numbered 3,000 bayonets, and he had 60
pieces of artillery in position.

On May 26tn-27th the besieging forces tem-
porarily withdrew from the immediate ap-
proaches, while the Colombian generals in the
insurgents' camp, Generals Sarmiento and Mon-
tujar, proceeded to Ipalio to observe the move-
ments of Veintemilla.

On June 3d the assailants again approached
the city, and a lively cannonade was opened on
it, followed by an attack on Forts Manicomio,
Salado, and Puerto de Lisa, the northwestern
portion of the fortifications. After the firing
ceased, on June 4th, a summons to surrender
at discretion was forwarded to Veintemilla,
but rejected by him.

During the lull in siege operations which
now occurred, Veintemilla was busy in perfect-
ing his intrenchments.

On June 13th there was a general panic in
Guayaquil, in consequence of the disorderly
conduct of the garrison.

On June 19th an earthquake shook down
the church and curacy of the village of Toacaso,
in the interior of Ecuador. The other houses
resisted the first shock, but a second shock
took place about midnight, which destroyed
every house. The ground opened in many
places, and during the night sixteen shocks
were counted.

About this time a gang of bandits paid a
visit to the towns of Manta and Montecristi,
where they murdered several persons and
plundered a large amount. Some of the citi-
zens resisted, and several of them were killed.

On July 9th, before daylight, the assailing
army at Mapasingue advanced on Guayaquil in
six divisions, and, after a two-hours' struggle,
Gen. Reinaldo Flores and his brother Antonio
at the head of their troops had taken the most
important points by storm. The resistance
was generally feeble, but the main fort held
out vigorously. The townspeople received the
troops with enthusiasm.

Veintemilla, accompanied by a number of
officers and 200 soldiers, now fled, being con-
veyed to Payta, Peru, on board the steamer
Santa Lucia, whence he sailed for Callao on
July 21st, and thence reached Lima.

Alfaro at once organized a municipality, and
on July 25th the people of Guayaquil sponta-
neously proclaimed Pedro Carbo chief of the
government there. Meanwhile the three insur-
gent governments agreed to convoke a national
convention ; these three governments were :
that of Alfaro, whose power extended along

the coast (Manabi and Esmeraldas), the gov-
ernment of Guayaquil under Pedro Carbo, and
the one at Quito. Hence a decree was issued
to the effect that delegates should assemble at
Ambato, on October 9th, to elect a provisional
President and Vice-President.

On August 6th Miguel Valverde was ap-
pointed a member of Alfaro's Cabinet as suc-
cessor of Senor Semblantes, deceased.

On August 10th Gen. Alfaro left for Manta
with 1,000 troops and several guns, on the
plea that provisions were wanting at Guaya-
quil for so many troops; simultaneously Sa-
rasti left with a force likewise, each taking
with him $100,000 raised on the spot. The
motives of both were alleged to be political.

During the last week in August, earthquakes
were felt at Manabi, Ecuador. Detonations
were heard there, inducing the belief that
fighting was going on in the neighborhood ;
troops were turned out ready to meet the sup-
posed enemy. On September 2d the sun at
Guayaquil was discolored.

Gen. Alfaro before his departure made a
contract with Mr. M. J. Kelly, an American,
for the construction of about 300 miles of tele-
graph to connect Bahia, Manta, and Esmeral-
das, and other important towns in the lower
provinces, with Guayaquil and the cable line.

The convention met on the day designated,
63 members being present, who, on October
15th, elected as provisional President of Ecua-
dor, Jos6 Maria Placido Caamafio, of Guayaquil,
and provisional Vice-President, Rafael Perez
Pareja, of Quito.

In' the mean time, on account of old age,
Don Pedro Carbo resigned his governorship of
Guayaquil.

The convention before it dissolved declared
in force the Constitution of 1861, and passed
a bill for the encouragement of viticulture in
Ecuador. This law exempts from all taxes
whatsoever, both national and local, those who
plant their acres with vines, and it further-
more liberates from military service, in the
national army and the militia, all laborers
working in vineyards, in the proportion of one
thus privileged field-laborer for every two and
a half acres of vineyard.

During the first week in December the
ground opened in many places at Chiinbo, a
little village in Ecuador, forty-five miles from
Chimborazo; smoke and flames rushed out,
and lava and ashes were ejected. It was be-
lieved that a new volcano was in course of
formation. The whole range in which the
eruption has occurred is intensely volcanic.

On December 14th Gen. Eloy Alfaro arrived
at Pan am 4 from Guayaquil.

Climate and Resources.— The rainy season gen-
erally lasts from December to June, the re-
maining months being dry; but on the Ama-
zon slope it rains all the year round. As to
the influence of the climate on man, there are
vast healthful districts in the river valleys of
the Amazon region, while those of the Pacific

ECUADOR.

EGYPT.

289

shore are commonly full of disease. Special
disorders are due to the lack of sanitary meas-
ures. In the western and northwestern parts
the abuse of sweets as food results in a curious
and frightful intestinal complaint. The coun-
try is almost wholly agricultural, the Pacific
coast and river valleys of both east and west
yielding generous crops of cocoa, cotton, sugar-
cane, rice, coffee, tobacco, and tropical fruits,
while the inter-Andean plateau produces all
the cereals and vegetables incident to a tem-
perate and even cold climate, though they are
of inferior quality. Cattle do not thrive in the
Amazon section, chiefly from the immense
number of bats which irritate them.

Cinchona-bark, which first came from the
province of Loja, is being so rapidly cut and
sent out of the country, without new planting,
that the supply must soon cease.

Population. — The population is estimated at
1,000,000 (exclusive of savage tribes), and is
distri bu ted as follows : white, 100,000; mixed,
300,000 ; pure Indian, 600,000. The evil quali-
ties of the mixed races are condemned as the
source of the degradation of the country.

Internal Communications. — Internal communi-
cations are much needed in Ecuador, and, al-
though Col. Church is personally interested
in the construction of future railroads, he ex-
presses his strong opinion that for the next
ten or twenty years a thorough system of first-
class mule routes would undoubtedly be best.

Railroads. — The railway from Yaguachi to
the river Chimbo is finished; 77 miles are
thus in operation.

Telegraphs. — Ecuador has been in communi-
cation with the world's cable system since Oct.
1, 1882, through the land line from Guayaquil
to Ballenita, whence the Central and South
American Telegraph Company forwards the
messages via Telmantepec, Galveston, etc.

Commerce. — There entered the port of Guaya-
quil, in 1882, 212 vessels (112 of which were
steamers), of a total tonnage of 125,294, count-
ing coasting schooners and sloops.

Exports amounted in 1882 to $5,469,793,
.comprising 21,377,200 pounds of cocoa, worth
$3,867,896 ; cinchona or cascarilla bark (qui-
nine), $319, 950 ; tagua or vegetable ivory, $418,-
600; India-rubber, $1,045,703; straw (Jipi-
japa) hats, coffee, hides and skins, etc., mak-
ing up the rest.

Cocoa Production. — The production of cocoa
has been disastrously affected by the civil
war, and, as Ecuador furnishes more of the
article than any other country, the price has
been enhanced in consequence all over the
world. The December (1883) receipts at Guay-
aquil were only 10^500 quintals, and the price
of Arriba cocoa advanced on Dec. 31, 1883, to
$19 per quintal of 100 pounds Spanish (101£
pounds American). The cocoa crop for five
years has been :

Qiintals.
1879 302,490

1881 207,280

VOL. XXIII. 19

Quintal:.
196.580
146,700

EGYPT, a principality of Northern Africa,
tributary to Turkey. Mehemet AH, the gov-
ernor, rebelled against the Porte in 1811 and as-
sumed the powers of government. In 1841 he
was recognized, under the guarantee of the
five great powers of Europe, as Vali, or Vice-
roy, and the sovereign authority was made
hereditary under the Turkish law of suc-
cession. In 1866 Ismail obtained a firman
creating him Khedive, or King, and establish-
ing direct male succession by primogeniture,
in return for which concessions he submitted
to the increase of the annual contribution to
the Sultan's civil list from $1,880,000 to
$3,600,000. By another firman, issued in
1873, he obtained the rights of concluding
treaties and maintaining an army. In Au-
gust, 1879, the Sultan was induced to de-
pose Isrnai] I, who was involved in financial
difficulties. His son Tewtik was placed on
the throne, and the government, was adminis-
tered under the supervision of two Control-
lers-General, appointed one by the French
and one by the British Government, who were
given the right of investigation into all de-
partments of the public service and an ad-
visory voice at the councils of the Cabinet.
By a second decree of the Khedive, issued
April 5, 1880, an International Commission of
Liquidation was appointed to elaborate a finan-
cial law to regulate the relations of Egypt
with her creditors. The scheme, consolidating
the foreign debts, fixing the interest at 4 per
cent., and reserving certain revenues to meet
it, was sanctioned by the Khedive in 1881.
That same year a political movement was set
on foot to deprive the Controllers of the ex-
traordinary powers they had assumed over
legislation and administration, and place the
powers of government in native hands. The
French and English Governments refused to
accede to the demand, in the beginning of
1882, for the transfer of legislative powers
to a Chamber of Notables. The movement,
which was accompanied by military prepara-
tions, was treated as a military rebellion. The
British Government sent an army to occupy
Egypt, the French Government declining to
join in the intervention. The Egyptian army
under Arabi Pasha resisted the occupation,
and was finally subdued in September, 1882.
It was then disbanded, and English officers
were intrusted with the tasks of organizing
a new military establishment and a gen-
darmerie, while the Earl of Pufferin, British
embassador at Constantinople, was sent to
Egypt to work out a scheme for the reform
and reorganization of the Government.

The Government — The reigning Khedive" is
Mehemet Tewfik, son of Ismail I, who was
born in 1852, and succeeded his father Aug.
8, 1879. The ministry at the beginning of
1883 consisted of the following-named persons:
President and Minister of Foreign Affairs, Sherif
Pasha; Minister of the Interior, Riaz Pasha;
Minister of War and Marine, Omar Pasha

290

EGYPT.

Lutfi ; Minister of Public Works, Ali Muba-
rek Pasha; Minister of Finance, Haidar Pasha;
Minister of Public Instruction, Khairz Pasha;
Minister of Justice, Fakhri Pasha ; Minister of
Vakufs, Zeki Pasha ; Minister for the Soudan,
Ismail Ayub Pasha.

Lord Dufferin, special commissioner of the
British Government, after working out a com-
prehensive scheme of legislative, judicial, and
administrative reform, returned to his post in
Constantinople in the beginning of May, 1883.
After the abolition of the dual control by a
khedivial decree, Sir Auckland Colvin was
appointed financial adviser to the Khedive.
A Council of State, composed partly of na-
tives and partly of Europeans, was created in
September. In the same month Sir Edward
Malet was succeeded by Sir Evelyn Baring in
the post of British diplomatic agent and con-
sul-general. Sir Auckland Colvin was re-
placed by E. Vincent as European financial
adviser to the Khedive. Clifford Lloyd was
at the same time appointed adviser to the
Minister of the Interior. On Nov. 22d, M.
Catnille Barrere presented his credentials as
French diplomatic agent and consul-general.

After the destruction of the Soudan army,
the Egyptian Government, unable to agree to
the British proposition to evacuate a part of
the Soudan and cede territory on the Red
sea to Abyssinia, gave in their resignations.
A new Cabinet was constituted by Nnbar
Pasha.

Area and Population, — The area of Egypt prop-
er is about 210,000 square miles. The popula-
tion in 1877 was stated in an official estimate
to be 5,517,627, of which number 569,115 re-
sided in the Mohafzas, or town districts, having
an aggregate area of 176,546 square kilometres,
and 4,948,512 in the Moudiriehs, or provincial
districts, 844,808 square kilometres in extent.
The number of births registered in 1877 was
173,529 ; of deaths, 138,668. The net immi-
gration from 1873 to 1877 was 19,241. The
number of foreigners residing in Egypt in 1878
was returned as 68,653, of whom 29,963 were
Greeks, 14,524 Italians, 14,310 French, 3,795
English, and 6,061 of other nationalities.

An enumeration conducted in 1883 gives the
total native population of Egypt proper as
6,798,230, of whom 3,393,918 were males and
3,404,312 females.

The population of the principal towns in
1883 was as follows: Cairo, 368,108; Alexan-
dria, 208,775 ; Tanta, 38,725 ; Damietta, 34,036 ;
Mansura, 26,784; Zagazig, 19,046; Rosetta,
16,671; Port Said, 16,560; Suez, 10,913.

The population of the three geographical dis-
tricts into which Egypt proper has from ancient
times been divided was as follows in 1877,
not including the population of the town dis-
tricts, amounting to 569,115 : Lower Egypt, 2,-

823,995 ; Middle Egypt, 653,119; Upper Egvpt,
1,471,398. The whole country is divided into
eleven administrative provinces.
The Soudan. — The conquered and annexed

districts on the Upper Nile and in Central
Africa are known collectively as the Egyptian
Soudan. They form a single administrative
district, and since Arabi's revolt have been
placed in charge of a special ministry. The
Soudan proper is divided from Egypt by a belt
of desert, and is not easily accessible by water
on account of the deposits and growths which
frequently obstruct the Nile. The inhabitants
of the Upper Nile region are distinct in race
from the Egyptians. The conquest of this re-

§ion was begun by Mehemet Ali, who annexed
ennaar and Kordofan. The same policy was
pursued by his successors, especially Ismail
Pasha, who, urged on by Europeans who
wished to obtain commercial profits from this
country, or were interested in the suppression
of the slave-trade, or the exploration of the
sources of the Nile, added the province of Dar-
four to his dominions in 1869, and subsequently
the equatorial province, extending to the bor-
der of King Mtesa's empire of Uganda. The
annexation of Darfour was only nominal as
long as the power of Sebehr* remained un-
broken. Suleiman, Sebehr's son, who rebelled
openly in 1878 after his father's arrest, was
finally overthrown by Yussuf Pasha and Ro-
molo Gessi, Gen. Gordon's Italian assistant.
"Chinese" Gordon, who was clothed with
unlimited discretionary power, was more suc-
cessful than his predecessor, Sir Samuel Baker,
in maintaining the authority of the Khedive.
But the Arab colonies of Darfour and the des-
ert, and the warlike negro races of the rest of
the Soudan, profoundly dissatisfied with the
extortionate and corrupt rule of the effeminate
Egyptians, were ready to oppose a desperate
resistance to the proposed abolition of slavery.
Gordon's pacification of Darfour and the Nile
country was only superficial, and. notwith-
standing the ascendency and popularity which
he acquired among a large part of- the popula-
tion, he left more dangerous elements of dis-
content than existed before his coming. The
inhabitants of Bahr Gazelle and Gondokoro are
more nearly akin to the Egyptians, and have
always proved more tractable than the black
races of the Soudan.

The whole of, Upper Egypt, comprising Kor-
dofan, Sennaar, Darfour, Berber, Suakim,
Shendy, Bahr Gazelle, and all the region be-
tween Wady Haifa and Abyssinia and Uganda,
from the Red sea to the Libyan desert, was
united in 1877 into one administrative district
under the name of the Soudan. This country
is surrounded on three sides by deserts. Its
length is 1,640 miles, and its average breadth
660 miles. The population is about 40,000,000,
of which number 10,000,000 are not under the

* Sebehr was a slave-dealer who resisted the anti-slavery
designs of Ismail and the British officers placed by him in
command in the Soudan. The khedive formed an alliance
with Sebehr. who had established a formidable military power,
for the conquest of the independent sultan of Darfour. Sebehr
went to Cairo with the expectation of bribing the pashas to
get his sovereignty recognized, but he was arrested and kept
In retirement at Cairo until his services were employed in
18S3 against the Mahdi.

EGYPT.

291

El Haoora

Wadan0

^'^....^S^,

.•'Booreida

EGYPT.

control of Egyptian officials, and are only
nominally subject to the Khedive.

The desert regions are inhabited by Arab
tribes, whose chief occupation is breeding cam-
els. The Haddendowas, who inhabit the
mountains of the coast, speak a peculiar lan-
guage which is not Arabic. The Bishareens
live in the Nubian desert. Various other
tribes occupy the Blue Nile and Atbara re-
gions. The camel is the only means of trans-
portation across the Nubian desert between
Egypt proper and the Soudan. The inhabit-
ants of Sennaar are a peculiar race, but several
other tribes, each governed by its sheik, sub-
ject to the authority of the mudir of the dis-
trict, inhabit the region between the Blue and
White Niles.

The revenue of the Soudan is collected by
the aid of troops through the mudirs and
sheiks, who exto'rt more than double the
legal taxes. There are numerous indirect tax-
es, besides the poll-tax, and a direct tax on
every head of live-stock.

Slavery is universal throughout the Soudan.
About seven eighths of the population are
slaves. Their lot is not severe, and the force
of custom is generally stronger than the desire
for emancipation. The soldiers of the Egyp-
tian army with which the rule in the Soudan
is maintained, and the black troops stationed
in Lower Egypt, are liberated slaves. The
army of Sebehr was composed, and that of the
Mahdi is now made up, in great part, of the
same material.

The products of the Soudan are various, and
some of them are valuable articles of com-
merce. The Arabs of the desert grow sheep
and goats as well as camels. The mountains
between Suakim and Berber are covered in
many places with senna. The chief supply of
gum-arabic comes from Kordofan and the re-
gions between the Atbara and Settite rivers,
where it is produced in the finest quality by
the thorny mimosas which grow in thickets.
Along the upper course of the Atbara, south
of Cassala, and in the country between there
and the Blue Nile, the dhurra-corn is so pro-
lific that a camel's load (500 pounds) costs less
than a dollar. Sesame, from which oil is ex-
tracted, a kind of millet called dochan, and
cotton are the other cultivated products. This
region, from Oassala through the ancient Meroe,
Sennaar, and on the borders of all the affluents
of the Nile, is capable of producing sugar,
spices, and all kinds of tropical plants, and is
peculiarly adapted to the cultivation of cotton,
as the rain falls profusely from May to Septem-
ber, after which there is neither rain nor dew.
Wheat is grown south of Khartoum. Ivory and
India-rubber are brought from the Central
African provinces on the White Nile. Feath-
ers come from the distant equatorial regions.
The feather, ivory, and senna trades are par-
ticularly affected by the interference with the
slave-trade.

Finances.— The total receipts for 1880, when

the first budget of the International Commis-
sion of Liquidation was adopted, were 8,561.-
622 Egyptian pounds (the Egyptian pound is
approximately equivalent to $5), and the total
expenditures 7,911,622 pounds. The budget
for 1881 estimated the revenue at 8,419,421
pounds, and the expenditure at 8,308,870
pounds. The actual receipts were 9,229,965
pounds, and the expenditures 8,377,423 pounds,
leaving a surplus of 852,542 pounds. The bud-
get for 1882 estimated the revenues affected to
the public debt as 4,377,225 Egyptian pounds,
and the expenditures as 4,097,100 pounds, leav-
ing a surplus of 280,125 applicable to the sink-
ing fund. The service of the privileged debt
required 1,159,212 pounds, the unified debt,
2,223,927 ; total debt charge, 3,383,139 pounds.
The budget of non-affected revenues placed
the receipts available for the administration of
the Government at 4,336,223 Egyptian pounds,
and the expenditures at 4,366,868 pounds. A
supplementary budget provides for the em-
ployment of the expected surplus over the
estimates, amounting to 540,000 pounds.

The provisional estimates for 1883 calculated
the total receipts at 9,012,010 Egyptian pounds,
and the total expenditures at 7,677,806 Egyp-
tian pounds. The ordinary budget for that
year states the receipts as 8,419,421 Egyptian
pounds, and the expenditures as 8,308,870
Egyptian pounds. The estimated yield of the
main sources of revenue in 1883 was, in
pounds sterling, as follows :

SOURCES OF REVENUK. Amount.

Land-tax, and other direct taxes £5,867,684

Indirect taxes (comprising customs, post, and

octroi receipts) 1,854,294

Kailroads and telegraphs 1,193,545

Miscellaneous receipts 389,104

Total revenue of 1883 £8,804,627

The amounts required in 1883 to meet the
foreign obligations and the estimated require-
ments of the Government were as follow, in
pounds sterling :

EXPENDITURES. Amount.

Turkish tribute £678,397

Public debt 3,748.164

Administration of the government , 4,155,357

Total expenditure of 1883 £8,581,918

The result of the first year of British protec-
tion and control was to embarrass the finances
to an extent unknown in the worst years of
misfortune and mismanagement. To a defi-
cit of £191,000 in 1882, was added one of
£250,000 in 1883, which, with an additional
Soudan expenditure of probably £500,000, the
cost of the army of occupation amounting to
£600,000, the Domains and Daira deficits of
£400,000, and the indemnities awarded for
destruction of property in Alexandria and
elsewhere, created a floating debt of nearly
£6,000,000. A new loan to cover this would
have to be added to the crushing public debt,
which was the main cause of Egyptian trou-
bles, before the first step could be taken to
carry out the expensive reconstructive reforms
which were promised by the English.

EGYPT.

293

The state of the public debt on Jan. 1, 1882,
is shown in the following statement of the
amounts of the different classes of loans, in
pounds sterling :

CLASSES OF DEBT. Amount.

Unified debt, at 4 per cent £57,023,780

Privileged debt, at 5 per cent 22,529,800

Domain loan, at 5 per cent 8,3(52,280

Daira-Sanieh debt, at 4 and 5 per cent 9,245,360

Total foreign debt £97,161,220

The Moukabalah debt, a forced loan imposed
upon the peasantry and scaled down by the
Liquidation Commission, constitutes another
obligation of the Government. The reduced
capital and interest is to be paid in annuities
of 150,000 Egyptian pounds, and extinguished
in fifty years. The interest on the Suez-canal
shares purchased by the English Government
of the Khedive Ismail in 1875, is an additional
charge of £200,000 sterling per annum.

(An account of the Suez canal, and the con-
troversy relating to its improvement, is given
under the title SUEZ CANAL.)

Commerce. — The total exports of Egypt in-
creased in value from 275,000,000 piastres in
1855 (1 piastre — 5 cents) and 506,000,000 in
1862, to 1,028,000,000 in 1870, 1,333,000,000
in 1875, 1,356,000,000 in 1876, 1,275,000,000
in 1877, 810,000,000 in 1878, 1,344,000,000 in
1879, and 1,298,000,000 in 1880.

The export and import commerce with the
countries having the largest trade with Egypt
was in 1881 of the following values, in pias-
tres:

COUNTRIES.

Exports.

Imports.

Great Britain

823,459,000

861,740,000

France

115,486.000

113.945,000

Austria-Hungary

46,594,000

91,946,000

Italy

78 308 000

29 155 000

Turkey

40 495 000

15439000

Russia .

168,641,000

18 383,000

America

4,946,000

14,495,000

10 105 ODD

1 773 000

15 166 000

46 814 000

I

Total commerce 1,298,253,000 j 6 J3,745,000

The values exported of the leading articles
of export in 1881 were, in piastres, as follow:

EXPORTS. Value.

Textile materials 894,175,000

Cotton-seed 150.659.000

Cereals 142.3(59,000

8u?ar 30,870.000

Gums, fats, and oils 26,303,000

Hides and skins 13,867,000

Ostrich-feathers 6,549,000

Other commodities 33,459,000

. Total exports 1,298,251,000

The principal imports were textile fabrics,
coal, metal manufactures, machinery, and
other manufactured products. The total ton-
nage entered at' Egyptian ports in 1880 was
3,242,022 tons; cleared, 3,255,614 tons. Of
the 8,882 vessels entered, 3,657, of 294,183
tons, carried the Egyptian flag, including 257
steamers, of 177,011 tons.

Communications. — The length of railroad lines
in operation in 1883 was 1,518 kilometres.

The length of telegraph lines in operation in
1878 was 7,841 kilometres; of wires, 12,040
kilometres. Of the total length of lines 3,943
kilometres were in the Soudan.

Diplomatic Discussions. — The year opened in
the midst of a controversy between the Brit-
ish and French Governments over the aboli-
tion of the dual control and the termination of
the Anglo-French condorninion. Great Britain
sought to soften the disappointment of France
and render less abrupt the transition to British
sole supremacy by instituting a Public Debt
Commission to replace the Control as the
agency for the protection of the bondholders'
interests. The presidency of the proposed
board was offered to France. M. Duclerc re-
jected the proffered compensation, as the
French were not disposed to resign voluntarily
their prescriptive powers in Egypt or partici-
pate in changing the status quo to their own
prejudice. In his note of January 4th, he de-
manded that France should receive, in case the
control should be transformed, an equivalent
position in the new arrangements. Here the
negotiations terminated. Lord Granville then
sent an identical note to all the powers, de-
fining the English position and intentions.

The dual control came to an end by the
withdrawal of two of the contracting powers
from the financial arrangements on which it
was. based. The initiative came ostensibly
from the Egyptian ministry. On January llth
Sir Auckland Colvin, the English Controller,
tendered his resignation to the Khedive. The
proposition of the Egyptian ministry to abol-
ish the Control had been received two months
before. Sherif Pasha, in his note dated Nov.
7, 1882, based his objections to the institution
chiefly on the fact that it had taken on
" almost a political character," encroaching in
dangerous proportions on the authority of the
Government of the country, while it is not in-
tended to form a guarantee to the bondhold-
ers, who already possess special guarantees.
On January 25th Earl Granville sent an answer
to M. Duclerc's note, in which he proved that
the Anglo-French Control was not based upon
international agreements, but upon a simple
ordinance of the Khedive Ismail, and that its
re-establishment in 1879 by mutual agreement
of the three powers revived only its former
qualities, and did not constitute an interna-
tional engagement, revocable only with the
consent of England and France. Lord Gran-
ville's circular premised the unwillingness of
other powers to join in the suppression of the
military rebellion, which threw the task upon
England alone. It announced the intention of
withdrawing the British army of occupation
as soon as order should be established. In the
mean time it would be necessary to impart ad-
vice to the Khedive regarding internal and
foreign affairs for the purpose of securing a
new order which should be permanent and
satisfactory. With regard to those matters
which are affected by international, rights and

294

EGYPT.

agreements, it proposed, first, new regula-
tions to secure the future neutrality and in-
violability of the Suez canal.* Its occupation
by the British and use as a base of operations
against Arabi was asserted to have been no
violation of the neutrality of the canal, being
intended to vindicate the authority of the
Khedive. For the future it was proposed that
the canal should be free to all ships at all
times; that in time of war naval vessels of a
belligerent power should not be allowed to re-
main in the canal longer than a certain limited
time, and that no troops or munitions of war
should be debarked ; that no hostilities should
be permitted in the canal or its approaches, or
within the territorial waters of Egypt, even
though Turkey should be one of the belliger-
ents. These restrictions, however, are not ap-
plicable to measures necessary for the defense
of Egypt. It is further provided that each
power shall repair any damage committed by
its belligerent vessels in the canal. No fortifi-
cations are to be constructed on the canal or
its approaches. The enforcement of the regu-
lations is made incumbent upon Egypt. The
proposals for a new system of financial control
were declared to be not yet matured. The
consent of the powers was asked to an altera-
tion of the capitulations which would allow
the Egyptian Government to tax foreign resi-
dents equally with natives ; also to the pro-
longation of the mixed tribunals for one year
only, in the hope that an amendment of the
Egyptian code and procedure would then war-
rant their abolition.! With regard to internal
matters which had not been made the subject
of international agreement, the British Gov-
ernment announced the organization of a force
of gendarmerie and police, distinct from the
army, for the preservation of domestic order ;
and that the army, which should be kept
small, would, at the request of the Khedive,
be officered in the higher posts in part by
English soldiers. On the question of the de-
velopment of political institutions, the British
Government indicated the intention of estab-
lishing representative government with pru-
dent checks, in some form adapted to the pres-
ent political intelligence of the people, and cal-
culated to aid in their future progress.

While the other European governments ac-
quiesced in the position of Great Britain in
Egypt, and at times assumed a tone which
seemed to favor the establishment of a per-
manent protectorate, France preserved an atti-
tude of protest and expectancy. When the
controversy with M. de Lesseps came up, re-
garding the construction of a second Suez
canal, the French Cabinet manifested a deter-
mination not to allow the rights secured to the
French company by concessions to be annulled.
The Turkish Government also manifested a

* Great Britain commands both entrances to the canal from
the near stations of Malta and Aden.

• The system of mixed tribunals was instituted in 18T6 for
the period of five years. The two previous prolongations
were, like th.s ene, from year to year.

jealous anxiety for the sovereign rights of the
Sultan in Egypt. After the disaster to the
army of Gen. Hicks in the Soudan, and the in-
dication on the part of the English Govern-
ment of a desire to abandon the Soudan, sug-
gestions were made of an intervention by
France, while the Porte made an express
proposition to send a Turkish force to the
Soudan to quell the rebellion.

The Army of Occupation.— The British Govern-
ment gave reiterated assurances during the
earlier part of the year that the British forces
would be withdrawn as soon as the Khedive's
Government was reorganized on a basis insur-
ing internal peace and stability. They evinced
the sincerity of their declarations by recalling
the troops, which numbered about 12,000 in
the beginning of 1883, until in September only
6,750 remained, and continuing the reduction
until in November the garrisons numbered
only about 3,000. In the summer, Lieut.-Gen.
Stephen son succeeded Sir Archibald Alison in
the command of the army of occupation.
There were manifestations of anti-European
feeling, which increased in frequence and bit-
terness, and the Egyptian demands for the evac-
uation became more general and urgent. In
addition to the other objections to the contin-
ued occupation, was that of the financial bur-
den it imposed on the Egyptian people. The
British Government required the country to
pay £4 a month for every soldier, which was
represented to be the difference in the cost of
maintaining them there and in Great Britain.
When the news of the destruction of Hicks
Pasha's Soudan army arrived, the prepara-
tions for the further withdrawal of the British
troops were suspended.

Financial Adviser. — Sir Auckland Colvin, pre-
viously British Controller, was appointed Fi-
nancial Counselor to the Khedive, by a decree
promulgated February 6th. This office, des-
tined to take the place of the dual control, was
defined by Sherif Pasha, the Prime Minister,
in a report accompanying the decree, to have
none of the political attributes of the control.
The Financial Counselor, without being a
minister, should sit at Cabinet meetings when
invited to do so, and should have the power
to examine financial questions, and to give ad-
vice within the limits prescribed by the Khe-
dive and his ministers, but would have no au-
thority to interfere in the administrative af-
fairs of the country.

British Project of Parliamentary Government.—
Lord DufFerin's scheme of representative gov-
ernment was announced about the middle of
January. This plan, formulated by the Egyp-
tian Government under the advice of the
British plenipotentiary, proposed to place the
chief power as before in the hands of the
ministry. The Khedive should have a council
of twelve responsible ministers, possessing the
powers previously exercised by the Egyptian
ministry, except that their acts must be ap-
proved by a Legislative Council, consisting of

EGYPT.

295

fourteen members, half of them nominated by
the Khedive, and half of them elected by a
college of electors chosen by the people. A
second and more popular elective assembly,
consisting of forty-four members, was to be
convened occasionally to discuss special sub-
jects, without possessing any direct voice in
legislation. In case the Legislative Council
should reject a measure of the ministry, the
final decision would rest with the Khedive.

This scheme was afterward modified so as to
give the representative principle fuller scope.
From the chief legislative body, called the Gen-
eral Assembly, the eight ministers of the Cabi-
net are to be selected, who shall be responsible
to the Khedive.

The General Assembly consists of 84 mem-
bers, composed of the 8 ministers, the 30 mem-
bers of the Legislative Council, and 46 additional
members chosen by the spokesmen or electors
of the towns and villages.

The Legislative Council consists of 30 mem-
bers, of whom 14 are appointed by the 14 Pro-
vincial Councils, an equal number are nominated
by the Khedive on the advice of his ministers,
and the remaining two represent one the city
of Cairo, and the other Alexandria, Damietta,
Port Said, Rosetta, Suez, El Arish, and Ismailia
collectively. The Khedive selects from among
his appointees the president and the first vice-
president.

The Provincial Councils are elected indirectly
in each of the fourteen provincial districts by
universal manhood suffrage. Every Egyptian
twenty years of age, not in military service,
who has never been convicted of crime and is
not adjudged insolvent, has the right to vote
for electors who choose the representatives in
the different elective bodies. There are about
903,420 voters altogether, of which number
797,571 are in the villages, and 105,849 in the
towns. Each village constituency, of which
there are about 4,300 altogether, elects one
representative in the college of electors, which
convenes by order of the Khedive in the chief
town of each of the 14 provinces and elects
the Provincial Councilors. There are 70 Pro-
vincial Councilors elected in the 14 constituen-
cies. , The number of electors in the different
provinces varies from 90 to 544, the average
being 307.

The election of the electoral colleges for the
Provincial Councils, Legislative Council, and
General Assembly took place in the latter part
of September. Yet because they feared the
temper of the Egyptian people, which grew
more and more hostile and morose, or for other
reasons, the British advisers of the Khedive
deferred indefinitely the putting into operation
of the legislative and representative institu-
tions they had devised. As a temporary sub-
stitute, the Khedive appointed a Council of
State, consisting of eleven Egyptians, two Ar-
menians, and ten Europeans. Sherif Pasha was
appointed president. The European members
were E. Vincent, Lemesurier, and Rowsell,

Englishmen ; Gay-Lussac, Pietri, Rousseau, and
Borelli, Frenchmen ; Blum and Keller, Austri-
an s ; and Ara, an Italian.

Reorganization of the Army.— Soon after the
occupation, the Khedive, of his own motion,
summoned Baker Pasha, a British officer in
the service of the Sultan, to Cairo, and in-
trusted him with the task of organizing a new
military force. He was appointed commander-
in-chief, had the rank of Ferik, the highest in
the Egyptian army, bestowed upon him, and
worked out a scheme for an army of about
6,000. He was not, however, the choice of
the British Government, and was superseded
by Sir Evelyn Wood, who adopted the main
features of the plan. Gen. Baker was then
commissioned to organize a constabulary force
separate from the army.

The new army was to be raised by enlist-
ment. Compulsion in recruiting was prohib-
ited, non-commissioned officers were forbidden
to strike the soldiers, and the new force was
recruited in a short time. Under Sir Evelyn
Wood as chief in command, the cavalry was
commanded by Lieut.-Col. Taylor, the artillery
by Lieut.-Col. Duncan, and one of the infantry
brigades by Brig.-Gen. Grenfell, all of the Brit-
ish army, the command of the other brigade
of infantry being given to Ali Pasha Tchudi,
an Egyptian general. The infantry were armed
with Remington rifles, and Krupp guns were
provided for the artillery. The troops and all
officers below the rank of captain were to be
native Egyptians. One half of the regiments
were to be commanded- by Egyptians, while
the others were to have an English lieutenant-
colonel and major for chief officers, the total
number of British officers being limited to
twenty-five.

Instead of the cruel treatment and seclusion
resembling the punishment of a felon, which
followed forced conscription in the old Egyp-
tian army, and instead of an indefinite term
which often lasted to old age, the discipline
and treatment were assimilated as far as could
be to the system of the British army. The
pay of a piastre a day is given regularly every
month. The term of service is four years with
the colors, and four in the reserve. An an-
nual leave of absence and a daily release from
duty for an hour or two are allowed. The
hospital and commissary administration are
excellent, and schools and other modern im-
provements have been introduced.

Gendarmerie. — Baker Pasha organized a force
of 4,000 gendarmes, divided into two battal-
ions, one of rural and one of city gendarmerie.
The commanders and inspectors were all Brit-
ish army officers. The urban constabulary
were intended to assist the police proper in
preserving order in the larger towns of the
Delta. The ordinary police in these places
numbers 1,600. The object of both the army
and the constabulary was to keep the popula-
tion in check by disciplined armed forces un-
der the control of Europeans, and thus prevent

296

EGYPT.

or promptly suppress any riotous or insurrec-
tionary outbreak. The separation of the mili-
tary force into two distinct establishments was
expected to render it a more reliable instru-
ment. The gendarmerie was intended to be a
larger organization than the army, and to num-
ber altogether 7,390 men. They are mainly
armed and equipped as mounted infantry.

Before the British plans were developed, and
soon after the destruction of Arabi's army, the
Khedive began to form a military police and
body-guard from foreigners enlisted in Switz-
erland, Albania, Dalmatia, and Turkey. The
Swiss and other Europeans were to constitute
the military police of the cities, and the Turks,
Bosnians, and Albanians the palace-guard and
the gendarmerie. Baker Pasha was at first
intrusted with the organization of the latter
bodies; but finally, through the influence of
the British agents, especially after the Euro-
pean police proved unruly and disorderly them-
selves, the scheme was abandoned in favor of
the one described above, and finally developed
by Gen. Wood.

The military character which Baker Pasha
impressed upon the gendarmerie was objected
to in England, and the Egyptian authorities
were influenced to alter the character of the
organization, depriving the officers of their
military titles and honors, changing the official
designation of the corps to the English word
u constabulary," etc. Yet, when the army of
the Soudan was annihilated, this was the only
force available for the relief of the Soudan
towns and garrisons, except what blacks the
former rebel, Sebehr, was able to enlist in the
Delta. The reason of sending gendarmes to
the Soudan and leaving the soldiers to do po-
lice duty in their place, was because the new
army was enlisted on the express condition
that they should not serve in the Soudan.

Establishment of Native Courts.— The organiza-
tion of new native tribunals was proceeded
with early in the year. They are to be pre-
sided over partly by native and partly by Eu-
ropean judges. The latter are the exception,
and will eventually give place to Egyptians.
A simple code of procedure was drawn up by
an English and an Italian jurist, Messrs. Hills
and Moriondo. The parties appear before the
Judge of Instruction, a native, who acts as a
Conciliation Court, and decides whether there
is a case for litigation. He lays both sides of
the case before the Court of First Instance, of
which there are eight altogether. The forms
of French law, simplified, were adopted be-
cause the Egyptians are familiar with no other
law, except the Sheriat law administered by
their cadis, and because it was the intention
to merge, in the course of time, the interna-
tional tribunals in the new indigenous tribu-
nals, and therefore desirable to retain the forms
of the Code Napoleon, which govern the pro-
cedure of the mixed courts. Since English
judges were not fitted to apply a strange code
of procedure, and on the ground of economy,

the European members of the new courts were
brought from Belgium and Holland.

Financial Problems.— The financial difficulties
which compelled the abdication of Ismail
Pasha, and underlay the revolt of Arabi, con-
fronted the English in as formidable a shape
as ever. No improvements in the system of
government, in the administration of justice,
or in any of the departments of the public ser-
vice, would be of any use unless means could
be devised to enable the fellaheen to bear their
financial burdens and to stay the progressive
impoverishment of the country. After a year
of war and anarchy, followed by a pestilence,
the people were called upon to meet extraor-
dinary demands for the cost of occupation, in-
demnities, etc., while under British direction
the expenses of administration increased.

Since it was out of the question, under the
circumstances connected with the intervention
of Great Britain, to require the bondholders to
forego their claim to half the total revenue of
the country, the only relief was through re-
forms and public improvements, which would
only yield their results after several years.
The Egyptians, filled with national and reli-
gious animosity against the British, were not
conciliated by the promised reforms, the im-
mediate object of which seemed to be to sup-
plant foreign speculators of other nationalities
by English speculators, and supersede the offi-
cials introduced by the dual control with still
more expensive English officials.

The impoverishment of the country was
manifested by the neglect of the irrigation-
works and the relapse of cultivated areas into
barrenness, and by the increasing indebted-
ness and more frequent bankruptcy of the
fellaheen. The private indebtedness of the
peasantry was estimated by seme as high as
£15,000,000. Lord Dufferin placed it at £9,-
000,000. At the time of the abdication of
Ismail the aggregate amount did not exceed
£1,400,000. The average interest paid on un-
secured debts was not less than 36 per cent.
per annum. A frequent arrangement was to
pay three-month loans of napoleons in pounds
sterling, equal to 100 per cent, per annum !
The average product of the land is about £3£
perfeddan (nearly an acre), instead of £15 to
£30, as estimated by Villiers Stuart. The
taxes average 40 per cent, of the annual prod-
uct. The rapid increase of insolvency was due
to the right of foreclosure given to creditors
by the mixed tribunals, a remedy which is for-
eign to the customs of the country. The quan-
tity of land which actually passed into the
hands of Europeans under judicial sales was
stated in the later inquiries to be only a few
thousand acres. More than half of the loans
were also said to have been made by banks
doing a legitimate business, and not receiving
over 10 per cent, interest on mortgages.

The principal present remedy proposed by
Lord Dufferin for the relief of the economic
distress was to rescue the fellaheen from the

EGYPT.

297

toils of the usurers. The usual course of for-
eign creditors when the fellaheen were not
prompt in their payments had been to appeal
to the provincial governor or his subordinates,
who would compel payment, if the fellah was
able, by arbitrary methods. The provincial
authorities were admonished by the Minister
of the Interior in the summer not to interfere
in the disputes between the fellaheen and
their creditors, who must have recourse to
the courts of justice. An appeal was made
to the creditors to deal leniently with the fel-
laheen until normal conditions return. It was
expected that English capital would flow into
the country, and not only provide the fellaheen
cheap money for their present wants, but enable
the Government through the co-operation of
an English commission to assume the debts of
the fellaheen and convert the usurious interest
into moderate rates. It was further announced
that the commission intrusted with the revision
of the Egyptian laws would incorporate in the
new code a provision reserving a certain quan-
tity of land to every farmer as an inviolable
and inalienable family possession. The first
effect of these proposed reforms was to ag-
gravate the financial embarrassments of the
peasantry, for now the money-lenders would
make no more loans. The fellaheen on their
part refused to pay their debts until the Eng-
lish commission met to consider them. After
several months of this monetary derangement,
the Ministry of the Interior in November is-
sued another order directing the provincial
authorities to take measures to induce the
fellaheen to pay their foreign creditors. The
commission to consider the indebtedness of
the fellaheen was appointed in October. After
a few sittings the Government changed its
attitude in this question and adjourned the
inquiry until the next year.

The partition and sale to the fellaheen of the
Daira Sanieh and Domain lands is expected to
improve the well-being and the tax-paying
capacity of the j)eople. These estates, to con-
solidate which vast numbers of fellaheen were
expropriated by the ex-Khedive, cover a fifth
part of the total cultivable soil of Egypt. Their
administration by European officials has not
been successful. Under the Control the Daira
Sanieh thus administered paid expenses and
the interest on the debt for which it was
pledged, while the Domains ran behind £700,-
000 in four years. The latter were partly
divided up into parcels in 1883 and conveyed
to peasant owners.

The decay of agriculture can not be effectu-
ally arrested without taking measures for the
restoration, improvement, and maintenance
of the irrigation- works. The corvee is no
longer equal to the task of keeping the canals
clear, and the desert is encroaching upon the
tillable land. The introduction of steam-en-
gines for pumping supplied a corrupt motive
for negligence, since the failure of the subsid-
iary canals enables the proprietors of steam-

pumps to exact a high price for furnishing the
peasants with water. Extensive improvements
in the system of canalization were among the
promises held out by the English, and technical
studies of the subject were undertaken.

Repeal of the Capitulations*— The English were
hindered at every point in their reform projects
by the capitulations, which grant exceptional
rights and immunities to foreigners, the chief
of which are exemption from taxation, and
separate courts of justice. These privileges,
constituted in some respects a serious griev-
ance. The English had a double motive in
desiring to abolish them— to win popularity
with the Egyptians, and to take away from
other foreign countries their exceptional po-
sition and right to interfere in Egypt. The
abrogation of the capitulations was opposed
by the foreign colonies in Egypt, to whom
those privileges were materially valuable.
Still, the European governments were will-
ing to accede to the proposition, with the ex-
ception of France. That power refused its
consent, and so the year passed by without
this necessary preliminary to financial reform
and the contentment of the Egyptians being
accomplished.

Alexandria Indemnity Commission. — A com-
mission was appointed in the spring, charged
with investigating and deciding upon claims
for indemnification for damages suffered from
the bombardment, burning, and pillage of
Alexandria. The president was Abdurrahman
Rushdi, and the vice-president Yacoob Artin
Beys ; the other members were representatives
of England, Austria, France, Germany, Italy,
Russia, Greece, and the United States. Claims
less in amount than £200 were first taken
into consideration. The majority of these
were presented by native Egyptians, the Greeks
and French coming next. The commission
had not quite ended their labors at the close
of the year. The total amount of damages
awarded approximates £4,000,000.

Political Trials. — Several trials for crimes con-
nected with the Alexandria riots, the burning
of that city, and other incidents of the rebel-
lion, were set on foot by the Khedive's Govern-
ment; but after it was seen that the object
was to strike terror, and that dangerous reve-
lations might be brought out in evidence, the
English discouraged these prosecutions. The
first trial was instituted for the satisfaction of
the English themselves. The accused were
thirteen Arabs indicted for the murder of Prof.
Edward Henry Paltrier and his companions,
Capt. William Gill and Lieut. Harold Charring-
ton, on Aug. 12, 1882. That well-known Ori
ental scholar, who had recently visited several
Arab sheiks and sought to win them over to the
English cause, was commissioned to return and
complete the arrangements in company with
the two officers. The party carried with them
for this purpose £40,000, ostensibly to be
employed in buying camels for the British
army. Capt. Gill had orders to cut the tele-

298

EGYPT.

graph wires and prevent Arabi from holding
telegraphic communication with the East. A
sheik named Meter Sofieh accompanied them
as guide and protector from Moses' Wells on
Aug. 10th. Betrayed perhaps by him, they
were captured by a troop of Bedouins and shot
as spies. Of the thirteen persons brought to
trial on Feb. 18, 1883, five were shown to have
taken a subordinate part in the act, and were
executed on Feb. 28th.

On the 7th of June Suleiman Daoud Sami,
military commandant of Alexandria at the
time of the bombardment, was brought before
a court-martial on the charge of having or-
dered the plundering and burning of Alexan-
dria. The British Government gave assur-
ances that the rules of evidence and the right
of defense would be observed, but the motive
for the removal of Suleiman Sami and closing
the delicate questions connected with that epi-
sode of the war was so strong that he was
hastily put through an irregular trial, and exe-
cuted on June 9th, just as the Foreign office in
London were about to bestir themselves in the
matter. In the beginning of July Said Bey
Khandeel, prefect of police at Alexandria, was
tried for conspiracy, on suspicion of having in-
cited the massacres of Alexandria. The advo-
cates of the accused offered to prove that the
Khedive himself instigated Omar Lutfi, then
Governor of Alexandria, to stir up the disturb-
ances which culminated in the riot and massa-
cres of June 11, 1882, with the object of dis-
crediting Arabi Pasha who had guaranteed
public safety. Said Khandeel was acquitted
of the main charge, but condemned to seven
years' hard labor for neglect of duty and con-
nivance in the disorders. In September a num-
ber of the native police were executed for hav-
ing taken part in the massacres. There were
numerous other executions in different parts
of the country.

In the first week of October, the jails were
thrown open, and the multitude of prisoners
incarcerated on charges connected with the
mutiny and rebellion were set at liberty. The
courts-martial and prosecution committees
were dissolved, and on the 10th of October the
Khedive granted amnesty to all concerned in
acts of violence, pillage, and incendiarism dur-
ing the disturbances, murder excepted.

The Cholera.— On June 26th the cholera ap-
peared atDamietta, and, spreading through the
Delta, raged until autumn. The European press
charges the British authorities with having
negligently allowed infected persons to import
the disease from India. It is certain that no
quarantine precautions were taken, and that
the disease was of the genuine Oriental type.
The English Government, in their anxiety to
rebut this accusation, obtained a report of Eng-
lish experts declaring that cholera had been
endemic at Damietta since 1865, while Egyp-
tian officials published a statement that Asiatic
cholera had never been endemic in Egypt.

The Sondj n Rebellion.— The resistance of Se-

behr, who, with a large number of sheiks and
chiefs, threw off the authority of the Khedive
in 1878-'79, and successfully opposed the ef-
forts of Sir Samuel Baker and Gen. Gordon
to put down the slave-trade, prepared the Sou-
danese for the great uprising of a mingled re-
ligious and political character under Moham-
med Achmed, the pretended Mahdi, or ex-
pected redeemer of Islam (see MAHDI, EL).
The English war of occupation gave this lead-
er the opportunity of consolidating his power,
and enabled him to obtain the prestige of vic-
tory. The efforts of the English to root out
slavery, and the approach of 1889, the year
set for general emancipation, added new mo-
tives to the old desire for deliverance from the
Egyptians.

The religious phase of the movement in the
Soudan, though prominent in the beginning,
gradually sank in importance as compared with
the political side of the rebellion. The Mahdi
himself, while proclaiming his divine mission
to revive the power of the Shiite sect in the be-
ginning of the thirteenth century of the Hegi-
ra, showed more of the characteristics of an
ambitious ruler than of a religious leader. The
Soudanese themselves were filled with a long-
ing for deliverance from the harsh Egyptian
yoke. They had not forgotten the cruelties
of the conquest, sixty years before, when the
Fung, the finest of the Ethiopian tribes, whose
kingdom extended from Sennaar to the second
cataract, succumbed after a valorous resistance
to the Egyptian fire-arms, but, unable to furnish
the boat-load of gold demanded by Ismail Pa-
sha, son of Mehemet Ali, murdered the prince,
and were in return butchered to a man by the
relentless defterdar, except those who escaped
into Abyssinia. The inferior fellaheen battal-
ions have had to contend from that day to the
present with these brave races, whose superi-
ority in a military sense has been proved by
the black regiments of the Khedive in every
battle in which Egyptian troops have been en-
gaged. The oppressions and extortions of the
Egyptian officials, which culminated in the ad-
ministration of Dhafar Pasha, Governor of
Khartoum, in 1870, made the existence of the
Soudanese a social martyrdom. The country-
people dared not venture into Khartoum, for
they were robbed by the soldiers and officials
of the Khedive, and pressed into any labor that
was required. Theft and robbery were never
punished, and nothing was accomplished with-
out bribery. Under Muntas Pasha, the next
governor, who posed as a reformer, the im-
poverishment of the country was pursued with
more system and thoroughness. The fields
were no longer cultivated, because the har-
vest was confiscated. Pieces of land selected
at will were declared khedivial property and
cultivated with forced labor. The regulations
of Baker Pasha for the suppression of the slave-
traffic were circumvented, unless the officials,
on the pretext of carrying them out, seized the
slaves for their own use. To the Khedive's

EGYPT.

Government this plundered land was a finan-
cial burden, the revenues not being sufficient
to cover the expenditures.

In the summer of 1881 Reouf Pasha, then
Governor of the Soudan, first heard of the re-
ligious pretensions and proclamations of the
Mahdi, who at that time had but a small band
of military followers about him on the island
which he occupied in the White Nile. The
governor sent an official to summon him to
Khartoum. He refused, and, when a small
force was sent by water to effect his capture,
it met with a severe repulse. The Mahdi then
withdrew for greater safety to Gebel Gedir,
where he extended his influence for some time
unmolested, and his adherents greatly increased
in numbers. Finally, an expedition was sent
against him in December, 1881, by Kashid Bey,
Governor of Fashoda. This force was defeated.

The bravery of this officer and his 2 TO Nubian
soldiers delivered the beleaguered garrison and
townspeople, who from the fortified barracks
kept the rebels thus long beyond gunshot. The
rebel force swelled after the taking of Sennaar
by Ami- to at least 40,000. Sala Aga marched
his little band into the midst of the insurgents,
who mistook them for a body of rebels. Form-
ing a square with their backs to the river, they
opened fire. The rebels threw themselves upon
the black soldiers, but with their savage weap-
ons were unable to get near them. They re-
turned to the attack and were driven back by
withering fusillades all day long. After thous-
ands had fallen and Sheik Amr himself was
wounded, the rebels retired from the city.

Giegler collected a body of irregulars and
marched on May 15, 1882, toward Abu Har-
ras, where another rebel chief, the sherif MO-

KHARTOUM, CAPITAL OF THE SOUDAN.

In the beginning of 1882 the new Governor-
General of the Soudan, Abd-el-Kader, fitted
out an expedition under the advice of Giegler
Pasha, the Austrian vice-governor, with the
intention of effectually suppressing the Mahdi.
The command was given to Yussuf Pasha, the
general who commanded the expedition that
defeated Sebehr, the merit of which exploit
was ascribed at the time to Gessi. The force
which proceeded from Khartoum and Kordofan
against the Mahdi consisted of thirteen com-
panies of regular troops, 1,500 irregulars, and
a number of loyal Arab sheiks with their peo-
ple. The troops were excellently armed and
provided with an abundant commissariat, and
steamboats and camels for transport. They
set out in the middle of March, 1882.

After their departure the news came that
the sheik Amr-el-Makasef had risen in Sen-
naar, on the Blue Nile, and with thousands of
rebels threatened the city of Sennaar. The
Mudir of Sennaar received orders to attack
Amr. The garrison were driven back into the
barracks by the rebels, who sacked the town
and massacred the inhabitants. The expedi-
tion against the Mahdi had stripped Khartoum
of soldiers and munitions. Salah Aga-el-Mek,
who with a battalion of infantry had been ac-
cidentally left behind by Yussuf s army, was
commanded to march to the relief of Sennaar.

hammed Taha, who called himself the vizier of
the Mahdi, was inflaming the whole district.
An officer sent by the vice-governor with a
detachment to parley with the rebels, attacked
them, and his force was annihilated. Giegler
Pasha awaited in Abu Harras the arrival of
Ali Kashef, the newly appointed Mudir of Sen-
naar, with a sufficient force to clear the prov-
ince of rebels. As Mohammed Taha had to
be subdued before marching against the sheik
Amr-el-Makasef, the vice-governor sent several
hundred irregulars with a cannon against him.
This detachment was also cut to pieces. The
situation of Giegler Pasha was critical when
Ali Kashef arrived with irregular troops and
the chief of the Shukuriehs with 2,500 warriors
of his tribe. The next morning the whole
force marched upon the village where the sherif
was encamped, on the right bank of the Blue
Nile. The leader of the insurgents came out
to meet them, surrounded by hundreds of pray-
ing dervishes, and followed by bis warriors and
all the women and children. The fanatics al-
lowed themselves to be decimated without falter-
ing, until the sherif, whose seemingly charmed
life inspired the soldiers with superstitious
fear, was at last struck by a bullet ; then they
scattered, pursued by the savage soldiery, who
spared none. Other uprisings were in prog-
ress ; but they subsided after this .blow, only

300

EGYPT.

one body, under a certain Essein, making a stand
against the Egyptian force. When these in-
surgents were cleared out of the way, the
Egyptians advanced to meet Ahmed-el-Makasef,
who had a force of about 10,000 men. They
routed this army near the village of Teko, and
thus put an end to the insurrection in Sennaar ;
but the sheik escaped with many of his fol-
lowers, and joined the Mahdi in Kordofan.

These successes held the insurrectionary
movement in check on the Blue Nile while
Yussuf Pasha, with almost the entire force
which Arabi's rebellion left in the Soudan,
advanced against the Mahdi on the White Nile.
In June he approached the rebel leader's strong-
hold in Kordofan. With superior strategic
skill, tbe False Prophet selected an advanta-
geous position and fell upon the advancing col-
umn by surprise at Gebel Geon, giving them no
time to form in order of battle in a difficult po-
sition. The Egyptian army, though armed
with muskets against swords and spears, was
cut to pieces. Few of the soldiers and none
of the officers escaped alive.

The Mahdi then directed his efforts with
energy to taking possession of the Soudan,
now almost stripped of its defensive force.
But the fortifications of the towns were a for-
midable obstacle to his savage warriors. The
slightest earthworks could be easily defended.
At El Obeid the Mahdi met with his first re-
verse. In a single assault on September 8th,
6,000 rebels fell. Attempts to storm other
places were unsuccessful. The Mahdi with-
drew his forces on December 8th, and spent
some weeks in improving their discipline and
organization. He then returned and laid siege
to El Obeid. The garrison held out until re-
duced to the last extremities. On the 15th of
January they surrendered. Iskander Bey, the
commandant, and the larger part of the garri-
son, then went over to the rebels and accepted
service under the Mahdi.

The garrison in El Obeid, when the place
was first attacked in August, numbered 6,000
men. When they surrendered unconditionally
and took the oath of allegiance to the Mahdi,
there were 3,500. The victors obtained about
$2,500,000 in treasure. Iskander was em-
ployed by Mohammed Achmed to persuade
other Egyptian officials to embrace his cause.

In the spring the English made military prep-
arations to suppress the rebellion. A force
of 7,000 infantry, 120 cuirassiers, 300 Bashi-
Bazouk cavalry, and about 30 guns, was sent
to Khartoum. It was joined on the way
by other bodies, which increased the force to
some 10,000 troops, and took rockets and how-
itzers in abundance. The Soudan army was
entirely distinct from the regular army organ-
ized by Sir Evelyn Wood. It was composed,
in great part, of the disbanded troops of Arabi,
and contained the most unpromising materials.
Some were too old for efficient service, and the
majority were enlisted compulsorily. The
British had little excuse for again underrating

the power of the Mahdi, who disposed now of
a force of 338,000 warriors. But the difficulty
of their situation in Egypt, in which they had
to consult the interests of the Egyptian bond-
holders, prevented them from following out
the wishes of the Khedive's government to
make sure work of suppressing the rebellion.
The expedition was sent so late that it was
judged best not to take the field until the open-
ing of the dry season in September. Many of
the soldiers had belonged to Arabi's army. To
test their quality and disposition, a camp was
formed at Um-Durman, on the west bank of
the Nile, opposite Khartoum. Camels for
transport were wanting, but they were pro-
cured by the exertions of Alla-ed-Din, the new
Govern or- General of the Soudan. Some time
was consumed in efforts to procure the co-
operation of Adam, the Takale chief, who is
powerful in the region southeast of Obeid.
Col. Hicks, who came to Egypt with the Eng-
lish army, and had been the Khedive's chief
of staff, was commander of the expedition.

On the 9th of September the camp at Um-
Durman was broken up, and the march up the
White Nile begun. The army kept as close to
the west bank as the floods would allow. Duem
was reached on the 20th of September, and
from that place to El Obeid a circuitous route
was chosen on account of water. About 3,000
men were left on the way to maintain a line
of fortified posts, but the plan of keeping up
communications was abandoned, and the army
was left to subsist upon their biscuits and what
they could obtain from the country.

In the Suakin district, in the beginning of
November, an expedition composed of about
500 Egyptian soldiers was conducted by Com-
mander Moncrieff, the British consul at Sua-
kin, and their native officers, against the re-
bellious Bedouin tribes of the neighborhood.
Proceeding by sea, they landed at Toka. The
Egyptian soldiers fled before an inferior force
of Bedouins, and were slaughtered almost to
the last man. On November 12th the rebels
advanced to attack Suakin, but were re-
pelled.

The Mahdi advanced to meet Gen. Hicks
from Kordofan, with an army of 300,000 Sou-
danese. Hicks Pasha divided his force of
about 7,000 into two columns ; one being sent
on to capture El Obeid, while with the other
he awaited the coming of the Mahdi's army at
Kaz. The rebel forces were nearer than was
anticipated, and the Mahdi had laid his plans
skillfully. The first engagement with the
rebels was at a point near Namua, where Gen.
Hicks encountered and worsted a considerable
body of the Mahdi's black allies.

When they reached Namua, near the Obeid
hills, Hicks Pasha detached the column which
was sent to demand the surrender of the
fortress. It was this division which the
Mahdi, advancing from the southeast, engaged
on ground selected by himself, November 2d.
Gen. Hicks, on hearing the firing, came up

EGYPT.

301

with the rest of his forces. Forming a square
around the camels and stores, they withstood
the fierce and reckless onset of the Soudanese
until evening, when the Mahdi withdrew.
The Egyptian camp-followers were thrown
into confusion by the stampeding of camels,
but the troops fought with admirable forti-
tude. The next morning the rebels resumed
the attack, re-enforced by the arrival of well-
armed troops from Kordofan, soldiers who
had surrendered at El Obeid. The Egyp-
tians held their ground through another day's
fighting, but on the third morning the square
was broken. The battle-ground had been se-
lected by the Mahdi with his usual sagacity.
It was a narrow, rocky passage between
wooded hills, in which he had placed the guns
and rifles captured in former engagements in
positions where they could be used with effect,
but where it was impossible for Gen. Hicks to
deploy his artillery. Into this ambuscade the
Egyptian advance column was led by a treach-
erous guide. The army of Hicks Pasha was
totally annihilated. The troops are reported
to have fought three days without water,
until all their cartridges were expended. Gen.
Hicks then ordered a bayonet-charge, but the
army was immediately overwhelmed and not a
man escaped. The cornraunder-in-chief, with
Alla-ed-Din, Governor-General of the Soudan,
Abbas Bey, Col. Farquhar, Majors von Ssck-
endorf, Massy, Warner, and Evans, Captains
Herlth and Anatyaga, Surgeon-Gen. Georges
Bey, Surgeon Rosenberg, O'Donovan, the well-
known war correspondent, a number of Egyp-
tian pashas and beys, and all the officers, who
numbered 1,200, and soldiers of the army,
were slain. All the camels, stores, and muni-
tions, with 36 Nordenfeldt, Krupp, and moun-
tain guns, fell into the hands of the Mahdi.

The annihilation of the main Soudan army
at Kashgate left about 4,000 troops in the
Soudan scattered in various places. Col. Coet-
logon, who was almost the only surviving Eu-
ropean in the Soudan, being the next in com-
mand, collected these scattered bodies in Khar-
.toum and the other important posts.

Baker Pasha was at once ordered to Suakin
with a mixed force of gendarmes, Bedouins,
and Soudanese. To Scbehr Pasha, the former
Soudan potentate, was confided the duty of re-
cruiting and leading the black and Arab ir-
regulars. The object of the expedition was to
keep open the line of communication between
Suakin and Berber, so as to afford an avenue
of retreat for the Egyptians in Khartoum and
other parts of the Soudan.

The entire province of Sennaar declared for
the Mahdi as soon as the defeat of Hicks be-
came known. The majority of the Bedouins
of the coast, to secure whose co-operation was
the first thought of the Egyptian council of
war, which decided on a plan of operations
at Cairo, joined the rebellion. The whole
Soudan was involved except the fortified trad-
ing posts, which were held by feeble garrisons,

and where the loyalty of the black population
was doubtful.

After the first detachments of Baker's force
had arrived, the forts of Suakin were repeat-
edly attacked between November 26th and
December 1st by the slave-dealing Kabbabish
Arabs, who were the Mahdi's efficient allies in
the coast-region. On December 2d a force of
500 Soudanese infantry, 200 Bashi-Bazouks,
and 200 cavalry marched out from Suakin to
attack the rebels. Within three hours' march
from the town they were unexpectedly at-
tacked. They were without their Remington
guns — most of which were strapped on the
camels — but they executed the manoeuvre in
which the Egyptian soldiers are so well trained,
the hollow square, and fought valiantly until
the greater part of them were killed. Only
fifty are reported to have escaped.

Gen. Baker was detained at Cairo by busi-
ness connected with transports and supplies
for his relief expedition until the middle of
December. When he arrived at Suakin he
had at his disposal a force of 2,300 gen-
darmes, 500 of them mounted, 1,500 black
troops, and 4,000 Bedouins, with five guns.
The gendarmes were under the command of
Col. Sartorius, the blacks and half the Bed-
ouins under Sebehr, and the rest of the Arabs
under Hussein Pasha. The latter division was
to advance up the Nile and join the others,
advancing from Suakin, between that place
and Berber. In the mean time the posts of
Tokar, on the coast of the Red sea, and Sinkat,
midway between Suakin" and Berber, were be-
leaguered by Arabs, and the garrisons reduced
nearly to starvation.

The Egyptian Government, having been
practically deprived of all defensive power by
the abolition of its army, could only look to
England to restore the provinces which had
been lost through the English invasion. The
British Government was in a helpless dilemma.
It was out of the question to expose British
troops to the dangers and privations of a cam-
paign in the Soudan, or to employ Indian troops
for such a purpose again, and equally so to bur-
den the Egyptian treasury with the expenses
of a war to suppress the rebellion if the troops
could be raised in Egypt, or to call upon the^
British people to help defray them. If the
Porte was willing to attempt the reconquest of
the Soudan, it would only be at the price of
impairing the position of England in Egypt.
The rebellion itself was a menace to English
interests in the Delta and on the canal. The
councils of the English Cabinet were divided
on the Egyptian question from the first. Mr.
Gladstone himself was opposed to establishing
direct British dominion in' any shape. The
policy of removing the occupying army and
leaving the Egyptians to themselves, of letting
them "stew in their own juice," as it was
phrased, was abandoned. A continued occupa-
tion of indefinite duration was now in prospect,
perhaps a permanent protectorate. Yet the

302

EGYPT.

ELECTRIC LIGHTING, PROGRESS OF.

abandonment of the Soudan must disappoint
and alienate the only class on whose sympa-
thies the English counted, viz., the Khedive
and the court and Government circle in Cairo.
The movement started in the Soudan might
spread to the Arabs of Asia and threaten the
power of the Sultan; but it was certain, if
Egypt were now abandoned by the British, or
unless a line of military defense were drawn and
effective measures taken to check the Mahdi's
advance, to infect the discontented fellaheen of
Egypt, inflame their religious passions, and re-
sult in a new revolution and war far more des-
perate and sanguinary than that of Arabi.

The measures proposed by Great Britain
were humiliating to the Khedive, but he bad
no other choice. They were to secure the alli-
ance of the King of Abyssinia by ceding to him
the port of Massowah, and to abandon a great
part of the Soudan, drawing the new frontier
and line of defense from Suakin through Ber-
ber to Khartoum. This line it was imperative
to hold for the present, for it was the only
way of retreat for the Egyptians in the Soudan.
Gen. Gordon was sent alone into the Soudan
to consolidate whatever well-disposed elements
there were remaining ill the Soudan, and re-
cede the western provinces to the former sul-
tans.

Baker Pasha entered upon the campaign
without definite plans. Except a small sprink-
ling of Turks, he had no material in his army
on which he could rely for courage or fidelity.
The former soldiers of Arabi made up the bulk
of his command, and they had been driven into
the ranks at the point of the bayonet. The
black troops recruited by Sebehr were sus-
pected of sympathy with the False Prophet.
When they were sent to Suakin it was judged
advisable to remove Sebehr Pasha from the
command. Baker, who was given supreme
military and civil authority, hoped to trans-
form gradually this cowardly and mutinous
body by recruits from Turkey and the islands
of the Levant. The Abyssinians had made a
military demonstration against the coveted port
of Massowah, in connection with a revolt of
the Cassala tribes. Baker Pasha was empow-
ered to secure the alliance and military co-
operation of the King of Abyssinia by agreeing
to the cession of the port and adjacent terri-
tory. His general instructions were to pro-
tect the coast, relieve Sinkat, and reopen the
Suakin-Berber line of communication. The
rebels withdrew from Trinkitat on the arrival
of Baker's troops at Suakin ; but the besieged
garrisons of Tokar and Sinkat were in ex-
tremities. The slave-dealing Arabs of the coast
had no direct connection with the Mahdi ; they
constituted a separate military organization,
under the direction of Osman Digna.

Baker Pasha advanced his line to Trinkitat,
and then sent an appeal to Cairo for rifles to
replace the obsolete muskets with which most
of his troops were armed. There were Rem-
ingtons in Snakin, but, owing to the neglect or

treachery of the civil officers, they were not
delivered. Baker received, in reply to his dis-
patch, orders to advance at once to the relief
of Tokar, which had been thrice attacked.
The belief in the irresistible destiny of the
Mahdi prevailed among the troops, while Eu-
ropean and Egyptian officers were alike per-
suaded of the hopelessness of the operation.
Yet he set out from Trinkitat with 3,000 men,
and, on February 6, 1884, advices arrived in
Europe stating that a body of Osman Dig-
na's forces had routed this last Soudan army
not far from Tokar. The Egyptians made
no stand. In the confused flight to Trinkitat,
about 2,000 were lost. The remnant were got
on a transport by Gen. Baker, and escaped to
Suakin. British marines landed there to hold
the forts against an attack from without, or
from an insurrection in the town. A few hours
later the news arrived that 400 of the garrison
at Sinkat, which was now reduced to subsist
on herbage, in attempting to cut their way
through the line of the enemy, were over-
whelmed and the entire detachment destroyed.
On the 12th came the news of the annihilation
of the remaining 600 and their brave com-
mander, Tewfik Bey, who, when the final stage
of hunger was reached, spiked the guns, blew
up the forts, and sought death in battle at the
head of his troops.

ELECTRIC LIGHTING, PROGRESS OF. Electric
lighting has now reached a condition in which
striking and fundamental inventions have
ceased to appear. The main lines along which
future improvement must go have been laid
down, and attention is now being given to
those matters of detail in the construction of
apparatus necessary to secure good working
and greater economy. Whatever may be the
improvements effected in the future, it is very
certain that the incandescent lamp has taken
its final form, namely, that of a strip of resist-
ing material inclosed in an exhausted vessel,
while it appears reasonably probable that the
regulator arc-lamp will maintain its ascend-
ency, though the combinations of parts which
may be made in this type of lamp can be so
greatly varied that it is difficult to pick out
with certainty the surviving forms. Hitherto,
the regulator lamp, having its carbons placed
end to end in a vertical line, has given the
best photometric results, and been most exten-
sively used. Its extreme unsteadiness, and the
fact that, for most uses, it furnishes too strong
a light at one center, renders, however, its pros-
pect of permanence less certain than that of
the incandescent lamp. Whether the regula-
tor will give place to lamps which obtain in-
creased steadiness by the interposition of a re-
fractory material in the arc, such as the sun-
lamp, or to those giving a light due partly to an
arc and partly to incandescence, such as open-
air incandescent lamps, the future can only
decide. With incandescent lamps progress
must consist in the improvement of the light-
giving body, so that they will be able to stand

ELECTRIC LIGHTING, PROGRESS OF.

303

higher temperatures safely. These lamps are
being continually improved in this direction,
the lamps of to-day being very much better
than those of .a year or two ago.

Two new lamps of this kind have recently at-
tracted considerable attention, though they do
not appear to possess any advantage over pre-
vious ones. In one of these the light-giving
carbon is in the form of a hollow tube, and in
the other it consists of a platinum wire with a
carbon coating. The former of these is the in-
vention of Mr. Alexander Bernstein, of Boston,
and the latter of Signor Cruto, of Turin. In
manufacturing his tubular carbons Mr. Bern-
stein at first carbonized straws, and later de-
posited carbon from a carbonaceous gas or
liquid upon a metal mandrel, which latter was '
afterward dissolved out by acids. This method
was, however, abandoned, and the carbons
formed by wrapping paper about a rod, the
successive layers of paper being made to adhere
by gum or paste. These paper tubes were then
carbonized, in the ordinary way. Owing to the
great shrinkage undergone by them in process
of carbonization, the paper was finally replaced
by a closely-woven textile fabric of cotton or
silk. The inventor has been able to produce
his tubes in the form of a bow, so that in ex-
ternal appearance his lamp does not differ ma-
terially from those now in use. These carbons
are said to be highly elastic, so much so that
they can be bent nearly straight, and will spring
back to their normal shape. The lamp differs,
further, from present lamps in being of quite
low resistance, which will prohibit its use in
any extensive multiple-arc system of distri-
bution. The inventor, however, contemplates
placing them in series as is done with arc-lamps.
At the recent Exhibition of Electricity, at Vi-
enna, a number of these lamps were shown of
65 and 150 candle-power. The appearance of
the lamp is shown in Fig. 1.

The filament of the Cruto lamp is made by
raising a platinum wire to incandescence in a
carbonaceous atmosphere, the carbon being de-
posited upon the wire in the same way as it is
upon carbon filaments in the " treatment " to
which these are subjected by some of their
makers, to render them homogeneous. An-
other incandescent lairp of a decidedly novel
character has been patented in England by
Messrs. Boullon, Probert, and Soward, though
it does not appear to have been publicly shown
in operation as yet. Instead of first making
the filament and then mounting it upon lead-
ing-wires and sealing them into a glass globe,
as is done in all other lamps, these inventors
manufacture their filament by means of the
current after they have sealed the leading-
wires in place in the globe. To this end they
introduce two platinum wires in a glass en-
velope, the inner ends of these being the dis-
tance apart of the intended length of the fila-
ment. A carbonaceous gas is then introduced
into the globe, and a carbon bridge built across
from one wire to the other by passing electric

sparks between the platinum electrodes. The
inventors state that they are able by this means
to produce a carbon filament of great purity,
and one which, being formed under the influ-
ence of the current, is not disintegrated by the

FIG. 1.

prolonged action of the current upon it. The
apparent objection to forming a filamentary
conductor in this way is the difficulty of ob-
taining a filament of uniform section, which is
essential to permanence, as otherwise there will
be spots throughout the conductor at greater
temperature than the remaining portions, and
the filament will tend to give way at these
points of greater strain.

In dynamo-machines, though new varieties
continue to be brought out, there is but little
of importance to chronicle. An improvement
in the 'construction of dynamos for incandes-
cent lighting has, however, been patented dur-
ing the year by Mr. Edward Weston, which
deserves notice here. As is well known, in-
candescent lamps are arranged in what is
termed multiple arc — that is, one terminal
of the lamp is connected to the outgoing and
the other to the return conductor. Each
lamp, therefore, takes its own supply of cur-
rent independently of all the rest. In order,
however, that the proper amount of current
should pass through each lamp, the electro-
motive force of the current should remain
constant, however the amount of the current
varies as lamps are turned off and on — that is,
the difference of potential between the termi-
nals of the machine must be unvarying. Mr.
Weston succeeds in fulfilling this condition by
establishing a certain relation between the ar-
mature and the field.

As is well known, the brushes of a dynamo,
instead of resting upon the commutator at

304

ELECTRIC LIGHTING, PROGRESS OF.

the theoretical maximum points — the points
joined by a line at right angles to the line
drawn through the center of the field-mag-
net poles — are in practice given a lead, or
displaced in the direction of rotation. Ac-
cording to Mr. Westou, the reason of this is
that the field-magnets tend to induce magnetic
poles in the iron core of the armature in the
line joining their poles, while the rotating coil
of wire wound on the core tends to induce
poles in this core at points at right angles to
this. The real maximum points are, therefore,
on a line between the theoretical ones and
that joining the field-magnet poles. The posi-
tion of these points changes with every varia-
tion of the strength of the field-magnets due to
variations in the current flowing in the field-
coils, while the position of the brushes remains
unchanged. That the difference of potential
between these should remain constant, it is
necessary that the position of the maximum
points should not change, and this will be the
case when the actual and theoretical positions
coincide.

To realize this it is only necessary to make
the magnetic effect of the field upon the arma-
ture-core so greatly preponderate over that of
the wire upon it that the effect of this latter
is inappreciable. This he accomplishes by mak-
ing his field-magnets of great strength, wind-
ing but a single layer of wire upon the arma-
ture-core, and making this core, which con-
sists of a number of sheet-iron disks, with pro-
jections which come close to the face of the
magnet - poles. With this construction Mr.
Weston states that the theoretical and actual
maximum points so completely coincide that
the machine can be run in either direction
without changing the position of the brushes.
The dynamo is shunt-wound — that is, the field-
magnets are placed in a shunt to the main cir-
cuit.

Mr. Edison has continued to improve the de-
tails of his system, his latest improvement be-
ing an important modification of his system of
distribution by means of which the cost of the
conductors is materially reduced. Heretofore
he has used the simple multiple-arc system.
In this system each lamp requires its own sup-
ply of current, so that, to maintain a hundred
lamps, one hundred times the amount of cur-
rent must be transmitted as to maintain one.
If, however, the lamps be arranged on a mul-
tiple-series system— that is, a system in which
each cross-circuit contains two or more lamps
arranged in series— the supply of current will
depend upon the number of series circuits and
not upon the individual lamps. Thus, if two
lamps be placed in series, only one half the
current will need to be transmitted which
would be required in the simple series. If
three lamps are placed in series, only one
third the current will be required, and so on.
The electro-motive force of the current must,
however, be proportionately increased. The
defect of this arrangement is that the lamps

are no longer independent of each other:
whenever one of a series is turned out, all of
that series must be. If they were not, they
would be destroyed by the increased current
which would flow through them on account of
the diminished resistance of the cross-circuit
in which they are placed.

Mr. Edison has, however, succeeded in de-
vising a way of rendering the lamps in a mul-
tiple-series circuit independent of each other,
and thus rendering it as practicable for a gen-
eral distribution as the simple series. How he
accomplishes this is shown in Fig. 2, which
represents three lamps arranged in series on

FIG. 2.

each cross-circuit. The dynamos A, A, A,
are connected together in series, that is, one
after another. The two main conductors, P
and N, are connected, the one to the positive
pole of the first machine and the other to the
negative pole of the last. Between each line
of lamps compensating conductors, as Mr. Edi-
son terms them, are run to the generators and
connected with the conductor joining them, as
shown. With this condition of things, when
the same number of lamps are in each circuit,
no current will flow through the compensat-
ing conductors, but will pass from the main
positive conductor through each cross-circuit.
When, however, the number of lamps is un-
equal in two adjacent circuits, the excess of
current above that necessary for the smaller
number of lamps will flow through the com-
pensating conductor between them. In prac-
tice, the circuits would be so arranged that
the number of lamps in adjacent ones would
be nearly the same all the time. The compen-

ELECTRIC LIGHTING, PROGRESS OF.

305

sating conductors may therefore be quite small
and inexpensive. This method of distribution
is applicable to cases in which but one gener-
ator is used, the compensating conductor then
being connected to an extra brush on the ma-
chine placed between the two other brushes,
as shown in Fig. 3. This method of distribu-

Fre. 3.

tion has not as yet been put into use, but Mr.
Edison designs to employ it in the next electric-
light district which is soon to be established in
New York. The great importance of this sys-
tem of distribution will be appreciated when
it is remembered that even with the high-re-
sistance lamps used by Mr. Edison the cost of
the street mains is equal to the entire generat-
ing plant, and that tha great outlay necessary
for plant is to-day the chief obstacle to fur-
nishing the electric light cheaply.

The system of distribution, which consists
in placing the lamps or other apparatus to be
used in the secondary circuit of an induction-
coil, the primary coil of which is in the main
circuit, has been proposed by various inventors
in the past few years. Mr. Edison himself
took out some patents on this method of dis-
tribution, though he has never put it into
practical use. M. Jablochkoff, in 1877, used
this system with his candles, employing for
this purpose an alternating-current generator.
VOL. xxin. — 20 A

The late J. B. Fuller also proposed to use the
system in 1879. His induction-coils were made
by winding over an iron core coils of coarse
wire at each end and a fine- wire coil at the
middle, the former being included in the main
circuit, and the latter forming the local circuit
in which the lamps were placed. Any number
of such induction apparatus or groups of them
may be placed on a circuit in series which the
tension of the current will permit, and by con-
necting the fine- wire coils in series or in multi-
ple the intensity or the tension of the lamp-cur-
rent may be varied within wide limits. The
death of Mr. Fuller cut short his experiments
in this direction, so that his apparatus was
never made practical use of. The secondary
current was also employed by Professors
Thomson and Houston for operating their vi-
bratory arc-lamp. For this purpose each lamp
was placed in a separate secondary circuit, and
by means of an electro-magnet, one of the car-
bon electrodes, usually the negative, was given
a rapid vibratory motion to and from the upper
positive carbon. This form of lamp was, how-
ever, abandoned by them, and they subse-
quently resorted to an arc-lamp operated in
the ordinary manner by a continuous current.
Various other inventors have patented differ-
ent forms of induction apparatus, but none of
them have passed into actual use. Quite re-
cently, however, this method has been revived
in England by Messrs. Goulard and Gibbs, who
have put the system into operation along the
line of the London Metropolitan railway (un-
derground).

They construct their induction - coils by
forming each circuit— primary and secondary
— of cables containing a number of wires, and
then winding these cables as the wire is
ordinarily wound on such apparatus— that is,
the coarse wire on a central paper or other
insulating tube, and the secondary over this.
The iron core is composed of a bundle of
wires, and is contained within a brass cylinder,
by the withdrawal of which the strength of
the secondary current can be regulated, and
consequently that of the lights. The primary
coil is in the main circuit, through which is
sent an alternating current from an alternat-
ing-current dynamo. This current is of high
tension, but, as this circuit is a permanently
closed metallic one, there is no danger from
the system on the score of the tension of the
main circuit current.

Messrs. Goulard and Gibbs combine a num-
ber of their induction-coils into one apparatus
of sufficient capacity to do the lighting re-
quired— say, that of a private house— and con-
nect the coils so that any desired combination
of them, in series or multiple, may be made.
The secondary currents can therefore be made
to give currents of high tension suitable for
a number of arc-lamps in series, or low tension
such as are required for incandescent lamps in
multiple. In the installation on the Metro-
politan railway five stations are lighted, . each

306

ENGINEERING.

one being provided with an induction appa-
ratus, or "secondary generator," as the in-
ventors term it. The main line consists of a
copper wire but one sixth of an inch in diame-
ter, and is of a total length, out and back, of
fifteen miles. At each station a portion of the
coils are grouped in multiple arc for the sup-
ply of Swan incandescent lamps, and others for
both regulator arc-lamps and Jablochkoff can-
dles. As each different class of lamps has its
own circuit quite distinct from the others, all
sorts of electrical apparatus can be readily
used without difficulty. This constitutes an
important advantage over the system of direct
supply, as arc and incandescent lamps can not
be successfully worked in the same circuit. The
only way in which the two can be supplied by
the same street conductors is by the use of the
secondary battery. No tests of the loss due to
the secondary generator system have yet been
published, and we can not therefore estimate
its economic value. The extreme flexibility of
the system, however, will give it a prominent
place in the distribution of electricity, if this
loss be not too great.

The storage-battery system of distribution
for incandescent lamps has made but little
headway during the year. Despite the flourish
with which successive improvements in second-
ary batteries have been announced, this appa-
ratus is still in an experimental shape. Ex-
perience has shown that the battery deterio-
rates rapidly in use, its first cost is high, and
its return is too low to make its use as an
element in a distributive system economical.
Whether it can be converted into a practical
commercial apparatus remains to be seen, but
the present opinion in the electrical world is
not hopeful of its future.

ENGINEERING. The year 1883 saw the com-
pletion in the United States of two of the most
remarkable high-level bridges in the world,
one of the wire-suspension type, identified
with American engineering, the other on the
cantilever principle, a new and important de-
velopment, the merit of which may be ascribed
more particularly to the English school of en-
gineers. Two more of the great transconti-
nental railroads were completed within the
year, and American enterprise is pushing the
reticulations of the American railroad system
into Mexico. A great ship-canal is projected
across the isthmus of Florida. The Congress
of Nicaragua in October, 1883, authorized the
Government to guarantee, in association with
the other governments of Central America, 3
per cent, interest on the capital of the project-
ed Nicaraguan canal for twenty years after the
completion of the canal, which capital shall
not exceed $75,000,000.

In Europe the Channel tunnel project was
condemned on strategic grounds by a Parlia-
mentary Commission. The Manchester ship-
canal met with political opposition, and the
project has been altered from that of a tidal
water-way for ocean-steamships to a plan for

a canal with locks, which would accommodate
barges and some of the smallest of the trans-
atlantic steamers. The obstruction of this
promising scheme illustrates the difficulty of
carrying out great public improvements in
Great Britain, where monopolies not only
wield political power but possess, as " vested
interests," a legal status, which is not accord-
ed to an equal extent in any other state. The
"plateway " between Liverpool and Manches-
ter has been given up. The third great Alpine
tunnel has been bored by the Austrian Govern-
ment. The works on the isthmus of Corinth
and Panama canals are progressing, and under
the same auspices the project of inundating
the Algerian chotts is assuming definite shape.
The Suez- canal controversy has given rise to
several projects, the most probable and practi-
cable of which is that of enlarging the present
canal and building a second one of equal size
to accommodate the return traffic. In Ger-
many a canal is proposed from Strasburg to
the Rhine, which, by connecting with the
French system of canals, would establish wa-
ter-communication between the North sea and
the Mediterranean.

The old project of a Euphrates valley rail-
road has been taken up by the Sultan, who
believes that such a railroad would in Asia
have turned the scale of victory in the last
Russian war. The latest plan is that of Lerkis
Bey Ballian, who proposes to carry the line
from Saladieh (Seleucia), at the mouth of the
Orontes, to Bagdad, 690 miles. Another, the
Caralet project, would make the western ter-
minus at Alexandrette, opposite Cyprus. There
are several others, new and old. The promot-
ers must be satisfied in their demands on the
Porte with extensive land-grants like those
given to railroads by the United States Gov-
ernment. The improvements of the Danube
are to be extended as far as practicable up to
the Iron Gate, and the dangerous reefs in that
remarkable chasm, which necessitate the un-
loading and reloading of steamers passing
through, are soon to be cleared away.

The harbor- works, at Trieste, which have
taken fifteen years of labor and an expenditure
of $7,300,000, were completed in 1883. By
running out three piers, 700 feet long and from
250 to 275 feet broad, the old roadstead, which
was exposed and insecure, was converted into
three basins, 85 acres in extent each, with from
26 to 43 feet depth of water. A mole 3,600
feet long, running parallel with the shore at
the distance of 1,000 feet, protects the harbor
from the northeast, southeast, and southwest
winds. A pier 250 feet long, projecting in the
direction of the northeast end of the break-
water, at right angles to it, gives a protected
entrance to the haven 315 ftret in width. The
length of quays in the basins is about two
miles. The soil is so unstable that the quay
walls had to be reconstructed about a year
after they were built. The Italian Govern-
ment is engaged in naval harbor works on an

ENGINEERING.

307

extensive scale. In Belgium and other coun-
tries harbor improvements are in progress.
The proposed tunnel under the strait of Mes-
sina will have a total length of 13,546 metres,
of which 4,688 metres lie under the strait. The
estimated cost is $14,200,000. A bold scheme
for a bridge across the strait, with spans of
over 1,000 yards, also finds advocates.

Enlargement of the Snez Canal. — The question
of widening or duplicating the Suez canal to
accommodate the traffic which has outgrown
its capacity, is still in the phase of political
controversy, and in its politico-commercial as-
pect is treated in the article on the SUEZ
CANAL. The opposition which seeks to nul-
lify the franchises and abrogate the concessions
of the Suez Canal Company, on such fallacious
grounds as that the exclusive right to construct
"a" canal meant "one" canal, or that, if
other companies were debarred, the Egyptian
Government could make a new canal, on the
arbitrary plea that Said Pasha had no sover-
eign right to grant privileges over an interna-
tional highway, or the simple argument of
might, finds its animus in the desire of British
ship-owners to compel the company to reduce
the rate of toll allowed in the concessions, just
as in the early period of its operation they
compelled the directors of the canal to adopt
the Mporsom system, which deducts the space
occupied by engines, fuel, etc., in rating the
capacity of vessels, instead of levying ten francs
a ton on the real capacity of a ship. M. de
Lesseps was less alarmed at the threats of an
alternative canal, from the fact that his canal
occupies the Thalweg of the isthmus.

Of the different schemes to take the im-
provement out of the hands of the Suez Canal
Company that were proposed, those which
took no account of the rights of the company
were naturally of a bold and visionary charac-
ter. The project of a fresh-water canal from
Alexandria to Suez by way of Cairo was rec-
ommended on the ground of its combining
irrigation with navigation. It was formerly
entertained by the Khedive Ismail. But, aside
from its cost, it was out of the question to
expose the great and increasing commerce of
"le Suez route to the delays and accidents of
long canal, whose navigability depends on
workings of a system of locks. A still
lore adventurous scheme is that proposed by
ren. Gordon, to create a new passage from the
[editerranean to the Red sea by flooding the
depressed valley of the Jordan. This scheme
was broached twenty years ago, and was ob-
jected to not only on religious grounds, but
from the stand-point of engineering science.
Calculations were made to show that it would
take a full century for a stream 90 feet broad
and 15 feet deep to fill the depression, owing
to the extraordinary evaporation and absorp-
tion in that region. Gen. Gordon, after study-
ing the natural conditions of the Jordan val-
ley, came to the conclusion that by cutting a
canal 60 yards wide and 3 yards deep from

Haifa, the gulf of Acre, to Zenn, 25 miles, and
another from the head of the gulf of Akabah
to Ain Gerundel, 40 miles, the intermediate
depression, 325 cubic miles in extent, will be
flooded in nine months' time. The inland sea,
thus created, filling the Jordan bottom and
Dead sea basin from Lake Huleh to Ain Ge-
rundel, with the two short cuttings, which
could be dug at a cost of $55,000,000, includ-
ing port works at Herifa, would furnish a nav-
igable water-way through which vessels could
steam at full speed in a minimum depth of 40
feet of water. It would be scarcely wider
than the Dead sea, and would submerge only
a small portion of the fertile lands of the Jor-
dan valley, and none of the important sites of
religious interest. Many other advantages, com-
mercial, political, and sanitary, are adduced by
the advocates of this scheme.

The alternative scheme, of a second canal
constructed across the isthmus with English
capital, to compete with the Lesseps canal,
would have serious financial and technical
problems to solve, after overriding the legal
difficulty and braving the danger of a rupture
with the French Government. Shut out from
the Great and Little Bitter lakes and Lake
Timsah, a canal of sufficient section to suit the
present requirements of navigation would re-
quire three times as much excavation as the
Suez canal did, and without the forced labor
which M. de Lesseps had at his command.
The Suez Company would be unwilling to con-
vey the plant and supplies to the different
points along the line, there would also be
two new entrance-ports to create at an enor-
mous cost.

As relates to the improvement of the Suez
canal, the practical problem in engineering re-
solved itself into the question whether it would
be better to enlarge the present canal or exca-
vate a new one by the side of it. The second
proposal had the recommendation of greatly
diminishing the risk of a total stoppage of the
route, of obviating the necessity of stopping
at sidings to allow other vessels to pass, and
also the danger of collision between vessels go-
ing in opposite directions ; on the other hand,
it had the disadvantage of requiring more labor
and outlay, and of increasing the working ex-
penses for supervision and administration, and
for repairs.

The Works Committee of the Suez Canal
Company, in January, 1883, adopted, the fol-
lowing programme of improvements which
were expected to double the present capacity of
the canal :

Rectification of the west bank of the channel of
the outer port of Port Said ; formation of a new basin
at Port Said -widening of the canal in the passage
of the small Bitter lakes ; widening of the canal be-
tween Suez and Kilometre 152 ; doubling of the Is-
mailia station ; embankment of Kantara station, and
of the station at Kilometre 133 ; rectification of the
eastern curve of Tirnsah station ; also of the southern
curve of the small lakes ; also of the northern curve
of El Guisr ; also of the curve of Toussoum ; widen-

308

ENGINEERING.

ing of the canal off Port Tewfik ; deepening of the
basin of Port Tewfik ; and the continuance of the
masonry-work.

They at the same time suggested the advisa-
bility of cutting a second canal parallel to the
first, in anticipation of a still greater traffic.
This scheme was the subject of the negotiations
between M. de Lesseps and the British Govern-
ment. The section of the Suez canal is too
small for vessels of such dimensions as are now
built for the Indian and Australian trade, irre-
spective of the question of overcrowding and
blockades. The passage is too narrow and shal-
low to allow them to steer properly, particu-
larly at such a slow speed as tive knots an
hour, the maximum in the present canal. It
was on this account that the English ship-own-
ers, in their conferences with M. de Lesseps
in the latter part of the year, urged the neces-
sity of enlarging the section of the present
canal as more pressing than that of separate
channels for vessels going in opposite direc-
tions. He promised to meet their views and
have the plans for the improvements drawn up
on the basis of an enlargement of the present
canal, which will take precedence, and a corre-
spondingly larger sectional area in the pro-
jected parallel passage.

Isthmus of Corinth Canal.— The Isthmus of Cor-
inth canal, which was begun in the spring of
1882, and is expected to take four years, pro-
ceeds with greater rapidity since the intro-
duction, in the autumn of 1883, of gigantic
steam-excavators constructed in France. The
length of the canal is 6,342 metres. Its depth
and width are the same as those of the Suez
canal. It will save ships from the Adriatic
trading with Greece, Turkey, the Danube, or
the Black sea, as much as 185 marine miles,
and those from the Mediterranean and Atlan-
tic about half that distance. At present 5,800
large steamers and 300 war-vessels, besides a
large number of sailing-craft, sail around Cape
Matapan every year, enough to furnish the
canal, to begin with, a traffic of nearly 6,000,000
tons. The site of the new town of Isthrnia, at
the ^Egean outlet of the canal, is exceedingly
healthful. There was no mortality among the
workmen from climatic causes during the first
year's operations.

Sahara Sea. — M. de Lesseps, after a personal
examination of the route of the canal with
which Commandant Roudaire proposes to in-
undate the chott* of Tunis and Algeria, declared
his adhesion to the project, which he has fa-
vored from its inception, and aided in its pre-
liminary stages. The ehottn, or alkaline basins,
depressed below the level of the Mediterra-
nean, extend in an irregular chain from Gabes
to the town of Biskra in the desert, 300 miles
inland. The large lake which would be formed
by flooding the depressed area would be not
Jess than 2,000 or 3,000 square miles in extent,
and deep enough to float the largest vessels,
which could enter easily by the nearly straight
canal. The creation of such a landlocked sea

would render fertile a broad belt of desert-land
to the north, constituting the whole interior of
Algeria and Tunis, where there are numerous
fresh-water wells, and where nothing but rain
is wanted to make the soil exceedingly pro-
ductive. The cutting would be through sand,
except in some places where a calcareous rock
is met with ; which, however, is hardly more
than sufficient to furnish materials for break-
waters, piers, and buildings. The total cost is
estimated by M. de Lesseps at 150,000,000
francs, and the time to complete it five years.

Panama Canal.— The works on the Panama
canal are progressing, though, from the ina-
.bility of M. de Lesseps to raise a new loan in
the spring, it is evident that the feasibility of
carrying out some important features of the
original plan is doubted. The reports of the
director-general, M. Dingier, on the excava-
tions are encouraging. Ihe quantity of earth
to be removed is placed at 100,000,000 cubic
metres, instead of 80,000,000 as previously esti-
mated; but the absence of the expected rock
excavation, and the looseness of the soil, re-
duce the estimated cost from 10 francs a metre
to about one third of that rate. Much of the
excavation is done 'by negro laborers, who work
more cheaply than the machines which were
brought for the purpose. M. de Lesseps esti-
mates the total cost at 500,000,000 francs, not
including the reserve fund of 100, 000, 000 francs
for unforeseen expenses. He asserts positively
that the canal will be completed within the
five years originally calculated, which end in
1888.

The proposed high dam in the valley of the
Chagres is one of the most dubious features in
the canal plans. The reservoir at high water
is to cover an area of 6,750 acres, and contain
1,000,000,000 cubic metres of water. The di-
rectory has abandoned the idea of building the
canal without locks, and determined to make
a lateral canal and three locks at Panama.

The total length of the canal from the At-
lantic to the islands of Naos and Flamenco,
where it joins the Pacific, is 74 kilometres. It
is divided into 12 sections, the most important
of which are Colon, Gorgona, Obispo, Empera-
dor, Culebra/ and Paraiso. On all the sections
30 steam-excavators, 40 locomotives, and 800
tip-wagons were at work in the autumn. The
force of laborers was then 10,000 men, which
number was expected to be augmented at the
beginning of the fine season in December to
15,000. About two thirds of the grand cutting
between Obispo and Paraiso was excavated by
Oct. 15th. It is expected that in 1884, when
all the machinery will be on the ground, the
excavations will proceed at the rate of 4,000,-
000 cubic metres a month. On Oct. 15th the
harbor-works at Colon were nearly completed.
An entire town had sprung up there, with
numero-us workshops and warehouses, and con-
necting railroads for the distribution of mate-
rial. The terre plein and breakwater were
finished. A cutting was opened at the spot

ENGINEERING.

309

called Monkey Hill, with the object of filling
up the lagoons at the bottom of the bay of
Colon, in order to improve the sanitary condi-
tions. The 120 horse-power dredgers remove,
each of them, 6,000 cubic metres of earth a
day. The machines of the Franco-American
Trading Company, which were built in Lock-
port, N. Y., excavate 2,000 metres. This com-
pany has contracted to dig the Pacific opening
from the mouth of the Eio Grande to Paraiso
within the term of two years.

Florida Ship-Canal. — A project for a tide- water
canal across the upper . part of the Florida
Peninsula has been taken up by a company
formed for the purpose. The commercial
prospects of this canal are more encouraging
than those of the again intermitted Cape Cod
cutting, for the 800 miles of navigation which
it will save were described by Commodore
Maury as being as dangerous as any in the
world. The annual losses from wrecks on the
southern coast of Florida are computed to
amount to $5,000,000. A saving of 1 per cent,
in insurance is therefore counted on. The
commerce which goes through Florida Pass
annually is said to be three times as great
as the traffic of the Suez canal. The route
selected is from a point on the Suwanee river,
to a point above Jacksonville on the St. John's
river — a distance of somewhat over 60 miles.
The estimated cost is $20,000,000.

The Iron Gate. — The removal of the obstruc-
tions in the cataracts and narrows of the Dan-
ube, called the Iron Gate, at the point where
the Austro- Hungarian, Servian, and Rouma-
nian boundaries meet, was attempted in 1781,
and again in 1834. The scheme has been de-
ferred up to the present in pursuance of the
protective policy of the Austrian and Hunga-
rian Governments, which feared the compe-
tition of foreign manufactures, and even of
American grain. In 1883 it was again taken
up, and arrangements were made for the final
execution of this important and difficult work
of engineering. On June 4th, an accord was
reached between the. Austrian and Hungarian
ministries, in a conference at Vienna, by which
the Hungarian Government undertook the regu-
lation of the river. The agreement of Servia
and Roumania was obt-uned. The cost is to
be reimbursed by the levy of tolls for the
period of ninety years. The various estimates
range from 10,000,000 to 22,000,000 florins.
The general plan which was adopted was
worked out by the American engineer Mac-
Alpine.

Diversion of the Syr Darya. — Schemes for
changing the course of the Syr (Jaxartes) and
that of the Amou (Oxus) have been under the
consideration of the Russian Government for
some time. Both of the principal rivers of
Turkestan have followed different channels at
different periods. The partial diversion of the
Syr into the bed of the Jany Darya is a work
of no great difficulty, as it was accomplished
by the Kara Kalpaks about 1760. The river

was turned into its former course by means of
a dam constructed in 1837 or 1838, by order
of the Khan of Khiva, to prevent the Russians
from using it as an avenue of approach to his
capital. In 1853 the Russians broke the dam
and allowed the waters to flow into the dry
bed of the Jany Darya, but finding that the
Syr Darya was rendered too shallow for steam-
boat communication, they restored the work.
In 1883 a channel was reopened, and the
water soon penetrated as t'ar as Irkibai.
Whether the main volume of the river can
be diverted into the new course, and whether
it can be made to flow into the Amou or the
Sea of Aral, is still doubtful. The work al-
ready accomplished will restore fertility to a
large portion of the Kizil Kum desert, and im-
prove the military and caravan communica-
tions with Khiva and the Amou Darya station.
Drainage of Lake Okeehobee. — The reclamation
of swamp -lands on an enormous scale has
been undertaken in Florida by an association
of American and English capitalists. The
Florida Land Improvement Company, organ-
ized by Hamilton Disston, of Philadelphia, in
addition to 4, 000, 000 acres of State lands which
were obtained by purchase, selected, and in
great part resold, one half being taken by an
English syndicate and several hundred thousand
acres of the remainder by other purchasers,
received authorization to drain the Okeehobee
district, covering 11,000,000 acres; on terms
giving the company for its service one half of
the land reclaimed. There are some sections
in the overflowed lands, as well as in the pine-
lands of Southern Florida, which are sup-
posed to be as well adapted to the cultivation
of sugar as any soil in the world. The cane
can be harvested in saccharine maturity, as
the region is south of the frost -line; but
whether it will propagate itself for a suc-
cession of years by ratooning, as in Cuba, is
not yet established. These lands are also
suitable for jute, which is grown in Florida
of a superior staple and luster. The feasi-
bility of draining Lake Okeehobee was es-
tablished in 1879, in a survey ordered to be
made by the Federal Government. Col. Meigs,
who conducted the survey, calculated the level
of Lake Hickpochee, connecting with Lake
Okeehobee, to be 22 feet above mean low
tide. A survey made in 1881 demonstrated
that the elevation of Lake Okeehobee above
the low- water level of the Atlantic ocean was
25 feet. When Lake Okeehobee overflows
its banks and backs the waters of its numer-
ous tributaries, submerging the entire sur-
rounding country, a portion *of the overflow
finds its way into the Gulf of Mexico by slug-
gish and tortuous channels through Coloosa-
hatchie river and other outlets. The company
began to cut a canal from the Coloosahatchie
in January, 1882, and made connection with
the lake on Dec. 10, 1882. A steady current
set through this channel, which relieved a
large surface of swamp-land adjacent to the

310

ENGINEERING.

lake, and lowered the level of the neighbor-
ing lakes. The outlet canals connecting Oke-
chobee with the Coloosahatchie river are to
be made navigable. The first one made is
52,000 feet long. The company next deepened
and straightened the Kissimmee and Little
rivers which connect the Tchopekaliza lake
with Okechobee. Canals 6 feet deep were cut,
and a current was obtained of 2| miles an hour.
By May, 1883, the level of the upper Jake had
fallen 5 feet. At that time 380,000 acres had
been redeemed. The excavation was done en-
tirely with steam-dredges.

Hull Harbor Improvements. — The new dock at
Hull is intended to meet the growing demands
of a port which, next to London and Liverpool,
has the largest commerce of any in the British
Islands. In connection with the New Barns-
ley railway, running to the Yorkshire collier-
ies, the new dock enables Hull to become a
large coal outport. The Humber brings ships
of deepest draught up to Hull at any state of
the tide. Besides the river Hull, which winds
through the town and constituted the old
harbor, but which is available only for small
vessels at high water, there were seven wet
docks with a total area of 76| acres. The new
basin, called the Alexandra dock, is 46£ acres
in extent, and a new one in course of construc-
tion contains 10^ acres, giving the city a to-
tal area of wet-dock accommodation of 133£
acres. The Alexandra dock will accommodate
the large vessels engaged in the grain-trade
with California and India. To construct it,
150 acres of the foreshore were reclaimed by
embanking, of which 100 acres are occupied
by the wet dock and two graving docks, their
quays, warehouses, roads, railways, etc. The
works have a frontage on the river of 6,000
feet, and a depth of 3,500 feet. The dock is
2,300 feet long by 1,000 wide. It is entered
through a lock 550 feet long and 85 feet in
width, having three pairs of gates and a cais-
son at the entrance. The sea-bank between
the basin and the river is 1J mile long, being
composed of 200,000 tons of chalk, faced with
stone, with an outward slope of one in two.
The trumpet-shaped entrance, 360 feet wide,
is formed by timber wharves built upon creo-
soted piles. The depth over the sill is 34 feet
at high spring-tide. There are two jetties
400 feet long, and one of 450 feet, within the
dock. All the cranes, capstans, and other ap-
pliances,' as well as the gates, valves, and
sluices, bridges, and hoists, will be worked by
hydraulic machinery. This is already applied
in a novel manner in the work of excavation.
A hydraulic navvy is used, which is capable of
removing 600 to 700 cubic yards of earth a day.
Unlike the steam navvy, it can not be thrown
out of order by giving it more work than it can
do, as it stops when driven beyond its capacity,
so that it can not get strained. Another ad-
vantage is that it takes only two men to oper-
ate it. It is self-acting, depositing the earth
in tip-wagons on either side as fast as they can

be unloaded and brought up again. Hydraulic
power is used also in drawing the barrows
which bring the excavated material, up an in-
cline to the banks, where it is used for filling
up. The larger of the two graving docks is
550 by 65 feet at bottom, with 21| feet of
water on the sill ; the larger one is 512 by 81
feet, with 19£ feet of water. The pumping-
engines used in emptying the dry docks are
employed also in maintaining the water in the
main dock at the proper level, the supply being
drawn from an inland stream which is freer
from sediment than the Humber.

Arlberg Tunnel. — The headings met in the
great tunnel through the Arlberg in the Rhse-
tian Alps on Nov. 14th. The tunnel is nearly
6£ miles long, taking rank immediately after
the St. Gothard and Mont Cenis tunnels. The
exact length of the new tunnel is 10,270 me-
tres, that of the Mont Cenis tunnel 12,323,
that of the St. Gothard tunnel 14,900. The
object of the work is to shorten the distance
between Austria and Switzerland, and to give
Austria direct communication with the railroad
systems of Western Europe and render her in-
dependent of the South German railroads over
which the traffic has hitherto had to pass.
Starting from Innspruck, the new line is car-
ried along the right bank of the Inn to Lan-
deck. At that point the difficult part of the
work began. From Landeck to St. Antoine,
where the road enters the tunnel, the total
rise is 1,721 feet. The gradient in the valley
of Rosanna is one in forty. The distance
between Landeck and Bludenz, the other ter-
minus of the road, on the opposite side of the
Arlberg in the Austrian province of Vorarlberg,
is 35 miles. This section is a mountain rail-
road all the way. The Panznau valley is
crossed by a bridge of three arches, each of 197
feet span. The tunnel first planned by Gen.
Nordling, who surveyed the • route, was a
smaller one higher in the mountain ; but the
Austrian Government determined not to spare
expense in a work of so great political and
commercial importance, and the tunnel was
made longer, in order to lessen the grades, and
wider, so as to accommodate two tracks in-
stead of one. ,

The work of boring began in June, 1880,
on the Austrian side. On the Swiss side the
heading was started in September of that year.
The perforators used on the Austrian side were
percussion drills, constructed on the same sys-
tem as the machines employed in boring the
Mont Cenis and St. Gothard tunnels. A se-
ries of 20 or 25 chisels, covering a space of 7
square metres, were driven into the face of the
heading with blows imparted in rapid succes-
sion by compressed air. The machines were
actuated by turbines at the end of the gallery.
The chisels penetrated the rock from !•$• to 2
metres. The holes were then filled with dy-
namite and the blast exploded, lengthening the
drift about 1J metre. The perforators moved
on wheels. The compressed air was applie'd

ENGINEERING.

311

under a pressure of five atmospheres through
flexible tubes. On the Swiss side the new
Brandt perforator was employed. This ma-
chine excelled the performance of the Ferroux
apparatus need at the other end, which is the
latest improvement in the percussion perfo-
rator. The new perforator consists of six or
eight veritable drills, with a diameter of 70
millimetres, which bore into the rock with a
rotarv movement under a hydraulic pressure
of from 60 to 100 atmospheres. The differ-
ence in the speed at which the work proceeded
in the different Alpine tunnels shows the prog-
ress made in boring machinery. The Mont
Oenis tunnel advanced at the rate of 3,637 feet
a year ; the St. Gothard at the rate of 5,474
feet ; and the Arlberg at the rate of 7,080 feet.
The improvements reduce the expense in a
still greater ratio, the Arlberg tunnel having
cost only $750 per lineal metre, as compared
with $1,250 per metre in the St. Gothard, and
$2,000 in the Mont Oenis works ; although a
part of this saving was due to the relative
shortness of the Arlberg bore.

The work of carrying away the excavated
material in mountain tunneling is as difficult,
and consumes quite as much time, as that of
excavating. The gases from the explosives
render this task unwholesome and sometimes
dangerous. In the Arlberg the miners escaped
ill effects by covering their mouths and nos-
trils with sponges steeped in vinegar.

At first, owing to the hardness of the rocks
on the western side, and to the inflow of enor-
mous quantities of water, the stipulated rate of
progress, about ten feet a day, could not be
made; but after the water was subdued the
advance was more rapid than the prescribed
speed. The gallery was driven on a level with
the bottom of the tunnel, and not, as formerly,
on the Belgian system, i. e., on a level with
the top. The cost of the tunnel itself is esti-
mated at 18,-000,000 florins, including the pre-
miums earned by the contractors for early com-
pletion, in which premiums they allowed their
workmen to share. The cost of the whole line
will be about 40,000,000 florins.

Mersey Railway Tunnel.— The headings of the
tunnel under the river Mersey met in the cen-
ter before the end of tb.3 year. Though insig-
nificant in length, the river being less than a
mile broad at that point, this tunnel is a work
of great difficulty, owing to the low level at
which it has to be carried under the deep
waters of the Mersey, the toughness of the new
red sandstone, the amount of pumping neces-
sary to remove the immense quantity of water
which perforates through this porous rock, the
work of lining the gallery to stop this inflow,,
and the precautions which were necessary
against a possible fault in the geological forma-
tion and the inrush of water from the river.
Fortunately, the stratum was found to he con-
tinuous. The roof of the tunnel is separated
from the bed of the river by a thickness of 30
feet. The length of the tunnel is 1,753 yards.

The seven-foot heading was excavated partly
with Col. Beaumont's boring-machine, which
was set for £ inch per revolution, equal to f
inch per minute, which was a slower speed
than was made in the gray chalk of the Chan-
nel tunnel. Through this seven-foot drift-
way the water which entered flowed down the
incline to the shaft at each end and was got
rid of by means of the steam-pumps. The
tunnel was excavated at a higher level, the
work proceeding at some distance in the rear
of the advance of the drift-way. The tunnel is
semicircular, and has a breadth of 26 feet and
a height of 20 feet above the rails, the radius
of the curve varying from 40 feet at the base
to -i 3 feet in the arch. The gallery, as it was
quarried out, was lined all round with massive
walls of brick and cement. The heavy blocks
of stone, which were blasted out with gelatine,
were removed on cars in a constant rotation.
On the Cheshire side, where the Beaumont
borer was used, a compressed-air locomotive
of Col. Beaumont's invention was employed to
remove the excavated rock.

Hitherto the only connection between Liver-
pool and Birkenhead, where the railroads of
Cheshire and Wales converge, has been by
ferry. Various plans for carrying a railroad
across the Mersey, by a high bridge or a tun-
nel, have been proposed by engineers before.
The tunnel finally constructed is the shortest
and most direct route, one end emerging in the
center of Liverpool, and the other in the cen-
ter of Birkenhead. The grades are conse-
quently heavy. The tunnel is expected to be
opened to traffic in 1885.

East River Bridge. — The suspension-bridge
over the strait called the East river, which
separates New York from Brooklyn, on Long
Island, was completed and formally opened on
May 24th. The project of a bridge to connect
the two cities and furnish safe and rapid com-
munication, was originally brought forward by
William C. Kingsley, President of the Bridge
Trustees, and Henry C. Murphy, his prede-
cessor in office. Mr. Kingsley selected the
site, and had plans and estimates prepared, as
early as 1865. The Bridge Company was or-
ganized in 1867, with a nominal capital of $5,-
000,000, the amount of the preliminary rough
estimate of the engineer, $500,000 of which
was subscribed by citizens who formed the
company, $3,000,000 was to be furnished by
Brooklyn and $1,500,000 by the city of New
York. In 1875 the bridge was made a State
work, and placed in charge of a board of trus-
tees. John A . Roebling, the originator of wire
suspension-bridges, was the engineer. His
estimates in 1867 made the cost of the bridge
$7,000,000, and of the approaches $3,800,000.
The estimated time of construction was five
years. A commission of bridge engineers ap-
proved his plans. Congress passed an act in
1869 authorizing the construction, and in June
of that year the Secretary of War decided
that it would not impede navigation, .providing

312

ENGINEERING.

ENGINEERING.

313

five feet were added to the clear elevation
proposed in the plans. This requirement,
together with an increase of five feet in the
breadth, added 8 per cent, to the original esti-
mates. Other changes in the designs, which
swelled the actual cost to nearly $15,000,000,
were the adoption of solid masonry for the
approaches, instead of light iron trusses, and
the sinking of caissons for the towers, instead
of erecting them on a foundation of piles.

There were many hindrances and delays in
the work of construction. In addition to the
enormous and to a considerable extent unex-
pected technical difficulties, differences fre-
quently occurred between the two municipali-
ties, and occasionally appropriations were not
granted in time, so that the work had to be
suspended for long periods. The piers were
built up by the aid of caissons of unprecedent-
ed size. The dimensions of the towers at the
base are 140 by 59 feet. The New York tower
was founded on the bed-rock, 78J feet below
the surface of the water. The Brooklyn tower
was built up from the clay, 44£ feet below the
surface. The lowering of the Brooklyn cais-
son began in May, 1870, and was completed in
March, 1871. The New York caisson was
towed into position in October, 1871, and sunk
to the rock by the May following. The erec-
tion of the enormous towers was a work of
time. The Brooklyn tower was finished in
May, 1875, and the New York tower in July,
1876. The towers are each pierced by two
archways 31^- feet wide at the height of 118
feet above high -water mark. Through these
openings passes the floor of the bridge. Above
the arches, which are 120| feet high, the par-
titions reunite, and the towers rise 30 feet
higher, to support the saddles which sustain
the cables. The total height of the towers
above the surface of the water is 276 feet.
The height of the bridge-floor over high-water
mark is 118 feet at the towers, and 135 feet in
the center of the span.

The four cables are .16 inches in diameter,
and contain about 5,000 single wires each.
The wire is of -$-inch size ; 278 single wires
were grouped into a rope and 19 ropes bunched
to form a cable. The wires were carried for-
ward and back from anchorage to anchorage
over the towers. The sun, expanding the more
exposed wires, and the wind, rendered the nice
work of forming the ropes with mathematical
exactness exceedingly difficult. The work of
stringing the wires began in June, 1877, and
was completed in October, 1878. On one oc-
casion a bundle of wires broke away from the
anchorage and shot across the tower, falling
into the river. The iron saddles on which the
cables rest are made movable, to permit of
expansion and compression on a saddle-plate
of iron firmly imbedded and anchored in the
towers. The saddles are 13 feet long, 4 broad,
and 4£ thick. They glide through minute dis-
tances in response to strains and changes of
temperature, upon 40 iron rollers.

The anchorages are 930 feet from the tow-
ers on each side ; they are solid masses of ma-
sonry, each 132 by 119 feet at base and top,
89 feet high, and weighing 60,000 tons.

During the construction of the bridge 20
fatal and many disabling accidents occurred.
The compressed air of the caissons caused over
100 cases of caisson- disease. The victim of the
first accident was Engineer Roebling, who died
from lockjaw resulting from a crushed foot,
received when laying the foundations of one of
the shore-piers, July 22, 1869. His son, Wash-
ington A. Roebling, took charge of the work,
but in 1871 he was prostrated with a peculiar
form of caisson-disease which destroyed the
nerves of motion, the result of a fire in the
Brooklyn caisson in 1870. This fire necessi-
tated the flooding of the caisson, and delayed
the work two months. After his accident Mr.
Roebling never was capable of active work.
His intellectual faculties, however, were unim-
paired, and he was able to make the plans and
calculations, and to superintend the construc-
tion, through the mediation of his wife. It was
not until 1876 that he was sufficiently restored
to be removed, after which he remained in view
of the bridge, directing the work, though for a
long time after that he was still incapable of
locomotion.

The total length of the bridge and approaches
is 5,989 feet. Of this the middle span takes up
1,595 feet, the distance between the towers and
the anchorages on each side 930 feet, and the
approaches 1,562^ feet on the New York and
972^ feet on the Brooklyn side. The length
of the suspended structure, from anchorage to
anchorage, is 3,454 feet. Its total weight is
6,470 tons. The maximum load which it is
designed to bear is 1,740 tons. The ultimate
resistance is calculated at 49,200 tons. (For
other measurements see u Annual Cyclopedia "
for 1882.)

The bridge is divided into five avenues. The
central one, 15^ feet in wridth, is the path for
foot-passengers. The two outer ones, 19 feet
wide, are for vehicles. The others are laid
with the rails for the cars, which are drawn by
an endless chain. They are attached and de-
tached by means of a " grip " arrangement.

Niagara Cantilever Bridge. — A double-track rail-
road-bridge over Niagara river, about 300 feet
above the railroad suspension-bridge, complet-
ed in November for the New York Central and
Michigan Central Railroads, is constructed on
the new cantilever principle, which is that of a
balanced beam. In the perfect cantilever, rep-
resented by the bridge now building over the
Forth, in Scotland, of which a description is
given below, the diagonally-braced frame of
the cantilever is exactly poised on the upright
iron columns in the center. In the Niagara
bridge, designed by C. 0. Schneider and Ed-
mund Hayes, the abutting banks are made
use of to attach the shore ends to a mass of
masonry which counterpoises the extra weight
of the river arms, and stays and anchors the

314

ENGINEERING.

ENGINEERING.

315

entire structure, and the two arms of the can-
tilever are different in length and in details of
construction. The cantilever type of high-
level bridges is a development of the use of
cast-steel, which combines with rigidity a ten-
sile elasticity that enables it to resist lateral
strains to a certain degree. Like the suspen-
sion-bridge, the cantilever span can be carried
over places where, as in the Niagara chasm, it
is impossible to erect temporary supports. The
two gigantic steel towers which bear up the
cantilevers of the Niagara bridge are 132£ feet
high, and rest on stone piers 39 feet high.
They are composed of four columns of plates
and angles riveted together, braced with hori-
zontal struts and ties. They converge upward
with a batter of 1 in 24 in the direction of the
length of the bridge and 1 in 8 at right angles
to the middle line of the bridge. The canti-
levers are each 393 feet in length. A space of
120 feet between the river ends of the canti-
levers is spanned by a girder resting on the
extremities of the arms. The total length of
the bridge is 910 feet between the centers of
the anchorage-piers. The clear span between
the towers is 470 feet. The height of the
bridge is 239 feet from the surface of the river
to the rail. The cantilevers are composed of
two trusses, 28 feet apart, having a depth of
56 feet at the towers, 26 feet at the extremi-
ties of the river arms, and 21 feet at the shore
ends. The materials used in the bridge are
steel and wrought-iron, the former for the tow-
ers and the lower chords, center posts, and all
the pins, and the latter for all the tension mem-
bers. The steel pins connecting the members
fit into the bored holes with the utmost ac-
curacy. The lower chords and center posts
are latticed channel-plates. The upper chords
are heavy eye-bars. A compression member
is packed between the chords of the shore
arms. The shore ends of the beams are an-
chored to masonry abutments by short links,
which serve also as expansion-joints. Joints
are provided also at the connection of the in-
termediate span with the river ends, to allow
for contraction and expansion due to changes
of temperature. The floor-beams are wrought-
iron plates and angles, 4 feet deep, riveted be-
tween the vertical posv,s. On these rest four
lines of stringers, consisting of plate-girders 2£
feet deep. The width of the floor is 32 feet, a
plank walk and iron railing at the side of the
tracks being supported by the white-oak ties,
one half of which project beyond the tracks
for the purpose. Each column of the towers
stands on a limestone pier, 12 feet square at
the top and battering 1 in 24. The piers are
connected by walls 3| feet wide at top. The
courses of the piers are 2 feet deep. The
foundations are a solidified mass of bowlders,
beton, and cement, 20 by 45 feet and 8 feet
deep under each pair of piers. The anchorage-
piers are 11 by 37£ feet under the coping, and
consist of blocks of masonry, each measuring
460 cubic yards and weighing 1,000 tons, raised

upon 12 iron plate-girders 2^ feet deep and 36
feet long, resting in turn on 18 15-inch I-beams
through which the anchorage-rods pass in such
a way that the pressure is distributed evenly
over the entire mass of masonry. The maxi-
mum uplifting force of the cantilevers is 678,-
000 pounds, or only about one third of the
weight of the piers.

After the towers were built, the shore arms
were constructed by the aid of temporary
structures, in the usual way. After they were
completed and attached to the anchorages, the
river arms were built out over the river, one
panel at a time, by means of huge traveling
steam-derricks. When each panel was con-
structed and braced, the traveler was moved
forward and the next panel erected. The in-
termediate 120-foot span was specially designed
with bottom compi'cssion members so that it
also could be built out from the end of each
arm by the aid of temporary stays, which
were removed when the two halves of the
girder were fitted together in the middle.

The bridge is designed to bear a running
load of a ton per lineal foot, that being one
fifth of the calculated ultimate resistance, and
for a wind pressure of thirty pounds per square
foot on twice the exposed face of the truss,
floor, and train.

Forth Railway-Bridge.— The completion of the
Niagara cantilever bridge lends interest to a
description of the one over the river Forth at
Queens Ferry, in Scotland, which was begun
in 1883. The engineers of Great Britain, to
whom the development Of the cantilever prin-
ciple is due, have never taken kindly to the
suspension principle, just as they are in gen-
eral skeptical of the stability of the lighter
structures which American engineers design
for equal stresses. Yet, after condemning
the principle for a whole generation, while the
Niagara suspension-bridge stood as a practical
demonstration of its soundness, at last Sir
Thomas Bouch adopted the American idea in
his design for the projected bridge over the
Forth. The river was to be bridged by two
suspension spans, with towers nearly 600 feet
high, one on each bank and two on the island
of Inchgarvie in the middle of the estuary.
The foundations were already dug, when the
Tay bridge disaster first brought to the knowl-
edge of engineers facts relating to the intensity
of wind-strains which meteorologists had al-
ready published to the world. The designs
for the suspension-bridge, whose author was
the designer also of the collapsed Tay struct-
ure, were discarded. Fowler and Baker, the
new engineers, drew plans for a cantilever
truss double-span bridge, all of steel, which
will be the most stupendous structure of its
kind. The material is tested for an ultimate
resistance of thirty tons per square inch in ten-
sion, and thirty-four tons in compression, and
the structure is planned to sustain four times
the combined strain of a wind pressure of
fifty-six pounds to the square foot and a maxi-

316

ENGINEERING.

mum running load of two tons to the foot, or
3,400 tons on a span. The breadth to be
spanned in the Forth is not much more than
half that of the Tay at Dundee, where the new
bridge, which will cost about £750,000, is
making rapid progress and is expected to be
finished in 1885. But the channels on the two
sides of the island of Inchgarvie are about 200
feet deep, and must therefore be crossed by
spanning the entire breadth of some 1,600 feet
on'each side. Three balanced cantilevers are
sufficient to accomplish this. Two of them
rest on piers erected at the edge of the channel
on each side of the river, and one on the
island. The cantilever has the shape of an
elongated diamond. There are four masonry
piers to support the four gigantic legs on which
are poised the balancing arms, which extend
675 feet on each side of the base. The uprights
converge upward, being 120 feet apart at the
base, 33 feet at the top, where the middle
point of the girder rests on the ends of the
legs. The middle cantilever is longer than the
other two, its base being 270 feet long, while
theirs are 155 feet. The four legs are steel
tubes, 12 inches in diameter and 320 feet
long. The height of the bridge above the
piers is 330 feet. While a lattice girder forms
the upper side of the cantilever, the under side
of the enormous truss is a hollow curve, ap-
proaching in form a quadrant of a circle, drawn
from the base of the legs, or struts, to the ends
of the cantilever. The ends of the beams do
not touch each other within 350 feet. The in-
termediate space is bridged by lattice-girders
resting on the ends of the arms. On the shore
sides of the outside cantilevers the weight of
these girders is counterpoised by an equal
weight of metal. The bridge will present the
appearance of two distended arches and a
half- arch at each end. The shore sections will
consist of girders resting on stone piers. There
will be eight piers within high-water mark and
two on land, on the south side, and six on the
north side, all on land.

Garabit Viadnct— A bridge, begun in 1881
and to be finished in 1884, which is intended
to carry a railroad over a river at Garabit,

GABABIT VIADUCT.

France, is even loftier than the lately com-
pleted Kinzua bridge in Pennsylvania. The
French viaduct has a great arch in the center.
The li eight from the bed of the river to the
rail is 413 feet, while in the Kinzua valley via-
duct the level of the rail is 301 feet above the
stream-bed. In length the French structure
is 1,880 feet, or 171 feet less than the other.

American Transcontinental Railroads.— The com-
pletion of the Northern Pacific railroad in Oc-
tober gives the United States three or prop-
erly four great transcontinental lines, while
two more are far advanced in construction.
The Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe, the
last link of which was finished two months
before the Northern Pacific, is the fourth to
reach completion. The Northern Pacific ha?
its eastern terminus at Duluth, where it con-
nects with land and water routes to the sea-
board. The road has recently been extended
eastward to Superior City, with the intention
of ultimately crossing the Sault Ste. Marie and
finding an outlet on the seaboard by one of
the new trunk lines. The western terminus
and the difficult section across the Cascade
range were changed from the original plan,
owing to the combination under the Villard
management with the Oregon company. In-
stead of terminating at Puget Sound, the Pa-
cific section follows Columbia river down to
Portland. The first of the transcontinental
lines that was built was the Union Pacific
from Omaha to Ogden, continued by the Cen-
tral Pacific, to San Francisco. This road was
chartered in 1863 and completed in 1869. The
Southern Pacific, in connection with the Texas
and Pacific, forms a third transcontinental
route. The eastern terminus of the Southern
Pacific railroad is at Galveston, and that of
the Texas and Pacific at New Orleans. The
Southern Pacific railroad has recently sup-
plied the link which gives it a -northern ter-
minus at Vicksburg in the direction of its
natural ocean outlet at Savannah. It ap-
proaches the Pacific ocean near San Diego,
which is its natural terminus, but it is now
carried up through California to San Francisco.
The Atlantic and Pacific, called sometimes the
thirty-fifth parallel road
(as the last mentioned is
called the thirty -second
parallel route), terminates
through its continuation,
the St.Louis and San Fran-
cisco road, at St. Louis. It
emerges on the Pacific
coast at the same place as
the Southern Pacific, and
uses its prolongation up
the coast to meet the ocean
commerce at San Francis-
co. The Atchison, Topeka,
and Santa Fe, which line
was completed in 1883,
forms with the Sonora
railroad, lately acquired

ENGINEERING.

EPIDEMIC DISEASES IN 1883. 317

by purchase, running southward through Mexi-
co to Guaymas, on the Gulf of California, a fifth
transcontinental line, connecting with the East-
ern railroads at Kansas City. The Canadian Pa-
cific is rapidly approaching completion. South
of the United States there are, besides the Pan-
ama railroad, three Mexican interoceanic lines
chartered and partly constructed. The most
northerly crosses Tampico to San Bias and is
called the Mexican Central. The Mexican Na-
tional railroad crosses from Vera Cruz, by way
of the city of Mexico, to Manzanillo. The third
is the line across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec,
which was begun with the aid of subsidies by
an American company, but became forfeit by
lapse of the term stipulated for completion,
and was confiscated and carried on by the
Mexican Government.

The southern route for a Pacific railway now
followed by the Southern Pacific, the Atchi-
son, Topeka, and Santa Fe, and the new Atlan-
tic and Pacific lines, was proposed when the
project of a transcontinental railway was first
under discussion, but was rejected by Con-
gress. It has the advantage of avoiding the
elevations north of Colorado and in the Ne-
vada plateau. The Northern Pacific, where it
crosses the Rocky mountains, is a remarkable
example of railroad engineering. There is a
gradual ascent on the western side through a
magnificent forest- region to Clark's Fork. At
Missoula, in this valley, it assirnes the charac-
ter of a mountain railway, which is preserved
up to the point where it emerges in the valley
of the Yellowstone. It crosses the summit
range, the Cascades, at Mullen Pass, through a
tunnel nearly 4,000 feet in length, at an eleva-
tion of 6,560 feet. The descent on the oppo-
site slope is by moderate gradients through
the valleys of the head-waters of the Missouri,
the Jefferson, the Madison, the East and West
Gallatin, and finally the Yellowstone, which it
leaves at Glendive.

The construction of a transcontinental rail-
road across South America is an engineering
problem the conditions of which are entirely
different from those of the North American
routas. Henry Meiggs, when building in Peru
his first Andes railroad, till then the most mag-
nificent mountain railway in the world, which
ascends to altitudes as great as Mont Blanc, in
which the barometric pressure is only 400 milli-
metres, and fire will scarcely burn, intended it
as a link in a railroad across the continent.
This work of genius was thrown into the shade
by his Lima-Oroya railroad, which ascends on
each side through 44 tunnels and over dizzy
viaducts, to the summit-level in the Cima-
Jalexa tunnel, 1,860 metres long and 4,769
metres above the level of the sea. The project
of a transcontinental railway was not only pre-
mature, but the location of the route by Meiggs
was through countries which, though possess-
ing unlimited natural resources, were socially
backward. An interoceanic road between the
more progressive states of Chili and the Ar-

gentine Republic is much more feasible as a
work of engineering, and commercially more
promising. The project was under considera-
tion at the time when Meiggs carried out his
stupendous works. A convention between the
two governments has been in existence many
years, but they do not seem to desire such close
commercial communication. The distance be-
tween the two capitals in a direct line is only
375 miles. The dangers from water and an
exuberent vegetation, which are found in the
Brazilian route, are here absent. There was no
known practicable pass in the Andes, but no
technical examination of the mountains had
yet been made. Lately a gap in the chain has
been discovered farther south, in Northern
Patagonia, which would afford an easy passage.

EPIDEMIC DISEASES IN 1883. With the ex-
ception of cholera and yellow fever, there has
been no wide-spread epidemic of disease dur-
ing the year; but these have been manifested
with their usual virulence and activity. Eu-
rope and the United States escaped an epidemic,
but Egypt suffered almost as much from the
devastations of cholera as from the effects of
her civil war, and certain towns in Mexico were
almost depopulated by yellow fever and the
resulting panic. Concerning the cholera in
Egypt, it is officially stated that the deaths
from the disease were in excess of 48,000, and
probably reached 50,000. This epidemic first
appeared at Damietta, on the 24th of June,
1883. The city itself had a population of
about 32,000. On the 27th of June cholera
was reported from Port Said, and on the 30th
of June at Samanoud, but it was not until
the 15th of July that the disease reached
Cairo. A great panic prevailed throughout
Egypt, and on the earliest report of the exist-
ence of cholera at Damietta, the people fled
in great numbers ; a majority of them depart-
ing for Turkey. The Porte required all refu-
gees from Egypt to undergo quarantine, either
at Beirut or Bourla at the entrance of the Bay
of Smyrna. Consul-General Heap reported to
the State Department from Constantinople, on
the 21st of July, that "the limited accommo-
dations at both places were enlarged by the
erection of temporary wooden barracks and
tents, but the panic-stricken refugees from
Alexandria came in such numbers that these
structures soon became insufficient to accom-
modate such crowds, and as each day brought
fresh arrivals, the sufferings of these people
from exposure to the burning sun and the
chilling night dews became very great, and
threatened to create the very evil it was the
intention to guard against. Those arriving at
Beirut were the greatest sufferers, and the
Turkish authorities were finally compelled to
telegraph to Alexandria, to give warning that
no more refugees could be received, or would
be allowed to land."

Sanitary cordons were established in a some-
what desultory manner by the local authorities
of each place, from time to time, and such as

318

EPIDEMIC DISEASES IN 1883.

were thought necessary were finally made
effective by the British Government. Many
of the cordons had been established to protect
places which were either infected at the time
or subsequently became infected, were then
abolished, they being no longer of any use, and
the British Government directed the enforce-
ment of sanitary measures by the troops then
in Egypt.

The following extract from a report to the
State Department, by United States Consul-
General G. P. Pomeroy, stationed at Cairo,
under date of August 16th, will show the ener-
getic measures adopted :

At a recent interview with Surgeon-General Hunter,
who was sent to Egypt by the English Foreign Office
as medical adviser to the Egyptian Government, I
learned a few facts, which I will here recount. This
gentleman, with medical assistants, has just returned
to Cairo from a tour of inspection of the infected dis-
tricts in Lower Egypt, of which the most important
towns are Damietta, Mansourah, Samanoud, Zagazig,
Kafr-Zayat, Mahala-Kybir, Tanta. and Bcnha. Sur-
geon-General Hunter remarked that, with the aid of
Sir Edward Malet, he communicated to the Minister
of the Interior a decided wish to see promptly exe-
cuted in Cairo, and throughout all the infected dis-
tricts, the cleaning of the mosques, streets, and ceme-
teries, of filth and foul matter, to bury the corpses at
least one metre under the ground, to cover them with
quicklhnej and to destroy by fire the small houses
tainted with the malady, and the pestilential or nox-
ious air by which it is produced. In this matter, it is
necessary to state, the Arab people all through the
country here, from a religious impulse, have offered
a considerable opposition, which was fortunately
silenced by naming, as delegates for executing these
measures, notables, Arab doctors, and employe's of
the different government local administrations. Sur-
geon-General Hunter also informed me that the Eng-
lish Government, with acquiescence of the Egyptian
native authorities, has concluded to form here, as in
India, a permanent Sanitary Commission, which will
be composed, in the beginning, of eight officers and
forty assistants, belonging to the Indian Medical
Board (intendancy), who are experienced in the study
and practice of this disease, and who will have com-
plete charge and management, in this land, of all pub-
tic sanitary measures.

Consul-General Pomeroy expressed his opin-
ion that the chief cause of the " present " cessa-
tion of cholera in Cairo, and some other towns,
is to be attributed " to the very high rise of the
Nile, which has very lately filled with fresh
water the canals of the infected districts, and
thereby cleaned out the poisonous matter and
filth which was the direct origin of the devel-
opment of cholera. Apart from the cholera
epidemic, there is at present a great deal of
typhoid fe'ver in the country, and we have just
got over an epidemic of spotted typhus fever."

While the epidemic lasted, great alarm was
felt in Europe, not only among the countries
bordering on the Mediterranean, but in Russia,
which quarantined her Black sea ports, and
later those in the Baltic, and all Europe quar-
antined against arrivals of persons and goods
from Egypt, in view of the danger of importa-
tion of cholera. England departed from her
usual conservatism against quarantine, by lay-
ing the responsibility upon customs officers to
make special investigation of the importation

of cargoes from Egypt and of passengers; and
it is probable that the failure of the cholera to
spread to Europe is due, first, to the early quar-
antine measures instituted against it, and, sec-
ond, to the energetic policy of the British Gov-
ernment when it was discovered that the Egyp-
tians were either powerless or incompetent to
institute proper sanitary measures themselves.
Owing to the large quantities of rags annually
exported from Egypt to the United States by
way of England, it was felt by our Govern-
ment that great danger existed in the unre-
stricted importation of infected rags, and sani-
tary inspectors were appointed in Liverpool
and London, to inspect the cargoes of vessels
departing for the United States, and to give
notification by telegraph of the departure of
infected goods. Collectors of customs were
forbidden to allow the entry of Egyptian rags
until the municipal health officer of the port
where the entry was to be made should give a
certificate that in his opinion no danger need
be apprehended from so doing. This almost
stopped the importation of Egyptian rags for
some months, and steamships declined to re-
ceive suspected rags as freight. It is now pro-
posed that American shippers of rags shall have
them properly disinfected before shipment, and
to that end a sanitary inspector, acting under
the direction of the United States consul, has
been appointed, and stationed at Alexandria,
whose duty it is to see that the rags have been
thoroughly boiled before baling. Machinery on
a large scale has been shipped to Alexandria by
one of the principal paper-manufacturing firms
of the United States, whereby the boiling and
subsequent drying may be accomplished with
but little loss of time. From a scientific point
of view, the cholera epidemic in Egypt does not
appear to have afforded any permanent lesson.
The early cordons were too inefficiently con-
ducted to be of material service in settling the
question as to the prevention of its spread, and
the several commissions sent by France and
Germany respectively do not appear to have
conclusively settled the causation of the dis-
ease. The German Commission, headed by
Prof. Koch, announced the discovery of a mi-
crobe and bacillus, found principally in the
walls of the lower intestines. The French
Commission was nominally headed by Prof.
Pasteur, but was really headed by M. Thuillier,
who died at Alexandria, a martyr to his scien-
tific zeal. This commission reported that a
micro-organism was found in the blood, lo-
cated in the spaces between the blood-globules.
Further experiments are necessary in order to
demonstrate the truth of these propositions.
In the mean time nothing has been discovered
which in any way modifies the treatment of
previous years. The u Fyers1 treatment," which
consists in the administration of emetics and
purgatives, has again been brought forward.
This treatment, it will be remembered, origi-
nated in Mauritius in 1856.

A commission was appointed by the German

EPIDEMIC DISEASES IN" 1883.

319

Government in 1873 for the purpose of inves-
tigating the causes of cholera, and their report
was made early in 1883. Prof. Hirsch, of the
commission, announced his adherence to the
doctrine that "from the cholera-patient an in-
fectious substance is actually thrown off, which,
however, is not yet capable of acting directly
as a cholera-poison, but only obtains its spe-
cific infecting influence after it has undergone
a certain change, outside the system of the
patient himself, and under the afore-men-
tioned external circumstances, either upon or
in the soil or a succedaneum of the soil."

Prof. Pettenkofer announced as his opinion,
that "the reproduction of the cholera-poison
takes place quite independently of the cholera-
stricken individual (as such), seeing that it
may attach itself to persons, sick or well, or to
other objects, through the instrumentality of
which it may be carried from place to place,
and wherever it finds appropriate conditions
for its reproduction it may light up an epi-
demic." The recommendations of this com-
mission for the prevention of the disease are
as follow :

Of all the measures which may be applied to the
prevention and combating of cholera, those take the
first place which have for their aim the improvement
of general sanitary conditions ; all specific measures
against cholera will prove unavailing unless we pay
the strictest attention in inhabited places to the puri-
fying of the soil from organic and easily putrefying
refuse, to the drainage of the soil, to the constant
flushing of the sewers, to the frequent emptying of
cess-pits, to the careful inspection of dwellings and
closing those that are really hurtful, the provision of
pure water both for drinking and other domestic pur-
poses, and the like.

Yellow fever prevailed during the year in
its native home on the island of Cuba; on
the Mexican shores of the Gulf; in a less
degree in Brazil, and to a very serious extent
on the western shores of Mexico. There is
always danger to the Gulf-ports of the United
States from" the admission of yellow fever from
Havana, Cuba, and from Rio de Janeiro, but
this year it was threatened from a city where
the shipping has hitherto been measurably ex-
empt— Vera Cruz, Mexico. No other city on
the Gulf-coast of Mexico suffered severely from
yellow fever, but on the west coast the disease
appeared with unusual virulence.

Vera Cruz, like Havana, has cases of yellow
fever the year round. The following table of
mortality from yellow fever, at the Hospital de
Sebastian, was compiled by Assistant Surgeon
Guit6ras, of the Marine-Hospital Service :

PATIENTS.

It

1

I

1

00

So

I

I

1

1

S "

i

Admitted..

350

48

810

217

11

2

448

58

302

1.756

Discharged
Dead . ...

216
134

33
10

157
158

102
115

9

9,

2

203
245

36
22

77
188

850
864

Remaining

42

42

Total....

850

48

310

217

11

2

448

58

802 1,756

Speaking of the endemic character of the
yellow fever at Vera Cruz, a local tradition has
it (Padre Alegre) that yellow fever was in-
troduced there in 1699, by an English ship,
which arrived with a cargo of negro slaves
from the west coast of Africa ; but there does
not appear to be much contemporaneous his-
torical evidence to support the tradition. Yel-
low fever appeared on the west coast of Mex-
ico, principally in the cities on the coast bor-
dering on the Gulf of California. The disease
appeared at Mazatlan early in September, and
is now believed to have been introduced by a
vessel from Panama. It spread rapidly to
Guaymas, Hermosillo, and Manzanillo. The city
of Acapulco inaugurated a rigid quarantine
against vessels from the other western coast
ports, and escaped the infection. La Paz, in
Lower California, Mexico, was also infected
with the fever, which reached the highest pitch
of malignancy in September, and deaths in that
town reached 114. The acting United States
consul at La Paz, Mr. Viosca, was himself af-
fected with the disease, as was also Mr. Willard,
United States consul at Guaymas. Mr. Wil-
lard estimates that only about 200 persons died
at Guaymas of yellow fever, out of 3,500 at-
tacked. He estimated that in the capital of
the State (Hermosillo), over 2,000 persons were
sick from the disease at one time. The effect
of this scourge on those towns was to paralyze
all business and create a general panic in the
interior. As usual, on its first appearance,
there was much discrepancy of opinion as to
whether the disease vvas really yellow fever,
or simply the ordinary coast bilious fever;
but as the epidemic progressed, it became im-
possible either to conceal the fact that yellow
fever was present, or to deny it so effectually
as to prevent adjacent towns from quaran-
tining against them. The American steamer
Newbern, which left Guaymas on the 19th of
September, arrived in San Francisco on the
29th, with five of her crew sick with yellow
fever. Fortunately, the disease was not com-
municated to the city. The United States
Government took early precautions against the
admission of yellow fever by keeping inspect-
ors at Havana and Vera Cruz to report by tele-
graph the departure of infected ships. In-
spectors were stationed in Arizona at Fort
Yuma and Benson, to prevent the entrance of
persons sick with yellow fever, or of infected
baggage from the Mexican cities. An inspector
was also stationed at Brownsville, Texas, for the
same purpose. The Government maintained a
quarantine at Ship Island, in the Gulf of Mexi-
co; a quarantine at Pensacola; Sapelo Sound,
on the Atlantic coast, and near Cape Charles
in Chesapeake Bay. The Icrcal authorities of
the United States ports maintained their quar-
antines as usual. The Revenue Cutter Service
was instructed to patrol the Gulf-coast for the
purpose of inspecting vessels, and to forbid the
entrance into any port of persons infected, or
of vessels having infected cargoes, and to order

320 EPIDEMIC DISEASES IN 1883.

EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION.

them directly to quarantine. These energetic
measures prevented the entrance of yellow fe-
ver into any port of the United States. As in
the previous year, all matters of quarantine
administration were managed by the Marine-
Hospital Service, a Bureau of the'Treasury De-
partment, of which the Surgeon-General is the
chief officer, who is responsible to the Secre-
tary of the Treasury. On the 16th of August
a local outbreak of the disease occurred in the
Pensacola navy-yard, and the outlying villages
of Warrington and Woolsey on the naval res-
ervation, the origin of which is still in doubt.
The Secretary of the Navy ordered a board of
inquiry to ascertain the cause of the fever, and
they reported as the probable cause that in-
fected ballast was used in building the jetties
at Fort McRae, workmen on which lived in the
village of "Warrington, and went immediately
from the jetties to their homes. The board,
however, declined to give any positive opinion,
but simply regarded it as probable that this
was the source of infection. Other causes of
infection are enumerated and given as possible,
among them the possibility of the hibernation
of the germs in infected goods left over from
the previous year's epidemic in the city of Pen-
sacola.

A sanitary cordon was early established
against the naval reservation, which prevented
travel to or from the reservation during the
prevalence of the epidemic. The efficacy of an
efficient cordon sanitaire was once more dem-
onstrated, for no case of the disease appeared
outside the limits of the reservation. There
were a few separate cases of yellow fever in
the city of/ Pensacola, evidently developed
from infected bedding left over from the pre-
vious year, when a serious epidemic prevailed.

As to the causation of yellow fever in gen-
eral, nothing has been developed within the
year, except the investigation of Dr. Domingos
Freize, of Brazil, who reports having discov-
ered the microbion of the disease ; that it is
developed in the corpses of the deceased; and
that it flourishes to a great extent in the earth
of cemeteries. Dr. 'Freize has recognized in
the blood of yellow-fever patients the crypto-
coccus, to which he has attached the name of "
zanthogenicus. The color of the black- vomit
he considers due to this cryptococcus. He has
produced the disease in Guinea-pigs and rabbits
by injecting the G. zanthogenicus. He advises,
as the best means of extermination, the build-
ing of public crematories, and that all persons
dying of yellow fever shall be cremated. The
Brazilian Government has approved his recom-
mendation, and a crematory has been erected
by order of the Imperial Government.

Dr. Carmona Del Valle, of Mexico, also
claims to have discovered the germ of the dis-
ease, and has named it Peronospera lutea. He
finds its mycelium in the black -vomit, and
claims to have observed its development in the
urine.

ERTSIPEIAS. See SURGERY.

EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION. The statistical
reports presented to the General Conference
of the Evangelical Association, at its meeting
in October, 1883, gave the following items:
Whole number of members, 120,231 ; increase
during four years, 10,458 ; number of preachers,
1,671; of churches, 1,622, of which the value
was $3,577,883; number of parsonages, 501,
having a value of $307,205 ; number of Sun-
day-schools, 2,131, with 135,795 pupils.

General Conference. — The General Conference
met at Allentown, Pa., October 4th. An ac-
count of the present condition of the Church,
and a review of its progress during the past
four years, were given in the address of the
bishop. The net gain in members had been
about 8 per cent., or 5 per cent, less than the
gain during the preceding four years, and 12 per
cent, less than the gain during the four years
from 1871 to 1875. The gain in the number
of ministers (itinerant and local) had been
about 8 per cent., the increase in the number of
churches a little more than 3 per cent., and
that in the number of Sunday-schools about
9 per cent. Much improvement was remarked
in the substitution of new church-buildings for
old ones ; and debts resting against churches
had been paid off to such an extent that all
the churches in some of the conferences were
free from such debts, and nearly all the others
were in an easy condition. The receipts of
the Missionary Society during four years had
been $384,086, or $103,404 more than those
of the previous four years. The work of
home missions had been extended to Texas,
where missions had been organized in Gal-
veston, San Antonio, and Temple, and to Den-
ver, Col. The receipts of the Publishing
House at Cleveland, O., during four years, had
been $767,007, or $169,097 more than those
of the previous four years; and those of the
Publishing House in Stuttgart, Germany, had
been $64,359. The Missionary Society em-
ployed 420 missionaries and supplied 427
mission charges, with which were connected
35,767 members; it also sustained 775 mis-
sion Sunday-schools, with 6,910 officers and
teachers and 47,230 pupils. Abroad the
society sustained missions in Europe, in aid
of the conferences in Germany and Switzer-
land, and in Japan. The two European con-
ferences employed 67 preachers besides theo-
logical students, and included fifty stations
with about 700 preaching appointments, and
an enrollment of 8,400 members, and 268 Sun-
day-schools, with 16,950 pupils. Three periodi-
cals were published at Stuttgart. The net
increase in members in Europe was small,
though the additions to the churches had been
many, because a large proportion of the con-
verts had emigrated to the United States. The
German churches had suffered much from the
opposition of the state churches. The mis-
sion in Japan returned 2 American preachers,
4 American woman missionaries, 3 native
preachers, 4 student helpers, 3 native Bible-

EVENTS OF 1883. (JANTJABY.)

321

women, a number of teachers in day-schools,
3 day-schools with 132 pupils, and 4 Sunday-
schools, with 191. The Committee on High
Schools and Education reported on the condi-
tion of Northwestern College, Naperville, 111. ;
the Biblical Institute; Union Seminary for
young men and young women (with which
a theological course is connected) ; Schuylkill
Seminary, Reading, Pa., a new institution ;
and the Theological Seminary at Reutlingen,
Germany, where nineteen young men had re-
ceived instruction during the quadrennium -
The attention of the conference was largely
given to matters of detail in discipline and
the management of the business affairs and
benevolent enterprises of the Church. A re-
port expressing the sentiments of the body on
various questions of public morals recom-
mended the legal prohibition of the traffic in.
intoxicating liquors ; advised a strict observ-
ance of the sanctity of the Christian Sabbath ;
and condemned loose divorce legislation and
speculations in stock and produce. The speedy
publication of a series of normal class text-
books, and the formation of classes for the
regular study of a course of instruction cov-
ered by them, with certificates of graduation
to ba given to those who complete the same,
were recommended. Provision was made for
the formation of a woman's missionary so-
ciety auxiliary to the Missionary Society of the
Church, for the organization of local branches
to co-operate with it.

EVMTS OF 1883. The year 1883 was com-
paratively devoid of striking political events,
but with peace assured in Europe it was a year
of legislative discussion and activity. The pop-
ular unrest in Europe, heightened by the grow-
ing acuteness of the economical struggle for
life, manifested itself in characteristic ways.
The same circumstances impelled governments
to make commercial restrictions, and, in con-
junction with the absence of military dangers
at home, to seek acquisitions in the outlying
regions of the earth. There were constitu-
tional struggles and revolutionary attempts in
many lands, revealing the instability of their
political institutions. There was a more abun-
dant harvest in most countries. The year was
chiefly remarkable for extraordinary natural
calamities. A volcanic outburst devastated one
of the most populous and productive regions
of the world, the cholera mowed down the
population of another, earthquakes demolished
-whole towns, freshets ravaged the valleys of
Central Europe, and tornadoes spread desola-
tion in the United States. The minor catas-
trophes and accidents by land and sea, when
aggregated, present an appalling sum of destruc-
tion, suffering, and death. Thefollowing chron-
icle recounts the noteworthy events of 1883 in
the order of their occurrence :

January 1. Inauguration of Governor Cleveland at
Albany. Floods at Vienna and on the Rhine ; 500
houses destroyed at Worms.

2. Meeting of New York Legislature. Inundations

VOL. xxin. — 21 A

extend in the valley of the Ehine and its tributaries,
causing great damage and suffering at Dusseldorf,
Mayence, Worms, Mannheim, and Ludwigshaven.

3. Railroad communications between Switzerland,
France, and Italy, interrupted by high water. Plot
against the Austrian Crown Prince discovered at
Pesth.

4. Sherman's bonded whisky bill passed in the
Senate. House of Representatives pass Pendlcton's
civil - service reform bill. Presburg, in Hungary,
flooded. Spanish Minister of Finance declares the
necessity of retrenchment.

5. State Treasurer of Tennessee absconds, leaving
defalcations to the amount of over $400,000. Rhine
Hoods recede. Death of Gen. Chanzy.

^ 6. Funeral of Garnbetta, at Paris, amid manifesta-
tions of public sorrow.

7. Spanish Cabinet resigns. Sinking of the steamer
City of Brussels, run into in a fog by the Kirby Hall,
near Liverpool.

8. Sagasta forms a new Ministry in Spain.

9. Presidential succession bill passed in Congress.
English ship British Empire burned on the high seas.
German Emperor subscribes 600,000 marks for the
Rhine sufferers. The Opposition attack the Govern-
ment on the question of prohibiting American pork.
Spanish Ministry formed under the presidency of
Sagasta.

10. Burning of the Newhall House in Milwaukee ;
nearly 100 lives lost. Prussian Diet votes 3,000,000
marks for the relief of the inundated. Flood devas-
tates the town of Raab, in Hungary ; many persons
drowned.

11. Bill to restore Gen. Fitz-John Porter to his
rank in the army, without back pay, carried in the
Senate. Death of ex-Senator Lott M. Morrill, in Au-
gusta, Me. Histrionic triumph of Edwin Booth at
Berlin. German Reichstag rejects a motion to repeal
the anti-Socialist laws, the May laws, and all excep-
tional legislation.

12. Shipping bill, with drawback and free-ship
clauses struck out, passed by the House of Repre-
sentatives. Arrest of Phoenix Park murderers in
Dublin. The Czar and imperial family take up their
residence in St. Petersburg in the Anitchkoff Palace.

13. Fire in a circus in Berdichev, Russian Poland ;
300 persons burned to death.

15. Arrest of Prince Napoleon in Paris for issuing
a manifesto. The British ship Pride of the Ocean
destroyed by dynamite.

16. Floquet proposal to expel members of royal
families voted urgent in the French Chamber. Ter-
mination of Portuguese treaty with England relating
to the west coast of Africa.

17. Execution of two agrarian murderers in Ireland.
Swedish Parliament opened.

18. Prohibition amendment in Iowa adjudged in-
valid. Vote of thanks in the Reichstag for American
subscriptions to relief fund. The village of Marais
in Savoy destroyed by an earthquake.

19. Disaster on Southern Pacific railway near Te-
hichipa, Cal. ; 15 lives lost. Sinking of the Hamburg
steamer Cimbria ; 353 drowned out of 420 on board.
The Russian city Kherson destroyed by fire.

20. Gen. Iglesias proclaimed President ha Peru by
a Congress sitting at Catamarca, and accepts on con-
dition that the people are willing to make peace with
Chili. Skuptchina (of Servia) approve German com-
mercial treaty.

21. Explosion of giant powder near Oakland, Cal.,
killing over 30 Chinamen. Explosion of a gasometer .
in Glasgow. Death of Prince Frederick Charles
Alexander of Prussia.

22. A clause of the Ku-klux law of 1871 decided to
be unconstitutional. Arrest in Germany of the offi-
cers of the English steamer Sultan, which collided
with and sank the Cimbria. The insurgents in Ecua-
dor gain a victory.

23. John E. Kenna elected Senator for West Vir-
ginia, and Richard Coke for Texas. A number of

322

EVENTS OF 1883. (FEBKUABY, MAECH.)

deaths from starvation in Ireland. Belgian Chamber
sanctions the introduction of the Flemish language in
the intermediate schools of Flanders. Closure of
Servian Skuptchina. Death of Gustave Dore".

24. Senatorial elections in New Jersey and Kansas,
return of McPherson and Plumb. In New Guinea 16
sailors are slaughtered by cannibals.

25. Audience of the Eussian minister De Giers with
the Austrian Emperor. Naval appropriation bill
passed hi the House.

26. Embezzlements in the Municipal Gas-Works of
Philadelphia discovered.

27. Bowen and Tabor elected to represent Colorado
in the Senate. New York State Senate confirms the
Governor's appointments of Eailroad Commissioners.
The German bark Admiral Prince Adalbert wrecked
off the coast of Wales.

28. The French Cabinet resigns. Mutiny of con-
victs in Cork Harbor. Hungarian Chamber rejects a
proposition to repeal the emancipation of the Jews.

29. French Ministry newly organized with Fallieres
for Premier. Wrecks on the English coast. Duration
of International Tribunals in Egypt prolonged till
Feb. 1, 1884.

30. Fatal snow-slide in Colorado. Switzerland re-
jects the naturalization treaty proposed by the United
States.

31. Gen. Manderson elected Senator for Nebraska.
Strike of 3,500 workmen in Limoges, France. Gen.
Thibaudin appointed French Minister of War. Ees-
toration of King Cetewayo in Zululand.

February 1. Election of D. M. Sabin to the United
States Senate hi Minnesota.

2. Eesolution in favor of the preservation of forests
adopted by New York Legislature. French Cham-
ber passes the expulsion bill against royal families.
Steamer Kenmure Castle foundered in the Bay of
Biscay.

3. Inundations in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana.

4. Severe earthquake at Agram. Spanish Cortes
refuse to abolish parliamentary oaths.

5. Colvin nominated Financial Adviser to the
Egyptian Government.

7. Arrest of Payne, organizer of the Oklahama
raids.

8. The Spanish Government emancipate 40,000
slaves in Cuba. Opening of Danube Conference at
London.

9. Death of William E. Dodge. Government pro-
posal of biennial budgets rejected by the German
Reichstag.

10. Death of Marshall Jewell.

11. Breaking of a dam in Louisville, and destruc-
tion of life and property.

12. Prince Jerome Napoleon released from confine-
ment. Coronation of King Kalakaua in Honolulu.

13. Minister Fallieres proffers the resignation of the
French interim ministry. Death of Eichard Wagner.

14. Death of E. D. Morgan.

15. British Parliament meets. French Chamber
adopts the pretenders' bill of Barbey.

16. Bill to return Japanese indemnity passed by
the Senate. The New York Legislature passes the
tenement-house cigar bill, and the bill to reduce ele-
vated-railroad fares. A mining accident in Illinois
causes the loss of 80 lives. Ukase of the Czar on
amending laws relating to the Jews.

17. The Legislature of Pennsylvania rejects the
prohibition amendment. The Jeannette investigation
ends in the adoption of a report approving the con-
duct of all members of the expedition. Carey appears
as a witness for the crown in the Dublin criminal in-
vestigation. French Senate rejects the expulsion bill.
Norwegian Storthing meets.

18. The tariff bill passed by the United States Sen-
ate. Adverse vote on the measure in the House of
Eepresentatives. Appointment by the President of
the Civil-Service Commission. President Gre>y ac-
cepts the resignation of the Cabinet, and charges
Jules Ferry with the formation of a Ministry.

20. Panic in a German Catholic school in New York ;
15 children killed. Count Corti demands of the
Porte satisfaction for insults to Italian consul in
Tripoli, under threat of naval action.

21. Army appropriation bill passes the Senate.
Burning of the steamer Morro Castle in Charleston
Harbor. Loss of United States steamer Ashuelot ; 11
drowned. The German Federal Council adopt the
resolution prohibiting the importation of American
pork. New French Cabinet constituted by Ferry.

23. Mutiny of prisoners, and burning of the Peni-
tentiary in Jefferson City, Mo. Prof. Swift, of Eoch-
ester, N. Y., discovers a" new comet.

24. The Senate adopts revenue bill intended to re-
duce customs and taxes $25,000,000. John W. Foster,
of Indiana, appointed Minister to Spain. Escape of
20 prisoners from the Arkansas State Prison. Decree
of Servian King on new organization of the army.

25. The Orleans princes in the French army are
retired from active service.

26. Bankruptcy of a Eoman Catholic church in
Lawrence, Mass., and loss of trust -funds.

27. Senate bill of revenue reform referred by the
House of Eepresentatives to a commission. Bill
against the adulteration of teas passed in Congress.

28. The Secretary of State informs the Senate that
the Government disapproves the attitude taken at
Lima by Mr. Partridge, in joining the representatives
of England, France, and Italy in a friendly inter-
vention between Chili and Peru. Silver wedding of
the German Crown Prince. Edhem Pasha appointed
Turkish Minister of the Interior.

March 1. Belgian Chamber refuses to cut down the
bishops' salaries. Decree of resumption of specie

Biyments signed by King of Italy. Eesignation of
utch Ministry.

2. Veto of the five-cent elevated railroad fare bill by
Governor Cleveland.

3. Eetirement of David Davis from the presidency
of the Senate ; Senator Edmunds chosen his successor.
Passage of the tariff act. Senate tables river and har-
bor appropriation bill.

4. Tariff act signed by the President. Adjourn-
ment of Congress. Steamboat Yazoo sunk in the Mis-
sissippi, and 16 lives lost. Death of Governor A. H.
Stephens at Atlanta.

5. Decision by the United States Supreme Court
that a State can not be sued by another State for
claims assigned to it by citizens. James S. Boynton,
President of the Georgia State Senate, sworn in as Gov-
ernor in the place of Alexander H. Stephens, deceased.
Eesignation of the Prussian Minister of War, Von
Kameke.

6. Eevision of the Constitution negatived by the
French Chamber. Gale on British coast, 135 fisher-
men lost.

7. Coalition of Democrats and Greenbackers in
Michigan declare for free trade. Bronsard von Schel-
lendorf appointed Prussian Minister of War.

8. Eetirement of the German Naval Minister, Von
Stosch.

9. Louise Michel leads a demonstration of unem-
ployed working-men in Paris, and instigates a bread
riot. The steamer Navarre, sailing between Copen-
hagen and Leith, goes down with 65 persons on board.
In' Andalusia 1,200 persons are arrested on the charge
of conspiracy as members of the Black Hand Associa-
tion.

10. Danube Convention signed in London. Death
of Coumoundouros, Greek ex-Minister.

11. Death of Prince Gortchakoff.

12. Turkish Government gives notice of termina-
tion of treaties of commerce with the United States,
Belgium, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, and Den-
mark.

1"4. The murderer Dukes acquitted by a jurv in
Uniontown, Pa. Parnell's amendment to the land
act rejected by the British Parliament. Discovery in
St. Petersburg of defalcations by officials amounting
to 11,000,000 rubles.

EVENTS OF 1883. (APRIL, MAT.)

15. Affray in the Pennsylvania Legislature. Dy-
namite explosion in the Government Buildings in
London. Servian Ministry resign ; reconstituted un-
der the presidency of Sobolett. Swiss commercial
treaty with Spain signed.

16. Adjournment of the Austrian Keichsrath. Death
of Carl Marx.

17. Arrests of citizens of South Carolina by reve-
nue officers.

20. The repudiation act goes into force in Tennessee.

21. Sitting Bull located in the Standing Rock Res-
ervation. Conviction of three Socialists charged with
robbery in Vienna.

22. Death of Sir George Jessel, Master of the Rolls.

23. In Armagh, Ireland, 19 persons found guilty of
conspiracy to murder.

25. Death at Kenosha, Wis., of Postmaster-General
T. O. Howe.

26. Destruction of the village of St. Anton, in Tyrol,
by a conflagration.

27. The Washington Grand Jury finds indictments
against Brady and ex-Senator Kellogg. Strike of
tobacco operatives in Lynchburg, Va. Death of John
Brown, the Queen's gillie.

28. Count Majlath von Szechely, Hungarian judge,
murdered in Ofen. French take possession of Porta
Negra and Loango on the Congo ; protest of Portu-
guese naval officers.

29. Terrific storm on the coast of England. Louise
Michel gives herself up to the Paris police.

30. Loss of 53 lives by a railroad accident on the
Cincinnati Southern Railroad, near Mason's Station,
in Ohio. Arrest of 40 Socialists in Spain.

81. A band of Nihilists broken up in St. Petersburg.
Albanians attacked and killed by Montenegrins.

April 2. Democratic success in the St. Louis mu-
nicipal elections.

3. The President appoints United States Judge
Gresham, of Indiana, Postmaster- General. Illinois
Democratic State ticket adopted in Chicago. Arrest
of the Socialist deputies, Vollmar and Frohme, at
Kiel, Germany, on their return from a Socialist Con-
gress in Copenhagen.

4. Death of Peter Cooper in New York. Success
of the Republicans in Rhode Island ; defeat of Sprague.
The Ohio Legislature adopts two temperance amend-
ments. First public announcement of the triple alli-
ance.

5. Discovery of a dynamite factory in Birming-
ham, England, and arrest of several conspirators.
Powder factory near Rome explodes, killing 40 per-
sons.

6. Hotel in Greenville, Texas, falls in, killing 13
people.

7. Death of Louis Veuillot.

9. Bei
sins
Parliament.

10. Prairie-fire in Nebraska. Strike of 7,000 dock
laborers in Marseilles, France.

11. Labor-strikes in Reading and Boston. Healy's
scheme for local self-government in Ireland rejected
by the House of Commons.

12. The Left in the Danish Folkething propose an
address to the King, expressing want of confidence in
the Ministry.

13. Cigar-makers win a strike in Cincinnati.

_ 14. Queensland Government proclaims the annexa-
tion of New Guinea. Swiss Federal Council remove
decree expelling Bishop Mermillod. Rescript of the
German Emperor on social reform and biennial budg-
ets. Arrest of 2,000 persons in Moscow. Tisza's an-
swer in the Hungarian Parliament on the subject of
the triple alliance. Danish Folkething pass the vote
of censure.

16. Danish Landsthing pass a vote of confidence in
the Ministry.

17. Charges brought against the Government Su-
pervising Architect Bill. The Scott liquor law goes
into operation in Ohio. House of Commons postpone

.

Beginning of the trial of the Phoenix Park assas-
in Dublin. Explosives bill enacted by British

local tax reform until the consideration of the whole
subject of local government.

18. Illinois adopts the license system. Gov. But-
ler, of Massachusetts, publishes charges against the
administration of the Tewkesbury poor-house. Visit
of the Prince of Bulgaria to the Sultan. The King of
Denmark accepts the addresses of both Chambers
and reproves the Folkething for not passing ministe-
rial measures.

19. Summing up in the Star Route trial. Grants to
Lords Wolseley and Alcester voted by British Com-
mons. Conviction of 19 Nihilists at St. Petersburg.

20. Act relating to the reorganization of the Emi-
gration Department goes into force. Conflagration in
Delhi, India • 2?000 buildings burned.

21. Final decision against the validity of the Iowa
prohibition amendment.

22. Tornado in Mississippi ; 50 dead and 300 in-
jured. Executions and arrests in St. Petersburg.
Dutch Ministry finally formed by Heems Kerks.

24. Henry D. McDaniel elected Governor of Georgia.
Tornadoes in Louisiana and Texas. Strike of Berlin
cab-drivers. French Chamber adopt the measure to
convert the rentes from 5 per cent, into 4i per cent,
bonds. Proposition to impeach the Ministry thrown
out by Norwegian Odelsthmg.

25. Ship British Commerce wrecked off" Owner's
Light-house. Mine-explosion in Besseges, France ;
over 100 lives lost.

26. Organization of the Irish National League of
America.

28. Austrian Chamber of Deputies passes the school
act.

29. Victory of Egyptian troops over followers of the
False Prophet. Riot between Arabs and Greeks at
Port Said.

30. Prohibition of American pork in Greece. Nomi-
nation of 12 Polish bishops by the Pope.

May 1. Opening of the Colonial Exhibition in Am-
sterdam. Due de Broglie's interpellation on the triple
alliance.

2. Burning of a steamer on. the coast of British Co-
lumbia ; 70 lives lost. Conviction of the Phoenix Park
murderers Caffry and Delaney.

3. Trial of twenty-six Socialists in Lemberg. Par-
liamentary oaths bill defeated in the House of Com-
mons. Bradlaugh tries again to take his seat. Steam-
er Grapples, running between Puget Sound and Alas-
ka, burned and 70 lives lost.

5. Bakers' strike in Vienna. Earthquake in Ta-
briz, Persia, and loss of many lives.

6. The town of Koniginhof, in Bohemia, burned.

7. Navigation on Erie canal opened. The biennial
budget rejected in the German Reichstag.

9. Defeat of the Apaches by Mexican troops.

10. Oil-tanks at Communipaw, N. J., fired by light-
ning.

12. Opening of the Fishery Exhibition in London,
and of the Hygienic Exhibition in Berlin.

13. Devastating hurricane in Kansas, Missouri,
Ohio, and Indiana; town of Oronogo, Mo., demol-
ished.

14. Mahone accused of violating the civil-service
law. Execution of Brady in Dublin. The Pope in-
terdicts political agitation by the Irish clergy.

15. Tonquin credit votes by French Assembly.
Lock-out of 4,000 shoemakers in Cincinnati. Prince
of Montenegro visits Vienna.

16. Treaty of peace between Chili and Peru. Na-
tional association of coal-miners formed in a conven-
tion at Pittsburg. French naval vessels bombard
ports on the northwest coast of Madagascar.

17. Denver and Rio Grande railroad completed.
Prussian proposals relative to the announcement of
ecclesiastical appointments rejected by the Vatican.
Swedish Second Chamber pass a bill to change the
organic law of the army.

18. Severe storms in Wisconsin, Illinois, Nebraska,
Missouri, and Texas. Execution of Daniel Curly in
Dublin.

324

EVENTS OF 1883. (JUNE, JULY.)

19. Destructive flood in Dakota. Entry of the Czar
and Czarina into Moscow.

20. Tumultuous Labor Congress in Paris.

21. President Arthur appoints Walter Evans, of
Louisville, to succeed Gen. Raum as Commissioner
of Internal Revenue.

21. Administrative regulations of the new tariff an-
nounced by the Government. The Italian Ministers

Zose Depretis and resign. Death of Suleiman Pa-
in Constantinople.

22. Nomination of the Marquis of Lansdowne as
Lord Lome's successor in the governor-generalship
of Canada. Reorganization of Italian Cabinet an-
nounced by Depretis. King and Queen of Portugal
visit Madrid. Solemn entrance of the Czar into Mos-
cow. The Swedish First Chamber rejects the mea-
sure to alter the formation and mode of recruiting the
army.

23. Opening of the National Railroad Exhibition
in Chicago. "John Jay appointed New York State
Civil-Service Commissioner.

24. Formal opening of East Eiver Bridge between
New York and Brooklyn. Miners' riot in Illinois.
French belligerent action in Madagascar.

25. Steamer accident in California. Jewish per-
secutions in Rossow, Russia. Changes made in the
Italian Cabinet. Prorogation of Dominion Parlia-
ment. Swedish Ministry resign in consequence of
the vote on the reorganization of the army. Repulse
of French troops in Tonquin ; death of Riviere. Re-
tirement of the Swedish Ministry. Death of Abd-
el-Kader.

27. Coronation of the Czar in Moscow, in the Krem-
lin Cathedral.

28. Tornadoes in Indiana ; twenty persons killed.
Popular vote in a referendum vetoes the law of com-
pulsory vaccination in the Swiss Canton of Zurich.

29. Close of the Star Route trial. Tornado in In-
diana, Ohio, and Arkansas.

30. Panic on the East River Bridge during a block-
ade of the foot-path ; twelve persons trampled to death.
Mineral exhibition opened by the King at Madrid in
presence of the King of Portugal.

31. Sick-fund bill passed in German Reichstag.
June 1. Tariff reformers issue a declaration of

principles. Prussian negotiations with Rome again
broken off. The French bombard two seaports in
Madagascar.

2. Flood in Council Bluffs, la. Hanging of Thomas
Caffrey in Dublin. The Italian Chamber resolves to
build a national monument to Garibaldi.

3. Change in the Brazilian Cabinet. Members ol
the Black Hand Society condemned in Spain.

4. Bill prohibiting political assessments passed by
Pennsylvania Senate. Assassination conspiracy un-
earthed in Tipperary, Ireland. Carey expelled from
Ireland. _ Proposal of a second Suez canal.

5. Suspicious cases of poisoning in Ireland.

6. Foraker nominated by Ohio Republicans for Gov-
ernor. Judge Kinne chosen as Democratic candidate
for Governor of Iowa. Thyselius intrusted with the
formation of a Ministry in Sweden.

7. Smking of the steamer Claudius on the British
coast.

8. Preparations for war against France in China.

9. Timothy Kelly, the last of the Phoenix Park mur-
derers, hanged. Execution of Suleiman Daoud in
Alexandria.

10. Return of the Czar to St. Petersburg after the
coronation festivities.

11. Fight of strikers in Troy, N. Y. Bennigs^n,
the German party leader, retires from political life.

12. The German Reichstag closes its session after
passing the budget for 1884-'85. The French capture
Tamatave in Madagascar.

13. Acquittal of the Star Route prisoners. Success-
ful termination of Gen. Crook's expedition against
the Indians. Nutt shoots his father's murderer in
Umontown, Pa. Earthquake in the Bukovina. Ad-
miral Pierre bombards and occupies Tamatave, in

Madagascar, and destroys also Toule Point, Moham-
bo, and Tenerive.

14. A Federal Judge in Texas declares the Civil-
Rights Act of 1875 unconstitutional. Dr. Gallagher,
the dynamite conspirator, and his accomplices con-
demned to imprisonment for life in London. Swed-
ish Parliament closes its sessions.

15. The Prohibitionists of Ohio set up a separate
ticket. The high-license bill goes into operation in
Illinois.

16. Failure of the lard firm of McGeoch & Co. in
Chicago. Kraszevski, Polish poet, arrested for high
treason in Germany. Channel Tunnel reported dan-
gerous by Parliamentary Commission.

18. Theatre panic in Cumberland, England ; 197
children trampled to death.

19. Inundation in Silesia.

20. Deaths of Archbishop Wood and Gen. Ewing,
and of Bishop Colenso of Natal.

21. Judge Hoadley nominated by the Democrats
in Ohio for Governor. The Pope complains to Presi-
dent Grevy of the treatment of the clergy in France.

22. S. L. Phclps appointed by President Arthur
Minister to Peru, and Richard Gibbs Minister to Bo-
livia. Floods in Missouri, Illinois, Kansas, Nebras-
ka? and Arkansas. Anti-Jewish demonstration in
Saint Gallen, Switzerland. Marine collision off Port-
land, England ; 25 lives lost.

23. Irish citizens protest to the President against
pauper immigration ; measures against the "abuse
taken by New York. Stormy debate in the Spanish
Cortes over a court scandal.

24. Louise Michel condemned in Paris ,to six years'
imprisonment. The cholera breaks out in Egypt at
Damietta.

25. Reduction of the number of internal revenue
districts from 126 to 82. Passage of the new ecclesi-
astical law in Prussia. Fatal fire in a puppet show at
Dervio, in Italy.

26. Supreme court of Ohio declares the Scott law
constitutional. Accident on Northern Pacific Rail-
road in Montana, killing 18 Chinamen. Understand-
ing arrived at between Russia and the Vatican.

27. The Republicans of Iowa renominate Governor
Sherman, and declare in favor of prohibition and pro-
tection. Republicans of Minnesota renominate Gov-
ernor Hubbard. Success of the Slavs in elections to
the Bohemian and Galician Diets.

28. Rejection by the British House of Lords of the
bill to legalize marriage with a deceased wife's sister.

29. The Kiistrin fortress converted into an ar-
senal.

30. Count de Chambord taken ill. Spread of the
cholera epidemic in Egypt; quarantine measures
adopted in Europe.

July 1. The new tariff comes into operation.

2. Santa Fe celebrates the 333d year of its exist-
ence.

3. Validity of the Downing license law affirmed by
the Supreme Court of Missouri. A steamer at Glas-
gow careens upon launching, and sinks, with 100 per-
sons in her hold.

4. Anti-Monopolist Convention in Chicago. The
Dutch Arctic steamer Varna lost in the Kara sea.

5. Fatal boiler-explosion at Huntsville, Texas.
England promises to use precautions against the send-
ing of paupers to the United States.

6. Resolution in favor of woman suffrage rejected
in British Parliament by 130 to 114 majority.

7. The captive Apaches taken by Gen. Crook or-
dered to be placed on the San Carlos Reservation.

9. Bradlaugh again refused admission to the House
of Commons. Capture of Guayaquil by the revolu-
tionists in Ecuador, and flight of Veintemilla.

10. New pension frauds detected and arrest of
clerks. Chinamen, smuggled into British Columbia,
are expelled.

11. Resolution adopted by the Pennsylvania Repub-
licans in convention, which proposes to distribute the
surplus revenues of the Government among the

EVENTS OF 1883. ( AUGUST, SEPTEMBER.)

325

States. Destructive flood in Ontario, Canada. The
British Government accepts Lesseps's project for a
new Suez canal.

12. Condemnation of Socialists in Posen.

13. Death of Queen Ranavalo II of Madagascar.
News arrives of the death of M'tcsa, Emperor of
Uganda.

1 4. Anniversary of the storming of the Bastile cele-
brated in Paris.

15. Arrest of 15 students in St. Petersburg.

16. The civil-service law goes into effect.

17. Mining Exhibition in Denver, Col. Wadding-
ton appointed French Embassador to London.

19. French victory over the Anameso in Tonquin in
a sortie from Namdinh.

20. The Federal Government charges the Ameri-
can consuls in England with the duty of inspecting
vessels departing for the United States. Death of
Kin? Tuduc of Anam. International rifle-match at
Wimbledon, in England.

21. Gladstone abandons the Lesseps arrangement.
The American rifle-team beaten by the British at
Wimbledon.

23. The Arctic steamer Proteus crushed in the ice ;
the crew rescued. Wharf at North Point, Tivoli,
near Baltimore, breaks in and kills 65 people.

24. Captain Webb drowned in the whirlpool at
Niagara. Defeat of Cetewayo.

25. The Federal Government adopt sanitary pre-
cautions against yellow fever and cholera.

26. Call of the last 3)£ per cent, bonds.

27. Railroad collision at Albion, N. Y. Death of
Montgomery Blair.

28. 'The defaulting State Treasurer of Tennessee
condemned to twenty years' imprisonment.

29. The island of Ischia convulsed by an earthquake,
destroying the village of Casamicciola and killing
thousands. The judiciary reforms approved by the
French Senate. Suicide at New York of Senor Barca,
Spanish Minister to the United States.

30. Carey, the approver, murdered by O'Donnell
before he disembarked at Cape Colony. End of tho
revolution in Ecuador.

31. Mexico issues $15,000,000 of new bonds in pay-
ment to her creditors.

August 1. Opening of the Southern Exhibition in
Louisville. Discovery of a widely ramified Nihilistio
conspiracy in Russia.

2. A. F. Pike elected United States Senator from
New Hampshire. Session of the French Chambers
ended. Jewish persecutions in Ekaterinoslav, Rus-
sia. French Chamber adjourns.

3. The accused in the Jewish trial at Tisza-Eslar
acquitted.

4. Earthquake in Mexico.

5. Military insurrectidn in Badajoz, Spain ; de-
mands for Zorilla as President and the restoration
of the Constitution of 1869 ; outbreaks also at Barce-
lona and other places.

6. Proctor Knott elected Governor of Kentucky.

7. National convention 01 iron and steel workers
in Philadelphia.

8. American Forestry Convention in St. Paul. Meet-
ing of the German and Austrian Emperors at Ischl.
Anti-Semitic demonstrations in Hungary.

9. The dynamite conspirator Featherstone and as-
sociates condemned at Liverpool to the penitentiary
for life.

10. Labor riot in Vienna.

11. Canon Bernard acquitted of the charge of em-
bezzlement at Tournay, Belgium.

12. Fire in Atlanta ; the Kimball House destroyed.

13. Municipal office-holders in Baltimore indicted.
The Pope summons American bishops to Rome.

14 Railroad laborers' strike at Bethlehem, Pa.,
ended.

15. Storm in Switzerland.

16. Fire in Chicago. Opening of the Electrical Ex-
hibition in Vienna.

17. Petroleum discovered in Colorado. Deportation

to Siberia of 22 Russian students. Strike of 8,000
weavers in Ashton-under-Lyne, England.

18. Fight between Protestants and Catholics in
Scotland.

19. Death of Judge Jeremiah S. Black.

^ 21. Cyclone in Minnesota, which destroyed a por-
tion of the city of Rochester, and lifted a train from
the track, killing 30 persons and wounding 50.
22. Northern Pacihc railroad completed.

24. Death at Frohsdorf of the Comte de Cbambord.

25. Prorogation of British Parliament. Treaty of
Hue, in Anam, signed after the capture of the capital
by the French. Scaffold falls in the King of Bava-
ria's new palace on the Chiemsee, killing 23 work-
men.

26. Fresh anti-Jewish outbreak in Russia. Steamer
Woodburn lost, with 18 of the crew, off Eddystone
Lighthouse.

27. Spanish commercial treaty approved by Ger-
man Federal Council. The King of Roumania returns
from a visit to Vienna and Berlin. Anti-Magyar
demonstration in Croatia. Eruption of the volcano
of Krakatoa, between Java and Sumatra.

28. Explosion of the boilers of the steamer River-
dale, on the North River, New York. Resignation of
the Spanish Ministry. Volcanic eruptions in Java
cause a terrific tidal wave and sweeping destruction
of human lives in the Straits of Sunda.

29. Zorilla expelled from France.

30. Visit of the Czar and Czarina in Copenhagen.

31. Departure of King Alfonso for Paris.
September 1. Defeat of the Black Flags between

Hanoi and Sontay after a desperate engagement.

2. Railroad accident at Steglitz, near 'Berlin. Arrest
of dynamite conspirators at Glasgow.

3. Opening of the Boston Exhibition. Miners'
strike in Ohio and Pennsylvania. Death at Bougival,
in France, of Ivan Turgenieff.

4. Railroad accident near Gray ville, 111., killing nine
militiamen.

5. Chinese troops arrive in Tonquin. Sanguinary
riots in Croatia.

6. Sulking of the steamer Canima off Newfoundland.
Acquittal of Frank James, the Missouri bandit. Labor
disturbance in Vienna.

7. Alfonso, King of Spain, leaves Paris for Vienna.

8. Corn-crop injured by frost. Opening of the
Northern Pacific railroad. Desperate battle before
Miraaroane in Hayti ; Government troops defeated.

9. Demonstration of the Irish National League.
11. Architect Hill's official conduct reproved by the

investigating committee. Chinese excesses against
Europeans in Canton. Celebration in Vienna of the
200th anniversary of deliverance from the Ottoman
yoke. Death in Paris of Henri Conscience.

13. Luther anniversary in Wittemberg.

14. The Black Flags beaten by the French in Ton-
quin.

15. Arrival of the Corean embassy in Washington.

17. Restoration of the Bulgarian Constitution.

18. Gladstone's meeting with the Czar at Copen-
hagen.

19. Resignation of Treasury Architect Hill. Re-
publican Convention of New York State. Massa-
chusetts Republicans nominate George D. Robinson
for Governor. Ministerial crisis in Servia. .

20. Railroad war in the West. Autumn manoeuvres
of the German army near Merseburg.

21. Direct telegraphic communications between the
United States and Brazil via Central America, opened.

24. Colored Men's National Convention in Louisr
ville.

25. Butler nominated by the Greenback party of
Massachusetts.

26. The Massachusetts Democrats make General
Butler their candidate for Governor.

27. The Colored Men's Convention issues an ad-
dress to the American people. Democratic State
ticket adopted at Buffalo.

28. Unveiling of the German national . monument

326

EVENTS OF 1883. (OCTOBER, NOVEMBER, DECEMBER.)

in the Niederwald, commemorating the victory of
1870-'71.

29. Powder-explosion in San Francisco ; 40 China-
men killed. King Alfonso insulted in Paris on his
return from Germany.

October 1. Reduction of letter-postage from three
to two cents goes into operation.

3. The question of the escutcheons in Croatia set-
tled. Pittsburg Exposition Building burned.

4. The Norwegian Ministry indicted. Dissolution
of the Servian Skuptchina.

6. Bicentenary of the Germans in America. Resig-
nation of the French Minister of War, Tibaudin.

7. Mormon conference upholds polygamy.

9. Republican success in Iowa. Victory of the
Democrats in Ohio ; Hoadley elected Governor ; pro-
hibition amendment defeated. Yellow fever in Ala-
bama.

10. Attempt on the life of the Bulgarian Minister of
the Interior.

11. Project of uniform time proposed by a conven-
tion at Chicago. Amnesty declared by the Khedive.
Spanish Ministry resigns ; Posada-Herrera forms a
Cabinet.

13. Northern Pacific railroad opened to traffic.

14. $13,000,000 three per cent, bonds called in by
the Secretary of the Treasury. The new Spanish
Ministry enter on their duties.

15. The Supreme Court decision that important
provisions of the Civil Eights Act are unconstitutional.
Return of the Czar to St. Petersburg. Earthquake
in Asia Minor. In Ermersleben, Germany, 110 per-
sons are attacked with trichinosis.

16. Collision between Slavs and Magyars in Hun-
gary-

17. Southern colored people protest against recent
decisions of the Federal courts.

18. Centennial Celebration in Newburg. Acquittal
of ex-Senator Sessions of bribery in the New York
Legislature.

20. Signing of treaty of peace between Chili and
Peru at Ancon.

21. Cabinet changes in Portugal.

23. Reassembly of the French Chambers. Adjourn-
ment of the Austro-Hungarian Delegations. Fresh
outbreak of cholera in Egypt. Iglesias enters Lima.
New Portuguese Cabinet, with Pereira de Mello as
Premier and Minister of War.

24. Marquis of Lansdowne assumes office as Gov-
ernor-General of Canada. Prolongation of the miner
state of siege in German cities.

27. The Apaches deliver themselves up in Mexico.

29. E. M. Bell, of Iowa, appointed Supervising
Architect of the Treasury. Failures in Liverpool.

30. The Utah Commission recommends stringent
measures against polygamy. Dynamite explosions in
the Underground railway in London.

31. Luther celebration in Worms and Wittemberg
Close of the Fishery Exhibition in London. Labor
Congress in Paris. Tonquin debate in the French
Assembly results in a vote of confidence. Collision
of the steamer Holy head with the ship Alhambra in
St. George's Channel.

November 1. Gen. Sherman retired from the chief
command of the army, and Gen. Sheridan assumes
command.' _ Orange riot in Londonderry.

2. Collision between whites and negroes in Vir-
cpnia. Grand jury of St. Louis indicted.

3. Close of Vienna Electrical Exhibition. Rebellion
in Afghanistan.

5. Hurricane in Springfield, Mo. Insurrection in
Servia. Egyptian army in the Soudan annihilated by
the followers of the False Prophet.

6. State elections : Democratic success in New York
(except the Secretary of State), New Jersey, Mary-
land, Virginia, and Mississippi • Republican victories
m Massachusetts, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Minne-
sota, and Nebraska.

. 7. Mine-explosion in the Moorfield colliery at Act-
rmgton, England ; 63 victims.

8. Wreck of the Iris off the Spanish coast ; 35 lives
lost. Beginning of the investigation of the Grcely re-
lief expedition. Roof of the Wisconsin State Capitol
falls in.

9. Fire in Shenandoah, Pa. ; 200 families homeless.

10. Luther centennial celebrated in Germany,
America, Austria, and England.

11. Republican demonstration in Madrid.

12. Gale in Chesapeake Bay, and more than 20 lives
lost. Court Chaplain Stocker, German anti-Semitic
leader, hissed in London.

14. Meeting of De Giers and Bismarck. Comple-
tion of the Arlberg tunnel.

15. Closing of iron-works in Pittsburg..

17. Call ot the Secretary of the Treasury for $10,-
000,000 more of three per cents. The German Crown
Prince departs on his journey to Spain.

18. Normal time introduced in the United States
and Canada. Excesses of the striking miners in
Michigan. British steamer Condor with 18 men lost
off the coast of Holland. Death of Safvet Pasha at
Constantinople.

19. Challemel-Lacour resigns ; Ferry takes the
portfolio of Foreign Affairs and Fallieres becomes the
Minister of Public Instruction.

20. Poole the Fenian condemned to death. Sink-
ing of a steamer and loss of 50 lives in Lake Superior.
Anti-German demonstration in Prague.

22. Cordial reception of the German Crown Prince
in Spain.

23. Arrest of the German Socialist Wolf for dyna-
mite conspiracy in London.

24. Sergeant Mason pardoned.

27. The German Emperor declares the European
peace secured. Removal of the prohibition of Ameri-
can pork in France.

29. The American bishops close their labors in
Rome.

30. Address to the people issued by the Democratic
State Committee of Virginia. _ The Pennsylvania
Legislature passes the apportionment bill. The
Hungarian Lower House adopt the Government pro-
ject for legalizing mixed marriages. Agreement be-
tween Lesseps and the English ship-owners arrived at.

December 1. O'Donnell condemned to death.

2. Meeting of Congress. Carlisle elected Speaker
of the House of Representatives. Understanding
between the European Governments with respect to
the protection of Europeans in China. Protestants
mobbed in Ireland.

4. The President's annual message. The Austrian
Reichsrath meets. The French bombard several towns
in Madagascar.

6. The Pennsylvania Legislature adjourns at last.
Secret ballot rejected by the Prussian House of Dep-
uties.

7. Annual report of the Secretary of the Navy.
Restoration of the Bishop of Limburg. Dr. Welti
elected Swiss Federal President. Duel between the
Italian politicians Nicotera and Lovito.

8. The Australian colonies resolve in favor of un-
ion.

10. Committees of the United States Senate reor-
ganized. The House of Representatives resolves in
favor of intervention in the case of O'Donnell. The
French Chamber passes the Tonquin vote of credit.

11. The Hungarian House of Magnates defeats the
mixed marriage bill. The Irish national testimonial
(£38,000) presented to Parnell. Peace declared be-
tween Chili and Bolivia.

12. Session of the Republican National Committee
and choice of Chicago for the next national conven-
tion.

13. The Dwight insurance case decided against the
companies. Murder of the King of Anam.

14. Bloodshed at New Orleans primary elections.

15. Wages reduced in the iron and steel industry.
Opening of the session of the Spanish Cortes. A
police official murdered by Socialists in Vienna.

17. Vote of censure against Puttkammer in the

FAILURES

BUSINESS.

327

Prussian House of Deputies. Execution of O'Donnell
in London. Capture of Sontay by the French.

18. Visit of the German Crown Prince to the Pope.
Execution of Poole in Dublin.

20. Opening of the new railroad-bridge over the
Niagara.

21. Important communications from the Secretary
of the Treasury touching certain Pacific railroads.
Pension swindlers in Washington indicted.

24. Congress adjourns for the holiday s. Announce-
ment of the House committees.

25. Explosion in Birkenhead, England.

26. Expulsion of Frenchmen from Elsass - Loth-
ringen. Avalanche in Colorado. Orange riot in New-
foundland.

27. The French prohibition of American pork
again put in force.

28. The Mahdi advances on Khartoum.

29. Project for the colonization of Algiers voted
down in the French Chamber. Lieut. -Col. Sudeikin,
of the Kussian police administration, murdered by
Nihilists in St. Petersburg.

F

FAILURES IN BUSINESS. The report pre-
pared by Bradstreet's Commercial Agency, and
published in its " Journal," shows that the
business failures in the United States during
1883 greatly exceeded, in number and extent
of liabilities, those of any preceding year
since 1878, when the commercial depression
following the panic of 1873 culminated. A
comparison for the five years following 1878
is afforded by this exhibit :

YEAR.

Number of
failures.

Assets.

Liabilities.

Percent. of assets
to liabilities.

1879...
1880. . .

6,652
4,350

$48,906,000
27,430,000

$99,636,000
57,120,000

49

48

1881...

5,929

35,964,000

76,094,000

47

1882...
1S83. . .

7,635
10,299

47,469,000
90,804,000

93,238,000
175,968,000

51
52

The figures for Canada and Provinces for
the same period are as follow :

YEAR.

Number of
failures.

Assets.

Liabilities.

Percent. of assets
to liabilities.

1879...

1880....

2,075
839

$16.198,000
4,760,000

$32,356,000
9,340,000

50

47

1881....

607

3,278,000

6,122,000

54

1882....

755

3,948,000

8,139,000

49

1883....

1,464

12,367,000

22,155,000

56

Classified by quarters of the year, the num-
ber of failures in the United States in 1883 was
as follows: First quarter, 3,189; second quar-
ter, 2,107; third quarter, 2,062 ; fourth quar-
ter, 2,941.

The following is a summary of failures in
the United States, by States, geographical di-
visions, and chief cities, and also in Canada,
for the year ending Deo. 31, 1883 :

No.
failures

Nominal
assets.

Actual assets.

General
liabilities.

1C. E. STATES.

. Maine
New Hampshire.
Vermont
Massachusetts . .
Rhode Island . . .
Connecticut

Totals

MIDDLE STATES.

New York
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
Delaware

Totals . .

249

98
68
809
115
168

1,507

1,105
145
1,056

22

^328

$1,972,727
401,398
2,286,600
16,487,397
2,468,800
992,000

$1,421,723
257,075
1,512,500
8,537,794
1,638,270
661,208

$3,047,660
616.606
2.708,800
26,200,552

2.488,800
1,307,844

$24,608,922

81,561,880
2,267.153
14,529,648
173,230

$14,028,565

19,164,201
1,344,059
9,107,499
106,704

$36,369,762

89,795,183
2,730.208
16,863,224

284,000

$48,531,911

$29,722,463

$59,672,565

failures

Nominal

assets.

Actual assets.

General

liabilities

SOUTHERN STATES

Maryland
Virginia
West Virginia. . .
North Carolina..
South Carolina..
Georgia and Fla.
Alabama
Mississippi

125
113
51
168
118
275
95
112
121
878
169
139
82
41

1,982

771
89
91

901
299

591

296
591
274
341
140
193
889
174
111
232

1,174,127
939,534
209,540
920,633
814,216
2.545,672
773,800
1,508,940
2,203,281
2,069,685
1,185,431
607,018
481,800
236,977

~$15,620,654

4,050,667
801,400
697,675

702,481
666,650
145,900
628,027
543,907
1,661.045
483,656
719,095
1,116,000
1,540,855
886,748
416,660
818,665
162,000

1,753,404
1,214,840
258,198
1,484,066
1,064,877
2,986.645
1,091,059
2,167,687
2,483,850
3,050,288
1,579,141
891,411
629,710
359,926

Louisiana
Texas

Kentucky

Tennessee
Arkansas

DistrictColumbia
Totals

PACIFIC STATES

California
Nevada

$9,991,689

8,171,408
258,400
564,000

$3,998,808
$2,186,496

4,746,434
2,284,013
11,603,257
2,246,456
3,360,215
2,072,791
1,037,900
1,723,001
212,779
419,511
1,225,350

$21,014,497

6,811,761
406,660
947,300

Oregon
Totals .

$5,049,742
$8,100,400

6,982,841
4,223,484
14,580,523
3.425,729
4,899,736
2,942,407
1,491,711
2,146,622
500.748
643,650
1,749,634

$7,665,721
$3,519,626

9,913,382
8,716,940
14,224,136
4,106,861
5,051,944
2,972,762
1,599,006
2,534,288
576,800
856,847
2,172,998

Territories

WESTERN STATES.

Ohio

Indiana

Illinois

Missouri

Wisconsin
Minnesota
Iowa
Nebraska
Kansas
Colorado

Totals

SUMMARY.

New»England . .
Middle States..
Southern States
Western States.
Pacific States..
Territories

Totals

PKHTOrPAL CITIES

New York
Philadelphia . . .
Boston

DOM. OF CANADA

Quebec

3,282

1,507
2,828
1,982
8,282
901
299

10,299

478
284
286

460
656
848

~l~m

$43,587,085

24,608,922
48,531,911
15,620,654
43,587,085
5,049,742
3,100,400

$140,498,714

22,166.059
8,157,137
11,908,286

10,247,670
4,501,745
4,720,963

$30,931,707

14,028,565
29,722,463
9,991,689
80,931,707
8,998,808
2,136,496

$90,804,728

18.943,151
1.855,184
6,235,450

7,126,088
- 2,698,132
2,543,750

$47,725,914

86,369,763
59,672,565
21,014,497
47,725,914
7.665,721
8.519,626

$175,968,085

27,073,196
4,181,964
14,820,827

11,307,510
5,550,637
5,297,188

Ontario
Provinces

Totals

$19,470,378

$12,867,970

$22,155,830

An analysis by trades of the failures in the
United States, in 1883, shows the following
results :

328

FAILURES IN BUSINESS.

TRADES.

Eastern
States.

Middle
States.

Southern.
States.

Western

States.

Pacific

States.

Terri-
tories.

Total,
U.S.

Canada
and
Provinces.

2

19

7

55

6

6

95

7

Bakers.

18

16

7

16

5

62

9

Ban ks

1

7

2

6

2

18

2

Bankers

2

10

1

18

1

27

4

5

9

15

2

31

11

15

29

18

28

9

g

105

18

47

9

1

12

2

71

7

45

118

54

182

83

9

891

64

g

1

7

16

7

Bottlers

8

3

g

2

14

2

25

Brick, M

5

7

12

4

15

5

9

g

85

2

Builders

18

9

6

11

*

44

5

Butchers . ...

3

14

8

1

21

1

43

4

9

10

6

g

3

• i

35

2

Carpets M .

2

7

1

10

Carpets,,W

1

2

8

1

Carriages and wagons, M

10

88

11

82

g

97

7

Cattle-dealers

1

1

8

5

Clothing M. . .

7

2

1

* •

10

1

Clothing, R

87

74

52

173

25

10

871

10

Clothing, W

20

2

g

4

84

1

Coul

Q

24

2

24

5

61

4

Confectionery, M

2

1

3

Confectionery, K . .

17

24

25

40

5

111

13

Coopers

1

1

7

5

4

g

12

1

87

g

Cotton

g

18

25

2

Cotton goods, M

9

12

2

* *

23

Creameries

6

g

14

Crockery and glassware, M

3

3

g

1

Crockery and glassware, R

g

19

11

17

7

2

64

4

Crockery and glassware, W .

4

2

3

9

1

Drugs, W

1

g

1

2

2

9

Drugs, oils, and paints, R.

88

54

43

108

7

9

254

17

Dry goods, R

48

70

117

188

29

12

414

113

Dry goods, W

g

6

1

11

3

2

29

18

Fancy goods, R

28

28

7

13

7

78

11

Fancy goods, W

g

4

1

1

g

Fire-arms, M . . .

2

2

3

1

g

1

Fish, K . . .

16

3

2

4

25

1

Flour, W

1

1

2

Flour and feed

11

22

3

g

4

48

5

Flouring-mills

12

6

84

2

53

11

Frames, M

2

6

2

7

17

1

Fruits

18

10

7

5

20

55

5

Furniture, M

9

g

g

2

27

g

Furniture, R

<>2

19

46

13

9

142

28

Furniture, "W

1

2

1

4

Furs, M

10

1

11

General stores. . . .

96

175

707

449

151

79

1,657

819

Gents' furnishing...

23

88

17

29

10

112

10

Glass, M...

1

1

Grain . ..

g

5

4

51

2

1

71

4

Grist-mills

1

4

1

6

1

Grocers, R

231

278

297

428

68

30

1,382

186

Grocers, W

2

1

6

15

4

1

29

15

Hats and caps, M

8

18

2

1

24

2

Hats and caps, W

5

2

6

13

s

Hats, caps, and furs, R

ii

16

9

32

2

1

71

12

Hardware. M

1

1

2

Hardware, R

17

18

21

108

7

8

179

31

Hardware, W

1

5

2

5

13

5

Harness or saddlery, M

2

8

1

8

1

10

2

Harness or saddlery, R .

9

13

11

58

14

6

106

12

Harness or saddlery, W. . .

1

1

1

3

1

Hosiery, M

1

14

15

2

Hotelsf.

84

87

27

55

39

10

202

46

House-furnishing

4

1

2

1

8

Iron and steel, M

6

16

4

19

1

1

47

5

Jewelry, R...'...

21

50

24

88

14

7

204

21

Jewelry, W

10

4

14

4

Jewelry or watches, M

18

4

2

2

26

Leather, M

7

13

2

4

2

28

g

Leather, hides, etc., W

11

14

6

4

85

g

Leather goods, M

2

..

2

Liquors or beer-saloons, R. . . .

T
46

14
68

7
89

i2

181

5
94

6

27

51
450

6

28

Livery-stables..

15

2

2

1

24

4

Lumber, M
Lumber, R...

14
9

27

15

19

5

4

84
40

19
8

Lumber, "W . .
Machinery, M....

5
11

13
9

2
g

15

3
3

88

87

1

g

Marble .

5

6

7

18

1

Meats, W
Merchant tailors

6
8
29

10

1
89

is

17
1

77

18
20

'8

46
5
186

i

u

FAILURES IN BUSINESS.

329

TRADES.

Eastern
States.

Middle

States.

Southern
States.

Western
States.

Pacific

States.

Terri-
tories

Total,
U.S.

Canada
and
Prorincei.

petals

1

1

2

4

Millinery and straw goods, M

2

3

" "

5

28

29

84

73

4

2

175

8i

Millinery and straw goods, W .

It

2

6

1

20

1

Miscellaneous * . .

132

298

104

182

67

6

789

96

Music and musical instruments, R

2

4

3

11

1

21

1

Notions K

8

5

g

81

4

4

53

Notions W . .

1

10

2

12

25

Oils M

1

1

8

••

5

Oils W

1

5

~

5

18

1

3

2

1

3

16

12

Paints W

2

2

3

7

Paper M

4

3

3

3

1

* *

14

g

Paper, W

6

5

1

4

19

Photographers

1

1

2

6

2

g

Pictures. ....

2

2

1

3

8

11

1

Plumbers and gas-fitters

4

9

8

7

2

2

27

1

Printers

18

10

g

16

5

52

g

Produce R

12

18

1

3

g

87

1

Produce W

6

5

7

5

4

* *

27

7

Provisions, R

58

5

2

2

1

68

4

Provisions W

1

Q

4

1

12

2

8

10

4

15

g

2

42

g

g

17

28

52

21

7

181

4

Stoves, M

1

1

1

4

Stoves, R

16

11

5

14

2

"

48

6

2

1

1

4

Silks M

5

5

Tailors' trimmings, W

2

* *

* *

2

Teas and coffees R

10

1

1

3

21

3

Teas and coffees, W

1

5

1

1

g

3

Tinware

5

10

8

12

4

3

37

16

5

23

7

16

g

1

60

9

Tobacco or cigars, R ....

17

84

16

52

15

5

139

13

Tobacco or cigars, W .

1

2

3

3

1

10

7

Toys

2

4

1

2

9

• Undertakers

5

6

1

7

19

2

Upholsterers

1

1

2

Varieties

4

3

3

5

14

2

81

2

Wood

1

1

1

4

7

1

Wood or willow ware, M

2

3

1

6

1

Woolen goods M

14

10

8

27

7

Woolens, W.

2

4

1

* *

7

3

Total

1,507

2328 1

1982

8282

901

299

10299

1 464

* A large proportion of the failures classified as miscellaneous may be characterized as miscellaneous manufactures, in-
eluding, as they do, makers of patented articles, novelties, and specialties not strictly under any class given above.

those firms which could work at the least expense and
otherwise to the best advantage, have all tended to
crowd the weaker trader or manufacturer to the wall.
Thus, with from 180,000 to 200,000 new competitors
within five years, the arrival of a period of enforced
contraction of production, distribution, and prices,
with a commercial obituary list of some 300 less than
in 1878, can not be regarded as indicative of a radical
unsoundness in the present business situation. As
heretofore, the list of failures given includes none
which have been the outcome of purely speculative
dealing as a distinctive occupation. From this analy-
sis some so-called business failures have been inten-
tionally omitted as in no way forming a part of the
mortality list in the legitimate commercial world.
It should be borne in mind that it is a general rule
with failing traders to swell the aggregate of liabili-
ties in the event of disaster. We have previously
defined a failure as that which has to be considered as
a matter of record in the regular conduct of business
of a mercantile agency-. In preparing a list of mer-
cantile traders it will be recalled that planters, other
agriculturists, and those engaged in professional occu-
pations, are necessarily excluded, under the above
definition.

The statistics for 1883 show two other note-
worthy results: First, that the average pro-
portion of indebtedness offset by available as-
sets is larger than ever before, amounting to
52 per cent. Second, that there has been a
striking increase in the percentage of liabili-

Commenting on the fact that the number of
business failures in the United States in 1883
shows a large increase when compared not
only with 1882, but also any preceding year,
with the exception of 1878, Bradstreet's
"Journal" explains that this exhibit is less
startling when more closely examined. The
number of legitimate trading concerns re-
corded in the Bradstreet Agency at the close
of 1883 was 838,823, as compared with 548,-
180 in 1873, a gain of 290,646 in ten years.
In 1878, at the end of a five years' depres-
sion in general trade, there was but a mod-
erate gain in the number of business enter-
prises, while now the total number of traders
having a distinctive place in the commercial
and industrial community is 50 per cent,
greater than ten years ago. Fully 60 per
cent, of this development in trade has taken

)lace since 1878. The expansion in business, .

extending over 1880 and 1881, was very great,
arid competition was keen, resulting in a con-
tinuous increase in the number of failures
from year to year. The " Journal " says :

The enforced contraction in production during
st two years, shrinkage in prices, abuses of the
system, and competition for the survival of

330

FAILURES IN BUSINESS.

ties. This increase, with the increased per
cent, in the number of failures during the past
three years, has been as follows :

IN THE AGGREGATE.

1883

1889

1881

1880

Increase per cent, of number ot

29

28

85

34*

Increase per cent, of liabilities..

88

22

33

22*

The average amount of liabilities per failing
trader in 1883 was about $17,000; in 1882 it
was $12,212; in 1881, $12,800 ; in 1880, $13,-
131; in 1879, $14,970.

"The general improvement," says Bradstreet's
" Journal," " in the record of 1880 as compared with
1879, as shown above, was fully offset by the in-
creased mortality and losses in liabilities taking place
in 1881. The number of failures from the latter date
has increased in a like ratio in both years (1882-'83),
but the increase per cent, of liabilities is strikingly
large in 1883, the gross indebtedness of 1883 being
nearly double that of 1882. There have been 33 fail-
ures during the year with liabilities aggregating $37,-
000,000. With these omitted from the list, as being
due to special causes, the increase per cent, in liabili-
ties (total) in 1883, as compared with 1882, drops from
88 per cent, to 33 per cent."

Grouping the returns, as to average individ-
ual indebtedness and ability to liquidate, by
geographical divisions, the exhibit is as fol-
lows:

TO EACH FAILING
TRADER.

Average liabilities.

Per cent, of assets to
liabilities.

1883

1881

1879

1883

1881

1879

In New England..
In Middle States..
In Western States.
In Southern States.
In Pacific States. . .
In Territories

24,133

25,632
14,541
10,602
8,507
11,799

11,765
19,233
9,764
12,425
8,157
13,590

16,433
17.507
13,740
13,270
11,802
18,666

39

50
65
48
52
61

41
43

53
55
38
64

41
51
51
54

47
45

In New England, the record of commercial
disaster during the year was 1 in every 61 en-
gaged in business ; in the Middle States, 1 in
104; in the Southern States, 1 in 69 ; in the
Western States, 1 in 99 ; in the Pacific States,
1 in 30 ; and in the Territories, 1 in 15. For
the country in 1878 the average was 1 failure
for every 56 in business. The average through-
out the United States in 1883 was 1 failure for
every 82 traders.

At least 76 per cent, of the whole number
of failures in 1883 were those in which the
liabilities amounted to less than $10,000. But
13 per cent, of the whole number had liabili-
ties ranging from $10,000 to $25,000, and about
5 per cent, were individually indebted from
$25,000 to $50,000 each. The proportion of
failures in which the liabilities amounted to
from $50,000 to $100,000 was but about 2|
per cent, of the whole, and of those whose
liabilities were from $100,000 to $500,000
each the proportion was about 1£ Per cent,
only. This calculation indicates that more
than 7,800 of the 10,299 failures reported in
1883 were those in which the debt in each in-
stance did not exceed $10,000 ; that more than

* Decline in number from 1879 of failures and amount of
liabilities.

1,300 failing traders' liabilities were between
$10,000 and $25,000; that in the case of more
than 500 the debts were from $25,000 to $50,-
000 ; that 300 of the failures ,had debts from
$50,000 to $100,000 each, and that the liabili-
ties of less than 160 were from $100,000 to
$500,000 each. The record of more than 10,-
000 business failures in 1883 is robbed of con-
siderable of its apparent force by the fact that
nearly 90 per cent, were of business houses
which owed each less than $25,000, and that
the liabilities of six sevenths of the total so
specified owed each less than $10,000.

Not included in the above review are the
thirty-three heaviest failures, the liabilities of
each exceeding $500,000. Of these, ten showed
liabilities from $500,000 to $600,000 each ; five,
from $600,000 to $700,000 ; four, from $700,-
000 to $800,000 ; two, from $800,000 to $900,-
000 ; three, from $900,000 to $1,000,000 ; five,
from $1,000,000 to $2,000,000; two, from
$2,000,000 to $3,000,000; one, $3,421,000;
and one, $7,509,000. The failures in which
the liabilities reached $1,000,000 were these :

Assets.

Liabilities.

Union Iron and Steel Co., Chicago.
A. D. Smith & Co., cotton manu-
facturers, Providence, It. I
Frederick Mayer & Co. , wholesale
cloths, New York
Levy Brothers & Co., wholesale
clothing. New York
James Marshall & Co., iron man-
ufacturers, Pittsburg, Pa
George William Ballou & Co.,

$1,719,000
1,200,000
1,250,000
1,500,000
1,200,000
800 000

$3,421,000
1,700,000
2,000,000
1,600,000
1,900,000
1,000,000

C. W. Copeland & Co., wholesale
boots and shoes, Boston . .
F. Shaw & Brother, leather,
Boston

964,000
5,262,000

2,101,000
7,509,000

Benjamin Burgess's Sons, whole-
sale suo'ar Boston ....

800,000

1,400,000

The thirty-three firms above referred to,
owed about $37,300,000 in the aggregate, or
an average of about $1,130,000 each. Of the
total of over $37,000,000 of debts, Boston
firms are to be charged with $11,662,000 di-
rectly due to the F. Shaw & Brother failure.
New York's total is $10,225,000, about one
third of which was due to the Mayer and Levy
embarrassments. Chicago ranks third, with
$4,512,000 liabilities, or about equal to the
total liabilities of all kinds reported from
Philadelphia. Thirty-one of the firms whose
actual assets were reported, gave the total of
the same at approximately $20,000,000, as
against $36,000,000 aggregate liabilities, thus
indicating a possible settlement at 55 cents on
the dollar.

A valuable study bearing on the subject of
commercial failures is afforded by an exami-
nation of the total number of traders and of
failures in business in the United States, in
1880, in connection with the aggregate capital
directly and indirectly invested in business in
that year. The statistical returns of such
capital, and also of the number of traders en-
gaged in business, are reported for the first
time by the Federal census of 1880. These

FAILURES IN BUSINESS.

SECTIONS.

Total amount of
capital Invested
in business.
[OOO'i omitted.]

Total number of
traders in busi-
ness in 1880.

Si-

Hi

Ratio of failures
to number of
traders.

Average amount
capital per trad-
er In States.

EASTERN.

Connecticut

Dollars.
296,377
92 616

15,418
11,672

86
96

1 in 179
1 in 122

Dollars.
19,200

7900

Massachusetts
New Hampshire . . .
Rhode Island
Vermont.

1,041,396
62,210
131,557
37,563

87,308
7,282
6,OT8
6,553

834
82
65
22

1 in 112
1 in 227
1 in 94
1 in 298

27^000
8,500
21,000
5700

Totals

MTDDLE.

Delaware

1,661,718

31,607
143,490

84,306

3,500
19276

635

15

52

lin 135

1 in 223
1 in 370

19,700

9,000
7400

New York
Pennsylvania

1,822,524

867,584

105,819
80.614

554

289

1 in 191

lin 278

17,200
10,700

Totals

SOUTHERN.

Alabama
Arkansas
Florida

2,865,205

37,017

22,042
12 149

209,209

6,447

4,840
1 843

910

66
60

lin 282

lin 97
lin 80

13,700

5,700
4,500
6500

85,837

8304

>• 90

lin 112

10300

Louisiana

76,252

7292

86

1 in 85

10400

Maryland
Mississippi
North Carolina
South Carolina
Tennessee
Texas
Virginia
West Virginia

220,916
33,192
51,519
89,024
74,526
70.047
94,343
38,711

13,974
5,257
6,939
4,568
8,092
11,403
10,715
5,848

68
151
85
43
145
144
65
85

1 in 205
lin 35
lin 81
1 in 106
1 in 56
lin 80
1 in 164
1 in 152

15,900
6,300
7,400
8,500
9.200

e;ioo

8,800
7,200

Totals

WESTERN.

Colorado
Illinois . .

855,581

21,785
486,014

95,022

3.801
51 216

1,038

21
150

lin 92

1 in 181
1 in 341

9,000

5,700
9400

Indiana

180.090

29,565

107

1 in 276

6000

Iowa

135,736

25,290

105

1 in 244

5,300

Kansas

46,214

10,834

66

1 in 156

4,400

134 861

15 238

71

1 in 214

8800

Michigan

300 148

26890

125

1 in 215

11 100

Minnesota

85,084

11,014

75

1 in 146

7700

Missouri

253,727

26257

136

1 in 198

9,600

Nebraska
Ohio

26,516
595 576

6,094
54683

87
165

lin 70
1 in 300

4,300
10900

Wisconsin

173,652

22,015

65

lin 354

7,800

Totals

2,439,408

282,397

1 178

1 in 241

8600

PACIFIC.

California
Oregon ... .

255,412
18559

18,000
2,683

405
51

1 in 44
1 in 52

14,100
6900

Nevada

6,075

1,562

57

1 in 27

8,900

Totals

230,047

22,245

513

lin 43

12,500

TERUITORIE8.

Alaska

157

Arizona
Dakota

2,601

7785

853

2219

*26

lin 25
*1 in 107

7,000
8500

Idaho

2266

861

5

1 in 72

6200

Indian Territory

1,798

168

10,000

Montana
New Mexico

9,154
7,757

802
580

6

1 in 133

11,400
13,800

Utah

10 726

1 418

8

1 in 177

7500

Washington
Wyoming

5.012
5,808

916
889

7

lin 137

5,400
18,600

Totals
District of Columbia

52,5(51
22,981

7,226
2,923

66
15

1 in 110
lin 294

7,200
7,800

Grand total ....

8,177,505

703,328

4,350

1 in 162

11,600

SUMMARY ARRANGED BY GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS.

Middle
Southern

2,865,205
855,581
2,439,408
•280,047
52,561
22,981

209,209 910
95,022; 1,038
282,8971 1,173
22.245 513

7,226 66
2,923 15

1 in 232
1 in 92
1 in 241
lin 43
1 in 110
1 in 194

1 in 162

13,700
9,000
8,600
12,500
7,200
7,800

11,600

Western
Pacific

Territories

District of Columbia
Totals

8,177,505

708,3281 4,350

* Includes Dakota, Indian Territory, and Wyoming.

returns show that the total recorded number
of traders in the United States, June 1, 1880 —
that is, those having a distinctive position in
the commercial or industrial community — was
703,328. This means the number of business
enterprises including incorporated companies
and unincorporated business houses and firms.
It does not, therefore, represent the number
of individual traders, since many companies
and firms are composed of two or more mem-
bers each. The aggregate capital, including
real estate and personal property, invested in
business, was $8,177,505,862. A comparison
by States of the failures in 1880, with the
number of traders and the amount of capital,
will be found in the table in the preceding
column.

From the table above, it is found that the
total capital credited to the State of New York
alone was in excess of the aggregate for all
New England by nearly $200,000,000, was
more than twice as large as the total capital in
the Southern States, was two thirds as great as
the total for the Western States, and more
than six times as large as the total for the Pa-
cific coast. New York's share comprised 22
per cent, of the grand total of all the capital
invested in business in this country in 1880.
Massachusetts ranked second, with $1,041,000,-
000, against $1,822,000,000 invested in business
in New York ; Pennsylvania third, with $867,-
000,000; Ohio fourth, with $595,000,000; Illi-
nois fifth, with $486,000,000 ; and Michigan
sixth, with $300,000,000. The following is a
comparison by geographical divisions of the
percentage of aggregate capital invested in 1880,
and of the total number of traders and of fail-
ures in 1880 and 1883 :

STATES.

Per cent,
of ag. cap.
invested.

Per cent, of total
number traders.

Per cent, of total
number failures.

1880

1880

1883

1880

1883

14-6

18-8
31-8
8-T

Eastern

20-5
84-5
10-5
80-1
3'4

12
29-7
13-7
40-1
3-1

11
28-9
15-9
88-5
8-2

14-6
20-9
23-7
26-9
11-7

Middle

Southern

Western

Pacific

The ratio of growth in business, as indicated
by the increase in the number of traders, is
shown by the following:

STATES.

1873.

1880.

1883.

70,966

84.306

92.740

Middle

165,938

209,209

242,303

87040

95,022

133.933

Western ....

200,871

282,397

828,044

Pacific

16396

22245

27087

Territories

4565

7,226

16.787

District of Columbia

2894

2,923

2,979

Totals

548180

703 328

838,828

Bradstreet's "Journal " says :

The total number of failures in business in 1880 was
undoubtedly the smallest in any vcar since the simi-
larly prosperous period in 1872. \Vhen trade is thus
at the flood, many of the elements of disaster are for
the time wholly absent. At such a time ventures are
at the initial point, and actual disasters are of neces-

332

FINANCIAL REVIEW OF 1883.

sity exceedingly limited. At a later period, when ac-
tivity has become general and ill-judged ventures
have readied the point of fruition or failure, numer-
ous trade disasters come about as a matter of course,
and this while the general condition of trade is excep-
tionally sound. The record of the past three years
has verified the analysis. In 1880 failures were rela-
tively few. while in 1883 they were about 2 -4 times as
many? activity and competition in production and dis-
tribution having become severe. The general aver-
age of failures for the United States in 1880 was one
in every 1 62 traders. This, if compared with the esti-
mated ratio for 1878, a year of heavy commercial dis-
asters, and again with the past calendar year, is as
follows :

1878.

1880.

1883.

Eatio of failures to traders

Hn56

1 in 162

linS2

The final column of the table given above
shows the average amount of capital per trad-
er by States, in round numbers, with averages
by geographical divisions. It is interesting to
note that Massachusetts leads among States
with about $27,000 capital per trader, and that
Ehode Island is second with $21,000. Con-
necticut with $19,200 outranks New York by
about $2,000 per trader. Maryland ranks ahead
of Pennsylvania, the former having $15,900
average capital per trader to $10,700 of the
latter. California averages $14, 1 00, and Michi-
gan $11,100. For the United States as u whole
the average capital to each trader or business
concern is in round numbers $11,600.

FINANCES OF THE UNITED STATES. See
UNITED STATES, FINANCES OF.

FINANCIAL REVIEW OF 1883. The record of
1883 is that of a growing commercial depres-
sion. The causes may be traced, not so much
to excessive expansion during the brief tide of
prosperity which reached its highest mark in

1881, as to the failure of crops from drought
in that year, the losses of stock from frost and
snow the following winter, the paralysis of the
iron industry resulting from the cessation of
railroad-building, and largely to the simultane-
ous depression in Europe and its effect on the
exports and prices of American products. In
the South, and in parts of the Southwest and
West, where industrial expansion has proceed-
ed at a rapid rate, the stringency was less felt,
and in some trades and localities profits were
still sufficient to encourage a continued exten-
sion of facilities. This transfer of productive
activity to new centers was proportionally op-
erative in producing the pressure under which
Eastern trade and manufactures suffered.

Business failures increased in steady progres-
sion, from the minimum amount of liabilities,
in 1880. of $66,000,000, to $81,000,000 in 1881,
$102,000,000 in 1882, and $173,000,000 in 1883.
(See FAILURES IN BUSINESS.) But there was
nothing approaching the character of a finan-
cial crisis. A continuous decline in the values
of stocks, in the face of the heaviest returns of
railroad traffic and earnings ever made, was
the most remarkable feature of the year. The
safety of the financial institutions of the coun-
try is in a large measure involved in the fluc-
tuations of stock- values ; but it was a reassur-
ing symptom that their operations were con-
servative enough to sustain so vast a shrinkage
of values. There was no bank failure of mag-
nitude or wide-spread influence, and none which
was not due to the failure of isolated enter-
prises or speculative corners.

The following tabular survey of the economi-
cal conditions and results of 1883, contrasted
with those of the preceding year, is taken from
the " Commercial and Financial Chronicle " :

DATA.

1882.

1883.

Coin and currency in United States November 1st

$1 465 509 449

fl 523,366,989

Total clearings in twenty-seven cities

60 808,000,000

1,502,000,000

Mercantile failures

101,547,064

173,000,000

Imports of gold and silver (eleven months)

19.18-2,900

38,767,115

Exports of gold and silver (eleven months)

54 000 489

28,629,847

Imports of merchandise (eleven months)

693,310,224

632,995,212

Exports of merchandise (eleven months)

675,021,019

719,529,625

Railroads constructed (miles) .

11,591

6.600

Oross ermines of sixty-four railroads (eleven months)

$245,891,143

$269,816.699

Wheat raised (bushed

503 000 000

400,000,000

Corn raised (bushels)

1J624 000,000

1,551,000,000

Cotton raised (bales)

6,992,234

6,000,000

Pig-iron (tons)

4,623,323

4,623,000

Anthracite coal (tons)

29 239 919

81,200,000

Immigration (eleven months) ...

686,676

586,430

The pric'es of the leading staples on or about at the same date in 1883 and 1882, were asfol-
the 1st of January, 1884, compared with prices low :

MERCHANDISE.

1882.

1883. 1884.

Cotton, middling uplands, per pound

87 ©45
25 00 ©27 00
59 00 © 60 00

71© 71*
17 50 ©19 50

35@H43
25 00 ©26 00
40 00

66J © 66$
18 37* ©18 50

1
33 (j
20 50 <<
88 00 C
1 1CH
63f(?
14 75 (f

Ml
£21 50

a 86 oo

£1 12J
£64
£15 25

Wool, American XX, per pound

Iron, American pig. No. 1, per ton ...

Steel rails....

Wheat, No. 2 red winter, per bushel

Corn, Western mixture, No. 2. per bushel

Pork, mess, per barrel

^ The Banks and the Money Market.— In no year ject to violent fluctuations, than during 1883.
since 1878 was money more uniformly easy There was a temporary stringency in March
throughout the year, or the market less sub- and April, when call 'loans, which had been

FINANCIAL REVIEW OF 1883.

333

quoted at 2 per cent, on Government bonds
and 5 per cent, on other collaterals during the
previous part of the year, were taken in Wall
street at rates ranging on 'some days as high as
20 and 25 per cent, per annum. After nearly
three months of fluctuation the price settled
down for the summer to from 1 to 3 per cent.
When the autumn depletion for the crop move-
ment occurred, which is usually the opportu-
nity of the bears, the supply was too abundant
for any manipulation, and money could usually
be obtained on collaterals at the same rates,
on no occasion rising above 4£ and 5 per cent.
The closing quotations of the year were 1 to 3
per cent., the lower rate applying, as usual, to
loans on Government bonds. The dealings in
commercial paper became more and more re-
stricted and cautious as the year advanced.
This shutting off of accommodation precipi-
tated the embarrassments of weak traders, and
swelled the total of mercantile failures. A con-
siderable proportion of the insolvent mer-
chants owed their bankruptcy to speculations
outside of the sphere of their legitimate busi-
ness. This " weeding-out" process produced
no perturbations, and, instead of betraying
weakness in the financial machinery of the
country, was an encouraging proof of its sound

and conservative workings. The failures re-
sulting from the miscarriage of wheat and lard
corners were self-limited. The bonded whisky
question and the fate of the gigantic specula-
tions in that product involved the banks more
seriously. The decline in stocks was con-
sidered by many to have reached a point which
endangered the stability of the credit institu-
tions. Yet there were evidences that the bank-
ers amply discounted the decline, and placed
themselves in a position of safety more assured
at the close of 1883 than at any previous time.
By dropping questionable securities and requir-
ing wider margins, they contributed in no
slight measure to the decline and weakness of
the stock-market.

Prime commercial paper was discounted in
New York at 5 to 6 per cent, in January, 5 to
5£ in February, 6 to 7 in March, 5 to 6 in April,
5 to 6 in May, 4 to 5£ in June and July, 4^ to
6£ in August, 5£ to 6£ from September to No-
vember, and 5 to 6 at the close of the year.

The condition of the New York Clearing-
House banks, and the rates of money and ex-
change, with the prices of United States bonds,
on or about the 1st of January, 1884, as com-
pared with the two years preceding, are given
in the following summary:

1883.

1883.

1884.

NEW YORK CITY BANKS :

$315443400

$811 071 200

$327 535 700

57 782 500

57 627 100

60,468100

Circulation

20,162 400

17,625,500

15,456,800

Net deposits

289 890 400

291 663 600

820 793 000

15 942 000

18 664 200

26479100

72 472 600

72915900

80198250

Reserve held

73 724 500

76.291 300

86,947,200

$1 251 900

(3 875 400

$6 748 950

MONET EXCHANGE, SILVEB :
Call loans

3@. 6 + i p. d

3@12

1@2|

Prime paper, sixty days .

6@6i

6(3> 6*

5@E*

5l44c?

5'i<2

Sid

Prime sterling bills, sixty days

4 81

4 81

4 82*

UNITED STATES BONDS :
3s, registered, option United States

102*

lOOi

6s currency 1898

129

132

134

4|s, 1891, coupon •.

114*

113

114£

4s of 190T, coupon

117|

119*

123f

Appended is the Clearing-IIouse statement of totals at the beginning of each quarter of 1883
md at the end of the year :

DATE.

Loans and
discounts.

Specie.

Circulation.

Net deposits.

Legal tenders.

December 30, 1882

$311 071 200

$57 627 100

$17 625500

$291,663,600

$18,664,200

March 31 18S3

810 180 100

49 086 800

16 574 800

279 944,200

16,801,800

June 30 1883

393 083 200

64 189 600

15 012 600

824 289,900

26,122,800

September 29, 1883

329'764'oOO

55'324'400

Ic'l98 500

814,107,500

24,077,800

December 29, 1883

827 585 700

6o'46s'lOO

15 456 800

320,798,000

20,479,100

Foreign Exchange. — The imports in 1883 were
eonsiderably less than in the previous year,
while the exports were greater. In the later
months of the year the export movement of
merchandise diminished. The returns for elev-
en months of the calendar year show an excess
of exports amounting to $86,534,413, against
an excess of imports in the corresponding pe-

riod of 1882 amounting to $18,327,238. The
bullion movement shows a -net importation
of $5,137,268 for the same months of 1883,
against an excess of exports during eleven
months of 1882 amounting to $34,817,589.
The foreign commerce of the country does
not alone govern the exchange market. It is
materially affected by the movement of Ameri-

334

FINANCIAL KEVIEW OF 1883.

can stocks and bonds to and fro between New
York and European financial centers. This
movement has attained large dimensions of
late years ; but there is no record of such ship-
ments, or means of estimating their amounts.
Bankers' bills on London sold at stiff rates in
May, June, and July. It was therefore be-
lieved that large amounts of securities were
sent home from abroad. After July, rates
weakened. An import movement in gold, of
moderate dimensions, continued for a brief pe-
riod and then fell otf. The rate of sterling ex-
change for sixty-day drafts was $4.81 at the
beginning of January, rising to $4.83 in the
middle of the month, and $4.83£ m_the begin-
ning of February. Lower and variable rates
obtained in the next two months, falling to
$4*81 in the latter part of March, after which
the rate quickly rose to $4.84 in April, and,
after falling £ cent, advanced to $4.85 \ in the
middle of May and $4.86£ in the first part of
June; $4.85£ ruled for the next month, and
after the middle of July $4.84; $4.83 in the
latter part of August; $4.82£ in the begin-
ning, and a cent higher at the close of Septem-
ber; $4.82£ and down to $4.81£ in October;
and from $4.82 to $4.83 through November
and December.

Manufacturing Industries. — Industrial enterprise
flagged, and manufactures, confronted with a
failing demand, experienced the most unprofit-
able and discouraging year since the crisis of
1873 and the following period of despondency.
Distributing merchants, under the influence of
descending prices, took no more goods than
were necessary to supply immediate demands.
Manufacturers were therefore obliged to carry
heavy and constantly accumulating stocks, or
reduce production. The more expanded and
venturesome concerns broke down under the
strain, and made up the bulk of the mercantile
failures. A downward movement in prices be-
gan in 1881. In 1883 competition became so
sharp that profits nearly vanished in many
branches of trade. Yet so great was the
faith in the inherent strength of the situation,
and the expectation of a speedy recovery so
general, that manufacturers continued to pro-
duce to their full capacity. While goods were
being turned out in undiminished and often on
an increased scale, and pressed upon the falling
market, or stocks accumulated for the expected
upward turn, there were evidences everywhere
of dwindling consumption. The failure of the
harvests in 1881, the lessened demand for Amer-
ican staples in Europe, in consequence of bet-
ter crops there and of a depression which was
in a large measure the reaction of American
agricultural competition, the prostration of the
iron trade, the crises in the speculative mar-
kets and their train of mercantile disasters,
were some of the depressing influences which
caused a diminution in the consumptive ca-
pasity of the country. A far-reaching and per-
sistent cause was contributed by the manufac-
turers and traders themselves, who, in order

to keep up their productive activity and carry
their accumulated stocks, cut down their wages
accounts and practiced the sharpest economies.
The reports of railroad receipts and traffic fur-
nish conclusive evidence that the volume of
business was as great as in the most prosper-
ous years.

The decline of railroad construction was one
of the chief elements of disturbance. The un-
due expansion of the iron industry to supply
this temporary demand was followed by a re-
action in this trade which led off, and to a
considerable extent helped produce, the gen-
eral industrial depression. The reduction of
railroad construction from 11,591 miles in 1882
to 6,600 miles in 1883 decreased the distribu-
tion of money for this purpose among manu-
facturers, transportation companies, contract-
ors, storekeepers, laborers, etc., from $347,-
730.000 to $198,000,000. If construction falls
off to 3,000 miles in 1884 it makes a further dif-
ference of $108,000,000 in the disbursements.
Steel rails were worth $71 a ton in January,
1880; in December, 1883, large contracts were
taken at $33 and $35 a ton. American pig-
iron fell from $35 to $20 a ton. On the 1st
of January, 1883, there were 417 furnaces in
blast, and 270 out of blast, in the United States.
By the 1st of July 83 more were blown out;
but between that date and November 1st the
number in operation was reduced by only three.
The stock on hand on January 1st was 383,655
gross tons, increasing to 528,590 tons on July
1st, after which it was reduced until only 232,-
354 tons remained unsold on November 1st.
The reduction in production was so great that
consumption required more than the new sup-
ply, and prices showed an upward tendency in
the latter part of the year.

New mining districts, opened up in various
parts of the country with the extension of
railroads, begin to affect the supremacy of the
old center of iron production. The furnaces of
Western Pennsylvania work mostly Lake Su-
perior and imported ores. In the Clearfield
district in Pennsylvania iron, coal, and lime-
stone are found together. Another new field
is in Southwestern Virginia, where the rich
mineral deposits have attracted a large amount
of capital, American and English. The pig-
iron industry of the Southern States has devel-
oped even more remarkably than other branch-
es of trade. The production increased in one
year 25 per cent. The cost of negro labor is
lower than that of labor at the North, while
the quality of the product can bear comparison
with the best grades of English Cleveland iron.

The anthracite-coal trade showed a develop-
ment in 1883 which made it an exception to
other industries. The mining and transporta-
tion companies, led by Philadelphia and Read-
ing, pushed their productions to the utmost,
sending to market about 31, 200,000 tons in
1883, against 29,239,919 tons in 1882. A much
larger tonnage than usual was shipped west-
ward, necessarily competing with the soft coal

FINANCIAL REVIEW OF 1883.

335

whioh was selling at low prices in the Western
markets. Other mineral industries suffered un-
der a general stagnation.

The cotton and woolen trades were later in
discovering overproduction, and slower in cur-
tailing it. But before the end of 1883 the ne-
cessary process was under way. Prices fell to
a point where exportation can relieve the coun-
try of the oversupply. The manufacturers re-
duced their accumulations by auction-sales, and
offered blocks of unprecedented magnitude,
which sold below current rates, but not with
the demoralizing effect that many feared.

The Crops. — The agricultural products of 1883
were but slightly above the average. The
yield of corn, wheat, and cotton was about
the medium, and fell far below the crops of
1882. The corn-crop was 373,000,000 bushels
less, but the deterioration caused by rain and
frost makes the deficiency much greater. The
receipts of grain and cotton during the last
five months of 1883 were very heavy, leaving
a smaller proportion than usual in the hands
of the farmers, indicating that the movement
will be light and the deficiency of the crops
strongly felt in the remaining months of the
crop year. Of the minor cereal crops and of
potatoes the yield was abundant.

The Stock Market. — The year 1883 was char-
acterized by a more general, persistent, and
severe decline in the prices of stocks than in
any year since the depression of 1873-'78. A
mass of stocks and income bonds had been
floated on the market which could not possi-
bly pay dividends in four or five years. Recent
consolidations and extensions had given rail-
road managers an opportunity to supply the
public with these watered stocks during a pe-
riod of prosperity and speculation at double
the prices to which they fell in 1883. The to-
tal amount of new shares and securities placed
upon the market in two years was probably not
less than $2,000,000,000. The holders of this
speculative material were anxious to sell when-
ever prices recovered, and by such an attitude
checked any tendency to -a rise. Mercantile
profits had fallen away, and there were com-
mratively few who still disposed of the means
to carry on Wall street speculations. Heavy loss-
es in speculations during the last four months
of 1882 emptied the street of petty operators.
The market opened in January with a weak
and vacillating tone. In the absence of tran-
sient buyers for speculative purposes, the great
operators were unable to strengthen prices or
took no pains to do so. There were signs of
renewed activity in March, but the movement
was checked by a tight money-market. When
the stringency relaxed there was a brief activ-
ity, followed by complete lassitude. Large op-
erators were supposed to have utilized the op-
portunity to unload a part of their holdings.
A tendency to an upward movement manifest-
ed itself in June, but a reaction set in imme-
diately. Toward the end of July, when "bear "
speculators attempted to force prices to a lower

level, they were effectually resisted by large
operators who wished to sustain the stocks in
which they were particularly interested. The
slight effect of the telegraph employes' strike
on the price of Western Union stock revealed
the extent of the control of the chief holders
over this stock. The prolonged dullness of
the market was reflected in a decline in the
value of seats in the Stock Exchange, which
were sold in July as low as $23,000. The ex-
ceedingly favorable semi-annual reports of rail-
road earnings failed to invigorate the market.
In August there was a sudden decline in Den-
ver and Rio Grande, and a heavy block of this
stock was believed to have been purchased in
the interest of the Union Pacific, to prevent the
road from falling under the control of any ri-
val corporation. The "bears" attacked also the
Northern Pacific and Oregon Transcontinental.
The following month, while the ostentatious
opening of the Northern Pacific was taking
place, the attack was vigorously renewed. The
speculators for a fall selected these stocks on
account of the difficulties in which Mr. Villard
had involved them in order to complete the
Northern Pacific railroad. The object was, by
causing a break in them, to effect a sympathetic
decline in the rest of the list. The announce-
ment in October of the issue of $20,000,000 of
new bonds on the Northern Pacific property
removed the last prop, and with the heavy de-
cline in these stocks nearly the whole list went
down. The margins on stocks were to a large
extent wiped out when the decline took place.
The bears conducted their operations on a vast
scale. Such activity had not been witnessed in
many months. The result was that the mar-
ket was largely oversold and the bear influence
paralyzed for the remainder of the year. The
opposite party seized the opportunity to give
them a " twist " in some of the oversold stocks.
Prices rose in consequence to an abnormal lev-
el, Northern Pacific advancing from 56 to 78£
and Oregon Transcontinental from 34|- to 51.
Mr. Vanderbilt entered the market as a buyer
and called in his loans, with the effect of ad-
vancing Michigan Central from 77 to 96-J-. The
high prices were not long maintained. A bull
movement started in the beginning of Novem-
ber soon gave out. At the close of the year
dissensions among the railroads caused a re-
newed depression. The Northern Pacific stocks
and Union Pacific fell oft' among other stocks,
and in some cases the lowest level was reached.

The total sales of stocks at the New York
Stock Exchange during the year 1883 were
96,037,905 shares, against a total of 113,720,-
665 shares in 1882, 113,392,685 in 1881, 97,-
200,000 in 1880, and 74,166,652 in 1879.
The most active stock during 1883 was Dela-
ware, Lackawanna, and Western, of which
nearly 16,000,000 shares were dealt in, exceed-
ing in amount thirty times the capital stock.

The following is a list of quotations of the
leading stocks on or about Jan. 1, 1882, 1883,
and 1884:

336

FINANCIAL REVIEW OF 1883.

RAILROAD STOCKS.

1883

1883

1884

New York Central and Hudson River. .
Erie (New York, Lake Erie, and West-

isoi

40j
11*2:

85i
181,
129,

125;

106
127
9(H

\

126

38*
1124
98
125*
142*
134*

105*
128*
69f

112

26*
94*
85
116*
182*
116*

92
116*

84*

Lake Shore and Michigan Southern
Michigan Central .

Chicago, Bock Island, and Pacific
Illinois Central

Chicago and Northwestern, common. . .
Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul, com-

Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western..

The following is a list of some of the spec-
ulative stocks, with the prices which they
brought at some time during 1882, and those
to which they fell in December, 1883:

RAILROAD STOCKS.

1882,
highest.

Dec., 1883,
lowest.

Canada Southern .

73

50*

97

88*

Chesapeake and Ohio
Chesapeake and Ohio, 2d preferred. . .
Denver and Rio Grande

27
29
74

14
16
22*

Hannibal and St. Joseph

110

3

Indiana. Bloomington, and Western..
Lake Erie and Western

49
45

i9

Louisville and Nashville
Louisville, New Albany, and Chicago.

100

78
82

43*
30
82

Missouri, Kansas, and Texas
Nashville, Chattanooga, and St. Louis.
New York, Lake Erie, and Western. .
Northern Pacific

42
87
43
54

20*
54
26f
23*

Northern Pacific, preferred . .

100

4f*

Oregon Transcontinental
Oregon Railway and Navigation Corn-

98
163

29*
90

Ohio Central . .

25

2*

Ohio and Mississippi

42

21

Richmond and Danville
Richmond and West Point Terminal. .
Texas and Pacific

250
263
55

54
28
17*

Wabash

89

17

"W abash, preferred

71

29*

* Ex-dividend.

Railroads. — Kailroad traffic and earnings in
1883 exceeded those of any previous year.
Tonnage was heavy, from the large crops of
1882, an active movement of merchandise of
all kinds, an exceptionally large coal - traffic,
and the early movement of the crops of 1883.
Immigration and the settlement of new lands
contributed considerably to the traffic. Pas-
senger business was also heavy. The many
new lines recently opened made the competi-
tion severe, and toward the end of 1883 signs
of new ruptures in the pools and combinations
disclosed the extent to which roads had been
constructed beyond immediate requirements,
and consequently depressed the values of
stocks. The stocks of railroads which were
subjected most to new competition suffered

most in the general decline. The New York
Central was threatened by the new West
Shore road. The Union Pacific was affected by
the opening of the Denver and Rio Grande to
Salt Lake City, the Central Pacific by the com-
pletion of the Southern Pacific, and by the ap-
proaching completion of the Northern Pacific.
The rivalry between the Pennsylvania and
the Philadelphia and Reading led to sales of
stock; and lines like the Erie and St. Paul,
which were subjected to the brunt of competi-
tion or undermined by tariff wars, were the
easy prey of the bears.

The completion of the " Nickel-Plate " rail-
road and the opening of the Chicago and At-
lantic route by the Erie, made six through
routes to contend for the Chicago traffic in-
stead of four. The Pool Commissioner ad-
justed the proportions of the roads accord-
ingly, but rumors and accusations of rate- cut-
ting and evasions were rife during the latter
half of the year. The Delaware, Lackawanna,
and Western was subjected to the severest pen-
alty in the power of the commissioner, viz. :
the refusal of connecting lines to forward its
freight except at local rates, and some of the
trunk-line managers appealed from the award
of percentages on east-bound business.

In November a conflict broke out in the
principal Western pooling association. The
Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul announced
its intention of withdrawing from the Iowa
pool. The Northwestern, the Rock Island, and
the Burlington and Quincy roads showed dissat-
isfaction with the arrangements. An agree-
ment was formed between the St. Paul, Rock
Island, and Union Pacific, excluding the North-
western and Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy.

The gross earnings of the four great trunk
lines leading into New York in the four years
ending with 1883. a period marked by one
deficient harvest, increased competition of the
water-route from the abolition of tolls on the
Erie canal, a protracted and bitter war of
rates, and a progressive depression of industry,
nevertheless show an increase from $91,750,-
000 dollars to $127,375,000, or 40 per cent.
Net earnings during the same period increased
from $37,000,000 to $48,000,000 dollars, but
since the first augmentation of traffic in
1879-'80, when wages and materials were
still low, the increase in operating expenses
has kept pace with the growth of the business.
The following statement gives the reported re-
ceipts and profits of these arterial lines:

TRUNK LINES.

1878-'79.

1879-'80.

1880-'81.

1881-'83.

1882-'83.

Pennsylvania :
Gross earnings

$83.833,026

$40 35« 679

$43 884 696

$47 IPS, 715

$51.084,955

Net earnings. . . .

13 574 8^8

16 970 737

17 604 528

17 623 068

18,904,473

New York Central :
Gross earnings

28,396 f>88

33175913

32 348 3%

80 628,781

88,770,722

Net earnings

12 273 511

15326019

12 883 610

11 232807

13 020,128

New York and Erie :
Gross earnings

15949.023

18698 108

20 71 5 605

19,975 774

22,802,247

Net earnings ...

4 767 824

7 049 188

7 459 875

6 887 681

7 857,664

Baltimore and Ohio :
Gross earnings

14,193,980

18817740

18463877

18 883 875

19,739,838

Net earningf

6 502 385

7 986 970

7 073 398

7 454 662

8 705 828

FINANCIAL REVIEW OF 1883.

The returns of fifty-six other railroads show
an increase in gross earnings of from $263,750,-
000 in 1882 to nearly $291,000,000 in 1883.
The railroads of the Northwest make the most
favorable exhibit, as this is the part of the
country which has been most rapidly devel-
oped by immigration and settlement. The ag-
ricultural and industrial development of the
Southwest, and the progress in many of the
older settled portions of the South, are re-
flected in the railroad reports. The elaborate
net-work in the States of Ohio, Indiana, and
Illinois proved to surpass their needs when
in 1883 there was another short crop.

The railroad properties stood the strain of
the present depression, instead of defaulting
and going into liquidation as in 1873-' 78, for
the reason that the powerful combinations of
capital which have consolidated vast railroad
systems, covering whole sections of the coun-
try, have taken into their systems the smaller
and less remunerative lines, and since 1879
have conducted the greater part of the rail-
road extension. This is the reason why over
25,000 miles of new railroad could be built
between Jan. 1, 1881, and Jan. 1, 1884, in a time
exceedingly unfavorable for floating new enter-
prises, while there was a constant decline in
the market values of securities, without pro-
ducing the disturbance and collapse which fol-
lowed the crisis of 1873. In the preceding
period local capital, individuals who traded
on their ideas rather than on their capital, and
speculative investors who were quick to take
alarm, stood behind the new mileage, con-
structed in fragmentary lines which were able
to co-operate only in a cumbersome way, and
were easily betrayed into antagonism. The
solidarity, organization, and economy of the
present system are in every way advantageous.
In regard to the construction of new roads
the money borrowed for the purpose is ob-
tained on the credit of the old paying con-
cerns with a saving, taking the rates at which
the bonds are issued into consideration, of
probably 2 per cent, in the 'interest, while the
bonus given with the bonds, in the shape of
stock or income bonds, does not require com-
pulsory payments which add to the fixed
charges. The mileage ;s laid out more intel-
ligently, with less sinking of capital in dupli-
cate or unnecessary lines, while nearly all of
the new roads serve as feeders to the stem
lines under whose auspices they are con-
structed, and often produce profits when their
own business is conducted at a loss.

The manner in which auxiliary lines are
acquired and controlled affords railroad man-
agers an opportunity to carry out designs for.
their private emolument, and involves in un-
certainty the values of all the properties. The
subsidiary lines are not as a usual thing in-
corporated in the parent or purchasing com-
pany, but are controlled by acquiring a major-
ity of their stock. The enormous blocks of
the stocks and bonds of minor corporations
VOL. xziii. — 22 A

held by many of the leading companies are
in a number of instances unrepresented in the
capita] or debts of the latter, but are carried
on the books as a surplus, which may be in-
creased or diminished at the option of the
managers. In all cases the- stockholders are
ignorant of intended new operations of this
kind. The remaining owners of the securities
of branch lines are at the mercy of the mana-
gers of the controlling company, who by with-
holding traffic can depreciate stocks which,
they wish to acquire privately. The affairs
of companies are sometimes further compli-
cated by the creation of intermediary corpo-
rations, such as the Pennsylvania Company,
which operates the branch lines of the Penn-
sylvania railroad west of Pittsburg, the Oregon
Transcontinental, formed to work the com-
bined Oregon Navigation and Northern Pacific
properties, and the similar concern which
manages the connecting lines of the Rich-
mond and Danville. The securities held by
sixteen large corporations aggregated $383,-
000,000 in January, and if the holdings of four
others, of which the public could obtain no sat-
isfactory knowledge, were added, the amount
would be at least $450,000,000. The income
from these investments is often an important
item in the accounts of a company, supremely
so in the case of the Pennsylvania, which re-
ceived in this way $3,500,000 in 1882, equal to
4 per cent, on all its outstanding stock, and in
that of the Union Pacific, which received near-
ly $2,250,000. One use to which these assets
are sometimes put is to pledge them for new
loans, called collateral trust mortgages, as has
been done by the Oregon Transcontinental, the
Union Pacific, the Wabash, and other companies.
Among the chief roads which defaulted in
their interest in 1883, was the Toledo, Cincin-
nati, and St. Louis. This was a narrow-gauge
railroad built up by consolidation and exten-
sion since 1880, until it comprised 800 miles.
It runs through a country well supplied with
railroads. It attracted a large amount of Bos-
ton capital, but confidence failed before the
floating liabilities incurred in its construction
were cleared away, and it went into the hands
of receivers in July, involving the house of
Ballou & Co. in its failure. The Connotton
Valley and the Danville, Olney, and Ohio,
other defaulting roads, were built through the
same region of railroads and lacked terminal
advantages. The Richmond and Allegheny
extended through a district not sufficiently
developed. The Louisville, Evansville, and St.
Louis connects with the Louisville and Nash-
ville, forming a fairly direct route between
Louisville and St. Louis, yet was unable to
pay its interest and asked for an extension.
The Denver and New Orleans succumbed to
the competition of parallel roads and the de-
clension of the mining industry, causes which
were operative also in the failure of the Den-
ver, Utah, and Pacific. The Little Rock and
Fort Smith was wound up in consequence of

338

FINANCIAL REVIEW OF 1883.

a decision of the courts making the State bonds,
issued in aid of its construction, a first lien.
The Massachusetts Central, which has no ter-
mini or connections, could not pay working
expenses. The New York City and Northern
failed to obtain the expected share in the Bos-
ton through traffic, and did not get enough
business to meet the interest of the debt in-
curred to complete the road. The bonds of these
delinquent companies aggregate $45,095,500.

Notable among the changes and operations
of the year were the lease of the Central
railroad of New Jersey, which had passed
through liquidation, to the Philadelphia and
Beading Company. The operations of great
capitalists have in recent years been directed
largely to the railroad system of the South.
In the summer it was announced that the
Richmond and Danville, with its connecting
line, had been acquired by a syndicate, sup-
posed to be working with the East Tennessee
Company. The two combinations control the
main portion of the Southern railway system.

The completion of the Northern Pacific
railroad was the most important accession to
the railroad system of the United States made
in 1883, and the failure of Henry Villard, who
had financiered this great work, was the chief
financial collapse. By means of a "blind
pool" he succeeded in acquiring control of
the partly constructed Northern Pacific road,
with the intention of completing the line to
the Pacific before the expiration of the term
for completion prescribed in the Government
concession. The Oregon Railrway and Navi-
gation, managed by him, the prosperity of
which was endangered if the Northern Pacific
fell into other hands, partly pledged its credit
for the object. The Oregon Transcontinental
Company was established to manage the two
concerns for their mutual interest, and to con-
struct feeders to the line. By means of the
Oregon Railway and Navigation and the North-
ern Pacific securities, which were acquired
through the workings of the " blind pool," and
constituted the assets of the Oregon Transcon-
tinental Company, large sums were borrowed.
These were loaned in turn to the Northern
Pacific Railroad, which was thereby enabled
to go on with the work of construction with-
out appearing as a borrower in the open mar-
ket. The railroad was completed, but only by
incurring a mass of floating debt, and still lacked
much of 'being in a proper working condition.
The management were obliged to seek an addi-
tionalloan of $20,000,000 to fund these liabili-
ties and complete the enterprise. The bears
attacked the stocks on account of their vul-
nerable character ; and Mr. Villard was obliged
to retire from the control of the property

Atlantic Cables. — The American Company,
which laid a cable in connection with the West-
ern Union Telegraph Company, to receive its
European business, joined in the combination
of the cable companies, which divide their
receipts, according to the present pooling ar-

rangement, in the following proportions : An-
glo-American, 48'825per cent. ; American Com-
pany, 22-500 per cent. ; Direct United States,
16-275 per cent. ; French Company, 12-400 per
cent. A competing company was organized
in 1883, by Messrs. Mackay and J. G-. Bennett,
who contracted with Messrs. Siemens to have
an Atlantic cable put down from Ireland to
Nova Scotia, and thence to the United States,
by June, 1884, and another cable of the same
length, with connecting wires between Ireland
and France, a few months later. By carrying
their line directly to Nova Scotia the Mackay-
Bennett company avoid the occasional acci-
dents from fishing-smacks, which happen to
some of the Anglo-American Company's cables
in the shallow waters between Newfoundland
and Nova Scotia. The monopoly possessed by
the original cable company was expected to
be broken by the Direct Cable Company, and
by the second French Company which recently
laid a cable. These cables, which are said to
be the only well-laid and durable ones, were
brought under the control of the original At-
lantic Company. The financial operations con-
nected with the launching of the various com-
panies, and with the acquisition of a control
over them by the Atlantic Company, have re-
sulted in extraordinary over-capitalization.

Financial Events of the Year. — The factors enter-
ing into the critical financial situation in 1883
began to manifest themselves two years before.
In consequence of the deficient harvest of 1881,
from which the troubles date, there was a crisis
in the grain and cotton markets in the begin-
ning of 1882. There was a bank failure in
Boston in March of that year, and a critical
stringency in the money market, which was re-
moved by the succor brought by the Secretary
of the Treasury through the redemption of large
amounts of bonds. The great strike in the
iron trade, lasting from June till September,
and the railroad war in the Northwest, toward
the close of 1882, were significant episodes of
the situation. In December occurred a break-
down in the petroleum market, and heavy
failures in the trade.

In February, 1883, occurred heavy failures
in the iron trade. In March the employers
were victorious in a strike of iron-workers,
and reduced wages. In June, again, there were
suspensions in the iron industry.

An attempt to "corner" the lard market by
Chicago speculators ended disastrously for the
manipulators in June. Speculations for a rise
in grain and provisions were more active than
usual in the early part of the season, owing to
the unfavorable weather of the preceding win-
ter and the poor outlook for the winter wheat
crop, the not encouraging opening of the spring,
and the still gloomier prospects in Europe, where
autumn rains prevented as much wheat being
sown as usual and injured what was sown,
while the spring opened cold and dry. As
summer advanced and the crop prospects great-
ly improved, the vast transactions for future

FLOODS IN THE OHIO VALLEY.

339

deliveries looked less favorable for the bulls,
some of whom sold out. McGeoch, Evering-
ham & Co., the largest provision-dealers in
Chicago, bought up immense quantities of lard,
at increasing prices, which stimulated the sup-
ply, until they were unable to carry the opera-
tion farther. They refused to accept a large
lot on the pretext that it was adulterated ; but
it soon transpired that their credit was ex-
hausted, and the artificially sustained market
suddenly turned. The losses were several mill-
ions, and their suspension followed. In Jane
and the following month occurred the serious
disturbance to all mercantile and financial af-
fairs, produced by the strike of telegraph oper-
ators. In the beginning of August occurred
the failure of Shaw & Co., the largest leather
manufacturers in the country, who operated
numerous tanneries in New England, and were
for some time able to control the entire trade.
The week after two banks failed in St. Albans,
Vermont, being involved with a railroad con-
structor who was unable to complete and carry
his enterprise, that of an outlet for the Cana-
dian railroads through Vermont. Bank fail-
ures occurred later in Chicago, where two in-
stitutions with $4,250,000 deposits suspended.

In the beginning of November occurred the
failure of Morris Ranger in Liverpool, the
largest dealer in the English cotton trade, who
had sold futures all through the summer in the
expectation of another large cotton-crop. When
the drought disappointed this calculation it was
still believed that the state of the industry in
England, and the extent to which the Continent
was already supplied, would lead to lower rates.
The shipments to the Continent were, however,
heavier than the year before. The price ad-
vanced from 5^d. for middling uplands to 6^.,
but Ranger continued to sell until forced to sus-
pend, with a loss of $5,000,000.

The speculations which interrupt the normal
current of grain exportation, and disorder the
transportation and mercantile business con-
nected with it, aggravated the situation toward
the close of the calendar year, when every dol-
lar that could be obtained from the sale of the
crop surplus at this time, while concurrent sup-
plies were streaming into European markets
from other sources, was needed to revive the
flagging economic activities. From the com-
mencement of the crop year to the 1st of De-
cember, five months, the exports of wheat and
flonr amounted to less than 51,000,000 bushels,
• against 83,250,000 bushels the season before,
and 62,500,000 bushels in the short-crop season
of 1881. At the same date the quantity in sight

twas 35,000,000 bushels, against 20,000,000 bush-
els in 1882, and less than 19,000,000 in 1881. .
FISH COMMISSION. See UNITED STATES FISH
COMMISSION.
FLOODS IN THE OHIO VALLEY. The valley of
the Ohio river was visited in February, 1883, by
higher and more destructive floods than had
been known since the country was settled. The
ground had been frozen and covered with snow.

The heavy rains of the 2d and 3d of the month
had caused high freshets in Western Pennsyl-
vania and Northern Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois,
by which much property had been destroyed
and considerable damage done, particularly
along the Allegheny river from Oil City to
Pittsburg, near Akron, and at Cleveland, where
loss by fire was one of the indirect conse-
quences of the flood. With continued rains,
the Ohio river rose during the next two weeks
to an extraordinary height, from Cincinnati to.
its mouth. The culmination of the flood at
Cincinnati occurred on the 15th, when the
water reached tbe height of sixty-six feet four
inches, covering all the houses fronting on the
shore, and extending up into the densely built
part of the city for a distance of more than
three squares. The approaches to the bridges
across the river were inundated. The trains
on most of the railroads entering the city were
prevented from reaching the principal stations.
Two days before the waters attained their ex-
treme height, the damage inflicted had been
estimated at $1,500,0.00, and 220 wholesale
grocery and commission houses in the lower-
lying districts had been covered by the flood.
Thirty thousand persons were for some time
deprived of employment. The furnaces at the
gas-houses were extinguished, and the city was
consequently deprived of all light from that
source, while the engines of the water-works
were so far disabled that an exhaustion of the
supply of water for domestic purposes became
imminent. The United States military bar-
racks at Newport, Ky., were flooded; nearly
two square miles of that city were overflowed ;
and the sister city of Covington, Ky., suffered
in a corresponding degree. The freight depot
of the Cincinnati Southern railroad in Cincin-
nati was undermined and fell into between
thirty and fifty feet of water, carrying with it
a number of persons of the crowd that had
collected in it, a few of whom were drowned.
At Lawrenceburg, Ind., every house in the
" Old town " was filled with water for two
stories ; many buildings were wholly destroyed ;
800 families 'were deprived of their means of
support, and 5,000 persons were fed by relief
committees. At Louisville, Ky., the " cut-off"
dam — a structure 2,000 feet long, 200 feet
thick at the base, and 40 feet thick at the top,
which had been built expressly for protection
against high water — was broken during the
night of the 12th. More than 250 houses were
immediately covered with water, and many of
them were washed from their foundations.
Those of the inmates of these houses who had
not already removed in anticipation of the
danger, were rescued, with but little loss of
life. Four fifths of the city 'of Jeffersonville,
Ind., opposite to Louisville, was laid under
from three to twenty feet of water ; about
6,000 people suffered in person and property,
and more than half the business men of the
town were financially ruined or seriously em-
barrassed. At New Albany, Ind., the water

340

FLORIDA.

reached a height of seventy-three feet, or four
feet greater than that of the flood of 1832.
Very many dwellings and business houses were
wrecked by the flood and the strong wind ;
several extensive manufacturing establishments
were stopped and suffered damage to their per-
manent property, and about 5,000 persons
were turned out from their homes and reduced
to dependence on outside relief. The entire
amount of the direct loss by the flood suffered
by the towns in Indiana, from New Albany to
the State line of Ohio, was estimated as follows :

NewAlbany $730,OCO

Jefferson ville 925,000

Madison 200,000

Aurora 150,000

Lawrenceburg 435,000

Losses in the intervening country 300,000

Total $2,740,000

About 24,000 people were made temporarily
homeless and dependent. The damage was
less serious below New Albany. The worst
was suffered at Shawneetown, 111., where, out
of 600 houses, all but twenty-eight were flooded
in their second stories, and the water ran in a
swift current fifteen feet deep through the main
street. At Alton and Tell City, Ind., and
Uniontown and Enterprise, Ky., the water en-
tered every house.

The legislatures of Ohio and Indiana each
appropriated $100,000 for the relief of the suf-
ferers. Papers for voluntary subscriptions were
opened at several points. A steamboat was
chartered by the relief committee of Indianap-
olis, and distributed supplies which had been
furnished by voluntary contribution, wherever
they were needed. The wants of the sufferers
in Cincinnati were attended to by their more
fortunate fellow-citizens, and the supplies des-
tined for that city were sent to other places.

All the tributaries of the lower Ohio were
affected by the floods, but without causing as
serious damage as was suffered immediately on
that river.

The highest flood ever known before on the
Ohio river since the settlement of the country,
was on the 18th of February, 1832, when the
water reached the height of 64 feet 3 inches.
Other great floods were recorded December
17, 1847, 63 feet 7 inches; in 1882, 58 feet 7
inches, and in 1862, 57 feet 4 inches. The In-
dians are said to have told the first settlers of
the city of a flood that occurred, as nearly as
can be surmised, about 1774, which reached
the height of 100 feet.

FLORIDA. State Government.— The following
were the State officers during the year : Gov-
ernor, William D. Bloxham, Democrat; Lieu-
ten ant-Governor, L. W. Bethel ; Secretary of
State, John L. Crawford ; Treasurer, Henry A.
L'Engle; Comptroller, W. D. Barnes; Attor-
ney-General, George P. Raney; Superintend-
ent of Public Instruction, E. K. Foster; Com-
missioner of Lands and Immigration, P. W.
White; Judiciary, Supreme Court : Chief-Jus-
tice, Edwin M. Randall ; Associates, James D.
Westcott, Jr., and R. B. Van Valkenburgh.

Legislative Session. — The Legislature convened
on the 2d of January, and adjourned on the 2d
of March. Among the acts passed were the fol-
lowing:

An act to protect the food-fishes of Florida.

An act in relation to injunctions.

An act for the relief of Jacksonville, and the coun-
ties of Baker, Bradford, Columbia, Suwannee, Madi-
son, Jefferson, Duval, and Leon.

An act lo provide for the relinquishment of the
dower of insane married women.

An act to repeal an act to dissolve municipal cor-
porations under circumstances therein stated, and to
provide governments for the same.

An act to prescribe the duties of treasurers of mu-
nicipal governments as to warrants or orders which
may be presented to them and not paid upon presen-
tation.

An act to prescribe the duties of county treasurers
as to warrants or orders which may be presented to
them and not paid upon presentation.

An act to prohibit officers of municipal corporations
from buying at a discount or speculating in city or
town scrip, and to provide a penalty therefor.

An act to punish the breaking, and entering with-
out breaking, of a building in tloe day-time, or enter-
ing in the night-time without breaking, with intent
to commit a misdemeanor.

An act authorizing the Board of Education to com-
promise and settle with counties indebted to the school
and seminary funds.

A.n act to prohibit county officers from buying at
a discount, or speculating in State, county, or school
scrip, and to provide a penalty therefor.

An act to punish slander and defamation of charac-
ter in certain cases.

An act making appropriations for the expense of
collecting revenue for the year 1883.

An act to prescribe the "manner in which lands as-
sessed prior to Jan. 1, 1883, shall be advertised for sale
for uncollected taxes.

An act fixing the liability of persons and corpora-
tions for damages resulting from the death of any one
caused by the wrongful act, negligence, carelessness,
or default of such persons or corporations, or the agents
thereof.

An act to prohibit the sale or distribution of intoxi-
cating liquors on election-days, and to provide a pun-
ishment for the same.

An act relating to the crime of larceny.

An act to provide for the maintenance of organized
fire companies in cities in this State.

An act to prohibit school officers from dealing in
school text-books.

An act to amend an act entitled " An act to pro-
vide a uniform svstem of quarantine in this State,"
approved March "ll, 1879, being Chapter 3162, Laws
of Florida.

An act requiring uniformity of text-books in the
public schools of this State.

An act to prohibit persons shipping oranges grown
outside of the State as Florida oranges.

An act to provide for investments by the Board of
Education of the State of Florida, of moneys of the
common-school fund.

An act to provide for teachers' institutes.

An act to provide for nonnal instruction.

An act levying a tax for the years 1883 and 1884.

An act for the assessment and collection of revenue.

An act to fix the pay of the members, officers, and
attaches of the Legislature of 1883.

An act to provide an institution for the blind, deaf
and dumb in this State.

An act to protect the growing sponge in this State.

An act ,in relation to small estates, and to save them
from wasteful costs and expenditures.

An act to enable actual settlers to procure homes.

An act to keep in good repair the pu blic roads and
highways of this State, and to amend an act entitled

FLORIDA.

341

" An act to keep in good repair the public roads and
highways in this State," approved March 7, 1881.

An act to declare what notice shall be given to non-
resident parties and parties whose residence is un-
known upon application to sell real estate in which
they are interested.

An act making appropriations for the years 1883
and 1884.

An act in relation to the apportionment of the one-
mill State tax for school purposes.

An act to regulate the sale of liquors, wines, and
beer in the State of Florida by the Boards of County
Commissioners of the several counties.

An act granting aid for the construction of the
Thomasville, Tallahassee, and Gulf Bailroad.

An act to incorporate an institution of learning at
Starke, Bradford county, Florida, under the name of
Orange College.

An act to incorporate the International Eailroad and
Steamship Company of Florida.

An act to incorporate the Fort Meade, Keystone, and
Walk-in-the-Water Eailroad Company.

An act to incorporate the Alachua Steam Navigation
and Canal Company.

An act to incorporate the Florida Ship- Canal Com-
pany, to locate, construct, own, and operate a ship-
canal and telegraph line across the Peninsula of
Florida, to connect the Atlantic ocean with the Gulf
of Mexico.

An act to incorporate the Ocklawaha Steamboat,
Canal, Drainage, and River Improvement Company.

An act to incorporate the Florida Land and Coloni-
zation Company.

An act to incorporate the South Florida Eailroad
Company.

An act to grant certain lands to the Jacksonville,
St. Augustine, and Halifax Eiver Eailway Company.

An act to incorporate the Fernandina and Amelia
Beach Eailroad Company.

An act to incorporate the Atlantic and Mexican
Gulf Canal Company, and to grant certain privileges
therein named.

An act to incorporate the Bank of the State of
Florida.

An act to incorporate the Florida and European
Steamship Company.

An act to incorporate the Seville and Halifax Eiver
Eailroad Company.

An act to grant certain lands to the Green Cove
Spring and Melrose Eailroad Company.

Joint resolution in reference to a Constitutional
Convention.

Joint resolution empowering the electors at the
next general election to vote for or against a con-
vention.

In the bill providing for normal instruction four
institutions are named in which normal departments
shall be established— the East and the West Florida
Seminaries, and the Union and Lincoln Academies.
The East Florida Seminal y and Union Academy are
located at Gainesville; the West Florida Seminary
and Lincoln Academy at Tallahassee.

Under the provisions of the revenue law,
mortgages are not to be taxed ; non-bearing
orange-groves are not to be taxed at a fic-
titious value, but merely as improved lands;
the license-tax on physicians and lawyers has
been omitted, and the bill provides for an
ad valorem tax of five mills instead of seven,
and leaves it discretionary with the Governor
to reduce it to four mills for 1884.

The counties for whose relief provision was
made are those that became involved in build-
ing the railroads through Middle and East
Florida. The bill gives the remnant of the
internal improvement lands proper to them,

being upward of 175,000 acres. A bill to
create a railroad commission failed to pass.

Agricultural College and University.— The trustees
of the Agricultural College determined to re-
move the institution from Eau Gallic, where
its site had previously been fixed, though no or-
ganization was ever effected. The fund amounts
to about $140,000, invested in State bonds, and
yields an annual interest of nearly $9.000. The
act of Congress prescribes that no part of the
fund shall be used for the erection of build-
ings. These, together with 100 acres of land
for experimental gardens, were to be provided
by the locality desiring the institution. Bids
were submitted by Gainesville, Live Oak, Lake
City, Starke, Tallahassee, Ocala, and Madison,
varying in amounts from $10,000 to $50,000.
Lake City was chosen.

The Florida University was incorporated un-
der a liberal charter in February. It is au-
thorized to have five colleges, to wit : Talla-
hassee College of Medicine and Surgery, College
of Literature and Science, Law College, Theo-
logical Institute, and Polytechnic and Normal
Institute. At present only two departments
are organized — the West Florida Seminary
and Military Institute, constituting the Literary
Department, and the Tallahassee College of
Medicine and Surgery, the Medical.

Railroad Taxation. — Among the decisions of
the Supreme Court of the United . States was
one in the case of the Louisville and Nashville
Railroad Company, plaintiff in error, against
Manuel Palmes, collector, etc., in error, to the
Supreme Court of the State of Florida :

The question presented by this case is whether a
line of railroad which was commenced, partly com-
pleted, and operated by the Alabama and Florida
Eailroad Company, and which through successive
transfers has finally come into the hands of the Louis-
ville and Nashville Eailroad Company, is or is not
exempt from taxation by virtue of an act passed by
the Legislature of Florida in 1855, and known as the
Internal Improvement Act. This court holds that the
exemption from taxation created by the 18th section
of the Internal Improvement Act of 1855 is in every re-
spect similar to that which was declared by this court
in the case of Morgan against -Louisiana, 93 United
States, 217, to be non-assignable. Such exemption,
therefore, did not pass from the Alabama and Florida
Eailroad Company to the Pensacola and Louisville
Eailroad Company when the former conveyed to the
latter its roads and franchises connected with and
necessary in its construction and operation. Even,
however, if such exemption had passed to the Pensa-
cola and Louisville Eailroad Company, that corpora-
tion would have had no power to further convey it,
so that the line of the railroad in its present hands is
properly liable to State taxation, and its present own-
ers can not claim immunity on the ground that the
act of 1875, taxing the property of all corporations,
was an impairment of the obligation of the contract of
1855. The decree of the Supreme Court of Florida
was affirmed with costs.

There are two other railroad corporations
with like interests involved in the determina-
tion of the suit mentioned above. These are
the Florida Central and Western, assessed for
1883 at $2,022,799.20, and the Florida Transit
and Peninsular at $2,249,100; the Louisville

342

FOODS, COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUES OF.

and Nashville is assessed at $463,800. The
action of the courts thus adds nearly $5,000,-
000 of property to the revenue resources of
the State, such valuation being made taxable
under the decision. At average rate of State
and county taxation for 1883 the property thus
made liable will yield about $80,000 revenue.

igrir alfare. — The agriculturists of Florida are
rapidly turning their attention to the cultiva-
tion of fruits and early vegetables. This natu-
rally leads to small farms and an improved
system of cultivation. Truck-farming is be-
coming more general each year, and adds greatly
to the resources of the State. Truck-farmers,
inmost cases, own the land they cultivate. As
early as February 1st they send forward to the
Northern markets tomatoes, green peas, cu-
cumbers, and other vegetables, which bring, at
this early season of the year, remunerative
prices, and find a ready sale. The culture of
strawberries and other small fruit* is rapidly
increasing and proves profitable. The cultiva-
tion of oranges, lemons, and other tropical fruits
continues to increase annually, and this indus-
try will soon become one of the most impor-
tant in the State. The value of the orange
business alone in 1880 amounted to $1,000, 000,
with an employed capital of more than $10,-
000,000, and the industry has steadily increased
since. About 75 trees are planted to the acre,
the average yield exceeding 500 oranges to the
tree. The trees begin to bear when about seven
years old, and reach their prime in twenty
years, but will continue to be productive, it is
estimated, seventy -five or eighty years longer.

The Everglades. — A report has been made by
the expedition sent into the Everglades by the
New Orleans " Times-Democrat." It establish-
es the fact that the Everglades from Lake Oke-
chobee to Cape Sable are worthless for any
purposes of cultivation ; that they contain no
large tracts of land above water; that they
can not be successfully drained ; and that the
establishment and maintenance of a telegraph
line along the route traversed would be im-
possible. The Everglades, and especially the
northern glades, are a vast swamp, irreclaim-
able and useless. The only portions of the
southern peninsula capable of cultivation lie
on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, with this vast
morass between them.

FOODS, COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VAL-
UES OF. It is a striking fact that while the chief
item of the living expenses of the majority of
civilized men is the cost of their food, even
the most intelligent know less of the actual
value of their food than of any other of the im-
portant articles they buy. It makes but little
difference to the man with $5,000 per annum
whether he pays fifteen cents or five dollars per
pound for the protein of his food, provided it
pleases his palate. But to the humble house-
wife, whose husband earns but $500 a year, it is
a matter of great importance ; and she is very
apt, after hesitating at the dry -goods store be-
tween two pieces of calico for her daughter's

dress, and taking one at ten cents a yard for
economy's sake, though the one at eleven was
prettier, to go to the grocers, the butchers, or
the fish-dealers, and pay a dollar per pound
for the nutrients of her children's food, when
she might have obtained the same ingredients,
in forms equally wholesome and nutritious, for
fifty or even twenty cents. She will continue
this bad economy until she obtains a general
idea of the actual cheapness and dearness of
foods as distinguished from their price.

The "Annual Cyclopaedia" for 1881 con-
tained an article upon the " Nutritive Values
of Foods," in which were given the propor-
tions of nutritive ingredients in a considerable
number of the more common animal and vege-
table foods as shown by chemical analysis.
The figures for fish, oysters, etc., were selected
from the results of an investigation undertaken
under the auspices of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution and the United States Fish Commission
in the chemicall aboratory of Wesleyan Uni-
versity, Middletown, Conn., by Prof. W. O. At-
water.* The data for other foods were com-
piled from European sources, no considerable
investigations of the composition of American
foods other than fish having at that time been
made. Since then the researches upon fish
have been continued, and a large number of
specimens of our animal and vegetable foods
have also been studied ; those of animal and
some vegetable foods by Prof. Atwater, and
others of vegetable foods, by Prof. W. II.
Brewert of the Sheffield Scientific School, New
Haven, Conn., and still others by other inves-
tigators. During the same period new re-
searches upon the digestibility of foods, and
upon the functions of their nutritive ingredi-
ents, have likewise been published, so that we
are able to-day to present new and important
facts regarding the nutritive values of food in
general, and especially the composition of our
own food-materials.

The article referred to in the " Annual Cy-
clopaedia " for 1881 contained some explana-
tions of the chemistry of foods and the func-
tions of their ingredients in nutrition. To
those who have made no special study of the
matter, however, the following brief state-
ments may be interesting, the more so because
late investigations are tending to decide some
disputed questions regarding the ways in which
food is used in the body, and because many
of the statements found in current works on
chemistry and physiology have become of lit-
tle value in the light of the latest knowledge.
A considerable number of the analyses of Amer-
ican foods given below appear in print for the
first time in this article.

Viewed from the stand-point of their uses in
the nutrition of man, the constituents of ordi-

* See partial account of results in " Report of United States
Fish Commission, 1880 " (published in 1S-a>.

t Published in the " Report on Cereal Products of the
United States." By Prof. Brewer. '• United States Census,
1880," vol. iii.

FOODS, COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUES OF.

343

nary food-materials may be succinctly classified
as follows:

1. Edible Substance : e. g., the flesh of meats
and fish, the shell-contents of oysters.

2. Refuse : e. g., bones of meat and fish, shells
of oysters.

The edible substance consists of —
1. Water. 2. Nutritive Substances or Nutri-
ents. The refuse may, for our present purpose,
be left out of account, and our attention con-
fined to the edible substance. And, as the wa-
ter which forms a part of the edible substance,
though indispensable, is nevertheless inexpen-
sive and distinct from the nutritive ingredients,
we may consider simply the nutrients.

Speaking as chemists and physiologists, we
may say that our food supplies, besides min-
eral substances and water, albuminoids, carbo-
hydrates, and fats ; and that these are trans-
formed into the tissues and fluids of the body,
muscle and fat, blood and bone, and are con-
sumed to produce heat and force. Viewed
from a chemico-physiological stand-point, then,
the nutritive ingredients of food can be classi-
fied as follows. Of the actually nutritive sub-
stances or nutrients of foods the most impor-
tant groups (exclusive of water) are —

1. Protein (proteids, albuminoids, etc.) : e. g.,
albumen ("white") of egg, fibrin of blood,
" lean " of meat, gluten of wheat.

2. Fats : e. g., fat of meat, butter, olive-oil.

3. Carbohydrates: e. g., starch, sugar, gly-
cogen.

4. Mineral Matter or Ash: e. g., calcium
and potassium phosphates and chlorides.

The terms protein, proteids, and albumi-
noids, are applied somewhat indiscriminately,
in ordinary usage, to several or all of certain
classes of compounds characterized by contain-
ing nitrogen. The most important are the
proteids or albuminoids, of which albumen,
the white of egg, and myosin, the basis of
muscle, are types. Allied to these, but occur-
ring in smaller proportions in animal tissues
and foo;ls, are the nitrogenous compounds that
make the basis of connective and other tis-
sues. Gelatin is derived from some of these
tissues, and may be taken as a type of the com-
pounds of this class. As these constituents
are of similar constitution and have similar or
nearly similar uses in nutrition, it is customary
to group them together as protein. The mus-
cular tissues of animals, and hence the lean
portions of meat, fish, etc., contain small quan-
tities of so-called nitrogenous extractives — crea-
tin, carnin, etc. (contained in extract of meat,
etc.) — which contribute materially to the flavor
and somewhat to the nutritive effect of the
foods containing them. They are not usually
deemed of sufficient importance, however, to
be grouped as a distinct class in tabular state-
ments of the composition of foods. Details
regarding the nature and functions of the
several classes of nutrients may be found in
the article in the " Annual Cyclopaedia " for
1881, referred to above. Concerning their

composition, it will suffice, then, to state that
the compounds classed together as protein con-
tain carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen,
while the carbohydrates and fats contain no
nitrogen, but consist chiefly of carbon, oxygen,
and hydrogen. The fats are much richer in
carbon than the carbohydrates. Animal foods,
as meats, fish, etc., contain but little of carbo-
hydrates, their chief nutrients being protein
and fats. Milk, however, and some shell-fish,
as oysters, scallops, etc., contain more or less
of carbohydrates. Vegetable foods, as wheat,
potatoes, etc., contain less protein and consist
largely of starch, sugar, cellulose, and other
carbohydrates.

Functions of Nutrients.— The different nutri-
ents have different offices in nourishing the
body, in building up its tissues, repairing its
wastes, and serving as fuel to produce animal
heat and muscular and intellectual energy.
The chief part borne by each in nutrition is
shown below :

f forms the (nitrogenous) basis of blood,

muscle, connective tissue, etc.

The protein J is transformed into fats and carbo-
oj food I hydrates, and stored as such in the

body.

[is consumed for fuel.
The fats ( are stored as fat.
of food \ are consumed for fuel.

The carboJijj- ( are transformed into fat.
drates of food \ are consumed for fuel. .

In classifications formerly maintained and
frequently met with still, the protein com-
pounds were regarde'd as the "flesh-formers"
and the sources of muscular energy, while the
carbohydrates and fat were looked upon a
" fat-formers " and " heat-producers.1' A vast
deal of painstaking research, however, has
shown that these distinctions were not cor-
rectly drawn. The albuminoids are flesh-form-
ers, it is true ; indeed, flesh, i. e., muscular and
other nitrogenous tissue, according to the near-
ly unanimous testimony of the most trustwor-
thy experiments, is made from the nitrogenous
constituents of the food exclusively. But the
balance of testimony is decidedly against the
production of muscular energy by nitrogenous
compounds exclusively or mainly. Each of
the three groups of nutrients probably shares,
directly or indirectly, in this function. So, too,
it appears that the combustion which produces
animal heat is not confined to the carbohy-
drates and fats, but the protein compounds, or
the products of their decomposition, are also
used for this purpose. Again, the production
of fat in the body was formerly ascribed to the
fats and carbohydrates alone. The view was
held at the same time, and is still maintained
by some physiologists, that' the carbohydrates
can not be transformed into fats, and that a
very large part of the fat of the body is formed
from the disintegration of the albuminoids.
The weight of evidence to-day is decidedly in
favor of the assumption that all three of the
great classes of nutrients in our foods — the

344

FOODS, COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUES OF.

albuminoids, the carbohydrates, and the fats
— are transformed into fat, and that the fat
thus formed is consumed, either before or after
being stored as body-fat.

It appears, then, that protein is the most im-
portant constituent of our food, because, while
it performs the functions of each of the other
two chief nutrients in being transformed into
fat and in being consumed for fuel, it has
a most weighty office of its own in forming
the basis of the blood and in building up the
muscular and other nitrogenous tissues, an
office which no other nutrient can perform at
all. And, as we shall see further, in examin-
ing the pecuniary cost, protein is the dearest
as well as most important of the ingredients
of foods.

The same experimental research which has
revealed to us the ways in which our food sup-
plies our bodily wants, has shown us how to
estimate the relative nutritive values of differ-
ent foods from their chemical composition.
The estimates are only approximate, because
the nutritive effects are influenced by various
conditions, some of which research has not yet
definitely explained, while others vary with
the nature of the food or of the user, so that
the value of a given food in a given case may
vary from the standard set by the analysis.
These sources of uncertainty are nevertheless
so narrowed down by late investigation, and
the errors confined within such limits, that by
intelligent use of the facts at our disposal we
may judge very closely from the chemical com-

position of a food what is its value as compared
with others of the same class, at any rate, for
our nourishment.

Chemical Analysis of Foods. — The following
tables give the composition of a number of the
more important kinds of animal and vegetable
foods. The details will perhaps be best ex-
plained by an example. A sample of beef, sir-
loin, of medium fatness, was found to consist
of about one fourth bone and three fourths
flesh, edible substance. The flesh was ana-
lyzed and found to contain, nearly : water, 60
per cent. ; protein, 19 per cent. ; fats, 20 per
cent. ; mineral matters, 1 per cent. Calcu-
lated upon the whole sample of meat, of which
one fourth, or 25 per cent., was bone and other
refuse, and 75 per cent, flesh, the analysis would
stand as in the schedule below, in which the
composition of the flesh by itself and that of
the meat, bone, and all, are both given :

In flesh,
edible portion.

In meat as
bought, in-
cluding refuse.

Refuse, bone, etc

Per cent.
None

Per cent.
25

Water

60

45

Protein

19

14J

Fat

20

15

Mineral matters

1

Of

Total

100

100

This very imperfect analysis may be stated
in the following form, as is done in the tables
beyond: *

CONSTITUENTS OF SAMPLE OF BEEF, SIRLOIN.

FOOD-MATERIAL,

IN EDIBLE PORTION —

i. e., flesh freed from bone and other refuse.

IN MEAT AS PURCHASED —

including both edible portion and refuse.

Water.

Nutrients.

NUTRIENTS.

Refuse :

Bones,
etc.

EDIBLE PORTION.

W.te.

Nutrients.

NUTRIENTS.

Protein.

Fats.

Mineral
matters.

Protein.

Fats.

Mineral
matters.

Beef, sirloin, medium
fatness

Per cent.

60

Per cent.
40

Per cent.
19

Per cent.
20

Per cent.
1

Percent.
25

Per cent.
45

Per cent.
30

Per cent.

14-8

Per cent.
15

Per cent.

0-7

Table I, on page 345, gives the composition
of a number of animal foods, mostly from late
American analyses. It is only a short time
since analyses of American meats, fish, etc.,
have been undertaken in any considerable num-
ber, and those as yet accomplished are far from
sufficient for a complete survey of the subject.
Indeed, the -work already done can be regard-
ed only as a beginning. Still, the figures will
give a tolerably fair idea of the composition of
the articles named.

The analyses of this table, with the exception
of a few from European sources and indicated
by italics, are selected from the results of the
investigation referred to above, as conducted
under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion and the United States Fish Commission.
The specimens of meats were purchased from a
dealer in Middletown, Conn., and said by him
to be "fair average samples of the better kinds

of meats." A side of beef, freshly brought in
winter from Chicago, and said to be a good
specimen of first-class " Chicago beef," was cut
into about twenty-five pieces in the ordinary
way. From each a sample fairly represent*
ing the whole cut was taken and analyzed.
Thus the composition of each piece and of the
whole side was learned. The composition of
one of the leanest portions, the round, a mod-
erately fat piece, sirloin, a very fat portion,
flank, and of the whole side, together with a
tongue, liver, and heart from another animal,
are given in the table. The samples of a side
of mutton and of parts of the same side were
obtained and analyzed in like manner, as were
those of the other meats and fowl. The speci-

* The tables contain also columns for carbohydrates, etc.,
•which occur in milk and in some shell-fish, but are not found
in ordinary meats in sufficient amount to warrant their inser-
tion in such tables as these.

FOODS, COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUES OF.

345

TABLE I.— CONSTITUENTS OP ANIMAL FOODS.

KINDS OF FOOD-MATERIALS.*

IN EDIBLE PORTION, I. E., FLESH,
ETC., FREED FROM BONE, SHELLS,
AND OTHER REFUSE.

IN SPECIMENS AS PURCHASED IN THE MAR-
KETS, INCLUDING BOTH EDIBLE PORTION
AND REFUSE.

jf

!!

I1

EDIBLE PORTION.

1

4

£

NUTRIENTS.

1

fc

NUTRIENTS.

ii

J_

%

26-5
9-0
20-0
59-6
5-4
18-1
26-3
0-8
7-5
29-0
19-0
22-4
35-1

4-5

17-4
30-6
80-5

2-0

8-5

8-7

0-7
85-4
6-8
89-0
12-1

0-7
0-8
0-3
1-7
1-2
0-6
2-1
1-8
4 2
16-2
7-0
0-4
6-0
6-5
9-5

>,*

•f 3

Jl

il

1 °

•3?
|]

I

Jill

u'.S S

MEATS, FRESH.
Beef side, well fattened

%

54-6
66-7
60-0
27-3
69-5
68-8
56-8
79-8
72-3
53-6
61-9
58-6
49-3

59-5
58-1
41-5
10-0

71-5
65-6

87-4
90-7
31-2
41-8
7-0
78-7

84-0
79-2
81-4
76-6
78-2
79-7
77-5
79-0
75-1
63-4
73-1
82-0
72-8
69-2
70"4

%

45-4
33-3
40-0
72-7
30-5
36-2
43-2
21-2
27-7
46-4
38-1
41-4
50-7

40-5
41-9
58 5
90-0

28-5
34-4

12-6
9-3
68-8
58-7
93-0
26-8

16-0
20-8
18-6
23-4
21-8
20-3
22-5
21-0
24-9
36-6
26-9
18-0
27-2
30-8
29' 6

17-9
23-0
19-0
12-4
20-1
17-1
15-8
19-9
18-9
16-5
18-2
18-0
14-9

29-2
21-4
24-0
3-0

25-1
24-7

8-4
3-1
27-1
38-3
1-0
12-5

14-0
18-8
17-1
20-5
19-3
18-7
19-2
17-5
19-4
18-9
18-6
16-4
19-7
22-7
18-8

%

35

4-8
4-8
2-4
90

0-6

%
1-0
1-3

i-o

0-7
1-5
1-0
1-1
(0-5)
(1-3)
0-9
0-9
1-0
0-7

6-8
8-1
3-9
6-5

1-4
1-2

0-7
0-7
3-9
4-6
8-0
1-1

1-3
1-2
1-2
1-2
1-3
1-0
1-2
1-7
1-3
15
1-3
1 2
1-5
1-6
1-3
1-5
1-1
1-2
1-3

Salt.

1-5 2-0
3-1 20-6
1-5 11-6
1-5 I'O
2-7 10-6

1-6
2'0
2-9
2-7
3-3
8-0
1-4
1-7
8-1
1-5
2-5

%

19-7

10-0

25-0
12-5

o-o

15-3
6-0
?
?
20-0
18-4
16-9
16-8

6-5
6-2

12-4
5-0

41-6
85-4

o-o
o-o
o-o
o-o
o-o

11-0

66-8
62-7
52-5
54-9
48-6
42-7
48 1
41-9
50-4
33-8
44-6
80-0
49-4
53'5
50-1
46-0
18-7
85-2
38-5

Salt

83-2 1-5
24-9 15-3
44-4 6-5
8-9 1-0
22-9 8'2

88-8
81-4
82-8
68-3
48-8
49-3

. o-o

60-2

55-8

o-o
o-o

43-8
60-0
45-0
23-9
69-5
54-0
58-4

%
86-5
30 0
30-0
63-6
80-5
80 7
40-6

%
14-4
20-7
14-3
10 8
20-1
14-5
14-9

%

21-3
8-1
15-0
52-2
5-4
15-8
24-8

%
8-5

0-8
1-2
0-7
0-6
1-5
0-9
0-9

Beef, round, rather lean

Beef, sirloin, rather fat
Beef, flank, very fat
Beef-liver ....

Beef-tongue ....

Beef-heart

Veal, lean

Mutton side, well fattened

42-9
40-2
48-7
41-8

55-5
54-5
36-4
9-5

41-8
42-4

87-4
90-7
81-2
41-3
I-O
65-6

27-9
29-6
39-4
34-5
40-2
45-7
40-2
45-9
37-3
42-0
40-3
57-4
36-8
32-2
85-1
37-0
62-4
44-9
88-7

48-6
88-8
19-1
59-2
32-8

10-2
15-2
15-4
27-3
48-3
42-7
80-3
83-0
34-1
85-4
77-7

87-1
41-4
84-4
42-4

88-0
39-3
51-2
85-5

16-6
22-2

12-6
9-3

68-8
58-7
93-0
23-4

5-3
7-7
8-1
10-6
11-2
11-6
11-7
12-2
12-3
24-2
15-1
12-6
13-8
14-3
14-8
17-0
18'9
19-9
22-8

16-7
21-0
80-0
35-9
86-1

1-0
8-4
2-8"
4-4
7'9
8-0
19-7
6'8

10-1

14-6
22-8

18-2
12-2
15-0
12 5

27-4
20-1
21-0
2-8

14-6

16-0

8-4
3-1
27-1
38-3
1-0
11-1

4-7
7-0
7-3
9-3
9-9
10-7
10-0
10-2
9-6
12-5
10-2
11-5

10-0

10-6
9-4
10-3
16-0
12-5
14-1

15-6
18-4
20-4
19-3
lti-4

0-5
1-5
1-0
2-1
4-8
8-9
14-7
5-4
7-3
6-4
18-1

28-2
28-6
18-6
29-3

4-2
16-3
26-8
76-5

1-2
5-5

3-7
0-7
35-4
6-8
89-0
10-8

0-2

0-3
0-3
0-8
0-6
0-3
11
1-0
2-1
10-7
4-2
0-3
8-0
8-0
4-8
5-9
2-2
6-6
7-9

0-1

0-3
8:8
15-8
17-6

O'l

0-2
0-2

o-i

0-5
0-5
0-2
0-5
0-9
1-6
1-1

4-8
4-8
2-4
9-0

0-5

0-2
1-8
0-6
1-8
1-8
2-1
8-4
0-2
0-5
5-1

o-«

0-7
0-6

0-8
0-6

6-4
2-9
8-4
6-2

0-8
0-T

0-7
0-7
3-9
4-6
3-0
1-0

0-4

0 4
0-5
0-5
0-7
0-6
0-6
1-0
0-6
1-0
0-7
0-8
0-8
0-7
0-6
08
0-7
0-8
0-8

1-0
2-8
0-8
1-8
2-1

02
0-4
0-5
0-9
1-8
1-5
1-4
0-7
1-4
1-5
2-5

Mutton, leg

Mutton loin (chops)

MEATS, PKEPAKED.
Dried beef

Corned beef, rather lean
Smoked ham

Pork, bacon salted

FOWL.
Chicken, rather lean

Turkey, medium fatness.

DAIKY PRODUCTS, EGGS, ETC.
Covfs milk ....

Cow's milk, skimmed

Cheese, whole milk

Cheese, skimmed milk

Butter
Hen's eggs

FISH, FRESH.
Flounder, whole

Yellow perch, whole

Haddock, dressed
Black bass, whole . . .

Bluefish. dressed

Pickerel (pike), whole

Brook-trout, whole

Smelt, whole
Mackerel, lean, whole
Mackerel, fat, whole
Mackerel, average, whole . . .

Cod, dressed
Alewife, whole \
Whitefish, whole.....
Shad, whole

Herring, whole

63-6
75-2
68-9
62 9

72-9
51-6
34-4
61-8
42-6

91-4

80-8
87-3
86-2
85-9
84-2
80-3
81-8
77-1
85-4
77-7

31-4
24-8
81-1
37-1

25-1

27-8
54-0
37-2
46-8

8-6
19-2
12-7
13-8
14*1
15-8
19-7
1S-2
22-9
14-6
22-3

19-0
18-5
18'5
22-9

23-4
24-4
36'8
20-2
21-8

4-5

8-2
5-7
6-5
7-6
7-7
14-7
14-5
16-6
6-4
18-1

10-9
5-2
11-4
12-9

0-2
0-3
15-7
15-7

22-8

0-6

I'll
0-9!

0-4
0-9
0-9|
0-2!

1-4
2-0

1-6
l'l|

1-9
7-3
3-2
4-2
2-8
4-2
8-4
0-6
1-2
5-1
0-6

Halibut, dressed

Salmon-trout, dressed
Salmon, in season, whole. .

FISH, PREPARED.
Smoked haddock....

Salt cod

Smoked herring

Canned salmon
Salt mackerel ..'..'.".'.

INVERTEBRATES, SHELL-FISH, ETC.
Oysters, very poor in nutrients

Oysters, very rich in nutrients

Oysters, average

Round clams

Long clams

Mussels . . .

Scallops

Lobsters

crabs. ::

Canned oysters.

Canned lobsters. . . .

* Italics indicate European analyses, the rest are American

346

FOODS, COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUES OF.

mens of cheese were from Washington market,
New York, the analyses in the table represent-
ing averages of several samples. The butter
was from a Vermont dairy. Some of the speci-
mens of fish were purchased in Middletown,
the most, however, were furnished gratuitously
from Fulton market, New York, by Mr. E.
G. Blackford, Fish Commissioner of the State
of New York, who also contributed to the
pecuniary expense of the investigation, as did
likewise Mr. A. K. Crittenden, of Middletown ;
A considerable number of the specimens whose
analyses are given in this table, and in Table II
beyond, were furnished by Mr. F. B. Thurber,
of New York, who also contributed a consid-
erable sam toward defraying the cost of the
research. It may be added that the figures
in Table I (aside from those from European
sources) are selected from the results of nearly
three hundred analyses of American food ma-

TABLE II.

CONSTITUENTS OF VEGETABLE FOODS AND BEVERAGES.'

KINDS OF FOODS AND
BEVERAGES.

I
i

NUTRIENTS.

}!

1

!i

1

!

I
I1

FOODS.

Wheat-flour, average*
Wheat-flour maximum*.

11-6
13-5
8-3
13-0
10-4
13-1
11-8
13-5
11-2
10-6
7-7
14-3
13-5
12-4
13-7
15-0
75-5
75-8
91-2
87-9
90-0
90-4
95-2
90-0
84-8
88-0
15-1
2-2
32-7
34-2
30-0
8-0
8-3
3-9
4-9
7-9
13-1

90-3

88-5
86-3

11-1

13-6
8'6
11-7
11-9
6-7
8-4
6-5
3-3
4-8
15-1
8-4
8-3
7-4
23-2
22-9
2-0

1

1-9
2-5
1-1
0-7
0-4
0-4
1-2
0-3
8-9
9-5
8-4
10-8
10-7
12-3
10-4
12-4
9-0

0-5
0-7

1-1
2-0
0-6
1-7
1-7
0-8
0-7
1-3
0-3
0-6
7-1
3-5
0-4
0-4
2-1
1-8
0-2
0-4
0-2
0-2
0-2
0-4
0-6

o-i
o-o
o-o
o-o
o-o

1-9
1-4
0-5
9'4
9-9
4-8
13-7
4-4
0-3

I

4-0
5-2
10-5
8'9
8-1

T.V4

78-5

>s -3

01) 1)
7^
7S-3
77 -S
77-8
S4-7
S3 1
57-2
"0-9
-7-1
-9-2
J3-7
>2-4
2IC7
20-0
8-0
8-fl
4-9
5-0
1-4
7-8
2-8
2-0
S3 -3
)(>-7
51
5S
61
7<
0
7(
01
71
7C

(•••O

7'2
2-«
8-4
2-7

0-2
1-2

o-i

1-9
t-6 !
0-4
0-3
0-3

o-i

0-3
0-9
1-6
0-3
0-2
3-7
5-4
0-8
1-1
0-9
•2
•8
•9
•1
•3
•5
4-8

o-o
o-o

•5
•3
•7
•5
•7
•5
•6
•2
•8

1?

6:4
0-5
0-6

0-6
1-5
0-8
1-8
1-4
0-7
1-0
1-1
0-4
0-6
2-0
1-3
0-4
0-4
3-6
2-5
1-0
1-2
0-7
0-8
1-2
0-8
0-6
0-6
0-5
0-3
0-4
0-8
1-0
1-6
1-4
1-8
2-4
2-5
1-4
1-1
0-8

0-2

0-3
0-2
0-8
0-2

Wheat-flour, minimum*
Graham-flo ir (wheat >.

Pearled barley
Buckwheat-flour
Buckwheat '• farina "
Buckwheat " groats "
Oatmeal

Corn-meal

Rice

Beans

Peas

Potatoes

8 wee t-potatoes

Turnips

Carrots

Cabbage
Cauliflower ...

Melons

Pumpkins

Apples

Pears ...

Starch.

Cane-sugar

Wheat-breadt

Grab am -bread

Rye-bread

Sofia-crackers
" Boston " crackers
" Oyster " crackers . ...

Oatmeal-crackers

Pilot (bread) crackers
Macaroni ...

BEVERAGES.

Layer-beer
Porter and ale
Rhenish wine, white

Rhenish wine, red
French wine, claret

86-9

88-4

* Of forty-nine analyses,
t From flour of about average composition.
The analyses of foods in Roman letters are American, those
of foods and beverages in italics are European.

terials, of which some two hundred are of fish
and invertebrates. The analyses of fish, being
more numerous, give more satisfactory figures
and averages than those of meats, etc.

Table II gives analyses of vegetable food ma-
terials and beverages. The figures for wheat-
flour represent the results of forty -nine analyses
of American flours, of which the majority were
analyzed under the direction of Prof. Brewer,
and the rest collated by him from other sources
for the "Report of the United Census, 1880."
The largest and the smallest percentages of each
ingredient found in the analyses are given oppo-
site " maximum " and " minimum." The speci-
mens of bread, crackers, etc., were purchased
and analyzed at Middletown, Conn., and have
probably about the usual composition of such
materials.

An attempt is made in Tables III and IV to
illustrate graphically the composition of some
of the foods whose composition is given in Ta-
bles I and II.

Comparative Costs of Nutritive Ingredients in Dif-
ferent Foods. — A subject that has received but
little attention in this country, though it has
become a vital one in Europe, and is becoming
so with us, is the cost of the nutritive mate-
rial of our foods. The relative cheapness or
dearness of different foods must be judged by
comparing, not the prices per pound, but the
costs of the actual nutrients. In making such
comparisons, the cost may be assumed to fall,
not upon the inedible portions and the water,
but solely upon the three classes of nutrients :
protein, fats, and carbohydrates. The relative
physiological values of the nutrients in differ-
ent foods depend upon (1) their digestibility
and (2) their functions and the proportions in
which they can replace each other in nutrition.
An accurate physiological valuation is, in the
present state of our knowledge, at least, im-
practicable. The pecuniary costs of the nutri-
ents are, however, more nearly capable of ap-
proximation.

Various methods have been proposed for
computing the relative pecuniary costs of the
nutrients of foods, none of which, however,
are entirely beyond criticism. The following,
based upon German estimates of the relative
costs of protein fats and carbohydrates, is per-
haps as satisfactory as any.

From extended comparisons of the compo-
sition and market prices of the more important
animal and vegetable food-materials, such as
meats, fish, flour, etc., those which serve for
nourishment and not as luxuries, and form the
bulk of the food of the people, it has been esti-
mated that a pound of protein costs, on the
average, five times as much, and a pound of
fats three times as much, as a pound of carbo-
hydrates; that, in other words, these three
classes of nutrients stand related to each other,
in respect.to cost, in the following proportions :

Assumed ratios of costs \ -p1"? em

in staple foods | Carbohydrates: '. '. '. 1

TABLE III.— COMPOSITION OF EDIBLE PORTION OF ANIMAL FOODS
FREED FROM BONE, SKIN, AND OTHER REFUSE.

Percentages indicated by shaded spaces.
NUTRIENTS. NON-NUTRIENTS.

100

Flounder
Cod

Haddock
Pickerel (pike)
Yellow perch

Smelt

Bluefish
Brook-trout
Black bass

Halibut

Mackerel, average

Alewife

Eel

Shad

Whitefish

Salmon-trout

Herring

Salmon, in season, fat
Desiccated cod
Smoked herring,

Salt mackerel

Salt cod

Crabs, edible portion
Crawfish, edible portion . .
Lobsters, edible portion

Scallops, edible portion

Mussels, shell contents

Round clams, shell contents. . . .
Oysters, shell contents, average.

Milk

Beef, lean, nearly free from fat.
Beef, round, rather lean
Beef, sirloin, medium fatness . . .
Mutton, side, well fattened

Pork, very fat

Beef, side, well fattened

Beef, flank, very fat

Ham, smoked

Chicken, moderately fat

Cheese, whole milk

Cheese, skimmed milk

Butter

Hens' eggs

TABLE IV.— COMPOSITION OF FOODS AS FOUND IN THE MARKETS.

Percentages indicated by shaded spaces.

NUTRIENTS.

NON-NUTRIENTS.

10 20 30 40

70 80 90 100

Flounder, whole

Haddock, dressed

Bluefish, whole

Pickerel (pike), whole

Cod, dressed

Ale wife, whole

Whitefish, whole

Shad, whole

Mackerel, whole

Herring, whole

Halibut, dressed

Salmon-trout, dressed

Eel, dressed

Salmon, whole .

Smoked herring

Salt cod

Smoked haddock

Scallops, edible portion, muscle..

Oysters, edible portion

Crabs, in shell

Lobsters, in shell

Mussels, in shell

Long clams, in shell

Bound clams, in shell

Oysters, in shell

Milk

Beef, round, rather lean

Beef, sirloin, rather fat

Mutton, side, well fattened

Fat pork, very fat

Oatmeal

Beans

Wheat-flour, best quality

Indian-corn (maize) meal

Potatoes

Beef, side, well fattened

Beef, flank, very fat

Ham, smoked

Chicken

Hens' eggs

Wheat-bread

Rice

Sugar

Turnips

FOODS, COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUES OF.

347

Suppose a pound of beef of average fatness COMPARATIVE COSTS OF PROTEIN IN ANIMAL AND VEGB-
to cost 25 cents and to contain 25 per cent, of TABLE FOODS.

inedible matters, bone, etc., 45 per cent, of "
water, and 30 per cent, of nutritive substance, FOODS

upon wbicb latter — tbe bone and water being
assumed to be without nutritive value — the -
whole cost comes. The 30 per cent, or ^<> Beef: sirloin, medium fatness... ^ ToT

pounds of nutritive Substance thus COSts 25 " Same, at lower price 20 86

cents, or at the rate of 83^ cents per pound. Round, rather lean. '...'. 70

If, now, we leave out of account the minute « v^tt!Z*Z?.*?. is 55

quantities of carbohydrates and the mineral " -Flank,* very fat '. .. 15

matters the whole cost will fall upon the pro- Mu?™iilegmediuai ^e88;;;; g 'g

tern and rats. Assuming these to cost in the Pork,* very fat 16 so

ratio of 5 : 3 and the amounts in the meat to M^?i±Sr'^rt "i 1 Jf

be, protein 14£ percent, and fats 15 per cent., Cheese: Whole milk ......1. 18 88

an easy computation will show the protein to Skimmed milk. 8 19

COSt 107-7 cents, and the fats 64'6 cents per Salmon : Early in season 100 572

pound. Proof: 14J-i00 pound of protein at 107'7 " When plenty 80 172

cents = 15-3 cents ; T^ pounds of fats at 64'6 S*?d When abundant: : \ £

cents = 9-7 cents; 15 3 cents + 9'7 cents = 25 Bluefish 10 93

cents, the cost of the pound of meat which con- 5af.u°^k 7

tained the given amounts of protein and fats. Mackerel.".'." V/.'.;.'.' '.'.'.'. '.!".'.'.'.". '.'.'.'.'. 10 so

The above ratios, protein : fats : carbohydrates " When abundant '.'..'.'.'. 5 40

= 5:3:1, represent at best only gen eral aver- Cof • ^hen ' plenty.' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .'.' '.'.'" e 50

ages, and may in given cases be more or less Alewife '.'.'." ........ ...... 8 19

incorrect. A method free from these objec- Canned sa]mon

tions consists in simply computing the amounts gait macTe™ ?D. '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.' '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'/.'. 12-5 IS

of nutrients that may be bought for the same Sait^cod 7

price in different food-materials. At the same

time the method above detailed is doubtless Oysters,t 25 cents per quart I2j 156

accurate enough for a general comparison of 35 cents per quart .... 17-5

the relative cheapness and dearness of ordinary 'l^.?.^£.^.$£: § 55

foods, and is used in calculating the costs of .

protein below. ESSS^^:""^". I II

Or the different nutrients, protein is physio- Oatmeal 5 15

logically the most important as it is pecuniarily Soes,'* '50' cents per' bushel.:::::: 0-8 i!

the most expensive. In fish, furthermore, as " 100 cents per bushel 1-7 28

in the leaner kinds of meat, it is the predorni- -

nant nutritive ingredient. For these reasons ^^ very httle protein' * She11 CODtents-
the cost of protein in fish and other foods may calculations, the protein in the oysters costs
be used as a means of comparing their relative from two to three dollars, and in salmon rises
cheapness or dearness, as is done in the follow- to nearly six dollars, per pound. In beef, mut-
ing table. The figures represent the ordinary ton, and pork, it varies from 108 to 48 cents ;
prices per pound and the corresponding costs in shad, bluefish, haddock, and halibut, the
of protein, in specimens of food-materials ob- range is about the same ; while in cod and
tained in New York and Middletown (Conn.) mackerel, fresh and salted, it ranges from 67
markets. Though the number of specimens to as low as 33 cents per pound. Salt cod
is too small for reliable averages, the figures, and salt mackerel are nearly always, fresh cod
taken together, doubtless give a tolerably fair and mackerel often, and even the choicer fish,
idea of the relative costliness of the nutrients as bluefish and shad, when abundant, cheaper
in the different classes of foods. sources of protein than any but the inferior

Thus the nutrients of vegetable foods are, kinds of meat.

in general, much less costly than in animal In short, we pay for many of our foods
foods. The animal foods have, however, the according to their agreeableness to our palates,
advantage of containing a larger proportion of rather than their value for nourishing our bod-
protein and fats, and the protein, at least, in ies. At the same time it is interesting to note
more digestible forms. And further, the so- that the prices of the materials that make up
called "nitrogenous extractives" of kreatin, the bulk of the food of the people seem to run
carnin, etc., of meats, which contribute so much more or less parallel with their actual nutri-
to their agreeable flavor, exert a nutritive effect tive values. Here, as elsewhere, the resultant
which, though not yet explained, is neverthe- of the general experience of mankind has led
less important. It is these which give to " ex- slowly and blindly, but none the less surely,
tract of meat " its peculiar flavor and stimu- to the same general result to which accurate
lating effect. research more understandingly and quickly

Among the animal foods, those which rank guides us.
as delicacies are the costliest. By the above Fish as Food. — As the investigation to which

348 FOODS, COMPOSITION OF.

FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE.

a large number of the analyses of Tables I-IV
belong was undertaken with an especial view
to the study of fish as food for man, some more
specific reference to fish may not be out of place
here. The flesh of fish contains, in general,
about the same proportions of protein, less fat,
more water, and hence, on the whole, less nu-
tritive material, than that of domestic animals
used for food. Thus we have in the flesh of
flounder only 16 per cent., and in that of cod
18 per cent, of nutrients, while ordinary lean
beef has from 25 to 33 per cent., and the fatter
meats considerably more. The fatter kinds of
fish, however, as herring, mackerel, salmon,
shad, and white-fish, approach nearer to me-
dium beef. Dried and salted fish also contain
good proportions of nutrients, the specimens
of ordinary salt codfish having 28 per cent.,
salt mackerel 47 per cent. The edible portion
of shell-fish is poor in nutrients, oysters vary-
ing from 9 to 19 per cent., and lobsters averag-
ing 18 per cent.

Proportions of Nutrients in Fish and other Food-
Materials as commonly sold.— Fish as found in the
markets generally contain more refuse, bone,
skin, etc., than meats, as is illustrated in Tables
II and IV. With the larger proportions of both
refuse and water the proportions of nutrients,
though variable, are usually much less than in
meats. Thus, a sample of flounder contained
67 per cent, of refuse, 28 per cent, of water, and
only 5 per cent, of nutritive substance, while
the salmon averaged 23 per cent., the salt cod 22
per cent., and the salt mackerel 36 per cent, of
nutrients. The nutrients in meats ranged from
30 per cent, in beef to 46 per cent, in mutton,
and 87i per cent, in very fat pork (bacon).
The canned fish compare very favorably with
the meats. It is worth noting that the nutri-
ents in fresh codfish, dressed, in oysters, edi-
ble portion, and in milk, were nearly the same
in a;nount, about 12| per cent., though differ-
ing in kind and proportions.

Vegetable foods generally have less water
and more nutrients than animal foods. Or-
dinary flour, meal, etc., contain from 85 to 90
per cent, or more of nutritive material. But the
nutritive value is not proportional to the quan-
tity of nutrients, because the vegetable foods
consist mostly of carbohydrates, starch, sugar,
cellulose, etc., of inferior nutritive effect, and
because their protein is less digestible than that
of animal foods. Potatoes contain a large
amount of water and extremely little protein or
fats.

Uses of Fish as Food.— The chief uses of fish as
food are (1) as an economical source of nutri-
ment, and (2) to supply the demand for variety
in diet, which increases with the advance of
civilization and culture.

As nutriment, the place of fish is that of a
supplement to vegetable foods, the most of
which, as wheat, rye, maize, rice, potatoes,
etc., are deficient in protein, the chief nutrient
of fish.

The so-called nitrogenous extractives, con-

tained in small quantities in fish, as in other
animal foods, are doubtless useful in nutrition.
The theory that fish is especially valuable for
brain-food, on account of an assumed richness
in phosphorus, is not sustained by the facts of
either chemistry or physiology.

It is an interesting fact that the poorer class-
es of people and communities almost univer-
sally select those foods which chemical analysis
shows to supply the actual nutrients at the
lowest cost. But, unfortunately, the propor-
tions of the nutrients in their dietaries are
often very defective. Thus, in portions of In-
dia and China, rice ; in Northern Italy, maize-
meal ; in certain districts of Germany and in
some regions and seasons in Ireland, potatoes ;
and among the poor whites of the Southern
United States, maize-meal and bacon, make a
large part, and in some cases almost the sole,
food of the people. These foods supply the
nutrients in the cheapest forms, but are all de-
ficient in protein. The people who live upon
them are ill-nourished and suffer physically,
intellectually, and morally thereby.

On the other hand, the Scotchman finds a
most economical supply of protein in oatme*al,
haddock, and herring ; and the rural inhabit-
ants of New England supplement the fat of
their pork with protein of beans, and the car-
bohydrates of potatoes, maize, and wheat-flour
with the protein of codfish and mackerel, and,
while subsisting largely upon such frugal but
rational diets, are well nourished, physically
strong, and noted for their intellectual and
moral force.

As population becomes denser, the capacity
of the soil to supply food for man gradually
nears its limit. Fish gather materials that
would otherwise be inaccessible and lost, and
store them in the very forms that are most de-
ficient in the produce of the soil. Thus, by
proper culture and use of fish, the rivers and
the sea are made to fulfill their office with the
land in supplying nutriment for man.

FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE. The foot-and-
mouth disease is the most contagious of all
the maladies which affect domestic animals.
Nearly all four-footed beasts are liable to it,
but the cloven-footed are especially predis-
posed to infection. Sheep, goats, swine, and
cattle contract it with equal readiness and cer-
tainty. All the individuals of a herd or flock
in which it makes its appearance are affected
almost simultaneously. The period of incuba-
tion is about 36 hours, though in cold weather
the symptoms seem to be delayed, and some-
times do not manifest themselves until six days
after exposure to the infection. The symp-
toms are the swelling of the digits, blisters or
ulcers between the hoofs, lameness, inflamma-
tion and tenderness of the udder and teats,
with sores and blisters on those parts, frothing
and slobbering at the mouth, a smacking noise
made with the tongue and palate, and large,
rounded blisters or angry sores on the mucous
membrane of the mouth.

FOOT-AND-MOUTH DISEASE.

FORESTRY.

349

The British House of Commons in the ses-
sion of 1883 passed a resolution prohibiting
the importation into Great Britain of cattle
from countries in which the foot-and-mouth
disease exists. This was expected to stop alto-
gether the trade in live cattle from the United
States ; but the British Government were un-
willing to alter the regulations to gratify the
protectionist desires, which were the motive of
the resolution. The United States Treasury
Cattle Commissioners were directed to inquire
into the facts relating to the supposed exist-
ence of the complaint in the United States.
In their report, made in the beginning of Au-
gust, they declared the country to be entirely
free of the disease. They found no trace of it
in the cattle-depots at Kansas City, Council
Bluffs, and Omaha, nor in the stock-yards
along the line of transportation and on the
Atlantic seaboard, nor in the dairy districts of
the East. An epidemic of the foot-and-mouth
disease, which spread from Canada into North-
ern New York and New England in the au-
tumn of 1871, was brought from England by
two cows imported into Montreal. The seclu-
sion of the herds during the winter confined
its action, and it soon disappeared. A cargo
of Channel Island cattle suffering from the
malady were landed at New York in 1881.
These were quarantined by the State authori-
ties. The steamship France, which brought
them, after an imperfect disinfection, returned
with a cargo of American beeves, which were
condemned on their arrival in England as suf-
fering from the foot-and-mouth disease. A
similar case occurred in March, 1883, when a
herd of Channel Island cattle, landed at Balti-
more from the steamer Nessmore, were found
to be affected with the disease, and were se-
cluded so that the infection did not spread to
the home herds ; but the fat cattle which were
shipped to England by the same vessel were
found to be suffering from the disease on their
arrival. The use of the head-ropes of dis-
eased animals on others is believed to be a
means of communicating the infection.
. The foot-and-mouth disease has existed in
various parts of Great Britain since 1880, in
which year it is supposed to have been brought
into England by a Frei ch cow. Ireland was
free from it for many years ; but recently it
has committed great ravages in that country.
A Westmoreland bull is believed to have con-
tracted it from contact with a cargo of infect-
ed cattle at Liverpool, and contaminated the
Irish herds. In 1883 occurred an outbreak in
Scotland, into which country it was intro-
duced by cattle brought from Ireland ; but by
vigorous measures on the part of the local au-.
thorities the disease was speedily stamped out.
In 1839 the disease was imported into England
by some other agency than by living animals,
because importations of animals had been pro-
hibited for several years. The measures taken
to combat the malady in Great Britain, thoagh
not sufficient to exterminate it, greatly niiti-

its ravages. In 1881 there were 4,833
outbreaks and 183,000 animals affected; in
1882, 1,970 outbreaks and 37,950 animals af-
fected. In July, 1883, the disease began to
spread in the English counties, and it became
a serious epidemic.

FORESTRY, the science and art of manag-
ing and developing trees in masses. It does
not relate to single trees by themselves, but
only as they are combined and constitute what
we call a forest. It studies not only the gen-
eral laws of tree-growth, which are the same
everywhere, but also the peculiar nature or
habit of each species, and the adaptations of
different species to various soils, climates, and
exposures. It considers the conditions which
will best promote the growth of trees, whether
for fuel, for timber, or for other purposes. It
ascertains what trees grow best by themselves,
and what thrive best in company with others.
It falls within the province of forestry, there-
fore, to investigate whatever promotes or hin-
ders the growth of trees, the causes of disease
among them, the insects that prey upon them,
and everything that may be an impediment to
the development of the forest.

But forestry, as now understood, has a wider
range than this even. It recognizes the con-
nection of trees in masses with rain-fall and
moisture, and with the distribution of the same
and their consequent influence upon the at-
mosphere and upon the flow of streams. It
therefore regards the forests as having an inti-
mate connection with the interests of agricul-
ture and commerce, as- well as with climate,
and consequently with health.

The subject of forestry has only recently be-
gun to receive attention in this country, al-
though it has long been known and recognized
abroad. The first settlers of the country found
it well wooded. From the St. John to Florida
the whole sea-coast was fringed with trees,
and as fast and as far as the settlers penetrated
inland they found the trees abundant. Indeed,
after the very earliest settlement, as the tide
of immigration from the old country set in
with increasing strength, the difficulty was to
find open space enough for agricultural pur-
poses, and a principal occupation of the set-
tler, for a considerable time, was necessarily
that of removing the trees. As there was then
little use for the trees except for house-build-
ing and for fuel, they were felled and burned
in huge piles upon the field, the stumps being
left until a partial decay admitted of their re-
moval. This process of settlement prevailed,
for the most part, until within the memory of
those now living, when the westward-moving
column of migration emerged from the woods,
through which it had almost literally hewn its
way, and came out upon the prairies, which
were almost destitute of trees, but most invit-
ing to the tiller of the ground, partly on that
very account.

That early and protracted struggle with the
forests was not calculated to engender in the

350

FORESTRY.

people of this country a love of trees or a
strong 8ense of their value. On the contrary,
it cheapened them in their esteem, and made
them ready to sacrifice them for slight reasons.
We have parted with them freely, and for
small considerations. Trespass upon wood-
land has not been regarded like trespass upon
other lands, nor visited with similar punish-
ment. We have suffered the fires, originating
in carelessness, or set, as they have been some-
times, in wantonness, to waste the forests to
the extent of millions of acres annually, and
have made hardly any effort to prevent such
destruction.

And when, by the growth of population and
the development of the country, the forests be-
came increasingly valuable for their lumber,
we have produced this in a most careless and
wasteful manner. The lumber-men have culled
the largest and best trees, those that could be
most easily and cheaply converted into lum-
ber, and have used only the best portions of
these even, leaving the larger limbs and often
parts of the trunks themselves, with all the
remaining trees of inferior size or less accessi-
ble, to decay or to be burned. As the result,
we have hardly anywhere, unless it be in the
Pacific region of the extreme Northwest, and
in some portions of the Southern States, a
remnant of the grand forests which once al-
most covered the land, while we have prac-
tically destroyed that magnificent belt of pines
which stretched from Maine to the Mississippi.

Noah Webster, writing at the close of last
century, on the supposed change in the tem-
perature of winter, after examining many au-
thorities, ancient and modern, advances the
opinion that "the weather in modern winters
is more inconstant than when the earth was
covered with wood, at the first settlement of
Europeans in the country; that the warm
weather of autumn extends further into the
winter months, and the cold weather of win-
ter and spring encroaches upon the summer ;
that the wind being more variable, snow is
less permanent, and perhaps the same remark
may be applicable to the ice of the rivers."
He attributes these changes to the exposure of
the ground in consequence of clearings, and
the greater depth to which the earth freezes
in winters.

Dr. Rush, at about the same period, ex-
presses the opinion that the springs were cold-
er and the autumns milder than formerly, the
rivers breaking up earlier in spring and freez-
ing later.

Thomas Jefferson, distinguished for his habit
of observation, says that the snows were nei-
ther so late nor so frequent as formerly, and
intimates that the summers were longer, the
autumns later, and the winters shorter and
lighter than in former years. These changes,
which were observed to follow the clearing of
lands, were not gradual and slow, but quick
and sudden, in proportion to the extent of
cultivation.

Volney, the French traveler, who visited
our country toward the close of last century,
notes the fact that changes had been observed
in the climate in proportion as the lauds had
been cleared. Kalm, also, who traveled in
America in 1849, notices a supposed similar
change of climate.

But the opinions of a few individuals, how-
ever worthy of consideration, were not calcu-
lated to make any marked impression upon the
country, or to lead to any practical result.

In Europe the importance of the forests has
long been recognized. As they were held for
the most part as the property of kings and
nobles, or of great ecclesiastical and municipal
corporations, the mass of the people had only
certain rights in them, or servitudes as they
were called, such as that of gathering fire-
wood, or leaves for bedding, or of pasturing
cattle and swine in them at certain seasons.
These rights were liable to constant abuse.
The peasantry would cut trees for fuel with-
out permission, or they would cut them for
the purpose of enlarging the pasturage. In
these and other ways the forests were preyed
upon and destroyed. But they were often
destroyed as the result of the frequent wars.
They would be cut down or burned as the
means of driving out an enemy concealed in
them, or as a means of annoyance or reprisal.
Sometimes kings and nobles, and even states,
when in need of money, would sell their for-
ests or portions of them.

It should be borne in mind, however, that
in old English law and in the usage of olden
times the word " forest " had a different sig-
nification from what it has with us. A forest
was a hunting-ground. It might have trees,
or it might not. If it had, it was only inci-
dentally, as affording shelter and rest for the
game. Man wood, in his "Forest Laws," pub-
lished about three hundred years ago, makes
the essential characteristic of a forest that it
is set apart for the conservation of game, and
that if it have no game it can not be called a
forest. It must also belong to a sovereign. A
forest is a royal hunting-ground, and if the
king makes a grant of a forest to a subject, it
thereupon ceases to be a forest and becomes
what is known as a " chase." Blackstone de-
fines a forest thus : " Forests are waste grounds
belonging to the king, replenished with all man-
ner of chase or venery, which are under the
king's protection for the sake of his recreation
and delight."

Blount says that when William the Con-
queror created what has ever since been
known as the New Forest, for his recreation,
as he was very fond of hunting, it " was raised
by the destruction of twenty - two parish
churches, and many villages and chapels and
manors, for the space of thirty miles together."
Only a small part of this extensive tract was
covered with trees so as to be a forest in our
modern understanding of the word.

At length it was seen that there must be a

FORESTRY.

351

diminished supply of fuel if dependence was to
be placed upon the yearly growth of wood,
and if not, then the utter extinction of the
forests was threatened. It was found also that
the removal of the forests from the slopes of
the mountains gave rise to torrents, which car-
ried rocks and stones into the fields and plains,
and so covered them as to make them, in many
cases, no longer capable of cultivation, and to
oblige the inhabitants to remove. Floods and
droughts were also found to be increasing.

Measures were then taken for the protection
of forests, and in some of the European coun-
tries the authority and care of the government
have been exercised in their behalf for several
hundred years. It is more than two hundred
years since the great Colbert, minister of Louis
XIV, called the attention of that monarch to
the dangers threatening France on account of
the destruction of her forests. From the royal
ordinance then issued, embodying severe laws
against trespassers, dates the system of forest
management and protection, which, with some
changes, has continued in operation in France
to the present time.

The system of forest protection in Germany
dates further back, but has been much devel-
oped and improved within the past hundred
years. Indeed, we may say that forestry has
taken the position of a science and an art only
within the present century. Inquiries and ex-
periments, reaching through many years, have
been made by most competent observers ; laws
of vegetable growth have been diligently in-
vestigated ; the effects of climate, soil, and situ-
ation in other respects upon the growth of trees
have been traced, and the effects in turn of trees
upon the soil and climate, upon rain-fall and
moisture. The mechanical effect of forests as
barriers against harmful winds and as a protec-
tion to crops has been inquired into. These
and many other things connected with tree-life
and tree-growth have been made the subject of
patient and scientific study.

It required but little examination to make
manifest the connection of forests with rain-fall
and water-supply as well as with floods and
droughts. It had been noticed that, as the for-
ests diminished, the volume of many streams,
such as the Volga, the ?o, the Rhine, and the
Seine, were lessened, while also floods and
droughts had become more frequent and tor-
rents more destructive. Investigation showed
that the leaves falling, from year to year, in the
forests, and sheltered from the winds so that
they are not dispersed, accumulate to a consid-
erable depth, and, slowly decaying, form a cov-
ering of light, spongy soil, or humus, which is
capable of absorbing the rains and snows. This
spongy soil, in woods long undisturbed, is some-
times two or three feet in thickness. It is easy
to see that such a mass would be able to hold a
vast amount of water, and that the rains, instead
of flowing off at once into the streams, would
be detained for a time, trickling away gradu-
ally, as from a sponge, into the water- courses,

or, sinking slowly into the ground and follow-
ing the seams and channels in the rocks, would
come out as springs and rivulets in the distant
meadows. So the streams and rivers do not
rise and fall with every shower, but maintain
an equable flow most serviceable to man.

The removal of the forests produces a great
change in the water-flow. The first effect is
to dry up the accumulated leafy soil by the in-
fluence of both sun and wind, which are now
let in upon it. Thus, as the leaves dry, they
are waited away by the winds or washed away
by the rains. The spongy soil being thus re-
moved, the rains or snows have nothing to de-
tain them, but flow at once down the hill-sides
into the water-courses, filling them often be-
yond their capacity, overflowing their banks,
and carrying destruction in their course.

For the same reason that the rains pour so
quickly into the streams and cause sudden and
destructive floods, in those seasons when the
rains are not abundant, as in summer, there
being no longer a great spongy surface upon
the hill-sides, the streams are diminished, and
many of them disappear for a time. The fields
become parched, the cattle faint, the mills stand
idle, and great loss and suffering are the re-
sult.

It is to be observed that the removal of the
forests affects the water-supply of streams in
another way. When ground which has pre-
viously been shaded by trees is opened to the
sun and wind by their removal, the evapora-
tion of moisture from the earth is greatly in-
creased. Hence, much of the water which
would otherwise sink into the ground and sup-
ply distant springs, or find its way into the
streams, is now carried into the air as vapor.
The streams, therefore, have a less average
depth than they would have if the forests were
not removed. The Rhine, the Elbe, and the
Oder, it was stated at a Forestry Congress
held in Vienna in 1873, are all shallower now
than in the past. It was asserted that the Elbe
at Altenbrucke, in Hanover, in 1787, was 48
feet in depth at low water. In 1812 it had de-
creased to 46 feet 6 inches ; and in 1837 a fur-
ther reduction to 38 feet was indicated, mak-
ing a diminution of 10 feet in half a century.
The Elbe rises in Bohemia, where, until re-
cently, the forests were under no control, and
so were destroyed in the most reckless manner.
The Rhine, also, has much less water than for-
merly. Its sources are in Switzerland, where,
more than in any other country of Europe, the
forests have been considered common prop-
erty, and their destruction has been most unre-
strained. A similar lessening of such streams
as the Connecticut, the Ohio, and the Hudson
is noticeable in this country. .These and many
other streams no longer afford such facilities
for commerce as formerly. Traffic upon them
has to be carried on in smaller vessels than
such as were formerly employed. The lesser
streams, which were used extensively for manu-
facturing purposes, have also become so dimin-

352

FORESTRY.

isbed in volume that, in many cases, the mills
have been obliged to lessen their production
or continue it only by the introduction of steam-
power.

It has been a matter of dispute whether for-
ests actually increase the amount of rain-fall
in their vicinity. The preponderance of opin-
ion favors the conclusion that they do, though
the difficulty of making the necessary observa-
tions to settle the question is so great as to
forbid at present a very positive opinion. So
far as forests are on elevated ground — and they
are so situated to a great extent — it would seem
• a reasonable conclusion that more moisture
from passing clouds would be condensed by
them and precipitated in the form of rain than
would be converted into rain upon the open
and lower ground. The simple law of attrac-
tion would tend to bring the clouds into con-
tact with them, and their elevation would also
cause them to intercept more or less the clouds
driven toward them by the winds. Thus we
might expect a greater deposition of moisture
than on the lower and cleared ground; and in
accordance with this, those who have paid but
little attention to the operations of nature must
have noticed how the clouds seem to cling
around the mountains when elsewhere the sky
is comparatively clear. Mr. Colvin, in charge
of the Adirondack Survey, testifies that he
has often found the trees there dripping with
moisture condensed from passing clouds, when
there was no such condensation outside of the
forest limit. Careful and repeated observa-
tions also show an increasing amount of rain-
fall as one goes from the level of Lake Cham-
plain into the region of the Adirondacks. This
increase is proportioned to the elevation at-
tained, and may be attributed in part to the
forests and in part to elevation, as we know
the temperature of the atmosphere decreases
with elevation, and therefore the precipitation
from the clouds is more copious on hills and
mountains than on lower ground. But the
precipitation is not to be attributed to eleva-
tion alone, for, in cases where cleared ground
and forests have been on the same level, it has
been found that more rain fell upon the forest
than upon the open land.

But whatever may be thought as to the effect
of forests in increasing the amount of rain-fall,
there can be no doubt that they are great equal-
izers of temperature and moisture, and so have
an important influence upon climate and upon
the healthfulness as well as the agricultural ca-
pacity of the region where they are. No one
can have visited a forest in the warm season
without noticing its grateful coolness, and the
moist condition of the air as compared with
that of the open country. So, in the cooler
season of the year, the atmosphere in the for-
est is warmer than that outside its limits.
Lumber-men and wood-choppers find no diffi-
culty in pursuing their work in the coldest
weather. Travelers also experience great re-
lief at once in very cold weather, whenever

they can get within the shelter of the forest.
The ground never freezes in the woods as it
does elsewhere. This is owing very much to
the protecting cover of the fallen leaves, and
to the snow. But the forests are also free
from the winds. The most violent winds do
not penetrate them, except for a very short
distance. A tempest may be raging without,
but stillness will reign in the depth of the
woods. The trunks and branches of the trees
form an effectual barrier against all but the
most violent tornadoes, and even these seldom
penetrate or damage dense and well-managed
forests. The shelter is often equivalent to a
favorable change of latitude of several degrees,
so that certain plants and grains can be culti-
vated which could not be grown successfully
without such protection. Thus forestry takes
rank as one of the most important subjects of
consideration. There is not one of the Euro-
pean states that does not now give prominence
in its system of administration to its forests.

Where the forests are not owned by the state,
the interest of the latter in such as are owned
by individuals or corporations is held to be so
great that the state maintains the right of su-
pervision. While the proprietors are allowed
usually to manage their forest property as
they please, yet the state will not permit them
to manage it in a way that may be prejudicial
to the general welfare. No one, for example,
is allowed to cut and remove an extensive tract
of forest at once, if thereby the adjacent prop-
erty of others would be injured, or if the dan-
ger of floods and torrents would be increased.
The state here asserts its right of eminent do-
main and, if necessary, takes possession of the
property. In general, however, there is now
such a well-established and enlightened sense
of the value of forests on the part of most
owners of woodland in Europe, and such confi-
dence in the wisdom and policy of the manage-
ment of forests adopted by the governments,
that they are usually disposed to adopt the
same and to place their property under the
control of officers appointed by the state.

The Bureau of Forests in France, and the
Bureau of Foreet Administration in Germany,
are among the^most important offices of gov-
ernment. They form a part of the Finance
Department ; for, while the forests are highly
regarded for their climatic influences and their
conservative effects, and on this account are
carefully managed, they are at the same time
so managed as to be made important sources
of revenue. This is especially the case in Ger-
many, where the economic value of the forests
in their direct products is the chief considera-
tion, as in France, owing to different geo-
graphical conditions, the relation of the for-
ests to climate and soil-protection becomes
the chief interest. In Germany the forests are
so managed as to produce the largest and best
growth of the most valuable kinds of trees
upon a given space, while at the same time
they are so arranged in position and form as

FORESTRY.

353

to exert the most conservative influence
upon climate and upon the agricultural and
other interests of the state. The Germans
have studied the whole subject of tree-growth
in all its relations, with the utmost care,
and the result is that they are able to
grow three times as much timber on an acre
of ground as our natural forests produce,
and at the same time of better quality. The
management of a forest by them is like that
of one of our market-gardens compared with
an ordinary farm-field. The ground is well
chosen, if a new forest is to be created, or,
if it is already occupied with forest-trees, it is
put into the best condition to produce the
largest crop. Drains are made if necessary.
If the ground is not well stocked with trees,
the vacant spaces are filled. If the trees are
of inferior character, they are replaced as soon
as possible by better ones. If improper or
uncongenial trees are growing together, meas-
ures are taken, by removal and planting, to
produce a proper association, so that they shall
grow in harmony and without interference
with one another. The sickly are replaced by
such as are strong. The deformed have their
habit corrected by proper pruning, or are made
to give place to others. Thinnings are made at
the proper time so as to admit the requisite
amount of light and air to promote the most
rapid and healthy growth, and to secure the
proper seeding of the ground for a future
crop ; and finally, the trees are cut down and
converted into fuel or lumber when they have
attained the condition to be most valuable for
these uses. Dead trees are not allowed to
cumber the ground, and living trees are not
permitted to remain after they have attained
their growth and have ripened their wood.

Then, in reducing the forest to use, similar
care is exercised. In felling the trees, caution
is taken not to injure the young trees which
are designed to continue the forest. Roads
and canals are made to facilitate the convey-
ance of the timber or fuel. All the opera-
tions are performed by the agents of the gov-
ernment or under their constant supervision.

Germany not only produces all the lumber
and fuel she needs for her own use, but is
able to export a considerable quantity. And
this is done from the annual yield of her for-
ests, without trenching at all upon the sub-
stance of the forests as such. Indeed, we are
told that the tendency is to increase the
amount of land devoted to forests.

The management of forests in France is
similar to that in Germany, which may be re-
garded as the system adopted substantially in
all the European states. It is modified some-
what by the greater need in France of study-
ing climatic effects.

Everywhere, in the European system, the
forest tracts are carefully surveyed and mapped.
Then a period of rotation is fixed — that is, the
time when the trees are expected to reach
their full growth and give place to their suc-
VOL. xxin. — 23 A

cessors. This differs according to the kinds
of trees grown. With the larch and birch it
ranges from fifty to sixty years, and in cold re-
gions twice that. With the locust and mari-
time pines, it is from sixty to seventy years ;
with the Scotch pine, it is from eighty to
ninety ; with the beech, from eighty to one
hundred and forty; with the ash, from ninety
to one hundred; with the chestnut, from
ninety to one hundred and twenty ; with the
spruce, from ninety to one hundred and forty;
with the fir, from one hundred to one hun-
dred and forty, the average being about one
hundred and twenty years; with the elm,
from one hundred to one hundred and twenty
years; and with the oak, from one hundred
and twenty to two hundred. To prevent
cutting off large tracts at once, and so making
openings through which violent winds might
gain admission, the forests are divided into
blocks, only one of which is cut at a time. Of
course, a first principle of any such system of
forestry is the exclusion of all cattle from the
forests, except where the trees are of such size
as to be in no danger either from their teeth
or their hoofs.

We know nothing practically of such forest
management in this country. The growth of
forests is only accidental and Imp-hazard, and
our use of them has been most wasteful and
uneconomical. Cattle have been allowed free
range in them, and the young trees have been
eaten or broken down to such an extent that,
except with the primitive growth, our forests
have contained only a- comparatively small
number of trees, and these, on account of the
wide spaces often left between them and for
want of proper care, have become trees of in-
ferior character.

To secure a class of persons competent to
manage forests as they are managed in Europe,
it is necessary that they should be trained for
the work. Accordingly, there have been es-
tablished in nearly every European country
what are known as schools of forestry. With
us they would be called colleges. There are
nine of them in the German Empire alone,
having a course of instruction varying from
two years to two and a half in length. The
complete and scientific character of the Euro-
pean forestry system will appear from a sched-
ule of the scheme of instruction. We give,
therefore, that of one of these schools, which
may be fairly taken as an example of all. In
this the course is two and a half years in
extent. The system of instruction is divided
into fundamental sciences, principal sciences,
and secondary sciences. In the first are em-
.braced general and theoretic chemistry, special
inorganic and organic chemistry, applied phys-
ics and meteorology, mineralogy and geology,
botany in general and forest botany in par-
ticular; microscopy, general zoology, with zo-
ological excursions ; geodesy, interest and rent
account, wood-measuring, surveying and level-
ing, plan-drawing, and public economy and

354

FORESTRY.

finances. Under the principal sciences are
embraced cultivation of forests, forest im-
plements, protection of forests, forest tech-
nology, forest surveying, appraising forests,
calculation of the value of forests and forest
statistics, administration of forests and hunting,
redemption of rights of usage, forest history,
and forest excursions. Under the third divis-
ion are included civil and criminal law and
jurisprudence, construction of roads, hunting
and shooting exercises.

Five hours and a half daily are given to lec-
tures on these and some subsidiary subjects,
and as much more time to the study of these
subjects in private.

A considerable amount of preliminary study
is requisite as a condition of admission. Capt.
Campbell Walker, of the English Forestry Ser-
vice in India, was commissioned several years
ago by the British Government to visit the
German schools for the benefit of the Indian
Service, and in his report he says :

Nothing struck me as more remarkable than the
extent and varied nature of the studies required from
forest candidates or probationers in Prussia, and the
number of years they are content to spend^ fiist in
studying and then in waiting for an appointment.
The would-be Oberforster. which is the lowest of
what we would call the "gazetted appointments,"
must, after passing certain terms at a Government
school of the first class, spend a year with an " Ober-
ftrster" (over-forester) in a Kevier (district or section
of the forest), and then pass an examination as forest
pupil, after which there is a two [two and a half]
years' course at a forest academy and an examina-
tion in scientific forestry, land-surveying, etc., on pass-
ing which the pupil becomes a " Forst-Kandidat " ;
then another two years' practical 'study, during at
least nine months of which he must actually perform
the duties of a forester ; after which comos the final
Government examination, on passing which he enters
the grade of Oberforster-Kandidat. The difference
between the two examinations is explained to be that
the first tests the candidate's knowledge of theoreti-
cal forestry and cognate sciences, while the latter
tests his ability to apply what he has learned and ca-
pability for employment as Oberforster and in the
higher grades.

After passing the final examination, the " Ober-
forster-Kandidat" is employed as an assistant in the
academies and control-offices, in making forest-sur-
veys and working plans, and sometimes acting in
charge of a Revier, receiving certain daily or weekly
allowances while so employed. After five or six
years of this probation, he may look forward to being
permanently appointed.

Thus we have at least five years spent in study,
and another five in probation ; the former without
any pay, and the latter only with meager allowances,
while actually employed, before the would-be forest-
officer is 'installed, and the time is generally much
longer. Yet so great is the desire for Government
service, and particularly forest service, in Prussia and
in Germany generally, that there is no lack of com-
petitors.

Positions in the forestry service are perma-
nent and are considered highly honorable, be-
ing often sought by persons of rank. Capt.
Campbell says again :

Nothing that I can say or write can convey too high
an idea of the attainments and thorough knowledge
of their work possessed by German forest officers of
all grades. A very little time served to convince me
that the practice of the German foresters was as good as,

if not better than their theory, and that they were in
fact perfect masters of their duties in all their details.
An Oberforster, and even many of the Forsters and
overseers, can tell the name, local and botanical, of
every tree, shrub, and plant, classify it, and state its
uses ; name and classify every beetle and insect in the
forest, and know whether they are harmless or de-
structive to trees, in what shape they do damage, and
what are the best known preventive measures ; in-
form you of the nature of the soil, and to what period
the formation belongs ; what trees will grow best, and
why. All this is known thoroughly, theoretically, and
practically.

Then as to the Kevier (section), the exact yield, rate
of growth, and annual increase in value of each
block is thoroughly known and can be put down at
any moment in figures by the Oberforster, who can
tell at the commencement of each year how much
timber he is going to cut and sell, and from what
parts of the forest it is to come, how many acres have
to be partially cleared for natural reproduction, plant-
ed, sown, thinned, or planted up. The mere details
of all this are left, as a rule, entirely to the subordi-
nates, who thoroughly understand them.

Such is the system of forestry established
throughout Europe. The governments there,
without exception, guard their forests with
jealous solicitude, and the people, to a great
extent, have a corresponding regard for them,
and sense of their value. Schools of forestry
are established from Spain to Finland, and in-
struction on the subject is carried in some
countries into the common schools. The Unit-
ed States Government, though possessing in
its forests a property more valuable a hun-
dred-fold than all its mines, has never counted
them as of any worth. They have hardly been
considered in connection with the public lands,
which have been sold at a merely nominal
price, and oftener have been given away to
great corporations or whoever almost would
take them. As a source of revenue, the for-
ests have never been taken into account, while
Prussia, with a forest area not exceeding the
area of the single State of Indiana, receives an
annual income of $6,000,000 above all her ex-
penses of management. Our forests have not,
probably, returned to the Government the cost
of surveying them, if we can be said to have
surveyed them at all. Trees which had been
growing from one hundred to five hundred
years have been cut down as though they were
but mushrooms, and no provision has been
made to replace them. The forests, that stood
as sentinels to guard the streams of commerce
and manufacturing' industry and to insure fer-
tility to our fields, we have swept away reck-
lessly. Thus it has come to pass that we are
beginning to suffer great evils, and greater are
threatening us. The character of our streams,
in many parts of the country, has been greatly
changed. The amount of water flowing in
them has been lessened or made fitful, and
therefore lessened for all practical uses. We
have floods and droughts where formerly the
rivers were regular in their flow.

We have come to a point where the subject
of forestry becomes one of great practical im-
portance, and though we differ so much, in
some respects, from the people of Europe, here

FORESTRY.

355

is a subject in regard to which we can take
most valuable lessons from them. Whether
forests actually increase the amount of rain-
Mi may still, possibly, be matter of question.
But the favorable action of masses of trees
upon health and comfort, and their influence
in protecting crops from injury, and thereby
increasing the returns of the husbandman — in
regard to this there can be no longer ground
for debate.

It has been estimated by careful and scien-
tific observers that the earth is in the best con-
dition to subserve human welfare and comfort
only as about a fourth part of the land is in a
wooded state. The proportion may be allowed
to vary from this somewhat, according to pe-
culiarity of situation. England, for example,
in a cool, northern latitude and surrounded by
water, has such a moist atmosphere that she
requires but a small forest area as compared
with warmer and inland countries. The forest
areas of various European countries, as given
by the most recent official statistics, are as fol-
low :

COUNTRIES.

Acres of forests.

Per cent, of
area.

Russia

476,710,000 ;

Finland

27170000 \

40'0

Sweden

43 395 430 |

Norway

18,920 509 f

84*1

Austria

43,309,411

29-4

34 969 791

26'1

Turkey

20 503 280 I

Roumania

4,940 000 f

22-2

Italy

14,228 978

22-0

Switzerland. ...

1,788,786

18-0

22 687 716

17'8

Greece

1 721 029

14' 3

Spain

7 833 647

7'8

Belgium ...

501 402

7-0

Holland

569,160

7-0

Portugal
Great Britain

1,165,420
3 106 824

5-1
4'1

Denmark

464360

8'4

Total

725 985 743

29-5

It will be seen from this table that Europe,
taken together, has now a sufficient proportion
of woodland, and that it is fairly distributed
according to the special situation and needs of
the different countries. Spain is probably suf-
fering most from lack of forests. Russia is
well wooded only in the northern portion, and
in Sweden and Norway ihe forests are being
cut off so rapidly, for exportation, as to cause
alarm.

The forest area of the United States is large
enough in itself, but it is unevenly distrib-
uted. The northern portion, originally well
wooded, and with that most valuable lumber-
tree the white pine, has so far been denuded
that serious results have already followed. The
southern portion of the country is still heav-
ily timbered, and much of its wooded area
might be taken for agricultural purposes with-
out disadvantage to any interest, if a proper
selection could be made. But already exten-
sive inroads have been made upon the forests
of the South, and the process of destruction is
going on with rapidity and carelessness. In

the western portion of the country, with the
exception of the Pacific coast-region, there is
a great scarcity of forests. There is the great-
est need of husbanding what trees are to be
found here, and of planting extensively on the
prairies and on other sections which are desti-
tute, or nearly so, of any tree-growth. Yet it
is on this comparatively treeless region that
the trees are being destroyed most recklessly.
Much of the agricultural land can be cultivated
profitably only by means of irrigation. Bat
the destruction of the forests is continually
lessening the supply of water in the streams
upon which irrigation depends.

It is in this part of the country that the
lands still owned by the Government are prin-
cipally situated, and the best as well as the
most desirable opportunity is offered to put in
operation an effective system of forestry. The
Government and great corporations are spe-
cially adapted to put in operation and carry
on such a system of forestry as is needed.
Those who hold only small parcels of land can
not, if they would, establish a proper system.
And where there are small tracts of woodland
already existing, or if any shall be planted by
individual landholders, there is no certainty
that they will not be destroyed at any time.

We have taken a step in the right direction in
establishing the Yellowstone National Park in
Wyoming; and the President, in his last mes-
sage, recommended that other portions of our
woodlands, in which are the head-waters of
some of our principal streams, should be pre-
served in their forest condition. We may well
go further than this Why should not the Gov-
ernment preserve all or nearly all its remain-
ing woodlands, withdrawing them from sale at
least until it can be ascertained, by careful and
adequate examination, what portion is needed
for agricultural use and can be spared for that
purpose, then maintaining the rest in forest
condition for the perpetual benefit of the coun-
try, and drawing from it at the same time a
perpetual revenue?

The separate States, so far as they still pos-
sess lands, might well pursue a like course, and,
where they have none, might encourage the
landholders to engage in forest-planting. The
establishment in some of our Western States
of Arbor-Day, or tree-planting day, has been
attended with the happiest results. It has
already occasioned the planting of many mil-
lions of trees. There are in many, if not in
most, of the States, considerable portions of
land unfit for agricultural purposes, but which
would be remunerative if occupied with trees.
Most mountain-slopes and high hills are of this
sort, as are many tracts of stony and swampy
land on lower situations. The State might
offer premiums for the best plantations of trees
on such ground, or might exempt forest plan-
tations from taxation for a certain number of
years, until they should begin to yield an in-
come from thinnings. As auxiliary to this,
experiment stations would naturally be estab-

356

FORESTRY.

lished, where, under competent directors, vari-
ous methods of tree-planting and culture would
be tried, and different kinds of trees would be
planted, and their adaptations to soil and cli-
mate tested, and thus their comparative merits
ascertained.

At such experiment stations would naturally
be trained up a class of men who would be
qualified to be intrusted with the management
of the public forests. In process of time, with
the establishment of a proper forestry system,
there would come into being forestry schools,
essentially like those of Europe, though modi-
fied by our peculiar circumstances.

The history of forestry in this country is
briefly this. A few examples of the cultivation
of forest-trees are. to be found reaching back
as far as a hundred years. But about forty
years ago, the Messrs. Fay made the experiment
of planting between 300 and 400 acres of poor
stony or snndy land in Eastern Massachusetts
with forest-trees. A few others have followed
their example, and reclaimed in this way con-
siderable tracts of the worthless sand-barrens
of Cape Cod. Occasional plantings on a
smaller scale have been made elsewhere, but
it is only within a few years that the trees
on the earliest of these plantations have
reached a stature to show the result of the
experiments, or call attention to them. Most
of these experiments have been successful and
encouraging.

About twenty years ago, the late Hon.
George P. Marsh, who had long been a resi-
dent abroad as the representative of this coun-
try in European states, published " The Earth
and Man, or Physical Geography as modified
by Human Action/' One of its longest chap-
ters was devoted to a discussion of the subject
of forests and their influence. His work, a
later edition of which bears the title " Man
and Nature," is the best treatise on the sub-
ject in the English language, and is constantly
referred to as an accepted authority even by
writers in Germany and France, where the
literature of forestry is very voluminous.

Ten years subsequent to the publication of
Mr. Marsh's book, the subject of forestry was
taken into consideration by the American As-
sociation for the Advancement of Science, and
a memorial was sent by that body to Congress,
calling attention to the rapid destruction of our
forests and the dangers threatening the coun-
try in consequence, and asking for some appro-
priate legislation on the subject. In 1876 Con-
gress directed the Commissioner of Agriculture
to ascertain the facts in regard to our forests,
the best means of preserving and renewing
them, the influence of forests upon climate,
and the system of forest management in use in
other countries. As the result of this action,
agents have been employed by the Department
of Agriculture in making investigations, and
their reports have been published. These re-
ports contain a large mass of information, and
have been widely distributed.

A Forestry Association was also formed a
few years ago, which, in 1882, was merged in a
Forestry Congress, instituted at that time. This
body, composed of persons in this country, and
also in Canada, who are interested in forestry,
has held three sessions, the last of which was
at St. Paul, in August, 1883. Papers relat-
ing to forestry were read, and discussions en-
sued. The discussions and recommendations
have been widely published, and have led to
important legislative action in several of our
own States and in the Dominion of Canada.
During the past year a State Forestry Associa-
tion has been formed in Ohio, and measures
have been taken to establish experiment sta-
tions in that State. Commissioners of forestry
have also been appointed in several of the
States, and instruction in forestry is given in
connection with some of the agricultural col-
leges.

But perhaps the most important indication
of an awakened interest in forestry is seen in
the recent movement for the preservation of
the great Adirondack forests in New York.
Mr. Marsh, in his book already alluded to,
called attention to these forests, and urged the
importance of their preservation, in order to
maintain the proper flow of that great highwny
of commerce, the Hudson river, as well as on
other accounts. But his words were unheeded,
or, if heeded, they resulted in no efficient action
until recently. But at last public attention has
been aroused to such an extent that the Legis-
lature of the State made a small appropriation
a year ago for the purchase of a portion of
the Adirondack lands with a view to recloth-
ing them with forests. More recently a move-
ment has been made, led by the Chamber of
Commerce of New York, designed to secure
further legislation on the subject, and an
appropriation sufficient to purchase such an
amount of land as, in connection with what
the State now owns, will insure the protection
of the head- springs of the Hudson and other
important streams.

Forestry is receiving increased attention also
in Great Britain, on account of its bearings
upon her Indian and Australian possessions.
The destruction of the forests there has gone
on with alarming rapidity. India has actually
imported railroad -ties from Norway and Swe-
den, because her accessible forests had been
stripped of the proper timber for such use. The
attention of the British Government has been
aroused by this condition of things, and meas-
ures have been taken for the preservation of
the remaining forests and the planting of new
ones. Though having no forest schools of her
own in which to train up persons competent to
direct the management of forests, the Govern-
ment for several years has sent a number of
pupils annually to the French and German
schools, to be trained for the Indian nnd Colo-
nial service. The reports for the past year
show a very encouraging condition of the
forests both in India and Australia. Large

FRANCE.

357

areas have been placed under efficient protec-
tion, and considerable tracts of denuded land
have been planted. Quite recently instruction
in forestry has begun to be given in connection
with one of the schools of technology in Lon-
don, and there is some prospect of the estab-
lishment of a forestry-school in England.

FRANCE, a republic in Western Europe. The
republic was proclaimed Sept. 4, 1870. The
Constitution was adopted Feb. 25, 1875, by
the National Assembly elected in 1871. The
Chamber of Deputies is elected by universal
suffrage under the scrutin d'arrondissement,
which was adopted Nov. 11, 1875. Each ar-
rondissement is represented by a deputy, and,
if its population is in excess of 100,000, by
additional deputies for each 100,000 or part of
100,000 beyond that number. The number of
electors in 1881 was 10,179,345. The number
of deputies is 557. The Senate is composed of
300 members, 75 of whom are chosen for life,"
the Senate electing the successors of deceased
members. The remaining 225 are elected, 75
every three years, by the departments and
provinces. They are chosen by senatorial elect-
ors, elected to represent each of the com-
munes and municipalities, together with the
members of the Council General and the depu-
ties of the department, who possess votes ex
officio. The Chamber of Deputies is elected
for four years. The National Assembly meets
annually on the second Tuesday in January,
and must remain in session five months. The
President of the Republic can call an extraordi-
nary session, and is compelled to do so if one
half of the members of each Chamber unite in
demanding it. The two Chambers possess equal
and concurrent powers of legislation ; but all
financial measures must originate in the Cham-
ber of Deputies. The executive head of the
republic is the President, who is elected for the
term of seven years by a majority of the depu-
ties and senators in joint session. The Presi-
dent has the disposal of the military forces,
makes all appointments, civil and military, and
can propose legislation ; but all acts must be
countersigned by the ministers, who are ap-
pointed by the President, and are responsible
to the Chambers.

The Government.— The President of the Re-
public is Francois P. Jules Grevy, born in 1813,
who was a member of the Constituent Assem-
bly of 1848, President of the Assembly from
1871 to 1873, and President of the Chamber of
•Deputies from 1876 to 1879 ; elected January
30, 1879.

The Cabinet, appointed February 21st, is
composed as follows :

President of the Council and Minister of Pub-
lic Instruction, Jules Ferry, who was born at
Paris in 1823, admitted to the bar in 1848,
member of the Government of National De-
fense (1870-'71), Prefect of the Seine Depart-
ment (1871-'72), Embassador to Greece (1872
-'73), Minister of Public Instruction and Fine
Arts (1879-'SO), President of the Council (1880

-'81), and Minister of Public Instruction in
1882.

Minister of Foreign Affairs, Paul Amand
Challemel-Lacour, born in 1827, Professor of
Philosophy at Pau and Limoges (1849-'51), ex-
pelled from France in 1852, returned in 1859,
Prefect of Rhone and Commissaire of the Pie-
public (1870), delegate to the National As-
sembly (1872), Senator (1876), Embassador to
Switzerland (1879-'80), to England (1880-'82).

Minister of the Interior, Pierre Marie Wal-
deck-Rou3seau, born in 1846, advocate, deputy
since 1879, Minister of the Interior in Gam-
betta's ministry.

Minister of Finance, P. Paul Emmanuel Ti-
rard, incumbent in the two preceding minis-
tries, born in 1826, engineer and merchant,
Minister of Commerce (1879-'81), reappointed
Jan. 31, 1882; appointed Minister of Finance
Aug. 7, 1882.

Minister of Justice, Felix Martin Feuille'e,
born in 1830, deputy since 1876, Under-Secre-
tary of the Interior in 1879, and of Justice in
December, 1879.

Minister of Commerce, Anne Charles He'ris-
son, born in 1831, advocate, deputy (1878), held
over from the Duclerc Cabinet.

Minister of Agriculture, Felix Jules Meline,
born in 1838, lawyer, deputy in 1872 and 1876,
Under- Secretary of the Interior in 1879.

Minister of War, Gen. Thibaudin, entered the
army in 1848, lieutenant-colonel of cavalry
(1868), brigadier- general (1877), general of
division (1880), appointed Jan. 31, 1883.

Minister of Marine and the Colonies, Charles
Marie Brun, born in 1821, engineer by profes-
sion, Director of Naval Construction (1875),
elected deputy (1871), senator (1876).

Minister of Posts and Telegraphs, Louis Co-
chery. born in 1830, Under-Secretary in the
Ministry of Finance (1873-'79), first appointed
Feb. 5, 1879.

Minister of Public Works, David Raynal,
born in 1840, deputy (1876), Under-Secretary
of Public Works (1880), head of the same min-
istry in the Gambetta Cabinet (1881).

In August M. Brun resigned on account of
ill-health, and was succeeded by Admiral Pey-
ron, Maritime Prefect of Toulon.

In October Gen. Thibaudin handed ever his
portfolio to Gen. Campenon. The latter was a
staff officer at the time of the coup d'etat, and
was exiled for his republican opinions. He
went to Tunis and reorganized the army of the
Bey, but returned soon to France and served
in Algeria, in Italy, and in China. He was
Minister of War under Gambetta.

Area and Population.— The area of France is
528,572 square kilometres. The population"
returned in the census of 1881 -was 37,672,048.
In 34 of the 87 departments there was a de-
crease in population between 1876 and 1881,
attributed to a decline in the number of mar-
riages. The excess of births over deaths in
France amounted to 280,000 per annum be-
tween 1820 and 1830, falling to 51,200-between

358

FRANCE.

1850 and 1860, and after a slight recovery de-
clining again to 84,206 in 1869. In 1870 there
was an excess of deaths amounting to 108,894,
and in 1871 to 444,889, succeeded by a surplus
of births amounting to 172,937 in 1872, and
continuing in the following years.

The number of foreigners in France increased
from 379,289 in 1851 to 1,001,110 in 1881. The
Belgians increased from 128,103 in 1851 to
374,498 in 1876 ; the Italians, from 76,539 to
165,313 ; the Swiss, from 25,485 to 50,203 ; the
English, from 20,357 to 30,077; 545,495 of the
foreign population resided in Paris, Marseilles,
and in the district of Lille.

In 1872 98 per cent, of the population were
Catholics, 1*6 per cent. Protestants. 0*14 per
cent. Israelites, and 0'23 of no declared faith.

The division of the population into profes-
sional classes was as follows in 1881 :

OCCUPATION. Number.

Agriculture 18,204,799

Industry 9,324,107

Commerce 3,843,447

Transportation and navigation 800,741

Public service 552,851

Liberal professions 1,629,768

Living on their incomes 2,143,173

Of no profession 727,533

Occupation unknown 173,816

Total 37,405,290

Algeria. — The area of Algeria is 667,065 square
kilometres ; that of the three departments of
Algiers, Oran, and Constantine, 318,384 square
kilometres. The population in 1881 was 3,310,-
412, or 10 per square kilometre of the three
departments. The population comprised 233,-
937 French, 35,665 naturalized Israelites, 2,850,-
866 native Mussulmans, and 189,944 foreign-
ers; of the latter number 114,320 were Span-
iards, 33,693 Italians, 15,402 English and
Maltese, 4,201 Germans, and 22,328 of other
nationalities. The population of the principal
towns in 1881 was as follows : Algiers, 70,747 ;
Oran, 58,530; Constantine, 38,379; B6ne, 21,-
974; Tlemcen, 18,376; Philippeville, 15,580.

The net immigration in 1880 was 17,436; in
1879, 23,304.

In the budget for 1879 the total receipts are
stated as 37,181,872 francs, and the total ex-
penditures as 35,630,590.

The returns of the general commerce in 1879
give the imports as 272,100,000 francs, of
which 164,400,000 francs came from France,
13,927,000 francs from the Barbary states,
8,249,000 francs from Spain, and 6,610,000
francs from England. The exports were re-
turned as 151,900,000 francs in amount, of
which 123,838,000 francs went to France, 17,-
875,000 francs to Spain, and 13,516,000 francs
to England. Natural products constituted 66,-
448,000 francs of the total value of imports
and 136,961,000 francs of the exports; manu-
factured articles, 236,987,000 francs of the
imports and 31,874,000 francs of the exports.

The railroad mileage in the beginning of
1883 was 1,531 kilometres, besides 206 kilo-
metres in Tunisian territory and 40 kilometres
of industrial lines. The receipts in 1880 were

12,139,439 francs; in 1881, 14,475,352 francs;
in 1882, 16,405,552 francs.

The length of telegraph lines in 1882 was
5,832 kilometres; of wires, 13,885 kilometres.

In order to procure land for the colonization
of Algeria by a European population, which
will give security to the French dominion and
develop the agricultural resources of the coun-
try, the Government has been obliged to pro-
ceed to the expropriation of the tribal lands of
the nomadic Arabs and a part of those of the
sheep-growing Kabyles of the mountains. Crit-
ics of the Government complain that the pro-
ceeding is a breach of the capitulations of 1830,
which insured the preservation of property-
rights as well as religious protection to the
native Mohammedans. It is not intended to
take the lands without compensation, nor to
reduce the grazing-lands of the nomads below
the limits of their own requirements. The
scheme was postponed by the vote of the
Chamber in the final action on the budget.

Tunis. — A French protectorate was instituted
over the regency of Tunis by the treaty of
Kasr-el-Said, signed May 12, 1881. The de-
crees of April 22, 1882, for the enforcement of
the treaty provide that the different ministries
in France shall control the corresponding ser-
vices in Tunisia, imparting their instructions to
the resident minister in Tunis through the me-
dium of the Bureau of Tunisian Affairs, after
first communicating them to the Minister of
Foreign Affairs, who examines them with re-
gard to their effect on international relations.

The reigning Bey is Sidi Ali Pasha, who
succeeded his brother, Mohammed-es-Sadok,
Oct. 28, 1882. His Prime Minister is Moham-
med Khasnadar. The French Minister Eesident
is P. Cambon.

The area of Tunisia is about 116,348 square
kilometres. The population is about 2,100,000,
of whom 45,000 are Israelites, -25,100 Catho-
lics, 500 Greek Catholics and Protestants, and
the rest Mohammedans. The capital, Tunis,
contains 125,000 inhabitants.

The budget for 1874-75 provided 5,577,625
francs for the service of the public debt, and
only 151,325 francs for the general adminis-
tration of the. Government. The foreign debt
was reduced to about 125,000,000 francs by
the European Financial Commission, which
was charged with the complete administration
of the finances. The Bey engaged to reserve
certain revenues, notably those of the customs,
for the payment of the interest and eventual
extinction of the debt. The revenue was aug-
mented by increasing the general tariff on im-
ports in June, 1872, from 3 to 8 per cent. The
French, after the occupation, did not interfere
with the Finance Commission, which has been
working since 1869. But in 1883 a conven-
tion with the Bey was ratified, whereby the
financial administration should be transferred
to France, and the public debt guaranteed by
her. England withdrew her objections. Tax-
es have been collected more efficiently under

FRANCE.

359

French supervision than under native rule.
The revenue and expenditure are reported in
a statement of the president to have been for
the year ending with June, 1882, 12,562,750
and 9,760,000 francs respectively. Of the ex-
penditure the interest and administration of
the debt are given as 7,530,100 francs. The
cost of the general administration of the coun-
try is stated at about 1,750,000 francs more
than before the occupation. The cost of main-
taining the Frencl) army of occupation is given
in an extraordinary budget as 1,500,000 francs.
The expense is borne partjy by Tunis and part-
ly by the French Government.

The Bey has a regular army of 2,000 or 3,000
men and an irregular army of some 10,000,
comprising 3,000 Karouglia, the descendants
of the Turkish Janizaries, 5,000 zouaves, 1,500
mounted spahis, and 500 gendarmes. The ar-
my is deplorably equipped. The French have
organized twelve mixed companies, half of
French and half of native soldiers.

The French army of occupation numbers 11,-
000 infantry, 1,600 cavalry, and 800 artillery
with 12 batteries.

The foreign commerce is carried on mainly
with Italy, France, and Great Britain. The
imports average about $5,500,000, the exports
$6,500,000. The chief articles of export are

alfa, or Esparto-grass, for making paper, which
is shipped largely to Great Britain, and olive-
oil ; after which come olives, sponges, legumes,
wool, cattle, salted fish, dates, fezes, wax, etc.
There were about 166 miles of railroad and
600 miles of telegraphs July 1, 1882.

The administration of the country is practi-
cally under the direction of the French resi-
dent, or charge d'affaires. The French Gov-
ernment appointed numerous commissioners
to examine into the various details of the ad-
ministration and devise plans of improvement.
The country is divided into twenty-two sec-
tions, each of which is under the command of
a French military officer. In August, 1882,
French judges were appointed to supersede
the consular courts, but before they could enter
upon their functions the consent of the great
powers to the abrogation of the capitulations
was necessary. Great Britain objected, but
after the Egyptian occupation consented, in
1883.

The Colonies* — The statistics of the other colo-
nies and protectorates of France are summa-
rized in the following table, giving their area
in square kilometres, population, the value of
their foreign commerce in 1880 in thousands
of francs, and their budgets, as far as reported,
for 1882, in thousands of francs:

COLONIES.

Area.

Population.

Imports.

Exports.

Budgets.

ASIA:
French India

508

288 022 (1880)

5347

7658

1 721

Cochin China

59458

1 550 497 (1880)

40197

51 610

16568

Cambodia.

88861

1 500 000

AFRICA :

250000

192 924 (1879)

16488

25349

2856

Gold Coast and Gaboon

2,800

8,000

'< 000

1 412

Reunion .

2511

180 814 (1880)

85499

23572

4.9 M)

Mavotte

366

1 118

2278

241

Nossi B6

1 ono (

8 155 (1880)

2369

6416

229

Ste. -Marie de Madagascar

j- 298 {

7,177 (1880)

182

110

AMERICA :
Guiana, or Cayenne

121 418

27 333 (1880)

7987

607

1811

Martinique

987

166100 (1880)

24775

28546

88S8

Guadeloupe and dependencies

1,870

192,735 (1880)

23,842

27,216

4625

8t.-Pierre and Miquelon

235

4,916 (1880)

9,159

11,725

298

OCEANIA :
New Caledonia and dependencies
Tahiti and dependencies

19,950
8,653

68,584 (1881)
25,247 (1SS1)

7,904
8,162

2,757
8,843

1,915
1,000

The subventions from the French Govern-
ment amounted to 1,233,000 francs, leaving
37,799,000 francs as the total revenue raised
in the colonies. If the total colonial budget ot
30,696,000 francs and credits entered in the na-
val budget are added, the total colonial expendi-
tures amounted to 98,495,000 francs. The to-
tal area of the colonies and protectorates, ex-
clusive of Algeria and Tunis, is 547,912 square
kilometres; their population, 4,222,654.

The tonnage entered at French ports in 1882 .
was 12,448,385, 4,024,296 French and 8,424,-
089 foreign, as against 11,882.471 tons, 3,919,-
562 French and 7,962,909 foreign, in 1881;
tonnage cleared, 7,852,615, 3,577,567 of French
and 4,275,048 of foreign registry, as against
7,539,022 tons, 3,354,915 French and 4,184,-
107 foreign, in 1881.

The number of vessels, tonnage, and num-
ber of crews in the French merchant marine at
the beginning of 1881 were as follow :

VESSELS IN—

Number.

Tonnage.

Crew*.

Fisheries -.
Coast trade

9,987
2,899

134,983

111,599

54,928
9,654

Ocean commerce
Post-service and yachts. . .

Steam

1,743
929

652

64-3,406
29,310

277.759

24,848
2,972

12,564

Sail

14,406

641,5b9

79,888

Total 1880

15058

. 919,298

92,897

Total 1879

15,038

932,858

94,138

Commerce.— The following table exhibits the
annual value of the special commerce from
1877 to 1882, and the average for the three
decennial periods preceding, in millions of
francs and tenths of millions :

360

FRANCE.

YEAR.

Special imports.

Special exports.

1892

4,972-1
4,946-4
5,033-2
4,595-2
4,176-2
8,369-8
8,407-5
2,200-5
1,071-1

8,596-2
8,612-4
8,467-9
8,231-8
8,179-7
3,436-8
3,306-4
2,430-1
1,223-7

1881

1880

1879

1873

1877

1867-'76

1857-66

1847-'56

The total value of the general imports in
1879 was 5,579,300,000 francs; of the general
exports, 4,269,600,000 francs. The general
commerce of 1882, which includes the transit
trade and goods imported for re-exporting free
of duty, amounted to 2,070,099,000 francs, an
increase of 1,100,000 francs, as compared with
1881.

The imports and exports of specie from
1877 to 1882 were, in millions and tenths, as
follow :

YEAR.

Imports.

Exports.

1882

411 -3

849'9

1881

863-2

802 "2

1980

295' 9

470 '2

1879

332

424

1878

543

189

1877

683

142

The participation of the principal commer-
cial countries in the special commerce of the
year 1880 was as follows, in millions of francs
and tenths of millions :

COUNTRIES.

Great Britain

663 -5

910 6

United States

731-0

832*1

Belgium

457-4

465" 0

Germany

438*2

8fi? • Q

Italy

398 *S

181 '3

Spain

843-2

158'7

Kussia

814 "1

Switzerland

115-1

220*4

Argentine Republic

143-9

Turkey

133-5

45*5

Austria

124-1

28'5

Brazil

52-4

76'2

Other European countries
Other American countries.

223-7
189-2

105-4
157 "1

Asia, countries in

313-5

17'0

Africa, countries in
Other foreign countries

124-2
23-4

60-1

Algeria

126-9

161*8

Other French colonies ....

llj-6

57 '8

Total commerce 1880

5032-2

q Apr, . n

The following table presents the exports
and imports of 1881 and 1882, classified ac-
cording to the nature of the products, in mill-
ions of francs and tenths thereof:

CLASSES OF COMMOD-
ITIES.

1881.

1889.

Imports.

Exports.

Imports.

Exports.

Articles of consumption.
Raw materials
Manufactured articles .
Miscellaneous products

1,918-1
1,8S1'8
503*4
560-6

917*7
646-7
1,654-1
343*0

1,901-5
1,907-7
532 -C
580-2

918-2
663-4
1,670-9
343-6

Total merchandise. .
Precious metals

Total special commerce.

4,863-4
363-6

8,561-5
802-1

4,972-0
411-3

8,596-1
849-9

5,227-0

3,863-6

5,383-3

8,946-0

In the first class the imports of cereals
amounted in 1882 to 596 millions, against
574f millions in 1881, the exports to lOOf,
against 131 millions; fermented drinks were
imported to the value of 399, against 406 mill-
ions, and exported to the value of 325£, against
329 millions; the net imports of tobacco were
25, against 27£ millions in value; of seeds,
fruits, etc., 155, against 175^ millions; of ani-
mals and animal food products, 86£, against
126£ millions. In the class of raw materials,
the imports of fuel amounted to 183, against
173 million francs; of raw metals, to 136,
against 133 millions; of skins, hair, and leath-
ers, to 224f, against 215 millions, and the
exports to 218, against 202 millions; of tex-
tile materials, to 986|, against. 1,032^ millions,
and exports to 378f, against 377 millions; of
timber, etc., to 285, against 241 millions. The
increase in the value of manufactured articles
imported was principally in machinery and
metals and in yarns. The exports of pottery
and glass were 40J, against 39|- millions in
value ; of machinery and metal manufactures,
151, against 146£ millions; of leather manu-
factures, nearly 180, against 179 millions; of
yarns, about 48 millions in both years ; of tex-
tile fabrics, clothing, etc., nearly 904^, against
817£ millions; of paper and paper manufact-
ures, about 25 millions in both years; of wood
and straw products, about 43, against 53 mill-
ions; of jewelry and works of art, 241, against
300 millions ; of books, etc., 24£, against 28
millions.

The exports for the first eight months of
1883 showed a falling off of 82 millions as
compared with the same period in 1882, while
the imports showed an increase of 112 million
francs. There was an increased importation
of articles of food and a continued increase
in the imports of raw stuffs, plant, and half-
manufactured goods. There was. a decrease in
the exports of manufactured products amount-
ing to 80 million francs, which was largely due
to the disturbances in Tonquin and Madagas-
car, causing importing merchants in England
and other countries to withhold orders, in ex-
pectation of a decline of the market.

The question whether France has entered
upon a period of commercial decline has re-
cently been a subject of controversy among
French economists. In the ten years from
1873 to 1882, the imports increased in total
value from 3,554 to 4,972 million francs, while
the exports decreased from 3,787 to 3,596
millions. The imports of corn and wine in-
creased from 257 to 876 millions; manufact-
ured products from 384 to 673 millions, or 75
per cent., the articles in which the increase
was greatest being machines and boilers, tools,
woolen and cotton fabrics, and glass. The ex-
port of French manufactures shows some in-
crease since 1878, but is still 171 millions be-
hind the amount in 1873. The decrease is
mainly in turned goods, toys, brushes, and
silk fabrics. In the first three, Germany and

FRANCE.

361

Austria compete with the Parisian industry,
which suffers an annual loss of 70 millions in
the value of the exports. The value of silk-
manufactures export was 176 millions less
than in 1873. In woolens, on the other hand,
there was an increase. Those who belong to
the free-trade school take the more hopeful
view of the situation, and helieve that the re-
moval of tariff restrictions would open foreign
markets again to the products of French in-
dustry. The increase in imports they consider
an evidence of accumulated wealth invested
abroad, and compare France in this respect
with Great Britain and Belgium.

The destruction of the vineyards by the phyl-
loxera was undoubtedly a heavy blow to the
prosperity of France. There are indications,
however, that the worst period is past, and that
this new enemy of the vine willbe broughtunder
control like the oidium, which was still more
destructive than the phylloxera, reducing the
vintage, when it first attacked the vines in 1853-
'56, to 15,000,000 and even 10,000,000 hectoli-
tres. French viticulture survived this severer
stroke, and gradually recovered, until in 1875
the wine-harvest attained the unprecedented
figure of 83,000,000 hectolitres.

The industrial expansion of Germany, Aus-
tria, Italy, the United States, and other coun-
tries, encouraged by protective tariffs, is the
element with which the manufacturing indus-
tries of France have to reckon. The energetic
band of free-trade advocates in France argue
that the adoption of restrictive and retaliatory
measures by their country has greatly contrib-
uted to the difficulties of French industry ; that
the effect of refusing to receive the products
of other countries in payment for French ex-
ports is to close those markets against French
products, and that a return to the principles of
the Cobden treaty would be the best means to
enable the highly finished and therefore prof-
itable products of French skill to maintain
their position in the world's market. The in-
dustrial development of Central Europe falls
in a large measure within the most recent com-
mercial period. The effect of this new compe-
tition is most keenly felt by French manufact-
uring, interests. In the development of the
factory system, and the organization of produc-
tion on a great scale, Germany has made greater
strides than France. As long as labor is cheaper
in Central and Southern Europe it is only the
qualities of taste, art, and finish which enable
French manufactures to hold the foreign mar-
kets, qualities which are least in demand in
times of agricultural disasters and industrial
stagnation, like those through which Europe
has recently passed. The effect of the indus-
trial development in Germany is seen in the
returns of French foreign commerce, according
to which an excess of French exports to Ger-
many of 42,000,000 in 1876 changed to an ex-
cess of nearly 75,000,000 on the other side in
1878 ; between which year and 1881 the French
exports to Germany increased from 343,750,-

000 to 383,000,000 francs, and German imports
into France at an equal pace from 418,333,000
to 454.375,000. The exports of silk manufact-
ures and dress materials to Great Britain fell
from 250,000,000 in 1865 to 114,000,000 in
1881 ; those to Germany from 23,000,000 to
21,000,000, while imports of German silks
increased from 1,000,000 to 12,000,000. The
exports of articles of dress and leather manu-
factures to the United States declined 30 per
cent, in the same period.

The production of wine in France, which in-
creased from 29,000,000 hectolitres in 1880 to
34,000,000 in 1881, fell off in 1882 to 30,886,-
352 hectolitres, 16,054,830 hectolitres below
the average crop of the previous ten years. The
vines suffered from the extension of the phyl-
loxera and from the long prevalence of bad
weather. The vineyards destroyed by the phyl-
loxera have been to a considerable extent re-
planted with American vine-stocks, which are
vigorous enough to resist the parasite.

The phylloxera appeared in 1882 for the first
time in Seine-et-Marne, Cantal, Indre-et-Loire,
V'end6e, and Haute- Vienne, making altogether
fifty departments visited by the plague. The
area attacked comprised nearly half the vine-
lands of these departments. The vine-growers
at first opposed the official investigation and
concealed the symptoms of the malady. Sub-
sequently they adopted the plan of preven-
tion invented by Pasteur, but no system of
comprehensive treatment, either official or co-
operative, could be agreed upon. Some twelve
thousand wine-raisers-formed combinations for
common action.

Posts and Communications — The number of
post-offices in 1881 was 6,158, against 5,913 in

1880 ; number of letters carried in 1881, 569,-
910,358 ; postal-cards, 32,224,239 ; letters with
declared valuable inclosures, 11,327,262; jour-
nals, 345,364,572; circulars, etc., 378,075,770;
total deliveries, 1,336,902,201 ; receipts in 1880,
112,683,458 francs; in 1881, 123,472,000 francs;
expenses in 1880, 79,431,712 francs; in 1881,
81,898,988 francs.

The state telegraph stations in 1881 num-
bered 5,481. The length of lines at the end of
that year was 73,878 kilometres, comprising
69,638 kilometres of overhead lines with 216,-
873 kilometres of wire, 685 kilometres of sub-
terranean lines with 12,521 kilometres of wire,
3,452 kilometres of submarine lines with 3,663
kilometres of wire, and 103 kilometres of pneu-
matic tubes ; total length of wires, 283,057 ki-
lometres. The number of internal telegrams in

1881 was 17,514,147; of international, 1,952,-
017; receipts in 1880, 25,612,399 francs; ex-
penses, 31,141,178 francs; receipts in 1881,
29,095,048 francs; expenses, 82,222,642 francs.

There were in operation on Jan. 1, 1883,
26,287 kilometres of railroad lines of gen-
eral interest, comprising 2,084 kilometres of
state lines, 22,282 of lines of companies, and
1,921 of non-subventioned lines, besides 2,305
kilometres of lines of local interest, and 212

362

FKANCE.

kilometres of industrial lines; total length of
lines, 28,804 kilometres.

By the law of June 11, 1842, the work of
building railroads was left to companies, su-
perintended, and when necessary assisted, by
the state. Two classes of lines were distin-
guished from each other — the one, called the
old net-work, consisting of the principal ave-
nues of traffic; and the other, the new net-
work, of secondary routes of doubtful profita-
bleness, constructed for public utility. To the
latter 4 per cent, interest and O65 per cent, for
a sinking fund were guaranteed. The French
railroads are almost entirely in the hands of
six great companies — the Paris-Mediterranean,
owning 4,483 kilometres of the old and 1,543
of the new net-work ; the Paris- Orleans, own-
ing 2,017 of the old and 2,342 of the new ; the
Northern, possessing 1,311 kilometres in the
first system and 668 of guaranteed ; the West-
ern, with 900 and 2,216 kilometres respect-
ively ; the Southern, with 796 and 1,518 ; the
Eastern, with 754 and 2,007. Of the 10,315
kilometres in the old net-work the remaining
54, and the remaining 3,245 out of the 13,539
kilometres which constitute the new net-work,
belong to other companies.

Railroad Conventions. — The most important
transaction of the session, which closed August
2d, was the conclusion of the long-deferred con-
ventions with the railroad companies. The ar-
rangements involve the virtual abandonment
of the Freycinet project for nationalization of
the whole system of French railroads and its
completion by the state. The reasons given for
departing from this cherished and already part-
ly executed scheme were, that the state of the
public finances in the present conditions of the
money market would not permit of the neces-
sary financial operations and the simultaneous
conversion of the public debt on favorable
terms. The transfer of the railroads to the
Government would require no capital outlay;
but the execution of the Freycinet scheme of
connecting and strategic roads at the sole cost
of the Government would necessitate the rais-
ing of new loans. The conventions require
the six great companies to construct about
9,000 kilometres of new railroads within ten
years, about 1,000,000,000 francs of the cost
to be borne by the companies, and the remain-
ing 750,000,000 or 800,000,000 francs by the
Government. The French railroad companies
are influential because their enormous capital
is in few hands, in those of the magnates of
finance, a circumstance which subjects them
to jealous popular animosity, and any Govern-
ment and Chamber which has dealings with
them to suspicion. Notwithstanding the strin-
gent control preserved by the Government,
they have succeeded in exacting dispropor-
tionate rates for the poorest service in Europe.
The conventions, while perpetuating the 7110-
nopoly, secure an abatement of the grievances.
The question of differential tariffs was much dis-
cussed, and the proposal of uniform rates finally

condemned. ^Reductions in freight-rates for the
benefit of exporting manufacturers was secured,
and also general reductions in freight and pas-
senger tariffs, conditional on proportional re-
missions in the Government taxes on fast-traf-
fic rates. The share of the Government in the
profits was also considerably increased by alter-
ing the amount of the maximum dividend and
the percentage beyond it which accrues to the
state. The railroads are guaranteed against
concessions for rival parallel lines ; and on the
other hand the right of the ultimate acqui-
sition of the railroads was preserved for the
state.

The Army. — The reorganization of the French
army under the law of July 27, 1872, and the
supplementary acts of July 24, 1873, March
13, 1875, and March, 1882, is nearly com-
pleted. Every Frenchman capable of bear-
ing arms is required to train in the army, and
may be called into service between the age of
twenty and that of forty years. Exemption,
according to the original intention of the law,
was not to be allowed except for physical
unfitness. Every Frenchman, on reaching the
age of twenty, is enrolled in the active army,
in which the period of service is five years,
passing then for four years into the reserve of
the active army. For the next five years he
forms part of the territorial army, and for six
years more is enrolled in the reserve of the
territorial army. Besides those unfitted by
physical infirmity, the eldest sons or grandsons
of widows and aged fathers are exempt by law ;
pupils in the polytechnic and forestry schools,
teachers in the public schools, professors in
various institutions, artists who have gained
prizes, and ecclesiastics, are exempt under cer-
tain conditions ; and all who contribute to the
support of families, or are engaged in studies,
may be provisionally exempted by municipal
councils. One-year volunteers are admitted
upon passing an examination and paying 1,500
francs toward their clothing and maintenance.
At the end of one year's service with the col-
ors, all who have become proficient, and can
read and write, may receive indefinite leave of
absence. The active army and its reserve are
drawn from and distributed over all parts of
France, while the territorial army is divided
into bodies corresponding to the localities
from which its recruits are drawn, and the
country is divided and subdivided into dis-
tricts to which the greater and lesser bodies
are attached.

The infantry are armed with the Gras rifle,
an improvement on the Chassepot, with metal
cartridges. The cavalry carry carbines. The
field-artillery have breech-loading guns in cast-
steel of eighty and ninety millimetres1 caliber.

The organization at present permits of plac-
ing in the field 24 army corps in the first line
and 8 in the second line.

The troops in active service numbered 502,-
786 men, with 124,977 horses, in 1883, divided
as follows :

FRANCE.

363

BRANCH OF SERVICE. Men.

Infantry 288,568

Cavalry 68,722

Artillery 70,379

Engineers 11,007

Train 11,696

Six mixed companies in Tunis 2,834

Administrative corps 28,573

Gendarmerie 26,512

Total active army 502,786

There were organized 468 battalions of ac-
tive infantry, 435 battalions of territorial in-
fantry, and 3 63 £ battalions of fortress infantry,
depot troops, and other, infantry bodies, alto-
gether 1,266^ battalions, numbering 1,266,500
men ; 392 active squadrons, including 77 at the
depots, and 79 territorial squadrons of cavalry,
together 471 squadrons, containing 70,650 men ;
and 312 field-batteries, including 8 of marine,
57 of horse-artillery, 76 depot batteries, 57
batteries of fortress artillery, and 38 territorial
field-batteries, altogether 540 batteries, with
2,952 guns, numbering 180,000 men. Adding
45,000 engineers, 26,000 in the active and 19,-
000 in the territorial army, and 5,000 ponton-
niers, the total strength of the army on a war
footing is 1,567,150, and, including the auxiliary
services, 1,780,300 men, of which number 1,-
186,300 belong in the active and 594,000 in the
territorial army.

The increase and enlargement of the for-
tresses, notably the innumerable blockade for-
tresses erected on the German frontier, neces-
sitate an augmentation of the artillery. A
law passed in the session of 1883 raises the
peace footing of this arm 8,840 men, and pro-
vides for the increase of the batteries of sta-
tionary artillery ready for mobilization from
57 to 190. The complete separation of the
field and fortress artillery, accomplished in the
German army, is not carried out. The two
branches of the arm are, however, divided into
separate battalions. The cost of the augmenta-
tion was partly met by abolishing the active
artillery train. The difference is scarcely felt
in an army budget for 1883 of 584.000,000
francs, and supplementary estimates of 81,000,-
000 francs. The willingness of the French peo-
ple to endure sacrifices for the re-establishment
of their military power is shown by the calmly
received statement of Minister Billot that the
replacement of war material since the war had
cost 2,289,000,000 francs, and would require
300,000,000 more.

The Navy. — The navy, at the beginning of
1882, had 57 iron-clad steamers, with 481
guns ; 264 unarmored screw-steamers, with
1,547 guns ; 62 side- wheel steamers, with 154
guns; and 113 sailing-vessels, with 672 guns;
altogether 496 vessels, with 2,854 guns. The
ironclads of the first class were 26 in number;
of the second class, 18 ; coast-guards, 6 ; float-
ing batteries, 7. The most powerful of the iron-
clads are the Devastation, Foudroyant, and
Admiral Duperre, all constructed on the same
model, mainly of steel, 312 feet long, the first
two with 14-inch armor, and carrying four 38-

ton and two 25-ton guns, the last armored with
12 inches of steel, and without the two smaller
guns. Next to these come 6 battle-ships, dif-
fering only in size and strength, armed with
two 38-ton guns, and two of them carrying
four 24-ton guns. All have horizontal steel
plates, bomb-proof decks, and their guns mount-
ed en barbette. There were five more not
much inferior, and differing in little except in
having smaller guns and lighter armor. The
rest of the ironclads were of antiquated de-
signs. There were building in 1882 the Kai-
man, the Terrible, and the Requin, on the
model of the Inflexible, but smaller, with fixed
turrets and guns mounted en barbette, plated
with compound armor, 50 centimetres thick,
each of 7,168 tons' displacement; also three
ships of the Audacious class, with plates of 25
centimetres' thickness, and the Formidable and
Amiral Vaubin, monster ironclads of 11,300
tons, with armor 45 to 55 centimetres thick.

Finance. — The accounts of 1 870 and 1871 were
balanced with a surplus of 113,730,053 francs.
The accounts of 1872, 1873, and 1874 were
closed with deficits amounting to the sum of
191,264,128 francs. The budget of 1875 shows
98,204,823 francs excess of receipts ; that of
1876, 98,204,823 francs; that of 1877, 63,811,-
309 francs; that of 1878, 62,356,879 francs;
that of 1879, 96,207,185 francs ; that of 1880,
134,450,970 francs; that of 1881, 70,793,882
francs. The budget of 1882 presents a deficit
of 47,397,195 francs. The estimates for 1883,
after the presentation of an extraordinary
budget of 800,000, OOO'francs, showed an excess
of expenditures incurred by the Government
over the credits voted, amounting to 100,000,-
000 francs. It was stated in the debates that
the expenditures on war material and fortifica-
tions since the war had amounted to 2 mil-
liards, and those on public works to If mil-
liards. The total expenditures, according to
the closed accounts for 1869, amounted in that,
the last normal year under the empire, to
1,740,000,000 francs. The greatly increased
and still increasing expenditures under the re-
public, due mainly to the greatly augmented
public debt, but to a considerable extent to in-
creased expenditures on the army, and for va-
rious other objects, were partly covered by
the increased yield of the direct taxes, yet
chiefly by the imposition of new indirect
taxes, such as sugar, wine, salt, and railroad
imposts.

The practice of presenting nearly balanced
budgets, and in the final accounts, published a
number of years afterward, disclosing large
deficits, did not originate with the ministers of
the republic, but has been followed by all the
governments of France since- the Restoration.
The public debt of France before the German
War was largely the result of this process.

The state of the public finances has given
rise to serious alarm for several years past.
The prudent and economical financial manage-
ment of M. Thiers and the other statesmen

364

FRANCE.

who established the credit of France after the
war, insured the acceptance of republican in-
stitutions. The prodigality of the Chamber
since 1876, when the results of that conserva-
tive management were seen in five years of
surplus revenue over the increasing expendi-
tures, awakened the distrust in the workings
of the present political system which has re-
cently shown itself. In no other country ex-
cept the United States is the expenditure
of the public moneys so subject to political
and electioneering influences, or less closeJy
watched by the people. The Government
plunged into every kind of ambitious project.
At one and the same time it sought to rival
Germany in its army and defenses, England in
its navy and colonies, Switzerland in popular
education, and America in railroads. The pen-
sion-list was largely augmented and new offices
created to suit the exigencies of party politics.
Instead of seeking new sources of revenue to
meet the increased expenditures, there were
certain reductions made in the taxes, which
impaired the revenue without affording a pro-
portionate relief to the tax-payers, as the Gov-
ernment was guided rather by political motives
than by fiscal principles. The Treasury could
have been relieved by the conversion of the
debt at a lower interest, but for political rea-
sons this was deferred for seven years, until
under the pressure of deficits it became ne-
cessary. In 1875 the ordinary expenditures
amounted to 2,626,000,000 francs, which was
1,005,000,000 more than the last budget of the
empire, that of 1869. The service of the debt
required something over 1,000,000,000 francs,
leaving about 1,600,000,000 francs for the ex-
penses of the Government, which was from
400 to 500 millions more than in the year be-
fore the war. From 1875 to 1880 the expendi-
tures increased at the average rate of 40,000,-
000 francs per annum. Since 1881 the rate of
increase has been two and a half times as great,
and during the same period the expenditures
have exceeded the revenues, and an annual
deficit has been added to the public debt. From
1875 to 1880 there was an annual surplus. In

1881 a surplus revenue was reported, but the
critics of the budget find that it was produced
by counting the surplus of the preceding year
among the ordinary receipts, and transferring
certain permanent charges on the revenue to
the account of extraordinary expenditures, so
that there was an actual deficit of about 50
millions. The Government reports a deficit for

1882 of 47 millions, which by the stricter meth-
od of book-keeping would amount to 167 mill-
ions. The budget for 1883 was fixed at 3,044,-
000,000 francs. At the end of the first quarter
supplementary credits had been added to the
amount of 43 millions. These supplementary
votes are an evidence of the lack of a rigid
control over the public purse. In 1881 they
amounted to 181,000,000 francs, in 1882 to
220,000,000 francs. The budget for 1884 is
placed at 3,103,000,000 francs, nearly 200 mill-

ions more than the total ordinary revenue for

1882. The increase in the annual charge of
the public debt was from 467£ million francs
in 1869, to 1,130 millions in 1876, and 1,282£
millions in 1883 ; the expenditure on the army
from 382|- to 812£ millions in 1876, and 667£
millions in 1883 ; that on the marine and the
colonies, exclusive of Algeria, from 175 mill-
ions in 1869, to 250 millions in 1883. In ad-
dition to the heavy but more or less neces-
sary increased expenditures on these heads the
Chamber raised the budget of public works
from 125 millions in 1869 to 575 millions in

1883, and that of public instruction from 25 to
112 J- millions. Until the decrease in the yield
uf the taxes in 1882 and 1883 there was no
reason to apprehend that the burdens would
prove excessive for the tax-paying capacity of
the French people. In the twelve years of the
republic up to that time there was a surplus
in eight years which exceeded the amount of
the four deficits by 383 millions.

The budget for 1884 states the expenditures
under the main heads as follow :

BRANCHES OF EXPENDITURE. Francs.

Public debt 1,318,222,266

Dotations 30,899,116

Legislature 11,760,780

Justice 36,120,392

Worship 51,999,006

Interior Department 62,319,158

Algeria 9,406,430

Ministry of Finance 20,135,370

Ministry of Posts and Telegraphs 2,355,642

Ministry of War 605,307,000

Marine •. 204,570.377

Colonies 33,392,209

Public Instruction 134,838,151

FineArts 16,686,195

Ministry of Commerce 20,701,714

Ministry of Agriculture 25,760,640

Serviceof Public Works 96,188,200

Extraordinary public works 48,848,240

Regie and collection of taxes 338,009,107

Drawbacks and restitutions 20,456,500

Total ordinary expenditures 3,103,441,193

The budget for 1884 estimates the receipts
from the various sources as follow :

SOURCES OF REVENUE. Francs.

Direct taxes 386,108,100

Special imposts 25,804,960

Direct and special taxes in Algeria 9,171,353

Registration, stamps, and domains 761,808,492

Forests 85,435,814

Customs and salt-tax 407,713,600

Indirect internal taxes 1,118,738.800

Posts 137.450,000

Telegraphs 31,909,000

Tax (3 per cent.) on revenue from personal

property 50,124,000

University 3,812,000

Penal fines 8,063,174

Service of civil pensions 21,546,000

Repayments of advances to railroads 34,900,000

Miscellaneous receipts 54,487.550

Appropriated from the surplus of 1881 16,628,000

Total ordinary revenue 3,103,700,848

The direct taxes consist of the land-tax (es-
timated yield, 176,320,000 francs), personal tax
(65,403,000 francs), door and window tax (45,-
162,000 francs), and patent-fees (98,618,600
francs). 'The second item, special taxes analo-
gous to direct taxes, includes various inspec-
tion-fees, taxes on carriages, clubs, billiards, a

FRANCE.

365

tax on mortmain property, etc. The indirect
internal taxes include excise duties on drink
(425,753,000 francs), domestic salt (12,166,000
francs), and sugar (101,757.400 francs), matches
(16,065,000 francs), paper (15,895,000 francs),
etc., the produce of sales of tobacco (137,450,-
000 francs), and powder (14,914,000 francs), a
tax of 20 per cent, on tickets for railroad ex-
press-trains, etc. The estimated amount of
taxes collected in Algeria is 30,279,353 francs.

In 1793 all the debts, annuities, and other
liabilities of the Government were funded in
5 per cent, perpetual rentes which required
the annual payment of 174 million francs. The
consolidated debt was reduced by repudiation
and repayments out of the confiscated prop-
erty of the church and nobility until at the
beginning of the nineteenth century the annual
charge was 40 millions. At the fall of the
empire the interest charge was 63 millions.
From the Restoration in 1814 to the Revolution
of July in 1830, 165 million francs of new rente
were added, representing the indemnity of
1,000 millions paid to the confiscated nobles,
the war ransom of 700 millions, and the cost
of the occupation, while reductions equal to
the former annual interest were effected by
amortization and conversion, leaving the rente
charge 165 millions. During the same period
the current accounts of the Government showed
an average annual deficit of 1,268,000 francs;
under Louis Philippe (1830-'48) the average
deficit was 55,437,000 francs ; under the second
republic (1848-'51) it was 89,844,000 francs;
under the third empire (1852-'69) it was 123,-
807,000 francs.

On the 1st of January, 1882. the amount of
the public debt was 24,002,75l',531 francs, and
the rente charge 872,543,575 francs.

The state of the debt in 1883 was as follows :

DESCRIPTION OF RENTE.

Annual

interest.

Nominal
capital.

Five per cent

Francs.

339 38? 000

6 786 650 000

Four and one half per cent
Four per cent

'37,433,000
446000

831,855,000
11,152,000

Three per cent
Last consolidated three per cent.

362.691,000
86,000,000

12,0b9,922.000
1,200,000,000

Total...

775.908.000

20.919.579,000

The charges on account of the public debt
and other obligations of the Government are
given in the budget for 1884 as follow :

PUBLIC DEBT EXPENDITURES. Francs. Francs.

Kentes at 5 per cent and 4J per cent. 376,766,501
Rentes at 4 per cent, and 3 per cent. . 363,143,781

Total interest on consolidated debt

Payments of interest and principal
from the budget of extraordinary
resources 240,000.000

For the conversion of the Morgan loan. 17,399,000

Interest on floating debt of the Treas-
ury 28,100.000

Annuities to railroads 48,731,5'Jl

Repayments for war damages, con-
tributions, etc., to communes, mu-
nicipalities, etc 28,183,500

Other charges 14,756,750

Total payments on redeemable

886,589,751

PUBLIC DEBT EXPENDITURES. Frana. Freno..

Brought forward 1,126,491,088

Annuity rentes 26,707,283

Military pensions 84,500,000

Civil pensions 56.800,000

Various pension and other charges. . . 24,215,000

Total transient liabilities 191 ,722,288

Total 1,818,222,266

French rentes were held in comparatively
few hands until under the third empire they
began to be distributed among the people. In
1870 the number of holders was 1,254,040, the
annual rente amounting to 358 million francs.
In 1881, when the interest was about 852 mill-
ions, the number of holders was 4,617,900.

The long- deferred conversion of the 5 per
cent, rentes was finally resolved upon in 1883,
in view of the emergency in which the Gov-
ernment found itself with increasing expendi-
tures and a failing revenue. The French Gov-
ernment had postponed the operation, though
it would save many millions annually, from a
reluctance to curtail the income of the bond-
holders, who form so large a part of the popu-
lation. The scheme of exchanging 3 per cent,
bonds for the 5 per cents, at an equivalent
capitalized value was proposed for the sake of
permanence and uniformity, as part of a scheme
to convert the whole debt into 3 per cent,
rentes; but, as it would preclude all future
reductions in the interest charge and increase
the nominal amount of the debt two milliards,
the Government naturally preferred to effect
about the same annual saving of 35 millions,
with the prospect of future reductions of over
100 millions per annum more, by 'exchanging
4£ per cent, stock at or near par for the 5 per
cents., pledging itself against a further conver-
sion within five years.

Paris and the other municipalities have debts
which were greatly increased by the war. The
budget of the city of Paris for 1880 estimates
the revenue at 233,622,125 francs, derived
principally from the octroi tolls, which were
estimated at 128,713,600 francs. The largest
item of expenditure is the interest and sinking
fund of the municipal debt. The capital amount
in 1880 was 2,295,000,000 francs.

Prince Bonaparte's Manifesto. — In Gambetta
the republic lost perhaps the only man who
possessed the political strength and prestige to
lead it through a crisis. He himself, by the
adventurous foreign policy and the idea of per-
sonal rule which he represented, had done not
a little to unsettle the public mind, and to re-
awaken a desire for the strong governing hand
to which France had formerly been accus-
tomed. His programme, although it had cost
him the premiership, had restored him to the
position which he held after'the national de-
fense as the champion on whom the republic
must rely in the hour of its need. He assumed
this position .more distinctly in his later ap-
peals. The monarchical parties echoed the de-
mand for a strong and stable government, and
when Gambetta died they prepared to renew

366

FKANCE.

their agitations. The various radical groups,
of a more or less socialistic bent, had been
visibly kept in restraint by Gambetta. There
was a prospect that the center of gravity in
the government would now shift farther to
the left, and to the regime of the freethinkers
would succeed one of socialistic experiments.
With a make-shift ministry, a Chamber which
served only as a forum for wordy contests with
the foes of the existing order, and with the
wide-spread mistrust which Gambetta had fo-
mented, that the republic, constituted as it was,
was incapable of maintaining the interests
and dignity of France abroad or a stable order
at home, the situation was favorable for a coup
de main or revolution if any of the hostile
parties were able or willing to profit by it.

A Legitimist agitation was set on foot in the
Vendee and the south of France, at Montpel-
lier, and the other strongholds of royalism.
There was talk of reorganizing General Oha-
rette's royalist legion, which in 1870 was re-
puted to number 8,000. Rumor exaggerated
the preparations into 1,500 Papal Zouave veter-
ans in Paris, and 33 legions organized as hunt-
ing-clubs in the country, with a treasure of
15,000,000 francs in London. The Count de
Chambord was expected to issue a manifesto.
A sudden damper was thrown upon the move-
ment by an unexpected act of Prince Napo-
leon, who, in order to forestall the Count de
Chambord and claim the position which his
party denied him, of head of the Bonapartes,
placarded on the walls of Paris and published
in the "Figaro," January 16th, a manifesto in
the form of an arraignment of the republic
and apology for his own position.

On the same day on which this manifesto
was issued Prince Napoleon was arrested and
confined in the prison of the Conciergerie on
the charge of an " attempted act against the
safety of the state, for the purpose of chang-
ing the existing form of government." The
manifesto had no popular effect, but it rallied
to the prince the Bonapartist politicians, who,
on account of his republican principles and
radical sympathies, had sought to thrust him
aside in favor of his son, Prince Victor.

Pretender Question. — In the Chamber the mani-
festo was the signal for calling forth, not so
much the fears, as the antipathies, of the Re-
publicans against the Bourbon princes and the
socially powerful though politically prostrate
section of , the community which clung to the
principles of royalty and aristocracy. The Due
d' Aumale and his aspirations to the presidency
of the republic were more dreaded than " the
King" in Frohsdorf, or the discarded head of
the Bonapartes. A bill was at once brought
in by M. Floquet to banish from the soil of
France and the colonies, and deprive of all po-
litical rights, the members of families which
formerly reigned in France. Urgency was
voted by a large majority. A government bill
was presented by M. Fallieres, Minister of the
Interior, which would empower the Executive

to expel from French territory any prince
whose presence might be considered dangerous
to the state, and, if an officer of the army, to
place him en disponibilite. The committee ap-
pointed by the bureaux to discuss the measure
at first reported a bill as rigorous as the Flo-
quet proposal, but finally agreed to a compro-
mise, incapacitating the members of dynastic
families for any electoral function or any civil
or military employment. M. Duclerc, the Pre-
mier, and Gen. Billot, Minister of War, refused
to accept the Fabre compromise, and the Cab-
inet, in consequence, resigned. Admiral Jaur-
reguibery, Minister of Marine, had already
tendered his resignation. President Grevy
simply accepted the resignations of the three
ministers who objected to a compromise, and,
upon M. Jules Ferry's declining to form a
Cabinet, intrusted M. Fallieres with the pre-
miership, January 29th. On February 1st the
bill passed by a vote of 355 to 142, 53 Repub-
licans voting with the minority, and 42 abstain-
ing, mostly because the bill did not go far
enough.*

Interim Ministry.— The Ministry of War was
offered to Gen. Campenon, a Gambettist, who
declined the office. It was accepted by Gen.
Thibaudin, who, though absolved by a council
of officers, was supposed by many to have
broken his parole in escaping from imprison-
ment in Germany and joining the army of the
national defense. At the time that the crisis
culminated, M. Duclerc was seriously ill, and
sent his resignation from a sick-bed. In the
midst of his first speech as Prime Minister, M.
Fallieres was also taken ill, overcome by anxi-
ety and loss of sleep. M. Fallieres was about
forty-four years of age. Like the other mem-
bers of the Duclerc ministry, he was new to
office, but passed for the ablest speaker among
them. Before entering public life he was a
lawyer in the small town of Nerac. The aged
M. Duclerc was well known and respected in
the Chamber, but had not the eminence and
weight of character which could command the
obedience of the majority. M. Deves, the Min-
ister of Justice, was not an eminent lawyer,
nor did M. Duvaux, Minister of Public Instruc-
tion, formerly professor in the Lycee at Nancy,
add to the authority of the Cabinet, though all

* The princes of Orleans, who are retired from active ser-
vice in the army, though not deprived of their military rank,
by the pretenders' bill, were proscribed under the empire, but
returned to France in virtue of an amnesty law, passed in
1871. Prince de Joinville and Due de Chartres had served in
the Second Army of the Loire under assumed names, with the
knowledge of Gen. Chanzy, who sought in every way to ad-
vance their interests. The Prince de Joinville was discharged
and sent out of the country by orders of Gambetta., but the
Due de (Jhartres concealed his identity and was decorated
with the cross of the Legion of Honor. The Due de Nemours
and the Due d'Aumale figure on the army lists as generals of
division, having been advanced to that grade during the reign
of their father, Louis Philippe. At the time of the passage of
the act the Due de Nemours was in the reserve, the Due
d' Aumale was en disponibilite, the Due de Chartres was in
command of a regiment at Rouen, the Due d'Alencon com-
manded a battery of artillery, the Due de Penthievre had
resigned, and his father, the Prince de Joinville, retained
the rank which he had received by royal ordinance, of vice-
admiral in the navy. Of the Bonapartes, Roland, the son of
Pierre, held a captaincy in the line.

FRANCE.

367

of them were respected as men of sense and
ability. For these reasons the Duclerc minis-
try had several times to experience adverse
votes which were not intended to express want
of confidence, but simply signified absence of
party discipline and lack of a vigorous leader.
When Duclerc retired, the rump Cabinet was
only retained as an interim ministry pending
the settlement of the pretender question. With
two portfolios vacant, and M. Fallieres still too
ill to attend to affairs, it could not even pre-
sent the semblance of constituting a govern-
ment. In the tiux and disorganization of
parties, the crisis was prolonged, and passed
through various unexpected phases. When the
bill came before the Senate the first feeling
was in favor of its rejection pure and simple,
in which sense the committee made its report.
But the leaders of the Left Center, unwilling
to block their path to future office, proposed a
compromise which secured a majority. This,
the Say-Waddington bill, made public acts or
demonstrations of pretenders belonging to ex-
regnant families tending to jeopardize the state,
punishable by banishment. Another proposal,
suggested by M. Barbey, was to give the Exec-
utive discretionary power to expel princes for
acts and demonstrations as pretenders. At the
beginning of the long debate in the Senate the
circumstances were altered by the quashing of
the complaint against Prince Napoleon. The
thirteen judges of the Chambre des Mises en
Accusation found that no indictment lay against
the prince, since the publishing and placarding
of his proclamation was admissible under the
press law, and, in the absence of overt acts,
did not constitute an attempt to overthrow the
government. Prince Napoleon, released from
his three weeks' confinement, betook himself
to Belgium, where, having been acknowledged
for the first time by the ex-Empress and a sec-
tion of the party, he continued the role of rep-
resentative of the imperial cause and "Napo-
leonic ideas"; but, later, the old differences
with the Bonapartist politicians were renewed,
and Prince Victor was induced to come out in
opposition to his father. On the 13th of Feb-
ruary, when the pretenders' bill was passed
back to the popular assembly in the form of the
Say-Waddington amen-iment, the headless and
useless ministry formally resigned. At this stage
the Paris merchants expressed their uneasiness
in a petition to President Gre>y. The work-
ing-men followed with a petition for the expul-
. sion of the princes and a bolder foreign policy.
The Chamber, on the return of the bill, refused
to consider the Senate amendment, dallied

twith the Barbey compromise, and then finally
sent up to the Senate the original Floquet bill.
In the Senate, by the shrewd tactics of the leader
of the Right, the Due de Broglie, who had left
the field free for the republican opponents of
exceptional legislation, the bill was now re-
jected by a majority of five, after a month of
impassioned discussion. The vote was taken
February 17th.

Ferry Cabinet.— Jules Ferry, who had post-
poned taking office until the expulsion question
was decided, upon the collapse of the bill un-
dertook to compose a ministry and formulate
a programme which would secure the support
of enough of the 140 members of the Republican
Union, Gambetta's Opportunist group, to make,
with the 180 belonging to the Democratic Union
and Center groups, a steady majority over the
90 members of the Right and the 90 of the
Radical Left and Extreme Left, re-enforced by
the remainder of the Gambettists. On the 21st
the list was published, as given near the be-
ginning of this article.

M. Ferry, after the death of Gambetta, was
the most conspicuous figure in the Chamber,
and was the only ex-Premier who had not been
precipitated from office by an expression of
w.ant of confidence. His constructive work in
the reform of education gave him a title to
greatness which was no longer darkened by
the stormy polemics which assailed him as
the ministerial representative of the anti-Cler-
ical policy and the author of "Article VII."
The retention of Gen. Thibaudin and the ap-
pointment of M. Challemel-Lacour, the most
vigorous advocate of the ostracism of the
princes, indicated the attitude of the new min-
istry on this question. The Foreign Minister
was known as a doctrinaire Republican who
commenced life as a teacher of philosophy in
the Lyc6e at Pau, was imprisoned and ban-
ished after the coup (Petal, translated works of
German philosophy and officiated as Professor
of French literature at Zurich, and after his re-
turn to France in 1856 became a journalist.
He was Prefect of Lyons during the war, and
had to cpntend with the communards under
Arnaud. He was appointed by M. Waddington
to the London embassy. Although he had re-
peatedly been spoken of for a portfolio, his
friend and leader, Gambetta, did not include
him in his Cabinet. M. Charles Brun, a naval
engineer of high reputation, who had sat in
the Chamber since 1871, but without taking an
active part in the debates, was the first civilian
who has filled the Ministry of the Marine. M.
Melines, the Minister of Agriculture, a lawyer
by profession, had distinguished himself as
an advocate of protection, and was reporter of
the general tariff committee. MM. Tirard and
Cochery had held the same positions in the
preceding Cabinet, and M. H frisson, the Min-
ister of Commerce, was transferred from the
Ministry of Public Works. M. Waldeck-Rous-
seau, one of the most prominent of the younger
politicians, was Minister of the Interior under
Gambetta. M. Raynal was Minister of Public
Works, and M. Feuillee sub-Secretary of the
Department of Justice in the same ministry.
MM. Challemel-Lacour and Charles Brun rep-
resented the Cabinet in the Senate.

In the declaration which Minister Ferry read
in the Chamber, he announced that the princes
in the army would be placed in non-activity,
and the order was issued immediately. This

368

FRANCE.

was done by straining an old army law of
1834.

Revision Question.— The question of the re-
vision of the Constitution was the first one
pressed upon the new ministry. Dr. Clemen-
ceau, at the head of the Radicals, made a vehe-
ment appeal to have the question with which
Gambetta had temporized finally decided, and
sentence pronounced upon the Senate after the
collision with the Chamber on the pretender
question. M. Ferry took a firm stand, refus-
ing to subject the country to the agitation of a
dissolution of the National Assembly and a
conflict with the foes of the republic over this
delic ite question. The Chamber, by a majority
of 150 votes, approved the decision to postpone
revision until after the general election of 1885.

Socialist Agitations.— While Prince Bonaparte
was undergoing internment, and the Floquet
proposal for the ostracism of the French princes
was before the Chamber, the trial of the Lyons
Anarchists came to an end. Prince Krapotkine
and the other accused, 52 in number, were
brought to trial under an act directed against
the International Society. They were arrested
after the labor riot at Montceau-les-Mines in
1882, and a disorderly demonstration in Lyons
occurring at that time, consisting of the explo-
sion of a dynamite cartridge in a coffee-house.
They acknowledged and defended their anarch-
ist and socialistic doctrines, but denied belong-
ing to the International Association, which had
gone out of existence. Prince Krapotkine re-
counted the story of his life, saying that wit-
nessing as the son of a Russian serf-proprietor
cruelties which matched the tales of " Uncle
Tom's Cabin," his sympathies were drawn to
the oppressed, while the vices and corruption
which he saw in the Russian military service
gave him a contempt for his own class. While
Professor of Mathematics in St. Petersburg he
was arrested as a Nihilist, and witnessed in
prison horrors which drove nine fellow -prison-
ers to madness and eleven to suicide. The ac-
cused Anarchists were convicted of belonging
to an international organization and were con-
demned, Prince Krapotkine with three others
to five years' imprisonment, ten years of police
surveillance, and five years' deprivation of civil
rights, and the rest to lesser punishments.

Scarcely had fears from the Legitimists been
allayed by the adoption of the pretenders' bill,
and the assumption of the government by
firmer hands, when the opposite party of dis-
ruption, the heirs of the Commune, began to
lift their heads. An open-air meeting of Pa-
risian artisans out of work was convened for
March 9th by placards issued by the Carpenters'
Union, announcing as the order of the day '' To
call upon the Government to take immediate
measures to provide bread for those who have
none." The distress among the working-peo-
ple, owing to commercial stagnation and a se-
vere winter, was greater than it had been for
many years. " If our rich republic," the ad-
dress declared, u has no longer work to give

us, it ought at least to feed the creator of its
wealth and its firmest bulwark — the artisan."
The task of providing work for the unemployed
was tacitly assumed by the republic from the
beginning, though not freely acknowledged by
responsible statesmen. It was the principal
cause of the expenditures on public works
which created financial embarrassments for the
Government. The mechanics of Paris, Lyons,
and the few other large cities where revolu-
tions are enacted, stood as arbiters over the
republic; but, as they became more imbued
with socialistic theories, they became estranged
from the Government, and torn by internal
dissensions which prevented them from mak-
ing a direct impress on legislation ; their latent
power, however, increased, and after the am-
nesty of the communards the labor question
bore the character of an issue to be dealt with
in the near future. Clemenceau and the Radi-
cals adopted the less advanced propositions of
the Socialists, such as the revision of contracts
which have alienated public property, mines,
railroads, canals, etc., and the progressive in-
come-tax, as the platform by which they hoped
to succeed to power.

French socialists are divided into three prin-
cipal schools — Blanquists, Collectivists, and
Anarchists. The disciples of Blanqni, the most
conspicuous of whom is Eudes, general under
the Commune, is not a numerous group, but a
compact one, formed of bold and energetic
men. They are averse to the discussion of so-
cial theories. All that is clear in their pro-
gramme is the political method whereby they
would accomplish sweeping, but undefined,
changes in the constitution of society, which is
by concentrating the power of the revolution in
few hands, and^granting their leaders dictato-
rial authority. They are therefore pure revo-
lutionists, descendants of the Jacobins of 1792.
The Collectivists base their demands on the
familiar historical and economical arguments
of socialists, and hold in the main the doctrines
of the teachers of German democratic social-
ism. Their aim is to make machinery, raw
materials, and all the apparatus and means of
production the collective property of society,
and would accomplish this by a revolutionary
overthrow. To a small group, which has its
headquarters in Belgium, the appeal to physi-
cal force is repugnant. These, known as Colin-
sians, expect to effect the transfer gradually
by means of a tax of 25 per cent, on succes-
sion, and the reversion of property to the
state where there are no direct heirs. The
revolutionary Collectivists are split, through
personal rivalries, into two warring factions,
the larger of which is called the Union Federa-
tive, and the other the Federation du Centre.
The Anarchists, represented by the imprisoned
Prince Krapotkine and the geographer Elis6e
Reclus, like the Collectivists, desire to make
capital and the means of production social
property, and are opposed to all centralization
of authority or fixed political organization.

FRANCE.

369

They think that when society is organized on
a proper basis, the functions of government
and the principle of authority will become ob-
solete, that practical tasks will be delegated
voluntarily, as outside of the sphere of govern-
ment they are in a great measure, to persons
who show the requisite knowledge and skill,
and that, when it is necessary to take counsel,
informal bodies — local, industrial, or more gen-
eral— untrammeled by a rigid legal constitution,
will establish themselves spontaneously. The
Socialists of the old schools — Phalansterians,
Proudhonians, Positivists — have ceased agita-
tion. Those now in the field, as they became
more disappointed and out of harmony with
the republic, grew violent and revolutionary
in their attitude. The more politic and ambi-
tious, who throve by agitation — such as Louise
Michel, Lissagaray, Rochefort, Fe~lix Pyat,
Emile Digeon, and other editors and orators —
did not compromise themselves by adopting
any system of socialistic doctrine, but followed
the popular revolutionary drift, and grew more
inflammatory in their language.

The meeting of the unemployed working-
men was held on the Esplanade des Invalides.
It was arranged by one of the numerous groups
of agitators, and was consequently discouraged
by the rival agitators. About 4,000 people
assembled, a considerable proportion of whom
were actually distressed mechanics in the
building-trade and Paris industries. The po-
lice kept the crowd moving, and when Louise
Michel, the orator of the day, appeared, she
was interrupted in the beginning of her ad-
dress. Suddenly, at a signal-cry, the crowd
started for the presidency, but were driven
back by the police. The whole programme of
the demonstration was prearranged, and the
spectators far outnumbered the participants,
many of them reactionaries, wishing and ex-
pecting a serious collision with the police.
When the passage of the Bridge de la Con-
corde was opposed by the police, the mob made
a show of resistance, and a brief struggle took
place before they retired. A band of those
who did not join the demonstration on the
Elysee followed Louise Michel up the Boule-
vard. Some of them entered the bakers' shops
demanding bread. If the shopkeepers refused
to give them loaves, they broke the windows
and helped themselves. This episode formed
no part of the original programme, in which
the assembly and the police acted their parts
•with formal regularity. Louise Michel did not
suggest the proceedings, but, when she saw
them, laughed at the ingenious idea.

The carpenters' demonstration and march on
the residence of President Grevy was only one
of many signs that the French working-man,
now pinched by hard times, was determined
to call the republic to account for neglecting
social legislation. The excitement was intense
among all classes. The political parties all en-
deavored to make capital out of the situation.
The Bonapartists and Legitimists accused the
VOL. xxiu. — 24 A

Republicans of having brought the distress
upon the working-class, and were themselves
accused of having instigated the riot of March
9th, and of being in league with Anarchists.
The crisis in the building trade was ascribed in
part to the pampering of the working-class by
the municipality of Paris, which paid high
wages to carpenters, and forced up the scale
until work could be done in the provinces 15
to 20 per cent, cheaper. Wages were said to
have risen 60 per cent, in the building trades
since 1875.

A second demonstration was attempted on
Sunday, March llth, but the Government
adopted vigorous measures for the repression
of revolutionary agitation. A great number
who took part in the demonstrations of the
9th were arrested and sentenced to short terms
of imprisonment. Louise Michel gave herself
up, after evading the police for a week or two.
On June 21st Louise Michel, with eight other
persons, were put on trial on the charge of in-
citing to pillage. This orator and poet of the
social revolution was forty-six years old. Be-
f .re she entered upon the career of a commu-
nistic agitator she was a school-teacher. She
had endured the horrors of exile in New Cale-
donia, and returned with the last of the amnes-
tied communards. On one of her companions
was found a revolver, and in his lodgings ex-
plosives and many copies of a pamphlet such
as had been recently distributed among the
soldiers, inciting them to burn their barracks.
He was a book-agent, named Pouget, twenty-
three years old. The two prisoners conducted
their own defense, injecting political sarcasms
and denunciations into their pleas. They were
pronounced guilty, and sentenced — Louise Mi-
chel to six and Pouget to eight years' imprison-
ment, with ten of police supervision for both.

Labor Legislation. — The problem of artisans'
dwellings was a branch of the labor question
which the Premier took up with sympathy and
zeal, as the solution would remove a growing
evil and at the same time provide work for
the clamorous carpenters and masons of Paris.
He entered into arrangements with the Land
Bank, by which advances would be made to
contractors to put up cottages, constructed on
the best models for comfort and sanitation, in
the environs of Paris. These dwellings, 13,000
in number, built at a total cost of 20,000,000
francs, were to be sold to working-men, and
paid for in annual payments, which are some-
what less than the ordinary rent of apartments
in the slums of Paris, but which will pay 5
per cent, interest and extinguish the principal
in twenty years. These payments are guar-
anteed by the Government. At the same time,
the municipality of Paris guaranteed loans
amounting to 50 millions, at the same rate of
interest and conditions of amortization, for the
construction of model tenement-houses con-
taining 26,000 dwellings. The rents range from
150 to 300 francs per annum. The tenants are
partly relieved from taxes. The same system is

370

FRANCE.

to be extended to the provinces, where greatly
increased rent8 and industrial depression have
created the same house-famine.

The cost of living among French working-
people was computed from inquiries at Mul-
house by M. Armangaud, a statistician, to range
from 1,100 to 3,000 francs per annum. Of the
total, rent consumes 15 per cent., clothing 16
per cent., food 61 per cent., and miscellaneous
expenses 8 per cent. Of the expenditure for
food, 33 per cent, is for bread, 14 per cent, for
meat, 13 per cent, for milk, 24 per cent, for
groceries, and 16 per cent, for other aliments.

Judicature Bill. — A bill passed the National
Assembly, without encountering the expected
difficulty in the Senate, which forms part of a
general scheme for the reform of the judica-
ture elaborated by Gambetta and Cazot, Presi-
dent of the Court of Cassation. The French
judiciary still consisted under the republic in
great part of members of the hereditary caste
who under the ancient regime transmitted the
ermine from father to son. The smallness of
the stipends precluded lawyers from accepting
judicial positions, and the exclusive circle of
the descendants of the old noblesse de robe made
it unpleasant for any one not of their own class
to enter the magistracy, though he had a private
fortune sufficient to sustain its expensive state.
The judgments rendered by this provincial
aristocracy in political cases have been a scan-
dal. They have refused to give effect to laws
directed against monarchical and clerical in-
trigue, and have persisted in treating republi-
cans as though they were the enemies of the
established order. Gambetta was, for instance,
condemned to four months' imprisonment for
declaring that Marshal MacMahon must yield
to the will of the nation or resign, and 2,700
sentences were recorded against republicans
for resisting by legal methods the revolutionary

Slot of the monarchists to overturn the repub-
c. Gambetta's project of reform was to re-
duce the excessive number of judges, increase
the salaries, and recruit the bench entirely
from the legal profession. The judicature act
suspended the irremovability of judges for three
months in order to enable Minister Feuillee to
reduce their number by selecting and retiring
600 of them on pensions.

Anti-Clerical Legislation.— M. Grevy, at the re-
ception of tha new Papal nuncio, Mgr. Camille
de Rende, assured him that "the protection
due to religion, and the strengthening of the
bonds of friendship existing between France
and the Holy See, will be the object of our
constant solicitude." The deputies, however,
evinced by a number of enactments their hos-
tility to the Church. The Chamber abolished
the state subsidies to hospital chaplains, and
decided that there should be no division be-
tween the Christian and Israelite portions of a
cemetery, from which even the cross at the
entrance was to be removed. Recognizing M.
Grevy's disposition for conciliation, the Pope,
in June, sent him a private letter complaining

of the hardships which the French clergy had
to suffer under the republic, and asking his in-
fluence to procure an amelioration of their con-
dition, and to prevent a rupture between the
republic and the Vatican. M. Gr6vy replied
in a conciliatory manner. This reply was fol-
lowed by a dispatch from M. Jules Ferry,
pointing out that it was difficult for a govern-
ment to check a movement against the clericals
while the latter remained so essentially hostile.

Wars in Tonqnin and Madagascar. — The colonial
policy which was adopted as more profitable
than a European foreign policy — that is, as a
renunciation, as far as the republic is concerned,
of the revenge idea, and an escape from the
risks and disquiet of the situation created by
Gambetta — gave the Government and the pub-
lic much to occupy themselves with in 1883
(see articles on TONQUIN and MADAGASCAR).
The intention to establish a protectorate in
Tonquin was announced in the beginning of
May, and the first vote of credit sanctioning
the scheme obtained. That same month came
tidings of the defeat and death of Riviere.
Thenceforth the credits were granted with
practical unanimity, and the Government was
supported in the prosecution of the enterprise
and the diplomatic conflict with China.

The difficulties with the Hova government
in Madagascar were a heritage from the Du-
clerc ministry. At about the time of Riviere's
defeat the French men-of-war bombarded the
Malagasy ports. The operations, and the Shaw
affair, which was settled by paying the ag-
grieved missionary, are elsewhere described.

Insnlt to the Ring of Spain.— In August an ar-
ticle denouncing the French as disturbers of
the peace of Europe appeared in the " North
German Gazette." As soon as the annoyance
caused by this had subsided in France, the Ger-
man Emperor appointed the King of Spain, on
his visit to Berlin, colonel of a regiment sta-
tioned at Strasburg, which appointment was
deemed by the French a deliberate insult.
Preparations had been made to give the King,
on his return from the autumn manoeuvres at
Hamburg, a warm welcome to Paris. The
Radicals now raised an outcry, and it was
feared that some disturbance might take place.
On September 29th, on arriving at the station,
the King was formally greeted by M. Grevy
and M. Jules Ferry, but, outside the station,
and throughout the whole of the King's drive
to the embassy, a mob assailed him with groans,
and cries of "Down with the Uhlan!" On
subsequently paying an official visit to M.
Grevy at the FJysee, a crowd made a rush
at the carriage, and the King was again
mobbed and insulted. Next day President
GreVy paid a visit to the King, and, in the
name of France, begged that he would no(
identify her with the "wretches" who had
compromised her renown by demonstration*
which he repudiated ; he also prayed the King
to attend the state banquet which was to be
held in his Majesty's honor at the Elys6e that

FRIENDS.

371

evening. The King consented, on condition
that the apology tendered by President Grevy
should be made public. President Grevy agreed
to this, and the King attended the banquet,
leaving the next morning for Madrid. The
mere publication of the explanations in the
official gazette was not objected to, but the
demand for a diplomatic document was not ac-
ceded to.

Cabinet Questions.— The Minister of War, Gen.
Thibaudin, was a disturbing element in the
Cabinet from the beginning. He sought his
support from the Radical factions, and be-
came gradually estranged from his colleagues.
Though he displayed ability and energy, and
elaborated important improvements in the ser-
vice, he imported into the army more of the
political element which continually weakens its
efficiency by destroying the esprit du corps
that formerly existed. By refusing to allow
Gen. Gallifet to conduct the cavalry manoeu-
vres, he came into conflict with his colleagues,
but was compelled to yield. After the insult
to King Alfonso, Gen. Thibaudin, who was
blamed for not taking precautions, and who
had refused to take part in the reception, re-
signed his office.

The Budget. — The finance committee of the
Chamber insisted on a balanced budget, and
little progress was made until the autumn ses-
sion, which was devoted to this subject. M.
Tirard's rectified estimates still showed a defi-
cit of 65 millions. He was compelled to sub-
mit, in order to obtain an approximate balance,
to a reduction in the sinking-fund appropria-
tion, although he had declared on taking office
that the amortization should on no account be
intermitted.

FRIENDS. The Orthodox branch of the So-
ciety of Friends includes the London and Dub-
lin Yearly Meetings ; eleven Yearly Meetings
in America, viz., those of Canada, New Eng-
land, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore,
North Carolina, Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas,
and the Western Yearly Meeting, and small
bodies in Norway and Australia. These meet-
ings assist in the maintenance of missions in
India, Madagascar (where the Friends co-op-
erate with the London Missionary Society),
Mount Lebanon in Syiia, in Mexico, among
the North American Indians, and in the home
countries of the several bodies. The reports
made to the meetings and the statistical re-
turns show that the decline in numbers of the
society, which was remarked several years ago,
has been arrested, and that, except in some of
the Eastern meetings in the United States, the
masses of the members are young.

The statistical reports for 1882 show the.
number of members of the Society of Friends
in Great Britain and Ireland to be 18,000, be-
sides some 5,790 persons who were not mem-
bers, but who usually attended Friends' meet-
ings. . About 35,000 persons, only 3,000 of
whom regularly attended Friends' meetings,
were receiving instruction in First-day schools.

The London Friends' Tract Association had
issued during the year 131,328 tracts, includ-
ing editions in French, German, and Welsh.

Reports were made at the Indiana Yearly
Meeting, in September, concerning home-mis-
sion meetings, prison meetings, and temper-
ance union meetings that had been held dur-
ing the year. Efforts in behalf of temperance
had received especial attention, and had made
great progress. The New York Yearly Meet-
ing has the distribution of two funds— the
Lindley Murray Fund, of $50,000, the interest
of which is distributed among charities ; and
the Moscher Fund, of $13,000, which is devoted
to the distribution of books relating to the in-
terests of the Friends.

The Associated Committee of Friends on
Indian Affairs received during the year end-
ing in June, 1883, $4,183, and expended $3,-
171. Seven boarding-schools and ten day-
schools were sustained, and three schools
among the Shawnees in the Cherokee country
were assisted by the committee; and the
schools in the Sac and Fox, Osage, and Chey-
enne and Arapahoe agencies returned an en-
rollment of 602 pupils. Arrangements had
been made under the direction of the Indiana
Yearly Meeting for the reception and educa-
tion of Indian children at White's Manual La-
bor Institute, near Wabash, Ind., in behalf of
which $3,204 had been raised for the provis-
ion of buildings, and where fourteen boys and
thirteen girls had been received. Indian girls
who were taken to Trinity College, N. C., were
found to be detrimental to the school.

The progress which has been made within
the Society of Friends in adaptation to the
changed conditions of modern life and thought
is practically exemplified in the revised version
of the " Book of Christian Discipline " which
was issued, under the auspices of the London
Yearly Meeting, to the members of the society
in November. The present edition is the
fourth that has been made since the book was
first published, in the latter part of the last
century. The volume is divided into three
parts: The first part, relating to "Christian
Doctrine," consists chiefly of extracts from the
journal of George Fox, and from the minutes
of the yearly meetings; the second part
treats of " Church Practice "; and the third
part, on " Church Government," relates to the
order of meetings, the functions of officers,
the mode of transferring members, and other
internal regulations. The changes made in re-
vision, which are considerable in number, are
chiefly in the second and third parts. Some of
them have been rendered proper by changes
made in the civil laws since the last edition
of the book was issued, as in" the case of the
repeal of compulsory church-rates^ some by
changes of opinion within the society ; and
some by the .desire of the body to include
later advices than those that had previously
appeared. While the rules against "foolish
and. wicked pastimes," denouncing as such

372

GAS.

"balls, gaming- places, horse-races, and play-
houses," stili stand, advice is now added en-
forcing the "duty of taking needful recrea-
tion," without which, it is observed, neither
physical nor mental faculties can be preserved
in a healthy condition. The counsel against
the use of music is removed, while the cau-
tion against musical entertainments, especially
against those " musical exhibitions in which an
attempt is made to combine religion with a
certain amount of amusement," is retained.
The testimony against " ecclesiastical de-
mands " is modified, but a minute is retained
expressing continued belief that the " union
of the Church with the state derives no sup-
port from the ISTew Testament." To the pro-

longed testimony against war is added an ex-
tract from a former expression of the society
against "military centers." The "Queries,"
or questions to be answered by meetings to
their superior meetings, are simplified and so
modified as to bring them into closer accord
with the circumstances of modern life ; a sum-
mary is given of a simplified form of marriage
regulations, and considerable space is occupied
with the statement of the rules in regard to re-
movals, appeals, arbitration, and other inter-
nal arrangements of the society. The changes
that are recorded are chiefly those that have
taken place within the last twenty years, but
are now, for the first time, placed in the official
code or law of the denomination.

G-

GAS. For many years gas- manufacture has
been one of the most conservative of the in-
dustries, but the past ten years have seen a
great advance in coal-gas processes, and the
successful development of the manufacture of
water-gas.

The great improvements introduced into the
coal-gas manufacture may be referred to the
furnace, retort- charging, and scrubbing. The
general process is simple, and does not a<lmit
of much further development.

Furnaces. — About ten years ago one of the
prevailing ideas of gas -engineers was, that a
yield of 9,500 cubic feet per ton of coal, and of
6,000 cubic feet per retort daily, was good prac-
tice. The belief prevailed that a higher heat,
productive of higher yields, would injure the
quality of the gas. Later experience has con-
troverted this idea. The tendency toward high-
er heats has grown, and the size of retorts has in-
creased, until yields of 11,420 cubic feet per ton
and 9,000 cubic feet or more per retort are fre-
quently reached. It is especially in New Eng-
land that these results are attained. The revo-
lution in metallurgy and glass-making, due to
the invention of the Siemens regenerative fur-
nace, is known to all scientific readers. It was
not till several years after its invention that
gas-engineers adopted it. It was found to an-
swer all expectations, but presented some ob-
jectionable features. To contain the regenera-
tive chambers of the furnaces, a large excava-
tion was necessary, involving considerable ad-
ditional expense in building the furnaces. The
gas-generator was an extra and costly piece of
apparatus. Serious changes were necessary
wherever the new furnaces were introduced
into old retort-houses. Several modified fur-
naces were invented, combining some of the
characteristics of Siemens's furnace with those
of the old retort-bench. The new furnaces are
all constructed on the same general principles.
The fireplace is deep, with a grate of very
small area. A limited supply of air, sometimes
with the addition of a little steam, is admitted
below, and passes through the thick bed of in-

candescent coke, thus producing carbonic-oxide
gas and hydrogen. The gas rises into the oven
containing the retorts, where it meets a new
supply of heated air. A vivid, intensely hot
combustion takes place, heating the retorts
containing the coal. The hot gases from the
combustion pass off through flues, parallel with
other flues, through which the second air-sup-
ply enters. This heats the air before the final
combustion, and in this heating of the air is
seen to some extent the regenerative element
of the Siemens furnace. The modifications
just described amount to a more compact and
cheaper construction of the same device. The
results achieved by them affect economy of
labor, economy of fuel, and higher heats, with
consequent higher yields. The improved fur-
naces are so disposed that less labor is required
in working them. The heat developed in the
fireplace is comparatively low, so that less de-
terioration of the furnace takes place and less
labor is required in removing the slag. The
saving in fuel amounts to 30 per cent.

At first sight it would appear that the heat
developed in the furnace in the carbonic-oxide
combustion is lost, as it is not applied directly
to heating the retorts. But this is not the case,
as the carbonic-oxide gas is generated at a high
temperature, enters the oven when very hot,
and so transmits the heat of the furnace to the
retorts. As in the original Siemens furnace,
both elements, gas and air, are hot. The in-
crease in the temperature of the retorts is very
remarkable ; comparatively small retorts car-
bonize large amounts of coal. The increased
expense of the improved furnaces can be re-
couped to a certain extent by the fewer or
smaller retorts necessary.

Hot-Coke Firing. — Any one who is familiar
with the old gas processes must have been im-
pressed with the inconsistency in the treatment
of coke. It is drawn red-hot from the retorts,
cooled off by dashing water upon it, and when
perfectly cold a portion of it is used for the
fires. Some of the furnaces just described use
the hot coke as it comes from the retorts. It

GAS.

373

is charged directly into them, thus not only
saving that amount of heat, which is less than
might be imagined, but also saving the labor of
again handling the coke. In one of the large
works of this city, where it has not yet been
deemed advisable to introduce the new fur-
naces, an economy of labor and fuel is secured
by charging the old style of furnaces with hot
coke as it comes from the retort. It is drawn
into a peculiarly shaped iron barrow, which is
then wheeled in front of the furnace-door, and
the coke is pushed in.

Retort-Charging. — Many efforts have been made
here and abroad to do away with the laborious
hand-charging. Apparatus has been tried by
which a scoop of the length of a retort was
introduced by machinery into the retort, and
was then inverted, opened, or had its bottom
withdrawn, dropping the charge of coal upon
the bottom of the retort. These machines are
preceded by another one which draws the coke
from the retort. In all cases they work on the
principle of the old-fashioned " drawing-rake."
The coke is raked or hoed out of the retort,
exactly as in the old hand -process. A very
ingenious machine has recently been intro-
duced for charging retorts, in which a jet of
steam is made to drive the coal before it into
the retort. As may be surmised, this is of
extremely simple construction. A steam noz-
zle is arranged with a quick- opening valve
so that a sudden puff of steam can be dis-
charged. A scoop or pipe leads the coal down
in front of the nozzle, and, by a succession of
openings of the valve, the coal is driven in two
or three installments into the retort. By grad-
uating the force of the jets of steam, the coal
can be deposited with great regularity along
the entire length of the retort. An unsuccess-
ful attempt has been made to use the same
principle in discharging retorts.

The great objection to the mechanical stokers
was their size, complexity, and consequent ex-
pense. By the use of the steam-jet these ob-
jectionable features, at least, were to a great
extent obviated.

Scrubbers. — It is surprising how long it took
gas- engineers to learn to wash the ammonia
out of gas. For years, hardly an attempt was
made to remove the ammonia economically
and thoroughly. William Mann, of England,
was one of the earliest to enter the field. He
introduced his coke-scrubbers at many English
works, where they met with complete success.
Their construction is very simple, their effi-
ciency being due to their size. They are iron
towers, sometimes sixty or seventy feet high,
which are filled with coke, and supplied with
water at the top ; this, trickling down through
the coke, effectually absorbs the ammonia from
the gas, which is driven up through the mass.
Less than a gallon of water suffices for each
thousand cubic feet of gas. Ammoniacal
liquor of improved quality and high commer-
cial value is also thus obtained. Another form
of scrubber contains a series of vertical re-

volving disks, perforated with many holes,
whose lower areas dip into water. The gas
passes through these disks and is thereby very
efficiently washed. The water is so distributed
that the first disk is moistened with clean wa-
ter, the next with the weakest ammoniacal
liquor, and so on, the water regularly passing
from end to end of the scrubber, against the
current of the gas.

Other Improvements. — In the purification of
gas the general practice has adhered to lime.
Some very remarkable results have been
achieved with bone-black, but they have led
to no extensive practical use. Heating the
gas with a small percentage of air before puri-
fication has also been tried, but with only ex-
perimental results. A new method of work-
ing purifiers has been introduced. Purifiers
are arranged universally in sets of four, with
center seal arranged to keep three of them
continuously working, and one of the set al-
ways off for cleaning and refilling. By the
new system either three or four purifiers can
be kept in operation. Three are used while
the fourth is being replenished, after which
four are put to work, and kept so until the
third purifier stains lead-paper, then the center
seal is turned so as to reduce the working
number to three, while the other one is cleaned
out and refilled. A double center seal of pe-
culiar construction is required for this process.
The general idea is to keep four purifiers at
work whenever possible, only reducing to three
when one is to be cleaned out.

Water-Gas. — In this subject we meet with a
genuine revolution. For many years it was
the dream of engineers to obtain its hydrogen
from water and utilize it for gas. Patent after
patent has been taken out for hydrogen pro-
cesses, which generally were based on two
principles — reduction of steam by heated car-
bon, or by heated iron. In the first process,
a mixture of carbonic oxide and hydrogen,
theoretically in equal volumes, is produced.
In the second process hydrogen only is gener-
ated, in volume three fourths that of the car-
bon gases. As carbon, molecule for molecule,
is far cheaper than iron, and as it produces a
greater volume of gas per molecule, it is uni-
versally used for the production of the hydro-
gen. The only departure from this rule is
where a balloon is to be inflated ; then iron
may be used to decompose the steam, as it
gives a far lighter gas. Thus the hydrogen-
gas, so often named by the water-gas engineer,
is really a mixture, containing only 50 per cent,
of its name-giving element.

The flame of this "hydrogen," as we shall
call it, is blue, and practically non-luminous.
It resembles the lambent flame seen on the
upper surface of a hard-coal fire, its blue color
being due to the carbonic oxide it contains.
To be of use in gas-lighting, it must be made
luminous. It is not easy to say what is in the
future, but to-day, whether it be electric light
or gaslight, candles or oil, the source of all

374

GAS.

artificial illumination is incandescent carbon.
To render non-luminous hydrogen luminous,
carbon has to be added to it. Imitating the
constitution of coal-gas as nearly as possible,
gaseous hydrocarbons of the paraffin, olefine,
and aromatic series are introduced by the
manufacturer. Owing to the enormous de-
velopment of the petroleum industry, large
amounts of petroleum and naphtha have been
placed at the disposal of the gas-manufacturer
at a low price, and these form very advan-
tageous sources for the production of the hy-
drocarbons. Without them or some equiva-
lent, water-gas could not be made in compe-
tition with coal-gas. To-day naphtha ranges
in price from two to five cents a gallon. To
carburet 1,000 feet of water-gas, five gallons
of naphtha are required. When it is remem-
bered that the total cost of the material from
which 1,000 feet of gas is made is less than
fifty cents, the importance of cheap naphtha
will be evident.

Water-gas processes can be arranged under
two heads— regenerative and non-regenerative.
Two of the first-named processes may be de-
scribed, and one of the latter.

The Lowe Process. — All the water-gas process-
es are the growth of engineering experience,
even if, in their original conception, they rep-
resent inventions. They are protected by nu-

of this cupola, or gasogen, are one or more
cupolas, filled with fire-brick, stacked loosely,
like those in a Siemens regenerator. The
products of combustion from the gasogen pass
through a pipe into the regenerative cupola
and heat the contents to a white heat. The
next step in the process is to turn off the air
and admit steam at the bottom of the coal in
the first cupola, or gasogen. At the same time
a small stream of naphtha, or crude petroleum,
is admitted to the gasogen at its top. The
steam rises through the hot coal and is decom-
posed thereby, forming carbonic oxide and
hydrogen. As the gas thus formed in enor-
mous volumes passes upward and out of the
gasogen it meets with the intiowing petroleum
or naphtha, and the vapors produced there-
from, and carries the rich vapors on into the
regenerator. The mixed gas and vapors pass
through the hot bricks and acquire a high tem-
perature. The vapor of naphtha is decom-
posed and converted into olefiant and other
light-giving gases. In the language of the gas-
engineer, the gas is " fixed." From the regen-
erating cupola it is conducted through ordinary
purifying and scrubbing apparatus to the gas-
holders. The gas-making period lasts as long
as the heating period. Twice or oftener in the
hour the valves are changed, and the steam
and naphtha are shut off and air is blown in,

FIG. 1.— LOWE PROCESS.

merous patents. In the Lowe process the coal,
usually anthracite, is contained in a cupola or
blast-furnace. By blowing air through it, after
ignition, for from fifteen to forty-five minutes,
it is brought to an intense heat. By the side

and the reverse. Thus the operation is inter-
mittent, .gas-making occupying only half of the
time. To make the process continuous two
sets of apparatus must be used. The operation
of coal-gas making is also intermittent, but to

GAS.

375

a less extent. The coal in the gasogen is re-
newed from time to time, and the interior is
cleaned out at longer intervals, but the heat is
kept up for long periods.

The distinctive difference between the mode
of applying the heat in this and in the ordinary
coal-gas process will be noticed. In making
gas from bituminous coal the material is heated
in close retorts set in a furnace. The heat is
applied to their exteriors. Fire-clay is not a
good conductor of heat, but the heat of the
furnace is pushed until the retort is heated
through. All the heat .the coal gets comes
through three inches of fire-clay. This is an
extremely wasteful way of applying heat. In
the Lowe process the heat is applied directly,
the same surface of the fire-brick being alter-
nately heated by the products of combustion,
and cooled by imparting its heat to the gases
passing over it. The candle-power of the gas
is under good control, being regulated by the
admission of naphtha or petroleum.

The Strong Process. — This is applied to the
production of hydrogen only. As in the former
method, at least two cupolas are essential, one
containing coal, the other fire-bricks. Assum-

before it reaches the gasogen. Then, very
highly superheated, it passes downward through
the hot coal and out of the bottom of the cu-
pola, and is decomposed into water-gas. At
the top of the gasogen there is an aperture,
through which a quantity of coal-dust is ad-
mitted during the gas-making period. Re-
markable as it seems, the steam is so highly
superheated that its own heat is enough to
cause it to be decomposed by the coal-dust.
This is so true, that in the original process
the current was not drawn through the coal-
cupola at all. The gas was drawn off as soon
as the contact between the dust and steam had
been effected. But it was found that, though
the steam was well decomposed, the gas con-
tained a great deal of carbonic- acid gas. To
remedy this trouble, the gas was passed down-
ward through the hot coal. Thus in the Strong
process the air and steam go in exactly oppo-
site directions ; in the Lowe process they fol-
low the same course. The alternate periods of
heating and gas-making are sometimes very
short ; they have been reduced to five minutes
each. In this process the same system of di-
rect heating is employed, but no naphtha is
used, and a non-luminous heating gas is pro-
duced. The use of coal-dust is a noticeable
feature in the Strong process. Sometimes as
much as 25 per cent, of slack is used, effecting
a considerable saving in the cost of material.

The Municipal Process.— The first works to
adopt this process, frequently called the Tessi6
du Motay process, were the Municipal Gas-
Works of New York. In the Lowe process,

FIG. 2. — STRONG PROCESS.

ing that the heating is taking place, the course the whole operation of gas-making is one, and

of the operation is the same as that already de-
scribed for the Lowe process. When the heat-
ing period is over, the air is shut off and steam
is admitted, but the steam enters the apparatus
at the farther end of the regenerating cupola.
It passes through all the intensely heated brick

can not be divided into steps. The Municipal
process, on the other hand, divides itself into
three phases : gas-generating, carbureting, and
roasting or fixing. The division makes the pro-
cess susceptible of closer watching and more
accurate adjustment. Whether this advantage

376

GAS.

compensates for its greater complexity, and
less rational application of heat, is an open
question. Theoretically, it is the most imper-
fect of the systems; practically, it seems to be
nearly or quite as good as any. Its expensive
apparatus is its worst point. Hydrogen or
water-gas is generated just as in the other pro-
cesses, by alternate admission of air and steam
into the lower part of a cupola-furnace filled
with incandescent anthracite. When air is ad-
mitted to blow up the coal, a valve on the top
of an outlet-pipe is opened, and the products
of combustion are suffered t j escape into the
air, burning with a blue flame, six or eight feet
high. All this heat goes to waste. After halt
an hour's blowing, air is turned off and steam
admitted. The flame escaping from the top of
the cupola quickly changes in appearance, be-
coming more voluminous and reddish. The
top valve is then closed, and the hydrogen
passes on through a water-seal into a small
gas-holder. From the gas-holder it goes to a
carbureter. This is an iron vessel resembling
in principle a Coffey's still. It is full of trays,
and naphtha, admitted through its top, pours
down within it from tray to tray. The sides
of the carbureter are double, and filled with
water, kept hot by steam. The gas, when car-
bureted, passes on to benches of retorts. The
retorts are what are known as through retorts.
They go completely through the furnace, form-
ing tire-clay pipes about 12 by 20 inches in size,
of — shape usually. They are kept at a good
red heat, and the gas passing through them be-
comes fixed. With regard to the hydrogen-
holder, although we spoke of the gas going
to it, this was not absolutely correct. The
holder in question is usually very small, and
only acts as a compensator, taking in gas
sometimes for an excessive production of hy-
drogen, at other times remaining stationary,
or delivering a small amount. As the adjust-
ment of the carbureting process depends upon
the even delivery of hydrogen, the holder is
made single -lift to preserve uniformity of
pressure.

It will be noticed that, in describing the
water-gas processes, nothing has been said of
the operations of condensing, scrubbing, or
purifying. As soon as the water-gas is made,
the distinctive peculiarities of the process end,
the subsequent treatment being identical with
that to which coal-gas is subjected. For this
reason, in the illustrations water-gas apparatus
alone is sHown. The gas is passed through
air or water condensers of any of the usual
well-known types, and then through washers
or scrubbers. The necessity for washing water-
gas would seem less than in the case of coal-
gas, as it contains no ammonia, yet it is done.
It is then purified by lime.

In the Municipal process fuel is consumed in
three places— under the boilers, in the gasogens,
and in the retort- Turn aces. In the Lowe pro-
cess one of these sources of expenditure of
fuel is cut off ; there are no retort-benches to

be heated. Theoretically, it is the more per-
fect process of the two.

The trouble with water-gas is the production
of naphthalene. Fortunately, this does not
go outside of the works, and it is disposed
of there in various ways. It is dissipated
by steam, or is dissolved in naphtha, and thus
pumped out of the siphons. A strong solution
of naphthalene is sometimes obtained, that de-
posits on evaporation large quantities of the ob-
noxious crystals in a solid mass.

Other methods have been devised for the
production of this gas, but the principal types
follow the ones described. Retort processes
have been used to some extent. In these, an-
thracite coal is charged into retorts, heated by
a fire just as in ordinary coal-gas making, and
steam is passed through, becoming decom-
posed into hydrogen and carbonic oxide. The
direct heating, the best characteristic of the
water-gas process, disappears ; but for small
works such processes are quite available.

With regard to the economy of the differ-
ent water-gas processes, they appear at the
present prices to have rather the advantage
over coal-gas. Yields varying from 35,000 to
50,000 cubic feet of gas per ton of anthracite
coal are claimed ; while four and a half to five
gallons of naphtha or raw petroleum are re-
quired to carburet 1,000 cubic feet.

Wood-Gas. — One works in New York has
adopted wood as one of its sources of gas. It
has the same objection that attaches to water-
gas — it contains a large percentage of car-
bonic-oxide gas. As it is of very low illumi-
nating power, it has to be enriched with
naphtha. The process has been little used.

To give some idea of the importance of
water-gas, it need only be said that in New
York alone something like 1,500,000,000 cubic
feet of it are made annually. Of this quantity,
nearly one third is carbonic oxide, so that its
practical harmlessness is pretty well proved.

Other Gas Apparatus. — The past few years have
witnessed the completion of some extraordi-
narily large gasometers, or gas-holders, as the
gas-engineer more correctly calls them. One
in London, the largest in the world, has a ca-
pacity of 5,500rOOO feet; in New York there
is one at the Municipal Gas Company's works,
with a capacity of 2,000,000, and two at the
New York Gas-Light Company's, with a ca-
pacity of 1,500,000 each. The latter works
have also the largest station-metre, as far as
drum capacity is concerned, in the world.
Each revolution of the drum passes 3,000
cubic feet of gas.

Gas-Stoves. — This industry has developed,
even in this country, where gas is compara-
tively dear, into a business of considerable ex-
tent, and their construction has been improved
upon until they are as good in every respect as
coal-stoves. In England vast numbers of
them are in use ; but there several conditions
make their introduction easier. Gas is far
cheaper there than here, and coal is not so

GAS.

GAS-LIGHTING.

377

much cheaper relatively. Thus, for cooking,
they are quite economical. Even here they
are nearly as economical as coal-burning
inges, on account of their immediate lighting
ad extinguishing. No kindling-wood is re-
mired, and no fuel is used except what is re-
mired for the operations of cooking.

Gas-Engines. — A great deal of work has been
lone in this field by inventors, and a number
of engines are in the market. Their advan-
for small and intermittent power are
reat. They start at once into full action, are
imediately stopped, use no fuel except when
inning, and require no engineer. They are
mch more bulky for the same power than
d-engines, but tar excel the latter in econo-
ty. There is a certain amount of trouble in
irting them, but it is a minor disadvantage,
twenty cubic feet of gas per horse-power per
>ur is as low as the best of them can go.
icy have frequently been used for running
lynamos, but the electricians complain of their
rant of steadiness.

Natural Gas. — The use of gas from gas-wells
the petroleum-fields has grown into an in-
lustry of some importance. Several towns are
>w lighted with it, and it is used also for
>ves and fires. For many years it has been
used under the boilers at petroleum- wells,
many of which produce it.
Gas-Bnrners. — The great improvement in this
egard refers to regenerative burners, which
be found described under their proper
leading.

General Observations. — For many years a fierce
rar has been waged between water-gas or
laphtha-gas and coal-gas. To-day, in spite of
its success, water-gas is still the subject of con-
troversy. It has certain objections. It con-
lins about one third of its volume of carbonic-
)xide gas, and this constituent "makes it un-
questionably more poisonous to those unfortu-
late enough to inhale it. Its higher specific
ravity, combined with its usually high illumi-
ing power, causes less of it to be consumed
pro rata. Where it- has been substituted for
ill-gas in entire districts, the gas delivered
las run down in quantity very seriously. It
light be supposed that this trouble was cura-
)le by making it of lowor illuminating power,
id increasing the pressure. But when of less
inn twenty candle-power the gas-flame is too
white and cold-looking, and to make it of good
appearance a high illuminating value must be
laintained. But where the quantity consumed
by the individual decreases, an inducement is
offered to others to burn it, and by giving
more light for the same money a healthful im-
petus is given toward an increase of consum-
ers. The use of uncarbureted gas for heating
purposes has been tried to a limited extent,
but the necessity of two sets of mains, one for
heating and one for illuminating gas, has op-
erated to prevent its introduction to any large
extent. It possesses about half the heating
power of illuminating gas, and, if an incandes-

cent burner could be devised by which it could
be made light-producing, we might hope to
soon see its introduction on a large scale. Such
burners have been tried, but a successful and
practical one is yet to be invented.

GAS-LIGHTING, REGENERATIVE SYSTEM OF.
Comparisons of the cost of gas and incandes-
cent electric lighting, and the forecasts of the
relative industrial position of these two modes
of illumination, have so far been based upon
the results at present obtained with the former
illuminant. While it has long been known
that the consumer realized but a portion of the
light which the gas was capable of giving when
burned under the best conditions — that is, with
clean burners and proper pressure — it has not
been supposed that results surpassing these
latter were practicable. Recent progress, how-
ever, in the construction of burners has shown
that gas-lighting has by no means reached its
limit, but thnt results are obtainable which are
much beyond anything that could have been
reasonably expected but a few years ago, and
which may enable gas to hold its own as an
illuminant against all comers. This progress
consists in applying to gas-lighting the regen-
erative principle, long and successfully adapted
to the industrial applications of fuel, chiefly in
metallurgical operations. The essential feature
of this system is, the utilizing the heat of the
escaping products of combustion— which would
otherwise be wasted — in raising the tempera-
ture of the air entering to support combustion,
as also that of the combustible.

Whatever the system of illumination, the
light is always due to the incandescence of a
solid body. This solid body may be a fine wire
or filament of a suitable material, as in the
incandescent electric light, or a piece of lime
plunged into a non-luminous flame, as in the
lime-light, or may consist of innumerable fine

§ articles of carbon distributed through the
arne. This latter is the condition realized in
all the luminous flames, whether of oils or gas.
Such a luminous flame consists of a body of
inflammable gases which are either non-lumi-
nous, as hydrogen or carbonic oxide, or which
are but feebly luminous, such as marsh-gas,
and a small percentage of heavy hydrocarbons
to which the luminosity is due. These latter
consist of hydrogen and carbon in chemical
union, the carbon of which is set free by the
heat of combustion. To these glowing parti-
cles of carbon, detained momentarily in the
envelope of burning gas, and excluded from
the air, the light of the flame is due. That the
light yielded may be the greatest possible,
these carbon-particles must be raised to the
highest attainable temperature. How impor-
tant this is, will be understood when it is re-
membered that the amount of light yielded by
any incandescent body increases much more
rapidly than the temperature as this latter is
raised. The precise relation between the light
and the temperature has not been determined,
and probably would not be found capable of

378

GAS-LIGHTING, REGENERATIVE SYSTEM OF.

expression by a simple formula. All bodies
begin to be self-luminous (so that they can be
seen in the dark) at a temperature a little un-
der 1,000° Fahr., while 2,500° Fahr. is proba-
bly the temperature of a gas-flame. In this
case, while the temperature has been increased

FIG. i.

2$ times, the light has increased more than a
hundred-fold. This ratio of increase does not
hold as the temperature is still further in-

creased, but within the limits of increase at
our command the light certainly augments in a
vastly greater ratio than the temperature. Dr.
John W. Draper found that the light yielded
by a strip of platinum-foil at a temperature of
2,600° Fahr. was 36 times that given by the
same body when raised to only 1,900° ; and
experiments with the incandescent electric
light have shown that an increase of the
current energy — which in this case is all ex-
pended in the production of heat— of from
28 to 37 per cent, was sufficient to double
the light of a 16-candle lamp. The exceed-
ing brilliance of the arc-light is due to the
enormous temperature to which a small
mass of matter is raised.

In the electric light, whether arc or in-
candescent, the temperature attainable is
limited solely by the power of the incan-
descent material to resist the disintegrating
effect of high temperatures, but in all forms
of lights due to combustion this limit is im-
posed by the combustible itself. The maxi-
mum temperature which can be obtained
with a hydrogen-flame burning in air is
about 2,000° C., and with carbonic oxide a
few degrees less, while, as stated above, the
actual temperature attained in a gas-flame
as ordinarily burned does not much exceed
2,500° F., or 1,371° C. The lower temper-
ature in this latter case is largely due to the
cooling of the flame by its exposure to the
air, and consequently, if this cooling can be
avoided, the amount of light yielded by a
given flame ought to be greatly increased.
This the regenerative burners have shown
to be the case, and further, that the in-
creased effect is in proportion to the com-
pleteness with which this is accomplished.
Large burners, in which the surface of flame
exposed is smaller in proportion to the gas
burned, and the cooling effect consequently
less, give results considerably higher than
those realized in smaller burners.

While the principle might seem easy of
application, practically it has not been found
to be so, and it is only in the past few years
that satisfactory commercial apparatus has
been constructed, A burner, in which a
portion of the air supplying the flame was
heated, was described by an Englishman
named Young as long ago as 1854; and ex-
periments were conducted by Frederick Sie-
mens, to whom the successful application in
recent years is due, fully twenty years ago.
Mr. Siemens did not succeed in his early
experiments, and the subject was aban-
doned by him, until the advent of the elec-
tric light turned his attention to the pro-
duction of powerful foci of light by means
of gas. In a lecture delivered in the lat-
ter part of 1879 before the Society for the
Promotion of Industry in Prussia, Mr. Sie-
mens describes several forms of apparatus in
which he had endeavored to carry out the prin-
ciple. The lamp shown in Fig. 1 illustrates the

GAS-LIGHTING, REGENERATIVE SYSTEM OF.

379

mode in which this was done. A bunch of ordi-
nary flat flames are inclosed in a glass globe,
which is wholly closed except at the base, which
rests upon a column provided with passages for
admission of fresh air and the exit of the
products of combustion. These latter, rising
from the flame, encounter the obstruction of-
fered by the globe and are turned downward,
llowing the inner wall of the globe, as this
is the coolest path. They then pass downward
irough the annular space marked 3, 3, and
)y a flue out of the apartment. The enter-
ing fresh air passes upward through the an-

FIG. 2.

with which the passages are filled, to be given
out to the entering air and gas.

In his earlier experiments Mr. Siemens sup-
posed that separate passages would have to be
provided for the products of combustion and
air in the globe, and the difficulty of accom-
plishing this was the chief reason of his aban-
doning the project. Later experience with re-
generative furnaces, as he says in his lecture,
showed him that this was not at all necessary,
as the paths naturally taken by tlie air and
products of combustion, due to their different
temperatures, were well marked. In Fig. 2
is shown a suspended lamp ; and in Fig. 3, one
arranged for a bracket. In this latter the air
enters at the lower side of the regenerator, and
the products of combustion pass out at the
upper. Mr. Siemens suggests that the regen-
erator be slowly rotated, so that the passages

nular space marked 1, 1, to the flames, and
the gas through the central space 2. The

FIG. 3.

heated by the products of combustion will be
successively traversed by the entering air. An
increase of six times in the illuminating power
of the gas was claimed by Mr. Siemens for this
apparatus, but this must have been ft consid-
erably exaggerated estimate, as it appears to
have been entirely abandoned in favor of a
burner of different construction, the best yield
of which does not reach more than half that
result.

This latter burner is shown in Figs. 4 and 5.
It consists essentially of a central annular cham-
ber, B (Fig. 4), down through which the prod-
ucts of combustion pass to an escape-flue, G.
The gas issues from the upper ends of a ring of
small copper tubes, one fifth of an inch in di-
ameter, surrounding this central chamber. The
air to support the combustion enters through
the annular space 0, between the central cham-
ber and an exterior casing. The central regen-
erative chamber, as well as the annular air-

heat of the escaping products of combustion space, is packed with a filling presenting an
is stored up in the metal surfaces of the extended surface to the hot gases and entering
burner, and the gauze or perforated metal air, so that there is a very pertect interchange

380

GAS-LIGHTING, REGENERATIVE SYSTEM OF.

of heat. The length of the luminous flame is
governed by a porcelain cylinder which rests
upon tlie top of the central Vehamber. The
flames sweep upward around this, and down-
ward over its upper edge, presenting a beauti-
ful ball of flame. Two notched plates at the
level of the gas- orifices serve to divide the up-
ward column of air, and cause it to impinge
Tn the flame. When the burner is first light-
the products of combustion pass directly
upward through the chimney d, and out by the

adopted, the side draught-pipe is retained, but,
instead of the closed chimney d, the flame is sur-
rounded by a short glass cylinder, which simply
serves to protect the flame from side-draughts,

FIG. 4.

escape-flue E. Bat as this becomes heated, the
draught through the pipe G becomes sufficiently
powerful to draw the flame downward. Some
little time has to elapse before this takes place,
and the burner therefore can not be turned on
full at once. In Fig. 5, the side draught-pipe
G is replaced by a central pipe, H ; otherwise,
the construction is the same. In the form finally

Fiu. 5.

the ascending current of hot air being strong
enough to control the form of the flame.

Experiments made in France with this burn-
er, with twelve-candle gas (twelve candles to
the five-foot), showed the results given in the
following table :

NUMBER OF
BURNER-TUBES.

Consumption
per hour.

Light produced
in carceli.

Gas burned per
hour and per unit
of light.

10 ...

Litres.
150

2 to 8

Cubic feet.
1-75 to 2-6

15

250 to 300

1 1-4 to 2

18

650

15

24

800

20 to 21

1-3 to 1*4

32'

1 f>05

46 to 48

1-2 tot '25

48

2.200

72

1

GAS- LIGHTING, REGENERATIVE SYSTEM OF.

381

English experimenters found that, with the
London sixteen -candle gas, results were ob-
tained varying from 5'30 candles per foot to
7*13, while in this country careful tests have
shown, with eighteen-candle gas, as high a
result as ten candles per foot, in burners con-
suming 50 feet an hour. This result is nearly
three times that obtained with the ordinary
flat flame. Burners of such large consumption
are of course suitable only for the lighting of
streets, areas, and large interiors, and hence
this great economy is not attainable by the
ordinary consumer. While the small burners
give a decided advantage over the ordinary
domestic lights, still the cumbrousness of the
lamp and the care required in operating it ren-
der it unsuitable for domestic lighting.

Other inventors have, however, taken up
the problem, and, working in the direction
pointed out by Siemens, have succeeded in pro-
ducing burners well suited to domestic light-
ing, and free from the objectionable features
of the Siemens. A burner of this kind has
been brought out in England by Mr. Grimston,

an electrical engineer in the employment of
Siemens Brothers. The body of the burner,
instead of being below the flame, as in the
Siemens, is placed above it, and the flame
burns downward, the light being wholly un-

obstructed by any portion of the fixture. The
construction is shown in Fig. 6. The burner
consists of a ring of tubes, a, a, arranged within
an annular casing, &, b. Lateral tubes, e, con-
necting the casing, 5, 6, with a concentric outer
one, admit air to the flame. The annular space
crossed by these tubes constitutes the flue
through which the products of combustion pass
upward to the chimney e'. A glass globe, d,
made with an indentation or nipple at its cen-
ter, incloses the flame, which takes the form
of an inverted convolvulus. The extraction of
heat from the escaping products of combustion
is so complete that the air, it is claimed, reaches
a temperature of from 1,100° to 1,200° Fahr.
The burner may be turned on full at starting,
and is not liable to smoke. It therefore re-
quires no more attention than any ordinary
flat flame. It can be constructed of any size
from three-foot upward, and is reported to
yield almost as good results in the smaller as in
the larger size. In burners consuming twenty
feet an hour, the light yielded per foot of gas
is seven candles, or just double that given by
the standard Argand, consuming five feet an
hour, and the results in the smaller burners
are but little short of this.

A burner which can be made in small sizes,
and is therefore suitable for domestic lighting,
has also been brought out in this country by
Mr. A. B. Lipsey. It may be briefly described
as an inverted Siemens burner. It consists of
a central flue, provided with a cylindrical por-
celain extension at its lower end. The burner
is an inverted Argand -encircling the central
flue, the flames from which burn downward
around the porcelain, and turn upward :md in-
ward at its lower edge. The air to support
combustion is admitted through an annular
space above the flames, formed by the wall of
the central flue and an outer casing. A globe
fitting tightly against a flange or plate just
above the burner-tips incloses the apparatus.
This design does not admit of as high heating
of the air as either the Siemens or the Grim-
ston, but the downward burning of the gas se-
cures complete combustion, and the results ob-
tained compare favorably with them. No tests
have been made of the later and more perfect
burners, but those made with two ^izes of some
of the first burners constructed gave, for a
burner consuming 8'50 feet an hour, 4'62 can-
dles per foot with 17'47-candle gas, and 6'52
candles per foot with a 23-foot burner with
17'05-candle gas.

The results so far obtained with regenerative
burners make it reasonably certain that, with
the sizes suitable for domestic illumination, a
.lighting effect double that now obtained can'
be depended upon. Such a' burner as the
Grimston is universally applicable, and as there
is nothing about it to get out of order, and it
requires no more attention than the ordinary
flat-flame burners, there seems to be no impedi-
ment to its wide introduction. As burners of
this kind lend themselves readily to sanitary

382

GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS AND DISCOVERY.

demands — now everywhere becoming recog-
nized as imperative — since the products of
combustion may be conveyed out of the apart-
ment, they at once remove one of the most
formidable objections to gas-lighting. They
also solve the problem of cheap gas, as the
doubling of the illuminating power of a given
amount of gas is equivalent to halving the
price. The introduction of so great an econ-
omy in the burning of gas can not but pro-
foundly modify the commercial status of the
gas industry, and alter greatly its prospects of
permanence as an illuminant.

GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS AND DISCOVERT.
Arctic Regions. — The Arctic campaign of 1883
opens a new era, in which investigation is di-
rected to the solution of physical problems
rather than to discovering new islands or
seeking an approach to the pole. The plan
of international circumpolar stations was the
idea of the late Lieutenant Weyprecht, the dis-
coverer of Franz- Josef Land, and was warmly
seconded by Count Wilczek, the patron of his
famous expedition. After its discussion at the
Meteorological Congress at Rome, at the In-
ternational Polar Conference at Hamburg in
1879, at the second meeting of the same at
Berne in 1880, and at the third meeting at St.
Petersburg in 1881, it passed into the hands of
the governments which promised to establish
the several observatories. Prof. "Wild, of St.
Petersburg, President of the Polar Commis-
sion, announced in May, 1881, that the eight
stations required were provided for. The
simultaneous observations were to be be-
gun as soon as practicable after August 1,
1881, and to continue until Sept. 1, 1883.
Denmark arranged to establish a station at
Godthaab; America took up the northern-
most position in Smith Sound, on Lady Frank-
lin Bay; Germany chose Cumberland Sound,
on the west side of Davis strait; England lo-
cated its observers in the center of the Hudson
Bay territory at Fort Rae, near the Great
Slave lake ; a second American station was
established at Point Barrow ; Russia occupies
the mouth of the Lena, with a branch station
at Moller Bay, in Nova Zembla; Norway se-
lected Bosekop, in the Alten Fjord; Holland
chose Dickson's harbor; Sweden took Spitz-
bergen; and Austria sent observers to the
gloomy island of Jan Mayen. The Finnish
Government fitted up a meteorological station
at Sodankyla, on the Scandinavian isthmus,
the Helsingfors Observatory furnishing the
magnetic observations. Germany determined
to dispatch an observer to the coast of Lab-
rador, which extends along the line of mini-
mum depression, with the expectation that he
would^ obtain the assistance of Moravian mis-
sionaries. France undertook simultaneous ob-
servations in the Antarctic regions, establish-
ing a station near Cape Horn. Germany aids
in the investigation of Antarctic phenomena,
having sent out an expedition to one of the
islands of South Georgia, in 54° 30' south

latitude, and 41° 20' 15" west longitude.
These two stations in the southern hemisphere
are to be aided by the observatories at Cape
Town and Melbourne. The investigations of
the fifteen principal and branch stations are
supplemented by meteorological and magnetic
observations taken on the 1st and 15th of
every month at various permanent observa-
tories in the temperate zone and within the
tropics, as well as upon naval and merchant
vessels. The English Government co-operates
with the International Polar Commission by un-
dertaking to tabulate the daily meteorological
phenomena of the North Atlantic Ocean as re-
ported by seamen, who are invited to send in
the data to the Meteorological Office. The sub-
jects of inquiry, which are obligatory at all the
international stations, are meteorology, mag-
netism, the aurora, and astronomy. Magnetic
and meteorological observations are taken
hourly during the whole time, and on the 1st
and 15th of each month magnetic observations
are made synchronously at all the stations,
every five minutes. The magnetic investiga-
tions embrace the three elements of declination
or variation, inclination or dip, and intensity.
Most of the stations are within the belt, whose
pole is at one side of the north pole, that in-
closes the region of Arctic magnetic phenome-
na, and is the seat of the luminous arc of the
aurora. This circle, called sometimes the "au-
rora ring," touches the northwest part of Nor-
way, passes south of Iceland and Greenland,
across the northern part of Labrador and Hud-
son Bay territory, emerging into the Arctic
Ocean at Point Barrow, touching the Siberian
coast only at Cape Chelyuskin, and crossing
the northern part of Nova Zembla. Two of
the stations, Point Barrow and Bosekop, are
on this belt of maximal auroral phenomena,
which is believed by many scientists to be the
seat of magnetic energy, throwing off electric
currents to the north and to the south. The
study of the changes in the ice and other phys-
ical conditions of the polar basin, is expected
by eminent meteorologists to throw much light
on the movements of the wind and the circu-
lation of the ocean. The fact that there are
two focal poiqts of extreme cold, one in Sibe-
ria and one in the interior of British North
America, instead of a progressive lowering of
the average temperature up to the geograph-
ical pole, is a recent discovery which gives
interest to the comparative therm ometrical
readings taken at the international stations.
Besides the obligatory observations in the
branches mentioned above, the parties are
desired to take observations in many other
departments of inquiry, including temperature
of the soil, snow, and ice, on the surface and
at various depths, evaporation, terrestrial mag-
netism, galvanic earth-currents, and observa-
tions of earth - currents in close connection
with magnetic and auroral phenomena, hydro-
graphical, spectroscopical, and pendulum ob-
servations, as well as observations on atmos-

GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS AND DISCOVERY.

pheric electricity, the growth, structure, and
motion of ice, the physical properties of sea-
water, etc. It is also recommended that sam-
ples of air should be collected for analysis, be-
sides collections in the departments of zoology,
botany, geology, etc.

Successful observations, made by several of
the International Polar Expeditions just de-
scribed, have been reported. Among the mem-
bers of the Austrian expedition not a trace of
scurvy, or any other disease, was found during
their long exile of sixteen months at Jan Mayen
Land. Wholmuth, the commander, has tele-
graphed that his observations have been per-
fect, his collections rich, and his photographs
numerous. Capt. Dawson, who commands
the English expedition at Fort Rae, reports
excellent work by his party. The auroras, he
says, have not been of remarkable brilliance,
though the spectroscope observations have
been very satisfactory. From the Finnish sta-
tion at Sodankyla, Herr Sophus Tromholt
sends accounts of startling novelties. He has
experimented on a gigantic scale with the
aurora borealis. By means of an ingenious
arrangement of batteries and wires along the
face and up the summit of a lofty hill (1,000
feet high) he has been able to produce an arti-
ficial aurora differing in no respect in appear-
ance and spectroscopic analysis from the genu-
ine aurora. This phenomenon is one that has
puzzled investigators for centuries, and even
now the most diverse opinions are entertained
as to its origin and nature. These experiments
of Tromholt, when combined with the simulta-
neous observations of various investigators, are
likely to go a long way toward the final settle-
ment of the question. Dr. Tromholt has com-
pletely failed in obtaining any photograph of
the delicate phenomenon, even by using the
most sensitive dry plates. Thus, brilliant as
the northern lights are, the actual amount of
light contained in them is apparently small.

The great interest of the year in Arctic ex-
ploration has centered about the efforts made
for the relief of Lieut. Greely and his party
at the meteorological station in Lady Franklin
Bay. This officer had sailed for that point in
June, 1881, to establish a colony in accordance
with an agreement ma^e by the United States
Government, as narrated above. It was ex-
pected to maintain this post until 1884, and
Lieut. Greely was to be visited by a vessel car-
rying supplies in 1882 and 1883. If not visited
in 1882, he was ordered to abandon his station
not later than September 1, 1883, and retreat
southward by boat, following closely the east
coast of Grinnell Land. In 1882, July 8th, an
expedition sailed from St. JohnX Newfound-
land, but was obliged to return without com-
municating with the party at Lady Franklin
Bay. In 1883 a more determined effort was
made for this purpose. The same vessel which
carried Greely and his associates, the Proteus,
was chartered for this service. The United
States ship Yantic was ordered to accompany

the Proteus as far as Littleton island, render-
ing such aid to the relief vessel as might be
necessary. The officers of the Proteus were
as follow : Lieut. E. A. Garlington, U. S. A.,
commanding ; Albert G. Colwell, U. S. N.,
lieut.-commander ; Dr. J. S. Harrison, sur-
geon ; Sergeant John Kenny, Corporal Frank
Ewell, and six other men, all being detailed
for the expedition on account of their service
in the Northwest, where they had become in-
ured to the extreme cold. (See GEEELY RELIEF
EXPEDITION.)

The British Circumpolar Expedition, under
the command of Capt. Dawson, reached Fort
Rae August 30, 1882. This station is on the
northern arm of the Great Slave lake. The
party, consisting of Capt. Dawson and three
soldiers of the artillery, arrived at their desti-
nation from Winnipeg, by ascending the Sas-
katchewan to Prince Albert settlement, cross-
ing the prairie to Green lake, proceeding by
way of Buffalo lake and Methy lake, and down
the Athabasca river to Lake Athabasca, and
then descending the Slave river to Fort Reso-
lution on the Great Slave lake.

The Dutch steamer Varna and the Danish
steamer Dijmphna, which had gone out to ex-
plore the Kara Sea, utterly failed in their mis-
sion. The former was wrecked in the Kara
Sea, while the latter narrowly escaped. The
ill success of this expedition is thought to dis-
pose of the notion that there is a practicable
northeast route for merchant - vessels from
Norway to Bering strait. The Dutch ex-
ploring vessel, William Barents, left Amster-
dam on the 5th of May in searcli of the Varna
and Dijmphna. This was her sixth Arctic
voyage. The William Barents was heard from
at Archangel on the 21st of June. While she
was in the Dwina the weather was beautiful,
the thermometer registering over 70° in the
shade, and at midnight the temperature was
not much lower. Bees hummed through the
rigging of the Barents, and butterflies lighted
on her decks ; while the mosquitoes were ac-
tively engaged in every corner of the ship.

Capt. M. S. Healy, of the United States
steamer Corwin, detached Ensign G. M. Sto-
ney on an expedition to explore a large river
reported by the natives to debouch into Ho-
tham's inlet, Alaska Territory. A dinghy, with
two men armed and equipped with ten days'
rations, was placed under Ensign Stoney's com-
mand. Proceeding • some twenty-three miles
along the northwestern shore of the inlet, Sto-
ney at length struck the mouth of a river of
considerable size. Ascending this in a south-
easterly direction for two days, he struck the
main stream, which proved to be a river three
quarters of a mile in width, -having nowhere
less than two and a half fathoms of water. He
ascended the river fifty miles from its mouth.
The banks were generally thickly timbered
with birch, alder, and spruce, some of the trees
attaining a height of forty feet, with twelve
inches diameter at the base. The natives re-

384

GEOGKAPHICAL PROGRESS AND DISCOVERY.

ported that the river held its depth of not less
than two fathoms and its width of half a mile
for not less than 300 miles beyond where Mr.
Stoney turned back. They further reported
that, by making a small portage near the head
of this river, they could reach another stream
flowing northward into the Polar Sea. The na-
tives, many of whom had evidently never seen
a white man before, were kind and harmless.
Baron Nordenskjold sailed in May for Green-
land, with the intention of exploring the in-
terior in order to test a theory of his that, after
crossing a belt of ice which skirts the coast, he
would find an open country possibly mountain-
ous, and probably covered with forests. He
also hoped to find the remains of the ancient
colony of Osterbygden on the coast east of
Cape Farewell, founded by Norwegians in the
middle ages. These theories were generally
considered chimerical, the interior of Green-
land having been found to be covered with one
great glacier, and all reports of a plateau free
of ice having been considered mere Esquimau
wonder-tales, while the eastern coast is not now
habitable, and there is no reason to suppose
that there has been any considerable change
in its climate during historic times. Baron
Nordenskjold's party was admirably equipped,
and included two Esquimaux and a missionary
who served as interpreter. The first attempt
of his vessel, the Sophia, to reach the east coast
through the sounds north of Cape Farewell,
Ikek, and Ikernsak, failed. She was obliged to
put to sea and skirt the outer edge of the great
ice-pack which borders the east coast and
makes approach almost impossible. For a long
time the Baron sought in vain for an opening,
but on the 4th of September, being then abreast
of Cape Dan, under whose shelter he thought
the ice likely to be less closely packed, he re-
solved to make an effort to work his way
through. The belt was two or three miles
broad, but happily there was no current, and
the Sophia succeeded in pushing her way
through and reached an anchorage in a fiord
free from ice-floes, about latitude 65°. This
they named Auleitsivik Fiord and made the
starting-point of the expedition. At first their
progress was slow, not over two and a half
miles a day, but they gradually increased their
rate of travel to six or eight miles a day. For
a time the land rose in height very rapidly, so
that on the ninth day they found themselves
2,400 feet .above the level of the sea. From
this point the ascent was so gradual that it
could be discovered only by means of the ba-
rometer. On the eighteenth day an altitude of
4,600 feet was reached. Here Nordenskjold
determined to turn back, but he remained in
camp and sent his Esquimaux farther into the
interior. They were gone fifty-eight hours
and on their return said they had explored a
distance of seventy-two miles, and reached an
elevation of 6,600 feet. They had seen no trace
of land above the surface of the ice, nothing
but an unbroken expanse of ice covered four

feet deep with snow. Nordenskjold now ad-
mits that no ice-free land, no vegetation, and
no moraine, exist in the interior, at least be-
tween 68° and 69°. The absence of protecting
coast-ranges, and the gradual rise of the land to
a plateau, would be sure to produce an interior
covered with ice. Nordenskjold was equally
unfortunate in his archaeological researches.
The scientific world long supposed that of the
two villages founded by the Norsemen, the
Vesterbygd was on the west coast and the
Osterbygd on the east. Modern research, par-
ticularly that of Graah's expedition about fifty
years ago, demonstrated that this was an error
due to the imperfect reading of the Sagas, and
that both bygds were on the west coast, the
one a little farther east of the other. Nor-
denskjold had refused to accept this later opin-
ion, but the result of his journey confirms it.
Such ruins as he found were entirely of Esqui-
mau villages, and there was no evidence of any
other habitations east of Cape Farewell. The
expedition was, however, in many respects suc-
cessful. It reached a part of the coast of Green-
land which has not been approached since the
days of Eric the Red, for, though north of the
Arctic Circle the coast has been often visited,
between 62° and 69° it has been so ice-locked
as to be unattainable. The observations made
during the journey over the ice of the in-
terior have an important bearing on the glacial
theories of the geologists, and fine collections
were made in geology, paleontology, zoology,
and botany. In many of the cavities in the
ice Nordenskjold found a muddy sediment
which he called kryokonite. He believed it
to be formed of dust brought by the wind
over the ice, and mixed with a metallic sub-
stance which he is convinced is metallic dust
from cosmical space. In this kryokonite a
kind of fungoid vegetation found a holding-
ground. After a very dangerous passage out
through the ice-belt, the Sophia attempted to
reach land again in a higher latitude, but the
pressure of the ice was so strong that Nor-
denskjold thought the risk too great and shaped
his course for Reykjavik. It is considered that
a properly-built ship would be able in most
years to anchor on the southeast coast, but she
would have to seek her place and opportunity
with great care, and would not be likely to find
a regular "land- water" within the ice-pack.
This conclusion is the same as that arrived at
by Graah, and more recently by Mourier, and
is supported by other Danish settlers and ex-
plorers.

Sonth America. — A pass across that part of the
Andes that divides Chili from the Argentine
Republic has recently been discovered, and is •
likely to become of great military importance.
Hitherto the only practicable passes known
have been the Patos and the Cumbre, those
farther north being very difficult of ascent,
and in m6st cases approached over barren re-
gions. The Cumbre is the more accessible, but
is so narrow and winding as to make it impas-

GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS AND DISCOVERY.

385

sable if held by a very small opposing force.
Yet the Andes extend over a thousand miles
between Chili and the Argentine Republic,
with an average elevation of 13,000 feet. Any
war between these countries would have to
be carried on by sea. The newly-discovered
Barilochi Pass is near Lake Nahuelhaspi, where
the continent narrows and forms the peninsula
of Patagonia, and is easily approached, while
the mountains at this point are not more than
half the height of the same range a few miles
farther north. Its commercial importance is
of the highest. Railroad communication from
the Atlantic to the Pacific has long been needed,
and a road between Buenos Ayres and Santiago
is already in progress, designed to run through
one of the difficult passes already mentioned.
A road from the Gulf of San Matias, across
northern Patagonia, through the Barilochi Pass,
would be only half as long, and would traverse
a temperate region, where rain takes the place
of the snows of the north. The exact height
of the pass is not yet known, but the civil en-
gineers will doubtless soon give the results of
their investigations.

Asia. — A new route to Central Asia has been
officially opened during the year by Col. Alex-
androff and Gen. Tchernaieff, of the Russian
army. The route was discovered by a fish-mer-
chant named Varnishin, who several times
crossed it with his caravan. It begins at the
Bay Yaman Aurakti, in the Caspian Sea, passes
through Khiva, Bokhara, and the Yarafshan,
and so reaches Kungrad, a distance of 295 miles.
The new route runs through well-populated
regions instead of the barren steppes trav-
ersed by the old, and except for thirty miles'
distance is well watered. Gen. Tchernaieff
intends to sink wells along this part of the
course. The road-bed is gravelly and firm.
It is suggested that a railroad may some time
be made along this new route.

Prof. Ed. Sachan has published the results
of his journey in Syria and Mesopotamia,
undertaken at the request of the German Em-
peror. From Beirut Prof. Sachan went by
way of Damascus and Palmyra, Aleppo and
Biredjik, on the Euphrates, to IJrfa, thence to
Mosul and finally to Alexandrette. An expe-
dition, under the direction of the Palestine Ex-
ploration Society, left England in October with
the intention of exploring the Wadi-el-Arabah
and the basin of the Dead Sea, and the Jordan
valley as far as the Sea of Galilee.
. Africa. — The Congo river region has been
commanding more and more attention since
Stanley began his explorations. The past year
has seen additions to our knowledge of its in-
habitants and resources, and also very eager
discussions as to what nations the protectorate
of its commerce belongs to. Merchant-steamers
of 5,000 tons can now ascend the river as far
as the falls, a distance of 120 miles, and a con-
siderable trade is carried on by English, French,
Dutch, and Belgians. Beyond these Falls of
Yellala, Stanley discovered the river to be again
YOL. xxm. — 25 A

navigable, and constructed a hundred miles of
road around them. Over this road he has trans-
ported three steamers and more than two thou-
sand packages to the middle and upper Congo.
In one of these steamers he ascended the Quan-
go, one of the tributaries of the Congo, for a
distance of two hundred miles. He has this
year gone as far as the equator, and established
two more stations. He has also discovered
another lake, which he calls Lake Mantumba,
and explored the Malundu river for a distance
of a hundred miles. He finds it a deep, broad,
and navigable stream, draining a country rich
in gums, rubber, camphor, ivory, and many
other articles of high commercial value. He
reports a dense population, very enterprising
and industrious. Mr. Stanley mediated success-
fully between some of the warlike tribes, and
received the title of u Father and Mother of
the country.1'

M. de Brazza left Bordeaux on the 23d of
March, stopped for a day or two in Senegam-
bia, and reached the Bay of Loango, north of
the mouth of the Congo. The Bay of Punta
Negra was already in possession of the advance
division of his party. The Loango anchorage
is considered to be one of the best between
the Gaboon and Congo, but De Brazza had
hoped to be able to land near the mouth of the
Konilon, by means of which communication
could be kept open between the French pos-
sessions on the Gaboon and territory on the
Congo granted by King Makoko. He found
Mr. Stanley's agents established there, and was
therefore obliged to change his plan. How-
ever, instructions had been given the latter
that friendly relations were to be maintained
witli the French, and as yet no difficulty has
arisen between the rival parties.

The German explorer, Lieut. Wissmann, has
been investigating a region lying south of
that traversed by Stanley, but watered by
numerous southern tributaries of the Congo.
He crossed the continent, starting from St.
Paul de Loando and passing through the em-
pire of the Muato-Janvo, a portion of country
which is fertile and densely inhabited. The
account of these tribes, when published, is ex-
pected to prove a valuable contribution to
African ethnology.

Mr. Joseph Thompson is engaged in explor-
ing the country from Mombosa to the south-
east coast of Victoria Nyanza. He is to in-
clude Mt. Kilimanjaro, a peak of great height
covered with snow, and Mt. Kenia. To the
westward of these mountains, toward the Vic-
toria Nyanza, stretch great plains inhabited
by the Masai, a warlike people who are con-
. stantly committing depredations upon the
peaceful negroes of the coast. ' Mr. Thompson
at latest accounts had fallen upon the track
of Dr. Fischer, a German traveler who had
roused the hostility of the natives to such a
point that Mr. Thompson was compelled to
turn back to Taveta. He is in the service of
the Royal Geographical Society.

386

GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS AND DISCOVERY.

Dr. Emile Riedeck, we'll known to the scien-
tific world as a traveler and collector, is fitting
out an expedition for Northern Africa. It is
to be commanded by Herr Gottlob Adolf
Krause, an accomplished linguist, and its ob-
ject is to be the investigation of the languages
and social state of the peoples about the Niger,
Berne, and Lake Tchad. Herr Krause has
spent much time in Africa, and understands
languages and dialects spoken between Sehan
and the upper Senegal. He intends to follow
the Niger to a distance of three hundred miles,
and then choose some locality as the center of
his base of operations. His explorations will
include the east and central territory of the
Felata Fulbe, and that of the Hausea Musuk
tribes.

Diligent explorations in the Welle region are
being carried on by travelers of various nation-
alities. Lupton Bey, an Englishman occupy-
ing the post of Egyptian governor of the Bahr-
Gayal district, has reported the discovery of a
great lake which he believes to be the basin of
the Welle ; and Dr. Yunker, a Russian, is ex-
ploring the course of the same stream. The
Welle was long supposed to be a tributary of
the Congo, and to pour its waters into Lake
Tchad. This is now supposed to have been an
error, and it is surmised that some great dis-
covery will soon reform our geographical no-
tions of that part of Africa. The Royal Geo-
graphical Society reports constant explorings
of the unknown central parts of the continent
farther south and east. The Belgians have a
station at Karema on Lake Tanganyika, and
travelers from the east coast are constantly
arriving there. An exploring party of Ger-
mans are at work between Karema and Tabora,
and the French are equally busy on Lake Bang-
weolo. Mr. James Stewart has constructed a
road between Lakes Nyassa and Tanganyika,
and a steamer in sections is already on its way
to these lakes. Mr. Johnson and Mr. O'Neill
are making maps of the region between the
Mozambique coast and Nyassa. Capt. Paiva
de Andrada is surveying the districts about the
lower Zambesi, and Mr. Selons is similarly
engaged between the Zambesi and the settle-
ment of the Matabele, while Lord Mayo is en-
gaged with the country between Mossamedes
and Ovampo Land.

Count Antonelli, a nephew of the late car-
dinal, has returned from his adventurous trip
to Assab and Shoa, and has given his country
an honorable rank among the many nations
pushing forward the work of discovery and
exploration. Antonelli set out from Yeila, a
port eighty or ninety miles south of the Straits
of Bab-el- Mandeb, his first object being to reach
the Italian traveler, Cecchi, then a prisoner in
Shoa. He traveled by way of Irya Somali and
the Darakil country, making a long detour
northward on the Blue Nile. He determined
to make an effort to open a new route to An-
kober by way of Assab and Aussa, an under-
taking which has cost several explorers their

lives, the native tribes being fiercely hostile.
In spite of this hostility, Antonelli succeeded
in making friends with the Sultan of Aussa,
Mohammed Aufari, and obtained a passport to
the good- will of the nomad tribes in the shape
of a walking-stick, the mere sight of which
procured from the Darakils mules, guides, and
provisions. He accomplished the journey — a
distance of five hundred miles — in three months
and seventeen days. At Ankober he was kind-
ly received by the king, Menelik, whom he
found to be greatly influenced by the Italian
bishop Massaia. Menelik sent to King Hum-
bert a parcel containing specimens of the
products of Shoa — seeds, ivory, berries, etc.
Count Antonelli is of the opinion that Shoa is
a better field for commerce than Abyssinia, it
being the key to districts which are very rich
in coffee, sugar, spices, and ivory. He is al-
ready planning another expedition to this im-
portant region.

Dr. Lenz has given the following description
of the commerce of Western Africa : Morocco,
which is a land richly endowed by nature but
kept poor by misgovernment, has no export
trade with Europe, because the export of grain,
horses, cattle, and cork-bark, articles produced
in abundance, is forbidden. The large impor-
tations of sugar and candles from Marseilles,
and of green tea and dry goods, are balanced
by the re-export of the same commodities to
the Soudan. A caravan-journey to Timbuctoo
takes three months. The caravans bring back
mostly slaves, which find a market along the
Barbary coast. Timbuctoo, the emporium of
the Soudan trade, is visited by from 40,000 to
50,000 loaded camels yearly. The principal
standard of value there is salt, which is brought
in uniform cakes, weighing sixty pounds, from
the Sahara. They have, however, a gold coin,
and also Spanish dollars. For small change
they use cowries, at the rate of 3,000 or 4,000
to the dollar. The money comes from the
French stations on the Senegal and is ex-
changed mostly for India-rubber, which is ob-
tained in the vast mimosa-forests. The French
possessions in the interior are confined to a
series of forts on one bank of the Senegal, gar-
risoned with Algerian and recently also with
native soldiery, composed of purchased slaves,
who are liberated after six years of service,
after which they usually hire out to traders.
The Senegal is navigable only as far as the
military station Medine, sixty miles from the
mouth, where rapids block the passage. A
line of forts has recently been established
from Me"dine in the direction of the Niger, and
would be carried farther but for the hostility
of the negro kingdom of Segou, which has
been not long converted to Islam. The forts
are all connected by telegraph with St. Louis,
at the mouth of the Senegal, and work has
been begun on a railroad from Me"dine to the
Niger. The trade of St. Louis consists chiefly
of India-rubber and peanuts. From the latter
oil is extracted in Bordeaux and Marseilles,

GEORGIA.

38T

which is sold in immense quantities as olive-
oil. The English control the trade of the
Gambia and the countries to the southeast.
The republic of Liberia is described by Dr.
Lenz as corrupt in its government, and ex-
tremely modernized in its social conditions.
It is rich in coffee. Here begin the gold-dig-
gings, which farther east have lately begun to
be exploited with the newest appliances by a
number of joint-stock companies. The Gold
Coast has already a large export trade in palm-
oil, of which Lagos is the center.

Madagascar. — The latest explorer in Madagas-
car is Audebert, a German zoologist, who was
sent out by the Zoological Museum at Ley-
den, and, after the five years of his contract
expired, remained two more on his own ac-
count, returning in 1882. During his sojourn
on the island the Englishmen, Gerard and
Grossley, the Frenchmen, Humblot and Ma-
jastre, and the Germans, Rutenberg and Hil-
debrandt, died there from hardships and fever.
The Hovas he found treacherous and jealous,
and the inland tribes hostile and savage. He
was once poisoned, and was attacked five
times, and his hut was fired thrice. He was
deserted by his porters in the midst of a forest,
and twice he rescued his life only by swim-
ming. Besides his discoveries in natural his-
tory, comprising seventeen new species, Aude-
bert enlarged the ethnological knowledge of
the island. While searching for a mysterious
animal — an ass with long, hanging ears — which
he was told lived in the north by the people in
the south, and in the south by those in the
north, he came upon the Voilakertras, a tribe
hitherto unknown. They are a bellicose and
predatory people, of whose ferocious qualities
he was warned on all sides, but whom he found
to be superior to their lying, indolent, and
cowardly neighbors. They are excellent hus-
bandmen, but constant wars interfere with
their prosperity. He was received cordially
by their king, Lambohazi, and would have
staid longer if a war which was going on did
not render his situation precarious. They
dwell in the upper valley of the Manambato.
The Valaves, another undescribed tribe, pos-
sess all the evil qualities attributed to the
Voilakertras. Another tribe unknown to Eu-
ropeans is the Safzoras, a branch of the Taifasy
family in the southeast.

GEORGIA. State Government.— The following
were the State officers during the year: Gov-
. ernor, "Alexander H. Stephens, succeeded by
James S. Boynton and Henry D. McDaniel,
Democrats; Secretary of State, N.O. Burnett;
Treasurer, D. N. Speer ; Comptroller-General,
^illiam A. Wright; Attorney-General, Clif-
)rd Anderson ; Superintendent of Public In-
truction, G. J. Orr ; Commissioner of Agri-
ilture, J. T. Henderson; Railroad Commis-
sioners, J. M. Smith, Campbell Wallace, and
L. N. Trammell. Judiciary, Supreme Court :
Chief-Justice, James Jackson ; Associate Jus-
tices, Martin J. Crawford and Samuel Hall.

Gubernatorial Succession.— Gov. Stephens died
on the 4th of March, and on the 5th James 8.
Boynton, President of the Senate, took the oath
of office as his successor.

The law provides that, after the death of the
Governor, the President of the Senate, acting
as Governor, shall order an election for Gov-
ernor, to fill the unexpired term.

Gov. Boynton immediately ordered an elec-
tion for the 24th of April, and convened the
Legislature for the 9th of May. The Demo-
cratic State Convention met in Atlanta on the
10th of April, and after a session of several
days nominated Henry D. McDaniel, his chief
competitors having been Gov. Boynton and
A. O. Bacon. Mr. McDaniel was elected by a
light vote, without opposition, the figures be-
ing 23,680 for McDaniel and 334 for others.
The Legislature having convened, pursuant to
the call, Gov. Boynton transmitted a message
reciting the death of Gov. Stephens, and his
action in the premises, and giving the follow-
ing information :

The resolution of the General Assembly, authoriz-
ing the sale of the $160,000 of United States regis-
tered bonds received by the State from the purchasers
of the Macon and Brunswick railroad, has been en-
forced, and a most advantageous sale was made by the
Treasurer in New York. The bonds brought $180,-
200, or a premium of $20,200 on the bonds for the
benefit of the State. The cost of the sale was only
$100 brokerage and the treasurer's expenses less than
$100. This money will be devoted to paying the pub-
lic debt. In addition to this, $1 14,000 of oouds not yet
due, paid by the purchasers of the Macon and Bruns-
wick railroad, have been canceled and warrant given
for the same. This included $74,500 of the 7 per
cent, bonds issued by Gov. Jenkins to rehabilitate
the State road, due in 1886, and $39,500 of 6 per cent.
State indorsed bonds of the Savannah and Gulf rail-
road due in 1886, 1887, and 1889. The reports of the
Treasurer show that in addition to these items the
sum of $367,971 of the public debt of the State, prin-
cipal and interest, has been paid in the last few
months, steadily reducing the State's debt, and demon-
strating the solid integrity of the State's credit, as well
as the advancing value of her securities.

On the 10th of May Gov. McDaniel was in-
augurated, and the Legislature adjourned.

Legislative Session.— The Legislature met in
adjourned session on the 4th of July, and ad-
journed on the 26th of September. From the
message of Gov. McDaniel to this session the
following extracts are taken :

I regret to inform you that the Treasury Department
of the United States has declined to pay the sum of
$35,555.42 appropriated by Congress in the act ap-
proved March 3, 1883, " to refund to the State of
Georgia certain money expended by said State for the
common defense in 1777." The First Comptroller of
the Treasury has decided that this sum shall be cred-
ited on account of what is claimed to be due for the
quota of direct taxes, apportioned to the State by the
direct tax act of Aug. 5, 1861. This decision is, in-
my judgment, erroneous ; and I have notified the Sec-
retary of the Treasury that the State does not acqui-
esce in it. If the taxes claimed are due, the obligation
is upon the citizen, and not upon the State, which
has never assumed the payment of the taxes, and can
not be justly charged with them. All proper means
will be used to secure the payment of the sum appro-
priated for the benefit of the State.

An embarrassing question has arisen in the taxation

388

GEORGIA.

of personal property of railroads located partly within
this State and partly in another State. The realty
and the personalty located in this State must, of ne-
cessity, be taxed in this State. But much of the per-
sonal property of such railroads is located in this, or
another State, only by reason of the rule of law which
fixes the situs of personalty at the domicile of the
owner ; or in case of a railroad, where its principal
office is located. In practice a difficulty arises, be-
cause adjoining States claim the right to tax such pro-
portion of the entire personalty as the number of
miles of railroad located within their limits bears to
the whole number of miles in both States. This would
seem to be the rule of convenience, as well as of jus-
tice, and I recommend its adoption.

The subject of taxation can not engage too much of
your attention. Equality and uniformity are substan-
tially secured, in theory, under our system. But ex-
perience proves that our laws for ascertaining the
property liable for taxation, and its value, are defect-
ive ; its aggregate value being largely in excess of
the annuarreturns. . . . We collect from the people
of Georgia, for State and county purposes annually,
less than one dollar and twenty -five cents per capita.

There were passed at this session an act to
redistrict the State for congressional purposes,
and an act prohibiting the running of Sunday
excursion-trains. Among bills which failed to
pass were those providing for tax-assessors,
establishing a school of technology, and the
general dog law. The general temperance bill
failed to pass, but more than seventy special
temperance bills passed. The congressional
districts consist of the following counties :

1. Chatham, Effingham, Scriven, Emanuel. Bul-
lock, Bryan, ^ Tatnall, Liberty. Mclntosh, Glynn,
Wayne, Appling, Pierce, Camden, Charlton, Ware,
Clinch, Echols. °'

2. Baker, Berrien, Brooks, Calhoun, Clay, Colquitt,
Decatur, Dougherty, Early, Lowndes, Miller, Mitch-
ell, Quitman, Randolph, Terrell, Thomas, Worth.

3. Coffee, Dodge, Dooly, Irwin, Telfair, Montgom-
ery, Laurens, Pulaski, Wilcox, Houston, Macon, Sum-
ter, Schley, Webster, Stewart, Lee.

4. Taylor, Talbot, Marion, Chattahoochee, Musco-
gee, Harris, Heard, Troup, Meriwether, Coweta, Car-
roll.

5. Clayton, De Kalb, Fayette, Fulton, Henry, New-
ton, Bockdale, Spalding, Walton, Campbell, Douglas.

6. Bibb, Crawford, Upson, Pike, Monroe, Twiggs,
Wilkinson, Jones, Baldwin, Butts, Jasper.

7. Bartow, Catoosa, Chattooga, Bade, Cobb, Floyd,
Gordon, Whitfield, Murray, Polk, Paulding, Haral-
BOD, Walker.

8. Hancock. Putnam, Greene, Morgan, Oconee,
Clarke, Oglethorpe, Wilkes, Elbert, Madison, Hart,
Franklin.

9. Banks, Cherokee, Dawson, Fannin, Forsyth,
GUmer, Gwinnett, Hall, Habersham, Jackson, Lump-
kin, Milton, Pickens, Eabun, Towns, Union, White.

10. Johnson, Jefferson, Burke, Glasscock, McDuf-
fie, Richmond, Columbia, Lincoln, Washington, War-
ren, Taliaferro.

Acts were also passed as follow :

Appropriating money for completing and furnish-
ing the State Lunatic Asylum ; providing for the erec-
tion of a State Capitol "building ; providing that all
property owned by any railroad corporation of the
State not used by it in carrying on its usual and ordi-
nary business, shall be taxable by the counties and
municipal corporations in which such property is
situated; providing that all railroad companies operat-
ing railroads lying partly in Georgia and partly in
other States shall be taxed on so much of the whole
value of the rolling-stock and other personal property
appurtenant thereto as is proportional to the length

of the railroad in Georgia ; and providing a more cor-
rect and efficient mode of taking the enumeration of
the school population.

Finances. — Following are the receipts and dis-
bursements from Sept. 5, 1882, to Sept. 6, 1883 :

Balance in Treasury Sept. 5, 1882 $788,472 67

Paid in last quarter of 1881 727,506 48

Paid in first quarter of 1 882 683,202 27

Paid in second quarter of 1882 144,869 20

Paid in third quarter of 1882 188,699 86

Paid in fourth quarter of 1882 688,825 22

Paid in first quarter of 1883 365,217 54

Paid in second quarter of 1883 175,764 90

Paid in fractional third quarter of 1883 106,805 95

Total $3,754,363 49

Paid out last quarter of 1881 $539,490 81

Paid out first quarter of 1882 123,765 08

Paid out second quarter of 1882 731,417 16

Paid out third quarter of 1882 387,804 68

Paid out fourth quarter of 1882 117,188 41

Paid out first quarter of 1888 500,916 4S

Paid out second quarter of 1 883 553,505 89

Paid out fractional third quarter of 1683 100,855 50

Total $3,054,944 02

Sept. 6, 1883 -Balance in Treasury on this date. $699,419 47

The increase in the taxable property in the
State is very marked. This increase in 1882,
over 1881, was more than $16,250,000. The
increase in 1883 over 1882 was $19,535,488.
The total taxable value in 1883 was $306,784,-
891. The increase in railroad property was
$3,284,187.

The most notable increase in any section of
the State is in the three most prominent truck-
growing counties, Lowndes, Burke, and Thom-
as, their gain aggregating $775,000.

The total recognized bonded debt of the State
is $9,445,500. The bonds bear interest at the
rates as follow : $6.547,500 bear interest at
the rate of 7 per cent. ; $2,598,000 bear inter-
est at the rate of 6 per cent. ; and $300,000
bear interest at the rate of 8 per cent.

The principal of the debt falls due as fol-
lows: 1886, $4,000.000; 1889, $2,298,000;
1890, $2,098,000 ; 1892, $307,500 ; 1896, $342,-
000; 1884, $100,000; 1885, $100,000. Of the
Nutting or 8 per cent, bonds but $300,000 re-
main to be paid. Of this amount $100,000
matures yearly — and the interest on the pub-
lic debt is yearly diminished by the interest on
$100,000— $8,000, to and including the year
1886, when the last of these bonds mature.

Agriculture. — In 1882 the State yielded, accord-
ing to the estimates of its Department of Agri-
culture, the following leading products, with the
following value :

Cotton, 941,866 bales, worth for the lint $40,000*.000,
and for the 500,000 tons of seed $4,000,000.

Oats, 11,643,482 bushels at 57 cents a bushel, worth
$6,632,000.

Wheat, 3,500,000 bushels at $1.25, worth $4,375,000.

Corn, 36,963,940 bushels at 66 cents, worth $24,-
396,000.

During the truck-season of 1883, Georgia
raised about 6,250,000 melons, of which there
were sent to market all but 1,000,000, which
were consumed on the farms, fed to stock, or
wasted. This crop, supplemented by the vege-
table crop, paid the farmers about $250,000,
which may be considered a surplus above the

GERMANY.

staple crops. Much of the truck -land was used
for cotton aad corn, after the truck-crops.

State University.— The sum of $50,000 offered
to the State University by Senator Brown in
1882, upon certain conditions, which were not
accepted by the Legislature (see " Annual Cyclo-
pedia " for 1882), was this year given by him
to the institution, and accepted by it.

Oglethorpe Celebration.— On the 13th of Feb-
ruary, the one hundred and fiftieth anniversary
of the landing of the first colonists under Ogle-
thorpe, the founding of the city of Savannah,
and the birth of the State of Georgia, were
celebrated in Savannah. Thousands of people
from all sections of the country were present.
Gov. Stephens delivered an address on Georgia's
history, and a poem, written by Paul Hayne,
was read by Gen. Jackson.

Education. — In all cities and counties there
was paid, in 1882, as follows : To teachers of
white schools, $381,586.16 ; to teachers of col-
ored schools, $151,428.26 ; total, $533,014.42.
The poll-tax paid by white tax-payers in 1882
amounted to $123,518, and that paid by col-
ored tax-payers was $5 9,405. The school-taxes
obtained from rental of the Western and At-
lantic road, from inspection of fertilizers, from
shows, from liquor-dealers, from hire of con-
victs, etc., in all of which the negroes pay
a large proportion, amount to $125,953.36.
There are 1,100 negroes and 100 white men in
the penitentiary. Hence eleven twelfths of
the hire of convicts comes out of the negroes.
Fees for inspecting fertilizers are really paid
by farmers, and the custom now is to make
negro farm-laborers pay their part of the ex-
penses of fertilizers. A recapitulation of what
negroes contribute to the public-school fund
stands : Poll-tax, $59,405 ; proportion of taxes
from other sources, $65,722.70; total, $125,-
127.70. Taking this aggregate from $151,-
428.26, the amount paid to teachers of colored
schools, there remains $26,300.56 as the entire
amount contributed by white tax-payers for
the education of colored children. "This,"
says the commissioner, " was certainly no great
burden to property-holders. The negroes re-
turned property to the value of $6,589,876.
The State tax on this property amounted to
$19,769.62. Add this tc $125,127.70, the sum
paid by them to the support of their schools,
and we have $144,897.32, nearly as much as
their schools cost. It is thus shown that the
white people, who really hold all the power
. of the State government, allowed the negroes
for the support of their schools more than the
whole amount paid by them for all purposes,
and then took upon themselves all other ex-
penses of government. The number of pupils
in colored schools was 95, 055, in white, 161,384.
This gives a per capita for colored children of
$1.59, and for white, $2.36."

GERMANY, an empire in Europe, formed by
the union of the German states, consummated
May 4, 1871, when the Constitution of the
lan Empire replaced the articles of con-

federation between the North German states
and the treaties by which the Grand Duchies
of Baden and Hesse and the Kingdoms of Ba-
varia and Wiirtemberg entered the League
during the Franco-Prussian War. King Wil-
helm I was proclaimed German Emperor from
Versailles on the 18th of January, 1871, upon
the successful termination of the war with
France. He was born March 22, 1797, and
ascended the Prussian throne on the death
of his brother, Jan. 2, 1861. The heir-ap-
parent, Friedrich Wilhelm, was born Oct. 18.
1831.

The sovereign powers of the confederation
of states forming the empire are vested in
the Prussian crown and the Federal Council,
but the concurrence of the Parliament, or
Reichstag, elected by universal suffrage, is ne-
cessary to the exercise of certain functions.
The popular assembly possesses, also, certain
rights of control over the acts of the Govern-
ment. To declare war, if not merely defen-
sive, the Emperor must have the consent of
the Bundesrath, or Federal Council, in which
body, conjointly with the Reichstag, or Diet
of the Realm, are vested the legislative func-
tions of the empire. The Bundesrath repre-
sents the individual states, and the Reichstag
the German nation. The members of the
Bundesrath, 62 in number, are appointed by
the governments of the individual states for
each session, while the members of the Reichs-
tag, 397 in number, are elected by universal
suffrage and by ballot, for the term of three
years. The Bundesrath is presided over by
the Chancellor of the Empire, who, as repre-
sentative of the Bundesrath, has a right to
interpose in the deliberations of the Reichstag.
Both bodies meet annually, called together by
the Emperor. All imperial laws must receive
the votes of a majority in both houses. The
assent of the Emperor, which must be coun*
tersigned by the Chancellor, is necessary to
give them effect.

The Chancellor of the Empire, Prince Otto
von Bismarck, fills the posts of President of
the Council of Ministers, Minister of Foreign
Affairs, and Prussian Minister of Commerce.
In the office of Foreign Affairs his chief subor-
dinate is Count von Hatzfeldt, Secretary of
State, who is also Minister of State in Prussia.
The Secretary of State for the Interior is Min-
ister von Botticher. The Chief of the Admi-
ralty is Lieut.-Gen. von Capsivi, who succeeded
Admiral von Stosch, on his retirement, March
8, 1883. The Secretary of State for Justice is
Dr. von Schelling ; Financial Secretary of
State, Von Burchard ; Chief of the Post-Office,
Dr. Stephan ; Minister of Railroads and Prus-
sian Minister of Public Works,- Dr. Maybach.

The Prussian ministry is composed as fol-
lows : President, Prince Bismarck, Minister of
Foreign Affairs and of Commerce ; Vice-Presi-
dent, Von Puttkamer, Minister of the Interior ;
Public Works, Maybach ; Agriculture and Do-
mains and Forests, Dr. Lucius; Justice, Dr.

390

GERMANY.

Friedberg ; Ecclesiastical Affairs and Public
Education, Von Gossler ; Finance, Von Scholtz ;
War, Lieut.-Gen. Bronsart von Schellendorff,
who succeeded Gen. von Kameke, retired March
5, 1883 ; without portfolios, Von Botticher and
Count von Hatzfeldt.

Area and Population. — The area of Germany is
212,091 square miles. The total population of
the 'empire returned in the census of Dec. 1,
1880, was 45,234,061, of whom 22,185,433 were
males and 23,048,628 females. The number of
foreigners was 275,856, of whom 117,574 were
born in Austria-Hungary, 28,244 in Switzer-
land, 23,593 in Denmark, 17,393 in the Neth-
erlands, 17,393 in France, 15,107 in Russia,
11,155 in Great Britain and Ireland, 10,326 in
the United States.

The preliminary results of the enumeration
of the population with reference to professions
and employments, conducted June 5, 1882,
were as follow, with the proportion of each
class to the total in that year and in 1871, not
taking account of the different method of clas-
sification :

DEPENDENT ON

Number.

Percent-
age, 1882.

Percent-
age, 1871.

Agriculture, stock-raising, and

18888658

1 ,10 K

Forestry, hunting, and fishing .
Mining industry and works of

384,593
16,054,291

S42'5
85-5

29.8
82-7

Commerce and transportation. .
Labor for hire and domestic ser-

4,529,780
938,143

10-0

2-1

8-9
17-2

Public service, ecclesiastical and
liberal professions
Without profession or employ-

2,228,184
2,245,257

4-9
5-0

5-5
5-9

Total

45 213 901

100-0

lOO'O

The population was divided, as to religious
belief at the time of the census, as follows :

CREEDS.

Number.

Per cent.

Evangelical

28 318 592

62'6

Catholic

16229290

85' 9

Other Christian ....

93894

0'2

Jewish

561,612

1-2

Other

80678

O'l

Total

45 234 061

lOO'O

There were 47,720 emigrants who renounced
German nationality in 1881, against 28,780 in
1880. The number of foreigners naturalized
in 1881 was 4,635. The number of emigrants
in 1882, as compared with the number in 1881,
and the countries of their destination, were as
follow :

DESTINATION.

1883.

1881.

United States .. . .

189 378

206 189

Brazil

1 286

2 102

Other American countries .

1 588

l'l62

Australia

1065

745

Africa....

885

814

Asia...

85

Total emigrants. .

198 687

210647

which number about 3,250,000 emigrated to
the United States.

The population of the cities with over 100,-
000 in 1880 was as follows :

CITIES. Population.

Berlin 1,122,330

Hamburg* 289,859

Breslau 272,912

Munich 230,023

Dresden 220,818

Leipsic 149,081

Cologne 144,772

Konigsberg 140,909

CITIES. Population.

Frankfort-on-the-

Maint 186,819

Hanover* 122,84*

Stuttgart 1 17,808

Bremen 112,458

Dantzic 108,551

Strasburg 104,471

Education. — Education is compulsory in all
the German states. The elementary schools
are supported by the communes. According
to the returns of 1878, all recruits of the army
could read and write, though in Bavaria and
some other parts of South Germany there was
a small percentage of them who were deficient
in schooling.

In Freiburg, Munich, Miinster, and Wtirz-
burg, Roman Catholic theology is taught, and
in Bonn, Breslau, and Tubingen, both Catholic
and Protestant; all the other universities are
Protestant. There are, besides the students
for degrees, non-matriculated students, who in
Berlin numbered 1,219.

Commerce. — The values of the main classes
of imports and exports in 1881 were as follow,
in millions of marks and tenths of millions :

CLASSES.

Imports.

Exports.

Articles of consumption

1,046-2
934 '6

592-2
540-5

514-2

1,526-6

466-9

815-3

Total ...

2,961-9

2,974-6

The total emigration from 1820 to the end of
1882 was In the neighborhood of 4,000,000, of

The imports of cereals were 372, exports 96
millions ; imports of fermented liquors 43, ex-
ports 75£ millions ; imports of live animals and
animal products 330f, exports 186f millions.
The exports of manufactured products were
nearly 90,000,000 marks more than in 1880.
There was an increase in pottery and glass,
metalsr and metal manufactures, machines,
leather manufactures, textiles and dress manu-
factures, and in all other articles except
yarns.

The effects of the introduction of protective
duties on the iron industry were investigated
by the Iron and Steel Manufacturers' Associa-
tion of Germany. In January, 1879, 325 pri-
vate firms and joint-stock companies employed
153,979 hands, and paid in wages 9,383,396
marks monthly; in January, 1883, they gave
employment to 206,150 laborers, an increase of
33-9 per cent., and paid in wages 14,754,350
marks monthly, an increase of 57'2 per cent.
The net earnings of the 107 joint-stock com-
panies were 5-16 per cent, in 1882, against 1 -99
per cent, in 1879.

Navigation.— The movement of shipping in
German ports in 1881 was as follows:

* Including suburbs, 410,127.
t Including faubourgs, 164,697.
t With Linden, 145,^27.

GERMANY.

391

FLAG.

Tonnag*
entered.

Tonnage
cleared.

8,672,568

8,733,566

8,960,763

4,048,122

Total . . .

7,633,381

7,776 688

Steam

5,145,116

5,211,839

ployed, as compared with the same date of the
preceding year, were as follow :

The total number of vessels engaged in mari-
time commerce, and the number of steamships
among them, which composed the German
merchant marine on Jan. 1, 1882, with their
aggregate tonnage and the number of men eni-

1882

1881

4.509
4,660

1,194,407 89,109
1,161,525 89,660

414

251, 64*
215,758

9,516
8,657

Railroads.— The railroads in operation in the
larger states, and the total mileage of the
empire on May 10, 1883, were as follow, in
kilometres :

STATES.

STATE LINES.

ADMINISTERED BY
STATE.

ADMINISTERED BT
COMPANIES.

Total.

Principal.

Local.

Principal.

Local.

Principal.

Local.

13,118
8,869
1,796
1,471
1,103
1,111
225
429

23,122

1,969
420
816
70
167
111

'79
3,182

2,188

'27

*57

861
'53

"j

48

8,184
578

"e

885
51

'ii

4

21,605
4,918
2,192
1,558
1,279
1,827

Alsace-Lorraine

Baden

Other states

2,272

24

491

1,688
5,401

181
1,082

2,621
85,500

Total

Of the 30,795 kilometres of principal lines,
10,285 kilometres have double and 35 triple or
quadruple tracks. Not included in the above
are 1,252 kilometres of industrial railroads.

By the purchase of the Berlin and Hamburg,
and Kiel and Altona, the Oder right-shore line,
and the Upper Silesian railways, with some
minor roads, the Prussian Government system
of railways is completed. The aggregate length
of the new acquisitions, authorized by a bill
passed just before the close of the Landtag, is
about 3,000 kilometres. By previous purchases
the state owned 15,909 kilometres. It admin-
istered besides 2,236 kilometres of private roads.
The principle of the government management
of railroads was recognized in Prussia from the
beginning. It was expressed in the railroad
law of 1838, but the Government, before 1848,
did nothing beyond extending financial support
to the companies. In 1849 Minister von der
Heydt carried a measure providing for the con-
struction of a number of railroads by the Gov-
ernment. This policy was not carried out in
the succeeding period, and in default of state
construction every encouragement was given to
the building of railroads by private enterprise.
Hanover, Hesse, and Nassau, when annexed to
Prussia, brought well - developed systems of
state railways into the possession of the Gov-
ernment. After the French war the policy of
state railroads was resumed, but the Central
Government was unable to overcome the oppo-
sition of the middle states to a unified system
of railroads under the control of the imperial
authorities. The railroads in these states were
mostly public property. Prussia immediately
after the war constructed the Berlin- Wetzler-
Metz line, connecting the capital with the west-
ern part of the monarchy and the new impe-
rial province, and pending the issue of the con-

troversy over the plan of an imperial system
of railroads, began to acquire possession of the
Prussian roads, standing ready to hand them
over to the national Government, according to
an enactment of June 4, 1876, whenever the
empire would engage to purchase the remain-
ing private lines. The political opposition to
the scheme of a unified imperial system, which
had withstood the raising of the tariff on freight
and other coercive measures, and the efforts of
the Imperial Railway Office, created by the
Reichstag in 1873, was not weakened by tins
offer. Left to accomplish the work of nation-
alization alone, the Prussian Government mado
preparations to bring all the railroads in the
monarchy under state management. It began
the series of purchases in 1879, in which year
the state net-work embraced 6,198 kilometres,
besides 3,525 kilometres controlled by the state
but owned by private persons. The task was
completed by the purchase of the last six lines
in 1883. The capital invested by the Govern-
ment in its railroad net-work is 1,327,983,000
marks, raised by the issue of bonds to the
amount of 1,867^339,885 marks.

The length of telegraph lines in 1882 was
74,312 kilometres; of wires, 265,058 kilome-
tres. The number of dispatches was 18,362,-
173, of which 5,426,494 were foreign. The
receipts of the postal and telegraphic service
in 1882 were 164,259,372 marks; expenses,
140,733,520 marks. The Imperial Post-Office
carried 681,976,350 letters, 168,929,480 post-
cards, 14,013,710 patterns, 154,496,960 stamped
wrappers, and 453,602,400 newspapers, in the
year 1881. The number of post-offices at the
end of 1881 was 11,088 ; telegraphic stations,
10,308; persons employed, 78,502.

Army and Navy.— The effective of the army
on the peace footing in 1883 was as. follows:

392

GERMANY.

BRANCHES OF SERVICE.

Officers.

Men.

Horses.

gtaff

2,032

4

Line

9,529

278,822

424

11,120

Landwehr cadres

326

4,764

Cavalrv
Field artillery
Fortress artillery

2,358
*1,S01
729

64,699
34,817
16,349

62,550
16,591

Engineers

406

10,840

Train

200

4905

2,457

Palace guards etc

813

954

Total

18118

427 274

81,598

The war effective, not including the Land-
sturm and special formations, was as follows:

DIVISIONS.

Officers.

Men.

Hones.

Guns.

Field army

19,391

744,031

242,415

2,040

Depot troops

4,796

296,614

31,373

444

Garrison troops
Total

11,240
85,427

416,032
1,456,677

38,943
312,731

324

2,808

The navy in 1883 comprised 7 iron-clad
frigates, with 85 guns ranging from 12 to 26
tons, an aggregate displacement of 50,224 tons,
engines of 43, 100 horse-power, and armor of
10, 8|, and 5 inches thickness; 5 iron-clad
corvettes, with 32 guns, 22 tons on all except
one, 8 inches of armor, 25,400 horse-power,
and 33,210 tons displacement; 27 cruisers,
armed with 271 guns; 13 coast-guards, with
18 guns, besides 15 torpedo-boats; and 22
dispatch - boats, transports, and school - ships.
There were under construction 1 iron-clad and
3 other corvettes, a gunboat on the Albatross
system, and 2 armored gunboats.

The plans for a German navy were adopted
in 1873, and the term of ten years was set for
the completion of the new fleet. A new type
of iron-clad corvettes was one of the first im-
provements carried out. This was the Sach-
sen class, intended for defending the coast and
offensive action in German waters and the
neighboring seas. They were designed to take
the place of the previously adopted Hansa
model, which was considered too weak for a
battle-ship and too slow for a cruiser. The
Sachsen corvettes are of shallow enough
draught to run into the other North Sea ports
as well as Kiel, and are exceedingly manage-
able and provided with rams and torpedoes.
On this model were built the Sachsen, Baden,
Bayern, and Wtirtemberg. A reform which
was taken up at about the same time was the
substitution of iron-clad gunboats for the pro-
jected monitors, which in view of the develop-
ment of torpedoes were deemed too uncon-
trollable and less valuable for local coast-de-
fense than smaller vessels which could pro-
tect the lines of sunken torpedoes and move
about in the shallow waters of the German
coast, firing upon approaching iron-clads from
a safe position, and, when these are obliged
to move slowly and cautiously in difficult chan-
nels, even assuming the offensive, which their
heavy guns enable them to do. Eleven of

* Number of batteries, 341 ; of guns, 1,374.

these gunboats were finished and two in pro-
cess of construction in the spring of 1883.
The new cruisers of the first class were de-
signed for a speed of 15 knots. Since wooden
vessels were not firm enough to stand the agi-
tation, they were made of iron and covered
with copper to keep the bottom clean, which
was separated from the iron hull, so that no
galvanic action could take place, by two layers
of teak. These vessels of the Leipsic class are
armed with ringed cannon of from 12 to 17
centimetres caliber, and provided with tackling
and equipments which would enable them to
remain at sea for months. The cruisers of the
second class, known as the Bismarck type, of
which the Bismarck, the Blticher, the Moltke,
the Stosch, the Gneisenau, and the Stein, are
the representatives, are like the others in de-
sign and armament, but of smaller size and of
a calculated speed of 13 knots an hour.
Among the cruisers of the third class the four
corvettes — Carola, Olga, Marie, and Sophie —
form a separate class. They have a speed of
14 knots and carry 10 guns. Their chief pur-
pose is to protect merchant- ships in distant
waters and guard remote portions of the coast.
The "Whitehcad fish-torpedo was adopted in
1876. It was at first intended to construct 28
torpedo-vessels ; then it was proposed to fit out
the regular war-ships with apparatus for firing
torpedoes; and finally, for the better economy
of these projectiles, costing about $2,500 each,
it was decided to employ also specially designed
torpedo-boats. It was also expected that a
flotilla of torpedo-boats would keep a hostile
fleet at a distance and oblige it to keep under
steam, and that it could dash into and cause
damage and consternation to a blockading
squadron. In 1881 the ships began to be armed
with torpedoes or provided with the appliances
for firing torpedoes either from the deck or
under water. In a short time 64 vessels were
thus equipped. The construction of torpedo-
boats was begun at the same time. Eight were
completed in 1883, and it was the intention of
the Government to add to this number as rap-
idly as possible, to keep pace with other coun-
tries which are rapidly building torpedo-boats.

Finance. — The budget of the empire for the
year 1883-'84, adopted March 2, 1883, calls for
537,297,305 marks for ordinary and 53,259,329
marks for extraordinary expenses.

The budget of 1884-'85 was voted July 2,
1883. It estimates the produce of customs du-
ties at 196,450,000 marks ; excise duty on sugar,
46,865,000 marks ; on salt, 37,262,600 marks ;
on tobacco, 13,940,920 marks; on spirits, 35,-
925,900 marks; on malt, 15,791,000 marks;
the net receipts of posts and telegraphs, 25,-
832, 193 marks; of railroads, 16, 690, 600 marks;
stamp duties, 19,436,680 marks ; receipts of the
invalid funds, 28,665.120 marks ; surplus of the
budget of 1882-'83, 15,825,000 marks ; extraor-
dinary receipts (from construction fund for for-
tifications, 10,400,000; for Parliament-house,
2,000,000; from loan for extraordinary pur-

GERMANY.

poses, 22,192,720 marks), 34,592,720 marks,
leave The above and receipts from minor
sources 83,702,768 marks to be provided by
the matricular quota-shares of the states to
make up the total budget of 590,819,344 marks,
of which the appropriations were as follow :

EXPENDITURES.

Current.

Extraordinary.

Legislature

407,670
126,970

6,825,415

2,871,788

Chancery

80,666

2,173,975
2,695,725
26,762,678
10,125,900

Foreign affairs and consulates . . .
Interior Department
Posts and telegraphs . ...

Military administration

889,872,490
26,908,396
1,824,267
99,898,403
810,865
15,927,500
529,073

Naval administration
Administration of Justice
Treasury of the Empire

4,453,200

Office of Railroads . . .

Debts of the Empire

Control

Railroad administration

250,000

Pensions

20,160,404
28,665,120

Invalid fund .

46,491,478

Total, 1884-'85

544,327,866

The different loans authorized by the Reichs-
tag, and the dates of the laws authorizing
them, are as follow :

DATE. Marki.

June 14, 1877 77,781,821

June 14, 1878 97,484,865

March 18, 1879 68,021,071

October 13, 1380 87,627,203

April 5 and December 12, 1381 64,912,885

February 15, 1882 29,674,405

July 2, 1885 18,192,720

Of the amount authorized prior to April 1,
1882, there had been issued at that date 319,-
239,000 marks. The amount of bank-notes of
the empire in circulation at the same date was
153,164,210.

Rescript of the Emperor.— On April 14th the
Reichstag, after having made no progress with
the socialist laws, was stirred again by a re-
script from the Emperor, loss provocative, how-
ever, than that of the previous one. The aged
monarch declared that he deemed it one of the
first of his duties as Emperor to address his
care and attention to the improvement of the
condition of the laboring-class, and urged the
Reichstag to grant a biennial budget, out of
consideration for his declining years, in order
that the autumn session might be devoted to
the plans of social reform which he had at
heart, and the hope be fulfilled before his death
of the development and realization throughout
the empire of the reforms begun by his father
in the beginning of the century. The Emperor
expressed the conviction that since the issue
of the anti-socialist law, legislation should not
be confined to police and penal measures, but
should seek to remedy or alleviate the cause
of evils combated in the penal code. Gratified
at the first success of his endeavors, in the re-
mission of the two lowest grades of the class-
tax in Prussia, he hoped to see the accident-
insurance bill, presented in an amended form
at the beginning of the session, with the sup-
plementary project of sick-funds under corpo-
rative administration, embodied in laws before
the separation of the Reichstag, and the atten-

tion of the Reichstag devoted in the ensuing
winter session to a further proposal to provide
for the maintenance of superannuated and in-
valided laborers.

The stubborn determination of Prince Bis-
marck was as plainly indicated in the message as
were the wishes of the Emperor. The Liberal
majority gave vehement expression to their in-
dignation, and referred the proposition to the
budget committee, a form of indefinite post-
ponement. Yet before they separated in June
they voted the biennial budget, a procedure
which they had repeatedly refused to follow,
consoling themselves with the argument that
the fiscal year was ended, and that it was there-
fore not a violation of the constitutional prin-
ciple which they upheld.

Prinee Bismarck's State Socialism.— After even
the Progressists had ceased declaiming on theo-
retical grounds against the Chancellor's pro-
jects for the alleviation of the condition of the
working-classes, and after the conciliatory over-
tures of the Government toward the Vatican,
and the subsequent amendment of the Falk
laws, had rendered the Ultramontanes, if not
close allies, at least no longer obstructive oppo-
nents, Prince Bismarck was able to make bet-
ter progress in his comprehensive scheme for
the fiscal and social consolidation of the impe-
rial power than at anytime since the adoption
of the protective policy and of the measures
for the nationalization of the Prussian railroads.
The aims which the Chancellor set before him
in the organization of the finances of the em-
pire involved the entire" course of constitutional
evolution. In following them he disrupted the
great National-Liberal party which enabled him
to unite Germany and thwarted the develop-
ment of parliamentary government. Prussian
officialism naturally prevailed over the more
liberal systems of the smaller states, but to se-
cure its "acceptance by the thinking part of the
population whose hopes were set on parlia-
mentarism it was necessary to hold up the new
ideal of socialism. The spread of the socialistic
doctrines in two years by the help of the press
has been remarkable. The measures proposed
by Prince Bismarck all have an immediate
practical object, and are supported on the
ground of expediency by many who disap-
prove of their principle and tendency. The
projects for the relief of the working-classes
are expedient for the sake of enabling the peo-
ple to sustain the burden of the military sys-
tem, diminishing emigration, and counteracting
the agitation of democratic and revolutionary
socialism. The adoption of the system of in-
direct taxation accomplished the diverse ob-
jects of rendering the Imperial Government to
a large extent independent of the matricular
contributions of the states, of increasing the re-
sources to meet the augmenting requirements
of the military establishment, and, by allowing
the states to share in the customs revenue, of
enabling them to reduce burdensome direct
taxes. The tobacco-monopoly scheme had the

394

GERMANY.

same objects. This, like the bill empowering
the Imperial Government to acquire all the
German railroads, was rejected; the Reichstag
objecting to them because they would great-
ly increase the patronage of the Government
and its. influence in elections ; also, because
these monopolies would place under the control
of the executive the machinery for raising a
large part of the revenue, and the power of in-
creasing it at will; although its expenditure
would still depend on the vote of the Reichs-
tag, the effect would be to free the Govern-
ment still more from parliamentary control.
The Government would, moreover, by the con-
trol of the railway system, have power to favor
or coerce individuals, towns, and districts. The
command of the Prussian railroads already
places it in the power of the central authorities
to bring pressure on the other lines, and, as
the Prussian budget makes an excellent show-
ing for state management, there is a prospect
of the eventual accomplishment of the railroad
scheme. In the session of 1883 Prince Bis-
marck asked for an accession to the sources of
revenue in the shape of timber-duties. It was
opposed by the wood-working industries, and
after an excited contest the bill was rejected,
only by the temporary defection of the Polish
deputies from the Center.

A favorite scheme of the German Chancel-
lor for rendering the Government finances in a
measure independent of the exigencies of party
politics was to induce the Reichstag to vote
the budget biennially. The Liberal Opposition
has been weakened and divided by his parlia-
mentary policy to such an extent that there
was not the material in the present Reichstag
to resist the Emperor's appeal. To escape the
necessity of voting the budget for two years,
and yet show becoming respect for the wishes
of the Emperor, the deputies took up the sick
and accident insurance bills. But in the end,
by the aid of the Clericals, who were concili-
ated by the modification of the May laws, the
supplies for two years were submissively grant-
ed. As soon as the budget was forced through,
the Emperor closed the session, June 12th. It
was the longest on record, having opened
April 27, 1882.

The first fruit of the high tariff, in the way
of relief for the poorer classes, was the abo-
lition of the two lowest categories of the class-
tax in Prussia. The Prussian Diet declined to
grant Prince Bismarck's demand for an aug-
mentation of the excise duties, which he de-
clared necessary in default of the tobacco mo-
nopoly, and for the exemption of all incomes
below $300, but abolished the class-tax on
incomes below $215, whereas previously all
households whose annual incomes exceeded
$100 were liable to the class-tax— that is, the
tax on incomes between $100 and $750.
Nearly 3,750,000 persons, or about ohe fifth
of those subject to this tax, were relieved.*

* According to the returns of 1881, 80 per cent, of the
population of Prussia had less than $100 of annual income,

The accident and sickness insurance bill, in
the form in which it was first laid before the
Reichstag in the previous session, proposed
that the Imperial Government should insure
the work-people, and the employers and com-
munes provide the premiums. The existing
law of employers' liability required masters
to provide the means for caring for employes
injured in their service without fault of their
own. It was ineffective, on account of the
difficulty of proving that an accident is not
due to a workman's own negligence. The in-
surance companies were accused of overcharg-
ing and defrauding the working-people. The
bill was opposed by a large majority of the
Reichstag, on the grounds that Government
insurance would ruin the existing companies,
that it would reduce the working-men to the
condition of pensioners and destroy their in-
dependence, and that it would place great
powers of coercion and interference in the
hands of the agents of the Government. The
bills were withdrawn and remolded, and when
again laid before the Reichstag in the session
of ] 882-'83, were freed of the feature of Gov-
ernment administration. The new bills pro-
posed that insurance should be undertaken by
the existing companies, trade-guilds, and com-
munal institutions. It was proposed that the
state should furnish part of the premiums.
This share was to be one fourth, another
fourth was to be assessed on the employers
and presumably paid out of their profits, and
the remaining one half was to be estopped
from the wages of the workmen and likewise
collected from the employers. Accident-in-
surance was made obligatory on all employed
in mines, factories, and other industrial estab-
lishments, on railroads, and by steamship
companies. In the case of an accident, the
workman was to be a charge on the sick-in-
surance fund for the first three months, and
then, if the disability continued, the charge
would be transferred to the accident-insurance
fund. There was bitter opposition to both
bills. The clauses making insurance compul-
sory and laying part of the burden on the Im-
perial Government, were especially obnoxious
to the believers in the traditional doctrines of
political economy. The scruples of those who
were alarmed at the socialistic features of the
project were met by the argument that the
bills form part of a series of projects which
would take the place of all other pauper legis-
lation. It was a matter of imperial concern to
legislate for the extinction of pauperism, which
is usually the result of sickness or accident.
By helping to tide the workman over periods
of incapacity, and enabling him to retain his
position as a self-supporting member of so-
ciety, the state would relieve the communes
which have already to support the indigent
and helpless by the poor-rates. In support of

nearly 68 per cent, belonged to households with incomes fall-
ing within the class-tax, and only 2$ per cent, had over $750
income.

GERMANY.

395

the clause compelling employers to provide a
part of the premium, the preventive effect of
such a provision was urged. It would impel
employers, whose neglect is the frequent
cause of accident and sickness, to employ pre-
cautions for the safety and health of their
employes. The alternative proposal of vol-
untary insurance would fail altogether, be-
cause the working-people could not save the
premiums out of their wages, and the employ-
ers would not voluntarily contribute. By the
opponents of the bills it was argued that the
effect of the state subsidy and assessment on
the employers would simply be to reduce
wages by so much. The fate of the measures
depended on the course which the Center
party would take. With them the objections
against the accident -insurance bill prevailed,
and the subsidy provision was stricken out.
The bill was consequently withdrawn, to be
presented again in the following session. The
sick-insurance bill received their support, and
was carried by a majority rarely got together
in the present divided and distracted state of
the popular representation, showing the co-
gency of the various motives which actuate
the different parties to approve legislation for
the benefit of the "poor man." The vote was
216 to 99, the two Conservative fractions, the
Center, the National - Liberals, the People's
party, and eleven Secessionists, voting in the
affirmative, and the Progressists, most of the
members of the Liberal Union, and the Social-
Democrats, in the negative. The Liberals ac-
cuse the Chancellor of venting his antipathy
against the trading and manufacturing classes
in his legislative programme, which imposes
many new burdens on them, while it relieves
the land-owning and farming classes of a part
of their burdens. They made it a condition of
their adherence to the sick-insurance project
that its provisions should be extended to agri-
cultural laborers. An amendment to this effect
was added, but at the last hour it was rejected,
and the bill passed in almost the original shape.
Cabinet Changes. — Surprise and a degree of
dissatisfaction were felt at the removals, with-
in a few days of each other, of the chiefs of
the war and naval ministries, who had held
their posts for ten years. The retirement of
Gen. von Kameke was due to a difference be-
tween him and the Emperor. The Progressist
deputies would only agree to an augmentation
of military pensions on the condition that offi-
cers should be subject to direct taxation the
same as civilians. The Minister of War was
willing to accept the compromise, but the
Emperor William insisted on perpetuating the
invidious privilege. A disagreement with the
Chancellor is said to have led to the resigna-
tion of Baron von Stosch. It was expected
that the place would be filled this time by a
naval officer, but the Emperor's predilection for
the military profession had again to be grati-
fied by the appointment of an infantry general
to the direction of the navy.

Retirement of Parliamentary Leaden.— During
the debates on the church bill Herr von Ben-
nigsen, leader of the National-Liberal party
from its foundation, discouraged by the man-
ner in which Prince Bismarck treated him and
his party after he lost their support and by
differences with the remnant of the great party
who still followed his lead, resigned his seats
in the Reichstag and Prussian Landtag and
retired from political life. Only a few months
before, Eduard Lasker, the other great Liberal
leader, had laid down his mandate and perma-
nently retired.

Prossia and the Vatican. — Just before the close
of the session the Prussian Minister of Worship,
Yon Gossler, introduced in the Landtag a bill
relaxing the May laws, which embodied the
concessions that the Government was willing
to make for the reliof of the spiritual depriva-
tions of the Catholic population. The bill,
which was passed by a majority of 224 Con-
servatives and Clericals to 107 Liberals and
Free Conservatives, fell short of the demands
of the Vatican, but in the minds of the Liber-
als imported nothing less than the penitential
pilgrimage to Canossa. In the negotiations
with the Curia since the re-establishment of
diplomatic relations, the fundamentally differ-
ent principles of the Prussian state and the
Papacy could not be harmonized so as to afford
the basis of an agreement, but a modus vivendi
was equally desired on both sides. On Dec. 3d,
1882, the Pope wrote to the Emperor William,
expressing his satisfaction at the reopening of
diplomatic intercourse by the return of the
Prussian legation to Rome. The Emperor's
reply, sent December 22d, expressed the hope
that such a conciliatory step would be met by
concessions showing a like disposition on the
Pope's part, and intimated that, if the Vatican
would agree to notify the civil authorities of
ecclesiastical appointments, the Government
would feel encouraged to move in the matter
of recasting the legislation which is necessary
to protect the rights of the state which are
assailed when it has to sustain a contest with
the Church. The Pope replied, January 30th,
offering a concession, viz., that the bishops
should thenceforward be permitted to give no-
tice to the Prussian Government of new ap-
pointments of cures, without waiting for the
revision of the ecclesiastical laws, imposing,
however, the condition that the revision should
be extended to the laws which impede the ex-
ercise of ecclesiastical duties and the training
of the clergy. The immediate object of the
negotiations was to supply pastors to the nu-
merous parishes which had long been bereft
of all cure of souls, an evil and a scandal which
the Government had stronger motives for reme-
dying than the Pope. The points in contro-
versy involved the three main provisions of
the Falk laws, which formed the subject-mat-
ter of the three principal acts : 1. That the ec-
clesiastical dignitaries should advise the pro-
vincial authorities of all appointments to eccle-

396

GERMANY.

siastical posts. 2. That disciplinary authority
over priests should be exercised solely by Ger-
mans. 3. That education in a German school
and university and a state examination were
essential to qualify a person for the discharge
of clerical functions. A note from Cardinal
Jacobini to Herr von Schlozer, Prussian envoy
to the Vatican, explained the position taken
by the Curia. The Prussian Government in
reply, May 5th, expressed willingness to agree
to the appointment of vicars without notifica-
tion, while requiring it for the priests who are
appointed to a parish connected with a bene-
fice, so that the Church would be enabled to
provide for the reading of the mass and the
administration of the sacraments independently
of the Government, the only requirements be-
ing that the officiating priests should be native
Germans who have received the legally pre-
scribed education. The Government promised
a revision of the May laws, and agreed to re-
nounce the right to forbid the appointment of
priests, but insisted that the Pontiff should first
concede the right of notification, deeming it a
point of honor that he should grant the right
which is conceded to other governments. The
only answer made to the demand of the Pope
to have the education of young priests placed
under the direction of the bishops was that
the Government had already shown much com-
pliance with regard to state examinations of
candidates and the opening of priests' semina-
ries. The Vatican returned an unfavorable
answer. The Government, instead of pursu-
ing the negotiations in which it continually
lost ground, seized the opportunity to execute
one of the sudden strokes for which Prince
Bismarck is famous, interrupting the negotia-
tions by the proposal in the Diet of the new
ecclesiastical law, and thus endeavoring to cov-
er its retreat by an assumption of independence.
The bill embodied larger concessions than were
offered in the note of May 5th. The parishes
of which the patronage was in the hands of the
Government were already provided with priests
under the laws of July 14, 1880, and May 31,
1882. The present act removed all responsi-
bility from the Government for the lack of spir-
itual ministrations in the remaining parishes
of which the bishops have the patronage. The
bill consisted of six clauses :

The first and most important clause enacts that the
bishops shall no longer be required to notify to the
Government authorities the names of those candidates
for the priestly office whose appointments can uncon-
ditionally be canceled, or who are only appointed as
substitutes or delegates. The bishops will thus be
enabled at once to provide the vacant parishes with
chaplains, vicars, adjuncts, etc., without any previous
notification to the Government. By clause 2, how-
ever, this concession is not to extend to the cases of
those priests who are intrusted with the administra-
tion of parishes.

Clause 3 declares that the Ecclesiastical Court is no
longer the highest tribunal of appeal for the clergy
against the decisions of the Government authorities in
matters regarding the appointment of candidates, the
discipline in clerical seminaries, or episcopal rights in
vacant dioceses.

Clause 4 provides that the Government authorities
shall continue to be entitled to oppose the appoint-
ment of any candidate who shall appear to be unfit
for an ecclesiastical office on account of his civil or
political position, or whose education has not been
completed according to the prescribed laws. . The
reasons for opposing the appointment of a candidate
are always to be given, and the Church authorities
will be allowed to appeal against this decision to the
Minister of Public ^V orship, who represents the high-
est Court of Appeal.

Clause 5 enacts that the holy sacraments can be ad-
ministered by missionary priests in all vacant parishes,
as well as in those where the priests have been forbid-
den to conduct religious services, under the May laws.

And clause 6 repeals all former legislation which is
contrary to the above five clauses.

The bill was passed with the exception of
the fourth clause. The ecclesiastical courts
which administered the veto power over eccle-
siastical appointments had been the subject of
continual reproaches from the Clericals. The
transfer of its jurisdiction to the Ministry of
Worship was not, however, looked upon in the
light of a concession by the adherents of the
Vatican, though satisfaction was expressed
with regard to the main provisions of the act.
The Pork Question. — The prohibition of Amer-
ican pork products raised a subject of dissatis-
faction and controversy between Germany and
the United States. (See PORK, PROHIBITION <>*
AMERICAN.) In April the Chancellor chose to
take offense at a dispatch from Minister Sar-
gent to the Government at Washington, in
which the motive for the interdict was stated
to be, not fear of trichinosis, but the protec-
tion of German hog-growers. Reflections were
made also on the lack of harmony between Ger-
man public opinion and the Government. This
confidential dispatch was reprqduced from a
New York paper in the " North-German Ga-
zette," and the American minister was angrily
attacked. An apology was afterward offered,
with comments on the indiscretion of the Amer-
ican Government in publishing confidential dis-
patches.

Spanish Treaty.— In the latter part of August
the members of the Reichstag were startled by
a summons to an extraordinary session. When
they assembled on August 29th, it was ex-
plained to be for the purpose of ratifying the
treaty of commerce with Spain. The Emperor
had signed it provisionally, expecting to ask
from Parliament, when it met regularly, an act
of indemnity for this divergence from consti-
tutional forms. But organs of the press called
in question the right of the Government to
act as it had done, and the applicability of the
principle of indemnity recognized in other
states to the Imperial Constitution. The Pro-
gressists assailed the Government for the viola-
tion of the Constitution, but the majority sim-
ply approved the treaty and the fisheries con-
vention, and the Reichstag was then prorogued.
The treaty rims until June 30, 1887.

The most important concession made by Ger-
many is the reduction of her dock dues from
forty to ten marks, and of her customs duties
on southern fruits, fresh grapes, olive-oil, choc-

GERMANY.

397

olate, raisins, etc. She has further promised
not to raise her duties on wine, with one ex-
ception, rye, and other articles. Spain defi-
nitely fixed her duties on several articles of
import, especially spirituous liquors and spirits,
iron and steel wire, and rails.

Copyright Treaty. — A copyright treaty between
France and Germany was concluded April 19th.
This convention replaces the former ones be-
tween France and single German states. An
author obtains under this treaty all the rights
of native authors, except as to the duration of
the copyright, which must not exceed that ac-
corded in his own country. Manuscripts, as
well as published works, are protected. Pub-
lishers can obtain copyrights. The rights ex-
tend to musical compositions, works of art,
etc., and can be secured by the heirs, assigns,
and legal representatives of the author. Copy-
righted literary productions can be drawn from
in the preparation of school-books or of works
of a scientific character. The restriction of the
reproduction of articles from newspapers and
periodicals to publications of the same class
and the obligation to cite the source of a re-
production are not 'continued in the new trea-
ty. According to French law, every use of a
melody without the permission of the com-
poser is illegal, but the German principle was
retained in the treaty, which requires only that
a composition should have distinguishing char-
acteristics, though an unauthorized arrange-
ment of an air is forbidden. Public presenta-
tions of musical or dramatic compositions with-
out authority are made actionable. An author
preserves the right of translation for ten years
if he has a translation published in either coun-
try within three years, otherwise he can not
restrain the publication of a translation in the
other country. Authors of musical and dra-
matic productions also retain exclusive rights
of translation for the same periods. No regis-
tration or other formality is required to secure
authors' rights. The convention is binding on
both governments for six years, and then re-
mains in force until one year after a notice of
repeal has been received from either party.

Relations with France. — The continuance of the
Austro-German alliance, which was said to be
in danger of breaking off, was confirmed by the
annual meeting of the Emperors at Ischl, and
by other convincing signs. The influence of
Prince Bismarck was seen to prevail in Europe
to an extent which excited the susceptibilities
of the French. Not only was Italy's under-
standing with the allied empires admitted by
the Italian Minister of the Exterior and the
Hungarian Premier in public announcements,
but the Spanish commercial treaty, the visit of
King Alfonso to the Emperor, and the return
visit of the Crown Prince, showed that Spain
also had gravitated toward the league of peace.
In September the German Chancellor, in the
"North-German Gazette," the official organ,
raised a warning cry against France as the
disturbing influence in Europe. Like similar

notes of alarm on the same subject, one of
which was uttered earlier in the year, imme-
diately after Signer Mancini's announcement
of the triple alliance in the Italian Parliament,
the time was chosen when there seemed to be
the least occasion for it. It had the appear-
ance, therefore, of a menace, and did not fail
to give offense to the sensitive French people.
The appointment of King Alfonso to the honor-
ary colonelcy of the regiment garrisoned in
Strasburg excited the Parisians to the demon-
strations at the station which Alfonso was sub-
jected to on his return from Germany. The
German press called upon the Government to
take up the insult, but Prince Bismarck was
careful not to provoke the French popular
temper too far. The attendance of King Al-
fonso of Spain, and King Milan of Servia, be-
sides the King of Saxony, the Crown Prince
of Portugal, and the Prince of Wales, as the
guests of the Emperor at the autumn manoeu-
vres, which began September 14th, was among
the indications of the supreme influence of
Bismarck and his peace policy in Europe.

Alsace-Lorraine* — The imperial province was
agitated more than usual, in 1883, by the lan-

fuage question. The deputies in the Reichstag
ept up their attitude of opposition. In Au-
gust, the lieutenant-general, Marshal Manteuf-
fel, called forth indignant protests by refusing
permission to one of them, M. Antoine, to
start a French journal in Metz. . The order
that discussions in municipal councils should
be conducted in German was followed a few
months after by an attempt to banish French
from the schools. The four hours a week
which were devoted to the teaching of French
were reduced to two.

Inundations. — In November and December,
1882, the Rhine and its tributaries, the Main
and the Moselle, rose above the highest flood-
mark recorded in the century. Between Co-
logne and Coblenz the plains were entirely
submerged, and many towns and villages inun-
dated, among them the city of Coblenz. Below
that place many houses crumbled down. The
waters subsided about the middle of Decem-
ber, but a week or two later heavy rains fell
and the waters rose to a higher point than be-
fore. The rise was so rapid as to cause a large
loss of life. Nearly all the towns and villages
on the lowlands of the Rhine valley were
under water. In seven villages alone 400
buildings fell in. Near Carlsruhe a bridge
fell, precipitating 20 persons into .the river,
and on the Baden state railroad a derailed
train plunged into the water, drowning several
passengers. A boat capsized and drowned 28
peasants who had just been rescued from their
houses. In Mayence, soldiers were employed
night and day in constructing protective em-
bankments, and bridges for the escape of the
citizens in case these gave way. A lake, five
miles broad, formed between Wesel and Em-
merich. In Frankenthal, 6,000 people were
driven from their homes. The distress was

398

GERMANY.

GERMAN NATIONAL MONUMENT ON THE NIEDERWALD.

GORDON, CHAELE8 GEORGE.

399

pitiful, although aid flowed in with promptness also of a disagreement with the Egyptian ao-
and liberality from all parts of Germany. The thorities. In 1877 he returned to the Upper
Emperor subscribed $150,000, and the Reichs- Nile as Governor-General of the Soudan. He
tag granted $750,000. The German-Ameri- went around through all the provinces that year
cans displayed even greater generosity than the and succeeded in pacifying the natives in a
sufferers' own fellow-countrymen. Their gifts measure by dismissing extortionate officials and
of money drew forth from the German press striking the rebellious elements with fear by
and Government warm expressions of kindness the rapidity of his movements and his energy
and appreciation. Of about $150,000 distrib- of character. A formidable rebellion in Dar-
uted nearly the whole was raised in America, four was quickly subdued. A long and tedious

Minor Events. — Celebrations and festivals sue- war with Abyssinia was brought to an end • but
ceeded one another through the year. On Sep- his efforts to establish a permanent good under-
tember 28th the Emperor unveiled the national standing with that country were unavailing,
monument on the Niederwald, near Rudesheim, He captured hundreds of slave-caravans and
designed by Prof. Schilling, of
Dresden, and erected in commem-
oration of the victories over the
French in 1870-'71. A Hygienic
Exhibition was held in Berlin in
April, and in July an International
Art Exhibition in Munich.

GORDON, Major -General Charles
George, English traveler and sol-
dier, was born in 1830, and is a
younger son of Lieutenant-General
H. E. Gordon. He entered the
military service as Lieutenant of
Engineers in 1852, and took part
in the Crimean "War, in which he
was wounded before Sebastopol.
At the conclusion of the war he
was appointed on the commission
intrusted with the delimitation of
the boundary between Turkey and
Russia in Asia. After serving in
the expedition to China, he re-
mained in that country, and to-
ward the end of 1861 undertook an
exploring expedition totheChotow
and Kalgan gates in the Great Wall
across Shensi, passing through the
hitherto unknown capital of that
province, Tiaynen. On his return
to Peking he was appointed by
the Emperor in March, 1863, com-
mander-in-chief of the army sent
to put down the Taiping rebellion.
Mainly through his efforts the re-
bellion was suppressed in two
years. In the English army he
was promoted to be lieutenant-
colonel in 1864, and in December of the same
year decorated with the order of the Bath. He
was vice-consul in the delta of the Danube from
1871 to 1873. He then undertook an expedition
to Central Africa under the auspices of the
Viceroy of Egypt, who appointed him Military
Governor of the Equatorial Provinces. He as-
cended the Nile in a steamboat to the Albert
Nyanza, combated the slave-trade, and in April,
1875, annexed Darfour to the dominions of the
Khedive. The Khedive bestowed on him the
title of pasha. He returned to Cairo in 1876,
and refused to undertake another expedition to

GENERAL CHARLES Q. GORDON. (Prom pen-and-ink drawing.)

cut off the source of the supply of slaves to a
considerable extent ; yet, through the lack of
co-operation on the part of the Egyptian of-
ficials, he was unable to stop the traffic com-
pletely. In January, 1880, he retired from the
governorship of the Soudan. He accepted the
post of secretary to the Marquis of Ripon, Vice-
roy of India, but resigned upon reaching Bom-
bay, in June of that year. He took command of
the Royal Engineers in Mauritius in May, 1881,
and retired from active service the same year,
with the rank of major-general The Cape Gov-
ernment, in March, 1882, commissioned him

the Soudan, on account of the insufficiency of to settle the Basuto question. He had reached
the military force placed at his disposal, and an understanding with the Basutos, when

400

GORTCHAKOFF, ALEXANDER M.

the Cape ministry, disliking his conciliatory
proposals, interfered to modify the terms, and
General Gordon resigned in October, 1882.
He was about to start for Central Africa, at
the invitation of the King of the Belgians, to
carry on and extend the work begun on the
Congo by Stanley, when, after the destruction
of the army of Hicks Pasha, the English and
Egyptian Governments urged him to under-
take a mission to the Soudan as plenipotenti-
ary to conclude the transfer of the western
provinces of the Soudan to the native rulers,
and arrange a peace with the Mahdi and the
revolted provinces, on the basis of the retire-
ment of the Egyptian officials and military,
and the abandonment of sovereign rights. In
the winter of 1883-'84 he crossed the Nubian
Desert without escort, and on his arrival at
Khartoum issued a proclamation announcing
the terms of peace, and promising that the in-
stitution of slavery would not be interfered with.
GORTCHAKOFF, Alexander Mikhailowitch,
Prince, a Russian statesman, born July 16,
1798; died March 11, 1883. He came of a
princely family, and was educated at the cele-
brated Lyceum of Tzarskoye-Selo. The famous
poet, Pushkin, whose widow he subsequently
married, was one of his fellow-pupils. Imme-
diately after his graduation he became private
secretary to Count Nesselrode, Minister of For-
eign Affairs, and was present at the Congress
of Laybach and that of Verona. In 1824 he
was appointed secretary to the Russian lega-
tion in London; in 1830 charge d'affaires at
Florence; and in 1833 first secretary to the
Russian legation in Vienna, where the illness
and death of his chief left him as acting head.
In 1841, as embassador extraordinary at Stutt-
gart, he negotiated a marriage between the
Crown Prince of Wurternberg and the Princess
Olga, sister of the Emperor Nicholas. This
was a very considerable diplomatic triumph,
and he was rewarded with the dignity of privy
councilor. In 1850 he was appointed minis-
ter at the German Diet, where he became the
friend of Bismarck, the Prussian representa-
tive, and where he was the center of all oppo-
sition to revolution.

Hitherto Russia had represented the policy
of conservatism in Europe, and had been ready
to crush the spirit of progress wherever it
might appear. Though Gortchakoff was not
in full accord with his master's ambitions, he
was supposed to be more ductile than some of
the older statesmen. Accordingly, in 1854,
during the Crimean War, he succeeded Meyer-
dorff as embassador in Vienna, discharged his
difficult duties with skill and courage, and
played an important part in the negotiations
which preceded the Treaty of Paris. He ceded
only positions which were irrevocably lost,
such as the exclusive protectorate of the Danu-
bian provinces and the oversight of the mouths
of the Danube, and inspired his adversaries
•with a high idea of Russia's powers of resist-
ance even in the face of defeat.

In 1856 he was chosen by the new Emperor,
Alexander, to succeed Nesselrode as Minister
of Foreign Affairs, and this post he held for
more than twenty-five years. Heretofore the
Russian foreign ministers had been little known
at home, and were considered as mere clerks
of the Emperor, but Gortchakoff was highly
popular as the inveterate enemy of Austria.
From this time his one object was the aggran-
dizement of Russia, and his policy non-interfer-
ence in the affairs of other countries. In 1856
he issued a circular denouncing France and
England if they attempted to interfere with
the administration of government in the Two
Sicilies. An expression in this circular has
become historical : " Russia does not pout —
she meditates." For the most part she kept
this attitude of meditation and recuperation
many years. Gortchakoff rejoiced in the over-
throw of his enemy, Austria, at Magenta and
Solferino ; and he acquiesced in French inter-
vention in Syria in 1861 as a blow struck at Ot-
toman independence. A year later he energeti-
cally opposed any interference by France and
England with the civil war in the United States.
He was at that time engaged in repressing the
Polish insurrection, and in replying haughtily
to the notes addressed to him by the various
European powers, remonstrating with him for
his severities. He had been appointed vice-
chancellor in 1862, and in 1863, to the delight
of the Russian people, he became chancellor.
Gortchakoff kept his attitude of absolute neu-
trality during the struggle of 1866 between
Prussia and Austria; but in 1870, when Paris
was besieged and Victor Emmanuel was enter-
ing Rome, he seized the opportunity to propose
a revision of the treaty of 1856. In the Lon-
don Conference that followed, he secured for
Russia the right of having her war-ships in
the Black sea — which was a great victory for
Russian policy — and he was rewarded by the
Emperor with the hereditary title of Serene
Highness.

From this time until the Turko-Russian War,
Gortchakoff was occupied in strengthening
Russian influence in the East and bringing
about an alliance between the Emperors of
Russia, Germany, and Austria, and stood at the
height of his power and influence. But after the
Russian army crossed the Danube he was com-
pelled to yield in importance to generals and
engineers. When Europe refused to sanction
the Treaty of San Stefano, Gortchakoff was
discredited, as well as Gen. Iprnatieff. At the
Berlin Congress Schouvaloff played a more im-
portant part than he. He never forgave Bis-
marck and Beaconstield for thwarting all his
designs at this congress, and his resentment
toward Bismarck led to a coldness between
Berlin and St. Petersburg. He had ceased to
be a prime factor in European or even Russian
politics before Alexander II was assassinated,
and long before he was superseded by M. de
Giers as Minister for Foreign Affairs. He lived
to a time when Russia could no longer play off

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

401

one state against another, and the theory of a
balance of power became untenable; yet he
could not adapt himself to a new policy. Rus-
sia came to need a great Minister of the Inte-
rior more than the most skillful of foreign diplo-
matists ; but Gortchakoff had studied Europe
more closely than his own country, took no in-
terest in the problems of finance, of industry,
or of Nihilism, and even bore no part what-
ever in the great revolution by which the serfs
were freed.

He was a classical scholar, a master of the
French language, and an enlightened patron
of the arts. His diplomatic circulars were
models of clear diction, ingenious argument,
and a logic which always seemed to attain its
object by putting his adversary in the wrong.
He left two sons, Prince Michel and Prince
Constantin, both of whom are in the diplo-
matic service.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND (UNITED KING-
DOM OF), a^constitutional monarchy of Western
Europe. The supreme legislative power re-
sides in Parliament, which must be convoked
annually, as supplies are only voted, and the
mutiny act renewed, from year to year. Dur-
ing the past three reigns little has remained of
the royal authority but the forms. During the
same period the hereditary senate of the Peers
has been driven to relinquish practically its
share of the legislative authority, while the
basis of representation in the House of Com-
mons, or elective assembly, has been extend-
ed. By the Reform Bill of 1867-'68 the fran-
chise was conferred upon all rate-payers and
occupants of real estate of £10 annual value in
the towns and cities, and £12 in the country.
The executive authority and the initiative in
legislation are, practically, concentrated in the
hands of the Prime Minister, who is appointed
as the leader of the dominant party, and who
selects his associates to preside over the de-
partments and to prepare with him the schemes
of legislation to be brought forward in Parlia-
ment. Prorogation is the legal death of Par-
liament; and legislation which is not finally
enacted at the close therefore goes for naught.
There are no constitutional limits to the power
of ^Parliament. Victoria I, Queen of Great
Britain and Ireland, and Empress of India, was
born May 24, 1819, and succeeded her uncle,
William IV, June 20, 1837. The heir-apparent
is Albert Edward, born in 1841. The present
House of Commons first met in April, 1880.
It is the twenty-second since the union, and
the tenth of the reign of Victoria. Unless pre-
viously dissolved it will last until 1887. The
House of Commons consists of 652 members.
In 1882^writs were suspended in thirteen con-
stituencies, so that the number of representa-
tives was 639. At the beginning of the term
the House was divided as to parties between
203 Conservatives and 286 Liberals from Eng-
land, 8 Conservatives and 52 liberals from
Scotland, and 24 Conservatives, 19 Liberals,
and 60 Home-Rulers from Ireland ; together,
VOL. xxui. — 26 A

235 Conservatives, 357 Liberals, and 60 Home-
Rulers.

The House of Lords is composed of the
hereditary nobles of England, new English
peers created by royal patent, the English
bishops who are peers ex officio, 28 Irish peers
elected for life, and 16 Scottish representative
peers elected for each succeeding Parliament.
No new peerage can be created in Scotland,
and in Ireland none until three existing peer-
ages have become extinct; but in England
peerages can be created for life or in perpetui-
ty in any number. The House of Peers con-
sisted in 1882 of 516 members, of whom 5 were
peers of the blood royal, 2 archbishops, 22
dukes, 19 marquesses, 117 earls, 26 viscounts,
24 bishops, 257 barons, 16 Scottish representa-
tive peers, and 28 Irish representative peers.
Only 37 of the peerages are older than the
seventeenth century, and 315 are not older
than the present century, no fewer than 166
having been created during the reign of Queen
Victoria.

The Government.— The Prime Minister, W. E.
Gladstone, on forming his ministry in 1880,
took the office of Chancellor of the Exchequer
in addition to his regular duties as First Lord
of the Treasury. After the close of the extra
session in the autumn of 1882, the Cabinet was
reconstituted. Lord Derby entered the Cabi-
net as Secretary for the Colonies, Lord Kim-
berley taking Lord Hartington's place in the
India Office, and the latter Mr. Childers's place
as Secretary of War, while Childers received
the Chancellorship of, the Exchequer, relin-
quished by Gladstone. Sir Charles Dilke ob-
tained a, seat in the Cabinet as President of the
Local Government Board, Mr. Dodson becom-
ing Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster.
The Cabinet consisted in 1883 of the follow-
ing fourteen members :

William Ewart Gladstone, First Lord of the
Treasury; Lord Sel borne, Lord High Chancel-
lor ; Earl Spencer, Lord President of the Coun-
cil; Baron Carlingford, Lord Privy Seal; Hugh
C. E. Childers, Chancellor of the Exchequer;
,Sir William Harcourt, Secretary of State for
the Home Department; Earl Granville, Secre-
tary of State for Foreign Affairs ; the Earl of
Derby, Secretary of State for the Colonies;
Early Kimberley, Secretary of State for India ;
the Marquis of Hartington, Secretary of State
for War ; Lord Northbrook, First Lord of the
Admiralty ; Joseph G. Dodson, Chancellor of
the Duchy of Lancaster ; Joseph Chamberlain,
President of the Board of Trade ; Sir Charles
W. Dilke, President of the Local Government
Board.

The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland is Earl Spen-
cer, who succeeded Earl Cowper May 3, 1882.
The Secretary of State for Ireland is G. O.
Trevelyan, who has not a seat in the Cabinet,
as the Viceroy holds a Cabinet office.

The Committee of the Privy Council for
Education has Anthony J. Mundella for vice-
president. A new department of the Govern-

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

raent, the Committee of the Pi-ivy Council for
Agriculture, was created in 1883, with the
Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster for its
first vice-president.

Area and Population.— The total area of the
British Empire is 7,774,657 square miles; the
population, according to the census of 1881,
249,259,832. The area of the British Islands
is 121,483 square miles, and the population, as
returned by the census of April 4, 1881, is 35,-
172,976, distributed as follows :

UNITED
KINGDOM.

Square
kilometres.

Males.

Females.

T^tal

population.

England

Wales

181,628
19,069

11,961,842
678,060

12,652,084
682 453

24,613,926
1,360,513

Scotland
Ireland
Isle or1 Man....
Channel Islands
Soldiers and
sailors abroad

78,895
84,253
588
196

1,797,585
2,533,277
26,291
40,321

147,540

1,936,805
2,641,559
27,798
47,381

3,734.370
5,174,836
54,089
87,702

147,540

Total

814,628

17,184,896

17,988,080

35,172,976

The increase in England and Wales between
1871 and 1881 was 14-36 per cent., which was
higher than in any decennium since 1831-'41 ;
the increase in fifty years was 86-9 per cent.

The natural movement of population in the
three kingdoms in 1882 was as follows:

UNITED KINGDOM.

Marriages.

Births.

Deaths.

Excess of
births.

England

203 907

888 940

516 783

372 157

Scotland . . ....

26 574

126 182

72 966

53 216

Ireland

22058

122,715

8S'737

83 978

The natural increment of the population of
England is about 1'45 per cent, per annum.

The total number of males returned by the
census of 1881 as engaged in some definite
occupation was 7,783,646, or 71 '5 per cent, of
all aged five years and upward; of females,
3,403,918, or 29*4 per cent. The civil service
employed 50,245 persons, and the police 32,-
508. The number of soldiers in England and
Wales at the date of the census (including
yeomanry and militia) was 87,168, and of
men in the Royal Navy (excluding 8,910 pen-
sioners) 20,732. The number in the clerical
profession was 35,823, including nearly 24,000
clergy of the Established Church ; in the legal
profession, 17,386; the medical profession,
22,936; engaged in educational work, 72 per
cent., of whom were women, 171,831; actors
and actresses, 4,565. The number of photog-
raphers increased from 4,715 in 1871 to 6,661
in 1881.

The population of Ireland was divided in
respect to religion, according to the census of
1881, as follows: Roman Catholics, 3,960,891 ;
Anglicans, 639,574; Presbyterians, 470,734;
Methodists, 48,839 ; other denominations, 54,-
268 ; not determined, 530. The number of ad-
herents to the different creeds in England was
estimated in 1871 as follows: Anglicans, 17,-
781,000; Dissenters, 3,971,000; Roman Catho-
lics, 1,058,000; Israelites, 39,000. In Scot-
land: Church of Scotland, 1,473,000; Dis-

senters, 1,486,000 ; Catholics, 320,000 ; Church
of England, 73,200.

The total emigration from Great Britain and
Ireland, from 1815 to 1882, amounted to 10,-
047,835 persons, of whom 6,608,035 went to
the United States, 1,712,020 to British North
America, 1,364,226 to Australia and New Zea-
land, and 363,554 to other countries. The
emigration in 1882 from British ports was
divided, in respect to origin and destination,
as follows :

EMIGRANTS.

United
States.

Canada.

Australia.

Other
countries.

Total.

English

94,599

27,763

24,345

16,285

162,992

Scotch
Irish
Foreigners —

19,004
68,300
112,709

4,630

8,048
13,034

6,240
6,704
1,307

2,368
1,080
2,979

32,242
84,132
130.029

Unknown....

927

8

2,958

3,893

Total

295,539

53,475

38,G04

25,670

413,288

The immigration into the United Kingdom
was 78,268 in 1882, 77,105 in 1881, 68,316 in
1880, and 53,973 in 1879.

The emigration from Ireland from 1856 to
1860 was at the average rate of about 100,000
persons a year; in the next live years, from
1860 to 1865, about 140,000 annually; from
1866 to 1870 about 130,000; from 1870 to
1875 about 70,000. In the year 1880 the num-
ber was about 93,000; in 1881 about 100,000.
Nearly all the emigrants were furnished the
means for the voyage to the United States or
other points of destination by friends who had
preceded them. In all, about £1,500,000 was
remitted to Ireland in this way. This emi-
gration did not proceed from the congested
districts in the west of Ireland as much as
from some other parts of the country.

The population of British cities of over 100,-
000 inhabitants was returned in 1881 as fol-
lows:

CITIES.
London*

Population.
3 814 571

CITIES. . Population.
Hull 154 240

Liverpool

. . 552 508

Stoke-upon-Trent . . 152,394
j Newcastle . . 145,359
I Gateshead 65,803
Dundee 142,454
West HamJ 128 C92

Glasgow

. . 511,532

Birmingham
j Manchester
) Salford

. . 400,774
.. 341,414
176 235

Leeds

. . 809119

Portsm outh 1 27,989
Leicester 122,376
Sunderland 116,542
Oldham 111,343

Sheffield
Dublint

.. 284.508
. . 249.602
. . 228,190
61 168

J Edinburgh
1 Leith . . .

Brighton . 107 546

Belfast

.. 208,122
.. 206,874
. . 186.575

Bolton . . . 105,414

Bristol
Nottingham

Aberdeen 105,054

Blackburn 104,014

Bradford

. . 183,032

The number of municipal boroughs in Eng-
land and Wales in 1881 was 243, with an aggre-
gate population of 8,412,121, or 32-4 per cent,
of the total population of the kingdom. The
population of London increased in the decade
ISTl-'Sl 17'3 per cent. ; that of nineteen other
large towns 16 '5 per cent.

Postal Sayings-Banks. — The deposits in the

* The Metropolitan District. The Police District contains
4,764.312 inhabitants.

t The Metropolitan Police District contains 849,648 inhab-
itants.

t The towns of West Ham, Croydon, and Tottenham form
part of the London Police District.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

403

Post-Office savings-banks on Dec. 31, 1882,
amounted to £39,037,821, an increase of £2,-
843,326 over the amount of the previous year.
In the Irish banks there was an increase of
£90,503, which was more than the average
increase of ten years. The number of depos-
itors in the postal-banks was 2,858,976.

Education.— The act of 1870 provided that
there shall be established in every school dis-
trict public elementary schools with sufficient
accommodation for all children whose educa-
tion is not otherwise provided for. Children
whose parents are unable to pay the school-
fees have their expenses defrayed from the lo-
cal rates. The public schools are under the
supervision of district school boards, who, with
their other powers, have authority to compel
parents to provide for the education of their
children between the ages of five and thirteen.
The percentage of persons who were unable to
sign their names to the marriage register in the
five years from 1875 to 1880 was 14-8 among
the men and 20 among the women. In 1879
14 per cent, of the men and 20 of the women
married signed with marks in England, 9 per
cent, of the men and 18 of the women in Scot-
land, and 31 per cent, of the men and 38 of the
women in Ireland. The parliamentary grants
to primary schools amounted to only £40,000
in 1840. Since the school act they have been
increased from £914,721 in 1870 to £2,749,863
in 1882 and £2,938,930 in 1883. The number
of schools inspected in Great Britain was 13,-
954 in 1873 and 21,136 in 1881. The average
attendance increased from 1,783,730 to 3,273,-
501. In the vote for public education in 1883
allowance was made for 3,245,046 children.

Pauperism and Crime. — The number of paupers,
exclusive of vagrants and casual poor, relieved
in the poor-law unions and parishes of England
and Wales in 1882 was 797,614, against 803,126
in 1881, 837,940 in 1880, 800, 426 in 1879, 815,-
587 in 1875, and 1,079,391 in 1870. The num-
ber of able-bodied adult paupers included in the
above was 106,280 in 1882, 111,169 in 1881,
and 126,228 in 1880. The number of registered
paupers and their dependents in Scotland in
1881 was 97,787, against 98,608 in 1880. The
number of in-door and out-door paupers in Ire-
land, and the total, including others in asylums,
was, for the five years, 1878-'82, as follows:

YEAR.

In-door.

Out-door.

Total.

1878 .. .

49365

85,500

84,865

.1879

51,764

89,335

91,099

1880

57455

42735

100,190

1881

55304

53,688

109,655

1882...

53,731

58,358

112,829

The number of criminal offenders convicted
in 1881 was 11,353 in England and Wales, 1,832
in Scotland, and 2,698 in Ireland. In England
and in Scotland there was a considerable de-
crease in ten years. In Ireland the number
remained almost stationary. The substitution
for penal colonies of a system of convict pris-
ons, which has been gradually improved un-

der the efforts of scientific prison reformers,
has been attended with a gradual diminution
of crime. In the ten or fifteen years previous
to 1872 the practice of deporting convicts was
gradually abandoned in obedience to the wishes
of the colonists, who preferred a scarcity of la-
bor to having it supplied by the criminal out-
casts of the mother- country. In the five years
ending in 1874 the number of sentences to pe-
nal servitude in England and Wales averaged
1,622 per annum ; in the five years ending in
1879 it was 1,633 ; in the year 1881 the num-
ber was 1,525. As compared with the five
years ending 1859, when the population was
20 per cent, less, the convictions in 1881 showed
a decrease of almost one half. The number of
convictions for short terms showed a corre-
sponding improvement, being 9,266 in 1881,
against an average of 9,848 in the five years
ending in 1874, and of 12,058 in the five years
ending in 1869. The average length of the
terms to which convicts were sentenced has
increased, and the population of the prisons
has remained almost stationary, being 10,221
on March 31, 1882, against 10,160 at the end
of 1871. Under the British prison system the
convict is kept in solitary confinement, but at
hard labor, during the first nine months of his
imprisonment. During a second period he
sleeps and eats in his cell, but works in com-
pany with his fellow-prisoners. At the end
of this period, which is of variable duration,
he is conditionally released on ticket-of-leave,
under police supervision. The dread of the
term of isolation, of the spare diet and the se-
vere labor, has a greater deterrent effect than
the prison discipline had in the times when it
was less inflexible. The system of marks en-
ables a prisoner to shorten his term of impris-
onment by one fourth, and to earn money to
be paid on his release. The illiterate are taught
reading and writing, and trades are taught to
those who have none. Of 9,107 prisoners in
custody on July 1, 1882, 3,235 learned their
trades in prison. The estimated value of con-
vict-labor, exclusive of the portion utilized
in the service of the prison, was, for the year
ending with March, 1882, £217,274. There
are a number of Prisoners' Aid Societies which
encourage discharged convicts to lead honest
lives. Of 1,582 male prisoners liberated in the
year ending March 31, 1882, 954 were assisted
by these benevolent societies; of 249 female
prisoners, 34 received aid of this kind, and 144
were received in refuges. An important re-
form in priscn management is the separation
of prisoners hardened in crime from the rest.
This was adopted in 1877-'78, and two years
later the idea was further developed by the •
separation of novices in crime- from the body
of the prisoners. Cruelty on the part of jailers
is not likely to occur, but the persecution of ex-
convicts by the police under the system of sur-
veillance has sometimes been complained of.

Commerce. — The total values of imports and
exports in 1882 and the six preceding years

404

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

were, in thousands of pounds sterling, as fol-
low:

1879

1878

1877

1876

import*.

413,020
397,022
411,280

363,771
394,420
875,155

exports.

241,467
284,023
223,060
191,532
192,849

Foreign

65,193

63,354
57,252
52,635
53,453
56,137

Total | Total
exports, commerce.

297,083
286,414
248,783
245,484
252,346
256,776

I 719,680
694,105
697,644
611,775
614,255

631,931

The declared values of specie and bullion
imported and exported in 1882 and the three
preceding years were as follow, in thousands
of pounds :

YEAR.

GOLD."

SILVER.

TOTAL.

Import.

Export.

Import.

Export.

Import.

Export.

1882..
1881..
1880..
18T9..

14.876
9,963
9.455
13,869

12,024
15,499
11,829
17,579

9,243
6,901
6,799

10,787

8,965
7,004
7,061
11,006

23,619

16,864
16,254
24,156

20,989
22,503
18,890

28,585

The import and export commerce with the
principal commercial nations in 1882, as com-
pared with 1881, was as follows, in thousands
of pounds :

1881.

1883.

1881.

1883.

United States

103,208

88,353

29,796

30,970

India

82,629

39,921

29,244

29,059

France

89984

89090

16970

17421

Australia and New Zea-
land

26,975

25,175

21,378

25,365

Germany
Netherlands
Russia

23,650
23,023
14,053
11,510

23,571
25,321
21,043
14933

17,431
8,900
6,165

7,075

18,518
9,380
5,772
8080

British North America.
Sweden and Norway. . .
China

11,301
10,054
10704

10,399
11,759
9936

8,411
8,361
5965

9,700
3,628
4613

Spain
British South Africa...
Brazil
Turkey

10,028
5,413
6,340
4170

11,488
6,275
6,482
4832

3,655
7,073
6,656

6879

3,670
7,496
6,876
6423

Egypt.

9,318

7796

3,168

2451

Italy

8,275

3,481

6,631

6,480

The import commerce with Europe and the
Levant amounted, in 1882, to £183,306,000,
against £163,552,000 in 1881 ; the export com-
merce to £88,834,000, against £87,621,000 ;
import commerce with countries of North and
South America in 1882, £108,707,000; in 1881,
£120,962,000; exports in 1882 to American
countries, £54,528,000 ; in 1881, £51,740,000;
imports from all other foreign countries in
1882, £21,576,000; in 1881, £20,969.000; ex-
ports in 1882, £13,280,000; in 1881, £15,297,-
000 ; total imports from foreign countries in
1882, £313,589,000; in 1881, £305,483,000;
total exports to foreign countries in 1882, £156,-
642,000; in 1881, £154,658,000; imports from
British possessions in 1882, £99,431,000; in
1881, £91,53'9,000; exports to British posses-
sions in 1882, £84,825,000; in 1881, £79,365,000.

The values imported and exported of the
general classes of merchandise in 1882 were as
follow :

CLASSES OF MERCHANDISE.

Imports.

Export!.

Articles of consumption
Raw materials

£183,460,000
132,138,000

£9,725,000

48,177,000

Manufactured articles

28,758,000
68,664,000

152,862,000
30,703,000

Total merchandise

£413,020,000

£241,467,000

The imports of cereals were £67,834,000 ;
of fermented drinks, £8,066,000 ; exports, £2,-
635,000; of colonial produce, £43,034,000; ot
tobacco, £2,551,000 ; of animals and animal
food-products, £44,155,000 ; of textile materi-
als £85,199,000; of timber, etc., £18,042,000;
of hides, etc., £14,154,000 ; exports of coal,
£9,565,000 ; of metals, £35,484,000 ; imports,
£12,278,000 ; of textile fabrics and dress manu-
factures, £102,786,000 ; imports, £18,365,000;
of yarns, £18,41 0,000; imports, £3,311,000; of
leather manufactures, etc., £3,488,000; imports,
£1,928,000; of vessels, machinery, locomotives,
etc., £13,621,000; of other metal manufactures,
£7,268,000; imports, £2,642,000; of glass and
pottery, £3,395,000; imports, £1,679,000 ; of
paper manufactures, £1,305,000 ; of wood and
straw manufactures, £1,419,000 ; of books, etc.,
£1,170,000 ; imports of works of art, £501,-
000 ; imports of drugs, dyes, and chemicals,
£6,636,000; exports, £6,603,000 ; imports of
resins, fats, and oils, £13,222,000 ; of fertilizers
and waste products, £1,848,000.

The quantity of wheat imported from the Uni-
ted States in 1882 was 8,180,578 quarters; from
Russia, 3,233,238; from India, 1,978,078; from
Germany, 719,581 ; from Canada, 626,460 ;
from Australasia, 577,530; from Chili, 386,-
484; from Turkey, 122,836; from Roumania,
45,404; from Egypt, 40,801 ; from other coun-
tries, 47,124; total, including flour, 16,860,084
quarters of 480 pounds, value £44,869,032.
The large supplies which unexpectedly arrived
from Russia and India had the effect of keep-
ing down the prices, and of forcing the hands
of the holders of grain in the United States.

The aggregate tonnage of sailing-vessels,
with cargoes, engaged in foreign trade, which
was entered at British ports in 1882, was 17,-
810,380 under the British, and 7,004,669 under
foreign flags; total, 24,815,049, against 23,224,-
708 in 1881, and 10,054,981 in 1860; tonnage
cleared, 20,392,626 British and 7,306,237 for-
eign; total, 27,698,863; steam tonnage en-
tered, 17,477,111 British and 3,854,333 foreign ;
total, 21,331,444, against 19,268,327 in 1881,
and 2,549 000 in 1860 ; steam tonnage cleared,
17,926,004 British and 3,987,910 foreign ; total,
21,914,814; total tonnage entered, 30,318,938;
cleared, 31,172,317. The aggregate tonnage of
coasting-vessels entered in 1882, not including
repeated voyages, was 41, 535,274; cleared, 35,-
353,775.

The following table exhibits the number of
vessels constituting the merchant marine of
Great Britain and the aggregate number com-
posing the merchant fleets of the colonies,
with their registered tonnage in thousands of
tons in 1881 and 1882 :

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

405

SAILING-VES-
SELS.

8TEAMEE8.

TOTAL.

MERCHANT MA-

RINE.

Num-

Ton-

Num-

Ton-

Num-

Ton-

b r.

nage.

ber.

nage.

ber.

nage.

United J 1881 .
Kingdom.. I 1882 .

18,780
18,368

8,640
3,577

5,492
5,795

3,001
3,332

24,272
24,163

6,641
6,909

Colonies., jjfg;

12,735
12,813

1,696
1,649

1,745

1,820

238
239

14,480
14.633

1,934

1,888

The number and tonnage, in thousands of
tons, of vessels employed in the home trade,
i. e., between ports of the United Kingdom
and on the coast of the, British Channel and
the North Sea from Brest to the mouth of the
Elbe, partly in the home and partly in the for-
eign trade, and in the foreign trade of 1882,
were as follow :

ENGAGED IN

SAILING-VES-
SELS.

8TEAMEK8.

TOTAL.

Num- | Ton-
ber. ! nage.

11,480 910
1,147 267
6,339 5,538

18,966| 6,715

Num-
ber.

Ton-
na<*e.

Num-
ber.

1,432
323
2,626

Ton-
nage.

Home trade
Home and foreign.
Foreign trade

Total

10,048
824
3,713

14,585

656
116
2,653

254
151

2,885

3,425

4,381

8,290

Railroads, Posts, and Telegraphs.— The number
of miles of railroads in operation in 1882, their
aggregate cost of construction, and the gross
and net receipts, compared with the totals for
the United Kingdom in 1881, were as follow :

UNITED
KINGDOM.

Miles.

Cost of
construction.

Gross

receipts.

Net receipts.

England and

Wales
Scotland

13,000 £635,186,000
2,940 97,750,000

£59,106,000
7,473,000

£28,178,000
3,773,000

Ireland

2,465

34,963,000j 2,811,000

1,268,000

Total 1882.
Total 18S1 .

18,405
18,175

£767,899,000
745,528,000

£69,890,000
67,155,000

£38,219,000
32,255,000

A considerable proportion of the street rail-
roads laid down in recent years have been
constructed by the municipal authorities under
the tramway act of 1870, which gives local
governments provisional authority to build,
own, and control tramways. Of a total length
of 564 miles in operation in the United King-
dom in June, 1882, 150 miles were the prop-
erty of municipalities. This plan of building
them at the expense of the municipal corpora-
tions insures a system of urban communication
better adapted to the wants of the public than
private companies would supply, besides pre-
venting the monopoly of the streets for the
profit of individuals. The roads thus con-
structed are usually leased under stringent con-
tracts to private persons.

The number of post-offices in the United
Kingdom in 1882-'83 was 15,406; persons
employed, 44,600, including 2,500 females.
The number of letters carried by the post in
1882-'83 was 1,4)78,000,000 in England and
Wales, 117,000,000 in Scotland, and 86,000,000
in Ireland— total, 1,281,000,000 ; total postal-
cards, 144,000,000; newspapers, etc., 429,000,-
000; post-office orders, 16,200,000; total value,

£26,995,000. The receipts of the post-office
in the year 1880-'81 were £6,733,427 ; expenses,
£4,135,659. The number of letters per head
of the population in the United Kingdom was
36, as compared with 21 in the United States,
15 in France, 13 in Germany, 6 in Italy, and 5
in Spain.

The telegraphs were transferred to the state
in 1870. The length of the lines in 1882 was
26,465 miles; of wires, 121,720 miles. The
number of dispatches sent was in England and
Wales 26,928,722; in Scotland, 3,244.202; in
Ireland, 1,919,102; total, 32,092,026. Thenum-
ber of offices in 1881 was 5,443. The receipts for
the year 1880-'81 amounted to £1,633,884; ex-
penses, £1,305,006. A resolution was carried
against the Government in the House of Com-
mons calling for a reduction in the rate for
messages of twenty words or less from Is. to
6d. The Government in its financial plans
made arrangements for the speedy introduction
of this reform, which has been discussed for
fifteen years.

Colonies. — The British colonial possessions,
covering about one seventh of the land-surface
of the earth, are grouped into forty adminis-
trative divisions, some of them embracing a
number of formerly separate colonies. Those
containing a large and preponderant European
population have all been endowed with self-
government, the home Government retaining
merely a veto on legislation, which is exercised
only in matters of imperial concern. They
possess representative institutions, modeled
after the English Constitution, designated re-
sponsible government. The crown appoints
the chief executive officer, called the Governor-
General in Canada and the Governor in New-
foundland, Cape Colony, and the Australian
colonies. Western Australia, Natal, Ceylon,
and the Bahama, Bermuda, Windward, and
Leeward islands, are governed by representa-
tive bodies, subject only to the veto right of
the crown, but all the administrative officers
are appointed and controlled by the home Gov-
ernment. The remaining possessions have nei-
ther responsible nor representative govern-
ment, but are. governed absolutely by the Eng-
lish Government and its representatives. Of
this class is the Empire of India, ruled by a
Governor-General under directions from the
British Government, which has a special min-
istry for Indian Affairs. The affairs of the
colonies are regulated by another department,
the Colonial Office. The crown colonies are
Gibraltar, Heligoland, Malta, Falkland islands,
Guiana, Trinidad, Ascension, Mauritius, St.
Helena, Sierra Leone, Aden and Perim, Cyprus,
Hong-Kong, Labuan, Straits Settlements, Fee-
jee islands, and Rotumah, in which the execu-
tive head is called a Governor ; Jamaica, with
Turks islands, where he is designated Captain-
General ; and Gambia, the Gold Coast, and
Lagos, in which the delegate of the crown au-
thority is termed Administrator. The annual
cost of the colonies to the British Government

406

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

is something over £2,000,000, chiefly for mili-
tary and naval expenses, and mainly disbursed
in the nine military and naval stations of Gib-
raltar, Malta, Cape Colony and Natal, Mauri-
tius, Bermuda, St. Helena, Cyprus, and Hong-
Kong.

The following table gives the area and popu-
lation of the colonies, dependencies, and mili-
tary and naval stations composing the British
colonial empire, with the statistics of com-
merce and finance in 1881 of most of the
colonies :

Area,

rHOTJSANDB 0

f POUNDS

STEELING.

Navigation,

sq. miles.

Revenue.

Disbursement*.

Debt.

Imports.

Exports.

of tons.

Heligoland ....

2,001

Gibraltar

18,881

46

45

7,633

Malta

149,782

186

188

846

19,097

17,820

7,705

Total Europe

126$

170,164

4,200

186.084

India ::..::.:.....:.:...

8TT,959

198,508,793

72,560

76,604

157,389

62,114

75,995

6,469

Ceylon

24,702

2,758,529

1,283

1,269

1,942

4,418

8,81:3

3070

Straits Settlements

1,445

423,384

456

442

77

15,862

13,074

5,101

32

160,402

276

204

5,686

Labuan

80

6,298

5

7

182

195

22

22,009

150.000

Aden

12

84,860

Perim

5

'50

Total Asia*

930,394

202,228,400

New South Wales....
Victoria

309,115

8T,S84

781,265

882,232

]

668,224

226,968

South Australia

903,425

295,767

}- 20,604

19,141

95,966

52,709

48 369

9504

Western Australia

975,920

80,013

1

26375

118,923

New Zealand

104,403

500,210

I

Feejee islands . ...

8,034

128,511

81

91

210

186

230

66

Kotuinah

14

2,680

Total Australasiat

8 083,454

8,066,366

221,950

1,249,824

4835

5,472

13,262

9787

4,424

1 849

Natal

18,750

41 ,167

440

895

1,682

1.913

768

441

Sierra Leone

468

60,546

70

72

78

374

366

326

69

14,150

24

22

143

140

135

Gold Coast

600

408,070

120

87

887

482

841

Lagos . ..."....

78

75,270

42

45

1

834

460

332

St. Helena

47

5,059

12

13

10

81

30

130

Mauritius

713
34

377,373
27

781

760

837

2,506

8,572

544

Total Africa:}:

248,104

2,603,486

Dominion of Canada
Newfoundland.

8,470,392
40,200

4.324,810
179,509

6,174
218

7,016
217

32,374
281

21,944
1 430

20,477
1629

8,104
644

Bermudas

19

13.948

32

82

9

266

X 88

224

Honduras

7,562

27,452

44

41

202

247

149

Bahamas

5,390

43,521

41

44

58

168

114

220

169

4,732

8

7

27

26

157

Caicos islands

213

1,W8

Jamaica.

4,193

580 804

563

679

921

1,898

1 179

794

225

24(10

703

11 9 826

112

111

75

450

615

776

Windward islands

830

811,413

250

250

47

1 567

1 665

1 010

Trinidad

1,754

153,123

465

500

501

2,226

2099

834

British Guiana
Falkland islands

76,000
6,5'JO

253,186
1553

403

7

421
7

« 422

1,784
84

2,597
89 '

520
54

Total America

3,614,160

6,017,160

Total British possessions. .

7,849,575

214,086,850

* Not including the Kuria Muria islands, Mosha, Kamaran, and Keeling islands, the total area of which is less than one
hundred square miles.

t Not including the Chatham islands. Norfolk island, and the islands of Auckland. Lord Howe, Caroline. Starbuck, Mai-
den, and Fanning. The natives of Australia, estimated at 55,000, and the Maoris of New Zealand, numbering 44,000, are
not included.

$ Not including Whale Bay, Tristan da Cunha, New Amsterdam, and St. Paul.

The railroad mileage in operation in British
colonies at the beginning of 1882 was as follows :

COLONIES. Miles.

British India 9,875

Canada 7,260

Australia, etc 5,426

Cape Colony 959

Ceylon 178

Natal , . 98i

Mauritius 82

COLONIES.

Trinidad

Jamaica

Guiana

Miles.

Total.

The telegraph lines of India, Ceylon, Austral-
asia, and Cape Colony, had an aggregate length
of 53,156 miles.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

407

The Army.— The army estimates for 1883-'84
provide for the following forces, constituting
the peace establishment of the British imperial
army :

Officers
PEACE FOOTING. and men.

Cavalry 16,993

Artillery 84,044

Engineers 5,732

Infantry 132,004

Colonial corps 2,475

Administrative troops 8.025

Total regular army 199,273

Regular-army reserve 43,000

Yeomanry and militia : 351,793

Volunteers 246, 180

Indian native army 120,882

Total 761,133

The distribution of the regular army, as pro-
posed in the army estimates, is as follows :

STATIONED IN— Number.

The United Kingdom 111.058

India 61,641

Gibraltar 5.193

Malta 5,932

South Africa > 3,343

Halifax 2,263

Antilles 2,867

Bermudas ". 1 ,594

Hong-Kong 1,214

Ceylon 1.236

Singapore 1 ,023

Other colonies 2,404

Total regular army 199,273

The total number of troops with the colors,
on Feb. 23, 1883, was 196,232.

There is a force of military police, 14,000
strong, not provided for in the army estimates ;
also, a native military police in India, number-
ing 190,000 men, the superior officers of which
are English. Most of the colonies have militia
and volunteer organizations.

The scarlet uniform, which has for many
generations been worn by British troops, is
about to be discarded, in accordance with the
report of a committee of military and scientific
experts, notwithstanding the sentimental at-
tachment of a large portion of the public
to the traditional color of conservative mili-
tary circles, represented by the Duke of Cam-
bridge, who, during the discussion, discoursed
with effusive feeling of the " thin red line " of
the British army in the field. Out of consid-
eration for this sentiment, and for the attract-
iveness of the bright colors to recruits, the
committee recommended that the red uniforms,
with pipe-clayed belts, together with the blue
uniforms of the marines and green ones of the
rifle corps, be retained for full dress. The
committee found a dark shade of the Ichalcee,
or earth-color, in use in the Indian army,
and a darkish gray, equally invisible at long
distances ; but recommended that the gray be

I adopted as the uniform color, with brown for
the belts and haversacks, since it proved a more
permanent dye than the Tchalcee.

TROOPS AND CREWS. Number.

Seamen 40,554

Boys 4,804

Marines (one half afloat) 12,400

Eoyal naval reserve 21,750

Total 79,508

Of the 240 vessels constituting the active
navy in September, 1883, 128 were stationed
in British waters, viz., 6 ironclads constituting
the Channel fleet, and 9 constituting, with 6
other steamers, the first reserve ; 27 vessels in
port service, 39 school-ships, 4 royal ynchts, 1 •
steamer on hydrographic service, 28 sailing-ves-
sels, forming with the first reserve the coast-
guard, and 8 vessels out of commission ; 20
constituted the Mediterranean fleet, but this
was temporarily increased by vessels detailed
from the home station and elsewhere to 13
ironclads and 31 other vessels, together 44 ; 2
ironclads, 14 other steamers, and 1 sailing-ves-
sel were stationed on the east coast of Ameri-
ca ; 1 ironclad, 6 steamers, and 1 sailing-vessel
on the west coast of America ; 8 vessels in
Southern and Western Africa ; 13 in India and
Eastern Africa; 20, including 1 ironclad, in
Chinese waters; 6, including 1 ironclad, on the
Australian station ; 5 were employed in hydro-
graphic service, 5 were on the return voyage,
and the remaining 10 were transports.

The armor-clad fleet numbered 3 iron-, 3
steel-plated, and 2 turret- ships of 10,000 tons
and over ; 8 iron- and 3 steel-plated frigates, 2
of the latter unfinished, and 6 iron- and 2 steel-
clad turret-ships of between 8,000 and 10,000
tons; 14 ironclads, 2 building, in steel, and 1
ram of special construction of from 6,000 to
8,000 tons; 4 battle-ships, 1 turret- ship, and 2
rams of from 4,000 to 6,000 tons; and 7 tur-
reted and 3 other ironclads of less than 4,000
tons' displacement, fit only for coast and har-
bor defense. Of the large vessels 12 are too
lightly armored, and carry guns too small for
ocean warfare, though most of them are swift
and efficient as cruisers. Besides the vessels
enumerated above, which make an efficient
iron-clad fleet of 61 vessels, there are 9 which
are relegated to the harbor service and 3 small
ironclads which were built for colonial defense.
Of the efficient navy 11 are turret and barbette
ships of the heaviest armor and guns, among
the strongest in the world, and 9 are smaller
battle-ships of equally modern construction.

Finance. — The net revenues from various
sources are stated in the finance accounts for
the year ending March 81, 1883, as follow :

SOURCES OF REVENUE. Amount.

The Navy. — The personnel of the navy, ac-
cording to the navy estimates of 1883-'84, is
as follows :

tuamns 11,841,000

Btamps * *

Land and house taxes i?'85'88

Property and income tax 11,900,000

Post-Office •' 7,300.000

Telegraph service

Domains • •

Interest on local advances and Suez shares

Miscellaneous receipts ^

Total receipts, 18S2-183 £89,004,456

The expenditures under the various heads
are given as follow :

408

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

BRANCHES OF EXPENDITURE. Amount.

Public debt £29,679,097

Civillist 408,541

Courts of justice 502,680

Other charges on the consolidated fund 630,778

Public works MMS

Civil departments 2,390,402

Justice, police, and prisons 6,642,145

Public instruction, science, and arts 4,581,867

Foreign affairs 67^,312

Other civil-service expenses 1,218,659

Army *. 15,502,351

Charges on account of troops in India 1,100,000

Navy 10,408,904

Grant to India for Afghan war 500,000

Armed forces in the Mediterranean 2,300,000

Egyptian expedition 1,595,500

South African military expenses 14,000

Customs and inland-revenue service 2,870,201

Post- Office 8,828,500

Telegraphs 1,510,000

Paeketservice T19,625

Total expenditure, 1882-'S8

The revenue per head of the population was
£2 9*., as compared with £2 8*. 7d. in 1881.
£2 7«. I0d. for the five years 1876-'80, £2 6s.
Wd. for 1871-76, and £2 6s. 3d. for 1866-'70.

There have been many reductions in the rates
of taxation within twenty years. The change
of the malt duties and brewers' license-tax in
1881 to a beer duty and publicans' licenses
effected an increase in the revenue from these
sources from £8,444,401 to £9,095,040. The
probate duties imposed in 1881 yielded £700,-
000, and the increase in the income-tax £1,800,-
000. The repeal of legacy duties and reduc-
tion of the income-tax in 1882 lessened the
revenues by £2,624,000, which was partly made
good by the £654,500 produced by the addi-
tional probate duties. Before 1877, incomes
above £100 paid income-tax. In that year ex-
emption was extended to incomes not exceed-
ing £150, with £120 abatement on those below
£400. The gross amount of incomes assessed
in 1880 was £576,896,901. The rate of the
tax is altered almost yearly, according to the
exigencies of the treasury. The amount pro-
duced by the tax varied from £4,109,000 in
1876, when the rate was 2d. in the pound, to
£10,650,000 in 1881, when it was 6&, or 2£
per cent.

The state of the public debt on the 31st of
March, 1883, was as follows :

Consolidated debt £712,698,994

Terminable annuities 29,492,125

Unfunded debt 14,185,400

Total £756,376,519

Adding the deficits due to savings-banks
(£1,804,417), and deducting the approximate
value of the Suez Canal shares (£32,491,600),
the actual debt amounted to £725,689,336.
The amount to be applied to the interest and
reduction of the debt was fixed by the act of
1875 at £28,000,000, to be maintained by an-
nual votes of Parliament.

In 1885 annuities, £5,200,000 in amount, ex-
pire, freeing so much of the revenue, which
could be applied either to the reduction of
taxes or to the amortization of the national
debt. The Government determined to devote
the entire annual sum to this latter purpose,

and obtained the authorization of Parliament
to replace the expiring annuities with new
terminable annuities, which will reduce the
capital of the debt £173,000,000 in twenty
years. The operation will not be transacted
in the open market, but through the medium of
the Court of Chancery, which has its funds,
amounting to £40,000,000, invested in consols,
and of the National Debt Commissioners, who
hold national debt stock on account of the
Savings-Bank. The £40,000,000 of Chancery
stock is to be canceled and replaced by an an-
nuity of £2,674,168. running twenty years; of
the Savings-Bank stock, £30,244,000 will be
canceled at once and converted into three an-
nuities of £1,200,000 each, for five, ten, and
fifteen years respectively, which on expiration
will be renewed, and increased by amounts
representing the interest of the canceled stock,
and equivalent amounts of consols canceled,
the entire sum being £133,019,208. The an-
nual sum of £28,000,000 established as the
annual debt charge is thus continued. The
reduction proceeding through the operation
of the unexpired life and terminable annuities,
and the new and old sinking funds, is not in-
terfered with. If the extinction of capital
stock effected through the new annuities causes
3 per cent, consols to rise above par, the ad-
visability of an operation for the reduction of
the rate of interest might become a subject
for practical consideration.

The receipts of the local administrations of
the three kingdoms, for the year 1880-'81, were
as follow :

LOCAL RECEIPTS.

England
and Wales.

Scotland.

Ireland.

United
Kingdom.

Rates

Pounds.
26,818,914
5,018,227
1,017,544

2,708,328
12,937,528
5,366,502

53,867,043

Pounds.
2,831,000
1,059,000
292,000

546,000
905,000
414,000

6,047,000

Pounds.

2,657,482
454,370
69,640

114,857
401,504
174,446

3,ST2,249

Pounds.

32,307,346

6,531,597
1,379,184

3,369,185
14,244,032
5,954,948

63,786,292

Tolls, dues, etc. . . .
Public property. . . .
Government contri-
butions

Miscellaneous
Total

The total expenditures by local and munici-
pal administrations were as follow :

LOCAL EXPENDI-
TURES.

England
and Wales.

Scotland.

Ireland.

United
Kingdom.

Public charity
Municipal govern-
ment, police, and
public health
Other expenditures

Total

9,058,019

35,020,941
9,318,346

53,397,306

Pounds.
922,348

2,665,000
2,353,796

5,941,144

Pounds.
1,129,581

2,070,415
737,837

3,937,833

Pounds.

11,109,948

39.756,356

12,409,979

"637276,283

Session of Parliament. — The fourth session of
the present Parliament, the tenth of the reign
of Queen Victoria, was opened by commission
February 15th. The Queen's speech expressed
gratitude to the army and navy for the sup-
pression of " a formidable rebellion in Egypt,"
and said that the Arrangements for the recon-
stitution of the Government of Egypt would

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

409

be submitted to the consideration of the Sultan
and the powers. The restoration of Cetewayo
was justified as a guarantee of peace and order.
Continued improvement in the social condition
of Ireland was shown in the sensible diminu-
tion of agrarian crime and the regular enforce-
ment of the law ; at the same time, the exist-
ence of dangerous secret societies called for
unremitting vigilance on the part of the Exec-
utive. The legislative programme embraced
bills on the subjects of a criminal code, crimi-
nal appeal, bankruptcy, patents, corrupt prac-
tices, perpetuation of the ballot act, etc. The
establishment of municipal government in the
metropolis was promised, and reforms of local
government in other parts of the United King-
dom, if time permitted. Other measures, to
conciliate the neglected constituencies of Great
Britain, were bills relating to police and uni-
versities in Scotland, and to education in
Wales ; while, as a peace-offering to the Irish,
some of their legislative wants, not yet pro-
vided for, were to be dealt with. To the
tenant-farmers of England and Scotland was
extended the promise of compensation for
agricultural improvements.

The fourth session is usually regarded as a
critical period in the life of a ministry. The
Government had provided itself with a new
machinery of legislative procedure, in order to
redeem the pledges and bring up arrears of
legislation. A debate on the Queen's address,
extending over eleven sittings, eight of which
were taken up with the discussion of Irish
affairs, followed by a long wrangle over the
question of admission to Parliament, the free
ventilation of Irish grievances, questions with-
out end, attacks from the skirmishing "fourth
party," and the resort to more obstructive and
troublesome tactics by members of the regular
Opposition, unchecked by Sir Stafford North-
cote, were in a measure the result of cutting
loose from the traditions of the House, and
introducing stringent disciplinary regulations.
Yet the Government was afraid to apply the
cloture, though out-of-doors the ministers com-
plained of obstruction.

The novelty of grand committees worked
clumsily. Frequent changes in the order of
business made by the Government provoked
discussion and opposition, and the concurrent
activity of the grand committees and the
House confused the work of legislation. The
procedure of the committees was intended to
'be more business-like than the forms of the
House, but in the end the committees devel-
oped into a mere duplication of the House of
Commons. The committee-room is provided
with benches for the members of the two par-
ties on each side, from which they rise to
speak and address the Chair. The experiment
of "devolution" was hardly successful. Of
the four bills referred to the grand commit-
tees, three were sent back to the House of
Commons, of which two afterward became
law ; but, owing to the pressure of other busi-

ness, not one had been considered on report at
the close of July, while the House of Lords
had not received any of those or other minis-
terial measures of the first rank. In August,
the legislation of the session was rushed
through the thin and dwindling House with
a precipitant hurry that furnished, in the
speeches of the Opposition during the recess,
one of the chief points in their arraignment
of the Government. The London municipal-
ity, criminal code, river conservancy, ballot
perpetuation, and criminal appeal bills fell to
the ground. The Government sustained sev-
eral remarkable defeats, such as the resolu-
tions in favor of the reduction of local taxation
and of restrictions on cattle-importation on
account of foot-and-mouth disease, which were
distinctly Conservative proposals, and notably
the rejection of the affirmation bill ; also the
motion in favor of sixpenny telegrams, the re-
jection of Mr. Childers's plan for collection of
the income-tax, and the abandonment of the
Suez Canal agreement on account of the pub-
lic hostility it provoked. The explosives, af-
firmation, national debt, and Scotch local gov-
ernment board bills interrupted the regular
programme announced in the address. The
more important of the positive fruits of the
session were the agricultural-holdings bill for
England and Scotland, the corrupt-practices
bill, the bankruptcy bill, the patents bill, and
the national-debt bill.

The Affirmation Bill.— On the first day of the
session the Speaker read a letter from Mr.
Bradlaugh, announcing 'that he would present
himself to take the oath. Lord Hartington
gave an assurance that the Attorney-General
would at once bring in an affirmation bill. Mr.
Labouchere, the junior member for North-
ampton, engaged that his colleague would take
no further step till the fate of the bill was
decided. A bill to amend the law relating to
parliamentary oaths was accordingly intro-
duced, allowing any member who objected to
the oath to substitute for it a simple affirma-
tion. Notice of opposition was given, though
on former occasions Sir Stafford North cote
had called upon the Government to settle the
question by legislation. The chief obstacle to
the bill was that it was supposed to be ex-
torted by Mr. Bradlaugh's menaces. Public
feeling in the constituencies caused many
among the ministerial majority to abstain
from voting, and a certain number to vote
against the bill. The motion for the second
reading was defeated in a very full House,
292 against 289. On the following day Mr.
Bradlaugh again wrote to the Speaker, claim-
ing his right to take the oath. The Speaker"
asked instructions, and then Sir" Stafford North-
cote moved that " Mr. Bradlaugh be not per-
mitted to go through the form of repeating the
words of the oath." Mr. Bradlaugh pleaded
his cause from before the bar. The motion
was carried by a large majority.

On Mr. Bradlaugh's announcement that he

410

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

considered the action of the House invalid, the
order to the Sergeant-at-Arms to exclude him
was revived. He then, after an attempt to
enter the House, brought an action against the
Sergeant-at-Arms, as a means of having his
status determined by the courts. On the 9th
of April, in the case brought against Mr. Brad-
laugh to recover penalties for unlawfully sit-
ting and voting in the House of Commons, it
was finally decided that only the crown, not
a common informer, could sue for the penal-
ties. In December, Mr. Bradlaugh won his
suit against the Sergeant-at-Arms for unlaw-
fully ejecting him from the House on August
3d;" for, though the authority of the House is
absolute, it has provided no ordinance to pro-
tect its officers in carrying out such of its or-
ders as contravene the common law.

Act against Corrnpt Practices at Elections.— The
bill against corrupt and illegal practices at elec-
tions contains stringent provisions to check
treating, bribery, undue influence, and per-
sonation. The detection of corrupt practices
disqualifies the candidate for sitting in Parlia-
ment, voting, or holding an office, for seven
years, and for ever representing the constitu-
ency in which the offense is committed. Brib-
ery, treating, and undue influence, are mis-
demeanors, punishable with a year's impris-
onment. Mr. Parnell and his friends rais d
unavailing objections to the elastic character
of the latter offense. Personation is made a
felony. A maximum sum is set, beyond which
election expenses can not be incurred. The
legitimate expenses of election are minutely
regulated. Conveying voters to the polls in
vehicles is forbidden. Excessive payments,
employment, and hiring are prohibited in care-
ful terms. Mr. Broadhurst, the working-men's
representative, proposed to have election ex-
penses defrayed out of the rates, but Mr. Glad-
stone refused, on the ground that it would be
a breach of faith with the Opposition. The
expected effect of the measure is to reduce the
cost of a general election from £2,500,000 to
£800,000.

Compensation for Tenants' Improvements, — The
agricultural-holdings bills encountered the op-
position of the land-owning interest and of the
liberal advocates of free contract. Several or-
ganizations for the remedy of defects in the
landlord and tenant laws pressed the subject
on the attention of the Government, notably
the Farmers' Alliance. Compensation for ten-
ants' improvements was recognized as a right
inalienable in ordinary cases by contract ; the
measure was to be the value of the improve-
ment to the incoming tenant. For the execu-
tion of permanent improvements the landlord's
consent was required ; temporary improve-
ments could be carried out without consent,
although for drainage-works the tenant was
required to give notice to the landlord, with
the option to the latter of executing the work
himself and charging interest on the outlav.
The Duke of Richmond's amendment, exclud-

ing from the value of improvements to be as-
sessed whatever is due to the " inherent quali-
ties of the soil," was accepted. The Marquis
of Salisbury only yielded the last day of the
session on an amendment depriving tenants
of compensation for improvements undertaken
for the implied consideration of a reduction of
rent. The power of distress was limited by
the act to one year's rent, with exemption of
breeding-stock, etc.

Bankruptcy Bill.— The distinctive feature of
Mr. Chamberlain's bankruptcy bill ia the offi-
cial examination of the circumstances of in-
solvency. There are sixty official receivers,
created for the purpose of inquiring into the
conduct of the bankrupt, and exercising a su-
pervision over the collection and division of
the assets, so as to insure fair treatment to all
the parties concerned.

Patent Law.— For many years, unfavorable
comparisons with the American patent laws
have been common, and demands made for
measures better calculated to encourage inven-
tion. The new patent law, going into opera-
tion Jan. 1, 1884, reduces the charges from £25
for three years to £4 for four years. For the
full term of fourteen years, however, the fees
amount to £154. Instead of making seven
different visits to the patent-office, the inventor
need only file his declaration and provisional
specification, and then within nine months the
definite specification. The documents, with
£1 stamp attached to the first and £3 to the
second, may be sent by post. The preliminary
specifications are officially examined as to pri-
ority and patentability, and the complete speci-
fications are made public, and rival claims
must be brought in before two months ; other-
wise the patent is issued. After the lapse of
the term of fourteen years, an extension for
seven or fourteen years may be obtained.
Foreigners can take out patents in their own
names. The jurisdiction of the Lord Chancel-
lor, Master of Rolls, and Attorney-General, who
as Commissioners of Patents had the direction
of the department, is abolished, except in ap-
peals on legal points. The business is intrusted
instead to a Controller-General of Patents, sub-
ordinated to the Board of Trade. If a pat-
entee is unwilling to work his invention, the
President of the Board of Trade can issue li-
censes to other parties, who remunerate the
inventor at rates assessed by valuers. A pat-
ent can be annulled on the establishment of
priority by another, but the contestant, in case
his suit fails, is liable for damages. A patent
can cover only a single invention.

The patent law contains provisions for the
protection of designs, models, and trade-marks.
Protection for designs lasts five years from the
date of registration. A design which is in use
in a foreign country must be registered in Great
Britain within six months to obtain protection.
No distinction is made between ornamental
and useful designs ; but such of the latter as
consist in a mechanical action must be patented.

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

411

The protection of registered trade-marks lasts
fourteen years. Firm-names, when printed or
stamped in peculiar and distinctive characters,
monograms, and fanciful words, are subjects of
protection as trade-marks.

Labor Legislation.— The success of the British
working-men in obtaining legislation to cor-
rect particular abuses, through their powerful
trades-unions and their representatives in Par-
liament, deters them from engaging in the dis-
contented agitations for sweeping theoretical
reforms which are rife in other countries, and
formerly were in England. The measures for
their benefit and protection are gained only
by contests with equally powerful and vigilant
organizations which claim vested interests in
prescriptive practices. Even the law against
paying wages in public-houses, which was car-
ried by the efforts of the trades-unionists,
though not needed for themselves, since they
insist on wages being paid on the premises, en-
countered vigorous opposition from the Liberty
and Property Defense League and the Licensed
Victuallers' Association. An act prohibiting
girls under fourteen years of age from work-
ing at forges was opposed by the Government
and rejected, in spite of the earnest representa-
tions of the trades-union representatives. Reg-
ulations for the sanitary protection of workers
in white-lead factories and bake-houses were
enacted, though contested warmly, as undue
legislative interference. The provisions of the
bankruptcy act were also extended in a limited
way to workmen, who can secure a discharge
in bankruptcy and have £20 worth of tools
and household goods exempt; but the trades-
men's associations secured a provision author-
izing the judge to issue an order against future
wages. The same act gives the workman a
preferred claim against a bankrupt employer's
estate for £50, or four months' wages, instead
of two months' wages as formerly, thus placing
him on the same footing as clerks. A fishing-
boats' act protects apprentices from cruelties
as revolting as any in the records of slavery,
and was suggested by heinous instances re-
cently come to light. The employers' liability
act does not work, yet the efforts of the trades-
unionists to procure its amendment were futile.
The number of cases decided under the act
was greater in the second year of its operation
than in 1881, 320 against 126; of these not
quite half were won by the plaintiff, or settled
out of court.

Criminal Code Bill.— The bill to codify the laws
of criminal procedure was loaded with amend-
ments, and finally dropped in committee. It
was a significant measure, embodying among
the recommendations of the royal commission
on procedure some of the remarkable innova-
tions, borrowed from the practice of Conti-
nental countries, which were already intro-
duced in the extraordinary legislation for Ire-
land. They were suggested by the discovery
of explosives at Birmingham, and other evi-
dences of conspiracy in England. One section

allowed magistrates to hold inquiries where no
one was accused of crime. The Continental
system of examining suspected persons was in-
troduced, and trial before a special jury against
the will of the prisoner was proposed. The doc-
trine of constructive criminality was extended.

Minor Legislation. — The explosives act, intro-
duced after the dynamite discoveries in Bir-
mingham, was brought in on the 9th of April,
•and passed through all its stages in both Houses
the same day. In the bills granting pensions
to Lords Wolseley and Alcester the Radicals
and Land-Leaguers forced the Government to
substitute lump sums of £25,000 for annuities.
Sir Wilfrid Lawson's annual resolution in favor
of local option received for the first time the
formal approval of the Government and was
carried. The long-decried contagious diseases
acts were finally rescinded, some members of
the Government declining to support them.
The regular motion in favor of woman suffrage
found this year 114 supporters to 133 oppo-
nents. A bill to suppress pigeon-shooting
passed the lower House but was thrown ou.t
in the House of Lords. The bill to allow mar-
riage with a deceased wife's sister was de-
feated in the House of Lords by parliamentary
strategy. The committee of ten, one half
from each House, appointed to consider the
advisability of sanctioning the Channel tunnel,
reported, July 10th, against the scheme on stra-
tegic grounds.

Irish Legislation. — By skillful and cautious tac-
tics, allying themselves as far as was consistent
with the Conservatives in their assaults on the
Government, and by utilizing every point of
agreement on Irish affairs with any of the sec-
tions of the Liberal and Conservative parties,
and the desire of the Government to avoid a col-
lision, the Irish party succeeded in having the
Irish legislation of the year largely modified
to suit their views, though the Government re-
fused to entertain their proposals to reopen the
questions assumed to be settled by the land
act, to repeal the land act, and to relieve the
distress in the west by public improvements
and migration. They arrested the passage of
the criminal code bill, and of Irish Sunday -clos-
ing and police bills. An Irish registration bill,
opposed by the Conservatives as a measure for
extending the franchise, was accepted by the
Government ; it was crowded out, but pledges
were given to reintroduce it in the next session.
Although the principle of relief-works was os-
tensibly rejected by the ministry, it was em-
bodied in two Irish bills. One of these, the
tramways bill, for constructing, with the aid
of a state guarantee, tramways and light rail-
ways and for other purposes, embraced a pro-'
posal for state-aided emigration. This was
vigorously opposed by the Irish members, who
forced the Government to make a state grant
for the trial of. their alternative scheme of mi-
gration. The other bill provides for the im-
provement of fisheries on the Irish coast by the
construction of piers and harbors with funds

412

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

advanced from the Irish Church surplus. T. P.
O'Connor's laborers' bill enables the rural
sanitary authorities to provide dwellings for
laborers through the medium of the Board of
Works by treasury loans.

A section of the Liberal party showed a de-
sire to give a wide extension to the principle of
local self-government.

The Conservatives pressed for the amend-
ment of the Bright or purchase clauses of the
land act, asking to have the Government ex-
tend more liberal loans and otherwise encour-
age the peasants to buy their holdings before
they become further depreciated.

The amendments offered by the Land League
proposed to make judicial rent run from the
date of application, to give the court power to
suspend proceedings for ejectment pending the
determination of a fair rent, and to declare im-
provements to be by presumption the tenant's
property. Mr. Parnell proposed furthermore
to admit to the benefit of the act the leasehold-
ers, 100,000 of the flower of the Irish tenantry,
who are now for the most part rack-rented.

Foreign and Colonial Policy. — Egyptian affairs
were made the subject of pertinacious inquiry
in Parliament, rather than of direct attacks,
except by Irish and independent members.

On July 10th the agreement made provision-
ally with M. de Lesseps, recognizing the exclu-
sive right to build a canal on the isthmus,
was communicated to Parliament. The storm
which it excited raged more violently outside
the House of Commons than inside. (See SU-
EZ CANAL.) The South African policy of the
Government was more vigorously assailed than
the Egyptian policy, in which it was credited
with having carried out Lord Beaconsfield's
ideas, and, as being in some sense still " under
fire," was not to be closely criticised, provided
Egypt were not relinquished. (See CAPE COL-
ONY.)

Of the questions raised regarding French ac-
tion in Tonquin, on the Congo, and in Mada-
gascar, the ministry treated that of Mr. Shaw's
arrest only as a matter of direct concern. Rep-
aration was secured in the form of an indem-
nity to the missionary. In all questions of
foreign policy great care was taken to avoid
wounding French susceptibilities. The Ilbert
bill aroused in and out of Parliament the most
intense and resolute opposition of any part of
the Government's policy. The Government
adhered obstinately to the measure until the
end of the year, but only to yield at last and
offer a compromise, which was still not accept-
able. (See INDIA.)

Political Parties.— The tendency of the Minis-
terial party in 1883 was to follow more and
more the counsels of the advanced and stal-
wart section, particularly of Mr. Joseph Cham-
berlain, who conducted the most difficult and
important legislation of the session. The plan
of closer party co-operation in Jhe constituen-
cies has worked better since the novelty wore
off, and the organizations assumed a less arti-

ficial form. The Conservatives, who at first
loudly decried the u caucus," and predicted the
demoralization and " Americanization " of poli-
tics, imitated it themselves by founding Con-
servative clubs. The Radical section of the
Liberals was ready with a programme for the
session of 1884 soon after Parliament. It was
the assimilation of the borough and county fran-
chise first, and a London municipality next.

The Conservatives continued to be led by the
Marquis of Salisbury in the House of Lords, and
by Sir Stafford Northcote in the House of Com-
mons. Commotion in political circles was cre-
ated by a letter from the pen of Lord Randolph
Churchill, printed in the " Times " in April,
calling upon the party to decide on one of
these or on Lord Cairns for its leader, and ad-
vocating the claims of Lord Salisbury. The
latter, without assuming such pre-eminence,
was more strenuous and active than ever, and
rallied about him the more vigorous spirits of
the party. Sir Stafford Northcote, after the
close of Parliament, attempted a Mid-Lothian
compaign in Belfast, but only succeeded in
arousing dangerous political and religious pas-
sions, and stirring the fires of hereditary strife
in Ulster. The party suffered from the ill-
health of its leader in the popular House.
Conservative successes in some of the by-
elections indicated dissatisfaction with the
course of the Government in some particu-
lars, but were not sufficiently marked to pre-
sage a return to Conservative guidance. The
Marquis of Salisbury's gloomy warnings of
the destruction of the Constitution, confiscation
and communism, and Americanization of Brit-
ish institutions, met with no popular response.
His party offered no positive programme, no
constructive ideas with which they could ap-
peal to the constituencies. The scheme of
tenement-house reform, the propositions to
lighten local taxation, and vague and imma-
ture projects to protect the British farmer,
are the principal bids for popular support.

The Irish National Party.— The conflict between
the Government and the Irish leaders was not
renewed in 1883. The latter ceased their agra-
rian agitation, because the farmers were in a
measure satisfied with the advantages secured
under the land act. Warned by the revela-
tions of conspiracy and the hideous crimes, for
which the Land League was made answerable,
they perceived that the active agitation of the
national question would appeal chiefly to the
desperate revolutionary minority, and result
in the relentless destruction of their organiza-
tion by the English Government. The land
act embodied the principles on which they
proposed to settle the land question.

The most remarkable incident of the debates
was the controversy between Mr. Forster and
Mr. Parnell in the debate on the address. The
ex-Chief' Secretary for Ireland, on February
22d, rose to explain the motives for his resig-
nation. The main reason he declared to be
his inability to obtain the powers he desired.

GKEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

413

He suspected the Land League of a connection
with agrarian crimes. The Government called
upon him to release the imprisoned leaders
without requiring a puhlic promise, which he
expected, if given, would have the effect of
detaching the violent section from the Land
League, and of shutting off the contributions
from America. Sheridan, whom the Land-
Leaguers proposed to employ to pacify the
west of Ireland peasants, he knew to be a con-
spirator in secret societies. Mr. Forster now
reiterated his suspicions of the Land-Leaguers,
charging Mr. Parnell with either conniving at
outrages, or, when warned and informed by
facts, deliberately remaining in ignorance, and
taking no pains to ascertain what was going
on. He renewed the charge that the faint
expressions of disapproval on the part of the
Land-League orators operated as an encour-
agement to murder and outrage. Mr. Parnell
replied in a contemptuous tone, prefacing bis
explanation by saying that he did not expect
to make any impression on the opinion of the
House, or English public opinion, and only de-
sired to set himself right before the people of
Ireland. He said that, since the passage of
the crimes act, he had taken very little part in
Irish politics, because such a state of affairs
was created by the act that, between the Gov-
ernment and the secret societies, it was impos-
sible for a constitutional agitation to exist.

In October, 1882, the "Irish World" de-
clared the Land-League fund to be closed, and
stated the amount sent to Mr. Egan at $342,-
548. This organ of the Irish Nationalists of
America henceforth attacked Mr. Parnell and
his party for not adopting the views of Michael
Davitt and Henry George. It frequently called
for an accounting from the treasurer of the
League. Charges of misappropriation were
echoed by Lady Florence Dixie, who, some time
later, March 17th, puzzled the English police
by a sensational account of a desperate attempt
to assassinate her at her country residence near
Windsor. Patrick Egan declared, in a letter
to the "Irish World," at the beginning of
January, that the total sum expended out of
the Land-League funds for election expenses
was £2,550.

When Parliament met Mr. Healy was still in
prison, and became the subject of earnest pro-
tests from his fellow -partisans. An ancient
precedent was brought forward, which excludes
refusal to give sureties to keep the peace, as
, well as treason and felony, from the privilege
of Parliament. On the 4th of June he was re-
leased, together with Messrs. Davitt and Quin.
Henceforward Mr. Healy took the lead of the
aggressive section of the Irish party in Parlia-
ment, and in stinging taunts and embarrassing
tactics showed himself a master.

The influence of the Irish party was shown
in the elections, and by other signs, to have
extended until it was no longer possible to
question their claim to be the representatives
of the Irish people. In the County Monaghan,

previously represented by Liberals, Mr. Healy
won a memorable victory, coming out at the
head of the poll, July 2d. His former constit-
uency, Wexford, returned Mr. Redmond by a
large majority over the O'Connor Don. Even
in Ulster the majority of the tenantry had gone
over to Parnell.

On May22d the " Kerry Sentinel," in the of-
fice of which a printer had prepared a handbill
adjudged to be seditious, was confiscated under
the crimes act, and the editor, Mr. Edward Har-
rington, was sentenced to six months' impris-
onment.

The friends of Mr. Parnell raised by sub-
scription a fund to be handed over for his own
use, as a national testimonial. In May a papal
circular was issued, discountenancing the col-
lection, an action in which the Pope was de-
clared by the Irish party to have been influ-
enced by the English Government through Mr.
Errington. The admonition had but a slight
effect in discouraging subscriptions. When the
fund was finally delivered to Mr. Parnell, De-
cember llth, it amounted to £38,000.

The Nationalist orators, in stumping the
country after the close of the session, met with
manifestations of confidence and enthusiasm
more general than were exhibited during the
heat of the land-conflict. Mr. Davitt was as
popular as his former associates, addressing
audiences of twenty thousand in Ballybriggan,
Waterford, and Cashel. The Castle authori-
ties furnished a fresh subject for invectives
by suppressing meetings in County Clare. As
the excitement increased, the Executive ap-
plied its authority more rigorously, and sup-
pressed League meetings throughout Munster,
Leinster, and Connaught ; but in Ulster, where
the National meetings could not well be sup-
pressed without interdicting at the same time
the excited " loyal " demonstrations, the hostile
factions were left for a long time to their con-
tentions without interference. The campaign
in Ulster was the signal for counter-demon-
strations, and was characterized by the familiar
riotous collisions between the Orangemen and
the adherents of the National cause. It be-
came the systematic practice of the Loyalists
to collect mobs and create a riot wherever a
Nationalist speaker was announced to make an
address, and thus repel the " invasion " of Ul-
ster. At Londonderry. November 2d, a meeting
at which the Lord Mayor of Dublin, Mr. Daw-
son, was the orator, was the occasion for a se-
rious disturbance. The Orangemen were armed,
and several shots were fired. The leader of the
mob, Lord Rossmore, was struck out of the
commission of the peace, but the riot was made
the pretext for yielding to the clamor of the.
English party and forbidding political meetings
in Ulster. The suppression of meetings could
not stay the general current of sentiment to-
ward home rule. Mr. Healy declared, and his
opponents acknowledged, that a general elec-
tion would give the Nationalists, without any
extension of the franchise, as many as seventy

414

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

seats in the House of Commons, to about twenty
for the Conservatives and eight for the Lib-
erals.

Political Crimes in Ireland. — The crimes act
placed more arbitrary powers in the hands of
the Irish Executive than any of the repressive
acts which had preceded it. Before Lord Spen-
cer and Mr. Trevelyan, juries rarely convicted
a person accused of agrarian crime. The Gov-
ernment declared that this was because they
were intimidated, while the Irish party asserted
that the evidence was never sufficient to war-
rant a conviction. Under the new act, special
juries were selected from a class who were
more likely to convict than not. In Dublin,
verdicts were brought in against the persons
accused of three shocking assassinations. The
Irish press denounced the proceedings as judi-
cial murder, declaring that the judge's charge
was partial, and that some of the jurors were
intoxicated. Judge Lawson and juror Field
were pursued by conspirators, and an attempt
made to assassinate them on the street. Ma-
rines were brought over from England to assist
the police in protecting judges and jurymen.
For speeches made at this time, Messrs. Big-
gar, Davitt, and Healy, were summoned into
court, and the two latter were required to find
securities for their good behavior. This they
refused to do, and they were sent to jail. Dis-
tricts in Tipperary, Limerick, and Cork coun-
ties were proclaimed in January on account of
agrarian outrages, and a Land-League meeting
was interdicted in County Sligo. Further de-
tachments of marines were assigned to police
duty in different parts of Ireland. Mr. W.
O'Brien, editor of " United Ireland," was com-
mitted for trial on account of his accusations
against the judges and juries, and two days
afterward was elected to Parliament for Mal-
low by a considerable majority over the Solici-
tor-General, Mr. Naish. He was discharged
February 10th, owing to disagreement of the
jury. In January the long list of executions
began, with Patrick and Thomas Higgins, and
Michael Flynn, at Gal way, hanged for the mur-
der of Lord Ardilaun's bailiff at Lough Mask,
and Poff and Barrett at Tralee for Thomas
Brown's murder. On March 2d twelve men
were sentenced to imprisonment for conspiracy
to murder and rebel, the specific charge being
a plot to murder landlords as a class.
« The Government wsfe able to assert in 1883,
for the first time in years, that order prevailed,
and that the Queen's writs could again run in
Ireland. This was sometimes attributed to the
operation of the crimes act, and the energy of
the Irish Executive, at other times to the be-
neficent workings of th.e land act. The sup-
pression of lawlessness, and the breaking-up
of secret bands of assassins, were a preventive,
but, on the other hand, the exercise of despotic
power and the suspension of ancient liberties
were provocative of violence. The general
cessation of the revolt against rent and of boy-
cotting limited the occasions which were likely

to produce breaches of the peace. The Chief-
Secretary took credit for the fact that the
number of outrages, exclusive of threatening
letters, was reduced to 365 for the last six
months of 1882, from 1,010 in the first half of
the year, and 1,257 in the last half of the pre-
ceding year. The peasantry ceased their op-
position, which was the latest piece of tactics
generally employed against the landlord class.
On May 1st the Lord Lieutenant published a
list of awards of indemnities assessed on locali-
ties for agrarian crimes, some of them several
thousand pounds in amount. In July a gang
of conspirators in Sligo was detected, after an
attempt to blow up a house with dynamite.

The Phcenix-Park Assassins. — The police was
placed under the direction of Mr. Jenkinson,
an official whose experience had been gained
in Indian administration. A crafty detective
service was organized. Their clews and pur-
poses were concealed, while, with the help of
information, betrayed in the inquisitorial judi-
cial examinations which are allowed under the
crimes act, they ferreted out an organized band
of political assassins in Dublin, an offshoot of
the Fenian Brotherhood. On January 14th
seventeen persons were taken into custody,
charged with conspiring to murder officials.
They were mostly men under thirty, belonging
to the artisan class. The most prominent was
James Carey, a contractor and builder, who
was a member of the Dublin Town Council.
In the judicial inquiry one of them, named Far-
rel, turned state's evidence. Other evidence
was collected from Kavanagh, another confed-
erate. Subsequently Carey, who was one of
the chief conspirators, induced by promises ot
immunity, turned informer, and revealed the
history and character of the conspiracy. In
November, 1881, Carey, who had been a di-
rector in the Fenian organization, was intro-
duced by McCaffrey, one of the- prisoners, to
a man who passed by the name of Walsh. The
latter said that he had come from England to
establish a branch of a secret society which
was to " make history." It was called the
Irish Invincibles. The object of the organiza-
tion was "to remove all tyrants from the
country." It, would number not over 250
members in the three kingdoms, picked men
from the Irish Republican Brotherhood. Mc-
Caffrey, Carey, James Mullet, and Daniel Cur-
ley, a Fenian center, were sworn as the first
members and chiefs of the Dublin branch,
which was not to exceed fifty members. They
inducted about twenty-five others. The oath
was to obey the orders of the Irish Invincibles
without inquiring more than was necessary
to understand them, on pain of death. P. J.
Sheridan, known previously as an influential
agent of the Land League, who went disguised
as a priest ; a man called McCafferty ; a woman,
supposed to be a Mrs. Byrne, whose husband
was secretary to a land confederation in Eng-
land ; and later a man supposed to be the chief
of the organization, who was known only as

GEEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

415

"No. 1," held communication with them, and
furnished them with weapons and liberal gifts
of money. Mr. Forster and Lord Oowper were
designated as the persons first to be removed,
and next Mr. Burke. The Invincibles, under
orders from " No. 1," lay in wait for Mr. Fors-
ter several days in the early part of March,
1882. Joseph Brady, a stone-cutter ; Timothy
Kelly, a coach-builder ; Thomas Caffrey ; and
Patrick Delaney, who shortly before the trial
had been sentenced to ten years' imprisonment
for another political crime — the assault on
Judge Lawson — were the four occupants of
the car in Phoenix Park on May 6th. They
were driven by a professional car-driver, Fitz-
harris, alias " Skin the Goat." Carey signaled
from another vehicle, and Curley had the di-
rection of the arrangements. It was intended
only to kill Mr. Burke, and Brady struck the
blow; but, when Lord Frederick Cavendish
struck him with his umbrella and called him a
ruffian, Brady followed after and stabbed him
also.

Frank Byrne was apprehended in Paris, Feb-
ruary 27th. The English Government sought
his extradition, on the charge of complicity in
the Phoenix-Park murders, and then on a new
charge of complicity in the attempts on Jus-
tice Lawson and Mr. Field. The procureur
examined him, and on March 8th released him
from custody. He then went to the United
States, where Sheridan had found a refuge, and
whither John Walsh, thought to be the "No.
1 " of Carey's revelations, followed, after be-
ing arrested at Havre, and set at liberty. Ap-
plications made to the United States Govern-
ment for the arrest and extradition of Sheridan
were not entertained.

The trials of the prisoners began with that
of Brady, on the 9th of April. He and Curley,
and the youth Timothy Kelly, who, with Bra-
dy, struck the fatal blows, preserved a bold
demeanor. With the evidence of Carey and
seven other informers the proofs were com-
plete ; though Kelly was held up as a martyr
who died rather than .betray his companions.
The three named, with Caffrey, Fagan, and
Delaney, were sentenced to death ; Fitzharris
to penal servitude for life, to which penalty
Delaney's sentence was commuted; Joseph
Mullet, for the attack on Justice Field, was
sentenced to the same; James Mullet, Daniel
Delaney, McCaffrey, O'Brien, and Moroney
were sentenced for ten years, and Thomas
Doyle for five. True bills for murder were
found against Walsh, Sheridan, and Tynan.
The latter was identified as the mysterious
"No. 1." Brady was executed on May 14th,
Curley on the 18th, Fagan on the 28th, Caf-
frey on the 2d of June, and Kelly on the 9th.

Dynamite Plots. — The secret orders of Irish
revolutionists, disappointed at the peaceful
issue of the Land-League agitation, and ex-
asperated by the rigorous repressive measures
adopted by the English Government in Ire-
land, were more active in 1883 than they had

been for years. Bands of conspirators formed
in the United States as well as in the British
Islands. Since Ireland was too well guarded
they made England the scene of their plots,
the object of which was to terrorize the Eng-
lish people and Government, and keep alive in
Ireland the cause of national independence.
O'Donovan Rossa, in New York, had for a
year or more proclaimed the " gospel of dy-
namite," and threatened the destruction of
British ships and public buildings. On January
20th a tin box was found in Glasgow, which
exploded and injured five persons. An at-
tempt was made to blow up the gas-works in
that city. On March 20th a terrific explosion
occurred in the Local Government Board of-
fice in London. The explosive substance was
placed on a window-sill. The effect was sim-
ply to make a hole in the massive stone wall
of the building. A can of dynamite was placed
against the " Times " office, but was accidental-
ly overturned before it exploded ; an analysis
showed it to be identical in composition with
that found in Glasgow. After this all the pub-
lic buildings in London were guarded by night
and day.

In April the organization which perpetrated
the dynamite outrages was unearthed, and sev-
eral of the most active agents of the conspiracy
were arrested. The evidence obtained left it
no longer a mere suspicion that the crimes
were connected with the threats uttered in
one of the American organs of the Irish revo-
lutionists, and that the plots were partly con-
cocted in the United States and the pecuniary
means largely supplied from thence. Infernal
machines had been known to be imported from
America. This time the explosives were pro-
duced in England. A man named Whitehead
rented a shop in Birmingham, where he osten-
sibly carried on the business of a paper-hang-
er and oil-merchant. Large consignments of
chemicals sent to him by neighboring manu-
facturers excited the suspicions of a police
officer. He bought glycerine in great quan-
tities from one firm, and strong acids from
others. The glycerine he said he sold to hair-
dressers and others. When the police ascer-
tained that his purchases consisted of the con-
stituents of mtro-glycerine, and saw that he
did no business in his shop, they first exam-
ined the premises in his absence, and then
arrested him for making and keeping an ex-
plosive substance with intent to commit a
felony. From Whitehead's shop the detectives
traced a young man to London, and learned
who were his associates. He was arrested
with a box in his possession containing 200
pounds of dynamite, which he had brought
the day before from Birmingham. He de-
scribed himself as William James Norman, a
medical student. A man named Gallagher,
who had in his possession nearly £900 in Eng-
lish and American notes, was next arrested,
with four others in London, and Gallagher's
brother in Glasgow. In Whitehead's place

416

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

were found many carboys of acids and cans
of glycerine, with large quantities of dynamite
in various stages of manufacture. These dis-
coveries and arrests created a panic through-
out England. The people of Birmingham left
the city almost deserted. Sir William Har-
court framed the explosives act, and Parlia-
ment passed it with an expedition not paral-
leled since the suspension of habeas corpus in
1866. Within a few days Norman, whose true
name was William Joseph Lynch, made a full
confession. He was born in New York city,
and was a carriage-maker. He joined a secret
oath-bound society which met in the Bowery
in New York, and had for its object the
achievement of the freedom of Ireland by
physical force. The society seemed to be di-
vided into small groups, like the Russian Nihil-
ists, and the members of each group knew each
other by numbers. He heard frequent men-
tion of " the old man," whom he understood
to be Rossa. He was summoned to go on a
mission for the society, and was directed to
Gallagher. The latter was -a young physician
in Williamsburgh. Gallagher furnished him
liberally with money, and ordered him to take
passage for England. In London he met him
again, and after several days of preparation
sent him to Whitehead for the first package
of dynamite, which was found in his room
when he was arrested the night after his re-
turn. In their walks about London Dr. Gal-
lagher pointed out to him the Parliament
House and other buildings which would have
to " come down.1' The prisoners were tried
for treason-felony in June : Dr. Thomas Gal-
lagher, Henry Wilson, Whitehead, and John
Ourtin were convicted and sentenced to hard
labor for life ; the rest were acquitted.

Murder of Carey. — The informer Carey was so
generally execrated that the British Govern-
ment did not venture to bestow on him a lib-
eral public reward, such as was granted to the
other informers and persons who were instru-
mental in bringing the murderers to justice.
He displayed at the trial and later, with no
lack of knowledge and natural intelligence, a
character of singular baseness. The impulsive
Irish people, who had been shocked at the
Phoenix-Park assassinations, after witnessing
the fortitude with which the condemned men
had met their deaths, and the cowardice and
heartlessness of their chief who had escaped,
now turned upon him as the real criminal, and
regarded them by comparison as misguided
but devoted patriots. The English authorities
consequently desired to get Carey out of sight
and memory as soon as possible, and particu-
larly to prevent vengeance being taken upon
him by any of the many Irishmen who stood
ready. The police kept him concealed, and,
while avengers were looking for his arrival at
American and Australian ports, got him safely
embarked in the Kinfauns Gastle for Cape
Town. The vessel sailed from London July
4th. Carey was smuggled on board at Dart-

mouth, with his wife and seven children, under
the name of Power. On the same steamer
was a passenger who went by the name of
Macdonald. He was Patrick O'Donnell, a Cali-
fornia miner and naturalized citizen of the
United States, forty-eight years of age, a man
of resolute and adventurous spirit, who had
lived in various parts of the world, and was
probably connected with the Irish revolution-
ary societies. O'Donnell associated familiarly
with Carey, and made sure that he was the in-
former. Carey's destination was the diamond-
fields. At Cape Town they both changed to
the Melrose Castle for Natal. When not far
from port, on July 29th, while they were con-
versing in the cabin, O'Donnell suddenly called
Carey by his right name, and drawing a re-
volver fired at him three times, in the presence
of his wife, in whose arms he died in half an
hour. O'Donnell was taken back to London,
where the juries could better be depended upon
than in South Africa. In Ireland and America
he was extolled as a hero. Among the Irish of
the United States over $50,000 was contributed
for his defense ; and Roger A. Pryor and A.
M. Sullivan were retained to assist the English
counsel ; but they did not seek to take part in
the pleadings in view of the probable futility
of the request, particularly in opposition to the
advice of the English advocates, who thought
that it would prejudice their client's case. The
defense was, that Carey, when addressed in
his own name, first drew a pistol. O'Donnell
was convicted December 1st. Congressman
Finnerty, President of the Irish National
League of America, was joined by many other
politicians in his efforts to induce the American
Government to intercede, and a resolution was.
carried in Congress, in accordance with which
the President requested a delay in the execu-
tion, in order to allow the prisoner's counsel to
show points of error in the trial. The British
Government listened to the representations of
the counsel, and then returned an answer forth-
with to Minister Lowell that there was no
ground for postponement and reopening of the
case. O'Donnell was accordingly hanged on
the appointed day.

Condition of Ireland. — Throughout the year a
controversy regarding the relief of distress in
Ireland engaged public attention. The Gov-
ernment had taken the position that, as the
distress was local, being confined mostly to the
western counties, and as the laws and tradi-
tions of the empire made public charity a local
charge, the boards of guardians must carry out
the work, and the poor-rates supply the means.
The Government also pronounced in favor of
the scheme of emigration as the best means of
relieving the congested districts, and, in view
of the inadequacy of the statutory provisions
in such localities, offered to give £5 to the local
boards toward the expenses of sending each
and every destitute person to a new country.
The Irish patriotic party declaimed earnestly
against the plan of depopulation as a remedy

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

417

for poverty. They advocated the adoption of
a central system of relief-works, proposing as
suitable and profitable objects the construction
of railways, the reclamation of waste lands,*
planting of barren districts to forests, and, as
most important of all, a system of arterial
drainage to cover the whole of Ireland. The
Government could lend its credit to this scheme
without loss, it was argued, because large areas
in the most fertile districts are water-logged.

The scheme of emigration was begun in the
spring of 1882, through the efforts of Mr.
James L. Tuke, who undertook the task as
a private benevolent enterprise, and received
contributions which enabled him to settle
during that year about 1,300 persons, from
Connemara and neighboring districts, in the
United States and Canada. The condition of
the poorest class of Irish farmers was de-
scribed by Chief-Secretary Trevelyan as more
deplorable than that of any class of people in
any civilized country. There are 67,000 farm-
ers of less than five acres, and 160,000 of from
five to fifteen, of which, in many cases, only
two or two and a half acres are arable. The
land has been spaded over and planted to pota-
toes until it yields only 90 cwt., instead of
from six to nine tons. After the failure of
the potato-crop in 1879, these people were re-
duced to the verge of starvation. The Duchess
of Marlborough's fund (£130,000), the Man-
sion-House collections (£174,000), the Land-
League relief fund, the •' New York Herald"
and other American relief funds, and the £1,-
500,000 from the Irish Church surplus, all but
a sixth of which was apportioned out in loans
and grants, helped to sustain them during
that and the succeeding bad year, until, in the
third year, there was an unusually good crop.
A large proportion of the tenant-farmers of
this class defaulted in their rent in 1881.
Nearly 50.000 in the counties of Mayo, Done-
gal, and Galway resorted to the arrears act, to
obtain the advantages of which it is necessary
to pay a year's rent. This the new crop fail-
ure in 1882 placed beyond the power of very
many. There were evidences of the return of
acute distress in the winter of 1882-'83. Phy-
sicians observed the prevalence of the feeble-
ness and disease resulting from low and unnat-
ural diet, in which sea- weed took the place of
more substantial food. The Government could
not affect to ignore a state of things in which
a large part of the population of the western
counties were enduring semi- starvation, and
hundreds of families were evicted from their
holdings. The fact that the work-houses were
only half full was but a specious excuse, as the
work-houses could accommodate no more than
a fraction of the suffering, and as it was known
from experience that, owing to the strength

* In 1842 a scheme contemplating the reclamation of about
one million acres was adopted by Parliament, and money
voted for the purpose. Only one quarter of that area was
reclaimed, consisting of what is now as good arable land as
there is in the country. Sir Kobert Peel advocated in 1849
the extension of the works.

VOL. xxni. — 27 A

of household ties and their reluctance to leave
their land uncared for, the work-house system
is inoperative for the relief of want among the
Irish peasantry. Out-door relief, which under
the English poor-law system is lavishly be-
stowed, is practically prohibited by the poor-
law regulations of Ireland.

Besides the scheme of public works to fur-
nish employment, and the relaxation of the
work-house test in the administration of public
charity, as demanded by the Irish party, and
the scheme of assisted emigration, favored by
the Government, the improvement of the coast-
fisheries and the encouragement of manufact-
ures, were suggested by .others as the only
hope of permanently relieving the chronic
agricultural distress of Ireland, by furnishing
the people with other employments. Some
believed that capital for industrial undertak-
ings, such as linen-factories, etc., would flow
into Ireland if it were not hindered by the
agitation and incident disorders. Mr. Trevel-
yan, in reply to the demands of the Irish party,
expressed the unwillingness of the Govern-
ment further to burden the British tax-payers
to assist the Irish. The advances made during
the recent distress to furnish seed had been
abused by the guardians of certain impover-
ished unions, who had dealt out the seed-pota-
toes for food to the people, in the expectation
that repayment of the debt would never be
required. Irish members denied that the Brit-
ish had ever been taxed for Irish relief. The
famine-debt of 1847-'49, amounting to about
£10,000,000, was remitted, but the Exchequer,
they argued, was reimbursed by the imposition
of additional taxes. While the tax on malt
was reduced from 2s. S^d. per bushel to 6d.,
that on whisky was more than trebled, pro-
ducing in Ireland £3,000,000 in 1871 against
£900,000 in 1851, and making the burden of
imperial taxation equivalent to an income-tax
of 5s. Zd. in the pound, while the taxes collect-
ed in England represented only 2s. 6$d. in the
pound of the national income.

A memorial was received by Lord Spencer
on the 9th of January from the Roman Cath-
olic bishops of the west of Ireland. They
stated that one half of the potato-crop and
from one third to one half of the oat-crop had
been lost; that the portion harvested was gen-
erally of inferior quality ; that the rains had
prevented the gathering of turf, causing a
scarcity of fuel; and that the destitute, com-
prising from one fifth to one third of the pop-
ulation, had generally parted with their money
and their stock to pay rent and arrears, and
were in debt to the shopkeepers, who would
give no more credit. The bishops proposed as
a remedy for the distress, which'would increase
every week of the ensuing six months, unless
relieved, that the Government should extend
loans for the improvement of the holdings,
rather than furnish employment on public
works, which they considered demoralizing.
The loans to the amount of five years' rent

418 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

GREECE.

were to be secured simply by the tenant-right.
The refusal of the Government to entertain
this proposal elicited a reply from the prelates
on the llth of March, in which they declared
it to be the duty of the Government then to
provide out-door relief, and condemned the
resolution, heartlessly avowed in Parliament,
to sweep from the land by starvation, which
was preferred by the people to the work-house,
or by wholesale emigration, the laborers and
small tenants. In Oonnaught there were near-
ly 2,000,000 acres of rich pasturage from which
the fathers of these men had been evicted in
famine-years, that, they thought, ought to be
restored to their children, whom it was now
proposed to transport in a mass.

On May 1st the time allowed to Irish ten-
ants to take advantage of the arrears act ex-
pired. About 136,000 tenants altogether made
application. The arrears cleared away amount-
ed to about £2,500,000, toward which the
state contributed £810,000.

State-aided Emigration.— At the end of March
the first departure of emigrants aided by the
state took place from Belmullet, in Mayo ; 360
persons were shipped to Boston entirely at the
expense of the Government, while additional
assistance was furnished by the Tuke fund.
After a number of parties were sent, the in-
formation was transmitted to the United States
that some of the poor-law unions took advan-
tage of the Government grant to ship their
paupers to America. The American Irish
raised an outcry, and the immigration au-
thorities were prompt to act. One family,
which arrived by the City of Richmond at
New York in the beginning of July, was sent
back. The steamship companies were notified
that the law against landing paupers would be
strictly enforced. The immigrants who ar-
rived subsequently were thoroughly examined,
and all who were unsuitable were returned,
until the managers of the Tuke fund and the
English officials took the pains to make the in-
vestigation before sending them out, and shipped
none who could not legally be received.

Famine in Skye and the Western Highlands.—
There was destitution in the western Highlands
of Scotland, in the Hebrides islands, and on the
coast of Ross-shire, attributable, as in Western
Ireland, to the paucity of the productions on
which the peasantry depend, and to similar
agrarian conditions. The potato-crop and the
herring - fishery, from which the inhabitants
derive the principal part of their subsistence,
both failed entirely in 1882. The grain-crops
were also destroyed by hurricanes in the late
autumn. The Highlanders formerly held the
land in common, but the application of the
modern English law gave the fee simple to the
chiefs. The land has become more profitable
for grazing, and even for hunting preserves,
than for agriculture. The peasantry have con-
sequently been displaced, and those who did
not emigrate crowd each other in these in-
fertile western districts. A croft of from four

to seven acres is made to support the increas-
ing family until four or five cotters occupy the
original patch.

Enseaworthy Vessels.— The President of the
Board of Trade, Mr. Chamberlain, declared his
intention of preparing laws to prevent the loss
of lives on unsea worthy ships through the
culpable negligence of their owners. Of 3,118
lives lost in 1882 from foundering, defective
machinery, overloading, etc., not including
those on wrecked vessels, he considered that a
large proportion was chargeable directly to the
owners, who, in order to carry more freight,
or save expense in repairing, sent vessels to sea
in an unsea worthy condition, risking the lives
of all on board, while they were insured against
loss. In December, a set of rules which Mr.
Chamberlain proposed to embody in legisla-
tion, establishing a strict official inspection, was
submitted for criticism to the bodies represent-
ing the shipping interests.

Blasphemy Trial. — The prosecution of George
William Foote, George Ramsay, and H. A.
Kemp for blasphemy created excitement in
February and March. The charge was found-
ed on a coarse attack on the Christian religion,
holding the Saviour up to ridicule, which was
published in the Christmas number of the
"Freethinker." They were found guilty, and
sentenced to prison for twelve, nine, and three
months respectively.

Rifle-Match at Wimbledon.— The annual volun-
teer rifle contests at Wimbledon, opening July
9th, were favored by fine weather, except on
the days on which the international match was
contested by twelve picked marksmen of the
British volunteers and twelve of the national
guard of the United States. The British team
won by forty-eight points. Their victory was
in a measure due to their greater practice at
long-distance firing, in which the element of
chance largely enters, and to the 'rainy weather,
with which they are more familiar. At the
practical military distances the Americans led
the score by a few points. The national chal-
lenge trophy was won by the Scotch twenty,
and the Elcho shield by the Irish team, making
the sixth victory for them, to the eleventh for
England and the fifth for Scotland.

GREECE, a kingdom of Southern Europe.
(For details relating to area, territorial di-
visions, population, etc., see u Annual Cyclo-
paedia" for 1882.) The present Constitution
was elaborated by a Constituent Assembly in
1864. The legislative power is exercised by a
single Chamber of Deputies, elected for four
years by direct vote. George I, King of the
Hellenes, is the second son of the King of Den-
mark, born Deo. 24, 1845. He was offered the
crown by the National Assembly, in accord-
ance with a protocol providing for the annex-
ation of the Ionian isles, signed June 5, 1863,
in London, by the three protecting powers,
France, England, and Russia, and began his
reign October 31st of that year. The number
of deputies in the Chamber is 187.

GREECE.

419

The ministry which was formed March 15,
1882, is composed as follows: President of the
Council and Minister of Foreign Affairs, Mr.
Tricoupis; Justice, since July 21, 1883, ad in-
terim, Mr. Contostavlos ; Finance, Mr. Kalli-
gas; Public Worship, Mr. Lombardos; War,
Mr. Karaschakis; Navy, Count- Admiral Tom-
bazis, since July 21, 1883, ad interim; Inte-
rior, Mr. Tricoupis, ad interim.

The Consul-General of Greece, at New York,
is Mr. D. N. Botassi. The United States Min-
ister Resident and Consul-General at Athens,
is Hon. E. Schuyler, and- the United States
Consul at Patras, Mr. E. Hancock.

Army.— The law of June 21, 1882, has thor-
oughly reorganized the Greek army. All able-
bodied men are required to serve in the army
during nineteen consecutive years, of which
one is in the active army if the soldier belongs
to the infantry, two if belonging to a special
arm, eight or seven years in the reserve, and
ten in the militia. The army is composed of
29,368 officers and men.

Navy.— The fleet consisted in 1881 of two
steam ironclads and thirteen other vessels,
besides two torpedo-boats and ten coasting
craft; and there are building : two gunboats,
thirty- six torpedo-boats, and two sloops with
torpedo-boats.

Finances. — The national indebtedness of
Greece on Jan. 1, 1883, was as follows:

DATE OF
BONDS.

When to
celed.

Number of
outstanding
bonds.

Original
amount in
drachmas or
francs.

Present
amount in
francs.

1863
1S67
1871

1874
1S76
1879
1880

1896
1895
1899
1918
1920
1919
1924

38,324
70,593
13,261
49,380
28,700
117,890
238,050

5,932,800
25.000,000
4,000,000
26,000,000
10,000,000
60,000,000
120,000,000

250,932,800

3,400,836

17,648,250
8,815,250
24,690,000
2,000,000
58,695,000
119,025,000

555,698

228,783,336

1824-'25 of 100 .... £3,513 x 25 francs= 8,782,500

'k 150.... 708x25francs= 2,636,250

500 843 x 25 francs= 10,537,500

£5,059 21,956,250

Not yet ascertained

21,956,250

,,
Loan of 60,000,000 for protecting powers ........ 59,328,000

Circulation bearing interest

Loan made from the National Bank

Loan made from the Ionian Bac

17,300

8,104,050
Due the heirs of King Otho ..................... 8,460,800

Total ....................................... 381,631,866

The 170,000,000 Franc Loan.— By a vote of
110 against 56, the Greek Chamber of Depu-
ties ratified, on Jan. 5, 1884, the agreement
which the Government had made with a syn-
dicate of members, who assumed a 5 per cent.
loan to the amount of 170,000,000 francs.
The price fixed was 68£ per cent. The net
proceeds of this loan the Government proposed
to spend in canceling its indebtedness to the
National Bank and the Ionian Bank, for the
purpose of resuming specie payment; to the
extent of 12,000,000 francs in subsidizing rail-
roads to be constructed, and various other
items. The Government gave as security for

the loan the balances due for duties by the
larger cities and the proceeds of the stamp and
tobacco taxes, the latter estimated to amount
to 15,000,000 francs in the future. The syndi-
cate received as an indemnity for its expenses
the sum of 230,000 francs.

Petroleum Monopoly. — The Greek Government
has discovered that out of 22,000,000 litres of
petroleum annually consumed, only 3,500,000
litres actually pay duty, the remainder being
smuggled. The extent of coast is such that
control is absolutely impossible, hence the Gov-
ernment intends transforming the petroleum-
trade into a Government monopoly.

The Latin Union. — As Greece forms one of the
European states composing the so-called Latin
Union, having bimetallism for its basis instead
of the sole gold standard, she has been invited
by France to attend a preliminary meeting of
representatives in 1884, the compact expiring
by limitation in 1886, and France apparently
wishing to have the arrangement renewed.

Postal Service. — The number of post-offices in
1880 was 143. These forwarded altogether in
that year 3,828,754 letters and postal-cards,
1,206,936 newspapers, and 63,224 sample pack-
ages, together 5,098,914 items of mail matter.
The postage collected was 646,654 francs, and
the expenses were 390,363 francs.

Telegraphs. — There were in operation in 1881
100 offices, the length of line was 5,079 kilo-
metres, and that of wire 6,316. The number
of messages forwarded was 433,547. The re-
ceipts amounted to 665,036 francs, and the
outlay to 949,759 francs.'

Railroads. — The only lines in operation in
1883 were the 12 kilometres from Athens to
the Piraeus, and the 61-$- kilometres from Volo
to Larissa.

Commerce. — The foreign commerce in 1881
was as follows:

Imports.

Exports.

From and to the United

Francs.
81,810,000

Francs.
85,486,000

Turkey
Austria

17,455,000
24,752,000

2,618,000
6,717,000

Russia

10,301,000

2,009,000

France
Italy

15,155,000
5 802,000

11,519,000
8,182,000

2,385,000

4,908,000

8,794,000

Total

109,683,000

67,710,000

The chief export articles are currants, olive-
oil, goat-skins, lead, figs, gall-nuts, silk, soap,
tobacco, and cotton fabrics. The exportations
from Greece in 1882 and 1883 were :

DESTINATION.

1883.

1882.

To the United Kingdom (in-
clusive of in transitu)

Tons.
52,005
10,410'

Tons.
50,870
12,270

To the United States
To Germany, Holland, and

8,175
6.560

8,275
5,300

1,740

1,450

To other countries

740

980

Total

79,630

79,145*

Against 90,480 tons in 1881.

420

GREELY RELIEF EXPEDITION, THE.

The American trade with Greece was as
follows :

FISCAL YEAR.

Imports into the
United States
from Greece.

Exports of domestic
merchandise from
the United States
to Greece.

1880

$451,879

$145 572

1881

550,638

142,042

1882

899,561

349467

1883

1,231,580

91,017

Merchant Marine. — There were sailing under
the Greek flag, in 1881, 5,180 sea- going and
6,697 coasting vessels, together 11,8*77 vessels,
heing manned by 28,034 sailors.

GREELY RELIEF EXPEDITION, THE. In ac-
cordance with the plan of the International
Geographical Congress at Hamburg, in 1879,
for the establishment of a series of circumpo-
lar stations for scientific observation, Lieut. A.
W. Greely, of the Fifth Cavalry, United States
Army, was sent out, under instructions from
the Signal-Service Bureau, to take charge of
the American station at Lady Franklin bay.
The point selected for this station was the
most northerly and the most difficult of access
of the series, being at Discovery harbor, lat.
81° 44' north, and long. 64° 45' west. Lieut.
Greely received his instructions in April, 1881,
and a contract was made at St. John's, New-
foundland, with the owners of the Proteus,
a vessel that had been used for Arctic navi-
gation, to convey his party to a point on
shore from which it could reach its destina-
tion by land. His assistant, Lieut. J. B. Lock-
wood, and other members of the party, left
Baltimore about the middle of June, to join
Greely at St. John's. On the 18th of August a
telegram was received announcing an auspi-
cious beginning of the work of the station.
Only a month had been occupied in the pas-
sage from Newfoundland to Lady Franklin bay,
and Discovery harbor was reached on Au-
gust llth. At Littleton island the party had
found letters left by English explorers, and
at Life-boat Cove a transit instrument of the
Polaris. The station was named in honor of
Senator Conger, of Michigan, who had been
active in promoting its establishment. In
January, 1882, letters had been received from
Dr. Octave Pavy, who had gone to the Arctic
regions with the Gulnare in 1880, and had
joined the Greely expedition at God haven.
These were dated in September, 1881, and con-
tained the last news received from the station.
The following is a list of the party :

First-Lieut. A. W. Greely, Fifth Cavalry: Acting
Signal-Officer and Assistant — Second-Lieut.' Frederick
F. Kislingbury, Eleventh Infantry ; Acting Signal-
Officer— Second-Lieut. James B. Lockwood, Twenty-
third Infantry; Acting Signal-Officers— Sergts. Ed-
ward Israel, Winfield S. Jewell, George W. Eice,
David 0. Kelator, Hampton S. Gardner, William H.
Cross, David L. Brainerd, David Linn; Corporals
and privates— Nicholas Salor, Joseph Eliot, Charles
B. Henry, Maurice Connell, Jacob Bender, Francis
Long, William Whistler, Henrv Bierderbeck, Julius
Fredericks, and William A. Ellis. Octave Pavy,
M. D., of Disco, Greenland, was commissioned as

Acting Assistant Surgeon, and accompanied the ex-
pedition in that capacity.

It was arranged before Lieut. Greely's de-
parture that in the summers of 1882 and 1883
expeditions should be sent to replenish the
stores of the colony, and to afford any relief of
which it might stand in need. It was understood
that, if they failed to reach Lady Franklin bay,
provisions and documents of instruction were
to be cached at the farthest accessible point on
the east coast of Grinnell Land, and a depot of
supplies established at Littleton island. Lieut.
Greely was instructed, if no relief expedition
previously arrived, to abandon the station not
later than September, 1883, and retreat south-
ward by boat, following closely the east coast
of Grinnell Land until he met the relieving
vessel or arrived at Littleton island, where it
was assumed relief would be surely awaiting
him. The relief expedition of 1882 was sent
out in the Neptune, in charge of Lieut.
Beebe, and set sail in June of that year. It
proved an unfavorable season ; and after con-
tending with the ice for a month, the vessel
only reached the latitude of 71° 20'. Finally,
stores were cached at Littleton island and
Cape Sabine, and the Neptune returned.

The second relief expedition, that of 1883,
was placed in charge of Lieut. E. A. Garling-
ton, of the Seventh Cavalry, with a party of
fourteen men, including a competent ice-pilot
and three experienced sailors. The Proteus
was again employed to make the trip from St.
John's. She was regarded as an exceptionally
stanch sailer, and was specially fitted for the
service. She was 150 feet long, carried 618
tons, and had compound engines of 110 regis-
tered horse -power. Her hull was of oak,
sheathed three inches thick over all parts
vulnerable by ice. Her equipments and sup-
plies were regarded as complete, and she was
furnished with duplicate or triplicate appli-
ances, such as were specially liable to injury.
The Proteus was commanded by Capt. Richard
Pike, with a crew of twenty-two men. The
Yantic, of the United States Navy, under Com-
mander Frank Wildes, was ordered to accom-
pany the Proteus, to render all possible assist-
ance, and to remain at Littleton island until
the return of the relief expedition under Lieut.
Garlington, in case it should be able to proceed
to the station at Fort Conger. Lieut. Gar-
lington received his instructions from the head
of the Signal-Service Bureau at Washington.
They began as follows :

You are aware of the necessity of reaching Lieut.
A. W. Greely and party with the expedition of this
year. This necessity^ can not be overestimated, as
Lieut. Greely' s supplies will be exhausted during the
coming fall, and unless the relief -ship can reach
him he will be forced, with his party, to retreat
southward by land before winter sets in. Such a
retreat will involve hardship and the probable aban-
donment of much valuable public property, with tlie
possible loss of important records and life. For these
and other reasons, which will occur to you, no effort
must be spared to push the vessel through to Lady
Franklin bay.

GREELY RELIEF EXPEDITION, THE.

421

In case it should be found impracticable
for the Proteus to make its way up Smith's
sound, Garlington was instructed to retreat
from his advanced position, land his party and
stores at Life-boat Cove, discharge the relief-
vessel with orders to return to St. John's, and
prepare to remain until relieved the following
summer. He was then as speedily as possible
to endeavor to communicate with Lieut. Greely
by means of a sledge expedition under his own
personal charge. Such stores were to be left
at Cape Sabine as it was practicable to leave
there, and thence a smaller party, still under
Garlington's personal charge, was to push on
as far as possible, or until Greely was met.
With regard to the Yantic, it was stated in the
instructions that it would accompany the ex-
pedition to Littleton island, rendering such
aid as might become necessary and as might
be " determined by the captain of that ship "
and Lieut. Garlington when on the spot.

The Proteus left St. John's on the 29th of
June. On the 13th of September the Secre-
tary of the Navy received a dispatch from the
same place, signed by Commander Wildes, and
announcing the return there of the Yantic,
bringing Capt. Pike and crew of the Proteus
and Lieut. Garlington and the Greely relief
party, with a brief statement of the failure of
the expedition. The facts, as subsequently
brought out, showed that the Proteus had
arrived at Godhaven, Greenland, on the 6th
of July. The Yantic did not reach the latter
point until the 12th. Lieut. Garlington found
that the Danish authorities there had received
no instructions in regard to assistance for the
expedition, and the skin - clothing and dog-
drivers expected were not in readiness. Pro-
curing such supplies as could be obtained on
short notice, and taking on board the stores
left at Godhaven the previous summer, the
Proteus proceeded on the 16th to Disco Fiord,
where an Esquimau driver was expected.
Near that place the vessel ran aground, but
was got off without serious injury. On the
19th she brought up against a solid ice-floe,
beyond which one of the islands of the Bel-
gone group was sighted. On the 20th Cape
York came in view, and the day following the
ship passed to leeward of D. E. Carey island
and lay there while Lieut. Garlington landed
and examined the depot of provisions left by
the Nares expedition in 1875, which he found
in fairly good condition. Taking copies of the
records found there, he proceeded and rounded
Cape Alexander and entered Pandora harbor
on the morning of the 22d. The weather was
delightful, and no ice was to be seen to the
northwest. Garlington therefore decided to
push on without stopping at Littleton island,
and to make his first cache of provisions at
Cape Prescott. Before noon, however, he
encountered the edge of a pack of ice appar-
ently extending across the sound. While wait-
ing for an opening, he landed and examined
the cache of provisions at Cape Sabine, which

he found in good condition, except that the
tarpaulin covering had been torn by bears,
and the boats were badly scratched. Later in
the afternoon narrow lanes opened in the ice
on the western side of the sound, and the Pro-
teus worked her way slowly and with frequent
ramming, until the morning of the 23d, when
she was within four miles of Cape Albert.
The pack had then closed, and an effort was
made to work the vessel back to open water
in the vicinity of Cape Sabine. At 2.45 p. M.
the vessel came to a stand-still within 400 feet
of open water, and the ice-pack closed heavily
in upon her, smashing the starboard rail, forc-
ing up the deck-planks, and breaking through
into the starboard coal-bunkers. The stores
on deck and near at hand were hastily thrown
over on the ice, but the vessel filled and threat-
ened to sink before the task of getting out her
supplies was nearly completed. Two vrhale-
boats and a dinghy were got out, the chro-
nometers, sextants, and records were secured,
and at 6.50 P. M. the vessel was abandoned,
Lieut. Col well being the last to leave her, and
twenty-five minutes later she sank. A part of
the stores were with great difficulty trans-
ported to Cape Sabine, and a deposit of 500
rations for Lieut. Greely was made three miles
west of that point. Before the stores were all
secured, the floe had moved off, so that the
remainder could not be obtained.

Lieut. Garlington then decided that it would
be impossible to proceed northward with the
small boats. He did not believe the Yantic
would attempt to cross' Melville bay, but, in
case she did so, she would find a record of the
disaster at Littleton island, and know what
course to take. • Garlington therefore deter-
mined to cross Smith's sound and make his
way down the Greenland coast to Upernavik.
At Cape York he opened communication with
a party of Esquimaux, and learned that nothing
had been seen of the Swedish vessel Sophia,
which he somewhat expected to encounter.
He sent Lieut. Col well with a lightly loaded
boat directly across the bay to Upernavik,
while with the rest of the party he made his
way around by the trend of the coast. At
Browne's island he picked up a record left
there in a cairn thirty-five years before by Sir
John Ross, and on the 23d of August reached
CapeShackleton, where he met a party of Esqui-
maux sent to his relief by Commander Wildes,
of the Yantic. Ten days later all the survi-
vors of the expedition were gathered upon the
Yantic at Upernavik, whence the return was
made to St. John's. The Yantic had reached
Littleton island on the 3d of August, and, find-
ing Garlington's records, had proceeded south-
ward again, searching the coast" and islands un-
til Saunders islands were reached. There the
ice-pack closed about the vessel, and it was
forced to retreat under the lee of Northum-
berland island. On August 9th the pack had
loosened, and the vessel made its way through,
but could not get near the coast. It therefore

422

GREELY RELIEF EXPEDITION, THE.

proceeded to Upernavik and sent a whale-boat
to Cape Shackleton. August 22d she reached
Godhaven, where Lieut. Col well arrived on the
31st, having been thirty -nine days in an open
boat. Reaching Upernavik, the Yantic found
the whole party, and on the 2d of September
set sail for St. John's.

The failure of the expedition was the cause
of wide-spread regret, and much criticism was
passed upon its conduct. No authentic infor-
mation had been obtained of the Greely party.
An Esquimau story had been picked up by
the Yantic at Danish harbor, to the effect that
Dr. Pavy had died, but that the rest of the
party were well. Another Esquimau report
was, that the officers had been murdered by
their men, but no credence was given to these
stories. The worst aspect of the case was, that
no substantial relief had in two years been af-
forded to Lieut. Greely, and there were grave
doubts as to whether he could survive another
winter at Lady Franklin bay, or succeed in
reaching succor if he left there in pursuance of
his instructions, without finding the expected
supplies on his way.

Lieut. Garlington was severely criticised for
not leaving his stores at Littleton island on his
way northward, and Gen. Hazen, chief officer
of the Signal- Service Bureau, declared that
Garlington had received supplemental orders,
just before sailing, to the following effect :

The naval tender is to join the Proteus at St. John's,
Newfoundland, and to proceed with her to the neigh-
borhood of Littleton island. The Proteus is to land
her stores, except supplies for more northerly stations,
at Littleton island on her way north. If she succeeds
in reaching Lady Franklin bay she is to pick up the
stores, excepting the house and depots, if possible, on
her return. The naval tender will await the return
of the Proteus at the neighborhood of Littleton island,
and on her return steam to the south in her company
until she reaches the southern limits of the ice-pack,
when the vessels may separate. Should the Proteus
be crushed in the ice, her crew will retire on Littleton
island, and the tender will bring to St. John's, New-
foundland, the officers and crew of the Proteus, the
rest of the party to remain at Littleton island. But
should the ice render it dangerous for the tender to
remain in the neighborhood of Littleton island until
the Proteus returns, or her crew and the expedition-
ary force succeed in reaching there, the tender may

liars at Littleton
and guns should

.... . , n by this means

should be maintained between the two vessels as long
as possible after they are separated by the passage
north of the Proteus. Nothing in the northward
movement must be allowed to retard the progress of
the Proteus. It is of the utmost importance that she
take advantage of every lead to get up to Lady Frank-
lin bay.

Lieut. Garlington, in his own report to the
Signal-Service Office, reflected severely upon
Capt. Pike and his crew. He said that the
Proteus had run past the harbor of Godhaven
in consequence of that officer's ignorance of
its proximity ; that the grounding of the vessel
at Disco Fiord was owing to his negligence in
not taking soundings; and that when the ves-
sel was " nipped " in the ice above Cape Sabine
his crew was unmanageable and stole supplies

belonging to his (Garlington' s) party. " Force
would have been needed," he said, " to com-
pel the observance of the disciplinary regula-
tions necessary to a successful retreat from our
perilous position, and more force than I had
at my command. I determined, therefore, to
keep my men and stores separate and distinct,
avoiding, if possible, any unnecessary collision."
With regard to the alleged supplemental orders,
and the criticism upon his course, Lieut. Gar-
lington said :

I desire to call your attention to the manifest in-
jury done me in the publication of certain statements
immediately after the news of the disaster reached
here. These statements, purporting to have been
authorized from the Signal-Office, were to the effect
that I had been furnished with " supplementary in-
structions " prior to my departure from the United
States, which instructions I had positively disobeyed.
The only instructions I ever received are the original
instructions published at the time. An unsigned
written paper was inclosed in the envelope with my
instructions. This paper is simply an unauthcnticated
copy of a memorandum prepared by an officer in your
office. I was informed that this memorandum was to
have been furnished the Secretary of the Navy, to '
form the basis of instructions to be given the com-
mander of the vessel ordered to accompany the Pro-
teus. The paper was not addressed or signed. In-
deed, it bore no official marks whatever. I have never
at any time regarded it as an order, and I was sur-
prised to find the statement published that this paper
was the supplementary instructions. When I found
it among the papers furnished me, I at once carried it
to you and called your attention specially to that clause
relating to landing supplies on Littleton island. You
said, in substance, you did not know how that had
gotten in there, and impressed upon me the necessity
of carrying out as far as possible the instructions I had
received. These instructions were based upon the let-
ter of Lieut. Greely, and you called my attention to
the fact that Lieut. Greely strongly urged that the
officer commanding the relief party should have " no
latitude of action." The paper was not addressed nor
signed ; indeed, bore no official marks whatever. I
did not then, nor have I at any time since, regarded
it as an order, and I was surprised to find the state-
ment published that this paper was the " supplement-
ary instructions."

On the 10th of October the Secretary of
the Navy addressed to Commander "Wildes, of
the Yantic, some inquiries as to his failure to
co-operate more efficiently with the Proteus.
He said :

Your instructions, under the date of June 9th, were
to " proceed to the northward, through Davis straits,
in company with the steamer Proteus, if practicable,"
but not to go beyond Littleton island. It appears that
the Yantic and Proteus were together at Disco island
on July 15th, when the Proteus sailed northward ; but
that the Yantic did not finally leave that island until
July 20th; the Proteus reached Carey island July
26th ; the Yantic not until August 2d ; the Proteus
passed Littleton island July 22d. and was crushed in
the ice July 23d ; the Yantic did not reach Littleton
island until August 3d. Between July 23d and Au-
gust 3d, namely, on July 26th and 28th, Lieut. Gar-
lington and the whole party of the Proteus had come
to Littleton island and Pandora harbor, and not find-
ing the Yantic, had continued to the south in open
boats in search of her, notwithstanding the orders of
the War Department, given for such a contingency, to
land with their stores at or near Life-boat Cove, in
Littleton island, and to prepare for remaining until
next year. Had the Yantic, however, been at Little-
ton island July 28th, instead of being twelve days be-

GREELY RELIEF EXPEDITION, THE.

423

Mnd the Proteus, Lieut. Garlington's relief party
would have remained at that point, with ample sup-
plies, keeping " their telescopes on Cape Sabine and
the land to the northward," and waiting for Lieut.

now the case, if he has successfully obeyed his orders,
neither house nor provisions, but only the record of
the complete failure of the mission of the Proteus and
the Yantic. . . . Your attention is also called to an-
other point. You had been furnished with copies of
the instructions to Lieut. Garlington and were aware
that he was ordered, in the event of the failure of the
Proteus, to reach Lady Franklin bay, to establish the
relief station at Littleton island, and that Lieut. Greely
would endeavor to reach that point in September, ex-
pecting there to find a relief party, a house, food, and
provisions. You were at Littleton island on August
3d, and learned that the Proteus had been crushed, and
that Lieut. Garliiigton and his whole party had gone
south, leaving nothing for Greely at Littleton island.
You could have readily landed there provisions and
supplies, but omitted to dp so. You will please ex-
plain this omission, and will furnish the department
a schedule in detail of the provisions of all kinds
which you then had on board the Yantic, and a simi-
lar schedule of those you had on hand when you ar-
rived at St. John's on September 13th. In the instruc-
tions of the War Department to Lieut. Garlington,
dated June 4, 1883, is the following clause : " A ship
of the United States Navy, the Yantic, will accom-
pany you as far as Littleton island, rendering you
such aid as may become necessary and as may be de-
termined by tne captain of that ship and yourself
when on the spot." You will inform the department
whether or not you had knowledge of this clause. In-
closed you will also find a copy of a memorandum
marked " Inclosure 4," containing instructions for the
guidance of the naval tender and the Proteus, and you
will inform the department whetherr during your voy-
age, these or any such instructions were seen by you,
or were only communicated to you.

In his reply, dated Oct. 16th, Commander
Wildes explained that the Yantic was forced,
on account of the condition of her boilers, to
go from St. John's to Greenland under sail, and
to take an easterly course to avoid the ice of
the Labrador coast, while the Proteus steamed
directly for Godhaven. He said:

No time was lost, and no unnecessary delay was
made at any point. The Proteus, carrying a' large
supply of coal, and steaming at full speed, had only
to delay to obtain the Stores left at Godhaven last
year, and a native dog-driver from Disco Fiord. She
then went north without stopping. Had I sailed from
Godhaven at the same time as the Proteus, besides be-
ing unable to keep up with her, I should have arrived
at Littleton island, 1.000 mues distant, with my coal-
supply reduced to about 75 tons and the boilers in a
leaky, precarious condition. This is without taking
into account any detention from thick weather or ice,
which can not be counted on, as the normal condition
of this region appears to be fog.

After explaining the dangers and difficulties
of Melville bay, he added :

In view of these facts I should have felt justified in
delaying to a still later date the attempt to cross Mel-
ville bay, or even not making the attempt at all. But
I did not delay one moment after I considered my ship
prepared and the weather had cleared, but pushed
across to Cape York? feeling certain from the thick, fog-
gy weather, raw, chilly air, flumes of snow and smooth
sea, that the middle pack was not far distant. Pan-
dora harbor was reached six days after the boats had
gone south. To conclude this part, I did not intend
to run the vessel under my command in the hap-haz-

ard, happy-go-lucky fashion which finally brought the
Proteus to grief, but to make sure, so far as possible,
of every step which I took. Had the Proteus been
ordered to keep company with the Yantic, it would
have been vastly better for all concerned.

Regarding the so-called supplemental in-
struction, spoken of as u Inclosure No. 4," Com-
mander Wildes declared that he never heard
of it until his arrival at St. John's on the return
trip. In conclusion, he expressed his willing-
ness to shoulder all the responsibility that be-
longed to him, and asked, in case there was
any doubt that he had performed his full duty,
that a court of inquiry be ordered to investi-
gate his conduct.

Lieut. Garlington's report not being wholly
satisfactory to the Signal-Service Bureau and
the War Department, a series of questions
were addressed to him, replies to which were
received on the 24th of October. In these he
explained more fully why he failed to establish
a depot of supplies at Littleton island and to
remain in that region for the arrival of the
Yantic, which he was convinced would not be
able to make her way through the ice-pack of
Melville bay. He also explained why he was
obliged to leave a portion of the supplies of
the Proteus on the ice-floe, and was unable to
leave any boats for the use of Lieut. Greely.
In answer to the question why he did not re-
main north of Cape York with his party, he
said:

I did not remain at Cape York because I did not
sec then, nor do I see now, how I could possibly have
been of any service to Lieut. Greely. ^ From the best
information attainable I an* of the opinion that there
are no more than 125 Esquimaux from Cape York to
Eensselaer bay, and it is a well-known fact that they
are a very improvident and shiftless race, and on the
verge of starvation every winter. To have quartered
a party, however small, without provisions, on these
people, with the chance of Lieut. Greely reaching there
with his party during the fall, would have been but to
seriously endanger the lives of the whole community,
without being able to accomplish any good whatever.
I had not more than two weeks' supplies when I left
Cape York. I left that point for the same reason I
left Cape Sabine — to endeavor to help Lieut. Greely
in the only way it seemed to me practicable.

In conclusion, he also asked for a court of
inquiry if his explanation of his conduct was
not satisfactory.

After these explanations had been made, the
Secretary of War addressed a letter to the
Chief Signal-Officer, in which he sharply criti-
cised the entire management of the relief ex-
pedition. He thought that two serious omis-
sions had been made which contributed to its
failure. In the first place, Lieut. Garlington
should have established a base of supplies at
Littleton island on his way northward, and in
this connection the Secretary made some point-
ed references to the careless manner in which
the memorandum known as u Inclosure No. 4 "
had been dealt with. It had been inclosed in
the instructions without clearly being made
part of them. The other important omission
was the failure of the Proteus and the Yantic
to keep together, which had not been satisiac-

424 GREELY RELIEF EXPEDITION.

torily explained. Secretary Lincoln was also
of opinion that Lieut. Garlington should have
remained at or near Littleton island. The
case was submitted to the President, with rec-
ommendation that a court of inquiry be or-
dered. The order to that effect was issued
Oct. 31st, and the court, consisting of Brig. -Gen.
8. V. Benet, Chief of Ordnance; Col. R. B.
Ayres, Second Artillery ; and Lieut.-Col. O. M.
Poe, of the Corps of Engineers, met on the 8th
of November. Maj. Henry Goodfellow, Judge
Advocate of the United States Army, acted as
recorder. No further action was taken with
reference to the conduct of Commander Wildes,
of the Yantic.

Testimony before the court of inquiry oc-
cupied several weeks. Lieut. Garlington and
Lieut. Colwell testified regarding the conduct
of the expedition, and repeated the criticism
upon the action of Capt. Pike and his crew.
Oapt. Pike gave evidence as to the condition
of his vessel, his own experience, and ^ the
character of his crew. Commander Wildes
was examined with reference to the part taken
by the Yantic. Gen. William B. Hazen, head
of the Signal-Service Bureau, testified in re-
gard to the preparation for the expedition, the
employment of the Proteus, and the instruc-
tions furnished to Lieut. Garlington. Secretary
Chandler gave an explanation of the outfit of
the Yantic and the instructions under which
she was sent out, and other witnesses were ex-
amined at length. Argument by counsel was
begun on the 3d of January, 1884, and Gen.
Hazen read a paper in defense of his own
course regarding the relief expedition.

The report of the court of inquiry was with-
held from publication until drawn out by a
resolution from the Senate in February, 1884.
It embodied a digest of the testimony taken
and the conclusions reached. While declaring
that Lieut. Garlington had erred in not wait-
ing longer at Pandora harbor with the object
of obtaining from the Yantic supplies with
which to make a depot for a winter station at
Life-boat point or Littleton island, the court
regarded this as an error of judgment ''com-
mitted in the exercise of a difficult and unusual
discretion,1' for which he " should not be held
to further accountability." His general con-
duct of the expedition was commended as
characterized by " zeal, energy, and efficiency,"
both before and after the loss of the Proteus.
The failure of the expedition was attributed
to the " grave errors and omissions " of the
Chief Signal Officer of the army.

Various opinions had been given as to the
situation and prospects of Lieut. Greely. Gar-
lington, in his report, had said :

I am of the opinion that if Lieut. Greely should
reach Littleton island this season he will divide his
people among the different Esquimau settlements,
and the stores he will find on his line of retreat, sup-
plemented by the game of that region, will be suffi-
cient food for his party during the coming winter.
Unless the conditions of the ice permit Lieut. Greely
to leave Discovery harbor in his boats, I do not think

GREEN, JOHN RICHARD.

he will attempt the journey to Littleton island this
season. He has at Discovery harbor a good house,
plenty of fuel and provisions, with what game the
country affords, to carry him to next spring. He could
then start south as early as the state of the season
permitted, and reach Cape Sabine without much com-
parative difficulty. This will, in my opinion, be the
course adopted by Lieut. Greely.

Commander Wildes, in his letter to the Sec-
retary of the Navy, said :

I had no fears for Lieut. Greely, who, living in a
region reported well stocked with game, has econo-
mized his provisions. Should he reacli Littleton bay,
besides the provisions on the west coast, the rocks and
waters between that island and the mainland abound
with walrus, the stench from their ordure fouling the
air for a long distance. On the neighboring mainland
reindeer are reported numerous. On the southeast of
Carey island there is a cache of six months' provisions
for twenty men, known to Lieut. Greely, who landed
there. They would have to live Esquimau-fashion,
but Dr. Kane and Lieut. Schwatka did that.

Immediately on the announcement of the
failure of the expedition, the question of a
third effort to relieve Lieut. Greely began to
be discussed. It was decided that another
spring would have to be awaited before any
practical steps could be taken, but in the mean
time it was determined to appoint a commis-
sion to take the matter into consideration and
supervise all the preparations for the expedi-
tion of 1884. This commission was appointed
by the President on the 17th of December, and
consisted of Gen. William B. Hazen, Chief of
the Signal- Service Bureau, and Capt. George
W. Davis, of the Fourteenth Infantry, selected
by the Secretary of War ; and Capt. James A.
Greer, of the United States Navy, who had
commanded the Tigress on the search for the
Polaris survivors, and Lieut.-Commander B.
H. McCalla, designated by the Secretary of the
Navy. This commission, at the beginning of
1884, began receiving suggestions and plans
regarding the new expedition for the relief
of Lieut. Greely and his party. •

GREEN, John Richard, an English historian,
born in Oxford in 1837; died at Mentone,
France, March 9, 1883. He was a child of
small and feeble frame, unable to partake in the
usual sports of boys, and was shut up to the
companionship of his books. His early educa-
tion was received at Magdalen College School ;
and at the age of fifteen he had mastered all
that could there be taught him. He then stud-
ied for three years under private tutors, and
at eighteen obtained a scholarship in Jesus Col-
lege, Oxford. The regular collegiate course
presented few attractions to him, and he made
no effort to attain any of its honors, devoting
his time mainly to historical reading. While
an undergraduate, he contributed to the "Ox-
ford Chronicle " a series of papers upon " Ox-
ford in the Eighteenth Century," which at-
tracted the notice of the late Arthur Penrhyn
Stanley, then Regius Professor of Ecclesiastical
History at Oxford. These papers, which were
subsequently reprinted, gave promise of the
high and rare powers to be developed in those
works which won for him a foremost place

GREEN, JOHN RICHARD.

425

among modern English historians. He took
his degree in 1860, received holy orders, and
through the influence of Stanley was made cu-
rate of St. Barnabas's, a poor and populous
parish in an eastern district of London, divid-
ing his time between parochial duties and his-
torical studies in the British Museum.

In 1862 he was presented to the vicarage of
St. Stephen's, Stepney, a post which he re-
tained until 1869. His labors here were im-
mense. He not only brought his parish into a
high state of efficiency, but also carried his his-
torical studies to the remotest sources, some of
his favorite works being the huge folios of the
Bollandist " Acta Sanctorum." Nothing, how-
ever, came amiss to him. He had acquired a
facility for rapid reading, and possessed that
poetic imagination which enabled him to grasp
the vital characteristics of a past epoch, and
the corresponding faculty of combining these
features into a consistent whole. The results of
his studies became more apparent in numerous
historical essays which appeared in the weekly
newspapers ; and it grew clear to him that his
true vocation was not a clerical one, for which
indeed his feeble health unfitted him. He re-
signed his living, and the Archbishop of Can-
terbury appointed him librarian at Lambeth.
He undertook no further clerical work, and, as
his duties as librarian were little more than
nominal, he was able to set himself seriously
at work as an historian.

His first formal work in this capacity was
the " Short History of the English People," the
success of which was immediate. It made its
way solely by its own merits, for the closely-
printed, thick little volume had no external at-
tractions for the general reader, to whom the
very name of the author was new. But com-
petent critics were not slow to make its merits
known. Prof. Edward A. Freeman wrote of
it: "The object of the book — that of combin-
ing the history of the people with the history
of the kingdom — is most successfully carried
out. It displays throughout a firm hold on the
subject, and a singularly wide range of thought
and sympathy. As a composition it is clear,
forcible, and brilliant. It is the most truly
original book of the kind that I ever saw."
Another reviewer averred that this "Short
History" contained "an amount of knowledge
which would have sufficed to furnish forth a
stately library-work in eight or ten volumes,
together with a comprehensiveness of view, a
• novelty of method, and a power of bringing to-
gether all the scattered elements of history,
with a freshness of style of which no historian
since Macaulay had given an example." In
Great Britain nearly 100,000 copies have been
sold, and it is hardly less popular in the United
States.

In 1870, after a severe illness, Mr. Green was
ordered to a southern climate by his physician,
and these " winter Sittings," to which he owed
the prolongation of his life for a dozen years,
were annually repeated, giving occasion to

many pleasant papers, which have been col-
lected into a volume entitled u Stray Studies
from England and Italy."

The history was published when the author
had just reached the age of thirty-seven. He
himself was sensible that he had only begun to
execute the task which it lay in him to per-
form, should a few more years be added to his
frail tenure of life. He at once set himself to
the task of writing an ample work upon the
same general lines, and with a like scope, but
essentially modified in form and manner. The
first volume of the " History of the English
People" appeared in 1877, and the fourth vol-
ume, bringing the history down to the final
overthrow of Napoleon at Waterloo, was con-
cluded in 1880. Of the first volume the Lon-
don " Saturday Review " said: "Three years
ago Mr. Green achieved a brilliant success. He
had the rare fortune to write a book that
everybody read; scholars acknowledged his
learning, his breadth of view, and his grasp ol
his subject ; all owned his narrative power and
charm of style. The ' History of the English
People' no longer wears the modest guise of a
school-book, but has become one of stately ap-
pearance. Though the materials of the earlier
book have been worked into it, and though we
recognize many of the most brilliant passages
as old friends, still the arrangement is so al-
tered, and the amount of fresh matter is so
large, that it is substantially a new work,
which, while retaining the life and sparkle of
its predecessor, is better proportioned, calmer
in tone, and altogether-a more ripe and com-
plete piece of work."

In 1877 Mr. Green married the daughter of
Archdeacon Stopford, with whom he wrote a
" Short Geography of the British Isles," and
not long afterward projected a very successful
series of " History and Literature Primers,"
edited by himself, but written by several emi-
nent English scholars. In the mean while his
high merits began to receive recognition. He
was elected a member of the Athen^um Club ;
Jesus College, where he had graduated, made
him an honorary fellow ; the University of
Edinburgh conferred upon him the degree of
LL. D. ; and he was chosen an examiner in the
School of Modern History at Oxford. He
found time to compile a selection of " Readings
from English History," so arranged as to illus-
trate the great periods from the Saxon con-
quest to the battle of Crecy, from Crecy to
the time of Oliver Cromwell, and from Crom-
well to the Crimean War, connected by appro-
priate threads of remark and explanation ne-
cessary to illustrate the series of events. The
three parts have been brought together in this-
country in one moderate volume.

For several years, Mr. Green had usually
passed the winters at Capri, in Italy ; but in
1880 he went to Egypt. The change was un-
fortunate : the climate was not favorable ; he
caught a severe cold on his return voyage, and
was very ill during the summer of 1881. In

426 GREEN, JOHN RICHARD.

GUATEMALA.

the autumn he betook himself to Mentone,
where he seemed to have taken a new lease of
life. He wrought with unflagging industry
upon "The Making of England," a work which
in the judgment of scholars is his masterpiece.
The period of the Saxon Heptarchy has been
dismissed by other historians as a time marked
by events no more worthy of record than the
obscure " lightings of kites and
crows " ; but Mr. Green's stud-
ies had wrought in him a firm
conviction that in those dim
ages were planted the seeds of
English character and of Eng-
lish history ; that the fierce
struggles of the Heptarchy
were in truth "the birth -
throes of national life."' His
theory is, that the Celtic races
whom Caesar found in Britain
were exterminated by the suc-
cessive tides of the Teutonic
invaders. A contrary theory
is, that they were not exter-
minated, or even driven off,
but were amalgamated with
and absorbed into the new-
comers. In either case the fact
remains unquestionable that the
Celts, as a race, vanished from
the southern portion of the
island, and the civil institutions grew up to be
not Celtic, but Anglican or English. A people
was born then and there who have not only
held the land of their development, but have
spread themselves as a distinctive race over new
worlds. In that ante-Norman period was the
" making " not merely of England but of North
America and of the colonies, in time to become
nations, of Australia and New Zealand. In
the development of this idea the author has
pnt forth the highest qualities of the historian.
In nothing is the special value of the work
more marked than in the descriptions of the
physical features of the England of the Hep-
tarchy. The first volume of the " Making of
England " was published barely a year before
the author's death. Its high value was at once
recognized, and it was immediately republished
in New York; his work being as highly ap-

Sreciated in America as in his own country.
y incessant work, he just succeeded in finish-
ing, before his death, a volume entitled " The
Conquest, of England," which was published
posthumously, and forms, properly, a sequel to
Ms " Making of England."

Mr. Green was no mere recluse student, but
took an eager interest in all the great social,
political, and literary questions of the day.
There seemed to be no limit to his versatility,
and his conversation was as brilliant as his writ-
ing. The pleasant house in Kensington square,
which was his London home during the sum-
mer months of several years, was the resort of
men who are eminent in public affairs arid in
art and letters.

GUATEMALA, a republic of Central America.
Area, 121,140 square kilometres; population,
1,252,497. The President is Rufino Barrios,
elected May 9, 1873, since which time his
term of office has been prolonged by decree of
the Constitutional Assembly, Oct. 23, 1876,
and he was re-elected March 15, 1880, for six
years. The Cabinet is composed of the fol-

THE PLAZA, QtTBZALTENANGO.

lowing ministers : Foreign Affairs, Dr. F. Cruz;
Interior, Dr. C. Diaz Merida; War, Gen. J. M.
Barrundia ; Public Instruction, Sefior D. San-
chez ; Agriculture and Public Credit, in charge
of the sub-Secretary of State, Dr. R. A. Sala-
zar ; Public Works, Sefior M. Herrera.

The Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plen-
ipotentiary to the United States is Sefior L. A.
Batres, and the Consul-Geceral at New York
is Sefior J. Baiz.

The United States Minister Plenipotentiary
to the five Central American Republics (resi-
dent in Guatemala) is Hon. H. C. Hall, and
the United States Consul at Guatemala City,
Dr. F. H. Titus.

Finances. — The amounts and the various
branches of the national revenue and expen-
ditures for the fiscal year 1882 were as shown
in the table below :

REVENUE.

Balance from former years

Keal-estate tax

Money collected for release from military service.

Turnpike-tolls

Sundries

Import duties

Export duties

Tonnage dues

Stamp tax

Slaughter-house tax

Milling-tax

Salt-tax

Tax on inheritances and donations

Patent-tax

Tax on spirits, tobacco, saltpeter, and powder

Special state revenues

Sundry collections

Loans and deposits

Total... ... $<M507,6T9

13,925

34,881

4,138

1,698.470

66,685

8,960

114,222

99.9C5

47,198

27,455

11,514

53,530

1,636,280

360,905

185,457

GUATEMALA.

427

EXPENDITURE.
Department of Finance $208,872

Interior and Justice 728,747

Public Instruction 252,892

College Education 25,419

Foreign Affairs 80,850

collection 264,654

sions and state aid 45 054

Municipalities 15,705

Post-Office and telegraphs 144,014

Mint 20,540

Charitable institutions 186,794

Police force 154,161

Extraordinary expenses 203,254

Beimbursements , 828,'044

Sinking fund '. 2,554,077

Various creditors 81,920

Interest and premiums

against 1,039,652 in 1881. Receipts, $56,989;
expenses, $68,924.

Commerce. — There entered and left Guatema-
lan ports, in 1882, 168 steamers and 62 sailing-
vessels — together, 230.

IMPORTS.

J?JT $8,134,000

1878 $28*000

1879 8,827,000

$8,647,000

1381 8,665000

1882 2,652|000

EXPORTS.

18J7 $3,773,000

1878 8,919,000

1879 4,606,000

1880 $4,425,000

1881 4,0*4,000

1882 8,719,000

Total $6,607,750

PUBLIC INDEBTEDNESS JAN. 1, 1883.

National debt (home branch) $3,021,050

National debt (foreign branch)* 8,466,019

Total $6,487,069

Railroads.— The first line of railway that went
into operation in Guatemala was the one from
San Jose to Escuintla, 22 kilometres, opened
June 18, 1880. Other lines are being built,
from Escuintla to Guatemala,
and from Ohamperico to Retal-
hulen.

Champerico a few years ago
was almost an unknown port.
Now it has a fine iron mole,
and every Pacific Mail coasting
steamship calls there to receive
or discharge the many thousand
tons of cargo which constitute
the life of the Costa Grande,
Costa Cuca, and Retalhulen dis-
tricts. A few years have en-
tirely changed the aspect of af-
fairs, and more capital being in-
vested every day in agriculture,
cheap and easy transport has
become a necessity. To supply
this a company was formed
in San Francisco, called the
" Champerico and Northern
Transportation Company of
Guateaiala," and its first effort is to establish
rail communication between Champerico and
Retalhulen, via Caballo Blanco in the vicinity
of the Costa Cuca, the most productive coffee
district in Guatemala.

Telegraphs.— There was a length of lines in
operation in 1882 of 3,114 kilometres, served
by 63 offices, the number of messages sent dur-
ing that year being 219,744. The receipts
were $56,989, and the expenses $68,924.

Postal Service. — In 1882 there passed through
the mails forwarded 280,123 private letters, 61,-
724 Government dispatches, 50,807 letters sent
and delivered in cities, 8,406 registered, 291,-
893 newspapers, 644 sample packages, 250
other packages — total items of mail matter,
693,847; received, 706,196— total, 1,400,043,

* Of which Federal debt, $672,714 ; other debts,. $2,798,805.

1882.

United States

Import.
$655,000
425,000
392,000

Export.
$1,776,000
860,000
227,000

Germany

Other countries ....

The leading export articles in 1882 were:
coffee, $3,132,716 worth; skins, $116,663;
woolens, $22,935; oil-cloth, $224,890; cochi-
neal, $11,869 ; specie and bullion (silver),
$44,755.

Of some of the causes which operate against
the American trade in Guatemala, the princi-

THE CATHEDRAL, GUATEMALA.

pal is a strong prejudice against Americans and
their goods. Nearly all of the importers are
foreigners, mostly Germans; and of the pro-
fessed American houses only one or two of any
importance are conducted by native Ameri-
cans ; the rest, chiefly by naturalized Ger-
mans. The majority of the importing estab-
lishments are branches of European houses, or
have European connections in some way.

Cinchona-Bark.— The Republic of Guatemala
has arranged with a well-known Ceylon plant-
er to select seeds for 5,000,000 cinchona- trees.'
Central America has been explored for a thou-
sand miles to determine the best sites for
planting these ; and the rapid increase in the
number of uses to which cinchona - bark is
put, not only for the manufacture of quinine
and as an ingredient in the substitute for hops,
but also for commercial purposes, has led Pres-

428

HAYTI.

ident Barrios to try this experiment. The
cinchona - tree was introduced into India in

000 been repaid, but the trees have been
valued at £1,000,000. The cinchona tree re-

1879, at the instance of the British Govern- quires a tropical climate and a plentiful rain-

ment, and the culture was so profitable that fall.

not only has the original investment of £150,- GHANA. See WEST INDIES.

H

HAYTL The Haytian Republic covers the
western third of the West Indian island of
Santo Domingo, and an area of 10,205 square
miles. The President is G-en. Salomon, elect-
ed for seven years, dating from 1879. The
Cabinet is composed of the following-named
ministers : Foreign Affairs, Finance, and Com-
merce, Gen. Damier ; Justice and Public Wor-
ship, Madion; War and Navy, Michel Pierre;
Interior, Ovide Camera ; Public Instruction and
Agriculture, F. Manigat.

The United States Minister Resident and
Consul-General at Port-au-Prince is Mr. J. M.
Langston, and the Vice Consul-General, Dr.
J. B. Terres. The Haytian Envoy Extraor-
dinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the
United States is Mr. S. Preston; and the Hay-
tian Consul at New York, Mr. E. D. Bassett.
The republic is divided into five administrative
departments ; that of the west having Port-
au-Prince for its capital; that of the south,
Aux Cayes ; the northern, Cape Haytien ; the
northwestern, Port-de-Paix; and the depart-
ment of Artibotiite, of which Gonai'ves is the
capital. The national capital, Port-au Prince,
contains a population of 35,000. The popula-
tion of the country is estimated at 550,000, 90
per cent, of whom are negroes, and the others
mulattoes. This gives 23 individuals to the
square kilometre, against 50 in Jamaica, 75 in
Porto Rico, 76 in Guadeloupe, 163 in Marti-
nique, and 12 in Cuba. There are few perma-
nent white inhabitants of the republic; these
few are merchants and French teachers. Al-
though the official language of the country is
French — and it is correctly spoken, written,
and printed, even having a creditable native
literature among the educated — the mass of
the people indulge in a sort of patois, a cor-
rupted French.

In 1844 Hayti separated from Santo Domin-
go, the eastern, Spanish-speaking portion of
the island, which has since then maintained its
independence, with the exception of a short
interval during the American civil war, when
it formed part of the dominions of Spain. In
1846, under the new Constitution, which went
into existence on November 14th of that year,
a sort of ostracism was decreed against the
whites, by virtue of Article YII of that docu-
ment, which stipulates that "no white man, to
whatever nation he may belong, is allowed to
reside in Haytian territory as master or prop-
erty-holder, and he is forbidden from ever ac-
quiring real estate or Haytian citizenship."

Finance.— The budget for 1882-'83 made the
following estimate of expenditures :

In dollars of five francs.

Department of Finance and Commerce $494,625

Foreign Affairs 352,080

War and Navy 1,221,197

the Interior and Police 1,159,814

Justice 323,624

Public Instruction 744,350

Public Worship 62,375

Agriculture 309,800

Sundry outlays 1,333,947

Total $6,006,310

The public debt amounted in May, 1882, to
$12,507,884, of which the remainder due
France under the arrangement of 1825 consti-
tuted $307,884 ; the Dominique loan, $7,200,-
000 ; and the internal debt, $5,000,000.

During the late insurrection the Haytian
National Assembly authorized the Government
to borrow $1,000,000 from the National Bank
of Hayti and issue paper money to an equal
amount, to be a legal tender for three years ;
this loan to be refunded by means of addition-
al taxes to be levied under provisions of a spe-
cial law to that effect passed on Aug. 28, 1883.

Since 1873 American silver has constituted
the principal part of the circulating medium
of Hayti ; but between 1880 and 1882 a large
amount of Mexican silver dollars has been im-
ported, and this money has circulated freely.
Within the same period an amount of Haytian
coins, bearing the effigies of Boyer and Petion,
variously estimated at from $50,000 to $100,-
000, has been remonetized and again been put
in circulation. If to these several elements of
silver money be added a small amount of
American, English, French, and Spanish gold,
the aggregate of the whole, both kinds of spe-
cie, amounting to about $7,000,000, we will
have, substantially, the sum total and charac-
ter of the currency which has been employed
in Hayti for the period indicated.

It was in this monetary condition of the
country, on the election of Gen. Salomon to
the presidency, that the proposition to estab-
lish a national bank, with foreign capital and
by grant of a special concession, was consid-
ered and determined by the Haytian National
Assembly.

The upshot of the matter is presented in a
contract with the Parisian General Industrial
and Commercial Credit Company for the es-
tablishment of such institution for fifty years.
The bank founded under the auspices of this
society is a joint-stock company, with its head-
quarters at Paris. The capital consists of 10,-
000,000 francs, or $2,000,000. It has the ex-
clusive privilege of emitting bills which shall
pass current throughout the country, provided
that the amount of such bills shall not exceed

HAYTI.

429

treble its metallic reserve, and that they be
redeemed on presentation at the bank at Port-
au-Prince or at its branches in Hayti.

The Army. — The active army, on a peace
footing, consists of one battalion of artillery,
100 strong ; one regiment of foot, 200 men ;
one battalion of "chasseurs a pied," 150; one
squadron of cavalry, 100 horse — these troops
forming the guard ; furthermore, those consti-
tuting the line, belonging to which there are
four battalions of artillery, 1,000 strong; six
regiments of foot, 3,200 ; and 46 companies of
" gendarmes " ; this places the numerical force
of the army at 6,828 men, kept up in part by
conscription for a seven years' term of service,
and partly by volunteers serving four years.

The Haytian navy consists of one steam
man-of-war.

The Insurrection. — With the fall of Miragoane,
on Jan. 10, 1884, one of the most stubborn of
the insurrections that from time to time dis-
tress the Kepublic of Hayti came to an end.
The three towns held by the insurgents were
Jerernie, Jacmel, and Miragoane, on the coasts
of the long peninsula in the southern part of
the island. J6r6mie was the first to surrender,
Dec. 24, 1883, after a bloody combat ; Jacmel
followed its example on December 29th ; and
with the yielding of the third port, a revolt
which has cost hundreds of lives and mill-
ions of money, and which at one time threat-
ened to develop into a race - massacre, was
crushed on the spot of its origin. Apart from
the commercial interests of the United States
in this event, the rebellion derived importance
for us from the fact that it was set on foot by
an armed expedition starting from this coun-
try as a base. Boyer Bazelais and his followers,
who landed at Miragoane on the night of March
29, 1883, there surprising the garrison and cap-
turing the fort, had been conveyed thither by
an American fruiterer, the steamer Tropic.
This vessel had left Philadelphia with a secret
cargo of arms, uniforms, and munitions, and
had been boarded at the island of Inagua by
Bazelais and his followers, who immediately
put on the uniforms and drilled with the guns.
The complicity of the Tropic's officers in this
violation of the neutrality laws was formally
established by a Unite 1 States court, which
sentenced them to fine and imprisonment.

Not long after the Tropic's expedition, the
Mary N. Hogan was seized by the United
States Government, on suspicion that she was
about to violate the neutrality laws in the
interest of the Haytian insurgents; and dur-
ing the latter part of November she was con-
demned. A little later the schooner E. G.
Erwin was detained on the same ground. Sub-,
sequently the Azelda and Laura, sailing under
the American flag, was promptly detained, at
the request of the Haytian consul-general.

While the three ports named were occupied
by the insurgents, and the Haytian Govern-
ment forces by land and sea operating against
them, President Salomon issued a decree passed

by the National Assembly of Hayti, amending
Article XXXI of the Constitution, whereby
trials by jury during the rebellion were sus-
pended for the crimes of forgery, counterfeit-
ing, incendiarism, and such as are of a political
nature; a law repealing the import duty on
Mexican coin ; a law opening to foreign com-
merce the ports of L'Anse d'Hainault and
Dame-Marie, on the south end of the island ;
a law closing to foreign commerce the ports
of Jacmel, Jeremie, and Miragoane, and a
proclamation announcing the crime committed
by the insurgents at Jacmel in murdering in
cold blood fourteen political prisoners, civil
and military. After being defeated by the
Government troops in an engagement on Au-
gust 3d, the insurgents retreated to the city,
and before the Government troops arrived,
assassinated the most influential Government
officers whom they had in their power, be-
cause on July 23d these officers had refused
to betray the Government of the republic and
join the rebellion. While President Salomon
was thenceforward straining every nerve to
quell the insurrection through a more system-
atic and powerful display of military and
naval resources, a most deplorable incident
occurred at the capital, Port-au-Prince, on
September 22d, in the shape of a rising against
his authority, accompanied by terrible excesses.
The cause of it seems to have been that the
local authorities endeavored to arrest two
young men known to be hostile to the Gov-
ernment. The insurgents began by attacking
at 11 A. M. the residence of the general com-
manding the troops of the district, and shot
him on the spot. The garrison then retreated
to the presidential palace, outside of the city
gates ; and the insurgents, thus finding them-
selves at liberty to do as they pleased, and
wreak their vengeful feelings on other inhab-
itants whom they considered their enemies,
fired on all such, causing a general stampede,
until at 6 p. M., when, after three hours' fight-
ing, President Salomon succeeded in dispers-
ing the assassins, who sought refuge in the
consulates. At this juncture the President had
lost control of his own troops, who, in common
with the rabble, set fire to the town and
plundered in all directions during the confu-
sion. The British war-steamer Fantom landed
a crew to protect the consulate, which the
mob threatened to burn down. These dreadful
scenes were prolonged till the afternoon of
September 23d, when foreign ministers and
consuls united in a protest, threatening the
city and palace with bombardment by the
men-of-war in the harbor, if order were not
restored immediately; and the city became
tranquil once more. The losses sustained by
foreign merchants, notably French, by fire,
were considerable, and in November the Hay-
tian Government was informed that an in-
demnity would be exacted.

Toward the close of October President Sal-
omon issued another proclamation,, in which

430

HAYTI.

HICKS PASHA, WILLIAM.

he announced that the leader of the rebellion,
Boyer Bazelais, had poisoned himself at Mira-
goane on the 27th of that month, after being
wounded in an engagement at Gaoy on October
22d. During the rebellion there was a battle
between the steamers Dessalines and La Patrie,
both vessels being considerably damaged, the
Government craft, the Dessalines, losing its
commander, and La Patrie seven men.

Natural Resources. — There is no tropical coun-
try on the earth capable of producing a greater
variety of agricultural and mineral products
than Hayti. The sugar-cane thrives nowhere
better ; it was introduced into the island by
Columbus on his second voyage, in 1493, from
Gomera, one of the Canary islands, and as ear-
ly as 1506 it was cultivated to some extent, as
it was found that it succeeded better than in
any of the other islands ; thence it was intro-
duced by French Jesuits with some negroes
into Louisiana in 1751. In 1791 Hayti export-
ed to France 70,000 tons of sugar and 30,000
tons of coffee. While in all other tropical
countries where slavery has been abolished the
cultivation of staple products has gradually re-
covered from the effects of disorganized labor,
this has been the case in Hayti only so far as
coffee is concerned, of which the country still
produces 35,000 tons annually on an average,
or about as much as a century since. But its
sugar industry has become practically extinct.
The quality of the coffee, although pure-fla-
vored, ranks lowest in the world's markets,
because it is slothf ully cultivated, gathered, and
prepared, most of it mixed with black beans
and fragments of stones ; yet it is the staple
product of the country, and a short coffee-crop
involves poverty for a season.

The other agricultural products are cocoa (al-
so lowest in quality) and a little cotton. Wax
and honey are exported, and logwood, mahog-
any, and cedar of good quality are produced.

The country abounds in mineral deposits, but
none is worked ; thus, there are iron, tin, cop-
per, manganese, cinnabar, and coal-seams at
Camp Perrin and Aux Cayes, and gold is met
with in a great many localities.

Native writers on Haytian economical and
agrarian subjects complain that the system of
rentals is bad on the plains, where the proprie-
tor of the soil shares in the profits accruing
from the cultivation of it with the small farmer
who cultivates under a lease from him. In the
mountain districts this is different, for there
small plantations, the property of those culti-
vating them, abound, and ^le products are bet-
ter prepared for market. These writers say it
is a peculiar trait of the negro that, however
small it may be, he wants to work on a planta-
tion of his own, and only under such conditions
will he bestow care on what he raises.

Commerce. — In the fiscal year 1881-'82 the
amount of import duties collected at the eleven
ports then opened to foreign trade was $1,859,-
044, and of export duties, $2,102,805. The
aggregate value of merchandise imported at

Port-au-Prince during the same year was $1,-
906,196, and the chief articles exported from
there were coffee, 51, 702, 927 pounds; logwood,
264,012,050 pounds ; cocoa, 3,382,199 pounds;
and cotton, 1,790,832 pounds.

AMERICAN TRADE WITH HAYTI.

FISCAL YEAR.

Import.

Domestic export.

1879...

$2,790.476

$3,148,757

1880

4339186

8 591 150

1831

4,717,269

4 372,321

1882

1883

3,537,937
2 971 515

8,195,931
3 162 788

Total .

$18,856 383

$17470897

The following table shows the increase of
coffee importation from Hayti into the United

States :

Fiscal year.
1869

Pounds.
3.114,151

Fiscal year.

1876

Pounds.
.. .. 11,837,508

1870

. . 2,437,355

1S77 . . .

. ... 12,269,344

1871

3 288 355

1878

12 813 113

1872

3 874,781

1879

16 660 030

1873

6,187,560

1880

. . 22,659,285

1874

. . 4,752.330

1881

31,908,074

1875

. 9,545,410

1SS2

.. .. 22,527,950

Total...

.. 33,194,942

Total. .

.. 130,675,304

The maritime movements of 1881 were as
follow :

Vessels
entered.

Tonnage.

Steamers.

Tonnage.

In all Haytian ports
At Port-au-Prince alone.

792
322

695,194
304,681

385
215

584.977
279,012

Vessels

sailed.

Tonnage.

Steamers.

Tonnage.

From all Haytian ports.
From Port - au - Prince
alone

768
816

686,821
304,365

882
213

582,275
278,312

HICKS PASHA, Col. William, an English officer,
commanding an Egyptian expedition against
the Mahdi in the Soudan, who perished with
his entire army at the battle of Kashgate on
Nov. 4, 1883. He entered the Indian army
in 1849, and served through the Sepoy rebel-
lion. In the Rohilcund campaign he was pres-
ent at the action of Kukralee, at the taking of
Bareilly, and in the battles of Bunnee, Ma-
homdee, and Shahjehanpore. He took part in
the campaign for the subjugation of Oude and
was with Lord Clyde at the capture of Sunker-
pore, the defeat of Beni Madho, the capture of
Fort Buxar, and through the operations across
the Gogra. He was present in the subsequent
actions with Nana Sahib. For bravery at the
battle of Sitka Ghaut and in the capture of the
enemy's guns, he received a medal. He be-
came a captain in 1861. In the Abyssinian
campaign of 1867-'68 he served as a brigade-
major, and distinguished himself at the capture
of Magdala, receiving a medal and the brevet
rank of major. He was promoted to major in
1868, to lieutenant-colonel in 1875, and in 1880
became an honorary colonel, and was appoint-
ed to the reserve. He went to Egypt with the
British military expedition, and, after serving

HICKS PASHA, WILLIAM.

HONDURAS.

431

as chief of staff in the reorganized Egyptian
army, was appointed by the Khedive com-
mander-in-chief of the Soudan army. In 1882
the Mahdi had destroyed, at the battle of
Gebel Geon, the main Egyptian force in the
Soudan, led by Yussuf Pasha. In the winter
he had captured by siege El-Obeid, the capital
of Kordofan. Through the co-operation of the
slave-traders and slave-owners, who now made

WILLIAM HICKS PASHA.

common cause with him, he could gather at
any point an enormous army of black slaves,
such as constituted the formidable military
power of S-ebehr a few years before, and were
described by Gordon Pasha as "smart, dapper-
lookmg fellows, like antelopes, fierce, unspar-
ing, the terror of Central Africa." The Mahdi
had captured many breech-loading rifles, and
had a few disciplined troops who had joined
him after surrendering at El-Obeid, but in the
main his warriors were armed only with jave-
lins and swords. The same slaves formed the
flower of Arabi's army. Col. Hicks, on whom
the Khedive now bestowed the title of pasha,
enlisted as many of them as he could in his
expeditionary force, but it was made up mostly
of forced conscripts, some of them brought in
chains to the transport-boats. He began his
preparations in the spring, arrived at Khar-
toum in July, and marched against the Mahdi
in September at the head of a force of between
10,000 and 11,000. Not far from El-Obeid he

was entrapped in a rocky defile, where his
Nordenfeldt and mountain guns were useless,
and where there was no water for his soldiers.
The battle lasted three days, and when the
ammunition was exhausted Col. Hicks endeav-
ored to break through the host of savages by a
bayonet-charge. He was the last of the staff
to fall, and used his revolver and sword with
deadly effect until he was pierced by a lance.

HONDURAS, a republic of Central America.
Area, 120,480 square kilometres; population,
350,000. Congress met on Oct. 15, 1883, and
promptly accepted the resignation of President
M. A. Soto, ordering the election of a successor.
There were four candidates : Gen. Bogran, Don
Monico C6rdova, Don Celio Arias, and Gen.
Delgado. Gen. Luis Bogran was elected. He
was one of the ministerial triumvirate govern-
ing the country during the absence of Presi-
dent Soto after May, 1883, and he assumed
the ministry of Public Works upon the death
of Gen. Gutierrez, Sept. 13, 1883. The Cabinet
was composed as follows : Minister of the Inte-
rior, of Justice, and Public Works, Gen. Bogran ;
Foreign Affairs, Public Instruction, and War,
Sefior Alvarado ; Finance, Sefior A. Zelaya.

The United States Consul at Amapala is Mr.
C. Morris.

Finance. — During the fiscal year 1879-'80 the
revenue amounted to $969,854, and the expen-
diture to $854,352: the budget estimate for
1880-'83 valued the annual income at $861,970,
and the outlay at $759,930.

National Debt. — The consolidated home indebt-
edness is represented by bonds issued to the ex-
tent of $1,000,000. The floating debt amounts
to $578,609.

Communications. — There is a line of railway in
operation between Puerto Cortez and San Pe-
dro, 37 miles. The length of telegraph lines in
operation is 1,046 kilometres. In 1879 there
were 19 post-offices, which forwarded 96,973
letters, 41,411 of these being government dis-
patches, 4,900 newspapers, and 47 sample pack-
ages. Income, $3,026 ; expenses, $18,073.

Commerce. — The President estimates that the
average annual trade movement comprises ex-
ports worth $1,805,000; viz. : gold and silver
bullion, $600,000; indigo, $200,000; cattle,
$150,000; cabinet and dye-woods, $180,000;
and hides, $100,000. The trade of the republic
is carried on, on the Pacific shore, through the
port of Amapala, and on the Atlantic shore
through Truxillo and Omoa.

Pine-Forests. — A few miles from Santa Bar-
bara, in a region whose altitude is about 2,500
feet above the sea, the grand mahogany and
huge cedar trees begin to diminish in size, and
vast forests of yellow and red pitch-pine cover
the foot of hills and mountain-tops. It may
be safely asserted that half -of the entire area
of the republic is composed of these pineries.
The fact that the West India islands and the
republics of .South America which border on
the Atlantic consume millions of dollars' worth
of pitch-pine lumber, shingles, etc., annually,

432

HONDURAS.

HOWE, TIMOTHY O.

coming from the mills on the Atlantic sea-
board and the Southern United States, has long
since attracted the attention of enterprising
merchants of Balize, British Honduras, who
imagined that the pine-forests of Honduras
might supply this constantly growing demand.
The rivers Chamelicon and Ulua, with their nu-
merous branches, drain the very heart of this
prolific pine-region. Some of the most valu-
able of these forests border on the rivers, or
are but a few miles from their banks, while
the two rivers, after draining several depart-
ments, which cover one third of the area of
the republic, flow into the sea a short distance
from Puerto Oortez. The intention of the Brit-
ish capitalists was to utilize the advantages
offered by the water-courses that seam the
mountain-sides, and to establish saw-mills, put
small steamboats on the rivers to tow barges
filled with dressed lumber to Puerto Cortez,
and there load ships for dispatch to the West
Indian and South American ports. But the
project was made so public that New Orleans
energy and enterprise were attracted to the
matter, and, while the English were forming
their plans, quietly obtained franchises from
the republic that virtually shut British enter-
prise out of the Department of Santa Barbara.
These franchises consist of the exclusive right
to navigate the rivers Ohamelicon, Blanco, Ulua,
and Santa Barbara, for fifteen years, together
with important wood-cutting privileges, while
the extensive navigation of the beautiful and
spacious Lake Tojia has also been granted to
a New Orleans company for forty years.

Mines. — The mineral resources of Honduras
are considered by the Spaniards its chief
wealth, and for two hundred years the mining
of gold and silver has been its most active
industry. During the past two years New
York capital has been attracted to these min-
erals, and the veins are now bein;5 developed
by modern machinery, where the systems of
mining and reducing of ores have remained
the same for a hundred and fifty years. In
the district of Yuscaran, two New York com-
panies are at work. The Yuscaran Mining
Company has reopened the historical Que-
marones by sinking and drifting below the
old workings of the Spaniards, and proved
that the old tales of fabulous wealth in these
mines are true, A reduction company is
erecting works here, with a capacity to treat
100 tons of ore a day, and the quiet Pueblo de
Yuscaran is taking on the dress of a modern
mining-camp. There are more than 100 mines
in this district, all of which have been worked
to some extent by the primitive methods. The
expense of reducing ore by the u barrel sys-
tem " is $26 a ton, and ore running less than
$50 a ton has been left on the dumps as worth-
less. In the department of San Pedro, a New
York company and a Chicago company are
each erecting mills; and a French company
is in operation. This district contains gold-
mines exclusively; that of Yuscaran, silver

and gold. Opal-mines are also being worked
in Honduras, and some of the finest opals in
the Paris market are brought from there.

HOWE, Timothy Otis. An American states-
man and jurist, born in Livermore, Maine,
Feb. 24, 1816 ; died in Kenosha, Wis., March
25, 1883. He received a common-school edu-
cation, and was occupied, out of school-hours,
in farm-work. He was admitted to the bar
in 1839, and began practice in Readfield.

Mr. Howe was an ardent Whig, and an ad-
mirer of Henry Clay. In 1845 he was elected
to the Legislature of Maine, where he became
active in the debates and the work of the
House, and gained much reputation. His health
having become impaired, in 1845 he removed
to Wisconsin Territory, and found the change
of great service. He opened an office in Green
Bay, then a small village, separated from the
rest of the Territory by belts of forest forty
miles in extent, and this place continued to be
his home for life. When the Territory became
a State, in 1848, he was an unsuccessful can-
didate for Congress. Two years later he was
chosen to be one of the circuit judges. These
judges were also judges of the Supreme Court,
and during part of his term he served as Chief-
Justice of the State.

In 1854, after the passage of the Nebraska
Bill, the Whigs, and others more or less in ac-
cord with them, met in mass convention, and
organized the Republican party of Wisconsin.
Judge Howe, being on the bench, took no very
active part in politics, but was understood to
be in hearty sympathy with the movement.
He resigned his office of judge in 1855, and re-
sumed the practice of law. He was much oc-
cupied in debates and discussions of the day,
and proved himself to be an efficient speaker
on the Republican side. He took part in a re-
markable trial, in 1856, to ascertain who was
the lawful Governor of the State — whether
William A. Boynton, who received the certifi-
cate, signed by the Secretary of State, and
took possession of the office, or Coles Bashford,
who claimed that a majority of the votes were
cast for him. The matter was submitted to
judicial investigation and decision ; Mr. Howe,
as counsel, was very diligent and energetic in
the conduct of the trial, and the result was
that Bashford gained his case and entered
upon his duties without further dispute. Judge
Howe's reputation was largely increased by his
management of this case, and his success in
gaining it. In 1861 Mr. Howe was elected
United States Senator, and he was re-elected
twice. During his long career he served on the
most important committees of the Senate — as
Finance, Commerce, Pensions, Claims, etc. He
was among the earliest advocates of universal
emancipation, and also urged the right to estab-
lish territorial governments over the seceded
States. He took issue with Andrew Johnson's
policy, and made able speeches, in 1865-'66,
against that policy. His course in this respect
was unanimously approved by the Republicans

HUMPHREYS, ANDREW A.

433

his State. He also voted in favor of John-
son's impeachment. He supported the Silver
Bill. He was in effect a radical Republican in
his political views, and uniformly voted to ex-
tend the suffrage to negroes. Although, per-
haps, not strictly to be called an orator, lie was
always impressive and forcible, and was par-
ticularly ready and fluent. President Grant
offered him a judgeship in the Supreme Court,
but Senator Howe declined it. He denounced
President Hayes on the subject of civil-service
reform as applied to the Southern States, and
he spoke against the Anti-Chinese bill.

When the third-term question came up, Mr.
Howe had left the Senate ; but he favored the
scheme, as regarding Gen. Grant, and in 1880
spoke strongly in its support. In 1881 he was
appointed one of the delegates to the Inter-
national Monetary Conference in Paris. He
returned home in July, before the close of the
conference, in consequence of his wife's illness.
When Cabinet changes took place, after Presi-
dent Garfield's murder, Mr. Howe was appoint-
ed, in December, 1881, Postmaster-General.
His service in this office was but little more
than a year, but much was done during that
time in post-office affairs. Postal notes were
issued; reduction of postage was also effected,
though the head of that department did not
favor the measure. Other measures, such as
postal savings-banks and postal telegraphs, he
urged with great force.

It was while he was on a visit to the State
of bis adoption that his life was suddenly
brought to its close. He left Washington in
excellent spirits, and with assured health and
strength ; but having been exposed to a driving
winter storm, and having taken a severe cold,
he was violently attacked with pneumonia, and
died in full consciousness that the end had
come. Judge Howe's wife died in August,
1881. He left one son and one daughter.

HUMPHREYS, Andrew Atkinson, an American
soldier, born in Philadelphia, Nov. 2, 1810 ;
died in Washington, D. C., Dec. 27, 1888. He
was graduated from the Military Academy at
West Point in 1831. His first service was
with the artillery. After the Florida war
he resigned from the army, and was em-
ployed by the Government as a civil en-
gineer, assisting Major Bache on plans of the
Brandy wine Shoal light-house, and the Crow
Shoal breakwater in Delaware Bay. On July
7, 1838, he re-entered the service as first lieu-
tenant of Topographical Engineers. From that
date until May 31, 1848, when he was pro-
moted to be captain in the same corps, he as-
sisted in many important engineering works,
and after his promotion was placed in charge
of several topographical and hydrographic sur-
veys. He greatly distinguished himself, with
Major Abbot, by the survey of the Missis-
sippi, which gave those two officers a wide
reputation as engineers. Humphreys was pro-
moted to the rank of major in August, 1861,
and was employed on the staff of Gen. McClel-
TOL. xxm. — 28 A

Ian as Chief of Topographical Engineers of the
Army of the Potomac. He was advanced to
the rank of colonel of volunteers, March 5
1862, and participated in all the actions of the
Army of the Potomac, up to and including the
battle of Malvern hill, in which he commanded
a division, having previously been appointed a
brigadier- general of volunteers, April 28, 1862.
•He continued in the command of troops dur-
ing the Maryland campaign which culminated
at Antietam, and in the Rappahannock cam-
paign, including Fredericksburg and Chancel-
lorsville, receiving the brevet of colonel in the
regular army for his' services in the former
battle. He was made a lieutenant-colonel,
Corps of Engineers, March 3, 1863, and served
as chief of Gen. Meade's staff from that date
until July 8th, when he received a commission
as major-general of volunteers. He was with
Meade at Gettysburg, and remained with him
until the surrender at Appomattox. On March
13, 1865, he was brevetted brigadier-general
in the regular army for gallant services at the
battle of Gettysburg, and brevetted major-
general on the same day for gallantry and
meritorious conduct at the battle of Sailor's
Creek, Va. He was mustered out of the
volunteer service August 31, 1866, promoted
to the rank of brigadier-general in the regu-
lar army, and assigned to duty as chief of en-
gineers, which office he filled until June 30,
1879, when he was retired at his own request.

In a general order announcing his death,
Secretary Lincoln pays : " In the discharge of
his military duties Gen.' Humphreys displayed
great zeal, intelligence, and conspicuous gal-
lantry. Those who served under him had the
highest confidence in his capacity to command,
and the greatest admiration of his soldierly
qualities." In 1882 he published uThe Vir-
ginia Campaigns of 1864 and 1865," followed
by another work, "From Gettysburg to the
Rapidan." His personal observations, the fa-
cilities which his residence in Washington af-
forded him of examining the archives of the War
Department, and the simplicity and strength of
his style of writing, have produced works that
will prove of great value to the future historian
of the war. His latest literary labors were sev-
eral letters concerning his grandfather, Joshua
Humphreys, who designed the six frigates con-
structed under a law approved by Washington,
as President, in 1794. This valuable material
was sent to Gen. J. G. Wilson, as a contribu-
tion to his "History of the Frigate Constitu-
tion," better known as " Old Ironsides."

Gen. Humphreys was a member of the Amer-
ican Philosophical Society of Philadelphia; the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, of "
Boston ; the National Academy of Sciences, of
which latter he was a corporator ; and he
was also an honorary member of the Imperial
Royal Geographical Institute of Vienna, and
the Royal Institute of Science and Art of
Lombardy.

HUXGikY. See AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.

434

ICHTHYOL.

IDAHO.

ICHTHYOL. This new remedy for skin-dis-
eases is an oily product obtained from a pecul-
iar bituminous mineral found in tbe region of
Seefeld, in tbe Tyrol. The mineral occurs in
beds of varying thickness lying in the midst of
fossiliferous rock, which bears numerous fish-
prints together with petrified fishes. It has
been surmised that the bitumen owed its origin
to the animal residue of fishes and other ma-
rine animals left there in prehistoric times,
when the region was still submerged by the
sea. Hence the namo "ichthyol." To obtain
the oil, the bituminous rock is first subjected
to dry distillation in iron retorts; the fluid
product which results soon separates sponta-
neously into a thick, tarry substance, and a
fluid, dark-colored, strong-smelling oil. The
latter is subjected to the action of concentrated
sulphuric acid and other chemical processes,
by means of which it is clarified and refined,
when a neutral or slightly alkaline product re-
sults, having a peculiar odor. This product —
ichthyol — is regarded as an extract from the
original oil. Its chief ingredient is said to be
a sulphur acid. Sulphur forms from two and
a half to ten per cent, of its composition (ac-
cording to the method of preparation). In
appearance it is of a somewhat tarry charac-
ter, but resembles none of the ordinary tars
either in odor or chemical composition. Its
consistency is about the same as that of vase-
line. It forms an emulsion with water, and is
miscible in any proportions with oils or vase-
line. It is partly soluble in alcohol and partly
in ether; wholly so in a mixture of both.

The efficacy of ichthyol as an application in
skin-diseases is probably due to the sulphur it
contains. The drug is probably, in part, an
artificial production, and the chemical treat-
ment by which it is produced increases the
proportion of sulphur from two or three to ten-
per cent. It therefore strongly resembles, in
its action and nature, a ten-per-cent. sulphur
ointment, differing from the latter in that the
sulphur is in a very intimate chemical union
with the other ingredients.

IDAHO. Territorial Government.— The follow-
ing were the Territorial officers during the
Jear : Governor, John B. Neil, succeeded by
phn NY Irwin ; Secretary, Theodore F. Sin-
giser, succeeded by Edward L. Curtis ; Treas-
urer, John Huntoon ; Comptroller and Super-
intendent of Public Instruction, James L. On-
derdonk. Judiciary, Supreme Court: Chief-
Justice, John T. Morgan; Associate Justices,
Henry E. Prickett and Norman Buck.

Legislative Session.— The Legislature, which
convened on the llth of December, 1882, ad-
journed on the 8th of February, 1883. An act
was passed to establish a public-school system,
and to provide for the maintenance and super-
vision of public schools. This act makes the

Comptroller ex offirio superintendent, provides
for the election of a county superintendent in
each county having more than five school dis-
tricts, for the election of trustees in each dis-
trict, for the examination of and granting cer-
tificates to teachers, and for teachers1 institutes
in the larger counties. Another act provides
for the registration of the names of electors
and for the prevention of frauds at elections.
Other important acts are the following : Regu-
lating the killing of game and catching of fish ;
preventing the spread ot scab or other infec-
tious diseases among sheep ; to prevent cruelty
to animals, and protect the public from the sale
of unwholesome food.

Finances. — At the date of the last returns to
the Comptroller, the total assessed value of the
real and personal property in the Territory
amounted to $9,108,450.05. The increase in
valuation is shown by the following table :

1878 $4,520,800 50 | 1881 $8,066,865 75

1879 5,926,149 60 1882 9,108,450 05

1880 6,408,089 14 I

The number of taxable inhabitants has in-
creased in like proportion.

The net receipts from all sources for the two
years ending Oct. 1, 1882, including balance on
hand at date of last report, were $118,638.39.
The disbursements for all purposes, including
the payment of all outstanding warrants and
several items of special expenses authorized by
the last Legislature, were $76,821.42.

The bonded indebtedness of the Territory
amounts to $69,248.60, divided as follows:
Bonds issued under the act of 1875, due Dec.
1, 1885, $22,533.54. Bonds issued under act
of 1887, due Dec. 1, 1891, $46,715.06.

Agriculture and Mining. — On these subjects the
Governor, in his message to the Legislature in
December, 1882, says :

Within our borders there is a large agricultural
area—delightful valleys and sunny plains stretching
out in all directions— containing, in the aggregate,
many millions of acres of as fertile land as can be
found in any State or Territory of the Union. Here
the honorable pursuits of agriculture are being fol-
lowed, with the most gratifying results. No country
in the world produces finer grain or grows more de-
licious fruit than Idaho. But, while there is ample
scope within our boundaries for great numbers to en-
gage successfully in agriculture, mining is at present,
and must continue to be for many years, our chief in-
dustry. In a few years after the organization of the
Territory, Idaho added to the wealth of the country
nearly $75,000,000 in the precious metals, mostly of
gold from the placer-mines.

The practical working out of the " virgin ground"
of the nch placer claims caused a falling off in Idaho's
output, and for several years there was a steady decline
in the amount produce'd. In early days but little at-
tention was given to quartz-mining, though the exist-
ence of valuable ledges was known. But the decline
in placer-mining caused attention to turn to this, and
enough has been accomplished to demonstrate the fact
that our resources in this line are far more extensive
than they were in placer deposits. But, with the com-

IDAHO.

435

pletion of the lines of railway, now building and pro-
jected, our facilities for economical mining will be
equal to those of any other section of the country.
Polygamy. — On this subject the Governor says :
Among the numerous subjects discussed in my first
biennial message was that of polygamous Mormon-
ism ; but my recommendations in 'regard to the sup-
pression of this evil were not b ceded by your prede-
cessors. I then believed the evil to be a dangerous
and formidable one, and undertook to show how it
was reaching out hi all directions, with the avowed
purpose of seizing political power in this country —
made plain, I thought, the fact that its strides toward
the attainment of that end in Idaho were altogether
too rapid, and too near realization, to justify us in
longer ignoring the situation. But, as potent as I
then depicted this unseemly power, the sequel proved
that I had underrated its strength. The adjournment
of the eleventh session of the Legislative Assembly,
without the adoption of a single measure to suppress
polygamy, proved conclusively, to my mind, that it
was able to dominate that body, in so far at least as
to prevent the passage of laws prejudicial to the prac-
tice. Once more it becomes my solemn duty to warn
the legislative power against further toleration of a
practice so fraught with woe to all that we, as Ameri-
cans, hold dear ; for I feel certain that the complete
realization of the scheme of the Mormon priesthood
means the entire subversion of all those rights and
privileges enjoyed under our free institutions. The
verdict returned in the recent election shows that my
confidence in the people was not misplaced. They
demand the complete extirpation of polygamy within
our borders. You are here to give effect to their man-
date, and it is with infinite satisfaction that I now sug-
gest the adoption of some such measures as the follow-
ing : That the law of evidence be so framed that no
person shall be excluded from testifying, in any pro-
ceeding in prosecution for polygamy, on account of
marriage relations with defendant ; that cohabitation
with more than one wife constitutes a continuous of-
fense, and that to preach in favor of the doctrine of
polygamy, or publicly or privately to advise, counsel,
or encourage others to commit polygamy, or know-
ingly to aid or assist others to enter into "polygamous
relations, be made a crime punishable as severely as
the crime of polygamy itself, and that Congress be
memorialized to amend the present anti-polygamy
laws, to the end that the now well-recognized defects
in the same may be remedied, so as to render pos-
sible the conviction of the guilty, by giving United
States and Territorial courts' co-ordinate jurisdiction.
I also desire to direct attention to an act of the last
session of Congress, known as the " Edmunds bill."
By that act all polygamists are disfranchised and dis-
qualified for ofhce ; but the machinery for enforcing
the provisions of the law apply to Utah only. It is
no exaggeration to say that in "two or more counties
in this Territory polygamists vote and hold office pre-
cisely as though no such law were upon the statute-
books. This is a state of affairs which requires a
remedy at your hands.

Education. — The educational system of Idaho
has not been well organized. The provisions
relative to superintendence were imperfect,
and the means of collecting statistics inade-
quate. The table in the next column gives
the latest and fullest statistics accessible.

There were no returns for Ada county in
1881 or 1882. In 1881 Idaho county returned
an enrollment of 239, and proportional at-
tendance of 155.

With a few exceptions, the salaries paid
teachers range from $75 a month in the cen-
tral and mining counties down to $20 and
even $10 a month in the agricultural counties.

COUNTIES.

5§

§

]J

<i

t.

|j

11

|1

jjl

si"

oS

3

K

H

1

Dollars.

Dollan.

~~~~~

Ada

*2,000

Alturas . . .

487

241

Bear Lake...
Boise
Cassia
Ouster
Idaho

1,229
488
846
183
841

649
239
290

47

418
299

'88

8,182 17
8,510 98
2,WOOO
2,17050

8,868' 27
8,510 98
8,981 15
8,71876

12
12
12
2
g

Koott^nai

80

80

19

54877

98859

2

Lemhi
Nez Perce
Oneida
Owyhee ...
Shoshone . . .
Washington. .

181
1,462
2,317
248
9
434

140
900

143

9

101
489

119
6
206

6,652 63
7,587 57
4,82887
4,894 84
42059
2,259 74

6,648 19
9,195 82
5,91787
7,800 21
1,19259
8,78695

7
87
25
5

1
12

Total

9,650

2,688

1,690

46,855 27^,008 83

188

Resources.— Idaho has an area of 55,228,160
acres, of which 18,400,000 are classed as mount-
ainous. There are about 600,000 acres of
lake area. The principal ones are Lake Pend
d'Oreille, 120 miles long and from 5 to 10
miles wide, navigable throughout; Lake Cceur
d'Alene, 36 miles long and 3 to 5 miles wide;
and Kanisku lake, 10 by 20 miles; all noted
for their scenery and abounding in fish.

Alternating with the mountain-ranges are
many valleys, large and small, affording a vast
area of agricultural lands not exceeded in fer-
tility by any in the world. The most exten-
sive are Boise, Snake, Payette, Clearwater,
Lemhi, Weiser, Blackfoot, Malad, Palouse,
Potlach, and Bear. The arable portions of
these valleys lie from 600 to 5,000 feet above
the sea, and they range in size from one to 20
miles in width, and from 20 to 100 miles in
length. In the northern portion of the Ter-
ritory excellent crops of cereals are raised
without artificial irrigation. In the central
and southern parts irrigation is essential, al-
though there are occasional small tracts lying
near the level of the streams on which grain-
crops may do well without.

Traversing Southern Idaho is the extensive
volcanic belt, or basin of Snake river, fit only
for grazing. Upon its nutritious grasses and
sage are fattened thousands of cattle annually.
The forest area is 9,000,000 acres, much of
it being included in the mountain-region above
described. Throughout the central, northern,
and eastern parts of Idaho the woodlands pos-
sess a heavier growth than in a majority of
the timbered States east of the Rocky mount-
ains, while in the remaining sections the tim-
ber-supply is not inferior to that of the most
of our prairie States. Along the Clearwater,
in Northern Idaho, and in several other sections,
white-pine logs one hundred feet long and five
feet in diameter, and red and white cedar-trees
two to five feet in diameter, are common.

The minerals are gold, silver, copper, iron,
lead, coal, plumbago, quicksilver, and others of
minor value. There are also mountains of sul-
phur, productive salt-springs, quarries of the

* Estimated.

436

IGUANODON, THE.

finest marble and building-stone, large deposits
of merchantable mica, and semi-precious stones.
Idaho's precious metal belt is 350 miles in length
and from 10 to 150 miles in width.

Progress daring 1883.— It is estimated that
there was an increase of at least 10,000 in the
population during the year. The mines yielded
about $5,000,000, which, it is expected, will be
largely increased in 1884. The agricultural re-
sources increased 25 per cent. In 1882 gold
was discovered in the Coeur d'A16ne district,
in Northern Idaho. During 1883 prospecting
has been going on, and there has been a large
influx of miners. It is believed that when
developed these mines will yield rich results.
They are situated on Prichard, Gugle, and Bea-
ver creeks, tributaries of the North Fork of
Coeur d'Alene river, about thirty miles south
of the Northern Pacific railroad. Fort Cksur
d' A16ne is the nearest accessible point of sup-
ply. Galena has also been found in this region.

IGUANODON, THE. The iguanodon was a gi-
gantic dinosaurian, the fossil remains of which
were first discovered by Dr. Mantell in the
Wealden of England in 1822. Its name, which
signifies ''-iguana-like teeth," was suggested by
the similarity in the appearance of its teeth,
with their serrated cutting edges, to those of
the iguana. Otherwise there appears to have
been but little similarity between the two ani-
mals. The iguanodon was supposed by the
older geologists to be of habits like the hippo-
potamus, and to have wallowed in the mud
and fed on the rank her-
bage of the marshy grounds.
Much new light has been
thrown upon the structure
and habits of the iguanodon
by the numerous remains,
including some nearly com-
plete skeletons, which were
found in 1878 at the coal-
mines of Bernissart, Bel-
gium. The fossils occur

there, like those discovered in England, in
the Wealden or lower cretaceous strata, called
morts- terrains by the workmen, overlying the
coal-beds, which have to be penetrated for
about twelve hundred feet before the coal
is reached. Being charged with iron pyrites,
the bones were quite friable and difficult to
remove, but the task was accomplished suc-
cessfully under the supervision of M. De-
pauw. of the museum at Brussels, who adopted
the habits of the miners and spent three years
in the work. The bones have been for two
years under the constant study of M. L. Doilo,
who believes he has identified the skeletons,
.or parts of them, of twenty-three individuals,
two of which are of the species /. Mantetti,

IGUANODON, THE.

ILLINOIS.

437

and twenty-one of the species I. Bernissartii.
M. Depauw has set up and mounted one of the
skeletons, which he has been able to restore
nearly complete, except for a few phalanges
and other minor details. Some interesting con-
clusions have been deduced from the labors of
these two naturalists. The iguanodon belonged
to the sub-class of dinosaurians and the order
Ornithopoda, or bird-footed. Among the spe-
cial characteristics of the family are a single
row of teeth, three functional digits on the
foot, and two symmetrical plates, which Prof.
Marsh regarded, from studies in the British
Museum, to be clavicles, and in which he traced
a point of structural resemblance with birds,
but which M. Dollo declares, from the Bernis-
sart specimens, to be sternal plates. Accord-
ing to M. Dollo's restoration, the animal stood
on its hind-limbs and maintained an erect po-
sition, like the birds. Several different lines
of coincidence tend to prove this supposition
to be correct. Among them are the remarka-
ble ressmblances between the structure of the
pelvis and posterior limbs of birds and that
of the corresponding parts in the iguanodons.
Points of resemblance of the ilium and ischium,
indicated by Prof. Huxley twelve years ago,
are fully confirmed. The pubis is very large
in the iguanodon, and projects forward and
outward, forming an obtuse angle with the
post-pubis. The post-pubis is long and slen-
der, and directed backward alongside the is-
chium, as in birds, for a considerable distance
.beyond the ischial tuberosity. M. Dollo is in-
clined to agree with Prof. Marsh in identifying
the dinosaurian pubis with the pectineal pro-
cess of birds — a conclusion which is supported
by the recently published observations of Miss
Alise Johnson, of Cambridge, England, U0n
the Development of the Pelvic Girdle in the
Chick," in which it is shown that in the em-
bryo fowl the cartilaginous representative of
the pectineal process is at first much larger and
more prominent in proportion to the develop-
ment of the pelvis than subsequently, and be-
comes gradually reduced as development pro-
ceeds. The fore-limbs are considerably shorter
than the hinder one?, and are massive and
strong; the volume of the head and thorax is
considerably reduced a? compared with that
of reptiles generally ; and the position of a
large mass of the viscera is behind the hip-
joint, as is the case with birds. These facts
tend to support the theory that the posture
. of the animal was erect, for they indicate that
a considerable proportion of its weight was
thrown back, whereby, with the aid of the
long tail, its body was more easily and securely
balanced in that position. Further evidence
in the same direction is given by the number
of toes, which were five on the fore-feet, and
four, leaving a three-toed track, on the hind-
feet. The tracks of the iguanodon in the
Weaklen — which could not have been made

KT any other of the known dinosaurians of the
rrnation— are three-toed. M. Dollo has com-

pared the hind-feet of the fossils with these
tridactyl foot-prints, and has found them to fit
accurately. If the iguanodon had walked on all-
fours, it would also have left five-toed tracks,
while none such have been found. Another
structural resemblance to birds has been traced
in the fact that the dorsal spines of the verte-
brae are connected by a set of ossified ligaments
binding the whole dorso-lumbar region into a
rigid mass. The head is relatively small, and
is very much compressed from side to side.
The nostrils are spacious, and chambered in
their anterior region ; the orbits are of moder-
ate size, and elongated along the vertical. The
temporal fossa is limited above and below by
a bony arch, a disposition which is otherwise
found among living lizards only in the Hatteria.
The distal extremities of both jaws are without
teeth ; while there are ninety-two teeth in the
hinder parts of the jaws, and these, as with
other reptiles, were replaced by new ones as
fast as they were worn out. The skin was
smooth, or covered only with epidermic scales.
Some observers believe that they have found
in the foot-prints of the iguanodon evidences
that a slight web existed between the toes.
The first finger, or thumb, constitutes a horny
spur, the remains of which are supposed to
have led Dr. Mantell to believe that the igua-
nodon had a nasal integumental horn. In re-
storing and setting up the skeleton represented
in the figure, M. Depauw was a little embar-
rassed by the fact that some of the bones
could not be separated from the matrix ; con-
sequently, the restoration has a degree of stiff-
ness, but not enough to attract the attention
of casual observers. As the skeleton stands,
the tip of the snout is fourteen feet two inches
from the ground, and the horizontal length,
from the tip of the tail to a point immediately
under the tip of the snout, is twenty-three feet
nine inches. M. Dollo has drawn a conjectural
outline of the body of the animal, which is rep-
resented in the engraving. Leaving out the
long tail, its general shape is like that of a
duck. The sectional view, represented by X,
indicates that the animal was relatively nar-
row and sharp-keeled. The tail was shaped
like that of the crocodile, and was probably a
powerful swimming organ. The neck was
comparatively slender and capable of free
movements. The iguanodon was an inhabit-
ant of marshes — so far as is known, of fresh-
water marshes only — and probably fed on
large ferns, many of which were found with
the Bernissart specimens.

ILLINOIS. State Government.— The following
were the State officers during the year: Gov-
ernor, Shelby M. Cullom, who resigned Feb-
ruary 7th, and was succeeded by Lieutenant-
Governor John M. Hamilton (Republican);
Secretary of State, Henry D. Dement ; Treas-
urer, John 0. Smith ; Auditor, Charles P. Swi-
gert; Attorney-General, James McCurtney;
Superintendent of Public Instruction, Henry
Raab. Judiciary, Supreme Court : Chief -Jus-

438

ILLINOIS.

tice, John M. Scott ; Associate Justices, Alfred
M. Craig, John M. Schofield, T. Lyle Dickey,
Pinkney H. Walker, John H. Mulkey, and Ben-
jamin K. Sheldon. Soon after his accession to
office, Gov. Hamilton appointed William N.
Brainard, E. C. Lewis, and Charles Strattan
Railroad and Warehouse Commissioners.

Legislative Session. — The Legislature convened
on the 3d of January, and adjourned on the
18th of June. On the 17th of January Gov.
Cullom, Republican, was chosen United States
Senator by a vote of 107 to 95 for John M.
Palmer, Democrat. Among the acts of this
session were the following :

An act to revive the law in relation to the
Department of Agriculture, agricultural socie-
ties, and agricultural fairs, and to provide for
reports of the same; appropriating $531,712
for the completion and furnishing of the State-
House and for the improvement of the grounds,
and providing for the submission of the appro-
priation to a vote of the people at the general
election in November, 1884; requiring opera-
tors of butter and cheese factories on the co-
operative plan to give bonds to make report of
their business; dividing cities and villages sub-
ject to overflow and inundation into improve-
ment districts, and providing ways and means
to raise the streets, lots, and blocks above the
line of overflow ; another act for protection
against inundation and overflow, permitting
owners of land to construct drains for agricul-
tural purposes ; fixing the minimum license fee
at $500 for dram-shops, and $150 for malt-
liquors only in cities, towns, and villages, and
authorizing county boards to grant licenses on
like terms upon petition of the legal voters of
any town or election precinct ; governing for-
eign fire, marine, and inland navigation insur-
ance^ companies doing business in the State;
providing for the organization and manage-
ment of corporations, associations, or societies
for the purpose of furnishing life indemnity or
pecuniary benefits to widows, orphans, heirs,
relatives, and devisees of deceased members,
or accident or permanent disability indemnity
to members thereof ; requiring railroad corpo-
rations organized or doing business in this
State under its laws or authority, to have and
maintain a public office or place in this State
where transfers of stock may be made ; a com-
pulsory education act for children between eight
and fourteen, requiring at least twelve weeks'
schooling' a year.

State Regulation of Railroads.— In May the Su-
preme Court of the United States rendered a
decision in the so-called " granger " case of
Neal Ruggles against the State of Illinois. This
case arises put of the facts below set forth :

On March 18, 1873, Morgan A. Lewis, a passenger
on the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy road, ten-
dered Neal Buggies, a conductor, eighteen cents as
fare tor his transportation from Buda to Neponset, six
miles. This was at the maximum rate of three cents
a mile, as prescribed by the statute. The conductor
demanded twenty cents, the fare fixed by the com-
pany. Lewis refused to pay more than eighteen
cents, and the conductor thereupon attempted to eject

Mm from the car. For this act the conductor was
prosecuted upon a charge of assault and battery and
fined ten dollars and costs. The case was then carried
uj) through the State courts by successive appeals, the
railroad company sustaining the conductor and rais-
ing the question of the right of the State to interfere
with its business by fixing rates of fare and transpor-
tation. A decision was finally rendered in favor of
the State by its highest court. The railroad company
thereupon appealed to the Supreme Court of the United
States on the ground that the act of the General As-
sembly of Illinois, of April 15, 1871, fixing the maxi-
mum rate of charges for the transportation of passen-
gers on railroads in the State, was unconstitutional
and void, because it impaired the obligation of the
contract contained in the charters of the various com-
panies which were merged into the Chicago, Burling-
ton, and Quincy company by consolidation.

The Supreme Court of the United States holds : 1.
That grants of immunity from legitimate govern-
mental control are never to be presumed. On the con-
trary, the presumptions are all the other way, and
unless an exemption is clearly established, the Legis-
lature is free to act on all subjects within its general
jurisdiction, as public interests may seem to require.
The State may limit the amount of charges by rail-
road companies for fares and freights, unless restrained
l>y some contract in the charter. 2. That in the pres-
ent case there is no such restraint. The judgment of
the Supreme Court of Illinois is affirmed with costs.

Assessment of Property. — The comparative state-
ment of the assessments made by local assess-
ors for 1882 and 1883 shows a total assessed
value of $750,635,758 in the former and $756,-
422,291 in the latter year.

The assessment of Cook county amounted
to $130,547,041 in 1882, and to $138,639,806
in 1883. The assessments on the capital stock
of corporations aggregated $2,218,430.

State Institutions.— The financial record of the
State Board of Public Charities for the quarter
ended Dec. 31, 1883, shows the following ex-
penditures for each institution for that period :

Ordinary.

Special.

Northern Insane Hospital
Eastern Insane Hospital
Central Insane Hospital1.

$29,742 00
26,195 00
32,523 00

$12,956 00
58,550 00
13,085 00

Southern Insane Hospital
Deaf and Dumb

25,649 00
27,620 00

15,407 00
67 44

Institution tor the Blind

8,779 00

938 56

Asylum for Feeble-Minded . .

13,920 00

3,264 CO

Soldiers' Orphan Home

16.942 00

4,652 00

Eye and Ear Infirmary
Reform School

4,479 00
11,462 28

876 00
28,993 00

The April reports of the penitentiaries show
that on March 1st the Joliet Prison had 1,419
males and 22- females ; at the Southern Peni-
tentiary March 1st there were 555 prisoners.

Corn - Crop.— The acreage and yield of the
corn-crop of this State the past ten years is
given below :

YEAR.

Acreage.

Yield
in bushels.

1874
1875

7,421,055
8 163 265

133,579,000
280 000 000

1876

8 920,000

223 OCO 000

1877

8 935 411

269,b89 742

1878
1879

8,672,088
- 7 918 881

250,560.810
305913877

1880

7 574' 545

250 697 036

1881

7 157334

174491 706

1882

1888

7.371,950
7 804 596

179,471,729
186583558

Average

7,943,912

227.419,695

ILLINOIS.

The 1883 corn-crop, while somewhat larger
than the small crops of 1881 and 1882, will not
furnish nearly as much marketable corn.

The quality of corn in 1883 is reported up
to an average in only the following counties :
Gallatin, Jasper, Massac, Randolph, and Union,
all of which are in the southern portion of the
State. The average yield and quality of corn
are as follow :

INDIA.

439

DIVISION.

Average yield
per acre.

Quality, compared
with an average
per cent.

Northern

'Bushels.
21

46

Central

29

72

26

88

Average of State . . .

25

69

Coal-Prodnet.— Illinois has no equal, west of
Pennsylvania, in the abundance of its coal de-
posits, its accessibility, and means of trans-
portation. It supplies not only its own great
demands, but almost wholly those of the mark-
ets of Chicago and St. Louis. The following
statistics are for 1883 :

Number of counties producing coal . . 49

Number of mines 639

Number of acres of coal-lands owned or controlled

by owners of mines 110,898

Number of acres worked out 12,329

Number of men engaged 23,939

Number of tons produced . . 10,508,791

Increase over 1832 1,893,188

Value of same at mines $15,310,529

Amount of capital employed $10,896,540

Estimated capacity of annual production (tons). . 21,085,435

Number of casualties, all kinds 360

Number of fatal accidents 184

The two great mining catastrophes of the
year at Braidwood and Coulterville caused
seventy-nine deaths. The increase in the num-
ber of counties producing coal is three, Oass,
Edgar, and Macon. In the former, two mines
have been opened, at Virginia and Ashland.
In Edgar county, at Illinana, near the Indiana
line, there is a new plant costing $60,000 ; and
in Macon, two first-class mines at Decatur and
Niantic, involving an investment of $15,000.
Next year Christian county will enter the list
with a mine at Pana, over TOO feet deep, open-
ing a vein seven feet thick. The steady ad-
vance of the production in a period of years
is shown by the following table :

Number
of estab-
lishments.

Number
of men
employed.

Number of
tons produced.

Value.

1870...
'1890...

18S2

322

590
704

6,301
14,079
19420

2,624,163
6,115,377
9 115 653

$6,079,432
8,779,832
13 696 257

1883 ....

639

23939

10 508 791

15310 520

Temperance.— The Illinois State Temperance
Union met in Springfield in January. The re-
port of the State organizer was a strong argu-
ment in favor of prohibition, from a moral
point of view. He gave a list of twelve coun-
ties that have adopted anti-license laws, viz. :
Cumberland, Edwards. Fulton, Jasper, John-
son, Lawrence, Menard, Piatt, Schuyler, War-

ren, Wayne, and Stark. These counties, with a
total population of 221,371, had only forty-eight
prisoners in jail during the year, and twenty-
four of these were incarcerated on account
of crimes arising from drunkenness. On the
other hand he mentioned twelve counties, with
293 licensed saloons, and a population of 217,-
597, with 801 prisoners in the various jails.
During 1882, 117 murders were committed in
the State, 61 in Cook county, nearly all having
their origin in drunken quarrels.

The plan of work recommended the estab-
lishment of a weekly or monthly newspaper
in every county in the State ; the circulation
of temperance literature ; the holding of tem-
perance meetings and the development of home
talent in the cause ; the securing of special
temperance sermons ; the organization of Bands
of Hope, and the study of temperance text-
books and manuals.

The same body met in Bloomington in De-
cember, voted to consolidate with the National
Prohibition and Home Protection party, and
recommended immediate party organization
throughout the State.

Colored Convention. — A State convention of
colored citizens was held in Springfield on the
16th and 17th of October. Fifty delegates,
representing eight counties, were in attendance.
The subjects of civil rights, education, and
labor were considered. A plan for a perma-
nent organization was adopted. The resolu-
tions adopted were as follow :

Resolved, That while we are proud of the noble
record of the Kepublican ,party in the past in the
interest of the negro race,' we solemnly pledge our-
selves to not vote for any man for office who will
not give us that recognition to which we are justly
entitled.

That we will not vote for any man for office in the
future who has not shown a disposition, while in of-
fice, to act honorably and fairly toward colored appli-
cants for political preferment.

Resolved. That we recognize in the Douglas Louis-
ville speech a "new departure," the principles of
which are the underlying elements of the future suc-
cess of the negro race of this country ; we therefore
adopt it as our idea of right and justice.

An address was also put forth, in which in-
dustrial education and co-operation were urged
upon the people.

INDIA, an empire in Asia, subject to Great
Britain. By the act of Aug. 2, 1858, the
powers previously vested in the East India
Company were assumed by the crown. The
functions exercised by the company and the
Board of Control were transferred to the India
Office and placed under the direction of the
Secretary of State for India. The Queen of
Great Britain and Ireland was proclaimed Em-
press of India Jan. 1, 1877. The executive,
authority in India is vested in the Governor-
General, popularly entitled the Viceroy, who
acts under the direction of the Secretary of
State for India. Subject to the approval of the
latter, who is invariably a member of the Brit-
ish Cabinet, the laws are elaborated by the
Governor- General in council. The council of

440

INDIA.

the Governor-General consists of five ordinary
members and the commander-in- chief of the
military, appointed by the crown, who preside
over the departments of Foreign Affairs, Fi-
nance, the Interior, Military Administration,
and Public Works ; but their functions are
simply administrative. The governors of presi-
dencies and provinces are appointed by the
crown, the lieutenant-governors of provinces
by the Governor-General, subject to the ap-
proval of the Secretary of State for India. The
Governor-General in council has power to make
laws for all persons in the subject provinces,
and for British subjects in the protected native
states. The Secretary of State is assisted by a
council of fifteen members.

The Governor - General is the Marquis of
Eipon, who succeeded Lord Lytton June 8,
1880.

The Secretary of State for India is Earl Kim-
berley, previously Secretary of State for the
Colonies, who succeeded the Marquis of Hart-
ington on the transfer of the latter to the
Ministry of War, Dec. 16, 1882.

Population.— In 1881 the total population of
British India, including feudatory states, was
254,899,516. The British population of India,
exclusive of the army, was, in 1871, 64,061, of
whom 38,946 were males and 25,115 females.
In respect of occupation. 14,822 belonged to
the civil service and professional classes, 12,708
to the domestic, 7,993 to the commercial, 614
to the agricultural, 2,595 to the industrial, and
25,329 to the indefinite and non-productive
class.

The occupations of the adult male population
were given in the census of 1881 as follow :

Government officials 1,504,849

Army and navy 31 1,STO

Various professions 1,213,247

Domestics 2,177,599

Merchants and traders ^ 1,870,017

Carriers, porters, etc 1,362,103

Agriculturists and horticulturists , 51,274,586

Persons engaged about animals 754,512

Mechanics, artisans, miners, etc 64,968,741

Other laborers 7,674,600

Persons of rank and property 46,262

Of no stated occupation ... 48,794,195

Emigration. — The emigration of coolies num-
bered 16,794 in the year ending March 31, 1881,
17,428 in 1880, 22,092 in 1879, 24,710 in 1878,
10,560 in 1877, 11,489 in 1876, 25,325 in 1875,
and 29,243 in 1874. Of the emigrants in 1881,
4,416 went to British Guiana, 4,176 to the Brit-
ish West Indies, 3,207 to the French West In-
dies, 2,373 to Natal, 1,076 to Reunion, 965 to
Surinam, and 581 to Mauritius. In 1881-''82,
though the demands for coolies were as great
as in the previous year, the emigration was
3,600 less. The majority of laborers shipped
from Calcutta came from the Northwest Prov-
inces and Oude, 57 per cent, from the former,
and 20 per cent, from the latter. There re-
turned during that year 3,160 emigrants, who
brought back on an average £20 each.

Commerce. — The total value of the imports
and exports, for the ten years 1873-'82, was as
follows for each year :

YEARS ENDED MARCH 31.

Imports.

Exporti.

1878

£36 431 210

£56 540 042

1874

39'62s'562

56 940 073

1875 .

44 363 134

57 984 539

1876

44 188 062

60 291 731

1877

48 876 751

6") 048 789

1878 .

53' 81 9' 644

67 4S8 324

1879

44 857 343

64 919 741

1*80

52 821 398

69 247 511

1881

62 104 984

76021 043

1882...

60 430 000

88 066 000

The exports and imports of treasure, in-
cluded in the above, were of the following
values :

YEARS ENDED MARCH 31.

Imports.

Exports.

1873

£4 556 585

£1 298 079

1874

5792534

I?914'o71

1875

8 141 047

1 625 309

1876

5 800,722

2 200 236

1877

11436118

4 029 898

1879...

17,355,459

2.210,996

1879

7 056 749

8 982 228

1880..

11 655895

2 035 148

1881

8,988,214

] 440 441

1882

11 828 000

1 100000

The returns for the year ending March 31,
1883, show a volume of commerce exceeding
that of any former year. The total imports
were £65,552,100 in value ; the exports, £84.-
526,700. The imports of treasure amounted
to £12,400,000, of which £5,090,000 were gold
and £6,270,000 silver.

Agriculture. — The tea product of Bengal in
1881-'82 was 8.333,000 pounds, an increase of
2,000,000 pounds on that of the previous year.
The produce of cinchona-bark in that province
amounted to over 340,000 pounds, the greater
part of which is consumed in the country.
The quantity of manufactured febrifuge sold
was 10,000 pounds, against 8,650 pounds in
1880-'81. Besides the Bengal plantations there
are extensive areas planted to cinchona in the
Neilgherry Hills and in the Madras Presidency,
where the crop amounted to 250,000 pounds,
all of which was shipped to England. The
wheat product of Northern and Central India
was a few years ago insignificant, but it has
lately become one of the leading articles of ex-
port. The wheat exports in 1881-'82 were
166 per cent, greater than in the preceding
year. The harvest of 1882 was so abundant that,
for the lack of communication and an export
market, the ryots of Bengal and other parts of
India were unable to sell their produce, a state
of things which produced monetary distress
among the people and helped to embarrass the
finances of the Government.

Railroads. — The internal commerce of India
has been developed by the construction of sev-
eral great lines of railway, under the guaran-
tee of the Government. When in 1845 it was
found impossible to raise the capital to build
certain lines undertaken by two companies, it
was determined by the Indian Government to
guarantee to the railway companies, for a term
of 99 years, a rate of interest of 5 per cent.
Power was reserved by the Government to su-

INDIA.

441

pervise and control their proceedings by means
of an official director. In 1869 the Govern-
ment of India decided on carrying out all new
railway extensions.

The number of miles of railroad open to
traffic in the beginning of 1882 was 9,875, of
which 4,590 were guaranteed lines, and 5,285
were state railroads. The number of passen-
gers on Indian railroads rose from 15,999,633
in 1869 to 52,239,865 in 1881.

Post-Office and Telegraphy. — The number of
letters, newspapers, and parcels which passed
through the Post-Office in 1881 was 158,666,-
856, having increased from 89,561,685 in
1872.

The length of telegraph lines in operation in
1881 was 19,679 miles, having increased from
15,336 in 1872. The length of wires in 1881
was 54,318 miles. The total receipts were
£452,872 ; the expenses, £310,371. The total
number of messages sent was 1,658,647. The
number of offices was 254.

The Army. — The total number of British
troops stationed in India, according to the
army estimates for 1883-'84, is 61,641. The
strength of the native army is 126,088.

Finances. — The receipts and expenditures, as
given in the closed accounts of the last three
years published, amounted to the following
sums:

YEAR.

Gross
receipts.

Expendi-
tures in
India.

Expendi-
tures in
England.

Total

expenditures.

1878-'79 . . .
1879-'80
1880-'81

Pounds.
65,199,602
68,484,666
72,559,978

Pounds.
49,814,060
55,119.5)51
68,188,803

Pounds.
13,851.296
14,547,664
14,420,525

Pounds.
63,165,356
69,667,615
76,604,333

The Public Debt. — The total amount of the
public debt was £59,943,814 in 1857. In the
next five years it rose to £99,632,053. Be-
tween 1862 and 1868 about £4,500,000 were
paid off, but in the fifteen years following
about £89,000,000 were added to the debt.
The amount on March 31, 1881, was £157,-

Land Settlements. — The land revenue consti-
tutes over one third of the total income of the
Government. Before the mutiny it furnished
more than half of the receipts of the East In-
dia Company. The share of the Government
in the profits of the land has been determined
in the different provinces by various settle-
ments. The settlements in Bengal and Benares
.are permanent, those in other parts of India
subject to periodical revision. The older set-
tlements give the state about two thirds of
the annual profits of the soil. In the revised
settlements recently made the share of the
Government is about one half of the natural
rent.

In Bengal the land is chiefly owned by zem-
indars. The settlement of Lord Oornwallis, in
1793, in order to create a class of loyal local
magnates throughout the country and to assimi-
late the land system to that of' Great Britain,

confiscated the lands of the ryots and bestowed
them upon the former collectors of the taxes,
who were vested with the entire ownership of
the soil. In recent times, since the zemindars
have proved a useless class, while the ryots
have suffered greatly, there has been a desire
to undo the act of Lord Cornwallis. It has
finally been decided that the zemindars are not
absolute proprietors, and an important part of
their proprietary rights has been taken away
from them by the Bengal tenancy bill, enacted
in 1883.

The main objects of the bill are to give rea-
sonable security to the tenant in the occupa-
tion and enjoyment of his land, and also to
secure the landlord in the settlement and re-
covery of his rent. The provisions of the act
realize as nearly as possible the principles of
the Irish Land-League party enunciated in the
" three F s " — fair rent, fixed tenure, and free
sale.

Local Self-Government. — Lord Kipon's scheme
for the tentative introduction of local self-gov-
ernment by representative native bodies was
initiated by a law passed by the Supreme Coun-
cil for the Central Provinces early in January.
Each district is divided into circles, formed by
aggregating several villages ; a number of these
circles are combined into a group, and their
local affairs are administered by a local board
for each group. These local boards are com-
posed of the executive head-men of the villages
within the group ; representatives of the mer-
cantile and professional classes, elected by them
or appointed on their -behalf ; and a number,
not to exceed one third of the whole, nomi-
nated by the Government. The local boards
are supervised by district councils, a part of
the members of which are elected by them, a
part are nominated by the Government, and a
part are representatives of the educated classes.
The local boards are intrusted with the ad-
ministration of roads, schools, hospitals, mar-
kets, wells, famine-relief works, tree-planting,
pounds and ferries, etc.

The Ilbert Bill. — The promises made by the
present British Cabinet to develop native self-
government are in accordance with the policy
advocated by Lord Lawrence and initiated by
Lords Mayo and Northbrook in the decentrali-
zation of finances and the establishment of
municipal councils. It is in the direction of
reforms already begun by Earl Dalhousie, but
arrested and delayed until the present in con-
sequence of the Sepoy rebellion. This policy
has been opposed by the Conservative party,
in sympathy with the military class and with
a large proportion of the Anglo-Indian officials,
used to the exercise of despotic power, who-
look upon India chiefly as a field for the exer-
cise of English administrative talent, and think
that the country would fall into chaos and
anarchy if the English rule were removed, and
that this can only be maintained by tyranny
and military power. Believing it necessary to
treat the Hindoos as a conquered race, they

442

INDIA.

think it essential to preserve broad legal dis-
tinctions between the races. Race prejudice,
which is a universal feeling, and is strongest
among the most ignorant, is largely responsible
for this sentiment, which is less justified than
formerly, since a considerable class of natives
have received a European education, while a
class of degraded, ignorant, and idle Europeans
has accumulated in the cities. It was o\ving
to this idea that the natives must be treated as
an inferior and servile race that the Govern-
ment met with sudden and unexpected oppo-
sition to a proposed law of slight importance,
but from which, in view of their general poli-
cy, they were unwilling to recede. A native
member of the Civil Service, Mr. B. L. Gupta,
called attention in January, 1882, to the anoma-
lous position of native magistrates and sessions
judges. Native judges in presidency towns
have jurisdiction over Europeans; but when
transferred or promoted to a position in the
Mofussil, or country districts, they lose this
right, although it is exercised by their assistants,
if of European birth. In accordance with the
usual practice, the Indian Government sub-
mitted the question to the local administrations
for their advice. Among the provincial gov-
ernors and their councils there was a general
agreement of opinion in favor of removing the
anomaly, and recommending the Secretary of
State to sanction a bill which will give native
magistrates the powers conferred upon Euro-
peans of the same grade, except in the matter
of criminal jurisdiction, which should be re-
stricted by confining the office of justice of the
peace and the power of trying European Brit-
ish subjects to persons who, whether native or
European, have received a training calculated
to fit them for the exercise of such jurisdiction
in harmony with English judicial notions. The
same point was raised during the discussion of
the criminal procedure code in the Legislative
Council in 1872.

Prior to 1872, judicial officers outside the
presidency towns were not permitted to pass
sentences of imprisonment on European Brit-
ish subjects, who were sent to a presidency
town for trial by a jury before the High Court.
When the criminal procedure code of 1872
was under discussion, it was proposed to abol-
ish this privilege. The proposition to confer
the jurisdiction on all superior magistrates,
native and European, was negatived by a ma-
jority of two votes. A compromise was ar-
rived at, whereby district judges and magis-
trates who were themselves Europeans, and
justices of the peace, were granted a certain
limited jurisdiction over European British sub-
jects, and allowed to pass upon them sentences
of imprisonment not exceeding one year; while
the more serious offenses remained triable, as
before, only by the high courts.

In presidency towns the native magistrates
exercise the same jurisdiction over Europeans
that they do over natives. Mr. Gupta, who had
received an appointment in the Mofussil, after

discharging the duties of a magistrate in Cal-
cutta, was the only person who would be im-
mediately affected by the change. Another
native member of the covenanted civil service
might be called upon to exercise jurisdiction
over Europeans in 1884. Not more than five
would become eligible within five years, and
very few for many years to come. Yet the
introduction by Mr. Ilbert of the criminal pro-
cedure amendment bill in the Supreme Coun-
cil, embodying the recommendations of the
majority of the provincial officials, raised a
storm of protests. The Ilbert bill proposed to
empower the Government to appoint to the
office of justice of the peace, with jurisdiction
over Europeans, subject to the rights of appeal
and trial by a mixed jury, such persons as it
thinks fit from among the members of the
covenanted civil service and the statutory na-
tive civil service, or from among the assistant
commissioners in non-regulation provinces, or
cantonment magistrates.

The opposition to the Ilbert bill was almost
universal in the European community. It bore
the character of a somewhat artificial agita-
tion, fomented by the class whose prospects of
power and emolument were impaired by the
policy of the Government to throw open the
civil service as far as practicable to natives,
and to develop the principle of local self-
government. The Ilbert bill offered a tangible
ground for opposition which appealed to popu-
lar passion and prejudice. Its opponents made
the best use of the opportunity to stir up race
animosities and to provoke retorts from the
native journalists and orators, who possess a
talent for vituperation. The bolder and more
far-seeing Indians pointed out that if the Eng-
lish do not allow and encourage the develop-
ment of free institutions, which, with the
spread of English education in India, the peo-
ple had learned to understand, they would
copy their European masters in establishing
freedom by revolution. The impossibility of
holding India by the sword was shown, and
the fact recalled that it was the fidelity of
Indians which rescued English power in 1857.
Such expressions were cited by the Anglo-
Indians to show the prevalence of the belief
that the days of the English Raj were num-
bered, and that the reforms offered the Indians
in the direction of self-government and the
equality of the races were the outcome of fear
and weakness.

The ground for opposing the Ilbert bill was
that it abolished a distinction founded upon
race. The specific reasons why it was un-
advisable to give native magistrates power to
inflict punishment on Europeans, or to decide
cases between Englishmen and natives, were
that the Hindoos were lacking in the sense of
justice and truth innate in the English charac-
ter. It was said that in the tea districts and
other parts of the country natives would bring
false and interested complaints against plant-
ers' assistants, railway officials, etc., supported

INDIA.

INDIANA.

443

by perjured testimony, which is notoriously
obtainable for a couple of rupees, and that the
native magistrates, unskilled in the sifting of
evidence and biased by race prejudice, would
decide in favor of the native suitors and com-
plainants. The effect would be to frighten
English capital which was needed for the de-
velopment of the country. The plain ground
was taken, when the agitation was under way,
that it was dangerous to abolish distinctions
between the conquering and the conquered
race. The privileged position claimed by the
British population with such unanimity, it was
agreed, was not an anomaly, since the Indian
laws recognized a variety of distinctions be-
tween the different ranks, castes, and religions
of the natives.

The controversy was carried on with as
much warmth in England as in India. The
majority of the returned Indian officials op-
posed the Ilbert bill. British public opinion
was influenced by the weight of their authority,
and to a large extent accepted their arguments.
In India the demonstrations and meetings in
opposition to the Ilbert bill gave rise to counter-
demonstrations in its favor. By the natives
Lord Kipon was praised in extravagant terms.
The great majority of the English population
were arrayed in opposition to the Government
policy, while the natives of all ranks and classes
were unanimous in favor of the Ilbert bill and
the policy of which it was the index. The agi-
tation called forth expressions of the views and
wishes of the indigenous community. One of
their strongest desires was that the covenanted
civil service should be rendered more acces-
sible to Indians. The uncovenanted civil ser-
vice, embracing the offices of the lower grades,
is free to all natives who pass an English ex-
amination. The rush for Government appoint-
ments is so great that thousands pass through
the colleges and attain the degrees of bachelor
of arts, bachelor of law, etc., for whom there
are no places. Fully two thirds of the places
in the uncovenanted civil sen-ice are already
filled by natives, the rest being held by Eu-
ropeans and Eurasians. The Hindoos who
have received a European education, chiefly in
the hope of obtaining an official appointment,
are objects of contempt and derision to the
English, educated or uneducated. The na-
tives, confident of their ability to sustain any
intellectual test with the English, now de-
manded that the covenanted civil service ex-
aminations, which open the way to the highest
under the Government, should be held
India as well as in London ; and, in order
lat the Hindoos may acquire sufficient famil-
irity with the English language, that the maxi-
im age should be raised from nineteen to
twenty-one years. The opening of the Gove-
rn ted civil service to natives, the branch
'hich leads to the superior appointments, in
rhich enormous salaries are paid, was ap-
)roved under the conservative administration
)f Lord Lytton also, who declared that he

looked forward to the time when the service
would be largely, if not exclusively, filled by
natives. The law opening the service to na-
tives who should prepare and pass their exami-
nations in England was considered, however,
to open the gate too widely. Lord Salisbury,
therefore, reduced the maxim um age from twen-
ty-one to nineteen years, ostensibly in order to
give the successful candidates time to pursue
their studies in the universities before entering
upon the service. By this regulation the na-
tives were almost entirely precluded from the
competition, though they had been more suc-
cessful than the English youth, and often
came out at the head of the list in the exami-
nations.

The excitement attending the discussion of
the Ilbert bill was heightened by an incident
which added fresh fuel to the animosities of
race. A judge of the High Court, in deciding
the question of the ownership of a family idol,
after first consulting a number of Brahmans as
to the propriety of such a course, ordered the
object to be brought into court. A prominent
native, editor of one of the principal English
organs of the native party, characterized it as
an act of indignity and sacrilege. The judge
thereupon committed the native gentleman to
prison for contempt of court, and by this ac-
tion excited the indignation of the entire native
community.

The agitation against the Ilbert bill induced
the Government to call for another expression
of views. The opinions of the officials this
time were opposed to the bill unless modified.
The heads of departments and judges were
about equally divided ; but of the subordinate
officials the great majority of the Europeans
were opposed to the bill, while all the natives
were in its favor.

In December a compromise was arranged be-
tween the Government and the Anglo-Indian
Association, whereby only native district judges
should exercise jurisdiction over Europeans,
who should furthermore be entitled to trial
before a jury containing a majority of Euro-
peans. This right is extended to non-jury dis-
tricts, though the district magistrate be an
Englishman.

INDIANA. State Government.— The following
were the State officers during the year : Gov-
ernor, Albert G. Porter, Republican ; Lieu-
tenant-Governor, Thomas Hanna ; Secretary
of State, "William R. Myers; Treasurer, John
J. Cooper; Auditor, James H. Rice; Attor-
ney-General, Francis T. Hord ; Superintend-
ent of Public Instruction, John W. Holcombe.
Judiciary, Supreme Court : "William E. Nib-
lack, George V. Howk, Byron K. Elliott,
Allen Zollars, and "William A. "Woods, Jus-
tices.

Legislative Session. — The Legislature convened
on the 4th of January, and adjourned in the
early part of March. An important subject,
which received early attention and full dis-
cussion, was that of 'the constitutional amend-

444

INDIANA.

ments. It was finally decided by a vote in the
Senate of 25 (mostly Democrats) to 23 (mostly
Republicans) that the constitutional amend-
ments favoring probibition and woman suf-
frage, which were adopted at the previous
session, were not legally pending, and could
not be considered except as entirely new mat-
ter. The point upon which the decision was
made was that the amendments were not set
out in full in the journals of the last session,
as provided by the Constitution, but were
merely indicated by their titles.

Among the acts of this session, those for
the reorganization of the benevolent institu-
tions of the State, relating to the House of
Refuge, abolishing the Soldiers' Orphans' Home
at Knightstown and converting the institution
into an Asylum for Idiotic Children, and the
metropolitan police bill for some of the cities
of the State, have been characterized as parti-
san. The appropriation bills failed to pass.
The Senate passed sixty-four Plonse bills, and
the House passed fifty-four Senate bills. Some
of the most important of these follow :

1. The decedents' estate act. All the obnoxious
features of the law of 1831 have been repealed.

2. The road law of 1881 has been repealed through-
out, and in its stead there is a supervisors' law. The
law, as it now stands, secures work on the high-
ways as under the law before the passage of the act
of 1881.

3. The dog law, in view of the wide-spread dis-
satisfaction that existed under the tagging system
of the law of 1881, is of importance to the owners of
dogs.

4. The mechanics' lien law is also worthy of men-
tion, as it secures more certainly than ever before in
this State the wages of laboring-men in a mechanic's
lien upon their employer's property.

5. An act to enable the several counties of the State
to sell and dispose of lands forfeited to the State for
the use and benefit of the school fund, and providing
for the deficiency in said school fund occasioned by
such sale.

6. An act regulating the business of express compa-
nies in the transportation of gold and silver coin and
paper currency.

7.< An act creating asylums in which to provide for
the insane that are now scattered over the State.

Other acts are those suppressing the so-
called "graveyard " insurance companies ; reg-
ulating the transaction of business by express
companies of the State ; an act concerning for-
eign insurance companies ; an act to declare
exempt from taxation certain moneys and
causes in action held by executors, bequeathed
or devised to literary, scientific, benevolent,
or charitable institutions ; and an act to pun-
ish persons who disclose the contents of mes-
sages or conversations sent over telephone
lines.

Special Congressional Election.— An election was
held on the 9th of January, in the ninth con-
gressional district, to fill a vacancy. The re-
sult was the choice of Charles T. Doxey, Re-
publican, over Thomas B. Ward, Democrat.

Finances. — The following is from the annual
statement of the State Treasurer, showing the
receipts and disbursements for the fiscal year
ending Oct. 31, 1883 :

Balance in Treasury, Nov. 1 , 1882 $698,069 52

Transfer warrants $634,286 99

Net cash receipts 3,203,926 14

3,838,213 13

Total $4,536,232 65

DISBURSEMENTS.

Transfer warrants $634,286 99

Net cash disbursements 3,398,068 47

4,032,355 46

Total $503,927 19

RECAPITULATION.
Balance by funds :
General fund overdraft, $924 30. . .

Common-school fund $3,217 22

Swamp-land 2,416 47

School-fund revenue 134,152 45

College fund, principal 17,631 71

College fund, interest 1,886 70

Unclaimed estates 18,374 11

Escheated estates 1,067 25

Excess of bids to sinking fund 2,088 52

New State-House fund 324,017 06

General fund overdrawn .

$504,651 49
924 30

balance in Treasury Nov. 1, 1883 $503,927 19

Since the last annual report the permanent
common-school fund has been increased $70.-
747.79, making the total amount of the fund
$9,204,353.98, which is larger than that of any
other State.

Statistics. — The agricultural production of
1882 was remarkable. The wheat area was
3,063,348 acres, and the production 46,928,643
bushels. The chief of the State Bureau of Sta-
tistics observes that the cultivation and growth
of wheat has developed more rapidly than that
of any other staple crop, and has more than
kept pace with the population. In 1850 the
product per capita was 6-30 bushels; in 1860
it was 12-50 bushels; in 1870 it was 16'51
bushels, and in 1880 had increased to 23 '75
bushels per capita. The yield of other crops
was proportionately large, as shown by the
following :

CROPS.

Acres.

Bushels.

Corn . .

3312683

115 699 797

Oats

634822

19 615 516

Irish potatoes

72934

7 264 830

In a resume of the economic statistics it is
shown that in 31 counties there was a decrease
in the mortgage indebtedness during 1882, and
that the transfers of real estate amounted in
value to over $9,000,000.

The apportionment of common-school reve-
nue, at the close of the year, was as follows :

Amount collected from counties $727,633 82

State semi-annual interest on non-negotiable

bonds 117.14349

Balance in Treasury at last apportionment 5.676 99

From other sources 11,831 97

Total $861.701 29

Amount apportioned 848,461 30

Amount added to shares of several counties, on
account <»f errors in report of enumeration 870 87

To State Normal School $10,000 00

Palance in Treasury 2,950 62

Total enumeration of children, 719,035.

Per capita 1 18

IOWA.

445

There were filed in the office of the Secre-
tary of State during the fiscal year ended Oct.
81, 1883, 30 articles of incorporation and con-
solidation of railroads, and 264 of manufactur-
ing, mining, banking, insurance, and building
and loan companies.

New insane hospitals are to be erected at
Evansville and Logansport.

At the southern prison a new cell-house, with
all modern conveniences and improvements,
has been completed and furnished, containing
cells for 400 convicts.

The total number of convicts in prison at
the beginning of the fiscal year was 590, at the
close of the year 548, the daily average 578.
The daily average in 1879 was 624; showing a
decrease in five years of 46.

Temperance. — A session of the Grand Temper-
ance Council of Indiana was held in Indianap-
olis in September, with an attendance of about
200 delegates, representing 42 counties. The
executive committee of the council submitted a
report, reviewing the temperance work in the
State, as follows :

For the past two years and more almost the entire
effort of the council has been directed toward secur-
ing prohibition through the means of an amendment
to our State Constitution. When the election for the
Legislature was approaching, the propriety of submit-
ting the amendment to a popular vote became a polit-
ical question, and the temperance sentiment among
the masses of the people was strong enough to com-
pel the two dominant parties to commit themselves
upon the issue. They were not asked to pronounce
in favor of prohibition, but simply of submission of
the amendment. The Democratic party pronounced
against prohibition, and promised submission only as
a last resort, and provided they could not defeat it
beforehand. The Republican party committed itself
to submission, and, although the result was the defeat
of that party, the newly elected members of the Leg-
islature were, a majority of them, favorable to our
cause, and the defeat of" the party can be accounted
for on other grounds than that the 'prohibition amend-
ment was unpopular.

The following resolution was adopted :

Resolved, That we amend pur former resolution,
passed in April, 1883, so as to read " that we will vote
for no man for any office who is not known to be in
favor of prohibition."

IOWA. State Government.— The State officers
during the year were the following: Govern-
or, Buren R. Sherman, Republican ; Lienten-
ant-Governor, O. H. Manning; Secretary of
State, John A. T. Hull; Treasurer, E. H. Con-
ger ; Auditor, John L. Brown ; Attorney-
General, Smith McPherson; Superintendent
of Public Instruction, John W. Akers ; Regis-
ter of Land -Office, James K. Powers; Railroad
Commissioners, A. R. Anderson, Peter A. Day,
and James Wilson, succeeded by L. S. Coffin.
Judiciary — Supreme Court : Chief - Justice,
James G. Day ; Associate Justices, Austin
Adams, Joseph M. Beck, James H. Rothrock,
and William H. Seevers.

The Prohibitory Amendment. — The decision of
the Supreme Court, in the case of Koehler &
Lange against Hill (see " Annual Cyclopaedia "
for 1882), was rendered January 18th. It

came to this court on appeal from the District
Court for Scott county, which gave judgment
for the plaintiffs for beer sold. Judge Seevers
delivered the opinion, of which the essential
points follow :

At a special election on June 27, 1882, the elect-
ors of the State, by a majority of about 30,000, rati-
fied an amendment to the Constitution, which, it is
claimed, had been previously agreed to by the 18th
and 19th General Assemblies, prohibiting the manu-
facture and use of intoxicating liquors as a beverage,
including ale, wine, and beer.

The question is fairly presented in the record in
this case whether the amendment aforesaid has been
constitutionally agreed to and adopted. The validity
of the amendment, and whether the same now consti-
tutes a part of the Constitution, depends upon the
question whether the 18th General Assembly agreed
to the amendment which was ratified and adopted by
the electors, and whether the amendment was agreed
to by the 18th General Assembly in the form and
manner required by the Constitution.

The engrossed joint resolution, adopted by
both Houses of the Legislature of the 18th
General Assembly, and approved by the Gov-
ernor, was as follows :

" No person shall manufacture for sale, or sell, or
keep for sale as a beverage, any intoxicating liquors
whatever, including ale, wine, and beer."

This proposed amendment was ratified by the elect-
ors at a special election held on June 27, 1882.
Counsel for the plaintiff insists that the joint resolu-
tion at the time it was agreed to bv the Senate con-
tained the words "or to be used, and that it then
read as follows :

'• No person shall manufacture for sale, or sell, or
keep for sale as a beverage or to be used, any intoxi-
cating liquor whatever, including ale, wine, and
beer."

The resolution claimed to have been agreed to by
the Senate is materially different in substance from
the one ratified by the electors. Counsel for the ap-
pellant do not claim this is not so, as shown by the
journals, but their contention is that the enrolled res-
olution signed by the Speaker of the House, President
of the Senate, and approved by the Governor, is a
verity, and is conclusive evidence that the resolution,
as enrolled, was agreed to by both Houses of the 18th
General Assembly, or, if this is not so, that the pre-
ponderance of the evidence is in favor oi the proposi-
tion that the resolution which was agreed to was cor-
rectly enrolled. The plaintiff contends that it is made
clear and certain by an examination of the Senate
journal that the words uor to be used" were in the
resolution when it passed the Senate, and that the
journal is the best evidence of such fact.

There is no provision of the Constitution, nor is
there a statute which by implication requires that a
joint resolution proposing to amend the Constitution
shall be signed by the presiding officers of the two
Houses. Such signing, therefore, is not essential, and
may be dispensed with. There is no provision of the
Constitution or statute which requires that -it shall be
enrolled. But there is a constitutional injunction, to
say the least, that it shall be entered on the journals.
In a constitutional sense the journals constitute and
are the primary evidence, and the enrolling and sign-
ing, as above stated, at best are only secondary evi-
dence, which may and can onlv be considered when
the primary evidence has been lost or destroyed.

The journal of the House of the 18th General As-
sembly fails to set out or even show the substance of
the substitute or. amendment of the House joint reso-
lution which had been adopted by the Senate. Such
journal only sets out the original resolution which
had been introduced in the House, and shows simply
that the House concurred in the Senate- substitute,

446

IOWA.

and therefore the House journal fails to show that it
adopted the same resolution which was adopted by
the Senate.

When tne 19th General Assembly came to consider
the question as to whether it would agree to the con-
stitutional amendment proposed in the 18th, it did
so in the following manner and form, omitting ma-
terial portions thereof:

SECTION 26. No person shall manufacture for sale,
or sell, or keep for sale, as a beverage, any intoxi-
cating liquors whatever, including ale, wine, and
beer.

It will be observed that the words " or to be used "
are not in this resolution, and that the 19tli General
Assembly determined in substance that such words
were not in the resolution when it was agreed to by
the 18th.

We are aware of the rule which universally obtains,
that a statute should not be declared unconstitutional
unless it clearly appears to be BO. It follows that this
rule should be applied to amendments of the Constitu-
tion. Mindful of this rule, and feeling its full force, it
is possibly to be regretted that we have felt forced to
declare that the amendment in question, which was
ratified by so large a majority of the electors, has not
been constitutionally adopted.

The result is, the judgment of the District Court
must be affirmed.

Judge Beck dissented.

A convention of the friends of temperance
was immediately called, to meet in Des Moines
on the 7th of February, for consultation. The
convention adopted among others the follow-
ing resolution :

Resolved, That it is the deliberate judgment of this
convention that the Executive and the General As-
sembly should immediately take steps to put in force
and effect the will of the people as expressed by the
vote of the 27th day of Juno last, by providing by an
extra session called, at as early a date as can legally be
done —

1. For a submission of a prohibitory amendment to
the Constitution of Iowa.

2. For such other relief by statutory law as will re-
lieve the people and the homes of the State from the
curse of the liquor-traffic.

The Governor declined to call an extra ses-
sion. An application for a rehearing of the
case was made to the court, on the following
grounds, and was granted :

1. The 19th General Assembly had jurisdic-
tion of the subject embraced in the joint reso-
lution of the 18th General Assembly, propos-
ing the amendment to the Constitution drawn
in controversy in this case, including the regu-

larity of its passage, and its judgment thereon
is conclusive and can not be reviewed.

2. The enrolled joint resolution of the 19th
General Assembly, in the custody of the Sec-
retary of State, is conclusive evidence of the
judgment upon the regularity of the action of
the 18th General Assembly relative to the
amendment involved in this case, and of its
own action thereon.

3. The judicial department of the State has
no jurisdiction over political questions; and
can not review the action of the 19th General
Assembly and of the people in the matter of
the adoption or amendment of the Constitu-
tion of the State.

The rehearing was had on the 3d of April,
and the following days, and on the 21st the
Court handed down an opinion, dissented from
by Judge Beck, reaffirming its former decision.

Driven Wells.— The decision of the United
States Circuit Court, rendered early in May, in
the case of William D. Andrews and others
against George Hovey, touched a matter of
great importance to the people of the State.
Numerous suits in this and other States de-
pended on the result of this suit. These suits
are brought on reissued letters patent No.
4,372, granted to Nelson W. Green, one of the
complainants, under date of May 9, 1871, the
original patent, No. 73,425, bearing date Jan.
14, 1868, and having been issued for an "im-
proved method of constructing artesian wells."
The decision holds the reissued patent invalid,
because it is broader than the original patent,
and contains matters not set out in the original.
It also holds that Mr. Green abandoned his in-
vention after he made it, and before he applied
for a patent. It holds the patent void also,
because wells had been put down at Milwau-
kee, Wis., and Independence, la., before the
time Green claims to have made the inven-
tion, which embraced all the principles claimed
in his patent. If this decision be sustained by
the Supreme Court of the United States, it will
relieve a vast number of farmers from the pay-
ment of royalties.

Finances. — The following statement covers
the twenty-one months from Oct. 1, 1881, to
June 30, 1883 :

NAME OF FUND.

Balance on hand
Oct. 1, 1881.

Receipts from
Oct. 1, 1881, to
June 30, 1883.

Total.

Disbursed from
Oct. 1, 1881, to
June 30, 1883.

Balance on hand
June 30, 1883.

General revenue

$91 850 51

$2 415 8S3 19

$2 507 233 70

«t> 435 gj2 18

$71 559 5'

Permanent school fund

2 266 66

1 523 00

' 3?789 66

8 789 66

Temporary school fund

40 696 93

40 696 98

40 576 92

J9Q 01

Coupon fund

329 85

178 50

151 35

War and defense fund . . .

29 377 64

29 377 64

29 377 64

Agricultural College endowment fund

84,104 72

21,273 02

105,377 74

9,493 38

95,884 36

Total

$178,551 74

$2,508,213 78

$2,686,805 52

$2,515,300 62

$171,504 90

The appropriations made by the 19th Gen- been, so far as their support is concerned,
eral Assembly have all been paid as the same maintained in a manner creditable to the State,
became payable, and the State, in every finan- and without marked increase in cost, notwith-
cial^ respect, is in better condition than at any standing the advance in cost of almost every
period for the past twenty years. article necessary to their proper and comfort-
All the public institutions of the State have able support.

IOWA.

447

The Auditor estimates the receipts of the
present two years, based on a two-mill State
levy, at $2,482,600, an increase of nearly $75,-
000 over the previous period; and the disburse-
ments at $1,918,820, leaving a balance subject
to general and miscellaneous appropriations of
$563,780, or a little in excess of $500,000. The
State is free from debt.

The total assessed valuation of property foots
up $440,618,330 against $412,723,902 two years

wood, shows that the general health of the
children has been remarkably good, notwith-
standing the necessarily crowded manner in
which they have been compelled to live and
sleep. From the 24th day of May, 1882 to
June 30, 1883, there were 65 children admit-
ted, but there were, during the same period,
22 dismissed, 11 deaths, and 1 deserter, leav-
ing in the institution 239.

The State of Iowa reports 2,314 feeble-mind-

ago. There have been gains in all counties ex- ed children, of whom 1,960 were, in 1880 at

cept nine. The assessed value of realty in towns home, neither provided for in insane hospitals

in 1881 was $55,523,683 ; in 1883, $75,626,670. nor institutions of this class.

The greatest general increase has been in the Coal.— The State Mine Inspector estimates

northwest part of the State, where the process the coal production of Iowa for 1883 to be

L'

of breaking up new farms, the importation of
stock, and the immigration of population has
been going on steadily. This is incident to a
comparatively new country, and was to have
been expected. But in some of the older coun-
ties this increase has been almost equaled.
Especially is this true in the case of Polk
county, where the valuation has taken a jump
from $11,000,000 to $16,000,000.

Schools. — From about 2,400 children enrolled
as pupils in the first year of the State's exist-
ence, 1847, the number has increased with the
growth of the State until, by the last report,
there was a total enrollment in school of 464,-
482 ; the number of teachers has also grown

)m 124, until 22,081 are now employed,
id these exclusively in the free common
ohools. In like manner, the school-houses
mve increased from 105, nearly all built of
3gs, to 11,825, valued at over $10,000,000.

In the State Agricultural College there were
)ver 300 students during the year.

State Institutions. — Both the insane hospitals
crowded to their utmost capacity. The
lumber remaining in the Mount Pleasant Eos •
)ital, at the close of the period, June 30, 1883,
ras, males, 236 ; females, 226 ; total, 472. The
lumber at Independence at the same date was,
lales, 323 ; females, 257 ; total, 580 ; a grand
)tal of males, 559 ; females, 493 ; aggregate,
1,052. The total number of insane in the State
Nov. 1, 1883, was 1,726, of which number
1,001 were supported in the State hospitals,
519 were in the county almshouses, 133 in pri-
vate asylums, 58 at homes of reLatives, and 15
Dnfined in county jails.

The number of convicts at Fort Madison has
increased slightly over the previous term ; the
lumber remaining June 30, 1883, being 378
as Against 341 on Oct. 1, 1881. The Animosa
orison is still in process of construction, but
las so far progressed that the convicts therein,
numbering 229 at the close of the period, are
well provided for in every respect. The prison
will have a capacity exceeding 800.

The whole number of children at the Boys'
Reform School, at Eldora, is reported at 240,
those at the Girls' School, at Mitch ell ville,
at 84.

The report of the Superintendent of the Iowa
Institution for Feeble-Minded Children, at Glen-

3,881,000 tons, a gain of 750,000 tons over last
year. About one fourth of the whole is mined
in Mahaska county, and five eighths of the whole
in Keokuk, Lucas, Polk, Boone, Webster, Wa-
pello, and Appanoose counties.
Banks and Insurance. — The Governor says:

I concur generally with the views of the Auditor
in respect to the growing importance of the hanking
interests of the State, and the necessity of placing
the responsibility of the supervision thereof upon
some officer who can give the requisite time thereto.
The report shows the number of banks operating
under State law to be seventy-six, with a capital of
$3,701,793.12, and deposits aggregating $11,200,-
798.10, as against forty -two banks in 1875, with $2,-
063,402.50 of capital paid up and total deposits of $3,-
959,791.72 — an increase nearly double, both in num-
ber of banks and amount of capital, and treble in
volume of deposits. The insurance report of May,
1883, which is the last yet issued, shows that the
risks written during the year in the State amounted
to $201,949,207.24, and the. tire-premiums paid during
the year aggregated $3,039,349.99.

There are eighty-eight national banking in-
stitutions in Iowa, the capital stock amount-
ing to $7,135,000, and the individual deposits
to $16,169,064.72.

Railroads. — The report of the Railroad Com-
missioners for the year ended June 30, 1883,
shows the total number of miles of railroad in
operation in Iowa to be 7,014T9^ miles. The
commissioners estimate that the stock of these
roads representing the portion of them in
Iowa, added to the stock of the roads entirely
in Iowa, amounts, broad-gauge ro.ads, to $132,-
895,478, or $19,811 per mile; the narrow-
gauge roads to $1,386,991, or $6,481 per mile.
The total amount of stock reported as owned
by persons living in the State is $5,164,591.41.
The total amount of taxes paid by the rail-
roads in the State is $830,655.67, which is
7TW per cent, of the net earnings.

Party Conventions. — The Democratic State
Convention met in Des Moines on the 6th of
June, and adopted a platform denouncing
abuses of the civil service; favoring a tariff
for revenue only; opposing constitutional pro-
hibition, but favoring a license law ; favoring
legislative regulation of railways; and de-
manding protection for American citizens im-
prisoned by foreign governments.

The following nominations were made: For
Governor, L. G. Kinne ; Supreme Judge, Wal-

448

ITALY.

ter I. Hayes; Superintendent of Public In-
struction, Edgar B. Farr.

The Republican State Convention met at the
same place on the 27th of June, and adopted a
platform denouncing polygamy ; favoring pro-
hibition; denouncing the giving of railway-
passes to public officers ; favoring a protective
tariff; proposing a national Department of In-
dustry; favoring exemption from attachment
of soldiers' pensions, or homesteads purchased
there vyith ; calling for amendments to the
criminal code ; favoring legislation to protect
miners ; and approving the administration of
President Arthur. Messrs. Sherman, Manning,
and Akers were renominated for Governor,
Lieutenant-Governor, and Superintendent of
Public Instruction respectively. For Supreme
Judge, Joseph R. Reed was nominated.

The Greenback State Convention also met in
Des Moines on the llth of July, and adopted
a platform favoring unrestricted coinage; op-
posing refunding of the national debt ; demand-
ing an income-tax; favoring civil-service re-
form; favoring a low tariff; demanding abo-
lition of the railroad commission ; demanding
equal political rights for all men and women,
and favoring prohibition.

The following nominations were made: For
Governor, James B. Weaver; Lieutenant-Gov-
ernor, Sanford Kirkpatrick; Supreme Judge,
D. W. Church; Superintendent of Public In-
struction, Miss Abbie O. Canfield.

A meeting of the Iowa Woman's Suffrage
Association was held in Ottumwa in October,
which put forth a platform, the most important
resolution of which was the following :

That the votes of women are imperatively needed
to promote the interest of temperance, purity, and
peace, to give woman greater self- reliance, self-respect,
and personal independence, and to secure to woman a
" fair day's wages for a fair day's work."

Election Returns.— The election in October re-
sulted in the choice of the Republican ticket.
The vote for Governor was as follows: Sher-
man, 164,141; Kinne, 139,032; Weaver, 23,-
089; Sherman's plurality, 25,109. For Judge
of the Supreme Court the vote was: Reed,
163,325; Hayes, 141,061 ; Church, 21,447. For
Superintendent of Public Instruction : Akers,
165,873; Farr, 138,266; Canfield, 21,923. To
fill a vacancy in the 6th congressional district,
John C. Cook, Fusion, was elected by a vote
of 14,894 against 14,653 for Stiles, Republican.
The Legislature chosen at this election will be
divided as follows :

HOUSES.

Republican.

Democratic.

Greenback.

Senate
House . . .

89

52

11
42

'g

ITALY, a kingdom of Southern Europe, con-
stituted in 1861, when Victor Emanuel assumed
for himself and his descendants the title of
King of Italy, and proclaimed the Constitution
granted by his father, Charles Albert, to Sar-
dinia in 1848. The executive power is vested

in the sovereign, and is exercised through re-
sponsible ministers. The legislative power be-
longs jointly to the two houses of the legisla-
ture and the King. The Senate is composed
of an unlimited number of members, nominated
by the King, the conditions of their nomination
being the occupancy of an important office,
distinction acquired in literature, science, or
other honorable occupation, or the payment of
3,000 lire, or francs, in taxes annually. In the
Chamber of Deputies a member is allowed for
• every 40,000 inhabitants. The deputies are
elected under the electoral law of 1882, which
introduced the scrutin de liste, by ballot, every
citizen over twenty-one years of age who pays
taxes amounting to twenty lire yearly, and can
read and write, being entitled to vote. The
lower ranks of officials and the ordained clergy
are ineligible. Senators and deputies serve
without pay. The number of senators in 1880
was 270, and the number of deputies in 1881,
508. Legislation can originate in either house,
but the Chamber of Deputies has the exclusive
right to vote money. The King, Humbert I,
born March 14, 1844, the eldest son of Victor
Emanuel, succeeded to the throne Jan. 9, 1878.

The Ministry, formed May 29, 1881, is com-
posed as follows: President of the Council and
Minister of the Interior, Agostino Depretis ;
Minister of Finance, Agostino Magliani ; Min-
ister of Justice and Ecclesiastical Aifairs, B.
Giannuzzi-Savelli, who succeeded Giacomo Za-
nardelli May 25, 1883 ; Minister of Foreign Af-
fairs, P. S. Mancini ; Minister of War, General
Eduardo Ferrero; Minister of Marine, Vice-
Admiral del Santo, who in November, 1883,
succeeded Vice- Admiral Baron F. Acton ; Min-
ister of Public Works, J. Genala, who succeeded
Antonio Baccarini, May 25th ; Minister of Ag-
riculture, Industry, and Commerce, D. Berti,
successor to Carlo Miceli : Minister of Public
Instruction, Giambattista Baccelli.

Area and Popnlation.— The total area of the
kingdom is 288,539 square kilometres, or 114,-
296 square miles. The population, as deter-
mined by the census of Dec. 31, 1881, was 28,-
459,628, showing an increase in ten years of
1,660,274. The density of population was 248
per square mile. The population was divided
as to sex into 14,265,383 males and 14,194,245
females. The number of Protestants, as ap-
proximately determined from the declarations
of ministers, was in 1881 about 62,000, of whom
22,000 were Waldenses of the Vaudois. The
number of Israelites was about the same. The
number of strangers at the end of 1881 was
59,956, of whom 15,790 were Austrians, 12,104
Swiss, 10,781 French, 7,302 English, 5,234 Ger-
mans, 1,286 Americans, and the rest of Russian,
Greek, and other nationalities.

The number of marriages in 1881 was 230,-
143; births, 1,116,379; deaths, 819,435; ex-
cess of .births, 296,944.

The only colonial possession of Italy is the
Bay of Assab, on the coast of the Red Sea ;
area, 243 sq. in. ; pop. in 1881, 1,300 souls.

ITALY.

449

Emigration. — Emigration was small before
the establishment of the kingdom. In recent
years Italians emigrate in considerable num-
bers to all parts of Europe, America, and other
parts of the world, wherever there is a demand
for laborers on railroads or similar works.
They usually return with their savings to their
homes. The number of emigrants in 1869 was
23,040; in 1870, 81,500; in 1871, 100,170; in
1872, 115,272; in 1873, 80,716; in 1874, 51,-
200; in 1875, 26,872; in 1876, 108,807; in
1877,99,213; in 1878,96,268; in 1879, 119,-
831; in 1880, 119,901; in. 1881, 135,832; in
1882, 161,562. The number of Italians residing
abroad in 1871 was estimated to be about 476,-
403. The number in the United States at thut
time was estimated at 70,000. The number
who arrived in the United States in the year
ending June 30, 1882, was 32,159 ; in 1882-'83,
31,792.

Commerce. — The total values of imports and
experts, for each of the ten years ending with
1882, were as follow :

YEARS.

Imports.

Exports.

18T3

Lire.
1 287 829 774

Lire.
1 133 543 863

1874

1,304994323

985 458 53;)

1875

1 215 051 015

1876

1 380 147 820

l'216'92l'205

1877 ....

1 154 303 039

'966'5'23'543

1878

1 070 802 615

1 04o'7S9'434

1879

1 262 044 668

1880.

1 224 812 701

l'l3o'659'312

1881

1 O25 600 000

l'l92'soo'oOO

1 345 400 000

l'l55'soo'oOO

5.

77-]

The imports of grain were 81-8, the exports
7*1 million francs in value ; the exports of
wine, 48 millions; imports of tobacco, 25*8
million francs; exports of fruits, seeds, etc.,
61-9, imports 17'6 million francs; exports of
animals and animal food products, 114*2, im-
ports 75'9 million francs; imports of coal and
fuel, 64-4 millions; of metals, 83-2 millions;
exports of minerals and stones, 68'3 millions;
of hides, leather, etc., 15*9, imports 52-1 mill-
ions; exports of textile materials, 356-2, im-
ports 190-4 million francs; exports of pottery
and glass, 12'8, imports 9'5 million francs;
imports of metal manufactures, 13-9, of ma-
chinery,, etc., 41 '7 millions; imports of yarns,
54-5, exports 14*5 millioi francs; imports of
textile manufactures and articles of dress,
160-8, exports 23'9 million francs; exports of
jewelry and objects of art, 87'4 million francs ;
imports of drugs, dyes, and chemicals, 59'1, ex-
ports 47-6 millions; exports of oils, etc., 110-5
millions.

Navigation. — The total tonnage entered at
Italian ports in 1882 was 17,559,956, of which
12,419,375 tons were coasting-vessels. The
steam tonnage entered was 14,111,111 tons.
Of the 5,140,581 tons engaged in foreign com-
merce, 1,523,795 were under the Italian, and
3,616,785 under foreign flags; of the steam
tonnage, included in the above, 788,664 tons
were Italian, and 3,214,935 foreign; total
steam tonnage, 4,003,599. The tonnage of
VOL. xxin. — 29 A

vessels with cargoes entered was 4,127,551
cleared, 3,352,064 tons.

The merchant marine numbered, in 1882
7,528 sailing-vessels, of 885,285 tons, against
7,639, of 895,359 tons, in 1881; and 192 steam-
ers, of 104,719 tons, against 176, of 93,698 tons
in 1881 ; total tonnage in 1882, 990,004 tons
in 1881, 989,057 tons. The number of regis^
tered mariners in 1882 was 181,381.

Railroads.— The length of railroads in opera-
tion at the beginning of 1882 was 8,775 kilo-
metres. The receipts in 1881 amounted to
191,661,613 lire; the total cost of construction
on Dec. 31, 1881, was 2,678,284,808 lire.

Post-Office. — The number of letters and postal-
cards that passed through the post-office in
1881 was 168,878,086; of newspapers, etc.,
154,562,446; of postal orders, 4,022,308, of
the aggregate amount of 503,695,138 lire.
The receipts were 29,787,318 lire; expenses,
25,980,398 lire.

Telegraphs.— The length of telegraph lines, at
the end of 1882, was 27,613 kilometres; of
wires, 93,799 kilometres. The number of dis-
patches was 6,454,942. The number of private
domestic dispatches was 5,190,909, against 5,-
015,005 in 1881 ; of private foreign dispatches,
521,180, against 517,599. The receipts were
12,423,102 lire; expenses for service, 7,974,-
932 lire; for maintenance, 186,765 lire; ex-
traordinary expenditure, 459,000 lire.

The Army. — From 65,000 to 75,000 young
men are levied annually into the standing
army. The rest, as they reach military age,
are enrolled in the reserve, and required to
drill forty days annually. The law of June 9,
1882, increased the war effective by 100,000
men. The standing army under that law is
organized into 96 regiments of infantry of the
line, 12 of bersaglieri, 6 of Alpine troops, 98
companies in 87 military districts; 22 regi-
ments of cavalry, with 5 depots; 12 regiments
of field-artillery of 10 batteries, 2 brigades of
horse-artillery of 2 batteries, 5 regiments of
fortress-artillery of 12 batteries; 2 brigades
of mountain-artillery; 4 regiments of engi-
neers, 2 of sappers and 2 of miners, 1 regiment
of pontoniers, and 1 regiment of railroad and
telegraph troops ; and 11 territorial legions of
carbineers, besides 1 regiment of instruction.
The war effective of the standing army is
maintained at 690,000 men; of the mobile
militia, 300,000 men ; of the territorial militia,
1,000,000 men. The total strength of the army,
as reported Sept. 30, 1882, was 1,985,619 men.

Italy has adopted the French plan of training
the gendarmerie and customs guard in military
operations and organizing them for mobiliza-
tion with the army, so that in the event of war
their discipline and knowledge of arms can be
turned to account in the national defense. They
are schooled in the use of the Vetterli rifle, and
in case of mobilization will form in battalions.

The Navy. — The navy consisted on Jan. 1, 1882,
of 19 ironclads, 18 screw-steamers, 6 paddle-
wheel steamers, 17 transport-steamers^ and 12

450

ITALY.

vessels for local service. The iron-clad navy-
includes the four most powerful men-of-war
in the world, double-turret ships, each carry-
ing four 100-ton guns. The Duilio and Dan-
dolo, twin ships, of 10,650 tons, are plated
with 22-inch armor throughout, and are con-
structed for a speed of 14 knots an hour. The
Italia, of 14,000 tons, has armor 33 inches thick
at the water-line, and is calculated to run 16
knots an hour. The armor-plates and arma-
ment were not completed in 1883. The Le-
panto, the fourth of the colossal ironclads, was
launched March 17, 1883. Her keel was laid
in August, 1877. She is a sister-ship to the
Italia. She measures 122 metres in length
and 22J in breadth. Her displacement is 14,-
500 tons. The engines, of 18,000 horse power,
give a speed of 17 knots. She will carry four
100-ton guns and eighteen 4^-ton broadside-
guns. The cost of this vessel was nearly $5,-
000,000. Three other monster ironclads were
on the stocks in 1883, the Francesco Morosini,
at Venice; the Ruggiero di Loria, at Castella-
mare ; and the Andrea Doria, at Spezzia. The
first two are expected to be built and equipped
before 1887. The naval project of 1875 is car-
ried out, as far as regards monster turret-ships,
by the construction of these seven vessels. The
scheme was elaborated by Minister St. Bon,
whose predecessor in the naval office, Ribotz,
had first adopted the idea of surpassing other
nations in the development of strength of
armor, and size and power of guns, which was
already indicated as the direction of naval
progress. The Duilio, which excelled in size
and strength the Inflexible and the Duperr6e,
was begun by him in 1873. Before that time
Italy had built an iron-clad fleet, which was
on a par with the navies of other nations,
when constructed, but was now behind the
later vessels of the great powers among whom
she was ambitious to maintain her place. The
Terribile and the Formidabile were built in
1860, with armor 12 centimetres in thickness.
The Maria Pia, San Martino, Castelfidardo, and
Ancona, begun two years later, were of the
same strength. The Venezia, Palestro, and
Principe Amadeo, which were built after 1865,
were somewhat more heavily plated, and car-
ried a 25-ton gun in the bow, and 18-ton in-
stead of 12-ton broadside-guns ; but would not
bear comparison with the more formidable
ironclads with which the other naval powers
were beginning to provide themselves. The
announcement of the project for a fleet of
seven monster ironclads, in which the Duilio
was to be outdone, provoked a great deal of
discussion and criticism. Many held that small-
er ships, carrying guns of equal power, but with
fewer in each vessel, would meet the require-
ments of modern warfare, and save the Gov-
ernment from the risk of having its naval de-
fenses crippled by loss of any of these vessels,
representing an investment of 25,000,000 francs,
which is liable to be wiped out by a single tor-
pedo. The problem it was sought to solve in

the construction of these " high-deck cruisers "
is, to combine a speed and facility of evolution
which renders them always prepared for at-
tack, and room for enormous stores of coal,
besides the space taken up by the engines neces-
sary to fulfill these conditions, with armor which
the most powerful projectiles can not penetrate,
and guns which shall not be inferior in power
and penetration to any which technical science
can produce. The fulfillment of these condi-
tions necessitates a peculiar form of construc-
tion. The Lepanto has a length of keel of 122
metres, an extreme breadth of beam of 22*28
metres, and a draught of 9*24 metres. She
can take in 3,680 tons of coal, though the usual
store is 1,600 tons. The four great breech-
loading Armstrong guns are of 43-centimetre
calibre. They are above the upper one of the
two closed and armored decks in an armor-
plated redoubt. The shield of the revolving
turret consists of steel plates 55 centimetres
thick. Of the smaller guns, 16 in a casemate
form a broadside battery ; the other two are
on deck. The mean height of the ship's side
above the surface of the water is only six
metres, though somewhat higher than in the
Dandolo. The iron-covered lower deck and a
multitude of isolated cubical water-tight com-
partments secure the vessel from the danger
of filling with water.

The Government have ordered, in addition
to the last, two first-class ironclads of the
Italia type, the construction of a torpedo-ram
built on the model of the Etna, and four small
cruisers of great speed, armed with light guns ;
also 18 sea-going torpedo-boats, capable of
making 21 knots an hour, of following the
squadron in all weather, and of steaming three
times the length of the west coast without
taking in fresh coal.

The Italian marines are now armed with
repeating-rifles of the Bartoldo model. In
1880 a large sum was appropriated for naval
stations and coast fortifications. The two
stations of Venice and Spezzia are far ad-
vanced, and the third one, which was trans-
ferred from Naples to Taranto, at the head of
the bay of the same name and fronting the
coast of Africa, was begun in 1881 and is
to be completed in 1889, at a total cost of
16,000,000 francs. The harbor is good, and
easily defensible by fortifications on the islands
at the entrance ; but the navy-yard is on the
Mare Piccolo, a basin connecting with the har-
bor by two canals. One of these is being
deepened to admit vessels of war to the basin,
which will constitute the naval harbor proper.

Experiments were made in the winter of
1882-'83 with the new 100-ton gun, of forty-
five centimetres bore, against armor forty-
eight centimetres thick, of various combina-
tions of metal and arrangements of the plates.
The penetration was satisfactory, and the min-
istry recommended the construction of breech-
loaders of the same size and pattern for ships
and coast fortresses.

ITALY.

451

Finance. — The large deficits which occurred
for many years after the establishment of the
kingdom, amounting in the single year of 1866
to 617 million lire, were reduced to 128 mill-
ions in 1876. Since that year there has been
a surplus each year. The revenue has nearly
trebled since 1861, but the expenditures have
but slightly increased in fifteen years. The
budget estimates for 1881 gave a surplus of
7,810,369 lire, but the actual excess of receipts
in that year amounted to 50,887,238 lire ; the
receipts amounting to 1,518,535,464, and the
expenditures to 1,467,648,226 lire. There have
been large extraordinary expenditures in recent
years, amounting to 678 million lire in 1882,
in which year new debts figured in the extraor-
dinary receipts for 668 millions. The total
ordinary revenue of that year was stated in
the budget as 1,360,842,338 lire: extraordinary
receipts, 837,061,600 lire ; total receipts, 2,197,-
904,028 lire; total expenditure, 2,179,403,868
lire.

The budget for 1883 gives the total ordinary
revenue as 1,300,353,714 lire; extraordinary
revenue, 149,313,962 lire ; total revenue, 1,544,-
361,667. The ordinary expenditures are stated
as 1,344,541,100 lire; extraordinary expendi-
tures, 192,685,085 lire ; total, 1,537,226,185
lire. The amount of new debts is set down as
28,151,705 lire; of sales of ecclesiastical and
domanial property, etc., 24,172,005 lire. The
extraordinary receipts and disbursements for
the construction of railroads is stated as 89,-
233,807 lire.

The public debt, which stood at 2,437,000,-
000 lire in 1860, was increased by the deficits,
which constantly recurred after the establish-
ment of the monarchy, to 11,162,561,000 lire
in 1881, of which the consolidated debt consti-
tuted 8,079,526,000 lire ; the redeemable debt,
at 3 and 5 per cent., 1,667,505,750 lire ; the
floating liabilities, represented by treasury
bonds and notes, 475,529,250 lire; and the
paper currency, 940,000,000. For the redemp-
tion of the paper currency a loan of 729,745,-
000 lire was raised in 1881 -'82. Against the
paper currency and treasury bonds certificates
of the funded debt, to the amount of 1,150,-
000,000 lire, were deposited by the Govern-
ment. The expenditures for interest provided
for in the budget of 1883 are 526,665.577 lire,
of which 437,649,383 lire represent the interest
on the consolidated debt; 3,225,000 lire, the
permanent dotation to the Holy See, which has
been refused by the late and the present Pope,
and is paid over to the ecclesiastical fund;
40,702,076 lire, interest on loans not inscribed
in the libro grande; 33,929,495 lire, interest on
various unfunded debts; and 11,159,623 lire,
interest on treasury bonds and other floating
liabilities. The expenditure for amortization
in 1882 amounted to 3,671,584 lire.

In 1884 the tobacco monopoly reverts to
state administration. In the budget estimates
for 1884-'85, presented to the Chamber in
November, 1883, a surplus is shown of 6,975,-

000 lire. The receipts of the treasury in 1883
exceeded those of the preceding year by more
than 32 million lire.

Resumption of Specie Payments.— On the 12th
of April the treasury was ready, in accordance
with the law of April 7, 1881, to exchange gold
or silver for the paper money, which had been
the currency of the country for many years,
and was only exchangeable at a large discount
for French or English gold. Before the date
of resumption the discount sank to a nominal
figure. The Government had prepared for the
resumption of specie payments by accumulat-
ing 600 million lire in gold and silver. The
operation of drawing this large supply from
other countries without producing a monetary
crisis had been conducted with skill and fore-
thought. The stock at first accumulated con-
sisted of 444 millions in gold and 156 millions
in silver. Through various transactions of the
treasury this proportion was changed, until, on
the day of resumption, the stock of metal
coined in national pieces consisted of 517,222,-
230 lire of gold coins and 82,770,730 lire in
five-lire pieces. The stock of gold originally
acquired was composed of bars and foreign
coins to the value of 152,931,585 lire, national
gold coins to the value of 245,290,600 lire, and
45,777,795 in drafts on other countries. The
153 millions were made up of 23^ million
francs in bars, 59f millions in Eussian impe-
rials, 53£ millions in American eagles, 10 mill-
ions in sovereigns, 5J millions in German
crowns, and 1 million in Spanish coins. The
largest sums were sent -to Italy in 1882, viz.,
238 millions of gold and 66| millions of silver,
against 150 millions of gold and 16 millions of
silver in 1881. The largest supply came from
France, which furnished 147i millions, 66J
millions of French, £ million of foreign, and 80|
millions of silver. America supplied 65f mill-
ions of her own gold; Germany, 5$ millions
of her own and 60£ millions of foreign gold ;
England, 59J millions of foreign gold ; Italy,
58£ millions of her own; Austria, foreign coins
to the amount of 38£ millions; Russia, 25J
millions of her own gold; Australia, 10 mill-
ions of her own gold ; Denmark, 5% millions
of her own gold ; Belgium, 2J millions of her
own ; and Spain, & million of her own gold.
Switzerland furnished i million in gold and 4£
millions in five-franc pieces.

When the treasury and the agencies through-
out the kingdom were opened for the exchange
of coin for paper, there was a rush of people to
the counters, who were actuated mostly by
motives of curiosity. The actual amount re-
deemed, exclusive of the one and two lire and
fractional notes, which were called in, was
insignificant, the total for the -first day being
only 2$- million lire. The total amount of Gov-
ernment currency outstanding was 950 million
lire, so that when the accumulated 600 mill-
ions are exchanged there will still be 350 mill-
ions of forced paper currency, which amount
the Government intends to leave in circulation,

452

ITALY.

in denominations of five and ten francs. The
600 millions of metal are to be paid out as soon
as possible, and the paper currency to that
amount destroyed, an operation which will
take several years.

Irredentist Demonstrations. — In seeking a good
understanding with Austria and Germany, Sig-
nor Depretis was obliged, not only to renounce
the political support of the Radicals, but to
sustain a conflict with the large section of the
people who imbibe their political ideas from
France, and for the first time to resort to for-
cible measures for the suppression of Irreden-
tist demonstrations. Violent articles against
Austria appeared in the newspapers. The exe-
cution of Oberdank for an attempt on the life
of the Austrian Emperor was made a pretext
for anti-Austrian demonstrations. In Decem-
ber a riot took place before the Austrian em-
bassy in Rome. In January a man was sen-
tenced to three years' imprisonment for throw-
ing a stone at the carriage of the Austrian
embassador. On January 4th a printer was
arrested for firing with a revolver at the es-
cutcheon over the door of the embassy. Stu-
dents and professors of the universities took
part in unveiling a bust of Oberdank and other
demonstrations of the kind. On February 27th
some paper bombs were exploded in front of
the two Austrian embassies to the Quirinal
and the Vatican.

Foreign Relations. — In March, Signer Mancini
delivered an important speech, in which he ex-
plained his foreign policy, and confirmed the
declarations of the Hungarian Premier regard-
ing the triple alliance. He spoke of the cool-
ness which existed previously between Italy
and the Central European powers, caused by
the suspicion that Italy in every European ac-
tion sought to acquire some territorial accession,
the notion that her army was useless except
for defense, and the disquieting effect of the
radical ideas of popular sovereignty and the
Irredentist aspirations which were supposed
to prevail in Italian politics. In the Egyptian
question it was first seen that Italy and the
central powers had similar interests in Euro-
pean politics. The refusal of Italy to join the
armed intervention in Egypt on the invitation
of Great Britain was justified on the ground
that Italy's interests demanded adherence to
the policy of opposition to the dual control and
to armed intervention altogether, and to the
position that the decision of Egyptian questions
should become the common affair of the great
powers. The attitude of Italy in this matter,
and the action of the Government in regard
to Irredentist demonstrations, created a favor-
able impression, and led to an understanding
with the German powers concerning their com-
mon interests in the perpetuation of peace and
preservation of the existing conditions, though
not to a formal treaty. He repelled the sug-
gestion that Italy had been refused admission
to the league between the two empires, de-
claring taat a power with 30,000,000 souls,

and a magnificent army and navy, had no need
to sue for an alliance, and only offers an alliance
where she is confident of its being acceptable.
The informal alliance has an entirely legiti-
mate and pacific object, and does not involve
an estrangement from France, with whom
Italy is connected by a community of interests
and needs. One of the main points in the
triple agreement is that each of the powers
shall not only refrain from any hostile action,
but avoid courses which would be likely to
awaken distrust. The Irredentist agitation, he
asserted, is based on no theory or principle;
otherwise Italy would be driven to reclaim
Corsica, Malta, and the canton of Ticino, as
well as Trieste, and the Trentino. The Gov-
ernment, through the attitude taken in the
triple agreement, which was a pledge of peace,
hoped in time to bring about a better under-
standing with France, as well as to retain the
sympathy of England, which power was des-
ignated Italy's constantly loyal friend. The
relations with France were asserted to be im-
proving. The treaty of commerce was con-
cluded. In the matter of the abrogation ot
the capitulations in Tunis, Italy followed the
course adopted by Great Britain, and reserved
her definitive answer until a tangible proposal
was presented, and the details of the system
of courts which France wished to substitute
for the consular tribunals explained to the Gov-
ernment. In Egyptian affairs Italy had acted
in harmony with Germany and Austria, and
declined to take part in the expedition, from
the consideration that, if the Italian flag had
floated beside the English, the French flag
would have been unfolded also on the coast of
Egypt, which would have led to complications.
The minister denied that an alliance with Aus-
tria and Germany would be prejudicial to the
free internal development of Italy. The Irre-
dentist movement he represented as the work
of misled youth or of an anti-monarchic minor-
ity, which utilizes Irredentism to create em-
barrassments for the Government. The Gov-
ernment would advance, he declared, in the
direction indicated, and derive from this course
augmented strength and security without any
sacrifice of .constitutional liberty, dignity, or
independence.

Italy, as well as England, finally agreed to
the abolition of the capitulations in Tunis.

The Chamber. — The new Chamber, chosen
under the electoral law passed the previous ses-
sion, assembled at the end of November, 1882.
The Radical wing of the Liberal party was
largely re-enforced through the operation of
the extended franchise. The Republican and
Irredentist faction was determined to exert a
popular pressure on the Government and con-
strain Signor Depretis, if possible, to retrace
the course he had taken in the direction of
conservative monarchism and abandon his al-
liance with the Central European powers. The
contest was begun in the Parliament by the
refusal of a number of deputies to take the oath

ITALY.

453

of allegiance. The Premier at once brought
in a bill disqualifying members who declined
to take the oath, or neglected to do so, within
two months after their election. Signer Falle-
roni, after twice refusing, was ordered to leave
the chamber by the President. Upon his de-
clining to do so, except on compulsion, he was
forcibly ejected. Signer Cavalotti, before swear-
ing allegiance in due form, on taking his seat
addressed a circular to all the members of the
Chamber, in which he declared that the oath
for him had no significance.

Cabinet Crisis. — Since the enunciation of his
programme at Stradella, Signer Depretis had
commanded an overwhelming majority, made
up of the Right, who accepted the programme
and renounced all opposition, following Min-
ghetti, while the other leaders retired, as well as
the Left, the different sections of which were rep-
resented in the Cabinet. The only opposition
was composed of the advanced sections of the
Left, who, without a definite programme, co-
quetted with the Republican and Irredentist
agitations in order to embarrass the Govern-
ment, and sought to break up the fusion with
the Conservatives and initiate a new era of
reforms. The situation created by the alliance
with Austria and Germany, and the stringent
measures taken by the Government to repress
Irredentist agitations, seemed to present the
opportunity desired. The Government was
represented to the country as suing for the al-
liance of Germany and Austria, and being re-
jected, and then finally securing admission to
the league on the condition of suppressing ir-
redentism, republicanism, socialism, and such
ebullitions of popular feeling. The charge of
having again degraded Italy to the condition
of a vassal of Austria was more damaging than
almost any that could be brought against an
Italian ministry. The action of the Government
in suppressing meetings and sequestering news-

Cers was represented as the price of the al-
ice. The ministry was accused of bringing
pressure to bear on the judges to secure the
punishment of political offenders. The Ad-
vanced Left were determined to call the Prime
Minister to account. He was charged with
having changed his principles within the last
two years, and with pui^uingthe programme
of the Right. Signer Depretis was equally de-
sirous of clarifying the situation, but postponed
answering the multitude of interpellations that
were announced for week after week. He was
•not ready for a test of strength until near the
middle of May. Then many of his antagonists
had withdrawn and the political atmosphere
was comparatively quiescent. Signor Min-
ghetti, the leader of the Right, offered his
support, and declared that the policy of the
Government was a continuance of that fol-
lowed by him before 1876. This declaration
gave Signor Nicotera the opportunity to press
the Minister President either to repudiate
the interpretation and renounce the proffered
support of the Right, or accept it, and thus

run the chance of alienating the entire his-
torical Left. Signor Depretis, in his explana-
tion, said that governments in these times
have their task rendered difficult by the de-
mand of the peoples for the too rapid accom-
plishment of reforms and improvements of
every sort, which state of things necessitates
often repose and reaction. The difficulty of
preserving public peace and order was en-
hanced, the responsibility greater, and yet the
wishes of the country must be taken account
of and liberty not impaired. In this situation
the Government needed the support not of a
party, but of all the energies of Parliament
and the country. The acts of the Government
prove that they have remained true to the
programme of the Left. With respect to the
rights of association and of assembly, the sys-
tem of constant and strict vigilance was adopt-
ed, and toward Irredentist manifestations a
rigorous course was enjoined by circumstances.
In extraordinary events an extraordinary re-
sponsibility must be assumed. In conclusion,
he declared that his actions were not guided
by the grouping of parties in the Chamber.
Signor Nicotera proposed a vote of want of
confidence, which he expected would separate
from the Government either the Right or the
pure Left. In the explanations which followed
it was found impossible for the two more Radi-
cal members of the Cabinet to retain their port-
folios ; but the section of the party which de-
clared against the Government was numerically
insignificant. In the vote, which was taken
May 18th, the majority for the Government was
348 to 29. Signor Depretis thought it best for
the Cabinet to resign., so that it could be recon-
stituted in accordance with the somewhat more
clearly defined political situation. None of the
men of the Right were inclined to claim any
advantage from the position, while the dissi-
dent fraction of the Left was out of the ques-
tion. The Cabinet was consequently continued
after waiting a week or so, Signori Baccarini
and Zanardelli dropping out and being replaced
by Savelli and Genala, The former, a Neapoli-
tan by birth, was First President of the Court
of Appeal at Rome, and had been made a
senator in 1882, though without having taken
any previous part in politics. The other new
minister was a Professor of Political Economy
at Florence, had sat in the Parliament, on the
Left Center benches, since 1875, and had been
an active member of the railroad commission.
It was expected that Admiral Acton would re-
sign with the other pronounced Liberals; he
was prevailed on, however, to retain his port-
folio until he laid it down in November, and
was succeeded on the 16th of that month by "
Vice- Admiral del Santo. The new Naval Min-
ister is one of the most distinguished officers
of the Italian navy, but has never occupied
himself with political affairs. "When the par-
liamentary struggle was over, the popular agi-
tation suddenly ceased.

Before the Parliament assembled again, on

454

ITALY.

November 26th, the old Left united in suffi-
cient numbers to form an efficient opposition.
About eighty-six deputies met and discussed a
programme of which compensation for deputies
and revision of the Papal guarantees formed
part, while the friendly alliance with Austria
and Germany was cordially approved ; num-
bered among them were the ex-ministers Cai-
roli, Zanardelli, Baocarini, Nicotera, Crispi, and
Doda.

Reclamation of the Campagna. — For twelve
years the Government has had under consid-
eration the project of rendering fertile, hab-
itable, and healthful the plain surrounding
Rome on all sides for a distance of from 20 to
50 kilometres. Several laws were enacted for
this object, the last in 1878. This act, which
originated in the Senate and was approved by
the Chamber, provided for the regulation of
the water-courses, which is a necessary pre-
liminary to any attempt at fertilization and
colonization. A powerful ring of aristocrats
and bankers, who own the lands, and the
equally powerful combination of the Mercanti
di Campagna, who lease them for grazing pur-
poses and derive from them with little trouble
a large profit, opposed the improvement. The
owners were unwilling to risk the capital ne-
cessary for the redemption of these tracts, mis-
cultivated for thousands of years, which con-
tained no villages or communications, were un-
inhabitable on account of the deadly malaria,
were entirely stripped of forest, were subject
to overflow from the choked-up streams, and
along the coast were covered with marsh. In
the session of 1883 Signor Berti, Minister of
Agriculture, introduced a bill which was de-
signed to overcome the obstacles placed in the
way of the improvement. The Government is
warned to press this work forward by the fact
that Rome ceased to grow after the first stimu-
lus of the transfer of the Government to the
ancient capital was spent, and is outstripped
in commercial and industrial activity by other
cities. It is believed that when the agricultur-
al supplies can be drawn from the surrounding
district, the rural environment made attractive,
and the Roman fever extirpated, the capital
will take the position which is desirable for
the symmetrical development of the kingdom.
The new law provides for the expropriation
and reclamation by the state of the latifundia
in which the owners are unwilling to carry out
the works of amelioration prescribed by law.

Interpretation of the Guarantee Law. — A ruling
of the Court of Appeals, made Nov. 9, 1882,
greatly limits what were supposed to be the
sovereign rights and immunities of the Pope,
and extends the civil and criminal jurisdiction
of the courts to the Vatican. An engineer,
named Martinucci, claimed payment from the

Papal Majordomo for managing the fire-extin-
guishing arrangements, and of Cardinal Jaco-
bini, as administrator of the Papal estates, for
other services in the Vatican. Pope Leo XIII
constituted two commissions, composed of
priests, as courts of first and second instance,
to pass upon these and other such claims. The
suitor did not wait for the adjudication of the
Papal commission, but brought an action in the
civil court. The question of jurisdiction was
argued on behalf of the Pope, and both the
lower and the appellate court affirmed their
competency to entertain the suit, which was
dismissed for lack of evidence. The law of
Papal guarantees, of May 13, 1871, was defined
as applying simply to the exercise of the spir-
itual authority of the Pontiff, and as guarantee-
ing only such personal immunities and sover-
eign rights as appertain to his dignity and as
were designated by Mancini "purely rights of
honor."

The Ischian Earthquake.— The calamity in the
island of Ischia was the most severe that Italy
has experienced in many years, and cast a gloom
over the country during the summer months.
About 3,000,000 francs was collected in aid of
the sufferers, besides what was done by the
Government. The total number of deaths was
stated in the official report to be 1,990. The
number injured was 374. At Casamicciola,
625 strangers were killed and 922 natives. At
Forio, 305 were killed ; at Lacco Ameno, 128.
(See EAKTHQUAKES AND VOLCANIC DISTURB-
ANCES.)

Geodetic Conference. — The seventh Internation-
al Geodetic Conference met in Rome, October
15th. Resolutions were adopted in favor of
the unification of time by adopting a universal
hour and the unification of longitude by adopt-
ing a common initial meridian. The prime
meridian for reckoning longitude recommend-
ed by the conference is Greenwich. It is pro-
posed to count longitude in a single direction,
from east to west, both by the ordinary divis-
ions of degrees and by hours and minutes. For
railroads, steamships, posts, and telegraphs, it
is recommended to adopt a universal hour side
by side with local or national hours. For the
point of departure for cosmopolitan time the
instant of midnight at Greenwich is proposed.
Resolutions in favor of the application of the
decimal system in the divisions of time and of
the quadrant, and of the speedy adoption by
Great Britain and other countries of the de-
cimal system of weights and measures, were
adopted later. The proposal for the unifica-
tion of longitudes and hours originated with
the United States Government, which was
represented at the conference by Messrs. Stil-
gard and Peirce, of the Coast and Geodetic
Survey.

JAPAN.

455

J

JAPAN. (For details relating to area, terri-
torial divisions, the dynasty and members of
the imperial family, see the preceding two vol-
umes of the u Annual Cyclopedia.") The cen-
sus finished Dec. 31, 1882, stated the popula-
tion to be 36,700,110; 18,598,998 being males,
and 18,101,112 females. The population in-
habited 7,611,770 houses.

The city of Tokio had, in 1881, 823,557 in-
habitants ; Osaka, 293,686; Kioto, 239,425;
Nagoya, 118,450; Kanagawa, 107,624; and 46
cities had between 20,579 and 78,104 souls.

The government is constituted in part on
European models, the Mikado ruling in accord-
ance with the counsels of his regularly appoint-
ed advisers. These are the ministry which
was established in imitation of European cabi-
nets— the Council of State, of an indefinite num-
ber of members ; and the Senate, composed of
thirty -two members, most of whom are per-
sons who have filled high posts. The Secretary
of Legation and charge d'affaires ad interim at
Washington is Takahira Kogoro, and the Con-
sul at New York, Takahashi Shinkichi.

The United States Envoy Extraordinary and
Minister Plenipotentiary to Japan is Hon. J. A.
Bingham, and the American Consul-General at
Yokohama, T. P. Van Buren.

Army. — The army comprised in 1883 : The
guard — two regiments of foot ; one squadron ot
cavalry, and one artillery division of two bat-
teries; the line — 14 regiments of foot; two
squadrons of horse, and nine artillery divisions,
eat-h of two batteries ; nine companies of engi-
neers and six platoons of attendants. The to-
tal strength of the army on Jan. 1, 1883, was
119,823 men, including 30 generals, 9,335 offi-
cers, 109,496 non-commissioned officers and
soldiers, 253 officers of the administration of
the army, 62 workmen, and 647 cadets.

Instruction is given by a military academy,
a military school, a school for instruction in
marksmanship and gymnastics, a veterinary
school, and a practical engineers' school.

Navy. — The fleet is composed of 31 vessels,
with a joint armament of 196 guns, consisting
of five ironclads; one turret-ship and three
corvettes ; 21 steamers and five sailing-vessels.
The fleet is manned by 5,551 men.

Finance. — The public indebtedness of Japan,
on July 1, 1882, was as follows :

Internal debt bearing between 4 and 10 per cent.

interest $226,048,301

Internal debt bearing no interest 8,774,560

Paper money 105,639,228

Total $340,462,089

Foreign debt, new 7 per cent, loan 9,309,088

Total debt ... , . . $349,771,177

Less reserve fund $55,854,208

Other assets .. . 14,652,218

70,506,426

Net indebtedness ... $279,264,751

The revenue and expenditure during the fis-
cal year ending June 30, 1883, were as follow :

INCOME.

Duties $2,600,880

Keal-estate tax 42,945,853

Mining-tax '. 15,152

Tax on northern products 1,288880

Liquor-tax 10,512,806

Tobacco-tax 348,674

Stamp-tax 8,907,255

State revenue from mines 543,468

State revenue from railroads 989.667

State revenue from telegraphs 28,624

State revenue from the Mint 480,500

From other sources 8,252,968

Total $66,814,122

OUTLAY.

Interest on debt and sinking fund $28,298,204

Civil list and appanage 1,898,785

Pensions 449,279

State Council 632,282

Senate 178,500

Department of Foreign Affairs 195,210

the Interior 489.225

" Finance 669,929

War 8,605.872

the Navy 8,161,692

Other departments 4,521,806

Other expenses 23,218,488

Total $66,814,122

The great difficulty the Government has to

frapple with is the outstanding paper money,
ince September, 1883, the Government has
been selling $600,000 of bonds a month at 76
per cent., and with the proceeds has withdrawn
and canceled paper money ; but the remedy is
not adequate. On April 26, 1882, the paper
money in circulation was worth $81,000,000 in
the open market ; in January, 1883, $109,000,-
000 ; and in April, 1883, $96,000,000. In or-
der to intimidate the usurers and speculators,
some money-brokers speculating on the fluctua-
tions in the gold premium were arrested in
Osaka because they were trying to spread a
panic, but such measures have for the time
being only rendered matters worse.

In spite of the monetary and financial crisis,
and the restricted dealings of the banks and
many failures in business, banks on the whole
paid good dividends in 1883 ; thus, the First
National Bank declared a dividend of 9 per
cent., the Second National Bank 10 per cent,
and the Specie Bank 4£ per cent.

Treaty with Corea. — The treaty of commerce
between Japan and Corea was published in
November, 1883. Corean trade has developed
very considerably in Japan of late years. Con-
trasted with that between Japan and any West-
ern nation, except perhaps England, the direct
trade with Corea figures to great advantage,
being larger than the combined trade of Japan
with Germany, Russia, Italy, and Holland.

Postal Service. — There were in operation in
Japan on July 1, 1882, altogether, 5,169 post-
offices, and they had dispatched during the
twelvemonth 44,729,699 letters, 29,533,936

456

JAPAN.

postal-cards, 2,852,511 Government messages,
18,671,570 newspapers, 952,870 samples and
books, 174,646 newspapers to go by the for-
eign mails, and 1,003 registered letters to go
abroad ; together, 96,916,235 items of mail
matter, against 83,294,010 the previous year.
Postal orders were paid out to the amount
of $8,521,459. The receipts were $1,660,896,
and the expenses $1,470,913.

Telegraphs. — In January, 1882, there were in
operation 112 offices, and they had forwarded
during the year 1881, altogether, 1,272,756
messages. The length of line was 3,929 miles,
and that of wire, 9,345.

Railroads.— On July 26, 1883, the first sec-
tion of the Great Central railroad was opened
to traffic between Tokio (Yeddo) and Kouma-
gai, the distance between the two points being
38 miles. The Great Central is intended to
traverse the island of Niphon throughout its
entire length. Soon the locomotive will reach
Tagasaki, one of the chief cities in the Japan-
ese silk-region ; thence the line will extend to
Aomori, the northern extremity of the island.
The country through which the first section,
above alluded to, passes, is extremely fertile,
and it abounds in resources of all kinds. The
stations of wood have been cheaply construct-
ed, and all the rolling-stock, with the sole
exception of the locomotives, is of Japanese
build.

The railroads in operation in Japan on Jan,
1, 1884, were the following : from Yokohama to
Tokio, 18 miles; from Kobe to Otsu, 58 miles;
from Trourouga to Sekigahara, 41 miles ; from
Tokio to Koumagai, 38 miles: together, 155
miles. There was then being built the line
from Tokio to Mayebashi, 81 miles. The first
three lines named are Government property ;
the remainder is owned by a company.

Good roads being few in Japan, traffic suf-
fers from the high freight which the forward-
ing of goods on the backs of horses and mules
involves. Japan declared in 1883, through its
Minister of Foreign Affairs, that it was ready
to throw open internal trade to foreigners,
provided they submit to be held amenable to
local legislation; but this would necessitate
the revision of treaties, and can not be accom-
plished without considerable delay.

Prussian Administrators. — Following the exam-
ple of the Sublime Porte, Japan has asked the
Government of Prussia for three officers to be
employed in the management of affairs in the
interior. They are to bear the same rank and
title as members of the Japanese Council of
State, and receive a salary equal to that of a
cabinet minister in a German kingdom.
m Instruction,— The Minister of Public Instruc-
tion in Japan published in 1883 his sixth an-
nual report, according to which there were
then^ 26,594 schools, 25,395 of which were
public and 1,190 private; increase in the year,
1,115 public and 112 private ; together, 1,225
more than in 1882. There were 65,612 teach-
ers, 63,305 of whom were in public and 1,807

in private schools. Increase in the former
during the year, 5,702, and the latter, 85 ; to-
gether, 5,787. Number of pupils attending
public schools, 2,208,633, and private, 64,541,
being an increase of 112,505 in the former, and
a decrease of 2,243 in the latter. Increase of
pupils attending superior schools, 8,496, and
of such institutes, 190; of professors, 361.

Several military men left France for Japan
in 1883, to be attached as instructors to the
superior military academy.

Merchant Marine. — Japan made great efforts
in 1883 to establish a steam merchant navy.
Five steamships, three wooden and two iron,
were purchased in Japan in that year, at a cost
equivalent to £82,000. They have a joint car-
rying capacity of 4,150 tons, and have since
been engaged in the coasting trade for passen-
gers and cargo. In addition to these, Admi-
ral Ito, assisted by two English nautical men,
' made contracts with eminent ship-builders on
the Clyde and Tyne for sixteen steel and iron
steamships, having a joint dead-weight carry-
ing capacity of 22,540 tons. They are to be
constructed upon the most approved principle,
being built under Lloyd's special survey, and
classed 100 A 1. Their cost in Japan, with
spare shaft and other gear, and very full and
complete specifications, will be £450,000, or
somewhat under £20 per ton. Two of them
will have a speed of thirteen knots when laden,
and will carry two large Krupp guns, maga-
zines, etc. Two other vessels will have twelve-
knot speed, laden ; the remaining vessels being
ten-knot steamers, guaranteed. There are to
be three 700 and two 800-ton ships, the rest
being from 1,150 tons up to 2,500 tons. Two
of this new fleet were already in the Japan-
ese coasting trade in November, 1883 ; another
sailed from Glasgow on October 23d ; and all
will be at their destination by October, 1884.
In addition to these twenty-one steamships
belonging to it, the " Union Steam Navigation
Company " chartered in November, 1883, three
steamships from the Government, making a
total of twenty-four steamers, of 28,065 tons
burden, eleven of which were then running
on the coast of Japan. The charter of this
company prohibits the acquisition of any but
new steamers ; but it was permitted to pur-
chase twenty-two sailing-vessels, of 7,000 tons
aggregate, belonging to Japanese owners. The
Government subscribed $2,600,000 of the capi-
tal stock to the company, $3,400,000 being sub-
scribed by over 5,000 merchants.

Cabinet - Woods. — Seven magnificent sorts of
cabinet- wood, growing abundantly in the for-
ests of Japan, are expected to enter the world's
markets as soon as the railways reach the dis-
tricts where they are found, which will be
at no distant day. They are the sugi (Gripto-
meria Japonica), the ichii (Tascus cupidata),
the hinoki (Chamcecyparis obtusa), the serva-
ra (Chdmcecyparis pin/era), the tsudiakudan
(Thuya), the benibiakutan (Juniperus Japoni
ca\ and the kiri (Paullownia imperialis).

JAPAN.

JEWELL, MARSHALL.

457

Silk. — Yokohama silk-merchants resolved in
1883 to found in that port a silk-conditioning
establishment, after the Lyons (France) pat-
tern, at a cost of $30,000, an experienced in-
spector to be engaged in France, and to re-
$1 per bale inspected. The Government

ivo

has been asked for aid to the extent of $511,
000, to be spent in premiums to be awarded to
the producers of the best silk.

Commerce. — The ensuing tabular statement
exhibits the foreign-trade movement in Japan
during 1882 :

Yokohama.

Hiogo and
Osaka.

Nagaiaki.

Hakodadi and
Nilgata.

Total.

IMPORT.
Cotton goods

$8 618 000

$2,271,000

$52 000

$10 941 000

Woolens

1,008 000

917,000

7000

1 '927'oOO

953 000

161 000

1 1 14 000

Metals ' .

1 049 000

717000

80000

......

1 846 000

Sundries

5 621 000

2 662,000

752 000

$8000

9 048 000

Asiatic products

3 108 000

1,158,000

266 000

4532000

$20 352 000

$7 886 000

$1 157 000

$8 000

$29 408 000

Specie

6060000

8 987 000

100 000

10 147 000

Total

$26,412,000

$11,878,000

$1,257,000

$8,000

$89,550,000

EXPORT.
Raw silk

$17 661 000

$1000

$17 662 000

122 000

122 000

Tea

4 472?000

2 471 000

$85 000

7 028 000

Copper

257 000

5^9 000

2000

848 000

Tobacco .

68000

16000

12000

9e'ooo

Vegetable wax

2000

301,000

22,000

8J25 000

1000

612000

254000

867 000

Coal

26 000

1 150 000

1 176 000

Dried fish

266 000

828 000

578 000

$126 000

1298000

Kice

20000

858 000

772,000

1 650000

Sundries

8 807,000

1,548,000

438,000

878,000

6,171 000

Total .

$26 676 000

$6 750 000

$8 308 000

$504 000

$17 238 000

Specie

4,701 000

2 119,000

77,000

6 897 000

Total

$31 377 000

$8,869,000

$8,385,000

$504,000

$44,185,000

In 1882 Yokohama exported silk, 2,585,069
>unds, against 1,801,180 in 1881 ; tea, 14,-
J15,763 pounds, against 14,980,894; and im-
)rted twist, 20,222,208 pounds, against 24,-
J7,210 in 1881 ; and woolens, 5,221,402 yards,
linst 8,147,599 yards ; cotton goods, 42,534,-
yards, against 29,775,592; petroleum, 9,-
)7,925 gallons, against 4,616,855 ; and sugar,
,140,026 pounds, against 41,062,918.

AMERICAN TRADE WITH JAPAN.

FISCAL YEAR.

Imports from
Japan into the
United States.

Domestic exports
from the United
States to Japan.

1880

$14 510 884

$2 525 758

1881..

14 217 600

1 440 146

1882...

14 439 495

2534,265

1888

11 098 890

3 375 885

While the general import from Japan into
the United States, and particularly of tea, has
been on the whole steady, that of raw silk has
doubled in a few years. The domestic export
to Japan has fluctuated widely, because the
Japanese market is easily overloaded with mer-
chandise of all kinds from all quarters, causing
at times a sudden check to importation, on
account of heavy losses in Japan on imports.
American goods have not been exempt from
these influences. Instead of merchandise, the
United States shipped, in 1881, $2,468,535 spe-
cie, to pay for tea and silk ; the next year only
$453,362 specie, because it was then more prof-
itable to ship goods on a bare market.

JEWELL, Marshal], an American merchant and
statesman, born in "Winchester, N". H., Oct. 20,
1825 ; died in Hartford, Conn., Feb. 10, 1888.
His father was a tanner and currier, and Mar-
shall, after receiving a fair education, became
an apprentice in his establishment. Thence he
went to Boston, where he studied electricity,
especially in its application to telegraphy. After
leaving Boston, he became a telegraphic oper-
ator in Rochester, N. Y. Being of a somewhat
roving disposition, he went next to Akron, O.,
thence to Columbia, Tenn., and thence to Jack-
son, Miss., when, at the age of twenty -three,
he superintended the construction of telegraph
lines between Louisville and New Orleans. The
next year, 1849, he became general superin-
tendent of the New York and Boston Telegraph
lines, but gave it up in order to join his father
in manufacturing leather belting at Hartford.
The business prospered, and on the death of
his father, not long after, he became head of
the firm of Marshall Jewell & Co.

In 1859 Mr. Jewell visited Europe and made
a careful inspection of the tanneries in England
and France. He repeated his visit the follow-
ing year, and with good results. Going abroad-
again, in 1865, he occupied a year in traveling,
including a trip to parts of Asia and Africa.

Mr. Jewell's political career was begun in
1868, at which time he was a candidate for
Governor of Connecticut, on the Republican
ticket. He was elected, and served from
May, 1869, to May, 1870. He was elected a

458

JUTE AND JUTE-BUTTS.

second time, and served from May, 1871, to
May, 1872. Still a third canvass in his favor
was successful, and he served another year.
Immediately upon the close of his third term,
in 1873, he was appointed by President Grant
United States Minister to Russia, where he was
of great service to American interests. Dis-
covering that frauds were practiced, in imita-
tions of American manufactures (as sewing-
machines, scales, axes, etc.), he negotiated with
the Russian Government a trade-mark treaty,
and carried it through to completion. He
also investigated the process by which " Rus-
sia leather " is produced, and ascertained that
the peculiar scent which this leather has is ob-
tained by the use of birch-bark tar in tanning.
The result has been that this kind of leather is
now manufactured in the United States as suc-
cessfully as in Russia.

In July, 1874, he returned home and was
appointed Postmaster- General. He began at
once a policy of reform against notorious
"straw bids" and other corrupt practices in
Texas and Alabama, and succeeded in suppress-
ing a number of these. He established fast
mail trains, and avowed his determination to
conduct the department on proper business
principles, as he or any other upright merchant
would do in his own affairs. The " ring " poli-
ticians were active against him, and finally suc-
ceeded in their efforts ; so that, early in July,
1876, the President demanded his resignation.

He returned to Hartford, and devoted him-
self again to business. He was placed at the
head of the Republican National Committee,
was very earnest and efficient in discharging
its duties, and spoke frequently to large meet-
ings in the Garfield campaign. Besides the
business of his own firm, he was interested in
numerous other enterprises with his brothers,
and held posts of trust in several banks, insur-
ance companies, etc. He was a Congregation-
alist from early life and retained his commun-
ion with that denomination to the last. He
entertained a deep and sincere hatred of slav-
ery, and during the civil war he gave all his
influence, and expended freely of his means, to
support the Union.

In 1852 he married Esther, daughter of Will-
iam Dickinson, of Newburg, N. Y., who, with
two daughters, survives him. He was a man
of fine personal appearance, an able speaker,
and of genial spirit and manners. His health
was always good, and he had hardly known by
personal experience what sickness was. He
died of acute pneumonia.

JORDAN CANAL. See ENGINEERING.

JUTE AND JUTE-BUTTS. The jute and jute-
butts received in this country from India and
China are the fibers of two Indian annuals of
the order Tiliacece, Corchorm capsularis and
G. olitorius. What is imported here under the
name of "Mexican jute" is not the fiber of
any species of Corchorus, though it probably
belongs to an allied family. The jutes differ
from whau is known commercially as " hemp "

in the soft and woolly character of the fiber,
its ability to absorb moisture readily, its in-
ferior strength, and the difficulty of bleaching
it without destroying the tenacity and dura-
bility of the goods made from it. Still, for
many purposes it is valuable. The Indian jute

JUTE (Corchorus capsularis).

is cultivated on the lower lands along the
Ganges and elsewhere in India, flourishing best
in a rich alluvial soil and in a hot, moist atmos-
phere, with a heavy rainfall. In 1872 there
were 921,000 acres of it under cultivation in
India. The acreage has since undoubtedly in-
creased materially, as the export demand is
constantly enlarging, that of Great Britain and
the United States alone having nearly doubled
in ten years, and the number of manufactories
of gunny-bags and other jute goods in India hav-
ing greatly multiplied. In India the jute grows
to the height of from five to ten feet, and the
stalks are of the thickness of a man's finger.
The plant is utilized in many ways. The tops
serve for pot-herbs, the leaves for manure, the
stalks for fences, the seed for oil-cake, the
butts and roots for cheap bagging and paper,
and the inner bark for fiber. It has been long
and successfully cultivated in China, and at-
tempts have been made to acclimatize it in
Algierg, in Mississippi and Louisiana, in Aus-
tralia, and in England. In the last two conn-
tries the attempt has been unsuccessful ; in
the former, on account of the uncertainty of
the rainfall, in the latter from the coolness of
the climate. It may be safely said that no
climate where the mean temperature of May,
June, July, and August is lower than 68° Fahr.,
and the rainfall for the same months less than
twenty inches, can be sure of a uniformly suc-
cessful crop of jute.

Mississippi, Louisiana, and indeed the Gulf
States .generally, seem to fulfill these condi-
tions, and may be considered suitable ground
for the cultivation of this crop. Mississippi has
made a successful beginning. It has been as-

JUTE AND JUTE-BUTTS.

459

certained, by repeated experiment, that on
good lands at least one ton of fiber of the best
quality, worth at the plantation not less than
four cents a pound, can be produced from
an acre at a cost of not more than $13 for
cultivation ; while the cutting, hauling, decor-
ticating, washing, and baling of the fiber, on
an estimated yield of fifteen tons of green
stalks to the acre, can be done in the best way
at a cost of less than $30 an acre, the net yield
being a full ton of fiber prepared for use.

These processes are conducted by American
machines recently invented, and tested in the
field, by means of which three persons perform
more labor in a day than 160 Hindoo laborers
who strip and wash the fiber by hand. This
estimate of a cost of $43 to the acre, against a
ralue of $80 for a ton of the fiber, is claimed
be excessive, but it leaves a net profit of
57 to the acre. To this are to be added the
value of the leaves for manure, of the seed for
planting and for oil-cake, and of the butts and
roots for cheap bagging and paper. Our manu-
^turers are importing these jute-butts at not
less than $35 a ton, and the yield would be
lore than a ton to the acre. The manufac-
irers pay from $95 to $100 a ton for the best
idia jute, and the quality produced in Missis-
sippi is acknowledged to be superior in every
>ect to the best imported.
ror the total export from India and China
we are obliged to go back about ten years,
"lough we know that there has been a great
3rease both of production and export since
iat time. In 1872-'73 the amount exported
ras 354,046 tons, of which Great Britain took
197,773 tons, and exported 37,752 tons of this
Hint, reserving 160,000 tons for her own
In 1880 the export to Great Britain had
iched 295,329 tons, valued at $21,850,160.
the same year there were imported into the
fnited States — the greater part from India,
it some also from China and Mexico — 82,471
>ns, valued at $5,075,945. If the other coun-
ties which took jute direct from Calcutta in
1872 had increased in anything like the same
JFoportion, the total export from India must
ive been at least 550,000 tons, and the value
rly $50,000,000. The export from China,
one time very considerable, has within a
)w years nearly ceased. That from Mexico
has increased, and in 1882 its export to the
United States alone was 19,233 tons, worth, at
custom-house valuation, $2,061,939. The
itire import into the United States in that
year was 84,186 tons, having a custom-house
valuation of $4,710,192; a large portion being
butts, 53,198 tons, valued at $1,965,644, against
30,988 tons of jute of a value of $2,744,548.

The jute is used for burlaps, for the finer
qualities of bagging, for twilled and other stair-
carpeting, for what is known as " wool-twine,"
and as an adulterant of the lower-priced broad-
cloths, the so-called " Japanese silks," for imi-
tions of Irish linen and of low-priced French
silks, and for admixtures in all the finer car-

pets — Axminster, Kidderminster, Brussels, and
Venetian. It takes colors very readily, and
exhibits the most brilliant dyes for a time, but
they are not permanent. In Dundee, Scotland,
there are about 100 jute-mills, employing 20,-
000 workmen and manufacturing 90,000 tons
of jute annually.

But, large as is the consumption of jute both
here and in Europe, that of jute butts (the low-
er portion of the stalks and the roots of the
jute-plant) is still greater. Our importation
of jute-butts in 1882 was more than 53,000
tons. Twenty years ago these were not con-
sidered of any value. The manufacturers of
jute in India, who received from the cultiva-
tors the whole plant (except perhaps the leaves
and tops), found the butts so much of a nui-
sance that they compelled their hands to carry
a quantity of them home every day and burn
them. At last, about 1866, a captain of an
East India ship, finding himself at Calcutta
without a full return cargo, was induced to
take on board eighty or ninety tons of this
worthless stuff as ballast. On arriving at New
York he told a friend, who was a rope-maker,
of his ballast, and induced him to take it off
his hands and experiment with it for a coarse
paper-stock. The experiment was successful,
and it was found that it could be spun also
into a yarn, from which a coarse bagging could
be made; and a demand was created for it.
That rope-making firm, L. Waterbury & Co.,
of Brooklyn, N. Y., now use 9,000 tons annu-
ally, and with the other firms in the same line
of business in that city consume 16,000 tons of
jute-butts, almost a third of the whole impor-
tation, all of which is used either in the pro-
duction of cotton - baling cloths or the so-
called " Manila" paper. The same firms and
some others in that city use nearly 10,000 tons
of jute. Here may be mentioned a singular
blunder of the census of 1880. The importa-
tion of raw jute and jute- butts in that year
was 82,471 tons, and its value (custom-house
valuation) $5,075,945. To any one who has
any idea of the relation of our importation of
raw materials to our manufactures, it must be
evident that this large importation was brought
to our ports for the purpose of being manu-
factured; yet the census of 1880 reports that
the entire manufacture of jute and jute goods
in the United States was only $696,982, and
that the raw material used was but $447,094,
only about one twelfth of the amount import-
ed. Of these amounts, $415,788 of raw mate-
rial, and $650,560 of finished product, were
said to be used and produced in the State of
New York, and all of this in the city of Brook-
lyn. At that time a single firm in that city-
were producing from jute-butts $1,044,000
worth of bagging and paper, and from jute
about $600,000 more, and the whole produc-
tion of jute bagging and jute goods in that city
alone was more than $2,600,000, while the cost
of the raw material was nearly $2,000,000.
There can be no doubt that the entire amount

460

KANSAS.

imported was consumed; for in 1881, 1882,
and 1883 the importation was still greater in
quantity, though the proportion of the cheaper
jute-butts was increased and there was a con-
sequent falling off of values. Eaw jute has
always been subject to a considerable duty,
usually about $15 a ton (under the new tariff,
20 per cent, ad valorem, which is about $18) ;
but jute-butts were admitted free till 1876,
when a duty of $6 a ton was placed on them,

and this was reduced to $5 by the new tariff.
That both jute-butts and jute can and should
be produced here seems evident, in view of the
facts mentioned and the rapidly-growing de-
mand for them for so many kinds of manu-
factures. At this time, the bagging for the
entire cotton-crop of the United States is
made from jute-butts ; and all the so-called
"Manila" wrapping-paper is made from the
same material.

K

KANSAS. State Government.— The following
were the State officers during the year : Gov-
ernor, George "W. Glick, Democrat; Lieuten-
ant-Governor, D. W. Finney; Secretary of
State, James Smith ; Treasurer, Samuel T.
Howe ; Auditor, E. P. McCabe ; Attorney-
General, W. A. Johnston. Judiciary, Supreme
Court : Chief-Justice, Albert H. Horton ; As-
sociate Justices, David J. Brewer and D. M.
Valentine.

Legislative Session. — The Legislature convened
on the 9th of January, and adjourned on the
8th of March. On the 23d of January, Pres-
ton B. Plumb, Republican, was re-elected
United States Senator by a vote of 38 against
one in the Senate, and 89 against 34 in the
House. There were passed 167 bills, of which
the Governor signed 162, vetoed four, and
allowed one to die in his hands. One of the
vetoed bills was passed over the veto. Among
the acts passed were the following :

An act to provide for the health and safety of per-
sons employed in and about coal-mines ; an act de-
claring drunkenness a misdemeanor and prescribing
punishment ; an act relating to the issue of stock by
corporations ; an act forming new congressional dis-
tricts ; an act concerning railroads and other common
carriers.

The railroad law provides for three railroad
commissioners, who have power to examine
the books and papers of the corporation and
its officers under oath. Some of the more im-
portant provisions of this act follow :

No railroad company shall charge or receive a rate
in excess of three cents per mile for the transportation
of any passenger who is over twelve years of age, nor
in excess of half that sum per mile for the transporta-
tion of any passenger of the age of twelve years or
under.

The commissioners shall have the general supervis-
ion of all railroads in the State operated by steam, and
all express companies, sleeping-car companies, and all
other persons, companies, or corporations doing busi-
ness as common carriers in this State, and shall in-
quire into any neglect or violation of the laws of this
State bv any person, company, or corporation engaged
in the business of transportation of persons or prop-
erty therein, or by the officers, agents, or employes
thereof, and shall also, from time to time, carefully
examine and inspect the condition of each railroad in
the State, and or its equipment and the manner of its
conduct and management, with reference to the public
safety and convenience. Whenever in the judgment
of the railroad commissioners it shall appear that any
railroad corporation or other transportation company
fails to comply with the terms of its charter or the

laws of the State, or whenever, in their judgment,
any repairs are necessary upon its road, or any addi-
tion to its rolling-stock, or any addition to or change
of its stations or station-houses, or any change in its
rates, or any change in the mode ots operating its
road and conducting its business, is reasonable and
expedient, said commissioners shall inform such cor-
poration of the improvement and changes which they
adjudge to be proper.

The commissioners shall, on or before the first
Monday in December in each year, make a report to
the Governor of _ their doings for the preceding year
and of the condition of every railroad, in the State, as
to capital stock, value of property, indebtedness, con-
dition of track and machinery, etc.

No railroad company shall charge, demand, or re-
ceive from any person, company, or corporation, for
the transportation of any property or for any other
service, a greater sum than it shall at the same time
charge, demand, or receive from any other person,
company, or corporation, for a like service from the
same place, or upon like condition and under similar
circumstances.

It shall be unlawful for any railroad company to
make any contract or enter into any stipulation with
any other railroad company running in the same
general direction, by wnich either company shall
directly or indirectly agree to divide, in any manner,
the joint earnings upon freight transported.

Statistics.— The State had in 1872, 2,476,862
acres of land in cultivation; in 1882, 11,043,-
399 acres, an increase of 8,566,517 acres. The
live-stock of the State in 1872 was valued at
$30,013,898; in 1882 it had increased to $83,-
874,539, or a permanent increase of wealth of
$53,860,641. Four fifths of the area are still
uncultivated.

In 1883 the product of winter wheat was
28,958,884 bushels, with an average yield of
19-56; spring wheat, 1,066,052 bushels, with
an average yield of 13-47; total, 30,024,936
bushels, and an average yield of 19-25 bushels
per acre. This is within 5,000,000 bushels of
the great crop of 1882.

The average yield of rye per acre was 18*79
bushels, and the total product 5,084,391 bush-
els. The corn-crop amounted to 182,084,526
bushels, an average of 39*13 bushels an acre.

The State Board of Railroad Commissioners
have obtained an official statement of the
amount voted, in cash and bonds, by the sev-
eral counties of the State, to aid in building
railroads. The total is $9,504,385.

The last report of the State Board of Kail-
road Assessors shows that there are 4,315
miles of railway in Kansas.

Farmers' Convention.— The Kansas State Farm-

KENTUCKY.

461

ers' Alliance met in January, and put forth
resolutions declaring that the farmers were
oppressed by the railroads and other corpora-
tions ; calling for the passage of a law fixing
a schedule of freight and passenger rates ; and
denouncing the railroad- commissioner system.

Temperance. — The Kansas State Temperance
Union met in January, and adopted resolutions
declaring that the State had no moral or legal
right to license any wrong, but should enact
only such laws as will promote what is right
and prohibit what is wrong ; that the prohibi-
tion of the sale of intoxicating liquors as a
beverage is a great moral question, and is right
in principle and in practice ; and that there
should be no attempt by the Legislature to
strike prohibition from the Constitution by re-
submitting an amendment for that purpose, or
the repeal or emasculation of the law already
enacted for the enforcement of it.

KENTUCKY. State Government.— The follow-
ing were the State officers during the year :
Governor, Luke P. Blackburn, succeeded by
J. Proctor Knott, Democrats ; Lieutenant-
Governor, James E. Cantrill, succeeded by
J. K. llindman ; Secretary of State, James
Blackburn, succeeded by James A. McKenzie ;
Treasurer, James W. Tate; Auditor, Fayette
Hewitt; Superintendent of Public Instruction,
J. D. Pickett ; Attorney-General, P. W. Har-
din ; Register of Land- Office, Ralph Sheldon,
succeeded by J. G. Cecil ; Commissioner of
Agriculture, Charles E. Bowman, succeeded
by John Davis ; Insurance Commissioner, L.
0. Norman. Judiciary, Court of Appeals:
Chief-Justice, T. F. Hargis ; Associate Jus-
tices, Thomas H. Hines, William S. Pry or, and
I Joseph H. Lewis.
Party Conventions. — The Democratic State
Convention met in Louisville on the 16th of
May. The following ticket was nominated :

(For Governor, J. Proctor Knott; for Lieutenant-
Governor, J. E. Hindman ; for Attorney -General,
P. W. Hardin ; for Auditor, Fayette Hewitt ; for
Treasurer, James W. Tate ; for Superintendent of
Public Instruction, Joseph Desha Pickett ; for Regis-
ter of the Land-Office, J: G. Cecil.

The platform declared for revenue reform,
revision of the State Constitution, and encour-
agement of immigration.

The Republican State Convention met in
Lexington on the 23d of May, and nominated
the following ticket :

For Governor, Thomas Z. Morrow, of Pulaski coun-
ty ; Lieutenant-Governor, Speed S. Fry, of Boyle
county; Attorney-General, Lewis C. Garrigus (who
served in the Confederate army), of Logan county ;
Auditor, Leroy E. Hawthorne, of Campbell county ;
Superintendent of Public Instruction, J. P. Pinker-
ton, of Carter county ; Register of the Land-Office, the
Rev. J. W. Asburv (colored), of Cynthiana county ;•
Treasurer, Edwin Farley.

The resolutions adopted declared for free
schools for all the children in the State; ad-
justment of the tariff; amendment of the State
Constitution ; encouragement of immigration ;
and repeal of the tobacco-tax ; arraigned the

Democratic State government for practically
nullifying the criminal and penal laws, and for
the bad condition of the prison and charitable
institutions ; and commended the administra-
tion of President Arthur.

Election Returns. — At the election in August,
the Democratic ticket was successful, Knott
receiving 133,615 votes, and Morrow 89,181.
The following table gives the vote for the
other officers :

Democratic.

IfcpubUoui.

Lieutenant-Governor

Attorney-General

132,884
182 289

87,37s
86028

Auditor

132 249

85348

Treasurer

131 908

84670

Superintendent of Public Instruc-
tion

130 798

85776

Registrar of Land-Office

182,158

71.677

At this election, 169,173 persons were re-
turned under the law as entitled to vote for a
Constitutional Convention, but only 73,704
votes were cast in favor of calling one. The
Legislature to meet in 1884 will consist of 33
Democrats and 5 Republicans in the Senate,
and 89 Democrats and 11 Republicans in the
House. On the 4th of September Gov. Knott
took the oath of office.

General Condition. — In his message to the Leg-
islature of 1884, Gov. Knott says:

During the two years which have elapsed since the
last meeting of the General Assembly, our homes
have been free from the horrors of pestilence, and our
households gladdened by the blessings of plenty ;
our fields have been crowded with bountiful har-
vests, and our products have found ready and re-
munerative markets ; capital has been profitably em-
ployed, and labor fairly rewarded ; our resources
have been greatly developed, and our commerce
largely increased ; money has been abundant, and
private indebtedness among our people comparatively
small ; nearly 150 miles have been added to our rail-
ways, and the products of our mines increased over
250 per cent. ; while our official statistics for the last
fiscal year show by far the largest production of our
various agricultural staples since 1877, and in some
of them an increase upon the yield of even that ex-
ceptionally prolific year.

Notwithstanding these gratifying evidences of an
extraordinary popular prosperity, however, there has
been but little change, and certainly no improvement,
in the condition of our State finances during the pe-
riod to which I have referred.

Finances. — At the close of the fiscal year
ending Oct. 10, 1881, there was in the Treas-
ury, to the credit of the revenue proper, and
available for the ordinary expenditures of the
State government, a balance of $51,118.28;
but, as the loan of $300,000, which had been
negotiated under the provisions of the act of
1880, in order to meet a previous deficiency,
had not been paid, there was really a deficit at
that time of $248,881.72.

The fiscal year having been changed by law
so as to begin on the first day of July, and the
increased expenses unavoidably incident to a
session of the Legislature having rendered it
necessary to effect an additional loan of $200,-
000, the condition of the fund available for
general expenditures from Oct. 11, 1881, to

462

KENTUCKY.

June 30, 1882, and from July 1, 1882, to June
30, 1883, was as follows :

Balance in the Treasury Oct. 10, 1881 $51,118 28

Receipts, including bank loan of $200,000 1,251,199 97

Total receipts and balance, as above $1,302,318 25

Disbursements deducted 1,254,253 28

Left a balance of. .

$48,064 97

Borrowed from bank, as above $200,000 00

Balance in the Treasury deducted 48,064 97

Shows deficit for the year $1 51,935 03

Due banks prior to Oct. 10, 1881 300,000 00

Total deficit June 30, 1882 $451,935 03

Balance in the Treasury June 30, 1882 $48,064 97

Receipts 1,622,328 80

Total receipts and balance on hand $1,670,393 27

Disbursements deducted 1,661,763 94

Balance June 30, 1883 $8,624 33

Due banks June 30, 1883 $500,000 00

Less balance in Treasury 8,624 33

Actual deficit $491,375 67

There has been no change in the condition
of the sinking fund since the last session of
the General Assembly. The bonded debt of
the State, as then, consists of 174 6-per-cent.
military bonds, amounting to $174,000, be-
sides $6,394 in old railroad scrip, and bonds of
1835 and 1841, which have been so long over-
due, and unheard of for so many years, that
they are supposed to have been long since lost
or destroyed, and will probably never be pre-
sented for redemption. The resources of the
sinking fund are also substantially as at that
time. Cash in the Treasury, June 30, 1883,
$174,000.30; 406 shares of stock in the Bank
of Louisville, quoted at the close of the fiscal
year at $31,262, and stock in turnpikes esti-
mated at $500,000, amounting in all to $705,-
266.30. In regard to the financial situation
the Governor says :

The difficulty has been, and is still to be found, to
a great extent, 'in our grossly defective system of as-
sessment, rendered still more inefficient by the neg-
ligent and unsatisfactory manner in which it is admin-
istered. The mere fact that the entire valuation of all
descriptions of taxable property within the Common-
wealth for the last fiscal year amounted to but little
over $374,500,000, is sufficient to satisfy any intelli-
gent mind at all conversant with the subject that there
must have been the grossest disparity between its
market and the assessed value. Our real property
alone is worth double that sum. Inequalities and
undervaluation in assessment are, however, by no
means the only_ evils in our revenue system. Much
of our revenue is annually lost through exonerations,
delinquent lists, and sales of land for taxes, though
the latter evils have been lessening from year to year,
and may possibly reach their minimum under a rigid
enforcement of our present statutes. Besides this,
1 *• ~° 3rty have from time to time been

exempted from taxation by private acts of the Legis-
lature, which should be restored to the tax-list. There
are also various lottery companies plying their busi-
ness in our State, and claiming to exercise their priv-
ileges under the sanction of our laws, who yet pay not
a doit into the Treasury. If they have a legal exist-
ence, they should be taxed ; if they have "not, they

The Penitentiary. — The condition of the con-
victs within the prison-walls has been greatly
improved within the past three years. Those
in the hands of contractors are not so well off.
The total number is over 1,000, while there are
cell accommodations for only 744. The Gov-
ernor recommends the erection of a branch
penitentiary in the western part of the State,
with a capacity of 700 or 750 cells.

State Charities.— The State charitable institu-
tions are the Eastern, Central, and Western
Lunatic Asylums, the Institution for the Edu-
cation and Training of Feeble-Minded Chil-
dren, the Institution for the Education of the
Blind, and the Institution for the Education of
Deaf-Mutes.

The whole number of insane patients treat-
ed during the year was 2,143. The percentage
of cures upon the admissions during the year
was as follows : in the Eastern Asylum, 34'09 ;
in the Central, 60'03 ; in the Western, 46'61.

The number of blind pupils during the year
was 78. The average attendance of deaf-mute
pupils was 140.

It appears that of the 1,049 idiots maintained
last year by the Commonwealth, at a cost of
$65,471, over 54 per cent, were in four judicial
circuits. "While the cause," says the Gov-
ernor, " of this singular and startling difference
in the development of idiocy in different local-
ities in the same Commonwealth may be a
matter of curious speculation, it may be well
for practical legislators to inquire whether it
has resulted, to any extent, from the importa-
tion of such unfortunate beings with the view
of having them pensioned upon the bounty of
the State."

Education. — The school census, white and col-
ored, and the corresponding apportionments
out of the school fund for the payment of
teachers and commissioners, for the year end-
ing June 30, 1884, were as follow :

Whole number of white-pupil children 500,824

Whole number of colored-pupil children 92,470

Total...

593.294

Apportioned to white children. $1.40 per capita. $701,153 60
Apportioned to colored children, $1.40 per
capita 129,458 00

Total .- $830,611 60

Amount apportioned to commissioners 42,089 1 1

Grand total... .. $872,089 71

During the session of 1881~'82 the number
of matriculates in the State College was 320,
and in that of 1882-'83, 316. Instruction is
given under twelve professors and two assist-
ant professors.

In March a call was issued for a conference
or convention of the friends of popular educa-
tion in Kentucky, to be held in Frankfort on
the 5th of April, " for the purpose of consider-
ing the situation and organizing a quicker
movement against illiteracy. With a quarter
of a million of people in the Commonwealth
who can not even read, with the average pay
of teachers only $22 per month, with the aver-

KENTUCKY.

463

age value of 60 per cent, of our school-houses
$78, and with not less than 180,000 children
who do not attend any school, it is time for us
to awaken to the magnitude of the question
and to make an effort for a change. Let all
whose hearts are warmed with a love of the
little ones come to the conference and assist in
creating a public sentiment that will secure
what we want."

The convention met at the appointed time
and remained in session two days. It was nu-
merously attended by representative men, irre-
spective of race, of party, and of vocation,
from many parts of the State. ^Resolutions
were adopted and an address to the people of
the State was issued. Federal aid was ap-
proved of, and it was recommended that State
taxation be supplemented by local taxation.

A twofold obstacle was recognized. u That
difficulty appears first in the lack of adequate
means to maintain or to employ competent

Total population of Kentucky

Total population who can not read, ten years of age

and over

Percentage of total population who can not read...

Total white population

Total white population who can not write, ten years

of age and over

Percentage of total white population who can not

write

Total colored population ....'.

Total colored population who can not write, ten

years of age and over

Percentage of total colored population who can not

write . . .

1,648,600

268,186

15-66

1,377,179

214,497

15-58
271,511

49-81

Railroads. — The Railroad Commissioners re-
port that on the first day of December, 1883,
there were in operation in the State 1,936.99
miles of railway, which, however, do not pene-
trate one third of the counties in the Common-
wealth. Several roads are in process of con-
struction, while others have been projected for
the near future. The Henderson bridge is in
course of construction, but will not be com-
pleted before the spring of 1885. It appears

SOUTHERN EXPOSITION BUILDING, LOUISVILLE, KT.

phers, and to construct suitable houses in
rhich to gather and teach the children ; and
Jcond, though not least, the lethargy of the
30ple, as evinced by the fact that in 1881 there
were 265,891 white children of pupil age in
the State whose parents and guardians would
not, or did not, send them to the common
schools ; and, furthermore, that 34 counties of
ie State reported, through their commission-
ers, as being stubbornly opposed to local taxa-
tion for educational purposes."
A committee was appointed to report needed
lendments to the common-school law to an
ourned meeting to be held in Louisville.
The report was made on the 20th of September.
It recommended amendments designed to re-
luce the school age from six to twenty years to
six to sixteen years, to lengthen the school
i, increase the wages of teachers, and raise
ie per capita by local taxation and other
leans from $1.40 to $3. The following figures
>m the United States census of 1880, widely
iblished in the State, have been a potent ele-
ment in arousing public attention to the neces-
'ity of improving the educational facilities of
' Commonwealth :

from the report that the business of the various
railroads in the State is increasing, and their
general condition improving. Steel rails are
being substituted for iron, and many facilities
for travel and traffic furnished which have not
existed heretofore. The Chesapeake and Ohio
and Southwestern has reduced its local pas-
senger fares to three cents a mile, making that
the uniform rate with all the principal lines
throughout the State. The commissioners as-
sessed the railroad property at $35,000,000.

Geological Snrrey. — On this subject the Gov-
ernor says :

No expenditure of money has ever been made by
our State government which has been more -prolific of
good results than that which has been devoted to our
Geological Survey. Previous to its inauguration com-
paratively little was known of our varied and almost
illimitable resources, and consequently the vast tide
of capital as well as intelligent labor, seeking new fields
of employment, had drifted past us, and thousands of
the most enterprising of our own people had been
lured to other States supposed to have been more lib-
erally endowed by nature with the various elements
of material prosperity . But, although prosecuted un-
der great disadvantages, it has demonstrated that our
resources of every description are enormous ; that our
soils are adapted to the profitable growth of the widest

464

KEROSENE, IMPROVED TEST FOR DANGEROUS.

range of agricultural products known to the temperate
zone ; that one half of our primitive forests abound-
ing in the greatest variety of valuable timbers is still
untouched ; that our State abounds in the richest iron-
ores to be found in the world ; and that our coal area
is more extensive than that of the great State of Penn-
sylvania, or of Great Britain and Ireland combined,
underlying nearly 13,000 square miles.

The Southern Exposition.— The Southern Ex-
position opened at Louisville, Aug. 1st, and
continued one hundred days. The subscribers
to the capital stock numbered 1,722, and the
total amount of subscriptions was $258,122.
A building covering thirteen acres and costing
$300,000 was erected. The number of exhibits
was 1,500, classified in groups and departments,
arranged with reference to similarity of char-
acter. Premiums in money to the amount of
$6,750 were distributed for displays of cotton.
In the general awards, 109 diplomas, 221 cer-
tificates, and 478 medals were adjudged to
successful exhibitors. The total number of
admissions was 770,048. The best attendance
was from Sept. 10th to Oct. 20th, at which
time several other expositions in different parts
of the country were in operation. Although
the Southern Exposition was not wholly sat-
isfactory in a financial way, the stockholders
felt warranted in increasing their capital to
$500,000, with the intention of holding another
exhibition in 1884.

Miscellaneous. — A National Convention of Col-
ored Men met in Louisville Sept. 24th, and dis-
cussed and acted upon civil and political rights,
education, and labor.

KEROSENE, IMPROVED TEST FOR DANGEROUS.
The dangerous properties of kerosene are
derived from the presence in the
oil of the extremely volatile con-
stituents, benzine and naphtha.
These substances are easily ig-
nited, and alone, or mixed in
small proportion with kerosene,
readily emit vapors which are
highly inflammable, and which
form with air an explosive mixt-
ure. Kerosene is safe only when
it will not yield these dangerous
vapors at any temperature which
it is liable to assume. This tem-
perature depends partly upon the
warmth of the place where the oil
is kept or used, and partly upon
the heat of the burning wick warm-
ing the oil in the reservoir of the
lamp. It has been found by ex-
periment that the maximum in-
crease of temperature of the oil
in a burning lamp is about 16°
Fahr. It is possible for oil to
have in summer a temperature of
from 90° to 100° in the unlighted
lamp, and in winter a still higher
temperature, if the lamp is near
a stove or an open fire. Hence the lowest
temperature at which an oil may evolve in-
flammable vapors and be considered safe must

be put at 116°, or, better still, at 120° Fahr. In
testing oils a distinction is made between the
flashing-point and the turning-point. The
flashing-point is the temperature at which, when
the oil is slowly heated, the vapors escaping
from it will first take fire with a slight explo-
sion when a lighted match is passed just over
the surface of the liquid. It marks the tem-
perature at which the oil becomes dangerous.
The heating may be continued till a point is
reached at which the oil will take fire and con-
tinue burning by itself. This is known as the
burning-point. The flashing-point is easily al-
tered by trifling variations in the conditions,
as in the quantity of oil used, the rate of heat-
ing, the range of temperature through which
the oil is heated, and the distance above the
surface at which the match passes. The burn-
ing-point, upon which the ordinary fire-test is
based, is of little value; for not only does it al-
ways lie above the flashing-point, but it bears
no simple relation to the latter, and the deter-
mination of it gives really no clew to the tem-
perature at which the oil becomes unsafe.
Some twenty-five different instruments have
been proposed for ascertaining the lowest flash-
ing-point of a sample of oil, all of which are
based upon the principle of slowly heating the
oil till its vapor will take fire on passing a match
or other igniting agent over it. Engler and
Haas have laid down seven principles to which
all such testing apparatus and experiments with
them, to be of any value, must conform, viz. :
1. The quantity of oil must be the same in all
experiments. In the Saybolt tester, which has
been adopted by the New York Produce EX-

FIG. 1.— SAYBOLT TESTER.

change (Fig. 1), variations of one twenty-fifth
of one inch cause differences of some degrees in
the flashing-point ; 2, the oil must be heated

KEROSENE, IMPROVED TEST FOR DANGEROUS.

465

slowly and uniformly; 3, the temperature of
the oil at the beginning of the test must be at
least 18° Falir. below its flashing-point as ap-
proximately determined ; 4, the size and inten-
sity of the flame or spark used to produce the
flash must be the same in all tests ; 5, the dis-
tance of the flash-flame or spark from the sur-
face of the oil must be the same ; 6, the time
during which the flame or spark acts must be
reduced to a minimum ; T, on account of the
practical purpose for which the tests are made,
the conditions under which the vapor is formed
in the tester should correspond as closely as pos-
sible to those which determine its formation
and explosion in lamps, etc. It can not be af-
firmed that all the conditions under which ex-
plosions in lamps are liable to occur are pro-
vided for in any single testing instrument of
this class. The oil-reservoirs in our lamps
differ much in size and shape, and hence have
different capacities. The quantity of oil, its
surface, and the amount of air in the reservoir
with which the vapor mingles, are constantly
changing while the lamp is in use and the
danger is greatest. Moreover, it is not only
in quietly -burning lamps that accidents occur.
Probably half the accidents are due to upset-
ting or breaking, and the oil, which would have
been safe otherwise, gives rise to explosion or
flames under these more dangerous circum-
stances. It is important to employ, if possible,
a test which shall indicate the lowest tempera-
ture at which, under any conditions, inflamma-
ble vapors can be evolved, rather than be sat-
isfied with trusting to a method which merely
proves an oil safe under certain arbitrary con-
ditions. Certain testers have been proposed,
based upon the principle of ascertaining the
elastic force or tension of the vapor of the oil
at a given temperature : they are deceptive and
worthless, for it has been conclusively shown
that no definite relation exists between the va-
por-tension and the flashing-point of a kero-
sene. Another method of testing, by distilla-
tion, is exact, and has the additional advantage
of defining the quality of the oil as an illumi-
nating material. The oil is separated by the
distillation into three tractions : a light oil dis-
tilling below 150° 0. ; illuminating oil, com-
ing over between 150° and 270° 0. ; and a
heavy oil which boils above 270° 0. The first
fractional distillate represents the dangerous
constituents, and should not exceed 5 per cent,
of the whole. The heavy oil affects the free-
dom with which kerosene burns, and should
not form more than 15 per cent, of the whole.
Victor Meyer has introduced an exact meth-
od of determining the minimum flashing-point
of kerosene by saturating the air with oil- vapor
at the test-temperature. His apparatus con-
sists of a glass cylinder which is partly filled
with oil, is stoppered with a cork through
which a thermometer passes, and is heated by
plunging into warm water. When the tem-
perature is reached at which the test is to be
made the cylinder is briskly shaken, the stop-
VOL. xxin. — 30 A

per is removed, and a small flame is intro-
duced. Flashing-points obtained by this plan
are considerably lower than those given by the
former methods, and are largely independent
of the conditions that are considered essential
to the accuracy of the determinations by them.
Haas's method is the same in principle as Mey-
er's, but employs an electric spark instead of a
flame, and the apparatus is difficult of con-
struction and costly. Both methods require
repeated shaking of the oil as the heat rises
from degree to degree, which is very incon-
venient. Liebermann has made a simple, suc-
cessful, dnd practical application of the same
principle in his tester, in which, Fig. 2, the

FIG. 2.— LIEBERMANN'B TESTER.

saturation of air is accomplished by forcing an
air-current through the oil as it is warmed
from degree to degree ; 'and the test is made
by bringing a small flame to the mouth of the
oil-holder at the same instant. A tester of
still more simple construction than this has
been proposed. It consists, as shown in Fig.
3, of a glass cylinder closed at one end by a

FIG. 3.— IMPROVED TESTER.

cork, through which a small, bent tube, d c 5,
passes. Just within the cork the end of this
tube contracts to a small orifice. The other
end of the tube connects with a small bellows,
or other source of slightly compressed air, the
flow of which can be regulated by the pinch-

466

KEROSENE, TEST FOR.

KNIT CLOTHS.

cock e. The best results by this method are
obtained when the diameter of the cylinder is
between 2-J- and 4 centimetres. The length is
of no consequence, provided the cylinder is al-
ways filled with oil to within the same distance
of the top ; but different results are given when
the distance of the oil, or rather of the foam
into which its surface is broken by the air-
current, is allowed to vary. Prof. John T.
Stoddard, of Smith College, makes in " The
Popular Science Monthly " the following state-
ments and directions concerning the use of this
method : 1. The oil-cylinder should have a di-
ameter of from 2£ to 4 centimetres.* It may
be of any convenient length, provided it holds,
when filled for the tests, not less than 50 c. c.
of oil. "With a diameter of 2£ centimetres, the
length should be at least 16 centimetres; with
a diameter of 3 centimetres, the least length
should be 13 centimetres. A good tester may
be made from the chimney of a student-lamp
by cutting off the lower part a little above the
contraction; or the whole chimney may be
made to serve as an oil-cylinder by corking
the large end. 2. The cylinder is filled with
oil to a point where, when the air-current is
running, the top of the foam is 4 or 6 centi-
metres below the mouth. 3. The oil is heat-
ed by means of a water-bath, into which the
cylinder is plunged to the end of the oil. The
temperature of the oil should not rise faster
than two degrees a minute. 4. Air is forced
through the oil with such velocity that about
(and not less than) one centimetre of foam is
maintained on the surface, and a flash- jet is
brought to the mouth of the cylinder at every
half degree, or oftener, in the vicinity of the
flashing-point. The approach of the flashing-
point is announced by the appearance of a faint
blue halo of burning vapor around the flash-
jet ; this finally detaches itself and runs down
to the surface of the oil. The reading of the
temperature at this instant gives a trial flash-
ing-point, which may be a little too high if the
current of air has been running too long, or
not long enough. The test should now be re-
peated with a fresh sample of oil, the air-cur-
rent being started in full strength, not less

than one nor more than three or four minutes
before the flash occurs. It is well, however,
to let a very slow current of air bubble through
the oil from the time that the tester is put in
the water-bath, so as to secure regularity in
the heating of the oil. This method has the
advantages of simplicity in apparatus and ma-
nipulation, and of securing a trustworthy de-
termination of the lowest flashing-point, inde-
pendently of arbitrary conditions. We have
seen that 116° Fahr. is the very lowest flash-
ing-point consistent with safety. The state-
ments so often put forth, that our best kero-
senes are " 150° or 160° test" oils, are mislead-
ing; for it has reference, not to the flashing-
point, but to the fire-test, or burning-point,
which, as has been shown, gives little indica-
tion of- the character of the oil. The best
oils sold flash at about 109° Fahr., while the
cheaper grades have much lower flashing-points
— at least as low as 85° Fahr.

KNIT CLOTHS. The idea of knitting other fab-
rics than hosiery is not new, but the application
of the process to the production of certain kinds
of cloth has been, by improved machinery,
brought apparently to perfection very recently.

Fig. 1 (see page 467) gives a good idea of a
machine imported from England in 1883, and
set up in Philadelphia by John E. Hanifen &
Co. Portions of it were patented in England
by Joseph Belshaw, as long ago as 185V ; and
virtually the same thing was produced by two
other English inventors, and by them assigned

FIG. 2.

to John Kent, who patented it in the United

States in 1 872, but his patent has been contested.

Fig. 2 shows (enlarged) a section of the

KNIT CLOTHS.

467

FIG. 1.

needles, which are really hooks with a spring
barb. These, about 1,000 in number, are fast-
ened around the edge of the circular horizon-
tal bed, and revolve with it.

At two, three, or four points, just outside of
the circumference of the horizontal bed, are
fixed groups of wheels, like those shown (en-
larged) in Fig. 3 (see page 466). The various
threads used pass from the bobbins upward over
hooks and then downward to and under these
knitting- wheels. When the bed revolves, the
needles act as cogs, and turn the knitting-
wheels. These wheels consist of wings or
flanges, so shaped as alternately to lift and de-
press the threads on and between the needles,
thus forming the stitches. The fabric is knit

in the form of a large tube, and is constantly
drawn up and wound upon the reel overhead,
which also revolves horizontally with the bed.
In the engraving a portion of the fabric is rep-
resented as cut away, to show the stretcher
inside. The fabric is knit with a seam run-
ning its entire length, and with a knife the
operator cuts it open along this seam, thus
reducing it to a flat piece of cloth, of " double
width."

The most obvious advantage in the use of
this machine, over a loom, is in the matter
of speed. It has a smooth, continuous, rotary
motion, instead of the constantly interrupted
alternating motion of a shuttle, and will pro-
duce about double the amount of cloth in a

468 LANSDOWNE, MARQUIS OF.

LASKER, EDUARD.

given time. It is claimed also that the fabric
is superior in smoothness of face and evenness
of texture. Almost any kind of "backing"
can be put on (all in one motion of the ma-

chine), from a smooth, hard one, to that of the
heaviest, shaggy overcoating. Its productions
include stockinet, ladies' cloakings, overcoat-
ings, cheviots, astrakhans, and suitings.

LMSDOWNE, Henry Charles Keith Petty Fitz-
manriee, Marquis of, Governor- General of Can-
ada, born in England, Jan. 14, 1845. He re-
ceived his education at Eton, and at Balliol
College, Oxford, and became a captain in the
Yeoman cavalry of Wiltshire. His father, the
fourth marquis, died July 5, 1866, and he suc-
ceeded to the titles and estates. His minor
titles are: in the peerage of Great Britain —
Earl of Wycombe, of Chipping Wycombe,
county Bucks; Viscount Cain and Calnstone,
county Wilts ; and Lord Wycombe, Baron of
Chipping Wycombe, county Bucks ; in the
peerage of Ireland — Earl of Kerry and Earl
of Shelburne ; Viscount Clanmaurice and Fitz-

MAKQUIS OF LANBDOWNE.

maurice; Baron of Kerry, Lixnaw, and Dun-
kerron. His mother is Baroness Nairne in her
own right; holding the title once held by the
Scottish poetess who wrote " The Land o' the
Leal," though she is not her descendant.

The Marquis was one of the Lords of the
Treasury from 1868 to 1872, and then became
Under- Secretary for War, which office he held
two years. He was appointed Under-Secre-
tary for India when Mr. Gladstone became
Premier in 1880, but retired at the end of two
months, because he disagreed with the Gov-
ernment's Irish policy. In October, 1883, he
succeeded the Marquis of Lome as Governor-

General of Canada. He married, in November,
1869, the youngest daughter of the Duke of
Abercorn, and has two sons and two daugh-
ters.

LASKER, Ednard, a German statesman, born
in Jaroczin, Posen, Oct. 14, 1829 ; died in New
.York, Jan. 5, 1884. He was the son of a Jew-
ish merchant, was admitted to the bar in Ber-
lin, and passed three years in travel. On re-
turning, he took a place in the Berlin City
Court in 1856, and in 1858 became associate
justice. He resigned this post in 1870, to
practice as an attorney. Later he accepted
the post of syndic in the mortgage registry
office of Berlin. He was elected deputy in the
Prussian Chamber in March, 1865, and re-
elected in July, 1866. In 1866 he left the Pro-
gressive party and became, in association with
Karl Twesten, the founder of the National-
Liberal party. From 1868 to 1873 he repre-
sented Magdeburg in the House of Deputies.
From 1875 to 1879 he was member for Frank-
fort-on-the-Main. From 1866 till his death he
was a member of the Reichstag.

During the nineteen years of Lasker's par-
liamentary activity there was no important
legislative work in which he did not take part,
and which does not bear the impress of bis
knowledge and acumen. His activity centered
in the Reichstag. The unification of the Ger-
man Empire on a representative basis was the
aim of his life. In the civil consolidation of
the empire he bore as conspicuous a part as
Count Bismarck in the sphere of dynastic and
international politics. The great National-
Liberal party, of which he was the chief
founder and parliamentary leader, united the
liberal thought and hopes of the country in
favor of the policy of Bismarck, until the time
when by its support the latter had overcome
the particularist elements and was able after
the French war to repudiate the constitutional
doctrines which he had temporarily professed.
A great part of Lasker's work was inconspicu-
ous. He was regularly placed on the com-
mittees, in the Reichstag and the Prussian
Landtag, which were appointed for the elabo-
ration of legislative projects, and was almost
invariably intrusted with the preparation of
the report. In taking so prominent a part in
the practical work of legislation, however, he
became the most frequent speaker and propo-
nent of motions in the legislative halls, and
thus was a familiar figure before the public.
Next to the ideal of German unity, the cause
of legality and the abolition of arbitrary police
powers was nearest to his heart. In this sense
the Prussian local administrative regulations

LASKER, EDUAKD.

LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL. 469

were amended through his efforts. The same
idea underlay the German industrial laws of
1869, one of the greatest works of his life. In
1870 he introduced in the Reichstag the propo-
sition to incorporate Baden in the North Ger-
man League. In 1871 and the following years
he advocated the proposition to extend clause
13 of the fourth article of the German Consti-
tution to the civil law, i. e., to unify the laws
of the German states into a single imperial
system. In this most important part of the
process of transforming the league into a na-
tion, the chief share of the labor fell to him,
and it remains a monument of his historical
services and juristic genius. The imperial ju-
diciary, which was introduced in October,
1879, the common code of procedure, and the
lification of the civil laws, were the labori-

fruits of this period of his life.
Lasker's greatest popular success was his
speech in the Prussian Diet on Feb. 7, 1873, in
which he laid bare the jobbery of promoters
and the corruption of officials in connection
with railroad concessions and the establish-
ment of fraudulent joint-stock companies. His
proposal of an investigating commission was
approved ; and, although the results of the in-
vestigation were not equal to the expectations,
the law officers of the Government kept a
closer watch, the commercial schemers and

ieir aristocratic accomplices took alarm, and
10 such scandals have occurred again.

Lasker's literary labors were confined to
contributions in Oppenheim's " German Year-
Book " on Prussian constitutional history (1875).
He wrote the report of the National-Liberal

irty for the legislative period of the Reichs-

ig, Customs Union, and Prussian Diet ending
1870, which was printed in Hirth's "An-
s " (1870). His most noted oratorical efforts
mtside the legislature were a commemoration

Idress on Karl Twesten.
In support of Prince Bismarck's policy, Las-
ter advocated fixing the military budget for

jven years in advance. He also co-operated
in bringing about the Prussian administrative
law. Yet as soon as the aims of the Chancellor
ran counter to his political principles, he op-
posed the Government with such energy that
it often came to parliamentary duels between
the two. Their differences were repeatedly
composed, until Bismarck's economical and
tax-reform projects separated them completely.
Lasker upheld the free-trade principle, and
withdrew from the National-Liberal party. In
the sitting of May 2, 1879, he declared that by
the economical policy of the Government he
was driven into the opposition. He was fol-
lowed in August, 1879, by Forkenbeck, Stauf-
fenberg, and Bamberger, and the Secessionist
fraction became the most vigorous antagonists
of the Chancellor.

Dr. Lasker's health was broken for two or
three years before his death, and he visited
Switzerland several times, with the object of
recuperating his strength. From the same

motive he came to America late in the summer
of 1883, and made a tour of the United States.
After visiting his brother in Texas, he returned
to New York. On the evening of his death he
dined with Mr. Seligman, the banker, and was
taken with heart-disease while walking back
to his boarding place, dying in a stable, into
which he was taken, directly after the arrival
of a physician.

LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL. International Arbitra-
tion.— An important opinion on this subject
was rendered by the United States Supreme
Court on Jan. 7, 1884, in the noted Weil and
La Abra cases. In 1868 a convention between
the United States and Mexico was concluded
for the arbitration and payment of claims of
citizens of either country against the Govern-
ment of the other. These claims were to be
submitted to a mixed commission, which was
to take testimony and hear counsel. The treaty
stipulated that " the President of the United
States and the President of the Mexican Re-
public hereby solemnly and sincerely engage to
consider the decision of the commissioners con-
jointly, or of the umpire, as the case may be,
as absolutely final and conclusive upon each
claim decided upon by them or him respect-
ively, and to give full effect to such decision
without any objection, evasion, or delay what-
ever." It was then provided that the aggre-
gate of all the amounts awarded to citizens
of one country should be deducted from the
aggregate awarded to citizens of the other,
and that $300,000 of the balance should be
paid by the debtor to th,e creditor Government
within twelve months from the close of the
commission, and that the rest should be paid
in yearly installments, not exceeding $300,000
each. It was further stipulated :

The high contracting parties agree to consider the
result of the proceedings of this commission as a full,
perfect, and final settlement of every claim upon either
Government arising out of any transaction of a date
prior to the exchange of the ratifications of the present
convention ; and further engage that every such claim,
whether or not the same may have been presented to
the notice of, made, preferred, or laid before the said
commission; shall, from and after the conclusion of
the proceedings of the said commission, be considered
and treated as finally settled, barred, and thenceforth
inadmissible.

When the work of the commission ended, it
was found that the balance against Mexico was
about $1,200,000, and annual payments were
duly made by that Government in accordance
with the terms of the convention. Among the
claims presented to the commission by citizens
of the United States was one of Benjamin Weil
for cotton alleged to have been seized in Mexico
and confiscated by the Mexican authorities in
1864, and one by the La Abra Silver Mining
Company for the loss of a mine in the State of
Durango, which the owners alleged they were
forced to abandon in consequence of illegal
acts on the part of Mexican officers. On Oct.
1, 1875, an award of $489,810 was made in
favor of Weil against Mexico, and on December

470

LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL.

27th following one of $683,041 was made in
favor of the La Abra Company.

In June, 1878, Congress passed an act pro-
viding that as often as installments should be
received from Mexico, the amount should be
distributed pro rata among the claimants to
whom awards had been made. Meanwhile
Mexico had made representations to the Gov-
ernment at Washington that the Weil and La
Abra claims were fraudulent, and that the
awards had been obtained through perjured
testimony, and asked that a rehearing be had
in these cases. In view of this representation,
Congress, in the act of June, 1878, requested
the President to investigate these charges of
fraud, and provided that if he should find "the
honor of the United States, the principles of
public law, or considerations of justice and
equity" required that the awards should be
opened, and the cases re-tried, it should be
lawful for him to withhold payment until the
cases should be re-tried in such manner as the
United States and Mexico might agree.

During the year 1879 President Hayes caused
an investigation to be made, and the conclu-
sions reached were thus given in the report of
Mr. Evarts, then Secretary of State :

1. I conclude, therefore, that neither the principles
of public law nor considerations of justice or equity
require or permit, as between the United States and
Mexico, that the awards in these cases should be
opened and the cases retried before a new interna-
tional tribunal or under any new convention or nego-
tiation respecting the same between the United States
and Mexico.

2. I am, however, of opinion that the matters
brought to the attention of this Government on the
part of Mexico do bring into grave doubt the sub-
stantial integrity of the claim of Benjamin Weil and
the sincerity of the evidence as to the measure of
damages insisted upon and accorded in the case of
the La Abra Silver Mining Company, and that the
honor of the United States does require that these two
cases should be further investigated by the United
States to ascertain whether this Government has been
made the means of enforcing against a friendly pow-
er claims of our citizens based upon or exaggerated
by fraud. If such investigation should remove the
doubts which have been fairly raised upon the repre-
sentations of Mexico, the honor of the United States
will have been completely maintained. If; on the
other hand, the claimants shall fail in removing these
doubts, or they should be replaced by certain con-
demnation, the honor of the United States will be
vindicated by such measures as may then be dictated.

8. The executive government is not furnished with
the means of instituting and pursuing methods of in-
vestigation which can coerce the production of evi-
dence or compel the examination of parties and wit-
nesses. The authority for such an investigation must
proceed from Congress. I would advise, therefore,
that the proofs and the conclusions you shall come to
thereon, if adverse to the immediate payment on these
awards of the installments received from Mexico, be
laid before Congress for the exercise of their plenary
authority in the matter.

A copy of this report was sent to Congress
by the President April 15, 1880. It concluded
as follows : " Unless Congress should now
make this disposition of the matter, and fur-
nish thereby definite instructions to the depart-
ment to reserve further payments upon these

awards till the conclusion of such investiga-
tion, and to take such further order with the
same thereafter as Congress might direct, it
would appear to be the duty of the Executive
to accept these awards as no longer open to
reconsideration, and proceed in the payment
of the same, pro rata with all other awards
under the convention." No decisive action
was then taken by Congress, and, after the
close of the session, payments were made on
these awards, by direction of President Hayes,
the same as on the others. When President
Garfield came into office, four installments had
been paid to the Weil and La Abra claimants,
and a fifth was ordered by him to be paid.
After Mr. Arthur became President, he ordered
the matter to be again investigated, and u be-
lieving that said award was obtained by fraud
and perjury," he directed further payments to
be withheld, and negotiated a treaty with
Mexico for a re-trial of the cases. This treaty
is still (March 15, 1884) pending in the Senate.
Suits were thereupon brought by the claimants
to compel Secretary Frelinghuysen to pay to
them their share of the sixth installment paid
to the United States by Mexico on Jan. 31,
1882. They contended :

1. That the awards under the convention vested in
the several claimants an absolute right to the amounts
awarded them respectively, and that this right was
property which neither the United States alone, nor
the United States and Mexico together, could take
away : and,

2.* That, if this were not so, the action of President
Hayes, under the fifth section of the act of 1878? was
conclusive on President Arthur, and deprived him of
any right he might otherwise have had to investigate
the charges of fraud presented by the Mexican Gov-
ernment, or to withhold from the relators their dis-
tributive shares of any moneys thereafter paid to the
Secretary of State under the authority of the first
section.

The issue thus raised was, first, as to the
power of two governments to reopen an arbi-
tration of claims of citizens under a compact
providing that the decision of the commission
should be "absolutely final and conclusive,"
and " without appeal " ; that the Presidents of
the two republics should "give full effect to
such decisions without any objection, evasion,
or delay whatsoever," and that the final action
of the commission should be considered " a
full, perfect, and final settlement of every
claim " passed upon ; and, second, as to the
power of the President under such compact to
withhold payment of awards pending the ne-
gotiations for a treaty providing for a re-trial
of the claims. The contention relates to un-
paid installments. The Supreme Court held
that the two governments were free to make
a new agreement, and that the President of
the United States had the right to withhold
payment of awards alleged to have been fraud-
ulently obtained.

Referring to the strong language of the con-
vention, that the decision of the commission
should be "absolutely final and conclusive,"
etc., the Court said that this is to be construed

LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL.

471

as language used in a compact of two nations
"for the adjustment of the claims of the citi-
zens of either against the other," and entered
into to " increase the friendly feeling existing
between the republics."

No nation treats with a citizen of another nation
except through his government. The treaty, when
made, represents a compact between the governments,
and each government holds the other responsible for
everything done by their respective citizens under it.
The citizens of the United States having claims
against Mexico were not parties to this convention.
They induced the United States to assume the re-
sponsibility of seeking redress for injuries they claimed
to have sustained by the conduct of Mexico, and as a
means of obtaining such redress the convention was
entered into, by which not only claims of citizens of
the United States against Mexico were to be adjusted
and paid, but those of citizens of Mexico against the
United States as well. By the terms of the compact
the individual claimants could not themselves submit
their claims and proofs to the commission to be passed
upon. Only such claims as were presented to the
Governments respectively could be "referred" to the
commission, and the commissioners were not allowed
to investigate or decide on any evidence or informa-
tion except such as was furnished by or on behalf of
the Governments. While the claims of the individual
citizens were to be considered by the commission in
determining amounts, the whole purpose of the con-
vention was to ascertain how much was due from
one Government to the other on account of the de-
mands of their respective citizens. As between the
United States and Mexico the awards are final and
conclusive until set aside by agreement between the
two Governments or otherwise. Mexico can not, un-
der the terms of the treaty, refuse to make the pay-
ments at the times agreed on if required by the United
States. This she does not now seek to do. Her pay-
ments have all been made promptly as they fell due,
as far as these records show. What she asks is the
consent of the United States to her release from lia-
bility under the convention on account of the particu-
lar awards now hi dispute, because of the alleged
fraudulent character of the proof in support of the
claims which the United States were induced by the
claimants to furnish for the consideration of the com-
mission.

Chief-Justice Waite, who wrote the opinion,
proceeded as follows :

As to the right of the United States to treat with
Mexico for a retrial, we entertain no doubt. Each
Government, when it entered into the compact under
which the awards were made, relied on the nonor and
good faith of the other for protection as far as possi-
ble against frauds and impositions by the individual
claimants. It was for this reason that all claims were
excluded from the consideration of the commission
except such as should be referred by the several gov-
ernments, and no evidence in support of or against a
claim was to be submitted except through or by the
Governments. The presentation by a citizen of a
fraudulent claim or false testimony for reference to the
commission was an imposition on his own Government,
and if that Government afterward discovered that it
had in this way been made an instrument of wrong
toward a friendly power, it would be not only its
right, but its duty, to repudiate the act and make rep-
aration as far as possible for the consequences of its
neglect if any there had been. International arbitra-
tion must always proceed on the highest principles of
national honor and integrity. No technical rules of
pleading as applied in municipal courts ought ever to
be allowed to stand in the way of the national power
to do what is right under all the circumstances. The
cases cited by counsel all relate to the disposition to be
made of the proceeds of international awards after
they have passed beyond the reach of the Govern-

ments and into the hands of private parties. The lan-
guage of the opinions must be construed in connec-
tion with this fact.

The first section of the act of 1878, said the
Chief -Justice, authorizes and requires the Sec-
retary of State to receive the moneys paid by
Mexico under the convention, and to distribute
them among the several claimants, but it mani-
fests no disposition on the part of Congress to
encroach on the power of the President and
Senate to conclude another treaty with Mex-
ico, with respect to any or even all the claims
allowed by the commission, if in their opinion
the honor of the United States demand it. At
most, it only provides for receiving and dis-
tributing the sums paid without a protest or
reservation, such as, in the opinion of the
President, is entitled to further consideration.
It does not undertake to set any new limits on
the powers of the Executive. By the fifth sec-
tion of that act the President is expressly au-
thorized to refuse payment, and to negotiate a
new treaty if he deemed it expedient. It is
clearly within his discretion to withhold all
further payments until the diplomatic negotia-
tions between the two governments are con-
cluded. "The United States, when they as-
sumed the responsibility of presenting the
claims of their citizens to Mexico for payment,
entered into no contract obligations w.ith the
claimants to assume their frauds and to col-
lect on their account all that, by their imposi-
tion of false testimony, might be given in the
awards of the commission. As between the
United States and the, claimants, the honesty
of the claims is always open to inquiry for the
purposes of fair dealing with the government
against which, through the United States, a
claim has been made."

Legal-Tender lets.— On March 3, 1884, the
United States Supreme Court rendered an
opinion sustaining the validity of the legal-ten-
der acts passed by Congress both during and
since the war. It holds that Congress has the
constitutional power to make United States
notes a legal tender in payment of private
debts, either in time of war or in time of
peace.

This is the third time that the court has de-
cided this question within fourteen years. It
was first called upon to consider the constitu-
tionality of tbe legal-tender legislation of Con-
gress in the case of Hepburn against Griswold,
decided during the session of 1869-"TO, and re-
ported in vol. viii of "Wallace's Keports. The
court then decided that the acts of 1862 and
1863, making United States notes a legal ten-
der in payment of all debts public and private,
were unconstitutional so far as they applied to
debts contracted before the .passage of those
acts. The question as to pre-existing debts
was the only one raised by the case, and the
only one expressly decided. The reasoning of
the court, however, went to the extent that
Congress had no constitutional power to make
United States notes a legal tender, either for

472

LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL.

past or future debts. The court affirmed the
following principles :

There is in the Constitution no express grant of
legislative power to make any description of credit
currency a legal tender in payment of debts.

The words ' ' all laws necessary and proper for car-
rying into execution" powers expressly granted or
vested have, in the Constitution, a sense equivalent to
that of the word laws, not absolutely necessary, indeed,
but appropriate, plainly adapted to constitutional and
legitimate ends, which are not prohibited, but con-
sistent with the letter and spirit of the Constitution ;
laws really calculated to effect objects intrusted to the
Government.

Among means appropriate, plainly adapted, not in-
consistent with the spirit of the Constitution, nor pro-
hibited by its terms, the Legislature has unrestricted
choice ; but no power can be derived by implication
from any express power to enact laws as means for
carrying it into execution, unless such laws come into
this description.

The making of notes or bills of credit a legal tender
in payment of pre-existing debts is not a means appro-
priate, plainly adapted, or really calculated to carry
into effect aiiy express power vested in Congress, is
inconsistent with the spirit of the Constitution, and
is prohibited by the Constitution.

This case was decided in conference, Nov. 27,
1869. The court then consisted of eight jus-
tices. The decision was concurred in by five
justices — Chase, Nelson, Grier, Clifford, and
Field. Three dissented— Swayne, Miller, and
Davis. The opinion, which was written by
Chief- Justice Chase, was announced from the
bench, Feb. 8, 1870. Justice Grier resigned
his seat Feb. 1, 1870, and on the 18th of that
month Justice Strong was appointed his suc-
cessor. On April 1 0, 1869, Congress had passed
an act, to take effect in December following,
increasing the number of justices from eight
to nine. Justice Bradley was appointed as the
additional member on March 21, 1870.

Before the court as thus constituted the
question of the power of Congress to issue le-
gal-tender notes was again brought in the suits
of Knox against Lee, and Parker against Davis,
reported in vol. xii of Wallace's Reports, under
the title of "Legal-Tender Cases." The cases
were decided May 1, 1871, and the opinion
delivered Jan. 15, 1872. The court reversed
its decision in Hepburn against Griswold, and
held that Congress had constitutional power
to make United States notes a legal tender for
debts contracted both before and after the
passing of the acts.

The opinion of the court was written by
Justice Strong, and concurred in by Justices
Swayne,, Miller, Davis, and Bradley. The mi-
nority in Hepburn against Griswold, re-enforced
by the two new justices, Strong and Bradley,
became the majority in the second case. Chief-
Justice Chase and Justices Nelson, Clifford,
and Field, who with Justice Grier had formed
the majority in the first case, became the minor-
ity in the second.

The acts whose constitutionality the court
was then called upon to consider were passed
during the war. The opinion of the majority
laid great stress upon this fact, and the fact
that there was then a public exigency that

does not exist in time of peace. It pointed
out that the legal-tender legislation was, in
the opinion of Congress and the executive de-
partment of the Government, a necessary war
measure and essential to the preservation of the
nation. Under these circumstances the majority
had no doubt that Congress had under the Con-
stitution an implied war power to issue the legal-
tender notes. But the Court seemed to imply
that in other times and other circumstances a dif-
ferent principle might govern. It said : " This
brings us to the inquiry whether they [these
acts] were, when enacted, appropriate instru-
mentalities for carrying into eifect or execut-
ing any of the known powers of Congress, or
of any department of the Government. Plainly,
to this inquiry, a consideration of the time
when they were enacted, and of the circum-
stances in which the Government stood, is im-
portant. It is not to be denied that acts may
be adapted to the exercise of lawful power,
and appropriate to it, in seasons of exigency,
which would be inappropriate at other times."

This decision did not have the usual effect
of a judgment of a court of last resort — that
is, of putting at rest the legal question in-
volved. By many public men it was regarded
as recognizing in Congress a vast power for
mischief, and by not a few constitutional law-
yers it was looked upon as an unsound inter-
pretation of the Constitution. The fact that
the Court had within a little more than a year
reversed its own decision in so important a
matter, that the reversal had been brought
about by the concurrence of the two new mem-
bers, that the judgment rested on a bare ma-
jority of one, and was vigorously opposed by
four of the nine justices— these and other con-
siderations it was asserted naturally had the
effect of causing no little popular dissatisfac-
tion with the judgment, and lessening its
weight as an authority. Moreover, it was ar-
gued that what the Court had decided in the
second case, was the question as to the power
of Congress to issue legal-tender notes in time
of war, and as a war necessity. But as the
war began to recede into the past, the question
loomed up whether Congress had the same
power in time of peace, and this question
assumed practical importance when Congress
exercised the power by passing the act of 1878
providing for a re-issue of legal-tender notes.

These considerations led to a movement to
bring the issue before the Supreme Court for a
third time, in the hope of securing a reversal
of the principle affirmed in the legal-tender
cases in 1871, and with the view of at least
finally settling the law one way or the other.
A proposition to prepare a test case was made
to Gen. Benjamin F. Butler, early in 1879, by
Hon. S. B. 'Chittenden, a Republican mem-
ber of Congress from the State of New York.
The proposition was accepted, and a suit was ac-
cordingly brought in the United States Circuit
Court for the Southern District of New York in
the name of Augustus D. Juilliard, a citizen of

LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL.

473

New York, against Thomas S. Greenman, a citi-
zen of Connecticut. The complaint alleged that
the plaintiff had sold the defendant 100 bales
cotton for the agreed price of $5,122.90;
,t the defendant had offered in payment
.90 in gold and silver coin, and $5,100 in
nited States legal- tender notes which had
issued during the war and re-issued under
act of Congress of May 31, 1878; and that
e plaintiff had refused to accept these notes
valid legal tender. The case was carried to
e United States Supreme Court, which gave
its decision March 3, 1884, sustaining the con-
stitutionality of the act of 1878, as well as of
the legal-tender acts previously passed, and
holding that Congress has the constitutional
wer to make the treasury notes of the United
,tes a legal tender in payment of private
bts in time of peace as well as in time of
ar. The opinion was prepared by Justice
ray, and concurred in by seven of his associ-
Justice Field alone dissented, and gave
elaborate opinion in support of his views.
The opinion of the Court is substantially given
in what follows: A constitution, establishing a
rame of government, declaring fundamental
rinciples, and creating a national sovereignty,
d intended to endure for ages and to be
ted to the various crises of human affairs,
not to be interpreted with the strictness of
private contract. The Constitution of the
nited States, by apt words of designation or
neral description, marks the outlines of the
wers granted to the national legislature, bi^t
does not undertake, with the precision and
tail of a code of laws, to enumerate the sub-
ivisions of those powers, or to specify all the
eans by which they may be carried into exe-
tion. The breadth and comprehensiveness
the words of the Constitution are nowhere
re strikingly exhibited than with regard to
powers over revenue, finance, and curren-
That instrument declares that Congress
all have power —

To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises,
ay the debts and provide for the common defense
general welfare of the United States ; but all du-
:>, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout
s United States ;
To borrow money on the credit of the United States ;
To regulate commerce \v^th foreign nations and
tnong the several States and with Indian tribes ;
To coin money, regulate the value thereof and of
"3ign coin, and fix the standard of weights and
asures.

The section which contains the grant of these
id other principal legislative powers con-
ludes by declaring that Congress shall have
)wer " to make all laws which shall be neces-
sary and proper for carrying into execution
'ie foregoing powers, and all other powers
3sted by this Constitution in the Government
" the United States, or in any department or
officer thereof."

By the settled construction and the only rea-
sonable interpretation of this clause the words
u necessary and proper " are not limited to such

measures as are absolutely and indispensably
necessary, without which the powers granted
must fail of execution; but they include all
appropriate means which are conducive or
adapted to the end to be accomplished, and
which in the judgment of Congress will most
advantageously effect it. In the case of Mc-
Culloch vs. Maryland (vol. iv, Wheaton's Re-
ports), in which the power of Congress to in-
corporate a bank was affirmed by the Supreme
Court, notwithstanding the Constitution does
not enumerate, among the powers granted, that
of establishing a bank, or creating a corpora-
tion, Chief -Justice Marshall said : " We admit,
as all must admit, that the powers of the Gov-
ernment are limited, and that its limits are not
to be transcended. But we think the sound
construction of the Constitution must allow to
the national legislature that discretion, with re-
spect to the means by which the powers it con-
fers are to be carried into execution, which will
enable that body to perform the high duties
assigned to it, in the manner most beneficial
to the people. Let the end be legitimate, let
it be within the scope of the Constitution, and
all means which are appropriate, which are
plainly adapted to that end, which are not pro-
hibited, but consist with the letter and spirit
of the Constitution, are constitutional." The
rule of interpretation, says Justice Gray, thus
laid down, has been constantly adhered to and
acted on by this court.

The power of Congress to emit bills of credit,
to incorporate national banks, to provide a
currency for the whole, country, is firmly es-
tablished by decisions of the court. The court
has also decided that the power " to borrow
money on the credit of the United States " is
the power to raise money for the public use on
a pledge of the public credit, and may be exer-
cised to meet either present or anticipated ex-
penses and liabilities of the Government. It
includes the power to issue, in return for the
money borrowed, the obligations of the United
States in any appropriate form of stocks, bonds,
bills, or notes. Congress has authority to issue
these obligations in a form adapted to circula-
tion, from hand to hand, in the ordinary trans-
actions of commerce and business. It may
provide for their redemption in coin or bonds,
and may make them receivable in payment of
debts to the Government. The several States
are prohibited from coining money, emitting
bills of credit, or making anything but gold
and silver coin a tender in payment of debts.
But no intention can be inferred from this to
deny to Congress either of these powers. Con-
gress is neither expressly authorized nor express-
ly forbidden to emit bills of credit, but the
Supreme Court has conceded to it the power
to emit bills of credit, and of making every
provision for their circulation as currency, short
of giving them the quality of legal tender for
private debts.

It appears to us to follow, as a logical and necessary
consequence, that Congress has the power to issue, the

474

LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL.

obligations of the United States in such form, and to
impress upon them such qualities as currency for the
purchase of merchandise and the payment of debts, as
accord with the usage of sovereign governments. The
power, as incident to the power of borrowing money
and issuing bills or notes of the Government for money
borrowed, of impressing upon those bills or notes the
quality of being a legal tender for the payment of pri-
vate debts, was a power universally understood to De-
long to sovereignty, in Europe and America, at the
time of the framing and adoption of the Constitution
of the United States. The governments of Europe,
acting through the monarch or the legislature, accord-
ing to the distribution of powers under their respect-
ive constitutions, had and have as sovereign a power
of issuing paper money as of stamping coin.

The power of issuing bills of credit, and making
them, at the discretion of the legislature, a tender in
payment of private debts, had long been exercised in
this country by the several colonies and States ; and
during the Revolutionary War the States, upon the
recommendation of the Congress of the Confederation,
had made the bills issued by Congress a legal tender.
The exercise of this power not being prohibited to
Congress by the Constitution, it is included in the
power expressly granted to borrow money on the credit
of the United States.

This position is fortified by the fact that Congress
is vested with the exclusive exercise of the analogous
power of coining money and regulating the value of
domestic and foreign coin, and also with the paramount
power of regulating foreign and interstate commerce.
Under the power to borrow money on the credit of the
United States, and to issue circulating notes ^for the
money borrowed, its power to define the quality and
force of these notes as currency is as broad as the like
power over a metallic currency under the power to
coin money and to regulate the value thereof Under
the two powers, taken together, Congress is authorized
to establish a national currency, either in coin or in
paper, and to make that currency lawful money for all
purposes, as regards the national Government or pri-
vate individuals.

The power of making the notes of the United States
a legal tender in payment of private debts, being in-
cluded in the power to borrow money and to provide
a national currency, is not defeated or restricted by
the fact that its exercise may affect the value of private
contracts. If, upon a just and fair interpretation of
the whole Constitution, a particular power or authority
appears to be vested in Congress, it is no constitutional
objection to its existence or to its exercise that the
property or the contracts of individuals may be inci-
dentally aft'ected. The decisions of this Court already
cited afford several examples of this.

Congress, as the legislature of a sovereign nation,
being "expressly empowered by the Constitution " to
lay and collect taxes, to pay the debts and provide for
the common defense and general welfare or the United
States," and " to borrow money on the credit of the
United States," and " coin money and regulate the
value thereof and of foreign coin " ; and being clearly
authorized, as incidental to the exercise of those great

Crers, to emit bills of credit, to charter national
ks, and to provide a national currency for the
whole people, in the form of coin, treasury notes, and
national-bank bills ; and the power to make the notes
of the Government a legal tender in payment of pri-
vate debts being one of the powers belonging to sov-
ereignty in other civilized nations, and not expressly
withheld from Congress by the Constitution— we are
irresistibly impelled to the conclusion that the im-
pressing upon the treasury notes of the United States
the quality of being a legal tender in payment of pri-
vate debts is an appropriate means, conducive and
plainly adapted to the execution of the undoubted
powers of Congress, consistent with the letter and
spirit of the Constitution, and. therefore, within the
meaning of that instrument, " necessary and proper
for carrying into execution the powers vested by

this Constitution in the Government of the United
States."

Such being our conclusion in matter of law, the
question whether at any particular tune, in war or in
peace, the exigency is such, by reason ol unusual and
pressing demands on the resources of the Government
or of the inadequacy of the supply of g^old and silver
coin to furnish the currency needed for the uses of
the Government and of the people, that it is, as a mat-
ter of fact, wise and expedient to resort to this means,
is a political question to be determined by Congress

question to be afterward passed upon by the courts.
To quote once more from the judgment in McCulloch
vs. Maryland : " Where the law is not prohibited, and
is really calculated to effect any of the objects intrusted
to the Government, to undertake here to inquire into
the degree of its necessity would be to pass the line
which circumscribes the judicial department and to
tread on legislative ground." (Vol. iv, Wheaton's
Keports, p. 423.)

Of the eight justices who concurred in the
judgment of the Court, Justice Miller took part
in the two former decisions of this question,
dissenting from the opinion of the majority in
Hepburn against Griswold, which denied to
Congress the power to issue legal-tender notes,
and agreeing with the majority in Legal-
Tender Cases that Congress has such power.
Justice Bradley was not a member of the court
when Hepburn against Griswold was decided ;
he was one of the majority in Legal-Tender
Cases. The other six justices — Waite, Harlan,
Woods, Matthews, Gray, and Blatchford — who
concur in the opinion of the Court in Juilliard
against Greenman, have come upon the bench
since the second of the two former cases was
decided. Justice Field has taken part in the
decision of all three cases, and in the latest one
delivered an elaborate dissenting opinion, ad-
hering to the same principles maintained by
him in the other two, namely, that Congress
has no constitutional power to make United
States notes a legal tender.

On March 10, 1884, propositions to amend
the Constitution were brought forward as fol-
lows: by Senator Bayard, of Delaware, and
by Representatives Hewitt and Potter, of New
York, that Congress shall not have power to
make anything but gold and silver coin a legal
tender for the payment of debts — Mr. Potter's
containing the proviso, " except after a decla-
ration of war, when the public safety may re-
quire it"; by Senator Garland, of Arkansas,
that the legal-tender notes issued by Congress
shall never exceed $350,000,000, except by a
two-third vote of each branch.

Power of Congress touching Elections. — An im-
portant opinion on this subject was rendered
by the United States Supreme Court on March
3, 1884. The question was -raised in what are
known as the " Georgia Ku-klux cases," on
petitions for writs of habeas corpus to release
a number of persons convicted in the Federal
Circuit Court for the Northern District of
Georgia on the charge of threatening, beat-
ing, arid otherwise intimidating colored voters
at an election in that State for a member of
Congress. The offense set forth in the indict-

LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL.

475

ment was created by acts of Congress passed
in 1870 and 1871, and is now covered by sec-
tions 5508 and 5520 of the Revised Statutes of
the United States, which are as follow :

SECTION 5508. If two or more persons conspire to
injure, oppress, threaten, or intimidate any citizen in
the free exercise or enjoyment of any right or privi-
lege secured, to him by the Constitution or laws of the
United States, or because of his having so exercised
the same ; or if two or more persons go in disguise on
the highway, or on the premises of another, with in-
tent to prevent or hinder his free exercise or enjoy-
ment of any right or privilege so secured, they shall
be fined not more than five thousand dollars and im-
prisoned not more than ten years ; and shall, more-
over, be thereafter ineligible to any office, or place of
honor, profit, or trust created by the Constitution or
laws of the United States.

SEC. 5520. If two or more persons in any State or
Territory conspire to prevent by force, intimidation,
or threat^ anv citizen who is lawfully entitled to vote,
from giving his support or advocacy, in a legal man-
ner, toward or in favor of the election of any lawfully
qualified person as an elector for President or Vice-
President, or as a member of the Congress of the Uni-
ted States ; or to injure any citizen in person or prop-
erty on account of such support or advocacy ; each of
such persons shall be punished by a fine of not less
than five hundred nor more than five thousand dol-
lars, or by imprisonment, with or without hard labor,
not less than six months nor more than six years,
or by both such fine and imprisonment.

The question was, whether these sections are
constitutional, whether Congress has the power
to prescribe crimes against the elective fran-
chise at an election in a State at which Federal
officers are voted for, and to impose punish-
icnt for such crimes. The Court decides this
luestion in the affirmative. In the opinion,
fustice Miller says: "That a government
whose essential character is republican, whose
"" secutive head and legislative body are both
lective, whose most numerous and powerful
inch of the legislature is elected by the
>ple directly, has no power, by appropriate
iws, to secure this election from the influence
violence, of corruption, and of fraud, is a
reposition so startling as to arrest attention
id demand the gravest consideration. If this
rovernment is anything more than a mere ag-
:egation of delegated agents of other States
id governments, each of which is superior
the General Government, it must have the
>wer to protect the elections on which its
stence depends from violence and corrup-
ion. If it has not this power, it is left help-
33 before the two great natural and historical
enemies of all republics, open violence and in-
sidious corruption."

To the argument that, because no express
power is delegated to Congress to provide
for preventing violence exercised on the voter
as a means of controlling his vote, no such
law may be enacted by Congress, he replies :
"It destroys at one blow, in construing the
Constitution of the United States, the doc-
trine, universally applied to all instruments of
writing, that what is implied is as much a part
of the instrument as what is expressed. This
principle, in its application to the Constitution

of the United States, more than to almost any
other writing, is a necessity, by reason of the
inherent ability to put into words all deriva-
tive powers—a difficulty which the instrument
itself recognizes by conferring on Congress
the authority to pass all laws necessary and
proper to carry into execution the powers es-
pecially granted, and all other powers vested
in the Government, or any branch of it, by the
Constitution."

The opinion cites the power of Congress to
pass laws to punish theft or robbery of the
treasury of the United States, and depreda-
tions on the mails, although Congress is not
expressly authorized to enact such laws. The
contention that the States can pass the neces-
sary laws to preserve the purity of elections
and protect voters, is met by pointing out the
fact that the existence of State laws against
counterfeiting coin of the United States has
never been held to supersede the acts of Con-
gress passed for that purpose, or to justify the
United States in failing to enforce its own laws
to protect the circulation of the coin which it
issues. The Court refers also to the attempts
of Congress to protect officers of the Govern-
ment in the exercise of their duties in hostile
communities, in the nullification difficulties in
South Carolina, and in the late war during the
troubles growing out of the enforcement of
the draft. Justice Miller asks, if it be not
doubted that Congress has the power to pro-
vide laws for the proper conduct of elections
for Representatives in Congress, is such power
annulled because an election for State officers
is held at the same time and place? and says:
"This question answers itself, and it is only
because Congress, through long habit and long
years of forbearance, has, in deference and
respect to the States, refrained from the ex-
ercise of these powers, that they are now
doubted."

The Court holds that the fifteenth amend-
ment of the Constitution, by its limitation on
the power of the States in the exercise of their
right to prescribe the qualifications of voters
in their election, and by its limitation of the
power of the United States over that subject,
clearly shows that the right of suffrage was
considered to be of supreme importance to the
national Government, and was not intended
to be left within the exclusive control of the
States. The opinion closes as follows :

In a republican government like ours, where po-
litical power is reposed exclusively in representa-
tives of the entire body of the people chosen at short
intervals by popular elections, the temptations to
control these elections by violence and by corruption
is a constant source of danger. Such has been the.
history of all republics, and though ours has been
comparatively free from both these' evils in the past,
no lover of his country can shut his eyes to the fear
of future danger from both ^ sources. If the recur-
rence of such acts as these prisoners stand convicted
of, are too common in . one quarter of the country,
and give omen of danger from lawless violence, the free
use of money in elections, arising from the vast
growth of recent wealth in other quarters, presents

476

LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1883. (FICTION.)

equal cause for anxiety. The rule to show cause in
this case is discharged, and the writs of habeas corpus
denied.

(For the opinion of the Supreme Court de-
claring unconstitutional that part of the " Ku-
klux act " passed by Congress in 1871, and
now embodied in section 5519 of the Revised
Statutes, see the "Annual Cyclopaedia" for
1882, page 457.)

LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1883. The total
number of books published in the United States
for the year 1883 did not much exceed the
aggregate of 1882. The work done by Ameri-
can publishers has been, as usual, largely re-
prints from English plates, or importations of
sheets bound and published under an American
imprint. Of what may be called distinctively
American literature, that is, the products of
American authors, there has not been any
notable increase in number of books, though
the average quality distinctly indicates a higher
intellectual standard. It must be said, how-
ever, that in the severer lines of thought and
study, theology and religion excepted, there
has not been shown the same relative activity
as in the more popular forms of literature.
This is specially the case in science, metaphys-
ics, sociology, economics, and kindred subjects.
On the other hand, the showing in fiction,
biography, history, travel, poetry, and general
literature has been signally brilliant and satis-
factory. In theology the contributions have
been a distinctive feature of the publications
of the year, including books which deal with
theology from the agnostic stand-point.

The total number of books published during
the year in the United States, classified and
compared with those of 1882, will be found in
the following summary taken from the ''Pub-
lishers' Weekly," which is probably as approx-
imately close as is possible to be obtained.
This list includes reprints of foreign books as
well as books by American authors :

1882.

1883.

Fiction

767

670

Law

261

397

Theology and religion

326

278

375
831

Medical science, hygiene, etc

188
221

211
197

Poetry and drama

182

184

Biography, memoirs, etc

184

161

Literary history and miscellany
Descriptive travel, etc.

155

185

158
155

Useful arts . .

87

146

History. . :

118

119

Social and political science

112

106

Physical and mathematical science

106

90

Fine arts and illustrated books

91

75

Humor and satire

85

47

Sports and amusements

28

22

Domestic and rural

20

22

Mental and moral philosophy

21

15

Total

3365

3481

It need not be said that the bulk of the above
quantity of books is of ephemeral value, or else
of a professional and technical sort. In our
rapid sketch of the publications of 1883 only
the notafre ones will be mentioned, and a dis-

tinction made between the books written by
American authors and those emanating from a
foreign source.

fiction. — Fiction is the most important class,
.both as regards the number of books and the
high degree of literary excellence attained by
many of them. F. Marion Crawford continued
the notable success made in " Mr. Isaacs" by
"Dr. Claudius" (Macmillan & Co.), and "To
Leeward " (Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.). One of
the most powerful novels of the year was
" But yet a Woman " (Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.),
by Prof. A. S. Hardy, which made a distinct
mark on the literature of the year. Other
memorable works of fiction which created con-
siderable discussion both at home and abroad
were Mrs. Burnett's " Through One Adminis-
tration " (James R. Osgood & Co.) ; Bret Harte's
" In the Carquinez Woods " (Houghton, Mifflin,
&Co.); Howells's "A Woman's Reason "(James
R. Osgood & Co.); Tourgee's "Hot Plough-
shares" (Fords, Howard, & Hulbert); Con-
stance Woolson's "For the Major" (Harper &
Brothers) ; " Arius the Libyan " (D. Appleton
& Co.); and "The Bread- Winners " (Harper
& Brothers). The latter two novels were
anonymous, and notable examples of imagin-
ative" work. The first-named novel gave a
vivid picture of the conflicts and discussions
of early Christianity and of the imperial court
of Constantine. " The Bread- Winners " is no-
ticeable as a study of some of the most inter-
esting phases of contemporary life, equally
marked by vigorous realism and delicacy of
touch. Other novels by American authors
worthy of mention were " Guenn, a Wave on
the Breton Coast " (James R. Osgood & Co.),
by Blanche Willis Howard; "Dust" (Fords,
Howard, & Hulbert), and "Fortune's Fool"
(James R. Osgood & Co.), both by Julian Haw-
thorne, and equally marked by great power
and great defects; Miss Tincker's "Jewel in
the Lotos" (J. B. Lippincott & Co.); Edgar
Fawcett's "An Ambitious Woman," a well-
written story of New York society (Houghton,
Mifflin, & Co.) ; Frank Lee Benedict's " The
Price She Paid" (J. B. Lippincott & Co.);
"His Sombre Rivals," by E. P. Roe (Dodd,
Mead, & Co.) ; " The Led Horse Claim," by
Mary Hallock Foote (James R. Osgood & Co.) ;
"The Priest and the Man, or Abelard and
Heloise," by William Wilberforce Newton
(Cupples, Upham, & Co.); "Hand and Ring"
(G. P. Putnam's Sons), by Anna Katharine
Green; "A Castle in Spain," a posthumous
novel by James De Mille (Harper & Brothers);
" Stephen M. D.," by the author of "The Wide
Wide World" (Robert Carter & Brothers);
"Judith, a Chronicle of Old Virginia," by
Marion Harland (Fords, Howard, & Hulbert) ;
" A Washington Winter," by Mrs. Madeleine
Dahlgren (James R. Osgood & Co.) ; " An Hon-
orable Surrender," by Mary Adams (Charles
Scribner's Sons) ; " A Newport Aquarelle," by
Miss Maud Howe (Roberts Brothers); Miss
Olney's " Fairy Gold " (J. B. Lippincott & Co.) ;

LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1883. (BIOGRAPHY.)

477

"A Fashionable Sufferer" (Houghton, Mifflin,
& Co.) by Augustus Hoppin ; " Mr. and Mrs.
Morton," by a Bostonian (Cupples, Upham &
Co.) ; " A Righteous Apostate," by Marchioness
Lanza (G. P. Putnam's Sons) ; " A Woman of
Honor,'' by H. 0. Bunner (James R. Osgood &
Co.); Edward King's " The Gentle Savage"
(James R. Osgood & Co.) ; " Beyond the
Gates," by Elizabeth Stuart Phelps (Houghton,
Mifflin & Co.); and "The Diothas," anony-
mous (G. P. Putnam's Sons). Other anony-
mous novels worth mention are "His Second
Campaign " and " Fanchette," added to the
" Round Robin Series " (James R. Osgood &
Co.); and "A Daughter of the Philistines"
and " Princess Amelie," added to the " No
Name Series " (Roberts Brothers). To Amer-
ican fiction for 1883 must also be added sev-
eral collections of short tales of unusual ex-
cellence. These are " Dialect Tales," by Sher-
wood Bonner (Harper & Brothers) ; Henry
James's " Siege of London and other Sto-
ries " (Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.) ; and " Nights
with Uncle Remus," a continuation of Joel
Chandler Harris's striking studies of South-
ern negro folk-lore (James R. Osgood & Co.).
Among more prominent novels by English
authors, reprinted by American publishers,
were Rhoda Broughton's " Belinda " (D. Ap-
pleton & Co.) ; " Frescoes " and " Wanda," by
Ouida (J. B. Lippincott & Co.) ; " Portia " and
"Rossmoyne," by "The Duchess" (J. B. Lip-
pincott & Co.); "Yolande" and "Shandon
Bells," by William Black (Harper & Brothers) ;
King Capital," by William Sime (G. P. Put-
nam's Sons); Lucas Malet's "Mrs. Lorimer"
(D. Appleton & Co.); "Donal Grant," by
George MacDonald (D. Lothrop & Co.). To
the " Leisure-Hour Series " (Henry Holt & Co.)
have been added " A Great Treason " and " A
Story of Carnival," by Mary A. M. Hoppus;
" Gideon Fleyce," by H. W. Lucy ; " Geraldine
Hawthorne," by Beatrice M. Butt; "The Ad-
miral's Ward " and " The Executor," by Mrs.
Alexander; "No New Thing," by W. E. Nor-
ris; "In the Olden Time," by Miss Roberts;
"Beyond Recall," by Adeline Sargent; and an
anonymous novel, " A Chelsea Householder."
"Homespun Stories," by Ascot R. Hope (D.
Appleton & Co.), was a volume of striking
short tales. Other noticeable English novels,
which have been reprinted in the cheap libra-
ries, such as the " Franklin Square," " Seaside,"
"Lovell's," etc., are Mrs. Forrester's "Jane,"
Mrs. Oliphant's "Sir Tom," "The Ladies Lin-
dores," and "It was a Lover and his Lass,"
Hardy's "Romantic Adventures of a Milk-
maid," Robert Buchanan's "Annan Water"
and "Love Me Forever," Anthony Trollope's
"Mr. Scarborough's Family" and "The Land-
Leaguers," Frances E. Trollope's "Like Ships
upon the Sea," Payn's " Thicker than Water,"
Mrs. Lynn Linton's "lone Stewart," Besant's
" All in a Garden Fair," Saunders's " A Noble
Wife," Wilkie Collins's "Heart and Science,"
Shorthouse's " The Little Schoolmaster Mark,"

McCarthy's " The Maid of Athens," " My Triv-
ial Life and Misfortunes" (anonymous), Mrs.
Riddle's " A Struggle for Fame," Annie
Thomas's (Mrs. Cudlip) "Jenifer," William
Clark Russell's "A Sea Queen," Miss Macqnoid's
"Her Sailor Love," Miss Yonge's "Stray
Pearls," Countess von Bothmer's " Aut Csesar
aut Nihil," Miss Taylor's " Senior Songman,"
Miss Betham Edwards's "Disarmed" and
"Pearla," Laurence Oliphant's "Altiora Peto,"
Mary Cecil Hay's "Bid Me Discourse," and
Miss Braddon's "Golden Calf" and "Phantom
Fortune." To the above record may be added
several translations from Continental authors,
such as Daudet's "L'Evangeliste" (T. B. Pe-
terson & Brothers) ; Mrs. Werner's " Banned
and Blessed " (J. B. Lippincott & Co.) ; Mrs.
Greville's "Guy's Marriage," and Zola's "In
the Whirlpool" and the "Bonheur des Dames"
(T. B. Peterson & Co.) ; Enault's " Christine,"
Richter's " Invisible Lodge," and Auerbach's
" Master Bieland " (Henry Holt & Co.) ; Gal-
do's " Marienella," Dahn's " Felicitas," and
Ebers's "A Word, only a Word" (W. S.
Gottsberger) ; and a striking series, entitled
" The Surgeon's Stories," from the Swedish of
Topelius, including " Times of Gustaf Adolf,"
"Times of Battle and Rest," and "Times of
Charles XII " (Jansen, McClurg, & Co.).

Biography.— The work of American writers in
Biography was striking in extent and quality.
" The Biography of William Cullen Bryant,"
by Parke Godwin (D. Appleton & Co.), was a
judicious and elaborate study of a poet who
made a foremost mark on American letters,
and who was also one of the prominent jour-
nalists of the country. "The Autobiography
of Thurlow Weed," edited by his grandson,
Thurlow Weed Barnes (Houghton, Mifflin, &
Co.), was an interesting revelation of a remark-
able man; and Dr. Morgan Dix's " Memoirs of
John Adams Dix " (Harper & Brothers) at-
tracted deserved notice. Several valuable ad-
ditions were made to the " American Statesman
Series " (Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.). These were
"Thomas Jefferson," by John T. Morse, Jr.,
" James Monroe," by D. C. Gilman, " Albert
Gallatin," by John Austin Stevens, and "Dan-
iel Webster," by Henry Cabot Lodge. "The
Life of James Buchanan," by George Tick-
nor Curtis (Harper & Brothers), was an able
if a somewhat one-sided study. Lyman Ab-
bot's " Henry Ward Beecher" (Funk & Wag-
nails) aimed to depict the aspect of the age
which produced him as well as the man him-
self, a feature also noticeable in the " Autobi-
ography of Charles Biddle " (E, Claxton & Co.),
which was a vivid account of an interesting
period of history. To the same period as the
latter belongs Muzzey's "Reminiscences and
Memorials of the Men of the Revolution."
" Political Recollections," by Hon. George W.
Julian (Jansen, McClurg, & Co.), gave an inter-
esting sketch of public affairs and men from
1840 to 1872; and "Reminiscences of Public
Men," by W. W. Perry, was a work of similar

478

LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1883. (HISTOBY.)

field and value. Carroll's "Twelve Ameri-
cans " (Harper & Brothers) attempted a sketch
of representative men in different walks of life.
Other works of considerable interest were
" Recollections of a Drummer Boy," by Rev.
Harry Keifer (James R. Osgood & Co.), a rem-
iniscence of experiences during the late war ;
" Recollections of a Naval Officer," by W. H.
Parker (Charles Scribner's Sons) ; " Memoir of
John Keese, Wit and Litterateur," by William
L. Keese (D. Appleton & Co.); " Abelard and
Heloise," by Mrs. Abby Sage Richardson (James
R. Os'jcood & Co.), anew study of the two cele-
brated lovers ; and Miss Titcomb's " Early New
England People"; " Quincey's " Figures of
the Past," and Lanman's "Leading Men of
Japan." The latter-named book gave an en-
tertaining account of people, institutions, and
prominent personages in the most progressive
empire of the East. Among religious biogra-
phies may be mentioned "Life of Adoniram
Judson," by Edward Judson (Anson D. F. Ran-
dolph & Co.) ; " Autobiography and Letters of
Orville Dewey, D. D.," by his daughter, Eliza-
beth Dewey (George H. Ellis), a study of an
eminent orator and scholar; " Life and Mission
of Emanuel Swedenborg," by Benjamin Wor-
cester (Roberts Brothers); "Life of Bishop
William Rollinson Whittingham," by William
Francis Brand (E. & J. B. Young & Co.); and
" Autobiography of Bishop Erastus O. Haven "'
(Phillips & Hunt), edited by Rev. Dr. 0. C.
Stratton. The year was rich in literary biog-
raphy. F. H. Underwood's " Life of John
Greenleaf Whittier " (James R. Osgood & Co.)
was rivaled by a biography of the same poet
by W. Sloane Kennedy (D. Lothrop & Co.).
The latter named biographer also wrote a " Life
of Oliver Wendell Holmes " (S. E. Cassino &
Co.). B. G-. Lovejoy's " Life of Bacon " (Estes
& Lauriat), George W. Cooke's "George Eliot"
(James R. Osgood & Co.), Mrs. Julia Ward
Howe's " Life of Margaret Fuller " (Roberts
Brothers), Austin's " Life of Longfellow "
(Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.), and Francis E.
Cooke's " Theodore Parker " (Cupples, Upham,
& Co.), were all books of more than ordinary
value and literary charm. Other biographical
studies to which attention may be called as
possessing much political and historical inter-
est are the " Life of Alexander H. Stephens,"
by Richard Malcom Johnson and William
Hande Browne, and " The Life and Times of
S. S. Prentiss," by Hon. Joseph D. Shields (J.
B. Lippincott & Co.). Some other biographies
worthy of mention are " Life of Adelaide Phil-
lips," by Mrs. R. 0. Waterson (A. Williams &
Co.) ; Bucke's " Walt Whitman " ; Waters's
"Life of William Cobbett " ; Grace Green-
wood's " Queen Victoria " (Anderson & Allen) ;
" Life of Gen. Ambrose E. Burnside," by Ben
Perley Poore (J. A. & R. A. Reid); "The
Washington Irving Correspondence," and
Stone's " Our French Allies." The reprints
by American publishers of biographical works
written by English or other foreign authors

include many of signal value and interest.
Among these, special attention may be called
to "The Correspondence of Thomas Carlyle
and Ralph Waldo Emerson" (Houghton, Mifflin,
& Co.) ; " Letters and Memorials of Jane Welsh
Carlyle," edited by J. A. Froude (Charles Scrib-
ner's Sons) ; Bos worth Smith's " Life of Lord
Lawrence " (Charles Scribner's Sons) ; " Life,
Letters, and Literary Remains of Edward Bul-
wer, Lord Lytton," by his son the Earl of Lyt-
ton (Harper & Brothers) ; " Anthony Trol-
lope's Autobiography " (Harper & Brothers) ;
Kostlin's " Life of Luther " (Charles Scribner's
Sons) ; " Life and Achievements of Edward
Henry Palmer," by Walter Besant (E. P. Dut-
ton & Co.); Hall's "Retrospect of a Long
Life " (D. Appleton & Co.) ; and Madame
Gautier's " Richard Wagner " (A. Williams &
Co.). To these should be added the new vol-
umes in the " English Men of Letters Series "
(Harper & Brothers), Morison's " Macaulay,"
Mrs. Oliphant's " Sheridan," and Dobson's
" Fielding " ; in the " Famous Women Series "
(Roberts Brothers), Miss Thomas's " George
Sand," Miss Mathilde Blind's " George Eliot,"
Mrs. Gilchrist's "Mary Lamb," Miss Robin-
son's " Emily Bronte," and Miss Helen Zim-
mern's " Maria Edgeworth " ; in " English
Classics," Fowler's " Shaftesbury and Hutchin-
son" (G. P. Putnam's Sons); in "Foreign
Classics," Graham's " Rousseau " (J. B. Lip-
pincott & Co.) ; and the " Life of Sir William
Rowan Hamilton," by Robert Perceval Graves
(J. B. Lippincott & Co.).

History. — In History, American literature in
1883 was noticeably rich. Among the earliest in
publication, and certainly foremost in interest,
was the " History of the People of the United
States " (Vol. I), by John Bach McMaster (D.
Appleton & Co.). In this work the author has
followed the method of Macanlay and Green,
and presented a vivid picture of American life
in its customs, manners, social characteristics,
etc. Probably no book of the year made a
greater sensation. Another notable issue by
the same house was a new and revised edition,
thoroughly rewritten, of Bancroft's "History
of the United States" (Vols. I, II, III). This
contains the .final touches of the author. An-
other work, similar in scope to that of McMas-
ter's, is entitled " A History of the American
People," by Arthur Gilman (D. Lothrop & Co.),
and is marked by ability and research. " Mex-
ico," by Hubert Howe Bancroft (Bancroft &
Co.), was the first volume of the Spanish- Amer-
ican section of a gigantic undertaking, cover-
ing the ethnology and history of the whole re-
gion of the Pacific coast from British Columbia
to the Isthmus of Panama. Noticeable among
the histories was the literature of the late civil
war. Foremost among these were volumes in
the "Campaigns of the Civil War" series, and
the "Navy in the Civil War" series, both
published by Charles Scribner's Sons. " The
Shenandoah Valley in 1864," by George E.
Pond, was a judicial and vividly written work.

LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1883. (HisxoBY.)

479

The "Virginia Campaign of 1864-'65," by
Gen. A. A. Humphreys, was by an accom-
plished soldier, whose position as chief of staff
and military attainments gave him a peculiarly
favorable opportunity of judgment. The same
author had also previously contributed " From
Gettysburg to the Rapidan." The series was
concluded by a " Statistical Record of the Ar-
mies of the United States," by Frederick Phist-
erer, which gave all the figures, both in money
and men, involved in the war. The naval se-
ries, supplementing the foregoing, consisted of
three volumes, all published during the year.
"The Blockade and the Cruisers,1' by J. Rus-
sell Soley, contributed an account of sea-coast
operations, which is both trustworthy and well
written. Admiral Daniel Am in en covered an-
other section of the same field in " The Atlan-
tic Coast," and " The Gulf and Inland Waters,"
by Commander Mahan, finished the series.
The two series constitute a consecutive and,
on the whole, very ably written history of the
military and naval operations of the late war.
There were other interesting contributions to
war-literature in this department. Col. T. A.
Dodge wrote " A Bird's-Eye View of our Civil
War " (James R. Osgood & Co.), and from the
same firm we had " Brook Farm to Cedar Mount-
ain," by Gen. George D. Gordon. " Bullet and
Shell," by George F. Williams, treated the war
from the stand-point of the private soldier in a
picturesque fashion (Fords, Howard, & Hul-
bert). Under the title of " The Secret Service
of the Confederate States ; or, How the Confed-
erate. Cruisers were equipped," by James D.
Bulloch (G. P. Putnam's Sons), there was an
interesting monograph, giving a great mass of
hitherto unknown facts. Properly belonging
to war literature, too, was the "Diplomatic
History of the Civil War," being the fifth vol-
ume of the " Works of William H. Seward,"
edited by George E. Baker (Honghton, Mifflin,
& Co.), a book which will probably remain a
permanent and standard authority. "Anec-
dotes of the Civil War," by Gen. E. D. Town-
send, late adjutant-general, also possessed
considerable historical value (D. Appleton &
Co.). The " American Commonwealth " se-
ries (Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.) aims to cover a
unique and important field, State histories in
their relation to national history. Three vol-
umes were issued in 1883 : " Virginia, a His-
tory of the People," by John Esten Cooke ;
"History of Georgia," by Charles C. Jones,
LL. D. ; and " Oregon, the Struggle for Posses-
sion," by William Barrows. The latter work
gives a succinct account of the narrow miss
by which the United States escaped losing the
enormous territory contained in Oregon and
Washington Territory. A work of interest to
statesmen, merchants, and political economists
is found in the " Financial History of the United
States," by Albert S. Bolles (D. Appleton &
Co.). Not to be overlooked in the year's rec-
ord of historical research is the series written
and published under the auspices of the Johns

Hopkins University. These works touch the
legal and institutional aspects of American Ms-
tory. Among them maybe mentioned "Lo-
cal Government in Illinois," by Albert Shaw ;
"Local Government in Pennsylvania," by E.
R. L. Gould; "Local Government and Free
Schools in South Carolina," by B. J. Ramage;
"Local Government in Michigan and the North-
west," by E. W. Bernis; "Introduction to
American Institutional History," by Edward
A. Freeman ; " Genesis of a New England
State (Connecticut)," by Alexander Johnson ;
" Germanic Origin of New England Towns,"
by H. B. Adams; "Normal Constables in
America," by H. B. Adams; "Parish Institu-
tions of Maryland," by Edward Ingle ; " Saxon
Tithingmen in America," by H. B. Adams;
and " Village Communities of Cape Ann and
Salem," by H. B. Adams. These works will
prove themselves exceptionally valuable to the
philosophical student of history. Other works
of local and antiquarian interest are, " A His-
tory of the Schenectady Patent in the Dutch
and English Times," edited by Maj. McMur-
ray, U.S.A.; "History of Bristol, R. I.," by
Wilfrid B. Munro (J. A. & R. A. Reid);
"History of Hardwicke, Mass." by Lucius R.
Paige (Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.) ; " History of
the Union League of Philadelphia," by George
Parsons Lathrop (J. B. Lippincott & Co.) ; and
" Orderly Book of Sir John Johnson in 1777,
during the Revolution," by W. L. Stone (Joel
Munson's Sons). On the side of religious his-
tory several important contributions have been
made by American historians. The first vol-
ume of Dr. Philip Sc'haff's " History of the
Christian Church, Ante-Nicene Christianity,
A. D. 100-325 " (Charles Scribner's Sons), was
issued. This is to be completed in four vol-
umes. The "History of the Reformation," by
Prof. G. P. Fisher, D. D., of Yale College
(Charles Scribner's Sons), was the work of one
of the most accomplished ecclesiastical schol-
ars of the country. Rev. George A. Jackson's
" Post-Nicene Greek Fathers " (Appletons'
" Christian Literature Primers ") was a con-
cise sketch of more than ordinary interest.
Other works in religious history were " His-
tory of Indian Missions on the Pacific Coast "
(Am. S. S. Union) ; the " History of the Meth-
odist Episcopal Church in the United States "
by Rev. P. Douglass Garrie (John E. Potter
& Co.) ; and the " History of the Episcopal
Church in Connecticut," by Rev. Edward
Beardsley, D. D. (Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.).
A book which must not be overlooked, as
bearing an important relation to the history
of the country, is the Hon. G. P. Williams's
" History of the Negro Race in the United
States" (G. P. Putnam's Sons), notable as 'be-
ing the work of a negro scholar, marked by
literary skill and research. Other histories of
the year worthy of mention were, Prof. Her-
bert Tuttle's " History of Prussia " (Houghton,
Mifflin, & Co.) ; " Medieval Civilization," by
G. B. Adams (Appletons' " History Primers ");

480

LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1883. (TKAVEL.)

"Mosaics of Bible History," and "Mosaics of
Grecian History," by Marcius and Robert P.
Willson (Harper & Brothers); "Pioneers of
the Western Reserve," by Harvey Rice (Lee &
Shepard) ; " Quaker Invasion of Massachu-
setts," by R. P. Hallo well (Houghton, Mifflin,
& Go.) ; " Short History of Rhode Island," by
George Washington Greene, LL. D. (J. A. &
R. A. Reid) ; " Stories of American History,"
by 0. M. Yonge and H. H. Weld (D. Appleton
& Co.) ; and Stephens's " History of the United
States," revised to 1883 (E. J. Hale & Son).
An important series was begun under the gene-
ral name of " Minor Wars of the United States "
(Dodd, Mead, & Co.), and thus far includes
Richard Markham's " King Philip's War,"
Rossiter Johnson's "War of 1812" and "Old
French War," and Horatio O. Ladd's " War
with Mexico."

Among the notable historical works by for-
eign authors published under an American
imprint were Count de Paris's " History of
the American Civil War," 3d volume (Porter
& Ooates); Sir Gavan Duffy's "Four Years
of Irish History " (Cassell & Co.) ; " The Ex-
pansion of England," by J. R. Seeley (Rob-
erts Brothers); Froude's "Short Studies on
Great Subjects," 4th series (Charles Scribner's
Sons) ; Freeman's " Impressions of the Uni-
ted States " (Flenry Holt & Co.) ; Lacombe's
"Growth of a People" (Henry Holt & Co.) ;
"Frederick II and Maria Theresa," by Due de
Broglie (Harper & Brothers); "A History of
Latin Literature," by George Augustus Sim-
cox (Harper & Brothers) ; " Literary History
of England " by Mrs. Oliphant (Macmillan &
Co.); and "Huguenots of France," by H. M.
Baird, and " Underground Russia, by Stepniak
(Charles Scribner's Sons). The latter work
gave a revelation of the interior character and
workings of Nihilism from the stand-point of
one of its most noted chiefs, Pierre Lavroff.

Travel. — In travel and description Ameri-
can authorship was quite fruitful. " Old
Mexico and the Lost Provinces," by W. H.
Bishop (Harper & Brothers), appears to have
been careful in its facts as well as picturesque
in its treatment. -• A similar volume devoted
to old Spain, "Spanish Vistas," by G. P.
Lathrop, was issued by the same house, and
was notable both in its literary matter and
illustrations. The popularity of the Spanish
Peninsula as a field for the literary traveler is
also sho'wn in several other books by well-
known authors. " A Family Flight through
Spain," by Edward Everett Hale and Miss Susan
Hale (D. Lothrop & Co.), professed to give the
adventures of a traveling party consisting of
father, mother, children, and one or two friends.
Mr. Hale was also the author of " Seven Span-
ish Cities " (Roberts Brothers), which gave a
graphic account of the principal centers of
Spanish civilization. Henry Day's " From the
Pyrenees to the Pillara of Hercules" (G. P.
Putnam's Sons) was a cursory but readable
sketch ; and " In the Shadow of the Pyrenees,"

by Henry Vincent, conveyed much curious
information concerning the hardy and half-
savage race known as the Basques, who differ
so widely from all the peoples of Western Eu-
rope. " Spanish Ways and By- Ways," by Will-
iam Howe Downes (Cupples, Upham, & Co.),
was attractive alike in its descriptions and il-
lustrations; and "Through Spain on Donkey-
Back," by Robert Louts Stevenson (D. Lothrop
& Co.), recommended itself by freshness of
observation. Howard Conkling's " Mexico and
the Mexicans" (Taintor Brothers, Morrill, &
Co.) was a work full of facts concerning the
people, their institutions and resources, by an
old resident. Among works of literary and
philosophical travel, "A Walk in Hellas," by
Denton J. Snider (James R. Osgood & Co.), pos-
sessed unquestionable merit. It treated Greece
of to-day in the light of Greece of the past, and
all those classic memories which make Hellenic
soil memorable. Rev. H. M. Field, who has
repute as an extensive traveler and a spirited
writer, was represented in two new works,
" Among the Holy Hills," and " On the Des-
ert" (Charles Scribner's Sons). The latter-
named work also contained a judicious study
of the recent imbroglio in Egypt, which led to
its possession by England. Mrs. A. K. Dun-
ning's "Through the Desert" (Presbyterian
Board of Publication) deserves passing men-
tion; and "Among the Mongols," by Rev. J.
Gilmour (American Tract Society), was a read-
able record of missionary experiences amid
barbarian races. " From the Hudson to the
Neva," by David Ker (D. Lothrop & Co.), em-
bodied the experiences of a traveler in a ro-
mantic guise. " An American Four-in-Hand
in Great Britain," by Andrew Carnegie (Charles
Scribner's Sons), was a graphic and breezy rec-
ord of a drive through Great Britain, from
Windsor Castle to Inverness, Scotland, by a
party of ladies and gentlemen. Adventures
of a different sort, but hardly less interesting,
were described in " Across the Continent with
the Fifth U. S. Cavalry," by Captain George
F. Price, U. S. A. (D. Van Nostrand & Co.).
William Winter's "English Rambles" (James
R. Osgood & Co.) recalled interesting literary
and historic memories gracefully. One of the
best books of the year was " Germany seen
without Spectacles," by Harry Ruggles (Lee &
Shepard), which was caustic and incisive, but
apparently judicial. T. B. Aldrich, the poet,
embodied his experiences during a vacation in
"Ponkapog to Pesth" (Houghton, Mifflin, &
Co.), the first name in the title being the loca-
tion of the author's American country home,
the latter the goal of his journey. " Round
about Rio : A Picture of Life and Scenes in
and about the Great Metropolis of the South-
ern Hemisphere, Rio Janeiro," by Frank D. Y.
Carpenter (Jansen, McClurg, & Co.), indicated
lively descriptive talent on the part of the
young traveling naturalist. A book by Charles
Dudley Warner, entitled "A Round-about
Journey" (Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.), gath-

LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1883. (POETRY.)

481

ered together the reminiscences of a pro-
tracted and leisurely journey through Europe
and the East. A well -written account of Ori-
ental travel was contributed by William W.
Warren, under the title of " Life on the Nile
a Dahabieh " (Lee & Shepard). This work
Iso included shore-excursions between Cairo
and Assouan, and a tour in Egyt and Pales-

tine in 1866-'67. " The Middle

pt an
Kingd

om," by

Prof. Wells Williams (Charles Scribner's Sons),
thoroughly revised and rewritten, was among
the most important publications of the year,
it is, perhaps, the most exhaustive and
lorough study of China, its history, institu-
ions, and customs, easily available for the
jneral reader. The painful interest which
kept at tension for many months in the
of the Arctic explorer De Long, turned
leserved attention to the work edited by Mrs.
Emma De Long, called "The Voyage of the
Jeannette : The Ship- and Ice-Journals of
George W. De Long, Lieutenant-Commander
U. S. N., and Commander of the Polar Expe-
dition, 1879-'81 " (Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.).
This pathetic record is the lost man's own
story, and is one of the most interesting
narratives of Arctic adventure and suffering
written for many years. In connection with
the above may be mentioned " Ice-Pack and
Tundra," by W. H. Gilder (Charles Scribner's
Sons), which described the experiences of the
expedition sent out by the United States Gov-
ernment in search of Commander De Long's
party. Among works of travel may be classed
several noticeable books, which embodied remi-
niscences either of the author or of other trav-
elers in a fictitious form, such as " Our Boys
China," by Harry W. French (Lee & Shep-
ard); "The Bear-Worshipers of Yezo and
the Island of Karafuto," by Edward Grey
(Lee & Shepard) ; and " The Boy Travelers in
Africa," by Col. T. W. Knox (Harper & Broth-
s' It need hardly be said that the latter three
works were designed specially for the amuse-
ment and instruction of the young. Other
books of travel and description were "On the
Wing : Rambling Notes of a Trip to the Pa-
cific," by Mary E. Blake (Lee & Shepard);
'The Storied Sea," by Susan E. Wallace
(James R. Osgood & Co.) ; " Travels and Ob-
servations in the Orient," by Hon. Walter
Harriman (Lee & Shepard) ; and u Guide to
Mexico," by Alfred R. Conkling (D. Appleton
& Co.); Mark Twain's "Life on the Mississip-
pi," and Stoddard's " Red-Letter Days Abroad "
(James R. Osgood & Co.). The latter-named
two books were among the literary successes
of the year in their class.

The most noteworthy American reprints of
foreign authors were Willis's " In the Land of
the Lion and the Sun," James's " Wild Tribes
of the Soudan " (Dodd, Mend, & Co.), Robin-
son's " Sinners and Saints " (Roberts Brothers),
"A Visit to Ceylon and India," by Ernst
Haeckel (S. E. Cassino & Co.), Miss Bird's
" Golden Chersonese " (G. P. Putnam's Sons),
VOL. xxni. — 31 A

Symonds's "Italian By- Ways" (Henry Holt &
Co.), "Egypt, Palestine, and Phoenicia," by
Felix Bovet (E. P. Dutton & Co.), "John Bull
and his Island," by Max O'Rell (Charles Scrib-
ner's Sons), and J. J. Rein's " Japan " (A. C.
Armstrong & Son).

Poetry. — The additions to American poetry
do not show marked development of poetic
genius, or promise of forthcoming poets to
take the place of those who long since won
their spurs, and are one by one taking their
leave of us. A few of the poetical ventures,
however, show vigorous and genuine poetic
quality. " Poems," by Jones Very (Houghton,
Mifflin, & Co.), were marked by a subtile beauty
and an insight into the analogies of physical and
emotional life which attracted wide attention.
" Songs of an Idle Hour," by William J. Cough-
lin (A. Williams & Co.), and " Songs of Toil
and Triumph," by J. L. McCreary (G. P. Put-
nam's Sons), contained much verse marked by
genuine feeling and some technical skill. A
similar recognition may be extended to " Stray
Chords," by Julia R. Anagnos (Cupples, Up-
ham, & Co.), and " Verses," by Kate Vannah
(J. B. Lippincott & Co.). " Lyrical Recrea-
tions," by Samuel Ward (Macmillan & Co.),
may be fairly called American, though issued
by an English publisher, and the verses were
bright and agreeable, if in no sense great.
Longfellow's "Michael Angelo" (Houghton,
Mifflin, & Co.), if in no essential sense a dra-
matic poem, as apparently designed, displayed
the finest qualities of the lamented poet's gen-
ius, with an even riper breadth of treatment.
" Mercedes and other Lyrics," by Thomas Bailey
Aldrich (Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.), had the deli-
cate qualities of this author's verse, and Whit-
tier's " Bay of Seven Islands, and other Po-
ems " (Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.), showed no
decadence in the aged Quaker poet's lyrical
fire and tenderness. " Love Poems of Louis
Barnaval," edited by Charles De Kay (D. Ap-
pleton & Co.), was noticeable for a somewhat
tropical exuberance. W. W. Story's " He and
She, or A Poet's Portfolio " (Houghton, Mifflin,
& Co.), was a collection of poems marked by
grace and strength. Taylor's " Dulce Domum "
(S. C. Griggs & Co.) was a good piece of
work by a well-known Western poet. "Love
Poems and Sonnets," by Owen Innsly (Cup-
pies, Upham, & Co.), and "Poems of Pas-
sion," by Ella Wheeler (Belford, Clarke, &
Co.), possessed the merits of feeling and good
treatment. Other poetic works, to which we
can only give passing mention, were "Ange-
line," " Brangonar, a Tragedy," " Joan of Arc,"
"Mirabeau, a Historical Drama," "Sibyl,"
and "The Nazarene," all by George H. Cal-
vert (Lee & Shepard); " Claribel and other
Poems," by Walter Maloue (John P. Morton
& Co.) ; " Destiny and other Poems," by M.
J. Serrano (G. P. Putnam's Sons) ; " Elfrida,
a Drama," by Dishon Rishell (J. B. Lippin-
cott & Co.); "Legends, Lyrics, and Son-
nets," by Frances L. Mace (Cupples, Upham,

482

LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1883. (GENERAL LITERATURE.)

& Co.) : " Poems for Children," by Celia Thax-
ter (Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.) ; " Calumet of
the Coteau," by P. W. Norris (J. B. Lippincott
& Co.) ; and the Memorial edition of Bryant's
poems, edited by Parke Godwin (D. Appleton
& Co.). Among the numerous anthologies
published may be specially mentioned " Eng-
lish Verse," edited by Linton and Stoddard,
in five volumes (Charles Scribner's Sons), with
a prefatory essay by Stoddard ; _" Fair Words
about Fair Woman," edited by O. B. Bunce
(D. Appleton & Co.) ; u Palgrave's Golden
Treasury," revised and brought down to date
by John Foster Kirk ; and "Surf and Wave,"
by Anna L. Ward (T. Y. Crowell & Co.).

Productions of English poets reprinted by
American publishers included several works
of superior worth and beauty. Robert Brown-
ing's uJocoseria" (Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.)
was an excellent sample of his strong dramatic
genius. Owen Meredith's " Poems and Lyrics
of the Joy of the Earth " (by the Earl of Lyt-
ton) ranks well with his best work, and Edwin
Arnold's " Indian Idyls " (Roberts Brothers)
was one of the leading poetical productions of
the year. In these idyls the author gave a
noble English setting to many of the tales
and legends given in the "Mahab-harata," the
well-known cycle of Sanskrit poems. Edmund
Gosse's " On Viol and Flute " (Henry Holt &
Co.), and Austin Dobson's " Old World Idyls
and other Verses " (Scribner & Welford) were
marked by the delicate and dainty touch char-
acteristic of these poets. " Mano," by Rev.
Richard Watson Dixon (George Routledge &
Sons), was a poetical history of the time of the
close of the tenth century, relating the adven-
tures of a Norman knight, and possessed a
quaint interest. Algernon Charles Swinburne's
" A Century of Roundels " (R. Worthington)
displayed all of this well-known poet's charac-
teristic melody of form.

General Literature.— In general literature, in-
cluding literary history, critical essays, and
literary miscellany, were several notable pub-
lications. Sidney Lanier's "English Novel"
(Charles Scribner's Sons) sketched the evo-
lution' of modern fiction from early literary
forms. " Development of English Literature
and Language," by Prof. A. H. Welsh (S. C.
Griggs & Co.), was a contribution to literary
history showing painstaking industry. M. W.
Hazeltine's " Chats about Books," essays re-
printed from the New York " Sun " (Charles
Scribner's Sons), was a volume of noteworthy
criticism. In " The Reading of Books," by
Prof. Charles F. Th wing (Lee & Shepard). much
valuable suggestion was given. John F. Genung
made a contribution to critical literature in
Tennyson's "In Memorflam, its Purpose and
its Structure" (Houghton, Mifflin, &Co.). Oli-
ver Wendell Holmes appeared in a fresh vol-
ume (Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.), " Pages from
an Odd Volume of Life, a Collection of Essays,
1857-1881." " Books and how to use them,"
by J. 0. Van Dyke (Fords, Howard, & Hulbert),

was a valuable manual of advice to readers and
students. Joel Benton's " Emerson as a Poet "
(M. L. Holbrook & Co.) was a study of the
poetry of the "great transcendentalist " by an
enthusiastic admirer. In " Pen Pictures of
Modern Authors " and " Pen-Pictures of Vic-
torian Authors " (G. P. Putnam's Sons), W.
Shepard sketched the lights of modern English
literature. Prof. 0. E. Norton edited the " Car-
lyle-Emerson Correspondence " (James R. Os-
good & Co.), a book fascinating to all those
interested in literature. James E. Freeman's
" Gatherings from an Artist's Portfolio in
Rome " (Roberts Brothers) embodied the more
notable experiences of many years of foreign
life. Brinton's "American Hero-Myths" was
a contribution of value to the ethnology and
history of North America prior to the coming
of the white man. " Games and Songs of
American Children," by W. W. Newell (Har-
per & Brothers), is worthy of attention for its
interesting treatment of a novel subject. The
second volume of Baldwin's "An Introduction
to English Literature " effectually carries out
the plan of the first. James Jackson Jarves's
" Italian Rambles " (G. P. Putnam's Sons) was
an attractive study of Italian art, life, and lit-
erature. One of the interesting books of the
year was Josiah Quincy's " Figures of the Past,
from the Leaves of Old Journals " (Roberts
Brothers). • Other books of interest were Ar-
thur Penn's " Home Library " (D. Appleton
& Co.), Wheeler's " By- Ways of Literature,"
" The Modern Sphinx," by M. J. Savage (George
H. Ellis), " The Battle of the Moy, or How Ire-
land regained her Independence " (Lee &
Shepard), " Short Studies in Literature," by
A. P. South wick, A. M. (Eldredge & Son\ and
" A Lost Function in Romance," by Carroll
Bryce (G. P. Putnam's Sons).

The list of reprints of important English
books is quite rich in noteworthy titles.
Among these may be specially noted Ashton's
" Humor, Wit, and Satire of the Eighteenth
Century," " Early English Literature," by
Bernhard Ten Broek (Henry Holt & Co.);
"Characteristics," by A. P. Russell (Hough-
ton, Mifflin, & Co.) ; " Classical and Modern
Essays," by F. W. H. Myers (Macmillan &
Co.) ; " Colin Clout's Calendar," by Grant Al-
len (Funk & Wagnalls) ; " English Literature
in the Eighteenth Century," by Thomas Sar-
gent Parry (Harper & Brothers) ; "Asbjorn-
sen's Folk and Fairy Tales," translated by H.
L. Brockstad (A. C. Armstrong & Son); Prof.
Thistleton Dyer's "Folk Lore of Shakespeare"
(Harper & Brothers); "Heroes and Kings,
Stories from the Greek," by Rev. Alfred J.
Church (Scribner & Welford) ; " In Strange
Company," by James Greenwood (Scribner &
Welford) ; " Landmarks of English Litera-
ture," by Henry J. Nicholl (D. Appleton &
Co.); Lord Bacon's "Promus of Formularies,"
edited by Mrs. Henry Pott (Houghton, Mifflin,
& Co.) ; Buckland's " Story of English Litera-
ture," Wagner's "Epics and Romances of the

LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1883. (SCIENCE.)

483

Middle Ages," Simcox's " History of Latin Lit-
erature " (Harper & Brothers) ; Firdusi's " Epic
of Kings," translated from the Persian by Mrs.
Helen Ziramern (Henry Holt & Co.) ; Dr. Da-
vid Pryde's " Highways of Literature " (Funk
& Wagmills ) ; Ireland's " Book-Lover's Enchi-
ridion " (Houghton, Miffliu. & Co.) ; Tourgue-
neff's "Poems in Prose" (Cupples, Upham, &
Co.); Home's "History of the Literature of
the Scandinavian North," translated by Prof.
Rasmus Andersen (S. C. Griggs & Co.) ; Black -
ie's "Wisdom of Goethe " (Charles Scribner's
Sons) ; Macdonald's " Imagination and other
Essays " (D. Lothrop & Co.) ; " Recollections
of my Childhood and Youth," by Ernest Re-
nan (G. P. Putnam's Sons) ; " Letters and Me-
lorials of Jane Welsh Carlyle," edited by
Fames Anthony Froude (Harper & Brothers) ;
Select Letters of Percy B. Shelley," edit-
by Richard Garnett (D. Appleton & Co.) ;
j-osse's " Seventeenth Century Studies " (Scrib-
ler & Welford) ; "The Story of Ida," by Fran-
jsca, edited by John Ruskin (John Wiley &
)ns); "The Story of My Heart," by Rich-
ird Jefferies (Roberts Brothers), and Bishop
"rirlwall's "Letters to a Friend," edited by
)ean Stanley (Roberts Brothers).
Science. — While the literary contributions to
American science were not many, there were
iveral of importance. " The Law of Hered-
/," by W. K. Brooks (John Murphy & Co.),
was an acute and careful application of the
Darwinian hypothesis to the facts involved
heredity, with much that indicated original
3h. It was one of the notable scientific
)ks of the year. Prof. Alexander Winchell's
" World Life, or Comparative Geology " (S. C.
iggs & Co.), made a valuable contribution
popular science, presenting leading geologi-
facts in a fascinating manner. The same
ift of popular exposition was characteristic
f "Excursions of an Evolutionist," by John
iske (Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.), a book likely
attract even non-scientific people by its
larm of treatment. "Natural Instincts in
ten and Animals," by P. A. Chadbourne, was
readable presentation of interesting facts.
Our Northern and Eastern Birds" (R.
rorthington), Edward A. Samuels offered a
mtribution to science, v. hich will be prized by
ituralists. The same field was largely cov-
red by Steam's " New England Bird-Life "
(Lee & Shepard). Rev. J. H. Wythe, M. D.,
.ras the author of an interesting elementary
treatise on " Easy Sermons in Vegetable Biol-
ogy; or, Outlines of Plant-Life" (Philips &
Hunt). Another work on the same subject
was " Wonders of Plant-Life." by Sophie B.
Herrick (G. P. Putnam's Sons). Students of
comparative anatomy and physiology will find
a use for the " Hand-Book of Vertebrate Dis-
section," in three parts, elaborately illustrated,
by Prof. H. Newell Martin, M. D., and Dr.
W. A. Moale (Macmilian & Co.). "North
America," by Prof. Hayden, U. S. Geological
Survey, and Prof. Selwyn, F. R. S., of Canada

Geological Survey (Scribner & Welford), was
a compendium of geography and travel. The
more important scientific publications of the
United States Government were " Cruise of
the U. S. Steamship Corwin in Alaska and
the Northwest Arctic Ocean, in 1881, with
Notes on Glaciation, Natural History, and An-
thropology," by John Muir, E. Nelson, and
Dr. Irving Rosse " ; "A History of the Inter-
oceanic Canal Problem," by Lieut. J. S. Sulli-
van, U. S. Navy ; " Twelfth Annual Report of
the U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey
of the Territories," by Capt. F. V. Hayden,
U. S. Engineers, embracing Wyoming and
Idaho, one volume being entirely devoted to
the Yellowstone Park ; " Report of the Fish
Commission for 1880-'81-'82 " ; " Astronomi-
cal and Meteorological Observations made dur-
ing 1879 at the U. S. Naval Observatory " ;
" An Account of the Progress of Astronomy
in 1882," by Prof. E. G. Holden, of the Smith-
sonian Institution ; and " Geology of the Corn-
stock Lode and Washoe District," by George
F. Becker.

The American issues of English scientific
books, and of translations from Continental
authors, were numerous and valuable. To the
" International Scientific Series " (D. Appleton
& Co.) were added " Animal Intelligence," by
George J. Romanes, an excursion into the do-
main of what might be called the psychology
of the lower orders of life ; Joly's " Man
before Metals," an investigation of the pre-
historic human race ; Hospitalier's " Modern
Applications of Electricity," and "The Or-
gans of Speech," by George Hermann von
Meyer, a study of articulate sound. Frank
Buckland's "Log-Book of a Fisherman and
Zoologist" (Scribner & Well'ord) was a viva-
cious narrative ; and Prof. Ray Lankester's
"Degeneration, a Chapter in Darwinism," an
able work, worthy of attention. R. A. Proc-
tor, distinguished as a popular expositor, has
added two books to his many, " Nature Stud-
ies" (Funk & Wagnalls) and "Mysteries of
Time and Space." Vol. Ill of " Mathematical
and Physical Papers," by George Gabriel Stokes
M. A., D. C. L. (Macmillan & Co.), reprinted
from the original papers and journals, was a
valuable contribution to scientific literature.
Among the important reprints special atten-
tion may be called to the " Northwest Coast of
America " (Dodd, Mead, & Co.). This embodies
the results of recent ethnological researches
from the collections of the Royal Museum of
Berlin, published by the directors of the eth-
nological department.

Politics, Economics, and Social Science.— In this
domain there were a considerable number of
noteworthy books from American authors.
One of the ablest was by Lester F. Ward, en-
titled "Dynamic Sociology, or Applied Social
Science " (D. Appleton & Co.). The book was
a masterly argument in favor of greater cen-
tralization, or what is known as paternalism
in government, and an attack on the laissez

484

LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1883. (PHILOSOPHY.)

faire theory of government and society.
"French and German Socialism," by Richard
S. Ely (Harper & Brothers), gave a comprehen-
sive and well-studied sketch of the political
and social theories which are now agitating
the public mind, and of the men who have
represented them prominently. The theory of
"Land and Labor in the United States," by
W. G. Moody (Charles Scribner's Sons), was
based on opposition to monopoly, pursuing in
some degree the plan proposed by Mr. George.
The great interest felt in the study of economics
was shown in the number of works published
on political economy during the year. Though
some of these seem to have been primarily
designed for collegiate instruction, they were
so written as to appeal to the interests of the
general reader. Principal among these may
be designated " Political Economy," by A. L.
Perry (Charles Scribner's Sons), "Political
Economy," by Dr. John M. Gregory (Van Ant-
werp, Bragg, & Co.), and " Political Economy,"
by Francis A. Walker (Henry Holt & Co.).
The latter of these works, by one of the most
accomplished statisficians in the country (late
chief of the United States Census Bureau), at-
tracted marked attention by its searching and
vigorous treatment of economical questions.
A book worthy of note, by its simple and lucid
discussion of complex questions, was " What
Social Classes owe to Each Other," by Prof.
W. G. Sumner, of Yale College. As a brief
statement of fundamental principles it could
not easily be surpassed. Henry George, the
well-known author of " Progress and Poverty,"
appeared in another work further amplifying
the theory associated with his name, entitled
" Social Problems " (Belford, Clarke, & Co.)
Luther Henry Porter's " Outlines of the Con-
stitutional History of the United States " (Henry
Holt & Co.) was a noticeable review of the
period antedating the adoption of our Consti-
tution, the debates contingent on its discus-
sion and adoption, and the changes which have
since been made in it. " People and Politics,"
by E. W. Hosmer, M. D. (James R. Osgood &
Co.), discussed the relations of people to gov-
ernment in an attractive way. In " Political
Facts, a Text-Book of History," by George
Fitch (John B. Piet & Co.), the author gave a
history of parties and their conflicts in the
United States. Other works relating to eco-
nomics were "The Silver Dollar," by Henry
Carey Baird (Henry Carey Baird & Co.), dis-
cussing the true standard of payment in the
United States; "Taxation," by Prof. J. H.
Canfield (G. P. Putnam's Sons), and " Labor
and Capital," by Edward Kellogg (John W.
Lovell & Co.). Part II of the " American
Citizen's Manual," by W. C. Ford (G. P. Put-
nam's Sons), was a useful hand-book of infor-
mation. Among publications of a general po-
litical character, attention may be properly
called to "Works of James Abram Garfield,"
edited by Burke A. Hinsdale (James R. Osgood
& Co.), and "Works of William H. Seward,"

edited by George H. Baker, a revised edition
(Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.).

First among the works of foreign authors,
reissued in the United States, must be placed
Part VIII of Herbert Spencer's " Descriptive
Sociology" (D. Appleton & Co.), published
under the title of u The Social History of
France." In this large folio are given the ele-
ments of French social development for the
past two thousand years, classified and tabulated
for the use of the general student. Sir Henry
Maine's "Early Law and Custom" (Henry
Holt & Co.) was an able dissertation on the
evolution of law. Other publications which
the student of public interests will find it
worth while to investigate are "False Hopes,"
byGoldwin Smith (John W. Lovell & Co.);
" Investigations in Currency and Finance," by
W. Stanley Jevons (Macmillan & Co.); "New
Golden Age and Influence of the Precious
Metals upon the World," by R. Hogarth Pat-
terson (Scribner & Welford) ; " Principles of
Political Economy," by Henry Sidgwick, M. A.
(Macmillan & Co.); "The Science of Politics,"
by Sheldon Amos, M. A. (D. Appleton & Co.'s
"International Scientific Series"); T. M. Far-
rer's " State in its Relation to Trade " (Mac-
millan & Co.); "The English Village Com-
munity," by F. Seebohn (Scribner & Welford) ;
and " Wealth Creation," by Augustus Mon-
gredien, with an introduction by Simon Sterne
(Cassell & Co.).

Philosophy and Metaphysics. — In this direction
American thought was in some respects notice-
able. "The Conflict in Nature and Life" (D.
Appleton & Co.) was a strong work by an anon-
ymous author, a study of the antagonism in the
constitution of things, and an attempt to eluci-
date the problem of good and evil. In it the
conclusion was reached that in neither opti-
mism nor pessimism could the true philosophy
of life be found, but rather in meliorism, or con-
tentment with the best that might be practi-
cable. Dr. Asa Mahan's " Critical History of
Philosophy " (Philips & Hunt) gave a history
of the development of metaphysical thought
and theory, viewed from the Christian stand-
point. S. Harris's " Philosophical Basis of
Theism " (Charles Scribner's Sons) is a work
which attracted even more attention in Eng-
land than it did in the United States. " Energy,
Efficient and Final Cause " (Scribner's " Philo-
sophic Series," No. 2), by Rev. Dr. James
McCosh, of Princeton College, is by one of the
leading metaphysicians of the English-speak-
ing world. " Kant's Critique of Pure Reason
— a Critical Exposition," by Prof. George H.
Morris, Ph. D. (S. C. Griggs & Co.), was Vol.
I of "German Philosophical Classics." It
attempts to elucidate the most abstruse and
obscure of metaphysical systems. Vol. II in
the same series is a critical exposition of
" Schelling's Transcendental Idealism," by
Prof. John Watson, LL. D. " Man a Creative
First Cause," by Rowland G. Hazard (Hough-
ton, Mifflin, & Co.), embodies two lectures de-

LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1883. (RELIGION.)

485

livened before the Concord School of Phi-
losophy in July, 1882. Other works of some
interest were " Evolution," by R. C. Adams
(G. P. Putnam's Sons) : " Evolution and
Christianity," by J. F. Yorke (Henry Holt
& Co.) ; " Philosophy and Christianity," by G.
8. Morris (Carter & Brothers) ; and u Dynamic
Sociology," by L. F. Ward (D. Appleton & Co.).
The most notable of foreign works in this
department of thought reissued in the United
States was Dr. Henry Maudsley's " Body and
Will " (D. Appleton & Co.). As an exposition
of scientific materialism it must take a high
rank, though the logic of the author leads to
a dreary pessimism. Two works by the well-
known French metaphysician, Paul Janet, en-
titled " Final Causes " and " Theory of Morals "
(Charles Scribner's Sons), were also among the
important contributions of the year to philoso-
phy. The author finds the rationale for the
notion of final cause in the contemplation of
the moral order of the human mind. In his
theory of ethics M. Janet agrees with Bentham
and Herbert Spencer, in assuming that the
moral sense presupposes an experience of
pleasure or advantage to be derived from
virtuous action, but goes further, and asserts
with Kant that the autonomy of the will must
finally legislate over the moral world. The
seventh volume of " Philosophic Classics for
English Readers " introduces us to a study of
" Hegel " by Prof. Edward Caird (J. B. Lip-
pincott & Co.). It was edited for American
publication by William Knight, LL. D. "Spi-
>za's Ethics," translated from the Latin
William Hale White (Scribner & Welford),
accompanied by a critical dissertation and
rings a little-known but great thinker with-
the reach of American readers.
Religion. — The works issued in the depart-
lent of theology and religion included many
)lumesof sermons and biblical commentaries,
nly a few of the latter, such as can be re-
irded as important contributions to religious
idy, will be mentioned. Dr. G. T. Ladd's
Doctrine of Sacred Scriptures" (Charles
jribner's Sons) was a scholarly and able state-
lent of the orthodox deductions ; " Grounds

* Theistic and Christian Belief," by Dr. G. P.
risher (Charles Scribner' 3 Sons), presented the
^ of religion as against agnosticism ; "Cri-
tique of Design- Arguments," by Dr. L. E. Hicks
(Charles Scribner's Sons), covered the ground

* natural theology very fully; Baker's "Ten
leophauies " (Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.) gave

historical study of the appearances of di-
nnity to man as revealed in the religions
)f the world; Vol. II of Dr. Philip Schaff's
History of the Christian Church " (Charles
3ribner's Sons) was devoted to the ante-
Ticene period of Christianity, A. D. 100-325.
rrom the same publishers, and under the edi-
)rial supervision of the same author, came
rols. IV and V of the " International Revision
>mmentary on the New Testament." Dr.
3haff, in connection with Rev. Dr. J. Fulton,

also edited the " Index Canonum " (E. & J. B.
Young & Co.), being the Greek text, with a
translation and a complete digest of the code
of canon law of the early Christian Church
before it was divided. The editorial labor of
Dr. Schaff also appeared in the " Companion to
the Greek Testament and the Ecglish Version "
(Harper & Brothers) ; Schermerhorn's " Sa-
cred Scriptures of the World " (G. P. Putnam's
Sons) is a study of the sacred books of the
great religions. Religious histories of consid-
erable interest were issued in Allen's " Chris-
tian History in the Three Great Periods," and
Part II of Rev. James Freeman Clarke's "Ten
Great Religions," devoted to a comparison of all
religions (Houghton, Mifflin, & Co.). Charles
Nordhoff 's "God and the Future Life" (Harper
& Brothers) discussed the theory of Christian
immortality. The " Scriptural Idea of Man,"
by Dr. Mark Hopkins (Charles Scribner's Sons),
describes its contents accurately in the title.
"Jesus, the World's Saviour," by Dr. Lorimer
(S. C. Griggs & Co.), was a popular exposition
of the theology of the Atonement. "Molinos,
the Quietist," by John Bigelow (Charles Scrib-
ner's Sons), sketched the career of a remarkable
figure in the mediaeval Church ; and " Golden
Thoughts, by Miguel Molinos," was the title of
a collection from the teachings of the same re-
ligious enthusiast, published by the same firm.
P. C. Mozoomdar's " Oriental Christ " (George
H. Ellis) presented the views of a Hindoo think-
er on Christology in a singularly suggestive
manner. " The Philosophical Basis of Theism,"
by Dr. Samuel Harris (Charles Scribner's Sons),
was an examination of the personality of man
with reference to his capacity to know and
serve God. Bishop Samuel Harris's " Relation
of Christianity to Civil Society " (Bohlen Lec-
tures for 1883) was a valuable contribution to
current religious discussion (T. Whittaker).
The works of the Rev. Orville Dewey, the cel-
ebrated Unitarian preacher, including a new
life, were issued by the American Unitarian
Association. Rabbi J. M. Wise was the author
of " Judaism and Christianity," and of " Moses,
the Man and Statesman " (Bloch & Co.). From
Dr. J. H. Green came a study of Old Testa-
ment history, also under the title of "Moses
and the Prophets " (Robert Carter & Brothers).
The last volume of " Yale Lectures on Preach-
ing," delivered annually in the Divinity Course
at Yale College, was by President E. G. Rob-
inson (Henry Holt & Co.).

In Dr. James Strong's " Irenics " (Phillips &
Hunt), a series of six volumes, the theologian
attempted to show the virtual agreement be-
tween science and the Bible, Nature and the
supernatural, the divine and the human in-
Scripture, the Old and New -Testament, Cal-
vinism and Arminianism, and divine benev-
olence and future punishment. " Bible The-
ology and Modern Thought " is the title of a
work by T. L. Townsend (Lee & Shepard),
setting forth the relative position of these two
great forces in the conflict of modern opinion.

486

LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1883. (LAW.)

Rev. George A. Jackson's " Post-Nicene Greek
Fathers" (D. Appleton & Co.) sketched the pa-
tristic literature and its authors, A. D. 325-370.
*' Gates into the Psalm Country," by Dr. M. R.
Vincent (Charles Scribner's Sons), was an in-
teresting study of the Davidic literature of the
Old Testament. " Foundations of Religious
Belief" (Bishop Paddock Lectures, 1883), by
Dr. W. D. Wilson (D. Appleton & Co.), was the
title of a collection of theological addresses
to seminary students. Books which attracted
more than ordinary attention were " Right and
Wrong Uses of the Bible," by Rev. Heber C.
Newton (John W. Lovell Co.), and Dr. Mor-
gan Dix's •' Lectures on the Calling of a Chris-
tian Woman " (D. Appleton & Co.). u Epochs
of Church History," by Dr. E. A. Washburne
(E. P. Dutton & Co.), treated of the great
periods of ecclesiastical growth. Rev. W. C.
Gladden's " Christian League of Connecticut "
(Charles Scribner's Sons) discussed the possi-
bilities of a union of sects in religious work.
" English Style in Public Discourse," by Prof.
Austin Phelps (Charles Scribner's Sons), was
a capable manual of pulpit rhetoric. Other
works dealing with the philosophical and di-
dactic sides of theology and religion, worthy
of mention, were " Atheism and Theism," by
Rev. John Wilson (J. B. Lippincott & Co.) ;
"Beliefs about the Bible," by Rev. M. J. Sav-
age (George H. Ellis) ; Little's " Biblical Lights
and Sidelights"; Briggs's " Biblical Study ";
"Certitude, Providence, and Prayer," by Dr.
James McCosh (Charles Scribner's Sons), a
metaphysical study of the reasons for faith and
devotion ; " The Church Idea," by Dr. W. R.
Huntington (E. P. Dutton & Co.), an essay on
Christian unity ; Sherwood's " History of the
Cross" (Funk & Wagnalls); "The Doctrine
of Probation, examined with Reference to Cur-
rent Discussion," by Dr. G. H. Emerson (TJni-
versalist Publishing Co.) ; " Mystery of Crea-
tion and Man," by Dr. L. C. Baker (J. B. Lip-
pincott & Co.) ; " The Outermost Rim and
Beyond," by Charles Van Norden (A. D. F.
Randolph & Co.) ; and Dr. J. G. Adams's " In-
ner Life" (Universalist Publishing Co.). The
following were the principal collections of ser-
mons and lectures published during 1883 : Dr.
Taylor's " Contrary Winds, and other Ser-
mons " (A. C. Armstrong & Co.) ; " Lectures
and Addresses," by Dr. Thomas Guard (Phil-
lips & Hunt) ; " Principles of Agnosticism ap-
plieJ to 'Evidences of Christianity," by Dr. J.
A. Harris (Thomas Whittaker) ; " The Radical
Pulpit: Discourses in Advanced Thought," by
Dr. O. B. Frothingham and Felix Adler (Truth-
Seeker Co.); "Sermons," by Rev. William
Cooper Mead (Dodd, Mead, & Co.) ; " Sermons
on Future Punishment," by Dr. Randolph Mc-
Kim (Thomas Whittaker) ; " Sermons from
Plymouth Pulpit," by Henry Ward Beecher
(Fords, Howard. & Hulbert); ''Sermons on
the Higher Life," by Dr. L. R. Dunn (Wai den
& Stowe) ; " Sermons preached in English
Churches," by Rev. Phillips Brooks (E. P. Dut-

ton & Co.) ; and " Sermons," by Rev. David
Swing (Jansen, McClurg, & Co.).

The more important works by British and
foreign authors issued under American im-
print were : " An Analysis of Religious Belief,"
by Viscount Amberley (Truth- Seeker Co.);
Dr. Robson's " Bible : Its Revelation, Inspira-
tion, and Evidences" (Thomas Nelson & Sons);
Dr. Oldenberg's " Buddha," translated by Will-
iam Hoey; "Boy Life: Its Trial, Strength,
and Fullness — Sundays in Wellington College,
1859-'73," by his Grace the Archbishop of
Canterbury (Macmillan & Co.) ; Dr. Gebhard
Ullhorn's " Christian Charity in the Ancient
Church " (Charles Scribner's Sons) ; Crass's
"Coals from the Altar" (Thomas Whittaker) ;
Bithell's " Creed of a Modern Agnostic "
(George Routledge & Sons) ; "Dorner on the
Future State," edited by Dr. Newman Smyth
(Charles Scribner's Sons) — an admirable state-
ment of the orthodox views on eschatology;
Canon Farrar's "Early Days of Christianity"
(Cassell & Co.) ; Cardinal Manning's " Eternal
Priesthood " (John Murphy & Co.) ; Dr. Mc-
Lear's "Evidential Value of the Holy Eucha-
rist : Boyle Lectures, 1870-'80 " (Macmillan &
Co.) ; Dr. Hefele's " History of the Councils
of the Church," Vol. Ill, A. D. 431-455 (Scrib-
ner & Welford) ; Matthew Arnold's " Isaiah of
Jerusalem " (Macmillan & Co.) ; " Luther and
other Leaders of the Reformation," by Prin-
cipal Tullock (Scribner & Welford) ; Zschok-
ke's " Meditations on Life, Death, and Eter-
nity," translated by Frederica Rowen (Hough-
ton, Mifflin, & Co.) ; Beard's " Reformation of
the Sixteenth Century," and Monier Williams's
" Religions Thought and Life in India" (Scrib-
ner & Welford) ; " Rivers of Life'; or, Sources
of the F.-iiths of Man in All Lands," by Gen. J.
G. R. Furlong (J. W. Bouton) ; " Sermons and
Discourses," by the late Dr. McHale, Arch-
bishop of Tuarn (Catholic Publication Society) ;
Dean Stanley's "Sinai and Palestine" (A. C.
Armstrong & Co.) ; " Sacred Books of the
East," Vols. XVIII, XIX (Macmillan & Co.);
Dr. Bernhard Weiss's "Life of Christ" (Scrib-
ner & Welford) ; " The New Testament Scrip-
tures: Their Claim, History, and Authority —
Croall Lectures for 1882," by Dr. A. H. Char-
teris (Robert Carter & Brothers) ; and " Ser-
mons," by Rev. C. H. Spurgeon, consisting of
"Saint and Saviour," "The Present Truth,"
"Types and Emblems," "John Ploughman's
Talks," "John Ploughman's Pictures," "The
Treasury of David," and "Gleanings among
Sheaves " (Robert Carter & Brothers) ; Herzog-
Schaff's " Religious Cyclopedia," Vol. II (Funk
& Wagnalls); and Mcllvaine's "Wisdom of
Holy Scriptures" (Charles Scribner's Sons).

Law. — The principal American law books
were " Abbott's Supplementary Digest to the
New Edition Digest " (Baker, Voorhis, & Co.);
Phillips's " Treatise on the Law of Mechanics'
Lien "(John D. Parsons, Jr.); Vol. II of
" American Probate Reports " (Baker, Voor-
his, & Co.) ; Vols. XIV and XV of " Blatch-

LITERATURE, AMERICAN. (MEDICAL.)

LITERATURE, BRITISH. 487

ford's U. S. Circuit Court Reports" (Baker,
Voorhees, & Co.) ; " Great Opinions by Great
Judges," by William L. Snyder, and " Law of the
Federal Judiciary " (Baker, Voorhis, & Co.) ;
Hein's " New York Supreme Court Reports,"
Vols. XXVIII and XXIX (W. C. Little) ; " Laws
of xMarriage," by Dr. John Fulton (E. & J. B.
Young & Co.) ; Martin's " History of the Bench
and Bar of Philadelphia" (Rees, Welsh, & Co.) ;
Bliss's " New York Code of Civil Procedure"
(Baker, Voorhis, & Co.) ; " The Law of De-
scent," by Anson Bingham (John D. Parsons,
Jr.) ; and " The Law of Divorce," by H. Har-
greaves (Bradstreet & Co.); and the following
works issued by the United States Government :
" Decisions of the Department of the Interior,
July 1, 1881, to June 30, 1883 " ; " Proceedings
of the Second Trial of the Star Route Cases,"
published in four volumes ; " Statutes at Large
of the United States, from December, 1881, to
March, 1883. Together with " Recent Trea-
ties " ; and u Richardson's Reports of Decisions
U. S. Court of Claims, December Term, 1882."

Medical. — The American medical works of
most importance published in 1883 were Mer-
rill's "Digest of Materia Medica and Phar-
macy," and Mann's " Manual of Psychological
Medicine and Allied Nervous Diseases" (P.
Blakiston, Son, & Co.) ; " A Treatise on In-
sanity in its Medical Relations," by Dr. W. A.
Hammond ; Bartholow's " Therapeutics," a new
edition (D. Appleton & Co.) ; and Sayre's " Lec-
tures on Orthopedic Surgery and Diseases of
"10 Joints " (D. Appleton & Co.) ; Vol. Ill of
''The Principles and Practice of Surgery," by
Dr. D. Hayes Agnew (J. B. Lippincott & Co.) ;
Stearns's " Insanity — Its Causes and Preven-
tion " (G. P. Putnam's Sons) ; " Physical Ex-
ploration of the Lungs," by Dr. Austin Flint
(Henry C. Lea's Sons & Co.) ; and Part III of
the surgical volume of the "Medical and Sur-
gical History of the War of the Rebellion "
(United States Government).

Miscellaneous. — Among books of interest,
not classified above, the following may be
noted : " Music in America," by F. L. Ritter,
and "Music in England," by the same author
(Charles Scribner's Sons), both comprehensive
studies by a competent critic and historian;
" Troja : Results of the Latest Research and
Discoveries on the Site of Homer's Troy," by
Dr. Henry Schliemann (Harper & Brothers);
"A Little Girl among the Old Masters," a
bright book on art for young people, by W. D.
Howells (James R. Osgood & Co.); "History
of Ancient Sculpture," by Mrs. Lucy M. Mitch-
ell (Dodd, Mead, & Co.) ; " Historical Hand-
Book of Italian Sculpture," by C. C. Perkins,
a compact sketch of the rise and decadence of
the plastic arts in Southern Europe (Charles
Scribner's Sons); "Talks on Art," by W. G.
Hunt (second series), the opinions of one of
the most intellectual and suggestive of Amer-
ican artists (James R. Osgood & Co.); Clara
Erskine Clement's " Outline History of Paint-
ing " (James R. Osgood & Co.) ; " A Fashion-

able Sufferer, or Chapters from Life-Comedy,"
a satire by Augustus Hoppin (Houghton, Mif-
flin, & Co.) ; 'l A Midsummer Lark," by W. H.
Croffut, a humorous book of travel (Henry
Holt & Co.) ; " The Battle of Coney Island, or
Free Trade overthrown," by an Eye-Witness
(J. A. Wagenseller) ; and " Why We Laugh," by
Hon. S. S. Cox (Harper & Brothers). Among
valuable Government publications may be men-
tioned various volumes connected with the
Tenth Census Report, " Statistics of the Popu-
lation of the United States," "Compendium
of the Tenth Census," in two volumes ; " Manu-
factures of the United States, Tenth Census,
1880," and " Productions of Agriculture, Tenth
Census, 1880"; "Report of the Director of
the Mint on Precious Metals " ; and Vols.
VIII and IX of " The War of the Rebellion," a
compilation of the official record of the Union
and Confederate armies.

LITERATURE, BRITISH, IN 1883. An exam-
ination of the list of books published in Great
Britain brings to light no work of startling
merit and novelty, though many have ap-
peared which are important, and which aid in
giving the year a favorable standing in the
history of literature. Following will be found
those more significant works in the different
classes, original and translations, which have
specially attracted attention.

Theology and Religions Literature.— The Gos-
pels and Epistles have been published, with
annotations, in Dr. Plummer's " St. John," Dr.
Westcott's " Epistles," Canon Farrar's " Epis-
tle to the Hebrews," in which he claims the
authorship for Apollo's, differing, therefore,
with many of the leading modern as well as
ancient scholars. Dr. Maclear has annotated
the " Gospel of St. Mark," and Dr. Godet the
"Epistle to the Romans." Dr. Joseph Par-
ker has written a study of the " Inner Life of
Christ," Dr. Charteris has published six lec-
tures in defense of "The New Testament
Scriptures," and Dean Stanley has published
his " Addresses and Sermons " delivered in
America. Canon' Freemantle's work on "The
Gospel of the Secular Life " is notable ; Raw-
linson's "Religions of the Ancient World"
is a valuable contribution to the history of
theology ; as is also Dr. Moffat's " Church in
Scotland." An important addition to extant
histories of the Order of Jesus is " The Records
of the English Province " of the order by
Mr. Foley, the English Jesuit ; while Dr. Grie-
singer has issued a complete history of the
Jesuits from an adverse stand-point. Dr. Mc-
Hale has issued his work on " The Roman Cath-
olic Archbishops of Tuam " ; the collection of
English diocesan histories has been extend-
ed ; and Mr. Stanley Lane-Poole has written on
Mohammedanism, in eight papers collected un-
der the title of " Studies in a Mosque."

Biography and History.— These subjects, as
usual, have been largely treated. The " English
Men of Letters " series includes the names, for
the year, of Macaulay, Sheridan, Fielding, and

488

LITERATURE, BRITISH, IN 1883. (TRAVEL.)

Addison. The third volume of the "Life of
Bishop Wilberforce " completes the work ;
Dean Swift's Life has been written by Mr. Hen-
ry Craik ; and an edition of the" Letters of Shel-
ley " is edited by Mr. RichardGarnett. Of course
the publication of Mr. Froude's " Letters and
Memorials of Mrs. Carlyle," and of the Carlyle-
Emerson correspondence, attracted general at-
tention and discussion. Dean Bradley's " Rec-
ollections" of Dean Stanley, and Bishop Thirl-
wall's " Letters," have also awakened much
public interest. The occurrence of the fourth
centenary of Luther drew from Mr. Froude
a short sketch of the great reformer; and
the " Life of Luther," by Kostlin, has appeared
in several editions. Among works of spe-
cial interest are the sketches of Arthur Hugh
Clough,by Waddington; Augustus De Morgan,
the renowned mathematician, by his wife ;
Prof. Clerk Maxwell, by Oliver Madox Brown ;
and Dante Gabriel Rossetti, by Sharp. There
have appeared also lives of Hegel, Shaftesbury,
Hutcheson, Hamilton, and of the Greek Philos-
ophers, as the year's contribution to philosoph-
ical biography. In science, besides the collec-
tion of " Heroes of Science," there have been
published Dr. Smiles's " Life of Nasmyth," the
" Life of Sir William Logan," geologist, and
the " Memoir of John Duncan," who was a
Scotch botanist. The field of historical biogra-
phy was largely covered in 1883 : The "Life
of Don John of Austria," by Sir William Ster-
ling Maxwell ; " Life of Sir Henry Durand " ;
the " Lords Advocates of Scotland from the
Close of the Fifteenth Century" ; the " History
of Marie Stewart," by her secretary, Claude
Nau, now first printed from the original manu-
script ; Madame Junot's "Memoirs" ; the" Life
of Lord Hawke," admiral of the fleet under
George II ; the " Diaries and Letters of Philip
Henry," and the "Diary of Richard Cocks,"
who was a merchant in Japan in the seventeenth
century. The autobiographies of Anthony Trol-
lope and Sir Archibald Alison are the most im-
portant of the literary biographies; while the
" Retrospect of a Long Life," by S. 0. Hall,
has hardly attracted less attention than these.
Mr. Percy Fitzgerald's " Royal Dukes and Prin-
cesses of the Family of George III," and his
sketches of " Kings and Queens of an Hour " ;
Grace Greenwood's " Life of Queen Victoria " ;
Mr. Gladstone's life, with contemporaneous

biography of eminent men, by Thomas Archer
and 0. R. Low's " Life of General Wolseley,"
are to be enumerated ; and Thomson's " Life
of Bewick," the engraver, and Archer's " Eng.
lish Dramatists of To-Day," conclude our se-
lections from among the biographical works.
In history, specifically, the leading publication
is the continuation of the voluminous series of
" Historical Papers," which does not lessen
either in interest or importance. The " His-
tory of London," by Loftie, bears evidence of
industry and painstaking. Mr. J. R. Seeley
has written " The Expansion of England " ;
English county history has received accessions

in Mr. Mason's " Norfolk," Watson's " Roman
Lancashire," and Fleet's " Glimpses of our An-
cestors in Sussex." Irish history is recount-
ed by Rev. Dennis Murphy, in " The History of
Cromwell's Irish Campaign," and Sir Gavan
Duffy's " Four Years of Irish History " ; " Lon-
don under the Four Georges " is written about
by Mr. Fitzgerald Molloy. Lord Stratford's
" Campaign in the Crimean War " has been
described by Skene, Sir William Muir's ac-
count of " The Early Caliphate" should be
noted, and the list closes with Brassey's
" History of the British Navy."

Travel and Adventure. — America, during 1883,
was specially favored by English tourists, and
we have three works giving the account of
their journeyings. Mr. Edward A. Freeman's
"Impressions," perhaps, attracted the most
attention of the three; Mr. Phil Robinson's
"Saints and Sinners" gives a rather favorable
view of Mormon life; and Mr. T. S. Hudson
describes lightly the country he traversed in
his " Scamper through America." Mr. Free-
man's "English Towns and Districts," Mr.
George Augustus Sala's "Living London," and
Richard Jefferies in his "Nature near Lon-
don," perform the same task for England.
Spain has been discussed by Gallenga in "Ibe-
rian Reminiscences," and in Mrs. Middlemore's
"Stories round a Posada Fire." Mr. R. L.
Stevenson has given an account of canoe-
travel on the rivers of France, in "An In-
land Voyage." Mrs. Burnaby has written
" The High Alps in Winter." " In the Alsa-
tian Mountains," by Katharine Lee, " On Sum-
mer Seas," by Mrs. Scott Stevenson, and Mr.
A. J. C. Hare's " Cities of Southern Italy and
Sicily," with the " Walk in Hellas," of Mr.
Snyder, are specimen books of Continental
travel. Mr. John Geddie's " Historical and
Descriptive Account of Russia," and a trans-
lation from the Polish, entitled " Siberian
Pictures," conclude the volumes of European
travel. The East has been liberally described
in a number of interesting works : " Moorish
Lotus-Leaves " is the rather fanciful title of a
book by Messrs. Cowan and Johnson. Cairo
is considered in "Five Months at Cairo and
in Lower Egypt," by Gabriel Charmes, and
Miss Whateley's " Scenes from Life in Cairo."
The subject of pyramid study is advanced in
Mr. 0. 'Staniland Wake's "The Origin and
Significance of the Great Pyramid," and Mr.
Petrie's " The Pyramids and Temples of Gi-
zeh." "Egypt and the Egyptian Question,"
by Mr. Mackenzie Wallace, created a sensa-
tion in England by its plain treatment of the
subject. Capt. Burton and Commander Came-
ron's "To the Gold Coast for Gold," Col.
Durnford's " A Soldier's Life in South Afri-
ca," Mr. Mitford's "Through the Zulu Coun-
try," Mr. Ellis's "Land of Fetish," and Rev.
Mr. MacDonald's " Africana," are the prin-
cipal works in African travel. Two books
which have been generally praised are Miss
Bird's " Golden Chersonese," and Prof. Haeck-

LITERATURE, BRITISH, IN 1883. (SCIENCE AND ART.)

489

el's " Visit to Ceylon." Mrs. Murray-Aynsley
has described " Our Tour in Southern India,1'
and Mr. Tolmer has issued his very entertain-
ing volume of u Reminiscences." " The Land
of the Lion and the Sun," by Dr. Wills, and
"Across Chryse," by Mr. Colquhoun, are also
volumes of Asiatic travel. General voyaging
has been described in a number of pleasing
works, including " The Voyage of the "Wan-
derer," Mrs. Bridge's " A Lady's Travels
round the World," Dr. Coppinger's Pacitic
"Cruise of the Alert," Miss Gordon Cum-
ming's "Fire Fountains," being her account
of a visit to the Sandwich islands, Mr. Brad-
shaw's " New Zealand as it Is," and Powell's
"Among the Cannibals of New Britain."
Science. — Philosophy and social science have
treated by some of the leading thinkers
the day : Mr. Herbert Spencer has published
le fifth part of his "Political Institutions,"
Mr. Sidgwick has issued his "Principles of
Political Economy," and other works in these
lirections are Mongredieu's " Wealth Crea-
m," Farrer's "The State in its Relation to
le," and the " Free-Trade Speeches" of the
Rt. Hon. 0. P. Villiers. More strictly philo-
sophical are " The Ultimatum of Pessimism,"
by James William Barlow ; " Prolegomena to
thics," by the late T. H. Green ; Dr. Pres-
jnse's "Study of Origins," Spinoza's "Eth-
," translated by W. H. White, Mr. W. D.
Ground's examination of Herbert Spencer's
' Structural Principles," Mr. Courtney's " Stud-
in Philosophy," Mr. Gostwick's " German
Culture and Christianity," and Mr. Stucken-
irg's "Life of Kant." In the literature of
evolution we have Hick's " Critique of Design
irguments," Cobbe's "Darwinism in Morals,"
rilson's "Chapters on Evolution," and Zim-
lerman's "Theories of Darwin." Socialism
reviewed in Kaufman's "Socialism and
jmmunism in their Practical Application,"
French and German Socialism in Modern
imes," by Ely; and Jevons's "Methods of
iial Reform." An important work on in-
jrnational law is " The Rise and Growth of
Law of Nations," by Mr. John Hosack.
he subjects in natural science have been
msidered in a number of prominent works :
irst among these are the two volumes con-
tinuing the series of official reports of the
" Voyage of the Challenger " ; Martin Duncan
ms published a popular " Natural History " in
ix volumes. The prolific Mr. Proctor has pub-
lished a volume which he calls " Nature Stud-
ies," and an essay on "The Great Pyramid,"
in which he combats the theories of its oc-
3ult intent. Mr. Francis Galton has continued
lis peculiar line of investigation in " Human
faculty," a collection of essays. Miscellaneous
works in various departments of science are
arshall's work on "The Frog," Hopley on
Snakes," Wall's "Indian Snake -Poisons,"
"Gold, its Occurrence and Extraction," by
" Glass in the Old World," by Wallace-
mlop; and "Man before Metals," by Joly.

In language and literature we have had a large
number of notable works, general and special.
Of the first of these should be mentioned Anna
Buckland's " Story of English Literature," and
Mr. T. S. Perry's "Essays on English Litera-
ture," Mr. Saintsbury's "Short History of
French Literature," Horn and Anderson's
" Scandinavian Literature," and Mr. Gosse's
"Seventeenth Century Studies" in English
poetry. An addition to the Bacon contro-
versy has been made in the publication of
Mrs. Pott's edition of Bacon's "Promus of
Formularies and Elegancies," designed to dis-
play the frequent appearance in Shakespeare's
writings of mannerisms peculiar to Bacon. Dr.
Ingleby has written "Shakespeare's Bones,"
with a view to encourage the examination of
the great dramatist's grave. " Shakespeare as
an Angler," and " Shakespeare as a Lawyer,"
have been studied by Rev. H. N. Ellacornbe
and Mr. Heard, respectively. "Notes on
Shakespeare's Plays," by Mrs. Kemble, "Ani-
mal Lore of Shakespeare's Time," by Emma
Phipson, and "Shakespeare's Flora," by L. H.
Grindon, are further efforts toward the eluci-
dation of these subjects. " Gay's Fables," with
a memoir, have been edited by Mr. Dobson,
and "Milton's Sonnets" by Mr. Pattison. A
"Sketch of French Literature" has been pub-
lished by Mr. Saintsbury, who has also edited
a collection of "French Lyrics " for the Parch-
ment Library. G. Vigfusson and F. York Pow-
ell have issued a volume of "Old Northern
Poetry," reaching to the thirteenth century.
Mr. M. T. Tatham has made a prose transla-
tion of the " Philoctetes " of Sophocles, and
Mr. Morshead has translated into English
verse " The Suppliant Maiden " of JSschylus.
Mr. C. A. M. Fennell has edited Pindar's
" Nemean and Isthmian Odes," and a prose
translation of Dante's " Purgatorio," by the
late W. S. Dngdale, has been published with
the original text. Mr. Sellar's " Roman Poets
of the Augustan Age," and Mr. Simcox's " His-
tory of Latin Literature," complete our cita-
tions of the classical work of the year. The
" Encyclopedia Britannica," revised edition,
has reached its sixteenth volume (M), and Dr.
Ogilvie's " Imperial Dictionary " has appeared
in a new edition. The second volume has ap-
peared of " The Halkett and Laing Dictionary
of Anonymous and Pseudonymous Literature."
Mr. W. J. Van Eys has issued the first gram-
mar ever published in English of the Basque
language.

Works on Art. — Perrot and Chipiez's works on
" Art in Ancient Egypt," and " Art in Chaldaea
and Assyria," deserve the first notice in this
department. Other works of interest are.
Scott's "Renaissance of Art .in Italy," Mrs.
Clement's " Outline History of Painting," Mr.
Wilmot Buxton's "English Painters," Lucy
Crane on " Art and the Formation of Taste,"
Mr. Ruskin's four Oxford lectures on the " Art
of England," and Tristram Ellis's " Sketching
from Nature." Somewhat more practical in

490 LITERATURE, BRITISH. (POETRY.)

LITERATURE, CONTINENTAL.

character is Wheat-ley and Delarnotte's "Art-
Work in Porcelain, Gold, and Silver."

Poetry and Essays. — The year has not been
remarkable for its poetic contributions to lit-
erature. Mr. Browning has published "Joco-
seria," and Mr. Swinburne "A Century of
Roundels." Edwin Arnold has given forth
his " Pearls of the Faith " and " Indian Idyls."
Mr. J. O. Wright has made a collection of
the poems of John Ruskin, Mr. Gosse's work
is entitled "On Viol and Flute," Mr. F. W.
Myers appeared in "A Renewal of Youth,"
Mr. George Meredith has published " Poems
and Lyrics of the Joy of Earth." Other works
deserving of mention are a new collection of
Austin Dobson's selected poems, called " Old
World Idyls," Mr. Lewis Morris's "Songs
Unsung," Justin McCarthy's " Serapion," Mr.
Charles Merivale's " The White Pilgrim," and
Canon Dixon's "Maiio." InEssaysand Sketches
we have Mr. Froude's " Short Studies on Great
Subjects," 4th series, Myers's "Essays," di-
vided into " Classical " and " Modern," in the
two volumes issued ; Rev. Paxton Hood's
"Scottish Characteristics," and Mr. Phil Rob-
inson's pleasant contribution to literary orni-
thology, " Poets' Birds." Of a more specifical-
ly historic character are Mr. Ashton's " Humor,
Wit, and Satire of the Seventeenth Century,"
Mr. Jones's " History of Crowns and Corona-
tions," andMr. A. G. Hill's " Organs and Organ-
Cases of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance."

Fiction. — From the late Anthony Trollope's
works left in manuscript there were published
last year three: "Land -Leaguers," "Kept in
the Dark," and " Mr. Scarborough's Family."
Wilkie Collins was heard from in " Heart and
Science," Mr. Black published " Yolande " and
" Shandon Bells." Mr. Thomas Hardy also pro-
duced two new works, viz., " The Strange Ad-
ventures of a Milkmaid" and "Two on a Tower."
Mr. James Payn published " Kit " and " Thick-
er than Water " ; Mrs. Oliphant, " The Ladies
Lindores," " It was a Lover and his Lass," and
others ; the author of "Molly Bawn " gave us
" Rossmoyne " and " Portia " ; Mrs. Forrester
" June,"and Miss Rhoda Broughton "Belinda."
Clark Russell published "A Sea Queen," Miss
Yonge " Stray Pearls," Miss Macquoid " Her
Sailor Love," Walter Besant " All in a Garden
Fair," and Robert Buchanan " Love me For-
ever." From Manville Fenn we had "Eli's
Children," from Mrs. Leith Adams " Geoffrey
Sterling," from Joseph Hatton " A Modern
Ulysses," and from F. W. Robinson " Women
are Strange." Mary Cecil Hay has produced
" Bid me Discourse," Hawley Smart " At
Fault," and Laurence Oliphant "AltioraPeto."
Frances Eleanor Trollope has written "Like
Ships upon the Sea," and Miss Betham Ed-
wards "Pearla." From Miss Braddon we have
had " The Golden Calf " and " Phantom For-
tune," from Annie Thomas " Friends and Lov-
ers " and " The Colthorpe Cousins," and from
Florence Marryat " Facing the Footlights "
and " Peeress and Player." D. Christie Mur-

ray has published "By the Gates of the Sea"
and " Hearts."

LITERATURE, CONTINENTAL, IN 1883. The

record for the present year is more than usu-
ally full and interesting. In some respects ac-
tivity in literature has been greater than in
1882, although there are no very startling facts
to lay before the reader. As heretofore, we
give our resume in the alphabetical order of
countries.

Belgium. — In religion and morals the most
important publication of the year is M. G.
d'Alviella's " Contemporary Evolution in Re-
ligion among the English, the Americans, and
the Hindoos." It has attracted considerable
attention, as being no less liberal than learned
and exact. Laveleye has brought out a new
edition of his " Contemporary Socialism," and
various other writers have contributed works
of value in this department. The study of his-
tory continues to be a favorite with the Bel-
gians. Vanderhaegen's " Bibliotheca Belgica "
has been completed ; and M. Nameche has
brought his " Cours d'Histoire Nationale "
down to the period of Charles V's reign in the
Netherlands. Numerous monographs on local
history have also appeared. Since the appoint-
ment of a Minister of Public Instruction in
Belgium much attention has been given to
educational questions, and several volumes have
been published this year on the subject. Other
subjects have received their fair share of no-
tice— such as political economy, philology, the
fine arts, etc. In the domain of the history of
letters is M. F. Neve's "Literary Epochs of
India," which is regarded as important and
valuable. Besides the numerous publications
in French, it deserves to be noted that Flemish
literature is displaying more power and wider
range than usual. Several volumes of poetry
also have appeared, and dramatic literature has
been very productive. In the . death of Hen-
drik Conscience, Flanders has lost its greatest
writer in his special line, and the demonstra-
tions in his honor, at the time of his funeral
in Brussels, are said to have been more impos-
ing than any which have yet taken place, even
at the burial of kings.

Denmark. —The number of books published
in Denmark this year is about the same as in
1882 ; but there are few works which have
appeared that can be regarded as of much
importance. Romances and novels are more
numerous than lyric poetry and dramas. II.
Goldschmidt has produced " Tales and Pictures
of Real Life," which are quite equal to his pre-
vious contributions. Schandorph, Gjellerup,
Elmgaard, Nielsen, and others, have done their
share in this kind of literature, though the
critics are not enthusiastic over any of their
publications. Poetry and the drama offer noth-
ing special for notice. General and political
history has been but slightly cultivated, while
on the history of literature and art and of al-
lied topics the publications have been numer-
ous. G. Brandy has brought out a capital vol-

LITERATURE, CONTINENTAL, IN 1888.

491

time of criticism entitled "The Romantic
School in France," and in his " Men and
Works" he has collected a number of valuable
essays about modern authors. A new history
of Danish literature has been begun by P.
Hansen ; and several works on the fine arts
have appeared. The centenary celebration of
the distinguished theologian and writer, Grundt-
vig, gave rise to a number of publications; as
did also the commemorative festival in honor
of the fourth centenary of the birthday of
Martin Luther. The autobiography of the
Danish primate, Martensen, has aroused not
only interest but more or less of sharp contra-
diction and comment. In addition may be
named here several good books of travel, a
volume or two on philosophy, and a few con-
tributions to popular questions of the day, such
as ''Liberty," ''Education," etc.

France. — Literary activity in the republic has
flowed in about the usual channels in 1883.
Poetry is of small account this year. Victor
Hugo has furnished nothing new, but has given
his energies to rendering exact a complete edi-
tion of his works. Other writers of verse in
France at present hardly deserve special men-
ion. The novel seems to be assuming the
lormal form of the literature of to-day. Zola
id his so-called "naturalistic" school have
lot produced much this year; but HaleVy,
ienriet, Ch. Edmond, F. du Boisgobey (called
" the French Wilkie Collins "), and a number
others, have been as active and successful
ever. Literary and philosophical criticism
ms been almost at a stand-still; but, on the
"ler hand, the publication of documents and
ritherto unpublished papers is furnishing large
material for work in this department at no dis-
tant day. These documents and papers refer
to Madame d'Epinay, Madame de Chateau-
riand, M. de Remusat, the "Diplomates of
le Revolution," the " Captivity and Death of
)uis XVII in the Temple," "Les Rois Freres
le Napoleon I," etc. Religious history sup-
lies several publications of merit. Ktihn's
^Life of Luther" is excellently done ; Ber-
iere's " Coligny " deserves much praise, as
loes also Lagrange's "Life of Mgr. Dupan-
)up." One of the most curious and peculiarly
3nch publications, more or less of a religious
laracter, are the brilliant skeptic and critic
Kenan's " Souvenirs of his Childhood and
routh." They are pronounced to be of much
?alue (like the " Confessions " of Rousseau),
though marked by a good deal of pretension,
>tism, and naivete, and they may be termed
remarkable psychological document. The
)man history of M. V. Duruy has reached its
sixth volume, and is a work of superior merit
a well-trodden field. Mention also should
here be made of MM. Perot and Chipier's
History of Ancient Art"; DeVaux's "Pales-
me " ; the Count de Paris's volumes V and
VI of his "History of the American Civil
; the documents relating to the Spanish
iccession, Louis XIV, and William III., etc.

During 1883 great gaps have been made in the
ranks of French authors. Jules Sandeau, La-
prade, H. Martin (the national historian), Fran-
cois Leriormant, and others of less note, have
gone the way of all the earth. Their loss is
very great to France, and in measure to all
civilized nations.

Germany. — If one may trust statistics, literary
activity in Germany during 1883 has been fif-
teen times as great as in the British Empire.
This is probably so, but it can hardly be assert-
ed of the higbest and most enduring form of
literature. In history we have the venerable
Leopold von Ranke's " Weltgeschichte," which
gives, in clear impressive outline, the history
of the Roman Empire, and depicts, in a man-
ner worthy of its importance, the gradual rise
of Christianity and its final fusion with the
Roman Empire, from a purely historical point
of view. Able critics pronounce this to be far
superior to any contemporaneous historical pro-
duction in Germany or elsewhere. Also, O.
H. am Rhyn's great work on the " History of
Civilization " has reached its conclusion in a
sixth volume; and Hans Prutz, likewise, has
dealt freely and with tolerable fullness on the
history of the Crusades, and their relation-
ship to art and civilization. Biographical liter-
ature has been more than usually rich this
year. O. Baisch's life of the German landscape-
painter, J. C. Reinhart (1847), is full of in-
teresting matter. Another volume of corre-
spondence between W. von Humboldt's secre-
tary and a lady friend has been issued; Scho-
penhauer's personal recollections and a portion
of his letters have been published ; and a life
and critical estimate of R. Wagner have made
their appearance. Philosophy has little or
nothing of moment to show this year. A few
volumes on Oriental systems, Hartmann's Pes-
simism reviewedand examined, Inductive Logic,
etc., are all that can be named in this connec-
tion. Lyric poetry has been largely and suc-
cessfully cultivated by numerous writers; and
the drama, considerably influenced by Schopen-
hauer's philosophy, has been enriched by the
pessimistic tragedies of Richard Vosz. Most
of the dramatists are also writers of novelettes,
and they deal with all sorts of subjects and in
all sorts of ways. The writers of novels and
romances are very numerous, and the country
has been flooded with their productions. Paul
Heyse stands at the head in his special line.
Georg Ebers, Felix Dalm, Alfred Meissner, to
say nothing of inferior names, have -contrib-
uted abundantly to the romance literature of
the year. F. Spielhagen, who is ranked as the
most eminent novelist of the day, has pub-
lished his criticisms on works of fiction, and.
gives it as his opinion that the novel is " the
only admissible epic of the present." W.
Scherer's " History of German Literature '' has
reached its conclusion, and is highly praised
by the critics on account of its style and full-
ness of thought. 0. Wedingen's work on the
same subject is regarded as of inferior m.erit.

492

LITERATURE, CONTINENTAL, IN 1883.

The literature relating to Goethe and Schiller
still receives a large share of attention, and it
is presumable that Germany will never hear
too much about those mighty men of genius.

Holland. — The record of 1883 as to Holland
is necessarily brief and not very important.
There has been manifested a strong dispo-
sition to make large and frequent use of the
dialects of the different provinces, in works
of travel and narrative, so that every province
is said now to have its representative in liter-
ature. A number of interesting books about
the Dutch East Indies have appeared. Al-
though not much verse has been written this
year, some good poems have found their way
into the periodicals. The novels of 1883 have
been numerous and successful, and several
historical novels have shown what Dutch
writers are capable of doing in this line. His-
tory and philology have received their usual
share of attention. De Jonge's " Rise of the
Dutch Empire in the East Indies" is being
continued by Mr. Van Deventer; and M.
Rogge is editing a list of the editions and
translations of all Grotius's works, and he is
aided by competent scholars in rendering due
justice to the great scholar and statesman.
Prof, de Vries is slowly continuing the
" Woordenboeck," and Verdam has published
the sixth part of his " Dictionary of Middle-
Dutch." The second volume also of Spinoza's
" Opera " has made its appearance.

Hungary. — During the year much attention
has heen bestowed upon collected editions of
the great writers of the country, such as John
Arany, Antony Osengery, etc. The first vol-
ume, too, has appeared of Count Szechenyi's
Memoirs, edited by A. Zichy. The great nov-
elist of Hungary, M. Jokai, sustains his repu-
tation in " The Echo of Forty Years." Since
the death of Tourguenief, it is asserted that
there is no writer in Europe to whom Jokai
yields. Dramatic literature has been charac-
terized by much activity and fair production.
In history, Hungarian savants have been a
good deal occupied in collecting and editing
original materials, such as the " Codices Di-
plomatioi," " The Archives of the Fugitives,"
" Hungary and the League of Cambray," etc.
A number of excellent works on the recent his-
tory of the country have also been published.
In science proper, some progress has been
made, and in philology and linguistics Hun-
garian scholars have done their share.

Italy. — One of the most important events in
the literary progress of Italy is the creation of
a great "Istituto Storico," or Historical Insti-
tute. There is excellent promise in such an
institution, and it will materially aid the
strong national desire to compile an elaborate
and definitive history of Italy. Some fifty
years ago Caesare Cantie conceived the idea
of a universal history, at which he has been
at work ever since, and has been constantly
improving and enlarging. It is hoped by his
countrymen that he will live to bring it to a

completion. Minghetti, one of the veterans of
Italian literature, is still at work, and has pub-
lished several more volumes on politics and
economy. Illustrated works have met with
much success, such as the " Illustrazione Ita-
liana," and "LaNatura"; and illustrated edi-
tions of standard writers have become more
and more popular. A. de Gubernatis has es-
tablished the "Revue Internationale," which
is to appear twice a month, and has already
made its mark. In brief, there has been, dur-
ing 1883, a large number of literary, artistic,
biographical, economical, and scientific publi-
cations; and there is no room to doubt that,
with her splendid advantages, Italy will al-
ways hold a prominent position in the litera-
ture of the world.

Norway. — Notwithstanding the prevalence of
considerable political disturbance in Norway
for several years, activity in literature has not
subsided. It has become perhaps rather too
controversial and polemical; but in general it
has shown, during 1883, no little point and
vigor. The poet Bjornstjerne Bjornson took
his share in politics, but has, nevertheless,
published two dramas which are pronounced
by the critics to be of a high order of merit.
The usual number of novels has appeared from
A. Garborg, Jonas Lie, A. Kielland, and oth-
ers; but lyric poetry has been very scanty,
all comprised in two collections of polemical
verses. A contribution to the history of liter-
ature has been made by H. Jaeger, in his
"Norwegian Authors" (1842-'57); and also
a contribution to the history of music, in A.
Gronvold's " Norwegian Musicians." There
have also been a few publications in science,
logic, mental philosophy, church history, and
classics; but they are not of special impor-
tance in the year's literary progress.

Poland. — The literature of Poland has been
to a considerable degree influenced by the fact
that 1883 beheld the two-hundredth anniver-
sary of the raising the siege of Vienna. Be-
sides elaborate works, like "John Sobieski
and his Age," and " The Campaign of Vienna,"
numerous monographs, historical, archaeologi-
cal, and military, have been published, relat-
ing to Sobieski and his deeds, as well as the
famous siege of Vienna; and the anniversary
festival gave rise to many poems, lectures,
speeches, etc. The " Letters of Sobieski to his
Wife" were also brought out in a new edition
for popular use. Some efforts have been made
in lyric poetry and the drama; but the out-
come is not very striking or particularly valu-
able. The novel-writers have displayed about
their usual activity, and have generally sus-
tained their previously earned reputation.
Two or three additions have been made to
ecclesiastical history and literature ; the writ-
ings of Supinski, the first of Polish economists,
have been published in five volumes; and the
valuable correspondence of the poet Krasinski
has now been issued in complete form. Also,
Estreicher's very full and useful work, "Po-

LITERATURE, CONTINENTAL, IN 1883.

LOUISIANA.

493

lish Bibliography," has reached its eighth vol-
ume.

Russia. — In the early part of 1883 Tourgu6-
nief, the great Russian writer, published his
last two contributions to literature, "Poetry
in Prose" and "Clara Militch." His death
caused wide-spread lamentation, not only in
his native land, but everywhere where his
genius and wonderful power have been felt
and recognized. Among living writers of ro-
mance and fiction, Stchedrin and Garshin have
produced a number ot excellent novels and
tales; but besides these there has been hardly
anything published which is above mediocrity.
In poetry and the drama nothing of moment
has been produced; but in the domain of sci-
ence better results have been attained. Church
ristory has been enriched by the publication of
number of works, especially the twelfth and
volume of the "History of the Russian
Church," by the late Metropolitan of Moscow,
" lakary. The Imperial Russian Historical So-
3iety has issued four more volumes of its
'Transactions" (vols. 35 to 38), in which is
mtained a large amount of interesting and
valuable matter. History in general has been
irgely cultivated ; and anthropology has been
Imirably treated in a work by Ziber, entitled
'Sketches of Primitive Economic Culture."
>cial science and legal subjects have been
reated of with more than usual fullness this
rear; and art, archaeology, and ethnography
lave received their full share of attention,
ilso, numerous books of travel have appeared,
id the contributions to geographical science
ive been of especial value.
Spain. — The number and variety of books
printed in Spain this year were unusually large,
)th original and translated, in the departments
)f science and letters. F. Picatoste has pub-
shed a "Popular Dictionary of the Spanish
iguage," and R. Barcias has completed the
ifth and last volume of his " Complete Etymo-
Dictionary of the Spanish Language."
rovincial history has been freely cultivated,
of Leon, Galicia, Navarre, Catalonia, etc.
The dialects, too, have excited much attention,
ich as the Provencal in the east, the Gallego
ad Bable in the west, and the Basque in the
lorth, and a number of works in relation to
lese has been published. Light literature, in
way of novels, poetry, humorous works,
tc., has considerably improved. Alarcon, Va-
jra, Galdos, Gonzalez, and many others, have
at work, with good success. Additions
the drama have been few, but the lower
iramatic art, called juguetes comicos, a sort of
composition resembling the French vaudeville,
has become more in vogue than ever. The
Royal Geographical Society has labored dili-
gently, and its fourteenth volume of Transac-
tions has appeared. The text-printing soci-
eties in the Peninsula have brought out a num-
ber of important works. Among these are
Vol. II of "Cancionero General," "El Cultu
Sevillano," " Documentos Ine'ditos para la His-

toria de Espafia," together with photo-litho-
graphic reproductions of books printed in the
fifteenth century.

Sweden.— Literary activity in Sweden this
year has been steady and fairly productive.
An original work on Shakespeare has appeared,
which is much praised by the critics; and Teg-
ner's G. M. Armfelt, "the Northern Alcibi-
ades," the favorite of Gustavus III, is already
rated as a standard on this topic. In history,
several competent workers have produced good
fruit, and illustrated books have attained great
popularity. The most proli6c and gifted of the
younger Swedish poets is Strindberg; he has
furnished his countrymen with a collection of
lyrics, which are largely satirical and manifest
much originality. Dramatic literature, novels,
essays, tales, poetical anthologies, and the like,
have been quite numerous, and have met with
gratifying success. Nordenskiold has published
the second and third volumes of his work, con-
taining the scientific observations made by the
Vega expedition. Among scientific produc-
tions may be named here Prof. Mittag-Leffler's
"Acta Mathematica," and the conclusion of
the famous posthumous work of Elias Fries,
entitled " Icones Selectee." To these should
be added Ridqvist's great work, " The Laws of
the Swedish Language," the first volume ot
which appeared some thirty years ago ; and a
collection of the philosophical writings of the
eminent Swedish philosopher, J. C. Bostrom.
The beautiful heraldic work by Klingspor, en-
titled " Baltisches Wappenbuch," is completed,
and has excited universal admiration.

LOUISIANA. State Government — The follow-
ing were the State officers during the year :
Governor, Samuel D. McEnery, Democrat ;
Secretary of State, "William A. Strong; Treas-
urer, E. A. Burke ; Auditor, Allen Jumel ;
Attorney-General, John C. Egan ; Adjutant-
General, P. G. T. Beauregard ; Superintendent
of Public Instruction, E. H. Fay ; Register
of Lands, J. G. Richardson ; Commissioner of
Agriculture and Immigration, W. H. Harris.
Judiciary — Supreme Court : Chief-Justice. Ed-
ward Bermudez; Associate Justices, Felix P.
Poche, Robert B. Todd, Thomas C. Manning,
and Charles E. Fenner.

Legal Decisions. — On the 5th of March, decis-
ions were rendered by the Supreme Court of
the United States in several cases affecting the
State. The allied cases of the State of New
Hampshire and the State of New York against
the State of Louisiana were original actions to
enforce the payment of consolidated bonds of
Louisiana. The Legislatures of the plaintiff
States had passed acts permitting their respect-
ive Attorney-Generals to bring suit upon such-
bonds as should be assigned -to the State by
citizens thereof.

Chief-Justice Waite quotes the eleventh
amendment to. the Constitution, which pro-
vides that the "judicial power of the United
States shall not be construed to extend to any
suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted

494

LOUISIANA.

against one of the United States by citizens of
another State, or by citizens and subjects of
any foreign state." He then says :

Under the operation of this amendment the actual
owners of the bonds and coupons held by New Hamp-
shire and New York are precluded from prosecuting
these suits in their own names. The real question,
therefore, is whether they can sue in the name of
their respective States after getting the consent of the
State ; or, to put it in another way, whether a State
can allow the use of its name in such suit for the
benefit of one of its citizens. The language of the
amendment is in effect that the judicial power of the
United States shall not extend to any suit commenced
or prosecuted by citizens of one State against another
State. No one can look at the pleadings and testi-
mony in these cases without being satisfied beyond
all doubt that they were in legal eifect commenced
and are prosecuted solely by the owners of the bonds
and coupons. The State and Attorney-General are
only nominal actors in the proceeding. The bond-
owner, whoever he may be, is the promoter and man-
ager of the suit. He pays the expenses, is the only
one authorized to conclude a compromise, and if any
money is ever collected it must be paid to him with-
out even passing through the form of getting into the
treasury of the State. The State is nothing more nor
less than a mere collecting agent of the owners of the
bonds and coupons, and, while the suits are in the
name of States, they are under the control of individ-
ual citizens, and arc prosecuted and carried on alto-
gether by and for them.

It is contended, however, that notwithstanding the
prohibition of the amendment the States may prose-
cute the suits because, as " ' sovereign and trustee of
its citizens,' a State is clothed with the right and
faculty of making an imperative demand upon another
independent State for payment of debts which it owes
to the citizens of the former." There is no doubt but
one nation may, if it see fit, demand of another na-
tion payment of debts owin^ by the latter to citizens
of the former, but States are not nations, either as be-
tween themselves or toward foreign nations. They
are sovereign within their spheres, but their sover-
eignty stops short of nationality. Their political
status at home and abroad is that of States in the
United States.

If the citizens themselves had ample means of
redress without the intervention of their Government
under the Constitution as it was originally construed,
the citizen of one State could sue another" State in the
courts of the United States for himself' and obtain
the same relief that his State could get for him if it
should sue. Certainly when he can sue for himself
there is no necessity for the power in his State to sue
in his behalf, and we can not believe it was intended
by the framersof the Constitution to allow both reme-
dies in such a case. Therefore the special remedy
granted to the citizen himself must be deemed to
have been the only remedy a citizen of one State
could have under the Constitution against another
State for redress of his grievances, except such as the
delinquent State saw fit itself to irrant.
_ In other words, the giving of direct remedy to the
citizen himself was equivalent to taking away any
indirect remedy he might otherwise have claimed
through the intervention of his State, upon any prin-
ciple of the law of nations. It follows that when the
amendment took away the special remedy there was
no other left ; nothing was added to the Constitution
by what was thus done ; no power taken away by the
grant of special remedy was restored by the amend-
ment. The effect of the amendment was simply to
revoke the new right that had been given and leave
the limitations to stand as they were. The evident
purpose of the amendment was to prohibit all suits
against States by or for citizens of other States, or
aliens, without the consent of the State to be sued,
and in our opinion one State can not create a contro-

versy with another State within the meaning of that
term as used in. the judicial clauses of the Constitution
by assuming the prosecution of debts owing "by other
States to its citizens. Such bein» the case, we are
satisfied that we are prohibited both by the letter and
spirit of the Constitution from entertaining these suits,
and the bill in each of them is dismissed.

The two cases of Elliott and others against
the Treasurer and Auditor of the State of
Louisiana were a suit in equity and one for a
mandamus to compel the executive officers of
the State to comply with the contract between
the State and the bondholders, made in 1874 —
that is, to go on collecting the 5£ mills for the
debt fund, which was authorized by the pre-
vious Constitution, without any special levy by
the Legislature. It also put at issue the valid-
ity of the provision of the debt ordinance of
1879, which remitted the January interest of
that year on State consols, and turned over
the money collected to the general fund.

Among the more important parts of Chief-
Justice Waite's opinion are the following :

It is clear that it was the intention of the State of
Louisiana to enter into a formal contract with the
holders of the bonds issued under the act of 1874, to
levy and collect an annual tax of five and a half mills
on the dollar of assessed value of all real and personal
property in the State, arid to apply the revenue de-
rived therefrom to the payment of the principal and
interest of the bonds, ancf to no other purpose. It is
equally clear that the object of the State in adopting
the debt ordinance in 1879 was to stop the further
levy of the promised tax, and to prevent the disburs-
ing officers from using the revenue from previous
levies to pay the interest falling due in January, 1880,
as well as the principal and interest falling due there-
after. That the Constitution of 1879, on its face, takes
away the power of the executive officers to comply
with the terms of the act of 1874 can not be denied,
as against everything but the outstanding bonds and
coupons. This Constitution is the fundamental law
of the State, and it is only invalid so far as it impairs
the obligation of contracts, on the faith of which the
bonds' and coupons were taken by their respective
holders. The question, then, is whether the con-
tract can be enforced, notwithstanding the Constitu-
tion, by coercing the agents and instrumentalities of
the State, whose authority has been withdrawn in
violation of contract, without having the State itself
in its political capacity a party to the proceedings ;
the relief asked will require the officers against whom
the process goes to act contrary to the positive orders
of the supreme political power of the State, whose
creatures they > are, and to which they are ultimately
responsible in law for what they do. They must use
the public money in the treasury and under their con-
trol in one way, when the supreme power has directed
them to use it in another, and they must raise more
money by taxation, when the same power has declared
that it sliall not be done.

The remedy sought by the bondholders implies
power in the judiciary to compel the State to abide by
and perform its contracts for the payment of money,
not by rendering and enforcing a Judgment in any
ordinary form of judicial procedure, but by assuming
control" of the administration of the fiscal affairs of
the State to the extent that may be necessary to ac-
complish the end in view. In the opinion of this
court the judiciary has not this power. It is insisted,
however, that the money already in the treasury col-
lected from the ta^ levied for the year 1879 consti-
tutes a trust fund of which individual defendants are
ex-ofiicio trustees, and that they may be enjoined as
such trustees from diverting it from the purpose to
which it was pledged under contract. But the indi-

LOUISIANA.

495

vidual defendants are the several officers of the State scrip for 500 acres, which he can place on other

who, under the law, compose the board of liquidation. land belonging to the State, worth say $1 per

•fe^S^^^^rSS^SSi •?««•„ <>r& the tract recovered slalffeL,

ure collected from this tax, just as he is the keeper of eighths swamp and three eighths good land,

other public moneys. He holds them, but only as he may take the latter and leave the State the

agent of the State, not as a trustee. If there is any least valuable portion, and have besides a little

trust, the State is trustee, and, unless the State can snrnlno SPrjn to rmf snmpwhprp plsn "

be sued, the trustees can not be enjoined. The offi- SUIP11

cers owe their duty to the State alone, and have no It; wa8 also claimed that under the terms of
contract relations with bondholders. There is noth- the contract the State had been defrauded with
ing in the cases cited by counsel which, in the opin- the connivance of Register Richardson, who
ion of the court, authorizes the relief which is asked. resigned on the 30th of June. Gov. McEnery,
££&3£ W^toSSSSSSftS «!><%" •«•<*«* on account of this contract, re!
Jurisdiction may be used to give full effect to what the P«ed that it was in full force when he came
'State has, by its act of submission, allowed to be into office, and he had no power to annul it.
done; and it the law permits the coercion of public Levees. — The drainage from over 1,200,000
officers to enforce any judgment that may be rendered, square miies of the Mississippi valley, concen-
ar^^^^^SSE Ated above Louisiana's northern Lundary,
State can not be sued, to set up its jurisdiction over can only be kept within the banks ot the Mis-
officers in charge of public moneys. The decree in sissippi by a line of levees extending from Ar-
the suit in equity, and judgment in that for manda- kansas on one side and from Baton Rouge on
mm, are affirmed. the other^ to the Gujf of Mexico, 720 miles.
Finances. — The State Treasurer had the fol- Add to this the 305 miles of levees built along
lowing cash balances on hand to the credit of the interior streams — the Lafourche, Atchafa-
the various funds, March 31, 1883 : laya, Des Glaizes, Black, Tensas, and Rounda-

Generai fund, 1883 $30,532 82 way- and we have a total of 1,025 miles.

General fund, 1882 4,688 81 From Jan. 1. 1879, to May 31, 1883, the State

General fund, i S8i 8.109 24 expended for levees $1,617,311, out of a total

Serai J5ft X ! ! ! ! ! ! .' ! ! ! ! ! .' ! i ! .' ! .' i ! ! ! '. ! ! .' ! IS "I of cash expenditures for all purposes of $8,-

run-ent school fund, 1883 876,872 — over 18 per cent. From 1869 to

&reent ±01 Sna; IfsiV.V.V.V.V.V::::::::::: tffi % m» the cash expenditures for levee purposes

Current school fund, 1880 4,60882 amounted to $8,733,121. Since 1869, then,

Current school fund 1S79 2,2*2 27 Louisiana has spent for levees $10,350,432.

intercst-ta°x fond, 18S2. !."."! .'".I!.".'!";!!"!.'! 55,425 15 A Levee Convention, consisting of representa-

interest-tax fund, 1881 98,109 so ti ves from thirty-four parishes and several rail-

SSStSSS^SB::.:::::::::::::::::::::: £® S ™-f - '» ^ at ??ton, Kouge on the , wu,

Interest-tax fund, 1878, and previous 4,901 73 and 19th of June. Ihe Governor submitted a

Levee construction and repair, 1878 . . 1,652 86 messao;e containing various recommendationB.

Levee construction and repair, 1877, and previous 821 22 _ caoaifo' ° , • .

Charity- Hospital fund, 1882. 20 45 The action of the convention was embodied in

Poll-tax fund. 1 879 6687 the report of a committee on the Governor's

iC^y^^::::::::::::::::::::::: 1I3S S message and in resolutions. The following are

District-levee fund 7,188 41 the essential portions of the report :

General-engineer fund 9,073 56 .

Interest and redemption $5 bonds 3,111 92 1. The inauguration of a plan to prevent the cutting

Judicial-expense fund 10,877 49 Of the levees, and the use of them as highways. Un-

Ouachita subsidy 141 14 <jer existing laws, the local authorities are not invest-

Caddo subsidy 3,375 70 ed wit]l sufflcient power to prevent the use of the

• I levees as roadways, and to impose proper penalties.

uSe::::::::::::'.:::-.:::V.:: 1°0 X We would therefore recommend the passage of laws

account... 18,619 63 giving to the police juries full and ample power to

pass laws and ordinances defining and providing ade-

Total $775,876 76 quate punishment for such offenses.

m, m -i ,1 /• n • 4. 4. 2. Maintaining and repair of levees. We would

The Treasurer also made the following state- recommena the passage of an act to compel work

lent : upon the levees by the adult citizens living in the

The bonded debt is about $11,800,000, requiring ^*^i^^^IOS±b6W^far^?ew

9 nr >v $9^ft oon ™r vpnr • thp TrpflsiiTpr direction of the police juries. Vv c iurther recommena

I^nds Mnrh rontroversv has taken of the Governor in reference to the just responsibility
Lands.— Mucn controversy nas UKen railroads to contribute to the maintenance and sup-
lace regarding a contract entered into be- t ofthe levces which protect their property,

tween Gov. Wiltz and John McEnery for the r We recommend the formation of chartered volun-

recovery of lands due the State from the United teer companies of levee guards in towns and cities ;

,tes It was claimed that "the contract pro- ^^^^^^^SS^

les that scrip shall be issued to the contract- JJJJ^J, bepus& as depots for materials and appli-

r, which he can place on any land. In other ances to stop crevasses or to strengthen weak points,
fords, when he recovers 1.000 acres of sea- 3. Improvement of navigation. The convention

rsh, worth say 10 cents an acre, he gets has by independent resolutions fully indorsed the

496

LOUISIANA.

sentiments expressed by the Governor in reference to
the Mississippi Eiver Commission. The committee
heartily recommends the suggestion of the Governor
in reference to the appointment of an executive com-
mittee of ten so organized as to be readily assembled,
the duty of the committee to be to act in concert with
other bodies of a like character and to be ready with
all necessary information to go before Congress at its
next and ensuing sessions in behalf of the interests of
the people of this State.

Among the resolutions were the following :

That we earnestly appeal to his Excellency the Gov-
ernor of Louisiana to immediately adopt such means
and measures^as may be necessary to place the entire
convict force at work on the levees of the State.

That the chairman of this convention appoint a
committee of ten delegates to confer with tiie repre-
sentatives of the Mississippi Valley, Texas and Pacific
and Morgan railroads, to receive any proposition tend-
ing toward their assisting in the matter of keeping
a general system of levees in conjunction with the
State.

That concerning the Red and Atchafalaya rivers,
we deem inexpedient and hurtful to the commercial
interests of the people of the Red river country and
those of the tributaries, any attempt to divert the
course of that river away from the Mississippi, and
that the waters of the Red should be deflected from
the Atchafalaya.

Democratic Convention.— When the question of
candidates to be voted for at the election in
April, 1884, came to be discussed, much oppo-
sition to the renomination of Gov. McEnery,
led by the New Orleans "Picayune," mani-
fested itself within the Democratic ranks. The
primaries were attended with much excite-
ment, and in some instances with violence.
The convention met in Baton Rouge on the
18th of December; a prolonged struggle over
contested seats ensued, and an adjournment
was not reached till midnight of the 20th.
Gov. McEnery was renominated by a vote of
220£, to 178f for Francis T. Nicholls. An
attempt to make the nomination unanimous
failed. The ticket was completed as fol-
lows:

Lieutenant-Governor, Clay Knobloch, of Lafourche ;
Treasurer, E. A. Burke, of Orleans ; Attorney-Gen-
eral, M. J. Cunningham, of Natchitoches ; Secretary
of State. Oscar Arroyo, of Plaquemines ; Auditor. 0.
B. Steele, of Union ; Superintendent of Education,
Warren Easton, of Orleans.

" With the exception of the gentleman nomi-
nated for the attorney-generalship," says the
" Picayune," " all the nominees are of the Mc-
Enery faction, and the ticket as a whole gives
no promise of that reform in the management
of the party and the administration of the State
of which both are so much in need."

Among the resolutions adopted by the con-
vention were the following :

That we declare our hostility to the entire principle
of lottery dealings. The Constitution declares gam-
bling to be a vice, yet it encourages that vice in its
worst form, not only inciting to breaches of faith and
embezzlement in the effort to get rich on the turn of
the wheelj but demoralizing society, corrupting poli-
tics, and impeding legislation ; and we demand that
the Legislature to be chosen at the ensuing election
shall enact such legal measures as are necessary for
their suppression.

That the convict-labor of the State should be ap-
propriated and assigned to labor on the public levees,
under the direction and control of the State authori-
ties, by such legislation as may be necessary.

Sngar and Rice.— The year 1882-'83 witnessed
the heaviest production of sugar ever made in
Louisiana since the war.

There were 120,555 acres of cane crushed,
or 25,523 acres more than the previous year,
and the average yield per acre was 2,782 pounds
where the vacuum-pan was used, or 2,368
pounds where open kettles or the ordinary
steam-train were used. The first arrival of su-
gar comprised 20 barrels white clarified from
the Forlorn Hope Plantation, parish of Iber-
ville, and came in October 7th.

The crop amounted to 303,066,258 pounds of
sugar, equivalent to 241,220 hogsheads. The
production of open-kettle or old-process sugars
amounted to 184,860,390 pounds, or 150,292
hogsheads. The production of clarified or cen-
trifugal sugars amounted to 118,205,868 pounds,
or 90,927 hogsheads.

The total product of molasses for the sea-
son amounted to 15,716,755 gallons, of which
4,255,411 gallons represented centrifugals and
11,461,344 gallons were open-kettle or old-pro-
cess molasses. During the year 1881-'82 the
production amounted to 9,691.104 gallons, of
which 2,926,186 gallons were centrifugals and
6,764,918 gallons were open-kettle molasses.

The production of rice in Louisiana for the
season of 1882 amounted to 187,217 barrels of
clean rice. The crop the previous year amount-
ed to 55,422,180 pounds, or 240,966 barrels of
clean rice. The 'crop for the season of 1880
amounted to 61,331,340 pounds, or 266,658 bar-
rels of clean rice.

New Orleans. — The domestic exports from the
port of New Orleans to foreign countries dur-
ing the fiscal year (Sept. 1st to Aug. 31st)
1882-'83, compared with former years, were:

Total exports, 1 882-'S3 ... ... $95.230,968

1881-182 68,190.431

1880-'S1 104,150.450

1879-'80 93,385,880

1878-'79 63,624,797

1877-'78 . 84,831.724

1876-'77 70,197,732

1875-'76.... 83,894,190

" 1S74-175 71,462,267

Of the exports in 1882-'83, $79,665,176 rep-
resented cotton, $7,455,961 wheat, and $4,366,-
675 corn.

The imports of foreign products and manu-
factures into the port of New Orleans during
the fiscal year 1882-'83, compared with former
years, were:

Total imports, 1882-'I83 $9,414,015

!SS1-'82 11 .993,852

1880-'81 12,413.270

187»-'30 10,915.042

187S-'79 7,141.089

1877-'78 11,483,142

1876-77 9,522,559

1875-'76 11.602,873

1874-'75 12,356,469

The custom-house figures for the years 1882
-'83 and 1881-'82 exhibit the following:

LOUVAIN, THE KEFORMATORY PRISON AT.

497

Number of

vesiels.

Tonnage.

This ye
Last ye

1,152
1,158
897
953

1,062,880
1,063,267
998,079
1,038,859

ar entered ....

cleared

THE REFORMATORY PRISON AT.

Louvain is a city of Belgium, fifteen miles
northeast of Brussels. The management of its
reformatory prison is based on the principle
that even in the most corrupt man there is a
germ of good sentiments and feeling, the de-
velopment of which can be secured by making
the prison a place of repentance and amend-
ment. The first condition required for this
end is the separation of the prisoner from bad
counsels and bad examples. This introduces
the cell system. But in the erection of the
building at Louvain the results of experience
were kept in view. It was believed that the
numerous cases of madness and suicide in cell-
prisons were not caused by the system of sep-
arate confinement in itself, but by the bad ap-
plication of it. Thus, on adopting the form of
a star in the construction of the building (an
arrangement found most convenient for watch-
fulness), it was determined to change entirely
the material and moral treatment of the pris-
oners. The cells are airy and well lighted.
Water is brought to them in abundance by a
pipe with a stop, which is opened at pleasure
within, but which is controlled by a key on the
exterior. There is a similar arrangement for
the gas-jet, and by a special contrivance it can
be made to furnish the heat required for the
prisoner's trade. A wash-stand, water-closet
hermetically closed, several book-shelves, a ta-
ble, a chair, and a folding-bed, compose the fur-
niture. There are also the tools or machines ne-
cessary for the prisoner to prosecute some work.
Here are seen tailors, shoemakers, saddlers,
bookbinders, carpenters, locksmiths, etc. Some
of the prisoners are bakers ; others scullions,
or head cooks. The cookery of the latter is
not very nutritious, but it is not unwholesome.
The bread is better than that of the French ;
in the other articles of food there is no com-
parison. In the French prisons, the inmates
receive during the week only soup, and on
Sunday a little meat, while at Louvain they
have bread in the morning, soup at noon, vege-
tables at night, and meat twice a week.

The prisoners have also the liberty to buy
"knick-knacks" with a little of the money
'which they earn; the rest is kept for them
until the expiration of their sentences. These
sums are comparatively large ; for in this prison
most of the clothing and equipments of the Bel-
gian army are made, and the Government pays
as good wages as to the free workmen.

When any kinds of work were to be done
which required the labor of many persons to-
gether, it was found very troublesome to main-
tain the rule of separation. At first it was
decided never to suffer two convicts to labor
VOL. xxm. — 32 A

together, except under the special watch of a
guard who should prevent any communication
between them. But this proved insufficient.
The problem was solved under the principle
upon which the establishment was founded. It
was indispensable to protect the convict, on
his going out of prison, against disagreeable
recognition by his old fellow-prisoners. It has
been said that the first requisite for the en-
couragement of a repentant criminal to per-
severe in his reformed life, was to prevent his
disgrace from being cast upon him, if possible.
Thus, upon the arrival of the convict at' the
prison, he is taken to the director, to whom he
tells, in confidence, his name ; in exchange he
receives a number, by which only he is hence-
forth known. He then goes to the dressing-
room, and after undergoing the changes required
by the rules, he puts on a large bonnet which
conceals his features, and has only the two
openings for the eyes. He never goes from his
cell, or receives any person there, without con-
cealing his countenance in this manner. Thus
he continues, or believes that he continues, en-
tirely unknown.

One very forcible objection to the cell sys-
tem is the mute state in which the convicts
are kept. Absolute silence is a very severe
chastisement ; it often causes madness, and, in
any case, it is not in itself an agent of improve-
ment. That danger has been avoided at Lou-
vain. If the convicts can not converse among
themselves, they are in constant connection
with their guards and with the overseers, who
come and go continually. Besides, they are
visited every day by the' director or his assist-
ant, or the distributors of food, the clergy, or
rabbi. Twice a week, and sometimes oftener,
they have a long visit from the teacher. All
the prisoners are obliged to go to school. There
is an amphitheatre where the pupils can see
the professor, but can not see one another.
They are really separated by a door, which
each one closes as he reaches his place. Lest
they might be recognized by the voice, all
questions are forbidden during the lesson ; but
the instructor afterward goes to each cell to
assure himself that his explanations have been
understood. Thus, in a novel manner, the mo-
notony of the imprisonment is broken.

Again, the kind of labor imposed on the
convicts is their safeguard against hypochon-
dria. In other prisons labor is repulsive, as
nearly all is done by machinery. At Louvain
the labors require a certain mental application,
and therein the convicts find a real relief. This
organization also enables a convict to fit him-
self to obtain a livelihood if he came to the
prison without having learned a trade ; or to
make a change if he does not wish afterward
to resume his old trade. The results of this
system are excellent, if we can believe the sta-
tistics of the first twenty years that the prison
has been in operation. The cases of suicide or
madness are not more numerous, for the popu-
lation, than in the cities of Belgium, though

498

LUTHER QUADRICENTENNIAL.

the convicts have a thousand means by which
to take life. The awls, paring-knives, scissors,
and leather straps, abound in the cells.

So far as relates to subsequent or second
committals, while in France they count as high
as forty-one to forty-eight per cent., at Louvain
they scarcely exceed six per cent. The reason
of this difference seems to exist not only in the
system itself, the administration of which is
very intelligent, but also, and especially, in the
chosen officers. The lowest guards obtain their
places by competition. But this does not sat-
isfy the director, who has them continually
under his eye ; he desires that they should re-
gard their employment as a mission to which
they should wholly devote themselves.

"At the time of our first visit to Louvain,1'
says the journal " La France," " we came
strongly prejudiced against the single-cell sys-
tem generally, so that it was not without sur-
prise that we observed the calm air of the
prisoners. They seemed to have even a kind
of attachment for their sad home. Here one
sees wreaths of ornamented paper all around
the cell ; in others, the spaces for the vessels
were covered with odd ornaments, which re-
vealed a certain taste in the unfortunate ones
who had arranged them ; in some there were
natural flowers in a pot on the work-bench.
These flowers had been gathered by the con-
vict in the yard, where he daily made a prom-
enade. These yards do not resemble the dun-
geons where French prisoners turn back and
forth like imprisoned deer. They are oblong
little gardens, inclosed on the sides by the high
walls and terminating at the ends by gratings,
one of which facilitates the watch of the
guards placed at a central point, and the other
presents the vast kitchen-gardens of the prison.
The product of the little gardens goes to some
of the convicts, who can cultivate a corner as
they please during their recreation, and eat
the fruit and gather the flowers. We were no
less astonished to see bouquets in the peniten-
tiary-cells, and on entering the office of the
director, M. J. J. Paul, an accomplished man,
we could not refrain from saying to him,
' Sweet prison, sir, where the convicts are per-
mitted to make the air which they breathe
fragrant with the perfume of flowers.' ' I
know it is an infraction of the regulations,' he
replied, 'but I have given an order to the
guards not to remove them. When a criminal
begins 'to decorate his cell, by attaching him-
self to flowers, he has become less obdurate.
If one of them finds in his yard a bird fallen
from a nest, which he desires to keep in his
cell, I close my eyes again and rejoice, for that
man will become better.' "

LUTHER QUADRICENTEMIAL. Saturday,
Nov. 10, 1883, was the four-hundredth anni-
versary of the birthday of Martin Luther.
There were many reasons why the occasion
should be celebrated. That religious and so-
cial movement which he originated is one of
the few great dividing-points in the history of

civilization. The preceding four centuries be-
long distinctively to mediaeval history ; the
four centuries which have since elapsed belong
as distinctively to modern history. More than
half of Christendom holds that this religious
movement has been a great and almost unmixed
evil ; less than half hold that it has been a
great and almost unmixed good. But there
are few men in our day who do not hold that
the social and political reforms which sprang out
of and have accompanied this movement have
been of the highest benefit. It would not be
easy to find a Roman Catholic who would wish
civil governments to be restored to the state in
which they were at the close of the fifteenth
century. Few would, even in theory, hold
that the Church should be re-established as it
was in the times of Alexander VI, Julius II,
and Leo X. Indeed, the reformation which
went on within the Church was hardly less
notable than that which went on from it in
the lifetime of Luther, and for a generation
thereafter; and that reformation within the
Church can be traced, mediately or immedi-
ately, to the revolt which Luther headed
against the Church.

It is easy to affirm that if there had been
no Martin Luther there would have been some
other man or men who would have done all
that he did, and better than he did it. Noth-
ing is easier than to speculate upon what might
have been. But there was a Martin Luther,
by whom, through whom, and often in spite
of whom, certain great things were brought
about. Luther's countrymen, and not a few
others, hold that these things were among the
most notable recorded in human history.

Luther's life was a warfare. His weapons
were thoughts and words, which in the long
run have ever proved themselves mightier
than armies and armaments. One of the most
thoughtful of American authors, writing of
" Luther and his Place in History," says : " He
spoke for all future ages. His words saved
Germany, and created Modern History. The
Gothic and German races rose to rare prosper-
ity at the touch of Luther's genius ; the Latin
races rejected his teachings, and have for three
centuries slumbered in dull reaction and decay.
He died at the age of sixty-three, the master
intellect of the Teutonic race."

The countrymen of Luther have never been
unmindful of their debt to this peasant's son.
He gave them a common language, the first
requisite to a national unity, lying even deeper
than mere unity of race. Not that, as some
have said, he created the modern German lan-
guage. To create a language is what no one
man, no cycle of men, has ever done. But in
adopting in his writings, and especially in his
translation of the Bible, the Franconian dialect,
remote on the one hand from what was known
as the High Dutch, 'and on the other from the
Low Dutch, yet still intelligible to all, he fixed
the forms of that dialect as the language for
the people. His guiding purpose was, so to

LUTHER QUADRICENTENNIAL.

499

write that his words should be understood " by
the mother in the house, the children in the
streets, and the common man in the markets."
The translation of the New Testament was al-
most wholly his own work. Some of the manu-
scripts of this translation are still extant, and
they evince the labor which the work cost
him. There are passages which have been cor-
rected and recorrected half a score of times
before the exact form was at last attained ;
but now it seems strange that any other words
or collocation of words should have been
thought of. In the translation of the Old Tes-
tament Luther needed much assistance, for, be-
sides a few rabbis, there was not in all Europe
a tolerable Hebrew scholar. So much aid did
he receive from these rabbis, that the company
~f translators was jestingly called " the private
nhedrim." But, even in this part of the
dertaking, the real work of translation was
uther's. His co-laborers might enable him
understand what the Hebrew writers had
id in their own language, but Luther alone
competent to make them say it in Ger-
an. He himself tells what a task it was :
We are working hard," he writes to a friend,
to bring out the prophets in our mother-
ngue. Ach Gott! what a great and difficult
ork it is to make the Hebrew writers speak
erman ! " But he did make them do it, so
at least as he understood them ; and his in-
nse sympathy with them went far to enable
to penetrate the very soul of their Orien-
thought and phraseology.
So adequate for all purposes has Luther's
translation proved, that it is not until our own
immediate day that any serious attempt at
even a revisal has been made. A German
revised translation has just been completed,
and the first printed copy of it was presented
to the Emperor of Germany on the day of this
Lutheran quadricentennial.
Very much of Luther's abundant literary
ork was for the time merely. He occupied,
a measure, the place now filled by the edi-
r. Newspapers and regular periodicals did
then exist ; but Luther's pamphlets and
broad-sheets partially supplied their place. In
one year he put forth nearly two hundred of
these treatises, all dealing with current mat-
ters, which to him and to others seemed of
vital import. All of them have been reprinted
again and again. His "Table-Talk," jotted
down mainly from memory by one and an-
other of his disciples, is among the most read-
able of books to this day. He lacked little of
being a great poet. He was all his life too
busy to be able to spend much time in fitting
rhymes and scanning syllables ; yet some of bis
hymns are immortal. The " Em' feste Burg ist
unser Gott " is not merely a psalm of worship,
but has been also the national battle-hymn,
the German anthem of hope and encourage-
ment, from Luther's day to our own ; and
wherever this Luther commemoration was sol-
emnized, this hymn formed the fitting prelude.

The great secret of the strength of Luther-
is, that he was German to the very core of his
being. He, as it were, created the German
nation, because he was himself a German of
the Germans. Julius Kostlein, the latest, and
by far the best, biographer of Luther, fairly
sums up the national estimate of the man,
which is in the m;iin that of the great body of
the Protestant world. Kostlein's "Life of
Luther" appeared in German ten years ago;
an English translation of it was brought out
at the time of this commemoration. Kostlein
says: "No German has ever influenced so
powerfully as Luther the religious life, and,
through it, the whole history of his people.
No other one has ever, in his whole personal
character and conduct, so faithfully reflected
the peculiar features of that life and history,
and has been enabled by that very means to
render us a service so effectual and popular.
If we recall to fresh life and remembrance the
great men of past ages, we Germans shall al-
ways put Luther in the van."

In Germany. — There were in Germany some
reasons why this four-hundredth anniversary
of Lutheranism — which is but another expres-
sion for Germanism — should have a special
significance. The consolidation of the dis-
jointed German states into a nation, which
had been one of the dreams of Luther's life,
had within less than half a generation come
to be an established fact, after centuries of un-
availing effort. To give a tangible evidence
of this great fact, a colossal statue of Ger-
mania had been planned, to be placed opposite
Bingen on the Rhine. This statue, thirty-three
feet high, stands upon a lofty pedestal, erected
upon a bold bluff, looking down upon and
seeming to keep watch over a long stretch of
that historic stream, now for the first time
wholly German. It was just ready for unveil-
ing in the autumn of this year. The inscrip-
tion on its base reads, " In memory of the
unanimous and victorious uprising of the Ger-
man nation, and the restoration of the German
Empire, 1870-1871." Herr Stocker, the court
preacher at Berlin, speaking to an English
audience upon commemoration - day, empha-
sized the vital connection between Luther and
this " victorious uprising." " Prussia," he said,
"like other countries, owes its growth to the
Lutheran Reformation; and when the Crown
Prince of Germany laid a wreath upon Luther's
grave at Wittenberg, he well knew what he
was doing. He gave public recognition to the
truth that the new German Empire had its rise
in the Protestant spirit."

The precise mode of the celebration in Ger-
many developed itself but slowly. If any spe-
cial day was to be chosen, one would imagine
that the anniversary of Luther's birth would
at once have suggested itself. But for some
reason the authorities of Wittenberg — the place
of all others most intimately associated with
the public life of the reformer — chose to hold
their celebration two months earlier, on Sept.

500

LUTHER QUADRICENTENNIAL.

12th. The Crown Prince had been deputed
by his father, the aged Emperor, to represent
him on this occasion, and 50,000 persons were
assembled as spectators of the ceremonies.
"Unser Fritz" performed his part with de-
corous zeal. At the appointed time he went
in state to the Castle church, and placed a
magnificent laurel- wreath upon the grave of
Luther. In the mean while a long procession
had been moving toward a large hall — the
same in which Luther had delivered those
lectures which made the university famous in
his day. This was now reconsecrated as
Luther Hall ; the Crown Prince saying at the
close of the proceedings: "May this festival
serve as a holy exhortation to us to uphold
the great benefits of the Reformation, and to
strengthen our resolution to be ever ready to
defend the Evangelical creed, liberty of con-
science, and religious toleration ! May Luther's
anniversary help to confirm us in the resolve
to enliven the Protestant feeling, preserve the
German Evangelical Church from disunion, and
lay the foundations of an everlasting peace ! "

Germany is not all Protestant, and the
Catholics could not be expected to look with
favor upon a commemoration like this, which
it was now evident would assume a national
character. The Wittenberg celebration was
hardly over when it was proposed that the
Catholics should observe the month of October
as a "month of prayer." It was especially
urged that the Catholic children throughout
Germany should "join together in fervent sup-
plications to Heaven for a speedy reunion of
all Christian peoples within the fold of the one
true Church." This recommendation was car-
ried out to a very considerable extent, though
it could hardly call forth much enthusiasm.

The preliminary celebration at Wittenberg
was essentially the imperial one; that at
Berlin was rather municipal and civic, though
the Emperor and the royal family bore some
part in it. On Friday the capital began to put
on a festal aspect. Flag-staffs were raised on
the roofs, and decorations pervaded the streets
and public buildings. A somewhat cynical
correspondent does not fail to notice that
"the shopkeepers, great and small, appear to
combine gratitude to the great reformer with
an effort to turn an honest penny, by exhibit-
ing his portrait in their windows for sale." As
evening fell, the bells of the churches sounded
their loudest peals, and on Saturday, at half-
past seven in the morning, they rang out again.
The pupils of all the public schools marched in
long procession to attend divine worship ; and
as the churches were insufficient to contain
them, services were also held in public halls.
The grand procession moved early from the
town hall toward the church of St. Nicholas,
the oldest place of worship in Berlin. The pro-
cession was much like those with which we are
familiar, wanting, however, the military ele-
ment. In front moved heralds and musicians.
Then followed the Protestant clergy, the pro-

fessors and students of the university, the
chief officials of the city, of the kingdom of
Prussia, and the empire. Last came the minor
officials and common citizens. By noon the
church was crowded. After a pause of half
an hour, the Emperor, the Crown Prince, and
the princes William and Frederick Charles
made their appearance. Then the liturgy was
recited, drums were beaten, trumpets blown,
and Luther's " Ein' feste Burg " pealed forth like
a song of victory to the roar of the great organ.
General - Superintendent Bruckner delivered
the sermon of the day. It was a long and not
over - brilliant discourse, the leading theme
being that "Luther's grandest work, and most
precious legacy to the world, was the purifi-
cation of the Christian faith."

The celebration at Eisleben was by far the
most characteristic one which we find de-
scribed. In this mining town Luther was
born, and here he died. His connection with
Eisleben was in both respects altogether acci-
dental. His parents resided in the neighbor-
ing village of Mansfeld. His mother had gone
to Eisleben in order to make some household
purchases, when he was born. Not long after-
ward his father took up his residence at Eisle-
ben, and here Luther's boyhood was passed.
He himself supposed that he was born at
Mansfeld. He was sent to school at Mansfeld
at the age of twelve, and it does not appear
that he was ever after that in his native town
for more than a few days, until a month be-
fore his death. He went there, not from any
longings to revisit the home of his childhood,
but for the purpose of bringing about a recon-
ciliation between the two Counts of Mansfeld,
who were at feud. The weather was inclem-
ent, and he was seized with a severe cold,
which resulted in pneumonia. He was not
thought to be in special danger until the day
before his death. Only four days previous he
had delivered his last sermon.

Eisleben possesses few memorials of Luther.
The house in which he was born is still stand-
ing in the street that bears his name, though
somewhat changed. It was partially burned
in 1594, but was restored at the expense of the
town, and^was again restored in 1817; but the
interior of the lower part remains unaltered.
The entrance is modern, and over the door is
a bust of Luther, and this inscription : "In
this house Dr. Martin Luther was born, 10th
of November, 1483. — God's word is Luther's
lore; therefore fails it never more." The
house in which he died is also standing, near
the market-place. On the front is a small
tablet which simply says, " In this house Dr.
Martin Luther died, the 18th of February,
1546." The humble house in which he was
born is uninhabited and unfurnished, except
for a few relics of Luther, which are of doubt-
ful authenticity. In the more pretentious
dwelling in which he died, the guest of the
town-clerk, Luther's death-chamber and the
sitting-room are unoccupied and unfurnished.

LUTHER QUADRICENTENNIAL.

Nowhere in Germany has the memory of
Luther taken stronger hold than in this m'in

501

when he publicly burned the papal bull before
the Elster gate of Wittenberg. Clad in his

ors swarmed into the little town.

LUTHER'S STATUE IN EIBLEBEN.

rent of the day was the unveiling of a statue
)f Luther in the market-place. It is of bronze,
nine feet high, standing upon a low granite
plinth. The figure represents the reformer as
he was at what may be esteemed the crisis of

the Reformation as conceived by Luther: God's
word against the decrees of the Pope.

The dawn of the bright November day was
ushered in by peals of church-bells. In good
time the magistrates walked in procession to

Ms career, that 10th day of December, 1520, the church of St. Andrew, where Luther had

502

LUTHER QUADRICENTENNIAL.

delivered his last sermon from the antique pul-
pit, now garlanded with evergreens. The hal-
lelujah chorus was sung, and then Chaplain
Frommel, from Berlin, delivered the sermon.
As the clocks struck twelve, the ceremony of
unveiling the statue began. " Ein' feste Burg "
was sung ; and then the worthy Burgomaster
Martin gave an account of the memorial statue.
All heads were then bared as the covering was
removed, while the choir struck up that other
noble hymn of Luther's, u Praise ye the Lord,
the mighty King." Dr. Koegel, the Emperor's
chaplain, pronounced the inaugural oration,
formally presented the statue to the town, and
dismissed the auditory with the benediction.
In the afternoon an official dinner was given.

But these official ceremonials were not the
most interesting part of the Eisleben celebra-
tion. The people of the region arranged an
addition to the programme. When Luther
came thither, an imposing reception had been
given to him. It was resolved to revive this
upon a far larger scale by an historical proces-
sion. First came the mounted heralds, trum-
peters, and banner-bearers of the counts of
Mansfeld, followed by knights and squires,
huntsmen and falconers, lords and ladies, all
clad in the picturesque costume of four hun-
dred years ago, distributed into various groups,
as the scene has been handed down by the old
chroniclers. Then came those representing the
civic authorities of the good town ; then Luther
himself, seated in the gorgeous chariot of the
count, his three young sons, and his friend
Justus Jonas, by his side. After them were
the citizens of Eisleben and the surrounding
region. Everybody had done his best to pre*
sent himself as his forefathers might have
looked. There were merchants in long coats
of red velvet ; gardeners in light green ; all
schools and guilds with the various emblems
of their crafts; feudal retainers with crossbows
and javelins — all mingling together in gay con-
fusion. One might have thought a bit of the
fifteenth century had suddenly dropped into
the closing years of the nineteenth.

In Denmark and Sweden. — In Denmark and
Sweden the day was universally celebrated as
a high festival. The schools were closed, pub-
lic business was suspended, and meetings were
held in the churches, where the great deeds of
Luther were set forth.

In France.— In France the Protestants form
an inconsiderable part of the community, and
of these the Lutherans are an insignificant frac-
tion. French Protestantism has always had
little sympathy with Luther, looking rather to
Calvin as its founder ; and just now anything
German is not in the best esteem in France.
Nevertheless, the adherents of the " reformed "
and those of the " free " church could not be
unmindful of the occasion. In Paris, at least
one crowded meeting was held, and the great
German was warmly eulogized. Pastor Wal-
bium extolled his activity, joyousness, sensi-
bility, and heroism, declaring that, in spite of

some short-comings, " he had been equaled by
no man since Paul." M. Recollin went so far
as to admit that, great as Calvin was, " Luther
was far more expansive and universal." M. de
Pressense, speaking for the " Free Church,"
eulogized Luther as the " ideal representative
of the German race in its best features, and at
its finest period ; he was the great emancipator
of souls." He also took occasion to repel the
invectives which the Catholic press had re-
cently been heaping upon Luther.

There had been no lack of such attacks, the
foremost assailant being the " Univers," the
recognized organ of the Clerical party. This
periodical averred that " Germany is really
celebrating her own debasement by the man
who was the direct or indirect author of mas-
sacres so numerous that, could the bones of
those who had lost their lives through the in-
fluence of his pernicious teachings be exhumed,
they would whiten the whole soil of Germany.
He was a denier of free-will, and of the value
of good works. He died in consequence of a
gross debauch ; and Heaven itself had visibly
interposed to brand his memory with infamy ;
the tree under which he took shelter on his
flight from Worms had been blasted by light-
ning, and a thunder-bolt had twice struck the
church in which he was buried. In another
life he has the destiny which he prepared for
himself, for, according to his own confession,
he had while on earth too much dealing with
the devil to deserve to escape eternal damna-
tion," and much more of the like import.
The " Univers " also gives place to a paper by
Bishop Freppel, who used to lecture upon Lu-
ther at the Sorbonne. He was u amazed at
the glorification, at this day, of the man who
denied free-will, declared good works preju-
dicial to salvation, set all nations at variance,
and was the very incarnation of intolerance " ;
and declared that it was a "huge joke on the
part of the Crown Prince of Germany to desig-
nate this coming Lutheran commemoration as
the festival of toleration."

In England. — In England the day was very
widely celebrated, large meetings being held
in every considerable town and city. The
higher ranks of the Anglican clergy took little
part in the movement; the notable exceptions
being the Archbishop of York, the Bishop of
Liverpool, and Canon Farrar. The archbish-
op, in the hierarchy, stands second to the
Archbishop of Canterbury, and consequently
second, after the royal family, in order of pre-
cedence, outranking all dukes, earls, and bar-
ons. He had some weeks before accepted an
invitation to deliver a sermon upon Luther on
this commemoration-day. The Dean of York
ranks next to him in the archdiocese, being in
special charge of the ordinary services of York
Minster, the cathedral church. He took alarm
at this intimation of the archbishop, and wrote
to the newspapers to the effect that Luther
was a foreigner, and not of the Anglican com-
munion, and so not to be, as it were, canonized,

LUTHER QUADRICENTENNIAL.

LUTHERANS.

503

and added that any formal clmrch service in
which the Lutheran movement should be pub-
licly commemorated " would gender strife,
encourage discord, and hinder individual spir-
itual life." If such an encomium were to be
pronounced by the archbishop in the minster,
he himself would be absent from the service.
The archbishop purposed to deliver the ser-
mon, not in the cathedral, but in another
church in the city. He, however, took prompt
occasion to affirm his right to deliver it in the
minster, and at the same time to set forth his
own position in the matter >, To the " Times "
he wrote : " Every time we use the church
service, and particularly the holy communion
service in our churches, we affirm the Refor-
mation. Every candidate who is ordained, and
every clergyman who receives a benefice does,
by signing the Thirty -nine Articles afresh,
which attest the Reformation. Every year,
when the convocation meets within the pre-
cincts of the minster, we return thanks, in
the convocation prayer, for the blessings of the
Reformation, and for our deliverance from
the papal tyranny which once here prevailed.
While it is true that the English Reformation
was accomplished in a different manner from
the Reformation in Germany and other coun-
tries, yet it is nevertheless true that the possi-
bility of a religious reformation in any part of
Europe sprang in a large part from the intense
personal conviction and contagious faith of one
man — Martin Luther."

This York discourse, delivered on Saturday,
was repeated on Sunday, Nov. llth, in West-
minster Abbey. It embodied a eulogistic state-
ment of the great facts in Luther's career,
closing with a summation of the reasons why
he should be held in special reverence by the
Church of England. u The Anglican Church,"
said the archbishop, " bears a much nearer re-
semblance to the German Reformed than^ to
the Protestant system which prevailed in Switz-
erland. Our Church joined with Luther in
protesting against the Zwinglian doctrine of
the eucharist ; and, out of the Thirty-nine Ar-
ticles, not less than fourteen were derived from
the Confessions of Augsburg and Wurtemberg.
It has, moreover, been conclusively shown that
in countries where the Reformed religion pre-
vailed, there was more order, more liberty,
greater prosperity, greater industry and enter-
prise, than existed in countries which professed
the Roman Catholic religion. This was not
• the result of race, but was equally evident
when comparison was made between popula-
tions of the same race professing the two dif-
ferent religions. How great, therefore, is the
debt we owe to the great reformer whose teach-
ings had brought about such results! This
was certainly a memory which Englishmen
would never let die."

What may be styled the popular movement
in England was headed by the Earl of Shaftes-
bury, the chairman of the Lutheran Commem-
oration Committee. Among the immense meet-

ings held was one at Exeter Hall, where clerical
and lay orators spoke in the same strain with
those from whom citations have been made.

In America. — In the United States the com-
memoration was widely observed, though with-
out any ostentatious public display. On Sunday,
Nov. llth, the day following the anniversary
of Luther's birth, there were few prominent
Protestant pulpits in which the work of the
great German was not made the theme of com-
ment and eulogy. Large meetings were held
in New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Brooklyn,
Baltimore, Chicago, Pittsburg, Princeton, and
other places. In Cincinnati, Monsignor Capel
delivered two discourses in the cathedral, in
which he treated of Luther from the Catholic
stand -point.

LUTHERANS. Considerable discrepances exist
between the computations of the statistics of the
several Lutheran bodies in the United States as
given in the different year-books.

The "Church Almanac" (General Council)
gives summaries as follows:

Ministers.

Congre-
gations.

Members.

General Council, ten synods
Synodical Conference, six synods
General Synod. South, six synods
General S'ynod, North, twenty-

684
1,143
180

840

1,812
1,880
289

1877

•216,937
288,49T
19,660

128927

Eleven independent synods

554

1,457

143,522

Total

3351

6 265

797548

Brobst's "Lutherische Kalender," also rep-
resenting the General Council, gives:

Ministers.

Congre-
gations.

Members.

General Council, ten synods

680

1,829

211,509

Synodical Conference, five synods
General Synod, South, six synods
General Synod, North, twenty-

965
165

1,878
241

287,817
17,774

855

1,436

129,204

Independent synods
German Synod of Iowa
Norwegian Augustana Synod —

718
178
21

1,697
290
56

197,164
25,COO
8,500

Total

8,582

6,423

821,968

The German Synod of Iowa and the Norwe-
gian Augustana Synod, classed in the " Church
Almarvac" among the independent synods, are
regarded in the Brobst " Kalender " as affili-
ated in sympathy with the General Council,
though not officially connected with it. If
their members were added to those of the Gen-
eral Council, the strength of that body would
be, according to Brobst, 879 ministers, 1,675
congregations, and 240,009 members. The sum
of the members shows, according to Brobst, an
increase during the year in the entire Lutheran
Church of 153 pastors, 292 congregations, and.
36,181 communicants.

Of educational institutions connected with
the several bodies and particular synods, the
u Church Almanac " enumerates 1 9 theological
seminaries, 18 colleges and universities, 29
academies, and 16 seminaries for young wom-
en. The charitable and benevolent institn-

504

LUTHERANS.

tions comprise 25 orphanages, 8 hospitals, 1
home for the aged and infirm, 1 institute for
the deaf and dumb, 4 emigrant missions, under
the care of different bodies, in New York city,
and 1 emigrant mission in Baltimore. The
whole number of periodicals is 87, of which 30
are in the English language, 28 in German, 7
in Swedish, and 22 in Norwegian and Danish.
The General Council. — The General Council met
in the city of New York, October 18th. The
Rev. Dr. A. Spaeth, of Philadelphia, presided.
The business of the session consisted chiefly
in the continuation of the regular discussion
of the ninety-five theses of Luther and the
review of the progress of the various mission-
ary and publishing enterprises of the body.
The discussion of Luther's theses, to which the
Council statedly devotes a part of the time of
every annual meeting, has been instituted for
the comparison of views among the members of
the body, and for mutual enlightenment in doc-
trine, and does not take the shape of formal
action. On the present occasion the fifth, sixth,
and seventh theses, declaring the impotency of
the Pope in the forgiveness of sins, were con-
sidered, as follows :

The Pope neither wisheth to nor can remit any pun-
ishments save those which he, of his own will, or ac-
cording to the canons, hath inspired.

The Pope can not forgive any sin, except so far as
he doth declare and confirm God's forgiveness ; or,
indeed, when he forgiyeth reserved cases, where, if
they be despised, the sin remaineth still.

God verily fprgiveth no man's sins, without at the
same time subjecting him in all things in humility to
his vicar, the priest.

A strong desire was expressed for the union
of the synods of the United States on the occa-
sion of the four-hundredth anniversary of the
birth of Martin Luther ; and the corresponding
secretaries were instructed to enter into corre-
spondence with the synods which are one with
the Council in the unity of the faith, with that
end in view.

The Board of Foreign Missions reported that
its receipts for the year had been $7,278, and
that its estimates for expense for the coming
year amounted to $10,000. The mission is in
the Presidency of Madras, India, and has its
principal stations at Rajamundry and Samul-
cotta, with numerous sub-stations. It em-
ployed four American and European missiona-
ries, two native pastors, two woman missiona-
ries, two evangelists, and forty teachers, and
returned 722 children in the schools and 465
persons baptized during 1882 and the first six
months of 1883. The German Home Mission
Committee had received during the year $4,447,
and had expended $4,410. Three missionaries
had been dispatched to Canada, seven had been
appointed to fields within the United States,
and a traveling missionary was employed in
Texas. The committee was unable to meet
the demands made upon it for additional labor-
ers. Thirty-four students were, however, un-
der preparation at institutions in Germany to
engage in its work. The Swedish Home Mis-

sion Committee had missions at San Francisco,
Cal., Astoria and Portland, Oregon, and Puget
Sound, Washington Territory, in Idaho, at Salt
Lake City, and in Colorado. The Emigrant Mis-
sion had given shelter in its home in New York
city to more than 15,000 persons. The House
and its mission was now generally known, and
the Home Missionary Society in Europe was
very generally co-operating with the commit-
tee. Mission stations had been established in
Bremen, Hamburg, and Antwerp. Castle Gar-
den was regularly visited at each arrival of
passengers. The Swedish Augustana Synod
was sustaining a mission in connection with
the committee's work. A recommendation
that the Home Mission Committees be advised
to secure the services of one or more traveling
missionaries for the purpose of organizing con-
gregations along the line of the Northern Pa-
cific Railroad, and of securing sites for church-
es, etc., was offered, and referred to the next
meeting of the Council. A general committee,
which had been appointed the year before in
furtherance of the same object, reported prog-
ress. A declaration was adopted to the effect
that the co-operation of women in the work
of the Church was greatly desired. " But as
the Church is the proper channel through
which all efforts are to be directed, the Coun-
cil can recognize no other. It must leave to
the individual congregation the right to direct
its own affairs. If it deem it wise to organize
woman's mission societies, it can do so, and
will no doubt have the approval of the Council."
The General Synod. — The General Synod met
in its thirty-first biennial convention at Spring-
field, Ohio, May 16th. The Rev. J. G. Morris,
D. D., LL. D., was chosen president. Reports
were made by the several boards having charge
of the benevolent enterprises of the synod,
of their operations during the previous two
years. The Board of Church Extension had
received $41,791, and had expended $39,325.
It had completed its work in aid of the mission
in Brooklyn, N". Y., was helping to build a
church in Chicago, 111., and was arranging for
architectural plans to assist in building church-
es in the mission-fields. The plan for securing
an income by apportioning among the church-
es the amount they would be asked to contrib-
ute had been worked with satisfaction and suc-
cess. The Board of Publication had increased
its net assets by $14,016, the present amount
being $61,767, and reported sales for the year
ending March 31, 1883, of $49,049. It had been
able to appropriate from its profits $5,000 to
the benevolent work of the Church as repre-
sented in the organizations connected with the
General Synod. A history of the Lutheran
Church in America was in preparation under
its direction. The Committee of the Pastors'
Fund had received $1,951, and expended $1,541.
The Board of Home Missions had received $38,-
407, and had paid to missionaries $24,040. It
had the care of 53 missions, which represented
63 congregations, having 3,680 members. The

MADAGASCAR.

505

missions had contributed for all purposes the
sum of $96,544 ; 18 stations had been added to
the list of missions during the two years past,
15 had become self-sustaining, and three had
been discontinued. The Board of Foreign Mis-
sions had received $50,741, and reported an
increase of 65 per cent, in the contributions of
the preceding two years. Its missions were
in India, where the first native minister had
recently been licensed, and West Africa. The
mission in India (Guntoor) returned 6,813 com-
municants, 1,958 pupils in day-schools, and
4,111 Sunday-school scholars. The mission at
Muhlenberg, Africa, returned one ordained
missionary, one unordained missionary, and one
native licensed minister, 120 church-members,
70 of whom were communicants, 40 day-schol-

3, and 150 Sunday-school scholars.

A communication was received with favor
from the delegate of the General Synod, South,
and it was resolved to send a delegate to the
next meeting of that body. Satisfaction was
expressed that the Synod, South, had decided
to carry on its foreign mission work under the
auspices of the General Synod. The Synod de-
clared that it hailed as one of the most auspi-
cious outlooks of the Church in America the
prospect of securing a u common service " for
all English-speaking Lutherans, on the general
and definite basis of the common consent of
the pure Lutheran liturgies of the sixteenth
century, and expressed readiness to labor to
that end and to unite with the General Synod,
South, and the General Council in any judicious
movement to accomplish it. A committee was
appointed to have the charge, under the direc-
'ion of the Home Board, of the work of In-

dian missions. Observances were recommend-
ed to be made on Nov. 10, 1883, in honor of
the birthday of Martin Luther.

Norwegian Lutheran Synods. — The Norwegian
Lutherans in the United States are represented
in four synods. The largest is the Evangelical
Lutheran Synod, which is characterized by the
strictness of its doctrine and rules of discipline.
It includes about 200 preachers, and has a col-
lege at Decorah, la., a theological school at
Madison, Wis., and several academies. The
Augustana Synod has between 80 and 40 preach-
ers, and a seminary at Marshall, Wis. The
Norwegian-Danish Conference originated in a
schism in the latter body, but has grown to ex-
ceed it, having 85 ministers and 24,000 commu-
nicants. Its college and seminary are at Minne-
apolis, Minn. Ilauges Synod originated in a
sect founded by Elling Eielson, a lay preacher,
includes 20 ministers, and has a seminary at
Red Wing, Minn.

Movement for the Institution of Bishops.— A feel-
ing has been growing among the Lutherans
of the General Council, especially among the
Swedish members, whose church in their na-
tive country is episcopal, in favor of the insti-
tution of bishops. A convention met at Eas-
ton, Pa., March 27th and 28th, for the consid-
eration of this subject. The Rev. John Koh-
ler, D. D., of Allentown, Pa., presided. Papers
were read on " The Episcopate in the Early
Church " ; " The Episcopate in the German Ref-
ormation " ; and " Should we have the Epis-
copate in the Lutheran Church in America? "
and committees were appointed to bring the
subject forward for discussion in the several
conferences of the Pennsylvania Synod.

M

MADAGASCAR, one of the great islands of the
globe. (For map, see " Annual Cyclopaedia "
for 1882.)

Geography. — It is southeast of the African
continent, from which it is separated by the
Mozambique channel, which varies in width
from 250 to 350 miles. It is 1,030 miles long,
and from 225 to 350 miles broad, having an
area of nearly 230,000 square miles, fully equal
to the combined areas of the New England
States, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Delaware, and Maryland. It is almost entirely
within the tropics. The population is estimated
at 3,500,000. The capital, Antananarivo, in
the interior, contains between 70,000 and 80,000
inhabitants. The chief port is Tamatave, on
the east coast, which contains about 3,000 in-
habitants.

A mountain-range, having a height of 3,000
to 4,000 feet, and rising occasionally into more
elevated summits (one of more than 11,000
feet), extends from north -northeast to south-
southwest through the whole length of the
island, though broken at three or four points
by broad, elevated plateaus, and in several in-

stances by narrow, deep cafions. The mount-
ain-slopes were originally covered with heavy
forests, but considerable tracts have been
cleared. These forests contained many choice
woods, both for building and cabinet use, as
well as some valuable medicinal, resinous, and
dye-woods. The slopes are generally fertile.
Between them and the coast, both on the east
and west sides, are extensive marshy tracts
with some elevated bluffs, but also with nu-
merous small lakes and ponds, and generally
covered with a profuse vegetation. These dis-
tricts, though fertile when cultivated, are un-
healthful. The coast, for some distance from
the shores, is sandy, not fertile, and intensely
hot. There are two or three good harbors on
the east side, of which Tamatave is the best.
There are several harbors on the west side, but
none of them, except Majunga, is very safe.
There are numerous rivers, but those on the
east side have so rapid a descent that none are
navigable for more than six or eight miles. Of
those falling into the Mozambique Channel,
several have a navigable course of thirty or
forty miles, and one, the Betsibooka, is navi-

506

MADAGASCAR.

gable for 160 miles. The climate varies with
the elevation. On the coast it is hot, moist,
and unhealthful, and malarial fevers prevail.
On the mountain-slopes the climate is mild
and delightful, the temperature seldom exceed-
ing 85°. In the rainy season there is some
malarial fever, even in these mountain-slopes.

Productions. — The flora, sylva, and fauna of
Madagascar are in marked contrast with those
of the African continent across the Mozam-
bique channel, and have an equally marked
general resemblance to those of the Eastern
Archipelago. The ravenel, or " traveler's tree "
( Urania speciosa), from whose trunk a sweet
and wholesome beverage is obtained by in-
cision, is peculiar to the island ; while ebony,
mahogany, different kinds of gam-trees, cocoa-
nuts, figs, and other valuable and ornamental
woods, and medicinal shrubs, are indigenous
here. Among the plants peculiar to the island
is the zozero, a species of papyrus, and a lichen
which makes a powerful dye-stuff. The flora
is of wonderful beauty, and many of the flow-
ers are very fragrant. The silk- worm is indi-
genous, and its cocoons when fresh are often
eaten by the natives. * Sheep with hair, instead
of wool, and with large, fat tails, have been in-
troduced from the Cape of Good Hope ; cattle
from India, domestic swine, and horses from
other countries, and dogs and cats. The crops
are cotton, sugar, coffee, rice, yams, arrow-
root, bread-fruit, plantains, bananas, and figs.

Commerce. — Commerce is chiefly carried on in
English ships with Mauritius. One of the most
important articles of import is rum. The ex-
port commerce, which is inconsiderable, con-
sists of cattle, hides, wax, gum-elastic, gum,
tallow, oleaginous seeds, etc. The value of
imports from Mauritius in 1873 was estimated
at £145,000; of exports to Mauritius, £155,000 ;
of exports and imports to and from all other
countries, £100,000.

History. — Madagascar was first mentioned by
Marco Polo in the thirteenth century, but was
not visited by Europeans till 1506, when the
Portuguese attempted to plant a colony on the
island, but failed. The French made a similar
attempt in 1642, and indeed undertook to take
possession of the island, but after some years
the hostility of the natives, and the climate of
the coast, compelled them to abandon it.

At the beginning of the present century,
Madagascar was divided among several native
tribes, of which two were the most active and
powerful. These were the Sakalavas, the prin-
cipal tribe of the western part of the island, and
the Hovas, who held the east and northeast.
The Sakalavas were the darker and taller, but
the Hovas were quicker and more active men-
tally. Neither these, nor any of the other
tribes of Madagascar, had any affinity with the
negro races of Africa. They rather resembled,
both physically and intellectually, the natives
of the Philippines and of the Polynesian islands.
The other tribes submitted to the rule of these
two. In 1808 Radama, a Hova prince, became

King of Imerina. He was only sixteen years
of age, but soon engaged in war with the Sa-
kalavas, and obtained control of much of the
eastern coast and the port of Tamatave. In
1816 he was visited by British agents, and the
next year he made a treaty with Great Britain,
agreeing to abolish the slave-trade and other
wrongs, on condition that he should receive
a stipulated quantity of arms and ammunition
every year, and men to instruct his people in
military tactics. He faithfully observed his
treaty, abolishing the slave-trade, though not
slavery, and with the arms and instructors in
military science received from Great Britain
he soon had a fine and well-disciplined army,
with which he subjugated the Sakalavas and
the other tribes, and became King of Mada-
gascar. In 1818 the London Missionary So-
ciety established a mission at Antananarivo,
Radama's capital, founded schools, translated
the Scriptures, and made great progress in civ-
ilizing and Christianizing the people. Com-
merce increased, manufactures were intro-
duced, and agriculture was greatly improved.
Slavery, however, still existed, infanticide was
not checked, and the cruel trial by ordeal was
not abolished. The idols were not destroyed,
and many of the people worshiped them. Still
the Christians were in the ascendency.

In 1828 Radama died, and his queen, Rana-
valena Manjaka, became the ruler of Madagas-
car. She had courage, executive ability, a
knowledge of state affairs, and a capacity for
controlling her people; but she was a bigoted
heathen, and bitterly hostile to all Europeans.
She had one son, then very young, and was
tenderly attached to him. She began by re-
storing the idols and the idol -keepers to their
old places in the capital, and restricting the
Christians in their worship. In 1831 she ban-
ished the French, who had obtained a consid-
erable foothold, from the island, and in 1835
compelled the English missionaries and teach-
ers to go also. Ere long she prohibited all
Christian worship, condemned to death all
who avowed themselves Christians, and en-
deavored to extirpate Christianity from the
island. When her son, then a youth of seven-
teen, avowed himself a Christian, tenderly as
she loved him, she was with difficulty re-
strained from putting him to death. Thou-
sands did suffer martyrdom by her orders.
Yet at this very time she maintained a vigor-
ous foreign policy. When, in 1845, English
and French cruisers attempted to break her
authority, and bombarded and burned Tama-
tave, and landed their troops to attack the
fort, they were repelled with such vigor by
the queen's troops, and so thoroughly defeated
and routed, that they were glad to escape to
their ships. For eight years neither nation
attempted to enter a Madagascar port, and
when they sought, in 1853, to renew commer-
cial relations, the queen demanded and ob-
tained an indemnity for her losses.

In 1862 the queen died, when her son, Rada-

MADAGASCAR.

MAHDI, EL.

507

ma II, reigned in her stead. He attempted to
restore Christianity ; but he had not inherited
the abilities of his parents, and for some cause
he became obnoxious to his people, and in 1863
he was assassinated. His widow became his
successor by election (the government being
constitutional), under the name of Rasuahe-
rina I. This queen gave to the missionaries and
Christians free toleration, abolished the slave-
trade, and checked infanticide and the trial
by ordeal. Early in 1868 Queen Rasuahe-
rina died, and was succeeded by her sister,
who assumed the title of Ranavalena Manjaka
IT, and in 1869, on the occasion of her mar-
riage with her prime minister, both publicly
professed Christianity. The schools were all
reopened, and greatly increased in numbers.
A large printing-office was established in the
capital, and the Scriptures, religious books, and
school-books were produced to the amount of
more than a million volumes in a year. Many
new churches were erected, the number of
communicants was stated at 350,000, and the
whole of the Hovas and a considerable portion
of the Sakalavas and the subject tribes became
nominally Christian. There was, however, a
strong heathen element among these tribes.

The French, who had regained their former
standing on the south of the island and on a
small island (Nossi-Be') at the northwest, had
stationed Jesuit missionaries there, and these
attempted to win the other tribes away from
the Hova influence, and if they could not draw

em to alliance with France and to a profes-
sion of the Roman Catholic faith, determined,
at least, to drive them back to heathenism,
and to rebellion against the Hova government.
It is a singular fact that since the establish-
ment of the republic in France, while its
home policy has been exceedingly liberal, its
foreign policy has been controlled entirely by
Jesuit influences. At the prompting of these
Jesuit missionaries, France soon found or made
a cause of quarrel with Madagascar. She
claimed that her citizens had met with losses
in the island, and she demanded a large in-
demnity. Unwilling to be involved in a quar-
rel with a great power, the queen, though be-
lieving the claim to be unjust, offered to pay
the indemnity, but thereupon the French ad-
miral demanded that Madagascar should be
placed under the protection of France, and be
governed by French officers. To this gross
and unwarranted assumption the queen gave a
prompt but courteous refusal, and the French
admiral issued his ultimatum, requiring her
consent, or he would bombard the port of
Tamatave. She persisted in her refusal, and
the port was bombarded, and some injury done
to English citizens, which the French Govern-
ment was afterward obliged to apologize and
pay for. The Jesuit missionaries were now
required to leave the capital; but while the
Hovas had been driven out of Tamatave on an
hour's notice, and all their goods seized, these
Jesuits were allowed three days to dispose of

!

their effects, and to remove them, and by the
queen's orders they were provided with trans-
portation and sustenance to the French lines.
Queen Ranavalena sent ambassadors of the
highest rank to the Governments of France,
Germany, England, and the United States, pro-
testing against the course pursued by the French
officers, and asking for treaties with the Ger-
man, English, and American Governments, and
for their protection. Treaties were made with
these governments, that with the United States
being ratified in March, 1883. They recognize
the fact that the Hova government is the only
organized government on the island, and make
provision for the protection of our commerce
there, and of their rights here. While the em-
bassadors were absent from Madagascar, Queen
Ranavalena II died, in July, 1883. Her hus-
band carried on the government till the elec-
tion of a new queen, which took place in No-
vember. The new queen is a cousin of the
late queen, and takes the title of Rasuaherina
II. It is said that she will be required to
marry the prime minister, who is the real sov-
ereign.

The French invasion has made no progress
since the early autumn. During the reign of
the late queen, infanticide and the trial by or-
deal were prohibited, under the severest penal-
ties, the slave-trade was completely abolished,
the negro slaves, from the African coast, were
emancipated, and the domestic slavery — a mild
form of peonage, the peons being natives of
the island, and belonging to the subject tribes
— was greatly mitigated, and will soon be en-
tirely abolished. A regular Parliament is to
be established during 1884. The Sakalavas,
once a powerful tribe, are now broken into
small fragmentary tribes. (For latest explora-
tion, see page 387.)

MAHDI, EL, commonly called "the False
Prophet." This name is the title of an ex-
pected deliverer of Islam, signifying " He
whose path is directed by God." The Fagih
Mohammed Achmed claims to be the prophe-
sied Mahdi. The prophecy is ascribed to Mo-
hammed, and is to the effect that in the year
1300 of the Hegira an inspired leader will
appear who will complete the victory of the
Mohammedan faith on earth. Some of the
signs by which he is to be known are, that he
shall bear the same name as the founder of
Islam ; that his right arm shall be longer than
his left ; that he shall have a wart on his right
cheek, etc. Several persons in recent times
have been supposed to fulfill the prediction,
among them the Emir Abd-el-Kader. The
Fagih Ibrahim Sherif ed Din, in Bagirmi, at-
tracted thousands of followers as long ago
as 1857, in the character of t-he Mahdi. Oth-
ers, in various Mohammedan lands, have un-
dertaken the role. The most noteworthy is
the head of the Senussi order, Sidi-Mahdi-ben-
Senussi, who was announced by his father, Sidi-
Mohamrned-ben-Ali-es-Senussi, as the coming
divine emissary, whose epoch would be marked

508

MAHDI, EL.

MAINE.

by the downfall of the Turkish sultanate, and
the re-establishment of the Arab power.

Mohammed Achrned was born about 1842,
in Dar Dungala, a district of Nubia, on the left
bank of the Nile, in latitude 20°. The inhab-
itants of this district furnish the bulk of the
Gellabas, or itinerant traders, who devote
themselves to the slave-traffic, and the Fagihs,
or interpreters of the Koran, in the Soudan,
who, beyond an indifferent acquaintance with
the doctrines of the sacred book, and a knowl-
edge of reading and writing, are not superior
in education to the rest of this population. Mo-
hammed Achmed, in his youth, worked with
his brothers as a boat-builder in Khartoum.
Possessed with the desire to become a Fagih,
he learned to read and write, and for some
time kept a school in Khartoum. He then
went to the district of Tamaniat, thirty-two
miles north of Khartoum, where he established
himself as a Fagih. These teachers of the
Koran, since that book embodies the law as
well as the religion of Mohammedans, and is
supposed to contain all the rules of civil con-
duct, are the counselors of the people in all
the affairs of life. They bear the title of
sheik. Nur-ed-Din, another Dongola Fagih,
was already settled there, but the Sheik
Mohammed Achmed attracted a considerable
clientele. Ere long he settled on the White
Nile, residing part of the time on the island of
Aba, in 13° 20' north latitude, and the rest in
a small village, named after himself, on the
right bank, a little to the north. Up to this
time he possessed no greater influence or im-
portance than the multitude of other Fagihs
of the Soudan. He now began the life of a
dervish, and took up his abode in a dried-up
cistern on the island. For six years he only
left his cave on Fridays, to go to the mosque,
and passed all his time in contemplation and
the study of the Koran. His object was to
assume the role of the Mahdi, but he gave no
intimation of his mission at this time. Re-
ports were spread far and wide of his fasting
and meditation, of the emotion he exhibited in
reading the Koran, and of his benignant kind-
ness. The custom grew up of visiting the holy
man to receive his advice on religious matters.
Large crowds of pilgrims to the hermitage ex-
tended his fame.

When he had become widely revered as a
saint, and felt sure of his influence, he finally
announced himself as the man of prophecy.
To a large assembly he unfolded his mission in
the following language : " Twice already have
I been called upon by the archangel Gabriel
to unsheathe the sword of the faith, in order
to reform the bad Moslem, and establish the
peace of the world by a universal Moham-
medan empire. To this mission have I been
summoned by the Prophet. Follow me, there-
fore, for I am the Mahdi, and I will lead you
into the kingdom which Allah has prepared
for the faithful." In the first half of 1881
he issued proclamations to the Arab tribes of

the Kababish, Allowin, and Baggara, saying:
"Know that God has chosen me to the great
succession, and that the Prophet, lord of life,
has announced that I am the expected Mahdi,
and has placed me upon his seat over princes
and lords ; and God is with me in person, and
has set upon me the marks of prophecy, which
are the warts on my right cheek."

When Raouf Pasha, Governor-General of the
Soudan, heard in July, 1881. of these proclama-
tions, he sent Abu Saud to summon Moham-
med Achmed to Khartoum. The False Proph-
et was found in his village, with a guard of a
dozen armed Arabs. To the question why he
created a disturbance, he said that he was the
Mahdi ; that he had been called by the Proph-
et, who appeared to him in his sleep, and that
he only preached this to the people. He re-
fused to go to Khartoum, and, when threat-
ened with arrest, declared : " God shields me.
Your soldiers will be devoured by the earth
and the water." Mohammed Achmed's broth-
ers offered to bring him to Khartoum and fur-
nish security for his good behavior, but Abu
Saud inconsiderately declined their assistance.
In the expedition of three hundred infantry
with a cannon, sent to capture.the pretend-
ed Mahdi, three officers disputed the command.
The troops, on landing, broke up into little
bands, which the followers of the Mahdi, ex-
asperated by the act of one of the officers, who
shot a man that he mistook for the prophet,
cut down without mercy. The steamer lay-
to before the village, and Abu Saud, who re-
mained on board, made preparations to can-
nonade the place. Mohammed Achmed rode
down to the bank and waited, only a dozen
yards from the muzzle of the cannon, while
the nervous artillerist loaded the piece and
fired. Such miraculous proofs of divine pro-
tection the Mahdi never lost an opportunity of
showing. His later exploits, and the circum-
stances which enabled him to raise the banner
of revolt in Kordofan, Darfour, Sennaar, and
on the Red Sea coast, are described in another
place. (See EGYPT.)

MAINE. State Government. — The following
were the State officers during the year : Gov-
ernor, Frederick Robie, Republican ; Secre-
tary of State, Joseph O. Smith; Treasurer,
S. A. Holbrook ; Attorney-General, Henry B.
Cleaves ; Superintendent of Common Schools,
N. A. Luce; Land Agent, Cyrus Packard;
Insurance Commissioner, Joseph B. Peaks.
Judiciary, Supreme Court : Chief-Justice, John
Appleton ; Associate Judges, Charles W. Wal-
ton, William S. Barrows, Charles Danforth,
William W. Virgin, John A. Peters, Artemas
Libby, and John W. Symonds.

Legislative Session.— The Legislature convened
on the 3d of January and adjourned on the
15th of March until the 29th of August. On
the 16th of January William P. Frye, Repub-
lican, was re-elected United States Senator
over Harris M. Plaisted, Fusionist, by 27 to 3
in the Senate and 108 to 37 in the House.

MAINE.

509

There were passed at this session 352 acts
and 97 resolves. Among these measures were
the following:

Prescribing that, unless otherwise provided in the
resolve submitting it, every constitutional amend-
ment shall take effect on the first Wednesday of
January following its adoption by the people.

Providing for greater security against fire in build-
ings used for public purposes, prescribing fire-escapes,
the opening of doors outward, etc.

Providing for an annual examination of the accounts
of the State Treasurer.

To provide for the establishment of titles to lands
among the Penobscot Indians, and for the preservation
of evidence of such titles.

Kelative to the taxation of horse-railroad companies.

To prevent deception in sales of butter and cheese.

For the prevention of cruelty to animals, prohibit-
big cock and dog fights, and prescribing the manner
of transporting cattle and other animals oy rail.

Providing for the granting of conditional pardons.

Amending section 2 of chapter fifty -nine of the re-
vised statutes by striking out in the first and second
lines the words following : " No white person shall
intermarry with a negro, Indian, or mulatto, and,"
so that said section, as amended, shall read, "No
insane person or idiot shall be capable of contracting
marriage."

Kestoring the death-penalty for murder.

Providing for the taxation of telephone companies.

Concerning trade-marks and their registration.

The following constitutional amendment pro-
hibiting the liquor-traffic was proposed, to be
submitted to a popular vote :

Resolved, Two thirds of both Houses of the Legis-
lature concurring, that the following amendment to
the Constitution of the State be proposed, viz. :

The manufacture of intoxicating liquors, not in-
cluding cider, and the sale and keeping for sale of
intoxicating liquors, are and shall be forever pro-
hibited. Except, however, that the sale and keeping
for sale of such liquors for medicinal and mechanical
purposes and the arts, and the sale and keeping for
sale of cider, may be permitted under such regulations
as the Legislature may provide. The Legislature shall
enact laws with suitable penalties for the suppression
of the manufacture, sale, and keeping for sale of in-
toxicating liquors, with the exceptions herein specified.

The divorce laws were amended so as to read
as follows :

• SECTION 2. A divorce from the bonds of matrimony
may be decreed by the supreme judicial court in the
county where either party resides at the commence-
ment of proceedings, for causes of adultery, impotency ,
. extreme cruelty, utter desertion, continued for three
consecutive years next prior to the filing of the libel,
gross and confirmed habits of intoxication, cruel and
abusive treatment, or on tne libel of the wife, where
the husband, being of sufficient ability, grossly or
wantonly and cruelly refuses or neglects to provide
suitable maintenance for her: provided the parties
were married in this State, or cohabited here after
marriage ; or, if the libelant resided here when the
' cause of divorce accrued, or had resided here in good
faith one year prior to the commencement of proceed-
ings. Either party may be a witness.

SEC. 3. All decrees of divorce shall, in the first in-
stance, be decrees nisi, to become absolute after the
expiration of six months from the entry thereof, on
the application of either party to the clerk of the
court, and on such application the clerk shall enter a
final decree ; unless the court has for sufficient cause,
on application of any party interested, otherwise or-

SEC. 4. After a divorce from the bonds of matri-
mony, the party on whose petition the divorce was
granted shall not marry again within two years after

the entry of the final decree, except on permission
granted oy the court. The party against whom the
divorce was granted shall not marry again within two
years from the entry of said decree, and not afterward
except on permission granted by the court.

•Several acts were also passed for the protec-
tion of salmon, landlocked salmon, trout, her-
ring, lobsters, moose, caribou, and deer, restrict-
ing the pursuit of them.

The Legislature reassembled pursuant to ad-
journment, received and accepted the report
of the committee on the revision of the statutes,
and adjourned sine die.

Temperance and Greenback Conventions. — A
Temperance Convention was held in January,
which put forth resolutions declaring that
prohibition has been successful in Maine ; that
alcoholic liquors are unnecessary for medicinal
purposes, unchristian for sacramental uses, and
not indispensable for mechanics and arts ; and
asking for a prohibitory amendment.

On September 19th about fifty members of
the Greenback party met in Lewiston, and after
vigorous opposition adopted resolutions reaf-
firming the national platform adopted at Chi-
cago, June 9, 1880, and calling a State Conven-
tion in May, 1884.

Common Schools.— The State Superintendent
of Schools reports that the year 1883 was a
very satisfactory one. The amounts of money
available for educational purposes were in-
creased $46,145, making the total resources of
the State $1,079,015, of which amount $706,-
843 came from tbe town treasuries, $33,554
from local funds, and the balance from the
State treasury. The ,sums expended amount
to $1,001,470, an increase of $49,121, which
leaves a balance of $77,545 unexpended. The
average wages paid to male teachers, exclud-
ing board, were $31.81 a month, au increase of
$2.28, and tbe average wages paid to female
teachers, excluding board, were $15.36 a month,
an increase of 76 cents. The whole number of
pupils in the State is returned to the superin-
tendent's office as 213,877, an increase of 870,
but the number of different pupils attending
school was 146,916, a decrease of 1,072.

Sayings-Banks. — The number of savings-banks
and institutions of savings doing business in
the State is 54, the Pembroke Savings-Bank
during the year having voluntarily surrendered
its charter. The present number of depositors
is 101,822, of whom 80,982 have to their credit
a sum not exceeding $500 each, and the aver-
age of the whole being $308.10 to each de-
positor. The aggregate amount of deposits
Nov. 1, 1883, was $31,371,868.87. The num-
ber of depositors Nov. 1, 1882, was 95,489 and
the amount of deposits $29,503,889.71, show-
ing an increase during the year of 6,383 ac-
counts and $1,867,979.16 in amount, and a de-
crease in tbe average of each deposit of 77
cents. Regular semi-annual dividends were
paid by all the savings-banks as follows : One
bank 6 per cent, per annum, four banks 5 per
cent., five banks 4£ per cent., four banks 4}
per cent., forty banks 4 per cent.

510

MAINE.

Ship-building and Ship-owning.— The following
is a comparative summary for the past two
years :

1882.

1883.

No.

Tons.

No.

TOM.

Barka

4

8,654-36

Barkentines
Brigs

12

5,897-02

6

2

3,489-29
936-40

Schooners . ....

124

89,821-52

133

87,937-79

Sloops

7

120-91

7

204-69

Ships
Steamers ....

14
11

24,862-24
4383-22

13
9

26,251-92
2,283-68

Total . . .

168

75.084-91

174

74.703-18

RECAPITULATION.

DISTRICTS.

1880.

1881.

1882.

1883.

36,147-82
1,589-50
9.008-39
838-07
602-41
897-04
4,881-04
981-00
5,768-49
11,274-01
2,420-36

74,708-13

Bath

22,185-92
88-89
2,257-72
1,845-99
28-89
1,746-47
1,007-53

86,834-13
1,042-75
5,677-46
1,390-32
81-80
1,956-09
393-30
182-90
2.087 10
8,551-00
1,346-58

58,092-93

42,137-71
1,402-50
6,681-03
1,055-57
246-32
730-92
2,904-40
83-75
5,379-53
13,258-58
2,174-59

75,084^91

Bangor

Belfast

Castine

Frenchman's Bay..
Kennebunk

Machias

Portland
WaJdoboro1
Wiscasset

3,099-11
4,312-94
278-69

35,847-15

Aggregate

The size of the schooners built in 1882 aver-
aged 321'14 tons; this year the average has
only been 285-22 tons, but the average size of
the ships built has increased from 1,775*87 tons
in 1882 to 2,019*38 tons this year.

The following table shows the tonnage of
the vessels owned in the several districts, as
well as the number of fishermen :

DISTRICTS.

11

i*

1

Hi

g-S 3

185

27497

60

Bath ...

294

161,051

$5 708 575

189

43

Belfast
Castine

822
304

93,529
24,264

2,025,000
48,200

1,7<>7
2,355

500
650

Frenchman's Bay
Kennebunk .

252
36

14,824
4,829

376,500

1,719
279

440
200

Machias

234

23,480

496,700

519

500

Passamaquoddy
Portland ..
Saco . . .

211
896
23

24,679
120,739

2908

820,000
3,950,000

1,139
7,014
60

5,000

tsoo

20

Waldoboro'
Wiscasset
York

480
151
11

123,405
6,574
843

4,898,787
* 7 200

35,500
2,380
88

2,000
800
80

Total

2,899

628,122

$17,830,912

53,014

11,988

Of the vessels owned, 102 are steamers with
an aggregate tonnage of 17,369, and valued at
$1,696,645. The total number of men engaged
in navigation is 12,868, whose average monthly
wages amount to $26. The average wages in
the Waldoboro' district rises as high as $60,
and in the Machias district the average is $32.
In the Castine, Kennebunk, Passamaquoddy,
Portland, and Saco districts the average is $25 ;
in the Bath, Belfast, and York districts it is $20,
and in the Frenchman's Bay and Wiscasset dis-
tricts it is $18. The average monthly wages
of those engaged in the fisheries is $32.50 — in
the Castine district, $50 ; Kennebunk and Wis-
casset, $40; Machias, 35; Waldoboro', $38;

Frenchman's Bay, $26 ; Portland and Saco,
$25; York, $16.

Manufacturing.— The following is derived from
the report of the Secretary of State :

COUNTIES.

Assessed value
of manufactur-
ing property.

Hands em-
ployed in
manufacturing.

Androscoggin

$7,699 951

11520

Aroostook .

803555

1 137

Cumberland. . . .

8 622 285

18 187

Franklin

222 861

1 501

Hancock

449 4gQ

1 852

Kennebec. .

1 394'535

4 589

Knox

1*027 300

3 390

Lincoln

288*200

'854

Oxford

7(10 840

1 966

Penobscot

2 320 050

6 655

Piscataquis. .

'408'990

1 476

Sagadahoc .... ....

1 082 100

s'sos

Somerset

978 350

2'965

Waldo

276835

1 828

Washington

1 243 648

3 989

York.. ....:::::::

5 102 389

9787

Total

$27 124,649

69904

The statistics of the cotton-manufacturing in-
dustries show that the whole number of mills in
the State is 26; number of spindles, 786,182;
capital, $12,987.40; amount paid for labor, $3,-
608,234; value of materials, $7,660,008; value
of goods manufactured, $11 2,783,585 ; value of
products, $9,939,389 ; number of hands em-
ployed, 14,903. The wages of skilled opera-
tors are $1.88 per day for men, and $1.17 for
women ; unskilled, $1.05 for men, 86 cents for
women. Three mills report increase of ca-
pacity during the year.

In woolen manufacturing there are 63 mills;
capital, $4,103,160; value of products, $7,-
902,161; value of materials used, $3,526,589;
amount paid for labor, $1,420,595 ; hands em-
ployed, 5,159; wool used annually, 1,404,853
pounds of foreign and 7,551,984 of domestic.

The total number of ice-houses in the State
is 64 ; number of tons cut, 911,500 ; number of
tons shipped, 801,410; capital invested, $2,007,-
500 ; greatest number of hands employed, 6,530 ;
number of teams employed, 578 ; average wages
paid, $1.53 a day for men and $2.76 for teams.

The total number of establishments turning
out canned products is 104 ; assessed value,
$638,050 ; number of hands, 9,509. The fol-
lowing table shows the classification:

MATERIALS.

Facto-
ries.

Assessed
value.

Hands.

Corn

41

$221,200

2,266

8

12600

486

Corn, meat and fish

4

11 500

205

Blueberries .

5

24,100

851

Fish

13

69,550

871

Fish and sardines

3

6,860

235

Fish and lobsters

8

100 300

3550

Sardines.

22

92670

1,640

Lobsters

1

1,100

25

Lobsters, sardines, and blueberries.

4

60,000

820

In the granite business there are 44 compa-
nies engaged, with an assessed value of property
of $533,100; hands employed, 2,543.

Seventeen companies are in the lime busi-
capital, $415,100; hands employed, 822.

MAINE.

• In slate the total number of companies doing
business is 11 : assessed value, $81,000 ; hands
employed, 420.

There are 45 yards in the State used in ship-
building. Capital, $1,645,500; hands employed,
4,345; average wages of skilled labor, $2.53;
ordinary labor, $1.78; materials produced in
Maine, $357,500 ; all lumber, $1,076,800.

Financial. — The following table shows the
financial standing of the counties on the last
day of the year 1882 :

MANITOBA.

511

1
Androscoggin . . .

fotal liabilities.

$95,070 64

Penobscot . . .

Total liabilities
.. $54,949 07

Aroostook
Cumberland
Franklin
Hancock

17,549 93
27,652 03
1,994 31

387 50

Piscataquis . .
Sagadahoc . . .
Somerset
Waldo

6,633 18
. . 64,000 00
6,241 02
5,063 94

28145 28

85 876 12

York

1 321 06

3,472 49

Oxford

1,266 67

Total

... $402,628 24

The reduction of the indebtedness of coun-
ties for the year 1882 was $61,438.91. The
several counties expended in 1882 the sum of
$5,796,774.39, divided as follows: State tax,
$971,877.59; county tax, $-271,959.32 ; schools,
$903,698.76 ; highways and bridges, $692,-
415.82; support of the poor, $352,895.77; all
other purposes, $2,615,190.27.

A net reduction was made in the public in-
debtedness in the State, for the year, of $924,-
572.76.

The number of taxable polls in 1882 was
50,936; in 1883, 152,974. The total valua-
' n in 1882 was $221,599,220 ; in 1883, $225,-
:94,075.

Lumbering. — Of the lumber rivers of the East,
Penobscot, in the magnitude of its product,
far above its competitors. In eighteen years
ast there has been cut upon the banks of this
river and its branches the immense amount of
3,137,903,254 feet of lumber, board measure,
and this has been sent to all parts of the world
from the port of Bangor. Th is is an average
" 174,327,958 feet a year. The foreign trade
clined from 1875 steadily, until in 1879 it was
most nothing, everything going coastwise,
he United Kingdom deal -trade was taken
•om Bangor by St. John, New Brunswick,
hich, being in a British province, could sell
eaper. Then Banger's European deals were
wed into New York stuff, which paid better.

West India trade continues.
About one third of the logs cut on the Pe-
obscot are sawed into lumber at the steam-
ills on the river at Bangor. The other two
irds are manufactured by the great water-mills
hich dot the valley at intervals of twelve
iles above the city.

The lumber-cut of 1883-'84 will be smaller
1 over the State than was that of the previ-
us season. The principal reasons are the low
rices, a general feeling that the business has
en overdone, and the destruction wrought by
the recent tornado, which has made many lo-
calities impracticable for lumbering. The cut
of 1882-'83 was about 175,000,000 feet, the
largest for a long while, and, although the water-

courses were not very high, there was an easy
driving-pitch in most courses, and only about
7,000,000 feet of logs were hung up or left be-
hind. When the river opened to navigation
there were about 35,000,000 feet of old logs at
the up-river booms and 12,000,000 feet at the
Bangor steam-mills. These amounts, added to
the amount of new logs driven in, made a to-
tal of 15,000,000 feet for the year's sawing.

Agriculture* — The acres of land under cultiva-
tion, including pasturing, are 2,865,661 ; acres
of waste land, bog, etc., number 813,404 ; acres
of hard-wood growth, 1,728,970 ; acres of soft-
wood growth, 2,274,399; acres of water-sur-
face, 476,664 ; number of farms, 60,835 ; num-
ber of farms occupied by owners, 53,737 ; num-
ber occupied by tenants, 3,403 ; number of
land-owners, 83,213 ; number of farm-laborers,
12,988 ; average wages paid per month, $18.90.

Miscellaneous. — During the year ending Nov.
30, 1883, 48,464 barrels of mackerel were in-
spected, 15,084 of herring, 307 of alewives, and
1,427 of cod.

The report of the Attorney- General for the
year ending Dec. 1, 1883, shows the number of
prosecutions and offenses for the year to be
T,343, as follow : homicides, 4 ; arson, 7 ; per-
jury, etc., 4 ; forgery and counterfeiting, 4 ;
compound larceny, 45 ; larceny, 83; burglary,
5 ; robbery, 3 ; rape, 3 ; assault with felonious
intent, 20; assault and battery, 108; offenses
against chastity, morality, etc., 19 ; malicious
mischief, 11; cheating and conspiracies, 7 ; de-
fects in highway, 5; nuisances, 161; violation
of liquor law, 628 ; other offenses, 170 ; costs
allowed by court and county commissioners,
$59,521.89 ; amount of fines and costs imposed,
$43,520.01 ; amount of fines and costs collect-
ed, $39,919.10.

MANITOBA, a province of the Dominion of
Canada, formed in 1870. Area, about 125,000
square miles. Winnipeg, the capital, stands at
the confluence of the Assiniboine and Red riv-
ers, near lat. 50°. In 1870 it was simply a Hud-
son Bay Company's post, named Fort Garry,
with a 'population of about 200. The census
of 1881 showed a population of 8,000, and since
then it has increased to about 25,000. Seven
lines of railway center in the city.

History. — Owing to the disturbed state of the
colony during the years 1866-'67, the Hud-
son Bay Company expressed to the Govern-
ment of Great Britain a desire to give up the
civil control of the colony, merely retaining
its commercial rights. With a view to amal-
gamate this territory with the other British-
American provinces, provision was made in
1867m the " British North America Act," for
this purpose. The negotiations for the trans-
fer of the territory from the Hudson Bay Com- '
pany to the British Government, and from it
to Canada, were completed during 1868. The
company reserved the right of trade, and its
forts with the lands surrounding them, as well
as one twentieth of all the land between the
Lake of the Woods and the Rocky mountains

512

MANITOBA.

south of the line of the North Saskatchewan.
It was to receive from Canada, through the
British Government, £300,000 in cash. By
a strange oversight, no mention was made of
the colonists in this transfer to Canada, the
evident belief being that all residents were
officials or servants of the company. This
caused dissatisfaction among English, Scotch,
and French alike ; but no action would have
been taken to prevent the peaceable transfer
of the district but for other reasons.

In 1868 the settlement was visited by the
grasshopper scourge, which reduced the colo-
nists to the verge of starvation. To relieve
the distress, and to create a kindly feeling for
Canada, the Canadian Government sent agents
into the district with authority to construct a
road from Winnipeg to the Lake of the Woods,
thus intending to give the colonists employ-
ment during the winter. But the agents paid
small wages, and charged high prices for the
provisions sold to the men. Other causes of
trouble were as follow : During 1866 and sub-
sequent years the Fenians were active in their
hostility to Great Britain, and some of them
found their way to this discontented colony
and assisted in sowing seeds of corruption.
Again, in a settlement so isolated as this one
was from Canada, and at the same time con-
tiguous to the United States, there were natu-
rally more American citizens than Canadians ;
and, even among some of the older residents,
stronger ties of business and of friendship had
been formed with the country at hand than
with the distant Canada. These disseminated
republican ideas, and endeavored to overthrow
British rule. But the most potent cause of
final disturbances was the French Roman Cath-
olic element. These numbered nearly half of
the entire population ; and they were offended
because their race and their religion were not
specially recognized at first in the negotiations
of transfer. When the Governor appointed
by the Canadian Government presented him-
self in the settlement, in 1869, he was refused
admittance by the French party. The " loyal
citizens " were then summoned to put down
the rebellious party. This the English and
Scotch could easily have done ; but while they
would not actively oppose the transfer, they
refused to assist in establishing the authority
of Canada, arguing that as Canada had ac-
quired the territory without consulting them,
she was in duty bound to establish her author-
ity without assistance from them. The "Pro-
visional Government " was soon after formed,
being composed of French- and English-speak-
ing residents, in equal numbers. But the Eng-
lish soon withdrew from all active part in the
management of affairs. Local agitations ex-
cited the " Provisional Council" to such an ex-
tent that one man was tried by court-martial
and shot for opposing the French party. This
was at once the signal for complete disruption
between the English and French residents, and
the means of stirring the Canadian Govern-

ment to decided action. Early in 1870 a bri-
gade of soldiers was dispatched from Can-
ada, under the command of Colonel Garnet
Wolseley. Great delay and ill-feeling were
caused by the refusal of the United States
Government to allow the steamers carrying the
provisions to pass through the Sault St. Marie
canal. From Thunder Bay, on Lake Superior,
to Winnipeg is 500 miles. Of this distance
over 400 were traversed in small boats with-
out unloading, although for 50 or 60 miles they
had to be hauled against strong currents. Of-
ten Col. Wolseley himself assisted in the work,
wading to the arm-pits. At every portage both
the boats and their loads had to be carried over
on the backs of the hardy soldiers. It was such
work as this that led Sir Garnet Wolseley to say,
in his address on returning from the Ashantee
war, that " he wished for a battalion of his
Canadians — the best troops in the world." The
brigade reached Winnipeg in the latter part of
August, only to find that the President of the
Provisional Government and his confreres had
made a hasty exit from the town. Col. Wolse-
ley was escorted from Lake Winnipeg to Fort
Garry (Winnipeg) by the Hon. Donald A.
Smith, Governor of the Hudson Bay Company,
who formally transferred its territories to Can-
ada. It has since transpired that the leaders
in the rebellion were furnished, by order of
the Canadian Government, with funds from
the Council of Assiniboia, to defray their ex-
penses to the United States — their absence or
voluntary banishment being considered the ea-
siest way out of the difficulties.

Physical Geography.— The Eed river plain lies
between the Laurentian plateau, near the 95th
meridian, and the highlands which cross the
boundary-line at Pembina mountain, a direct
width of 52 miles. The Laurentian plateau is
the same that extends north of the St. Law-
rence and the great lakes from Labrador to
the Lake of the Wo6ds. At this point it turns
suddenly northward and continues onward till
finally lost on the Arctic Ocean shores. This
plateau — or, as many geographers term it, this
mountain- range — forms on the one hand the
water-shed between the great St. Lawrence
lakes and Hudson and James bays, and on the
other between Hudson Bay and the Arctic
Ocean. The only depression or break in the
whole length is where the Nelson and the
Churchill flow through into Hudson Bay.

The first steppe includes the valley of Red
river and the country immediately surrounding
Lakes Winnipeg, Manitoba, and Winnipegosis.
The average height of this plain is 800 feet
above sea-level. It embraces, including 14,000
square miles of lakes and drowned lands, about
56,000 square miles. The northern portions
are covered with timber, while the southern
are either entirely bare, or thinly covered with
poplar. In short, wherever the prairie fires
have swept, there are no trees. The southern
portion of this plain, from Minnesota and Da-
kota to Lake Winnipeg, about 7,000 square

MANITOBA.

513

miles, is very fertile. This plain does not in-
clude any of the Coteau de Missouri, or the
" Height of Land," lying chiefly south of the
49th parallel and extending to the mountains.

The soil has ;i rich dark color, due to the
accumulation of prairie-fire remains, to the
deposits of the millions of wild fowl that even
still frequent the province, and to the droppings
and bones of the buffalo that now frequent it
no more. Like all prairie-land, it is hard to
" break," but when broken is easily tilled.
The marly alluvium underlying the surface is
also a soil of the best quality.

Climate. — Like the climate of the whole in-
terior of North America, that of Manitoba is
very warm in summer and very cold in winter.
The autumn is colder than in Ontario or in
northern New York, while the spring is from
one to three weeks earlier. Once the spring
begins, it becomes warm suddenly. The mean
annual temperature at Fort Shaw is 46-91° ; at
Winnipeg, 34-31° ; at Toronto, 46-05°.

The rapid spring and warm summer, and the
entire absence of frosts during those periods,
satisfactorily determine Manitoba's fitness for
agricultural pursuits. The winters in the Red
river settlement are undoubtedly severe ; but,
owing to^the great dryness of the atmosphere,
the cold is not felt nearly so much as in more
southern moist climates.

Vegetation is rapid, and fruits, flowers, and
garden vegetables grow to maturity with as
little danger from frosts as in central Ontario.

The following figures represent the average
yield per acre, of the named products, for the
five years ending 1881. (In all cases fractions
are thrown off.)

1877.

1878.

1879.

1880.

1881.

Wheat
Oats

26
59

26
59

26

58

29

57

80
59

Barley . . .

40

63

37

41

40

Peas
Eye

82
30

84
30

82
40

38
40

38
85

Potatoes
Turnips

304

808

302

818

820

1,000

In 1881 farmers residing near Winnipeg ex-
hibited at > the local fairs roots and vegeta-
bles of the following dimensions : Cabbage, 49
pounds; carrots, 11 pounds: turnips, 32 pounds;
potatoes, 4 pounds ; squash of seven weeks'
growth, 5 feet 6 inches around; onions, 4|
inches through ; citrons, 18 pounds ; mangolds,
27 pounds ; beets, 23 pounds.

Settlement.— During 1881 and 1882 more than
150,000 immigrants settled in the Canadian
Northwest. In the first four months of 1883
there were 25,000. These are chiefly from
Great Britain, Germany, Norway and Sweden,
and Canada — at least 60,000 from the latter.

Fuel. — Coal or lignite underlies the whole
country from the 49th parallel to the Arctic
Ocean, and from the Souris river, 250 miles
west of Winnipeg, to the Rocky mountains.
The following are some results of analyses made
of coal from the various localities along the
line of the Canada Pacific Railway :
VOL. xxiii.— 33 A

LOCALITY.

if

II

•5

Ji
i

I

VoUtil, com-
bustible mat-

1

Souris valley

Mil- .

25C
268

Feet. In.
2 8
8 2

Per ct.
45-48

Per ct.

89-77

Perct.

|-;s

Souris valley

263

6 6

84' 82

48'30

4*88

Souris valley
Great valley
Great valley
Porcupine

263
844
846

390

7 8
5 0
4 0

18 0

49-31
48-61
88-68
46-20

88-98
84-90
44-48
85' 14

4-71
449

4-89
6*66

Porcupine
Bow river.. ,
Belly river

891
650
700

18 0
6 0
4 6

86-88
65-70
56'54

89-97
29-81
81 '08

11-70
8-78
6 "91

The figures indicate the quality of the coal
in the river-valleys. As the banks of the streams
are very high, the seams are all exposed, and
can be worked horizontally. There are many
smaller seams, both above and below the main
seams. In the Bow and Belly river districts
the coal is somewhat better than on the Souris.
The deep river-valleys are found only in the sec-
ond and third prairie steppes. The average
height of the second steppe is about 1,300 feet
above the sea. The escarpment forming its
eastern limit crosses the boundary at Pembina
mountain, and continues northwesterly bv the
Blue hills of the Souris. the Blue hills of
Brandon, Riding, Duck. Porcupine, and Bas-
qtiia hills. It has a width of 250 miles along
the 49th parallel, terminating about the 104th
meridian. This vast undulating plain, having a
greater elevation, has been acted on by the
rivers for a much longer period than the first
plain. On a near approach to one of these
rivers, the traveler finds himself on an almost
precipitous embankment, overlooking, at a
height varying between 50 and 350 feet, a
broad, level valley, from 500 to 5,200 yards in
width. Through the "bottom " meanders the
stream, its surface usually some five or ten feet
lower than the valley, unless in the spring,
when the " bottom " becomes one great lake
or river. These valleys, as well as the slopes
and gravelly knolls, are as a rule well timbered
with oak, birch, poplar, aspen, etc. These
" coulees " and the various marshy tracts are
the only effective barriers to the destructive
prairie-fires in their career over the vast plains.
The soil of this steppe closely resembles that of
the first, but it is not so deep.

As the second steppe differs from the first,
so does the third from the second. Its average
height is about 2,000 feet, and its breadth along
the 49th parallel about 465 miles. The section
lying immediately along the line is not consid-
ered good for farming, inasmuch as the north-
ern limit of the " Great American Desert," or
the Coteau de Missouri, extends for about fif-
teen miles into Canada for nearly eighty miles
along the boundary. This strip is almost devoid
of vegetation, its chief product being a thin
growth of cactus and stipa. Immediately north
of this unfruitful tract, and stretching far away
north and northwest to the 60th parallel, ex-
tends in one almost unbroken prairie a great

514

MANITOBA.

MARIO, GIUSEPPE.

fertile belt. The northern portions are in some
places well wooded. The southern is indented
with deep river-valleys, often very broad, and
being themselves intersected with new systems
of " coulees " and gorges. These secondary
systems are well wooded.

The regulations for the sale of land are easily
complied with, the advantage being as much
in favor of the settler as is consistent with
security from fraud for the Government. The
whole country is being surveyed into town-
ships six miles square, each containing thirty-
six sections of 640 acres. These are further
divided into quarter-sections of 160 acres.
Two of the thirty-six sections are set apart
for school purposes, and alternate lots within
twenty-four miles of the railway belong to the
railway company. To settlers the Government
presents a homestead of 160 acres, on condi-
tions of cultivation and actual residence for at
least six months in each year for three years.
The settler may, in addition, pre-empt another
quarter-section. The entire 320 acres must be
partly tilled for three years, at which time the
holder has the first right of purchase from the
Government of the pre-empted 160 acres. Be-
fore an alien may take up a homestead, the
oath of allegiance must be taken.

Government. — Manitoba and the Northwest
Territories are all governed by one Lieutenant-
Governor and Council, partly appointed by
the Canadian Government, and partly elected
by the settlers. The present capital is Regina,
in Assiniboia. Justice is administered in the
Territories by stipendiary magistrates and the
Northwest mounted police. This force consists
of 475 officers and men. Its chief duties are
to preserve order among the Indians, prevent
stealing, and suppress the liquor-traffic.

Education, — The public-school system of Mani-
toba is largely modeled on that of Ontario, and
is administered by a Board of Education, ap-
pointed by the Lieutenant-Go vernor in Coun-
cil, consisting of twenty-one members, twelve
Protestants and nine Roman Catholics. The
appointments are for three years, provision
being made for the retirement of seven mem-
bers annually. The board is empowered to
resolve itself into two sections, consisting of
Protestant and Roman Catholic members re-
spectively, and each section has the entire man-
agement of all the schools of its denomination
throughout the province. The increase in the
attendance at the public schools has kept pace
with the rapid development of the province it-
self, as may be seen by the following table,
which shows the attendance at the Protestant
public schools:

YEAR.

No. of
schools.

Attendance.

YEAR.

No. of
schools.

Attendance.

1871...
1872...
1873...
1874...

1875...
1876 ..

16
17
17
22
26
' 80

816
1,095
1,108

1,248
1,595
1,600

1877..
1878. .
1879..
1880..
1881 . .
1882..

88
50
99
101

128
| 182

2,027
2,670
8,614
8,735
4,919
6,972

The Normal School consists of two depart-
ments ; that for Protestants being in connec-
tion with the Protestant schools of Winnipeg,
and that for Roman Catholics in connection
with the Roman Catholic schools of St. Boni-
face. The principal of the Protestant depart-
ment of the Normal School visits various
parts of the province during a portion of the
year, for the purpose of holding normal insti-
tutes.

St. Boniface College was founded shortly
after the arrival of the Selkirk colonists, for
the training of the children of the employes
of the Northwest Company. It was incorpo-
rated by act of Parliament in 1871, and is in a
flourishing condition.

St. John's College, a mile and a half north
of Fort Garry, was founded many years ago.
In 1866 it was enlarged by the Bishop of Ru-
pert's Land, and was incorporated in 1871.
This institution is under the control of the
English Church.

Manitoba College was established by the
General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church
in Canada 'in 1871. It was incorporated un-
der its present name in 1873, and has rapidly
risen to a foremost position among the educa-
tional institutions of the country.

The University of Manitoba was established
in 1877, by the united action of all the denomi-
nations in the province. Protestants and Ro-
man Catholics agreed that it would be much
better to have only one degree-conferring in-
stitution in the province, and that all existing
colleges and all others that may be founded in
future should be affiliated with it.

MARIO, Ginseppe, Marquis de Candia, an Italian
singer, born in Cagliari, Sardinia, Oct. 18, 1810;
died in Rome, in December, 1883. He entered
the military service of Sardinia, but soon be-
came offended with his assignment, and offered
his resignation. As the Government refused
to accept it, he ran away. He had received
a good musical education, and, having a fine
tenor voice, he soon made a place for himself
in the musical world of Paris. He was in debt,
and accepted an engagement at the French
Opera (assuming the name of Mario), where he
made his d&but in December, 1838, in "Ro-
bert le Diable," and achieved immediate success.
The next year he sang with Rubini at the Italian
Opera, and he soon gained recognition as the
first tenor singer on the stage. He visited Rus-
sia in 1845, and remained there five years; then
went to London and Paris, singing in those two
cities alternately for four years. For some
time previous to this, Grisi had lived with him
as his wife, and finally they were married. In
1854-'55 they made a tour through the United
States, and sang in the principal cities. Mario
made a farewell appearance on the stage at
Coven t Garden, London, in June, 1871 ; but in
1872 he made another concert tour in the
United States. By this time, however, his
voice had begun to fail, and it was evident
that his singing days were over.

MARYLAND.

515

Mario made large amounts of money by his
profession, but was comparatively poor in his
old age. He had a valuable collection of manu-
scripts and autographs, which he left to one
of his three daughters, Mrs. Vaughan.

I«rora the direct tax . $96761811

From internal improvement companies— divi-
dends and interest 261 662 99

From ordinary sources, to wit : Licenses," tax 'on
gross receipts of railroads, tax on insurance
»nd commissions, etc

Total receipts for fiscal year 1888 $2^097,876 88

For the fiscal year 1883 there
were no legislative and attendant
expenses, and not a dollar was car-
ried out of the treasury proper to
the credit of the sinking fund ;
hence the large balance in the treas-
ury at the end of this year.

Says Gov. Hamilton, in his mes-

MARl'LAm State Government.— The follow-
ing were the State officers during the year:
Governor, William T. Hamilton, Democrat;
Secretary of State, James T. Briscoe ; Treas-
urer, Barnes Cornpton ; Comptroller, Thomas
J. Keating ; Attorney- General, C. J. M. Gwinn ;
Adjutant-General, J. Wesley Watkins; Com-
missioner of Lands, William H. Haywood ;
Tax Commissioner, Lev^n Woolford; Insur-
ance Commissioner, Jesse K. Hines. Judiciary,
Court of Appeals: Chief- Justice, James L.
Burtal ; Associate Judges, J. M. Robinson, John
Ritchie, L. T. H. Irving, R. H. Alvey, Frederick
Stone, George Yellott, and Oliver Miller.

Finances. — The condition of the treasury is
shown by the tables of the Comptroller for the
fiscal year ending Sept. 30, 1883:

Total receipts during the fiscal year $2,097,376 88

Balance in the treasury, Sept. 30, 1882 638,506 63

Total ... $2,735,883 51

Disbursements for the fiscal year 1,753,699 99

Balance in the treasury, Sept. 30, 1888 $982.183 52

The receipts into the treasury for the year
were from the following sources:

It appears that there was due from the
treasury proper to the four general loans
the sum of $1,553,307.09 for receipts re-
ceived from the special taxes laid for their
exclusive use. There is but $191,190.48
in the sinking fund to the general ac-
countj and the surplus in the treasury to
meet it, and if both could be applied to
these loans there would still be left a
balance of $379,933.09 due them from the
treasury.

All this large sum was wrongfully taken
for other purposes and illegally expended
upon other objects ; in fact, supplied the
means for the extravagances and abuses
of the past. The laws creating the debts
expressly directed that the revenues from
taxes laid by them should be applied to
the debt, and the Constitution expressly
forbids that they should be used for any
other purpose ; yet neither was observed.
Had they been regarded at all, there
could not be that general balance hi the
treasury that is made to appear at the end
of the last fiscal year. That general bal-
ance does not Belong to the treasury
proper. It should be to the credit of the
shaking fund and invested in securities
for the payment of these debts as they
become due.

The public schools got but $468,970.17
for the last fiscal year, when the tax for
their benefit yielded $516,004.76. The difference of
$49,034.62 is in the general balance in the treasury,
and goes to make up this surplus.

The proceeds from the internal improve-
ment companies are pledged to the payment of
the debt and interest. These have also to
some extent been diverted.

The public debt of the State at the end of
the last fiscal year was $11,269,822.89.

The interest on the public debt for the last
fiscal year was $646,165.16. For the present
fiscal year, ending Sept. 30, 1884, it will be
$578,586.38, and annually thereafter, until re-
duction of debt, $556,060.14.

The productive assets of the State in internal
improvement companies at the end of the last
fiscal year (1883) are as follow :

Stock in Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company.. $968,615 TO .

Stock in Washington Branch 550,000 00

Stock in Baltimore and Frederick Turnpike Com-
pany 11,00000

Bonds in Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company. 866,000 00
Bonds in Northern Central Railroad Company

(mortgage) 1,500,000 00

Total $3,895,615 70

In addition to this there was a partial pay-
ment ($36,000) made during the last. year on

516

MARYLAND.

MASSACHUSETTS.

the mortgage of the Susquehanna and Tide-
water Canal paid by the Philadelphia and Read-
ing Railroad Company.

State Institutions. — The Deaf and Dumb Asy-
lum at Frederick has been receiving an annual
appropriation of $25,000 for its support. Its
last report shows 119 pupils in attendance.
The House of Correction is a large annual
charge upon the treasury. It promises, how-
ever, financial improvement. There were 179
inmates Sept. 30, 1881 ; 276, Dec. 1, 1883; and
340 at the close of the year. The Penitentiary
is self-sustaining. The average annual number
of prisoners has been as follows : 1876, 727 ;
1877,815; 1878, 939; 1879, 813; 1880, 648;
1881, 545; 1882, 510; 1883, 532.

Conduct of Elections.— On this subject Gov.
Hamilton says :

The late registration of voters was conducted with
general satisfaction. By the act of 1882, chapter 22,
section 2, Baltimore was divided into groups of three
precincts in each ward, with a register assigned to
each group, making in all sixty registers for the gen-
eral registration, and for the revision the year follow-
ing, and to continue until the present session, when
the Governor is required to appoint one register for
each ward with a yearly salary of $500 ; thus supersed-
ing the group or precinctal registration and returning
to the old ward system. The objections to making
this a salaried office are apparent and forcible, and a
return to the old system will soon and certainly re-
sult in the accumulation of names upon the registra-
tion-books, and with them all the old abuses of which
so much complaint was made. I recommend that the
law be so amended that the group system for revision
be re-established.

The law for the general conduct of elections should
be revised and amended.

Every person elected or appointed to office, before
taking it should be required to make oath that he had
not, either directly or indirectly, been guilty of brib-
ery, and in all its forms to be prescribed in the oath ;
and it is to be regretted that the present Constitution
omitted even the qualified oath of the kind contained
in the old Constitution.

(Ml-Serviee Reform.— On this subject the Gov-
ernor says :

The civil service in the State requires distinctive
reformation. All assessments upon office-holders,
whether State or national, for political purposes,
should be prohibited ; all interference by office-hold-
ers in primary meetings, conventions, and in elec-
tions, except to vote, should also be prohibited, with
penalties and measures for conviction sufficient to en-
force an observance of the law. This prohibition
should be especially applied to the oyster, the in-
spection, canal? and school services for the State, and
to the police ot the city ; and in addition to the other
penalties prescribed by law, that there be added dis-
missal from such service for a violation of the law.

Party Conventions. — The Democratic State
Convention met in Baltimore on September
19th, and nominated the following ticket:

For Governor, Eobert M. McLane, of Baltimore;
State Comptroller. J. Frank Turner, of Talbot ; At-
torney-General, Charles B. Eoberts, of Carroll.

The Republican State Convention also met
in Baltimore, on the 27th of September, and
nominated the following ticket:

For Governor, Hart B. Holton, of Baltimore coun-
ty ; Comptroller, Washington A. Smith, of Dorches-
ter county ; Attorney-General, R. Stockett Mathews,
of Baltimore city.

Messrs. Smith and Mathews subsequently
declined nomination, and the executive com-
mittee placed in nomination James C. Mulli-
kin, of Talbot county, and Frank H. Stockett,
of Annapolis, for the respective places.

Election Returns. — At the election in Novem-
ber, the Democratic State ticket received a
majority. The following is the vote:

Democratic.

Republican.

Governor
Comptroller

92,694
93,533

80,707
80.099

Attorney-General

93 757

80 021

The Legislature, to meet in 1884, will con-
sist of ]4 Democrats and 12 Republicans in
the Senate, and 63 Democrats and 28 Repub-
licans in the House.

In the city of Baltimore a Republican sheriff
was elected on a fusion ticket by a vote of 27,-
839 against 26,542 for the Democratic candi-
date, while the regular Democratic candidate
was chosen Superior Court Clerk by a vote of
28,445 against 27,858 for a fusion Democrat.
In October Ferdinand 0. Latrobe, Democrat,
had been re-elected mayor over the citizens'
candidate by a vote of 29,147 to 25,669. For
members of the City Council a majority in
sympathy with the reformers were chosen.

MASSACHUSETTS. State Government.— The fol-
lowing were the State officers during the year :
Governor, Benjamin F. Butler, Democrat;
Lieutenant- Governor, Oliver Ames ; Secretary
of State, Henry B. Pierce ; Treasurer, Daniel
A. Gleason ; Auditor, Charles R. Ladd ; At-
torney-General, Edgar J. Sherman ; Secretary
of Board of Education, John W. Dickinson ;
Secretary of Board of Agriculture, John E.
Russell ; Insurance Commissioner, Julius L.
Clarke, succeeded by John K. Tarbox ; Rail-
road Commissioners, Thomas Russell, Clemens
Herscbel, and Edward W. Kinsley ; State Li-
brarian, 0. B. Tillinghast. Judiciary, Supreme
Court : Chief-Justice, Marcus Morton ; Asso-
ciate Justices, Waldo Colburn, Oliver Wendell
Holmes, Jr., Walbridge A. Field, Charles Dev-
ens, William Allen, and Charles Allen.

Legislative Session. — The Legislature convened
on January 3d, and adjourned on July 27th.
The session was the longest on record. On
January 18th George F. Hoaf, Republican,
was re-elected United States Senator by a vote
of 148 against 36 for John D. Long, Republi-
can, 88 for Samuel W. Bowerman, Democrat,
and 5 for others.

The acts approved by the Governor num-
bered 235, those approved by the Lieutenant-
Governor 4, those becoming laws without sig-
nature were 40, the number enacted being 279.

By the requisite votes, a majority in the Sen-
ate and two thirds in the House, the Legis-
lature passed a resolve providing for such an
amendment to the Constitution that, beginning
in 1884; State elections shall occur but once in
two years, and that, beginning with 1885, the
Legislature shall hold biennial sessions ; it also
provides that a person shall be eligible as Treas-

MASSACHUSETTS.

517

urer and Receiver-General for three successive
terms, and no more. This measure must be act-
ed upon favorably by the Legislature of 1884,
and accepted by a majority of the people, to
become a portion of the Constitution.

The session was chiefly remarkable for the
number of bills which the Governor vetoed; but
one of them was passed over the veto, the large
Democratic minority making such a thing im-
possible as long as party lines were maintained.
After the first trial of strength there was a
break of party lines, which widened as time
went on, several of these vetoes being sustained
by a vote of nearly two thirds in their favor.
That on which most time was spent and which
attracted the most attention was relative to a
bill to incorporate the Union Safe Deposit
Vaults of Boston.

The length of the session was chiefly due to
a prolonged investigation by a joint committee
of the two houses into the condition and man-
agement of the State Almshouse at Tewksbury.
The investigation, comprising sixty-five hear-
ings, and extending over a period of three and
a half months, was extraordinary in some of
its features.

The special charges contained in Gov. But-
ler's inaugural address were as follow :

Have there not been scandals, public and well
known, for years in that institution? Was it not
charged, and never denied, that, for years, of the in-
fants born in or sent to that institution more than 90
per cent, died as such ? All of these did not fill an in-
fant pauper's grave, even ; for it can be shown that
from 150 to 250 infant corpses were annually sold as
merchandise to a single medical institution in the
State, for from three to five dollars each. Many, if
not all, came from thence, besides large numbers of
bodies of pauper adults, furnished for other medical
purposes, and sold as merchandise for very considera-
ble sums ; and that done secretly, and not under and
in accordance with the provisions of the law, which,
under certain safeguards, permit almshouses to fur-
nish the unclaimed bodies of deceased paupers for dis-
secting purposes to surgeons and medical schools, ac-
cording to the deceit and humane provision of the
statute. Was this not in testimony before a grand
jury ? Has it not been publicly known ? What record
has the State of these dead infant children, to whom
it took the place of parent ? What account, even, has
ever been returned of the price of this merchandise of
the ghouls ? What record of birth or death or burial-
place, by. which such bodies could be identified or
classified ?

Another charge was, that one of the trustees
had said that he made enough out of the com-
missions on what was bought for the institu-
tion to pay him for his time. Another was,
that the salaries of the State institutions were
70 per cent, of the appropriations.

A majority of the committee reached a con-
clusion that the Governor's charges were not
sustained, and their report was approved by
the Legislature. In relation to salaries the re-
port says : " We dispose of the latter, so far as
it touches this institution now, by stating that
the appropriation for the Tewksbury Alms-
house last year was $93,000, and of this $20,-
000 went for salaries of officers and wages of
attendants and nurses. The per cent, in this

case is less than twenty-two. Our conclusion
as to the trustees is that while we find in the
records and in their action evidence of care-
lessness, we do not find anything to impeach
their substantial integrity and efficiency."

Finances. — There are no temporary loans to
provide for, and there has been no increase of
the funded debt during the year.

Funded debt, Jan. 1. 1888 $82 511 680 90

It has been reduced by the following

payments from the sinking funds,

viz. : Coast-defense loan $877,000

Bounty- fund loan 198,000

1,075,000 00

Funded debt, Jan. 1, 1884 $31,486,680 90

Scrip to the amount of $11,000 oi the Coast-
defense loan and of $2,000 of the Bounty-fund
loan, now outstanding, will be paid from the
sinking funds, on presentation to the Treasury
Department. No further installment of the
public debt will be due and payable until 1888.

SINKING FUNDS.

Amount Jan. 1, 1888 $16,944,268 05

.Reduced by payment of Coast-de-
fense loan $877,000

Eeduced by payment of Bounty-fund

loan 198,000

1,075,000 00

Total $15,869,263 05

Amount of sinking fund, Jan. 1, 1884 16,836,180 55

Increase $966,917 50

Troy and Greenfield RaUroad and Hoosae Tunnel.
— The contracts under which these are operated
run till Oct. 1, 1887.

Total income of the State for the year ending

8ept.80,18S3 $298,887 88

Operating expenses same period 168,514 68

Net earnings $130,373 15

No account is taken in this connection of the
Southern Vermont Kailroad, which is under
lease for a fixed rental of $12,000 yearly.

Expended by manager in construction, same pe-
riod $285,615 29

Balance on hand Sept. 80, 1883, unexpended .... 142,957 95

Of the double track ordered by the Legisla-
ture, and continued under several appropria-
tions, 35y^3¥ miles have been completed and
are now in actual use. It is expected that the
road-bed will be ready early in the coming
summer. No considerable expenditure has
been required in the tunnel during the year.

The Treasurer of the Commonwealth furnish-
es the following memorandum as to the fund-
ed indebtedness on account of the railroad and
tunnel :
1888— April 1st $2,968,565 00

October 1st 109,496 25

1889— July 1 st 2,01 1,324 45

October 1st 142,588 45

1890— April 1st 200,000 00

October 1st 805,12955

1891— April 1st 216,500 00

July 1st 8.618,242 75 -

1898— April 1st 200,000 00

Julylst 400,00000

October 1st 465,000 00

1894-April 1st 85,000 00

Julylst 800,00000

1895- January 1st... 1,506,181 75

Julylst 1,800,000 00

1897- September 1 st 870,000 00

Total • .$14.198,028 20

518

MASSACHUSETTS.

Sinking fund needed Jan. 1, 1884 $10,569,380 60

On hand Jan. 1,1884 5,985,284 29

Deficiency $4,584,596 81

"It must be apparent," says Governor Rob-
inson in his message to the Legislature of 1884,
" that no probable increase of net earnings will
meet this deficiency, and therefore 1 submit to
you whether it is not wise to enter upon the
accumulation of the sinking funds, or in some
other practicable way to provide to meet the
whole debt at its maturity."

From the annual abstract of polls, property,
taxes, etc., as assessed May 1, 1883, an increase
in the total valuation will appear to the amount
of $47,083,638, of which $36,586,927 is in real
estate, and the remainder in personal property.
Polls, dwelling-houses, and horses have in-
creased, while cows and sheep have decreased.

Compared with twenty years ago, the exhibit
of improvement is the clearest refutation of the
charge that Massachusetts is in the way of de-
terioration and decay.

May 1, 1863.

May 1, 1883.

275 758

498,828

Total valuation . .

$897 150 983

$1,731,297,061

Number of horses

89228

149.289

Number of cows
Number of dwelling-houses. .

158,905
183,528

169,879
291,991

The gain in the population of the State dur-
ing the same period was about 45 per cent.

The total tax for State, county, city, and
town purposes for 1883 was $26,323,432, an
amount greater than the total for any other
year except 1874. It needs no argument to
show that nearly the whole of this burden re-
sults from municipal action and not from as-
sessment by the General Court. The State
tax for 1883 was $1,500,000.

Education. — During 1883 there was raised by
taxation, for all common-school purposes, the
sum of $5,499,717.83. Add to this the income
from funds and other sources, $313,468.19, and
you have a total of $5,813,186.02. This sum
supported 6,246 schools of the different grades,
paying for the services of 9,235 teachers, and
affording instruction to 335,872 pupils, whose
percentage of attendance was 88 '72. All the
schools in the Commonwealth have been kept
in operation the average time of eight months
and nineteen days, the law requiring for all
grades below the high-school only six months.
Thirty-seven cities and towns have supported
evening-schools, having 11,112 scholars. Nine-
ty per cent, of the whole school population have
the privileges of high-school instruction.

In addition to the amount paid for public
schools, Massachusetts expended in 1883, for
the deaf and dumb, the blind, the idiotic, the
children at the State Primary School, the boys
at the Reform School, and the girls at the In-
dustrial School, more than $180,000.

Out of the whole population of 1,783,085, in
1880, only seven tenths of one per cent, were
native-born illiterates, less than that of any
other people in the world. The foreign-born

illiterates made nineteen and six tenths per
cent. ; but four fifths of the foreign-born illit-
erates were upward of twenty-one years of age.
Sayings-Banks.— The statement to Oct. 1, 1883,
is as follows:

Number of banks 168

Number of depositors 812,955

Total of deposits $252,607,593 02

Increase in number of depositors during the

year 40,487

Increase in total of deposits during the year.. $11,296,230 53

The condition of the banks is generally satis-
factory. Owing to the gain in deposits, and
to the scarcity of other authorized securities,
many banks have largely increased their loans
on personal security.

Militia.— The entire strength of the militia al-
lowed by the laws now in force is 334 officers
and 4,436 enlisted men. In the service at the
present time there are 305 officers and 3,587
enlisted men. The Adjutant-General reports:

Total amount of appropriations controlled by the
Military Department for the year 1883 is $160,200 00

The total expenditure (including all contracts to
date, and a small amount estimated to cover
bills to come in) is about 141,826 38

From the latter amount should be deducted the
expenditures on account of war records, sol-
diers' messenger corps, etc 7,846 06

Leaving the actual expense

A high degree of efficiency and military
knowledge has been attained by the militia.

Health, Lunacy, and Charity.— The Legislature
of 1879 accomplished a thorough reorganiza-
tion of the administration of the public chari-
ties—abolishing some boards, consolidating
others, and simplifying the whole system.
The Board of Health, Lunacy, and Charity,
as then and now constituted, consisting of
nine persons, is given general supervision over
the State Lunatic Hospitals, the State Alms-
house, the State Workhouse, the State Primary
School, the State Reform School, and the State
Industrial School. Other powers, ample and
specific, are granted, enabling the board to
hold substantial control over those institu-
tions, and over other matters committed to it.

Gov. Robinson says : " I have been urged to
recommend to you an abolition of the board,
and the creation of two or three in its stead.
But, after much reflection and extended in-
quiry, I must withhold that recommendation
for the present."

State Institutions. — There is an imperative de-
mand for increased accommodations for the
insane. The hospitals are crowded, and hun-
dreds of inmates are compelled to occupy tem-
porary cots or beds in the corridors and upon
the floors. The Governor believes that great
economy of room is possible under a wise sys-
tem of classification, separating the harmless,
the criminal, and the dangerous, and under
other improved arrangements which profes-
sional knowledge and experience will advise.

The financial affairs of the hospitals are re-
ported in excellent condition. The surplus ac-
cumulated at Taunton, Worcester, and North-
ampton has been increased, while at Danvers

MASSACHUSETTS.

519

the Treasurer's report shows a balance of $1,-
172.14, so that the $10,000 for an anticipated
deficiency has been added to the surplus.

The demand for the abolishment of the In-
dustrial School appears to be based solely on
the fact that the average number of girls there
is small, being only from sixty-seven to sev-
enty-six during the last four years. No one
appears to doubt the helpful influences of the
school and of its system of auxiliary visitation ;
but it is said to cost too much.

The Liquor Law. — The act of 1875 to regulate
the sale of intoxicating liquors, as amended
subsequently, continues in' force. Under the
local-option provisions, the will of the people
in the different municipalities is annually ex-
pressed for or against the issuing of licenses.
From the records in the office of the Secre-
tary of the Commonwealth, of the votes in
1882 and 1883, we present the following state-
ment:

1883.

1883.

Number of towns that voted for license. . .
Number of cities that voted for license
Number of towns that voted against li-

59
16

266

71
14

253

Number of cities that voted against license

5

8

The total number of votes " Yes " and " No "
in the State was—

Yea.

No.

jgg2

88,233

76,903

94,094

82,505

For license fees the receipts of the Common-
wealth amount to —

m • . $646,715 93
58s! '.!.".'.!!'.."....' 837,108 80

Fisheries.— Notwithstanding the heavy losses
the Gloucester fisheries — 17 vessels, aggre-
gating 1,119 tons — there was a substantial in-
crease in the fishing tonnage. During the year
a number of new vessels were built and added
to the fleet, the increase being larger than for
any other year since 1875— namely, 46 vessels,
aggregating 3,635 tons. The mackerel-fishery,
on which great reliance is placed, was attended
by a light catch, which was not counterbal-
anced by enhanced prices.

The "Whalemen's Shipping List," of New
Bedford, has published its annual review of the
whale-fishery. The failure of the Arctic sea-
son, with small catches in other localities,
brought but small remuneration to those who
-risked their capital in the whale-fishery. The
fleet now numbers 125 vessels of all classes
hailing from Atlantic ports, against 138 a year
ago, and 19 from San Francisco, as against ^8
last year. The number of vessels engaged in
sperm -whaling has considerably diminished.

Of the 144 vessels now engaged in the whale-
fishery, 94 belong in the district of New Bed-
ford, 7 in Edgartown, 12 in Provincetown, 4
in Boston, 6 in New London, and 2 in Stoning-
ton. The other 19 hail from San Francisco.
The total tonnage of the fleet is 33,119.

Divoree. — Gov. Robinson, in his message to
the Legislature, says :

for fave grounds only — adultery, impotency, union for
three years with a religious sect denying the validity
of marriage, imprisonment at hard labor for five years,
and desertion for five consecutive years to the desert-
ing as well as to the deserted party, with the proviso,
however, that divorce to the deserting party should
be limited to cases in which it was proved that the de-
sertion was for extreme cruelty, or, in case of the wife,
neglect by her husband to provide. The laws at pres-
ent allow absolute divorce for four other causes than
those just enumerated: extreme cruelty, gross and
confirmed habits of intoxication, cruel and abusive
treatmentj and neglect to provide. The laws relating
to remarriage have also been so modified that the
guilty party against whom a divorce has been pro-
cured, even on the ground of adultery j is allowed to
marry again at the expiration of a certain period.

While the number of marriages increased from 10,-
873 in 1863 to 17,684 in 1882, or 62'6 per cent., and
the population increased 53*4 per cent., the number of
divorces rose in the same period from 207 to 515, or
147-6 per cent. During the last ten years the ratio of
increase in the number of marriages has been 7 '6 per
cent., against 14'7 per cent, for divorces. During
these twenty years it appears that 36-5 per cent, of the
total number of divorces were for adultery and 42*5
per cent, were for desertion, or 79 percent. lor the two
causes combined. The largest percentage of increase
in the number of divorces for the last ten years has
been in Dukes and Nantucket counties, and the small-
est in Suffolk.

Women in Office. — In the latter part of the
year, Gov. Butler undertook to remove from
office Mrs. Clara T. Leonard, a member of the
State Board of Health, Lunacy, and Charity,
on the ground that a woman was not eligible
to the office. The Council refused to concur
in this view, and the opinion of the justices of
the Supreme Judicial Court was asked. On
the 19th of November their opinion was given,
of which the essential portions follow :

The statute of 1879, chapter 291, in the second sec-
tion provides that " the Governor, with the advice and
consent of the Council, shall appoint nine persons who
shall constitute a State Board of Health, Lunacy, and
Charity." The principal question presented to us is
whether under this statute it was competent for the
Governor, with the advice and consent of the Council,
to appoint a woman as a member of such board.
There can be no doubt that it is within the constitu-
tional power of the Legislature to provide by a statute,
duly passed and approved by the Governor, that wom-
en may be appointed members of such board. The
question, therefore, is one merely of the construction
of the statute and of the intention of the Legislature.
The word " persons " in its natural and usual signifi-
cation includes women as well as men. Throughout
our statutes, and particularly in those relating to the
punishment of crimes, it is constantly used in a sense
which necessarily includes both sexes. In other parts
of the statute we are considering the word is-used in a
sense which clearly includes women. The decision of
the Court in Eobinson's case, reported in 131 Mass.,
376, does not, in our judgment, conflict with this con-
struction. That decision was that under the statute of
. 1876, chapter 197, which provides that a citizen of this-
State of the age of twenty -one years and of good moral
character may be admitted to practice as an attorney,
an unmarried woman was not entitled to be so admit-
ted. Then the only question was as to the construc-
tion of the statute of 1876 and the intention of the
Legislature expressed therein. The Court considered
that by the common law, and the unbroken usage of
this Commonwealth under it, women were not compe-

520

MASSACHUSETTS.

METALLURGY.

tent to act as attorney s-at-1 aw ; that although the
word " citizen," used in its most common and com-

Kehensive sense, included women, yet the Legislature
the statute under consideration was not presumed
to intend to use it as including women, because such
construction would reverse the policy of its predeces-
sors and introduce a fundamental change in long-estab-
lished principles of law. These considerations, which
were controlling in that case, have no application to
the question before us. The statute of 1879 does not,
upon the construction we give it, introduce any new
policy or make any change in established principles
of law. On the contrary, it is in accordance with the
policy established by former legislation.

We are of opinion that, under the provisions of the
second section of chapter 291 of the acts of 1879, it was
competent for the Governor , with the advice and con-
sent of the Council, to appoint a woman as a member
of the State " Board of Health, Lunacy, and Charity."
This being so. the effect of the first section of chapter
79 of the .Public Statutes undoubtedly was to confirm
and continue in office the members of the board dur-
ing the terms for which they were appointed.

Party Conventions. — The Republican State Con-
vention met in Worcester on the 19th of Sep-
tember, and nominated the following ticket :
For Governor, George D. Robinson ; Lieu ten-
ant-Governor, Oliver Ames; Secretary of State,
Henry B. Pierce ; Treasurer, Daniel A. Glea-
son ; Attorney-General, Edgar J. Sherman ;
Auditor, Charles R. Ladd.

The Prohibitory State Convention met in
Boston on the 20th of September, and nomi-
nated the following ticket : For Governor,
Charles Almy, of New Bedford ; Lieutenant-
Governor, John Blackmer, of Springfield ; Sec-
retary of State, Solomon F. Root, of Barre ;
Treasurer and Receiver-General, Thomas J.
Lothrop, of Taunton ; Auditor, Jonathan Buck,
of Gloucester ; Attorney-General, Samuel M.
Fairfield, of Maiden.

The Democratic State Convention met in
Springfield on the 25th of September, and
nominated the following ticket: For Governor,
Benjamin F. Butler, of Lowell ; Lieutenant-
Governor, Frederick O. Prince, of Boston;
Secretary of State, Charles Marsh, of Spring-
field ; Auditor, John Hopkins, of Millbury ;
Treasurer, C. H. Ingalls, of North Adams ; At-
torney-General, J. W. Cummings, of Fall river.

Mr. Prince declined, as did also Samuel A.
B. Abbott, of Boston, substituted by the State
Committee, which finally placed James S. Grin-
nell, of Springfield, in nomination.

On the same day the Greenback-Labor party
held its State Convention in Boston, and nomi-
nated the following ticket : For Governor, Ben-
jamin F. Butler; f or Lieutenant-Governor, John
Howes, of Worcester; for Secretary of State,
Nicholas Furlong, of Boston; for Treasurer
and Receiver-General, Wilbur F. Whitney, of
Ashburnbam; for Auditor, A. H. Wood, of
Lunenburg; for Attorney-General, George Fos-
ter, of Lynn.

N. S. Gushing, of Middlebord', was after-
ward substituted for Mr. Howes, and Hiram
W. K. Eastman, of Lawrence, for Mr. Whitney.

Election Returns.— At the election in Novem-
ber, the Republican ticket received a majority.
The following is the vote for Governor : George

D. Robinson, of Chicopee, 160,092; Benjamin
F. Butler, of Lowell, 150,228 ; Charles Aliny,
of New Bedford, 1,881.

Of the 8 members of the Executive Council, 5
are Republicans and 3 are Democrats.

In the Senate there are 25 Republicans, 14
Democrats, and 1 Independent Democrat.

In the House there are 137 Republicans, 92
Democrats, 3 Greenbackers, 6 Independents, 1
Independent Republican, and 1 Independent
Democrat.

METALLURGY. Iron and Steel.— A new con-
tinuous direct process for the dephosphoriza-
tion of iron in a charcoal-furnace is described
by Prof. Sarnstrom as having been experiment-
ally tried at Nyhammar, in Sweden, with satis-
factory results. The old Osmund or Catalan
process, formerly used in Sweden to produce
excellent iron, was intermittent and expensive,
involving a large waste of fuel, and had to give
way to blast processes. These, being adapted
only to ores weak in phosphorus, precluded
the use of a large proportion of the magnetic
ores of Sweden. It is clear that if the process
of conversion takes place in a shaft, as in a
blast-furnace, without the temperature becom-
ing so great as to effect any coalescence or
complete smelting, and the mass is, at this
stage, transferred in a convenient manner to
a hearth where the further process of fusing
the iron particles can take place, the process
will at once become continuous and direct,
and will have the advantages of saving fuel
and removing impurities in the bloom at the
same time. The furnace can be kept closed
during the operation, so that the reduction by
hot carbonic oxide may proceed continuously.
The furnace at Nyhammar consists of a reduc-
tion-shaft connected with the hearths by small
culverts. These hearths can be closed, having
heavy dampers so balanced as to be easily
raised and lowered, with holes in their lower
part, by which the gases generated by the fuel
may pass through the shaft and thus act the
part of gas in an ordinary blast-furnace. Char-
coal and iron are charged in the shaft of the
furnace in proper proportions. The ore will
then, as it settles in the shaft, be subjected to
the same process of conversion as in the ordi-
nary reduction-zone of a blast-furnace. When
it is desired to transfer the spongy iron to an-
other hearth, the raking-down, which is kept up
for the purpose of having the furnace always
well filled with charcoal and iron until the
smelting is nearly effected, is stopped ; a hook
is passed through the upper holes of the damp-
ers of the culvert through which the raking-
down is performed, and the bloom is allowed
to go down into the hearth. It may then
be easily broken up when one of the damp-
ers is opened. One fire-place should always
be kept charged during the operation, so as
to maintain a gas pressure in the furnace
constantly higher than the pressure of air
from without, in order to prevent all suc-
tion of air through the open hearth. As soon

METALLURGY.

521

as the bloom is removed and the hearth is
cleaned oat, it is again closed and refilled with
charcoal and iron, by raking down from the
shaft as before, and the blast is turned on. In
the same way, the process may he alternated
with the other hearths. A considerable ad-
vantage to the practical utility of this furnace
is the great ease with which the raking-down,
or any other operation which may be required
in the hearth while the blast is on, is effected.
With a little practice, which an unskilled la-
borer may acquire in a very short time, it is
possible to charge and rake charcoal and ores
uniformly down, an advantage embodying a
check whereby, to a certain extent, the action
in the furnace may be kept perfectly even.
The heat thrown out by the furnace was small,
and the work of operating it was so simple as
to render the managers comparatively inde-
pendent of skilled workmen. In most of the
experiments two barrels, or 12'6 cubic feet, of
charcoal to 3 cwt. of ore were used ; but toward
the finish, the quantity of ore was reduced to
2 cwt. When tested, the iron made by this
process did not show any tendency to red-
shortness or brittleness; its elasticity was satis-
factory and compared well with that of the
class of pig-iron made by the Lancashire pro-
cess. The process is well adapted to resmelt-
ing by the Martin process. According to Prof.
Sarastrom's estimates, 15 tons of good merchant
iron, containing an average of 0'08 of phos-
phorus, were made by it from 27 tons of ore
containing 0*91 of phosphorus, with an expen-
diture of about 600 barrels of charcoal and a
loss of iron amounting to less than 5 per cent.
In Bull's direct process, no solid carbon is
used in the furnace. The charge is made with
iron - ore and flux — usually limestone — only,
while the furnace is worked exclusively with
gas, which is delivered to it in a very highly
heated state direct from the producers. Highly
heated air is also introduced in sufficient quan-
tities to burn about 10 per cent, of the gas and
maintain the furnace at the high temperature
necessary to allow the -withdrawal of the iron
or steel and cinder in a fluid state. The gases
rising through the ore and flux under this sys-
tem are carbonic oxide and hydrogen in equal
volumes, together with the nitrogen derived
from the air which has been blown into the
furnace. These gases being produced entirely
outside of the furnace, there is no zone of gasi-
fication within it, but only the zones of fusion,
•reduction, and carbonization have to be pro-
vided for. The zone of preparation, in which
the ore, fuel, and flux are freed from their moist-
ure and the temperature of the ore is raised
to the reduction-point, is also removed from
the furnace to a special apparatus. Experi-
ments in the operation of this system were
made by the Societe John Cockerill at Sera-
ing, Belgium, in 1881. With an ordinary blast-
furnace six feet in diameter at the base, and
twenty-one feet high, it was found possible to
reduce the silicon in the product from 3'40 to

•15 ; the sulphur from 1-61 to -33 ; the phos-
phorus from 1-76 to 1*10; the manganese to nil;
the combined carbon to -52 ; and the graphite
to '17. At the same time, the output from the
furnace was increased enormously, and the
quantity of fuel required was decreased in a
corresponding ratio. Mr. Bull has not yet
erected his furnace on a commercial scale, but
is awaiting the perfection of improvements in
his calcining oven for heating the ore and flux,
and in the air-heating stoves and gas-producers.
He is confident, however, that with the enor-
mous increase of the output of the furnace and
the great reduction in the amount of fuel con-
sumed, which he has demonstrated, iron or
steel ingots can be produced by his system in
any district at a cost much lower than the most
inferior pig iron under the present systems.

Lead and Silver.— Mr. Carl Henrich, while
smelting at the Benson Smelting Works in Ari-
zona, for lead-silver bullion, had to use as a lead-
ore a sulphate of lead (anglesite) with occasional
lumps of galena. He had also received for re-
duction an ore high in silver, carrying about
25 per cent, of iron pyrites, with oxide of iron
and quartz or silicates. Finding the old meth-
od of reducing anglesite to sulphide of lead and
then precipitating the lead by metallic iron to
be very unsatisfactory, on account of the quan-
tity of silver-bearing matte produced, and the
difficulty, amounting almost to an impossibil-
ity, of making a slag free from lead, he made
the experiment of reducing the anglesite by
the action of iron pyrites with silica. Acting
upon the calculation that the reducing power
of the pyrites would be about five times that
of the galena, he found that, by putting togeth-
er, in round numbers, 350 pounds of the angle-
site ore (estimated to contain 15 per cent, of
galena and 75 per cent, of anglesite) with 100
pounds of the silver- ore carrying iron pyrites,
the two ores would reduce each other and the
sulphur would be removed in the form of sul-
phurous acid (S02), with the production of very
little matte.

Copper. — Heap-roasting of copper-bearing py-
rites has been practiced at nine different mines
lying along the ore belt from North Alabama to
Central Vermont, but can be said to have en-
tirely succeeded only at two neighboring mines
lying in Central Vermont. The bed upon which
the ore is roasted, having to be well drained,
is constructed precisely like the traffic-way of
a city street. The plan of the heap is laid off
in the form of a parallelogram, 24 feet wide
and 50 feet long, and wood — common split
fuel-wood is the best— is piled nine inches deep
all over the plan. The ore is piled upon this
and carefully arranged in successive layers till,
a bed seven feet thick is formed. One foot of
" ragging," or the coarser part of ore that has
passed through a screen of holes 1£ inch in
diameter, is laid over this, and the fire is start-
ed. As soon as the ore has ignited, from the
ground one foot upward, "fines," or that part
of the ore which has passed through a screen

522

METALLURGY.

with meshes of one third of an inch, are shov-
eled on the heap and constantly added, so as
to keep the temperature of the outside nearly
endurable to the hand. In about ten days, no
part of the heap having been allowed to fuse,
no more attention will be needed ; and in
about eleven weeks the mass will be ready to
remove to the furnace. If the operation has
been successfully performed, out of 350 short
tons of ore put in the heap, not more than
twenty tons will require any further roasting.
At the Ely mine, Vershire, Vt., and the Eliz-
abeth mine, Strafford, Vt., the entire heaps
are smelted, and none of the ore requires re-
roasting.

The Doetsch process for the extraction of
copper has been tested on a large scale by the
Rio Tinto company for several years. Its es-
sential features are as follow : The raw ore,
broken to a uniform size of about 0*4 of an inch,
is piled in heaps from ten to thirteen feet high,
in which channels are left along the bottom
and vertical draught-holes are provided for.
About two per cent, of salt is scattered over the
top of the pile, which is about 45 feet wide. A
basin for the leaching fluid, about thirty feet
square, is formed on the top of the pile, into
which the solution obtained after the precipita-
tion of the copper, subsequently saturated with
chlorine, is allowed to flow. Trickling through
the ore, the solution acts upon the copper, and
is gathered in gutters, conducted to tanks, and
made to flow through long sluices, where the
copper is precipitated with metallic iron. The
precipitate is dried on hot iron plates, and the
solution, after precipitation, is dropped through
a coke-tower, where it is met by an ascending
current of a mixture of chlorine and hydrochlo-
ric acid.

Experiments begun at Vede"nes in 1880 for
applying the Bessemer process to the reduc-
tion of copper were unsuccessful as long as
the ordinary Bessemer converter, with its
vertical tuyeres, was used, on account of the
premature cooling of the copper before the
iron and sulphur were entirely eliminated.
Horizontal tuyeres having been substituted for
vertical ones, so that the blast was forced into
the bath at a point above the bottom of the
converter, the results were at once improved,
and it was found very easy to convert copper
matte rapidly into blister-copper containing
only from one to one and a half per cent, of
foreign substances. The process has been car-
ried out on a working scale in the old Royal
foundry at Eguilles, near Sorgues. The op-
eration does not differ essentially from that
in the Bessemer steel converter. When the
matte treated is very poor, casting must be
proceeded with at once, otherwise a violent
reaction is liable to take place, but with rich
mattes it goes on without any difficulty. Arse-
-nic and antimony are eliminated; cobalt is
partly scorified and partly remains with the
copper; and nickel and bismuth are both con-
centrated in the product. The copper obtained

has a very constant composition, varying as
follows: Copper, from 98-05 to 98-08 ; sulphur,
from -09 to -08 ; and iron, from -06 to -04.

Nickel.— Mr. William P. Blake, in a paper
read before the American Institute of Mining
Engineers at Boston, recounts some of the ad-
vances in the metallurgy of nickel that have
been made in this country. For some time
after its discovery by Oroustedt in 1751, nickel
received no applications, and remained com-
paratively unknown. Inasmuch as nickel first
became known in the industrial arts in an al-
loy, there were no special attempts to produce
the metal in a state of extreme purity. The
nickel silver of commerce answered all the ex-
isting demands, and was of course much easier
to make, and cheaper than the pure nickel.
It found a large use as a substitute for silver-
ware, especially when the new art of electro-
plating was developed, and is to this day the
most desirable alloy for plating. The use of
nickel alloy for small or subsidiary coins next
made an increased demand for nickel. Tenta-
tive efforts were made by Dr. Feuchtwanger,
in New York, in the year 1837, and he actually
issued many small one-cent and three-cent
pieces, made of a nickel alloy. Switzerland
commenced using nickel-alloy coins in 1850 ;
the United States in 1857, though sample coins,
one-cent pieces, had been made by Prof. James
0. Booth at Philadelphia in 1853. Nickel-ore
is more generally distributed throughout the
mineral-bearing portions of the United States
than is generally supposed. It is commonly
associated with chrome-ores from Canada to
Maryland, and equally with the chrome-ores
of the Pacific slope. The chief supply of nickel
for the United States has been obtained from
Lancaster Gap, Pa. This locality was worked
some thirty years ago by Prof. James C. Booth
and others. About ten years later Mr. Joseph
Wharton purchased the works, and established
the industry at Camden, N". J., where it has
since been carried for ward. But Mr. Wharton,
not being content with the production of im-
pure nickel, early commenced experimenting
to determine whether nickel could not be pro-
duced in a pure and malleable condition, sus-
ceptible of being worked in nearly the same
manner as iron. In 1873 Mr. Wharton sent to
the Vienna Exhibition a sample of nickel in
the form of axles and axle-bearings, and at the
exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876 he exhibited
a remarkable series of objects made of wrought
nickel. The judges reported the exhibit to the
commission as worthy of an award in the
following terms : " A fine collection of nickel
ores from Lancaster county, Pa., with nickel-
matte, metallic nickel in grains and cubes, and
manufactured nickel, both cast and wrought;
nickel magnets and magnetic needles, cast co-
balt, electro-plating with nickel and cobalt,
and salts and oxides of both these metals ; the
whole showing a remarkable degree of prog-
ress in their metallurgical treatment."

Dr. Fleitmann, of Iserlohn, Westphalia, has

METALLURGY.

523

improved and cheapened the operation of re-
fining the nickel and toughening it, and has re-
duced the liability to the presence of blow-
holes in castings, by adding to the molten charge
when ready to pour a very small quantity of
magnesium. Dr. Fleitmann has also succeeded
in welding sheet-nickel upon iron and upon
steel plates, so as to coat them equally on each
face with a layer of nickel. He claims to have
produced steel wire similarly coated, and pro-
poses to make nickeled boiler-plates. Up to
this time the most direct uses of such nickeled-
iron sheets seem to be in making hollow-ware,
particularly culinary vessels, and the manufac-
ture has already begun at Schwerte by Dr.
Fleitmann. This ware is believed to be far su-
perior to tinned iron or tinned copper for cook-
ing in. The nickel is not only less liable to
corrosion, but is harder, will wear longer, and
can not be melted off by overheating. The
ware is lighter and stronger than tin or cop-
per ware ; is susceptible of a high polish and
is not easily tarnished. The coating of nickel
applied by welding is stronger and tougher
than that deposited by electrolysis, and ap-
pears to be less liable to scale off.

The general use of nickel in solid articles
has heretofore been impracticable on account
its expensiveness and of its brittleness, mak-
it hard to work. A French company now
)btain it from New Caledonia so cheaply as to
3rmit them to use it at half the cost of a few
ago ; and they have adopted methods of
luction that enable them to roll and forge it
id adapt it to the manufacture of many useful
tides. Mixed with zinc, copper, or tin, in
ich a proportion that 20 per cent, of nickel
lall be present, it forms a nickel bronze of a
isired color and inoxidable. All articles that
ire now made of brass or copper and nickel-
elated may be made of nickel bronze at prac-
ically the same cost, and will be one fifth
tronger, and may be as much lighter. Added
steel, nickel increases its hardness, renders
inoxidable, and makes it more suitable for
Ige-tools.

Pure nickel, after melting and casting, gen-
Brally holds more or less of oxygen incombina-
Lion, and is brittle. This has to be remedied
)y incorporating in the melted metal some sub-
nice which has a strong affinity for oxygen,
id also for the nickel itself. M. J. Gamier
ias found that phosphorus answers this pur-
pose very satisfactorily, and that it produces
effects analogous to those of carbon in iron.
If the phosphorus does not exceed three tenths
)f one per cent., the nickel is soft and very
malleable; with more than that proportion,
the hardness increases at the expense of the.
malleability. Phosphorized nick el, when alloyed
with copper, zinc, or iron, gives results which
are far superior to those that are obtained from
the same nickel when not phosphorized. By
means of the phosphorus, Gamier has been
able to alloy nickel and iron in all proportions,
and always to obtain soft and malleable prod-

ucts. The contradictions of chemists, some of
whom say that such alloys are brittle, and
others that they are malleable, are thus ex-
plained by supposing the results to have varied
according as the iron contained or did not con-
tain phosphorus.

Tin. — A bed of tin-ore has been discovered
in Pennington county, Dakota, in the central
part of the Black hills, on a mountain rising
about 4,300 feet above the sea, which has been
named the Tin mountain. The cassiterite oc-
curs near the top of the mountain, in two dis-
tinct forms — a massive form, in close associa-
tion with spodumene, feldspar, and quartz ; and
in a granular form, disseminated in a massive
micaceous albitic rock or greisen, which trav-
erses the coarse granite in irregular veins.
The outcrops or exposures of the ore at the
surface are " extensive and decidedly encour-
aging " ; and the percentage of ores to mineral
compares favorably with the percentage of tin-
stone in the ores of other and well-known tin
regions, ordinary hand-samples of the greisen,
rejecting the richer portions, having yielded
from 6 to 10 per cent, of clean tin-stone, or
black tin, of high grade.

Quicksilver. — The qnicksilver-mines of the
Amiata mountain, in the province of Siena,
Tuscany, have undergone an extensive devel-
opment in late years. The ore, the sulphuret,
or cinnabar, is found in the valley of the Siele
in an argillaceous lode in the forms both of
almost invisible particles and of very rich red
masses, sometimes of large size. Two shafts
have been sunk, one 170 metres (or 552 feet),
and the other 57 metres (or 185 feet) deep,
with horizontal workings cutting the lode at
three different heights. The ore, having been
brought to the surface, is separated from the
stone and is also sorted into two different
classes, rich and poor, by a screen. It is then
run down a self-acting incline, in trucks, to
the works, and is reduced by women into small
pieces, which are kept as dry as possible. The
works are furnished with twelve half-moon
retorts of cast-iron for treating the rich ore,
and three vertical furnaces for the poor ore.
The retorts are arranged horizontally, three
by three in four ovens, their mouths being
closed by covers luted with clay and kept in
place by screws and straps. They are charged,
each with from two to two and a half hundred-
weight of ore and quicklime, in the proportion
of one of the latter to eight of the former,
every eight hours, the operation being per-
formed very quickly and the closing effected
immediately, to prevent loss of metal, and in-
jury to the men's health from the escaping
vapors, for distillation begins at once. The
distilled mercury escapes by -the neck of the
retort, and passes into a receiver, in which
cold water is constantly circulating. The va-
pors from six retorts are condensed in one and
the same tank filled with cold water, and the
metallic mercury is drawn off from inclined
channels at the bottom. This treatment is

524

METALLURGY.

given only to the rich ore. The furnaces in
which the poor ore is treated are thirteen feet
high and three feet three inches in diameter.
Each furnace is closed at the top by a hopper
with two doors, the upper of which has a
water-joint. Twelve charges vare made each
day, and care is taken to open the upper door
as little as possible. The charge consists of
two hundred-weight of ore, mixed with a
quarter the quantity of charcoal. It is low-
ered into the furnace by opening the lower
door, while the upper door is closed; and a
fire is kept burning at the upper part of the
furnace to prevent the escape of the gases.
The mercurial vapors and gases of combustion
are led by a chimney into condensing cham-
bers. From 150 to 160 tons of ore are ex-
tracted at the Siele mines every month about
22 tons of metallic quicksilver ; and this is
packed in about 300 cans with screw stoppers.
Aluminum. — The only establishment at which
aluminum is regularly manufactured is at Sa-
lindres, where about 2,400 kilometres are pro-
duced annually. The metal is prepared by
melting the double chloride of aluminum and
sodium with sodium and some cryolite as a
flux. The new method of obtaining the metal
from bauxite, proposed by Mr. Webster, does
not promise to be as successful in cheapening
its cost as its author hoped it would be. Mr.
"Webster has suggested a process of preparation
of alumina, for the purpose of manufacturing
aluminum, by heating alum with coal-pitch ;
subjecting the resultant mass, broken to pieces,
to the action of hydrochloric acid, for the
elimination of sulphureted hydrogen; adding
5 per cent, of charcoal-powder or lamp-black,
with enough water to make a thick mass; dry-
ing the mass made up into balls, and heating
the balls to a red heat for three hours under
exposure to air and the vapor of water, for the
conversion of sulphur and carbon into sulphur
dioxide and carbon dioxide, and the removal
of impurities. The dry residue, which con-
sists of aluminum oxide and potassium sul-
phate, is cooled and ground to a fine powder.
The powder is then treated with about seven
times its weight of water and boiled for about
an hour. The solution containing potassium
sulphate is then run off and evaporated to
dryne^s, and the alumina is washed out and
dried. Mr. J. Morris, of Uddington, near Glas-
gow, claims to obtain aluminum by treating
an intimate mixture of alumina and char-
coal with carbon dioxide. For this purpose
a solution of aluminum chloride is mixed with
powdered wood, charcoal, and lamp-black, and
then evaporated, until it forms a viscous mass,
which is shaped into balls. During the evapo-
ration hydrochloric acid is given off. The resi-
due consists of alumina intimately mixed with
charcoal. The balls are dried, and then heated
with steam in appropriate vessels for the pur-
pose of driving off all the chlorine, care being
taken to keep the temperature so high that the
steam is not condensed. The temperature is

then raised, so that in the dark the tubes are
seen to be at a low red heat, and dry carbon
dioxide is passed through. This is said to be
reduced by the charcoal to carbon monoxide,
which, as affirmed by Mr. Morris, reduces the
alumina to aluminum, the metal appearing as
a porous, spongy mass.

Precious Metals.— Prof. Chandler Roberts,
who is engaged in the study of metals at tem-
peratures above their melting-points, has de-
scribed some experiments on the mobility of
gold and silver in melted lead. If a lump of
a gold-lead alloy with 30 per cent, of gold,
covered with lead, is heated in a crucible, the
gold appears at the surface the very moment
when perfect fusion has been attained. The
diffusion also takes place rapidly if the gold alloy
isputin a small crucible, and this is placed within
another crucible containing lead. By melting
in a cylinder, 200 millimetres high, a solid cyl-
inder of lead with a small piece of the gold
alloy fused to its bottom — or, better still, by
placing the gold at the top of one limb of a
U-shaped crucible, and withdrawing test por-
tions from the top end of the other limb — Mr.
Roberts arrived at the diffusion rate, 300 milli-
metres in five minutes for gold. Sir William
Thomson has characterized this as a great dis-
covery, remarking that the rate of diffusion of
gold in lead appeared to be immensely greater
than the rate of diffusion of liquids. The sub-
ject, he said, is one, in fact, of which we under-
stand very little, but the property will probably
prove of great value in metallurgy, where one
example of it, the rapid mixture of spiegelei-
sen with iron, is well known.

Messrs. Bias and Miest have discovered that
if, in electrolysis, compressed ores are used as
anode in a bath of an electrolyte containing
the same metal as the metal of the ore, on the
passage of the current the ore is decomposed,
the sulphur, etc., being precipitated at the an-
ode, while the metal collects at the cathode.
When ores containing several metals are oper-
ated on, the precious metals, being most easily
precipitated, are thrown down first in the me-
tallic state at the cathode under the action of
a moderate current. The final separation of
these metals requires very little battery-power;
for the mass of metal, when dissolved under
the action of the current, generates sufficient
heat for the ulterior separation of each metal.
The products at the anode are extracted and
purified by treatment with carbon bisulphide,
and afterward by separate electrolysis.

Alloys. — Mr. Alexander Dick has produced a
new copper-zinc alloy, which he calls Delta-
metal, and which, it is claimed, exhibits char-
acteristics as essentially superior to brass as
those of bronze are to gun-metal. Its advan-
tages are great strength and toughness, and a ca-
pacity for being rolled, forged, and drawn. It
can be made as hard as mild steel, and when
melted is very liquid and capable of producing
sound castings of close, fine grain. The color
can be varied from that of yellow brass to that

METEOROLOGY.

525

of rich gun-metal. The surface takes a fine
polish, and tarnishes less than brass. The metal
when cast in sand has a breaking strain of from
21 to 22 tons per square inch. When rolled or
forged hot into rods, the breaking strain is 43
tons per square inch ; and when drawn into
wire of 22 B. W. G., it is of 67 tons per square
inch.

Messrs. Cockshott and Jowett, of Bradford,
England, have produced an alloy of manganese
with phosphorus and tin and copper which
possesses superior qualities of tensile strength
and durability. The phosphor-manganese-tin
may be used in the same manner and in similar
proportions as phosphor-tin, though it should
oe cast at a little higher temperature, but with
more satisfactory results. It furnishes a very
convenient form of the combination of man-
ganese and phosphorus, which is valuable on
account of the facility it affords the brass-
founder, by adding a greater or less proportion
of copper, etc., to produce bronze of a quality
exactly suitable to the purpose for which it is
required. The bronze is made in two qualities,
both selling at the same price. The first qual-
ity is very tough, and suitable for purposes
where the castings are required to withstand a
great strain, having been tested successfully for
a strain of 34,754 pounds per square inch.
The second quality is very hard and tough,
has a tensile strength of 29,979 pounds per
square inch, and is suitable for bearings and
the wearing parts of machinery.

METEOROLOGY. A n extraordin ary lurid glow
in the western sky after sunset, and in the
eastern sky before sunrise, attracted the atten-
tion of the world during November and De-
cember, 1883. The light occupied the usual
place of the twilight, except that its focus of
brilliancy was shifted a little to the southeast,
but was much brighter, was of a deeper red,
the colors were more varied and turbid, and it
rose to a greater height and was longer con-
tinued. It also did not appear at the instant
of sunset, but a few moments later, after the
lapse of an interval of comparative darkness.
A, description given by an observer in Umbal-
lah, India, will give a correct idea of the spec-
tacle as it was seen everywhere. " The sun,"
he says, "goes down LS usual, and it gets
nearly dark, and then a bright red and yellow
and green and purple blaze comes in the sky,
and makes it lighter again." The phenomenon
began to excite attention in the eastern part of
• the United States about the 27th of November,
when it appears to have reached its culmina-
tion in America and Europe. The western
sky was illuminated as if by the light of a great
conflagration, and fire-alarms were sounded in
many places. The spectacle was remarked on
the Pacific coast a week previous to this ; in
Europe early in November ; and at points in
the East Indies and the Pacific Ocean in Sep-
tember. The earliest notices of it seem to
have been made in the islands of Rodriguez,
Mauritius, and the Seychelles on the 28th of

August, in Brazil on the 30th, and on the
Gold Coast of Africa on the 1st of September.
It was observed at Trinidad, in connection
with a " blue sun," on the 2d of September,
and at Ongole, India, after the setting of a
" green sun," early in the same month. It was
usually associated either with a wholly clear
sky or with a sky marked only by light, float-
ing, cirrous clouds.

An apparent connection has been traced be-
tween the red light and a blue or green color-
ing of the sun, which was observed in the East
Indies and in tropical America early in Sep-
tember. This phenomenon was observed at
Panama and Trinidad on the 2d and 3d of that
month. At Manila, in the Philippine islands,
on the 9th of September, during a light dry
mist, the sun appeared green, and diffused over
all the bodies it illuminated "a strange and
curious greenish hue." Similar colorations
were observed at the same time at Colombo,
Ceylon, just before sunset, and at Madras, In-
dia, where Prof. 0. Michie Smith, of the Chris-
tian College, remarked the perfectly rayless
and bright silvery-white color of the sun on
the 9th and its pea-green color on the next
day. This was repeated several days after-
ward. The appearance of a green color in
the sun and in parts of the sky, outside of the
red glow, was remarked on several occasions
in Europe. One observer in England recorded
the appearance at sunset of a greenish and
white opalescent haze about the point of the
sun's departure, that shone as with a light of
its own, near the horizon. "The upper part
of this pearly mist," he says, usoon assumed
a pink color, while the lower part was white,
green, and greenish yellow." Another observer
described the blue of the sky as changing to
green and the green to the ruddy tint, while
the sun appeared of a brilliant emerald hue,
tingeing every thing with green. Similar phe-
nomena, with variations in detail, were noticed
at many places in England and on the Con-
tinent, including Berlin, Rome, and Davos
Platz, in the high Alps, where the spectacle
was very brilliant, and the sun appeared
through the day " surrounded by a luminous,
slightly opalescent haze, not at all resembling
halo or iridescence of vapor."

The red glow and the green sun are regard-
ed as effects of a common cause. The same
medium which gives by transmitted light ^ a
green color to objects viewed through it will
reflect the red rays. In seeking to account for
the phenomena, they must be assumed to be
due to some peculiar condition of our atmos-
phere; for if the glow had been produced by
any cause outside of the atmosphere, it would,
have been visible in some form through the
night, whereas its duration corresponded toler-
ably closely with that of ordinary twilight;
and the cause must have been co-extensive
with the atmosphere, for the glow lasted as
long as a twilight, and even longer. The mani-
festation was not auroral or electrical, for no

526

METEOKOLOGY.

auroras were seen that could reasonably be
associated with it, and no electrical disturb-
ances were mentioned in connection with it,
except in a single instance by Prof. C. Michie
Smith, of Madras. The theory that it is the
result of peculiar conditions of vapor in the
air receives a partial support from Prof.
Smith's spectroscopic observations, in which
all the atmospheric lines usually ascribed to
aqueous vapor were very strongly developed.
A marked general absorption was also ob-
served in the red. The facts may also be cited
in favor of this theory, that Prof. Lockyer has
seen the sun green through the steam of a
steamboat; that it has appeared green through
the mists of the Simplon; that bright-green
suns have been remarked by travelers in the
Arctic regions ; and, as stated by the Rev. G.
H. Hopkins, of Cornwall, England, that, in a
clear sky, when the disk of the sun sinks below
the horizontal line of the ocean, the parting
ray is a bright emerald-green. It is, however,
difficult, on this theory alone, to account for
the persistence of the phenomena for so long
a period through all the varying conditions
of atmospheric pressure. Dr. F. A. Forel, of
Merges, Switzerland, mentions, as against the
sufficiency of the hypothesis, that in Switzer-
land the glow, after having decreased subse-
quently to the 3d of December, attained a sec-
ond maximum on the 24th and 25th of that
month, when the atmospheric conditions were
quite different from those which prevailed in
the country at the time of the first maximum.

The hypothesis that the spectacle was caused
by the presence in the atmosphere of a cloud
of " cosmic dust, " which the earth had met in
its course, has received considerable support.
It is now believed, on the authority of Prof.
Nordenskiold, who has collected and' analyzed
a meteoric dust from the snows of unin-
habited regions, and of other observers, that
the earth is constantly receiving accretions
from space of an exceedingly fine matter having
a composition like that of meteoric stones.
Mr. W. Mattieu Williams, of London, and M.
Emile Yung, of Geneva, collected in December
unusually large proportions of such a dust
from freshly fallen snows— the former in his
garden, the latter on the steeple of the cathe-
dral of Saint Pierre af'les Treize-Arbres,"
Mont Saleve.

The theory which has found most general
acceptation is, that the phenomena have been
produced by the diffusion through the whole
atmosphere of the earth of ashes and cinders
from the eruption of the volcano of Krakatoa,
in the straits of Sunda, which took place on
the 26th of August. The most weighty objec-
tions to this theory arise out of the difficulty
of explaining how the matter ejected from the
volcano could have so quickly reached the
enormous height at which the source of the
glow was certainly situated, and of the difficul-
ty of imagining it to remain suspended in the
air for so long a time. The eruption from

Krakatoa, which immensely exceeded in vio-
lence any convulsion of the kind known to
man, may, however, easily be conceived to
have been capable of producing effects far
transcending those which could be imagined in
connection with any ordinary or with any
other extraordinary known eruption. Mr. W.
J. Stillman has witnessed explosions of the sub-
marine volcano of Santorin that threw masses
of rock weighing many tons to a distance of
from half a mile to a mile, and clouds of dust
to an elevation of from six thousand to ten
thousand feet. Such effects, magnified to cor-
respond with the grander scale of the Kraka-
toa eruption, might furnish the conditions re-
quired. Respecting the second difficulty, Mr.
W. H. Preece and Dr. William Crookes have
shown that finely divided particles of dust
having an electrical charge of the same sign
as that of the earth, may be kept suspended
in the air for an indefinite time by electri-
cal repulsion. Prof. S. P. Langley has de-
scribed an ocean of dust of this kind which
he observed in 1881 from near the summit of
Mount Whitney, occupying a stratum of the
atmosphere some six or seven thousand feet
above the level of the sea, from which light
was reflected red. A similar formation has
been seen from the Peak of Teneriffe, consti-
tuting apparently a permanent constituent of
the atmosphere.

Positive evidence is at hand of the presence
during the prevalence of red sunsets of a dust
of this kind in the atmosphere of Europe.
The sediment derived from a snow that fell at
Madrid, Spain, on the 7th of December, when
examined, was found to contain, besides the
ordinary atmospheric dust of the city, particles
of volcanic hypersthene, magnetic iron, and
volcanic glass. A rain that fell at Wageningen,
Holland, on the 13th of December, left very
obvious sediments, which, when analyzed by
Messrs. Beyerinck and Van Dam, of the Agri-
cultural Laboratory at that place, were found
to correspond very closely with ashes brought
from Batavia, Java, which were known to have
come from Krakatoa ; similar sediments were
found at Worcester, England, and Storlvdal,
Norway, on -Nov. 17th, and at Gainsborough
and York, England, Dec. 12th.

According to Capt. Sir 0. Fleming Sten-
house, who was there at the time, the eruption
of Graham's island, in the Mediterranean, in
1831, was followed by a series of red sun-
sets at Malta. White, in his " Natural History
of Selborne," records the prevalence in 1783,
from June 23d to July 20th, of a peculiar
haze, or smoky fog, during which " the sun at
noon looked as black as a clouded moon, and
shed a rust-colored, ferruginous light on the
ground and floors of rooms, but was particu-
larly lurid and blood-colored at rising and
setting." All this while, " Calabria and part
of the isle of Sicily were torn and con-
vulsed with earthquakes ; and about that
juncture a volcano sprang out of the sea on

METEOROLOGY.

527

528

METEOKOLOGY.

METHODISTS.

the coast of Norway." The same phenome-
non is alluded to in Cowper's " Task " ; and it
is ascribed in Mrs. Somerville's "Physical
Geography " to the eruption of the volcano
Skaptar, in Iceland, which occurred May 8th.
The sun was observed of a blue color in Eng-
land in April, 1821, after an eruption in the
island of Bourbon. Dr. Budde, of Constanti-
nople, was told in Algeria, in 1880, that the
sun has a decidedly blue color when seen
through the tine dust of the desert. Mr. Edward
Whyrnper has described the green suns and
ruddy sky effects through a cloud of volcanic
dust from Ootopaxi in language precisely ap-
plicable to the phenomena under consideration.

Extremely brilliant colorations of the sky
have been often mentioned in connection with
a particular tropical belt. Col. Stuart Wort-
ley, who had already remarked the unusual col-
ors of the sunsets during a series of eruptions
of Vesuvius, was greatly impressed with the
gorgeous coloring of the tropical skies, which
only occurs in certain latitudes and in well-
defined belts, and suggests that it may be the
result of a constant stream of volcanic matter
thrown out by the great volcanoes in the mount-
ain-ranges of South America and elsewhere,
forming an almost permanent stratum. In con-
nection with this supposition may be noticed
the interesting coincidence, mentioned by Mr.
Lockyer, that the volcanic ashes were in the
present case, even before they reached India,
taken by an upper current from the east, " in
a straight line via the Seychelles, Cape Coast
Castle, Trinidad, and Panama, to Honolulu — in
fact, nearly back again to the straits of Sunda."

It is possible to combine the theory that as-
cribes the phenomena to aqueous vapor with
that which attributes them to volcanic or me-
teoric dust, by supposing that the dust may act
as a nucleus for the condensation of any va-
por that may exist at its level, as ordinary city
dust and smoke have been found to act as the
nucleus for fogs.

Annnal Rainfall in the IJnited States.— Lieut. H.
C. Dunwoody has compiled, under the direction
of the Signal Service of the United States, a se-
ries of tables with accompanying charts, show-
ing the geographical distribution of the aver-
age monthly and the average yearly rainfall at
different points in the country, as determined
from observations regularly taken at the Signal-
Service stations and army posts, from the es-
tablishment of the Meteorological Bureau of the
Signal Service, in 1870, to January, 1881. The
accompanying map shows the general result
of the observations by indicating the average
annual precipitation throughout the United
States during the ten years over which they
have extended. The region of heaviest pre-
cipitation appears from it to be a narrow strip
along the coast of Washington Territory, where
alone more than 80 inches of rain fall during
the year. The regions of the next heaviest
rainfall, between 70 and 80 inches annually, are
a narrow strip back of this one, a small section

on the eastern coast of Florida, and another
small district south of Cape Hatteras. The
most extensive district of the next heaviest
annual precipitation, from 60 to 70 inches, is
around the northeastern borders of the Gulf of
Mexico, in southeastern Louisiana, southern
Mississippi and Alabama, and western Florida;
while narrower regions of equal precipitation
are found in western Washington and Oregon
and northwestern California, eastern Florida,
and eastern North and South Carolina. In the
mass of the Southern States south of North
Carolina and Kentucky and east of the Indian
Territory and Texas, the mean annual rainfall
is between 50 and 60 inches. This region is
surrounded on the north and west by two belts,
the more remote and more arid one of which
is the wider, which together include the bulk
of the States north of 36° 80', and east of the
Mississippi river, most of Iowa, Missouri, and
Arkansas, and eastern Kansas, Indian Terri-
tory, and Texas, in which the amounts of an-
nual precipitation are respectively from 40 to
50 inches and from 30 to 40 inches. West of
the western edge of the latter zone is a com-
paratively narrow region in which the rainfall
is between 20 and 30 inches annually; while
west of this is a broad region, reaching over
the Kocky mountains, and to the Columbia
river in the Northwest, in which the mean an-
nual precipitation is between 10 and 20 inches.
The rainfall begins at the Columbia river again
to increase, in narrow belts, toward the west,
till it reaches its culmination in the region of
greatest precipitation, already mentioned, on
the Pacific coast. The most arid regions in
the United States are in Nevada and Arizona,
and a district in southeastern New Mexico,
where the mean annual precipitation does not
amount to ten inches.

METHODISTS. I. Methodist Episcopal Clinch.—
The summary of the statistics of this Church,
as they are given in the "Minutes of the An-
nual Conferences" for 1883, is as follows:

Number of annual conferences

Number of mission districts

Number of bishops

Number of presiding elders

Number of itinerant preachers 12,628

Number of local preachers 12,026

Number of members in full connection.. 1, (501,072
Number of members on probation 168,462

Total of members and probationers 1,769,584

Number of baptisms during the year of children . 55,876

Number of baptisms during the year of adults . 61,8fi2

>. umber of churches 18,741

Number of parsonages 6,607

Value of churches $69,42^,276

Value of parsonages $9,815,809

Number of Sunday-schools 22,503

Number of officers and teachers in Sunday-schools. 241,861

Number of Sunday-school scholars 1,691,065

COLLECTIONS AND BENEVOLENT CONTRIBUTIONS.

For ministerial support

For incidental expenses of churches and Sunday-
schools 2,028,195

For general missionary work

For Board of Church Extension 120,402

For Tract.Society 15,280

For Sunday-School Union 16,282

For Board of Education 64,900

For Freedmen's Aid Society 66,444

For American Bible Society 27,260

METHODISTS.

The number of members in full connection
was 28,895 greater, and the number of "pro-
bationers" was 7,382 less, than in 1882.

The agents of the Eastern Book Concern
(New York city) reported to the Book Com-
mittee that the establishment, at the end of
1883, possessed a capital, clear of all obliga-
tions, of $1,202,593, and that the profits for
the year had been $77,169. The agents of the
Western Book Concern (at Cincinnati) returned
a net capital of $412,233, the gain during the
year having been $45,775.

The General Committee of Church Exten-
sion met in the city of New York, November
loth. The treasurer of the board reported
that the sum of $333,879 had been available
for use during the year, and the disbursements
had been $229,284. The receipts for the year
showed an increase of $13,217 on the general
account, and of $25,504 on account of the loan
fund. The board had aided, by loan or gift,
or both, 442 churches, and had applications on
file, which were granted on conditions, from
240 churches, and other applications from 29
churches. If all these applications were grant-
ed, there would still be a balance in the
treasury of $914. On the special appeal for
means to aid in the erection of 400 churches
on the frontiers, 185 churches had been' pro-
vided for. The committee decided to ask the
churches for contributions during 1884 of
$159,550.

The receipts of the Freedmen's Aid Society
for the year 1883 were $118,153, or $18,761
than the receipts of the previous year,
'he pupils taught in the schools of the society
ire enumerated and classified as follow : Bibli-
students, 304; medical, 51; collegiate, 145;
lemic, 410; normal, 1,387; intermediate,
T67; primary, 473— total, 3,537. The schools
iclude seven chartered colleges, three of which
ive theological departments, one biblical insti-
ite, one medical college, and fourteen semi-
laries, academies, and normal schools not char-
?red. In accordance with the action of the
General Conference of 1880, the society is aid-
ng in the establishment of schools for white
pils in the South. A college has been found-
in Little Rock, Ark., another is to be opened
Chattanooga, Tenn., rnd several academies
lave been aided. During sixteen years, 80,000
)upils have been instructed in the schools of
the society, 950,000 children have been taught
')y its teachers and its pupils who have become
_ ihers, and $450,000 have been expended by
it in school property.

The General Missionary Committee of the
Methodist Episcopal Church met in New York
city, November 7th. The treasurer of the
Missionary Society reported that its receipts
tor the year had been $751,469, and its expen-
ditures $794,506. The indebtedness of the
society had been reduced from $102,579, in
1882, to $88,198. Appropriations were made
tor missions during the ensuing year as fol-
low :

VOL. xxui. — 34 A

1. Foreign Mission*:

Africa (Liberia) $4,000

South America (Buenos Ayres, Montevideo, etc ) '22,781

China 81,990

Germany and Switzerland 24,000

Denmark 10,000

Norway 14,846

Sweden 22,1)8:4

India 06,820

Bulgaria and Turkey 15 4S3

Italy 89.750

Mexico 84,000

Japan 86,648

Total foreign missions $870,898

2. Missions in the United States and Territories

to be administered as Foreign Mission* (in-
cluding missions in Arizona, the Black Hills,
Dakota, the Indian Territory, Montana, Utah,

and West Nebraska) $63,490

8. Domestic Missions :

Welsh and Scandinavian $25,500

German 48,100

French 12,500

American Indian 6,700

English-speaking 17'2,000

Total appropriations for foreign and Ameri-
can missions $700,188

II. American Wesleyan Connection. — The Gen-
eral Conference of the American Wesleyan
Connection met at Syracuse, N. Y., October
18th. The book agent represented the aggre-
gate amount of the assets of the Publishing
House, including the building in Syracuse, as
$45,975. The circulation of the literature of
the Connection had increased with great regu-
larity during the preceding four years. The
educational institutions had quadrupled. The
work of domestic missions had been prose-
cuted with so much success that two addi-
tional conferences had ,been formed as results
of it. Resolutions were adopted declaring the
Connection to be historically and traditionally,
by its standard authors and doctrinal precepts,
committed to the work and experience of holi-
ness— "including in holiness both justification
and regeneration, and, subsequent to their re-
ception, entire sanctification" ; rejoicing over
the progress that had been made in the doc-
trine, and enjoining upon the ministers faith-
fully to present it before their people. A rule
was adopted forbidding the division of any
annual conference, on the ground of color or
nationality, in any case where all the parties
speak the same language. An effort was made
for the enactment of a rule forbidding the use
of instrumental music in worship, but it failed,
and the Conference decided to retain the pres-
ent disciplinary provisions on the subject. The
previous General Conference had refused to
receive a delegate who had been appointed in
behalf of the General Conference of the Meth-
odist Episcopal Church as its fraternal repre-
sentative, on the ground that he was a mem-
ber of a secret order, a fact that constitutes
disqualification for membership in the Wes-
leyan Connection. A similar question was
presented on the present occasion, when the
General Conference refused to recognize a
delegate from the local annual conference of
the Methodist Episcopal Church who declared
himself a member of two secret societies. A

530

METHODISTS.

statement was adopted by the Conference, set-
ting forth that in view of the denominational
position on the subject of secret societies, it
was not consistent to receive fraternal greet-
ings from an adhering member of an organiza-
tion of that character.

III. The Methodist Church (Canada) — The fol-
lowing are summaries of the statistics and
condition of the several Methodist bodies in
Canada which, in September, 1883, consum-
mated a union under the designation of " The
Methodist Church " :

1. The Methodist Church of Canada.— This
Church was constituted in its present form in
1874, by a union between the Wesleyan Meth-
odist Church in Canada, the Wesleyan Meth-
odist Church in Eastern British America, and
the Methodist New Connection Church in
Canada. Its statistics are as follow: Number
of ministers and probationers for the ministry,
1,192; of members, 125,420; of adherents, in-
cluding members, 625,000 ; of churches, 2,046 ;
of parsonages, 607 ; value of church property,
$6,022,227; number of Sunday-schools, 1,947,
with 16,980 teachers and 130,629 scholars. It
has missions among the Indian tribes of Onta-
rio and the French of Quebec, and in British
Columbia and Japan, the statistics of which
are as follow : Number of domestic or home
missions, 332, with 344 missionaries and 30,-
149 members ; of Indian missions, 43, with 27
missionaries, 12 native assistants, 30 teachers,
11 interpreters, and 3,377 members; of French
missions, 9, with 9 missionaries. 2 teachers,
and 360 members ; of foreign missions or sta-
tions, 6, with 14 missionaries (seven of whom
are native Japanese) and 721 members. Total,
390 missions, with 394 missionaries, 56 other
paid agents, and 34,607 members. The income
of the society for 1881-'82 was $159,243. The
educational institutions of the Church are Vic-
toria College, Cobourg, Ont. ; Mount Allison
College, Sackville, N. B., and a seminary for
young men and young women at Sackville,
N. B. ; besides four institutions under the pat-
ronage of annual conferences, and one hun-
dred common schools in Newfoundland. The
Publishing House at Toronto has assets valued
at $207,531 ; eight periodicals are published at
this house, and one other at Halifax, N. S.

2. Methodist Episcopal Church in Canada. —
Organized in 1834. It had, previous to the
union just consummated, one bishop and three
annual conferences. Number of ministers, 275 ;
of local preachers, 270 ; of churches, 536 ; of
members, 28.070; of Sunday-school scholars,
25,119; value of church property, $1,372,510;
amount of income for home missions, $12,350.
The educational institutions are Albert Col-
lege, Belleville, Ont., and seminaries for young
women at Belleville and St. Thomas. A week-
ly paper is published at Hamilton.

3. Primitive Methodist Church in Canada. —
Founded in 1829. Number of ministers, 99 ; of
members, 8,223 ; of lay preachers. 246; of class
leaders, 330 ; of churches, 237 ; of parsonages,

48; of Sunday-schools, 169, with 1,253 teach-
ers and 9,343 scholars ; value of church prop-
erty. $383,853. A weekly paper is issued from
the Book-Room in Toronto.

4. Bible Christian Church in Canada. —
Founded in 1831. The Conference includes ten
districts, two of which are in the United States.
Number of itinerant ministers, 81 ; of mem-
bers, 7,531; of churches, 188; of Sunday-
school scholars, 9,378. A weekly paper and
a semi-weekly Sunday-school paper are pub-
lished under the auspices of the denomination.

Union of the Methodist Churches in Canada.
— An account was given in the "Annual Cy-
clopedia " for 1882 of the negotiations between
the several Methodist churches in Canada — viz.,
the Methodist Church of Canada, the Meth-
odist Episcopal Church of Canada, the Primi-
tive Methodist Church in Canada, and the Bi-
ble Christian Church in Canada — and the pro-
ceedings of their Conferences and General Con-
ferences, with reference to the union of the
whole number into a single body, the record
being brought down to the close of the year.
The provisional basis of union agreed upon by
the Conferences demanded the submission of
the plan to the Annual Conferences and quarter-
ly meetings for approval. The basis was read-
ily ratified by the Bible Christians and the
Primitive Methodists, but met with some op-
position in the Methodist Church of Canada,
where, however, it was finally approved in the
quarterly meetings and in all the Annual Con-
ferences except one, and was formally ratified
at an adjourned meeting of the General Con-
ference held at Belleville, August 29th. The
chief objections raised in this body to the plan
of union related to the question of the general
superintendency and to the anticipation that
legal difficulties might arise concerning rights
in church property. This was most liable to
take place in the case of the property of the
Bible Christian Church, the parent church of
that body in England having refused to give its
consent to the Canadian branch going into the
Union. The Canada Conference of the Bible
Christians decided, however, to enter the Union
notwithstanding this refusal.

The first General Conference of the united
body met at Belleville, Ont., September 5th.
It was composed of 161 representatives of the
Methodist Church, 30 of the Methodist Episco-
pal Church, 8of the Primitive MethodistChurch,
and 9 of the Bible Christian Churches. The
Rev. J. A. Williams, D,D., was chosen president
of the provisional organization. The president
of the Bible Christian Conference explained
the position of that church with reference to
the movement for union by saying that the
Conference had at first taken favorable action
on the subject, with the belief that the parent
body in England would approve the step. A
delegation was accordingly sent to England to
obtain the desired permission. The refusal of
the Conference to give it was an occasion of
surprise, and placed the Canada Conference in

METHODISTS.

531

an embarrassing position. It, however, would
not imperil the union by delaying another year,
as the English body had requested ; and it was
not probable that the English Conference would
make any legal demands against the church
property. This property was valued at nearly
$400,000. The subject was referred by the
General Conference to a committee, which re-
ported, on the legal aspects of the union, that
no doubt existed respecting the status of any
body except the Bible Christian Church, and
that even in the case of this body, if the Eng-
lish church refused to sanction the action of
the Canada Conference, all difficulties might
be adjusted by means of an act of Parliament.
At a later stage of the proceedings, an address
was adopted to be presented to the Bible Chris-
tian Conference in England, setting forth the
imperative necessities which existed for the
union of the Methodist churches in Canada,
and asking its sanction to the movement. The
Conference then proceeded to the adjustment
of the details of the organization of the church
and of discipline. The General Conference was
constituted to consist of ministerial and lay
delegates in equal numbers, upon a ratio of
representation of one ministerial delegate to
every ten ministers in the Annual Conferences.
It shall meet on the first Wednesday in Sep-
tember, 1886, and every four years thereafter.
It is prohibited from changing the articles of
religion, and from introducing new standards
of doctrine contrary to those already existing;
from destroying the plan of the itinerant sys-
tem ; from making changes in the general rules
of the society except by a " constitutional
vote"; and from making any change in the
basis of union affecting constitutional questions
or the rights and privileges of the ministry and
laity, except by a three-fourth majority of the
General Conference. Ten Annual Conferences
were constituted, viz. : the Manitoba, Nova
Scotia, New Brunswick and Prince Edward
island, Newfoundland, London, Guelph, Bay
of Quinte, Niagara, Toronto, and Montreal Con-
ferences. They shall be composed of minis-
ters and laymen in equal numbers, the lay dele-
gates having the right to be present at all or-
dinary sessions of the Conference, and to speak
and vote on all questions except in the cases of
the examination of ministerial character and
qualification, the reception and ordination of
ministers in full connection, and the granting
of the supernumerary relation, on which min-
isters only will vote. Two general superin-
tendents were constituted, to hold office for
the term of eight years, one being elected every
four year?. It is their function to preside over
all the sessions of the General Conference and
all standing committees of the same; to pre-
side over the Annual Conferences in alterna-
tion with the presidents of the same ; and to
conduct the ordination services in association
with the president of the Annual Conference.
The general superintendent was made respon-
sible to the General Conference for all his offi-

cial acts, and was given a general oversight of
the church and all its institutions, but was pro-
hibited from interfering with the functions of
ministers and other officers of the church in
their prescribed duties. The elections for gen-
eral superintendent resulted in the choice of
the Rev. Samuel D. Rice, D. D., for the term
of eight years, and the Rev. Albert Carman,
D.U., bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church
of Canada, for the term of four years. It was
decided that the church should be known by
the name of u The Methodist Church." The
office of district superintendent was consti-
tuted for the supervision of the districts into
which the Annual Conferences are divided for
convenience of administration. The district
superintendent is to be chosen by ballot in the
Annual Conferences ; his duties are to preside
in district meetings and in all district commit-
tees, to oversee the temporal and spiritual in-
terests of the Church, ki and, with the ministers
and preachers, to administer and enforce the
discipline on his district, being responsible
therefor to his Annual Conference." The
General Conference decided '' that in view of
the division and multiplication of Annual Con-
ferences, and the consequent restricted terri-
tory within the bounds of each Annual Confer-
ence, we deem it important that provision be
made for frequent interchange of ministers be-
tween the various conferences as a means of
promoting connectional feeling throughout the
entire church, and maintaining the itinerancy
in its integrity." Provisions were accordingly
made for the regulation -of transfers. The ad-
justment of the financial interests of the con-
nection and questions concerning church prop-
erty received much attention. Provisions were
made for participation in the celebration of the
centenary of organized Methodism in America,
appointed for 1884.

IV. Wesleyan Methodist Church (British).— The
following is a " general view " of the statistics
of the British and affiliated Conferences of this
Church, as tabulated in the " Minutes of Con-
ference " for 1883 :

|

1

I

j

ll

1

s

S

§

1

I. In Great Britain..

407,085

84,899

1,545

91

284

II. In Ireland and

Irish missions..

24,384

668

181

16

42

III. In foreign mis-
sions

70,747*

5,299

285

98

9

IV. South African Con-

ference

20,739

9,093

93

74

10

V. French Conference

1,856

168

28

8

Totals

524,811

49,627

2,132

279

848

Wesleyan Missions. — The total income of the
Wesley a'n Missionary Society for 1882 was
£169,361, of which £135,874 were classed as

* The apparent decrease from the returns of previous years
is accounted for by the formation of the South African Con-
ference, the members of which are represented in the next
line. The mission districts still in connection with the British
Conference show an increase of 457.

532

METHODISTS.

ordinary receipts, while the rest came in the
form of special funds. Furthermore, £126,000
had been raised on the mission stations toward
their own support. The expenditures were
£169,361. The society had paid off a heavy
debt which rested upon it, and was now free.
The following is the "General Summary" of
the missions under the immediate direction of
the Wesleyan Missionary Committee and Brit-
ish Conference in Europe, India, China, South
and West Africa, and the West Indies :

Central or principal stations, called circuits 462

Chapels and other preaching-places, in connection
with the above-mentioned central or principal sta-
tions, as far as ascertai ned 2,517

Missionaries and assistant missionaries, including su-
pernumeraries . , 526

Other paid agents, as catechists, interpreters, day-
school teachers, etc 2,059

Unpaid agents, as local preachers, Sabbath - school

teachers, etc 8,566

Full and accredited church-members 91,276

On trial for church-membership 14,489

Scholars, deducting those who attend both the day

and Sabbath schools 103,801

Printing establishments 3

A very rapid and remarkable advance of
Christianity was represented to be taking place
in India and Ceylon. The missions in South
Africa had been constituted into the South
African Conference, to be under the partial
support of the society, while its own mission-
ary efforts proper in that country would be
applied to the extension of missions into the
Transvaal and Swaziland, with the design of
making these efforts the first steps of an ad-
vance into Central Africa.

Wesleyan Conference. — The Wesleyan Con-
ference met in its one hundred and fortieth
session in Hull, July 24th. The Rev. Thomas
McCullough was chosen president. The nu-
merical returns were presented and showed that
in the circuits under the immediate jurisdiction
of the Conference the number of members
was 407.085 — a larger number than was ever
before reported in the history of the connec-
tion— against 393,754 in 1882. The number
of new members received was 60,606. The
number of persons on trial for church-mem-
bership was given at 34,399, or 6,254 less than
were returned in 1882. The committee on the
thanksgiving fund, while it had not yet closed
its accounts, and could only present an ad in-
terim balance-sheet, reported that the total
amount that had been paid to the General
Treasurers up to July, 1883, was £291,721.
The Book Committee returned an amount of
sales not quite equal to those of the previous
year, but " very much above the average," and
sufficient to allow all of the customary grants
to be made fro.m the profits. Fifty-four new
books, sixty-two new editions, and seventy-
eight new tracts had been published during the
year; and the total issues of the Book-Room
had been 1,707,000 copies of publications, and
6,156,263 tracts. The expenditure for home
missions had been £34,946, while the income
of the fund had been £500 less. Seven lay
missionaries were maintained, who had held

more than a thousand services, and returned
additions of 400 members to the church. The
income of the chapel fund had been £9,369;
grants had been made of £3,507, and £633
had been advanced in loans to twenty-five chap-
els. The sum of £367,238 had been expended
during the year on new erections, and in the
reduction of debts. Among the new erections
were 118 chapels. The report of the Metro-
politan Chapel Building fund showed that since
its institution, about twenty-one years before,
sixty-four chapels, each affording sitting ac-
commodation for at least 1,000 persons, and
one hundred smaller chapels, had been erected
in the Metropolitan district. The year's in-
come of the fund had been £11,429, while the
grants and loans paid out on its account amount-
ed to £6,500. The fund for the extension of
Methodism in Scotland returned a capital sum
of £9,885. The Committee on Foreign Mis-
sions reported that the expenditure of the year
had been practically brought within the in-
come, but that the society was in great need
of more ample resources.

The Temperance Committee reported that
the strength of the temperance societies was
increasing very rapidly. The whole number
of temperance societies within the connection
was now 321, with 28,414 enrolled members,
showing an increase during the year of 144 so-
cieties and 17,502 members. Besides, there
were returned 2,644 Bands of Hope, with 46,-
549 members. A petition in favor of the Sun-
day-closing of all the places where intoxicat-
ing liquors are sold in England had been pre-
pared under the direction of the committee
and presented to Parliament, to which 596,877
signatures were attached. The Committee on
Sunday-schools reported the whole number of
Sunday-schools in the connection in Great
Britain to be 6,584, with 124,390 officers and
teachers, and 841,591 scholars; and that the
Sunday-schools were maintained at an annual
cost of £71,864. The number of schools con-
nected with the Sunday-School Union was
2,901 ; and the receipts of that association had
been £19,259.

A novel feature in the history of the Con-
ference was^a visitation which it received from
a deputation of the clergy of the Established
Church in Hull. The deputation presented an
address, saying that they regarded with grati-
tude the noble spiritual work which the We^-
leyans had been able to accomplish at home
and abroad, and that " we readily extend to
you and all who uphold the fundamental doc-
trines of the kingdom of God the right hand of
fellowship." A report was made of the or-
ganization of the South African Conference,
with an account of its first session and its ad-
dress to the Wesleyan Conference. The new
Conference extends over a territory reaching
from the Cape of Good Hope to the Vaal river,
and includes within the sphere of its operations
missions among the Hottentot, Tembu, Bara-
long, Pondo, and Zulu tribes The churches

METHODISTS.

533

under its jurisdiction were already contributing
£45,000 of the £60,000 which it cost to main-
tain their work during each year. A scheme
was adopted for the organization of the con-
nection in the West Indies into two confer-
ences, to be associated in a General Conference
which shall meet every three years. In other
points the organization of these conferences will
be similar to that of the South African Confer-
ence. The plan has yet to receive the assent
of the West Indian churches. Steps were re-
solved upon for securing amendments to the
marriage laws of England, of such a character
as shall put Wesley an and other ministers on
an equality of privilege in solemnizing mar-
riages with the clergy of the Church of Eng-
land. The plan of amendment approved by
the Conference embraces principles similar to
those of the Scotch law for registration. It
proposes that the present requirement of notice
at the registrar's office, and of license, shall be
retained ;, but that the marriage may then be
celebrated, on production of the license, by any
minister duly authorized for that purpose, in
any duly registered place of worship, without
the presence of the registrar, which is now
required in the case of marriage by dissenters,
after which a certificate shall be filed in the
registrar's office ; and it further stipulates that
the total fees for such marriages charged at the
registrar's office shall not be greater than the
fees charged for an ordinary marriage accord-
ing to the rites of the Church of England. ' A re-
port was approved in favor of holding a second
(Ecumenical Conference of Methodists in 1887.
V. Primitive Methodist Connection.— The follow-
ing is a summary of the statistics of this Church
as they were reported to the Conference in
June: Number of members, 196,480; of trav-
eling preachers, 1,147; of local preachers, 15,-
982; of leaders, 10,994; of connectional chap-
els, 4,437; of other preaching-places, 1,812;
value of trust property, £2,812,263 ; indebted-
ness on trust property, £1,087,015 ; number of
Sunday-schools, 4,184, with 61,215 teachers and
400,597 scholars. Income of the Sunday-
schools, £60,000. The income of the superan-
nuated preachers', widows', and orphans' fund
had been £6,639. The committee of the fund
returned 267 annuitant upon its lists. The
income of the chapel fund had been £385.
Twenty • four chapels had been assisted by
grants. Including what the chapels them-
selves had raised, £5,340 had been spent under
the auspices of the fund in the relief of their
estates. The Connectional Insurance Company
returned a reserve fund of £9,860, carefully
invested, with 4,711 outstanding policies. A
statement was made in the Conference that the .
total amount of contributions within the Con-
nection had been during the year: For chapel
debts and current chapel expenses, £269,508 ;
for educational purposes, £56.574; for the
support of the ministry, £115,200 ; for various
connectional funds, £9,378 ; for literature sold
by the Book-Room, £26,644; for missionary

purposes, £15,763 ; making in all nearly half a
million pounds sterling, or an average of £2
11*. Id. per member.

The anniversary of the Primitive Methodist
Missionary Society was held May 1st. The in-
come of the society for the year was returned
at £36,865, derived as follows: From contribu-
tions of home stations, £17,222; contributed
by foreign stations, £2,883 ; raised in the mis-
sions for schools, churches, and the mainte-
nance of missionaries, £16,760. The whole
amount showed an increase of £1,640 over the
receipts of the previous year. The work of
the society was extended to 238 stations; of
which 56 were classed as "home," 178 as
" colonial," and 4 as u foreign " stations, and
was conducted by 79 "home," 217 "foreign,"
and 6 "colonial" missionaries and ministers,
or 302 missionaries in all.

The sixty-fourth Primitive Methodist Con-
ference met at South Shields, June 13th. The
Rev. W. Cutts was chosen president. The
business of the Conference had reference chief-
ly to the condition and interest of the various
institutions and benevolent enterprises of the
Connection. A Temperance Society was estab-
lished, with a Band of Hope Union, the pledge
including abstinence from tobacco and snuff.

VI. United Methodist Free Chnrehes.— The sum-
maries of the statistical returns of this body as
reported to the Conference in August are as
follow : Number of itinerant preachers, 391 ;
of supernumeraries, 40; of local preachers,
3,417; of leaders, 4,128; of members, 75,577;
of persons on trial for membership, 8,575 ; of
chapels, 1,357; of preaching-rooms, 203; of
Sunday-schools, 1,352, with 26,851 teachers
and 195.681 scholars. The net increase of
members was 1,435, of which 204 had accrued
from the foreign stations. The trustees of the
chapel loan fund returned its capital at £10.-
032. The capital of the superannuation and
beneficent fund was returned at £28,590.

The annual assembly of the United Meth-
odist Free Churches met at Rochdale, Angust
1st. Mr. H. T. Mawson presided. The present
meeting of the assembly was made the occasion
of the commemorative celebration of the twen-
ty-fifth anniversay of the union, in 1857, of the
Wesleyan Methodist Association and the Wes-
leyan Reformers to constitute the connection
in its present form. The celebration took ef-
fective shape in the collection of subscriptions
to a commemoration fund, which were re-
ported, at the close of the Conference, to
amount to £14,031. The Conference decided
that the fund should be appropriated as fol-
lows : To the mission fund, four sixteenths ; to
chapel funds, three sixteenths ; to the London,
chapel extension fund, two sixteenths; to the
Theological Institute, one sixteenth; to Ashe-
ville College, one sixteenth; unappropriated
for the present, one sixteenth. The assembly
recommended that one or two suitable men in
the ministry be set apart for evangelistic labors,
to hold services from circuit to circuit, in oo-

534

METHODISTS.

MEXICO.

operation with circuit ministers and officers;
their work to be arranged under the direction
of the connectional committee, who should
appoint a secretary for the special supervision
of it. The evangelists are to be assured their
salaries. Kesolutions were passed in favor of
the repeal of the law prohibiting marriage
with a deceased wife's sister.

VII. Methodist New Connection.— The following
is a summary of the statistics of this body as
they were reported to the Conference in J une :
Number of chapels, 514 ; of societies, 472 ; of
circuit preachers, 188 ; of local preachers, 1,-
271; of members, 29,299; of probationers, 4,-
043; of members of Sunday-schools, 92,703.
The sum of £17,640 had been raised and ex-
pended on connectional property during the
yeer. The chapel loan fund had a capital of
£4,500, with the additional sum of £700 nearly
subscribed. The Book-Room had done a busi-
ness of £3,500, and returned £279 of net prof-
its. The income of the mission fund had been
£6,404. The committee had expended, on
home missions, £3,186; on the missions in
China, £2,446 ; on those in Ireland, £662; and
on those in Australia, £7,260. The income of
the paternal or children's fund had been £2,-
966, and the sum of £2,334 had been paid to
ministers for their children. The auxiliary
fund had a capital of £2,049. The investments
on account of the college wrere valued at £8,-
700. The beneficent fund returned an income
of £3,257, and a capital of £22,365. The in-
come of the contingent fund was £1,156.

The eighty-sixth Conference of the Meth-
odist New Connection met in Sheffield, June
llth. The Rev. Thomas Rider was chosen
president. The condition and prospect of the
missions of the Connection received attention.
An extension of the missions in Australia, as
far as practicable, through the churches there,
was recommended. Notice was taken of the
existence of betting and gambling among Sun-
day-school scholars, and the attention of the
conductors of Sunday schools was directed to
the importance of admonishing those under
their charge of the evil of such practices. A
memorial to the Government and a petition to
the House of Commons in favor of closing on
Sundays public-houses and clubs having li-
censes to sell liquor, were auhorized.

VIII. Wesleyan Reform Union.— The statistics
of the churches which are associated under
this designation were reported at the delegate
meeting in August as follow: Number of
chapels and preaching-places, 216; of preach-
ers, 457; of preachers on trial, 94; of minis-
ters, 17; of leaders, 480; of members, 7,950;
of persons on trial for membership, 713 ; num-
ber of Sunday-schools, 187, with 3,140 teach-
ers and 19,715 scholars.

The annual delegate meeting was held in
Sheffield, beginning August 4th. The pro-
ceedings consisted chiefly in the examination
of chapel and financial affairs, and the review
of the mission (home) and evangelistic work.

MEXICO, a republic of North America. Area,
761,640 square miles ; population, 10,025,649.
(For details relating to area, territorial divis-
ion, population, etc., see "Annual Cyclopaedia"
for 1882.)

Government. — The President of the Republic
is Gen. Manual Gonzalez, whose term of office
will expire on Dec. 1, 1884. His Cabinet is
composed of the following ministers : Secre-
tary of Foreign Affairs, vacant ; Interior, Sen or
C. Diez Gutierrez; Justice and Instruction,
Sefior J. Baranda; Finance, Sefior F. Fuentes
y Mnfiez; Public Works, Gen. C. Pacheco ;
War, Gen. E. Naranjo ; Supreme Court, Presi-
dent (and Vice-President of the Republic),
Sefior G. Valle, and the magistrates are : E.
Avila, J. M. Vasquez Palacios, C. Gonzalez
Urofia, Melesio Alcantara, M. Auza, M. Con-
treras, M. Saavedra, J. de M. Vasquez, F.
Vaca, M. Villalebos; with J. Soto, Attorney.
General, and E. Ruiz, Procurator-General.

The Governors of the States nre elected for
a term of four years. The Governor of the
Territory of Lower California is appointed by
the Federal Government.

The Minister Plenipotentiary to the United
States is Sefior M. Romero ; the Minister to
Mexico is Hon. Philip H. Morgan. The United
States Consul-General in the city of Mexico is
David H. Strother.

Army and Navy. — The army in 1883 was com-
posed as follows :

Officers.

Men.

Foot (nineteen battalions)

7°2

10500

Horse (nine regiments) .

518

4?176

Artillery(six brigades, each of five batteries)

180

22

1,017
71

150

1 692

Invalids

19

280

Military colonies

130

1 158

Total

1,741

18894

The navy consists of four gunboats.

Condition of the Country.— President Gonzalez,
in his annual message to Congress, April 1,
1883, expressed himself on the general condi-
tion of the country as follows:

The country at large is in a prosperous condition,
and the financial crises which at times have hampered
business will soon leave no trace behind them. Im-
provements in the interior have been notable, of which
everybody may easily convince himself. The Central
Kailroad Company has built over 1,500 kilometres of
railway, the National line over 1,100, and the Hunt-
ington Company 117. There have been built in the
republic during the year 4,800 kilometres. We have
been compelled to modify the contract made with
English bondholders, and negotiations to that end are
proceeding favorably. Negotiations abroad to raise a
$20,000.000 loan will, I trust, soon be crowned with
success.' The revenue of the Government during the
last fiscal year has reached $33,500,000, showing an
excess of $1,500,000 over the previous year.

The revision of the tariff ?s nearly accomplished.
The new postal laws will soon be in force, and our
communications with the United States by land will
be improved. Public instruction is in a •flourishing
state. Nothing is left undone to attract a desirable
class of immigrants. The army is in a state of effi-
ciency, and quiet reigns throughout the republic.

MEXICO.

535

Relations with the United States.— The President
of the United States, in his annual message to
Congress of Dec. 4, 1883, expressed himself
about our relations with Mexico to the follow-
ing effect :

At no time in our national history has there been
more manifest need of close and lasting relations with
a neighboring state than now exists with respect to
Mexico. The rapid influx of our capital and enter-
prise into that country shows, by what has already
been accomplished, the vast reciprocal advantages
which must attend the progress of its internal devel-
opment. The treaty of commerce and navigation of
1848 has been terminated by the Mexican Govern-
ment, and, in the absence of conventional engage-
ments, the rights of our citizens in Mexico now de-
pend upon the domestic statutes of that republic.

There have been instances of harsh enforcement of
the laws against our vessels and citizens in Mexico,
\ of denial of the diplomatic resort for their pro-
ion. The initial step toward a better understand-
has been taken in the negotiation by the commis-

n authorized by Congress of a treaty which is still

_ :>re the Senate awaiting its approval.

The provisions for the reciprocal crossing of the
itier by the troops in pursuit of hostile Indians

ive been prolonged for another year. The opera-

ras of the forces^of both Governments against these

iva^es have been successful, and several of their
tured or dispersed

by the skill and valor of the United States and Mexi-
in soldiers lighting in a common cause.
The convention for the resurvey of the boundary
)in the Eio Grande to the Paciiic having been rati-
d and exchanged, the preliminary reconnaissance
3rein stipulated has been effected.
Our geographical proximity to Central America and
r political and commercial relations with the states
that country justify, in my judgment, such a ma-
ial increase of our consular corps as will place at
3h capital a consul-general.

Rejection of the Reciprocity Treaty.— The Mexi-
m treaty was rejected by the United States
mate on January. 18th, the vote showing that
the majority in its favor lacked one vote of
le two thirds required for ratification. The
igar and tobacco interests are arrayed solidly
linst it, and it was also opposed by some
mators on the ground that reciprocity trea-
ties are of doubtful constitutionality, inasmuch
they tend to interfere with the free exercise
)y the House of its right to initiate bills rais-
ig the revenue ; but the period allowed for
its ratification has been extended by the Presi-
dent, the Secretary of State, and the Mexican
minister to May 20, 1884, and thus there is still
a chance for its adoption.
Finances. — The national and State finances,
i shown by the budget estimates for the
current fiscal year, exhibit the following de-
tails :

REVENUE. Budget of 1883-'84.

Custom-House $19,000,000

Custom-House at Mexico and town dues 2,000,000

Stamp dues 4,500,000

Direct taxes 900,000

Mint .' 700,000

Instruction fund 60,000

Post Office and telegraphs 700.000

Lottery... 800,000

New tobacco and stamp taxes 2.000,000

Sundry incomes 1,200,000

Income of individual States 7,500,000

Grand total .

EXPENDITURE.

The Legislature $1,015,682

Tne Executive 48882

Supreme Court 406,652

Foreign affairs 867,580

Interior.... 8,285,578

Justice and Public Instruction 1,248.510

Public Works 11,127,600

Finance 4,9(56,262

Army and Navy.... 8,252,852

Expenditure in the different States 7,uOO,006

Grand total $88,218,998

National Indebtedness.— The foreign debt era-
braces the following items: English loan of
Oct. 14, 1850, $89,252,360; agreement of in-
debtedness to English bondholders of Dec.
4, 1851, $5,900,025 ; ditto to Spanish, of Dec.
6, 1853, $1,231,775 ; ditto, ditto, of Nov. 12,
1853, $5,553,287; debt to the United States of
July 4, 1868, $2,475,123 ; together, $104,412,-
570; internal debt, $40,241,215; grand total,
$144,653,785.

The outcome of the recent negotiations be-
tween the representative of the Mexican Gov-
ernment and the committee of the council for
foreign bondholders has not, it appears, been
such as to improve Mexico's standing in the
British market. The refusal of the Mexican
Government to comply with the demands of the
English bondholders for an issue of £20,000,-
000 of 3 per cent, bonds in addition to the debt
of $80,000,000, was made public through a ca-
ble dispatch.

In May, 1883, a congressional committee re-
ported a bill authorizing the Executive to liqui-
date the national debt, excepting only the debts
of the empire, those of the Miramon and Zulua-
ga Governments, and claims already rejected.
Claims admitted by the Mexican and American
commission and those for railroad subsidies are
not affected by the proposed settlement. The
Executive was authorized to issue bonds bearing
3 per cent, interest, to be receivable for Gov-
ernment lauds, adjudicated property, and let-
ters patent, the debt to remain national. The
details of the settlement, involving the amount
recognized, were left entirely to the Executive.
Mexico acknowledges an indebtedness, prin-
cipal and interest, of £16,000,000. A month
previous to the introduction of the bill referred
to above, a private agent of Mexico, without
full authority, had made a preliminary agree-
ment with the bondholders, by which Mexico
was to replace the outstanding bonds with a
new issue for £20,000,000 at 3 per cent, inter-
est. The additional £4,000.000 were for the
purpose of paying the first year's interest and
reimbursing the expenses of the bondholders'
committee. Subsequently Congress, by passing
the bill above alluded to, authorized the Presi-
dent to settle the debt on the given basis, and
the agreement was signed in London on May
12th. When the text of the agreement arrived
from London, the President refused to approve
the additional £4,000,000. Negotiations for a
new agreement were then begun, but failed.
Toward the end of October the President in-
structed Carlos Rivas, the Mexican agent in

536

MEXICO.

London, to offer £18,000,000 in bonds, instead
of £20,000,000. The offer was refused, and
Rivas was instructed to suspend negotiations
and return to Mexico. The Government de-
clares that it is anxious to settle, but considers
the demand of the bondholders exorbitant.
Even before negotiations were broken off, Mexi-
can securities had become very much depressed
in London. The Mexican Secretary of the
Treasury stated, on Nov. 24, 1883, that the
debt which has been the subject of negotiation
in London does not include the convention
debt, which consists of the recognized bonded
claims of British subjects.

Nickel Coin.— Under date of Nov. 29, 1883, it
was reported from the city of Mexico that con-
siderable confusion, had been caused in retail
commercial circles there by the large amount
of nickel coin in circulation. Congress was
discussing a law to regulate the nickel coinage
and determine the extent to which it shall be
made a legal tender. On November 28th a
protest against the abuses occasioned by the
nickel had appeared, and was signed by many
persons. The proposed law only authorizes
the coinage of 4,000,000 nickels among 10,000,-
000 people. The main objection seems to be,
that the introduction of the new currency has
been made awkwardly, and many say, un-
fairly. Instead of allowing the people to be-
come gradually accustomed to the new coins,
all at once the country has been flooded with
nickel.

The Postal Service. — The business of the Mexi-
can post-office has greatly increased since the
reduction of domestic postage from twenty cents
to ten cents. Number of post-offices, 836;
53 of which are chief offices, 267 express offices,
and 516 agencies. Number of letters dispatched
in 1881-'82: In the interior, 3,831,829, with-
out counting 79,627 registered ones; sent
abroad, 411,326, besides 3,596 registered ; post-
al-cards, 7,081; together, 4,335,459 letters;
newspapers, 2,943,880; samples, 8,053; total,
7,287,392 items of mail matter, against 6,462,-
307 in 1880-'81. Amount of postage collected,
$723,079, against $641,067 in 1880-'81.

Telegraphs.— There is great activity in tele-
graph-construction. Nearly 18,000 miles of
wire are in operation, and the telephone sys-
tem is extensive and increasing rapidly. Length
of wire of Government lines in July, 1883,
18,263 kilometres; of States, 1,484; private,
3,502; of railroads, 4,000; and cables, 875;
together, 28,124 kilometres, equal to 17,718
miles. In 1881 there were only 17,061 kilo-
metres ; the increase in two years has there-
fore been 11,063 kilometres. Number of of-
fices, 282; messages forwarded in 1880, 744,-
917 ; net earnings, $399,814.

There are in Mexico twenty-three telephone
offices, with 1 600 instruments; the office in
the city of Mexico has 700 subscribers.

Railroads.— The Mexican railway system in
operation in the summer of 1883 was the fol-
lowing: «

AMERICAN LINES. MUeg.

Mexico to Aguascalientes, with branches (Central) 845

El Paso to Durango (Central) 482

Tampico westward (Central) 62

Guaymas to Nogales (.connected with Central) 265

Mexico to Morelia (National) 227

Laredo to Baltillo (National) 220

Lines not yet connected (National) 178

Altata to Culiacan (Sinaloa to Durango) 88

Eagle Pass to Durango (Huntington ) • 78

Total 1,840

ENGLISH LINE.

Vera Cruz to Mexico (Mexican Railway) 853

MEXICAN LINES.

Mexico to Cuantla and branches (Morelos)

Yucatan line

Hidalgo line

Several small lines

Tehuantepec (bought back from Americans)

Total.

Grand total .

... 188

68
56
: . . 800

28

635

... 2,828

Both the Central and National obtained their
concessions in September, 1881, and began to
work in the month following. The portion in
operation of these two lines, taken together as
given above, represents a value of $60,000,000.
The railroad prize of the near future is said to
be the trunk line south of the city of Mexico.
The Boston syndicate, controlling the Mexican
Central, hope to push southward from Mexico.
The Mexican Southern, Grant and Gould's
consolidation, is designed for a trunk line
through the southern Mexican States.

Antiquities. — The pyramid of Cheops is said
to be dwarfed by the one discovered in the
midst of virgin forest in 1883, near Magdalena,
Mexico. It is said to have a base of 1,350 feet,
and to be 750 feet high. There is a winding
roadway from the bottom, leading by an easy
grade to the top, wide enough for carriages
to pass over, said to be twenty- three miles
long. The outer walls of the roadway are
laid in solid masonry, huge blocks of granite
in rubble- work, and the circles are as uniform
and the grade as regular as they could be made
by our best engineers. The wall is only occa-
sionally exposed, being covered over with de-
bris and earth, and in many places the sahuaro
and other plants have grown up, giving the
pyramid the appearance of a mountain.

At a recent meeting of the California Acad-
emy of Sciences, at San Francisco, Eusebio
Molera read a paper on the Aztec calendar, or
Mexican calendar- stone, from which an in-
sight has been obtained of the extent of the
astronomical knowledge of the Aztecs. The
stone was unearthed in the city of Mexico on
Sept. 17, 1790, and was placed in the wall at
the base of one of the towers of the cathedral,
where it remains to this day. The stone is
eleven feet nine inches in diameter, and origi-
nally weighed twenty-four tons. The conjec-
tures of antiquaries in relation to this object
were re viewed by Mr. Molera. who thinks it was
designed for one of the sacrificial stones on
which captives were slain, their hearts being
offered to the sun. He believed it was con-

MEXICO.

537

structed under the second Montezuma, who,
having done nothing to perpetuate his name,
determined to construct a sacrificial stone as
his predecessors had done. He wanted to
make it larger than any of the others, and gave
orders that it be two elbows larger than they
were. The Indians began hauling the stone,
which finally said it would not go any farther.
There were 10,000 Indians pulling the stone,
and the ropes broke, and the stone would not
move. This the historians cite to show that
supernatural phenomena were connected with
the event. However, it appears that the stone
was really brought to town, and it was so
heavy that it broke the dike and fell down.

Wages. — Wages are steadily increasing in
Mexico. In the capital, a common laborer re-
ceives $1.25 a day. Mechanics get from $1.75
to $2.25. Along the railroad lines the prices
are about $1 a day for unskilled laborers, and
$1.50 to $2 for mechanics. The laborers from
the rural districts are coming in to the rail-
road districts in large numbers.

Gold and Silver Production.— Some of the gold
and silver mines have been worked without in-
termission since the Spanish conquest. Dur-
ing colonial times, from 1537 to 1821, the sil-
ver-mines turned out $2,035,000,000, and the
gold-mines $68,765,000. From the tims when
Mexico gained her independence to 1880, the
silver product amounted to $900,000,000, and
the gold product to $1,841,000. Grand total,
1537 to 1880, $3,008,606,000.

Tin Discoveries. — The first ton of tin coming
from the Durango mountains of Mexico was
landed in the United States in 1883. This tin
discovery was made by Mr. H. Freeman, of
Australia, who spent a year in Mexico in pros-
pecting for tin, following therein the records
left by the Spaniards.

The Mines of Sonora. — Sonora has not more
than 125,000 inhabitants, and 75,000 of these
are Indians. There are about 5,000 natives of
the United States in the State, mostly specula-
tors. Fabulous sums are said to have been
taken out of her mines, and now and then a
vase filled with gold nuggets left by the Span-
iards. Such a discovery was lately reported in
Ures, $30,000 in gold being found in an old
earthen vessel a few feef underground. But,
although there are many old abandoned mines
that may be worked profitably, the principal
industry is stock-raising and fruit-culture.

Resources of Michoacan. — Michoacan, brought
-into communication with the world at large
by the opening of the Mexican National Rail-
way to its capital, Morelia, is the Pennsylva-
nia of Mexico. Here, in close juxtaposition,
are found iron and coal. Pending their de-
velopment, the State has other resources which
now become of immediate value. In it is one
edge of the great lumber-region of south-
ern Mexico, the region whence in future must
be drawn the domestic supply of lumber for
the whole country ; in it are extensive silver-
workings, including the famous Ooalcoman

mines; in it coppor, lead, sulphur, marble, and
lithographic stone are found ; in it wheat,
Indian corn, barley, beans (a most important
crop in Mexico), sugar-cane, cotton, and coffee
are grown ; and in Morelia, a trim little city
of 38,000 inhabitants, weaving and various
small manufactures are carried on. These prod-
ucts furnish a substantial basis for a brisk ex-
port trade, and promise a counterbalancing im-
port trade from Europe and the United States.
Even the Mexicans themselves at hist seem to
be inspired with some sort of confidence in the
future of their country. Heretofore, with some
few exceptions, they have maintained a posi-
tion of observation, while the " Americanos "
have been building railroads and pushing other
enterprises. Apparently now they are con-
vinced that these ventures will pay ; for that
very rich and very conservative institution,
the Banco Mercantile, the old " Spanish Bank,"
the strongest in the country, has agreed to ad-
vance at once $500,000 against subsidy certifi-
cates owned by one of the American roads.

Tunneling a Volcano. — It is proposed to drive
a tunnel into the crater of Popocatepetl, and
to build from the mouth of the tunnel a rail-
way to connect with the Interoceanic Rail-
way at Amecameca. Those who are in ne-
gotiation for the property with the owner of
the volcano, Gen. Gaspar Sanchez Ocha, are
said to be a rich American house. The repre-
sentative of the house visited the volcano with
the French engineer Charles Roay. A con-
tract is said to have been made for the expor-
tation of 50,000 tons of , sulphur a year. It is
also proposed to establish a factory of sulphu-
ric acid for use in Mexico, selling at $3 a quin-
tal of 101^ pounds, American, of 65° strength.

Petroleum. — A company, composed of Boston
capitalists, has secured large interests in the
Tuxpan oil-region, in the State of Vera Cruz.
The company has been preparing for extensive
developments for more than a year. The geo-
logical formation is the same as that of the
Pennsylvania oil fields, and there are many
marvelous oil-springs. The oil-field lies at the
base of the San Felipe mountains, southwest
of the port of Tuxpan. The petroleum, which
resembles in gravity and appearance the Penn-
sylvania oil, oozes from the rocks and ground
in many places. Around a small lake in the
district, Lake Oulco, there are forty oil-springs ;
the oil runs from them in such quantities that
the lake is constantly covered with it. Penn-
sylvania oil-well drillers are superintending
the development of the district.

There are also extensive petroleum deposits
in the State of Tabasco. The oil-fields, or
what will be the oil-fields if they are ever de-.
veloped, are about forty miles from the capital.
What is undoubtedly the most promising oil ter-
ritory in Tabasco — in the San Jose mountains
— is owned by natives, who are not inclined to
dispose of it, and who care nothing for the
petroleum it contains.

Viticulture. — Great efforts were made in 1883,

538

MEXICO.

in the Department of Public Works, to distrib-
ute fine grape-cuttings, and to encourage a
large interest in viticulture, with the view of
making Mexico a wine-producing country.
At Paso del Norte, northern Chihuahua, and
Durango and Coahuila, Mr. Parras, of the lat-
ter State, grows a grape from which a wine
is made equal, it is said, to fine sherry. The
Del Norte wine is made from the old Mission
grape. It is a good table-wine, but as made
now will not bear transportation.

Cedar and Pine. — The surveyors of the Ameri-
can and Mexican Eailvvay report that there are
immense forests of cedar and pine in the south-
eastern portion of Chihuahua. The entire
Sierra Madre interiors are heavily timbered.

Bananas. — Mexican banana-planters get three
crops a year. The plant is cultivated far more
easily than any grain or tuber in northern lati-
tudes, and the fruit is more nutritious. Even
in spite of the price of the luxury, the demand
for bananas has heretofore doubled in the
United States about every five years since 1860,
when the fruit-venders of American inland
cities began to invest in an occasional cargo.
But since the price of wheat, in crossing the
Atlantic, increases only two thirds, there is
no reason why bananas, in crossing the Eio
Grande, should become twenty times dearer.
In Western cities the poorest bananas can not
be Bought for less than three cents apiece,
while in Oaxaca a " ramo," or bunch, with
more than a hundred bananas of the very best
quality, is sold for two reals, twenty-one cents.
Among the wholesale planters of the rural dis-
tricts, u ramos " of two hundred apiece, about
the nutritive equivalent of three bushels of
Irish potatoes, can be bought for one real. In
slow-going fruit-barges, exposed to the seething
sun, about 20 per cent, spoil before they reach
New Orleans ; but refrigerator cars would re-
duce that risk to a minimum.

The Toloachi-PIant.— The toloachi-plant grows
everywhere in Mexico, but more thriftily in
the tropical lowlands of the " tierra caliente."
It is a harmless-looking plant, much resembling
the northern milk-weed, and quite too danger-
ously convenient in a land where suspicion
rules and jealousy amounts to madness. It
does not kill, but acts immediately on the
brain, producing first violent insanity and then
hopeless idiocy. It is whispered that poor
Carlotta had hardly landed at Vera Cruz,
on her sorrowful mission to Mexico, before
some of it was administered to her, and her
deplorable fate is cited as one among many
instances. Of all the dangers in Mexico, this
is one of the most appalling. Any political
enemy or jealous rival, or offended servant,
may thus revenge himself in a more fiendish
manner than with the stiletto, and with little
fear of detection ; a few drops of this tasteless
white fluid, mixed with milk or other food,
does its work with inexorable certainty, and
can only be detected by its gradual results.

Property Rights of Foreigners.— Foreigners may

purchase, hold, and transfer lands anywhere in
Mexico, as well as Mexicans, excepting lands
of the public domain. That is, they have the
right so to do, but it is not practicable. It is
required of all notaries before whom deeds for
lands on the frontier are executed, to recite, in
the opening of the instrument, the residence
and nationality of the parties, and, if the pur-
chaser be a foreigner, to insist upon the pro-
duction of his permit before proceeding. Also,
that the fact of such permit (referring thereto
as being then produced) should be recited in
the deed, with its date. Without such decla-
ration, the title may be legally declared void;
at least, it would leave the title in grave doubt.

Immense Estates. — Much has been said and
written of the great extent and large possibili-
ties of Mexican haciendas. But probably few
people outside of Mexico yet realize the ex-
tent of some of these tracts, where a million
or a million and a half of acres often consti-
tute a single estate in the hands of one owner.
There are many such in Mexico large enough
to hide away some European principalities,
large enough to awaken the envy of landed
proprietors in the United States. These are to
be found in the central and northern States of
Mexico. The famous Salado ranch, for ex-
ample, contains more than 600 square miles.
It lies partly in the States of NY.evo Leon, Coa-
huila, Zacatecas, and San Luis Potosi, on the
highway to Mexico and on the line of the new
railroads. It occupies the central table-lands
of Mexico, at an average elevation of 4,000 feet.
Chains of mountains traverse the estate, rich
in mineral wealth. The boundaries of the es-
tate extend more than 100 miles from north to
south, and flourishing farms and large mining
towns are met at frequent intervals.

Sefior Antonio Asunsolo owns 650 square
leagues, and is part owner and administrator of
a tract of 1,945 square miles. He sold in 1883
to an English syndicate, for $550,000, five
haciendas, comprising 110 leagues, and the
stock.

Industry in the Capital. — A great impulse has
been given to manufacturing at the capital
during the past few years, and there are now
in the city of Mexico a great many hat-manu-
factories, 48 factories where dry goods are
woven, chiefly shawls, 22 manufacturing sad-
dlery, 26 silver- smiths1 establishments, 32 met-
al-foundries, 12 iron-works, 7 copper-smiths'
establishments, 12 match-factories, 14 choco-
late-factories, and 10 candle-factories.

Immigration and Colonization. — The greatest
activity is displayed, fostered by the Federal
Government, to attract desirable immigrants,
notably agriculturists, from Italy and the Span-
ish possessions, and settle them in colonies on
the table-lands. Most of the 11,000 new-
comers at Vera Cruz in 1882 were of these
two nationalities, and 2,178 from the United
States.

Commerce. — On Dec. 5, 1882, a treaty of com-
merce and navigation was signed between

MEXICO.

MICHIGAN.

539

Mexico and Germany, based, so far as the for-
mer is concerned, on the " most favored na-
tion " clause. Negotiations have since been
set on foot between Mexico on the one hand,
and England and France respectively on the
other, for the conclusion of similar agreements.
The only advantages which the United States
would possess over those nations, by the ratifi-
cation of the pending reciprocity treaty, would
be proximity of market and a lower freight-
rate which the competition between railroads
and ocean-steamers will secure. The amount
of duties collected by the. Mexican custom-
houses from 1878 to 1882 was $65,513,932.
The ensuing table shows the increase of the
average annual exportation from Mexico :

ARTICLES EXPORTED.

Quinquennial
period,
1878-'82.

Triennial
period,
1873-'75.

The precious metals..

$20,484,664
2,221,270
2,022,986
1,535,074
1,514,073
435,884
373,710
826,335
252,464
74,574
928,482

$22,210,983
1,032,215
608,889
1,821,000
1,250,675
402,841
521,037
33,854
90,570
103,186
791,965

Sisal hemp and Tampico istle
Coffee

Cabinet-woods

Vanilla-beans .

Cochineal and dye-woods
Sugar and molasses

Tobacco

Sarsaparilla

Other goods . . ...

Total...

$30,169,516

$28,867,165

It will be noticed that while the export of
the precious metals has decreased, that of other
products has been on the increase. The aver-
age import in the fiscal years 1880-'81 and
1881-'82 was:

From the United States $5,044,085

From the United Kingdom 4.921,990

From France 8,547,740

From last two countries via Belgium and Ger-
many 4,447,705

From Germany, Spain, and other countries 1,796,145

Total $19,757,665

"While the imports of English and French
dry goods have decreased somewhat, those of
American have quadrupled.

The Mexican exports during the first quarter
of the fiscal year 1882-'83 were as follow :

To England $3,941,755

To the United States 2,702,738

France 1,009.740

Spain 292,085

Germany 271 ,980

Colombia 98,478

Guatemala 88,800

Ecuador 200

San Salvador 180

Total $8,855,956

Of which the precious metals ... ... $0,004,807

Sisal hemp 794,967

Cabinet and dye-woods 378,989

Coffee 835,536

Hides and skins 1 95.815

Istle 154,793

Vanilla .. 4 1,888

Tobacco 86,129

Sugar 49.077

Honey 89.4-20

Live animals 87,720

Other goods

Precioui
metal..

Merchandise.

Total.

Export, first quarter
Export, second quarter . . .
Export, third quarter

Total

Dollars.
6,004,807
9.466,998
8,561,961

24 082 766

Dollar-.

2,846,129
2,898,128
8,521,254

8 265 506

Dollar*.

6J65JM

11,864,122
12,088,216

• >.> .{,,.. -,(j j

Total $8,355,956

The United States imported from Mexico
during the fiscal year 1883, $8,177,123 worth
of merchandise, against $8,461,899 the previ-
ous year; and the domestic export from the
United States to Mexico was $14,370,992 in
1883, against $13,324,505 in 1882. The im-
port of specie from Mexico into the United
States was $9,782,986 in 1883, against $6,631,-
938 in 1882.

The chief articles imported into the United
States in the fiscal year 1882 from Mexico
were: Coffee, 17,020,669 pounds; Sisal hemp,
19,233 tons ; hides and skins, $1,525,107 worth ;
lead, 1,132,064 pounds; and sugar, 2,931.649
pounds. The principal articles exported from
the United States to Mexico in the same year
were: Manufactures of iron and steel, $3,861,-
514 worth; 838 railroad-cars, worth $579,-
421 ; 12,537,650 pounds of cotton ; 10,584,486
yards of cotton goods; and $1,426,411 worth
of lumber, furniture, and wooden-ware.

Inter-State Trade.— The Federal Constitution
of Mexico was amended in 1883, to enable the
individual States to abolish the collection of
interstate duties, which had been one of the
greatest obstacles to commercial intercourse,
and had become a positive nuisance since the
introduction of railroads. In response to a
circular issued by the Minister of Finance, the
various States sent delegates to the capital,
October 1st, and the necessary steps were
taken, in conformity with the amendment,
leaving the States to indemnify themselves by
imposing each some State tax or taxes in lieu
of the duties thus abolished.

Reduction of Duties.— In December, 1883, the
duty on all goods imported under the Mexican
flag was reduced by 10 per cent.

MICHIGAN. The biennial session of the Legis-
lature began on January 3d, and continued 157
days, adjourning June 9th. The result was 197
public acts, 24 joint resolutions, and 341 local
acts. Among the public acts of more general
interest are:

An act authorizing a father to appoint in his last
will and testament a guardian or guardians for his
minor children, born or unborn at the time of making
the will, subject to objection by the surviving mother
when the will shall be offered for probate. The same
power is given to the mother of a minor child whose
father may have died without appointing a guardian.
In the same line is an act " to provide for the estab-
lishment of wills during the lifetime of testators."
As introduced, the bill provided for proving the will
without making its contents known to heirs, legatees,
or officials ; but, as the law passed, the contents of
the will become public at the time of the hearing
thereon, thus defeating the real object.

An act to authorize the general laws of this State,
collected, arranged, and annotated by Andrew How-
ell (or Howell's Annotated Statutes), to " be received

540

MICHIGAN.

and admitted in all courts and proceedings, and by
all officers in this State, as evidence of the existing
laws thereof, with the like effect as if published under
and by the authority of the State."

An act to regulate the practice of dentistry creates
a board of examiners, and provides for the issue of
certificates to dentists who are not in practice in the
State at the time the act shall take effect, or who do
not hold a diploma from the faculty of a reputable
dental college.

An act to promote public health provides that it
shall not be lawful for any person to practice medi-
cine or surgery, or any branch thereof (except dentis-
try), without having the qualifications required in the
provisions of this act, and without having first regis-
tered in the office of the county clerk as provided in
this act. The " qualifications " prescribed throw the
door to practice and the books of registration wide
open to every person u who shall have actually prac-
ticed medicine continuously for at least five years in
this State, and who is practicing when this act shall
take effect."

An act creating a Bureau of Labor and Industrial
Statistics, and defining the powers and duties of the
same, charges the commissioner, his deputy and as-
sistants, with the collection of •'statistical details re-
lating to all departments of labor in this State, includ-
ing the penal institutions thereof." John W. Mc-
Grath, of Detroit, was appointed commissioner, who
appointed John Devlin, of the same city, deputy.

An act " to protect the rights of laborers " prohib-
its a stay of execution on any judgment obtained be-
fore a justice of the peace for the personal work and
labor of the plaintiff.

Provision was made for a more complete census of
population and productions (agricultural and manu-
factures) to be taken in June, 1884 ; and an appropri-
ation of $60.000 was made for an asylum for insane
criminals. It has been located at Ionia.

The list of joint resolutions includes two,
amending the Constitution of the State :

1. So amending section 6 of Article VI (the judi-
cial article) that the Board of Supervisors of each
county in the Upper Peninsula may ''give and pay to
the circuit judge of the judicial circuit to which such
county is attached, such additional salary or compen-
sation as may from time to time be fixed and deter-
mined by such Board of Supervisors."

2. 1'ixing the compensation of members of the Legis
lature at §700 for each regular session (in lieu of 'the
present allowance of $3 a day), and $100 for each ex-
tra or called session. The ten cents a mile travel-fee
is continued, and the limit of introduction of bills is
practically removed by authorizing legislation on
" such subjects as are submitted to them by special
message of the Governor after the expiration of fifty
days." A new clause of the section reads, "And no
member of the Legislature shall accept or use any free
pass or free ticket of any railroad during his term of
office." Each of the proposed amendments is to be
voted upon at the general election to be held on the
first Tuesday in November, 1884.

United States Senator.— In the contest for Unit-
ed States Senator to succeed the Hon. Thomas
W. Ferry, whose term would expire March 4,
1883, the Republicans nominated Senator Ferry
for re-election, and Hon. Byron G. Stout was
chosen as the "Union" candidate. In the
ballot on January 1 6th, the Republican vote was
divided, and no candidate received a majority
in either house. Balloting was continued from
day to day, without result, until March 1st, when
on the eighty-first ballot the vote stood: For
Thomas W. Palmer, Republican, 77 ; for Byron
G. Stout, Democrat, 44; for Thomas W. Ferry,
3 ; for John W. Champlin, 1.

Political. — At the annual election held on the
first Monday of April, two justices of the Su-
preme Court were elected (one for the full
term of eight years, and the other to fill a va-
cancy created by the resignation of Justice
Marston) ; also two Regents of the University
of Michigan for eight years.

The Republican State Convention was held at
East Saginaw, February 28th. The candidates
nominated were : For Justices of the Supreme
Court — Austin Blair, for the full term ; Thomas
J. O'Brien, to till vacancy. For Regents, Harry
B. Hutchins and Joseph C. Jones. A commit-
tee on resolutions was appointed, but failed to
report, and no platform was adopted.

The Democratic State Convention was held
at Lansing, March 7th. John W. Champlin was
nominated for Justice of the Supreme Court,
and Arthur M. Clark for Regent. The chair-
men of the convention and the State Central
Committee were authorized to notify the Na-
tional Greenback Convention of the action, and
in case no union was effected, to fill the vacant
places in the ticket. The committee on resolu-
tions reported a platform. A vigorous attack
was made upon the declaration in the third
resolution in favor of " a tariff for revenue
only," but the convention almost unanimously
refused to strike out the word uonly."

The National Greenback State Convention
was held at Lansing, March 8th. The propo-
sition to unite with the Democracy and accept
their nominations of the day before, was bit-
terly opposed, but on call of the roll was
adopted by a vote of 333 to 79. The con-
vention completed the ticket by nominating
Thomas Sherwood for Justice of the Supreme
Court, and Charles J. Willett for Regent of
the University.

The Prohibitionists entered the canvass with
a full ticket, and a platform demanding an
amendment of the Constitution so as to pro-
hibit the manufacture and sale of intoxicating
beverages, beer included, and opposing license
or taxation of the traffic. A fourth ticket was
put forth by a few Greenbackers who repudi-
ated the action of the State Convention. The
election resulted as follows :

On Justice of the Supreme Court, full term :
For John W. Champlin, Union, 127,376; Aus-
tin Blair, Republican, 119,870; John II. Tatem,
Prohibition, 13.467; James S. Andrews, Green-
backer, 641. Plurality for Champlin, 7,506.

On Justice of the Supreme Court, vacancy :
For Thomas R. Sherwood, Union, 124,639;
Thomas J. O1 Brien, Republican, 122,330; D.
P. Sagendorph, Prohibition, 13,950. Plurality
for Mr. Sherwood, 2,309.

On Regents of the University : For Arthur
M. Clark, Union, 127,635; Charles J. Willett,
Union, 125,405; Harry B. Hutchins, Republi-
can, 120,627; Joseph C. Jones, Republican,
120,956; Joseph W. Ewing, Prohibition, 13,-
959; George S. Hickey, Prohibition, 13,762;
Waldo May, Greenback, 466. Plurality for
Clark, Union, 6,679; for Willett, Union, 4,449.

MICHIGAN.

541

Finances. — The annual report of State Treas-
urer Butler for the fiscal year ending Sept. 30,
1883, shows the financial condition of the State
as follows :

Cash balance, Sept. 80, 1882 $1,151,933 31

Receipts for fiscal year 2,752,791 63

Total $4,510,730 84

Payments 8,486,463 64

Balance in treasury Sept. 30, 18S3 $1,074,267 20

The bonded indebtedness was reduced dur-
ing 1883 by the payment of the balance of the
two-million loan, amounting to $590,000. The
bonded debt now is:

Past due part-paid five-million loan bonds, $21,-
000, adjustable at $578.57 per $1,000 (not bear-
ing interest) $12,149 97

War-bounty loan bonds, due in 1890 297,000 00

For the payment of which are held :

In general fund $12,149 97

In hands of Fund Commission, United States 4$
per cent, bonds 291,00000

The trust-fund debt, composed of amounts
upon which the State as trustee pays interest
for educational purposes, now is:

Agricultural-College fund $253,524 53

Normal-School fund 60,865 45

Primary-School fund 3,064,078 34

Primary-School five per cent, fund 344,194 31

University fund 493,401 32

Total $4,221,063 95

Upon which interest has been paid from the
specific-tax fund as follows:

To Agricultural-College Interest fund $16,741 88

To Normal-School interest fund 8,0r_' 1 2

To Primary-School interest fund 710,:WJ 64

To University interest fund 84,o52 09

Total $765,115 28

The trust-fund debt was increased during
the year in the sum of $188,19(5.84.

The receipts on account of specific taxes
showed an increase from the preceding year
of $156,133.37; of which sum $128,857.16
came from the railroad companies.

The total apportionment of State taxes was
$1,474,672.26, an increase over the apportion-
ment for the year 1882 of $353,581.03. The
increase in the item for general purposes is
$338,400.92, or nearly the whole amount.

Railroads. — There were constructed in Michi-
gan, by fifteen companies, during the year,
405 -6 miles of railroad, the largest number of
miles built by any State that year. The Michi-
gan and Ohio, built by the Seney syndicate, was
completed from Allegan to Toledo, 155 miles,
much of it parallel with the Michigan Central.

Insurance. — The following figures are taken
from the summary of the report of the State
Commissioner of Insurance :

MICHIGAN BUSINESS, 1883.

NAME AND LOCATION.

RISKS WRITTEN.

PREMIUMS RECEIVED.

LOSSES INCURRED.

LOSSES PAID.

Fire.

$13.501,257
149,450,235

53,779,293

Marine and
inland.

Fire.

Marine
and
inland.

Fire.

Marine
inland.

Fire.

Marine
and
inland.

Michigan companies
Companies of other States..
Foreign companies 1
United States branch f

$1,490,693
11,044,896

2,739,265

$167,882
2,166,140
763,283

$10,197
96,699

21,565

$61,928
1,117,305

412,709

$5.290
89,980

34,081

$50.601
1,088,984

379,081

$8,M8
75,010

24,256

Aggregates

$216,730,785

$15,274,854

$3.097,805

$128,461

$1,591,942

$129,261

$1,518,608 $107,844

Education. — The following school statistics are
furnished by the Superintendent of Public In-
struction, in advance of the publication of his
annual report :

Number of school districts. September, 1883. .. 6,719

Increase over previous year

Number of school-houses 6,890

Increase over previous year. 162

Number of children between fi*-e and twenty

years of age 560,833

Increase durinsr the year 22,477

Number of children attending the public schools 391,610

Increase over previous year 6,106

Number of sittings in public schools 485,386

Increase over 138J 8,431

.Number of private and select schools 295

Number of teachers employed, male

Number of teachers employed, female

Increase over 1882 108

Wages paid teachers $2,461 ,486

Increase over 1832.

Estimated value of school property ,

Amount on hand from previous year

Amount received from one-mill tax

Amount received on primary-school fund ...

Library moneys ,

Amount received as tuition for non-residents.,

Amount received from district taxes .-.

Amount received from all other sources

73

10,435^860 00
933.688 22
640,141 50
724.864 21
32,665 90
46,196 17
2,538,997 07
466,870 13

Amount carried forward to next year $1,123.553 44

Expenditures, including wages of teachers, pay-
ments on debts, buildings, etc 4,259,872 76

Total expenditures for the year $5,383,426 20

From the annual report of the Warden of
the State Prison, not yet in print, the follow-
ing abstract is taken :

Number of convicts, Sept. 30, 1882 636

Received during the year It

Discharged by expiration of sentence

Discharged for new trial

Discharged by order of Supreme Court

Pardoned by Governor

Lost by escapes

Transferred to Detroit House of Correction . . .

— 81*
200

8

1
19

4

Total receipts for the year $5,383,426 20

In prison, Sept. 30, 1883 578

Average length of sentence, 3 years, 9
months, 26 days. Classification by crimes:
Murder in first degree, 3 ; murder in second
degree, 8; manslaughter,!; felonious assaults,
8; robbery, 10; rape, 4; attempt to rape, 3;
abduction, 1 ; assault with intent to rob, 1 ;
polygamy or bigamy, 4 ; incest, 1 ; against

542

MINNESOTA.

property, 115 ; forgery and counterfeiting, 12;
perjury, 3 ; riot, 1 ; jail-breaking, 2.

The net earnings for the year were $6,329.98 ;
the net expenditures, $89,257.70.

Iron. — The amount of iron-ore shipped from
Lake Superior mines in 3883 was 2,351,372
tons; the approximate value of which was
$13,677,919. The Lake Superior charcoal-fur-
naces in 1883 produced 57,384 tons of iron,
the approximate value of which was $1,291,-
140. The product of the Lake Superior iron-
mines since 1863 is 23,126,078 tons.

Salt. — The following table shows the amount
of salt inspected in Michigan in 1883 :

_»•

1

DISTRICTS.

1

1

i

&

oT

1

1

1

1

H

Baginaw county* . .
Bay county

236,885
217,307

919,085
880,413
253,946
2d9,297
59,370
46,207
3,086
3,392

3,632
8,422
5,784
679

1,906

" i

9,620
5,320
6,239
C68
6,7(56
431
2,100
1,387

1,185,957
1,106,461
256,965
210,644
66,135
48,544
6,176
4,780

Huron county
losco county
Midland county...
Manistee county. . .

Gratiot county
St. Olair county . . .

Grand totals... .

454,192

2,374,796 15,424

33,5262,894,672

The above table shows a decrease in the
amount inspected during the fiscal year from
that of 1882 of 142,645 barrels.

Lumber. — The aggregate lumber-cut of 1883
was 938,675,078 feet, which was about 73,000,-
000 feet less than that of 1882.

MINNESOTA. State Government — The follow-
ing were the State officers during the year:
Governor, Lucius F. Hubbard, Republican ;
Lieutenant-Governor, Charles A. Gilman ; Sec-
retary of State, Frederick von Baumbach ;
Treasurer, Charles Kittelson ; Auditor, W. W.
Braden; Attorney-General, W. J. Hahn; Super-
intendent of Public Instruction, D. L. Kiehle ;
Adjutant-General, A. C. Hawley; Public Ex-
aminer, H. M. Knox ; Insurance Commission-
er, A. B. McGill ; Commissioner of Statistics,
Oscar Malmros; Railroad Commissioner, James
H. Baker. Judiciary, Supreme Court : Chief-
Justice, Charles E. Vanderburg ; Associates,
William Mitchell and D. A. Dickinson.

Legislative Session.— The Legislature convened
on the 2d of January, and adjourned early in
March. On the 1st of February, and on the thir-
tieth ballot, Dwight M. Sabin, Republican, was
elected United States Senator by a vote of 81
against 30 for William Windom, 15 for Gordon
E. Cole, and 9 for Lucius F. Hubbard.

Upward of 1,000 bills were introduced, of
which about half became laws. Of those passed
the larger number are special acts. The gen-
eral laws outside of general appropriations
number 150. Fifty-odd bridge appropriations
were ordered, and a score of bills passed for
general appropriations. Thirty-one bills re-
lating to St. Paul and Ramsey county passed,

* Includes 16,735 barrels of solar salt.

while Hennepin county and Minneapolis asked
legislation to the extent of 25 bills.

Among the number of valuable additions to
the statute-books is the act creating a Board of
Public Charities and Corrections ; the bill mak-
ing murder punishable with the death-penalty ;
and the law regulating the practice of medi-
cine and providing for the examination and
licensing of all physicians who shall come to
Minnesota, for five years. The savings-bank
law was amended to permit the savings-banks
to loan money in Dakota, and State banks
were put upon the same platform as national
banks in the matter of making their reports.
A law likely to be fraught with some good and
possibly some evil was the one making void
bills, notes, and other negotiable paper obtained
by fraud or artifice in the hands of any third
person. A codification of the laws — stringent
and comprehensive — for the prevention of the
spread of infectious diseases became a law,
while the companion bills, to prohibit the pollu-
tion of waters and to regulate slaughter-houses,
failed. The date of beginning the fiscal year
in the State was changed from November 1 to
July 1. The chief appropriation was $306,000
for improving the State Prison, the sum to be
distributed over about ten years. Among the
acts passed were also the following:

To prevent setting fire to woods, prairies, or other
grounds.

To provide for borrowing money to defray the ex-
traordinary expenditures of the State government.

To punish willful violation and omission of duty and
gross negligence of duty on the part of railway em-
ploye's.

Amendments were proposed to the Consti-
tution, to be voted upon at the November elec-
tion, viz. :

The official term of the Secretary of State, Treas-
urerj and Attorney- General shall be two years. The
official term of the State Auditor shall he four years,
and each shall continue in office until his successor
shall have been elected and qualified.

The official year for the State of Minnesota shall
commence on the first Monday in January in each
year, and all terms of office shall terminate at that
time ; and the general election shall be held on the
first Tuesday after the first Monday in November.
The first general election for State and county officers,
except judicial officers, alter the adoption of this amend-
ment, shall be held in the year 1884, and thereafter
the general election shall he held biannually. All
State, county, or other officers elected at any general
election, whose terms of office would otherwise expire
on the first Monday of January, A. D. 1886, shall hold
and continue in such office, respectively, until the
first Monday in January, 1887.

Increasing the term of office of the Clerk of the Su-
preme Court from three to four years, and reducing
the official term of the judges of the supreme and dis-
trict courts from seven 'to six years.

The proposed prohibitory amendment failed.

The appropriations made by this session, in-
cluding standing appropriations of former Le-
gislatures, for public institutions, current ex-
penses,, bridges and miscellaneous purposes, for
the thirty-one months ending July 31, 1885,
amounted to $2,682,937.25.

Finances. — The report of the Treasurer for the

MINNESOTA.

MISSISSIPPI.

543

eight months from Dec. 1, 1882, to July 31,
1883, the end of the new fiscal year, shows the
following receipts and disbursements:

The receipts :

For revenue fund $546,890 81

For State institutions fund 484,277 18

For interest fund 65 48

For sinking fund 284 95

For seed-grain sinking- fund* 978 83

For permanent school fund 846,249 07

For general school fund 286,615 45

For permanent university fund 20,375 09

For general university fund 41,829 57

For internal improvement land fund 58,239 91

For forestry fund 27,014 52

For redemption fund 7,957 19

For internal improvement land fund interest. 83,614 76

For swamp-land fund 5000

For attorney Twelfth District 1,499 94

For school text-book fund 19,255 79

Total $1,875,198 99

Balance in treasury Dec. 1, 1882 143,098 58

Total receipts $2,018,297 57

The disbursements :

From revenue fund $570,342 69

From State institutions fund 336,917 07

From interest fund 3,480 82

From sinking fund 25,0 10 00

From redemption fund 9,54961

From seed-grain sinking fund 1,000 00

From permanent school fund 404.800 00

From general school fund 85,237 36

From general university fund 67,216 51

From internal improvement fund 10,653 88

From internal improvement land fund 86,985 00

From forestry fund 1,195 61

From internal improvement land fund interest 30,595 67

From attorney Twelfth District 1,499 94

From school text-book fund 20,236 97

Total disbursements $1,714,711 13

There was in the treasury a balance of $557,-
744.27 Nov. 30, 1881. For the year ending
Nov. 30, 1882, the receipts were $3,201,415.79,
and the disbursements, $3,058,317.21, leaving
a balance of $143,098.58. The total bonded
debt of the State was placed at $4,339,000.
The total taxable value of all property for

1882 was $311,193,435.

The number of children enrolled in the pub-
lic schools in 1833 was 191,873.

Agriculture. — The crops of 1833 are reported
as follow : The yield of wheat was for 2,571,-
637 acres 38,305,373 bushels, an average of
14-89 bushels to the acre. There were 922,-
813 acres sown in outs, returning 34,448,609
bushels, an average of 37'33 bushels to the
acre. Barley, 304,006 acres, producing 7,344,-
785 bushels, or 24*16 bushels per acre. Rye,
25,834 acres ; production, 439,178 bushels.
About 764,687 acres were planted in corn.
The crop was poor in quantity and quality.
The following was the yield of 1882 :

Bushels. I Bushels.

Wheat 32,461,006 Oats 25.600,068

Corn 16,673,142 | Barley 6,036,750

Dairy Products. — The Auditor's report for

1883 gives a total of 301,688 milch-cows in
the State, the assessable value of which is set
at $5,499,000. In 1882 there were 272,681
milch-cows, valued at $4,988,000; and in 1881
the number was 267,577, worth, at $18 each,
about $4,248,000.

The value of this year's butter product in
Minnesota, at an average valuation of 30 cents

a pound, will exceed $5,300,000, and that of
last year was close to $5,000,000. In 1880
there was not a single creamery in the State
worthy the name, and the one erected at
Spring Valley in 1881 was much commented
upon. Now there are seventy creameries or
butter-factories of considerable size, and their
number is being augmented almost every
month. There were produced in 1882, 17,-
136,788 pounds of butter.

Party Conventions. — The Republican State
Convention met in St. Paul on the 27th of
June, and nominated the following ticket: For
Governor, Lucius F. Hubbard ; Lieutenant-
Governor, Charles A. Gilman ; State Treas-
urer, Charles Kittelson ; Secretary of State,
Frederick von Baumbach ; Attorney-General,
W. J. Hahn; Railroad Commissioner, James
H. Baker.

The Democratic State Convention met in
St. Paul on the 2d of August, and nominated
the following ticket : For Governor, W. W. Mc-
Nair, of Minneapolis; Lieutenant-Governor, R.
Frazee, of Becker county ; Secretary of State,
J. J. Green, of Le Sueur ; Treasurer, John Lud-
wig, of Winona; Attorney-General, John W.
Willis, of St. Paul ; Railway Commissioner,
A. T. Lundholra, of Still water.

Mr. McNair declined, and Mr. Bierman was
substituted in his place.

Election Returns. — At the election in Novem-
ber, the Republican ticket was successful by
the following majority: Hubbard, 9,149; Gil-
man, 14,290; Von Banmbach, 24,045; Kittel-
son, 23,035 ; Hahn, 23,295 ; Baker, 23,452.
The amendments receive'd an average majority
of 50,072.

Cyclone. — Near the end of August a cyclone
struck the city of Rochester, Olmsted county,
a handsome place of about 6,000 inhabitants,
and in a brief time over 100 houses had been en-
tirely demolished, 19 persons killed, and nearly
100 wounded. The storm passed through sec-
tions of Dodge county, leaving a trail of death
and destruction.

MISSISSIPPI. State Government.— The follow-
ing were the State officers during the year :
Governor, Robert Lowry, Democrat ; Lieuten-
ant - Governor, G. D. Shands ; Secretary of
State, Henry C. Meyers; Treasurer, W. L. Hem-
ingway ; Auditor, Sylvanus Gwin ; Attorney-
General, Thomas 0. Cutchings; Superintend-
ent of Public Education, J. Argyle Smith ; Com-
missioner of Agriculture and Immigration, E.
G. Wall. Judiciary, Supreme Court: Chief-
Justice, J. A.P.Campbell; Associate Justices,
H. H. Chalmers and Timothy E. Cooper. The
only election during the year was for members
of the Legislature. That body, when it meets
in 1884, will consist of 33 Democrats, 3 Re-
publicans, and 1 Independent" in the Senate,
and of 99 Democrats, 12 Republicans, and 5 In-
dependents in the House.

Finances. — The Auditor's report shows the
valuation of the property in the State to be ae
follows :

544

MISSISSIPPI.

*?&>

Total $116,926,060

state tax. . $293,585 42 of the university to women, and 12 matricu-
lated the following session. There are now
22 in attendance.

The last Legislature appropriated $8,000 for
the repair and improvement of the university
buildings. The law prohibiting the sale or
giving away of intoxicating liquors within five
miles of the university is working well.

In the Agricultural and Mechanical College,
the first year, there were 354 students: 87 in
college classes ; 267 in the preparatory depart-
ment. The second year, there were 304 stu-

For 1883, realty $87,596,173 Uf * *

For 1883, personalty. . . 39,158,754 \ state tox • •

Total $126,754,927

The assessment for 1883 shows an increase
of $20,556,227 over the valuation in 1879, when
the land was last assessed.

The following extract from the Treasurer's
report for the years 1882 and 1883 will show
the general financial condition of the State :

RECEIPTS dents: 150 in college classes ; 154 in the pre-

The receipts for 1882 .. $770,95952 paratory department. The third year, there

'i he receipts for 1883 74f,s64 75 were 317 students : 148 in college classes • 169

Cash balance in the treasury, Jan. 1, 1882 J45.10628 'm the preparatory department.

Total $2,062,93055 The college has received from the State in

DISBURSEMENTS. the aggregate $205,000. With this sum and

The disbursements for 1882 $1,057.441 05 $9,000 given by the citizens of fetarkville, and

The disbursements for 18S3 836,499 90 the interest on the land-scrip fund, and $15 -

Cash balance in the treasury, Jan. 1,1884 _W8,989_60 QOO realized from the sale of bonds, authorized

Total. $2,062,93055 by an act approved March 7, 1882, the college

RECOGNIZED INDEBTEDNESS. has been supported for three years, and has

Chickasaw school fund $315,70971 acquired property worth $180,357.

ComSon^chCooTfunUd ^account Sli'S 46 In ^ PaSt thre6 year8 tbe ColleSe has real~

Common-schooi fund,' distributive '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 128^189 10 *zecl from the sale of surplus produce of the

Seminary fund, account of University of Missis- farm and dairy, $7,447.44.

Warrant's outstanding" :.' ^173 99 In the Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical

certificates of indebtedness i outstanding : : : : !'/. 2',;~55 oo College the attendance for the past two years

Stsentednd8' SeTieS °' past due and not pre" 1 000 ^ has been rather larger than heretofore, but it
Mississippi 4per cent." bonds'due Jan.' i.' 1590..'. 2lfliooo (JO stiU averages only 100 n year. One great diffi-
Agricuiturai-coiiege bonds due Jan. i, 1896.... 227,15000 culty the institution encounters is the broken

S^SSnteT ^ ^^l l?*™^ 890 oo and'irregular attendance of the pupils, but few

Deposits by insurance companies, currency not going the entire session. There have been but

RaSr!Sd-tox1forSdis1SbuS)n' ' ' I? 293 2? three graduates since the college was founded.

Swamp-land lund .'.'.".'.'!!.'.'.'!.'!!!."!'. 88^37 23 Th e faculty is composed of th e president, two

- — — professors, and one tutor. The college is prac-
$2,974,082 i tjca]iy a norinai schOol for the education of

On the 1st of January, 1882, there was a colored teachers, though agriculture is taught

cash balance of $545,106.28 in the treasury, with some success.

On the 1st day of January. 1884, this balance In Tougaloo University the attendance is

was reduced to $168,989.60. larger than at any previous time, there being

Education. — " It affords me pleasure " says the a total of 147 — 74 males and 73 females. The

Governor, " to be able to state that the cause school was never so well equipped and offi-

of education is at present receiving more cered. The managers and instructors number

attention in Mississippi than at any former 13. The expense per month for board and tui-

period of her history. The average attend- tion is $10. About 200 acres of land are in

ance for 1882 and 1883 was largely in excess cultivation. Most of the labor is done by the

of that of any previous years since the inau- students. An industrial superintendent has re-

guration of the system. Teaching in public cently been added to the corps of instructors,
schools has improved, and this is clue in part The institution was founded and is carefully

to the introduction of teachers' institutes in supervised by the American Missionary Soci-

many counties. Great interest is being mani- ety of New York.

fested in the State Teachers' Association, which The school-buildings are valued at $86,000 00

has been organized in this State, and the re- The farm' with buildings, is valued at 11,500 oo

Cent meeting was largely attended." The stock and vehicles are valued at

During the session of 1881-'82 there were

in the literary department of the University , St»te Institntions.-In the Lunatic Asylum the

of Mississippi 202 students; in the law de- death-roll has been larger than usual, owing, it

partment. 12. During the session of 1882-'83, is Bought, to overcrowding and an insufficient

there were in the literary department, 245 : in supply of water. The completion of the East

the law department, 14. The present session Mississippi Insane Asylum will enable this one

opened in September, and at the close of 1883 to mluce the n»mber of patients,

there were enrolled in the literary department, **^i^JSSl^jS^^.1Z $37,576 18

^rfb ; in the law department, 9. And for the year 18S3 11.793 67

In June, 1883, the trustees opened the doors Total $49,369 so

MISSISSIPPI.

MISSOURI.

545

The entire cost of the present establishment,
including the $15,000 originally appropriated
and expended in 1880-'81, is $46,119.80.

The building was completed in September,
1882, and possession taken in October follow-
ing. Since that date everything has been work-
ing to the satisfaction of the Trustees.

Under the management of Mr. J. R. Dobyns,
who continues in charge, the Institution for the
Deaf and Dumb has attained unusual and ex-
traordinary success. The pupils have made
rapid advances, and can communicate their
thoughts with readiness and facility by signs
and in writing. Articulation instruction has
been introduced within the last two years
with gratifying success. There were in at-
tendance, in 1882, 57 whites and 15 colored ;
in 1883, 66 whites and 15 colored. The last
Legislature appropriated $3,000 for the erection
of buildings on the lands adjacent to the city
of Jackson, in the possession of the Board of
Trustees, suitable for the accommodation, care,
and instruction of the colored deaf-mutes. A
site was secured and necessary buildings erect-
ed, within the appropriation, for that purpose.

On the first day of January, 1884, there
were in charge of the lessees of the Peniten-
tiary 771 convicts, of whom 696 are colored,
74 are white, and 1 Indian. During the last
two years, beginning Jan. 1, 1882, and end-
ing Dec. 1, 1833, 218 have died, 118 have
escaped, and 25 have been recaptured. Dur-
ing the two years preceding those last named,
out of a total of 876 convicts, 122 died, 136
escaped, and 25 were recaptured. The num-
ber received in 1882 was 408 ; in 1883, 293.
The number of convicts by crimes against per-
son is 548 ; against property, 223. The num-
ber discharged in 1882 was 219; in 1883, 144.

Progress of the State. — In regard to the recent
progress of the State, the Governor reports :

In the last two years alone 461,783 acres have been
purchased througn the Auditor's office from the State.
There is a growing confidence in the future, as shown
by the purchase ot these lands and of 435,110 acres of
lands held by the Federal Government in the last two
years, together with the unprecedented homestead en-
tries, amounting to 286,283 acres. The reduction in
the debt and. the rate of taxation and yearly expendi-
tures has been accomplished without detriment to the
public service or neglect of the different charitable and
educational institutions. All these have been liberally
sustained and new ones established. During the past
two years some 450 miles of railroad have been built
in IVtississippi. Large sums have been invested in
cotton- factories, oil-mills, cotton-compresses, etc., and
I am pleased to say that the investment has been profit-
•able in every instance. The capacity of some mills has
been doubled within the last two years, and they are
still unable to supply the demand for their fabrics.

Manufactures. — To encourage the establish-
ment of factories in this State, the Legisla-
ture of 1882 passed an act exempting from
taxation, for ten years, the machinery used for
the manufacture of cotton and woolen goods,
yarns or other fabrics, composed of these or
other materials, or for the making of all kinds
of machinery or implements of husbandry, or
all other articles not prohibited by law.
VOL. xxin. — 35 A

There are fourteen cotton and woolen facto-
ries: The Wesson mills, at Wesson; Natchez
cotton-mills, at Natchez; Rosalie cotton-yarn
mills, at Natchez ; Stonewall cotton and wool-
en mills, near Enterprise, Clark co. ; Juanita
cotton and woolen mills, near Enterprise;
Ullman woolen-mills, at Bay St. Louis; Yo-
cona cotton -yarn mills, at Water Valley;
Stansbury cotton-mills, at Carrollton ; cotton-
mill at Canton, and two cotton- mills at Cor-
inth ; Bay Springs cotton-factory, Tishomingo
co., and another at Port Gibson.

There is a cotton-seed oil mill at Natchez,
two at Vicksburg, one at Port Gibson, one at
Jackson, one at Yazoo City, one at Grenada,
one at Columbus, one at Meridian, one at
Aberdeen, one at Lexington, one at Refuge
Landing, one at Greenville, and a number of
others in process of construction. A great
many saw-mills are going up throughout the
long-leaf pine region, a good many built by
Northern capital. Besides these, there are a
great many in operation already.

Timber.— There are 20,000,000 or more acres
of timber-lands, which consist of pine, red-
gum, oak of many varieties, cypress, magnolia,
willow, cottonwood, beech, locust, and elm.
Of long-leaf pine, in the region of Pearl river,
contiguous to the Illinois Central Railroad,
there is perhaps 6,000,000,000 feet (board-
measure) now ; east of Pearl river there is
perhaps the same quantity. There is perhaps
of the short-leaf pine standing, 7,000,000,000
feet. The red-gum, to which the people here-
tofore attached but little value, is now taking
its place to some extent.'

Health. — About 784 cases of small-pox have
been reported as occurring in the State in 1882
and 1883. Where an extensive • outbreak of
the disease has occurred, it has been the rule
to place an inspector in charge, and to employ
guards, both on foot and mounted, when neces-
sary to secure the isolation of cases.

Concealed Weapons.— On this subject the Gov-
ernor says :

A fruitful source of crime is the too prevalent habit
of carrying concealed weapons. Impulses are often
born of opportunities, and it frequently happens that
the possession of a pistol presents strong temptation
to its unlawful use. In my opinion the most efficient
remedy for the evil of carrying concealed weapons is
to make their use to kill, or attempt to kill, a crime
not admitting of defense, so that, if killing or attempt-
ing to kill is by means of a weapon drawn from con-
cealment on the person, there shall be no excuse or
justification. If one could not, under any circum-
stances, lawfully use a deadly weapon, carried in
concealment on the person, he would cease to carry it.

Miscellaneons.— On the 17th of January a con-
vention of citizens interested in the culture of
jute was held in Jackson, and on the 1st of.
October an Interstate Levee Convention assem-
bled in Vicksburg. In April a cyclone swept
over a portion of the State, being especially
destructive in the towns of Wesson and Beau-
regard, where many lives were lost.

MISSOURI. State Government.— The State offi-
cers during the year were the following : Gov-

546

MISSOURI.

State during the year. The statistics, while
approximately correct, are quite unsatisfactory,
for many county clerks fail to make correct
returns from all the districts, and some fail to
make any report whatever. Jn referring to
colored schools, the superintendent says :

The prejudice heretofore existing against colored
schools and the education of the colored youth, to
give them equal advantages with the whites, as the
law directs, has in a great measure disappeared, and
the colored schools are maintained for the same length
of terms as the white schools. Sometimes a case arises
where the people or board refuse to open a colored
school as the law directs, but only a few such cases
have been reported to my office. Nearly all the col-
ored schools are taught by colored teachers, and, so
far as at present known, they are all colored. This
plan is less objectionable and works much better than
otherwise.

ernor, Thomas T. Crittenden, Democrat ; Lieu-
tenant-Governor, Robert A. Campbell ; Secre-
tary of State, Michael K. McGrath ; Treasurer,
Philip E. Chappell ; Auditor, John Walker ; At-
torney-General, Daniel H. Mclntyre ; Superin-
tendent of Public Schools, William E. Coleman ;
Register of Lands, Robert McOulloch ; Super-
intendent of Insurance Department, John F.
Williams; Railroad Commissioners, George C.
Pratt, Archibald Sevier, and Jas. Harding. Su-
preme Court : Chief-Justice, Warwick Hough ;
Associate Justices, John E. Henry, Elijah H.
Norton, Robert D. Ray, and Thos. A. Sherwood.

Legislative Session. — The Legislature met Jan-
nary 3d, and adjourned April 2d.

Among the acts passed are the following :

To prevent the change of rates for freight without
notice thereof by railroad companies hi this State : rri i +. r> i A 1.1 ^

to protect owners of property shipped for sale on /he last General Assembly made appropri-
commission, and to punish persons for making false ations for educational purposes as follow :

returns of such sales ; concerning persons charged One fourth of revenue $892.242 14

with crime and becoming insane between indictment Interest on school fund 174,540 00

and trial, and to provide for their disposition; to State moneys, 1883 566,78214

protect Government lights and light-house stations *f timated for 1884 570,000

on the navigable waters of this State ; to prevent and SniveS import ! 8> M 840 So

punish malicious mischief ; to provide for counting, Agricultural College debt . . '. 23,'000 00

comparing with the list of voters, and examining School of Mines, snpport of.. ................. 15,'ooo 00

ballots in cases of contested elections ; creating a Normal School. Kirksville 20.000 00

State Board of Health, and defining its duties and Normal School, repairs 15,965 80

powers ; relating to the deposits of foreign insurance Normal School, Warrensburg 20,000 00

r=i irsa£:fl»3sS SSS^ : E™ li

souri ; to authorize corporations which have been or Lincoln Institute 12,500 00

hereafter may be organized for the purpose of reclaim- Kepairs for same 3,500 00

ing swamp and overflowed lands to levy in certain Deaf and Dumb Institute 92,500 00

contingencies an additional tax of fifteen cents per Repairs for same 26,000

acre per annum ; to regulate the practice of dentistry ghnd. A8/lum 52,000

in the State.; to regulate the practice of medicine ^ase'of SSitod. I '. '. \ '. :::"":"'."" 818^ 8!

and surgery, in the State ; to tacilitate the assessment

and collection of revenue; revising and amending Total appropriation $1,843,83093

the general laws' in relation to roads and highways,

and providing for establishing, opening, repairing) The folio wing Deport is made by the County

and vacating the same ; to provide for the construe- School Commissioners, showing the number of

tion of turnpike-roads ; to establish a Bureau of children of school age in the State :

Labor Statistics, and inspection of factories, mines,

and workshops throughout the State, and to provide

for the appointment of an inspector of the same.

Two amendments to the Constitution were Total Jggjgg

proposed, to be Submitted tO the people in No- White children enrolled 487,509

vember, 1884. One of these provides for the Colored chudren enrolled 28'820

raising of a tax of not over fifteen cents on the Total 511,329

the dty, and establishes at Kansas City an ad- ^ ^ f g tember the Fund Commissioners
ditional appellate court, to be known a* the haged aXetired 572 State bonds of $1,000

Sn n P tf r $rt ,aVm8 'JUTW*1G- each, which leaves still outstanding of the bond-
tion over the residue of the State, and consist- d ^ f h s $13,231,000. The remain-
ing of three judges It also gives the Legis- der f h debt ^^ Ure as follows:
lature power to create one additional Court of

Appeals,andtoregulatethejurisdictionofthese }«» $4,ooo jag $242,000

courts. Other important acts are the so-called its? 3 1?7 ooo isot' ."! :.'."." .'i! .' .' Sooo

" Downing high-license " law, and the act ere- lass!!!!""!"!" s^ooo 1S95 '. 628.000

ating a commission of three judges to relieve 18S9'" • 848,0001911....

the Supreme Court. The general appropria- The assessed value of the taxable property

tion bill provides for $6,134.301, and the spe- last year was $656,250,413, an increase of

cial appropriations $550,000, $100,000 being to $6,983,171 over the valuation of 1882, and $54,-

extend and repair the State University. 528,000, over that of 1881. The State taxes

Education. — The report of the Superintendent collected last year amounted to $3,345,378.

of Public Schools shows that decided improve- Temperance Convention. — The Prohibition Alli-

ment was made in the pubic schools of the ance of the State met in Warrensburg on the

MONTANA.

547

26th of June, and remained in session until the
28th. Its resolutions included the following:
That we hereby pledge our individual and organ-
ized efforts for the defeat of any candidate for the next
General Assembly of the State, whether the nominee
of a party or not, who shall refuse to declare publicly
in writing that if elected he will vote and industri-
ously labor for the submission of a constitutional
amendment prohibiting the manufacture, for sale, and
the sale of intoxicants, as a beverage, within this State.

MONTANA. Territorial Government.— The terri-
torial officers during the year were : Govern-
or, John Schuyler Crosby ; Secretary, Isaac J.
McCutcheon.

Railroads. — Three years ago the Northern Pa-
cific Railroad reached the eastern border of
Montana, and in August of this year the two
ends met, 50 miles west of Helena. There are
787 miles of its trunk line within the Territo-
ry, and two branch lines have been completed,
one from Livingston to the borders of the Na-
tional Park, 50 miles, and another to the min-
ing center at Wickes, 20 miles. There are al-
so in the Territory about 200 miles of narrow-
gauge road, a part of the Union Pacific branch
extending from Ogden, Utah, to a connection
. with the Northern Pacific at Garrison, Mon-
tana, with a branch at Butte.

Banks. — Montana has twenty-five banking in-
stitutions, nine of which are national banks.
Four of these latter are in Helena, and have a
combined capital of $875,000, with deposits to
the amount of $4,300,000.

Finances. — In 1882 there was a total assess-
ment of $33,211,319, an increase of $9,170,511
over 1881. The assessment for 1883 is about
$46,560,300. Even this fails to do the Terri-
tory justice, for it does not include a dollar
for the mines, whose net income alone is taxed.

The Territory does not owe a dollar, and the
aggregate indebtedness of the thirteen counties
is under $1,000,000, mostly incurred for public
buildings, and for roads and bridges.

The expenditures for 1882 by warrants drawn
on the treasury amounted to $61,067.52. The
estimated expenditures for 1883 were $70,500.

Amount of revenue proper collected during 1882.. $90,863 47
Amount of revenue proper collected during 18S1 . . 75,286 64

Increase of revenue proper for 1882 $15,576 83

Schools. — The only mears of support for the
schools is a property-tax, divided among the
districts of each county in proportion to the
number of children of school age. By terri-
torial law this county school-tax can not _be
less than three mills nor more than five mills
on the dollar. It averages about four mills.
In addition to this, many districts vote an ad-
ditional specialtax to extend the school term.
All of the larger places have provided them-
selves with convenient school-houses. Besides
thoseof former years, seven large graded school-
buildings of the first class are in process of con-
struction, and the value of school-buildings in
the Territory is fully $200,000.

General Condition.— On this subject the Gov-
ernor in his report, dated Oct. 31, 1883, says:

At the time of the census of 1880, Montana had few-
er than 40,000 inhabitants. That same year witnessed
the entry of the first railroad within her borders.
During the ten preceding years the population had
barely doubled, but within the past three years it has
advanced from 40,000 to upward of 80,000. While it
is true that much of Montana's surface seems adapted
to a scanty population engaged in pastoral pursuits,
other sections, covering probably a fourth of its area,
creviced and underlaid with mineral wealth, are cer-
tainly destined to give homes and employment to a
dense population at no distant day.

The last Territorial Legislature authorized a call for
a Constitutional Convention with a view to submit
the Constitution framed to the vote of the people in
November, 1884. The convention will assemble in
January, and the members have already been elected.

The following was the vote for delegates in
Congress in 1882 : Martin Maginnis, Democrat,
12,398; A. 0. Botkin, Republican, 10,914.

Some experiments are now in progress to
test the feasibility of artesian wells. One at
Miles City has struck a strong flowing stream
at the depth of 352 feet.

Timber-Lands. — The timber-lands of Montana
are almost exclusively confined to the mount-
ains— estimated to cover two fifths of the
Territory— where the lands would be of very
little or no value when once stripped. Every
year witnesses a greater waste by fires, that
care might prevent, than would suffice to sup-
ply the wants of settlers.

Mining Products. — The rich placer -mines of
early days have probably yielded up their
most bountiful harvests, yet the oldest ones
continue to be worked with good results. A
great deal of what is properly mineral land is
still more valuable for -agriculture, in which
it produces year after year, instead of being
worked out for a single harvest, though a rich
one. But the more permanent and productive
mines are the quartz-lodes of gold, silver, and
copper, of which the entire range of the Rocky
mountains and its various spurs seem to be full,
focusing at certain points in surpassing rich-
ness. In every county of the Territory, with
the possible exception of Dawson, the east-
ernmost, these mineral veins a re known to exist.
They are best developed and most productive
in Silver Bow county, of which Butte City is
the center. The grosa yield of the mines of
that single county for 1883 was upward of $4,-
000,000. "The most careful recent estimate,"
says the Governor, " is to the effect that the
yield of $10,000,000 of the present year will be
increased for 1884 to $30,000,000 in gold, silver,
copper, and lead."

It is estimated that over 20,000,000 pounds
of copper will be shipped in 1884 from the
mines at Butte, Silver Bow county.

Live-Stock.— The following shows the most
.recent returns of live-stock : .

NUMBER.

VALTTB.

1882.

1883.

1882.

1883.

$14,250,000
2,100,000
6,787,000

Cattle

287,210
362,776
67,000

475,000
700,000
90,000

$4,699,812
1,018,124
8,197,020

Sheep ,
Horses

548

MONTENEGRO.

Indians.' — The Governor recommends the cur-
tailment of the Indian reservations, which com-
prise nearly two fifths of the Territory, while
the Indians number not more than 18,000.
" Besides the matter of cutting down the In-
dian reservations," he says, u a heavy and press-
ing duty rests upon the General Government
for their support and education. The great
body of the Blackfeet, North Piegans, Assinna-
boines, and Gros Ventres are even in a half-
starved condition, owing to the failure and dis-
appearance of the buffalo and other large game.
These Indians must be supplied before spring,
or they will have to choose the alternative of
starvation or stealing the white man's cattle.
They should be placed on smaller reservations,
and be recompensed for the lands surrendered
by supplies of stock, cattle and sheep in parti-
cular. The Flatheads on the Jocko reserva-
tion are well advanced in civilization and to-
ward self-support. The disappearance of the
larger game and the want already experienced
make these Indians willing to exchange land
for cattle, and anxious to cultivate the land."

Mormons* — There is a settlement in Deer Lodge
county, and another in Gallatin county, of
monogamic Mormons, expelled from Utah for
their apostasy. Their numbers are small, they
are industrious, good citizens, and they seek no
proselytes ; and their children, growing up un-
der the training of the schools and in associa-
tion with the citizens of the Territory, rise
above and drift away from Mormonism.

MONTENEGRO (pern agora, "Black Mount-
ain "), a principality in eastern Europe. The
government is an absolute monarchy. The
legislative and executive powers, and the con-
trol of the revenue, remain practically in the
hands of the Prince, though organic statutes
of 1852, 1855, and 3879 introduced the repre-
sentative principle in the form of a legislative
body, called the State Council, of eight mem-
bers, one half elected by the male inhabitants
who bear arms or have done military service.
The throne is hereditary by male primogeni-
ture in the family of Petrovich Njegos, who
liberated the country from the Turks, and was
proclaimed Vladika, or Prince-Bishop, in 1697.
Danilo I, who succeeded his uncle, Prince
Peter, the celebrated poet and reformer, in
1851, abandoned the title of Vladika, and as-
sumed that of Hospodar. He was assassinated,
Aug. 13, 1860, and was succeeded by Nicholas
I, the present reigning Prince. The inhabit-
ants of Montenegro are divided into forty
tribes, each governed by elected elders and a
chief, called the Knjas, who acts as judge, and
in time of war is the military commander. By
the administrative statute of 1879, the country
was divided into eighty districts and five mili-
tary commands. There is no standing army,
except the Prince's body-guard of one hundred
men ; but in case of war all Montenegrins are
soldiers from the time when they can first bear
arms until they have no more strength. The
military population is divided into companies

of a hundred men. Each military district fur-
nishes a battalion, or two if it has more than
eleven companies. The ministers are the sov-
ereign's appointees on the Council of State.

Statistics. — The area is about 3r470 square
miles. The population is officially reported as
236,000. With the exception of about 4,000
Catholics and as many Mohammedans, the
people are adherents of the Greek Orthodox
Church. There are about 2,000 Montenegrins
in Austria, Turkey, and Russia, and a small
number in Alexandria and San Francisco. The
capital, Cettinje, has about 2,000 inhabitants.
Podgoritza, Dulcigno, Niktchich, and Antivari
are somewhat larger.

The exports are estimated at 2,000,000 florins
($1,000,000) ; they consist of rabbits and hares,
cheese, fish, smoked mutton, wool, sumac,
wine, fruits, etc. There are 444 kilometres (or
228 miles) of telegraphs.

Ministerial Changes. — During the insurrection
in the Crivoscie and the Herzegovina in 1882,
Prince Nicholas preserved an attitude which
the Austrian resident minister, Col. Thom-
mel, reported to be perfectly correct, not-
withstanding the dispatches of the commander
of the Austrian forces, Baron Jovanovich, to
the contrary. The sympathy of the Monte-
negrins for their kindred in the annexed prov-
inces was too strong to allow the Prince to
carry out any loyal intentions he may have
had of preserving neutrality. The pretended
military cordon was a fiction, for fugitives who
were disarmed at the frontier were provided
with weapons and ammunition again in the
interior, and used Montenegrin territory as a
base for their raids, until the Austrians estab-
lished a cordon on their side, and thus crushed
out the rebellion. This formidable frontier
guard is permanently maintained. The Aus-
trian party in Cettinje was headed by the Voy-
vode Mascha Yrebica, Minister of the Interior.
The more powerful Russophile party had for
its leader Bozo Petrovich, President of the
Senate, a cousin of the Prince. The feeling
against Austria became more decided when
the Prince received in reply to his demand of
indemnification for the support of the refugees,
the answer from Vienna that he might keep
them. The Austrian Government relented to
the extent of amnestying all but the leaders of
the Herzegovinians, who were glad to return
to their fields. But the Crivoscians were left
to encumber the scanty resources of the Cer-
nagorans. Prince Nicholas, familiarly called
Nikita, visited St. Petersburg later in the year,
and returned the sworn ally of the Czar. Af-
ter his return, the agitators, confined in com-
pliance with Austrian demands, were set at
liberty. Shortly afterward the Minister of the
Interior was dismissed. Bozo Petrovich suc-
ceeded him as Minister of the Interior and be-
came Minister President. The Minister for
Foreign Affairs, Stanko Radonich, and the Fi-
nance Minister, Ilija Cerovich, sent in their
resignations, but the former was retained.

MONTENEGRO.

549

Marriage of Princess Zorka. — The attention of
Europe was attracted to the movements of the
Servian pretender, Peter Karageorgevich, in
the early part of the year. This prince had
spent his life and dissipated his fortune in
weak and hopeless attempts, instigated by
Austria, to stir up a rebellion in Servia and re-
gain his father's throne ; he visited Montenegro
and was received with many marks of cordial-
ity and respect by Prince Nicholas. Prince
Peter denied that his visit had any political
significance, declaring that he came simply on
a pious pilgrimage to the seat of his ancestors
and the home of Servian liberty. The close
and cordial relations between the Czar and
Prince Nicholas were remarked at the corona-
tion at Moscow, where the Cernagoran prince
appeared by the side of the Czar as though he
were a relative, and alone of all the foreign
visitors received popular ovations. On Au-
gust 10th, Peter Karageorgevich was given in
marriage at Cettinje, Prince Nicholas's eldest
daughter, Zorka. The Russian Government,
according to rumor, furnished a handsome
dower. The idea of a Great Servia, under
Russian protection, is the chief aim of Russian
activity in the Balkans. Prince Peter Kara-
georgevich's father was driven from the throne
on account of his subservience to Austria. The
same fate now threatened the house of Obre-
nevich. But the immediate recognition of
Prince Peter's claims did not seem likely to
be the object of Russia in taking him under
her protection. From various expressions of
Prince Nicholas, it appears that he has hopes
of founding the kingdom of United Servia.
Montenegro was the only Servian land not
subjugated by the Ottomans. A Servian song
says that, when Freedom deserted the Servians,
she escaped to the crags of Cernagora.

Turkish Boundary Difficulty. — The Turkish
boundary question was stirred up again in the
early part of 1883, after resting since the end
of 1880. The line drawn through the map by
the plenipotentiaries at the Berlin Congress
was even more difficult to establish than the
new boundary of Greece. The delimitation
was carried out in the main according to the
Berlin Treaty before the naval demonstration
of the powers in 1880, with the exception of
the transfer of the districts of Plava and Gu-
sinje, patrimonial possessions of the clans of the
Hotti and Klementi. This transfer could not
be effected without a bloody conflict with the
then all-powerful Albanian League. The out-
come of the intervention was, that Montenegro
retained, in the place of those districts, the port
and district of Dulcigno, which are more valu-
able than any of the lands ceded by the Berlin
Treaty. The southeast boundary of Montene-
gro remained undetermined until the princi-
pality pressed for a settlement, and in Janu-
ary, 1883, the preliminaries were arranged
between Bedry Bey, as Turkish plenipoten-
tiary, and the Montenegrin commissioners.
The settlement which they arrived at regard-

ing the line to the northeast of Lake Scutari
preserved the actual frontier, leaving the vil-
lages of Matagosh and Vladnia to Turkey, and
Gosik, as well as the hill of Voina, which is of
strategic importance for the defense of Pod-
goritza, in Montenegrin possession. The con-
tinuation agreed upon as far as Planinica cor-
responds with the line stipulated in the Treaty
of Berlin, the boundary between the Kuchi
Kraina and the Gruda and Klementi tribes.

The portions adjacent to Lake Scutari were
transferred to the Montenegrin authorities,
and occupied without difficulty. In the Kraina
the delimitation agreed upon could not be car-
ried out without a conflict. The Albanians
gathered to resist the occupation with arms,
but the Turkish military interposed and loy-
ally assisted the Montenegrins to establish
their authority after a severe skirmish. The
Porte declared its willingness to evacuate the
Ottoman portion of Kolashin, but when it re-
fused to give up part of the Plava- Gusinje
territory, Montenegro broke off the negotia-
tions and appealed to the signatory powers.
Upon receiving no answer to the first commu-
nication, of January 31st, it addressed a note of
urgency to the powers, February 9th, declaring
its intention to take forcible possession of Mat-
agosh and Vladia, and asking for a decision of
the boundary dispute. On February llth the
Gruda, Klementi, Kastrati, and Shkrieli clans
met in Bessa and swore the fiessa (blood-pact)
against the Montenegrins and the Turkish
troops, in case they should attempt to partition
their lands. They showed their temper in two
sanguinary skirmishes with the Turkish mili-
tary in Scutari. The Albanians, with the ex-
perience of their race-kindred in Podgoritza to
teach them, have stronger grounds than simple
religious and national sentiment to resist being
handed over to Montenegrin jurisdiction. The
new code of laws, elaborated by Prof. Bogosich,
can not counteract the national prejudices and
propensities which refuse equal rights to Mus-
sulmans in Montenegro. Their lands and herds
are divided up among Montenegrins on perpet-
ual leases at arbitrary rentals which they are
unable to collect, and they themselves are
driven to emigrate, or expelled on a trumped-
up charge of conspiracy, if other means fail.

Border Warfare.— A border war was carried
on between the Albanians and Montenegrins
for two or three months. Fierce skirmishes,
which were no better than butcheries, took
place all along the frontier, and a long list of
blood-revenges was treasured up on both sides.
Every Montenegrin fled from Scutari, and
peaceful communications were entirely inter-
rupted. At length, after a third note to the
powers had failed to stir them from their apa1
thy, the Montenegrin Prince' fell in with the
desire of the newly- appointed Vali of Scutari
to put an end to the useless bloodshed by re-
opening negotiations. An interview was held
at Rjeka, April 21st, in which the Vali, Musta-
pha Assim Pasha, said that the Klementi and

550

MONTENEGKO.

Hotti would never become Cernagoran sub-
jects, and could not be made to abandon their
pasture-lands without force, and that the Porte
was not willing to carry on a military cam-
paign against them to carry out uncertain pro-
visions of the Berlin Treaty. Prince Nicola
replied that these things should have been
thought of before signing the treaty, that Mon-
tenegro had need of valley-lands, and that it
had an historical claim to territory once peopled
by Serbs and ruled by the Servian emperors.
With that it was agreed to postpone discussion
for several months, and leave the boundary
controversy open while peace was being re-
stored and friendly intercourse resumed. Mus-
tapha Assim Pasha invited the Albanian chiefs
to a conference to discuss measures of public
safety, but the message was answered with a
refusal. The chiefs of the Shoshi, Shallas, Mar-
turi, Nikai, Gashi, Kastrati, and Hotti, all be-
longing to the Malissora group of tribes, com-
municated with the Mirdites, and the Luria,
Matija, and Dibra-Posht tribes, with whom
the Jma-oath had been taken. An assembly
was held at Kastrati April 26th. Here it was
resolved to revive the Albanian League. They
swore together to resist any encroachment of
Montenegro on Albanian territory, and the
Ottoman authorities if they infringed on the
rights of the tribes. No communications were
to be held with the Vali. The Albanians sent
for a large supply of cartridges for the Martini-
Henry and Snyder rifles with which they were
all armed. The Vali strengthened the garrison
at Tusi, and upon his urgent request 6,000 Ni-
zams were sent, from Crete. The Porte admon-
ished the new Vali to adopt conciliatory meth-
ods with the Malissora tribes. An obnoxious
ordinance relating to the collection of the tax
on cattle was revoked, but orders were given
to collect the tax where the authorities had
the power. This, and the firing upon the
Djovanni, a branch of the Shoshi tribe, when
they entered Scutari to purchase supplies, ex-
asperated the Albanians. The unnecessary se-
verity of the Vali in preventing the harboring
of outlaws in Scutari drove a number of influ-
ential persons into the mountains to aid in the
organization of the League. A proclamation
was issued to the Hotti, Gruda, and Kastrati,
May 19th, assuring them that the Sultan de-
sired nothing but the conservation of their an-
cient customs and their submission to his au-
thority. A deputation of the tribesmen met
the Pashas at Scutari. Mustapha Assim Pasha
declared that a regulation of the boundary-line
was unavoidable. This question, the Albanian
representatives replied, could only be consid-
ered by a council of all the tribes. From the
general council the answer came that the Al-
banians had for four hundred years given
proofs of their readiness to give their lives for
the Padishah, and that they would not enter
into negotiations with the Government, which
had often deceived them, unless they had a
guarantee that the Government would not

demand the cession of their territory to their
mortal enemies. The Vali then announced
that the regulation of the boundary would be
carried out — with force, if necessary. The
League held an assembly at Rabshi, May 25th,
which resolved to send armed men into the
disputed district to be ready for eventualities.

On the night of June 1st they took Tusi by
surprise, captured all the military stores, dis-
armed the garrison, and sent the troops to
Matagosh. A simultaneous attack upon Helmi
was frustrated through the vigilance of the
garrison. Hafiz Pasha, with a body of Cretan
Nizams, marched against the Albanians. He
was preceded by a deputation of notables of
Scutari, who brought back word that the
troops would not be allowed to enter the terri-
tory of the tribes. When the Turkish troops
appeared, the Albanian outposts opened fire.
The Nizams advanced to the village of Kas-
trati, where a desperate fight of several hours'
duration took place. The steam ironclad and
gunboats on Lake Skadar bombarded and de-
stroyed the village. The next day, in order to
gain time for re-enforcements to come up,
Hafiz Pasha resumed negotiations. In the
night of the 2d, contingents of the Hotti,
Shalla, and Shoshi tribes came to the aid of
Kastrati. Abdul Aga, the Hotti chief, took
command and ordered an attack. The battle
lasted from morning till night. More than 500
dead and wounded covered the field. A truce
was called on the 5th for the burying of the
dead, but a conflict took place between the
Albanian re- enforcements, who were hurrying
to the scene of conflict, and the Posripa tribe.
The latter joined the League after their chief
had fallen. On the 6th hostilities were re-
newed in the vicinity of Shiptzanik, where the
Albanians had intrenched their camp. The
battle was decided by the Krupp artillery of
the Turks, and in the afternoon the Albanians
retreated in good order toward the northeast
into the district of the Hotti. Hafiz Pasha ad-
vanced on his march to Tusi. The next morn-
ing he was again set upon by Abdul Aga's
bands near Hum. In a furious hand-to-hand
combat hundreds fell on both sides. Although
terrible damage was inflicted on the Turks, his
own forces were so weakened that th,e Alba-
nian commander retreated into the mountains.

On the 9th Hafiz Pasha reached Tusi. but could
not retake the fort without re-enforcements.
Mustapha Assim Pasha was preparing to march
into the field in person, when lightning struck
the powder-magazine at Scutari, June 8th, and
destroyed the whole supply of ammunition. On
the night of the 9th some bands of the Skreli
crept up to the intrenchments with which
Hafiz had surrounded his camp, and from un-
der the cover of the trees opened fire. In the
darkness the Turks fought with one another,
killing and wounding 300, while the Albanians
disappeared. When the Pasha made ready on
the llth to proceed to Tusi, he found the road
blocked by superior numbers of the mount-

MONTENEGRO.

551

aineers. He concluded, therefore, to make se-
cure his communications with the coast and
relieve Fort Helmi, which was besieged by
1,000 Klementi. With his four or five battal-
ions of available troops he was unable to pene-
trate to the besieged garrison, which suffered
for want of food and water. After a couple
of days of skirmishing, finding himself nearly
surrounded by the Albanians, who were con-
tinually receiving re-enforcements, the Turkish
commander decided to give battle rather than
retreat across Lake Scutari. On the 14th and
15th the Turkish Nizams fought with desperate
courage. Many hundreds of corpses covered
the field. Three Krupp guns were captured
by the Leaguers. Hatiz Pasha then sent a
message, proposing a truce and negotiations,
to the Albanian leaders, Abdul Aga Hotti and
Dod Prechi. The latter refused to treat, know-
ing that it was only a ruse to gain time for
re-enforcements. Hafiz Pasha then crossed the
lake in a sail-boat and returned on the 17th
with three battalions. His troops had de-
fended themselves with difficulty against in-
cessant attacks. With the fresh troops Hafiz
again took the offensive, and in an eight hours'
battle compelled the League troops to retire.
These battles cost the Turks over 1,200 men;
the Albanians reported their loss as 800.

Marching farther, Hafiz Pasha encountered
the Malissori near Shin Mari, where his army
was again surrounded. The Albanians were
rendered savage and desperate by the ruthless
acts of the Turks, who burned all the villages
and farm-houses on their way. The Turkish
troops fought their way through after a day
and a night of fighting, but left several hun-
dred dead on the battle-field and 50 captives in
the hands of the Albanians. Anothejr Turkish
detachment under Shaban Bey was defeated
on the 16th and 17th, with a loss of 250, near
Tusi, which place was burned by the Albanians.
On the 18th two battalions of Nizams came up,
with four guns, whereupon the Albanians re-
treated into the district of the Hotti.

Forced back in front by Hafiz Pasha and on
the flank at Tusi, the Albanians retired into
their mountains and confined themselves to
defending the defiles of approach. The Turk-
ish commander pitched his camp near Spinje
and opened negotiations, on the basis of in-
structions from Stamboul, for the subjection
of the insurgents. The latter, who were en-
camped in the approaches to Gruda, suffered
.from the want not only of ammunition, but
of food, as their herds were in Mirdita or
far away in the mountains. Hafiz Pasha de-
manded unconditional surrender, but promised
the tribes complete amnesty and the confirma-
tion of their ancient rights. Recently the Yali,
Mustapha Assim Pasha, had called upon the
Kastrati chief Dod Bachir, whose lands were
in the ceded territory, to help effect the peace-
able transfer, and the latter accompanied his
refusal with an expression of amazement that
the Porte should wish to get rid of loyal sub-

jects by force. The League commanders, Ab-
dul Aga Hotti, Nicol Mirasi, and Shaban Smaku,
refused to deliver up the leaders, but agreed
to surrender on tbe condition that the integrity
of their territory was guaranteed, and that they
should be left free to defend it eventually
against the Montenegrins. Hafiz Pasha re-
jected the conditions, and left them another
week to consider. As a proof of his determi-
nation, he burned the rest of the villages, and
destroyed the growing corn and gardens. The
League renewed its appeal to the represent-
atives of the powers at Scutari, getting no
encouragement with regard to the boundary
question, but receiving a promise to intercede
with the Turkish authorities and endeavor to
induce them to proceed less barbarously. As
the result of their efforts, the Vali went among
the insurgents and proclaimed the intentions
of the Porte to grant an amnesty and indem-
nity for the destroyed property. Hafiz Pasha,
who had received large re-enforcements, began
strategic operations, which led to fresh skir-
mishes, in which the Turkish artillery carried
the day. A demand for the surrender of the
chiefs of the rebellion was again refused, but
the Albanians continued negotiations.

A deputation of the League then went to
Montenegro and opened secret negotiations
with the Government. They proposed that
Montenegro should assume a protectorate over
all the Malissori tribes, which should be gradu-
ally extended over the whole Ghegi territory ;
that the Montenegrins should confirm their
particular rights, respect their religion, and not
interfere in their administration further than
was the practice with regard to the tribes that
were already subject to the Montenegrin rule.
In return, the Albanians promised to aid the
Montenegrin Government in war, in the same
way as they have the Porte, to pay the same
contributions that they have to the Porte, and
to annul all existing blood-oaths. These un-
expected propositions were at first received
favorably by the Montenegrins, though the
scheme could not have been definitely settled,
as Prince Nicholas was absent in Paris. Hafiz
Pasha, growing impatient, pressed for a de-
cision, and received the answer that the AJ-
banians would not deliver up their chiefs, but
that if he attacked them again, they would go
over to the principality of Montenegro.

The Leaguers relied on the experience of
the Turks of their ability to defend the passes
of the mountains indefinitely and with little dif-
ficulty. With their old muzzle-loading muskets
this was possible. But they had not learned
to make the cartridges for the Martini-Henry
and Snyder rifles, with which they were now-
armed, and, although they had friends enough'
in Scutari, it was useless to attempt to get car-
tridges in any quantity, first through the cus-
tom-house and then out of the city and through
the Turkish lines. The suppression of _ the re-
bellion was only a matter of time. First the
Kastrati, whose villages were burned, sent back

552

MONTENEGRO.

MORGAN, EDWIN D.

the arms which they had captured from a trans-
port and made their submission. The leaders
either joined the Skreli or fled to Montenegro;
their houses were fired and their cattle confis-
cated. The Shall! and Shoshi, who had at-
tacked the garrison of Scutari in April, were
excluded from the amnesty. In July an expe-
dition was undertaken against these tribes and
against the Skreli, who were responsible for
the murder of Salih Aga. The Skreli sent a
deputation, offering to yield to the demands of
the Government. Hafiz returned to Tusi and
sent word that the murderer of Salih Aga must
be surrendered and the chiefs come to Scutari
to receive the commands of the Vali. The
tribe refused these terms, and Hafiz again set
out with six battalions and four mountain-guns.
Three sharp skirmishes took place, in which the
Skreli were victorious. Yet when the Shallaand
Shoshi, after hearing of the submission of all
the other tribes, also accepted the amnesty, the
Skreli withdrew to distant fastnesses in the
hills, whither Hafiz Pasha had no inclination
to follow them, content with having secured
the rectification of the frontier, and pacified
the neighborhood of Lake Scutari. The depu-
tations of the Shalla and Shoshi were well re-
ceived by the Vali, and the Stamboul authori-
ties were so gratified at the favorable termina-
tion of the difficulties that they imposed no
ransom for the attack on Scutari. Their lead-
ers escaped into the Herzegovina. All the
tribes were commanded to deliver up to the
Government the weapons it had furnished
them at the time of the Russian war and during
the conflict with the great Albanian League,
a mandate to which no attention was paid.
On the 10th of August Hafiz Pasha- made his
triumphal entry into Scutari.

The Porte was informed betimes of the se-
cret offer of the Malissori tribes to accept a
Montenegrin protectorate, which was made in
June. Engagements were said to be entered
into with the Cettinje Government to avert
this, but the substance of the promises has
not been divulged. Prince Nicholas visited
Stamboul soon after, and was received with
great hospitality and distinguished honors by
the Sultan. He is the first prince of the Cer-
nagorans who has paid a visit to the Padishah
since the foundation of the principality. This
event made a profound impression on the Al-
banians, who for centuries have been accus-
tomed to' regard the Turks and Montenegrins
as irreconcilable enemies. At this interview
the boundary dispute, after years of diplomatic
controversy, was settled in an hour between
the heads of the two states. The Prince of
Montenegro was persuaded to relinquish his
claims to the lands of the Hotti and Kastrati,
who retain their pastures undivided. In com-
pensation, Montenegro receives accessions of
territory in the Plava and Gusinje districts.

The delimitation commission met directly
after the return of Prince Nicholas. The line
northeast of Lake Scutari to Gradishte was

fixed. The district of Planinica as far as Mo-
cha, and thence to Mojkovac on the Tara,
which is the terminal point of the delimitation,
was not marked out by the end of the year.

MORGAN, Edwin Denison, an American mer-
chant, born in Washington, Berkshire county,
Mass., Feb. 3, 1811 ; died in New York city,
Feb. 14, 1883. At the age of seventeen he en-
tered the store of his uncle, Nathan Morgan,
with whom, in about three years, he became a
partner. In 1836 he removed to New York,
and engaged in business on his own account, as
a grocer, in Front street. From that time till
the date of his death his life may be divided
into three periods. The first embraced about
twenty years, during which he was most active
and energetic as a merchant, extending his
operations to distant lands, and becoming well
known as a successful importer. His connec-
tion with the firm of E. D. Morgan & Co., as
senior partner, was continued through various
changes in its organization, and only ceased
with his death. For another period of about
twenty years, including a portion of the years
allotted to his active business career, he was
largely identified with the political life of his
adopted city and State, and of the United States
— being at one time a member of the Board of
Aldermen of New York ; twice State Senator ;
a delegate to the conference assembled at Pitts-
burg in 1856 ; chairman of the convention that
followed at Philadelphia, and afterward chair-
man of the National Republican Committee;
twice Governor of the State of New York ;
and, finally, a member of the United States
Senate. During the term for which he was
elected to this last high office he was never
once absent from a meeting of the Senate,
and was one of its most efficient working
members.

On the conclusion of his term, in 1869, the
ex-Senator directed his energies largely to the
various institutions with which he was con-
nected as a director, notably with the National
Bank of Commerce, the United States Trust
Company, the Lake Erie and Western Railroad
Company, and the Western Union Telegraph
Company. He was for many years President
of the Woman's Hospital of New York, and
associated with many charitable associations,
to all of which he was a liberal benefactor.
He gave $100,000 to Williams College, and
a like sum to the Presbyterian Theological
Seminary. In his long, active, and varied
career as merchant, statesman, and trustee, he
enjoyed a high character for integrity, ability,
and sound judgment, commanding in all these
various relations the entire confidence of his
fellow-citizens. He was twice tendered the
office of Secretary of the Treasury, but de-
clined it. His appointment by President Ar-
thur was confirmed by the Senate, but the office
was refused because of age and increasing in-
firmities. His interest in politics did not cease
with his retirement from the Senate, but his
counsel was alwavs at the command of those

MORRILL. LOT M.

NEBRASKA.

553

filling the highest offices in public life. In the
critical period of our civil war, during which
he was Governor of New York, his services
were as important as those of any other Gov-
ernor, and contributed largely to the final suc-
cess of the national cause. He was tendered
by President Lincoln the appointment of ma-
jor-general of volunteers, and accepted the
rank, but declined any compensation for ser-
vices. A memorial volume, with a fine por-
trait, was printed privately by his widow, who,
with an only grandchild, survives him.

MORRILL, Lot M., an American lawyer, born
in Belgrade, Maine, May 3, 1813; died in Au-
gusta, Maine, Jan. 10, 1883. He entered Water-
ville College (now Colby University) in 1835,
but did not remain through the year. He then
studied law, and in due time was admitted to
the bar. One of his fellow-attorneys was Tim-
othy O. Howe, with whom he was later asso-
ciated in the United States Senate. He removed
to Augusta, established himself in practice, and
took the lead in the Democratic party in Maine.
In 1854 he was elected to the Legislature, where
he gained much reputation ; and on his re-elec-
tion in 1856, he was chosen President of the
Senate. In 1855 Mr. Morrill denounced the
course of his party on the question of slavery
in Kansas, and severed his connection with
his former associates. He was nominated in
1857 by the Republicans for Governor, and was
elected by over 15,000 majority. His admin-
istration was very successful, and he was twice
re-elected; and he served his native State in
that offiae during the years 1858-'60.

In 1860 Senator Hamlin was elected Vice-
President of the United States, whereupon
Gov. Morrill was chosen by the Legislature to
serve during the remainder of Hamlin's term.
He entered the Senate Jan. 17, 1861, and was
placed on important committees. He attended
the " Peace Conference," from which much
was hoped, but which led to no beneficial re-
sult. During the two years that followed,
Morrill took an active part in public affairs,
and in 1883 he was elected Senator for the
term ending in 1869. He was chairman of
the Committees on Expenses, on the District
of Columbia, on Appropriations, and on In-
dian Affairs. In the Republican caucus for a
successor, Mr. Morrill was defeated by a single
vote; but, as Senator Fessenden died in 1869,
Merrill was appointed to serve out the remain-
der of Fessenden's term. In 1 871 he was again
elected Senator, and in the discharge of his du-
ties devoted much attention to financial ques-
tions. He was what was called a " hard-money"
man, and voted against the bill for inflating the

currency, which was vetoed by the President,
and voted in favor of the resumption act of
1875. He was noted as being a steady, hard
worker in committee-rooms, and was espe-
cially familiar with naval and Indian affairs.

On Secretary Belknap's resignation, Presi-
dent Grant asked Senator Morrill to take a
seat in the Cabinet, but he preferred to re-
main where he was.. In June, 1876, his name
was sent in by the President for the Treas-
ury Department, and he was immediately con-
firmed. During the few weeks before enter-
ing upon his new and important duties, he was
busily engaged in looking after the appropri-
ation bills. He was chairman of the Senate
Committee on Appropriations, and strained
every nerve to carry these important measures.
He bade farewell to the Senate on July 6th.

As Secretary of the Treasury Mr. Morrill
was able and energetic, and gave very general
satisfaction. He was familiar with all govern-
ment business, was inflexible and resolute in en-
forcing the laws, and showed that clear com-
mon sense which is always popular in a min-
ister of finance. In November, 1876, while in
New York, he made an address to the moneyed
men of the metropolis, from the steps of the
Sub-Treasury Department, which proved ef-
fective and well-timed. His annual budget, in
December of the same year, was very straight-
forward, and gave a clear presentation of the
financial condition of the nation. He urged
immediate and yet gradual contraction of the
currency, and declared that specie payments
could be resumed in 1875. His recommenda-
tions had the merit of simplicity and direct-
ness. He asked Congress to give him author-
ity to fund greenbacks at his discretion, in 4J-
per cent, thirty-year bonds, and to compel the
national banks to accumulate coin.

When Mr. Hayes became President, in 1877,
he offered Mr. Morrill a foreign mission ; but
it was declined. He was appointed, in March,
Collector of Customs for Portland and Fal-
mouth district, Maine, which post he held at
the time of his death. On getting back to
his native State, he took but little active in-
terest in politics. His health became infirm,
and he suffered greatly from inflammation of
the stomach. In his last illness, attended by
his wife and family, he sank quietly and peace-
fully to rest. Although not to be called elo-
quent in speech, or brilliant in debate, he was
always earnest, clear, and sensible. With a
fine head and an impressive air and manner,
Mr. Morrill rarely failed to convince his hear-
ers that the measures he advocated were judi-
cious and sound in principle.

N

NEBRASKA. State GoTernment.— The follow-
ing were the State officers during the year :
Governor, James W. Dawes, Republican ;
Lieutenant-Governor, Alfred W. Agee ; Secre-
tary of State, Edward P. Roggen ; Treasurer,

P. D. Sturdevant ; Auditor of Public Accounts,
John Wallichs; Attorney- General, Isaac Pow-
ers, Jr. ; Superintendent of Public Instruction,
W. W. W. Jones; Commissioner of Public
Lands, A. G. Kendall. Supreme Court : Chief-

554

NEBRASKA.

Justice, George B. Lake; Associate Justices,
Araasa Cobb and Samuel Maxwell.

Legislative Session. — The Legislature, contain-
ing 15 Republicans, 11 Democrats, 6 Anti-Mo-
nopolists, and one Greenbacker in the Senate,
and 55 Republicans, 26 Democrats, 16 Anti-
Monopolists, and 3 Independents in the House,
convened on the 2d of January, and adjourned
on the 26th of February. . On the 4th of Jan-
uary, Gov. Dawes delivered his inaugural ad-
dress, from which the following are extracts :

There is an evil of considerable magnitude which
of late years has prevailed in many localities of our
State, to the great injury of large numbers of our peo-
ple. I refer particularly to the sale of fraudulent pat-
ent rights and of stock in fictitious corporations, by
which unsuspecting persons have been induced to
make worthless purchases, and give in payment their
negotiable promissory notes, which, by a transfer to
innocent holders, they were finally compelled to pay.
There seems to be a well-tbunded doubt in the minds
of many whether, in the present condition of our
criminal law, such fraudulent practices can be reached
and punished. I would, therefore, respectfully sug-
gest the propriety of incorporating into the law a suit-
able provision remedying this defect.

Article XI of the Constitution, sections numbered
four and seven, reads as follows :

" SECTION 4. Eailways heretofore constructed, or
that may hereafter be constructed in this State, are
hereby declared public highways, and shall be free to
all persons for the transportation of their persons
and property thereon, under such regulations as may
be prescribed by law. And the Legislature may from
time to time pass laws establishing reasonable maxi-
mum rates of charges for the transportation of passen-
gers and freights on the different railroads in this
State. The liability of railroad corporations as com-
mon carriers shall never be limited.

"SECTION 7. The Legislature shall pass laws to
correct abuses and prevent unjust discrimination and
extortion in all charges of express, telegraph, and rail-
road companies in this State, and enforce such laws
by adequate penalties to the extent, if necessary for
that purpose, of forfeiture of their property and fran-

/iViJcaa "

These citations are made for the reason that I wish,
to bring before your minds the fact that by virtue of
these provisions the people have reserved to them-
selves absolute power in all matters pertaining to the
correction of abuses, extortions, or unjust discrimina-
tion on the part of railroads or other corporations.

On the 31st of January, Charles F. Mander-
son (Republican), on the seventeenth joint bal-
lot, was chosen United States Senator. The
vote was as follows :

C. F. Manderson, 75 ; J. H. Stickel, 20 ; James E.
Boyd, 17 ; J. S. Morton, 14 ; C. H. Brown, 5 ; A.
H. Conner, 1 ; D. M. Nettleton, 1. Total, 133.

Among the acts of the session were t

Joint resolution to Congress praying for the abolish-
ment of tolls on the railroad-bridges spanning tbe
Missouri.

Authorizing counties to issue bonds for refunding
their bonded indebtedness, and provide for register-
ing and certifying the same, and for levying a tax to
pay interest and principal thereof.

To provide additional remedies for enforcement of
judgments and orders for alimony and maintenance.

Amending section 4, chapter 55, compiled statutes,
by adding the following : " Persons who can show
documentary evidence that they have passed a satis-
factory examination before medical boards of other
States created for the purpose of such examination,
and all surgeons or assistant surgeons who were com-

missioned and served as such in the late war of the
rebellion."

Joint resolution to Congress requesting such legis-
lation as will compel railroad companies to take out
patents and pay taxes on lands granted them by the
national Government.

For the security of guests and lodgers in hotels
against injury by fire.

Apportioning the State into ten judicial districts.

Prohibiting the uttering of false pedigrees of stock.

To protect butter and cheese manufacturers.

Requiring county treasurers to publish a tabulated
statement of the affairs of the office in June, 1883,
and January, 1884, and semi-annually thereafter.

For the incorporation of churches, parishes, and re-
ligious societies.

Amends section 11, chapter 50, compiled statutes,
" Liquors." The amendment is the old section with
the following added : " Provided, that any person or
persons shall be allowed to sell wine made from
grapes grown or raised by said person or persons on
land belonging to or occupied by said person or per-
sons in the State of Nebraska, the same to be sold in
quantities not less than one gallon, without procuring
the license provided for in this chapter."

Prohibiting extortion and discrimination in the
transmission of telegraph dispatches.

Amending the Constitution in regard to the Legisla-
ture. Members will remain in office two years, and
receive a salary of $300, and ten cents mileage both
ways. Eegular sessions to continue sixty days. No
bills to be introduced after the fortieth day, except in
response to a special message from the Governor.

Prohibiting the fraudulent transfer of propertv.

To prevent beginning of round-up of cattle till after
the 15th day of May.

To protect the health of female employes, by com-
pelling employers to provide chairs for their female

for the protection of inmates of the Hospital for the
Insane ; providing that every inmate shall be allowed
to write one letter a week and have it posted without
censorship of officers.

Appropriating $50,000 for the erection of a new
building, and for repairs and improvements of the
Nebraska State Eeform School. One-fourth-mill tax
to raise money.

Capitol appropriation bill ; provides for taking
down the old building, and makes a half-mill tax.

Prohibiting the importation, selling, or running at
large of domestic animals afflicted with any conta-
gious disease.

Several bills for the regulation of railroads
were introduced, but none was passed.

Party Conventions. — The Democratic State
Convention met in Omaha, on the 29th of Au-
gust. James W. Savage, of Douglas county,
was nominated for Justice of the Supreme
Court; and J. M. Wool worth, of Douglas, E.
R. Daniels, of Madison, and G. W. Johnston,
of Fillmore, for Regents of the University.

The platform declares against protective tar-
iff, against prohibitory liquor laws, against en-
croachments of corporate capital, and against
free passes.

The Republican State Convention met in
Lincoln, on the 26th of September. The fol-
lowing is the ticket nominated: For Judge of
the Supreme Court, M. B. Reese, of Saunders
county; for Regents of the University (long
term), Milton J. Hull, of Clay, and John T.
Mallalieu, of Buffalo ; for Regents of the Uni-
versity (short term), Jesse M. Hiatt, of Harlan,
and Ed. P. Holmes, of Pierce.

The platform declares for protective tariff,

NETHERLANDS, THE.

555

for a constitutional measure to prevent dis-
crimination by railroad and telegraph compa-
nies, for the reclamation of lands granted to
railroads but not earned by them, and approves
the administration of President Arthur.

The Anti-Monopolists indorsed the Demo-
cratic ticket in part, and nominated David
Butler, Amos Dean, and J. F. Merritt for Re-
gents.

Election Returns. — At the election in Novem-
ber, the Republican ticket obtained a majority.
The vote was as follows :

Judge.

Eeese, Republican 52,805

Savage, Democrat and Anti-Monopolist 47,795

REGENTS, LONG TERM.

Hull, Republican 56,381

Mallalieu, Republican 56,961

Daniels, Democrat 41,998

Butler, A nti- Monopolist 13,172

Woolworth, Democrat 31,097

REGENTS, SHORT TERM.

Hiatt, Republican 56,427

Holmes, Republican 56,445

Dean, An ti- Monopolist 84,464

Merritt, Anti-Monopolist 16,511

For District Judges, Democrats were chosen
in the First and Seventh districts, and Repub-
licans in the other eight.

NETHERLANDS, THE, a constitutional mon-
archy in Western Europe. The Constitution,
proclaimed Nov. 3, 1848, vests the legislative
authority in the States- General, composed of
two chambers. The executive authority is ex-
ercised through a council of eight ministers.

The Government. — The reigning King is Will-
iam III, born Feb. 19, 1817, who succeeded
his father, William II, March 17, 1849. The
heir-apparent is Alexander, Prince of Orange,
born Aug. 25, 1851. The ministry is com-
posed of the following members: Minister of
Foreign Affairs, Dr. P. J. A. M. van der Does
de Willebois; Minister of the Interior, Dr. J.
Heemskerk Az ; Minister of Justice, Dr. Baron
M. W. da Tour van Bellinchave ; Minister of
Finance, W. J. L. Grobbee; Minister of the
Colonies, F. G. van Bloemen Waanders ; Min-
ister of the Waterstaat, Commerce, and In-
dustry, J. G. van den Bergh ; Minister of War,
Major-General A. W. P. Weitzel; Minister of
Marine, Yice-Adrniral F. L. Geerling.

In consequence of the Cabinet changes, the
Stadtholder-General of the East Indies, Fred-
erik s' Jacob, resigned late in December.

Area and Population. — The area of the Nether-
lands, which are divided into eleven provinces,
s- 12,648 square miles. The population on
Dec. 31, 1879, when the last census was taken,
was 4,012,693. The computed population at
the same date in 1882 was 4,172,971. The
number of marriages in 1882 was 29,565;
births, 153,900; deaths, 93,396. In 1879 the
population was divided as to religion into 2,-
469,814 Protestants, 1,439,137 Catholics, 81,-
693 Israelites, and 22,049 of other faiths. The
cities of over 100,000 inhabitants were: Am-
sterdam, with 350,201 ; Rotterdam, with 162,-
140; and the Hague, with 127,931.

Finances.— The following statement gives the
expenditures and receipts as set down in the
budget of 1883 :

EXPENDITURES. Guilders

Royal household 750,000

Cabinet 625,161

Foreign Affairs 700,114

Justice 5,46S,f/2*

Interior 12,800,395

Marine 12,319,955

War , 22,293,784

Public debt 80,881 ,294

Finance 8,498,915

Payment to communes 9 16C 000

Worship 4 2,007,188

Colonial administration 1,152,572

Waterstaat, etc 19,102,071

Railroads 14,500,000

Total 189,265,967

RECEIPTS. Guilder*.

Land-tax , 10,955,770

Personal tax 10,416,000

Patents 4,198,400

Spirits 22,000,000

Other excise duties 17,175,000

Stamps, etc 24,790,000

Customs, etc 4,712,000

Plate and jewelry guarantee 311,100

Domains 2,100,000

Post-Office 4,650,000

Telegraphs 1.030,800

Lottery 430,000

Hunting and fishing licenses 145,000

Pilotage 1,002,000

Mining royalties 8,105

Railroads 2,1 21,000

Miscellaneous 4,561,525

Total 110,601,700

The expenditure for the colonies entered in
the budget refers to the central administration
of the West Indies and Surinam. The East
Indies have a separate budget, voted by the
States-General.

In 1883 the public debt amounted to 989,-
703,350 guilders, not including 10,000,000
guilders of paper money. The interest on
the debt in 1883 amounted to 29,285,894
guilders; the sinking-fund charge to 1,045,-
400 guilders. The total amount of the debt
in 1882 was 931,308,450 guilders. The new
loan of 60,900,000 guilders was issued at 98f.
A certain amount is to be paid off annually,
after four years, the numbers of the bonds
called being drawn by lot, and the whole ex-
tinguished in fifty-six years.

Army and Nayy. — The army was reorganized
in 1881 by introducing the German system of
conscription. It is recruited partly by enlist-
ment and partly by conscription. The con-
scripts remain with the colors twelve m'onths,
and, for the rest of their five years of service,
are called oujfc for six weeks annually. Besides
the regular army, there is a militia, called the
Schutterzen, divided into two classes, the ac-
tive, composed of men between twenty-five
and thirty-five years of age, and the seden-
tary, from thirty- five to fifty-five. The regu-
lar army numbered 2,326 officers and 62,684
men. Of the latter, 42,839 were infantry, 3,-
987 cavalry, 1,433 engineers, 13,291 artillery,
and 441 special. The active Schutterzen num-
bered 28,600, and the sedentary 40,000 men.

The army of the East Indies is entirely dis-

556

NETHERLANDS, THE.

tinct. It is recruited exclusively by enlist-
ment among Europeans or natives. In 1882
the effective was 1,372 officers and 30,933
men, of which latter, 14,524 were Europeans
and the remainder natives.

The navy in July, 1883, consisted of 23 iron-
clad vessels, 95 other steamers, and 20 sailing-
vessels. The largest ironclad, the Koning der
Nederlanden, has 8^-inch plates, and carries
four 35-ton guns. It has two turrets, as has the
Prince Hendnk, carrying four 12-ton guns, a
ram of great speed. There are four other ram-
bowed vessels ranked as first-class ironclads,
all with a single turret, besides the De Euyter,
a monitor ram with a battery of 14 guns in a
single turret. There are thirteen second-class
ironclads, slow monitors intended for coast-
defense, all built OD the same model, with 5£
inches of armor and two 12-ton guns. In the
East Indies are a number of armed steam and
sail vessels in the maritime police service.

Commerce. — The total value of the special im-
ports in 1881 was 865,568,000 guilders, as com-
pared with 782,591,000 guilders in 1880; of
the exports, 647,975,000 guilders, as compared
with 582,684,000. Including the commerce
with the Dutch colonies, the total imports in
1881 amounted to 919,671,000 guilders; ex-
ports, 690,385,000 guilders. Ofthe imports in

1881, 267,770,000 guilders came from Ger-
many, 244,325,000 from Great Britain, 111,-
087,000 from Belgium, 60,753,000 from the
United States, 53,022,000 from Java, 46,635,-
000 from Russia, 37,363,000 from British In-
dia, 20,942,000 from the German free ports,
and 20,104,000 from France. Of the exports,
291,114,000 guilders went to the German Zoll-
verein, 159,810,000 to Great Britain, 109,399,-
000 to Belgium, 42,092,000 to Java, and 16,-
360,000 to the United States. The imports of
cereals in 1879 amounted to 166,200,000 guild-
ers; exports, 108,800,000; imports of colonial
produce, 85,000,000 guilders; exports, 32,700,-
000; imports of coal, 35,100,000 guilders; im-
ports of metals, 108, 200, 000 guilders; exports,
66,900,000; imports of hides and leather, 25,-
800,000 guilders ; exports, 24,100,000 ; imports
of textile materials, 36,400,000 guilders; ex-
ports, 38,500,000 ; imports of yarns, 43,600,000
guilders ; exports, 26,300,000 ; imports of text-
ile fabrics, 34,700,000 guilders; exports, 21,-
100,000 ; imports of drugs, dyes, and chemicals,
66,900,000 guilders; exports, 54,100,000; im-
ports of oils, etc., 49, 700,000 guilders; exports,
31,900,000.

The mercantile marine consisted on Jan. 1,

1882, of 751 sailing-vessels, of an aggregate
capacity of 615,602 cubic metres, and 86 steam-
ers of 241,321 cubic metres.

Railroads.— The length of railroads in opera-
tion on Jan. 1, 1883, was 2,022 kilometres,
or 1,260 miles, of which 1,056 kilometres be-
longed to the state, and 966 kilometres to
private companies. The total earnings of the
private lines in 1880 were 17,167,424 francs ;
expenses, 11,858,353 francs. The total outlay

on the Government lines up to June, 1881,
was 176,339,544 francs.

Telegraphs.— The length of telegraph lines on
Jan. 1, 1883, was 4,132 kilometres; length
of wires, 15,486 kilometres ; number of dis-
patches in 1882, 3,364,612, of which 2,009,297
were internal, 1,323,974 foreign, and 31,341
official. The receipts were 1,071,608 guilders;
ordinary expenditures, 1,477,015 guilders; ex-
traordinary, 102,395 guilders.

Mails. — The number of private letters sent
through the post-office in 1882 was 45,978,-
611 domestic, and 13,850,420 foreign ; postal-
cards, 18,723,366 ; total, 78,552,397. The num-
ber of newspapers was 42,300, 965. The receipts
amounted to 4,590,540 guilders ; expenses, 3 -
311,375 guilders.

Colonies. — The colonial possessions of the
Netherlands have an aggregate area of 659,-
126 square miles, and contain a total popula-
tion of 25,530,426.

The immigrant and European population of
all the East India possessions, including that
of Java, was in 1880 as follows: Europeans,
41,676; Chinese, 343,793; Arabs, 16,025;
Hindoos and others, 9,119. The capital of the
Dutch East Indies is Batavia, which had in
1880 96,957 inhabitants. Samarang contained
68,551 ; and Soerabaya, 122,234.

Java produces, for the benefit of the Nether-
lands, a large surplus revenue, after paying for
its own government. Most of it is obtained
by the sale of a vast amount of colonial prod-
uce, grown under the "culture system."

The budget for 1883 gives these receipts:

In Holland : Guilder..

Sales of coffee 84,840,908

Sales of cinchona 145,085

Salesuftin 5,422,826

Eailroads 1,165,000

Other receipts 715,531

In the East Indies :

Sales of coffee 8,164,700

Opium ; 18,730,000

Leases of public lands 18.652,000

Customs 9,651,000

Salt duty 7,080.500

Posts and telegraphs 1,283,500

Eailroads 8,150,000

Other receipts 30,231,992

Total.

About one third of the annual expenditure
is for the army and navy, and one third for
the general administration, in Java and the
Netherlands. The expenditure is stated at
24,388,492 guilders in Holland, and 123,311,-
629 guilders in the East Indies, making a total
of 147,700,121 guilders, and showing a deficit
of 8,461,629 guilders.

The exports of the Dutch East Indies in
1880 were of the total value of 178,954,000
guilders, of which 141,777,000 guilders were
exported by private individuals and 37,177,000
guilders by the Government. The total ex-
ports in 1879 amounted to 175,745,000 guilders.
The total imports in 1880 were 173,414,000
guilders, 157,474,000 on private and 15,940,000
on Government account, against the total of
154,652,000 guilders in 1879.

NETHERLANDS, THE.

NEVADA.

557

The aggregate tonnage of vessels entered in
1880 was 1,855,631 ; cleared, 1,779,305. The
tonnage of the colonial fleet in 1880 was 146,-
110 tons; in 1881, 143,317 tons. •

The colony of Surinam, or Dutch Guiana,
has an area of 46,060 square miles, and a popu-
lation of 69,856. The West India islands be-
longing to Holland are : Curagoa — area, 210
square miles; population, 24,507. Aruba — area,
69 square miles ; population, 6,193. Bonaire —
area, 95 square miles; population, 5,060. St.
Martin — area, 17 square miles ; population,
3,236. St. Eustace — area, 7 square miles ; pop-
ulation, 2,258. Saba — area, 5 square miles;
population, 2,202.

Ministerial Crisis, — In March the Van Lynden
ministry, after an adverse vote, February 26th,
of 66 to 2 votes on the proposition to reduce
the limitation of the franchise, determined to
hand in their resignation. The Opposition was
made up of the Catholic and ultra-Protestant
parties, and the object of the votes was to pre-
vent the reform of the electoral laws which
was demanded by all the Liberals. Dr. Heems-
kerk got together a Cabinet after several weeks.
His own group counted only a half-dozen votes;
but the Liberals were split into two irrecon-
cilable factions. The new ministry was com-
posed mostly of men outside of Parliament and
not known to politics.

Legislation. — During the Cabinet crisis, le-
gislation went on without interruption. The
proposition for a new loan was approved,
though the rate of interest was fixed at 4 in-
stead of 3 per cent., as intended by the Gov-
ernment. The terms were so attractive that
twelve times the 60,000,000 was subscribed.
The North Sea fishery treaty, framed the pre-
vious year by a conference of the interested
powers, was approved. The project of a new
canal, to connect Amsterdam with the Rhine,
was confirmed in the form proposed by the
passage of an expropriation act. The new
Conservative ministry applied themselves to
the task of regulating the disordered finances
of the country. The expenditures for the
colonies were to be reduced, except those for
Curacoa, which are somewhat increased. It
was proposed to revive the timber duties and
increase the spirit and t^a duties ; but only a
part of the new imposts were approved by the
Chamber. The catastrophe in northern Java,
and epidemics among human beings and ani-
mals in the East Indies, increased the difficul-
ties of the Government.

The question of a revision of the Constitu-
tion was before the country, but the Liberals
could not agree as to the extent of the reform.
In the elections of half the members of the
Second Chamber in June, the Liberals, who
could not agree on the question, lost three
seats, electing only 18, while the. Conservatives
elected 24 members. The two sections of the
Left still commanded a majority in the Second
Chamber. By the provincial elections, which
were held later, the large Liberal majority in

the First Chamber was not diminished. The
points in which the Liberals proposed to alter
the Constitution were to make the law of suc-
cession to the throne clear and complete, to
empower the Council of State to speak out in-
dependently in administrative affairs, to abolish
the electoral cense and substitute an intellect-
ual qualification, and to reduce the terms of
representation, so that the States-General will
be entirely renewed within the period of five
years; further, the complete introduction of
universal personal military service, the aboli-
tion of the oath, and an easier process for re-
vising the Constitution. The new ministry
upon assuming office appointed a commission
to study the question of revision.

War in Ateheen. — The war in Sumatra was con-
tinued, and no important success was achieved
by the Dutch soldiers. The natives were
armed with excellent rifles, obtained from trad-
ing-vessels. The woods and hills of northern
Sumatra were favorable for guerilla warfare.
The leader of the rebels, the Rajah Njay
Hassan, refused the terms which were offered,
and demanded the return of the disputed ter-
ritory, and the payment of 5,000 guilders.

(For an account of the International Exhibi-
tion at Amsterdam, see WORLD'S FAIRS.)

NEVADA. State Government.— The following
were the State officers during the year : Gov-
ernor, Jewett W. Adams, Democrat; Lieuten-
ant-Governor, C. E. Laughton; Secretary of
State, J. M. Dormer ; Treasurer, George Tufly ;
Comptroller, J. F. Hallock; Attorney-General,
W. H. Davenport ; Superintendent of Public
Instruction, C. S. Young; Survey or- General,
C. S. Preble. Judiciary, Supreme Court: Chief-
Justice, Thomas P. Hawley ; Associate Justices,
O. R. Leonard and C. H. Belknap.

Legislative Session.— The Legislature convened
on the 1st of January, and adjourned on the
1st of March. Ninety-three laws were passed,
among which were the following :

Consolidating Washue and Koop counties under the
name of Washoe.

Defining the rights of husband and wife.

For the prevention of fraud and the better protec-
tion of miners in the sale and purchase of ores.

To enable mining corporations to consolidate, and
defining the manner of such consolidation.

Providing for the taxation of mines that produce
a ton or less of ore or mineral- bearing material per
day, and to encourage the prospecting of undeveloped
mines.

Providing for the support of illegitimate children.

Providing for the* licensing of traveling merchants
or soliciting agents, commonly called drummers.

Providing for the consolidation of domestic and cer-
tain foreign corporations.

Granting the risrht of way and providing for the
construction of the Nevada and Northern Railroad
from Elko to the head-waters of the Owyhee river,
and thence to the pine-forests of Oregon ;like rights
to the Nevada Southern Railroad, from Wells, Elko
county, to the Colorado river.

For the better observance of the Sabbath.

The following proposed amendments to the
Constitution are to be voted on at the election
in November, 1884 :

558

NEVADA.

Section 2 of Article IV is amended, changing the
time of the convening of the Legislature from the first
Monday in January to the first Monday in February.
This is for the purpose of giving the State officers an
opportunity to prepare their reports, so that they will
be ready for the Legislature when it convenes.

Section 1 of Article II is amended so as to require
naturalized citizens to perfect their citizenship six
months prior to the time of voting. This is evidently
for the purpose of preventing political parties and can-
didates from defraying the expense ot naturalization
papers for such persons as do not care enough for the
privilege of exercising the elective franchise to pay^br
themselves. It also disfranchises all persons convict-
ed of the offense of selling their votes.

Article XVI is changed so as to render it necessary
for constitutional amendments to be adopted only by
one Legislature instead of two consecutive ones, be-
fore submitting them to the voters for ratification. It
requires, however, the vote of two thirds of the mem-
bers of each House instead of a bare majority, as under
the present system. The article is further amended
by fixing the minimum number of members of a Con-
stitutional Convention at one half the membership of
both branches of the Legislature, instead of the aggre-
gate number, as it now stands.

Section 3 of Article XI is amended so as to permit
the proper board to invest the funds accruing from
the sale of State lands for educational purposes in the
bonds of other States, instead of restricting them to
United States and Nevada State bonds, as at present.

The question of calling a Constitutional Convention
will also be submitted at the same tune.

Finances. — The Comptroller estimated the
amount of expenditures necessary for the fis-
cal year 1883-'84 at $307,550.68. Of this the
amount dependent on taxes, exclusive of the
amount of deficiencies for 1882, will be :

For ordinary current expenses $430,300 00

For public schools— five-cent tax 27,000 00

Tax for State interest and sinking fund 94,000 00

Total amount dependent on taxes $551,300 00

The appropriations made by the Legislature
at this year's session amounted to $470,300.

The amount of taxable property in the sev-
eral counties, as returned by the county assess-
ors to the State Comptroller for the years 1882
and 1883, was $27,369,335.37 in 1882, and $27,-
857,656.68 in 1883.

The State tax, 90 cents on each $100 in
1882, was $246,323.99 ; in 1883, $250,718.91.

At the beginning of the year the State had
$331,127.03 in coin on hand; the State school
fund had $576,617.50 in first-class securities;
the University fund, $56,730, also in good se-
curities ; the public debt amounted to $336,-
587.50. The receipts for 1881 were $302,-
435.74, and expenses $346,917.01. In 1882
the receipts were $303,445.94, and expenses
$286,842.66. For the two years there was an
excess of $27,868.99. The assets of the State
school fund are shown to be $622,008.85.

RECAPITULATION OF EXPENSES.

Legislative. . $53,378 58

Executive 37,500 09

Judicial 24,042 00

Printing 14,008 79

Public buildings 9,516 57

State-Prison 70,320 18

Charities 73,248 81

Schools 56,754 29

Interest on State debt 25,120 00

Redemption of State bonds * 2600000

invested funds 155,399 45

Miscellaneous 26,643 72

Total $571,931 83

The total valuation of real property for tL
year was $18,845,868.01 ; of personal, $8,912
304.80; a total of $27,728,172.81, and an h
crease of $388,737.44 over 1882. On this va
nation the State received a tax of $249,823.5*
and the several counties $614,552.05, a tot;
of $864,375.61.

The receipts from the sale of State lam'
amounted to $93,462.78.

The net yield of bullion, upon which tax(
were paid, was $1,643,407.89, upon which tl
total tax collected was $57,572.40, of whk
the State received $14,790.52, and the com
ties $42,781.88.

Mining. — The following is the bullion prodm
by counties for 1882 :

COUNTY.

Gold.

Silver.

Churchill

I500QO

430QQO

Elko . . .

85'000

500 000

Esmeralda . . ...

50 000

1 470*000

Eureka

835000

1 700 000

850000

80000

20 000

1 000 000

Lincoln

25 000

480 000

Nye

25 000

230 000

Storey and Lyon..

92o'oOO

860 000

White Pine

40000

460000

Washoe

10000

17000

Totals

$2 000 000

$6 750 000

The bullion yield for 1883 was $7,487,634.2;

State Institutions. — Provision for the insar
was made by the enactment of a law, a]
proved Feb. 24, 1881, providing for the ere<
tion and equipment of a State Insane Asylui
at Reno, and appropriating $80,000. The buil<
ing has been completed.

In July, 1882, the State patients in the asj
lum at Stockton, Cal., 148 in number, wei
transferred to the new asylum. The numbc
of patients, Nov. 1, 1883, was 149. The nun
her of convicts in the State-Prison on Noven
her 30 was 117. The average attendance i
the State University during 1882 was 28.

The following table gives the number c
children of school age by counties :

COUNTIES.

Lyon ... 5

Nye 2

Ofmsby 1,<

Storey 2,<

Washoe 1,1

White Pine...., :

Total »,f-

The population of the State has decrease
since 1880.

Railroad Incorporations.— During the yea:
1881 and 1882 nine certificates of mcorpon
tion were filed by railroad companies in th
State. This is the list :

Nevada Western ; California Central, N«
vad a Division ; Salt Lake and Western; I
vada Midland ; Nevada and Oregon ; Carsc
and Colorado, Second Division; Eureka ar
Colorado River; Battle Mountain and Lewi*
Salt Lake and Western.

Election Returns. — The following is the vo
cast in November, 1882 :

COUNTIES.

Churchill 89

Douglas.... 336

Elko 918

Esmeralda 227

Eureka 803

Humboldt 472

Lander 618

Lincoln ... .493

NEW BRUNSWICK.

559

OFFICES.

Republican.

Democratic.

6.585

7770

7362

6 906

Sectary of State

T73T

6 570

CMptroller ... ...

7451

6828

7 654

6638

7 181

7 116

3ierintendent of Schools

7,551

7800

6,742
6 559

7512

6'776

7728

6545

O'k of Supreme Court

7683

6626

6.462

7.720

)f the seven district judges chosen, the Re-
jlicans elected six and the Democrats one.
Le Legislature has 12 Democrats and 8 Re-
pblicans in the Senate, and 27 Republicans
al 13 Democrats in the House; Republican
jority on joint ballot, 10.
fEW BRUNSWICK, an eastern province of
Dominion of Canada. Area, 27,322 square
population in 1881, 321,233. Capital,
lericton.

Towns. — The towns of importance in New
mswick, and their population, are : St. John,
,127 ; Portland, 15,226 ; Fredericton, 5,218 ;
hncton, 5,032 ; Chatham or Mirarnichi, 4,600 ;
iwcastle, 4,000 ; Carleton, 4,000. The chief
tvvn, St. John, at the mouth of St. John river,
iducts over two thirds of the entire trade of
>rovince. Portland is a suburb of St. John,
lericton, the capital of the province, is on
John river, 84 miles from the bay. Ves-
ascend far above Fredericton, steamers
ining as far as Woodstock, a small town in
rleton county, near the Maine border. Monc-
is the junction of the St. John branch of
Intercolonial Railway with the main line,
workshops, etc., of the railway are here,
is also a port on Petitcodiac river.
Soil.— The valley of the St. John river, the
>res of Northumberland straits, and of the
ay of Fundy, are, on the whole, fertile and
well fitted for agriculture and grazing,
le northern districts are rocky and very thinly
)led. Agriculture is not conducted on even
ordinary scale, the product being little more
m enough for home consumption.
Climate. — The climate of this province is very
lial along the shores of the Bay of Fundy
" the Gulf of St. Lawrence, but inland ex-
2mes of summer heat and of winter cold are
in experienced. The most northern point is
latitude 48°, and the most southern about
titude 45°. The waters of the Gulf Stream
oderate the climate of the southern part
>mewhat, and this modification is assisted by
continuous flow and ebb of the tides in the
These tides rise to very great heights in
'inlets or " guts " along the shores — some-
les attaining the extreme of sixty-five feet.
Ports. — The ports of New Brunswick are:
Ihousie, Bathurst, Cavagnet, and Shippegan,
jaged in the timber and fishing trade, on
i Bay of Chaleur; Chatham, Newcastle,
shibucto, Shediac, on the Gulf of St. Law-
ice and Northumberland straits. The first

two are lumbering and ship-building towns,
the last two are packet-stations for Prince Ed-
ward Island, as well as ship-building and lum-
bering ports. Moncton and Hillsboro, on the
Petitcodiac ; Dorchester and Sackville on She-
pody and Cumberland bays, are ship-building,
lumbering, and coal stations. Campo Bello, St.
George, St. Andrews, and St. Stephens, on
Passamaquoddy Bay, are lumbering, ship-build-
ing, and general commerce stations, trading
largely with Calais, in Maine, on the boundary.
St. John has already been noticed. Frederic-
ton has a large river trade as well as the tim-
ber business.

Industries. — Lumber is the chief export and
source of wealth. The total of all exports
of New Brunswick products in 1882 was $6,-
599,881, of which $4,724,422 was lumber.
The fisheries rank next, the exports of New
Brunswick fish amounting to $753,251. This
is chiefly on account of dried and fresh her-
ring, and of lobsters. Including the two depart-
ments, agriculture and grazing, the farming ex-
ports amounted in 1882 to $578,420, nearly
all of which went to the United States. The
exports of manufactured articles for the year
in question amounted to $365,748. This sum
is made up chiefly of extract of hemlock- bark,
$129,812; ships, $101,840; grindstones, $30,-
433; wooden manufactures, $27,053 ; gypsum,
$10,430; and junk and oakum, $15,543. The
exported minerals amounted to $140,908. Of
this, $35,561 represents coal; $20,140, crude
gypsum ; $19,689, iron-ore ; $4,733, antimony-
ore, and $57,684, stone and marble.

Education. — The present system of free public
schools in New Brunswick exists under the
provisions of the Common-Schools Act of 1871,
and of several acts since passed by the provin-
cial Legislature. This enactment had for its
object "the establishment throughout the
entire province of a well-equipped system of
schools, in which the instruction should be open
to the children of poor and rich alike; the
quality of the instruction good enough for all ;
and the general character of the instruction
non-sectarian and national.

Almost from the day New Brunswick be-
came a separate province (1784) the Legislature
had recognized the duty of fostering the work
of education, and the statute-book from time
to time gave evidence that the importance of
placing the means of instruction within reach
of every child was more and more clearly per-
ceived. The greatest step in advance, previous
to 1871, was made by the passage of the Par-
ish Schools Act of 1858.

The administration of the school law and
regulations, and the general supervision of
the schools, are vested in the Chief Superin-
tendent, subject to the Board of Education, of
which he is a member. The Board^of Educa-
tion, which is the ultimate authority ,*under the
law, in all matters relating to public schools,
is composed of the Governor, the members of
the Executive Council, the President of the

560

NEW BRUNSWICK.

NEW HAMPSHIRE.

University, and the Chief Superintendent of
Education — twelve in all.

The whole province is divided by the Board
of Education into small districts for local
school government. The salaries of teachers
are paid in part by the Chief Superintendent
of the Provincial Treasury and in part by the
trustees. School-buildings and grounds may
be paid for by loans extending over a limited
period, and poor districts are specially aided by
the Board of Education in providing buildings.
The law provides for the efficient grading of
schools wherever the number of pupils in the
district is sufficient. Besides the schools sup-
ported and governed as above detailed, there
are fourteen county grammar-schools, located
in most cases in the shire-towns. Except in
the city of St. John, pupils of both sexes attend
the same schools and departments.

" The place occupied by the normal school
in our school system has no counterpart in
any school system of any other province or
State on this continent, unless it be in that of
Prince Edward Island. It is not, like the nor-
mal schools of Nova Scotia, Ontario, and the
American States, an adjunct of the system; it
is central and vital to it. It is not the head,
but in respect of agency by which the quality
of school instruction is to be guaranteed even
to the extremities of the province, it is the
heart of the system." Thus spoke the chief
superintendent, Dr. Rand, in his address at
the opening of the new building erected for
the institution at Fredericton. The building
provides ample accommodation for about 200
student-teachers, and for the four Model
School departments with about 200 pupils.

The proportion of the population at school,
in the summer term of 1881, by the census of
the year, was 1 in 6*18. The average monthly
percentage of pupils daily present during the
term was 72-44. The number of teachers and
assistants employed was 1,453, of whom 1,289
had received normal-school training. The num-
ber of schools in operation was 1,386 ; the num-
ber of pupils enrolled that term was 51,921,
and for the whole year 64,267. The average
number of teaching days the schools through-
out the province were in session was 101£, out
of 108 teaching days in the term. Total provin-
cial grant for education, for the year ended
April 30, 1882, $153,085. Total of county
fund drafts in the same year, $88,063.

The College of New Brunswick was estab-
lished by provincial charter in 1800 ; found-
ed and incorporated by royal charter in 1828,
under the name^of King's College, Fredericton,
with the style and privileges of a university ;
reorganized under an amended charter in
1860, and denominated the University of New
Brunswick. The university derives certain
revenues from lands and other property origi-
nally granted by the province ; it also receives
an annual legislative grant of about $9,000.
The Faculty of Arts consists of five professors,
and the course occupies three years.

NEW HAMPSHIRE. State Government.— The fol-
lowing were the State officers at the close of
the year : Governor, Samuel W. Hale, Repub-
lican, succeeding Charles H. Bell; Secretary,
Ai B. Thompson; Treasurer, Solon A. Carter;
Attorney-General, Mason W. Tappan ; Su-
perintendent of Public Instruction, James
W. Patterson; Insurance Commissioner, Oli-
ver Pillsbury ; Railroad Commissioners, Orren
C. Moore, E. B. S. Sanborn, and Edward J.
Tenney. Supreme Court : Chief- Justice, Chas.
Doe ; Associates, Clinton W. Stanley, Isaac N.
Blodgett, Wm. H. H. Allen, Isaac W. Smith,
Lewis W. Clark, and Alonzo P. Carpenter.

Legislative Session. — The Legislature convened
on the 6th of June, and adjourned on the 15th
of September. On the 7th of June Gov. Hale
was inaugurated. On the 2d of August, and on
the forty-third ballot, Austin F. Pike, Repub-
lican, was chosen United States Senator, by a
vote of 181 to 112 for Harry Bingham, Demo-
crat, and 22 for others. In both branches,
424 bills were offered, of which 201 failed to
pass ; and 66 joint resolutions, of which 19
failed to pass. Among the acts and joint reso-
lutions passed were the following :

To establish a new apportionment for the assess-
ment of public taxes.

To promote the welfare of the common schools.

In relation to uniting, separating, forming dis-
solving, or changing the lines of school districts, in
amendment of chapters -43 and 86 of the general laws.

In relation to holding of teachers' institutes.

To aid Dartmouth College in furnishing instruction
for indigent students from New Hampshire.

In relation to savings-banks. By it the charters of
all savings-banks in the State incorporated for a term
of years are made perpetual.

Providing for the compensation of the bank com-
missioners.

To incorporate the New Hampshire Life Insurance
Company.

To prevent fraudulent divorces.

For the better registration of births, marriages, and
deaths.

To prohibit the sale of toy pistols and other toy
fire-arms.

For the punishment of parents who neglect to pro-
vide for the support of their minor children.

To facilitate the detection and punishment of crime.

The railroad consolidation bill was passed,
under the title of " an act to provide for the
establishment of railroad corporations by gen-
eral law." The act affects thirty-four railway
lines operating exclusively inside of New Hamp-
shire, and eight other lines. The principal
feature of this act is to authorize any two or
more, or all of the said railway lines, to con-
solidate by perpetual leases, or partnership-
contracts, into one corporation. It authorizes
also the building of new railroads, and the
taking of private property therefor, whenever
and wherever a railway corporation chooses
to do so. These things, besides the fixing and
mortgaging the capital stock, and other mat-
ters, the act allows the railway companies to
do, " provided the Supreme Court of the State,
or three referees appointed by the court, shall
decide that the public good requires such new

NEW HAMPSHIRE.

561

railroad, or that the public good will be pro-
moted by the proposed union." " An act to
establish a Board of Railroad Commissioners "
was also passed.

Among the joint resolutions passed by the
Legislature of 1883 was tae following:

"Eelating to a Constitutional Convention." It
provides that, at the November election in 1884, the
electors shall vote on the question, " Is it expedient
that a convention be called to revise the Constitu-
tion?"

Fiianees. — During the fiscal year ended May
31, 1883, the State revenue from all sources
amounted to $935,675.72, and the expenditures
for all purposes to $792,286.11 ; leaving in
the treasury, on June 1st, an available cash
surplus of $204,622.49 ; such surplus, on June
1, 1882, having been $61,233.48. This favor-
able result is due to the recently adopted sys-
tem of biennial sessions of the Legislature.

The State debt on June 1, 1883, was $3,-
383,060.94. As to a portion of its principal,
amounting to $450,000, and falling due on
Sept. 1, 1884, the Governor observes that, un-
less large sums of the public money are ap-
propriated for extraordinary expenses in the
mean time, it may be paid at maturity with the
surplus of revenue over expenditures accumu-
lated in the interval.

Railroads.— The following is a list of the rail-
roads operating in New Hampshire, the value
of each road, and the tax assessed on it for the
present year :

NAMES OF RAILROADS.

Value
of road and
equipments.

Amount of
tax.

Eastern

$425,000

$4227 95

Boston and Maine

1 500 000

17 848 41

Ashuelot ...

150 000

1 855 05

Boston, Concord, and Montreal.
Fitchburg

2,500,000
18,000

80,230 43

204 7'2

Nashua and Lowell

400 000

4577 28

Wilton

250 000

8 091 75

Cheshire

1 200 000

13 921 07

Grand Trunk

550,000

6794 00

Northern ...

2,000,000

24559 67

Concord

2 500 000

29812 66

Manchester and North Weare
Concord and Portsmouth
Dover and Winnepesaukee
Portsmouth, Great Falls, and Con-
way

• T8,000
475,000
850,000

375 000

'964 62
5,853 46
4,231 60

4527 29

Manchester and Lawrence
Concord and Claremont

1,500,000
465 000

18,601 53
5725 32

Sullivan Co 'jntv

500 000

6004 70

Worcester and Nashua

180 000

2,074 08

Mount Washington

130 000

1 607 71

Stincook Valley

140'000

1 694 13

Portland and Kochester
Monadnock

15,000
100 000

185 50
1.224 78

Portland and Ogdensburg
Wolfborough

50,000
48,000

618 35
534 02

$190,870 47

The aggregate amount of the tax assessed on
railroads in the State for 1883 is nearly $21,-
000 greater than for 1882, when it was $170,-
003.85. The excess is almost entirely attributed
£> the increased rate of taxation.

Sayings-Banks. — The number of savings-banks

in operation in the State, on June 1, 1883, was

sixty-six; the two oldest were chartered in

1823. The deposits amount to $39,124,000;

VOL. xxni.— 36 A

the total assets exceeding $40,000,000, and the
number of depositors being 113,187.

In the matter of savings-banks, the last Le-
gislature enacted some important changes, the
better to provide for the interests of deposit-
ors, the principal one relating to the commis-
sioners. Their number is reduced to two ; and
their compensation, which was previously paid
by the banks, is now made payable by the
State, at the rate of three dollars a day of act-
ual service, besides the allowance of ten cents
mileage. At the same time, the new law im-
poses on the commissioners a more exacting
and more responsible service than was required
of them before.

Insurance.— The total of fire- risks carried in
the State, during 1882, was $69,987,572, and
that of life-risks, $11,950,766. The system of
insurance supervision now obtaining in the
State was established in 1870, and the totals
of premiums which her citizens have paid
since then to the insurance companies of either
sort during these thirteen years are of an al-
most equal amount, namely : for fire insurance,
$5,993,286.90 ; for life insurance $5,978,545.-
24. The losses paid to the citizens of the
State in that time aggregate : fire, $3,172,802.-
45; life, $2,657,519.04. The aggregate pre-
miums collected in.New Hampshire by the fire-
insurance companies of other States in 1882
amounted to $470,484.22, and the losses paid
by them in the same year were $430,168.94.
The New Hampshire Fire Insurance Company
collected $60,176.67 of premiums in the State
during that year, and paid $30,344.21 of losses.
The life-insurance companies, all of other
States, collected in New Hampshire $288,-
317.03 of premiums, and the losses paid by
them amounted to $269,533.97. The fire and
life insurance companies of other States, for
the business transacted in New Hampshire
during the year 1882, paid into her treasury
$7,578.57 of taxes ; and the New Hampshire
Fire Insurance Company paid into it a tax of
$2,600 on its capital stock.

Education.— The State Normal School, in
operation since 1870, has since then graduated
400 pupils, a yearly average of 30. The pres-
ent number of pupils is 40. The location of it
is regarded as a serious drawback to its success.
The Governor recommends the establishment
of a second Normal School in the northern
section of the State.

Eespecting public instruction in the State
generally, Gov. Hale points to the impediments
to its efficiency and diffusion resulting from
the district system, and decidedly subscribes to
the opinion of the ablest educators that the
change from that to the town school system
can not be too soon effected.

State Charities.— The Asylum for the Insane
during the year has been under a new superin-
tendence, whose management the trustees aver
to have been marked by ability and devotion.
The present number of its inmates is 254.
During the forty years of its existence, the

562

NEW HAMPSHIKE.

NEW JEESEY.

number of patients admitted into the asylum
was 4,423, and that of patients discharged as
recovered, 1,593.

The number of indigent persons who belong
to other unfortunate classes, and whom the
government of New Hampshire keeps as its
beneficiaries in institutions of other States, is
as follows: Twenty deaf and dumb at the
American Asylum in Hartford, Conn., two
at the Clarke Institute in Northampton, and
two at the Horace Mann School in Boston,
Mass. Of blind persons, there are ten at the
Perkins Institution for the Blind in South Bos-
ton ; and at the Massachusetts School for the
Feeble-Minded the State keeps three benefi-
ciaries. For the education of the deaf-mutes
the State pays annually $175 per capita.

Correctional Institutions.— In the State Indus-
trial School, opened twenty -five years ago, for
the correction of wayward youth, there were
at the beginning of June 110 inmates — boys,
92; girls, 18. The total number received in
this institution since its establishment is 1,100,
of whom two only died of disease.

The State Penitentiary contains 121 prison-
ers, all males except one. No escape from
it lias occurred during the past thirteen years.
Owing to the diminished number of prisoners
who might be employed at work, the results
of the labor-contract system in 1882 were not
so satisfactory for the prison's income as be-
fore. The earnings amounted to $16,845.19,
and the expenditures to $20,366.20, leaving a
deficiency of $3,522.

Legal Reform. — Concerning the present sys-
tem of the State laws, the Governor lays be-
fore the Legislature several of its defects, both
in substance and procedure, and earnestly
urges their immediate correction. In regard
to some among such defects he says: "Theo-
retically, the Executive Department is respon-
sible for the administration of the laws, the
officers directly charged with prosecutions be-
ing the Attorney- General and the county so-
licitors ; but it is a fact that, outside of the
law reports, and the fragmentary chronicles
of the newspapers, there is no published re-
port whatever of the administration of either
criminal or civil laws." He suggests that the
Legislature should provide for an annual re-
port by the county solicitors to the Attorney-
General, and for a report by the Attorney-
General to the Governor. The legal pro:
ceedings which are now used in the State^
with regard to the relations existing between
debtors and creditors, the Governor charac-
terizes as subject to manifest and frequent
injustice.

Divorce. — In regard to divorces, the Governor
plainly says that during the past forty years
their number has steadily and alarmingly in-
creased, in proportion to the increased num-
ber of the causes for which the Legislature has
successively allowed them to be granted. He
says: "Of the fourteen causes for which di-
vorces may be granted in this State, there are

five that render the marriage relation a matter
of option, and under cover of which it is robbed
of all its obligation and solemnity."

NEW JERSEY. State Government.— The f olio w -
ing were the State officers during the year :
Governor, George C. Ludlow, Democrat; Sec-
retary of State, Henry C. Kelsey ; Treasurer,
George M. Wright; Comptroller, Edward J.
Anderson ; Attorney-General, John P. Stock-
ton ; Superintendent of Public Instruction,
Ellis A. Apgar. Judiciary, Supreme Court :
Chief-Justice, Mercer Beasley ; Associate Jus-
tices, Manning M. Knapp, Edward W. Scud-
der, Bennet Vansyckel, David A. Depue, Alfred
Reed, Jonathan Dixon, Joel Parker, William
J. Magie. Court of Errors and Appeals, the
Chancellor, the Justices of the Supreme Court,
and Lay Judges : John Clement, Martin Cole,
Caleb S. Green, William H. Kirk, William Pat-
erson, Jonathan S. Whitaker ; Chancellor, The-
odore Runyon ; Vice-Chancellors, Abraham V.
Van Vleet and John T. Bird.

Legislative Session. — The Legislature met on
January 9th, and adjourned on March 23d.
On January 24th, John R. McPherson, Demo-
crat, was re-elected United States Senator, by
a vote of 43 against 36 for Garret A. Hobart,
Republican, and 2 for Gov. Ludlow. Among
the acts of the session are the following :

Enabling corporations incorporated under special
charter to increase the amount of their capital stock,
and also tLe number of their directors ; an act which
enables horse railroads to increase their capital stock
to double the present amount ; relating to the con-
solidation of docks and stores for the keeping of live-
stock ; an act providing for the cancellation of defective
conveyances made by attorneys and agents ; supple-
ment to an act to appoint harbor-masters and inspect-
ors, approved March 31, 1869, which provides that no
ship or vessel shall be anchored within 300 yards of
the end of a pier extending from the shore of New
Jersey into the waters of New York Harbor, between
Ellis Island and Castle Point, in Hoboken, and re-
quires all harbor-masters to enforce -the law ; author-
izing the Governor to appoint six persons to consti-
tute a Board of State Charities and Correction, of which
the Governor shall be president.

There were filed in the Secretary of State's office, of
Senate bills, 97 bills and 2 joint resolutions approved ;
2 bills passed over the veto and 1 bill filed without
approval — total, 100 bills and 2 joint resolutions ; and
or the House bills, 108 bills and 4 joint resolutions
approved.

The Legislature provided for the limiting of the
hours of labor of children.

Finances. — The accounts are divided and kept
under the four headings of Agricultural Col-
lege Fund, the Deaf and Dumb Fund, the
School Fund, and the State Fund. The Agri-
cultural College fund consists of $116,000 of
State bonds. The Deaf and Dumb fund con-
sists of $58,793.58, derived from the sale of the
Stevens Battery, and appropriated by the Le-
gislature to the Institution for the Deaf and
Dumb. There has been expended from this
amount $45,000, leaving $13.793.58. The
school fund amounts to $3,235,767.11. The se-
curities of the State fund consist of stock of
the Camden and Amboy Railroad and Dela-
ware and Raritan canal companies, with a

NEW JERSEY.

563

par value of $288,700. This stock pays 10 per
cent, interest. The receipts during the last
year (excluding the items not to be count-
ed on in the future) amounted to $861,702,
and the ordinary disbursements were $1,051,-
901. "The receipts of the State/' says Gov.
Ludlow in his message to the Legislature of
1884, " should be increased to $1,000,000 per
annum. The sum derived from the taxation
of railroads should be at least $750,000; tax
on foreign insurance companies, $5,000 ; State-
Prison receipts, $75,000 ; interest and divi-
dends, $29,000; judicial fees, by an amend-
ment to the law which will meet the difficul-
ties shown in the Comptroller's report, should
produce $30,000 ; the item of official fees may
safely be put down at $18,000 ; assessments on
corporations, $25,000 ; a tax should be levied
on telegraph and express companies, which
now pay nothing, and would produce at least
$20,000; a small tax on corporations, other
than those already taxed as such, should be
levied, with the result of at least $100,000."

The report of the Commissioners of the Sink-
ing Fund show that the assets of the fund are
as follow :

Loans on mortgages $493,954 99

Interest accrued thereon 11,454 54

Decrees against real estate 27,529 92

United States bonds (par value) 50,000 00

New Jersey bonds (par value) 11,000 00

School-district bonds (par value) 6,000 00

Balance in bank 62,608 21

Total $662547 66

Eeal estate, costing 425,659 18

Total $1,083,206 84

By the supplementary report it is shown
that the fund will probably be exhausted by
1893, leaving $800,000 unprovided for.

The investment in railroad property in this
State, as stated by the Commissioner of Railroad
Taxation, is $227,384,534. Almost the entire
amount is withdrawn from the ordinary assess-
ment rolls of the municipalities, and is taxed
under a special system, at one half of one per
cent, upon its true value, and the tax is paid
directly into the State treasury. The tax lev-
ied upon the railroads of this State the last
year was $677,557.76, or less than one third of
one per cent, upon the amcunt invested. Oth-
er property in the State is taxed at rates vary-
ing from one to three per cent.

The commissioners have prepared a sched-
ule of the riparian lands of the State, and show
that, out of 4,452,750 lineal feet, the State has
disposed of but 500,703. The commissioners
attribute the ready sale of these lands to the rea-
sonable prices charged for them, ranging from
twenty cents per lineal foot, on unimproved
beaches, to fifty dollars on the Hudson river
and Bay of New York.

State Institutions.— The number of convicts in
the State Prison at the beginning of tbe year
was 798, and at its close 804—37 females and
767 males. The receipts and expenditures of
the past year were as follow :

Paid for maintenance $62,402 88

Paid for repairs 4,500 72

Paid for salaries of officers and inspectors 9,000 00

Paid for salaries of deputies 66,209 64

Paid for discharged convicts 1,800 00

Total $188,478 19

Earnings of prisoners 72,70688

Net loss to the State $60,766 81

Net loss previous year 61,163 27

The number of inmates of the Reform
School for Boys has increased slightly over
that of last year, being 330 as againbt 322.
The law of 1882, providing for an appropriation
of not exceeding $100 a year for the mainte-
nance of each inmate, has worked well. Four
hours of each day are devoted to school and to
exercise, and the remainder to employment on
the farm, in the workshops, or at the brick-
yard. The boys earned, last year, $19,816.04,
nearly half the cost of maintenance.

There were in the Industrial School for
Girls, at the close oflhe year, 27 inmates, of
whom twelve were received during the year.
The trustees claim, that of the 185 girls com-
mitted since 1871, over 100 have been reclaimed.

The report of the officers of the Trenton
Asylum shows that the number of patients on
October 31st was 627, two less than the pre-
ceding year. The expense of maintaining the
institution during the past year was $156,281.-
31, of which $44,326.18 was received from the
State; $83,274.73 from the counties ; and $25,-
443.72 from private patients. The institution
owns 65 acres of farm-land, and rents 170 more.

The Morristown Asylum reports 707 patients
at the close of the year, an increase of 40 since
the last report. The expense of maintaining
the institution was $196,624.96, of which $39,-
675.91 was received from the State ; $83,800.-
84 from the counties ; and $57,340.43 from
private patients.

The number of the inmates of the Home for
Disabled Soldiers at the beginning of the year
was 389 ; there were 291 admitted during the
year, and 474 discharged. The total number
under care was 680.

During the year, the organization of the
New Jersey Institution for the Deaf and Dumb
was completed and the building occupied. As
the law organizing the institution provided
that the course of instruction should be five
years, the admissions into the new institution
were limited to those pupils who had received
instruction for less than that time. They
numbered 66, which with 18 original admis-
sions makes the number in the institution 84.
It can comfortably accommodate 175 pupils.

Edncation. — There were raised and appropri-
ated for school purposes during the year the
following amounts :

State school-tax : ^MJ $

State appropriation 100<9.2 25

Township school-tax 24,5*5

Interest from surplus revenue "'X ,,,

Local tax for teachers1 salaries 274,560 89

Total $1,807,849 80

Local tax for school-houses _ 507,752 81

Total $3,315,60-261

564

NEW JERSEY.

NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH.

The number of children of school age in the
State is 349,242, and there are 211,905 pupils
enrolled in the several public schools, and 48,-
707 attend private schools. The school prop-
erty of the State is valued at $6,515,620, and
affords accommodation for 194,456 pupils ; the
cost of each pupil, on a basis of the average
attendance, is $15.14 a year.

The managers of the Normal School report
213 pupils enrolled during the year ; the num-
ber of pupils graduated was 39.

The Agricultural College is supported entire-
ly by the proceeds of the land given by the
General Government, and by the liberality of
Rutgers College, to which it is attached ; the
State is under no expense in regard to it, and,
of the 60 students in attendance, 38 are enjoy-
ing State scholarships.

Statistics.— In 1880 there were 7,167 estab-
lishments whose total capital was $112,421,593,
employing 87,145 persons, whose wages aggre-
gate $46,403,045. The total value of products
was $255,925,236.

The leading industries are as follow (the
first column of figures shows the number of
establishments of each, the second gives the
capital employed, and the third the value of
the products) :

Silk and silk goods
Iron and steel
Sugar and molasses
Meat-packing, etc
Foundry and machine
shops
Flour and grist-mill prod
acts

106
40
4
31

188
481

$6,952,325
9,099,050
2,110,000
1,775,200

7,431,421
8,879,088

$17,122,230
10,341,896
22,841,258
20,719,640

11,282,748
8,459 944

Cotton and cotton goods.
Drugs and chemicals
Malt liquors

24

41
49

8,961,145
3,830,750
8 260 800

5,039,519
4,903,965
4 532 733

Jewelry

68

2,555,899

4,079 677

27

2,530 125

4 984,007

Under the various " bounty laws " there
have been paid upon " flax-stalks " $5,000 for
358 bunches, and upon "flax-fiber " $4,000 for
155 bunches. The bounty paid upon 5,595
tons of sorghum-cane grown was $5,595, and
for 319,944 pounds of sugar made from sor-
ghum, $3,199.45.

Northern Boundary. — The commissioners ap-
pointed by the States of New York and New
Jersey, to locate the northern boundary line of
this State, have concluded their labors. Their
work was limited to a remarking of the line
that was run in 1774, by the restoration of
such of .the monuments as had been destroyed
or injured. This work has been thoroughly
done, and in a manner to insure stability.

Party Conventions. — The Democratic State
Convention met in Trenton, September 13th,
and nominated Leon Abbett, of Jersey City, for
Governor. The platform declares in favor of
a tariff for revenue " so adjusted as to give pro-
tection and encouragement to home produc-
tive industry and labor, without producing or
fostering^ monopolies " ; and demands " the
equalization of taxes on all properties within
the State, whether that of individuals or cor-
porations."

The Republican State Convention met also
in Trenton, on September 18th, and nominated
Judge Jonathan Dixon for Governor. The plat-
form commends President Arthur's administra-
tion, declares for a protective tariff, and de-
mands " such a prudent and economical ad-
ministration of the affairs of the State as will
make needless any direct State tax."

Nominations were also made by the Green-
backers and Prohibitionists.

Election Returns. — The vote in November was
as follows: Democratic, 103,856; Republican,
97,047; Prohibition, 4,153 ; Greenback, 2,960.
The Legislature, to meet in 1884, will consist
of 12 Republicans and 9 Democrats in the Sen-
ate, and 34 Democrats and 26 Republicans in
the House.

NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH. The General Con-
vention of the New Jerusalem Church in the
United States met in its sixty-third session in
Boston, Mass., June 1st. The Rev. Chauncey
Giles was chosen President. Reports were
made from the local associations, as follows :
Canada Association, five societies; Maine Asso-
ciation, five societies ; Maryland Association,
four societies; Massachusetts Association, twen-
ty-one societies, 1,497 members ; Michigan As-
sociation, 124 members; Minnesota Association,
Missouri Association, New York Association,
664 members ; Ohio Association, eleven socie-
ties, 556 members; General Church of Penn-
sylvania, seven societies, 359 members ; Illinois
Association, and from a number of single socie-
ties, besides which several evangelists and mis-
sionaries reported upon the progress of their
labors. The endowment fund of the Theologi-
cal School was reported to be now $21,780.
The receipts of the Board of Missions had ex-
ceeded those of the previous year by $349.
A single missionary was actually employed by
the board, in Middle Tennessee, but other mis-
sionaries were aided by it, in different parts of
the United States and in Italy and Sweden.
The trustees of the " lungerich fund " for the
publication and distribution of the works of
Swedenborg reported that their income for the
year had been $1,439, and their expenditure
$2,626, and that a balance remained in their
hands of $33,322. Sixty-seven thousand books
had been distributed to the date of making
the report. The German Missionary Union had
supplied books and tracts to fifteen societies.
Reports were presented by the Committee of
Correspondence from the Italian mission (where
considerable success had been gained in Sicily,
and twenty volumes of new church books had
been published in Italian), from East Prussia,
Denmark, Sweden, and Switzerland. An ad-
dress was read from the Australasian Confer-
ence, which consists of four societies, " and
hopes to meet once in three or four years."
Stress was laid in the discussions of the Con-
ference upon the importance of the publication
of the works of Swedenborg in Latin, for which
a fund, called the "Latin fund,'' had been set
apart. This fund was intrusted to the Ameri-

NEW MEXICO.

565

can Swedenborg Printing and Publishing So-
ciety, to be used for the gratuitous circulation
of the Latin editions.

The English Conference. — The seventy-sixth
meeting of the English Conference of the New
Church was held in London in August. The
Kev. Chauncey Giles and the Rev. Louis Tafel
were present as visiting delegates from the
United States. Reports were presented of
sixty-three societies, having 5,490 registered
members of more than twenty years of age, and
6,597 Sunday-school pupils, with thirty-five or-
dained ministers and fifteen licentiates. Mis-
sionaries of the church were working success-
fully in Germany, Poland, Denmark, Sweden,
and Switzerland. The present meeting of the
Conference was attended with especial inter-
est, because the year was marked by the one
hundredth anniversary of the foundation of the
New Church in England, which occurred on the
5th of December, 1783. The fact was remem-
bered in the Conference, and was commemo-
rated in a special service.

NEW MEXICO. Territorial Government. — The
following were the Territorial officers during
the year: Governor, Lionel A. Sheldon;
Auditor, Trinidad Alarid ; Treasurer, Antonio
Ortiz ; Secretary, William G. Ritch ; Commis-
sioner of Immigration, Gilbert Scudder. Su-
preme Court : Chief -Justice, Samuel B. Axtell;
Associates, Joseph Bell and Warren Bristol.

Present Condition.— According to the census
of 1880, the Territory had a little over 119,000
people. Since that time the increase has been
large. Along the lines of railroads the old
towns show considerable growth, many new
ones have been founded, and all have the ap-
pearance of activity and thrift. Ranchmen
have settled all over the Territory in large
numbers. New mining camps have been es-
tablished, and reduction-works are being
erected. The law imposes a poll-tax on each
able-bodied male inhabitant over the age of
twenty-one years, and the returns of the as-
sessors of the various counties show the num-
ber of such persons to be over 32,000. About
three fourths of the population are natives of
the country, and speak the Spanish language.
But the spread of the English language is
rapid, especially in the towns. New Mexico
has an admirable climate, great natural re-
sources, an orderly condition, and a population,
especially the natives, kindly and hospitably
disposed. It lacks a thoroughly systematized
government; the methods in vogue are an ad-
mixture of common and civil law systems.

Resources.— There are 8,000,000 acres of land
adapted to the production of fruits, vegetables,
and cereals, and water is convenient and suffi-
cient for purposes of irrigation. These lands
are highly productive, but the methods of cul-
tivation are far behind the times. Wheat of
the finest quality can be raised. The greatest
wealth of the Territory lies in its minerals.
These comprise gold, silver, copper, lead, iron,
and zinc, and coal is abundant. Development

has been slight, and reduction- works are few,
though recently a greater impetus is manifest.
During the year 221,270 tons of coal, of an
average value of $3 a ton, were mined. There
were nearly 500 men employed in coal-mines.

Finances.— In 1881 the taxable property of
the Territory amounted to $14,088,554; in
1882 it advanced to $20,441,395 ; and in 1883
to $27,137,903. Except the Atlantic and Pa-
cific, all the railroads in the Territory are ex-
empt from taxation for a period of six years
from completion, and none have been com-
pleted for so long a time. One per cent, is
levied upon the taxable property — one half for
the Territory, one fourth for county purposes,
and one fourth for schools. At the end of the
year the Governor expected the Territory
would be out of debt, and would have a re-
spectable surplus on hand.

Railroads. — Some progress has been made in
the construction of railroads. The Atlantic
and Pacific is finished across Colorado river,
which furnishes an additional connection with
the Pacific coast. A narrow-gauge road has
been completed from Deming to Silver City,
in Grant county, 46 miles ; another from
Lordsburg, on the Southern Pacific, to Clifton,
Arizona, 30 miles of which are in New Mexico ;
and a third is partly constructed from Santa
F6 to Espafiola, 34 miles, connecting with the
Denver and Rio Grande.

Education. — The greatest want of New Mexi-
co is a proper school system. A law passed at
the last session of the Legislature authorizes
the establishment of charitable schools for in-
digent orphan children, the management being
confided to the Governor and the archbishop.
Schools are established for nearly one hundred
children, which make no distinction on account
of religious opinions, and are divided between
Catholics and Protestants in substantially fail-
proportions. The Legislature at the same ses-
sion also passed an act authorizing the creation
of separate school districts in seven of the coun-
ties of the Territory by a vote of the people.
Under this law the districts may regulate their
own schools. The law contemplates compul-
sory attendance for five months of the year, but
it is not executed. The census of 1880 shows
that the greatest percentage of illiteracy in the
United States is in New Mexico.

Land System. — On this subject the Governor
expresses the following views:

New Mexico is largely plastered with grants of land,
real or pretended, made by the Spanish and Mexican
Governments. By law these grants are segregated
from the public domain, and must continue in a con-
dition of practical mortmain until final action is taken
to determine their validity. The claimants do noth-
ing to develop, or improve, or pay taxes on them, and
a satisfactory title can not be acquired by others. In
some cases the grants overlap, which leads to disputes,
and occasionally to acts of violence. Confirmations
have been carelessly made, and it is generally believed
that errors and frauds have been practiced, and ap-
parently legalized, through want of knowledge of, or
attention to, the subject. Grants have been confirmed
of greater dimensions than the Spanish or Mexican

566

NEW YORK (STATE).

laws seem to justify, and though mineral lands were
not alienated in lee-simple by those governments,
still confirmatory acts have been passed and patents
issued, under which it is claimed that minerals pass
to patentees. Success in securing confirmation of
grants of a doubtful character so encouraged and em-
boldened the covetous, that it is alleged the manufac-
ture of grant-papers became an occupation, and sur-
veys have been so erroneously made as to lead to a
belief that these grants are endowed with India-rubber
qualities. No one will attempt to acquire any lands
in the vicinity of these alleged grants, for fear that
the stretching process will be applied. Prospectors
avoid the grants because it is assumed that, in ac-
cordance with the practice in former confirmations,
the minerals will pass to the claimants. Doubt ana
uncertainty seriously retard settlement and develop-
ment. More than a third of a century has passed since
this Territory was acquired, and still large numbers
of the grants remain undisposed of.

The homestead and pre-emption laws were designed
to distribute lands among the people, and to prevent
land monopoly. In those localities where the great
body of the land is productive of the necessaries of
life, the intended result has been experienced. In
the dry and mountainous country the contrary effect
has been produced, and under the operation of the
homestead and pre-emption laws the greatest land
monopoly exists. Locations are made which embrace
a spring, or extend along a stream, and the surround-
ing lands are valueless to any one but the locators of
the water. Hence, the man who obtains one hundred
and sixty acres controls the usufruct of a vast tract
without cost, and without paying any tax to support
the local government. A cattle company or an indi-
vidual may, by owning a few acres, have the occu-
pancy of a tract as large as some of the States.

Indians and Outlaws. — On tliese subjects the
Governor, in his report for 1883, says :

At the time my last report was made, Oct. 31, 1881,
New Mexico had recently been relieved from pro-
longed and destructive raids by hostile Indians. Since
that time no raids have been made into the Territory,
and no citizen has been killed on the soil of New Mex-
ico, except Judge McComas and wife, which occurred
in April last. The Indians then did not enter the
Territory for the purpose of a raid, but were driven
into it from Arizona by the forces in pursuit, and
murdered the persons named while fleeing from the
troops, and making their way by a circuitous route
into Mexico. Preparations are so complete, and means
so ample, that any hostile movement can be met, and
crushed speedily and effectually.

Also, at the time my last report was made, the Ter-
ritory in many parts was overrun by numerous des-
perate and criminal characters. Life and property
were at their mercy, and they acted in defiance of the
authorities. The condition was so bad, that good citi-
zens felt justified in organizing vigilance committees,
and lynch-law was frequently administered. The
desperado and thieving element has substantially dis-
appeared, and nothing more is heard of vigilantes, or
lynch-law. Thirty militia companies are organized,
armed, and officered by good men, under excellent
discipline, and as favorably located over the Territory
as the condition of the population will permit.

NEW YORK (STATE). Grover Cleveland, who
was elected Governor in November, 1882, by
an unprecedented majority, was inaugurated
on the 1st of January. On the following day
the Legislature was organized. The organi-
zation of the Senate, as made the year before,
was left undisturbed, except that the new
Lieuten ant-Governor presided. Alfred C. Cha-
pin, of Kings county, was chosen Speaker of
the Assembly. For the first time in many

years the Democratic party had control at
once of the chief executive office and both
branches of the Legislature. There were sev-
eral contested seats in the Assembly, but only
one case excited special interest. In one of
the election districts of the Thirteenth Assem-
bly District of New York city, 173 votes were
returned as cast for Thales S. Bliss, Demo-
crat, and 120 for Henry L. Sprague, Republi-
can. It was claimed in behalf of Sprague that
the figures had been transposed through an
error of a poll-clerk, which reversed the result
of the election in the entire Assembly district.
The county canvassers had refused to correct
the error, and given the certificate to Bliss.
The Assembly Committee on Privileges and
Elections, consisting of five Democrats and four
Republicans, reported, after a full investiga-
tion, in favor of Sprague's right to the seat,
seven members signing the report. Two mem-
bers of the committee, without disputing the
facts established by the majority, reported in
favor of Bliss, and after debate this minority
report was adopted, 14 Democrats voting with
the Republicans against the motion.

Legislative Action. — A subject which occupied
a good deal of attention during the session was
that of convict-labor, an effort being made to
abolish the employment of inmates of the
State Prisons by contract. An investigation
of the alleged abuses of the system was made
by a committee of the Assembly, and at one
time thirteen bills affecting the subject were
pending. A bill was passed forbidding the
renewal of the contract for making hats at the
Clinton Prison, but beyond that the system
was not interfered with. An act was passed,
however, near the end of the session, referring
the question whether contract- labor should be
abolished from the prisons to a vote of the
people at the next regular election.

Two important acts affecting the civil ser-
vice of the State were passed. One of these
prohibited assessments for political purposes
upon persons holding office or employment in
the service of the State, or the collection of
contributions for political purposes in any pub-
lic office or institution. Although this act be-
came a lawr the same object was still more
effectually provided for in the other bill, the
main purpose of which was to regulate appoint-
ments to and removals from office. This bill
was prepared under the advice of the New
York Civil-Service Reform League, and was
modeled on the national law. It was intro-
duced simultaneously by a Republican in the
Senate and by a Democrat in the Assembly, on
the 25th of January. It was referred to the
Judiciary Committees, whence it was favorably
reported in the Assembly February 28th, two
Democratic members of the committee dissent-
ing. It was not acted on until April, when,
through the efforts mainly of Republican mem-
bers,it wasbrought under consideration, amend-
ments having been added from another bill,
which extended its provisions somewhat. "When

NEW YORK (STATE).

567

on the 1st of May a motion was made in the As-
sembly to lay aside all orders of business hav-
ing precedence, for the purpose of taking up
this measure, it was defeated by a strict party
vote, the Democrats opposing it. Later, on
the same day, however, the same measure was
adopted by a vote of 75 to 17, and the bill was
ordered to a third reading by a viva-voce vote.
It was finally passed with little opposition in
either house, though the long delay was attrib-
uted to covert hostility.

The first section authorized, the Governor to ap-
point, and the Senate to confirm, three Civil-Service
Commissioners, not more than two of whom shall be
adherents of the same party. These commissioners
were to constitute the New York Civil-Service Com-
mission, and were to hold no other official place un-
der the State of New York. The Governor may re-
move any commissioner if he sees fit and appoint his
successor with the consent of the Senate. Tne duties
of the commissioners are to aid the Governor, as he
may request, in preparing suitable rules for carrying
the act into effect. As regards these rules, it is speci-
fied that they shall provide as follows :

1. For open, competitive examinations for testing
the fitness of applicants for the public service now
classified or to be classified. 2. All the offices, places,
and employments so arranged or to be arranged in
classes shall be filled by selections from among those
graded highest as the results of such competitive ex-
aminations. 3. There shall be a period of probation
before any absolute appointment or employment afore-
said. 4. Promotions from the lower grades to the
higher shall be on the basis of merit ana competition.
5. No person in the public service is for that reason
under any obligation to contribute to any political
fund. 6. No person in said service has any right to
use his official authority or influence to coerce ttie po-
litical action of any person or body. 7. There shall
be non-competitive examinations when competition
may not be found practicable. 8. Notice snail be
given in writing by the appointing power to said com-
mission of the person selected for appointment or em-
ployment from among those who have been examined.
And any necessary exceptions from said eight funda-
mental provisions of the rules shall be set forth.

The commissioners, who were to have a sal-
ry of $2,000 a year each, were authorized to
appoint a chief examiner with a salary of $3,-
600, a secretary, stenographer, messenger, etc.,
making the entire annual expense of the com-
mission about $15,000. It was provided that
Within four months after the expiration of the pres-
ent session of the Legislature, it shall be the duty of
the Governor to cause to be arranged in classes the
several clerks and persong em ployed or being employed
in the public service, for the purposes of the examina-
tion herein provided for, and he shall include in one
or more of such classes, so far as practicable, all sub-
ordinate places, clerks, and officers in the public service
of the State. After the termination of eight months
from the expiration of the present session of the Le-
• gislature, no officer or clerk shall be appointed, and
no person shall be admitted to or be promoted in
either of the said classes now existing, or that may
be arranged hereunder pursuant to said rules, until he
has passed an examination or is shown to be specially
exempted from such examination, in conformity here-
with. No elective officer, and no person merely em-
ployed as a laborer or workman, shall be required to
be classified hereunder ; nor, unless by the direction
of the Senate, shall any person who has been nomi-
nated for confirmation by the Senate be required to be
classified or to pass an examination.

Other sections of the bill authorized the

mayors of cities having a population of 50,000
or more to prescribe regulations for admission
to the civil service of such cities in accordance
with the principles of the law ; prohibited po-
litical assessments upon office-holders or public
employes, and the offering of any inducement
for appointment to or retention in office; and
provided for an investigation by the commis-
sion into the conditions of the public service
throughout the State, and the expediency of
further legislation, having for its purpose an
extension and fuller application of the system
of competitive examinations. The bill received
the prompt approval of the Governor. A bill
of a similar character, applicable to the city of
New York alone, was defeated in the Assembly.
(See REFORM IN THE CIVIL SERVICE.)

The act regulating primary elections which
was passed in 1882, and applied only to the city
of Brooklyn, was so modified as to apply to all
the cities of the State, and in that form was re-
enacted. It provides that any person who at
any political primary election falsely personates
and votes under the name of another, or ob-
structs or prevents others from voting who are
entitled to vote, or fraudulently conceals or
destroys ballots in the ballot-box, or takes bal-
lots therefrom, or commits any other fraud
tending to defeat or affect the result of the
election, shall be deemed guilty of a misde-
meanor. Before entering upon their duties the
presiding officer and inspectors of the primary
shall take the same oath now required of in-
spectors at general elections. The vote of any
challenged person shall be rejected unless he
be sworn as to his qualifications as a voter. It
is made a misdemeanor for any person elected
a delegate at such primary to accept money or
valuable thing for his vote as such delegate.

A subject upon which much time was be-
stowed to no purpose was the amendment of
the charter of the city of New York. On the
30th of January a resolution was adopted in
the Assembly asking the mayor of that city to
inform that House " what legislation, if any,
he may consider necessary in order to econo-
mize, simplify, and improve the local govern-
ment of the city of New York." The mayor
replied on the 7th of February, submitting a
scheme of charter amendment, the fundament-
al idea of which was to establish single heads
for the administrative departments of the city,
and give to the mayor full power of appointing
and removing these. This plan was strongly
supported and persistently advocated, but it
was antagonized by powerful political influ-
ences ; opposition schemes and amendments
were presented, and finally the whole effort for
charter reform was defeated.

Another subject which occupied a good deal,
of time and occasioned much controversy, was
a project for increasing the water-supply of the
city of New York, by means of a new aqueduct
and an enlarged reservoir in the Croton basin.
A carefully prepared bill for this purpose was
introduced. It placed the charge of laying out

568

NEW YORK (STATE).

the line of the new aqueduct, securing plans,
making contracts, and supervising the whole
work, in the hands of a commission, and the
controversy arose out of the method of appoint-
ing the commissioners. At first it was pro-
posed that the Mayor, Comptroller, President
of the Department of Taxes and Assessments,
President of the Board of Aldermen, Commis-
sioner of Public Works, and two citizens to be
appointed by the mayor, should constitute the
commission. This was modified so as to make
the Mayor, Comptroller, and Commissioner of
Public Works the official members. Then it
was proposed to have four citizen members
appointed by the mayor. This was strenuously
opposed by some of the city representatives,
who favored naming the commissioners in the
bill. After much controversy it was decided
that there should be only three citizen com-
missioners, and these were named in the bill, be-
ing James C. Spencer, George W. Lane, and
William Dowd. All effort to secure the addition
of a fourth citizen commissioner, or to have any
power of selection left to the mayor, was de-
feated. The issue throughout was between
those who wished to prevent political control
over the aqueduct-work, and those who were
credited with a desire to have such control,
and the latter were successful. An effort was
made, after the close of the session, to induce
the Governor to veto the bill, but on the 1st
day of June he gave it his approval, filing a
memorandum of his reasons, which were main-
ly that there was urgent need of the new aque-
duct, and he saw no evidence of the political
jobbery alleged. The support given to the
bill in the form in which it became a law
was almost wholly Democratic, and the op-
position was entirely Republican. (See NEW
YOKK CITY.) A bill was also passed author-
izing the Commissioners of the Sinking Fund
of the City of New York to investigate the
merits of a scheme for obtaining a supple-
mentary water - supply under high pressure
from the Ramapo valley, in Orange and Rock-
land counties, and if convinced of the advis-
ability thereof, to contract on behalf of the
city, for the use of water thus to be supplied.
One of the conditions provided for was that,
within two years after the contract was en-
tered into with the company proposing to con-
struct the works, not less than 50,000,000 gal-
lons per day of pure and wholesome water
should be furnished, under a pressure due to a
head of at least 300 feet above tide-water.

A bill requiring the elevated railroads in
the city of New York to reduce their fares to
five cents for each trip at all hours of the day
passed both houses after much agitation. In
the Assembly it was passed by a vote of 109 to
6, and in the Senate the vote was 24 to 5. It
was nevertheless vetoed by the Governor after
a hearing given to the advocates and opponents
of the measure. The Governor argued at some
length that the act was unconstitutional, be-
cause a contract had been entered into allow-

ing the companies to charge the existing rates
of fare under the sanction of past legislation.
The power of the Legislature to reduce fares
under the General Railroad Act was limited by
the condition that it could not be done without
the consent of the corporations when it would
reduce the profits to less than 10 per cent, of
the " capital actually expended." This the
Governor also regarded as a contract of the
State, the obligation of which would be im-
paired by the bill. He furthermore believed
that it would involve a breach of faith, inas-
much as liberal inducements had been neces-
sary, and had been offered, to secure rapid
transit in New York, and the rates of fare al-
lowed were an essential part of the considera-
tion under which capital had ventured into the
enterprise. An effort to pass the bill over the
veto was unsuccessful. The Railroad Com-
missioners were then called on to report upon
the amount of capital "actually expended" in
the construction of the elevated railroads, and
the ratio of their profits to such expenditure.
Two reports were submitted on the 19th of
April, one signed by Commissioners Rogers and
Kernan, and the other by Commissioner
O'Donnell. The companies claimed that the
cost of construction was $30,646,659.27, but
they included discount on bonds and other
items which the commissioners did not regard
as properly belonging to that account. They
made deductions which left the "total cash
cost" at $22,683,253.14. The capitalization of
the companies was found to be: Manhattan
Railway Company stock, $13,000,000, of which
nothing was ever paid in ; New York Elevated
Railroad Company stock, $6,500,000 ; Metro-
politan Railroad Company stock, $6,500,000 ;
New York Company's funded debt, $8,500,000 ;
Metropolitan Company's funded debt, $12,-
818,000; total, $47,338,000. The commis-
sioners did not regard the stock of the Man-
hattan Company as representing in any sense
"capital actually expended." The gross in-
come for the year ending Sept. 30, 1882, was
stated at $5,973,633.41, of which $3,212,589.03
was derived from the lines of the New York
Company, and $2,755,483.62 from the lines
of the Metropolitan Company. The operating
expenses were $1,794,871.83 for the roads of
the New York Company, and $1,796,684.88
for those of the Metropolitan. Taxes and in-
terest on funded debt left the net income at
$352,069.37. Mr. O'Donnell did not agree with
his colleagues as to the definition of capital ex-
pended and net income. He found the total
capital actually expended on the entire elevated
system to be $22,250,608.72, and the net in-
come to be $2,375,910.54. He held that the
roads are built under special charters ; that the
Legislature could amend, alter, or repeal these
charters, and that there was no contract be-
tween the city or State not to reduce the fare.
Mr. O'Donnell concluded by recommending
the passage of a law fixing the " five-cent
hours" on the elevated roads at from 4 to 10

NEW YORK (STATE).

569

A. M. and 3 to 9 P. M. He also proposed a law
requiring the Railroad Commissioners to ex-
amine and ascertain the cash capital actually
expended in the constructing and equipping
of each surface railroad in the State, including
street railways. Neither bill was passed.

A general act regulating the establishment
of street railways was passed, but encountered
a veto after the close of the session. The ob-
jection to it was that it secured special privi-
leges for certain projects already existing in the
city of New York.

A bill providing for submission to a vote of
the people of a constitutional amendment pro-
hibiting the manufacture and sale of intoxicat-
ing liquors was discussed in the Senate, and de-
feated by a vote of 13 yeas to 18 nays, only
one Democrat voting in the affirmative, and
two Republicans in the negative. The only
change made in the excise laws was one affect-
ing the cities of New York and Brooklyn
alone. This was effected by a bill prepared
by the delegations of those two cities, modified
on suggestions made by the Governor after it
had been submitted for his approval. The
changes suggested by the Governor were in
the direction of careful restriction, but the act
as passed was much more liberal toward the
liquor-traffic than the existing law which ap-
plied to the State generally. It abolished the
requirement that holders of licenses should be
hotel-keepers, permitted their removal from
one place to another without losing their li-
censes, and forbade their arrest for violation of
the law, except upon a warrant based on affi-
davits, unless engaged in selling on Sunday.

An act was passed regulating the conduct of
receivers in winding up the business of insolv-
ent corporations. Its chief features were that
applications for the appointment of receivers
should be made at a special term of the Su-
preme Court in the judicial district in which
the principal office of the corporation was situ-
ated, that the compensation of receivers should
be limited to 5 per cent, on the first $100,000
received and paid out, and 2^- per cent, on all
sums in excess of that amount ; that the funds
received should be deposited at one or more
designated places, and that reports should be
made to the court every six months, with de-
tailed accounts of receipts and expenses. Re-
strictions were also put upon the employment
of counsel, and a limit was fixed to the time
for closing up the business of receiverships.

A proposition to submit to the people a con-
stitutional amendment making legislative ses-
sions biennial was defeated in the Assembly by
a majority of one.

A bill apportioning the congressional repre-
sentation of the State into thirty-four districts
was passed, against the opposition of the Re-
publican minority, who claimed that it was
unfair, especially in the city of New York.

The first district was made to include the
counties of Suffolk, Queens, and Richmond ;
Kings county was divided into four districts ;

New York county below the Harlem river was
divided into eight districts; that portion lying
north of the river was joined to Westchester
county to form the fourteenth district.
The other districts are as follow :

Fifteenth District. — The counties of Orange, Rock-
land, and Sullivan.

Sixteenth District. — The counties of Putnam,
Dutchess, and Columbia.

Seventeenth District. — The counties of Ulster,
Greena, and Delaware.

Eighteenth District.— The counties of Eensselaer
and Washington.

Nineteenth District.— -The county of Albany.

Twentieth District. — The counties of Saratoga,
Schenectady, Montgomery, Fulton, and Hamilton.

Twenty -first District. — The counties of Clinton, Es-
sex, Warren, and Franklin.

Twenty-second District.— The counties of St. Law-
rence and Jefferson.

Twenty-third District.— The counties of Oneida and
Lewis.

Twenty-fourth District. — The counties of Otsego,
Herkimer, and Schoharie.

Twenty-fifth District. — The counties of Onondaga
and Cortland.

Twenty-sixth District. — The counties of Broome,
Chenango, Madison, and Tioga.

Twenty-seventh District. — The counties of Oswego,
Wayne, and Cayuga.

Twenty-eighth District.— The counties of Tomp-
kins, Chemung, Seneca, and Schuyler.

Twenty-ninth District. — The counties of Ontario,
Steuben, and Yates.

Thirtieth District.— The county of Monroe.

Thirty-first District. — The counties of Livingston,
Genesee, Orleans, and Wyoming.

Thirty-second District.— Ihe First, Second, and
Third Assembly Districts of the county of Erie.

Thirty-third District. — The county of Niagara and
the Fourth and Fifth Assembly Districts of the county
of Erie.

Thirty-fourth District.— The counties of Chautau-
qua, Cattaraugus, and Allegany.

A bill extending the scope of investment for
the funds of savings-banks met with strong
opposition, in which the trustees of a majority
of the savings-banks in the State united, and
was vetoed by the Governor. Among other
important measures which failed was one reg-
ulating charges for elevating grain, one reduc-
ing the fees of pilots in New York Harbor, and
one increasing the number of surrogates in
New York county to three.

New Offices and Officials.— A number of bills
were passed during the session, providing for
new offices and making changes in those pre-
viously existing, and a number of new appoint-
ments were made. At the beginning of the
session, the Governor appointed as Railroad
Commissioners, under the act of 1882, William
E. Rogers, John D. Kernan, and John O'Don-
nell. The last mentioned was designated by
the commercial organizations named in the
act, and was the candidate of the so-called anti-
monopolists. There was considerable opposi- •
tion to him exhibited in the 'Senate, but the
appointment was finally confirmed by a vote of
23 to 8, the confirmation in the other cases
being unanimous. Later in the session, on the
expiration of the term of office of Insurance
Superintendent Charles G. Fairman and Bank

570

NEW YORK (STATE).

Superintendent A. B. Hepburn, John A. Mc-
Call, the deputy superintendent, was appoint-
ed to the former place, and Willis S. Paine, of
New York city, to the latter. Mr. William B.
Ruggles was elected by the Legislature Su-
perintendent of Public Instruction, to succeed
Neil Gilmour ; James Shanahan was appoint-
ed Superintendent of Public Works, to succeed
Silas B. Dutcher, in January.

Early in the session a bill was introduced pro-
viding that the completion of the new Capitol
be placed in the charge of a single commission-
er, to be appointed by the Governor. This
Eassed, against the opposition of Republicans,
i both houses. In the Senate it was declared
by the Lieutenant-Governor to have passed,
although a constitutional quorum did not vote,
the Republicans abstaining, though present.
The ruling that the visible presence of a quo-
rum was sufficient, though not shown by the
vote, caused much criticism on the part of the
opponents of the Lieutenant-Governor. The
salary of the new office was fixed at $.7,500,
and later on the Governor appointed Isaac G.
Perry, of Binghamton, to the position. The
custody of the completed public buildings of
the State was changed and placed in the hands
of the Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, and
Speaker of the Assembly, who had the selection
of the Superintendent, by whom all subordi-
nate employes were selected. Charles B. An-
drews, of Buffalo, was appointed superintend-
ent after the close of the session.

An act was passed providing for a commis-
sion of five persons, to be appointed by the
Governor, to take all necessary preliminary
action for the selection and appropriation of
lands about Niagara Falls as a " State reserva-
tion," the object being the preservation of the
natural scenery, and the protection of public
rights therein. The commissioners were to
receive no compensation, but their expenses in
the discharge of their duties were to be met
by the State. William Dorsheimer, J. Hamp-
ton Robb, and Andrew H. Green, of New York,
Martin B. Anderson, of Rochester, and Sher-
man S. Rogers, of Buffalo, were appointed to
the commission.

In pursuance of authority granted by a con-
stitutional amendment ratified in 1882, an act
was passed providing for the election of twelve
additional justices of the Supreme Court, two
in the first, fifth, seventh, and eighth districts
respectively, and one each in the second, third,
fourth, and sixth districts.

The office of Canal Appraiser and the body
known as the State Board of Audit were abol-
ished, and a Board of Claims was created to
hear and decide upon all cases involving claims
against the State for compensation or damages.
The board was to consist of three commission-
ers appointed by the Governor, with the con-
sent of the Senate, to hold office after their
first appointment for a term of two, four, and
six years respectively, and thereafter for terms
of six years. Each commissioner was allowed

a salary of $5,000 per annum and necessary ex-
penses, not exceeding $500. The board was
authorized to appoint a clerk at a salary of
$2,000, a stenographer at $1,500, together with
five cents a folio for minutes furnished to
claimants, and a messenger at $800. The
board was required to hold at least four regular
sessions a year at Albany, beginning on the
second Tuesday of January, April, September,
and November respectively. All the necessary
powers of a court of record were given to the
Board of Claims, before which the Attorney-
General was required to appear in behalf of
the State. Appeals were allowed to the Court
of Appeals from any final award on questions
of law only when the amount in controversy
exceeded $500. The commissioners appointed
to this new board were George M. Beebe, of
Sullivan county ; Henry F. Allen, of Buffalo ;
and Lyman H. Northrup, of Sandy Hill.

An act was passed abolishing the Board of
Harbor-Masters for the Port of New York, and
establishing a new one, the members of which
were to be appointed by the Governor, with
the advice and consent of the Senate, and to
be paid salaries instead of being permitted to
collect fees for their services, a practice which
had been declared unconstitutional. Another
act reorganized the Board of Emigration, and
placed it in charge of a single commissioner,
to be appointed by the Governor, with the
consent of the Senate, who was to receive a
salary of $6,000 per year, and be allowed two
deputies of his own selection, one with a sal-
ary of $4,000 and the other with a salary of
$2,500 per year. On the last day of the ses-
sion, May 4th, the Governor transmitted to the
Senate a list of appointments, including those
for Harbor-Masters, Port- Wardens, Quaran-
tine Commissioners, and Captain of the Port
of New York. The name of William H. Mur-
tha, of Kings county, had previously been
sent in for the new office of Commissioner of
Emigration. The appointment was opposed
by those Senators from New York affiliated
with the Tammany organization, and the new
appointments were also distasteful to them.
The names sent in for Civil-Service Commis-
sioners under the new law, which were those
of Andrew D. White, Augustus Schoonmaker,
and Henry A. Richmond, were promptly con-
firmed, as was that of C. F. Peck, for Chief of
the Bureau of Labor Statistics, also a newly
created position, but those for Harbor Commis-
sioners, Port- Wardens, and Quarantine Com-
missioners were sent to standing committees,
where that for Emigration Commissioner was
already "hungup." As the Legislature was
to adjourn that day, this action was equivalent
to rejecting the nominations. The Governor
sent a message to the Senate, which gave rise
to a heated discussion, in which Senator Thom-
as F. Grady criticised the action of the Execu-
tive. The latter was as warmly defended by
Senator Jacobs, of Kings county. > The essen-
tial portion of the message was this:

NEW YORK (STATE).

571

I deem it my duty to remind you of the importance
of giving effect to the law lately passed by the Legisla-
ture " to amend the laws relating to alien immigrants
and to secure an improved administration of alien im-
migration." The statute was the result of investiga-
tion which demonstrated that the present management
of this very important department is a scandal and a
reproach to civilization. The money of the State is
apparently expended with no regard to economy, the
most disgraceful dissensions prevail among those hav-
ing the matter in charge. Barefaced jobbery has been
permitted, and the poor immigrant, who looks to the
institutions for protection, finds that his helplessness
and forlorn condition afford the readily seized oppor-
tunity for imposition and swindling.

As a result of the failure to confirm the ap-
pointment of a Commissioner of Emigration,
the old board continued in power. There was
some controversy as to the right of the harbor-
masters to continue their functions, but it was
not brought to an actual contest, and they con-
tinued as though no change had been made in
the law. The question of calling an extra ses-
sion of the Senate to dispose of these appoint-
ments was agitated for a time, but the Gov-
ernor was not disposed to take that course,
and renew the controversy.

Political Canvass.— The political canvass of the
year presented no features of exceptional in-
terest. The State officers to be chosen were,
Secretary of State, Comptroller, Treasurer, At-
torney-General, and State Engineer and Sur-
veyor, and both branches of the Legislature
were to be renewed. The advantage which
the Democrats had gained by their sweeping
success in 1882 was somewhat offset by the
conduct of the Legislature in creating new
offices and increasing public expenses. The
differences among the Republicans had sub-
sided, and the action of the party was gener-
ally harmonious, while the Democrats were
more or less divided, especially in the city of
New York. The consequence was a marked
reaction, as shown in the result of the election.

The first convention of the year was held
by the National Greenback Labor party at
Rochester, on the 4th and 5th of September.
The most important features of the platform
were the following :

That railroads and telegraphs are public institu-
tions, deriving their existence under the fundamental
law of eminent domain, or right to take private prop-
erty for public use ; that under that law no legislative
sanction can constitutionally confer on companies own-
ing such property a right to tax commerce or travel, to
pay interest or dividends on fictitious capital, or to
make such property a source of private gain beyond a
reasonable remuneration for services actually rendered.
' and a fair return on the money actually and in good
faith expended by stock and bond-holders for its con-
struction and equipment. . . . That pooling associa-
tions which allow railroad officials representing roads
outside of the State to have a voice in determining
transportation charges between points in the State are
an outrage on the citizens, and should be prohibited
by law. . . . That the outrageous contract prison-la-
bor system still remains in force, notwithstanding the
pledge contained in the platforms of the old parties to
correct it, showing that no reliance can be placed in
either to remedy the evil. We hold that prisons
should be located on the mineral lands owned by the
State in northern sections ; that the prisoners should

be employed in developing the mineral resources of
the State, so that their labors will not come in com-
petition with the products of honest mechanics' toil,
and that the prisoners should be paid for all they earn
in excess of the actual cost of their keeping ; and that
the ballot-box is the only place through which Amer-
ican working-men can strike and obtain permanent
relief from their present wrongs.

The ticket put in nomination was as follows :
For Secretary of State, Thomas K. Beecher, of
Chemung county; Comptroller, G. L. Halsey,
of Otsego county ; Attorney-General, Louis F.
Post, of New York county; State Treasurer,
Julian Winne, of Albany county; State En-
gineer, Edwin A. Stillman, of Ontario county.

The Republican State Convention met at
Richfield Springs, on the 19th of September.
Secretary of State Joseph B. Carr, Comptroller
Ira Davenport, State Engineer and Surveyor
Silas Seymour, and Attorney-General Leslie
W. Russell were renominated, and Pliny T.
Sexton, of Wayne county, was nominated for
State Treasurer. The essential features of the
platform were as follow :

We rejoice in the successful inauguration of civil-
service reform, a result of Republican agitation and
national progress, and insist that the work thus au-
spiciously begun be prosecuted to complete success.

We favor a system of tariff laws under which, while
revenue for the Government is provided, American
producers are justly protected, American labor ele-
vated, and home markets are secured to home products
for the advantage alike of the producer and laborer.

We favor the removal of all unjust burdens upon
American shipping, and the awarding of ocean-mail
contracts to the lowest bidders among owners of Amer-
ican vessels after open competition.

The tendency to create monopolies requires check-
ing by adequate legislation. Unjust discrimination
in transportation should be prohibited.

The free-canal policy of this State has in practice
justified its adoption by restoring the canals to their
usefulness.

We approve the plan of party reorganization in the
city of New York.

The Democratic State Convention met at
Buffalo. All efforts to secure unity in New
York city had failed, and the Tammany and
Irving Hall organizations refused to take part
in common primaries as recommended by the
State committee.

When the convention met, on the 26th of
September, each of the three city factions ap-
peared with separate delegations. There was
considerable contest against the admission of
the Tammany delegates, but the question was
settled in advance by the State Committee, by
deciding on a division of the representation on
the basis adopted the previous year. This was
done in the committee by a vote of 22 to 10.
The following is the full report of the Commit-
tee on Resolutions :

The Democracy of New York reaffirms the platform,
adopted at its last State Convention, which has re-
ceived the approval of the people, as shown by a ma-
jority of nearly 200,000 at the last election, and they
'especially denounce the proposition that the people
should be taxed to raise a surplus fund for the Federal
Government to distribute among the States. We claim
with pride and satisfaction that every pledge therein
made has been in good faith redeemed. Valuable re-

572

NEW YOKE (STATE).

forms have been wrought ; useless offices have been
abolished ; the civil service has been freed from the
debasing and injurious influences of partisan manipu-
lation ; the freedom and purity of primaries have been
secured ; political assessments have been abolished ;
receivership abuses have been corrected ; the princi-
ple of local self-government has been adhered to ; the
efficiency of the National Guard has been increased ;
taxation for the support of Government has been re-
duced ; a State Bureau of Labor Statistics has been
established ; the rights ot the working-man have been
further protected, and the injurious competition of
convict-labor has been curtailed. Business methods
have been the rule in the management of State affairs.
On the record thus made, and to which it will stead-
fastly adhere, the Democratic party asks a renewed
award of the confidence of the people. We invite with
reason all friends of improved State administration,
irrespective of party, to join with the Democracy in
preserving and perfecting the reforms in progress and
in extending them to all oranches of the State service.
We heartily indorse Gov. Cleveland's administration.
It justifies the great vote which elected him. He has
deservedly won the affection of the people by his in-
dustry, firmness, intelligence^ and aggressive honesty.
The results make his administration one of the best
the State ever had.

The nominations were as follow : For Sec-
retary of State, Isaac H. Maynard, of Delaware
county; Comptroller, Alfred 0. Chapin, of
Kings county ; Treasurer, Robert A. Maxwell,
of Genesee county ; Attorney-General, Dennis
O'Brien, of Jefferson county; Engineer and
Surveyor, Elnathan Sweet, of Albany county.

The Prohibition party held a convention at
Syracuse on the 26th of September, and nomi-
nated : For Secretary of State, Frederick Gates,
of Herkimer county; Comptroller, Stephen Mer-
ritt, of Rockland county; State Treasurer, James
Baldwin, of Steuben county; State Engineer,
George A. Dudley, of Ulster county; Attor-
ney-General, Virgil A. Willard, of Allegany
county.

The platform declared the well-known prin-
ciples of the party, and favored an amendment
of the State Constitution prohibiting the manu-
facture and sale of intoxicating liquors.

The Election. — The election occurred on the
6th of November. The total vote for Secre-
tary of State was 898,850, of which Carr, Re-
publican, received 446,088 ; Maynard, Demo-
crat, 427,491 ; Beecher, Greenback, 7,066 ; and
Gates, Prohibition, 18,205 ; making Carr's plu-
rality over Maynard, 18,597. For Comptroller,
Davenport, Republican, received 429,873, and
Chapin, Democrat, 445,974, giving the latter a
plurality of 16,101. Maxwell, for Treasurer,
had a plurality of 17,695 ; O'Brien, for At-
torney-General, 13,766 ; and Sweet, for State
Engineer and Surveyor, 18,871. To the Senate,
19 Republicans and 13 Democrats were elected,
and to the Assembly, 72 Republicans and 56
Democrats. In the city of New York the vote
for Secretary of State was— Carr, 68,267 ; May-
nard, 92,050 : for Comptroller, Davenport, 59,-
282 ; Chapin, 100,303. John Reilly, the Demo-
cratic candidate for Register, received 78,510
votes; Jacob Hess, Republican, 64,736; and
James O'Brien, Independent, 18,797. All the
Democratic candidates for judges were elected.

Of the seven Senators elected in the city, one was
Republican, two Tammany Democrats, three
Anti-Tammany Democrats, and one Union
Democrat. Of the twenty- four Assemblymen,
nine were Republicans, eight Tammany Demo-
crats, and seven Anti-Tammany Democrats.
Of the twenty-four members of the city Board
of Aldermen, eight were chosen by the Repub-
licans, eight by the Tammany organization,
seven by the County Democracy, and one by
an Independent Democratic association. Low
was re-elected Mayor of Brooklyn by a vote of
49,934 to 48,091 for Hendrix, Democrat, and
349 for Leigh, Prohibitionist.

On the proposition to abolish contract labor
from the prisons of the State, 677,779 votes
were cast, of which 408,402 were in favor of
the proposition and 269,377 against it. In the
city of New York the vote stood 118,777 for
the proposition to 14,301 against it. In the
larger cities it was generally favored, and in
the country districts opposed.

Finances. — The financial condition of the State
is favorable and promising. During the fiscal
year ending September 30th, $635,200 of the
canal debt was paid, leaving the aggregate in-
debtedness of the State $8,473,854.87, against
which stood a sinking fund of $2,495,553.06.
Hence the debt unprovided for was only $5,-
978,301.81. With the exception of an un-
claimed balance of $3,000 of the old bounty
debt, and $122,694.87, the interest of which is
devoted to the payment of annuities to Indians,
this entire debt consists of " stock " issued for
canal construction, bearing 6 per cent, inter-
est, and redeemable in 1887, 1891, 1892, and
1893. The expenditures of the fiscal year, and
the condition of the treasury on the first of
October, are shown in the following table :

FUNDS.

Balances
in treasury,
Get. 1, 1882.

Receipts for
fiscal year
ending Oct.
1, 1883.

Payments for
fiscal year
ending Oct.
1, 1883.

Dollars.
1 052 286

Dollars.
6 695 959

Dollars.
6 615 519

Common-school

67,'522

2,091,688

2,228,'oi2

179 405

3 063,726

2 007712

Literature ... ....

8295

77 126

82491

United States deposits.. . .
College land-scrip
Elmira Female C. E
Military record

88,032
266,166
6,105
8273

1,28.%801

82,246
9,005
2blO

1,266J88
312,576
2,795
1 327

Canal

2,183,223

2 334 658

8 545 708

Bounty-debt sinking
Totals

8,056
8 857 368

15592 812

17 062 923

The total cash balance in the State treasury,
Oct. 1, 1883, was $2,387,254.44.

The assessed value of property in the State
for the year was $2,557,218,240 for real es-
tate and $315,039,085 for personal property,
which shows an increase of $124,556,861 in
the former and a decrease of $35,982,104 in
the latter. The disparity of these figures for
real and personal property, the actual values
of which are approximately equal, reveals the
inequality of assessment under the existing
laws. The rate of taxation fixed by the last

NEW YORK (STATE).

573

Legislature was three and one-fourth mills on
eaoh dollar, which on this valuation would
furnish a revenue of $9,334,836.31 for the fiscal
year 1883-'84, an amount considerably in ex-
cess of the requirements of the treasury from
that source. The receipts of the year from
the special tax on corporations was $1,935,-
179.31, of which $351,183.75 was for taxes
due in 1880, which had been in litigation.

Canals. — The cost of maintenance and re-
pairs of canals was $240,535.54 from Oct. 1,
1882, to Feb. 1, 1883, and $349,319.36 for the
remainder of the fiscal year, under the ad-
ministration of the new superintendent. The
estimated expense of the canals for the fiscal
year 1883-'84 is $650,000 for repairs and main-
tenance, $500,310 for interest on canal debt,
and $450,000 for the canal debt sinking fund,
or $1,600,310 in all, to be met by taxation.
During the season of navigation, the first un-
der the system of freedom from tolls, the total
traffic on the canals was 5,775,651 tons, an in-
crease of 324,350 tons over that of the previ-
ous year. The gain was only about six per
cent., while there was a much larger increase
in the traffic over the railroad lines which com-
pete with the canals. The shipments of grain,
however, from Buffalo by canal amounted to
42,350,916 bushels, against 29,430,688 bushels
in 1882. State Engineer and Surveyor Sey-
mour estimated the cost of putting the canals
in thorough repair at $3,502,443, and Comp-
troller Davenport recommended substantial
improvements in these water-ways, including
the deepening of the prism one foot.

Prisons. — The number of convicts in the three
prisons of the State on the 30th of September
was 2,828, distributed as follows : at Sing Sing,
1,462 ; at Auburn, 882 ; and at Clinton, 484.
There has been a progressive decrease in the
number since 1877, when it was 3,567. The
earnings and expenditures of the prisons dur-
ing the year were as follow :

AUBURN PRISON.

Earnings $125,280 30

Expenditures.. , 119,851 42

- Surplus $5,42288

SING SING.

Earnings $231,23848

Expenditures 183,219 73

Surplus 54,018 75

Total surplus $59,441 63

CLINTON.

Earnings $44,542 80

Expenditures 94,878 20

Deficiency 50,835 40

Balance surplus $9,106 23

The first fiscal year during the whole of
which the present system of administration
under a State Superintendent was in operation
was 1878. The cost of maintenance showed
at once a very large decrease, being then $429,-
599.76, against $625,733.44 for the previous
year, and much higher figures under the old

system. For 1883, it was reduced to $397,-
955.35. The net deficiency from earnings in
1877 was $317,411.06. The next year it was
reduced to $67,800.45 ; in 1881 it was con-
verted to a small surplus ; and in 1883 the sur-
plus was $9,106.23.

Of the results of the preseni system the
superintendent claims: "The productive en-
ergy and capacity of the prisoners are con-
stantly increasing. The physical and moral
condition of the prisoners is steadily improv-
ing. The number of prisoners incarcerated in
the State Prisons is gradually diminishing, al-
though the population of the State is increas-
ing. An enormous annual deficit on account
of the maintenance of the State Prisons has
been changed to a yearly surplus."

There were, on the first of December, more
than 15,000 persons confined in the prisons,
houses of refuge, penitentiaries, jails, and oth-
er penal establishments in the State.

Charitable Institntions.— The value of the prop-
erty held by the various charitable institutions
of the State, on the first day of October, was
$42,935,360.04, of which $35,415,555.45 was
in real estate, and $7,519,804.59 in personal
property. The receipts of all these institutions
for the year ending Sept. 30, 1883, were:

State institutions $909,221 52

County and city institutions 2,363.720 42

Incorporated benevolent institutions 7,157,002 15

Total $10,429,944 09

Of this sum, $719,753.98 was derived from
the State, $4,876,519.37 from cities and coun-
ties, and $1,520,571.15 from legacies and dona-
tions. The expenditures during the year were :

By State institutions $1,485,242 62

By county and city institutions 2,363,720 42

By incorporated benevolent institutions 6,492,431 04

Total $10,291,394 08

The number of insane in the various institu-
tions, on the 30th day of September, was 11,-
270, distributed as follows :

State Lunatic Asylum at LTtica 600

Hudson Kiver State Hospital 806

State Homoeopathic Asylum 260

Buffalo State Asylum

Willard Asylum (chronic insane) 1,740

Binghamton Asylum (chronic insane)

County poor-houses and asylums 1 ,867

City almshouses and asylums 5,010

In private asylums 498

Asylum for Insane Criminals

Asylum for Insane Immigrants

Total 11,270

The number of State paupers under care on
the first day of October, 1882, was 163: There
were 1,426 committed during the year ending
Sept. 30, 1883. There remained on the first
day of October, 1883, under care, 189.

Public Education.— The following are the sta-
tistics relating to public schools for the year
ending September 30th :
Total receipts, including balance on hand Oct.

11382 $18,206,06.^14

Total expenditures 11'82?'5?i 2S

Amount paid for teachers' wages 8,265,452 8*

Amount paid for school-houses, repairs, furni-

ture

nt paid lor scnooi-nouses, repairs, imui

, etc 1,925,671 27

574

NEW YORK (STATE).

Estimated value of school-houses and sites. . $81,011,211 00
Number of teachers employed during legal

term of school 21,122

Number of teachers employed during any por-
tion of the year. 31,570

Number of children attending public schools. 1,041,089

Number attending normal schools 6.270

Number of volumes in school-district libraries. 701^675
Number of persons in the State between the

ages of five and twenty-one 1,631,500

There has been a steady decrease in the num-
ber of books in school-district libraries. In
1880 the number reported was 1,286,536; in
1881, 707,155; in 1882, 705,812, and now 701,-
675. There are twenty-four literary and thir-
teen medical colleges connected with the Uni-
versity of the State. Of these, two were char-
tered during the year — Oanisius College, of
Buffalo, and Niagara University, at Suspension
Bridge. There are under the visitation of the
Regents of the University 277 academies and
academical departments of union schools, com-
prising about 36,000 pupils and 1,400 teachers.
The instruction of common-school teachers was
carried on in 95 academical institutions, in
which 1,611 teachers were trained.

Banks, Insurance, Railroads. — Eight new banks
of discount were organized, under State laws,
during the year, and one failed, leaving the total
number eighty-four, the condition of which, on
October 1, was reported as follows:

Increase during
the year.

Resources

$160,716393

$38 152 933

Capital

21 761 700

2 956 000

Surplus and profits

11,146,418

l',488',716

Due depositors

113 914 963

81 863 983

Other liabilities

13 893 312

1 844,234

Of the increase in capital, $1,300,000 was the
result of the conversion of banks from the na-
tional to the State system. On the first day of
July 127 savings-banks reported to the Super-
intendent of the Banking Department. Dur-
ing the year one new savings institution was
organized, and one closed after paying its lia-
bilities in full. The condition of these sav-
ings-banks on the day named was as follows :

Increase during
the year.

Resources

$483,662,008 15

$23533425 49

Due depositors

420,831,007 38

20087,168 96

Surplus on market value
Other liabilities
Number of depositors . .

62,114,693 47
716,307 30
1 119 512

2,957,654 24
493,602 30
52994

The reports made July 1st by the sixteen
loan, mortgage, guarantee, and indemnity com-
panies doing business in this State exhibit the
following condition :

Increase in

number.

Resources

$160 137 764 04

$20 379 220 90

Capital paid in

13 587 000 83

'957' 500 00

Surplus and profits
Due depositors
Other liabilities '...

12,244,412 42
125,283,170 17
9,229,350 92

2,890,035 64
20,394,985 01
*3,207,180 45

Sixteen institutions for the safe-keeping and
guaranteeing of personal property, with a capi-
tal aggregating $2,886,900, were under the su-
pervision of the Banking Department on the
first day of October.

On the first day of July there were doing
business in the Shite 147 joint-stock fire-insur-
ance companies, with total assets of $169,983,-
92456, including a net surplus of $51,978,-
273.33; fifteen marine-insurance companies,
with total assets of $23,253,860.86, including a
net surplus of $4,440,141.59 ; twenty-nine life-
insurance companies, with total assets of $449,-
602,347.17, including surplus as regards policy-
holders of $76,751,390.73 ; and seven casualty
insurance companies, with total assets of $3,-
617,413.41, and a net surplus of $1,331,038.81.
There were 131 co-operative insurance associ-
ations doing business in the State, Jan. 1, 1883.
Of these 119 were New York State companies,
and 12 were organized in other States; the
number of certificates in force issued by these
associations was 443,296. The amount of se-
curities on deposit with the Insurance Depart-
ment July 1st, for the protection of policy-hold-
ers insured by the various insurance companies
transacting business in this State, was in the
aggregate $13,488,347.68, as follows:

New York State life-insurance companies $2,662,508 75

New York casualty -insurance companies 301 ,567 78

New York fire-insurance companies 1,693,000 00

Fire-insurance companies of other States 100 00

Foreign insurance companies 8,831,171 20

Under the new law regulating the formation
and conduct of co-operative insurance associa-
tions and placing them under the supervision
of the Insurance Department, thirteen such as-
sociations were incorporated in the State, and
five organized in other States were admitted to
transact business in th.e State. A number of
old ones went out of existence. The adminis-
tration of the Insurance Department was ren-
dered more efficient and economical during the
year, the number of clerks being reduced from
thirty to seventeen, the services of an attorney
being dispensed with, and the annual expense
being reduced from $48,650 to $28,150.

During the eight months ending September
30th the new Railroad Commission caused the
greater part of the 6,500 miles of railroad in
the State to be inspected, investigated seventy-
five complaints, and made a number of special
inquiries and examinations, the results of which
were embodied in a voluminous report to the
Legislature of 1884. Much attention was given
to the subject of accidents, their causes, and
the means of prevention.

The following is the record of those killed or
injured in the operation of the railroads in this
State for the eight months ending Sept. 30th:

* Decrease.

Killed.

Injured.

Passengers

84

118

no

396

178

146

Totals . . .

822

~66<r

NEW YORK (STATE).

575

Immigration. — The number of immigrants
landed at Castle Garden for the eleven months
ending with December 1st was 372,183, or
63,464 less than for the same months in 1882.
The estimated number for the year was 390,-
000, against 455,450 during the previous year.
During eleven months 4,818 immigrants were
admitted to the hospital and refuge on Ward's
island, of which 575 remained there on the
10th of December, 116 of them being insane.
During the same period employment was found
for 27,480, and 1,273 were returned to the
countries they left as incapable of supporting
themselves. The expenses of the Board of Im-
migration were met by $168,054.04, collected
by the United States Treasury Department
from the vessels landing immigrants, and $38,-
202.51 appropriated by the State. There was
also $31,049.29 expended for repairs of State
property on Ward's island, which was drawn
from the State treasury.

National Guard. — The militia of the State,
known as the National Guard, consisted on the

Over 3,500 men were in camp there from June
16th to July 28th.

The New Capitol. — Work on the new Capitol
at Albany progressed favorably during the
year. The rooms designed for the Court of
Appeals in the east end of the building were
finished. A contract was made on the 19th of
June for the construction of the southeastern
staircase, at a cost of $239,345.80, and it is ex-
pected to be completed by Sept. 15, 1884. The
old Capitol and the State Library building were
removed in preparing for the construction of
the eastern approach to the new edifice. The
State Library and Law Library were temporari-
ly provided for in the new building, in which
permanent rooms for them are to be ultimately
furnished. When the new commissioner took
charge of the Capitol, the granite and brick
walls of the west end were unfinished. This
wing extends 291 feet from north to south,
and 62 feet from east to west, not including
the space designed for the great staircase, 72
by 52 feet — all comprising about one fourth of

STATE CAPITOL, ALBANT.

30th of September of 11,568 officers and en- the floor-space of the building. Before the
listed men. A camp of instruction is held at close of the year the walls were completed and
Peekskill in the summer, on a ground contain-
ing one hundred acres, and leased by the State
at an annual rental of $1,000. The lease ex-
pires May 1, 1885, and the State has the privi-
lege then of purchasing the ground for $13,000.

roofed over. The total amount expended upon
the building to December 15th was $15,318,-
680.67. The amount expended from April 9th
to December 15th was $900,481.23, leaving a
balance on hand at the latter date of $99,5.18.-

576

NEW YOEK (STATE).

77. The men employed during the greater
part of the year numbered 1,300 to 1,400.

Adirondack Forests. — A special committee of
the Senate was appointed, under a resolution
adopted May 2d, to ascertain what lands could
be bought, and at what prices, adjacent to the
forest-lands already owned by the State in the
Adirondack wOderness, with a view to preserv-
ing such forests as were necessary to protect
the sources of water-supply in that region. The
subject was one on which there was consider-
able discussion during the year. It was said
that much injury had already been done by the
reckless destruction of forests by lumbermen
and charcoal-burners, and by fires carelessly
kindled by hunting and camping parties. There
was a demand that the State acquire control
over such lands as it was desirable to maintain
in a wild condition, and prevent the further
destruction of the forests within the area
which fed the important streams of the State.
The acquisition of lands by purchase, and the
appointment of a commission to have charge
of them, were urged. The Senate committee
reported in January, 1884, in favor of preserv-
ing the lands already owned by the State, and
establishing a public park, within which should
be inclosed all that it was desirable to protect.
It did not, however, recommend a direct pur-
chase of land from private owners, as it was
likely to fall into the hands of the State from
non-payment of taxes, as much had already
done. The subject is one on which the Legis-
lature of 1884 is likely to act.

Telegraph Suits. — In a suit brought by the
State against the Western Union Telegraph
Company for taxes claimed to be due for the
year 1881, under the act taxing corporations
on their franchises and capital stock, a decision
was rendered by the referee, Judge Samuel
Hand, on the 28th of September, and judg-
ment was entered in favor of the State for
$178,397.26. The referee held that—

Under the new tax laws the company must pay a
tax upon its franchise of a quarter- mill for each one per
cent, of dividends declared during the year, computed
upon its whole capital stock, and not merely upon that
portion of such capital invested within the State, as
claimed by the defendant. He followed the decision
of the Court of Appeals in the case of the people against
the Albany Insurance Company. The judgment was
only for taxes due in 1881, and' included $12,000 pen-
alty for non-payment of the tax on the demand of
the Comptroller. Other taxes due the State from the
Western Union Company, in accordance with this de-
cision, make the total amount recoverable from the
corporation about $626,000. The law findings were :

1. That the said acts of 1880 and 1881 imposed a
new and different system of taxation upon the de-
fendant, as to taxes for State purposes; from any here-
tofore existing as to telegraph companies under chap-
ter 471 of the laws of 1853, or any other statute ; that
by said acts the said defendant was subjected to a tax
upon its franchise for State purposes of one quarter
of a mill upon the whole capital stock for eveiy one
per centum of dividend declared during the year
whenever these dividends reached six per centum, and
not merely upon that portion of such capital invested
within this State.

2. That the defendant has become liable to pay ten
per centum of said tax imposed by the said acts in

case of neglect or refusal to pay such tax within fif-
teen days after the 1st day of January, 1882.

3. That, in accordance with the decision of the
Court of Appeals in the case of the people against the
Albany Insurance Company, the only part of the divi-
dend of $15,526,500 in stock declared March 26, 1881,
to be estimated as the basis for the franchise tax im-
posed by the said statutes of 1880 and 1881, is the sum
of $1,135,102.62 declared from the earnings and profits
made by the company since the law took effect, June
1, 1880.

4. Although this last part of the dividend does not
amount to six per centum upon the then capital stock,
yet I conclude the tax is to be at the rate of one quar-
ter of a mill for each one per centum of such dividend,
because the entire dividends declared during the year,
including the cash dividend, make together more than
six per centum either upon the original capital, $41,-
000,000, or the subsequent capital, $80,000.000.

5. No part of the dividend in stock exchanged for
the Atlantic and Pacific Telegraph Company's stock,
under the principle of the Court of Appeals decision
in the people against the Albany Insurance Company,
can be taken as any basis for taxation of the franchise
under the acts of 1880 and 1881, as that stock was pur-
chased with earnings made before the date of these
acts, and docs not seem to have permanently increased
in value since 1879, but has been exchanged on about
the basis of value existing in November, 1879. I hold
that the temporary fluctuations in value during the
year of property previously wholly purchased from
previous earnings of the company are not a basis for
the imposition of this franchise-tax.

6. I hold that no part of the dividend of $58,858.50
in the stock of the company was from earnings or
profits made during the year, or afforded any basis for
an additional franchise-tax.

7. I find the plaintiff is entitled to recover from the
defendant the said sum of $118,718.66, with interest
thereon from the 15th day of January, 1882 ; also, the
sum of $12,000 ; also, the sum of $28,377.56, with in-
terest thereon from the said 15th day of January, 1882,
and the sum of $2;837.76 ; and I direct judgment in
favor of the plaintiff against the defendant for the
aggregate sum of $161,938.98, principal, and $16,-
463.28, interest— making a total of $178,397.26, with
costs of the action.

The question of the validity of the issue of
stock by the Western Union Telegraph Com-
pany, to be distributed as stock dividends,
which was made in 1881, was decided in favor
of the company by the Court of Appeals on
the 2d of October.

In a suit brought against the Western Union
Company to restrain the issue of stock, the
special term of the Superior Court of New
York city had held that the consolidation with
the other companies was lawful, and the issue
of stock to pay for their franchises and prop-
erty was valid. It was also found that there
was no conspiracy in the case, and that the
stock distributed as a dividend "was not a
division, withdrawal, or payment to its stock-
holders " of the capital stock, and its issue was a
proper and lawful exercise of corporate power
under the circumstances. This decision, was re-
versed at the General Term of the court, and
the case was before the Court of Appeals on an
appeal by the company from the judgment of re-
versal. Judge Earle, in rendering the decision,
said: ".There are no laws in this State prohib-
iting the making of a stock dividend, and
there is no public policy which, in all cases,
condemns such dividends. No harm is done,

NEW YORK (CITY).

577

provided the dividend is not a mere infla-
tion."

Miscellaneous Incidents.— On the 18th of Octo-
ber the one-hundredth anniversary of the dis-
banding of the American army of the Revo-
lution was celebrated at Newburg. There was
a military parade in the streets of the town,
and a naval display on the Hudson river, a
general decoration during the day and illumi-
nation in the evening, and appropriate literary
and festive ceremonies.

On the 20th of December a new railroad-
bridge across the Niagara river, constructed on
the cantilever principle, was opened. (See EN-
GINEERING.)

Loren B. Sessions, who had long been un-
der indictment for alleged bribery or attempt
to bribe a member of the Assembly during the
senatorial contest of 1881, when he was a mem-
ber of the State Senate, was acquitted at Al-
bany on the 18th of October. (See " Annual
Cyclopsedia," 1881, NEW YORK. For further
details of affairs of New York city, see that
title in this volume.)

NEW YORK CITY. The financial condition
of the city of New York has somewhat im-
proved in recent years, though the expense of
carrying on the municipal government has
steadily increased. The total amount of the
funded debt at the close of the year was $130,-
680,570.84; but against this was a sinking fund
of $38,134,544.96, leaving the net indebtedness
at $92,546,025.88— a decrease of $3,595,922.70
for the year. There were outstanding $2,953,-
600 of the revenue bonds of the year, which
are issued in anticipation of receipts from taxes.
The total amount of these bonds issued during
the year was $16,324,800, against $19,247,300
1882; and the redemptions amounted to
513,371,200 for the issues of the year, and $4,-
)62,600 for those of previous years which were
taken up. Stocks and bonds falling due in
1884 amount to $10,469,631.37. The credit of
le city is shown by the fact that the first in-
stallment of "additional water stock" to the
amount of $50,000, issued on account of the
lew aqueduct, redeemable in thirty and paya-
ble in fifty years, with 3 per cent, interest, was
)romptly taken at a premium of 1 £ Per cent- »
is on revenue bonds have been effected at
per cent. Receipts for the sinking fund
for the redemption of bonds amounted to $9,-
061,252.56 for the year, and payments from
it to $7,891,061.89, leaving a balance of $1,-
170,190.67. Receipts of the sinking fund for
the payment of interest were $2,763,199.37;
payments, $2,679,528.20 ; balance, $83,671.17.
The receipts of the city treasury for the year,
including a balance of $3,390,884.55 from the
previous year, and $20,998,866.70 from the is-
sue of bonds, were $56,908,291.78; the pay-
ments were $54,262,086.89, including $18,364,-
734.40 for bonds redeemed, leaving a balance
of $2,646,104.89. The total cash in the treas-
ury from all balances at the end of the year
was $3,899,966.73. The tax-levy of the year
VOL. xxni. — 37 A

was $29,167,029.81, and the general tax-rate
was 2-29 per cent, on $1,249,524,258 assessed
value of real and personal property, and 2-0324
per cent, on $27,152,906 valuation of personal
property of corporations doing business in the
city, which are exempt from taxation for State
purposes, except on real estate. The amount
of taxes collected up to December 31st was
$24,333,510.97, on which a rebate of $148,-
257.72 was allowed for payment before No-
vember 1st. The total assessed value of prop-
erty for the year was $1,276,677,164, an in-
crease of $43,200,765.67 over the previous
year. The total appropriations for the year
1884, as allowed by the Board of Estimate and
Apportionment, on estimates from the differ-
ent departments, amount to $34,046,165.60,
being an increase of $3,369,380 over those of
the previous year. Of the full amount, $21,-
208,885.39 is apportioned by specific provisions
of law, and is beyond the control of the Board
of Estimate and Apportionment. The full city
budget for 1884, compared with that of 1883
and with the estimates, is as follows :

OBJECTS AND PURPOSES.

Allowed in
1883.

Asked for
in 1884.

Allowed to
1884.

Mayoralty

Dollars.
80,000

Dollars.
80,000

Dollars.

30,000

Common Council
Finance Department
State taxes
Interest on city debt
Eedemption of city debt. . .
Armories and drill-rooms..
Eents (leases in force)

69.250
206,500
3.348,970
8,092,857
490,574
80.7CO
53,675
150,000

84,500
214,260
4,252,577
8,105,834
578,179
80,750
53,066
250,000

70,250
288,500
4,252,677
8,010,917
657,569
80,750
53,066
250,000

Law Department
Public Works

149,678
2,554,900

149.828
2,995,630

148,678
2,777,066

Public Parks

732.000

1,107,500

869,800

Charities and Corrections. .
Health

1,506,000
463,207

2,107,627
740,709

1,774,105
411,157

Police

3 4->6,130

8.888,013

3,601,584

Street-cleaning
Fire

1,000,000
1,585,745

1,184,587
1,686,129

1,050,000
1,686,129

Taxes and assessments —
Board of Education
City College
Printing etc . .

103,700
3,750,000
185,000
193,700

109,200
4,481,950
135,000
203,200

109,200
4,431,950
185,000
204.400

City courts

329,700

835,045

827.900

868916

892,199

892,316

50000

50,000

50,000

Sheriff . . .

50,000

60.000

72,000

Election

183,786

168,400

202,981

Preservation of records . . .

23,£50
143.242

50,535

185,428

46,725
496,841

Asylums, etc
Evacuation-Day

1,029,953

1,118.686
20,000

1,094,749
20,000

Total

80,676,785

35,253,376

34,046,165
2,000,000

g

<»O fUA 1 Rfi

General Statistics.— The estimated cost of new-
buildings, for which plans were filed in the
Building Bureau, for the year, was $43,214,-
346, the number of buildings being 2,748.
This was an increase of 141 in the number of
buildings, and a decrease of $1,578,840 in the
aggregate cost as compared with the previous
year. The cost of alterations in old structures
for which plans were filed was $4,540,885,
against $4,267^181 for the previous year. The
growth in building operations for ten years is
shown in the following :

578

NEW YORK (CITY).

Year. Estimated cost.

1874 $16,667,414

1875 18,226,870

1876 15,903,880

1877 1:3,365,114

1878 15,219,680

Year. Estimated cost.

1879 $22,507,322

1880 29,115,335

1881 43,391,300

1882 44,793,186

1883 43,214,846

Total ten years $202,404,450

The number of fires occurring during the
year was 2,168, against 2,001 in 1882; the
losses by fire amounted to $3, 5 IT, 32 6, a de-
crease of $678,640 from the previous year.
The average loss for each fire was less than for
seventeen years preceding. A school of in-
struction has been established in the Fire De-
partment. One new company was organized
to man a floating engine, the most powerful
fire-boat in existence, 125 feet long and 25 feet
beam. Five engine and two hook-and-1 adder
companies were equipped with a second set of
apparatus. The police force of the city num-
bered 2,783 men on the 31st of December.

The average number of persons under the
charge of the Department of Charities and
Correction during the year was 11,334. The
health statistics of the city were unusually fa-
vorable. The number of deaths was 33,958, a
decrease of 3,966 from the previous year. The
deaths in tenement-houses were 18,041 ; 502
persons died in the rivers and streets. There
were three judicial hangings. Violence caused
1,325 deaths; small -pox, 12; measles, 716;
diphtheria, 709; typhus fever, 15; typhoid fe-
ver, 470; cerebro-spinal meningitis, 227; di-
arrhoea (among children under five years old),
2,867 ; diarrhoea (all ages), 3,393 ; alcoholism,
218; phthisis, 5,260; heart-disease, 1,690;
pneumonia, 3,158 ; solar heat, 83 ; apoplexy,
524; Bright's disease, 1,845. Of children un-
der 1 year, 8,724 died ; under 2 years, 10,246;
under 3 years, 13,720. One hundred and twelve
persons more than 90 years old died, among
them 3 men and 17 women who were more
than 100 years old. There were 61 homi-
cides. One hundred and sixty-one persons —
134 men and 27 women — committed suicide.
Thirty -four persons were accidentally poisoned.
Forty-three persons were accidentally suffo-
cated. The following is the record of conta-
gious diseases :

1883.

1883.

Scarlet fever

6,312

8,820

Diphtheria

3 507

2 090

Typhoid fever

686

1 378

Typhus fever ... . .

207

71

Cerebro-spinal meningitis
Measles

236
4 637

239

8 828

Small-pox

708

26

The number of births recorded was 28,972;
marriages, 11,556 ; against 27,321 of the former,
and 11,085 of the latter, in 1882.

Defalcations in Public Offices. — In the early part
of April it was discovered that a defalcation
had occurred in the Finance Department of
the city. Evidence was found among the pa-
pers of a deceased coupon-clerk, William B.
Carroll, that there had been a practice going
on for some time of leaving paid coupons un-

canceled, and then selling them to brokers to
be again presented for payment. On the 14th
of May the comptroller, Allan Campbell, made
a report to the mayor on the subject, in which,
as the result of an investigation by the chief
book-keeper of the department, he placed the
loss at $148,630. It was his conclusion that
the frauds began in July, 1879, and were car-
ried on by Carroll alone until his death in Sep-
tember, 1882.

A report made to the mayor on May 19th
by the Commissioners of Accounts, after a brief
investigation, put the total loss at $169,460, of
which $10,930 was credited to the year 1879,
$17,257.50 to 1880, $66,732.50 to 1881, and
174,540 to 1882. The commissioners criticised
the methods of the comptroller's office, and
intimated that their investigation had been
obstructed rather than assisted by the officials
of the Finance Department. On the 4th of
June Comptroller Campbell addressed a note
to the foreman of the grand jury, requesting
that a thorough investigation of the matter be
made. In the mean time the Board of Alder-
men had taken the matter up, and directed an
examination to be made by a special commit-
tee. This occupied several weeks, and a report
was made in which the lax methods of the
office were criticised, and the theory was an-
nounced that the frauds had been conducted
by Carroll alone by means of counterfeit cou-
pons. Attached to the report were the fol-
lowing resolutions, which were adopted :

Resolved. That the Comptroller of the City and
County of New York be and is hereby required to give
a bond for the faithful discharge of the duties of his
office in the sum of $200,000, with two or more suffi-
cient sureties to justify in double the amount, under
oath, before a judge of the Supreme Court, on due
notice to the corporation counsel.

* That the svstem of accounting pursued in

the Finance Department is inefficient, insufficient, and
in violation of the charter.

Resolved, That the directions of the charter that
regulate the receipts and disbursements of the city
funds form a safe system of finance ; that through their
violation has the city suffered by official defalca-
tions, and that their strict observance, in the opinion
of the Common Council, will be ample guarantee
against any loss in the future.

Resolved, That, entertaining no question of the legal
liability ofone^or more of the municipal magistrates
during any period of the three years' process of Will-
iam B. Carroll's defalcations, 'for the whole or part
thereof, it is hereby referred to the corporation coun-
sel, under the evidence, to institute such action and
take such legal proceedings against any one or more
such magistrates as he shall be advised can be sus-
tained at law.

The grand jury, having failed in an effort
to secure the aid of expert accountants from
certain banks of the city, accomplished little
in the way of an investigation. It made a pre-
sentment, however, with these suggestions :

1. That if the payments of the city coupons had
been made by a responsible bank or trust company,
as was formerly the practice, no loss could have ac-
crued to' the city.

2. That if the payments for coupons had been made
by the City Chamberlain as formerly, the city would
have been protected from loss by the large bond of

NEW YORK (CITY).

579

the chamberlain, which the jury believe would apply
to cases like the Carroll frauds.

, 8. This grand jury is of the opinion that a law
should be passed prohibiting any issue of the city's
indebtedness other than in registered form, and they
recommend the conversion of all outstanding coupon
bonds into registered stock.

4. From the testimony before the grand jury they
believe that the system and methods of book-keeping
in the comptroller's office can and should be so
changed and improved as to make a repetition of the
late coupon frauds an impossibility.

On the 26th of July Comptroller Campbell
resigned his office on account of broken health.
The resignation was accepted and took effect
August 1st. On the 3d of the same month
the mayor appointed his private secretary, Seth
H. Grant, to the vacant office. The Commis-
sioners of Accounts made a second and more
extended investigation of the coupon frauds,
submitting a report on the 8th of October.
Their examination covered the period from
1872 to 1882 inclusive, and the fraudulent over-
payment of coupons, beginning in 1874, was
found to amount to $164,699.

In the month of September other irregulari-
ties were discovered in the Water Register's
Bureau of the Department of Public Works,
and in the Bureau of Arrears in the Finance
Department. Two arrests were made in these
cases, and indictments were found but not
tried during the year. Two clerks and the
auditor in the comptroller's office had been
dismissed for negligence in connection with the
coupon frauds, but the entire result .of the
manifold efforts at investigation was unsatis-
factory. Finally, in November, a special grand
jury was called for the Court of Oyer and
Terminer, and was charged by Chief-Justice
of the Supreme Court Noah Davis to make
inquiry into all allegations of fraud and dere-
liction in the city departments, and of malfeas-
ance in office under the city government. At
the special request of the grand jury and the
district attorney, $20,000 was included in the
city appropriations for 1884 to cover the ex-
pense of expert assistance in this inquiry, which
was going on at the close of the year. Two
changes had occurred in the office of district
attorney since the question of this inquiry
came up. The Hon. John McKeon, the in-
cumbent of the office, died, and Wheeler H.
Peckham was appointed by the Governor to
succeed him on the 30th of November. After
holding the office little more than a week, Mr.
'eckham concluded that the state of his health
rould not permit him to carry on its arduous
luties at such a time, and he resigned on the
bh of December. On the following day Peter
B. Olney was appointed to the place.

New Aqueduct. — The subject of an increased
water-supply for the city occupied much at-
mtion during the year. The matter had been
iveral times urged by the Commissioner of
'ublic Works, and in 1882 he had submitted
the mayor a plan for a new aqueduct, pre-
>ared by the Chief Engineer of the Croton
Aqueduct. The State Senate early in January

adopted a resolution requesting the mayor to
appoint a committee of citizens to act with
himself in examining this plan, and to report
upon its feasibility, the probable co,st of the
aqueduct, and the time necessary to "carry the
plan into execution. The mnyor appointed as
such committee the Hon. O. B. Potter, John T.
Agnew, William Dowd, Amos F. Eno, and
Hugh N. Camp. Public hearings were given,
and the subject of the necessity of increasing
the water-supply, the sufficiency of the Croton
valley sources, and the merits of the ne\v aque-
duct scheme was fully investigated. A report
was submitted to the Senate on the 7th of
March, the conclusions of which were :

1. That the Croton water-shed is the amplest and
most available source of supply for the city's wants.

2. That a new aqueduct capable of conveying 150,-
000,000 gallons of water daily should be built imme-
diately.

3. That a storage reservoir or reservoirs should be
constructed of suitable capacity to provide against all
emergencies, and to provide a supply of water for the
next twenty-five years.

4. That the work of constructing this aqueduct and
storage reservoir or reservoirs should be surrounded
with such safeguards as would insure immediate con-
struction, and at reasonable cost to the city.

A carefully prepared bill was alsu submitted,
which, with some modifications, was that
passed by the Legislature. (See NEW YORK
STATE, Legislative Action.) Strong efforts
were made to prevent the change in the bill
which took from the mayor the appointment
of Aqueduct Commissioners, but without avail.
The commission, provided for in the act of
the Legislature, was organized in August, and
began the consideration of the problem of a
new aqueduct and an enlarged storage reser-
voir in the Croton valley. At the first regular
meeting the Commissioner of Public Works
submitted plans for the construction of a dam
at Quaker Bridge, and for an aqueduct from
the site of the dam to the Harlem river, near
High Bridge, upon the line known as the
"Hudson river route." That route met with
serious opposition from property-owners
throughout almost its entire length, and the
commissioners finally came to a unanimous
decision upon a modification of the "Hudson
river route." The commissioners likewise
unanimously determined to build the aqueduct
of a size equal to a fourteen-foot cylinder.

The estimate of the Commissioner of Public
Works of the cost of the project, on the plan
submitted by him, was as follows :

Dam and reservoirs .$4,000,000

140.311 feet of aqueduct from dam to Harlem
river, at an average of $60 per foot 8,418,660

2,320 feet tunnel across Harlem river, at $100 per
'foot 232,000

11 ,986 feet of aqueduct from Harlem river to Man-
hattan valley, at $50 599,300.

4,000 feet of iron siphons across Manhattan valley,
at $93.50 •' 874,000

Gate-houses connected with siphons 100,000

9 783 feet of aqueduct from Manhattan valley to

Central Park, at $60 586,980

Gate-house and connections to Central Park res-
ervoir 100,000

Four waste-gates between dam and Harlem river 50,000
Total $14,460,940

580

NEW YORK (CITY).

The modification of the route by the commis-
sioners, and the increase of rock-tunneling,
would somewhat enhance the cost of excava-
tion, but would reduce that of land-damage.
Expert opinions as to the cost of the proposed
Quaker Bridge dam, and the time necessary
for its construction, varied widely.

Opening of the East River Bridge.— On the 24th
of May the great suspension -bridge connecting
the cities of New York and Brooklyn, across
the East river, was formally opened, with ap-
propriate ceremonies, and was delivered into
the charge of the two cities by the Board of
Trustees, who had had the supervision of its
construction. By the subsequent action of the
authorities it was continued under the control
of the same board. At first only the drives
and footway were opened to passengers, and,
the legal counsel of the Board of Trustees be-
ing of the opinion that they had no authority
to make any part of it free, tolls were charged ;
the rate for foot-passengers being one cent,
and for teams from five to twenty cents, ac-
cording to size. Later in the year the railroad
was opened, trains of two cars each being run
by the cable system of traction, and a fare of
five cents for each passenger being charged.
At first the footway was used by great num-
bers of people, and on the 30th of May a panic
was caused by the fall of a woman at the stair-
way leading from the New York approach to
the central span, during which twelve persons
were crushed to death, and thirty-five others
were injured. After the novelty wore away,
no trouble was occasioned by crowds.

(For an account of this undertaking, see EN-
GINEERING, in the present volume.)

Evacuation-Day. — The one-hundredth anniver-
sary of the final evacuation of the city by the
British troops, which occurred on Sunday, the
25th of November, was celebrated on the fol-
lowing day. There was a military and civic
parade, in which the President of the United
States and other prominent Federal officers,
the Governor of the State and his staff, the
Governors of several other of the original thir-
teen States, and the mayor and other officers
of the city participated. There was also a
parade of steamers and tug-boats in the harbor.
A bronze statue of "Washington was unveiled
on the steps of the sub-Treasury building,
where an address was delivered by George
William Curtis, and the celebration closed with
banquets and illuminations in the evening.

Rapid Transit. — Near the end of the year a
new Commission was appointed by the mayor
under the rapid transit act of 1875, to con-
sider _ plans for additional lines of railroad in
the city. The cable system of propulsion and
the use of improved motors were prominent
subjects of consideration, as well as new routes
proposed for surface and elevated roads.

The affairs of the existing elevated roads
were subject to considerable litigation. The
taxes assessed by the city for five years succes-
sively, amounting to $2,286,836.32, remained

unpaid, and the questions involved were still
in court. The agreement made in November,
1881, by the directors of the three companies,
whereby they were to be merged into one, the
stock of the New York Elevated Railroad to
be replaced by first-preferred stock of the Man-
hattan Company and that of the Metropolitan
by second- preferred stock of the same cor-
poration, was still in litigation, certain stock-
holders of the Metropolitan Company having
brought suit to have it set aside, and obtained
an injunction pending the trial of the action.
In a suit against the Manhattan and New York
companies for damage to private property in
front of which the structure of the latter line
was set up, it was decided that the plaintiff could
recover. A scheme for an underground rail-
road beneath Broadway to Union Square, and
thence northward by two lines, to be known
as the Arcade Railway, has been formed and
urgently advocated.

New Parks.— In accordance with an act of
the Legislature of this year, a commission was
appointed by the mayor to select and locate
lands for public parks in the twenty-third and
twenty-fourth wards of the city, north of the
Harlem river. The commission made a re-
port to the Legislature of 1884, accompanied
by a bill providing for the acquisition of the
necessary territory by the city. The tracts
selected were an area of 1,070 acres bordering
on the line of Yonkers, to be known as Van
Cortlandt Park; an area of 653 acres on the
Bronx river, to be called Bronx Park; and
1,700 acres at Pelham Bay, on Long Island
Sound, some distance beyond the present lim-
its of the city. These were to be connected
by broad parkways, that from Van Cortlandt
to Bronx Park being 600 feet wide and one
mile in length, and that from Bronx to Pel-
ham Bay Park 400 feet wide and 2| miles long.
A smaller space of 135 acres, -to be known as
Crotona Park, was selected below this series, to
be connected with Bronx Park by a parkway.
Two smaller spaces, of 38 and 25 acres re-
spectively, and to be known as Claremont and
St. Mary's Parks, were located still nearer the
Harlem river. It was estimated that the entire
area selected, 3,800 acres, could be acquired at
an average cost of $2,000 per acre, and it was
said that their natural attractions were such
that there would be little occasion for imme-
diate embellishment. The park on Pelham
Bay, with its islands, coast indentations, and
picturesque views, it was claimed, would excel
any pleasure-ground in the world for beauty
and healthfumess. Regard was had in the se-
lection for the purposes of public reservoirs,
parade-grounds, botanical and zoological gar-
dens, and a site for great fairs or exhibitions.
The bill submitted to the Legislature author-
izes the Mayor, Aldermen, and Commonalty of
New York to take possession of the pieces of
land located for parks, and to make applica-
tion for the appointment of commissioners of
estimate. On the confirmation of the report

NEW YORK (CITY).

NICARAGUA.

581

of the commissioners, the mayor, etc., are
authorized to take possession of the property,
and keep the same open as public parks. The
mayor, etc., within four months after the con-
firmation of the report of the commissioners,
are required to pay for the property taken for
the parks, and to issue city four per cent, bonds
to produce the money required.

City Politics. — Franklin Edson was elected
Mayor of New York in 1882 through a union
of the three Democratic factions known as
Tammany, Irving Hall, and the County De-
mocracy, against a citizens' movement whose
candidate was William Ddwd. The mayor's
appointments, at the beginning of his term,
were avowedly determined by the necessity of
securing for them the approval of the Board
of Aldermen, whose members were in a pecul-
iar sense the representatives of the various lo-
cal political factions. He made an effort to se-
cure action from the Legislature which would
give the mayor the power of appointment and
removal of heads of departments untrammeled,
but, not succeeding in this, he professed to act
on the principle of making the best of the ex-
isting situation, and avoiding contentions with
the aldermen. His appointments throughout
the year provoked criticism, on the ground
that they aimed at satisfying the demands of
all factions, so far as they could be reconciled,
rather than promoting the highest efficiency
of the public service.

During the political canvass of the autumn
an effort to unite the Democratic factions
failed, so far as delegates to the State Conven-
tion were concerned, but they all supported
the general ticket. The city and county nomi-
nations they divided so as to agree on a com-
mon ticket, but in regard to legislative and
aldermanic nominations they were divided.
(See NEW YORK STATE, Political Canvass.} A
plan for reorganizing the Republicans of the
city was formed and carried out during the year.
It was devised by a Committee of Eighteen,
formed partly from the existing City Central
Committee and partly of persons outside the
old organization. The plan included a full en-
rollment of the Republican voters of the city in
the several Assembly districts and the choice
of delegates to a County Committee, members
of district committees, enrolling officers and
inspectors for the next year, and delegates to
all conventions by the persons thus enrolled.
Under the old organization, in order to vote
at primary meetings, the voter was obliged to
join an association, sign its constitution, and
pledge himself to support all candidates of the
party regularly nominated. Under the new
plan it was only necessary to be enrolled un-
der a declaration of intention to act with the
Republican party. The enrollment took place
after the election in November, and resulted
in placing 23,454 names on the rolls, some-
thing more than twice the membership of the
old associations, but much less than half the
ordinary Republican vote of the city.

Much dissatisfaction with the municipal ad-
ministration was developed during the year in
consequence of the frauds that were exposed
in some of the departments, and charges of
corruption and extravagance. On the meet-
ing of the Legislature of 1884, the question of
charter reform was again agitated, and two
committees, one of the Senate and one of the
Assembly, set about investigating the condition
of the city government. *

NEW ZEALAND. See AUSTRALIA and POLY-
NESIA, p. 37.

NICARAGUA, a republic of Central America.
The President is Dr. Adan Cardenas His
Cabinet, in 1883, was composed of the follow-
ing ministers: Finance, War, and Navy, Col.
J. Elizondo; Justice and Public Worship, Dr.
F. Delgadillo ; Foreign Affairs, Setter F. Cas-
tillon ; Interior, Sefior J. Chamorro.

Finance. — The income in 1882 was $1,639,000,
while the outlay was $1,510,000. The national
indebtedness is altogether internal, and does
not exceed $700,000, in the shape of fundable
bonds, for which the import duties are mort-
gaged, while $222,000 are payable in cash. In
1883 the debt amounted to $920,258. The
amount of duties collected by the custom-house
in the fiscal year 1881-'82 was $1,275,507,
against $906,156 in 1880-'81.

Railroads. — There were in operation in 1882
about 55 kilometres of railroad, and 18 were
then being built.

Telegraphs. — The number of offices in 1882
was 26 ; the length of lines, 777 miles, with
800 miles of wire. There were dispatched
that year 64,544 private' telegrams, and 16,601
were sent by the Government. There was col-
lected the sum of $18,733 ; and spent, $20,789.

Postal Service. — The number of post-offices in
1882 was 13; expresses, 79; and postal agen-
cies, 8. There passed through the post-office
177,109 private letters, 37,273 Government dis-
patches, 21,666 postal-cards, 89,001 registered
letters, 424,955 newspapers, and 515 sample
packages ; together, 645,919 items of mail mat-
ter, producing an income of $9,232, and in-
volving an outlay of $15,344.

Commerce. — There entered Nicaraguan ports
in 1882 altogether 213 vessels, measuring
256,000 tons, and comprising 156 steamers, 8
of which navigated under the German flag, 2
being men-of-war, and 57 sailing-vessels, of
which 11 were German.

Import.

Export,

1875-'76 . . .

$1,982.000

$8,289,000

1877 '78

2,181,000

2,595,000

1879-'80

2,986,000

8,708,000

1881 '82

8 362 000

4,022,000

The products chiefly exported were: India-
rubber, 14,000 quintals of 101$ pounds Ameri-
can, worth $800,000 ; 7,300,000 pounds of cof-
fee, worth $530,000; gold and silver bullion,
fustic, indigo, skins, hides, and cedar-wood.

Intel-oceanic Canal.— The following is a trans-
lation of the law adopted in October, 1883, by

582

NICARAGUA.

the Nicaraguan Congress, for the purpose of
obtaining a joint guarantee from the Central
American states which may assist in promot-
ing the construction of the Nicaraguan Canal :

ARTICLE I. The Government is authorized to unite
with the other republics of Central America in guar-
anteeing that the net profits of the Nicaraguan Canal
shall never amount to less than 3 per cent, on the
capital employed in its construction, which shall not
exceed $75,000,000. This guarantee shall last twenty
years from the date on which the canal shall be com-
pleted and opened to traffic.

ABT. II. The Government is consequently author-
ized to guarantee a profit of 3 per cent, net upon
$20,000,000 of the capital fixed by the previous arti-
cle, either in association with other governments, in
the event of their guaranteeing the same rate of in-
terest on the remainder of the capital, or singly,
should the others not agree to act ; but it must be
stipulated that the expenses of construction and main-
tenance shall not exceed $1,000,000 annually, and that
any deficit in the amount of profits which shall have
been recognized and paid by Nicaragua will be re-
turned by the company from any excess of profits
which may be subsequently obtained over and above
the 3 per cent, which is guaranteed.

ART. III. The Government will subject this conces-
sion of its guarantee to the conditions it may consider
necessary to establish in favor of the republic, and in
order to determine the actual cost of the canal and
the amount of profits.

ART. IV. The Government is also authorized to make
treaties with the other Central American republics,
establishing the aforesaid guarantee, and granting to
their citizens the same privileges which are reserved
to Nicaraguans by the concession of April 24, 1880 ;
and to arrange with the company holding the con-
cession, an _ additional contract stipulating the condi-
tions containing the collective guarantee of the Cen-
tral American states, or that of Nicaragua alone, as
the case may be.

On December 20th Secretary Frelinghuysen
made public a letter sent by him to Minister
Lowell, concluding the discussion with the
Government of Great Britain of the Clayton-
Bulwer Treaty. The letter is dated Nov. 22,
1883. On the question of the failure of the
plan for an interoceanic canal, on which the
treaty was based, Mr. Frelinghuysen says :

Lord Granville raises the point that no time was
fixed by the convention within which such interoce-
anic communications were to be made. While this
statement is correct, it is also true that it was contem-
plated that the canal was about to be constructed at
the time the treaty was negotiated, and that the survey
therefor was then made, and that thirty- three years
have elapsed without Great Britain rendering the" con-
sideration on which the treaty was based, and this
failure, we think, affects the treaty in the same man-
ner that a failure by Great Britain to give the consid-
eration within a definite time, had one been fixed by
the convention, would have affected it.

In regard to the provision that neither the
United States nor Great Britain shall colonize
or exercise any dominion over any part of Cen-
tral America, Mr. Frelinghuysen says:

This is a most important provision. It is one of a
cluster restraining one nation from having any advan-
tage over the other in regard to the police of the canal,
such as the provision against alliance, against occupa-
tion and fortification, and against taking advantage of
any intimacy or influence ; and yet it is claimed that
the treaty does not prohibit the existence of a large
regularly organized British colony in Central America,
while it does prohibit the United States from having

any possession or colony there. The color for this
claim is that, while the stipulation that neither of the
two governments should colonize any part of Central
America is most conspicuous, the declaration of Sir
Henry Bulwer prior to the exchange of the ratifications
of the treaty states that " her Majesty does not under-
stand the engagements of that convention to apply to
her Majesty's settlement at Honduras or its depend-
encies." This declaration can not be held to author-
ize the subsequent colonization by her Majesty's Gov-
ernment of a territory as large as three of our smaller
States. The declaration was made not to change or
vary the treaty, but of abundant caution that it might
not be misunderstood. The meaning of the declara-
tion, we think, is that a mere settlement of British
subjects for the purpose of cutting mahogany and log-
wood at Honduras under Spanish-American sover-
eignty was not to be considered a British colony, and
thus be a violation of the treaty, and I fail to see how,
since the exchange of the ratifications of the treaty,
the organization of a colony, with a full colonial gov-
ernment under^the British sovereignty, can be looked
upon as authorized or allowed either by the treaty or
by Sir Henry Bulwer' s declaration.

The Volcano of Ometepc.— A letter from Nica-
ragua dated June 12, 1883, said : " The volcano
of Ometepe, in Lake Nicaragua, is at present
in eruption. On May 1st, at 1 0 A. M., a frightful
and terrifyingsubterraneau jumbling was heard,
which lasted between two and three minutes,
but no outbreak was visible. On the following
day a number of people climbed to the summit
of the volcano, to find that the crater had in-
creased in size, and was about thirty-five yards
in length and three in width, but its depth could
not be calculated. Around it were strewed
large quantities of stones and rocks, covered
with slate-colored mud ; masses of these same
materials had poured down in a southwesterly
direction, forming a bed three hundred or four
hundred yards in length, and ashes were scat-
tered in all directions. Two days afterward,
May 4th, a series of terrifying eruptions, ac-
companied by prolonged rumblings, occurred.
At about 2.30 P.M., the earth and rock in the
vicinity of the crater were seen -to break, lava
poured forth, and from it burst upward a thick
column of lead-colored smoke, which sent the
terrified villagers flying to the churches, in the
belief that the whole island was about to be
destroyed. Fortunately, however, no damage
was done, as the lava followed a direction
where there are no inhabitants, and the ground
is not cultivated."

On June 19th another, more violent, erup-
tion ended in the formation of a new crater,
accompanied by a prolonged earthquake and
an overflow of lava in the direction of Las Pilas.
Two days later the mountain was rent in vari-
ous other places, and from these rents red-hot
lava flowed in all directions. Many boats were
sent to the island from villages on the main-
land, to save the unfortunate people. As some
of the fugitives had sought shelter on a hill sud-
denly surrounded by a stream of glowing lava,
no help could be extended to them, and they
perished in great agony. The island was con-
verted by these eruptions into one mass of
liquid ignited lava, and thereby rendered en-
tirely uninhabitable.

NORTH CAROLINA.

583

NORTH CAROLINA. State Government. — The

following were the State officers during the
year:. Governor, Thomas J. Jarvis, Demo-
crat; Secretary of State, William L. Saun-
ders; Treasurer, John M. Worth; Auditor,
William P. Roberts ; Attorney -General, Thom-
as S. Kenan; Superintendent of Public In-
struction, John C. Scarborough ; Adjutant-
General, Johnstone Jones; State Librarian,
Sherwood Hay wood ; Governor's Council, the
Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, and
Superintendent of Public Instruction; State
Board of Education, the Governor, Lieuten-
ant-Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer,
Auditor, Superintendent of Public Instruction,
and Attorney- General. Department of Agri-
culture: Commissioner, Montford McGehee;
Secretary, P. M. Wilson; Geologist, Prof. W.
C. Phillips; Chemist, Prof. 0. W. Dabney ;
Superintendent of Fish and Fisheries, S. G.
Worth. Supreme Court: Chief-Justice, Will-
iam N. H. Smith, of Wake ; Associate Justices,
Thomas S. Ashe, of Anson, and Thomas Ruffin,
of Orange. Judge Ruffin resigned in Septem-
ber, and A. S. Merrirnon was appointed.

Legislative Session* — The Legislature — consist-
ing of 34 Democrats, 15 Republicans, and one
Liberal in the Senate, and 70 Democrats and
50 Republicans in the House — convened on
January 3d, and adjourned on March 9th.
Among the acts passed are the following :

To incorporate the Wilmington. Point Caswell, ancl
Clinton Kailroad and Steamboat Transportation Com-
pany.

To authorize a sale of the State's stock in the Cape
Fear and Yadkin Valley Railway Company, and pro-
vide for the speedy completion of the same.

To amend an a«t to jprovide for the sale of the
State's interest in the Western North Carolina Kail-
road Company, and for other purposes.

Amending the charter of the Granville Eailroad
Company. — Changes its name to Atlantic and West-
ern Kailroad Company.

To empower counties, townships, cities, and towns
to subscribe to the capital stock of the Albemarle and
Kaleigh Railroad.

To provide a residence for the Governor.

To incorporate the Insane Asylums of the State, and
for other purposes.

To change the name of the Edenton and Norfolk
Eailroad Company to Carolina and Chesapeake Eail-
road Company.

To amend the charter of the Watauga and Cald-
well Narrow-Gauge Railroa« Company. — Changes its
name to North Carolina and Tennessee Eailroad" Com-
pany.

To facilitate the construction of the Newbern and
Beaufort Canal.

To change the fiscal year of the State government,
, and for other purposes. — Changes time of closing the
fiscal year to the 30th day of November.

To provide for the support of the Institution of the
Deaf, Dumb, and Blind.

To make appropriations for the several insane asy-
lums of the State.

To incorporate the Black Mountain Eailway Co.

To amend the landlord and tenant act.

To change the name of the Elizabeth City and Nor-
folk Eailroad Company to Norfolk and Southern Eail-
road Company.

To incorporate the Wilmington, Chadbourn, and
Conwayborough Eailroad Company.

To increase the number of justices of the peace.

To authorize the Seaboard and Ealeigh Railroad
Company to change its corporate name.

To authorize the registration of the State bonds.

To authorize the Virginia and Carolina Kailroad
and the Palmetto Railroad Companies to construct
and operate their roads within the State.

To repeal the prohibition law of 1881.

To incorporate the Asheville and Burnsville Rail-
road Company.

The State was divided into nine congres-
sional districts.

Changes were made in the school law, the
Board of Agriculture was reorganized, and the
Code was adopted. The new Board of Agri-
culture consists of thirteen members, four ex
officio and one from each congressional district,
chosen by the Legislature. It was constituted
as follows: Gov. Jarvis; the President of the
State Agricultural Society, T. M. Holt; the
President of the University, K. P. Battle ; the
President of the North Carolina State Grange,
W. R. Williams; and by districts: 1. R. W.
Wliarton, of Beaufort; 2. Dr. Brooks, of Wil-
son; 3. James A. Gates, of Sampson; 4. W.
F. Green, of Franklin; 5. L. W. Anderson, of
Stokes; 6. John Robinson, of Anson; 7. A.
Leazar, of Iredell; 8. Burwell Blanton, of
Cleveland ; 9. C. D. Smith, of Macon.

On January 16th Matt W. Ransom, Demo-
crat, was re-elected United States Senator by
a vote of 108 against 47 for William Johnson,
Liberal.

Resources and General Condition. — There are
about 6,500,000 acres of improved land in
North Carolina and 16,000,000 of unimproved
land. The State produces 450,000 bales of
cotton, 30,000,000 bushels of corn, 30,000,000
pounds of tobacco, and exports wheat, rice,
oats, ground-peas, etc.

It is estimated that in fifteen counties alone
there are now standing 5,000,000,000 feet of
long-leaf pine.

When the debt is all arranged it will amount
to less than $3,600,000, bearing 4 per cent, in-
terest. There is, besides, a debt of about $2,-
750,000, bearing 6 per cent, interest — the in-
terest of which will be met by dividends from
the North Carolina Railroad.

The assessment of property in the State in
1882 was $168,000,000. The valuation in 1883
shows an increase of nearly 20 per cent. It
will reach nearly $200,000,000. The State and
county taxes combined amount to 66$ cents on
the hundred dollars.

The crop of corn in 1879 was 28,019,839
bushels; in 1882 it was 34,260,700; the crop
of wheat in 1879 was 3,397,395 bushels; in
1882 it had risen to 5,494,800.

The cotton counties raise more corn per in-
habitant than the average for the entire State,
and pay more per acre for fertilizers.

The State has two coal districts — the Dan
river, mainly in Stokes and Rockingham
counties, near the middle of its northern
boundary ; and Deep river, mainly in Chatham
county, near the center of the State.

The western half of the State is well dotted

584

NORTH CAROLINA.

NOVA SCOTIA.

over with valuable iron deposits, most of them
wholly untouched. Iron exists in workable
beds in thirty counties ; but, for convenience,
we may group the greater number of the most
valuable known mines into four geographical
divisions: First, the iron-regions of Granville,
Chatham, Guilford and Stokes counties, lying
to the north of the center of the State, within
reasonable distance of the North Carolina coal-
fields. Next the deposits of Gaston, Lincoln,
and Catawba counties, lying to the west of the
center of the southern border. In the north-
west corner of the State, in Ashe, Caldwell,
and Mitchell counties, is another series of beds.
Finally, in Cherokee county, in the extreme
southwest corner of the State, are deposits as
yet but little known.

Copper is found in Person, Granville, Da-
vidson, Chatham, and Ashe counties. A large
portion of the North Carolina gold-mines, or
mines which at the surface carry only gold,
grow rich in copper as they approach the
water-line, until, in many cases, copper be-
comes the metal of greatest value. This is
especially true of the gold deposits of Guil-
ford, Cabarrus, and Mecklenburg counties.

Gold-mining is now most actively prosecuted
in Davidson county, but is carried on also in
Eowan county.

Finances. — The chief items in the receipts
are:

Publictaxes $528,75134

Tax on bank-stock 8,135 01

Sale of Confederate States bonds 2,52T 50

From Western North Carolina Railroad 29,460 00

Drummers1 license-tax 55,200 00

Fees from Secretary of State 6,143 60

Fertilizers, license-tax 42,000 00

Tax on insurance companies 13,193 93

Interest on bonds of Western North Carolina

Railroad 59,500 00

Sewing-machine license-tax 2,400 00

Stationery, from counties 2,725 52

Other items swell the total receipts to 755,881 44

DISBURSEMENTS.

Agricultural Department $48,500 00

To disabled Confederate soldiers 1,630 00

Contingent expenses 17,324 00

Convict account, expense of conveying to Peni-
tentiary 8,051 21

Department of Public Instruction 2,184 80

Auditor's Department 2,975 96

Executive Department 4,800 00

Fugitives from justice 1,955 30

Insane Asylum, Raleigh 65,500 Oft

Insane Asylum, Morganton 65,000 00

Insane Asylum, Goldsboro 28,000 00

Institutions for Deaf, Dumb, and Blind 84,000 00

Interest on consolidated debt of the State 88,370 00

Interest on bonds of Western North Carolina

Railroad ; 58,555 00

Judiciary 38,069 09

Normal schools 6,500 00

Oxford Orphan Asylum 5,000 00

Penitentiary 110,000 00

Public printing 11,999 74

Quarantine regulations ... 1,451 55

Roster of State troops in Confederate service . . . 2,018 00

Department of State 4,843 05

Treasury Department 6,445 99

University of North Carolina 12,000 00

Other items swell the total disbursements to 629,112 37

The item of $58,555 paid out on account of
interest on the mortgage bonds of the Western
North Carolina Railroad is offset by the item
of $59,50C received from that company for

that purpose. The item of $29,460 received
from the Western North Carolina Railroad is
the money paid for the convicts. The actual
disbursements were, then, $570,000.

Education. — The receipts from taxation for
schools in 1882 were $421,499.89, of which the
polls paid $174,732.97, and property $162,095.-
88. There was derived from licenses $51,662.-
37, from fines and penalties $13,205.98. There
was on hand from 1881, $292,628.23.

There are 463,160 (176,836 colored) children
of school age in the State, of whom 233,071
(88,236 colored) were enrolled as pupils. This
shows an enrollment of only 50 per cent, of
the children. The average attendance was
only 132,546, or about 28 per cent. The num-
ber of schools taught were 3,578 white schools
and 1,750 black. The average length of the
school terms was three months. The pay of
the white teachers averaged $24 a month, and
that of the colored teachers $20 a month. The
number of teachers was 5,173.

Congressional Election.— On Nov. 20, an elec-
tion was held in the first district to fill the va-
cancy occasioned by the death of Walter F.
Pool. The Democratic candidate was Thomas
G. Skinner ; the Republican candidate, Charles
C. Pool. Mr. Skinner was elected by a major-
ity of 777. Mr. Skinner's seat was contested,
on the ground chiefly that he was elected
from the new district, and not from the dis-
trict in which the vacancy existed. The old
district included Bertie, a Republican county,
for which Carteret, a Democratic county, had
been substituted in the new.

NOVA SCOTIA, an eastern province of the
Dominion of Canada. Area, including Cape
Breton, 21,731 square miles. Capital, Halifax.
The peninsula is the u Acadia " of early French
settlement. Cape Breton island forms part of
the province, being separated from it only by
the narrow strait of Canso.

Soil and Climate. — Unlike its sister province on
the west, Nova Scotia has an excellent soil ;
but, also unlike it, possesses a very foggy cli-
mate, which renders the ripening of wheat dif-
ficult. Neither of these provinces depends on
farming for a revenue, or even for anything
more than a means of livelihood. Nova Scotia
has an equable temperature throughout the
year. The chief drawback is the fogs along the
Atlantic coast. These are caused by the shore
or cold currents from the north encounter-
ing the Gulf Stream. The colder waters sink
under those of the Gulf Stream, and thus do
not affect the climate directly. The ports are
open throughout the winter, and ferries run
continually to and from Prince Edward island.

Ports. — In order of importance, the ports of
Nova Scotia rank as follow : Halifax, Yar-
mouth, Pictou, Truro, Sydney, Windsor, An-
tigonish, Amherst, Annapolis, Cornwallis, Lu-
nenburg, Digby, Weymouth, Pansboro, Locke-
port, Arichat, Baddeck, Barrington, Bridge-
town, Guysboro, Liverpool, Londonderry, Mar-
garetsville, Hawkesbury, Hood, Medway, Shel-

NOVA SCOTIA.

585

burne, and Oanso. These places carry on a
considerable trade, both coasting and for-
eign.

fisheries* — The total export of the produce of
Nova Scotia in 1882 was $8,860,769, of which
$4,437,364 belongs to fisheries; $2,661,118 of
this is on account of dry salted codfish ; $32,-
854 of wet salted codfish ; $340,761 of pickled
mackerel; $296,761 of pickled herring; $816,-
612 of preserved lobsters. The United States
received $1,353,773 of the whole value ; Great
Britain, $635,437 ; British Guiana, $150,415 :
West Indies, $2,141,743.

Lumbering. — The exports of the forest
amounted to $1,587,947. Of this, $120,664
consists of fire-wood, shipped to the United
States; $22,744, hop and telegraph poles;
$745,517 of lumber, deals, etc. ; $495,262 of
planks, boards, etc. ; $20,584 of masts and
spars; $21,427 of shingles; $28,827 of railway-
ties; $42,316 of birch square timber, etc.

Farming. — The export product of grazing
reached the sum of $836,052 ; of agriculture,
$830,804 — a total of $1,666,856. Of this,
$127,382 is fruits exported to England ; $590,-
447 is potatoes, nearly all to the United States ;
$15,612 is oats, etc.

Mining.— The mining products of Nova Sco-
tia consist chiefly of coal, gypsum, manganese,
and marble. The coal exports were $328,498
for 196,905 tons; manganese-ore, $17,796;
crude gypsum, $106,356; marble, $16,253.

Manufactures. — These amount to only $487,-
503, and are chiefly : leather, $153,542 ; ships,
$63,171; grindstones, $14,793; junk and oak-
um, $14,285 ; boots and shoes, $24,476.

Education. — The essential features of the sys-
tem of public education in Nova Scotia were
incorporated in the provincial statutes in 1865.
Under the provisions of the " Act relating to
Public Instruction," the supreme control of the
schools is vested in the Executive Council,
which, when dealing with educational matters,
is known in law as the Council of Public In-
struction. The Superintendent of Education,
who is appointed by the Lieutenant-Governor,
is chief administrative officer.

The local management of the schools is in-
trusted to a board of three trustees in each
section. The trustees are elected in annual
meeting by the rate-payers of the section.
They have power to employ and dismiss teach-
ers, and are a body corporate for the prosecu-
tion and defense of all actions relating to the
school or its affairs.

The law provides for the establishment in
each county town of a superior institution,
under the designation of County Academy.
Practically this name denotes the most ad-
vanced, or high school, department of the

town schools. The regulations require that
this department shall be open, free of charge,
to all youth of the county who are able to pass
a specified entrance examination. A county
academy receives from the Legislature a maxi-
mum grant of $600 annually.

The Provincial Normal School occupies mag-
nificent premises at Truro, almost the exact
geographical center of the province. Con-
nected with the normal school are excellent
model schools. The average attendance of
pupil-teachers is about 120.

Regulations of the Council of Public Instruc-
tion provide for the organization of a Provin-
cial Educational Association and of Teachers'
Associations in the various inspectoral districts.
The Department of Education issues serni-an-
nually a "Journal of Education," which is the
medium of all official notices emanating from
the Council of Public Instruction.

The report of the Superintendent of Educa-
tion for 1882 shows the attendance during that
year to have been as follows: Winter term,
76,888; summer term, 81,119. The total
number of pupils registered during the year
was 95,912. The number of teachers em-
ployed during the winter term was 1,890. The
total expenditure on public schools for the
year was $571,389.64.

In 1883 the Legislature passed " an act to
secure better attendance at the public schools,"
which embodies the principle of compulsory
education. It has a local-option clause. The
province possesses excellent institutions for the
training of deaf-mutes and the blind.

The collegiate or university s\ stem of Nova
Scotia is chiefly denominational. There are five
institutions that confer degrees. The oldest of
these, under the control of the Church of Eng-
land, is the University of King's College at
Windsor, founded in 1788, and granted a royal
charter by George III in 1802. Dalhousie
College, Halifax, is a quasi-provincial institu-
tion. Its resources have received large addi-
tions during the past few years. It was origi-
nally founded in 1828 by the Earl of Dal-
housie, but its true history as a university
dates from 1862, when it received from the
Legislature its present constitution. Acadia
College, Wolfville, is under the management of
the Baptist denomination. It was founded in
1844. St. Francis Xavier College, Antigonish,
and St. Mary's College, Halifax, are Roman
Catholic. For many years the question of
grants to denominational colleges provoked
much controversy, excited much bitter feeling,
and had an important bearing in some cases
on the fate of governments and parties. In
1881 it was decisively settled by the with-
drawal of grants from all the colleges.

586

OBITUARIES, AMERICAN.

O

OBITUARIES, AMERICAN. Atwater, Lyman H.,

an American clergyman, born in New Haven,
Conn., Feb. 20, 1813 ; died in Princeton, N. J.,
Feb. 17, 1883. He was graduated at Yale Col-
lege in 1831, entered Yale Theological Semina-
ry, and was licensed to preach in 1834. He be-
came pastor of the Congregational society in
Fairfield, Conn., where he served for nearly
twenty years, and was known as a contributor
to religious periodicals. In 1854 he was ap-
pointed Professor of Philosophy in Princeton
College, with which institution he continued
his connection until his death. He edited the
" Princeton Review " for several years.

Baker, William M., an American novelist,
born in Washington, D. C., in 1825 ; died in
South Boston, Mass., Aug. 20, 1883. He was
graduated at Princeton College, at the age of
twenty-one, studied theology there, and then,
joining his lather in Texas, was a pastor in
Galveston, and subsequently in Austin, from
1850 to 1865. After fifteen years of service in
Texas, Mr. Baker accepted a charge at Zanes-
ville, O., whence he was transferred to New-
buryport, Mass. In 1874 he became pastor of
a Presbyterian church in South Boston. Al-
though earnestly devoted to his duties as a
minister, Mr. Baker found time for contribut-
ing frequently to periodicals. His most im-
portant work was "Inside: A Chronicle of
Secession," written secretly during the war,
while he lived in Austin, and giving a peculiar-
ly vivid picture of Southern life and sentiment
at that time. It was published anonymously.
His other works include "The Virginians in
Texas," " The New Timothy," and " His Maj-
esty Myself." His latest work was entitled
"The ten Theophanies, or, the Manifestations
of Christ before his Birth in Bethlehem." It
was completed shortly before his death, and
is regarded by those who knew him as in some
sort a record of the writer's own religious ex-
periences and struggles.

Barnes, Joseph R., Surgeon-General of the
United States Army, born in Philadelphia July
21, 1817; died in Washington, D. 0., April 5,
1883. He studied in the medical department
of the University of Pennsylvania, and was
graduated in 1838. For two years he was en-
gaged in practice in his native city, and in
1840 was appointed an assistant surgeon in
the army, and assigned to duty at West Point.
At the close of 1840 he was transferred to
Florida, where for two years he was connect-
ed with Gen. Harney's expedition against the
Seminoles. Thence* in 1842, he went to Fort
Jessup, Louisiana, where he served four years.
When the Mexican War began, Dr. Barnes was
appointed chief medical officer of the caval-
ry brigade, and he was in active service all
through, the war. He was assigned to duty
again at West Point in 1854, and remained

there for several years. At the outbreak of
the civil war. Surgeon Barnes, then in Oregon,
was among the first summoned to Washington.
In 1861 he was assigned to duty in the office
of the surgeon-general at Washington, where
his experience in field and hospital service was
of great value. Two years later he was ap-
pointed to a medical inspectorship, with the
rank of colonel, and in September, 1863, he was
promoted to fill the vacancy in the surgeon-
general's department, with the rank of briga-
dier-general. He served with honor during
the war, and in 1865 was brevetted major-
general. He was placed on the retired list the
year before his death.

Beard, George Miller, an American physician,
born in Montville, Conn., May 8, 1839 ; died in
New York, Jan. 23, 1883. He was graduated
at Yale College in 1862. His medical train-
ing was obtained partly at Yale, but chiefly at
the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New
York, where he obtained his degree in 1866.
From this time he gave special attention to
diseases of the nervous system. He also in-
troduced several new methods of electriza-
tion, and was the first to point out and exem-
plify the tonic effects of electricity. In 1867
he published, with Dr. Rockwell, a work on
" General Electrization," and in the same year
a valuable paper on " The Longevity of Brain-
Workers." Dr. Beard, during a comparative-
ly short life, made many contributions to the
literature of his profession, in part by transla-
tion and in conjunction with others. He was
a diligent student, and clear and forcible writ-
er. In 1871 he published, with Dr. Rockwell,
" Medical and Surgical Uses of Electricity,"
and the same year issued two popular treatises
on "Stimulants and Narcotics," and on "Eat-
ing and Drinking." In 1874 he entered upon
a careful examination of animal magnetism,
spiritualism, clairvoyance, and rnind-reading,
in their relation to the nervous system. He
explained the performances of the somewhat
famous Eddy, brothers, and also of Brown the
" mind-reader," maintaining that what was
called mind-reading was the unconscious ac-
tion of mind on body. Dr. Beard also studied
carefully the functional nervous disease known
as inebriety; and in 1879, when he was a del-
egate to the British Medical Association at
Cork, he presented a paper on " Inebriety and
Allied Nervous Diseases of America." Besides
frequently contributing to periodical literature
on topics relating to psychology and the nerv-
ous system, he delivered popular lectures on
psychological and neurological subjects.

Berrien, John M., an American naval officer,
born in, 1802; died in Philadelphia, Nov. 20,
1883. On receiving his appointment as mid-
shipman, he joined the frigate Constellation;
subsequently he was transferred to the sloop

OBITUARIES, AMERICAN.

587

of war John Adams, then to the frigate Guer-
riere, and afterward to the frigate Brandy wine.
Having served in other vessels also, he received
his commission as lieutenant, Feb. 9, 1837,
and in August of the following year he joined
the West India squadron in the sloop of war
Natchez. In September, 1844, he was ordereo.
to the frigate Potomac, and in 1847 was in
command of the schooner Bonito, at the cap-
ture of the city of Tabasco, Mexico. Lieut.
Berrien received his commission as com-
mander, March 13, 1856, and during 1858-'59
was attached to the navy-yard, Portsmouth,
N. H. In February, 1860, he was ordered to
Hong-Kong, China, where he took command
of the sloop of war John Adams ; and two
years later he was sent to Pittsburg, Pa., as
assistant inspector of ordnance at the Fort
Pitt Works. He was raised to the rank of cap-
tain in August, 1862, and in September, 1864,
was ordered to the ironclad Monadnock at
Boston. Toward the close of the year he was
sent to the Norfolk navy-yard. He was com-
missioned commodore, Sept. 20, 1866, and in
December was placed on the retired list.

Blair, Montgomery, an American statesman,
born in Franklin co., Ky., May 10, 1813 ; died
at Silver Spring, Md., July 27, 1883. ' He was
graduated at West Point Academy in 1835,
and served under Gen. Scott in the Seminole
War. He than studied law, and was admitted
to the bar in 1839. He was appointed District
Attorney for Missouri, in 1842 was elected
Mayor of St. Louis, and was raised to the
bench the next year. This position he resigned
in 1849. Three years after, he removed to
Maryland, and entered upon the practice of
law. He was engaged in important cases in
the United States Supreme Court, and was one
of the counsel in the famous Dred Scott case.
He was appointed by President Pierce to the
court of claims. Judge Blair left the Demo-
cratic party on the repeal of the Missouri Com-
promise, and for this was removed from his
seat by President Buchanan.. In 1860 he pre-
sided in the Republican Convention of Mary-
land, and in 1861 was appointed by President
Lincoln Postmaster-General. He served in this
office with signal ability and success. He pro-
hibited sending disloyal papers through the
United States mails, in which he was sus-
tained by Congress, and introduced various
reforms and improvements in his department,
such as money-orders, free delivery in cities,
postal railroad-cars, etc. Three years after-
ward (1864) he resigned from the Cabinet,
and rejoined the Democratic party, to which
he adhered for the rest of his life. He sup-
ported Mr. Tilden for the presidency, and sub-
sequently attacked with much vigor President
Hayes's title to office. Although he favored Mr.
Tilden's candidacy again in 1880, he supported
Gen. Hancock, the regular candidate of the
party. Judge Blair was a man of simple, quiet
habits and tastes. He was specially fond of
country life, and, having abundant means, he

supported a fine farm and place at Silver
Spring, Md. His wife, together with three
sons and one daughter, survives him.

Brooks, Charles Timothy, an American scholar,
born in Salem, Mass., June 20, 1813; died in
Newport, R. I., June 14, 1883. He was gradu-
ated at Harvard College in 1832, and in 1837
was settled as a Unitarian minister in Newport,
where he spent the rest of his life. Mr. Brooks
published several original works, and was dis-
tinguished as a translator from the German.
In 1851 he issued a pamphlet on "The Contro-
versy touching the Old Stone Mill" at New-
port. He translated Schiller's " William Tell,"
" German Lyrics," etc. ; Goethe's " Fau^t " ;
and Richters "Titan," "Hesperus," and other
works.

Casserly, Eugene, a United States Senator, born
in Ireland, in 1822 ; died in San Francisco, Cal.,
June 14, 1883. His parents emigrated to New
York when he was only two years old, and as
his father was devoted to the business of teach-
ing, young Casserly received in boyhood an ex-
cellent education. He was graduated at George-
town College, D. C., entered a lawyer's office
in New York, and was admitted to the bar in
1844. He was corporation attorney in 1846-'47.
Three years later Mr. Casserly removed to San
Francisco, where he built up a good practice,
and took an active part in local and national
politics. He was an ardent Democrat, was a
capital stump- speaker, and for a time edited a
paper in San Francisco. He was elected State
printer ; but, in consequence of a heavy fire by
which his machinery and stock were destroyed,
he was compelled to retire from the business.
Thenceforward he devoted himself to his prop-
er profession, and took high rank among the
lawyers in California. During the civil war
he sided with that portion of the party which
upheld the Union. In 1869 he was elected
United States Senator from California. He
served on the committees of Printing, Public
Lands, and Foreign Relations. His health
having become infirm, Senator Casserly re-
signed in November, 1873, and returned to
San Francisco and resumed practice. Of late
years his declining strength was evident, and
he died of nervous prostration and softening
of the brain.

Clarke, William T., an American journalist,
born in Walpole, Mass., Oct. 1, 1829; died in.
New York, Dec. 11, 1883. He worked on his
father's farm, and subsequently studied for the
ministry at Meadville and Cambridge. He was
ordained at Hingham, Mass., in 1855, and
preached for some years at Haverhill and
Chelsea. In 1866 he came to New York, and
entered upon journalism as his special work.
He edited "The Liberal Christian" for four
years, and became associated with Theodore
Tilton in "The Golden Age." He also was
connected with "The Graphic," and "The
Evening Express." In 1882 he entered into
service with " The New York Star," and was
its chief writer. Mr. Clarke wrote readily and

588

OBITUARIES, AMERICAN.

forcibly, and lie was correspondent of several
journals in the country.

Coan, Titus, an American missionary, born in
Killingworth, Conn., Feb. 1, 1801 ; died at Hilo,
Hawaii, Dec. 1, 1882. He was a cousin and
townsman of Asahel Nettleton ; but, though
influenced by the great revivals that followed
the preaching of Mr. Finney, he did not unite
with the church until 1828. He entered the
second class of Auburn Theological Seminary
in 1831, and in 1833 was graduated and li-
censed to preach. On the 16th of August he
sailed for Patagonia with one companion, the
Rev. Mr. Arms, to explore the country, with
a view to the possible establishment of a mis-
sion. In the straits of Magellan they sighted
the Beagle, in which Charles Darwin was
making his famous voyage of scientific explo-
ration. The savages sought to detain the ven-
turesome missionaries among them, and they
barely escaped with their lives, after three
months of exploration among the Patagonian
tribes in the region of Gregory's Bay. A pass-
ing ship took them off and landed them at
New London in May, 1834. On the 3d of
November following, Mr. Coan married Miss
Fidelia Church, of Church ville, N. Y., and on
Dec. 24, 1834, the young missionaries sailed,
with six others, in the ship Hellespont from
Boston for the Hawaiian islands, ma Cape
Horn. They arrived at Honolulu June 6, 1835,
and at Hilo, which was to be their mission-
station and their home for life, July 21st. For
two years Mr. Coan gave himself chiefly to the
study of the Hawaiian language, and he at-
tained great power as a speaker. His district
comprised the entire provinces of Hilo and
Puna, extending 100 miles along the eastern
coast of Hawaii. Throughout this wild and
beautiful country he made frequent tours on
foot ; an era of revivals soon began, and, from
1838 to 1840, 7,000 of the natives were con-
verted. He organized churches and schools
throughout his district, and Mrs. Coan carried
on for some years a school for native girls at
Hilo. During his forty-six years of missionary
work, he received 14,000 Hawaiians into the
Hilo and Puna church. He was for many years
President of the Hawaiian Evangelical Associa-
tion. His great success was largely owing to
the aid and wisdom of Mrs. Coan, who died
exhausted by overwork in 1872. (For a sketch
of Mrs. Coan's life, see the " Annual Cyclopae-
dia" for 1872, p. 629.) In 1860, and again in
1867, Mr. Coan made a tour of the missions in
the Marquesas islands. In 1870 Mr. and Mrs.
Coan visited the United States. Mr. Coan was
for forty years the chief source of information
respecting the great volcanic eruptions of Ki-
lauea and Mauna Loa, of which he was an
ardent and constant student. His descriptions
of volcanic phenomena were published in many
different journals from 1841 to the year of his
death. From 1851 to 1880 he was a frequent
contributor to the " American Journal of Sci-
ence." His published books are autobiograph-

ical; they are, "Adventures in Patagonia"
(New York, 1880), and " Life in Hawaii " (New
York, 1882). Four children survive him.

Davidson, Thomas G., an American lawyer,
born in Jefferson co., Miss., in 1805; died on
his farm in Livingston parish, La., Sept. 11,
1883. He was admitted to the bar in Louisi-
ana, in 1827, and was elected to the Legislature
in 1832! He was re-elected successively until
1853, when he was sent to Congress. He
served in Congress till 1861, when with other
secessionists he withdrew. After the civil war,
he served again in the Legislature of Louisi-
ana; but during the latter years of his life he
was permanently disabled.

Ewer, Ferdinand €., an American clergyman,
born in Nantucket, Mass., May 22, 1826 ; died
in Montreal, Canada, Oct. 10, 1883. He was
graduated at Harvard College in 1848. His
parents were Unitarians, but he was baptized
by the rector of the Episcopal Church in Nan-
tucket. This gentleman was one of the ear-
liest of the so-called "ritualists," and young
Ewer entered zealously into the novelties in
worship of that day in the Episcopal Church.
It was Mr. Ewer's purpose to enter the minis-
try, but for a time he was involved in " deep
waters," and doubted whether there was any
truth at all in Christianity. Instead of the
ministry, he chose as his profession civil engi-
neering, and in 1849 sailed for California by
way of Cape Horn. There being no demand
for engineering services, he engaged in jour-
nalism, and for eight years was busily occupied
in this kind of work. He was ordained deacon
in 1857, and priest in 1858. He soon after be-
came rector of Grace Church, San Francisco,
where he labored diligently for two years. His
health having become impaired, he returned to
the East in 1860, was for a while assistant
minister in St. Ann's Church, New York, and
in 1862 was chosen rector of Christ Church.
Here he began the introduction of practices
not usual in Episcopal churches, which after a
time created disturbance among the people,
and the rector felt it best to resign his charge.
This was in 1871, when some friends organized
a new parish for him by the name of St. Igna-
tius. Here he was at liberty to carry out fully
his views as to doctrine and ritual, and he be-
came the foremost champion of what he called
"catholic" principles. Dr. Ewer was a man
of genial spirit and temper, and was an able
writer on theological and controverted points.
While preaching in St. John's Church, Mont-
real, Sunday, October 7th, he was stricken
down with paralysis, and he died the third day
after.

Ewing, Charles, an American general, died in
Washington, D. C., June 20, 1883. He was
brother-in-law to Gen. W. T. Sherman, on
whose staff he served. At the outbreak of
the civil war, he took a position in the regular
army as captain of the" Thirteenth Infantry.
He was brevetted major in 1863 for services at
the siege of Vicksburg ; brevetted lieutenant-

OBITUARIES, AMERICAN.

589

colonel in 1864, for services in the Atlanta
campaign; and again, in 1865, was brevetted
colonel for gallant and high soldierly conduct
during the war. He resigned in 1867, and* took
up his residence in the city of Washington,
where he practiced law. He was a brother of
General Thomas Ewing.

Foster, Charles J., an American editor, born in
Bicester, England, Nov. 24, 1820; died in As-
toria, N. Y., Sept. 12, 1883. He came to the
United States in 1847, and, after residing in
Boston for some time, he went to Cincinnati
and Columbus, O. Mr. Foster was intimately
acquainted with the turf in all its belongings,
and he was said to be the best-informed man
in the country on the subject of racing. He
wrote for " The Spirit of the Times," and in
1876 established " The New York Sportsman,"
which he edited till his death.

Gardiner, Addison, an American jurist, born
in Rindge, N. H., March 19, 1797; died in
Rochester, N. Y., June 5, 1883. In 1809 his
father removed to Manlius, N. Y., where the
youth acquired his education and studied law.
While yet a young man, in 1822, Addison Gar-
diner removed to Rochester, N. Y., which
thenceforward became his home for life. He
was the first justice of the peace in Rochester,
and in 1825 was appointed district attorney for
Monroe county. Four years later he was
commissioned by Gov. Throop. as Circuit Judge
for the Eighth Circuit, comprising eight coun-
ties in western New York. His ability as a
judge was conspicuous, and he rose high in the
esteem of the profession. He resigned this
post in 1838, and resumed the practice of law
in Rochester, in partnership with the late M.
F. Delano. He was nominated and elected
Lieutenant-Governor of New York in 1844 on
the Democratic ticket, and was re-elected in
1846. His position as presiding officer in the
State Senate was important and well sustained,
especially in view of the various law questions
which came up for settlement by the Court of
Errors, of which he was ex officio a member.
In 1846 Judge Gardiner was elected Judge of
the Court of Appeals, which was made the
highest appellate court in the State, and there-
upon resigned his lieutenant-governorship.
He served in this high position for the long
term, reaching to the end of 1855, when he
declined being renominated. His superior
qualities as a well-trained, clear-headed lawyer
led to his being largely occupied in referee
•cases during the latter years of his life, and so
admirable were his decisions that they were
rarely reversed on appeal. Judge Gardiner
was married in 1831 ; his wife died some years
ago, and he leaves a son and a daughter.

Garth waite, Jeremiah C., an American mer-
chant, born in Elizabeth, N. J., in 1807; died
in Newark, N. J., Feb. 16, 1883. Mr. Gar-
th waite was engaged in mercantile pursuits in
Newark, N. J., and in New Orleans, by which
he amassed large means, which he liberally
distributed. He was elected to the Common

Council of New York in 1850. He suggested
various reforms, and worked hard to carry them
out; but, finding it to be useless, he retired
from public life. He was specially prominent
in Episcopal Church affairs in New Jersey,
was a delegate to the General Convention of
the Church for more than twenty-five years,
and exercised large influence. His wife, a
daughter of Gen. Darcy, survives, but he left
no children.

Gorgas, Josiah, an American soldier, born in
Pennsylvania in 18 18; died in Tuscaloosa, Ala.,
May 15, 1883. He was graduated at West
Point Academy in 1841, and served through
the Mexican War with much credit, rising to
the rank of captain. At the outbreak of the
civil war, he resigned his commission, and ten-
dered his services to the Confederate Govern-
ment. He was placed at the head of the ord-
nance department, with the rank of brigadier-
general. After the fall of the Confederacy he
devoted himself for a time to business. In
1872 he was elected Vice-President of the
University of Tennessee at Sewanee, and in
1878 was invited to the presidency of the
University of Alabama. This post he held
until failing health, some years ago, compelled
him to relinquish it. Subsequently he resided
in Tuscaloosa, discharging the lighter duties of
librarian of the university.

Greene, George Washington, an American au-
thor, born in East Greenwich, R. I.,. April 8,
1811 ; died Feb. 2, 1883. He was a grandson
of Gen. Nathanael Greene. His educational
training was received at Brown University,
and a few years after his graduation he was
appointed United States consul at Rome, which
office he held. from 1837 till 1845. On return-
ing home in 1847, he was made Professor of
Modern Languages in Brown University. In
1872 he was appointed Professor (non-resident)
of American History in Cornell University.
Mr. Greene was the author of valuable histori-
cal works, as " The Life of General Nathanael
Greene " (2 voK, 1867-168) ; " Historical View
of the American Revolution " (1865), etc. He
also contributed largely to periodical litera-
ture, and was occupied in preparing a biog-
raphy of Longfellow. This last was mainly a
labor of love, he being on intimate terms with
the distinguished poet.

Hastings, Hugh Jt, an American journalist,
born in the north of Ireland, Aug. 20, 1820 ;
died at Monmouth Beach, N. J., Sept. 12, 1883.
He came to the United States when a boy
eight years old, and settled with his family in
Albany, N. Y. Being an active youth, with a
decided taste for journalism, he began his career
as reporter for the Albany " Atlas." Not
long after, he began the publication of a news- '
paper of his own, entitled the " .Knickerbocker,"
which proved a success, and grew in time to be
a valuable property. Mr. Hastings took an ac-
tive and energetic part in State and national
politics, devoting himself to the interests of the
Whig party and its successor, the Republican

590

OBITUARIES, AMERICAN.

party. He was appointed, by President Taylor,
Collector of the Port of Albany, but resigned
the office under Fillmore. In 1868 he as-
sumed the editorship of the New York " Com-
mercial Advertiser,1' and ere long gave it a
tone and character which were as striking
as they were effective. The paper increased
largely in circulation, and did good service to
the cause in which Mr. Hastings's deepest con-
victions ware enlisted. He was a warm sup-
porter of Gen. Grant ; criticised Mr. Hayes's
administration ; and, on President Arthur's tak-
ing the lamented Garfield's place, he rendered
him all the help in his power. His death was
mainly the result of his being thrown from
his phaeton, while driving along Broadway,
Long Branch. His wife and two daughters
survive him.

Hatfield, Edwin F., an American clergyman,
born in Elizabethtown, N. J., Jan. 9, 1807 ;
died in Summit, N. J., Sept. 22, 1883. He was
graduated at Middlebury College, Vermont, in
1839, and then spent two years at Andover
Seminary. He was ordained in May, 1832, by
the United Presbytery of New York, and di-
rectly after became pastor of the Second Pres-
byterian Church in St. Louis, Mo. Three
years later he removed to New York city, and
took the pastorate of the Seventh Presby-
terian Church, which post he held for twenty-
one years (1835-'56). Dr. Hatfield was a del-
egate of the New School Presbyterians in
1846 ; was elected stated clerk ; was re-elected
every year until the union of the two schools
again in 1870, when he was elected to the same
office ; and continued in this responsible trust
until the last year, when he was elected mod-
erator. Owing to ill health he stopped preach-
ing in 1863, and was financial agent of the
Union Theological Seminary for several years.
He was very successful in raising funds for
the institution. Dr. Hatfield published " Uni-
versalism as it is" (1841), "St. Helena and
the Cape of Good Hope1' (1852), "History
of Elizabeth, N. J." (1868), "The Church
Hymn Book," and " The Chapel Hymn Book "
(1872-78).

Head, Natt, Governor of New Hampshire,
born in Hooksett, N. H., May 20, 1828; died
there, November 12, 1883. He received his
early educational training at Pembroke Acad-
emy, and when he became of age he entered
actively and zealously upon agricultural and
other pursuits. He took deep interest also in
the military affairs of the State, in connection
with the service of the troops during the civil
war. In 1876 he was elected State Senator
by a large majority, and in 1878 was chosen
Governor of New Hampshire. He served out
his term of two years with great acceptance,
and was not a candidate for re-election. Gov.
Head was prominent in the Masonic and Odd-
Fellowship ranks, was Vice-President of the
Historical Society, and a director in various
savings-banks, insurance companies, railroads,
etc. He was highly esteemed for his integ-

rity, his genial spirit, his love for his native
State, and his unfailing efforts to promote
peace, good-will, and prosperity among his fel-
low-citizens.

Jeffers, William N., an American naval officer,
born in Gloucester co., N. J., in 1823 ; died
in Washington, D. 0., July 23, 1883. Mr.
Jeffers was destined by his parents for the
law, but exhibiting early a taste for the sea, he
was appointed midshipman Sept. 25, 1840.
His first cruise was in the Pacific, under Com-
modore A. C. Jones, and he took part in the
capture of Upper California by the forces com-
manded by that officer in 1842. When the
Mexican War broke out he was ordered to the
steamer Vixen, and was a participator in all
the naval operations in the Gulf. In 1852 he
was selected by Commodore Perry to accom-
pany the Japan Expedition; but, as the vessel
to which he was assigned (the Princeton) proved
to be unfit for service, he was given leave of
absence, and joined E. G. Squier in his explor-
ing expedition into Honduras. In the autumn
of 1853 he was ordered to the Brazil squad-
ron, and took part in the exploration of the La
Plata river. While he was thus occupied his
vessel was fired upon by a Paraguayan bat-
tery, which he gallantly attacked and silenced.
Daring his command of the Water Witch he
rescued from wreck the Spanish steamer Car-
tagena, which service was acknowledged by
the Queen of Spain, in the presentation of a
handsome sword. He was next assigned to
the ordnance-ship Plymouth, stationed in the
Gulf to protect the American flag. Obtaining
leave of absence, he was again with Mr. Squier
in Honduras, as hydrographic engineer. On
his return he served in the war-steamer Brook-
lyn on the coast of Mexico for two years, and
subsequently as one of the commissioners on
the " Chiriqui grants " in New Granada. Dur-
ing the civil war his most noted service was
as commander of the Monitor, when Lieut.
Worden had been disabled. After that time
he was occupied chiefly on shore-duty.

Kirkbiide, Thomas S., an American physi-
cian, born near Morrisville, Pa., July 31, 1809;
died in Philadelphia, Dec. 16, 1863. He re-
ceived his educational training at Trenton,
N. J., after which he entered the medical de-
partment of the University of Pennsylvania,
and obtained the degree of M. D. in March,
1833. He was immediately appointed resident
physician at the Quaker Insane Asylum, Frank-
ford, where he remained for a year, and then
took the same post in the Pennsylvania Hos-
pital for two years. For several years after
this he was engaged in private practice in
Philadelphia. In the autumn of 1840 he was
elected superintendent of the new Institution
for the Insane (now connected writh the Penn-
sylvania Hospital), and remained at its head
until his death. Dr. Kirkbride stood high in
the profession in his specialty ; he was a
member of numerous medical societies, au-
thor of several valuable books, and contri-

OBITUARIES, AMERICAN.

591

butions to medical journals ; and a most esti-
mable man.

Knox, Samuel R., an American naval officer,
born in Charlestown, Mass., Aug. 28, 1811 ;
died in Boston, Nov. 22, 1883. He entered
the navy as midshipman in 1828 ; served in
the Mediterranean and Pacific, under different
commanders ; and was in the United States Ex-
ploring Expedition, under Commodore Wilkes,
from 1838 to 1842. While in command of the
schooner Flying- Fish, he approached nearer to
the south pole than any other vessel in the
squadron. "Knox's High Land," in that lo-
cality, was named in honor of the young offi-
cer. In the Mexican War he assisted in the
capture of the castle of San Juan de Ulloa ;
and in the civil war he was attached to the
blockading squadron in the Gulf of Mexico.
He had been for several years on. the retired list.

Le €onte, John Lawrence; an American scien-
tist, born in New York, May 13, 1825; died in
Philadelphia, Nov. 15, 1883. He was gradu-
ated in 1846 at the New York College of Phy-
sicians and Surgeon's. While a student he made
scientific excursions into the Western States,
and afterward extended his travels into Cen-
tral America. Of these excursions and travels
he furnished interesting accounts for various
scientific societies and journals. Dr. Le Conte's
special study was the North American Coleopte-
ra, in which department he was regarded as a
high authority. The Smithsonian Institution at
Washington published his classification of the
Coleoptera of our country, in 1861-'62, and
in 1863-'66 his " List of Coleoptera of North
America." Dr. Le Conte entered the army as
surgeon of volunteers in 1862, and subsequently
became medical inspector in the regular army.
He was a member of numerous learned socie-
ties, and in 1873 was elected President of the
American Association for the Advancement of
Science. He contributed largely to scientific
periodicals, and was chief clerk in the United
States Mint, Philadelphia, at the time of his
death.

Macfarlane, Robert, an American editor, born
in Rutherglen, near Glasgow, Scotland, April 23,
1815 ; died in Brooklyn, N. Y., Dec. 21, 1883.
His earty education was limited, but having a
taste for reading he made respectable acquire-
ments in subsequent years. Having learned
his father's trade, that of a dyer, at Paisley,
he emigrated, in 1836, to the United States.
He took up his residence in Albany, N. Y., in
1840, and made his mark there as editor of a
paper published in the interests of the working
classes. This led to his appointment, in 1848,
as editor of the " Scientific American," which
post he held for seventeen years with decided
ability. Being threatened with failure of eye-
sight, he gave up literary work in 1865, and
returning to Albany engaged in the business of
dyeing. In 1874 he retired from the busi-
ness, in favor of his two sons, and thencefor-
ward resided mostly in Brooklyn. He revis-
ited his native land twice, and wrote pleasant

sketches of his travels and experiences. He
was author of a " History of the Screw-Pro-
peller," and edited a "Treatise on the Art of
Dyeing." He was also devoted to Scottish
antiquities, and to the history of Scottish emi-
gration to America.

McKi'on, John, an American lawyer, born in
Albany, N. Y., in 1808 ; died in the'city of New-
York, Nov. 22, 1883. His father was a naval
officer of distinction in the War of 1812. He
was graduated at Columbia College, and stud-
ied law in the office of John L. Mason. He was
elected to the Assembly, on the Democratic
ticket, and served in that position during
1832-'34. He was next elected to Congress,
where he served from 1835 to 1837, and again
from 1841 to 1843. He was appointed' Dis-
trict Attorney of the County of New York
early in 1846, and the following year (the office
having become elective) he was elected for the
full term of three years. He was resolute in
the discharge of his duties, as was proved by
his prosecution of a notorious malpractitioner,
Madame Restell, and securing a conviction,
and by his determined hostility to criminals
of all sorts. He was appointed by President
Pierce as successor for the unexpired term of
Charles O'Conor as United States District At-
torney for the Southern District of New York.
After this he resumed the practice of law, and
associated with himself Frederick Smyth as
partner in 1858. While United States District
Attorney he was engaged in prosecuting a num-
ber of well-known and important cases, such
as the attempt to enlist men to serve in the
British army in the Crimean War, the seizure
of the "filibustering" ship Northern Light, the
trial of officer Westervelt, taken on board the
ship Nightingale by Government cruisers, the
ship having in her hold 960 slaves. Mr. Mc-
Keon was a Democrat always and everywhere,
sometimes in the majority with the Tammany-
Hall wing, quite as often in the minority with its
opponents. Although well advanced in years,
he was nominated for District Attorney in the
autumn of 1881, and was elected to the same
office he had held more than thirty years be-
fore. Mr. McKeon married a daughter of Capt.
Sloat, of the United States Navy. His wife
and one daughter survive him.

AlcMnllen, John, an American clergyman, died
in Davenport, Iowa, July 3, 1883. He was
graduated in Chicago in 1854, and the same
year went to Rome, where he studied for the
priesthood, and was ordained in 1858. He re-
turned to Chicago in the same year, and was
appointed pastor of a St. Louis church. In 1861
he became President and Rector of the Roman
Catholic University of St. Mary's of the Lake,
and in 1863 began the erection of the new uni-
versity building, which was afterward de-
stroyed in the great fire. Dr. McMullen was
for a time at Wilmington, 111., but was sum-
moned back to Chicago in 1870, to take charge
of the Cathedral of the Holy Name. In 1877
he was appointed vicar- general of the diocese,

592

OBITUARIES, AMERICAN".

and in 1880, when a new diocese was formed
by the title of Davenport, Iowa, Dr. McMullen
was appointed its bishop. The remainder of
his life was spent in the work thus assigned
to him. He wrote largely on church history,
polity, etc. He was incessant in labor, and
confirmed in one year 6,000 candidates.

Martin, Benjamin N., an American scholar,
born in Mount Holly, N. J. ; died in New York,
Dec. 26, 1883. His early education was ob-
tained at the academy, Trenton, N. J., and he
was graduated at Yale College in 1837, in the
same class with Chief-Justice Waite, the Hon.
W. M. Evarts, and Profs. Lyman and Silliman,
of New Haven. Mr. Martin next entered the
Yale Theological Seminary, and, on graduating
in 1840, he supplied for 1841-'42 the pulpit of
the Carmine Street Presbyterian Church, New
York (now in Forty-second street). The fol-
lowing year he became pastor of the Con-
gregational Church in Hadley, Mass., where
he remained till 1847. During 1848-'49 he
was pastor of a Presbyterian Church in Al-
bany, N. Y. For three years he was occu-
pied chiefly in study, particularly in the de-
partments of science and philosophy. In
1852 he was called to the professorship of
Psychology and cognate studies in the Uni-
versity of the City of New York. He taught,
also, rhetoric and belles-lettres, and lectured
quite largely on modern history, political econ-
omy, apologetics, natural theology, etc. In
this congenial work Prof. Martin spent the re-
maining thirty-one years of his life. He re-
ceived the degree of S. T. D. from Columbia
College, New York, in 1862, and of L. H. D.
from the Regents of the University of the State
of New York in 1869. Dr. Martin ,was unsur-
passed as a teacher, and exercised over the
students under his care a very marked and
beneficial influence for everything good and
pure and true. He was ardent, clear-sighted,
and comprehensive in all he undertook to do,
and, while always careful to point out the
errors and fallacies in much of our modern
thinking in science and philosophy, he was en-
tirely tree from the littleness and narrow-
mindedness of many who deem it necessary to
depreciate and vilify science and its progress
among men, as if there were danger of harm
to true religion from the established con-
clusions of science. Dr. Martin contributed
largely to the chief theological reviews, and
wrote frequently for " The Independent " and
"The Evangelist," particularly on national
and anti-slavery topics during the civil war.
He was a member of a number of societies for
religious and social improvement, and one of
his last lectures was delivered at the opening
of the Institute of Christian Philosophy, in
November, 1883. He leaves one son, occupied
like his father in the important work of Chris-
tian training and culture of tlie young.

Mills, Clark, an American sculptor, born in
Onondaga co., N. Y., Dec. 1, 1815; died in
Washington, D. C., Jan. 12, 1883. He lost his

father when a child, and then lived with an
uncle ; but, becoming dissatisfied, he ran away
from home in 1828. In his wanderings he
reached New Orleans, and thence went to
Charleston, S. C., where he learned the stucco
or plasterer's trade, and worked at it for nine
years. He began to model busts in 1845, and
invented a new way of taking casts from the
living face. He produced a marble bust of
John C. Calhoun, which was purchased for
the City Hall of Charleston, in 1846. Two
years later he was in Washington city, where
he furnished a design for an equestrian statue
of Andrew Jackson, to be placed in Lafayette
Square. There being no foundry or workman
capable of producing this in metal, Mr. Mills
was compelled to learn the business of cast-
ing, and after numerous trials succeeded in
getting a perfect cast, in October, 1852. The
statue was set up, Jan. 8, 1853, on the anni-
versary of the battle of New Orleans. It was
completed at a loss of $7,000; but Congress
voted him an appropriation of $20,000. At the
same session $50,000 was appropriated for a
colossal equestrian statue of Washington, which
was unveiled in the city of Washington, Feb.
22, 1860. Mr. Mills was next engaged in cast-
ing the colossal statue of Liberty, from a de-
sign by Crawford, which now crowns the dome
of the Capitol. It was finished in 1863. At a
later date his design for the monument to
President Lincoln was adopted.

Milmore, Martin, an American sculptor, born
in Sligo, Ireland, in 1846 ; died in Boston,
Mass., July 21, 1883. He came to the United
States in his sixth year, and received his edu-
cation in Boston. Here he studied art, under
Thomas Ball, and developed talent in this line.
In 1863 he sent to the Sanitary Fair a statuette,
entitled "Devotion," which wasmucli admired.
He opened a studio in Boston, and soon ob-
tained success. He received the contract for
the Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument on Bos-
ton Common, and wrent to Rome to carry for-
ward and complete his studies in art. Mr. Mil-
more modeled busts of Pope Pius IX, Charles
Sumner, Wendell Phillips, and many others.
Among his public works are: the statue of
America, at Fitchburg, monuments in various
towns of Massachusetts, and statues of Gen.
Thayer, at West Point, and of a "Weeping
Lion," at Colby University. His last bust was
of Daniel Webster, for the State-House at Con-
cord, N. H. This is still in clay, but is to be
put in marble by his brother.

Norton, William A., an American scholar, born
in New York, in 1810; died in New Haven,
Conn., Sept. 21, 1883. He was graduated at
West Point, in 1831, and became lieutenant
in the Fourth Artillery. He taught for some
time at the academy as Professor of Natural
and Experimental Philosophy. He joined the
"Black Hawk Expedition," in 1832, but did
not take active part in it. He resigned from the
army, Sept. 30, 1833, and was afterward en-
gaged in professorial work in the University of

OBITUARIES, AMERICAN.

593

the City of New York, Delaware College,
Brown University, and the Sheffield Scientific
School, Yale College. He remained in this last
to the end of his life. He wrote several books
on scientific subjects, was a contributor to pe-
riodicals, and was a member of the Academy
of Science, etc.

Oakey, Emily S., an American author, born in
Albany, N. Y., Oct. 8, 1829 ; died there, May
12, 1883. She received her education at the
Albany Female Academy, and was graduated
in 1850, with high honors. In 1854 she was
offered a position as teacher in the academy,
which she accepted and retained for twenty-
five years. Miss Oakey was an admirable
instructor in English composition, rhetoric,
belles-lettres, and Latin. In later years she also
taught logic, German, and French. Her health
had never been vigorous, and the last year of
her life she was in the hospital, a sufferer from
malignant and painful disease. Miss Oakey
displayed poetic ability of no mean order, and
she contributed quite frequently to magazines
and religious newspapers. Her poems have
received high praise, and are noted for purity
of sentiment and sweetness of versification.
A volume of them was published just after
her death.

Patterson, William C., an American financier,
born in 1812 ; died in West Philadelphia, June
20, 1883. He was President of the Trust Com-
pany, and was well known in the financial
world. He served in the Mexican War, and
was for a time on the staff of his brother, Gen.
Robert Patterson, during the first year of the
civil war. He engaged in business in Philadel-
phia after the close of the great struggle, and
was one of the original directors, as well as
president, of the Pennsylvania Railroad.

Peck, Jesse T., an American clergyman, born
in Middlefield, N. Y., April 4, 1811 ; died in
Syracuse, May 17, 1883. While a student in
Cazenovia College he was licensed as an ex-
horter, and in 1830 was licensed as a local
Methodist preacher. In July, 1832, he joined
the Oneida Conference at Manlius, and served
as pastor for five years. He then gave himself
to educational work, and became Principal of
the Troy Conference Academy at Putney, Vt.,
in 1841. Here he remained seven years, when
he was elected President of Dickinson College.
During his four years of service the college
prospered greatly. In 1852 he took to preach-
ing again, his sphere of labor being the Meth-
odist Church in Washington city. Two years
later he became secretary and editor of the
Tract Society in New York. Thence, in 1858,
he went to California, where he remained
eight years, actively and usefully occupied.
Owing to the sickness of his wife he returned
to the East, and was in charge of congrega-
tions in Peekskill, Albany, and Syracuse. He
also entered zealously into the establishment
of the University of Syracuse, N. Y. In 1872
he was elected one of the bishops in the Meth-
odist Church. He was a preacher of consid-
VOL. xxin. — 38 A

erable eloquence and fervor, and wrote a num-
ber of books, the best known of which are,
41 The True Woman," "The Central Idea of
Christianity," and u What must I do to be
saved?"

Pinkney, William, an American clergyman,
born in Annapolis, Md., April 17, 1810; died
in Cockeysville, Md., July 4, 1883. He was
graduated at St. John's College, Annapolis, in
1827, and was ordained deacon in the Episco-
pal Church in April, 1835, and a year later was
ordained priest. His first charge was that of
Somerset and Coventry parishes; he was next
rector of St. Matthew's Church, Bladensburg;
and then became rector of the Church of the
Ascension, Washington city. In 1870 he was
elected Assistant Bishop of Maryland, and was
consecrated on the 6th of October. On the
death of Bishop Whittingham, in 1879, Dr.
Pinkney became bishop of the diocese. Owing
to his advanced years, Bishop Pinkney was not
so active and energetic as might have been
desired ; but he performed a large amount of
work, and was universally respected and es-
teemed for his sincere devotion to duty and
his many lovable qualities.

Randolph, Thomas F., formerly Governor of
New Jersey, born in New Brunswick, N. JM
June 24, 1836 ; died in Morristown, Nov. 7,
1883. His early education was obtained at the
Rutgers Grammar-School, and for a time he
was in the office of "The Fredonian," a paper
owned and edited by his father on retiring
from Congress. He next became a merchant,
and went into business in Vicksburg, Miss.
While there he married a granddaughter of
Chief-Justice Marshall. In 1850 he returned
to New Jersey, and took up his residence in
Morristown. He was elected to the Assembly
in 1859, and to the Senate in 1862, being also
elected for the full term in 1863. Four years
later he was made President of the Morris and
Essex Railroad. In 1868 he was elected Gov-
ernor of New Jersey. In 1874 he was chosen
United States Senator, succeeding the Hon. J.
P. Stockton. During the civil war he was
warmly in sympathy with 'the Union cause.
He was chairman of the special legislative com-
mittee on the "Peace Convention" in 1861.
He lived mostly in retirement hi Morristown
after leaving Congress.

Rodney, George B., an American lawyer, born
in 1802 ; died in Newcastle, Del., June 18, 1883.
He was graduated at Princeton College in 1820,
was admitted to the bar, and practiced in the
courts for many years with success. • He did
not take much part in politics, and was in pub-
lic life only a member of the House of Repre-
resentatives. He was twice elected, and served
from 1841 to 1845. He was a delegate to the
" Peace Convention " of 1861. Mr. Rodney
enjoyed the distinction, at the time of his death,
of being the oldest lawyer of the Delaware bar.

Sands, Benjamin F., an American naval officer,
born in Maryland, Feb. 11, 1812 ; died in Wash-
ington city, June 30, 1883. He entered the

594

OBITUARIES, AMERICAN.

navy as midshipman at the age of sixteen, and
served in the Brazil squadron, the West India
squadron, and the Coast Survey. He was com-
missioned as lieutenant in 1840, and was ap-
pointed to the frigate Columbus of the Medi-
terranean squadron. He did excellent service
on the Coast Survey from 1850 to 1855, and
was commissioned as commander in Septem-
ber, 1855. He was three years longer in this
work, and was made captain in 1862. He took
command of the steamer Dakota, of the North
Atlantic blockading squadron, and partici-
pated in the engagement with Fort Caswell,
Feb. 23, 1863. He was also present, in com-
mand of another steamer, at both attacks on
Fort Fisher, 1864 and 1865. He was commis-
sioned as commodore in July, 1866, and the
year following was appointed Superintendent
of the Naval Observatory. He was raised to
the rank of rear-admiral in April, 1871, and
put on the retired list in 1873.

Sands, Joshna K., an American naval officer,
born in Brooklyn, N. Y., in 1795 : died in Bal-
timore, Md., Oct. 2, 1883. His father was a
personal friend of Washington's, and was Col-
lector of the Port of New York. He entered
the navy at the opening of the War of 1812,
as midshipman, served under Commodore
Chauncey on Lake Ontario, and was actively
occupied all through the war. He was com-
missioned lieutenant in 1818, and served on
various stations at home and abroad. He was
made captain in 1840, and was on duty in the
Vixen in the Mexican War. He was in com-
mand of the Government vessel which carried
the articles for exhibition to the World's Fair,
1851, and received several tokens of honor. In
1856 he commanded the Susquehanna, and as-
sisted in laying the first Atlantic cable. Three
years later he was in charge of the squadron
on the coast of Brazil. In 1862 he was made
commodore, and took in hand the lake defenses.
In 1866 he was raised to the rank of rear-ad-
miral, and then placed on the retired list. He
was port-admiral at Norfolk, Va., from 1869
till 1872. During the last ten years of his
life he lived chiefly in Baltimore.

Sharswood, George, formerly Chief-Justice of
Pennsylvania, born in Philadelphia, July 7,
1810; died there, May 28, 1883. He graduated
from the University of Pennsylvania in 1828,
and having studied law, he was admitted to
the bar in 1831. He served in the Legislature
of the State for three years, and in 1843 be-
came editor of the u American Law Maga-
zine." Mr. Sharswood gave character and
standing to this quarterly; but, after three
years1 publication, the publishers discontinued
it. He edited Stephens's " Nisi Prius " in 1844,
and in the same year appeared his first edition
of " Russell on Crimes," which passed through
nine editions. In 1845 he was made Judge
of the District Court. He was president judge
from 1851 to 1867, when he was elected Asso-
ciate Judge of the Supreme Court of Pennsyl-
vania. Be became Chief-Justice in January,

1879, and occupied the position until January,
1883, when his term expired. He was ap-
pointed Professor of Law in the University of
Pennsylvania in 1850, and did excellent work
in this position. He published " Professional
Ethics " in 1856. The same year he brought
out " Popular Lectures on Commercial Law,"
and in 1859 an annotated edition of " Black-
stone's Commentaries." Several other valuable
law books were edited by him.

Shelton, William, an American clergyman, bcrn
in Bridgeport, Conn., Sept. 11, 1798; died in
the same house in which he was born, Oct. 11,
1883. His early training was in the home of
his father, who was a clergyman of the Epis-
copal Church in its very earliest days in the
United States, and his education was obtained
at Cheshire Academy. Thence he went to the
General Theological Seminary, where he was
graduated in 1823, among the very earliest of
its alurnni. He was ordained deacon the same
year, served the church at Plattsburg and
Red Hook, N. Y., and joined his father as as-
sistant in Fairfield (now Bridgeport), Conn.
Here he was ordained priest in May, 1826. In
September, 1829, he became rector of St.
Paul's Church, Buffalo, N. Y., a post which he
held to the day of his death. Buffalo, at the
time Dr. Shelton went there, was a frontier
town, so to speak, with less than 10,000 in-
habitants; but he became identified with its
growth and prosperity, took an active part in
the duties of good citizens, and was honored
and respected by all. He began the building
of St. Paul's Cathedral Church in 1848 (which
was not fully completed till 1868) ; was a dele-
gate to the General Convention of the Church
for nearly forty years ; and gave much of his
time to educational and missionary work.

Smith, Erasmus Darwin, an American jurist,
born in De Ruyter, N. Y., Oct. 10, 1806 ; died
in Rochester, N. Y., Nov. 11, 1.883. While yet
a youth, he went to Rochester, entered the
law-office of Hon. E. Griffin, and was admitted
to the bar in 1827. He was married in 1831
to a daughter of Mr. Griffin. After practicing
law for several years, he entered into partner-
ship with Mr. H. E. Rochester, which lasted
for more than twenty years. For a number of
years he was Clerk of the State Court of Chan-
cery, and was a Democrat in politics. He
joined the Whig party in 1855, and was elect-
ed a justice of the Supreme Court of the State
in November of that year. In 1859 he was re-
elected for a second term of four years. His
position as Supreme Court judge made him also
a member of the Court of Appeals for a part
of both his terms. When the time for election
came round again, Judge Smith was so accept-
able to both parties that, in 1863, he was
chosen for a third term. Meanwhile, the term
of office had been lengthened to fourteen years,
so that he continued on the bench till 1876,
when, having become disqualified by age, he
retired to private life. His eminently high
character as a judge led to his being frequently

OBITUARIES, AMERICAN.

595

called on to act as referee during the latter
years of his life. He was prominent in religious
affairs, being an active and devoted member of
the Episcopal Church, whose interests he loved
to serve. He was also an ardent Mason.

Sojoarner Truth, an American negro lecturer,
born in the State of New York, about 1775 ;
died in Battle Creek, Mich., Nov. 26, 1883.
She was born a slave, and spent her life as a
slave until 1827, when slavery was abolished
in New York. Her parents came from the
coast of Guinea, and were brought to the
United States, and sold into slavery. The
name she received from her master was Isa-
bella Hardenburg, but, disliking it, she went
out into the woods and prayed to the Lord for
another name. According to her account, she
heard the name " Sojourner " whispered to her
in answer to her prayer, and the appellation
"Truth" was afterward added, seeing that, in
her going up and down throughout the coun-
try, as she held to be her mission, she should
preach nothing but truth to all men. For
about three quarters of a century she delivered
lectures, in the East and West, on temperance,
politics, and the woman's rights question. She
could neither read nor write, but being very
tall — nearly six feet — and having a deep, pow-
erful voice, she proved to be a very imposing,
effective lecturer. Among other things, she
was anxious to obtain a grant of public lands in
the West for the establishment of a negro col-
ony, and for educating negro youth. There is
no doubt that Sojourner Truth did much good
work during her long life, for she helped to re-
claim hundreds from bad- ways, and set an ex-
ample of great power to people of her own
color.

Sophocles, Evangelinus A., an American schol-
ar, born near Mount Pelion, Thessaly, Greece,
March 8, 1807; died in Cambridge, Mass.,
Dec. 17, 1883. He was educated in the Con-
vent of Mount Sinai. He came to the United
States in 1829, studied for a while at an acad-
emy in Monson, Mass., and. then entered Am-
herst College, but did .not complete the course
there. He taught for a time at Amherst, Hart-
ford, and New Haven. He made two voyages
to Greece, and returned each time with valu-
able works in his special line. From 1842 to
1859 he was connected with Harvard as tutor
and assistant professor. In 1860 he was made
Professor of Greek (Ancient, Modern, and By-
zantine). In 1837 Yale College gave him the
.degree of A. M., and in 1868 Harvard conferred
upon him the degree of LL. D. Prof. Sophocles
published a number of Greek books of' excel-
lent quality. His " Greek Grammar " (first
issued in 1838) had a very large sale, and is
still in use. His latest and most elaborate
work was <l Greek Lexicon of Roman and By-
zantine Periods," published in 1870.

Swann, Thomas, an American Senator, born
in Alexandria, in 1806 ; died in Leesburg, Va.,
July 24, 1883. He was educated at Columbia
College and the University of Virginia. His

law studies were pursued in his father's office,
after completing which he removed to Balti-
more. In 1845 he was elected a director of
the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. Two years
later he became its president, and resigned in
1853. He next accepted the presidency of
the Northwestern Virginia Railroad Company,
and while in this office was, in 1856, elected
Mayor of the city of Baltimore, and re-elected
in 1858. While the secession struggle was in
progress he was elected by the Union party
Governor of the State of Maryland, and took
his seat Jan. 1, 1865. The next year he was
elected United States Senator, but was per-
suaded to remain at his post as Governor until
the expiration of his term, Jan. 1, 1869. In
November, 1868, Gov. Swann was elected by
the Democrats as representative in Congress.
He was re-elected four times, viz., in 1870,
1872, 1874, and 1876.

Talbot, Joseph, an American clergyman, born
in Alexandria, Va., Sept. 5, 1816; died in In-
dianapolis, Ind., Jan. 16, 1883. He was of
Quaker parentage, and received his educa-
tional training at the Alexandria Academy.
About 1835 he removed to the West, where
he engaged hi mercantile pursuits and bank-
ing business. His religious convictions took
such shape that he abandoned Quakerism,
and united with the Episcopal Church. He
was baptized in 1837, and after due prepara-
tion was admitted to the priesthood in 1848.
He thereupon became rector of St. John's
Church, Louisville, Ky., where he served some
seven years. Thence he went to Indianapolis,
and became rector of Christ Church in that
city. In 1860 he was consecrated missionary
Bishop of the Northwest, and five years later
was chosen Assistant Bishop of Indiana. On
the death of Bishop Upfold, in 1872, he be-
came bishop of the diocese. He received his
doctor's degree from the Western University
of Pennsylvania, and subsequently, while in
England at the Lambeth Conference, he was
honored with the degree of LL. D. by the
University of Cambridge. Bishop Talbot was
possessed of vigorous manhood, was a man of
fine appearance, and was an excellent preacher.

Taylor, Arthur F., an American chemist, born
in Andover, Mass., in 1853; died suddenly
while on a visit to New York, June 19, 1883.
He was a graduate of Harvard College, and
also of the School of Chemistry of the Uni-
versity of Gottingen, Germany. He was Pro-
fessor of Chemistry for a time in the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania, but in 1881 accepted the
professorship of Chemistry in the Case School
of Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio. This
post he held at the time of his death.

Thayer, Nathaniel, an American capitalist, born
in 1808; died in Boston, Mass.', March 7, 1883.
He was a son of Rev. Dr. Thayer, of Lancaster,
and for many years was a member of the firm
of J. E. Thayer & Brother. He was largely con-
nected with railroads and railroad development
in the West, and was a director of the New

596

OBITUARIES, AMERICAN.

York Central, the Michigan Central, the Chi-
cago, Burlington, and Quincy, and the Phila-
delphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore railroads.
He was also a munificent benefactor of Har-
vard College, in buildings and endowments.
He founded Thayer Hall (1870), the Thayer
Commons Hall, etc., and bore the expenses of
Agassiz's expedition to South America. Mr.
Tbayer was noted for generously contributing
to the needs of poor students at Harvard.

Thome, Charles R., an American actor, born
in New York, June 11, 1840; died there, Feb.
10, 1883. His father was manager of travel-
ing theatrical companies, and young Thome
spent his early years in this roving sort of
life. His first appearance on the stage was
in San Francisco, in 1852, when a mere boy.
His father put him to learn a trade, but, as he
did not like it, he went back to the theatre.
After a while he met with some success, in

1862. He next went to China, and built a
theatre in Shanghai, where he had fair suc-
cess. Afterward he went to Egypt, and thence
round the world by way of Paris and London.
He came back to New York in 1873, and joined
the Union Square Company.

Tom Thumb (Charles Heywood Stratton), an
American dwarf, born in Bridgeport, Conn.,
Jan. 4, 1838; died in Middleborough, Mass.,
July 15, 1883. On entering the service of P. T.
Barnum, in 1852, he received the sobriquet of
Tom Thumb, by which he is best known. At
that time he was not two feet high, and weighed
less than 16 pounds. He was engaged at a
salary of $3 a week and traveling expenses ;
but, as he proved a great success at Barnum's
Museum, his salary was increased to $25 a
week. In 1854, Barnum took him, to England,
where he was very successful, and was pre-
sented to the Queen and royal family. Thence
he went to Paris, and saw more of royalty, reap-
ing for his employer quite a golden harvest.
The General's next experience was in getting
a wife, viz., a dwarf girl named Lavinia War-
ren, to whom he was married in February,

1863. During the years subsequent to this, he
and his little wife continued in the show busi-
ness, traveled over the world, and held exhibi-
tions wherever they went. His death was sud-
den, being the result of a stroke of apoplexy.

Trenchard, Stephen Deeatnr, an American naval
officer, born in Brooklyn, N. Y., July 10, 1818 ;
died in New York city, Nov. 15, 1883. His
father was a naval officer under Com. Chaun-
cey in the War of 1812. He was appointed
cadet at the age of sixteen, and from 1835 to
1837 was stationed on the receiving- ship New
York. He spent the year 1839 and part of
1840 in the Naval School in Philadelphia. He
was promoted to passed-midshipman in July,
1840, and detailed for duty on the sloop Preble
attached to the West India squadron. He was
for two years in another vessel on the home
squadron, and two more with the Coast Sur-
vey, after which he was promoted in February,
1847, to a lieutenancy. He was assigned to

the Albany, then to duty in the home squad-
ron, the receiving-ship Philadelphia, the steam-
frigate Powhatan, of the West India squadron,
and the steamer Rhode Island. This last was
a supply-vessel to the blockading squadron,
from 1861 to 1865, under Lieut. Trenchard's
command. He was commissioned commander
in July, 1862, and distinguished himself in
the attacks on Fort Fisher. After the civil
war was over, he was stationed at the Brook-
lyn navy- yard, and thence was put in com-
mand of the Lancaster, flag-ship of the South
Atlantic squadron. He was commissioned
commodore in May, 1871 ; served on the Board
of Examiners ; and subsequently as light-house
inspector. He was raised to the rank of rear-
admiral in August, 1875. He was in command
of the Nocth Atlantic station from 1876 to
1878, and was placed on the retired list in
July, 1880.

Uncle Tom (Josiah Benson), the hero of " Uncle
Tom's Cabin," born in Charles co., Md., in
1789; died in Dresden, Ont., May 5, 1883. He
was born a slave, and continued such until he
succeeded in escaping into Canada with his
wife and four children. Henson had been early
taught religious truth and obligation, and so
excellent was his character for sincerity and
honesty that he was made a Methodist preach-
er before he knew how to read. In 1828
his Methodist friends contributed a large sum
with which he expected to purchase his free-
dom ; but he was tricked out of his money
by his unscrupulous master. As soon as pos-
sible after that he ran away and got to
Canada and freedom. He was active and in-
dustrious, and assisted largely in the " under-
ground railway " mode of helping negroes out
of slavery. He risked his life more than once
by venturing into Kentucky. In 1851, after
his eldest son had taught him to read, he visit-
ed England, and was treated with much kind-
ness. On his return he wrote and published
his autobiography, in order to raise means
wherewith to buy the freedom of his elder
brother. Mrs. Stowe's famous " Uncle Tom,"
in her novel, is based largely on the life and
character of Henson. He visited England
again, a few years ago, and had an interview
with the Queen. It is said that 40,000 copies
of his autobiography had been purchased by
the people of the United Kingdom.

Van Boron, William H., an American surgeon,
born in Philadelphia, April 5, 1819 ; died in
New York city, March 25, 1883. His educa-
tion was obtained in the city of his birth, with
the exception of between two and three years
passed at Yale College. He entered the medi-
cal class of the University of Pennsylvania,
and finished his studies there before reaching
the age required for graduation. Having this
spare time, he went to Paris with Dr. Har-
lan, of Philadelphia, and was engaged in medi-
cal studies for eighteen months. On return-
ing to the United States he was graduated in
medicine from the University of Pennsylvania

OBITUARIES, FOREIGN".

597

in 1840. His graduation essay was of such su-
perior merit that the Faculty took charge of
its publication. Dr. Van Buren next entered
the army, and served under Generals Wool and
Harney in Florida, and for a short time on the
Canadian frontier. In Florida his health broke
down under malarial poisoning, the ill effects
of which he felt all through life. In 1844 he
was stationed in the Meteorological Bureau
in Washington. The next year he went to
New York, and became assistant to Dr. Val-
entine Mott in the department of surgery. He
soon took high rank as hospital surgeon, as
teacher of anatomy and surgery, and as a fam-
ily practitioner. He was appointed one of
the surgeons to the Bellevue Hospital at its
organization in 1847, and in 1852 was made
surgeon, and afterward consulting*surgeon, to
the N"ew York Hospital. Later he became sur-
geon and consulting-surgeon to St. Vincent's
Hospital, and consulting-surgeon to the Wom-
an's, the Charity, and the Presbyterian Hospi-
tals. He was elected Professor of the Art of
Surgery in Bellevue Hospital Medical College
in 1868, where he lectured up to within a few
months of his death. He was also Vice-Presi-
dent of the New York Academy of Medicine,
President of the Pathological Society, and cor-
responding member of the Paris Soci6 te" de Chi-
rurgie. Dr. Van Buren translated and anno-
tated several valuable works in his chosen de-
partment of medical science, and published in
later life lectures on " Diseases of the Rectum,"
and a text-book on " Genito- Urinary Surgery."
His reputation as a teacher was very great, and
his skill and judgment in surgical cases ranked
high. Dr. Van Buren married a daughter of
Dr. Valentine Mott in 1842. His wife and two
married daughters survive him.

Washburn, Israel, an American legislator, born
in Livermore, Maine, June 6, 1813 ; died in
Philadelphia, May 12, 1883. His early educa-
tion was obtained at the public school, but af-
ter his fourteenth year he was in charge of
private tutors at home. He studied law, was
admitted to the bar in 1.834, and practiced with
fair success in Orono, Maine. During the years
1842-'50 he served in the State Legislature,
and in 1850 was elected to Congress as a Whig.
He was re-elected in 1852, 1854, 1856, and
1858. He served in Congress continuously
from Dec. 1, 1851, to Jan. 1, 1861, when he
resigned, having been elected the year previous
Governor of Maine. He was re-elected in 1861,
.but declined a third term. Subsequently he
was appointed Collector of Customs at Port-
land, Maine. He published in 1874 "Notes
Historical, etc., of Livermore, Maine."

OBITUARIES, FOREIGN. Bam, Francisco, Span-
ish minister to the United States ; died by his
. own hand in New York, July 29, 1883, while
under depression of spirits produced by in-
insomnia. He was born at Puerto Real, near
Cadiz, in 1831. After studying law at Madrid,
he was at the age of twenty-three given a place
in the Department of the Interior. He lost

the office upon the defeat of the O'Donnell
Cabinet, hut resumed it after the accession of
the Union Liberals in 1858. He was elected
a deputy for the district of Puerto de Santa
Maria in 1858, and held that seat for seven or
eight terms, taking a high rank as a parlia-
mentary orator. In 1868 he was associated with
Herrera as Director -General of the Admin-
istration. During the Revolution of 1868 he
advocated the candidature of the Due de Mont-
pensier for the throne. After the choice of
Amadeus he worked for the restoration of the
royal family in the person of Don Alfonso.
When the latter was proclaimed King, Sefior
Barca took the office of Sub-Secretary of the
Interior, which he resigned after a year and a
half, on account of his sympathies with the
Liberal Opposition. He declined several high
offices before accepting, in 1881, the post at
Washington. Sefior Barca was an advanced
Liberal. He published a " Dictionary of Politics
and Administration," and other works.

Barrot, Ferdinand, a French politician, died
Nov. 13, 1883. He was born in 1806, de-
fended Louis Napoleon's accomplices in the
attempts at Strasburg and Boulogne, was Min-
ister of the Interior in 1849, and a Senator
under the empire. He was elected Life Sena-
tor as a Bonapartist in 1877.

Boeresco, Basile, a Roumanian statesman, died
in Paris, Dec. 7, 1883. He was born in 1830,
the son of a poor peasant. He studied in Paris,
and returned to Bucharest with the degree of
doctor of laws in 1851. He soon acquired a
reputation as a practicing lawyer, but occupied
himself also with polities', and, as a member of
the commission appointed in 1858 to consider
the question of uniting Moldavia with Walla-
chia, advocated the union with success. He
was then appointed Minister of Justice by
Prince Cuza, and two years later Minister of
the Exterior. He opposed the Cogelniceano
ministry, and after the fall of Cuza was called
into Prince Charles's Liberal Cabinet as Minis-
ter of the Exterior in 1868. He worked ener-
getically to obtain the sanction of Europe to
Roumanian independence. When the Danube
question came up, he was driven from office
under suspicion of having entered into secret
engagements with Austria.

Bonnechose, Cardinal de, Archbishop of Rouen,
died Oct. 28, 1883. He was born May 30, 1800,
of Protestant parents, and was a magistrate
before he joined the priesthood in 1830. He
became a cardinal in 1863, and defended in
the Senate the temporal power of the Pope.
He was distinguished as an orator. In his
charges of recent years he condemned the ec-
clesiastical policy of the republic, but in mod-
erate language.

Burke, Thomas M., an Irish clergyman, born
in Galway, Ireland, Sept. 8, 1830 ; died in Dub-
lin, July 2, 1883. He went to Perugia, Italy,
in 1847, and became a Dominican. Thence he
went to Rome, and studied there for five years.
He returned to Ireland as a priest, and estab-

598

OBITUARIES, FOREIGN.

lished a novitiate for the order of St. Dominic.
Here he became famous for eloquence and skill
as a public speaker. Father Burke went to
Rome again, and was made Superior of St.
Clement's. He remained in Rome till 1854,
when he made his way back again to Dublin.
In 1871 he visited the United States in the
capacity of Visitor-General of the Dominican
Order. He delivered lectures almost daily,
with great power and effect. In November,
1872, he lectured in New York, on J. A.
Froude's views of the relations between Eng-
land and Ireland, which resulted in an ani-
mated controversy. Father Burke also pub-
lished " Lectures and Sermons " in 1873.

Bnrsian, Conrad, a German philologist, died in
Munich in September, 1883, at the age of 52.
He was born in Saxony, and studied at Leip-
sic under Haupt and O. Jahns. After gradua-
tion he made a classical tour in Southern Eu-
rope, became extraordinary professor at Leip-
sic, was ordinary professor at Tubingen at the
age of thirty-one, was professor at Jena and
Zurich, and from 1874 at Munich. Besides
an exhaustive geography of Greece and nu-
merous editions of classical works, he pub-
lished an annual review of the progress of the
science of classical antiquity, and recently com-
pleted a " History of Philology."

Carl, Prince, of Prussia, the last surviving
brother of the German Emperor, died in Ber-
lin, Jan. 21, 1883. He was born in 1801, and
married a sister of the present Empress, a Prin-
cess of Saxe-Weimar. He passed through the
grades of military promotion to the rank of
field -marshal, and as chief of artillery intro-
duced improved ordnance ; yet unlike his son,
Prince Friedrich Carl, he never conducted any
military operations.

Castellani, Alessandro, an Italian antiquary, died
June 8, 1883. His father was a picture-
dealer and jeweler, the reviver of the granu-
lated goldsmith's work of the Etruscans and
the classical styles of jewelry, which have been
further developed by his other son Agosto, and
by Giuliano, in London. Alessandro was an
ardent republican. In consequence of the
Revolution of 1848, he was confined in the cas-
tle of St. Angelo, from which he escaped by
feigning insanity. He settled at Naples as a
collector and dealer in antiquities. His knowl-
edge, taste, and business tact enabled him to
lay hands, on all the finest discoveries of Etru-
ria and Southern Italy, and to dispose of them
at profitable prices to the European museums.
Two large collections were bought by the Brit-
ish Museum. A third, compo>ed of gems, gold
ornaments, and bronzes, was offered at the
Centennial Exhibition to any American mnse-
um ; but, as the price was not obtained, it was
disposed of in Europe.

Charles II, Duke of Parma, died in Nice. He
was born in 1799, and succeeded his mother in
the duchy of Lucca in 1824. This land was
ceded to Tuscany in 1847. In that year he
succeeded Marie Louise, widow of Napoleon,

in the duchy of Partna. By the Revolution of
1848 he was driven out, and in Saxony signed
an abdication in favor of his son, who died in
1854. The son of the latter was dispossessed
in 1859. Duke Charles married in 1820 the
daughter of Victor Emanuel I of Sardinia. In
later life he resided at Nice, under the title of
Count of Villafrauca.

Clesinger, Jean Baptist? AugHste, a French sculpt-
or, died in Paris, Jan. 6, 1883. He was born
at Besancon in 1814, and studied sculpture
under his father and then in Italy. He gained
his first reputation with a bust of Scribe,
and executed several others. In 1846 he ex-
hibited a faun and a statue of "Melancholy,"
and in 1847 four pieces, one of which, a statue
of a girl bitten by a serpent, was greatly ad-
mired. In 1848 he presented the Provisional
Government with a colossal bust of " Liberty,"
and executed a statue of " Fraternity," statues
of Rachel as "Phsedra " and "Lesbia," statues
of "Tragedy," "Sappho," "Cornelia and her
Children" (1861), "Cleopatra "(1869), eques-
trian statues of Francis I (1856) and the pres-
ent Austrian Emperor (1873) ; and portraits of
George Sand, whose daughter he married, Gen.
.Cissey, and others were among his numerous
works. He followed Canova in using color and
picturesque effects, but carried this classical re-
vival to the extreme of effeminacy.

Collier, John Payne, an English Shakspearean
critic, died Sept. 18, 1883. He was born in
1789. His father, John Collier, was a writer
and publisher. The son, after studying law,
became a parliamentary reporter and a writer
of essays and reviews. As editor of the " Even-
ing Chronicle," he began to write about Eliza-
bethan literature, and he soon after devoted
himself more completely to literature, and was
the most efficient seconder of the efforts of
Lamb and Hazlitt to revive an interest in the
minor poets of Shakespeare's time. He pub-
lished " The Poetical Decameron," brought out
a new edition of Dodsley's "Old Plays," pre-
pared a " Bibliographical and Critical Cata-
logue," and, with the facilities of the libraries
of Lord Egerton and the Duke of Devonshire at
his command, published "New Facts regard-
ing the Life ,of Shakespeare." He published
Shakespeare's plays, and wrote a " Life of
Shakespeare." and many other works. A dis-
covery of a folio of Shakespeare with marginal
notes gave rise to a controversy in 1859-'60,
and imputations against his literary honesty.

Conscience, Hendrik, a Flemish novelist, died
Sept. 10, 1883, He was born Dec. 3, 1812,
at Antwerp, where his father, a Frenchman
from Besancon, was settled as a merchant.
He enlisted in the Belgian army in 1830, at the
time of the Revolution, and, during his four
years' service, wrote numerous martial and
patriotic songs in the manner of B6ranger,
most of them in Flemish. When he was dis-
charged, in 1836, his father gave him the
choice of pursuing a mercantile career and giv-
ing up writing, or of shifting for himself. He

OBITUARIES, FOREIGN.

599

found employment as a gardener, then as a vil-
lage schoolmaster, then as a clerk, writing at
the same time romantic tales taken from Flem-
ish history. In 1838 the Anti-French League
was started, which aimed to make the Flemish
the national language. Conscience's national
stories were circulated broadcast. He then
changed his subject and manner, and depicted
the ordinary life of the people in a style of
child-like simplicity. "Evening Hours," uThe
Executioner's Child," " Rikketikketak," and
" The Conscript," are among the best realistic
novels that are written in any language. Ap-
pointed by the King teacher of Flemish to his
children, and receiving a sinecure in the public
service, he continued writing, but the fresh-
ness and vigor of his first stories were wanting
until the loss of his appointment through a
change of ministry stimulated his faculties,
when he produced "The Martyrdom of a
Mother," " The Child-Stealer," and " The Blue
House." He was one of the most prolific of
modern authors ; the number of his novels
was over eighty. Though they are inspired by
a political idea, the artistic merit, particularly
of his novels of popular life, is of the highest
order. Conscience was passionately devoted
to the national movement, of which he was the
apostle, and was the idol of the people.

Deschamps, Cardinal, Archbishop of Mechlin,
died Sept 30, 1883. He was born in 1810,
was a journalist in early life, and took an active
part in the movement for Belgian independ-
ence. He began the study of theology in 1831,
and, after graduating at Louvain, joined the
Redemptorists. He became distinguished as a
preacher, was head of a monastery, in 1865
was consecrated Bishop of Namur, and in 1867
Archbishop of Mechlin. He took a leading
part in the (Ecumenical Council, and in the
election of Pope Leo X.

Dindorf, Wilhelm, a German philologist, died
inLeipsic, August 7, 1883, at the age of 81.
He resigned a professorship in Leipsic Univer-
sity and devoted himself, .when about thirty
years of age, to critical study of the Greek
classics. He published critical editions of Aris-
tophanes, Demosthenes, and other Greek writ-
ers, "Scholia" on Homer, and many other
works relating to the literature of ancient
Greece. Unsuccessful financial speculations
forced him to sell his library in 1879, and
preyed on his mind to such an extent as to in-
capacitate him for his literary studies.
. Doyle, Richard, an English caricaturist, died
in London in December, 1883. He was the
son of John Doyle, a caricaturist, and was
born in London in 1826. His sketches of
character in " Punch " contributed greatly to
the success of that journal, which he 'left in
1850 on account of its attacks on Cardinal
Wiseman and the Catholics. The title-page
of " Punch " which he designed is still in use.
He illustrated many books of humor and fancy,
notably "The Continental Tour of Brown,
Jones, and Robinson " (1854), "The New-

comes," " The Fairy Ring," Leigh Hunt's " Jar
of Honey," and " In Fairyland." He exhibit-
ed many water-color drawings.

Erk, Lndwig, a German composer, died Nov.
30, 1883. He was born Jan. 6, 1807, at Wetz-
lar, where his father was organist. He lived
in Berlin. As a composer of glees and part-
songs, and of music for schools, he was unex-
celled.

Flotow, Friedrich von, a German musical com-
poser, died in Darmstadt, Jan. 24, 1883. He
was born in 1812, on the estate of his family
in Mecklenburg-Schwerin. He devoted hi in-
self early to music, studying in Paris under
Reicha, a famous theorician. The first of his
works that was produced on the stage was the
"Shipwreck of the Medusa," which obtained
a season's success in Paris in 1839-'40. In
1844 he produced the opera "Alessandro
Stradella," which became a popular favorite,
at first in Germany and then in other coun-
tries. In 1847 appeared at Vienna the still
more popular " Martha." None of Flotow's
compositions except these two operas con-
tained the elements of permanent success,
though refinement and exhilarating gayety
characterize all his music.

Gravez, Theodore, Bishop of Namur, died July
16, 1883. He was born at Sivry, in Hai-
nault, in 1810. He succeeded Monsignor Des-
champs as Bishop of Namur, Dec. 20, 1867.
He was the most ardent of the Syllabists, and
kept up the conflict against the new ecclesias-
tical laws after Pope Leo had instructed the
clergy to respect the Belgian Constitution, par-
ticularly by an anti-constitutional catechism
recently published.

Gnngl, Josef, a Hungarian musician, died Nov.
25, 1883, at Zsambeck, where he was born,
Dec. 1, 1810. First distinguishing himself as
a player on the oboe, he became a band-mas-
ter, and attained a world-wide celebrity as a
composer of dance-music, rivaling the compo-
sitions of Strauss. He led an orchestra in
Berlin, with which he made a tour in the
United States, removed to Brunn in 1858,
thence to Munich in 1864, and finally to Frank-
fort in 1876.

Halevy, Leon, a French author, died in Sep-
tember, 1883. He was born in Paris, Jan. 14,
1802. Unable to follow the profession of his
choice, that of a teacher, on account of being
a Hebrew, he applied himself to literature, and
obtained in 1837 a post under the Government
as archivist. In his youth he published elegiac
poems, in 1827 a " Resume of the History of
the Jews." in the same year imitations of the
principal foreign poets, in 1834 the poetical
drama of "Luther," in 1838 a "History of
French Literature," in 1843 and in 1853 collec-'
tions of fables, which were "crowned by the
Academy, followed by "Greek Tragedy," a
collection of translations from the Greek dram-
atists, which was also crowned. Among his
numerous dramatic compositions are "The
Duel," "The Czar Demetrius," "L'Espion,"

600

OBITUARIES, FOREIGN.

"Le Dilettante d' Avignon," "Beaumarcliais &
Madrid," " Indiana," and " Le Chevreuil." He
wrote also a life of his brother, the composer.

Iwaknra, Tomomi, a Japanese statesman, died
in Yeddo, July 20, 1883. Till within a short
time of his death, he held the post of Third
President of the Council, which he resigned on
account of ill health. He was a member of
the Kuge, or noble class, which had suffered in
political power and territorial position in com-
mon with the Mikado. He was educated at
Kioto, and attached himself at an early age to
the person and fortunes of the Mikado, who at
that time was kept in confinement and made
to endure all kinds of privations. Iwakura,
with the Prime Minister, Sanjo Sanerjoshi,
finally organized the party of the Mikado. In
1871 he went to the capital of Satsuma as spe-
cial envoy to obtain the assistance of that
prince. In August of the same year he was
constituted Vice Prime Minister, the office
which he held till his retirement. He opposed
the schemes of aggrandizement in Corea and
Formosa, which attracted the younger school
of politicians, and was accounted the chief of
the peace party. He was placed at the head
of the mission sent to Europe for the purpose
of revising the treaties with foreign powers,
but returned without accomplishing his object.

Jessel, Sir George, an English judge, Master of
the Rolls, died in London, March 22, 1883. He
was the son of a Jewish merchant, and was
born in London in 1824, was graduated at Uni-
versity College in that city in 1844, and was
called to the bar in 1847. He was elected to
Parliament for Dover in 1868, and appointed
Solicitor-General in 1871, and Master of the
Rolls in 1873. He was the first Jew that ever
sat on the English bench, and received high
credit for his labors in working out the har-
monious combination of equity jurisdiction
with that of common law.

Jung, Sir Salar, a Hindoo statesman, died of
cholera, at Hyderabad, Feb. 8, 1883, at the
age of 54. He was the descendant of a fam-
ily which had furnished the Nizam of the
Deccan, or Hyderabad, with his Dewan, or
Prime Minister, since the founding of the dy-
nasty in the beginning of the eighteenth century.
He filled official employments from his youth,
and in 1853 succeeded his uncle, Suraj-ul-Mulk,
as Prime Minister. He addressed himself to
the reform of the abuses which led to the in-
tervention of the English and the annexation
of the Berar province. The country was a
prey to a turbulent nobility who plundered the
rural districts, and a lawless Arab soldiery who
terrorized the capital. Lord Dalhousie medi-
tated the extension of British rule over the
Deccan, and such would have been the ulti-
mate fate of the Nizam's kingdom if the Muti-
ny had not taxed the energies of the British
to preserve the possessions already acquired.
"When the rebellion was suppressed, Salar Jung
had succeeded in reforming the state. He
gradually reduced the Arab mercenaries to

discipline, and employed them to establish civil
order and subjugate the quarrelsome and free-
booting military chiefs. Trade and agriculture
revived, while the Dewan purged the court of
vices and corruption, and established an order-
ly civil administration on the British model.
His work was indifferently appreciated by the
Nizam Afzul-ud-Dowlah, who subjected him
to petty restrictions and suspicious surveil-
lance. On the death of that sovereign, he was,
in 1869, through pressure exerted by the In-
dian Government, appointed Regent, jointly
with the late Amir-i-Kabir, during the minor-
ity of the infant prince. His administrative
reforms were not suffered to relapse, but were
kept energetically in operation to the day of
his death, so that Hyderabad was as well gov-
erned as any of the British provinces. Salar
Jung cherished the hope that the English
would restore Berar to the Nizam, in which
vain expectation he visited England in 1876.

Labonlaye, Edonard Rene Lefebvre, a French
jurist, died in Paris, May 25, 1883. He was
born in Paris, Jan. 18, 1811. In his 28th year
he won a wide reputation as a scholar by pub-
lishing a work on the "History of Landed
Property in Europe." He announced his trade,
that of a type-founder, on the title-page. Three
years later he obtained admission to the bar.
A second work, on the "Life and Doctrines of
Savigny," which first familiarized the French
with the teachings of the historical school, was
published about this time. This was followed
by elaborate treatises on " The Civil and Politi-
cal Condition of Women from the Time of the
Romans" (1843), and "Roman Criminal Legis-
lation respecting the Responsibilities of Magis-
trates " (1844). In 1849 he was chosen Profess-
or of Comparative Legislation in the College of
France. He was an ardent republican, and in
consequence of his opinions the Imperial Gov-
ernment found means to prevent his election
to the Corps Legislatif. He was a careful
observer of the politics of the United States,
and an admirer of the American Constitution.
In 1855 he published the first part of a " Politi-
cal History of the United States," which was
completed in 1866. He translated into French
the works of William Ellery Channing. He
wrote also " Studies on Germany and the Sla-
vonian Countries," and "Religious Liberty,"
besides minor works. During the American
civil war he was a zealous advocate of the
cause of the Union, writing with this object,
"The United States and France." His most
popular work is "Paris in America" (1863), a
political allegory. A " Programme of the Lib-
eral Party" was published in 1865, and the
"Memoirs of Franklin" in 1866-'67. In the
beginning of 1870 he was appointed a member
of a commission to inquire into the administra-
tion of the Seine department. He ceased his
opposition to the. empire in the face of foreign
trouble, 'declaring his belief in the necessity of
a "peaceful revolution," and advocated an af-
firmative vote in the plebiscite of May, express-

OBITUARIES, FOREIGN.

601

ing his belief in the reforms promised by Napo-
leon and Emile Ollivier. For this he was hissed
by the students in the university and compelled
to suspend his lectures. In July, 1871, he was
elected to the National Assembly for the de-
partment of the Seine. As secretary of the
committee of thirty on the Constitution, he
combated the monarchists effectually. He
took a prominent part in the debates, voting
with the Left Center, in support of Thiers, and
in favor of the existing press and education
laws. In 1875 he was elected a life Senator.
In 1876 he was appointed Administrator of the
College of France. In 1877 he resumed his
lectures on comparative legislation. He was
an earnest advocate of absolute freedom of edu-
cation, and, in social questions, believed in the
principle of co-operation and approved of the
establishment of libraries and similar institu-
tions for the working class. Laboulaye was a
republican of the old school, whose ideal was
presented in De Tocqueville's description of
American institutions. He was a stranger to
the republican ideas of the modern generation
of Frenchmen. His later life was embittered
by the antagonism with the Liberals in which
he was placed by the educational and anticleri-
cal legislation which he opposed in the Senate.

Lasteyrie, Jules, Marquis de, a French politi-
cian, died in Paris, Nov. 15, 1883. He was born
Oct. 31, 1810, and was a grandson of Lafay-
ette. He was an officer in the army of Dom
Pedro. In 1842 he entered the French Cham-
ber. He was expelled in 1852 for protesting
against the coup d'etat, but was amnestied. He
was elected as an opposition candidate in 1869,
and sat in the National Assembly of 1871, vot-
ing with the Right Center, but afterward join-
ing the Left Center and voting for all the new
constitutional laws. He was elected Senator
for life, Dec. 10, 1875. He wrote a " History
of Political Liberty in France."

Lenormant, Francois, a French archaeologist,
in Paris, Dec. 9, 1883, from a malarial
affection contracted during explorations in
Calabria. He was born Jan. 17, 1837. He
was gifted with an extraordinary memory,
arid under the tuition of his father, the distin-
guished archaeologist, Charles Lenormant, he
early developed skill in research. He published
a learned essay when only fourteen years old,
and at the age of twenty won the numismatic
prize of the Academy of Inscriptions. During
his archaeological tours he was a witness of the
massacres of the Druses in Syria, in 1860, of
which he wrote a graphic account. He made
important excavations at Eleusis in the same
year. In 1874 he was appointed Professor of
Archaeology in the National Library. He
served as a volunteer in the siege of Paris, and
was wounded at Buzenval. He was a profound
and original writer on the archaeology of the
Bible, was a high authority in numismatics,
and wrote with great historical grasp and
economical insight of the monetary systems of
the ancients. He was especially great as an

01 r
AM

Assyriologist and investigator in the history. of
all the ancient Oriental empires, and wrote
numerous monographs on cuneiform syllaba-
ries, etc., and general treatises on the ancient
history of the East.

Lopez, Antonio, Marquis of Comillas, a Span-
ish financier, died in Barcelona, Jan. 17, 1883.
He was born in 1820, in the village of Comil-
las, from which he took his title when raised
to the hereditary nobility by the King, who
visited his castle in 1881. Lopez was born
poor, but succeeded early in business, laying
the foundation of his fortune, which was esti-
mated at the time of his death at $25,000,000,
in Cuba. He was the founder of the great
Spanish line of transatlantic steamers, and was
engaged in the Philippine Tobacco Company
and other large commercial undertakings.

Mahmoud Nedim Pasha, Grand Vizier of Tur-
key in the reign of Abdul- Aziz, died in Con-
stantinople, May 17, 1883. Under his vizierate
the Sultan was encouraged to ignore the Porte.
After the decree of insolvency he was virtu-
ally exiled. He was recalled in 1879, and
made Minister of the Interior.

Majlath von Szekhely, Georg von, President of
the Hungarian Upper House and Chief-Justice
of Hungary, was murdered by his servant and
an accomplice, March 29, 1883. He was born
in 1818, and was appointed to the Diet in 1839
and in 1843. He subsequently filled the office
of Hungarian Chancellor at Vienna until 1869,
in which year he was made President of the
Upper House in Pesth.

Manet, Edonard, a French painter, died April
30, 1883, aged 50. He s'tudied under Thomas
Couture. In 1863 he offered to the Salon a
painting in a new manner, which made a sen-
sation in the exhibition of rejected pieces. He
spent his life and his fortune in seeking recog-
nition for his " impressionist " idea of repro-
ducing tones of light, or solving the problem
of the transparency of shades.

Marno, Ernst, an Austrian traveler, died at
Fazogl, Africa, Aug. 17, 1883. He was born
in Vienna in 1844, and devoted himself to
the study of zoology. He visited Abyssinia
when 21 years of age, and after remaining
in Vienna for two years, returned to Africa,
where he spent most of his remaining years.
He traveled by way of Sennaar and Fazogl to
Fadasi, which had never before been visited
by a European, was the first to explore Giraffe
river, went to Gondokoro in 1872, accompa-
nied Col. Long on an excursion to Mundo and
Makraka in 1874, took service under the Bel-
gian International Association in 1876, and led
a party to Kvakiora from Zanzibar, but re-
turned, and, going back to the Soudan, was
made Vice-Governor of Galabat by Gen. Gor-
don. Reouf Pasha sent him' to Fashoda to
check the slave-trade in 1880.

Martin, Henri, a French historian, died Dec.
14, 1883. He was born in St. Quentin, Pi-
cardy, Feb. 20, 1810. He early conceived the
idea of writing the history of France in a

602

OBITUARIES, FOREIGN.

patriotic manner, and his patriotism soon took
on an ethnological character. The French he
conceived to have inherited from the Druidical
Celts qualities making them superior to other
races, and his " History of France " was com-
posed in this spirit. The conscientious earnest-
ness of his political convictions, and his blame-
less and dignified character, won a degree of
respect from the people of Paris that was paid
to few of his contemporaries. He attempted
to rescue the republican constitution at the
time of Napoleon's coup d'etat, but under the
empire he was not molested. He was chosen
Senator on the establishment of the third re-
public. His historical writings are numerous.
Marx, Karl, a German socialist, died in Lon-
don, March 15, 1883. He was born at Trier,
May 2, 1818. His father was a lawyer. He
studied law and philosophy at Bonn and
Berlin, and was about to become a tutor at
Bonn, when a chance acquaintance led him to
enter the office of the radical "Rhenish Ga-
zette," the direction of which he assumed in
1842. A year later the paper was suppressed.
Marx went first to Paris to study the French
political economists, and directed his attention
at the same time to Hegel's philosophy of juris-
prudence, on which he published a critique in
1844 in the " Franco-German Year-Book," ed-
ited by him and Arnold Ruge. Expelled from
France, he settled at Brussels, where he pub-
lished, in 1847, the first of his writings on eco-
nomical questions, a polemic entitled " Misere
de la philosophic," in answer to Proudhon's
" Philosophic de la misere." In the same year,
in conjunction with his Rhenish countryman,
Friedrich Engels, who had studied for years
the economical conditions of England, he set
on foot the first and most famous of socialist
congresses in London, at which the "Manifesto
of the Communistic Party" was published.
For this he was expelled from Belgium,, and at
the outbreak of the revolution returned to
Cologne, where he edited — in association with
Engels, Freiligrath, Hermann Becker, Albert
Wollf. later of the "Figaro," who furnished
feuilletons, Ferdinand Lassalle, and others —
the "New Rhenish Gazette." His acquaint-
ance with Lassalle bore important fruits in
the Social -Democratic movement in Germany,
and the present social projects of the German
Government. The journal called upon the
people to. refuse to pay taxes after the coun-
ter-revolution, and for this it was suppressed.
Marx then fled to England, and devoted him-
self to the study of the conditions of labor in
the line of research initiated by Engels. The
effect of Marx's contributions to the science of
political economy was marred by his revolu-
tionary schemes to carry his theories into prac-
tice. In 1864 a socialist meeting was held in
St. James's Hall, in London, at which social-
ism was declared to be communistic and inter-
national. A committee was appointed to draw
up a plan of organization. In the committee
Marx was the principal person. He drew up

the statutes which were adopted at the Social-
ist Congress at Geneva in 1866 as those of the
International Society, of which Marx remained,
under the title of secretary, the head and ac-
knowledged leader until 1872. A defection
of the English members resulted in the victory
of the Federalists, who advocated the organi-
zation of the labor movement on national lines.
Marx consequently ceased his agitation. His
principal work was "Capital" (18G7), pre-
ceded by a " Critique on Political Economy "
(1859). A second part of his great work, deal-
ing with the distribution of wealth, while the
first treated of production, was left in manu-
script. Marx assailed the English school of
political economy with great dialectical power,
but in a polemical tone, which concealed the
extent to which he assimilated the ideas of
Adam Smith and the older writers. His wife
was a sister of Minister von Westphalen, of
the Prussian reactionary Cabinet headed by
Manteuffel.

Hloffat, Robert, a Scottish missionary, died
August 10, 1883. He was born at Inverkeith-
ing in 1795, and was a gardener, but was
sent to South Africa in 1816 by the Lon-
don Missionary Society. Soon after obtaining
the reluctant permission of the Governor to
undertake his Christianizing labors, he made a
convert of Africaner, chief of the Namaquas,
the scourge of the border. Proceeding far-
ther, he took up his abode among the Bechua-
nas. This nation he slowly educated in reli-
gion and civilized arts. Visiting England in
1842, he persuaded Livingstone, who afterward
married his daughter, Mary Moffat, to return
with him and share his work. Moffat contin-
ued his labors at Kuruman, and extended his
teachings among the distant Matabele and Ma-
kololo until his final return in 1870. He was
occupied a large part of his life with the diffi-
cult task of translating the New Testament
into the Bechuana language.

Mtesa, Emperor of Uganda, died in the sum-
mer of 1883. He was a despot, who consoli-
dated a powerful kingdom around Lakes Vic-
toria and Albert. He received the emissaries
of the Khedive and the Christian missionaries,
Catholic and Protestant, with deceptive com-
placency, and held out hopes of his conversion
to Islam or to Christianity. Although a mon-
ster of cruelty, he impressed European visit-
ors, especially Henry M. Stanley, with his in-
telligence and courtesy. He was particularly
covetous of arms and gunpowder, and obtained
many presents from travelers. His principal
subjects sought to have their daughters taken
into the royal harem, which numbered 7,000
women. Mtesa was possessed with the delu-
sion that he was the greatest monarch in the
world, and was ambitious to extend his power.
Over his subjects he exercised a boundless tyr-
anny. He was sprung from the Wahuna chiefs
who obtained possession of the country at an
early date. Pie was not, however, of pure
race, but had a considerable admixture of negro

OBITUARIES, FOREIGN.

blood. He traced his lineage through thirty
or forty rulers to Kiutu, the founder of the
dynasty. He was tall, slim, and graceful, with
an intelligent face. He died of a consumptive
malady. His age was under fifty.

Nilson, Swea, a Swedish naturalist, died Dec.
3, 1883. He was born at Landscrona, March
8, 1787. He was graduated at the University
of Lund in 1811, took charge of the natural
history museum, and in 1821 was appointed
professor. His great work on the " Scandina-
vian Fauna" was begun in 1820 and completed
in 1853.

Obeidnllah, Sheik, died in Mecca in the autumn
of 1883. He was descended from the daugh-
ter of the Prophet, and was esteemed one of
the three holiest personages in Islam. He was
chief of the warlike Kurds who dwell on the
confines of Persia and Turkey, over whom the
Porte and the Shah both claimed the sover-
eignty. Obeidullah aimed to achieve the inde-
pendence of his tribe, and to wrest a sufficient
territory from Turkey or Persia. The authori-
ties at Stamboul are said to have incited him
to the invasion of Persia, even furnishing Mar-
tini-Henry rifles to the Kurds. In April, 1881,
a small army of Kurdish horsemen raided the
region around Lake Urumiyah, destroying the
Persian towns, under the lead of a son of the
sheik and a chief named Hamya Aga. The Per-
sian general, Mirya Khan, finally defeated them
in a pitched battle. When Obeidullah was ad-
vancing with his main army 'to support his son,
he learned that a large Turkish force was march-
ing upon him in the rear, and fled to the mount-
ains. An emissary of the Porte, by promises
of honors and distinction, lured him to Stam-
boul, where he was placed in confinement. Dur-
ing the fast of the Ramazan he made his escape,
and, rallying his followers, attempted another
raid, encouraged, it. was rumored, by the Rus-
sians. He was captured by the Turks in Octo-
ber, 1882, but was rescued by Kurds from the
convoy which was taking him to Mosul. He
was besieged in the mountain stronghold of
Kouruma and defeated. Disappointed in his
ambition and broken in health, he spent his last
days in religious exercises. He was visiting
the Kaaba at Mecca when, like many other
pilgrims, he fell a victim to the cholera. He
was a man of striking appearance, a Bedouin
of the purest blood, between fifty and sixty
years of age, below the medium stature, with
deep-sunk, gleaming eyes, under arched eye-
.brows, and a long, slightly aquiline nose.

OTerstone, Baron, Samuel Jones Loyd, an Eng-
lish financier, died in London, Nov. 17, 1883.
He was born Sept. 25, 1796. His father, Rev.
Lewis Loyd, had abandoned the Church to
engage in business with his father-in-law, and
had built up the banking-house of Jones, Loyd
& Co., which was merged subsequently in the
London and Westminster Bank. He was edu-
cated at Eton and Cambridge, sat in Parlia-
ment from 1819 to 1826, succeeded his father
in the banking-house in 1844, and was raised

to the peerage in 1850. He was the chief au-
thority in England on banking, and had great
influence in shaping financial legislation, and
especially in establishing the English monetary
system on a sound basis and giving the Bank
of England a sate and conservative constitu-
tion. He was chairman of the Irish Famine
Committee in 1847, and an influential pro-
moter of the Great Exhibition of 1851.

Pierre, Pierre Joseph Gustave, commander of
the French squadron which bombarded the
ports of Madagascar, died early in Septem-
ber, 1883, on board the Caledonia, before land-
ing on his return voyage, while in quaran-
tine at Marseilles. He was one of the ablest
officers in the French navy ; but his acts in
Madagascar gave offense to the English, which
led to his recall. He was born Feb. 28,
1827, at Dijon, entered the naval school in
1841, distinguished himself at Mogadore and
Tangiers, and was promoted to be ensign in
1846, and lieutenant in 1853, serving from
1856 to 1858 in hydrographical labors. He
was made a Chevalier of the Legion of Honor
in 1857. From 1861 to 1865 he was aide-de-
camp to Admiral La Ronciere. He was pro-
moted captain in 1865, and commanded the
Nereide in Oceania in 1869-70. On his re-
turn he took part in the national defense, and
was present at the battle of Orleans. He was
director of evolutions at Cherbourg in 1872,
member of the hydrographical committee, and
commander of the Infernet in New Caledonia,
and was promoted to rear-admiral in 1880.
He aided in the revision of the cadre, and was
a member of the Almir'alty Council until he
took command of the Division of the Indian
Ocean, Feb. 1, 1883.

Reid, Mayne, an English writer of fiction,
died Oct. 22, 1883, at his residence near Lon-
don, aged sixty -five. He was a native of the
north of Ireland, and was educated for the
Church, but following an adventurous bent he
started for Mexico in 1838, lived for five years
by trading and hunting in the far West, traveled
through the United States, took a commission
in the American army on the outbreak of the
Mexican War, and distinguished himself at Vera
Cruz and Cherubusco. He raised a company
in New York to aid the Hungarian revolution-
ists in 1849 ; but, learning of the failure of the
insurrection when he reached Paris, he settled
in London and devoted himself to writing^ ro-
mances in which the fruits of his observations
of nature and strange customs in many lands
were set off with thrilling plots and incidents.
His books have an irresistible fascination for
boys. The mo?t popular are the " Rifle Ran-
gers " and the " Scalp- Hunters."

Uliailis. George, a Greek statesman, died in Sep-
tember,'1883, at the age of eighty. In the early
period of the Hellenic kingdom he filled the
post of Minister of Justice, and then became
President of the Supreme Court and Court of
Cassation, and Professor of Commercial Law
in the University.

604

OBITUARIES, FOREIGN".

Riviere, Henri, a French naval officer, chief
of the expedition to Tonquin, killed in the
fight at Hanoi, May 19, 1883. He was born in
Paris, in 1827. He entered the naval acad-
emy in 1843, became midshipman in 1845, en-
sign in 1849, lieutenant Nov. 29, 1849, and
captain of a frigate June 1, 1870. He was in-
strumental in suppressing the insurrection of
the Kanakas in New Caledonia, and, as com-
mander of the French squadron in Tonquin,
given the command of the expedition against
the Anamites. (See TONQUIN.) Command-
ant Riviere was a graceful and original author
of novels, as well as a brave and able officer.
Of a long list of tales published under various
pseudonyms the most successful were "Pier-
rot " (1861) and " Cain " (1870). He also
wrote two successful plays and two professional
treatises, one on the French navy under Louis
XV, and one on New Caledonia.

Sabine, General Sir Edward, an English sol-
dier and scientific discoverer, died at Rich-
mond, England, June 26, 1883. He was born
in Dublin, Oct. 14, 1788, and entered the army
in 1803. The only active service he saw was
during the American War of 1812, when he
commanded the batteries at the siege of Fort
Erie. His mind was turned at an early age to
physical science, particularly the subject of
terrestrial magnetism. He was appointed as-
tronomer of the first expedition sent in search
of a northwest passage, commanded by Sir
John Ross, and accompanied the Parry expe-
dition of 1819-'20 in the same capacity. He
conducted pendulum experiments near the.
equator in 1821-'22, to determine the figure of
the earth, and in 1825 was one of a commission
appointed to determine the difference in longi-
tude between Greenwich and Paris. For many
years he carried on privately a series of ex-
periments on terrestrial magnetism and the ac-
celeration of the pendulum in different lati-
tudes. Colonial observatories to determine the
dip, intensity, and inclination of magnetism
were founded and placed under his direction.
He was President of the Royal Society from
1861 to 1871, and actively pursued scientific
studies till near the close of his life.'

Safvet Pasha, ex-Grand Vizier of Turkey, died
in Constantinople, Nov. 17, 1883. He was
born in that city in 1815, and entered the Gov-
ernment service in early life. He was secre-
tary to the Sultan, and then to the embassy in
Paris, became President of the Council of State
in 1859, Minister of Commerce and Public
Works in 1861, embassador at Paris in 1865,
and Minister of Commerce again in 1866. In
1868 he was appointed Minister of Education,
and during his term of office founded the col-
lege at Galata, and introduced other educational
reforms. He was Minister of Justice in 1872,
Minister of Education again in 1874, and Min-
ister of Foreign Affairs in 1875, resigning in
1877 on account of a disagreement with the
Grand Vizier over the question of a war with
Eussia. In 1878 he was again appointed Min-

ister of Foreign Affairs and signed the Treaty
of San Stefano. He was made Grand Vizier in
June, 1878, and, when succeeded by Khaireddin
Pasha in December of that year, accepted the
embassadorship to Paris, resigning in a few
months on account of failing health.

Salamanca, Jose, Marquis of Salamanca, a
Spanish financier, died at his villa near Madrid
Jan. 21, 1883. He was born in May, 1811.
He studied law in the University of Granada,
practiced as an advocate, aud was appointed
judge in Monovar, and afterward Mayor of
Vera. He was elected a member of the Anda-
lusian Central Union and sent to the National
Cortes in 1837. In Madrid he attracted uni-
versal attention by his daring speculations. In
1843 he farmed from the Government the salt
monopoly, undertaking to maintain the whole
establishment of officials and to pay at least
seventy million reales a year. He was Finance
Minister for two months under Pachec, but re-
signed on account of his business, which suf-
fered from his absence. He built an entire
new quarter in Madrid, which is called after
him. After constructing some important rail-
roads in Spain, he became interested in railroad
enterprises in various countries, and projected
also the Valladolid Canal. He possessed exten-
sive model and breeding farms. Just before
his death he undertook to enlarge the fine old
city of San Sebastian, which had many attrac-
tions as a bathing-place, but possessed no mod-
ern quarter until he recovered the necessary
ground from the sea. He was created Marquis
of Salamanca and Grandee of Spain in 1866.
Since 1837 he had been almost constantly a
member either of the Cortes or the Senate.

Sandean, Jules, a French novelist, died May
3, 1883. He was born at Aubusson in 1811,
studied in Paris, arid, becoming acquainted
with Mme. Dudevant, composed in partnership
with her a novel which was published in 1831
and signed Jules Sand. They started to com-
pose " Indiana " together, but the lady wrote
it herself, and the name George Sand, by
which she was thereafter known, was placed
on the title-page by the publisher. Jules San-
deau struck out a line of his own, and wrote
many novels and plays, one of which latter,
"Le Gendre de M. Poirier," written in col-
laboration with Augier, became exceedingly
popular. In 1853 Sandeau became one of the
curators of the Mazarin Library, and in 1858
he was elected to the Academy.

SchDlze-Delitzseh, Hermann, a German socialist,
died in Potsdam, April 29, 1883. He was
born in Delitzsch, Aug. 29, 1808. His father
was burgomaster of the town. He studied law
at Leipsic and Halle, and, after serving as as-
sistant judge in Berlin, returned as surrogate
to Delitzsch in 1841. His attention was at-
tracted to the difficulties of the class of handi-
craftsmen about 1843. In 1848 he was chosen
to represent his native district in the National
Assembly at Berlin, and was made chairman
of a committee for the investigation of the dis-

OBITUARIES, FOREIGN.

605

tre39 of iho laboring classes. He became im-
pressed with the idea of co-operation as a
means of rescuing the small tradesmen from
the difficulty of their situation, owing to the
development of manufacturing on a large scale.
He organized the shoemakers of his own town
into a co-operative association for the purchase
of their raw material. Before he could develop
his schemes further, he had to sustain a prose-
cution for sedition, as one of the authors of a
resolution to refuse to pay taxes, as a protest
against the arbitrary acts of the Government.
He was acquitted in 1850, and resigned from
the magistracy soon afterward, in order to de-
vote himself to the establishment of associa-
tions to secure to mechanics the advantages of
the wholesale market in the purchase of raw
and partly manufactured materials, the neces-
saries of "life, and all articles of regular con-
sumption, and also better credit facilities. Cap-
ital was advanced to them on moderate terms,
by means of co-operative credit associations,
which served also as . savings - banks. These
banks, established on the principle of joint lia-
bility for debts, attracted a great deal of out-
side capital. Between 1860 and 1876 Schulze
wrote numerous popular tracts in defense of
the co-operative idea. Lassalle entered the field
at the same time as the champion of " state-
help," in opposition to " self-help," as exempli-
fied in Schulze's system of co-operation. Ger-
many resounded with their controversy. Al-
though Schulze was no match in wit, eloquence,
or dialectic power for his brilliant adversary, he
represented the popular thought of the day,
formed under the influence of Bastiat's capti-
vating arguments of the harmony of interests
between capital and labor. His co-operative
stores and banks were organized on sound busi-
ness principles. They supplied a practical
want, and developed into an institution of such
colossal proportions and beneficent workings
as to justify the impression that they presented
the ultimate solution of the social problem.
Schulze was the permanent attorney and chief
organizer and guide of the co-operative unions.
He was elected in 1861 to the Prussian House
of Deputies from Berlin, and from 1874 till his
death represented Wiesbaden in the Reichstag,
attaching himself to the Progressive party, and
taking a prominent part in politics.

Spottiswoode, William, an English scientist,
died in London, June 27, 1883. He was born
there, Jan. 11, 1825. His father was the
head of the printing establishment over which
he himself presided after he was graduated
at Oxford in 1847. He was an accom-
plished mathematician and Oriental scholar.
In 1856 he made a journey in Eastern Russia,
of which he published an account. He pub-
lished, also, a great number of papers on math-
ematical subjects, and originated new methods
of value. He contributed to physical science
researches in the polarization of light, and cer-
tain forms of electric discharge. He was Presi-
dent of the Royal Society.

Suleiman Bey Sami, an Egyptian soldier, exe-
cuted at Alexandria, June 9, 1883, on the
sentence of a court-martial, which convicted
him of having taken a prominent part in the
burning of the city after it was evacuated by
Arabi. He was the son of Daoud Pasha, a
Circassian of high birth, by an Egyptian moth-
er. He was born about 1848, passed through
the Polytechnic School at Cairo, and entered
the army at an early age, rising by rapid pro-
motion to the grade of major. He served un-
der Prince Hassan in the Russian War of 1878.
He sympathized with the national movement,
and was appointed by Arabi to the command
of a regiment early in 1882. His regiment was
quartered at Alexandria, and suppressed the
riot on June 11, 1882. He served with his regi-
ment in the defense of the town during the
bombardment, and after the evacuation he
joined Toulba Pasha at Kafrdawar. After the
surrender of Cairo he fled to Crete, and was
arrested and delivered up by the Turkish au-
thorities on the representations of the Egyptian
Government.

Suleiman Pasha, a Turkish general, died in
April, 1883. Having rendered services in the
Herzegovinian insurrection and Servian war,
he was placed in command of the Army of the
Balkans. In defending the Shipka Pass and
in the battle of Plevna he showed the highest
qualities of generalship, but he was obliged to
fall back on the Dardanelles when unable to
block the advance of Gen. Gurko from Sophia.
After the war he was sacrificed to the wounded
patriotism of his countrymen, being tried for
treason, and banished to Bagdad.

Tn Due, Emperor of Anam, died Aug. 8,
1883, at the age of fifty -four years. He was a
younger son of Treni-Tri, of the Nguyen dy-
nasty, who nominated him his successor in-
stead of his eldest son, Hoang-Bao. The latter
revolted when Tu Due ascended the throne at
the age of nineteen, but was conquered and
thrown into a dungeon, where he hanged him-
self. Tu Due was the enemy of Europeans.
He refused to allow the French envoy to land
in 1856, and the following year he put to death
the Spanish missionary, Bishop Diaz. The two
countries sent an expedition under Admiral Ri-
gault de Genouilly which captured the forts of
Turan in August, 1 858, and four months after-
ward attacked Saigon. Admiral Charner in
1862 forced him to sign the treaty of Saigon.
Tu Due sent an embassy to Paris offering an
indemnity of $40,000,000, on condition of the
evacuation of the country. The amount was
reduced to $20,000,000, but France retained a
protectorate over the conquered provinces,
kept Saigon, and compelled the Emperor to
throw open three ports on the Cochin-China'
coast. Tu Due encouraged the Black Flugs in
their reprisals on the French, which led to the
expedition of 1873, in which Francis Gamier
met his death, and to the war in Tonquin.

Viardot, Louis, a French author, died in Paris,
May 5, 1883. He was born in Dijon, July 81,

606

OHIO.

1800 ; was educated for the magistracy, and,
after a journey in Spain, became a writer, pub-
lishing an essay on the Moors in Spain, " Stud-
ies on the Institutions and Literature of Spain,"
and a translation of " Don Quixote." He also
translated the works of Pushkin, Gogol, and
Turgenieff. He was director of the Italian The-
atre in 1838 and 1839. A popular exposition
of his liberal philosophical convictions was pub-
lished under the title of " Libre Examen." He
was a distinguished art critic.

Webb, Matthew, an English swimmer, was
drowned in an attempt to swim through the
whirlpool of Niagara river, July 22, 1883.
From bruises on his head it was surmised that
he struck upon a rock and became unconscious.
He was born at Irongate, in Shropshire, Jan.
18, 1848. He was formerly captain of a mer-
chant-vessel, and received one of the first
medals given out by the Koyal Life-Saving So-
ciety, for rescuing a sailor from drowning. His
swimming powers were first brought into pub-
lic notice by the feat of swimming in the
Thames from Blackwall to Gravesend in 1875,
and, a fortnight later, that of swimming from
Dover to Ramsgate in eight and three quarter
hours. These were preparatory to an attempt
to swim across the English channel. At his
first attempt he was compelled to return by
adverse currents, but, ten days later, on Aug.
24, 1875, he accomplished it in twenty-one
hours. In June, 1883, he landed in the United
States, with the intention of attempting the
feat which cost him his life.

OHIO. The State officers for the year were
as follow: Governor, Charles Foster; Lieu-
tenant-Governor, Reese G. Richards; Secre-
tary of State, James W. Newman', Auditor,
John F. Oglevee ; Treasurer, Joseph Turney ;
Attorney-General, George K. Nash ; Commis-
sioner of Common Schools, Daniel F. De Wolf;
Board of Public Works, Henry Weible, George
Paul, and S. R. Hosmer.

Finances. — On Nov. 15, 1882, the public fund-
ed debt of the State was $4, 901, 665. During the
year there was paid $379, 150 ; leaving the public
funded debt of the State Nov. 15, 1883, $4,522,-
515. Since November 15th, bonds of the loan
payable after Dec. 31, 1886, to the amount of
$31,800 have been paid, leaving the total of
the funded debt, $2,314,050, due after Dec. 31,
1886. The local debts at the same time were
as follow: Debts of counties, $4,381,680.21;
debts of cities, first and second class, $35,231,-
302.88 ; debts of incorporated villages, $1,478,-
526.56 ; debts of townships, $645,751.21 ; debts
of separate (special) school districts, $1,659,-
834.64 ; total local debts, $43,388,095.50. Net
decrease in above local debts, $2,378,255.72.
_ Military.— The present force of the Ohio Na-
tional Guard consists of eighty-two companies
of infantry and seven batteries of light artil-
lery, and a total of 5,457 men, including offi-
cers, a reduction during the year of 418.

Insane. — About 3,800 insane people are cared
for with the present accommodations furnished

by the State, about 1,000 are cared for in the
county infirmaries, and there are probably 500
to 1,000 persons in private institutions and with
their families and friends.

Railroads. — The report of the Commissioner
of Railways shows a steady growth in the mile-
age and in the business of the railways of Ohio.
There were, June 30, 1883, 6,900 miles of rail-
way in the State, an increase over the number
of miles of the preceding year of 13-06 per
cent. The capital stock of these railways rep-
resents a value of $250,743,376.17, an increase
of 4*9 per cent. The capital stock and debt
make the sum of $478,069,435.16, showing a
decline in the indebtedness of 9'55 per cent.
The business of this year was an advance of the
preceding in the number of passengers, 7 '42
percent.; in the passenger mileage, 2'99 per
cent.; in the tonnage, 4'01 per cent. ; in ton
mileage, 4'04 per cent. The average rate per
mile was 2 -49 9 cents, an advance over the for-
mer year's rate of 5*6 per cent. The average
rate per ton per mile upon freight, 8'75 cents,
an advance in the rate of 8-24 per cent. The
gross earnings of the year were $49,900,506.26,
an increase of 9'02 per cent. The net earnings
were $16,326,213.37, an increase of 18'58 per
cent., making 3 '42 upon the total amount of
stock and debt. The operating expenses of the
year were $33,574,292.89, an advance of 4*64
per cent. These operating expenses were 67'-
28 per cent, of the gross earnings. Sixty-eight
per cent, of the railways of Ohio are now laid
with steel rails. There are 38,723 men em-
ployed, an average of 5£ men to the mile.

Coal. — The Inspector of Mines estimates a
falling off of the output of the mines of 1,250,-
000 tons as compared with last year. This is
attributed to the present depressed condition of
the iron industry, into which the consumption
of coal so largely enters.

Crops.— The Secretary of the State Board ot
Agriculture says the wheat and corn were
much damaged by frost, the latter suffering
most. The total wheat-crop was placed, in
October, on the basis of the returns then re-
ceived, at 25,500,000 bushels, but later reports
showed so much of it shrunken that it was not
believed it would make the flour of more than
21,000,000 bushels, or just half an average crop.
The total number of acres in corn was 2,499,-
000; bushels per acre, 2'83 ; total estimated
bushels, 70,741,000, against 90,869,000 in 1882,
and a ten years' average of 100,000,000 bushels.
The yield per acre, 28'3 bushels, is the lowest
for thirty -three years, except 1854, 1856, 1863,
and 1864, when it was 26, 27'7, 27'7, 27, and 27
bushels respectively. The total number of
acres in potatoes was 106,400; bushels per
acre, 113; total bushels estimated, 12,132,600,
against a ten years' average of 75*9 bushels per
acre, and 8,754,578 bushels total a year.

Live-Stock.— The report of the State Board of
Agriculture shows the following percentages
of the different breeds of live-stock : Cattle —
Per cent, of Shorthorns, 65; Herefords, 2;

OHIO.

607

Devons, 8; Poled Angus, 1 ; Jerseys, 19; Ayr-
shires, 2; Holsteins, 3. Horses — Thorough-
breds, 6; roadsters, 19; general purpose, 52;
draught, 23. Sheep — Merinos, 58 ; Downs, 16 ;
Long woods, 26. Swine — Pol and- Chinas, 46;
Berkshires, 27; Chester Whites, 21; Jersey
Reds, 6. Poultry — Egg-producers, 51 ; meat-
producers, 49. Condition of farm animals,
compared with last autumn, 93.

Temperance Legislation. — The Legislature be-
gan its adjourned session January 2d, and
closed April 19th. Aside from the time oc-
cupied in the perfection of the appropriation
bills, the greater part ot the session was taken
up with the liquor question. In his address
to the General Assembly at the beginning of
the session, Gov. Foster said :

The liquor -traffic will bring to your attention a
lestion that engages the thoughts of the people more
seply and seriously than any other subject that will
come before you. Tho enormity of the evil is ad-
mitted by all, as well as its disastrous effects upon
society, and the magnitude of the burdens of taxation
imposed by it upon the people, through private and
public charities, was never as great as at present.
When the present Constitution was adopted, a clause
was voted into it by the people, under the belief that
through it would be secured a greater restraint to the
traffic than had previously existed. Experience has
shown that, instead of greater restraint, we have prac-
tically free trade in liquor, not only six days hi the
week" but on Sunday also. In fact, in many locali-
ties, Sunday, instead of being, as the law and well-
being of society demand, a day of rest and recrea-
tion,"has become a day of rowdyism and carnivals ;
instead of being the most orderly, it has become the
most disorderly dav of the week. It is a humiliating
fact that we have in Ohio, to-day, more than_ 16,000
places where this unrestrained traffic is carried on,
taking the hard-earned wages from many thousands
of our citizens, whose families need the 'money thus
worse than thrown away. This entire traffic, the
amount of which in round numbers will probably
exceed $70,000,000 annually, much the larger portion
of which is profit, contributes but a tithe of the burden
it imposes upon the public through the crime and
pauperism created by it.

The laws upon our statute-books, enacted by both
of the great political parties, for the avowed purpose
of limiting and restraining the evil effects of this
traffic, are. to all intents and purposes, except in a few
localities, inoperative. I am fully of the opinion that
the principle of taxation, judiciously applied to this
traffic, will furnish the most satisfactory solution of
the problem "How to deal with the liquor-traffic"
that is attainable. There seems to be a popular de-
mand for the submission of a constitutional amend-
ment, such as was proposed by the Cleveland Con-
vention, to be voted upon in October, 1883. The
following is a copy of the resolution referred to :

" Resolved, That the public interests require that
the General Assembly should submit to a vote of the
• people such amendments to the Constitution of the
State relative to the manufacture, sale, and use of in-
toxicating liquors as shall leave the whole matter to
legislation."

Such an amendment ought to be submitted to a
vote of the people.

The attempts of the majority to carry these
suggestions into effect were rendered fruit-
less, until near the end of the session, mainly
through inability to agree upon the exact form
rather than from disagreement on the prin-
ciples involved. Finally, two propositions for

constitutional amendments were agreed upon
for submission to the people at the October
election. They read as follows :

FIRST PROPOSITION.

Tho additional section in and with section 18 of
the schedule shall be repealed, and there shall be
substituted for it the following :

The General Assembly shall regulate the traffic
in intoxicating liquors so as to provide against evils
resulting therefrom ; and its power to levy taxes or
assessments thereon is not limited by any provision
of this Constitution.

SECOND PROPOSITION.

The additional section in and with section 18 of
the schedule shall be repealed, and there shall be
substituted for it the following :

The manufacture of and the traffic ha intoxicating
liquors to be used as a beverage are forever prohib-
ited : and the General Assembly shall provide by law
for the enforcement of this provision.

This was speedily followed by the passage
of a law for the taxation of the liquor-traffic,
and the change of existing laws relating to that
traffic. From the name of the member intro-
ducing it in its original form, it became known
as the " Scott law." The title was " An act
further providing against the evils resulting
from the traffic in intoxicating liquors." The
law imposes a tax of $200 yearly on every
place where liquors are sold at retail; pro-
hibits, under penalty of $100 fine and impris-
onment, the opening of such places on Sunday ;
and forbids the sale of liquor to a minor, ex-
cept on the written order of his parent, guard-
ian, or physician.

The Liquor Law constitutional.— The liquor-tax
bill had no sooner passed, than an organized
effort to oppose it was begun. To facilitate a
decision, a case was made in Athens county :
the Auditor refusing to publish the notice re-
quired by the law, and application being there-
upon made by the Attorney-General, in behalf
of the State, for a writ of mandamus to com-
pel him to comply with the law. Arguments
were heard June Vth and 8th, and the case
was reserved for consideration, together with
a case coming at the same time from Cuyahoga
county, in which the constitutionality of the
provision affecting existing leases was brought
into question. The decision of the Supreme
Court was given June 26th, and sustained the
constitutionality of the law.

Other Legislation.— Among the other measures
of the session were a law providing for the
security of wages of men engaged in the con-
struction of railroads ; a law providing for the
appointment of a commission with a Tiew to
establishing a mode by which differences be-
tween miners and employers may be settled;
an amendment to the lien law in the interests
of laborers; laws facilitating the dispatch of-
legal business ; and the submission to popular
vote of a proposed amendment to the Judicial
article of the Constitution.

Political Conventions. — The Republican State
Convention was held at Columbus, June 5th
and 6th. The ticket nominated was as follows :

608

OHIO.

Those marked with a * were renominations :
For Governor, Judge J. B. Foraker, Hamilton
county; Lieutenant-Governor, William G. Rose,
Cuyahoga county; Supreme Judge (term end-
ing Feb. 9, 1887), * William H. Upson, Summit
county ; Supreme Judge (term ending Feb. 9,
1889), * John H. Doyle, Lucas county ; Clerk
of Supreme Court, *Dwight Crowell, Ashta-
bula county; Attorney-General, M. B. Earn-
hart, Miami county ; Auditor of State, * J ohn

F. Oglevee, Clarke county ; Treasurer of State,
John C. Brown, Jefferson county ; State Com-
missioner of Common Schools, * Daniel F.
DeWolf, Lucas county; and Member Board
of Public Works, Leo Weltz, Clinton county.
The platform declared for a protective tariff ;
for a restoration of the wool-tariff of 1867;
for a National Bureau of Labor Statistics ; in
favor of the liquor-tax law ; for abolition of
contract system in prisons ; in favor of civil- ser-
vice reform ; and approving President Arthur's
administration.

The Greenback-Labor party held its State
Convention in Columbus, June 13th. The fol-
lowing ticket was nominated : For Governor,
Charles Jenkins, of Mahoning county ; for
Lieutenant-Govern or, William Baker, of Lick-
ing county ; for Supreme Judges, H. A. Cham-
berlain, of Lucas county, for short term, and
James R. Grogan, of Hocking county, for long
term ; for Clerk of the Supreme Court, William
Bentz, of Franklin county ; for Attorney-
General, L. G. Tuttle, of Lake county; for
Auditor of State, J. H. Rhodes, of Sandusky
county; for Treasurer, John Seitz, of Seneca
county ; for Commissioner of Common Schools,
J. Murray Case, of Franklin county ; for Mem-
ber of Board of Public Works, Dr, J. J. Scrib-
ner, of Knox county.

The State Convention of the Prohibition-
ists was held at Columbus, June 14th. There
were divided councils in the party, a strong
movement being made to omit the nomination
of candidates and concentrate all temperance
work upon the adoption of the prohibition
amendment to the Constitution. At a prelimi-
nary conference, held June 13th, the question
was thoroughly discussed, and the majority
present determined on putting a ticket in the
field. At the convention, therefore, a full
ticket was nominated, as follows: For Gov-
ernor, Ferdinand Schumacher, of Summit
county ; for Lienteriant-Governor, H. D. Og-
den, of 'Hamilton county; for Supreme Judge,
Z. 0. Payne, of Franklin county, for short
term, and long term, D. 0. Montgomery, of
Knox county ; for Clerk of Supreme Court, J.
H. Blackford, of Preble county ; for Attorney-
General, J. W. Roseborough, of Fulton county ;
for Auditor of State, Gersham Lease, of Har-
din ^ county ; for Treasurer of State, J. M.
Whiting, of Huron county; for Commissioner
of Common Schools, H. A. Thompson, of
Franklin county ; for Board of Public Works,

G. Z. Cruzen, of Hardin county.

The Democratic State Convention was held

at Columbus, June 21st. The interest turned
wholly on the nominntion for Governor, there
having been a very keen preliminary canvass
in the interest of Judce Hoadly, Gen. Durbin
Ward, and Judge Geddes. The interest was
intensified by the appearance of ex- Senator
Thurman as a delegate, and by his earnest ap-
peal in behalf of Gen. Ward. It was, however,
unavailing, Judge Hoadly being nominated
on the second ballot. The following was the
full ticket nominated : For Governor, George
Hoadly, of Hamilton county ; for Lieutenant-
Governor, John G. Warwick, of Stark county ;
Supreme Court, short term, M. D. Follett, of
Washington county ; Supreme Court, long
term, Selwyn N. Owen, of Williams county ;
Clerk of Supreme Court, J.W. Cruikshank/of
Miami county ; Attorney-General, James Law-
rence, of Cuyahoga county ; Auditor of State,
Emil Kiese wetter, of Franklin county; Treas-
urer of State, Peter Brady, of Sandusky coun-
ty; for School Commissioner, L. D. Brown,
of Butler county ; for Board of Public Works,
Martin Schilder, of Ross county. The plat-
form favored "a tariff for revenue, so adjusted
as to encourage productive industries at home,
but not to create or foster monopolies " ; pro-
viding against the evils of the liquor-traffic
" by a judicious and properly graded license
system " ; abolition of the contract system in
the prisons ; and civil-service reform.

A State Convention of temperance workers
in the interest of the prohibition amendment
was held at Columbus, July 24th. This was
designed as a protest against the action of the
Prohibition Convention which placed a Prohi-
bitionist State ticket in the field. It passed a
series of resolutions, the significant one being
the following :

That inasmuch as the practical effect of voting for
the first amendment will be to favor license ; and of
voting for neither of the amendments will be to vote
against prohibition ; and the practical effect of voting
for both will be to practically diminish the probability
of securing the necessary majority for the second, we
most earnestly entreat that each vote be cast for the
second amendment and that only.

Election. — The political canvass that followed
was one of great earnestness, and engaged more
general attention than any election for State
officers in many years. An unprecedented
feature was the part taken in it by the women.
Under the lead of the Women's Christian Tem-
perance Union, whose headquarters were in
Cleveland, the whole State was organized in
behalf of the second or prohibition amend-
ment, without regard to party lines. A cam-
paign paper was published, and campaign lit-
erature thoroughly distributed by the women
and their sympathizers. House-to-house can-
vassing by women was general, and on elec-
tion-day the women were at the polls in many
parts of the State, both in the villages and in
the large cities, distributing tickets of all the
parties' with an affirmative vote for the second
amendment. The election was held on Tues-
day, October 9th, and resulted in a complete

OHIO.

ONTARIO.

609

victory for the Democratic party. The follow-
ing are the official figures of the vote :

GOVERNOR.

George Hoadly, Democrat 359,798

Joseph P. Foraker, Republican .347^ 54

Ferdinand Schumacher, Prohibition 8,362

Charles Jenkins, Greenback-Labor 2^937

Scattering 12

LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR.

John G Warwick, Democrat 856,413

William G. Rose, Republican 850,009

Henry T. Ogden, Prohibition 8,381

William Baker, Greenback-Labor 2,934

Scattering 2

JUDGE OF SUPREME COURT SHORT TERM.

Martin D. Follett, Democrat 360,404

William H. Upson, Republican 846,431

Zeno C. Payne, Prohibition 8,208

Henry A. Chamberlain, Greenback -Labor 2,940

J. H. Upson 615

Scattering 5

JUDGE OF SUPREME COURT — LONG AND UNEXPIRED
TERM.

Selwyn N. Owen, Democrat

John H. Doyle, Republican

David C. Montgomery, Prohibition 8^216

•lames Grogan, Greenback-Labor 2,892

Scattering 6

Elections for members of the sixty-sixth
General Assembly were also held, resulting as
follows :

Senate.

House.

Joint ballot.

Democrats
Republicans

22
11

60

45

82

53

Total

88

105

188

The following was the vote on the constitu-
tional amendments :

Total number of votes cast 721,310

Judicial amendment— Yes 400,922

Judicial amendment— No 141,636

Regulation and taxation of liquor-traffic — Yes 99,849

Regulation and taxation of liquor-traffic— No 192,117

Prohibition of intoxicating liquors- Yes 323,189

Prohibition of intoxicating liquors— No 240,975

To carry either of those amendments required
a majority of all the votes cast. The judicial
amendment was the only one receiving the
required majority, and was therefore the only
one adopted.

The Liquor-Question revived.— The defeat of
the prohibition amendment was claimed by its
supporters to be due to foul play on the part
of the election officers. Unofficial recounts
were made in some counties, and it was claimed
these indicated a falsification of the returns to
an extent that affected the result. No legal
steps were taken, however, to dispute the count.
But the liquor-question was not finally dis-
posed of by the vote on the constitutional
amendments. On the 27th and 2&th of De-
cember the liquor-dealers held a State Conven-
tion in Columbus, at which a preamble and
resolution were adopted, declaring the Scott
law unconstitutional and unjust, and asking
the Legislature to enact a judicious and consti-
tutional law in place of it.

This brought into immediate action the
Women's Christian Temperance Union, which
prepared for a new struggle by sending out
VOL. xxin. — 39 A

circulars for signatures to a petition to the
General Assembly, declaring that the second
amendment received a majority of the ballots
cast, but they were not honestly counted ; and
asking that a single proposition, to amend the
Constitution so as to prohibit the manufacture
and sale of intoxicating liquors within the State,
be submitted to a popular vote.

Woman Suffrage.— The Woman's Suffrage As-
sociation of Ohio met in convention at Colum-
bus, June 13th, and effected a permanent or-
ganization by the election of officers for the
ensuing year, including the following : Presi-
dent, Prof. N. S. Townshend, of Columbus;
Recording Secretary, Dr. Kate Kelsey, Elyria;
Corresponding Secretary, Miss Francis G. Jan-
ney, Columbus ; Treasurer, Mrs. Elizabeth Coit,
Columbus. This was the first concerted move-
ment of the advocates of woman suffrage in
the State for several years, and, although the
attendance at the convention was small, the
reports of those present were hopeful.

ONTARIO, a province of the Dominion of Can-
ada. Area, 220,000 square miles; population
in 1881, 1,923,228. Capital, Toronto.

Climate. — The southwestern peninsula, be-
tween Lakes Huron and Erie, enjoys a much
milder climate than Toronto. In the northern
districts early and late frosts sometimes occur,
but rarely damage the crops. At Toronto,
which occupies the average position regarding
temperature, the mean for the forty-one years
ending 1882 was 44-16° F., the extreme ranges
of mean annual temperature being 47-09°in 1878
and 40'77° in 1873. The average of the warm-
est months for that period ranges from 76-66°
in 1881 to 64-46° in 1860 ; and of the coldest-
months from 10-16° in 1875 to 26° in 1848.
The coldest day was in 1859, when the mer-
cury fell to — 26'5°, the mean temperature of
the day being —14-38°.

Agriculture. — The settled portion of Ontario,
the peninsula south of the forty-sixth parallel,
is admirably fitted for agriculture, more espe-
cially the western and central districts. The
chief products are wheat, barley, oats, corn,
and potatoes. The value of good farms varies
from $60 to $140 an acre. The provincial
Government has always encouraged advanced
farming, and supports a fine agricultural col-
lege. In the eastern portion of the peninsula
a wing of the Laurentian plateau crosses, but
the land is good for grazing and dairy pur-
poses. The northern regions of this peninsula,
lying between the Georgian Bay and the river
Ottawa, are well timbered with pine and oak,
chiefly the former. In the counties along
the Lake Erie shores, the finer cabinet-woods
abound. This district is also well adapted for
vineyards and fruit-growing, which is exten- •
sively carried on.

Minerals and Oil.— Mining in Ontario is in its
infancy. Petroleum -wells exist in the south-
western peninsula, in Campton county, at the
foot of Lake Huron. There are salt-wells at
Clinton, Seaforth, and Blyth, in Huron county,

610

ONTARIO.

near Lake Huron. Very profitable iron-mines
are being worked all through the northern por-
tion of the southern peninsula, in Victoria, Pe-
terboro, Hastings, Frontenac, and Lanark coun-
ties. Copper and silver mines are in success-
ful operation on the shores of Lakes Huron and
Superior, and fine building and limestone quar-
ries exist throughout the province.

Cities. — The following are the cities of Onta-
rio, with their population in round numbers :
Toronto (exclusive of Yorkville), 96,000 ; Ham-
ilton, 36,000; Ottawa, 27,000; London, 20,-
000; Kingston, 15,000; Guelph, 10,000; St.
Catharine's, 10,000; Brantford, 10,000; Belle-
ville, 10,000; St. Thomas, 10,000.

Commerce* — The chief trade is with the Uni-
ted States. Large quantities of grain reach
Collingwood, Midland, and Parry Sound, on
Georgian Bay, from Chicago, Milwaukee, and
other American ports, to be transported to the
lumber-shanties, or to pass to Toronto, Port
Hope, or Belleville by rail, and thence to
Europe by Montreal and the river St. Law-
rence.

Industries* — During the year ending June 30,
1882, the exports of agricultural products of
Ontario were valued at $19,416,299. Of this
amount all but $73,115 was the product of the
province. Under the name " grazing," or
" animals and their produce," the exports of the
growth of Ontario were $7,506,888, of which
$3,250,762 went to Great Britain, $4,214,329
to the United States, and the rest to Germany,
the West Indies, etc. Of the agricultural prod-
ucts, $9,872,432 is barley, every bushel of
which went to the United States; $2,320,198
is wheat; $1,519,748 is flour of. wheat ; $1,108,-
401 is malt, all to the United States ; $862,296
is rye, of which $815,703 went to the United
States ; $724,753 is potatoes, all to the United
States; $833,794 is peas, nearly all to the
United States; seeds, $883,126 ; hay, $176,390 ;
and beans, $158,798, were all shipped to the
American market ; oats, $221,924.

Lumbering, including timber in all forms,
constitutes the second industry, both in respect
to value of exports and also with regard to the
number of persons employed. The exports
are chiefly of pine. Under the heading " The
Forest," the figures show an export of Ontario
produce, amounting to $8,015,485, of which
$8,009,934 went to the United States.

Manufacturing is in its infancy in Ontario,
but the high protective tariff which came into
operation in Canada in 1878-'79 has done much
to turn the attention of capitalists to manufac-
tures. The exports are small, but it must be
considered that under a high protective tariff
the home market is to a large extent con-
trolled by the home manufacturer. For the
year taken for illustration, the exports under
this heading were $1,106,804 of actual Ontario
manufacture. Of this, $238,775 were to Great
Britain, and $715,051 to the United States.

Mining products were exported to the
amount of $240,001— all to the United States.

These exports were chiefly iron and silver ores
phosphates, and salt.

The export product of the Ontario fisheries
was $158,706, of which $157,528 went to the
American market.

The total value of the export trade of Onta-
rio reaches $37,087,901. That there is a close
union, commercially as well as socially, between
this province and the States of the American
Union along the lakes, is forcibly demonstrat-
ed by the fact that over $29,000,000 of this
amount went to the United States.

Education. — The system of education in Onta-
rio is very thorough, and its organization and
administration are systematic and complete.
The Education Department controls the pub-
lic separate, and high schools of the province.
The Education Department was presided over
by a Chief Superintendent of Education until
February, 1876, when a Minister of Education
was appointed, who is a member of the Execu-
tive Council of the province, and is responsi-
ble to the Legislative Assembly. The several
classes of schools form a complete series of
progressive steps, from the primary school to
the university, all under the control of the
Government. The immediate management in
school matters is vested in local boards.

The school funds are obtained from three
sources : 1. An annual grant from the Govern-
ment of $250,000. 2. County rates, $800,000.
3. Local rates and funds, about $2,500,000.

The school population (comprising only chil-
dren between the ages of five and sixteen years)
in 1880 was 494,424, and the school attend-
ance in the same year was 487,012. There are
in the province 5,195 public schools, in which
6,747 teachers are employed. The average
salaries paid in 1880 to public-school teachers

Counties.

Towns.

Cities.

Males

$382

$564

$743

Females ...

241

256

324

There are two normal schools in the prov-
ince, conducted by the Education Department,
one at Toronto and one at Ottawa.

There are one hundred and five high-schools
in the province, and the annual expenditure
in connection with them is about $425,000, of
which sum the Government contributes by
legislative grant about $85,000.

Where there are a sufficient number of Ro-
man Catholics in a section or municipality to
support a separate school, they are allowed to
pay their local school rates for the support of
such a school. There are over two hundred
separate schools in Ontario.

The University of Toronto was established
by royal charter in 1828, and endowed with a
grant of public lands. The annual income from
this endowment is nearly $60,000. The insti-
tution was inaugurated in 1843. The building
is the finest single college-building in America.

Upper Canada College is in Toronto. It

was

ORD, EDWARD O. C.

611

founded in 1828, on the model of the
great public schools of England. It is con-
trolled by a committee of the Senate of the
University, in connection with the Education
Department.

The School of Practical Science is devoted
to the special study of the physical sciences
and engineering.. It may_be regarded

but also did much toward restoring to the
Army of the Potomac that morale which had
been sadly injured by the conclusions to the
battles of Bull Run and Ball's Bluff.

When the Army of the Potomac was pre-
paring for a forward movement, Gen. Ord had
charge of a brigade, but, having been made
major-general of volunteers, he was withdrawn

department of University College devoted to and assigned to a command under Gen. Hal-

technical training. The School of Agriculture
is at Guelph. T$e regular course extends over
two years, and includes agriculture, horticul-
ture, natural science, including chemistry,
veterinary surgery, anatomy, and physiology.
The farm in connection with the institution
contains 550 acres.

The Institution for the Blind is in Brantford.
It was founded in 1871, and is conducted chief-
ly at the expense of the country. There is an
attendance of about 150. The Institution for
the Deaf and Dumb is in Belleville. It was
instituted in 1870. The general expenses are
paid by the Government. The pupils, num-
bering over 200, are taught practical industries,
as well as from text-books.

ORD, Edward Otho Cresap, an American gen-
eral, born in Allegany co., Md., Oct. 19, 1818;
died in Havana, July 22, 1883. His father was
Lieut. James Ord, an officer in the War of
1812. Young Ord was graduated at West
Point Academy in 1839. He entered the army
as second lieutenant of artillery, and was as-
signed to the Third Regiment, which he joined
in Florida. He served several years in that
State, and was actively engaged in constant
fights with the Seminoles. In 1846 he was
sent to California, and during the Mexican
War he was very efficient in preserving law
and order on the Pacific coast. He was made
captain in 1851, and was assigned to the Third
Artillery. For several years he was occupied on
the Atlantic coast, chiefly in garrison duty. He
was then ordered again to California, where
he found full scope for his energies in efforts
to keep order among the .wild Indian tribes
in Washington Territory and Oregon, and to
check their attacks and depredations. He met
with unusual success, and the inhabitants of
that section were loud in his praise.

On the outbreak of the civil war, Capt. Ord
was raised to the rank of brigadier-general of
volunteers, with his commission dating from
September, 1861 ; and subsequently, when Con-
gress rearranged the regular army, he was pro-
.moted to the rank of major of the Fourth Ar-
tillery, his commission dating from November,
1861. He was then assigned to the command
of the Third Brigade of Pennsylvania reserves,
under Gen. McCall, who had raised and organ-
ized fifteen regiments from that State. With
his portion of the forces Gen. Ord, in Decem-
ber, 1861, crossed into Virginia from Tennal-
lytown, and on the 20th of that month de-
feated the Confederates under Stuart, at
Dranesville. near the Potomac. This action was
not only highly creditable to the commander,

leek, with the army operating in the De
ment of the Mississippi. He commanded the
wing of the army which advanced upon luka
from the north, and, though he did not take
a direct part in the battle, the commanding
general in his dispatches spoke highly in his
praise. In October, 1862, during the engage-
ments before Corinth, Gen. Ord's position was
at Bolivar. He pushed forward to the assist-
ance of Corinth, and fell in with the enemy on
the south side of the Hatchie. He drove them
across the river, captured the heights, and
took 200 prisoners and two batteries. He was
wounded early in the battle, and carried off the
field. His next active service was in 1863,
when he succeeded Gen. McClernand in com-
mand of the Thirteenth Army Corps. He took
part in the operations which ended in the sur-
render of Vicksburg, July 4, 1863. When a
movement was made the same month upon
Jackson, Miss., he commanded the right wing
of Gen. Sherman's army, and thus assisted in
clearing that part of the State of organized
Confederate forces. He was ordered to New
Orleans, but, in consequence of illness, was re-
lieved, Oct. 28, 1863. He resumed his com-
mand, but his health proved too delicate for ac-
tive service during the remainder of the year.

During Gen. Grant's movement from the
Rappahannock to the James, a demonstration
was made by way of the Shenandoah valley
upon Washington, Maryland, and Pennsylvania.
Gen. Ord was thereupon assigned, July 11,
1864, to the command of the Eighth Army
Corps and the troops in the Middle Depart-
ment, and at once set about reorganizing af-
fairs in and around Baltimore. After quiet
was restored he was assigned to the com-
mand of the Eighteenth Army Corps, then op-
erating near Petersburg. He took part in the
operations before that city, and, having crossed
to the north side of the James, Sept. 29, 1864,
he led the forces which carried the strong forti-
fication and long line of intrenchments below
Chapin's farm. He captured on this occasion
fifteen pieces of artillery and nearly 300 pris-
oners ; but, during the assault, he received a
wound which temporarily disabled him. When
the Tenth and Eighteenth Corps were consoli-
dated Gen. Ord was placed in command, but,
owing to ill-health, he was relieved for a time "
by Gen. Weitzel. After the return of the
troops from Fort Fisher, he again resumed
command of his corps ; and, when Gen. Butler
was removed, early in January, 1865, he was
appointed successor in command of the De-
partment of Virginia and the Army of the

612

OKEGON.

James. He aieo participated in the opera-
tions which resulted in the evacuation of
Richmond.

After the return of peace he commanded
the Departments of California, the Platte, and
Texas. In January, 1881, he was placed on
the retired list according to his brevet rank.
Gen. Ord. on leaving the service, accepted an
appointment as engineer in the construction of
a Mexican railroad. His health suffered from
this severe labor, and he was on his way North,
in a steamer from Vera Cruz to New York,
when he was seized with yellow fever. He
was taken on shore at Havana, and died sud-
denly. In personal character, as well as in
soldierly skill, Gen. Ord ranked high, and he
was always careful for the comfort of the men
under his command, especially of the sick and
wounded.

OREGON. State Government.— The following
were the State officers during the year : Gov-
ernor, Zenas F. Moody, Republican ; Secretary
of State, R. P. Earhart ; Treasurer, Edward
Hirsch ; Superintendent of Public Instruction,
E. B. McElroy. Judiciary, Supreme Court :
Justices, Edward B. Watson, William P. Lord,
and John B. Waldo.

State Institutions. — The number of convicts in
the Penitentiary on December 31st was 237.
The new Insane Asylum at Salem was com-
pleted during the autumn of this year. Work
was begun on the foundation in May, 1881.
The building is on the summit of a knoll. The
grounds are at a convenient distance from the
business part of the city, being about half a
mile north of the Penitentiary, and directly
opposite the Orphans' Home. There are about
107 acres that properly belong to the asylum.
The building stands, completed, at an expense
to the State of less than $144,000.

The number of children of school age in the
State is 69,076. The State University received
during the year from Henry Villard the gift of
$50,000 of the first general mortgage bonds of
the Northern Pacific Railway Company, bear-
ing 6 per cent, interest.

The university fund, if it were all kept at in-
terest at 8 per cent., would yield $5,648.86, but
that is not probable. There is probably $20,-
000 of the land grant yet unsold, and as this is
disposed of the fund will be increased accord-
ingly. But it is not likely that from this source
it will ever reach more than $90,000.

The attendance in tlie collegiate department
during the year 1882-'83 was as follows: Whole
number enrolled, 154 — first term, 145 ; second
term, 123; third term, 94: average of the
terms, 121. Of these, 83 were free and 71 pay
students — 57 of the former being men and 27
of the latter women.

The number of students enrolled in the pre-
paratory department for the year was 63 — the
first term, 47 ; second term, 53 ; and third term,
34: average, 44. Of these. 38 were girls and
25 boys— 19 of whom passed their examination
and entered the collegiate department.

Indian School.— The school for the education
and industrial training of Indian child ren has
been in operation at Forest Grove for three
years. It has an attendance of 150 pupils. It
was at first difficult to get the pupils to come
to the school, but now many more wish to
come than can be accommodated. All the
clothing worn in the school, including boots
and shoes, is made by the pupils.

Salmon-Fisheries. — There were packed on the
Columbia river during the year, 629,438 cases
of salmon. Placing the product for 1883 at
630,000 cases, the value of the pack foots up
$3,024,000. This is at a valuation of $4.80 per
case. The following table exhibits the growth
of the industry :

YEAR.

Pack.

Number of
boats.

Market
price.

Cost of fish.

1866

Cases.
4 000

2

Cases.
$16 00

Cents.

15

1867 . . .
H68
1S69

18^000
28,000
100 000

15
25
35

13 00
12 00
10 00

15
20
20

1870

150000

50

9 00

20

1871
1872
1878

200,000
250,000
250 000

75
100
125

9 50
8 00
7 00

20
22i
25

1874

850 000

250

6 50

25

1875
1876

1877 . . .
1878
1879

875,000
450.000
460.000
460,000
480 000

300
400
450
550
750

560
4 50
5 20
5 00
4 go

25
25
25
25
50

1880
1881
1882 . . .
1883

530,000
550,000
550,000
629 000

900
1,200
1,500
1 700

4 80
5 00
5 00
4 80

50
6fJ
75
90

The shipments for the year were : Ca8eg

To San Francisco 270,174

To England 2kM XO

To New York by sea

Eastward by rail

£6,970
25,68*

Total 641,307

Commerce. — The total value of Columbia river
exports for 1883 was as follows:

ARTICLE.

Domestic.

Foreign.

Total.

Wheat

$253,150
705,628
1,729,103
1,585,745
18,163
1,256
21205

$3,4(
13<
1,8*

26.74
5,80

^,05

1 $3,684,891
3 2,051.428
5 8,115,158
1,585.745
18,163
1,256
21,205
4,471
5,688
2,465
4,277
2.082
26,775
12,399
36,905
201,4f,5
41,710
355.000
19,811
38,051
5,361
15,556
27,298
86,218
1 276,824
[) 650
0 801,137

7 $12,391,379

Flour

Salmon
Wool

Oats ....

Barley

Bran

4,241
5,688
2,465
4,277
2,082
26,775
12,399
86,905
201,455
41,710
355,000
19.211
88,051
5,361
15,556
27.298
36,218
262,433

']
~$6~T

23

V,:Vj
66

5,00

Mill-stuff

Onions . ....

Apples
Other fruit

Dried fruit

Hides

Pelts and skins
Woolens

Barrel stock
Leather
Tallow

Butter

EfffiTS

Hops .

Other articles . . .

796,137

Total

$6,212,512

rs,86

OREGON.

613

The imports, domestic and foreign, amounted
to $28,078,594. These figures are not in all
respects complete, but they are as nearly so as
it was possible to make them. The product of
the mines of eastern and southern Oregon is
at least $1,000,000.

Railroads. — The most important incident of
the year was the completion of the Northern
Pacific Railroad. Although but four months
had passed at the close of the year since the
last rail was laid, the advantages of direct con-
nection with the Eastern States were already
felt in every part of Oregon and Washington.
The new line is rapidly working a revolution
in the business of the country. Relations long
existing with San Francisco still retain a hold,
but their grasp is gradually loosening, and the
time is not far away when the people will only
buy in California things which are produced
there. The trade of the Northwest is turning
eastward, where buyers have equal opportu-
nities with the San Francisco houses which
have heretofore supplied them.

The most conspicuous effect of the new di-
rect connection is the presence of hundreds and
thousands of new people. Immigrants were
arriving at the close of 1883 at a rate which
would add 40,000 to the population in a year.
Most of the new-comers are farmers, and near-
ly all have a little capital.

The Northern Pacific, on the 1st of January,
had the following completed mileage in the
Northwest:

Miles.

From Wallula northeast to Montana 350

From Kalama, on the Columbia river, to Tacoma, on

Puget Sound 105

From Tacoma southeast to Wilkson (about) 32

Total 487

Added during the year :

Miles.

From Portland to a point opposite Kalama 42

From point opposite Ainsworth up to Yakima river 25

Present total mileage 554

The Yakima branch will be extended twenty-
five miles immediately.

At the beginning of the year the Oregon and
Transcontinental Company had not a mile of
road in the Northwest, but since that time it
has completed two lines connecting with the
Northern Pacific, as follows :

Miles.
From Stuck River Junction to Black River Junction (the

link connecting Seattle and Tacoma) 20

From Palouse Junction to "front," eight miles east of

Colfax 101

Total 121

The latter road is being rapidly extended,
and will terminate at Moscow, I. T., reaching
that point early in 1884.

At the beginning of the year the Oregon

Railway and Navigation Company had the fol-
lowing mileage :

Miles.

From Portland to Bolles Junction W. T 270

From Bolles Junction to Dayton, W . T 18

From Bolles Junction to Riparia, W. T 81

From Umatilla to Pendleton 48

Total 857

Added during the year :

From Pendleton to four miles east of the summit of the

Blue mountains 80

From Walla Wall* to Blue Mountain station 20

From Pendleton toward Blue Mountain station 7

Total for the year 87

Present total mileage 444

The Baker City branch is being pushed with
vigor, and it is proposed to extend it to a junc-
tion with the Oregon Short Line at Hunting-
ton, 117 miles east of its present front, during
the coming year. The Pendleton and Walla
Walla link was to be completed early in 1884.

At the beginning of the year the Oregon
and California Company had the following com-
pleted mileage :

Miles.
From Portland south to the l> front," 54 miles south of

Roseburg 252

From Portland to Corvallis „ . 97

Total 84»

Added during the year :

Extension south of Roseburg 70

Total present mileage 419

During the coming year this line will be ex-
tended to a junction with the California sec-
tion of the road, south of the State line.

The Oregon Improvement Company is build-
ing a line twenty-five miles or longer east from
Seattle to the coal-field's of Green river. It
will be completed early in 1884.

The Oregon Short Line is coming rapidly
westward, and will meet the Oregon Railway
and Navigation road at Huntington, Idaho, in
the autumn of 1884.

Temperance and Female Suffrage. — The annual
meeting of the State Temperance Alliance was
held at Albany on February 21st. There were
present 287 delegates, representing 85 organi-
zations, as follows: Lodges, 29; churches, 20;
Sunday-schools, 18; alliances, etc., 7; Blue-
Rihbon Clubs, 4 ; W. 0. T. U., 3 ; Band of Hope,
2 ; United Order of Ancient Templars, 2.

The Woman's Christian Temperance Asso-
ciation of Oregon held its annual meeting in
Portland, on June 15th. No action of special
importance was taken by either body. The
Oregon State Woman Suffrage Association held
its eleventh annual convention in Portland on
the 13th of February. Measures were taken
toward a vigorous campaign in behalf of the
constitutional amendment which is to be sub-
mitted to the people in June, 1884.

614 PALESTINE, COLONIES IN.

PALMER, EDWARD H.

PALESTINE, GERMAN COLONIES IN. The first
German colony in Palestine was founded in
1872, when several families from Wiirtemberg
formed a settlement near Jaffa. They were
industrious and hardy, and showed themselves
well fitted to cope with the numerous difficul-
ties that beset them from the beginning. They
established, close by the city, model farms and
households, manufactories for agricultural im-
plements, and shops which turned out excel-
lent wagons. Continued success attracted new
settlers, and the colony has grown steadily and
would enjoy the promise of a still more rapid
increase if it could obtain new grants of land.

At about the same time this colony was
founded, another company of Germans ob-
tained a grant of a considerable tract of land at
CaTpha, at the foot of Mount Carmel, between
Cape Carmel and the ruins of Csesarea. This
colony, which is much more important than
that of Jaffa, has had a very prosperous career.
Its forty modest, whitewashed houses present
an appearance of order and neatness in marked
contrast with the squalid huts of Cai'pha. The
colony, numbering about four hundred souls,
has its own administration, in a kind of city
council, over which the resident consul has
supervision. It presents the model of a Ger-
man city to the Asiatic population, and an ex-
ample of quiet and moral behavior. The peo-
ple are moderate Protestants, and free from
sectarian strife. Their farms are well appoint-
ed, and yield four or five times as much as
similar lands in the hands of the native popu-
lation. The soil is very productive under any
kind of cultivation, and makes extraordinary
returns under the care of a good farmer. A
third colony has been established in the vicin-
ity of Jerusalem, near the Russian hospital.
It was founded mainly for purposes of trade,
and has prospered. Through the agency of
these settlements, German influence has already
become considerable in Palestine, and bids fair
to be an important factor when the Syrian
question again comes up. The Arabs and
Turks, who are most strongly impressed by
military success, have held the Germans in
great respect since they defeated the French in
1871 ; while the German colonies, under the
care of Prince Bismarck, have enjoyed a steady
growth since 1872. Prussia has obtained the
convent of the Knights Templars as a present
from the Sultan, and on the 7th of April, Prince
Frederick Charles took formal possession of
the ruins of Cajsarea, an ancient seaport half-
way between the German settlements at Jaffa
and CaTpha, which the Sultan had conveyed,
with the neighboring lands, to the German
Emperor. The growth of these two colonies
toward each other, if it continues, will bring
the whole Syrian coast, from Cape Carmel to
Jaffa, under German predominance.

PALMER, Edward Henry, an English Oriental
scholar, born in Cambridge, England, Aug. 7,
1840 ; murdered by Bedouin Arabs of the Des-
ert about the middle of August, 1882. Both his
father and his mother having died while he
was a little child, he was educated and cared
for by his aunt with the tenderness of a moth-
er. He early evinced a fondness for lan-
guages, and actually mastered the Romany dia-
lect, through the aid of gypsies whom he met
and induced to talk with him in their peculiar
tongue. For some three years he served as a
junior clerk in a London house, during which
time he acquired French and Italian, so as to
speak them with the accuracy of a native. His
conviction was, that any intelligent person can
learn, by the natural method, as he called it,
which children pursue, any language what-
ever, so as to read it in a few weeks, and speak
it in a few months. This method he followed,
viz., hearing and speaking different languages;
he eschewed grammars, after the Greek and
Latin manner ; and his success was marvelous
in the extreme.

Mr. Palmer entered St. John's College,
Cambridge, and was graduated in 1867.
Though not distinguished in other respects,
while an undergraduate, he was nevertheless
elected to a fellowship in his college, soon
after graduation, on the score of his already
remarkable attainments in Arabic, Persian,
and Hindustani. These he had made through
the help of two or three Orientals living at the
time in Cambridge. When the Sinai Survey
Expedition was sent out in 1868-'69 Mr. Palm-
er accompanied it, having in view the investi-
gation of the nomenclature, traditions, and an-
tiquities of Arabia Petrsea. One of the results
of this expedition was the discovery of the
route taken by the escaped children of Israel
in their journey from the Red Sea, and it was
shown that this route led to a mountain in all
respects answering to the mountain in which
the law was given. Mr. Palmer also collected
the curious Arabic and Mohammedan legends
and traditions on the subject. The next year,
1869-'70, in company with Mr. C. F. Drake,
he explored the Desert of the Wanderings (El
Teh), and succeeded in fixing many of the
localities where the Israelites rested, such as
Kibroth Hattaavah, besides making other val-
uable discoveries. He also made some stay
in Jerusalem, and looked into the interest-
ing question to all pilgrims as to the true site
of the Holy Sepulchre. He gave his decision
against the traditionary site. On his return
home he published " The Desert of the Exo-
dus : Journeys on Foot in the Wilderness of
the Forty Years' Wanderings" (1871).

In November, 1871, Mr. Palmer was appoint-
ed the lord almoner's Professor of Arabic in
the University of Cambridge, which place

PALMER, EDWARD H.

he held for ten years. Finding his work there
not altogether congenial, and his income only
moderate, Prof. Palmer, in 1881, transferred
his residence to London. He entered largely
into journalistic and literary pursuits, at the
same time carrying forward his Oriental stud-
ies with unremitting assiduity. He was wide-
ly consulted on questions that related to the
East, and his vast learning, for a man of his
years, was made to subserve the interests of
justice and truth. His publications, beginning,
in 1865, with a translation into Arabic verse
of Moore's 'k Paradise and the Peri," extended
on from year to year to the close of his life.
He produced an Arabic grammar, a Persian
dictionary, the "Life of the Caliph Haroun al-
Raschid," and edited and revised Henry
Martyn's Persian translation of the New Tes-
tament. He furnished a report on the " No-
menclature of Sinai " ; a report on the " Bed-
ouins of Sinai and their Traditions " ; and an
account of the *' Negeb, or South Country of
Holy Scripture." He translated " The Song of
the Reed," mainly from the Persian and Ara-
bic, and brought out an edition and translation
into English verse of the Arabic lyric, poet,
Beha Ed-din Zohair. He also published a
volume of Gypsy-English poems, in conjunc-
tion with Charles Godfrey Leland ; and trans-
lated into English verse, with the collaboration
of Magnusson, the lyrical poems of Runeberg,
the great Swedish poet. Besides all these, he
produced various essays, poems, and letters in
Urdu and Persian, which appeared in the na-
tive papers in India.

In the summer of 1882 Prof. Palmer acceded
to the request of the Government, and set out
on a mission which ended so disastrously to
himself. He was commissioned to visit the
Arab sheiks of the Sinai Desert ; to expend,
if needful, £20,000, in order to secure their
neutrality along the line of the Suez Canal ;
and to win them, if possible, from joining Ara-
bi Bey in a fanatical and so-called holy war
against the English, lie entered upon his mis-
sion with entire courage and confidence. He
penetrated the wilderness, accompanied by
only two attendants, and trusted for safety to
his former friendly relations with the Bedouin
tribes, and his intimate knowledge of their lan-
guage and peculiarities. After some weeks
spent in negotiation, he gained success in the
work he had undertaken; but as he was
returning to Suez to redeem the promises
made to the chiefs of pecuniary aid, he was
treacherously betrayed into the hands of a
party of Bedouin robbers; he and his two
companions were taken prisoners, and after a
few days' captivity the three were murdered.

In view of the services which he might yet
have rendered to Oriental literature, it was a
great and grievous loss. He was in the very
prime of life, with a brilliant future before him ;
a man of varied and marvelous gifts, and one
who secured the esteem and affection of all
who knew him. The life of the " Sheik Ab-

PAPER-HANGINGS, ETC. 615

dullah " (as was his Oriental title) was written
by his friend and to some extent fellow-work-
er, Walter Besant, M. A. It is an interesting
volume (published early in 1883), and gives
not only the story of his life, but also copious
extracts from his publications in Arabic and
Persian. It has also a portrait of the profess-
or, in Oriental costume.

PAPER-HANGINGS AND WALL-PAPER. This
industry has made greater advances within the
past ten years than almost any other of onr
older manufactures. Thirty to fifty years ago
the only wall-papers made in this country were
of the cheapest and poorest quality. Printed
on an unsized brown paper, from wooden
blocks which did not match well, with stiff
and ungainly designs, in not more than three
or four colors, and with combinations as ab-
surd and impossible as could be conceived,
they were only tolerated by the poor as a sub-
stitute for whitewash. All the better class
of wall-papers were imported, and these,
though greatly superior to the domestic papers,
were then mostly of patterns which would not
now be considered desirable. There was some
progress as the tastes of the population im-
proved, and better stock and somewhat better
designs were introduced ; but though the reg-
ister was better, the old hand-printing with
blocks was still practiced, and even the best
patterns had a stiff, unnatural, wooden appear-
ance. A few of our manufacturers were be-
ginning to desire something better, and this
led to many experiments; but most of these
were mere gropings in the dark, without any
clear comprehension ,of what was actually
wanted. Gilding had been introduced, though
it was not skillfully applied ; and, with that
perversity which possesses some manufacturers,
no sooner was it found that there was a de-
mand for gilt papers, than some of the makers
began to use the Dutch gilding in place of gold-
leaf, and the tarnished figures soon disgusted
purchasers. Even in 1860 the wall-paper in-
dustry did not flourish. There were, accord-
ing to the census of that year, 26 establish-
ments making wall-papers in the entire coun-
try ; they employed 1,294 hands (the printing
was generally done by hand) ; there was in-
vested in the business, $1,037,600 of capital
(about $40,000 to each factory) ; and they pro-
duced goods valued at $2,148,800, about an
average of $80,000 to each establishment.
There were more of the higher priced papers
made than ten years before, but the cheap and
ugly patterns were still in the ascendant. At
that time we were importing nearly $2,000,000
worth of paper-hangings. The war brought
with it some changes in this as in many other
things. Foreign goods were not so readily ob-
tained, and our manufacturers had awakened
to the necessity of making better and more
tasteful goods if they would gain and hold the
market. Machine-printing was introduced, and
better designs furnished, though as yet the for-
eign patterns were slavishly copied. The cen-

616

PAPER-HANGINGS AND WALL-PAPER.

sus of 1870, perhaps to a greater degree than
its predecessors, was defective and almost
worthless in its manufacturing statistics. It
represented the number of establishments in
the whole country as but 19, employing only
869 hands, using $1,415,500 capital, and pro-
ducing goods of the value of $2,105,510. This
was not in any material respect an advance
on the report of 1860 ; but the importation of
paper-hangings had fallen off to a specie value
of about $600,000, equivalent to a currency
value of at least $1,000,000. Here was a gain,
for there could be no doubt that our manufac-
tures of wall-paper reached $2,500,000, or two
and a half times the value of the import.

About this time there was a sudden and re-
markable improvement in the English wall-
papers, which was initiated by William Morris
and his friend W. M. Rossetti, both poets and
artists. The designs of Morris were at first
(in 1863) confined to furniture and decorations
of dwellings, in which he manifested great
artistic ability and originality. He soon pro-
ceeded from this to designs for wall-papers,
which, though they at first excited much op-
position from their startling character, soon
became popular, and after a time the English
manufacturers surpassed the French in the
beauty of their designs. These goods, a little
later, were imported here in very considerable
quantities ; and in 1873 or 1874 leading manu-
facturers began to compete with them. In the
Centennial Exposition, the display of both
English and French paper-hangings was of
very great beauty, but one or two of our
American manufacturers ventured to compete
with them, and acquitted themselves creditably.

From that time the progress of the American
wall-paper manufacture has been exceedingly
rapid. Processes of cylinder-printing have
been invented and improved, by which it is
possible to print papers in a greater variety of
colors, and with greater accuracy and perfec-
tion, than is done by any of the European man-
ufacturers. At first, our manufacturers copied,
with some changes, the European designs, but
now the largest have encouraged native talent,
and find that the designs received from our own
artists, many of them trained solely in Amer-
ican art-schools, are more tasteful and elegant
than the best of the foreign designs.

The result of these improvements, which
raised the production of decorative wall-papers
to a high rank among the fine arts, has been
such an increase of production as has hardly
been witnessed in any other industry in the
same period. The census statistics of 1880
were remarkably accurate for that time, as the
number of manufacturers was not large, and
they were associated and made their quarterly
reports. They were as follow : Number of
establishments, 25 ; capital, $3,560,500 ; num-
ber of hands, 2,487; wages paid, $874,921;
material used, $3,629,222 ; amount of annual
product, $6,267,303, or double the whole pro-
duction and importation of 1870. Meanwhile

the importation had fallen off to $100,134 in
1877, and $130,948 in 1880. Five sixths in
value of these manufactured goods were made
in the State of New York.

But, rapid as was the growth of this indus-
try between 1870 and 1880, it has been greatly
accelerated since 1880. The whole number of
establishments is now 27 — one having been
added in Brooklyn, one in Elizabeth, and one
in Buffalo ; but one has failed. The cities of
Brooklyn and New York produce five sixths
in value, and more than four fifths in quantity,
of the total production of the United States.
The entire production in the United States
is very nearly of the value of $12,000,000, al-
though prices have been materially reduced.
Of this amount a little more than $6,000,000
are produced in New York city, an increase of
more than $2,500,000 since 1880; and $3,995,-
000 in Brooklyn, about three times the amount
reported in the census of 1880. The import
is still insignificant — only about $150,000 in
1883, and this including glazed and fancy pa-
pers— while our manufacturers are exporting
their papers to Canada and Australia.

Under the general title of paper-hangings are
included four distinct classes of goods, viz. :
1. Wall-papers proper, which are put up in
pieces or rolls of eight yards each, and with
which are also reckoned borders of various
widths, also in pieces of eight yards. 2. Da-
does and hall fresco-papers, of varying widths
and lengths. 3. Ceiling-papers, also of various
sizes, and usually with borders; these are of
elaborate designs, and represent with great
fidelity the finest fresco-paintings. 4. Window-
curtains, of various widths, and either plain or
bordered. These four classes of goods are not
all manufactured by any one house, but the
largest make two or three of them. The
largest of the Brooklyn houses manufactures
wall-papers and borders, and curtains ; the
largest New York house, and one of the great
Brooklyn houses, make wall-papers and bor-
ders, dadoes, hall-frescoes, and ceiling-papers.

The paper used is not, so far as we can learn,
manufactured by the paper-hanging houses
themselves. The greater part of it comes from
Massachusetts and Connecticut, and Washing-
ton, Essex, arid Rensselaer counties of New
York. There is one paper-mill for these pa-
pers in Kings county, producing about four
tons a day, which is but a small portion of the
amount used in that county. The paper is
made mostly from old newspaper stock, though
the fresco and ceiling papers are usually of
better and heavier materials. For wall-papers,
they are generally furnished in rolls of about
100 pounds, the width of the paper being about
twenty inches; for fresco and ceiling papers
the sizes vary. The curtain-paper is from five
to eight feet in width, and of heavy stock.

Most of the better class of papers are now
satined, i. e., coated with a surface of very fine
clay, tinted of any color required, and applied
by passing the paper between rollers and pol-

.

PAPER-HANGINGS, ETC.

PARAGUAY.

617

ing It by means of a swiftly-revolving brush,
which gives it the satin finish desired. When
thoroughly dried and hardened, it is reeled up
and is ready for the printing. This is effected
by a process somewhat similar to that now em-
ployed in calico-printing, except that the colors
are oil-colors, and there are as many cylinders
as there are colors to be used, and each cylin-
der has its reservoir of its own color, and its
rollers for distributing the color evenly over
its printing surface. If there is to be gilding,
one cylinder is charged with size, and the gold-
leaf is applied subsequently. As the newly-
printed wall-paper passes off from the printing-
machine in continuous lengths of 800 to 1,000
feet, it is, by an ingenious contrivance, made
to pass over laths or wands, which it carries
forward up an inclined plane till they fall into
a slot at the top of a frame, and the paper is
hung in folds or loops of sixteen or eighteen feet
in length, and is thus thoroughly dried. These
frames close up on each other with a space of
perhaps four inches between them. When the
paper is dried, it is passed along an inclined
plane automatically, carefully inspected, and at
the lower end of the inclined plane rolled up
and cut off, by a guillotine- knife, in lengths of
eight yards, the regulation length of a roll, and
is ready to be packed for market, or sorted,
each pattern by itself, for the storehouses. One
manufacturer in Brooklyn, whose establish-
ment is said to be the largest in the United
States, and perhaps in the world, turns out
9,000,000 of these rolls annually. The fresco
and ceiling papers are printed by a different
process, somewhat analogous to the best color-
printing from types and electrotypes. The de-
signs are engraved on blocks and electrotyped,
and there are as many printings as there are
colors, the machinery being so construsted as
to produce tyie most perfect register.

The design or pattern is first carefully drawn
and colored by the artist, as it is to appear on
the paper. The artist then makes as many
copies of the drawing as there are to be colors
on tracing-cloth, and by colored chalks traces
that part of the pattern which is to be of a par-
ticular color upon each sheet. Cylinders of
apple- wood, beech, or cherry are now provided,
each of exactly the same size, and turned smooth
in a lathe. The sheets of tracing-cloth, all of

Precisely the same size and covering the cylin-
er exactly, are then put on the cylinders with
a peculiar cement, and are handed over to the
men who are to put in the figures or designs of
each color. Every man has his own color, and
never takes any other. The figures of the de-
sign are now worked out by inserting in the
colored lines slips of hardened brass rule, which
by bending and filing are brought to the shape
of the figure, and, a slight incision being made
in the cylinder, they are driven in by a single
tap of a light hammer. The figure must be
copied with the most absolute exactness; a va-
riation of a hairVbreadth might spoil the pat-
tern. When it is completed, the insterstices of

the figure are filled in with a dense and firm
felt nearly to the surface. The rolls are next
to be tested ; a lathe is fitted up with a gauge,
carefully adjusted, and the slightest inequality
is carefully turned off. They are next inter-
locked to make sure of a perfect register. The
colors are all mixed in the factory, and for the
finer qualities aniline colors are largely used.

The window-curtains are usually of one or
two colors. They are printed on an immense
cylinder wheel, whose diameter is 11 or 12 feet.
The patterns of one year are not, except in
very rare instances, repeated the following
year, but an entirely new set is designed for
each year's sales. For each year a number of
rolls, slightly in excess of the supposed demand,
are printed, and where there are remainders
they are worked off the following year; but
the manufacturers will not pledge themselves
to supply a pattern more than two years old,
and very often they can not furnish one which
was made the year before. This industry af-
fords employment, at good wages, to a large
number of young artists and designers, and is
doing as -much as any industry, except perhaps
calico-printing and book-engraving, to promote
the more intimate connection between the fine
and the useful arts.

Within the past year there has been put upon
the market a new decorative material of great
promise, to which the name of "Lincrusta-
Walton " has been given. Its composition is
secret, but it is known that solidified oil enters
largely into it. The material is said to be soft
at first, and to allow the imitations of the most
delicate outlines, and the raising of the orna-
mentation considerably above the groundwork ;
but it soon hardens without becoming brittle,
and is not affected by either water or tempera-
ture. Panels representing statues in bronze are
made from it, and the fine wood-carvings of the
old cathedrals are imitated to perfection. This
new invention has been introduced simulta-
neously into France, England, and America.

PARAGUAY, a republic of South America. To
the general statements of area and territorial
divisions, given in former volumes, and of pop-
ulation given in Volume VU, it may be here
added that the principal cities are Asuncion,
the capital, with a population of 16,000 ; Villa
Rica, with 12,570 ; Villa Concepcion, 10,697 :
Villa San Pedro, 9,706; Luque, 8,878; San Es-
tanislao, 7,453 ; Itangua, 6,948 ; Ita, 6,332 ; Pa-
raguari, 5,315 ; Villa Hurnaita, 3,868 ; VillaPi-
lar, 3,722; and Jagnaron, 3,413.

Government.— The President is Gen. B. Ca-
ballero (since Nov. 25, 1882). The Cabinet is
composed of the following ministers: Secreta-
ry of the Interior, Col. Mesa ; Foreign Affairs,
J. S. Decond; Finance, J. 0. Jimenez; Justice
and Public Worship, Senor -Gonzalez ; War,
Col. Duarte.

Army and Navy.— No citizen of Paraguay is
exempt from military service ; but the standing
army has been reduced to 500 men (350 foot
and 150 horse), a portion thereof keeping gar-

618

PARAGUAY.

PATENTS.

rison at Asuncion, and the rest doing frontier
service. In case of war, the National Guard is
enrolled. The country has a chief of police in
each of the seventy departments. The navy
consists of a screw steam man-of-war of 440
tons, mounting 4 guns, and having a crew of
36 sailors, commanded by 4 officers, besides 3
small steamers doing service in the ports.

Finance. — The chief source of revenue is the
customs, which in 1881 produced $426,940, and
adding thereto other items of income the total
amount collected was set at $542,000. For the
year 1883 the budget estimated the aggregate
outlay at $352,963.

Public Indebtedness.— By virtue of the treaties
of peace which terminated the war, and finally
the still pending differences between Paraguay
and the individual belligerents that had formed
the alliance against her, she obliged herself to
refund the cost of the war, and indemnify those
who suffered by the Lopez invasion of Brazil-
ian, Argentine, and Uruguayan territory. By a
separate treaty one of the parties to the former
alliance, Uruguay, waived these latter claims of
indemnity on April 20, 1883. The precise cost
of the war has never been estimated, but those
who suffered from the invasion have formu-
lated their claims, and Paraguay has recognized
their validity, constituting Brazilian and Ar-
gentine claims to the amount of several mill-
ion dollars still pending.

The internal debt, by the sale of national
property, that of the railroad, and through the
operations of a sinking fund created by an ex-
tra duty of 10 per cent., has been reduced to
$642,667. The foreign debt amounted, on Jan.
1, 1882, to $16,818,412.

General Condition of the Country. — Congress re-
opened its sessions April 1, 1883, on which oc-
casion the President in his message alluded to
the improved state of affairs, the cessation of
the financial crisis, the progress made by pub-
lic instruction, the rapid increase of flocks of
sheep, and the remarkable headway which ag-
riculture had made. Advices dated in Decem-
ber, 1883, show that the year had been gen-
erally prosperous ; but a country the bulk of
whose male population perished during the
gigantic and prolonged struggle against a pow-
erful alliance of neighbors requires time to re-
place itself on a flourishing moral and material
basis, and a large immigration of agriculturists
to fill up the gap left by the war.

The practical and liberal measures of the
present administration have already done much
toward obliterating the evil results of the gov-
ernment with which the country was afflicted
during the successive sway of a Francia, Rosas,
and Lopez. The financial difficulties hamper-
ing it in this endeavor are great, and foreign
capital is slow in coming thither. Fortunately,
the Government is the chief owner of the arable
land in the republic, and has therefore the
means of holding out inducements to agricul-
turists from abroad. Strenuous efforts have,
therefore, been made to foster immigration,

especially from Germany, and not without suc-
cess. A dispatch from London, J«n. 11, 1884,
said : " The movement in Germany for the es-
tablishment of working-men's colonies is mak-
ing rapid headway. Committees of emigration
from different parts of the country recently
came together at Frankfort, and resolved to
push the matter of sending more German work-
men to Paraguay, where a colony had already
been established." For several years past the
Geographical Society of Leipsic has labored in
the same direction, and forwarded colonists to
Paraguay. Since, in 1882, some Germans and
Englishmen became purchasers of tracts of
arable lands in Paraguay, similar property has
risen 50 per cent, in 1883. But even at this
advance, estancias, well watered, wooded, and
provided with fine pasturages, could still be
bought in 1883 for $800 to $1,000 the square
league. There are probably few countries pos-
sessing the resources and climate of Paraguay,
of easy access to immigration, where, with such
a moderate outlay, similar tracts of land can be
acquired by the lionafide settler.

Communications. — The only railway in opera-
tion is the one from Asuncion to Paraguari,
forty-five miles, which in 1881 forwarded 81,-
807 passengers. In the same year its gross earn-
ings were $61,207. There is but one telegraph
line in operation, running parallel with the rail-
way aforenamed. The items of mail matter for-
warded were as follow :

1880.

1881.

Inland
Received from abroad . . .

20,796
30,860

34.117
47,134

Sent abroad

15,679

48,862

Total

67,335

130,113

Amount of postage collected in 1881, $2,227.
Commerce. — The commercial movements in
two years were as follow :

Import

Export.

Amount of duty
collected.

1880
1881

$1,030,000
1,290,COO

$1,163,000
1,929,000

$320.000
427,000

The chief articles of import in 1881 were:
cotton goods, $269,264 worth ; beverages,
$167,114; hardware, $119,484; woolens, $77,-
351 ; and the remainder was made up of flour,
boots and shoes, sugar, rice, coal, petroleum,
bagging, etc. The exports consisted of yerla
mate, or Paraguay tea, $910,126; leaf-tobacco
and cigars, $682,666; hides and skins, $116,-
782 ; oranges, $47,948 ; the rest being cabinet
and dye woods, essence of orange-blossoms,
tanning-bark, Indian corn, leather, etc.

PATENTS. A United States patent for &n in-
vention is a grant, given by the Government,
of the exclusive right to use, make, or sell any
subject of invention that has been first invented
by the applicant himself, not abandoned, nor in
public use. It is granted for a period of sev-
enteen years, and can not be extended. The
word " patent" means open. A patent struct-

PATENTS.

619

ure is one whose construction and uses are
disclosed to the public. This contradicts to a
certain extent the popular idea, which fails to
realize that the subject of a patent is the prop-
erty of the public, withheld from it by special
grant for the period of the patent. When a
person has invented a machine or other thing,
he has two ways of securing to himself its ex-
clusive use. One is to keep it a secret, the
other is to patent it, which implies to publish
it. To secure patent rights in it, an accurate
description, accompanied, it may be, with draw-
ings and model, has to be filed in the Patent-
Office at Washington. As soon as the patent
is granted, this description is patent or open to
public inspection. The text and drawing, if
any, are reproduced in printing and lithogra-
phy, and kept on sale to all applicants.

An unpatented invention can be used by any
one who finds out its secret. The law recog-
nizes no right of property in an invention until
it is patented. The material development of
the country is consulted when it is enacted that
all inventions shall be the property of the pub-
lic, sooner or later, if divulged by patenting
or otherwise. As a basis of right to any prop-
erty, the thing must be defined by registry or
otherwise. Finally, the law recognizes no in-
trinsic right of property in the intangible effort
of the brain, which it holds to constitute the
germ of invention. It refuses to recognize
any right of property in invention as such,
and holds that the inventor, when others have
used his idea, is no poorer, and hence has not
been robbed. Hence a special grant is neces-
sary to protect him. A reciprocal rewarding
and encouragement of inventors is presented
in the consideration awarded for the disclosure
of inventions. This consideration is the mo-
nopoly of his invention for a period of seven-
teen years. The nominal fees charged in this
country for patents are only designed to cover
the expenses of the Patent Office.

Soliciting. — Patent soliciting should be per-
formed by one familiar with the practice of the
Patent- Office, an intimate acquaintance with
which can only be obtained by experience.
To this should be joined a knowledge of the
views taken by the courts in these u metaphysics
of the law," as Judge Story designated patent
law. A patent may be drawn up so as to be
accepted by the Patent-Office, and be utterly
valueless in litigation. This court interpreta-
tion of patents is of greater extent and runs
into more refinement than does the Patent-
Office practice. A strong feeling now prevails
that the law should exercise some choice or
licensing of patent solicitors. Just as the
practice of la win the courts is restricted to
lawyers, approved members of the bar, sor it
is argued, should the soliciting of patents, as
far as attorneys are concerned, be confined to
those recognized as capable after due examina-
tion by some designated examiners.

In the early days of the office but few patents
were taken out. The practices of the depart-

ment were simpler and more elastic than at
present. After a few years the causes began
to come into court, and then the judges had
to settle the legal status of the different cases.
During the past ten years the Circuit Courts
and the Supreme Court of the United States
have had to decide in a vast number of p.it uf,
suits. The statute has been read and re-read,
and its provisions have been interpreted with
the greatest refinement. The courts are the
final and supreme arbiters of patents, and on
the decisions of judges rest their value. Hence,
to know what the power of a patent really is,
the records of the courts must be consulted.
The patent practice of to-day is far different
from that of a few years ago. The new de-
cisions of the courts alluded to above are not
all that have modified it. The practice of the
Patent-Office has become stricter, and the con-
ditions of acceptability are more rigorous.

Patentability.— When an inventor has invented
or discovered something, the last question that
will probably occur to him is, Is it patentable?
He is inclined to take this for granted ; yet in
all patent law no question is more intricate.
The words "invented or discovered " occur in
the statute, and the two words are held to be
synonymous. " Any new and useful art, ma-
chine, manufacture, or composition of matter,
or any new and useful improvement thereof,
not known or used by others in this country,"
is the definition of patentable things.

Human Contrivance. — The first element which
will be seen to run through the four patentable
things is the element of human contrivance or
devising. The law only grants patents to the
products of the human brain. It does not pat-
ent natural forces. Newton is spoken of as
the discoverer of gravitation. If on investi-
gation he were found to be such, the law would
be morally as well as physically incapable of
granting him a patent for his discovery. Volta
and Galvani were the discoverers of dynamic
electricity. To-day we all see the role played
by this force in human affairs. Had they lived
to-day and made the discovery, they could not
have patented it. For, though they discovered
it, they did not do so in the sense of the word
as used in the statute— they did not invent it.
The force itself was no product of their brain ;
it existed from the beginning of time, and all
they did was to discover means of localizing,
developing, and identifying it. The patentnble
discovery would be limited to some form of
galvanic or voltaic battery. The patentability
of such a thing .depends on whether it is a
work of man or of Nature. In the latter case,
it is the property of humanity at large, and
can not be secured. Morse tried to patent the
use of electricity for marking or printing at a
distance. This amounted -to claiming a mo-
nopoly of one of the laws of Nature. He had
harnessed the lightning, and made it his mes-
senger ; but he tried to patent the messenger
instead of the harness. His particular machine
could have been secured as the work of man.

620

PATENTS.

His case came into court, and was lost on the
ground of too great extent of claim. This
patent had gone safely through the office, to
be declared invalid by the higher powers.

Originality. — Referred to the person applying
for a patent, the thing must be his invention.
The inventor must have invented it personally,
and must make an oath to that effect. It often
happens that the inventor has been preceded
by another, and that he is a second or third
inventor only. The Patent-Office is obliged, if
the other conditions be fulfilled, to grant the
patent to the first inventor. If it by accident
grants the patent to the second inventor, the
first has his remedy in interference proceedings.

Novelty. — The originality of the invention
being settled, it has next to be considered, un-
less it is totally original, whether there is a
sufficient change from existing structures or
processes. The majority of inventions at this
time consist in such changes. The question
to be determined is whether these changes
were obvious, or whether they required inven-
tion for their development. When nothing
more than the ordinary knowledge or skill of
one conversant with the art was required, there
is no invention. Some of these changes are so
ingenious and beneficial in their results as to
be true inventions, however clearly changes.
The best authority is good common sense ap-
plied by a qualified and disinterested person.
The inventor is almost certain to take too favor-
able a view of the change he has effected.

Doable Use. — Double use of an existing struct-
ure or other invention, if accompanied by ever
so slight a change, may be patentable. The
office will be found rather strict in dealing with
this class of subjects. The general rule in the
case of a machine is that it, with all its pos-
sible functions, is the property of the inventor.
A grindstone invented for the purpose of grind-
ing needles, would be protected for grinding
pins. But where the use contemplated in the
original patent was widely different from the
use discovered by a new inventor, but little
will be required to constitute an invention.

As an illustration of Patent-Office practice,
some of its decisions may be quoted. It has
declared unpatentable the following devices:
Applying to a paddle-wheel vessel a device bor-
rowed from a land- vehicle; doing the same with
reference to a wind-mill and paddle-wheel;
preserving fruits by a process already used for
eggs; using the sand-blast for cleaning iron.
The subject of double use is extensive. The
courts and the Patent-Office proceed very dif-
ferently here. The former give the patentee
the benefit of the doubt ; the office does the
reverse. As a practical rule, where the ques-
tion of double use is in issue, if a patent passes
the office, it will be safe in the courts. The
courts have for their assistance the knowledge
of the results achieved by the patented article.
If anything in the nature of an industrial
revolution has been accomplished, it tends to
prove that invention has been exerted. This

refers to change of existing structures, as well
as double use. The consideration of results
achieved affects both. The office has to take a
more abstract view of the subject, knowledge
of results not being ordinarily at its disposal.
If a functional change in a machine has been
produced, it is invention; if only a structural
one, invention is probably absent. Novelty is
one of the statutory characters of patentable
things, and it is affected by several sharply de-
fined considerations of prior use and publica-
tion. The pioneers in invention have always
the best chance in this matter.

Prior Use. — An invention will not be new if
it has been in use in this country before its in-
vention by the patentee was completed. An
inventor may have honestly worked at his con-
ception, and completed a perfect invention,
only to find that the same thing has been done
before, and that his device was in use in this
country long before he thought of it. For thia
there is no remedy ; his invention is unpatent-
able. Prior use must have certain character-
istics, to make it efficient in destroying patent-
ability. It must be public, no matter in how
limited a sense. Private use has been decided to
be ineffectual. A patentee is required to have
a quid pro quo to exchange for his patent-
right. He must make a gift to the public of
something they were not already possessed of.

The anticipating structure, to come under
prior use, must be a complete realization of the
subject of the invention, and must have been
successful in its operation. An abandoned ex-
periment will not answer. A general resem-
blance of an inoperative structure will not an-
swer, reduction to practice being essential.

Prior use abroad does not affect the invent-
or. The theory is, that the public in this
country have no knowledge of the customs of
other countries, as far as mere rumor or verbal
report is concerned. This theory is recognized
in the wording of the statute, where prior use
is limited to prior use in this country.

Publication. — Publication affects patentability
differently. If a description of the invention
has been published in printed form, here or
abroad, before the date of invention, an antici-
pation is proved. No exception is made in the
case of foreign "publications, as printed matter
is supposed to travel everywhere. It must be
a genuine publication. Eejected applications
for patents are held to afford no instances of
prior publication, if descriptions of inventions
are found in them.

Combinations. — Within the past few years,
new and very important rulings have been in-
troduced in the Patent-Office on the question
of combination, and the practice has become
extremely stringent in this regard. All the
parts of a patent must co-operate to the end,
in the strictest possible manner. An aggrega-
tion or mere collection of parts will be held to
be unpatentable. Like a perfect drama, the
invention must have its unities. Every part
of the combination that is specified in the

PATENTS.

621

claim must play a part in the operation of the
machine. This refers to the claim for com-
bination. When it comes to the claims for
parts, no part can be individually claimed out-
side of the combination, unless it is strictly es-
sential to the working of the device. Thus,
an automatic regulator working a steam- valve
may be the subject of a patent for the com-
bination. If the regulator is a separate struct-
ure, actuating or working a newly invented
valve, and adaptable to other valves, the valve
could not, as a separate device, be claimed in
the same patent with that for the combination.
Two or more patents should be taken out, one
for the combination and one for the valve, and
one for each other individual and replaceable
element of the combination. When a patent
for a combination comes before it, the office
first examines into the mutual dependence of
the elements of the combination. If these
parts do not in the strictest sense work to-
gether, or co-operate for the same end, if they
can be separated into two or more distinct and
individually operative devices, which will work
independently, the examiner will do it, and re-
fuse a single patent for a supposed combination,
which is really an aggregation. If the combi-
nation is allowed, and an attempt is made to
claim individually different elements as having
some peculiarities of structure, additional pat-
ents will be demanded for these, if known
equivalents can be substituted for them in the
combination. The decisions of the Supreme
Court on reissues are the most important judi-
cial decisions of the past few years ; so in office
practice the rulings on combinations constitute
the most important of recent changes.

Interference. — The person to whom the patent
is granted must, as far as the office knows, be
the original inventor. If a patent has been
granted to one who is a second or third in-
ventor, the first inventor can claim his patent
in the face of the preceding grant, provided
the prior use and publication conditions are
good. This constitutes one of the phases of
interference. An interference between two or
more inventors means a proceeding instituted
on account of a conflict of claims to being the
first inventor of any specific device. There
are eight such cases of conflict: 1. Between
two or more original applications. 2. Between
an original application and an unexpired pat-
ent. 3. Between an original application and
an application for reissue of a patent granted
during pendency of such application. 4. Be-
tween an original application and an applica-
tion for reissue of a preceding patent. 5. Be-
tween two or more applications for reissue of
patents granted on applications pending at the
same time. 6. Between two or more appli-
cations for reissue of patents granted on appli-
cations not pending at the same time. 7. Be-
tween a reissue application and an unexpired
patent, whose original applications were pend-
ing at the same time. 8. Between an appli-
cation for reissue of a later unexpired patent,

and an earlier unexpired patent granted before
the original application of the later patent was
filed. In cases 2, 4, 6, 7, and 8, affidavits nni-i
be filed by the party latest in date of appli-
cation, either original or reissue, such affidavit
declaring that he is the original inventor. In-
terferences in the above-named cases will be
declared by the Patent Office. Before declara-
tion, all the preliminary work necessary to put
the new applications in shape for granting the
application must be completed, so that when
the interference is decided, the new patent, if
it wins, shall be ready for issue.

As we are now treating of a proceeding in
the Patent-Office, the staff of the office may be
mentioned. Its head is the Commissioner of
Patents. All communications relating to the
office should be addressed to him under that
title. The working force to whom the exami-
nation of applications for patents is intrusted,
are called primary examiners. Between these
two ranks there is a Board of Examiners, who
hear appeals from the decisions of the primary
examiners. An examiner of interferences com-
pletes the list.

The interference proceedings are conducted
before the examiner of interferences. The
issue between the parties must, before decla-
ration of interference, be clearly defined by
the primary examiner to the satisfaction of
himself and the examiner of interferences. In
case of disagreement, reference is made to the
commissioner for decision. Until declaration
of interference has been made, the primary
examiner retains jurisdiction of the case;
afterward it passes to the examiner of inter-
ferences. The interference is pro forma insti-
tuted and declared by forwarding the notices
to the several parties to the interference, or to
their attorneys, or assignees. If two parties
are represented by the same attorney, notice
will be sent to each of them, as well as to their
attorney. The proceedings will then begin.
The rules will be found in the u Rules of Prac-
tice of the United States Patent-Office," rules
92-127. The exact procedure need not be de-
tailed here. The rules to be observed are as
strict as those of the regular law courts, and
the whole proceedings are based upon a system
analogous to court practice. When an inter-
ference is decided, the party making applica-
tion is given a patent, if he wins. Thus a very
peculiar condition of things may arise in cases
where the interference is between a patent al-
ready granted and a new application for the
same invention. The Commissioner of Pat-
ents has no right to cancel a patent already
granted, so that two patents may be in the
field, one several years later in date than the
other, yet the later one will be held the pre-
vailing and valid patent.. Sometimes these
proceedings give rise to what may be termed
hardships. Two inventors may go into in-
terference, and one of them, during the time
of the proceedings, which are often prolonged,
may manufacture and make a profit out of

$22

PATENTS.

the article, before the office can decide who
is the rightful inventor. Thus a person not
the first inventor, and not destined to have
the patent, may use the patent for some time.
The great thing in interference proceedings is,
to file a correct and sufficiently comprehensive
yet concise preliminary statement. In subse-
quent taking of proofs the parties will be held
to the dates set up in these statements, and
will not be allowed to contradict their allega-
tions. Different motions to amend are admitted,
and the case goes on like a suit in the courts.
In determining the date of invention, diligence
in perfecting the invention is taken into ac-
count. Mere conception is held to be only a
part of the act of invention. A case has arisen
between two inventors where the one who
made the later conception was the earliest to
perfect it, and after this took out his patent
later than the other ; the other first conceived
the idea, first patented it, and then went to
work to perfect it as a practical device, and
only succeeded in so doing after the date of his
rival's patent. The first one described above
was held to be the inventor. Diligence is es-
teemed a public service deserving recognition;
and in many cases the practical work of per-
fecting is a part of the invention. As it is
important to be prepared for interference
proceedings, inventors should be careful to
preserve records of the process of invention.
Signed and witnessed sketches, attested as to
date, and similarly guaranteed models, are usu-
ally the best evidence. There should never be
any trouble in obtaining trustworthy and con-
fidential witnesses to these.

Utility. — In the statute the word "useful" is
used to qualify the subject of invention. All
that can be said of this is, that the word is in-
terpreted in the broadest possible sense, and
that anything not opposed to good morals, or
similarly injurious, is patentable, as far as its
utility is concerned. The only case where the
question of utility amounts to anything is where
extent of invention under change of existing
structures, or under double use, has to be as-
certained. There extent of utility may be con-
sidered by the courts in determining whether
invention has been exercised. Except in this
particular case, the patentee has only himself
to satisfy of the utility of an invention. Pat-
entability is not affected directly by it.

Pnblic Use. — An invention that has been in
public use for more than two years prior to
the date of application can not be patented.
One may be the first inventor of a thing, and
may introduce it into public use before apply-
ing for a patent. If he allows two years to
elapse, it will be too late for him to secure his
invention. If a patent is granted under such
circumstances, the office not having cognizance
of the public use in question, and subsequently
comes into court, proof of such use will render
it invalid. Another inducement to diligence is
drawn from this. An inventor can not be sure
that his invention will not escape him and go

into public use unknown to him, and for the
two years required to bar his patent. Still,
the circuit courts have held that the inventor's
knowledge and consent were necessary to con-
stitute the statutory public use. Public use
must occur in this country, to bar patentabil-
ity. It must be a use in public ; but the pub-
lic need not be the users. Experiments do not
constitute it. A great criterion, and one easily
applied, is whether it has been used for profit,
or been sold. Such use is generally fatal to it.

Abandonment. — Abandonment of an invention
to the public destroys patentability. The the-
ory is, that such inventions may be taken up by
the public, and pushed to a successful result.
In this case an injustice would be done in
awarding the monopoly to one who had thrown
his invention aside, to be developed by the la-
bor and time of others. As the statute ex-
pressly allows two years' public use before the
filing of the application, cases of abandonment
generally refer to negligence in prosecuting an
application already filed. It is a matter of
fact, sometimes hard to prove, as the intention
of the patentee has often to be inferred. To
constitute abandonment, the public must know
of it. Those seeking to prove abandonment
have to bear the burden of proof, and such
proof must be very clear.

Reissues. — The decisions given in the past
two years on the subject of reissues have ef-
fected an immense change in the status of this
class of patents. A reissue is a second patent
granted to cover defects arising from errors in
the original specification. An inventor feeling
that his original specification contains errors
due to inadvertence, may surrender it, and ap-
ply at the same time for a new patent, with
amended specification and claims. If such be
granted him, the old patent is void, of course,
as being surrendered, while the reissue bears
its own date of issue, and is granted for the
unexpired term of the original patent. For-
merly extensive changes in the specification
were admitted, and expansion of claims also.
Any time might elapse between the granting
of a patent and the granting of a reissue. The
new rulings of the courts have made the rights
of reissued patents much more limited. They
must be taken out soon after the original pat-
ent, without unreasonable delay, if any at-
tempt is to be made to broaden the claims.
As a rule, the claims can not be at all expand-
ed. The inserting of claims of fewer elements
is held to be a broadening. The theory of es-
tablishment of adverse rights, and of abandon-
ment to the public of unclaimed portions of
the invention, are the key-notes of these decis-
ions. No new invention can, on any account,
be permitted in a reissue, even if it is con-
tained in what seems to be a narrower claim.
The effect of this decision has been to invali-
date a great many old reissues, and to reduce
the number of reissues sought. The best gen-
eral rule is, to adhere to the original patent.

Extensions. — The subject of extension of pat-

PATENTS.

ents has nearly dropped out of sight since 1875,
when the last extension patents had necessa-
rily to run out (except perhaps design patents).
Extensions are now granted only by special act
of Congress.

Disclaimers. — Disclaimers are for the purpose
of disclaiming any excess of claims. Where
more has been claimed than was invented, the
patent may have to be rendered correct and
valid by such process. They are rarely tiled,
except under advice of an attorney.

Drawings.— The office is much stricter on this
subject than formerly. The drawings of pat-
ents have to be reproduced and diminished by
some photo-printing process, and a peculiar
style of work adapted for tins is exacted.
Drawings should be on three-sheet Bristol
board, 10 x 15 inches in size. One inch from
its edges a single marginal line is drawn, leav-
ing the " sight " precisely 8x13 inches. All
work and signatures must be included within
this line. One of the short sides is regarded
as the top, and a space of not less than 1 £ inch
is to be left blank for the heading of title, etc.
All this heading is done by the office. The
title of the drawing is written on its back in
pencil. They must be rolled, not folded. They
must be made in perfectly black India ink; no
pale lines are admissible; rubbing out of pencil-
lines, after the drawing is inked, frequently
makes them so. In this case they must be
gone over a second time. No rough lines must
be made. Finally, the lines must be of a cer-
tain thickness, as hair-lines are not reproduced
well. The lettering must be good ; drawings
are sometimes rejected for bad lettering. The
Patent-Office rules for drawings are found in
the " Rules of Practice."

Models. — No models are now required, ex-
cept in special cases. This refers to practice,
as the commissioner has the right to insist on
their production. They must be neatly made,
and not exceed 12 inches in any dimension.

Rules of Practice. — These are contained in a
pamphlet entitled " Rules of Practice of the
United States Patent-Office." Any one can
procure a copy free by writing to the Commis-
sioner of Patents, Washington, D. 0. A speci-
men drawing, specification, and claims will be
found in this pamphlet, together with all the
rules, some two hundred, that guide the office
in its work. From time to time new editions
are published, and amendments to the rules are
also published in the " Patent-Office Gazette."

Caveats. — It may happen that an inventor,
having partially completed an invention, is
afraid that some one will invent and apply for
a patent for the same device before he is ready
with his application. In such a case, he should
take out a caveat. This is a description of his
invention as perfect as the state of his work
will admit. It should include a drawing made
on thin paper or tracing-cloth that will admit
of folding. It is filed at the Patent-Office, and
for one year entitles him to notification if any
one applies for a patent for the same subject.

After the receiving of such notification, he has
three months in which to prepare his specifica-
tion, the other one not being taken up until the
expiration of that, period. The three months
begin at the expiration of the time regularly
required for the transmission of the notice by
mail from Washington to the caveator's ad-
dress. Thus a caveat affords no protection
whatever. Prospective patentees often have
a tendency to caveat their inventions. They
should be clearly informed that a caveat is no
protection to their invention, and gives them
no standing in the court. As it tends to re-
tard, indirectly, the efforts of the inventor, and
thereby places him at a% disadvantage in the
race for diligence, it is generally not to be ad-
vised. Any citizen, or alien of a year's resi-
dence, who has declared his intentions, can file
a caveat. Any one can take out a patent. A
caveat can be renewed from year to year, for
any period.

Design-Patents. — Patents for designs are grant-
ed for terms of three and a half years, or for
seven years, or for fourteen years. Specifica-
tion and drawing, engraving, or photograph, or
model is required. The order of the subjects
of the text should be as follows : 1. Name and
residence of the applicant, title of the design,
and name of the article. 2. Detailed descrip-
tion of the design as shown in the drawing,
engraving, or photograph, with reference to
designating letters. 3. Claim or claims. 4.
Signature of the inventor. 5. Signature of
two witnesses. Sometimes a design - patent
may be made to take the place of a regular
mechanical patent. The drawings should be
on Bristol board, 10 x 15 inches in size, signed
and witnessed. Photographs or engravings, if
used, should be mounted on such paper. Un-
mounted copies of the photograph or engrav-
ing, if such be used, of a size not exceeding
71 x 11 inches, are required by the office to th«
number of ten extra copies. If good drawings
are furnished, the office reproduces them by
ph oto-lith ography .

Fees. — With regard to fees, a full list will be
found printed in rule 209 of the " Rules of
Practice." The principal ones are the follow-
ing : On filing every application for a design-
patent, $10. On issuing the same for three
years and six months, no extra charge. On
issuing the same for seven years, $5 ; for four-
teen years, $20. On filing every caveat, $10.
On every application for a patent for an inven-
tion or discovery, $15. On issuing each origi-
nal patent for an invention or discovery, $20.
The last charge must be paid within six months
of the date of granting the application.

Change in English Patent Law. — We can not
here say anything on the subject of foreign
patents, except to note an important change in
the English patent law. The payment for an
English patent is now distributed over a series
of years, by which the obtaining of one is made
much less onerous. On application for a pat-
ent or for provisional protection, £4 is payable.

624

PATENTS.

PENNSYLVANIA.

The patent is then subject to taxation as fol-
lows : £10 each fourth, fifth, sixth, and sev-
enth year, and £15 each eighth and ninth year,
£20 each tenth, eleventh, twelfth, and thir-
teenth year. Or £50 may be paid before the
end of four years, or £100 before the end of
eight years. By another change in the law,
the patentee is required to swear that he is the
original inventor. The first introducer can no
longer patent an invention. The charge of
American solicitors for procuring an English
patent, including the Government fees, varies
from $100 to $150.

Patent Libraries.— The best library for general
use is the Astor Library of New York. Be-
sides this the Peabody Library of Baltimore, the
Boston Library, and the Library of Congress in
Washington, may be mentioned. Others will
be found in leading cities and universities.

Easiness of the Office in 1883.— The following
are the principal statements of the business
done in the Patent-Office in the year 1883 :

Number of patents issued, including designs. . . 22,216

Number of patents reissued 167

Number of patents expired during the year. . . . 8.874

Net receipts of office $1,146,240 00

Excess of receipts over expenditures 471,005 14

Balance to credit of office in United States

Treasury 2,676,476 24

One patent was issued for every 318 inhab-
itants of the District of Columbia, and one
patent for every 22,188 inhabitants of Missis-
sippi. These represent the two extremes among
the States of the Union. Among foreign coun-
tries, Bermuda, Brazil, Newfoundland, and
Venezuela are credited with one patent each ;
England with 435, Germany with 235, and
France with 179.

International Conference for the Protection of Pat-
ents.— A conference to establish an Interna-
tional Union, like the Postal Union, for the
protection of patents, designs, models, trade-
marks, and trade-names, met in Paris, March
6, 1883, and adjourned after adopting a draft
of a convention at the second sitting, on March
13th. The main points were settled at the first
conference held at Paris two years before. The
convention then proposed was communicated
by the French Government to the other par-
ticipating states. Some of the particulars were
objected to by several of the states, and it was
to harmonize their views on these minor points
that, the second conference was held. A much
larger number of governments were repre-
sented. Of those which took part in the con-
ference of 1880, Austria and Turkey were un-
represented. Representatives were present
from the United States, France, England, Italy,
Spain, Portugal, Russia, Sweden and Norway,
Belgium, Holland, Switzerland, Roumania, Ser-
via, Luxemburg, Brazil, the Argentine Repub-
lic, Uruguay, Guatemala, and San Salvador.
The plan is, to have a union, sitting at Berne,
which will represent the states whose patent
laws are sufficiently in harmony, and endeav-
or to secure greater assimilation and the en-
joyment of the rights possessed by the citi-

zens of each by the citizens of all the others.
One of the main points is, that a patentee or
proprietor of a trade-mark or design will have
a prior right of registration throughout the
union. This will protect him against being
forestalled by dishonest agents. Regulations
for the protection of patentable devices, de-
signs, and trade-marks during international
exhibitions are recommended. The conven-
tion proposes also to protect trade-names with-
out registration, whether they form part of a
trade-mark or not.

PEBWSYLY1MA. State Government.— The fol-
lowing were the State officers during the year:
Governor, Robert E. Pattison, Democrat ; Lieu-
tenant-Governor, Chauncey F. Black ; Secre-
tary of State, William S. Stenger; Treasurer,
S. M. Bailey ; Auditor-General, John A. Lem-
on; Secretary of Internal Affairs, J. Simpson
Africa; Attorney -General, Louis C. Cassidy ;
Superintendent of Public Instruction, E. E.
Higbee ; Insurance Commissioner, J. M. For-
ster. Judiciary, Supreme Court: Chief -Jus-
tice, Ulysses Mercur; Justices, Isaac G. Gor-
don, Edward M. Paxson, John Trunkey, James
P. Sterrett, Henry Green, and Silas M. Clark.

Legislative Session. — The Legislature convened
on January 2d, and adjourned on June 6th. The
Governor immediately called an extra session,
to begin on the following day, which did not
finally adjourn until December 6th. In the
call the Governor uses the following language :

The Constitution commands the General Assembly,
"immediately alter each State decennial census,"^©
apportion the State into senatorial and representative
districts. This imperative mandate has not been
obeyed. Equally important and necessary, though
not so specifically commanded by law, is the duty of
the Assembly to apportion the State into congression-
al and judicial districts. 1 therefore designate the ap-
portionment of the State into senatorial, representa-
tive, congressional, and judicial districts, as subjects
for legislative consideration.

Notwithstanding the length of. the session,
only the judicial apportionment was passed.
On the others the two houses, the Senate
having a Republican majority and the House a
Democratic majority, failed to agree.

Of the 670 bills introduced in the Senate and
House, 253 were passed finally. Of this num-
ber 60 were vetoed. Among those that became
laws were the following :

To prohibit the receiving and detaining of children
in almshouses, and to provide for the care and educa-
tion of such children.

To abolish the contract system in prisons, and regu-
late the wages of the inmates.

Kequiring the assessors to make return of timber-
lands.

To provide payment to the miner for all clean coal
mined by him.

To fix the salaries of county officers in counties con-
taining over 500,000 inhabitants.

Providing that wages of servant-girls, washer- wom-
en, cooks, and others shall first be paid from proceeds
of sale of effects of insolvent debtors.

To authorize the discharge of prisoners confined in
jail under the insolvent act.

Directing the investment of moneys remaining to
the credit of the several sinking funds of cities of the

PENNSYLVANIA.

class in loans of said cities, or of the United
or of the State of Pennsyl vania.

To authorize in cities of the first class, wherever way-
farers' lodges shall be established, the commitment of
persons to the house of correction as vagrants who
shall obtain shelter and food from such lodges and
who shall refuse to perform work in return therefor
when physically able to work.

For the better security of bituminous-coal miners.

To prohibit political -parties, committees, or mem-
bers thereof, from demanding from public officials con-
tributions for political purposes.

To prevent the selling of theatre tickets on the pub-
lic streets and highways.

To prevent the consolidation of competing pipe lines.

Providing for the care and treatment of the indigent

sane in the State hospitals.

To provide for the manner of decreasing the capital

)ck of banking corporations.

A supplement to the corporations act of 1874,to au-

orize'the formation of corporations for driving and
floating saw-logs, lumber, and timber. Such corpora-
tions are given power to straighten and deepen and
erect dams, cribs, and other improvements in streams
not exceeding twenty miles in length, and charge tolls
not exceeding 10 cents for 1,000 feeL board measure.

Fixing the salaries of county officers in counties
containing over 100,000 and less than 150,000 inhab-
itants, and requiring the payment of the fees of such
officers into the respective county treasuries. The
salaries are as follow : District attorney, $3,000 ;
sheriff, $4,000 ; prothonotary, $3,000 ; clerks of courts,
$2,000 ; register, $2,500 ; recorder, $3,000 ; treasurer,
$3,000 ; county surveyor, $150 ; commissioners, each,
$1,000; auditors, $250; solicitor, $500; directors of
poor, $860 ; jury commissioner, $'250 ; coroner, $1,000.

To require a brand upon all goods made for sale
by convict labor.

To make accepted orders and certificates for petro-
leum negotiable.

To provide for gauging the petroleum in the cus-
tody of and examination into the conditions of firms
and corporations engaged in the business of storing
and transportation by means of pipe lines.

To provide for the disposal of the property of un-
incorporated associations organized for benevolent,
charitable, or beneficial purposes upon the dissolution,
expulsion, surrender of warrant or charter or vacation
of the same.

Eequiring anthracite-coal operators to keep ambu-
lances for the conveyance of injured miners.

For the appointment of a commission of six practical
miners and six practical operators to revise the mining
and ventilation laws relating to the anthracite-coal
region.

Requiring the owner, lessee, agent, or foreman of
every anthracite-coal mine to furnish props and tim-
bers for the safe running of the coal.

Requiring the owners of hotels, seminaries, colleges,
academies, Iiospitals, asylums, storehouses, factories,
manufactories, workshops, tenement-houses, and the
directors of public schools, to have fastened to the
inside of each of six window-heads on the third and
every additional story a chain ten feet in length to
which a rope at least an inch in diameter shall be
affixed of sufficient length to reach the ground. A
proviso requires such a rope and chain to be furnished
m each room of a hotel above the second story.

The Wallace arbitration act. This bill provides
that the Judge of Common Pleas Court or the Presi-
dent Judge in Chambers shall, upon the petition of
fifty workmen employed by five different firms, or
five employers who employ at least ten workmen
each, or a firm employing at least seventy-five men,
appoint a tribunal of an equal number of employers
and workmen, the exact number to be stated in the
petition and not to be less than two of each, for the
adjustment of disputes in the iron, steel, glass, textile
fabrics, and coal trades. If after three meetings the
tribunal is unable to make a decision, an umpire shall
VOL. xxiu. — 40 A

be selected " by the mutual choice of the whole of the
representatives of both employers and workmen con-
stituting the tribunal," who shall decide the points
submitted to him in writing within ten days. The
award when made and signed by the umpire may be
made a matter of record by presenting it with the
submission in writing to the proper judge, who in-
dorses his approval and directs it to be entered on
record. " When so entered it shall be final and con-
clusive, and the proper court may, on motion of any
one interested, enter judgment thereon, and when the
award is for a specific sum of money may issue final
and other process to enforce the same."

The anti-discrimination bill, declaring " undue and
unreasonable discrimination" to be unlawful, and
providing that "no railroad company or other com-
mon carrier engaged in the transportation of property
shall charge, demand, or receive from any person.
company, or corporation for the transportation of
property, or for any other service, a greater sum than
it shall charge or receive from any other person, com-
pany, or corporation for a like service from the same
place upon like conditions and under similar circum-
stances, and all concessions in rates and drawbacks
shall be allowed to all persons, companies, or corpora-
tions alike for such transportations and service upon
like conditions under similar circumstances and dur-
ing the same period of time. Nor shall any such
railroad company or common carrier make any unduo
or unreasonable discrimination between individuals
or between individuals and transportation companies
in the furnishing of facilities for transportation."

The abolition of the useless and expensive office
of sealer of weights and measures and of recorder for
cities of the first class, the passage of the Wallace
voluntary labor tribunal act, the several acts broaden-
ing and liberalizing the provisions of the free railroad
law, the act known as the free-pipe law, the act pro-
hibiting the consolidation of telegraph companies,
and the act to enforce the provisions of the seven-
teenth article of the Constitution relative to railroads
and canals, were made in obedience to the demand of
the people.

For the expenses of the extra session, the
sum of $543,053.93 was appropriated.

Finances. — The annual statement of the Treas-
urer includes the receipts from Dec. 1, 1882,
to Nov. 30, 1883, both days inclusive, and a
summary of it is given below :

Lands... .......................... $5,15999

Tax on corporation stock and limited partner-

ships.... ........................ :. ...... 2,089.032 08

Tax on gross receipts ......................... 887,556 08

Tax on coal companies ....................... ",14S

Tax on bank-stock ........................... 865.468 56

Tax on net earnings or income ................ 59.126

Tax on gross premiums ...................... 5'52

Tax on loans ................................ o^o?2 ?5

Tax on personal property ..................... 874.819

Tax on writs, wills, deeds, etc ................. 108.009 89

Tax on collateral inheritances ................. 604,764

Tax on sale of fertilizers ..................... 4,990

Foreign insurance companies .................. 255,660

Tavern licenses .............................. 489,985 58

Ketailers1 licenses

Eating-bouse licenses ................... ...... 33.1 (2 51

Brewers1 licenses ..... ........................ . H<™!. •".

Billiard licenses .............................. 83 .886 05

Brokers' licenses ............................ ii'TS SS

Auctioneers' licenses ........................ IMS

Liquor licenses ............................... 80.W2 i

Peddlers' licenses ............................

Patent-medicine licenses ...................... 3,501 84

Theatre, circus, etc, licenses .................. 4,469 00

Bonus on charters .................... : ....... 10i .W4 24

Office license-fees

Accrued interest

Penalties

Notaries' public commissions

Allegheny Valley Railroad Company

United States Government

5,327 00
5,888 45
129 52
10,950 00
282.500 00
58

l/UXWU ^LO-IA^O v*w»» -A/* AAA /\/\

Commutation of tonnage-tax 460,000 00

626

PENNSYLVANIA.

Annuity for right of way 10,00000

Escheat 5,86995

Fees of public officers 44,177 23

Kemnded cash 634 10

Dividends on stock owned by the Commonwealth 560 00

Conscience-money 13 75

Miscellaneous 4,363 05

Total $6,775,430 19

The expenditures for the same period
amounted to $6,708,690.22, including : Ex-
penses of government, $1,592,084.52 ; loans
redeemed, $506,000 ; interest on loans, $374,-
704.50 ; purchase of United States bonds,
$969,812.50; common schools, $1,080,409.92;
charitable institutions, $600,773.71; soldiers'
orphan schools, $351,101.18 ; penitentiaries,
$224,297.25 ; State Industrial Reformatory,
Huntingdon, $87,500 ; House of Refuge, Phila-
delphia, $40,500; Pennsylvania State Reform
School at Morganza. $57,300; National Guard
of Pennsylvania, $215,324.83.

The following statement shows the indebt-
edness of the State on Dec. 1, 1883 :

FUNDED DEBT.

Three and one-half per cent, currency loan . . . $2,580,000 00

Four per cent, currency loan 8,540,000 00

Five per cent, currency loan 7,923,700 00

Six per cent. Agricultural College scrip 500,000 00

Total interest-bearing debt $19,543,700 00

Unfunded debt and debt upon which inter-
est has ceased :

Belief notes in circulation $96, 158 00

Interest-bearing certificates unclaimed 4,448 38

Interest-bearing certificates outstanding 13,038 54

Six per cent. Chambersburg certificates un-
claimed 148 66

Domestic creditor 25 00

Five per cent, bonds on which interest has

ceased 21,814 70

Six per cent, bonds on which interest has

39,950 00

Public debt, Dec. 1, 1883 $19,718,783 28

The total number of taxables in the State is
1,141,349, and the total value of all real estate
is $1,598,430,041. The value of real estate
exempt from taxation is $110,000,126. Of
this aggregate, $80,697,201 is in Philadelphia.
There are only four counties whose valuations
are less than a million each, and these are Sul-
livan, Pike, Fulton, and Cameron. The horses
and mules over four years of age number 434,-
365 in the State, and the cows and neat-cattle
number 675,842 — the value of the horses being
$21,790,526, and that of the cattle $1 1,587,315.
The tax laws are exceedingly faulty, and the
burdens imposed under them are very un-
equally distributed.

Schools. — The following statistics are from
the report of the superintendent for the year
ending June 4, 1883 :

School districts in the State

Schools

Graded schools

Male teachers

Female teachers

Average salaries for male teachers per month.
A verage salaries of female teachers per month

Average length of school term, in months

Number of pupils

Average number of pupils

Cost of tuition $5,193,691 74

2,227

19,542

7,897

8.600

13,414

$87 03

$30 05

7'02

957.680

Cost of building, purchasing, and renting $1,858,139 20

Cost of fuel, contingencies, debt, and interest

paid $2,154,505 71

Total cost for tuition, building, fuel, and con-
tingencies $9,206,330 65

Expenditures of all kinds $9,335,359 90

State appropriation $1,000,000 00

Estimated value of school property $30,199,636 00

Political Conventions.— The Republican State
Convention met in Harrisburg on July llth,
and nominated Jerome B. Mies, of Tioga
county, for Auditor-General; and William A.
Linsey, of Allegheny county, for State Treas-
urer. The platform declared for a protective
tariff ; distribution to the States of surplus in
the national treasury j full redemption of the
trade-dollars; civil-service reform; reform in
the State government; and commending the
administration of President Arthur.

The Democratic State Convention met in
Harrisburg on August 1st, and nominated, for
Auditor-General, Robert Taggart, of Warren
county ; for State Treasurer, Hon. Joseph
Powell, of Bradford county. The platform
declared for civil-service reform, by electing
good men to office ; for such imposition of
import duties as will "prevent unequal bur-
dens, encourage productive industries at home,
and afford just compensation to labor, but not
to create or foster monopolies " ; that the sur-
plus in the national treasury should be applied
to payment of the debt ; that internal taxation
should be abolished ; that public lands should
be reserved for actual settlers; that "the ad-
ministration of Gov. Pattison has vindicated
the pledges of reform upon which it was
elected"; that "the action of the Legislature
in passing laws to protect honest working-men
from being brought into competition with con-
vict-laborers is to be recommended " ; and that
"tax laws of the State should be carefully
revised, and so changed as to make them bear
equally upon all classes of property."

Temperance. — The third annual State Conven-
tion of the Constitutional Temperance Amend-
ment Association was held in Bellefonte on
May 24th and 25th. The resolutions adopted
contained the following passages :

That we hold up to public reprobation the vote by
•which the House of Eepresentatives not only so
wantonly disregarded the respectful request of such
a large number of their voting and non-voting con-
stituents for the submission of a prohibitory amend-
ment to the decision of the sovereign people, but also
by so doing struck a dangerous blow at the sacred
right of petition ; . . . that we appoint two delegates
to attend the annual convention of the Superintendents
of Common Schools of Pennsylvania', and also the
State Teachers' Association, in order to press upon
these bodies the importance of introducing into the
schools instruction on the nature of alcohol, and its
effects upon the human body and character.

Election. — At the election in November, the
Republicans were successful. The vote was
as follows: for Auditor, 319,106 Republican,
302,031 Democratic, 6,602 Prohibition, and
4,452 Greenback; for Treasurer, 321,050 Re-
publican, 300,999 Democratic, 6,687 Prohibi-
tion, and 4,431 Greenback.

PENSIONS, INCREASE OF. See page 248.

PERSIA.

627

PERSIA, an empire in Asia. The govern-
ment is an absolute monarchy, based on the
precepts of the Koran, resembling very near-
ly in constitution that of the Turkish Empire.
The Shah, or Emperor, claims absolute obedi-
ence, as the vicegerent of the Prophet. Under
him the government is carried on by a minis-
try composed of the Vizier-i-Azern, who directs
the foreign policy and acts as military command-
er- in-chief ; the Ameen-ed-Doulah, or treasurer;
and five subordinate ministers, created after
the model of European cabinets. The country
is divided into fifteen provinces, each governed
by a Beglerbeg, who is usually a prince of the
royal family. The towns and villages elect
their own magistrates.

The reigning Shah is Nassr-ed-Din, born
Sept. 4, 1829, who succeeded his father, Shah
Mohammed, Sept. 10, 1848. He is the fourth
sovereign of the Kadjar family. The heir pre-
sumptive is his son, Muzaifer-ed-Din, born in
1852. He is governor of the province of Azer-
baijan. The second son of the Shah, Massoud
Mirza — called Zil-es-Sultan — is governor of
Ispahan. The Shah has the right to change
the regular order of succession, and appoint
any member of the royal family to follow him
upon the throne.

Area and Population.— The area is about 633,-
000 square miles. A large portiou of this ter-
ritory is desert. The population is estimated
at 7,653,600, of whom about 1,963,800 are in-
habitants of cities, 3,780,000 of villages and
rural districts, and 1,909,800 are nomads. In
every 1,000 of the Mohammedan population
495 are males and 505 females. The popula-
tion of the principal cities is estimated as fol-
lows:

CITIES. Population.

Teheran 200,000

Tabreez 165,000

CITIES. Population.

Ispahan 60,000

Meshed 60,000

The inhabitants of the towns and country
districts are mostly of pure Persian race. The
nomad population is divided into 260,100 Arabs,
720,000 Tartars, 675,000 Kurds and Leks, 20,-
700 Beloochees and Gypsies, and 234,000 Bah-
tiars, etc.

Religion. — The population is divided in respect
to religion approximately as follows :

CREEDS. Number.

Shiites 6,800,600

Sunnites, etc 700,000

Armenians 43,000

Nestoriims and Chaldeans 23,090

Israelites 19,000

Parsees 8,000

Total 7,653,600

The Shiites differ in doctrine and in tradi-
tion from the Sunnites, who compose the popu-
lation of the Turkish dominions. The Persian
priesthood consists of a variety of orders. The
chief of these are the Mooshtehed, of whom
there are five. These are appointed by the
choice of the people, and are the real heads of
the clergy. The one who resides at Kerbela,
near Bagdad, is recognized as the chief. The
official hierarchy has for its chief dignitaries

the Iraans Djouma and Sheiks-ul-Islam, who
are appointed by the Government and re-
ceive salaries from the state. The ordinary
ministers of religion are of three classes: the
mooturelles, one for each mosque and place of
pilgrimage; the muezzins, or say era of pray-
ers ; and the mollahs, or performers of rites.
The Armenian and Nestorian Christians are
treated with tolerance, but the Jews aud the
Parsees, or Guebres, suffer persecution.

Education. — Much attention is paid to educa-
tion. There are numerous colleges supported
by the Government, and private instructors
are employed by families that have the means.
Students are instructed in the Persian and
Arabic languages and literatures and in certain
sciences, as well as in religion.

Army. — By the law of 1875 it was proposed
to introduce the system of conscription and
limited terms of service, but the old system is
still in practice. The army is organized by
provinces, tribes, and districts. The local and
tribal chiefs are usually the military command-
ers. The army is reported by the Minister of
War as numbering 105,000 men. A standing
force of about 30,000 men is kept in active serv-
ice. It is composed of 18,000 nizams or regu-
lar infantry, 10,000 irregular cavalry, 500 cav-
alry organized and trained like Cossack regi-
ments by Russian officers, and 1,500 artillery
trained by Austrians and armed with Uchatius
guns. The remainder of the army forms a re-
serve which is subject to no drill or discipline
unless called out by the Minister of War.

Revenue. — The entire revenue of the country
is at the disposal of the Shah, who, with the
other members of the royal family, usually
amasses a large fortune. That of the present
Shah is estimated at $20,000,000, half of it in
diamonds and other precious stones. The re-
ceipts and expenditures are known only by esti-
mates. About one fourth of the revenue is
paid in kind and is reserved for the use of the
army and the Shah's household. The army
and the salaries of the priesthood consume the
main portion of the annual receipts. The sur-
plus is paid into the treasury of the Shah. The
revenue is apportioned to the towns, villages,
and districts, each of which has to contribute
a certain amount fixed periodically by assess-
ors. The main incidence of the taxes is upon
the Mohammedan laboring population. The
revenue from 1872 to 1875 averaged about
$9,500,000, and the expenditure $8,780,000.
The receipts in 1876 amounted to about $6,-
945,000 in money and $1,270,000 in kind. Over
$6,000,000 of the total was raised by direct tax-
ation, and the rest by customs. The expendi-
tures were about $8,000,000. The following
were the principal items: Army, $3,392,000;
royal court, $1,536,000; clergy, $1,200,000;
gifts to great families, Afghans, and others,
$400,000 ; foreign affairs, $140,000 ; other de-
partments of state, $300,000; colleges, $60,000.
There is no public debt.

Commerce.— The total value of the imports

628

PERU.

approximates $12,500,000 per annum ; that of
the exports, $7,500,000. The external com-
merce'is mainly with Europe, through Tabreez,
by way of Constantinople. All goods are for-
warded by caravans between Tabreez and Tre-
bizond. There is also a growing commerce
with Russia on the north. In 1883 Russia pro-
hibited the free transit of foreign goods through
the Trans-Caucasian provinces, imposing pro-
tective duties, so as to give her own products
a monopoly in the markets of the neighboring
parts of Persia. The chief article of import is
cotton goods, of British manufacture, which
were imported to the average value of $4,000,-
000 during the five years ending with 1880.
Other imports are glass, paper, iron, copper,
sugar, and tea. The chief article of export
until recently was silk, shipped to Great Britain
and France. Of late years opium has become
the most important article. The exports from
the ports of the Persian Gulf of this commod-
ity increased from $348,000 in 1879 to $4,-
235,000 in 1881. Carpets are exported to Eu-
rope of the value of about $500,000 per annum.
Other exports are tobacco, skins, gums, wool,
dates, grain, and rice.

Posts, Railroads, and Telegraphs. — A postal ser-
vice, established by Europeans, was opened in
1877. Mails are conveyed between Julfa, on
the Russian frontier, Tabreez, Teheran, and
Reshd, on the Persian Gulf. The number, of
letters forwarded in 1879 was 426,008.

At the end of 1879 there were 3,367 miles of
telegraph in operation, with 5,660 miles of wire.
The number of dispatches transmitted in 1878
was 500,000, the receipts about $45,000.

In November, 1882, the Government ar-
ranged with a French syndicate for the con-
struction of the first line of railroad, to run
from Reshd to Teheran, 250 miles.

PERU, a republic of South America. Area,
about 540,000 square miles ; capital, Lima. By
virtue of the treaty concluded with Chili in
1883 (see CHILI), Peru has ceded to the latter
the province of Tarapaca, and Chili may fur-
thermore acquire from Peru the provinces of
Tacna and Arica, if, ten years after the date of
the treaty, the people of those provinces should
so decide ; but such decision will involve a pe-
cuniary indemnity by Chili to Peru. The ces-
sion of Tarapaca has diminished the area of
Peru by 20,600 square miles.

According to the census of 1876, Peru had a
population of 2,699,945, of whom 1,365,895
were males and 1,334,050 females, without
counting about 350,000 wild Indians. The
cession of Tarapaca has taken away 42,000 citi-
zens, 28,014 of whom were males and 13,988
females, thus leaving Peru a population of
2,657,943; or, if the wild Indians be added,
about 3,000,000.

The principal cities are : Lima, the capital,
with 101,488 inhabitants ; Callao, 33.502 ;
Arequipa, 29,237; Cuzco, 18,370; and Chicla-
yo, 11,325.

Government.— The President of the Republic

is Gen. Iglesias. The Cabinet was composed
of the following ministers: Minister of State
and Justice, Sefior Barinega; Foreign Affairs,
Sefior Lavarelle; War, Gen. Osma; Finance,
Sefior Malpartida.

The United States Minister at Lima is Capt.
S. L. Phelps. The Peruvian Minister at Wash-
ington is Sefior J. F. Elmore ; and the Consul
at New York, Mr. J. C. Tracy.

Army. — During the war, Peru had enrolled
for active service about 16,000 men.

Navy. — Prior to the outbreak of hostilities,
the Peruvian navy was composed of four iron-
clad steamers, one of which was a frigate of
550 horse-power, mounting 22 guns ; one ram
of 300 horse-power and 5 guns ; two monitor-
rams, each 330 horse-power and 2 guns; six
steamers, one a frigate of 400 horse-power
and 13 guns; two schooners, each of 180
horse-power and 6 guns; and three steam
transports, one of 400 horse-power and 4 guns,
one 90 horse-power, and one 250 horse-power
and 6 guns. There were also three school-
ships and two steamers, and five river-steamers
of 386 horse-power. The entire naval force
was therefore eighteen vessels, with a joint
horse-power of 3,396, and mounting altogether
66 guns. The war caused the destruction of
the iron-clad frigate and of one monitor, while
the ram and one corvette were captured by the
Chilian navy.

(For a sketch of the war in 1883, and other
events connected with it, see BOLIVIA.)

Finances. — The public indebtedness on Jan. 1,
1876, was as follows:

Internal debt $24,952,158

Foreign debt :

Ecuador bonds $38,580

The Pisco-Ica loan 1,323,400

The loan of 1870 56.834,900

The loan of 1872 107,733,700

165,930,530

Floating debt 23,000,000

Grand total $213,882,688

On the date above named, the coupons of
Peruvian bonds failed to be paid, but it was
officially declared that this was only a "mo-
mentary interruption of punctuality." Since
then there have been two short periods when
there was some hope that something would be
done to satisfy the bondholders. The first of
these periods fell in the year 1877, when the
so-called " Raphael contract " raised such ex-
pectations ; and the second occurred in 1880,
when the committees, till then hostile to each
other, blended into one and accepted the Chi-
lian proposals. But on reviewing the past
eight years it will be found that the names of
the Societe Generale, the Peruvian Guano Com-
pany, the Raphael contract, the Drey fuss law-
suit, the Sir Charles Russell Committee, the
Croyle Committee, the MacKellar & Co. con-
tract, the agents Anthony Gibbs & Co., and
the Peruvian and Chilian Government repre-
sentatives, are mixed up in such inextricabk
confusion that it would be useless to wade
through the history of the many guano con-

PERU.

tracts concluded during this period of eight
/ears. We shall, therefore, only take up the
thread of events as directly bearing on this
complicated question at the moment when
Chili, as the conqueror of Peru, took possession
of the territory in which the guano deposits
are situated.

In December, 1879, Chili gave official notice
of her occupation of the guano and nitrate-of-
soda districts, and warned the French bank-
ing-houses with which Peru was negotiating
not to enter into contracts with the Peru-
vian Government, nor make advances on such
contracts. The Peruvian' agents applied at
once to the English bondholders, through the
Credit Industriel of Paris, after abandoning
the Soci6te Ge 116 rale and Dreyf uss, and offered,
under certain conditions, to transfer to them
the guano deposits. By doing so, they en-
gaged to do what they were unable to carry
out ; Chili consequently immediately took the

atter into her own hands. The Chilian Gov-
ment offered the bondholders, on condition
f payment of a tax of £1 a ton on guano of a
low grade, and 30 shillings a ton for a higher
grade selling over £11, to put them in actual
possession of the guano, and that she would
hold herself responsible for having the agree-
ment maintained in the treaty of peace, when-
ever this was restored. The bondholders, at a
general meeting held on Feb. 2, 1880, accepted
the proposition unanimously. The committee
of Mr. Croyle and the one of Sir Charles Rus-
sell were thereupon blended into one, and a
few weeks later the joint committee began
chartering vessels for the loading of guano.
In the summer of 1880 it was ascertained that
Chili had resolved to turn the guano deposits
in the province of Tarapaca to her own use,
and that the tax on guano shipments from Pa-
bellon de Pica, Lobos, and Huanillos islands
was to be, without distinction, 30 shillings a
ton. But this was not all, for Chili virtually
shipped a number of cargoes for her own ac-
count, and informed the committee of bond-
holders that proof would have to be furnished
that the committee was a representative one in
fact. This proof was furnished early in 1881,
when, out of £33,000,000 outstanding bonds,
no less than £23,000,000 were registered at Mr.
Martin's bank, London. A temporary con-
tract, which the Chilian Government had made
with Messrs. MacKellar & Co., was supple-
mented in the spring of 1881 by a formal ar-
rangement with Messrs. Anthony Gibbs & Co.

Toward the close of 1881, Anthony Gibbs &
Co. announced that £120,000 worth of guano
sales effected only netted to the credit of
the bondholders £17,829. The latter thus
perceived that, with the high tax on low-,
grade guano, there was little prospect of their
ever realizing much, if anything, from the
sales. The bondholders then made direct ap-
plication at the seat of government, and the re-
sult was the Chilian decree of Feb. 9, 1882,
agreeing to share equally with the bondholders

in the proceeds of sales, and at the same time
ordering Messrs. Gibbs and MacKellar to liqui-
date their claims. Simultaneously tenders
were invited by the Chilian Government for
the conclusion of a fresh guano contract em-
bracing 1,000,000 tons, the Government declar-
ing its readiness to deposit 50 per cent, of the
net proceeds in the Bank of England. This
contract was made with a French syndicate of
capitalists. In May, 1883, it was estimated
that £260,000 had thus accumulated, and that
75 per cent, thereof ought to be distributed
among foreign creditors as the result of three
years' accumulations.

On Oct. 20, 1883, the treaty of peace was
signed at Lima, in which it was provided that
the net proceeds of Chili's sale of 1,000,000
tons of guano, u after deducting the expenses
and other charges specified in Article XIII of
the said decree, shall be equally divided between
the Government of Chili and the creditors of
Peru whose claims may be found to be sup-
ported by the guarantee of the guano. When
the sale of this 1,000,000 tons is concluded, the
Government of Chili will continue paying over
to the Peruvian creditors 50 per cent, of the
net proceeds of the guano, as established by
the said Article XIII, until the debt is covered
or the deposits now being worked are exhaust-
ed. The products of the deposits or beds that
may hereafter be discovered in the ceded ter-
ritory are to be the property of Chili."

Peru began the year 1884 with her finances
in a most deplorable condition. The additional
protocol of the treaty stipulates that " to meet
in part the expenses to be incurred by Chili in
maintaining the army of occupation, the Gov-
ernment of Peru will deliver monthly to the
general-in-chief of those forces the sum of
$300,000 in current silver coin, which sum
shall be appropriated from the national reve-
nues of Peru, with preference to the payment."
On Jan. 1, 1884, $100,000 had been paid to
the Chilians out of the $600,000 then due. It
was said that Chili would not press for the re-
mainder, but would hold Mollendo, the port
of Arequipa, and appropriate the customs due
there, then about $150,000 monthly, until the
monthly payments were satisfied.

The Postal Service. — In 1878 there were about
300 post-offices, and they forwarded inland
2,753,829 letters, and by the sea route, 2,051,-
202, besides 2,360,249 newspapers.

Railroads. — In 1878 there were in operation
1,581 miles of railroad, of which 1,210 miles
were Government property. Chili declined to
sanction the building of any new railroads in
Tarapaca prior to the ratification of the trea-
ty of peace. The famous Oroya Railway is a
stupendous work of engineering skill. It was.
originally intended to connect the Peruvian
sea-coast with the head-waters of the Amazon,
and establish communication with the rich sil-
ver-mines of Cerro de Pasca. The Peruvian
Government bore the expense, $25,000,000,
although only 86£ miles have been completed,

630

PHARMACY.

and the object is still some hundred miles from
attainment. (See ENGINEERING, page 317.)

Telegraphs. — There was a total length of wire
in 1878 of 1,393 miles. The service was car-
ried on by thirty-four offices, dispatching 94,-
214 private and 16,455 Government messages.

Commerce. — The exports from Peru to the
United States during the fiscal year 1882
amounted to $3,034,476, including 20,522 tons
of guano and 114,176,044 pounds of nitrate of
soda, against $2,526,918 in 1883, including
102,394,360 pounds of nitrate and no guano.
The export of domestic goods from the United
States to Peru was $533,823 in 1882, and $487,-
360 wortn in 1883.

PHARMACY. The art of preparing and dis-
pensing remedies, occupying a position be-
tween chemistry on one side and medicine on
the other, has developed in recent years to
such an extent that it now claims a position
among the sciences. Special schools for it are
found in many of our cities ; large organizations,
both scientific and trade, protect its interests ;
the preparation of pharmaceutical compounds
has become an important constituent of our
manufacturing industries; and special legisla-
tive measures govern the dispensing of medi-
cines and poisons. Pharmaceutical literature is
large and rapidly increasing.

Colleges. — There are fourteen institutions de-
voted to the education of pharmacists in this
country. The Michigan School of Pharmacy
was organized in 1867 as a professional depart-
ment of the State University at Ann Arbor.
The course of study at this school occupies two
years, during which instruction is given in the
various branches of analytical chemistry, phar-
macy, materia medica, etc., with laboratory
work of four or five hours daily. A three
years' course is optional. The degree con-
ferred is that of Pharmaceutical Chemist
(Ph. C.). This school, although offering the
most thorough courses of study, and requiring
the highest qualifications, does not insist on
previous practical experience in pharmacy, and
therefore is not classed with the so-called
" teaching-colleges of pharmacy,1' whose diplo-
mas, conferring the degree of Graduate in
Pharmacy (Ph. G.), are granted only to such
students as have had four (or "several") years
of actual experience in a drug-store, in addi-
tion to attending the prescribed course of the
college. The following are the recognized
"teaching-colleges " of pharmacy :

Albany College of Pharmacy, established as a de-
partment of pharmacy of Union University, at Al-
bany, June 21, 1881, and incorporated as the Albany
College of Pharmacy, August 27th of the same year.

California College of Pharmacy, established in 1873
as a department of pharmacy at the University of Cali-
fornia. It is in San Francisco.

Chicago College of Pharmacy, established in 1866.

Cincinnati College of Pharmacy, established in
1871.

Louisville College of Pharmacy, established in 1871.

Maryland College of Pharmacy, instituted in 1841,
at Baltimore.

Massachusetts College of Pharmacy, Boston, Mass.,

Alabama 1882

Arkansas 1883

California

Connecticut

Georgia

Illinois

Indiana

Iowa

Kansas

Kentucky

instituted in February, 1823 ; reorganized in April,
1881, and incorporated in April, 1882.

Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, organized in
1821, received its charter from the State in"l822.

Pittsburg College of Pharmacy, organized in Au-
gust, 1878, received its charter during the same year.

St. Louis College of Pharmacy, established in 1865.

National College of Pharmacy, established in 1871,
in Washington, D, C. This institution confers the
degree of Doctor of Pharmacy (Phar. D.).

Louisville School of Pharmacy for Women, at Lou-
isville, Ky., established in 1883.

Department of Pharmacy, University of Wisconsin,
Madison, established in 1883.

There are two Canadian schools of pharmacy : the
Montreal College of Pharmacy, in its' sixteenth year ;
and the Ontario College of Pharmacy, established in
1883.

Pharmaceutical Associations. — The American
Pharmaceutical Association, organized in 1852,
has a large and increasing membership (about
1,400). It has members from all parts of the
country, and holds annual meetings in Septem-
ber at some city previously selected. The fol-
lowing is a list of the State Associations, with
the date of their organization :

Missouri 1878

New Hampshire 1873

1869 New Jersey 1870

1876 New York Ib79

1S75 North Carolina 1680

1880 I Ohio 1879

1882 | Pennsylvania 1878

1880 | Ehode Island 1874

1880 I South Carolina 1876

f_ 1878 ! Texas 1880

Louisiana 1882 1 Vermont

Maryland 1883 I Virginia 1862

Massachusetts 1882 West Virginia 1881

Michigan.... 1883 Wisconsin 1860

Mississippi 18831

These associations convene annually. Their
exercises consist of reports of committees on
questions of scientific or trade interest, and
the reading of papers treating of subjects per-
taining to pharmacy, with discussion thereon.

Trade Organizations. — The most important of
these is the National Wholesale Drug Associ-
ation, which was established in 1875 as the
Western Wholesale Drug Association, and in
1882 became the National Association. Its
principal object is the correction of excessive
and unmercantile competition, and the remo-
val, by concert of action, of all evils and cus-
toms that are against good policy and sound
business principles. Its membership includes
representatives of nearly all the important
houses dealing in drugs in this country. In
September, 1883, was organized at Washing-
ton, D. C., the National Retail Druggists'
Association. This is for the protection of the
business interests of the retail trade, and to
devise measures for the prevention of disas-
trous competitions. It is hoped that a uniform
schedule of prices may be established, so as
to break up the prevalent u cutting " of rates.
There are also several local societies.

Pharmaceutical Legislation. — The rush of un-
qualified persons into the drug business has
made apparent the necessity of restricting the
practice of pharmacy by law to those who are
qualified. To ascertain the qualification of ap-

PHYSIOLOGY.

631

plicants for licenses, in such States as have
pharmacy laws, boards of pharmacy have been
appointed from among the best representatives
of the profession, to examine candidates and
grant diplomas allowing them to practice.
Many of the States have pharmacy laws, but
they differ very greatly, and an effort is being
made to establish uniformity throughout the
country. Certain portions of the Union are
still without any laws on this subject.

Literature. — The " Pharmacopoeia of the Uni-
ted States" is the recognized official man-
ual of the pharmacists. This work is revised
and issued every ten years by the authority
of a National Convention held at Washington,
and composed of delegates from the medical
and pharmaceutical colleges. Although not
authorized by the Government, it is accepted
as the authority by which legal disputes rel-
ative to drugs shall be settled. The present
edition is the sixth decennial revision, of 1880,
and was published in 1882. The " Dispensatory
of the United States," edited by H. 0. Wood,
Joseph P. Remington, and S. P. Sadtler, oc-
cupies the position of commentary to the
Pharmacopoeia. It gives very full descrip-
tions of the articles mentioned in the " United
States Pharmacopoeia," and also includes
those given in the " British Pharmacopoeia."
It further embraces extensive and comprehen-
sive information in regard to other drugs and
chemicals used in pharmacy and medicine, that
are not officinal. A revised edition appeared
in 1883. Other important works are: Par-
rish's "Treatise on Pharmacy" (Philadelphia,
1883), and "Lectures on Practical Pharmacy,"
by Barnard S. Procter (Philadelphia, 1883).
Among the journals devoted to pharmacy are
the "American Journal of Pharmacy," "The
Druggist's Circular," the " American Drug-
gist," and the " Weekly Drug News."

Practical chemistry and experimental thera-
peutics are continually adding new drugs and
preparations to the resources of pharmacy.

PHYSIOLOGY. The Heart.— Dr. W. H. Gaskell,
F. R. S., of Cambridge, has published (" Jour-
nal of Physiology ") an account of experiments
upon the innervation of the heart. Previous ex-
periments in this line having been made with
the heart of the frog, he selected the heart of
the tortoise, so as to secure corresponding ob-
servations with other animal types for com-
parison. His investigations bore : 1. On the
spontaneous rhythm of the different parts of
the heart and of the heart as a whole; 2. On
the sequence of the contractions of the differ-
ent heart-cavities; 3. On the action of the
cardiac nerves ; 4. On the action of atropine and
muscarine. Before the nerves of the heart and
the ganglion-cells were known, the beat of
the heart was attributed to the direct stimu-
lating action of the blood on the cardiac mus-
cle. The. discovery of the cardiac ganglia and
of their situation in the sinus, where the origin
of the rhythmic beat was located, led to the hy-
pothesis that they played the chief part in the

causation of the beat, although they were at
the same time recognized as appendages to the
nerves, and not separate, independent struct-
ures ; and experiments were referred to which
were thought to afford positive proof of the
preponderating influence of the ganglion -cells
in the causation of rhythm, and other experi-
ments were thought to indicate the mode in
which they acted. When, however, it became
known that a constant stimulus, whether elec-
trical, chemical, or mechanical, applied to the
muscular tissue at the apex, could cause that
muscle to beat rhythmically, even though no
nerve-cells were to be found in it, the question
arose, Are these motor centers really similar
to those of the respiratory center, or is it not
more likely that they supply a constant stim-
ulus to the muscle, and that it is the property
of the cardiac muscle to produce rhythmical re-
sults from that continually acting stimulation ?
On either view, certain ganglia are supposed
to possess motor functions, upon which the
heart-beat ultimately depends, and the cardiac
muscle itself is not supposed to possess any
power of automatic rhythm, but merely to
contract rhythmically upon the application of
a suitable external stimulus. The results of
Dr. Gaskell's experiments are adverse to this
hypothesis. In their light, the heart is con-
ceived as a specially modified portion of the
vascular system ; as a piece of artery or vein,
the muscular walls of which have developed
in a special manner. The peculiarities of the
cardiac muscle arise from its structural, posi-
tion, intermediate between unstriped and stri-
ated muscular fiber. Muscular tissues exhibit
three different modes of responding to stimu-
lation—" tonic," "rhythmical," and "rapid"
contraction — according to their structure. The
difference between them is clearly shown in a
comparison of the tetanizing action of a strong
interrupted current upon a strip of muscle from
the bladder of the tortoise, and from the heart
of the tortoise, and with the ordinary tetanus
curve of the frog's gastrocnemius. The un-
striped muscle of the bladder contracts slowly
after a long latent period, with steadily increas-
ing force during and even after the cessation
of the tetanizing current, and the strip returns
slowly to its original length. This represents
a prolonged tonic contraction. The striated
muscle gives the curve of tetanus, consisting of
the superposition of a series of rapid contrac-
tions. And the cardiac strip gives a curve
which is intermediate between the two, and
may be described as a long-continued tonic
contraction upon which are superimposed a
number of rapid contractions that never suc-
ceed one another so quickly as to fuse together.
The cardiac muscle, then, when tetanized gives
a tetanus of tonicity in virtue, of its relation-
ship to unstriped muscle, and at the same
time a series of rapid contractions in conse-
quence of its affinity to striated muscle. When
the vitality of the tissue is impaired, the car-
diac muscle loses its power of rapid contrac-

632

PHYSIOLOGY.

tion, and the less specialized tonic power alone
remains. The intermediate position of this
muscle is also shown in the duration of its vi-
tality after the death of the animal, which is
less than that of unstriped muscle, but decid-
edly greater than that of the ordinary striated
muscles. Evidence is accumulating that the
power of rhythmical contraction is common
to many different kinds of muscle ; and as it
has been developed to a greater extent in some
unstriated muscles than in others, so it has
reached a still higher stage — that of rhythmi-
cal automatism — in some kinds of cardiac mus-
cle than in others. We may, then, compare
the development of function in the three kinds
of muscular tissue as follows :

Striated muscle of vertebrates : Rapidity of
contraction most highly developed ; tonicity
rudimentary; rhythmic action still more rudi-
mentary.

Cardiac muscle: Khythmic action most high-
ly developed ; rapidity of contraction well
marked ; tonicity well marked.

Unstriped muscle : Tonicity most highly de-
veloped ; rhythmic action well marked ; rapidi-
ty of contraction most rudimentary.

Stimulation of the vagus nerve was found
capable of producing opposite effects upon the
rhythm of the heart, either of slowing, or stand-
still, or of acceleration. The results are more
constant with the tortoise, where a stand-still
can always be obtained, frequently followed
by acceleration, but not accompanied by evi-
dence of a primary acceleration, than with the
frog. The effects are almost exclusively pro-
duced through the fibers of the right vagus
nerve. The auricular contractions only are af-
fected by the stimulation, and this by being
diminished in strength during its operation,
and increased after it has been stopped. Nerv-
ous action has an effect competent both to de-
press and to exalt the conduction power of the
muscular tissue of the auricle, and that inde-
pendently of the action upon the force of the
muscular contractions. It removes a partial
block, and enables every contraction to pass
the blocking-point by expediting the recovery
of the conduction power of the muscle at that
point, which would otherwise take place more
slowly after the passage of each contraction-
wave. While the initial effect of the vagus
appears to be to depress some function, its final
and most enduring power is to exalt, intensify,
and repair that function. It may, therefore,
be regarded as essentially the trophic nerve of
the heart. Its effects on the contraction force
and conduction power of the cardiac muscle
are the same as those of an interrupted current
applied to the muscle directly, which is too
weak to cause muscular contractions. Atropine
improves the contraction power, the rhythmi-
cal power, and the conduction power of the
muscle, in a fixed and stable manner, but not
necessarily lastingly. Muscarine depresses every
function, but without preventing the possibili-
ty of a limited amount of improvement in it.

Messrs. II. H. Donaldson and Lewis T. Ste-
vens, of Johns Hopkins University, have found,
from experiments with digitaline on the heart
of the frog and the terrapin, that the drug
causes a decrease in the work done by the
heart, that in moderate doses it increases the
blood-pressure, and that it causes a rise of
mean blood-pressure by constricting the arte-
rioles, probably through its action on the mus-
cular coats.

Taljanzeff states that, in violent breathing,
partial or complete inhibition of the contrac-
tions of the right side of the heart may take
place, without, however, any fall of arterial
pressure resulting, the blood being forced from
the right to the left side of the heart by the
action of the breathing movements on the or-
gan, especially on the right ventricle. He has
discovered also that, if the branches of the
vagus going to the lungs are cut, and their cen-
tral ends stimulated, a decided reflex action on
the heart and blood-vessels is obtained. In
most cases the heart was slowed, giving the
well-known "vagus-pulse," and the blood-
pressure was lowered ; though in one experi-
ment there was a fall of aortic pressure, with-
out any change in either the force or the rate
of the heart contractions.

Gaule has shown that a frog's heart, washed
out with dilute solution of common salt until
it ceases to beat, is rendered capable of further
pulsation when dilute alkaline solutions are
sent through it; and he concludes that the al-
kali nourishes the heart. Martius, while con-
firming the experiment, dissents from the con-
clusion. The administration of the alkali, he
finds, leads to a certain number of beats, but
these soon cease, and a fresh supply of alkali
is then inefficient, while other liquids, espe-
cially blood-serum, lead to renewed cardiac
contractions. In his opinion, the frog's heart-
muscle has in itself no store of energy-yielding
material which it can call upon, but works at
the expense of food-matters yielded it con-
stantly by the liquid circulating through it.
When the heart, irrigated with salt solution,
ceases to beat, this is due to the saturation of
its tissue with carbon dioxide, while still some
nutrient matter (blood) remains not washed
out from the ventricular net-work. The salt
solution, acting merely as a medium for physi-
cal diffusion, can not remove the carbon dioxide
as fast as it accumulates, and consequently the
heart ceases to beat while it still has some
available food. The alkali, on the other hand,
chemically removes the injurious carbon diox-
ide ; and the heart beats for a short time, using
the food-stuff in the blood still present in its
meshes. When the heart, treated with dilute
alkali, ceased to beat, new pulsations could
only be obtained by supplying it with liquids
containing serum-albumen.

The Blood. — Several independent observers
describe' a new morphological element of the
blood different in character from both the
white and red corpuscles, and believed to be

PHYSIOLOGY.

the source of the fibrin which appears in the
process of coagulation. According to Bizzo-
jro's account, it is a colorless disk or lens-
laped body, with a diameter equal to from
le quarter to one half that of a red corpuscle,
id is perfectly destitute of haemoglobin. Ha-
rem and Laker state that it is biconcave, Biz-
)zero that it is not ; while Laker and Bizzo-
3ro agree that it can not be considered an in-
;rmediate stage in the development of red
srpuscles. The disks have also been examined
)y Norris, who claims to have described them
inder the name of "invisible corpuscles" as
back as 1878. Bizzozero believes that the
ibrin is derived from the disintegration of these
lisks, and adduces several facts in support of
lis view, among which are — 1. Liquids which
ive a tendency to prevent coagulation pre-
also more or leas completely these blood-
>lates from destruction. 2. Experiments made
ipon blood kept within the uninjured blood-
vessels showed that as long as the blood re-
lained uncoagulated, the blood-plates kept
leir shape, while the rapid coagulation of
shed blood was always preceded by a destruc-
tion of the plates and the formation of granular
lasses from them. 3. When a drop of the
jlood was whipped with slender threads for
>ut fifty or fifty-five seconds, and the threads
ere withdrawn and slightly washed with 0'75
3r cent, of sodium chloride containing methyl
dolet, and then examined under the micro-
scope in the same liquid, they were found cov-
ered with a layer of "plates," together with
>me white corpuscles. If the whipping was
Dntinued longer, the layer of plates became a
granular mass or was transformed into a film
fibrin. The experimenter was able to a cer-
dn extent to watch this process, the deposi-
tion of the plates, their fusion into a granular
mass, and the subsequent formation of fibrin,
by observing under the microscope a. thread
placed in a slow current of blood. 4. When
to a liquid containing fibrinogen and fibrino-
)lastin only, some of the colorless blood-plates
adhering to a thread were added, coagulation
followed. The mere presence of a foreign
body, as a thread, was shown to have no effect.
It was shown by satisfactory tests that the co-
agulation was not owing to the few red cor-
puscles which it was impossible to wash off the
thread, nor to leucocytes adheringto the thread.
The conclusion is drawn that the colorless
plates must be assigned the chief part in coagu-
lation. A pale nucleated plate, differing from
the white corpuscles, and similar in functions
to the colorless plate here described, has also
been found in birds and amphibia.

L. 0. Woolridge, D. Sc., of the Leipsic Lab-
oratory, describes a series of experiments on
dog's blood which tend to establish the fact
that lecithin, a body omnipresent in proto-
plasm, can bring about coagulation.

Feuerstack, in a memoir on the development
of the red blood-corpuscles, after reviewing the
various theories on the subject, announces as

his conclusion : " We find in the circulation of
animals with nucleated blood-corpuscles every
possible transition between colorless and col-
ored blood-corpuscles. That there are transi-
tion stages from the white to the colored cells
is shown by the course of development during
artificially induced blood - formation." Mr.
Charles S. Minot suggests, in " Science," that
the author has overlooked the more plausible
view that the colored corpuscles are merely
nuclei and not completed cells.

Dr. Richard Norris, of Birmingham, Eng-
land, claims to have discovered that the white
corpuscles of the lymph peel off the body of
the cell, setting the nucleus free; that the lat-
ter then enters the circulation as a colorless
disk which is ordinarily invisible, and gradual-
ly becomes colored by the endogenous secre-
tion of hemoglobin. He uses his alleged dis-
covery to contradict some of the established
views concerning the physiology and pathology
of the blood. Mr. Ernest Hart has contro-
verted his views, and, repeating his experi-
ments, has shown that the methods employed
create the colorless disk out of the red cor-
puscle by removing, in one manner or another,
the hemoglobin.

Regarding the influence of the inorganic con-
stituents of the blood on the ventricular con-
traction, Prof. Sydney Ringer had shown from
previous investigations that the contractility
of the ventricle can not be supported without
the presence of a lime salt in the circulating
fluid; that lime salts greatly delay diastolic
dilatation ; and that this effect is obviated by
a potash salt. He had further shown that a
solution containing sodium chloride and a lime
salt only will not sustain contractility so long
as a mixture containing a potash salt in addi-
tion ; and that sodium bicarbonate added to sa-
line solution will not sustain contractility, nor
will saline solution with sodium bicarbonate
and potassium chloride. _ Yet sodium bicar-
bonate, or rather an alkaline state of the fluid,
does favor contractility. In one of the experi-
ments spontaneous contractions restored by
sodium bicarbonate became even stronger than
with the blood used at the beginning of the
experiment. Continuing the discussion of his
experiments, and seeking for the reason of this
improvement, he observes that it can scarcely
be maintained that an alkaline fluid is neces-
sary, since in another experiment fairly good
though weakened contractions persisted after
feeding the ventricle with a neutral solution
for ninety minutes and more. More probably,
the acid developed in the muscles under con-
traction gradually weakens, and at last sus-
pends contractility. It is certain that the so-
dium bicarbonate'acts by virtue of its alkalin-
ity, and not as a sodium saltf for the addition
to the circulating fluid of calcium hydrate or
ammonium carbonate will produce the same
restoration of. the beats. The amount of con-
traction, the duration of the contraction, the
breadth of the trace, and the rapidity of dias-

634

PHYSIOLOGY.

tolic dilatation, depend entirely on the relative
quantity of the normal saline constituents of
the blood. With calcium chloride added to
the saline, if the rhythmic contractions retain
their normal frequency, we get increased
breadth with rounding of the top of the trace,
which leads to fusion of the beats, and the trace
rises high above the top of the base-line. The
effect of adding potash salt to the circulating
fluid is to remove lime effects and restore good
normal conditions. If the contractions are
less frequent, or occur only with an excitation,
the calcium chloride, like other lime salts, at
first broadens the trace, rounding its top, and
then greatly retards diastolic dilatation. Potas-
sium chloride obviates these effects. The ef-
fects may be modified by introducing potas-
sium bicarbonate, or by varying the amount of
calcium chloride in the circulating fluid; but
with a sufficient quantity of potassium chloride,
no quantity of calcium chloride is capable of
retarding diastolic dilatation.

The Nervons System.— From observations made
upon dogs, to determine the connection of the
semicircular canals with the function of equili-
bration, Bechterew has concluded that unilat-
eral section is followed by forced movements
of rotation around the axis of the body, with
deviation of the eyes, nystagmus, etc., which
movements are at first constant, but occur later
in paroxysms separated by periods of rest.
During the intervals between the paroxysms,
the animal assumes a constrained position, ly-
ing on the opposite side to that of the section.
The rolling movements finally cease, but the
tendency to exhibit circus movements toward
the injured side continues, while the animal is
deficient in power to maintain its .balance on
its feet. These symptoms are reflex, for they
are still exhibited after removal of the cerebral
hemispheres, or in narcosis; but they are more
marked when the hemispheres are present.
Section of both auditory nerves is accompanied
by marked deficiency of the power of main-
taining equilibrium, so that the animal can
neither stand nor walk. The forced move-
ments when only one nerve is cut are due to
the disharmony resulting from the presence of
the normal semicircular-canal sensations on
one side and their absence on the other. The
balance is destroyed, and vertigo results. The
well-known action of auditory impressions in
influencing movements, as in dancing and
marching, is thought, from these experiments,
to occur through the semicircular canals.

In subsequent experiments Bechterew found
that the central gray substance of the third ven-
tricle forms an organ of equilibration in the
same sense as the semicircular canals and the
olivary bodies. Having prepared his subject
so that a section could be made of the gray
matter in any desired direction, he found that
injury to any portion of that substance in the
third ventricle was always followed by dis-
turbances of equilibrium similar, in a general
way, to those caused by section of the semi-

circular canals. Disturbances of equilibrium
which have been noticed by other observers
after sections in this region, but which were
attributed to other parts, were, in Bechterew's
opinion, probably caused by injury to the walls
of the third ventricle. The presence of bodily
equilibrium is brought about, according to this
observer, by the action of three peripheral equi-
librium organs; viz., the semicircular canals,
the gray matter of the third ventricle, and the
olivary bodies of the medulla. Each of these
organs, it is interesting to notice, is not only
connected with the cerebellum, through which
it acts on the muscles, but is closely related
also to one of the higher sense organs : the
olivary bodies, to the skin; the semicircular
canals, to the ear; and the gray matter of the
third ventricle, to the eye. The intimate con-
nection existing between the organs of sight
and equilibrium is known to all; and this con-
nection depends not so much on the visual sen-
sations as on the position of the eyeballs. In-
jury to the center in the third ventricle was
always followed by marked changes in the di-
rection of the axes of the eyeballs; and the
author suggests that changes in the position of
the eyeballs may, in their turn, act as mechani-
cal stimulus to this center.

Experiments on dogs by Bochfontaine go to
confirm the view of Flourens, ascribing vica-
rious functions to the cerebral convolutions.
At one time electrical stimulation of a particu-
lar surface area, «, may. for example, be fol-
lowed by a secretion of the submaxillary gland,
or by some definite movement of a limb, while
the same stimulus, applied to other regions of
the cerebral surface, has no such consequences.
In half or three quarters of an hour the region
a will, however, cease to react to stimuli, while
some other area, J, previously inexcitable, be-
comes irritable, and its stimulation is followed
by the same phenomena as resulted from the
stimulation of a. Bochfontaine suggests that
the gray rind is itself not capable of electrical
excitation, and that the result is always due
to direct stimulation of subjacent medullated
nerve-fibers. A bundle of such fibers, all with
the same peripheral connection, may subdivide
in the brain, and end in three or four different
regions of its surface.

Dr. Seymour J. Sharkey, of St. Thomas
Hospital, London, has described a number of
cases within his practice bearing upon the sub-
ject of cerebral localizations, in the light of
which he makes the statement that although
there may be slight differences of opinion as
to the exact limitation of the cortical centers,
recorded cases present a striking agreement
with regard to the most important facts. The
conclusions which appear to be warranted from
our present experience are : 1. That there are
cortical centers, and that they are situated in
the two ascending central convolutions, and
in the convolutions adjacent to them on the
internal aspect of the hemispheres. 2. That
the centers for the arm, leg, and face are more

PHYSIOLOGY.

635

or less anatomically distinct. 3. That the cen-
ters for the lower part of the face and tongue
are situated in the inferior extremity of the
ascending frontal convolution, and that in most
persons the posterior part of the inferior fron-
tal convolution, and its junction with the as-
cending frontal in the left hemisphere, are
specially connected with the faculty of speech.
4. That the centers for the arm are situated in
the middle portion of both ascending convolu-
tions, and that they extend into the upper third
of these convolutions to a distance which is at
present uncertain. 5. That the centers for the
leg occupy the upper extremities of the two
ascending convolutions and the parts continu-
es with them on the internal aspect of the
hemispheres.

W. Kiihne, having made observations of the
motor-nerve endings on a considerable number
of vertebrates, has given descriptions of the
manifold forms of the terminal ramifications
of the axis-cylinder in various species. By a
3ial method of treatment he brings the axial-
tree (Axialbaum), as he styles it, into a visible
state while preserving its natural form, when
the motor-plates can be seen with surprising
distinctness. He has also devised a new method
for isolating the end-plates, when the real ar-
borization is revealed, quite different from the
apparent arborization before isolation. The
ramifications are composed of the axis-cylin-
der, and a sheath of substance which Kuhne
calls the stroma, separating the axis-cylinder
rom the fundamental substance of the motor-
plate. The terminal ramifications in Rana
(the frog) are formed, according to Trinchese,
of little disks, placed at more or less regular
distances from one another, and separated by
a homogeneous intermediate substance. From
these ramifications on the side toward the
muscles, run out numerous very fine filaments.
The " longitudinal striae " of the muscle have
a similar structure to that of the axis-cylinder,
being formed of disks united by clear inter-
mediate substance; and the disks are united
by lateral filaments with one another.

Beaunis has described the results of obser-
vation-* made upon himself with regard to the
time that elapses between the stimulation of
the sense of smell and the giving of the signal
indicating the perception of the sensation. He
finds that stimuli like ammonia and acetic acid,
which excite not merely fibers of the gustatory
nerve, but also nerves of common sensation,
have a shorter reaction time than stimuli which
act only or mainly on the nerve-fibers concerned
with the sense of smell proper. In the cases
of camphor, asatetida, ammonium _ sulphide,
chloroform, carbon disulphide, valerian, mint,
and carbolic acid, the reaction time increases
in the order of the names from '50 to -67 of a
second. The moment of olfactory perception
of musk could not be determined. The time
of reaction appears to be longer in the case of
this sense than in those of touch, sight, or
hearing. Results in the main concordant

with these have been reached by Buccola of
Turin.

Digestion. — Herzen, investigating the func-
tions of the spleen, has brought forward a the-
ory by which the apparently contradictory con-
clusions of Schiff and Ileidenhain may be rec-
onciled. Schiff was led to believe that after
removal of the spleen, the pancreatic secretion
lost its power of digesting proteids, and con-
cluded that, though the spleen did not itself
make the proteolytic ferment, it furnished to
the blood something essential to the formation
of it in the pancreas. Ileidenhain showed, in
1875, that a substance (zymogen) capable of
yielding proteolytic ferment accumulated in
the pancreas quite independently of the pres-
ence or ^absence of the spleen. Herzen has
found that, after removal of the spleen, the pan-
creas may still heap up zymogen (trypsogeri),
but that this is not under such circumstances
transformed into a proteolytic ferment (t/ryp-
sin\ as it is normally when the spleen is pres-
ent, and in physiological activity. Hence, after
splenotomy, or in cases of serious splenetic dis-
ease, the digestion of albuminous substances is
greatly impaired.

Winogradow has described the results of
spleen extirpation as manifested in the blood,
lymphatic glands, and bone-marrow of dogs,
several of which were kept alive, in good
health, for more than two years after the sple-
notomy. The number of red corpuscles in a
cubic metre of blood always falls in a short
time after the operation till, in from 150 to 200
days, it is less than half the normal number.
After twelve months there begins a gradually
increasing proportion of abnormally small red
corpuscles, while those of exceptionally large
size, some of which are always found in nor-
mal dog's blood, entirely disappear. The white
corpuscles show no morphological change;
their absolute number is sometimes increased,
sometimes diminished. In one case, after 132
days, most of the lymphatic glands were found
enlarged, softer than the normal, and red on
section, especially in the cortical layer, the
color depending mainly on red blood-corpus-
cles which were abundant in the lymph chan-
nels of the gland, but being partly due to de-
posits of brownish-red pigment, the detritw of
broken-down corpuscles. The marrow in the
central cavity of nearly all the long bones
was red-colored, the coloration being due to
red corpuscles lying outside the blood-vessels
in the spaces of the proper marrow-tissues.
Later, similar but less marked divergences
from the normal structure were found in both
the lymphatic glands and the bone-marrow.
Transfusion of the blood of a dog which had
undergone splenotomy produced similar ef-
fects in the lymph-glands and bone-marrow of
another dog.

Messrs. R. H. Chittenden and J. 8. Ely have
made a series of experiments to ascertain the
amount of alkali present in normal mixed human
saliva, and whether the alkalinity is subject to

636

PHYSIOLOGY.

variation in different persons and at different
times, and, if so, whether there is any connec-
tion between variations of alkalinity and the
di astatic action of saliva. More than fifty spe-
cimens of the saliva of fourteen persons were
examined. The average alkalinity of the sam-
ples expressed in the form of sodium carbon-
ate was -080 per cent. The average diastatic
action of fifty-four samples expressed in the
percentage of sugar formed from the starch
was 42-82 per cent. An examination of the
individual results obtained showed several in-
teresting facts, which may be summarized as
follows: 1. Saliva from different individuals
may show a constant difference in alkalinity,
although in the majority of cases the alkalinity
varies only within narrow limits ; 2. Saliva se-
creted by the same individual at different times
has within certain limits a constant degree of
alkalinity ; 3. While saliva from different indi-
viduals shows in several cases a decided and
constant difference in alkalinity, there is no cor-
responding difference in diastatic action which
is at all constant. We are thus forced to the
conclusion that the variations of alkalinity are
within too narrow limits to exercise any ap-
preciable influence on the diastatic action of
the saliva.

B6champ has investigated the origin of the
power possessed by human saliva of saccharify-
ing starch-paste — a power which the saliva of
many animals, including even such herbivores
as the horse, has not. He concludes that it is
not due, as some have thought, to chance germs
which have entered the mouth from the at-
mosphere, but to a special ferment more active
than diastase, and that it is produced by the
action on the pure secreted saliva of specific
microscopic organisms living in the salivary
glands and in the mouth-cavity of man. The
pure parotid saliva of horse or dog does not
convert starch-paste into copper-oxide-reduc-
iug substances, nor does it acquire this power
when exposed to the air, or when gently warmed
with scrapings from the tongues of those an-
imals; but it becomes very efficacious when
scrapings from the inside of the human mouth
are added to it.

E. Jessen has made investigations respect-
ing the time required to digest meat and milk
prepared in different ways : 1. With artificial
gastric juice. Of twenty-five grammes of beef
in each condition, at the end of twenty-four
hours : 5£ grammes of the raw, from 9* to 9f
grammes of the half-cooked, and from 17 to 18
grammes of the well-done beef remained undis-
solved. 2. In the stomach of a dog. The raw
meat was also digested more quickly than
boiled or roasted meat, the time required for
raw beef being from 5'3 to 5'5 hours. 3. Ex-
periments were made upon man by introducing
100 grammes of meat and 300 c. c. of water
into an empty stomach, pumping out the con-
tents of the stomach after a time, and examin-
ing them with a microscope. The time required
for complete digestion was as follows :

Hours.

Eaw beef, shaved fine

Half-done boiled beef, shaved flue . 2*

Well-done boiled beef, shaved fine 3

Half-done roaeted, shaved fine 8

Well-done roasted, shaved fine 4

Eaw mutton 2

Eaw veal 2 }

Kaw pork 3

In the experiments with milk, a quantity
was given, the amount of nitrogen in which
would correspond with that contained in 100
grammes of beef. This with cow's milk was 602
cubic centimetres. That quantity of the raw
milk was digested in 3| hours ; of boiled milk
in 4 hours ; of sour milk in 3 hours ; 675 c. c.
of skimmed cow's milk were digested in 3£
hours ; 656 c. c. of raw goat's milk in 3£ hours.

The Physiology of Voice. — Prof. T. Wesley
Mills, of McGill University, has published the
results of examinations which he has made with
the laryngoscope and tested by autolaryngo-
scopy upon certain controverted questions of
the physiology of the voice. The questions em-
brace the functions of the epiglottis in changes
of pitch and of quality, the influence of the
trachea and of the supra-glottic chambers on
pitch, the falsetto voice, and the registers of
the singing voice. On the first point Mr. Wal-
ton has maintained, in a paper published in
1878, that "the epiglottis was seen to take
different positions in changes of pitch, quality,
and intensity." Prof. Mills, remarking that this
author and others have made the mistake of
considering the movements of the epiglottis as
essential when they are only incidental, con-
cludes from his own observations that "the
epiglottis may act like a resonator, and proba-
bly is one in some degree ; that by its move-
ments it is a modifier of the quality of sounds,
but not appreciably of their pitch ; but that
the question as to how far the mere presence
of the epiglottis independently of its particu-
lar movements may influence these qualities of
sound is not as yet determined in the human
subject." Concerning the influence of the
trachea on pitch, "it is a matter of common-
est observation, that above a certain point in
the scale (which latter varies with sex, age,
and the individual), the larynx rises or falls
according as the pitch is above or below this
fixed point, which has been named the ' station-
note.' " It appears from the experiments that,
while the breath-pressure is almost if not quite
sufficient of itself to account for the rise of the
larynx and trachea, it does not explain their
fall below the position for the " station-note " ;
and for the efficient action of the arytenoid
and cricoid cartilages in particular, and to
effect a state of support and tension generally
in the larynx, certain muscles, including the
thyro-hyoid, the palatopharyngeus, and the in-
ferior constrictor, act in harmony. Helmholtz
gives no favor to the view that the supra-
glottic air-chambers can alter materially the
tones of the vocal cords. Notwithstanding
this authority, and a few experiments that are
cited as bearing apparently against his view,

PHYSIOLOGY.

637

Prof. Mills holds that these chambers do
constantly exercise an important influence on
pitch, and supports his position by citing ob-
servations or experiments which almost any
one may test for himself. Thus, while all the
other conditions are unchanged, by passing
suddenly from the arrangement of the supra-
glottic parts suited to the utterance of o (as
in " note ") to that form of the parts requisite to
sound e (as in " me "), a change of pitch will be
noticed which the most un discriminating ear
can not fail to appreciate. The same experi-
ment may be repeated in view of the laryngeal
mirror, when a change of pitch will be made
without any noticeable change in the glottic
appearance. Again, if the vowel a (as in " say ")
be sung at about the pitch of common conver-
sation, or rather higher, and a musical instru-
ment sound the note which seems best in ac-
cord with it, a departure from the note by
even half a tone will be found to alter slight-
ly the sound of the vowel. Hence, in account-
ing for pitch we must take into consideration
the condition of the supra-glottic apparatus as
well as the behavior of the larynx. The term
falsetto voice is used to designate a certain
quality of the voice not distinguished from the
natural voice by any fixed line, but overlapping
with it through a series of notes that can be
produced by either. The essential conditions
in the production of this quality are closure of
the glottis posteriorly to a variable extent, de-
pending largely on the pitch, but somewhat
different in extent in different individuals ; the
force of the blast ; and the manner of blow-
ing. Variable conditions are the compass of
the falsetto ; the extent to which the vocal
bands approximate posteriorly, and especially
anteriorly ; and the perfection with which the
vibration of the segmented portion of the vo-
cal cords can be effected. Almost precisely
the same conditions apply to the head-voice
production in females. A vocal register is de-
fined by Garcia as " a series of consecutive and
homogeneous sounds, rising from the grave to
the acute, produced by the development of the
same mechanical principle, the nature of which
essentially differs from any other series of
sounds equally consecutive and homogeneous
produced by another mechanical principle."
Garcia and Madame Seiler divide the registers
into the chest and the head register, with the
falsetto interposed between them. Madame
Seller makes a further division, and physio-
logically describes the registers as follows:
a. The first chest-register, in which the whole
glottis is moved by loose vibrations; &. The
second chest-register, in which the vocal liga-
ments alone act ; c. The first falsetto, in which
the edges alone of the vocal cords vibrate, but
the whole glottis is in action ; d. The second
falsetto, in which the edges of the vocal cords
only are used, and the vocal ligaments alone
are in action ; and, e. The head-tones, in which
the edges alone are vibrating while the liga-
ments are partially closed posteriorly. Prof.

Mills accepts the division and definitions, as to
essential points, after having tested them on
fifty subjects. In conclusion, he suggests that
most writers on the physiology of voice appear
to have attached too little importance to the
wind-force apparatus and its action. Every
trained singer knows, or should know, that
correct breathing is, of all things, the most im-
portant in healthy and efficient vocalization.
The chest production, the head-voice so called
of males and high falsetto, cause in the subject
sensations very different, part of which are
referable to the larynx and to the v/ind appa-
ratus. It is a matter of observation that more
breath-force is required to produce a chest-
tone than a head-tone of the same pitch, and
less for the corresponding falsetto than for the
head-tone. But that there is some difference
in the manner of blowing that is essential to a
good achievement in these different produc-
tions is capable of proof by experiment on
one's own person.

Formation of Urea.— To determine in what part
of the animal organism urea is formed, W. von
Schroeder has made a series of experiments in
which blood was caused to circulate through
living organs, the amount of urea contained
being determined both before and after its pas-
sage. An experiment on a dog after the kid-
neys had been extirpated showed that urea
still accumulated in the blood. Ammonium
carbonate was added to a specimen of blood,
which was then parsed through an ox-kidney,
but afterward showed no increase in area.
Like experiments with dogs' kidneys gave the
same result. Hence it was concluded that the
kidneys are incapable of converting ammo-
nium carbonate into urea. Experiments were
also made with the livers of dead dogs into
which blood was injected by the portal vein
and taken out from the vena cava above the
diaphragm. In one experiment, blood to which
ammonium carbonate had been added con-
tained before injection -0442 per cent, of urea,
after the injection -0812 per cent. ; in another
experiment the increase was from "0538 to
•1253 per cent., the solid matter in these cases
having only slightly increased. Blood without
the addition of ammonium carbonate was then
passed through the liver of a hungry dog, ?md
through that of one killed during the process
of digestion. No perceptible increase in urea
was noticeable in the former case, while in the
latter the content of urea rose from -0499 to
•0636, showing that the liver is able to produce
urea from some substance formed in 'digestion.

The method of the formation of urea from
ammonium carbonate, Von Schroeder holds to
be by the loss of water.

Further light has been thrown upon the
formation of urea in the body by the researches
of E. Salkowski in regard to the behavior of
several amido acids. The sodium salt of me-
tamido-benzoic acid was given to rabbits and
dogs in quantities of two to ten grammes a day.
In the urine of the rabbits 5 per cent, was ob-

638

PHYSIOLOGY.

PITA.

tained as urainido-benzoic acid, and in that of
the dogs nearly 20 per cent. Thus is rendered
probable another example of a synthesis by the
addition of cyanic acid within the animal body,
since under the conditions which there prevail
no other mode of formation for uramido acids
is yet known. To ascertain in which organ
uramido-benzoic acid is formed, Salkowski ex-
perimented upon a rabbit from which the kid-
neys had been extirpated, and found the acid
in the blood, liver, and muscles. Ligaturing
the ureters caused no increase in the amount
of acid found. It is, therefore, evident that
uramido-benzoic acid is not formed in the kid-
neys, and, since Von Schroeder has found that
ammonium carbonate is converted into urea in
the liver, it is probable that the former process
is also carried on there.

Physiological Literature. — The year's list of
new publications is not distinguished by the
presence of any book of great importance in
physiology. A considerable number of vol-
umes and papers have appeared, particularly
in Germany, where this work has been most
industriously carried on, embodying the results
of special studies, but little is to be found in
them that adds materially to our knowledge
of general principles, or points to any startling
discovery.

Among the American publications of more
general interest are Brubaker's " Text-Book
of Physiology " ; a translation, by Meade Smith,
of L. Hermann's u Experimental Pharmacolo-
gy " : and Dr. Gradle's (Chicago) treatise on
u Bacteria and the Germ-Theory of Disease."
Mallet has published a paper on the " Deter-
mination of Organic Matter in Potable Water."
White has discussed the question, u Is the Blood
a Living Fluid ? " R. S. Henry has reported
upon his new studies in the " Crystallization of
Haemoglobin." Chittenden and Ely have in-
vestigated the " Alkalinity and Diastatic Ac-
tion of Human Saliva." We notice also mono-
graphs, all embodying the results of experi-
mentation, by M. L. Holbrook on the " Ter-
mination of Nerves in the Liver " ; Minor on
" A Case of Color-Blindness for Green " ;
Muybridge on the " Attitude of Animals in Lo-
comotion " ; Mitchell and Reichert on the
" Venom of Serpents " ; and Sternberg on the
" Germicide Value of Certain Therapeutic
Agents, and on the Micrococcus of Gonorrhoeal
Pus."

The English list furnishes a fourth edition
of Dr. Michael Foster's " Text-Book " ; a trans-
lation, by McAlister, of Ziegler's " Text-Book
of Pathological Anatomy and Pathogenesis " ;
Coats's " Manual of Pathology " ; Klein's " His-
tology " ; Malley's " Microphotography " ; stud-
ies by Wells on "Indian Snake-Poisons";
Lawes, Gilbert, and Warrington on the chem-
istry of the "Fairy Rings"; Pavy, Johnson,
Rolfe, and Oliver, on " Urinary Tests and Tests
for Albumen "; Elsberg, Bower, and Gardiner,
on " E5rotoplasm " ; Geddes on the " Cell The-
ory " ; Harris, Norris, and Ray Lankester, on

the " Blood " ; Gaskell on the " Function of
the Cardiac Tissue " ; Huddicombe on " Respi-
ration " ; Budwin on the " Supposed Poison-
ous Alkaloid in Human Saliva " (in which he
contradicts some conclusions of Gautier) ; Gar-
rod and Cook on " Uric Acid " ; Stone on
the " Influence of High Temperature on the
Electrical Resistance of the Human Body";
L. Brunton on the " Nature of Inhibition, and
the Action of Drugs on it " ; Poulton on the
u Origin of Taste-Bulbs " ; Stone on " Singing,
Speaking, and Stammering" ; Brown on " Pho-
tography of the Larynx and Soft Palate " ;
Blomfield, Dowdeswell, and Wiltshire, on the
" Reproductive Organs " ; Ringer on the " Ef-
fects of Dilution and Concentration on the
Action of Poisons " ; Lauder Brunton on the
" Temperature-Modifications of the Action of
Drugs " ; Dowdeswell on the " Action of Pa-
paine with reference to the Occurrence of Mi-
cro-Organisms in the Blood " ; Ringer and
Sainsbury on the " Action of Chloral, Opium,
Bromide of Potassium, and Barium Chloride " ;
Williams on "Experiments upon Bacteria
with Disinfectants " ; Klein and Ray Lankester
on " Bacteria " ; Crooke on " Bacilli in Scarlet
Fever " ; and by Cheyne, West, Gibbes, Smith,
Williams, Green, and Dreshfield, on the " Ba-
cillus of Tubercle." New apparatus have
been described by Shenstone, Vachcr, Glaze-
brook, Thelfall, and Warner.

The German list includes four hundred and
thirteen titles, and a small number of papers
in French are registered.

PITA. The pita-plant differs from an aloe

E roper (the European aloe belongs to the lily
imily), and also from the cactus, with both
of which it has been confounded. Richard
Whiteing speaks of the planters of Mauritius
cultivating it for its valuable fiber, and names
it a species of aloe (Aloe Mexicana) ; and Dr.
Trowbridge, United States consul at Vera
Cruz in 1880, said, in speaking of a variety of
this plant, if not actually the same species:
" There is a species of cactus here commonly
called ' pita,' some of the fibers of which are
sixteen feet long. It is strong and silky, and
capable of being drawn into threads, from
which, gossamer webs might be woven. In
fact, a few months ago, a Vera Cruzan sent
some of the fiber to England, and had a few
handkerchiefs made, which were extremely
beautiful, and appeared more like silver tissue
than linen, and were quite strong." Pita is
generally known as the American aloe or
agave-plant (Agave Americana). It belongs to
the amaryllis family, and has been put to a
great variety of uses in Southern Mexico and
the several republics of Central America. The
dried flower-stems have been extensively util-
ized to make thatched roofs for tropical houses,
the strength of the fiber giving to such roofing
a wonderful durability. The sap of the leaves
of one species of the American aloe (coarser
than the one which is the subject of this arti-
cle) becomes, when fermented, the well-known

PITA.

PORCELAIN.

639

Mexican drink, pulque, and, when distilled, the
pleasant but deceptive vino mezcal. The fiber,
which is the most valuable and wonderful
quality of the pita-plant, has been extensively
used by the natives for shoe-strings, hammocks,
and cordage. It extends the entire length of

PITA PLANT (AGAVE AMERICANA).

the leaf, and has been extracted by first pound-
ing the leaf on a rock, then exposing it to the
rays of the sun, whereby the bark of the leaf
became crumbled, and a second pounding, fol-
lowed by combing, produced the clean fiber.
This process is necessarily slow and expensive,
which accounts for the fact that the use made
of this fiber has been entirely confined to the
tropical countries producing it.

The pita- plant of Central America seems to
yield a finer fiber than that of Mexico ; but
there is a marked difference, in this particular,
in localities on the same parallel. In the low-
lands of Honduras and Nicaragua, where pita
grows most luxuriantly, the leaf is straight,
from three to four inches in width, having no
middle stalk, and from a few feet to eighteen
feet in length. In its growth there, it monopo-
lizes the soil, taking exclusive possession — ex-
cepting, of course, the tropical forest-trees.
From the fact that this plant has, as yet, re-
ceived no systematic cultivation or cutting, it
is impossible to determine the exact annual
yield ; but, from the best sources which pre-
sent themselves, this yield (by cutting the
leaves three or four times a year, so as to
bring up an average of six feet in length) will
be from three to five tons of clean fiber per
acre. The territory occupied by this plant is
exceedingly extensive. Along some of the
water-courses, and extending back from them,
single tracts of 1,000 acres can be found.

The crude fiber is equal in value to Manila
hemp, when applied to like uses; but in fine-
ness, strength, and durability, it is superior.
The ultimate fiber is even finer than that of

the threads of silk spun by the silk-worm.
The writer of this was shown the two under
a powerful microscope at Lyons, France, and
heardv many exclamations of surprise by manu-
facturers at the unexpected result; and in dis-
covering also that pita-fiber did not lose its
strength when reduced to the floss state. Ex-
periments have been made in weaving this
fiber when flossed, with cotton, wool, or silk ;
and it has been found that this can be done
advantageously with each of them. As the
pita-fiber possesses a silky gloss of its own, it
has been thought by manufacturers that it
would be found valuable to mix with silk, es-
pecially in the manufacture of heavy fabrics
where weight, strength, durability, and finish
are required. It is the strongest vegetable
fiber known. Companies have been organized
in New York recently to reduce this pita-plant
into fiber, and to introduce machinery to this
end. One company has put up a factory dur-
ing the past year on Black river, Honduras, a
short distance from the port of lliriona. Near
this point and along this river are extensive
fields of pita. The company's works comprise
a saw-mill, shops, other buildings, steam-power,
and a small steam-tug on the river to tow pita
to the factory, and it is now testing various
machines, recently invented. A wide field
seems here to open itself to the inventor.
Years of patient work of inventive brains were
required before proper machinery was per-
fected to produce rami-fiber from the stalk;
and some waiting may still be necessary before
a practical machine shall be completed, capable
of reducing the green leaf of the pita- plant to
a marketable product.

PORCELAIN. This name is said to have been
given by Europeans to the finest wares of
China, from the resemblance of their fine pol-
ished surfaces to that of the univalve-shell
which bears the name of porcellana ; and the
shell itself derived its appellation from the
curved or gibbous shape of its upper surface,
which was thought to resemble the raised back
of a porcella, or little hog — as we should say,
pig. Other explanations of the origin of the
name have been given, as, for example, from
Count Portcellani, the French embassador,
who was so much interested in ceramics; or
by a corruption of pour cent an (u for a hun-
dred years "), the Chinese claiming that the
dough or paste was suffered to ferment for a
hundred years before it was molded. But the
first seems the most probable derivation.

We shall confine ourselves in this article to
that class of ceramic wares known under the
general name of porcelain, and to these mainly
as produced in the United States.

The best writers on ceramics divide porcelain
into two classes, " hard " and-" soft " ; or per-
haps, more exactly, "natural " and " artificial."
Both kinds are spoken of as translucent, though
the translucence in the thicker wares is not
very obvious, except as distinguishing it from
the dull opacity of the wares having an earth-

640

PORCELAIN.

en body. Natural or hard porcelain is made
of pure kaolin, feldspar, and silica usually from
the finest powdered quartz ; no trace of iron
or other metals is permitted in its composition.
The glaze is of the same materials as the body,
though in different proportions, and with the
possible addition of a little lime or chalk to
make it flow more readily. The finest and
best qualities of this natural or hard por-
celain owe their perfection and comparative
indestructibleness to the methods of baking
or firing. All glazed fictile wares require two
bakings or burnings, and, if decorated after
glazing, a third, to fuse and fix the metallic
colors. In the production of hard porcelain,
the first baking, by which the molded material
is brought into the condition of biscuit- ware,
is conducted in the upper story of the great
kilns, where the heat is not so intense as in
the lower story, and seldom reaches more than
1,800° Fahr., and in the case of the thinner
wares is even less. The biscuit-ware thus
produced is porous, somewhat friable, and can
be turned perfectly smooth in a lathe. When
ready for the glaze, which is an impalpable
powder, kept suspended in a large tub or vat
of water by constant stirring, it is plunged
into it, and, from its porosity, absorbs the
water, leaving the glaze in a fine, pasty pow-
der on the surface. It is dried in the air, and
then carefully packed in the seggars and
placed in the lower story of the kiln, where
it is subjected to a heat of from 4,500° to
5,000°, the later stages of the baking being
carefully watched, and the temperature reduced
at the point where the glazing begins to flow
freely, and the body is so far vitrified that
body and glaze form a homogeneous mass.
The porcelain is suffered to cool gradually, and
is not taken from the seggars under four or
five days. When taken out, it is pure white,
translucent, not readily frangible, and, when
broken by a sharp blow, is found to be per-
fectly homogeneous in its composition, so
that it is impossible to tell where the glaze
ends and the body begins, and there is no
danger of chipping, crazing, or cracking of
the glaze, or absorption of grease or acids.
The glazed porcelain and biscuit-wares of
China, Japan, Dresden, Berlin, Sevres, and
Limoges, and of the Union Porcelain Works
in Brooklyn, N. Y., belong to this class of nat-
ural or hard porcelain.

The soft or artificial porcelain differs from
this in very many particulars. Miss Young,
in her work on " The Ceramic Art," makes
three subdivisions of artificial porcelain, some
of them of great beauty, but all fragile and
possessing qualities which, for most purposes,
render them undesirable. The first subdivis-
ion has the body of alkaline paste — some kao-
lin, but, mingled with it and the feldspar, is
very nearly an equal quantity of bone ground
fine ; the phosphoric acid from which, combin-
ing with the other ingredients, makes the paste
alkaline, and, when baked, translucent but fra-

gile. The glaze is also alkaline, and is com-
posed of feldspar, carbonate of lime, borax,
and white-lead. Sometimes silica and pearl-
ash '(bicarbonate of potassa) are added to the
ingredients of the body, to make it still more
alkaline. The alkaline glaze may be either
colored or colorless. To the former class
belong some of the alkaline wares of Persia,
China, and of Deck and Haviland — to the lat-
ter those of Persia, China, St.Cloud, Tournay,
Sevres, and Haviland. The old Sevres statu-
ettes in biscuit- ware also belong to this class of
alkaline pastes.

The second subdivision of artificial porce-
lains includes those having a body of calca-
reous or chalky paste in which chalk and lime
take the place of bone, and are combined
either with kaolin or feldspar. The glaze of
these is boracic and colorless. This includes
English china, the Minton, Worcester, and
Copeland wares.

A third subdivision is Parian wares, not
glazed. The paste is mainly feldspathic, but its
exact composition is variable, and in some cases
secret. The paste for Parian wares is stiffer
and more solid before baking than that of the
glazed wares generally, and is always cast in
molds. The Parian figures and statuettes of
Copeland, and those of Minton and the Wor-
cester potteries, England, are included in this
subdivision.

It is to be noticed that not only is there
this radical difference in the composition, both
of the body and glaze of the artificial or soft
porcelain, from that of the natural or hard
porcelain, but there is a difference, as marked
and as important, in the methods of baking
or burning them. All of the soft porcelain
wares are baked at a very intense heat the
first time. The temperature of the biscuit-
wares is raised to 4,000° Fahr., or higher, and
they are cooled gradually for. several days.
The reasons assigned for this intense heat are
various: where the body contains a large per-
centage of bone, the burning must be carried
to a temperature high enough to destroy all
traces of animal tissue in the bone, and reduce
it to a pure phosphate of lime. When thus
thoroughly burned, the body, though profess-
edly infusible, is carried almost to the point of
vitrification. In the case of Parian wares, they
become so hard and dense that they can be
rubbed, polished, or turned in the lathe, till
they acquire a marble or ivory-like surface.
With those wares which are to be glazed, there
is the still more potent reason that the alkaline
and boracic glazes will become vitrified at a
much lower temperature than that to which
the body has been subjected. This is still truer
of all the plumbiferous or lead glazes, which,
however, are not used to any considerable ex-
tent in the true soft porcelains, or pdtes tendres,
of Europe.

When these wares are glazed, they are sub-
jected to a heat varying from 800 to 1,200 Fahr.,
and the glaze flows over the wares, forming a

PORCELAIN.

641

brilliant glass covering for it, but one not ho-
mogeneous with the body, and liable to crackle,
craze, or chip off, on being subjected to a mod-
erately high heat, or intense cold, the expan-
sion and contraction of the body and glaze
being different. For many purposes of fictile
art, these wares are very beautiful ; they may
be made so thin and delicate, and the glazing
so brilliant, that they will resemble the finest
translucent and egg-shell porcelains of China
and Japan, and when artistically decorated
they have an exquisite effect; but they are
very fragile, and, if exposed to great changes
of temperature, their beauty is destroyed.

Below these in quality, and not meriting the
name of porcelain, either natural or artificial,
are the great variety of faiences, with the body
earthen, of a white or colored clay (not kaolin
or feldspar), and a transparent glaze, usually
largely plumbiferous, though sometimes alka-
line, which may be either colorless or colored.
Still below these wares, having an earthen body
with a non-vitrified break, are those which
have an opaque glaze, or rather enamel, usually
of some of the salts of tin, and either colored
or colorless. To these two latter classes belong
the Henri II faience, the Wedgwood- wares,
and the Meakin, Cecil, Montereau, Palissy, and
Nuremberg faiences, and Minton's majolica.
These all have lead or stanniferous glazes.

The faiences of Persia, of China and Japan,
and of Deck, have all a colorless alkaline glaze,
while the Limoges faiences of Haviland, Brac-
quemond, and Chaplet, are colored, though still
alkaline. The opaque earthen-body wares, with
an opaque stanniferous glaze, include the Delia
Robbia, Rovigo, Fontana, Rouen, Moustiers,
Nevers, Delft, Ulysses de Blois, and St. Clem-
ent wares, all of which have had in their day,
and some of them still retain, a high reputation.

These faiences, Wedgwood, and Delft wares,
only concern us in the present article from the
development of porcelain manufacture from
these lower grades of pottery wares, and espe-
cially in this country.

Porcelain, in the true meaning of the term,
originated in China. There is conclusive evi-
dence that it was manufactured there at least
1,800 years ago. From China it was intro-
duced into Persia, Egypt, and Barbary, at a
very early period, and into Japan from the
thirteenth to the fifteenth century. It was
introduced into Europe about the beginning of
the sixteenth century. The artificial or soft
porcelain, pate tendre, was the first to be pro-
duced there. It is said that a Venetian potter
made porcelain about 1520 ; but no specimens
of it are now known. The first success of
which there are substantial evidences was at
Florence in 1580. In 1671 Dr. Dwight, of
Fulham, England, made an independent discov-
ery of the process, and manufactured it there.
In 1695 M. Chicanneau made a similar inde-
pendent discovery at St. Cloud, France. These
and many other manufacturers in Europe made
only soft porcelain, using white clay, bone, etc.,
VOL. xxin.— 41 A

for the body. Kaolin was as yet an unknown
earth. About the year 1709 a bed of kaolin
was accidentally discovered at or near the
village of Aue, near Schneeberg, in Saxony.

John Frederick Bdttger, or Bdttcher, a chem-
ist's assistant at Berlin, had fallen under the
suspicion of the government as an alchemist,
and, about 1706, took refuge in Saxony, under
the protection of the Elector Augustus II. The

FIG. 1.

Elector questioned him, and, being satisfied,
placed him in the laboratory of a chemist, who
was endeavoring to discover the " Philosopher's
Stone." Here Bottger surprised himself by

E reducing something akin to Chinese porce-
lin ; and the Elector gave him every facility for
prosecuting his experiments to that end. He was
established at first at Meissen, then at Koniff-
stein, and finally at Dresden. His first results
were comparatively rude ; then he succeeded
in producing a reddish stone-ware, and after-
ward a dull- white porcelain. At this time,
Hans Schnorr, a wealthy iron-founder, while
riding near Schneeberg, noticed that his horse
lifted his feet with great difficulty. On exam-
ination he found that he was passing through
a bed of clay, which was very- white and pecul-
iarly adhesive. At that time hair-powder was
in great demand, and was very dear. Herr
Schnorr conceived the idea that this clay might
be made profitable, as a cheap substitute for it.
He tried the experiment, and was successful

642

POKCELAIN.

In due time, the new hair-powder came under
the notice of Bottger. He found it was an
earth, and at once tried it in his laboratory.
It was kaolin, and he had discovered the ma-
terial for making hard porcelain.

Kaolin of inferior quality was discovered at
Alencon about 1760, and a hard porcelain
made from it, which was not pure in color.
In 1765 the wife of a surgeon found a bed of

PIG. 2.

a peculiarly soft earth, of remarkable whiteness,
near St. Yrieix. She was poor and economi-
cal, and thought, from its soft, oily feel, that it
might answer all the purposes of soap. Her
husband sent a sample to a chemist, and it was
soon decided to be kaolin. The manufacture
of hard porcelain was begun at Sevres in 1769,
and both the kaolin and petuntse (quartz and
feldspar) were supplied from the quarries of
St. Yrieix. Sixty years later, in 1825, the sur-
geon's widow, Madame Darnet, who had made
this great discovery, and whose life had been
spent in poverty, received a small pension from
Louis XVIII. There are porcelain factories
elsewhere in France, but those of Sevres and
Limoges still retain the pre-eminence they have
held so long. Most of the pieces produced at
these great establishments are decorated. Ar-
tificial porcelain is not now made extensively
in France, but in its place, Palissy, and, in our
own time, Haviland, at Limoges, have by their
genius raised faience, a ware of inferior mate-
rial, to a place beside the finest of natural por-
celain. This has been accomplished by the
careful working of their material, the beauty
and grace of the designs, and the high art mani-
fested in the ornamentation, the decorations
being generally beneath the glaze or enamel.

In Germany, hard porcelain is made at Meis-
sen and Berlin, on a very extensive scale, and
at Dresden and other points in smaller quanti-
ties. It is also produced, of excellent quality
and great beauty, in Vienna.

Italy and most of the other European states,
though they formerly made some hard porce-
lain, now content themselves either with pate
tendre, or oftener with faience and majolica,
some of their wares being of great beauty.

There were in the latter part of the last cen-

tury two and possibly three places in England
—Plymouth, Bristol, and perhaps Lowestoft—
where hard porcelain was made for a few
years. There are none now in the United
Kingdom, though an exceptional ware from
Belleek, Lough Erne, Fermanagh county, Ire-
land, approaches more nearly to the egg-shell
china of the East than any other produced in
the British Isles. The so-called china or por-
celain of Great Britain is either artificial por-
celain, in which bone largely predominates, or
wares of cheaper white or colored clays, mixed
with bone, known there as granite, "Wedg-
wood, Staffordshire, etc., which in their finer
specimens and tasteful decoration belong to the
class known as faience on the Continent.

In this country the first demand is for arti-
cles of domestic ware which, while in grace-
ful forms, shall be plain and serviceable.

We have but one manufactory of hard por-
celain, the Union Porcelain Works, at Green-
point, Brooklyn, N. Y. These works only date
from 1863, in their present development and
ownership. There had been three or four pre-
vious attempts at its manufacture : one in Phil-
adelphia, about 1770 ; one by William Ellis
Tucker and his several partners, between 1820
and 1838, also in Philadelphia; one in Jersey
City, and several small establishments for mak-
ing porcelain hardware in Greenpoint, Long
Island, between 1848 and 1862. These all
failed, and Thomas C. Smith, an architect and
builder, of New York city, was almost driven
into the business, in 1863, by the failure of the
last of them, to which he had loaned large
sums. The disasters of the earlier years of the
civil war had made them bankrupt, and Mr.
Smith, their principal creditor, had gone to
Europe for his health, when he received intel-
ligence, at about the same time, of their fail-

FIG. 3.

ure and of the disastrous second battle of Bull
Run, the darkest hour in the long struggle for
the Union. In spite of this, he resolved to un-
dertake the porcelain manufacture ; and after
a close examination of the Sevres manufactory,
and an equally careful investigation of the Staf-
fordshire potteries, he decided that he would
only make hard porcelain. His large fortune,

PORCELAIN.

uired by more than twenty years of ardu-
ous toil, was freely expended, and the result,
after twenty years of hard work, has been a
great success. After two years of experiment,
and many disheartening failures, he succeeded,
in 1865, in placing upon the market a plain
white ware, while he continued his manufac-
ture of articles of porcelain hardware, which at
first brought him some profit, when everything
else involved loss. In 1866 he began to deco-
rate his wares, employing one English and
one German artist. His first attempts in this
line were not a pronounced success; but he
avoided the too common error of copying for-
eign designs. All his designs and decorations
are original, and this is true also, so far as pos-
sible, of the forms of his wares.

We give illustrations of one of the vases
and a few of the plaques and plates made at
these works. Fig. 1, u The Century Vase,"
was made for the Centennial Exposition. The
engraving gives only one side, and but a par-
tial view of its symbolic designs, which com-
pass the century's history. Fig. 2 is a plate
with the design of a windmill, painted by Mr.
J. M. Falconer. Figs. 3 and 4 are more char-
acteristic of the Greenpoint Porcelain Works,
the designs being from actual flowers, and made

PIG. 4.

by their own artists. The Union Porcelain
Works now cover about two acres, and each
year new buildings and now kilns are required.
They employ more than 200 hands, and pay
very liberal wages. The other fine pottery-
wares made in this country are not easily clas-
sified. In the number of its pottery establish-
•ments, of all sorts, Ohio exceeds any other
State, reporting, in the census of 1880, 179
manufactories of earthen and stone ware;*
but New Jersey, which had but 49 potteries,
exceeded it in the value of its product by near-
ly $500,000. The best products of the Tren-
ton (N. J.), Cincinnati and East Liverpool (O.),
and Chelsea, East Boston, and Cambridge
(Mass.) potteries demand some notice. Of these

* By this term the Census-Office designates all kinds of
pottery, from the rudest, unglazed flower-pot to the finest
decorated porcelain vase.

PORK, PROHIBITION OF. 643

fifty or sixty establishments, the greater part
manufacture what is known as white granite-
ware, though some add to this cream-colored
wares. This was an advance on their original
product which was known as " C. 0. ware."
Several of the Trenton potteries have, within
the past few years, made a still further ad-
vance, to what they call •' opaque porcelain,"
which is really analogous to the English and
French faience. The body is of white clay, with
some kaolin, and perhaps feldspar also, but is
never a pure kaolin, feldspar, and quartz body.
The glazing is claimed to be feldspathic, but
containing some borax, and perhaps also lead.
Following the example of the great masters of
faience in Europe, they have made the designs
for these wares very beautiful, and have deco-
rated them with great artistic skill. Of their
class, they are very fine examples, but they are
fragile, and, from the inherent fault of their
baking and glazing, are not homogeneous, and
are liable to chip and craze. This liability is
of less consequence in fancy pieces, and those
which are only designed as specimens of high
art; but in household wares it is a very serious
objection, and one which they are struggling
to the best of their ability to overcome. One
of the Trenton companies, the Etrurian Pot-
tery Company, has devoted several of its kilns
to the production of Parian wares, and what it
calls ivory porcelain. The latter has a hard,
semi-translucent body, and a clear, smooth,
boracic glaze. The body probably contains
some kaolin and feldspar, and perhaps also bone.
It is an approach to the English pate tendre,
but does not reach it. ' The Parian is cast in
molds, and has a hard surface, not glazed.

The Greenwood Pottery Company, of the
same city, are manufacturing an article which
they call " porcelain," or " American china."
It is probably a near approach to the English
and Viennese soft porcelain, but is not quite
equal to it. They are now suffering from the
intense competition of the Viennese manufac-
turers, who have thrown upon our markets
a soft porcelain, which is of excellent quality
and of fabulous cheapness.

PORK, PROHIBITION OF AMERICAN. Be-
tween 1879 and 1881 nearly all the govern-
ments of continental Europe restricted or com-
pletely interdicted the importation of American
hog-meat. The first action of the kind was
taken by the Italian Government. In conse-
quence of alleged frequent discoveries of trichi-
nse in pork coming from Cincinnati, the sani-
tary department of that government issued an
order on Feb. 20, 1879, prohibiting all pork
imports from the United States. The pro-
hibition was extended on May 6, 1879, to all
foreign pork. About September, 1879, the
Council General of Public Health in Hungary
caused a similar interdict to be issued in that
country. At the same time the Austrian and
Hungarian governments consulted with regard
to making the prohibition of American pork,
on the ground of the prevalence of trichina

644

PORK, PROHIBITION OF AMERICAN.

in the United States, general throughout the
Austro-Hungarian Empire. By an imperial de-
cree, promulgated Jan. 25, 1880, Germany pro-
hibited the importation of chopped pork and
sausages. On Feb. 18, 1881, the French Gov-
ernment, on the ground of the detection of
trichinae in pork from the United States, issued
an order, on the advice of the Consultative
Committee of Public Health, forbidding im-
ports of salt pork from America. The Govern-
ments of Greece and Turkey were actuated by
the French report and prohibitory decree to
adopt a like measure. The Austro-Hungarian
authorities, which had the question under con-
sideration since 1879, issued on March 10, 1881,
the most stringent interdict yet adopted, pro-
hibiting the importation of pig flesh, lard, sau-
sages, and all pork products from the United
States. The Swiss and Belgian governments
were petitioned to enact prohibitory regula-
tions for hygienic reasons, but they refrained
from such action. An agitation was started in
England against American pork early in 1880,
caused by reports from British consuls with
regard to the prevalence of hog-cholera in the
United States, the slaughter of diseased ani-
mals, etc. The excitement led to no prohibi-
tory legislation, but imports of live hogs and
pork products were checked for a time.

The action of foreign governments in pro-
hibiting American pork imports was based
originally on sanitary grounds. The impres-
sion that trichinosis was exceptionally preva-
lent in the United States was at first general.
The pork-producers in European countries,
from interested commercial motives, put forth
every effort to spread and confirm this belief.
Reports from consular officers and American
authorities regarding the prevalence of disease,
the lack of official inspection in the pork-pack-
ing establishments, the dishonesty of packers,
who were accused of killing diseased and
maimed hogs, and even of packing those which
died from natural causes, were assiduously cir-
culated. The influence of this powerful class
was exerted to induce the governments to adopt
or maintain prohibitory measures. The ques-
tion, therefore, soon assumed a protective
commercial aspect, and the later decrees were
framed in this sense, though not avowedly so.
Thus the Government of Germany, on Feb. 21,
1883, issued an edict prohibiting all descrip-
tions of swine-meat, including hams and bacon,
which were exempted from the interdict of
June 25, 1880. Canned hog products are like-
wise excluded, although in their preparation
they are subjected for several hours to a tem-
perature above the boiling-point. The re-
strictive measures interfere with the trade with
other countries which use the German railways,
since the transportation across German terri-
tory of pork in transit and in bond is also for-
bidden, although ample provisions exist for the
security of such traffic. The authorities of the
free ports of Hamburg and Bremen were un-
willing to adopt the restrictive measures, but,

after the issue of the last decree, they yielded
to the pressure of the Imperial Government
and adopted the same measure of total exclu-
sion. By the action of the Board of Trade and
Navigation of the city of Hamburg, no Ameri-
can pork is allowed to be landed, except, un-
der strict supervision, for re-export, or as pro-
visions for vessels lying in the harbor. The
ordinance was enacted April 21, 1883.

The question of trichinosis in American pork
was first raised in Germany in 1878, and a
medical commission was appointed to investi-
gate the subject and advise the Government
whether it was necessary to subject imports
of swine's meat to microscopical examination.
The importation of American pork at that time
was enormous. American hams were pur-
chased in large quantities and subjected to a
process of preparation, principally at Gtiters-
lohe, and then sold as Westphalian hams. The
medical experts reported that twenty instances
of trichinosis in American pork had been discov-
ered, twelve in hams, at Bremen. The board
advised microscopical inspection. The reason
why the German Government directed its at-
tention at that time to American pork was be-
cause it had recently perfected its system of
official inspection of pork, as well as meats of
other kinds, and other articles of food. The
danger from trichinosis in that country is great-
er, and deaths from the disease more frequent,
than elsewhere, because the habit of eating
smoked hams and sausages in an uncooked
state is common there. The absence of offi-
cial inspection in the United States was com-
plained of, and the sale of immense quantities
of imported meat, which was subjected to
no examination where it was slaughtered of
the kind deemed necessary in Germany, and
could not be easily or thoroughly examined
there, was anomalous, and excited fear and
misgiving. The growth and magnitude of the
trade in American pork products was a subject
of dread of a commercial character as well,
and already affected prejudicially the interests
of a class which has become more potent in
German politics of late years. One of the feat-
ures of Prince Bismarck's economical policy is
the advancement of the interests of the land-
owning class at the expense of the other classes
of the community. The great landed proprie-
tors of Pomerania and Silesia have distilleries
on their estates, and fatten hogs with the malt-
mash. At first there was no thought of de-
priving the people of the towns of so com-
mon, cheap, and important an article of food
as American pork; but the "sanitary" theory
was taken up eagerly by the interested class;
petitions came in from the agricultural socie-
ties by hundreds, and finally, as in other simi-
lar matters, the wishes of the agricultural class
prevailed. Thus the importation of live cattle
had been interdicted — from Russia on the
ground of rinderpest, from Holland on that of
pneumonia and the epizootic, from Austria-
Hungary on account of cases of rinderpest in

PORK, PROHIBITION OF AMERICAN.

645

Hungary and Galicia. The acts were passed
by the Bundesrath in virtue of powers con-
ferred on it to adopt precautionary measures
against the introduction or spread of disease.
The Liberal parties, representing the industrial
and commercial classes and the consumers of
American pork, warmly opposed the restrictive
measures. These would never have been passed
by the Reichstag, but the latter has no power
to rescind them, as the Bundesrath has au-
thority to make sanitary regulations.

The United States Government, in view of
the interdiction of American hog-flesh by Eu-
ropean countries, proceeded to investigate the
question of the alleged perniciousness of Amer-
ican pork. The Department of State ordered
an inquiry in March, 1881, which was conduct-
ed b.v Michael Scanlon, Chief of the Bureau of
Statistics of the State Department. The inves-
tigation covered trichinosis, hog-cholera, and
other diseases of swine, methods of prepara-
tion for the market, etc. The asserted preva-
lence of hog-cholera was disproved, and it was
shown that precautions were taken to prevent
any but healthy animals from being brought to
the packing-houses. The existence of trichinae
was detected in a number of instances, but the
proportion was shown to be smaller than in
other countries. The statistics of disease in
the pork-consuming districts of the Western
States, as compared with those of the rural
districts of Central Europe, where none but
native pork is consumed, show a much greater
immunity from trichinosis. The report and
the representations based upon it had no effect
on the action of Germany and the other Euro-
pean countries. Upon the announcement, in
February, 1883, that the Imperial Government
was about to submit to the Legislature meas-
ures for the total exclusion of American pork,
the American Government determined on a
more exhaustive investigation of the subject,
in the hope of averting such action, and an-
nounced to the German Government its inten-
tion to appoint a competent .commission for the
purpose, inviting it at the same time to send ex-
perts to inquire into the facts in relation to the
supposed danger to health of American pork,
either jointly with the commission or inde-
pendently. The German Government declined
the invitation, giving as the reason that in a
matter of domestic sanitary legislation it could
not enter into an arrangement which would
imply an obligation to accept and be bound by
- a state of facts existing outside of its jurisdic-
tion. The commission was appointed. It was
composed of Prof. Charles F. Chandler, repre-
senting the New York Board of Trade ; E. W.
Blatchford, representing the Chicago Board of
Trade ; F. D. Curtis and Prof. D. E. Salmon,
nominated by the Commissioner of Agricul-
ture ; and the Commissioner of Agriculture
as chairman. The House of Representatives
passed resolutions calling upon the President
to furnish all documents and information re-
lating to the restriction upon the importation

of American hog products into Germany and
France, declaring it to be the duty of the Gov-
ernment to act promptly and with energy,
since those governments had shown, by de-
clining to send agents to test the healthfulness
of those products, that the pretended sanitary
reasons were not genuine. Secretary Freling-
huysen, in a communication to the President
in response to the request to lay before Con-
gress the diplomatic history of the subject, rec-
ommended that no retaliatory or other legisla-
tive action should be taken pending the report
of the commission, stating that when the Gov-
ernment should be in possession of the proofs
that American pork was not injurious to health,
it could call upon foreign governments to re-
move the restrictions, as incompatible with the
provisions of commercial treaties.

One of the incidents of the controversy is
a coldness in the diplomatic relations between
Germany and the United States. Minister Sar-
gent, in a confidential letter to the State De-
partment at Washington, explained the pro-
tectionist motives of the pork edict. The letter
was published with the other documents of the
State Department, and reproduced in the " New
York Handelszeitung," from which it was re-
published in the "North German Gazette,"
which is a personal organ of Prince Bismarck,
with offensive comments based on the pretend-
ed supposition that Mr. Sargent contributed
the letter to the newspaper. From that time
the American minister was the object of con-
tinued attacks by the semi-official press, and
his social and official relations in Berlin were
made so unpleasant that in March, 1884, he re-
signed.

In France the objections to American pork
were, as in Germany, founded on the absence
of the safeguards against trichinosis prescribed
by law for native pork products. The discus-
sion passed through several phases. After the
promulgation of the restrictive edict a strong
opposition was aroused to the exclusion of
these cheap food imports. There had been
no case of trichinosis from eating American
pork within a long period. Men of science
pronounced the meat innocuous. Politicians
exerted themselves in the interest of the con-
suming public to have the interdict recalled.
On the other hand, the producing interest was
as important and politically active as in Ger-
many. It was demonstrated that the parasite
is destroyed by cooking, and that therefore,
since the custom of eating partly cooked pork
was far less prevalent than in Germany, the
danger was slight, even from trichinosed meat.
Various schemes of microscopic examination
were considered, but they were all condemned
as troublesome and costly impediments to com-
merce and insufficient safeguards against trichi-
nosis. At length, in November, 1883, the Gov-
ernment repealed the prohibition. The subject
was then taken up and warmly discussed in the
Chamber. M. Paul Bert repeated the sanitary
arguments, and expressed a fear that the dis-

646

POEK, PROHIBITION OF AMERICAN.

ease would be communicated to French hogs
through eating rats infected by American pork.
The Chamber passed by a decided majority a
resolution in favor of the continuance of the
prohibitive regulation. The Government, in
pursuance of this resolution, restored the in-
terdiction on Jan. 20, 1884. In 1883 Portugal
followed the other Continental countries in ex-
cluding American pork. In Austria, Hungary,
and Italy, the prohibition was maintained.

Trichinosis in American Swine. — The various
expert examinations which have been made
under the orders of the Government have re-
vealed the fact that a greater or less percent-
age of American hogs are affected with trichi-
nosis. Prof. Dettmers, who was commissioned
by the Agricultural Department to conduct an
investigation in Chicago, found among several
hundred hogs about 4 per cent, infected, but
supposed that researches on a large scale would
reduce the proportion to 2 per cent. The per-
centage in European countries is said to be
much higher. Microscopic examinations of a
thorough character had not been made previ-
ously to the appointment of the last commis-
sion. The investigators consulted the statistics
of mortality, and found that the disease was
very rarely communicated to human beings in
the United States. Dr. J. B. Hamilton re-
ported that among 234,353 cases of disease
treated by the Marine Hospital Service in ten
years, there was not one of trichinosis. In
Cincinnati no well-authenticated case of the
malady has been known. In the District of
Columbia no case is recorded. In Boston,
New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, among
350,072 deaths during the past five years,
six resulted from trichinae — three in New
York and three in Philadelphia. The num-
ber of live hogs received in those cities dur-
ing that period was 14,701,236, nearly all of
which were consumed there. The late Dr.
W. C. W. Glazier prepared a report on the
natural history of trichina and the pathology
of trichinosis, which was transmitted to Con-
gress by the Treasury Department in Decem-
ber, 1880. He showed that the disease existed
in Germany and France in 1830, which was
long before it was known in the United States,
and before American hog products were ex-
ported to Europe. He and the more recent
investigators express doubts as to whether any
of the cases of trichinosis in France and Ger-
many are traceable to the use of American
pork. The conclusion is drawn from the fact
that the more recent cases in those countries
were caused by freshly-killed native pork, that
the noxious power of the parasite is destroyed
by the processes of salting, smoking, etc., and
by the time which elapses before American
pork reaches the consumer. Cases which late-
ly occurred at Ermersleben were ascribed at
first to American pork, but it was proved that
they resulted from eating native pig-meat
freshly slaughtered. The methods of official
inspection can not be applied in rural districts

to swine slaughtered for local consumption.
All the experts agree that trichinosis can only
result from uncooked meat. This is denied by
German scientists, who assert that, in the or-
dinary processes of cooking, the temperature
does not rise in the center of a large piece of
meat to the point at which life is destroyed.
The danger from trichinosis, it is suggested in
the reports of the commissions, should so en-
lighten the German and other European peo-
ples as to induce them to abandon the habit of
eating raw pork. None of the reports recom-
mend the introduction of a system of govern-
ment inspection in the packing-houses.

Proposed Retaliatory Legislation.— It has been
suggested, by legislators and by consular offi-
cers abroad, that the proper way to meet the
restrictions placed on the importation of Amer-
ican pig-meat, is to place retaliatory restric-
tions on imports from the countries which
refuse to receive this American product. It
has been proposed to place discretionary power
in the hands of the President to impose tem-
porary restrictions to meet the case. It has
been also suggested that restrictions could be
made on similar sanitary grounds. The wines
of France, which are notoriously sophisticated,
would be almost entirely excluded by a regu-
lation allowing none but pure, natural wine
to pass the custom-house. The value of French
wines imported in 1883 was $5,295,856.

Pork Production of the United States.— Accord-
ing to the census, the number of hogs on farms
in the United States increased from 25,134,569
in 1870, to 47,681, 700 in 1880. The net weight
of hogs slaughtered annually is estimated by
Mr. J. R. Dodge, statistician of the Agricult-
ural Department, at 5,250,000,000 pounds,
which is the equivalent of 4,725,000,000 pounds
of cured meats and lard. The estimated num-
ber of hogs in the United States in 1882 was
43,270,086, valued at $291,951,221. Iowa
stands first in the raising of hogs, the number
on the farms of that State being returned as
5,107,445; Illinois coming next with 3,970,-
764; Missouri next, with 3,892,920; Indiana
next, with 2,724,383 ; Ohio next, with 2,714,-
112 ; and then Tennessee, Kansas, Texas, and
Kentucky, with nearly 2,000,000 each, equaled
in weight and value of the product by Ne-
braska and Wisconsin.

The total number of swine in all countries
is estimated at 91,964,000, of which number
47 per cent, are in the United States. The
number in Germany in 1880 was returned as
7,324,000; in Austria- Hungary, 6,995,000; in
France, 5,801,000.

In many States the quantity of pork pro-
duced is not sufficient for their own demand.
It is estimated that 93 per cent, of the exports
of pork and lard consist of the surplus prod-
ucts of Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Ken-
tucky, Tennessee, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska,
Iowa, Minnesota, and Wisconsin.

The number of hogs packed for commercial
purposes during the year ended March 1, 1883,

PORK, PROHIBITION OF AMERICAN".

647

was 9,342,999, of which 4,222,780, or 45 per
cent., were slaughtered and prepared at Chi-
cago, 813,834 at Kansas City, 532,180 at St.
Louis, 507,316 at Cincinnati, 405,510 at Mil-
waukee, 388,417 at Indianapolis, 327,163 at
Cedar Rapids, and 218,885 at Cleveland.

The supply of pork depends on the corn-
crop, and consequently varies greatly. The
failure of the corn-crop in 1881 made pork
very high in 1882. The supply of corn has
been below the average since that year. The
hostile foreign legislation has therefore not
had the effect of bringing about low prices
for swine products. The number of hogs
slaughtered during the period of diminished
corn supply and high prices for pork, reduced
the stock considerably. When there is a super-
abundant corn-crop, the price of hogs rises, on
)unt of the demand for stock purposes to
up the surplus corn, while immediately

after a crop failure large numbers are killed
off. The average value of hogs in 1884 is $5.57,
against $6.75 in 1883.

Exports of American Pork Prodoete.— The ex-
portation of hog products from the United
States is one of the most important branches
of the export commerce, and fur surpasses that
of all other countries. In 1881, the year of
greatest exportation, the value of pork exports
was only exceeded by breadstuffs and cotton.
The exports average about 20 per cent, of the
annual product. The supply is exceedingly
variable, while the home demand is firm and
constant, and increases with the growth of
population in the West. The foreign trade
consequently, while showing a remarkable
development, varies greatly from year to year.
The quantities and values of the pork exports
for the past fifteen years were each fiscal year
as follow :

YEAR.

Bacon a

ndhams.

P

>rk.

b

ird.

Total valu..

Pounds.
49,228,165

$7,482,060

Pounds.
24,439,832

$3,422,928

Pounds.
41,887 545

$7 443 948

$18 848 986

1870
1871...

38,963,256
71,446,854

6,123,113

8,126,683

24,639,831
39,250,750

3,253,137
4,302,320

85,808,530
80,037,297

5,988,897
10,563,020

15,309,647
22,992,028

1872
1873 ....

246,208,143
395 381 737

21,126,592
35 022 137

57,169,518
64,147 461

4,122,308
5,007,035

199,651,660
230.534,207

20,177,619
21,245,815

45.426,519
61 274,987

1874

347,405,405

83 383 908

70,482 379

5,808,71 2

205,527,471

19,808,019

58,500,689

1876

250,236,549
327,730,172

28,612,613
89,664,456

56,152,331
54,195,118

5,671,495
5,744,022

166,869,393

168,405,839

22,900,522
22,429,485

57,184,630
67,887,968

1877

460 057 146

49 512 412

69 671 894

6 296 414

284,741,233

25,562,665

81,871 491

1878 .

592 814 351

51 752 063

71 889 255

4 913,657

342,766,254

80,022,188

86,687,858

732,249,576
759,773,109

51,074,433
50,987,623

84,401,676

95,949,780

4,807,568
5,930,252

326,658,686
374,979.286

22,856,678
27,920,867

78,788,674
84,688,242

1881
1882

746,944,545
468,026,640
340,253,670

61,161,205
46,675,774
38,155,952

107,928,086
80,447,4f>6
62,116,302

8,272,285
7,201,270
6,192,268

378,142,496
250,867,740
224,718,474

85,226,575
28,975,902
26,618,048

104,660,068
82,852,946
70,966,268

The average prices of mess-pork per barrel,
and lard per 100 pounds, at Chicago, were for
"le past six calendar years as follow :

YEAR.

Pork.

Lard.

1878...

$9 00

$6 75J

1879 . . .

9 54

6 16J

1880

13 06

1881

16 474-

10 889

1882

19 42

11 47

15 14£

9 16f

on the preservation of. the foreign trade, and
that the maintenance of remunerative prices
in years of abundant production, and to a
considerable extent the success of hog-growers,
depend on the same condition.

The value of the exports of hog products to
the principal foreign countries in the years
ending June 30, 1881, 1882, and 1883, was as
follows :

The percentage which the exports of pork
products constituted of the total quantity
packed for commercial purposes in the West,
not including the hogs slaughtered on farms,
in villages, and by city butchers for local con-
sumption, was for the years ending October
31st, from 1878 to 1883 inclusive, as follow :

YEAR.

Pork, bacon, and
hams.

Lard.

Total pork
product.

1878 . . .

50'80

94-67

59-87

1879...
1880

54-90
58-15

80-86
97-55

60-40
62-12

1881

51 '19

83*55

57-84

1882 . . .

37-52

77-88

45-84

1888...

34-80

79-32

COUNTRIES.

1881.

1883.

1883.

Great Britain and Ireland .
Germany
British North American

Dollars.
59,128,087
11,282,657

4,284,044

Dollars.
58,718,886
6,691,258

4,898,228

Dollar..

40,991.812
6,444,450

5,929,612

10,554,703

4,168,551

8,768,016

Cuba

3,134,481

2,281,996

8,188,297

7,860,483

4,226.755

8,oe6,«8

1,484,211

915,608

1,898^08

Netherlands

1,404,486

770,848

SKa-w

Sweden and Norway
Allother

561,719
5,015,244

6,286,82i

567,278

4.M-4.« ••_>-,»

Total . . .

104,660,065

v2.NV_>.'.t4G

70,966,268

In the exports are included those manu-
factured in Eastern cities, in the product only
the out-turn of the Western packing-houses.
From1 the above figures it is evident that the
pork-packing industry of the West is dependent

The largest exports of bacon are to Great Brit-
ain, amounting to over $38,000,000 in 1881 and
1882 and nearly $27,000,000 in 1883. The ex-
ports to Germany amounted to $2,982,852 in
1881, then fell off in consequence of the high
prices to $295,856 in 1882, and rose again, part-
ly stimulated by the prospective exclusion, to
$1,374,432. These figures do not take account

648

PORTO RICO.

of the considerable proportion of the German
imports of pork products which are brought by
way of Antwerp. The Belgian imports, in which
these are included, are given as, $4, 583, 807 in
1881, $1,696,150 in 1882, and $1,239,123 in
1883i, The largest exportation of hams is also
to Great Britain, amounting to $5,853,920 in
1881, $3,516,799 in 1882, and $4,670,603 in
1883. Cuba and the other West India islands
and countries of South America, with British
North America, take most of the remaining
ham exports, as well as a large portion of
the exports of bacon. The value of the hams
exported to Germany is given as $i72,655 in
1881, $44,024 in 1882, and $94,851 in 1883 ; of
the exports to Belgium as $348,348 in 1881,
$83,472 in 1882, and $59,384 in 1883. The
exports of salt pork are also mainly to Great
Britain, Canada, and tropical American coun-
tries. Lard has not been interdicted in any
country. The exports to Great Britain in 1883
amounted to $7,941,529 ; to Germany, $4,867,-
142 ; to France, $3,727,926; to Cuba, $2,471,-
774; to Belgium, $1,723,355; to British North
America, $1,444,177. The exports of bacon
and hams to France and Germany were very
large and were increasing before the trade was
interrupted by their inhibition. The effect of
the restriction was to arrest almost entirely
the exportation of bacon and hams to France,
which decreased in value from $4,855,932 in
1881 to $445,719 in 1882, and $29,246 in 1883.
The falling off in the value of lard exported
to France, showing the natural effect of the
diminution of the supply, was from $5,567,030
in 1881, to $3,699,876 in 1882, and $3,727,926
in 1883. The value of the exports of bacon,
hams, and pork for each of the fiscal years
from 1869 to 1883 inclusive, to France and
Germany, showing the growth of the trade
and the effect of the restrictive measures, was
as follows :

YEAR.

France.

Germany.

1869...
18TO . ..

$31,759
7,142

$306,528
177,071

1871

267,804

221,862

1872

1 150 737

1 708 576

1873

1 982 604

5 596 884

1874

985 480

8 071 788

1875

454,717

2,458,222

1876

435,505

2,053,187

1877

2,056,280

2,404,784

1878

4,203,991

2,251,169

1879

8 388 872

2,103 993

1880

3 953 259

1,865,858

1881

4,987,673

3,263,725

1882

468 675

432 426

1883

40100

1,577,308

PORTER, FITZ-JOHN, CASE OF.

PORTO RICO, an island of the West'Indies, a
possession of Spain. It is about 100 miles long
from east to west, and 40 from north to south ;
area, 3,596 square miles. The highest peak in
the island is 3,678 feet. In 1883 the census
showed a population of 731,648 ; 369,054 being
males and 362,594 females. The island was
a penal colony in the last century, and the
descendants of convicts have settled on the

mountain plateau and fertile savannas, form-
ing a hardy, laborious population of agricult-
urists called " Jibaros," whose industry facili-
tated the extinction of slavery ten years ago.
The number of slaves was then about 60,000,
and of the colored population about 75,000.

Under the present liberal policy the island
can, with its fertile soil and its favorable geo-
graphical position, hardly fail to advance
morally and materially. At the Geographical
Congress which met at Madrid, in 1883, a
member. Mr. Ricart, drew the attention of
his colleagues to the importance of the Mona
passage between Porto Rico and St. Domingo,
in connection with the future Panama Canal,
recommending the Government to extend to
St. John's, Porto Rico, the capital, with an
excellent harbor, all sorts of franchises, fortify
the island of Mona, and build on it a light-
house and telegraph station.

The most populous cities are : Ponce, a port
on the south coast, with 37,545 inhabitants;
San German, in the interior, 30,146; Maya-
guez, a port on the west coast, 26,446 ; Are-
cibo, a port on the north coast, 25,754; Utu-
ado, 24,912; St. John's or San Juan, fortified,
on the north coast, 23,414 ; and Yauco, 22,720.

The Captain- General of Porto Rico is the
Marquis Don M. de la Vega de Inclan. The
American Consul at St. John's is E. Conroy.

Finance. — The budget of the colony, for the
fiscal year 1883-'84, estimated the income and
outlay as follows :

REVENUE.

Taxes $611,956

Custom-houses 2,699,020

Monopolies 283,700

Income from state property 86,000

Sundryitems 232,100

Total $3,862,77«

EXPENDITURE.

General outlays $1,155,981

Department of Justice 270,853

War 1,212,948

44 Finance 288,169

theNavy 74,996

" Administration 553.415

PublicWorks 882,240

Total $3,938,547

The Minister of the Colonies proposed in
1883 that the treasury notes issued to indem-
nify planters for the loss of their slaves through
emancipation, be converted into bonds to be
gradually extinguished at long intervals through
the operation of a sinking fund ; that the mu-
nicipal taxes on real estate, and the rural taxes
on farms and plantations, be reduced ; that the
floating debt be kept within a certain limit, the
greatest economy observed, and monetary cir-
culation reformed. The home Government, by
decree of July 5, 1883, Article VIII, made pro-
visions for the conversion of the treasury notes
above alluded to, under authority from the
Cortes, the same law ordering the enlargement
of the capital, St. John's.

Education. — Under the provisions of a decree
issued by the home Government, Aug. 9, 1882,
the budget of the island is in future to embrace

PORTO RICO.

PORTUGAL.

649

the disbursement of the annual amount neces-
sary to defray the support of a professional
school, which will be opened in the capital.

Soil.— The soil of Porto Rico is exceedingly
fertile, and more sugar to the acre can be pro-
duced there than in most "West India islands.
The climate, though warm, is healthful, but
there is an occasional hurricane, like the one
of Sept. 7, 1883, which caused great devastation
and extensive inundations.

Telegraphs. — The total length of telegraph
lines in 1880 was 473 miles.

The Ponce Exhibition.— On Dec. 1, 1883, an ag-
ricultural and industrial exhibition was opened
at Ponce, a most valuable display being made,
especially of everything relating to the culture
and manufacture of tobacco. American pro-
ducers and manufacturers were largely repre-
sented at the show.

A Central Sugar-House.— On May 4, 1883, a
meeting was held of shareholders in a new
central sugar-house, to be founded in the fer-
tile Vega de Yabucoa. The system to which
preference has been given for the extraction of
sugar is that of Fowler. The estimate of cost
is $325,407 ; estimate of gross proceeds, $478,-
530. From the latter amount the cost of cane
will have to be deducted and credited to the
agricultural department of the company, $204,-
750, and the cost of working the cane in the
mill and reducing it to sugar, $69,570, together
$274,320. This would leave net proceeds of
one crop's operations of the sugar -house to the
amount of $204,210. Deducting finally from
these proceeds the interest on capital and sal-
aries to manager, engineer, clerks, etc., $58,-
805, there would remain $145,405, equal to
about 65 per cent, on the capital of $225,000 set
aside for the starting of the mill.

Commercial Treaty. —Under date of Jan. 4,
1884, it was telegraphed from Madrid that a
commercial arrangement would soon be con-
cluded between Spain and the United States,
by which Spain would agree to apply the so-
called " thirty-column " tariff to imports from
America into Cuba and Porto Rico, which
would be tantamount to the suppression of the
flag and differential duties. Spain would also
agree to abrogate the special duties on live fish
into Cuba in foreign bottoms, and to suppress
the consular and tonnage dues on vessels leav-
ing the United States for Cuba or Porto Rico.
The United States would abolish the 10 per
cent, ad valorem duties on imports from Cuba
and Porto Rico under the Spanish flag.

The closing stipulation of the agreement con-
tains a passage much more important than the
immediate reductions. It is thus summarized
by the State Department: "Both governments
bind themselves to begin at once negotiations
for the conclusion of a complete treaty of com-
merce and navigation between the United States
and Cuba and Porto Rico."

Under the provisions of the arrangement we
have referred to, the changes in the duties
levied upon American products imported into

these islands are as follow, the quantity to
which the duty applies being in each case 112
pounds, excepting flour, where the quantity is
220 pounds, and rough white-pine lumber,
where the quantity is 1,000 superficial feet:
Apples, old duty, $1.46, new, $1.18; bacon,
old, $3.82, new, $2.82 ; beans, old, $1.12, new,
82 cents; butter, old, $6.65, new, $5.19; cod-
fish, old, $1.09, new, 81 cents; calico, old,
$21.21, new, $15.92 ; cotton duck, old, $12.31,
new, $9.10; flour, old, $5.51, new, $4.69; lard,
old, $4.44, new, $3.32 ; petroleum, old, $2.91,
new, $2.18; potatoes, old, 64 cents, new, 45;
hams, old, $3.82 ; new, $2.82 ; rice, old, $1.91,
new, $1.45 ; straw paper, old, $1.12, new, 80
cents ; rough white-pine lumber, old, $6.65,
new, $5.19. The duties thus designated as
new are those which for upward of 20 years
have been imposed upon these goods imported
into Cuba or Porto Rico in Spanish bottoms.

Port Regulations. — A short time before the
home Government adopted a liberal policy, the
local authority in Porto Rico acted in a spirit
precisely the reverse, and on Nov. 11, 1883, a
decree went into effect that vessels arriving
shall pay $1.25 per 1,000 kilos, gross weight,
on all cargo landed (instead of $1 as formerly),
and $1 per 1,000 kilos on all cargo loaded out-
ward, whether vessel arrives with cargo or in
ballast, which is a new tax, and is equal to
about 7 cents per 100 pounds on a cargo of
sugar. For a number of years past the charges
in Porto Rico have been moderate, but this
makes them more than they are in Cuba.

Commerce.— The peninsular and foreign trade
movement in Porto Rrco in the years 1881
and 1882 is given as follows :

Import.

Export.

1881
1882

$12,027.648
14,815,504

$12,980,087
16,582,884

The American trade with Porto Rico is
shown in the following table :

FISCAL YEAR.

Import from
Porto Rico into the
United States.

Domestic export
from the United
States to Porto Rico.

1880

$5,448,886

$1,969,284

1881

8.860,199

1,712,782

1882 ....

5,716,874

1,838,214

1888

5,477,498

2,116,499

The chief articles imported into the United
States in 1883 were : sugar, 83,940,670 pounds;
and molasses, 5,448,321 gallons.

In 1882 there entered Porto Rican ports
1,586 vessels; aggregate tonnage, 1,114,340;
sailed, 1,502 vessels; aggregate tonnage, 992,-

687.

PORTUGAL, a monarchy in southern Europe.
The fundamental law is the charter granted in-
1826 by Dom Pedro IV, and -revised in 1852
by the Cortes. The representative assembly
consists of two chambers, that of the Peers,
who are nominated for life by the King and
number 150, and the Chamber of Deputies,
which has consisted since 1878 of 149 mem-

650

PORTUGAL.

bers. The latter are elected directly by all
citizens possessing a net income of $110. The
Cortes assembles at stated periods without the
intervention of the sovereign, who has no veto
on a law passed again after he has sent it back
unsigned. New elections are held every four
years. All laws relating to the army and to
general taxation must originate in the Cham-
ber of Deputies.

The reigning King is Luis I, born Oct. 31,
1838, the son of Queen Maria II and of Prince
Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg. He succeeded his
brother, Pedro V, Nov. 11, 1861.

The Cabinet resigned in October, and was
reconstituted on the 23d of that month as fol-
lows : Senhor Fontes Pereira de Mello, Premier
and Minister of War; Senhor Barjova Freitas,
Minister of the Interior, vice Senhor Ribeiro da
Fonseca ; Senhor Barboza Bucage, Minister of
Foreign Affairs, vice Senhor Serpa Pimentel ;
Senhor Lopo-Vaz, Minister of Justice, vice Dr.
Marques de Villena; Senhor Hintz Ribeiro, Min-
ister of Finance, vice Senhor de Fontes Pereira
de Mello; Senhor Penhiro Chagas, Minister of
Marine, vice Senhor de Mello Gouvea; Senhor
Aguiar, Minister of Public Works, vice Senhor
Hintz Ribeiro.

Area and Population. — The area of continental
Portugal, which is divided into six provinces,
is 36,510 square miles. The population at the
census of Jan. 1, 1878, was 4,160,315. The
Azores are 966 square miles in area, and have
a population of 259,800 ; Madeira and Porto
Santo, with an area of 317 square miles, con-
tain 130,584 inhabitants. The total population
of the kingdom was 4,550,699, of which num-
ber 2,175,829 were of the male and 2,374,870
of the female sex. The only cities containing
more than 100,000 inhabitants were Lisbon,
with 246,343, including the suburbs of Belem
(30,029 inhabitants) and Olivaes (28,910 inhab-
itants) ; and Oporto, with a population of 105,-
838. The number of marriages in 1875 was
33,095; births, 153,597; deaths, 106,673.

Colonies. — The transmarine possessions of
Portugal in Africa and Asia have an aggregate
area of 709,469 square miles and an estimated
population of 3,306,247 inhabitants. The Cape
Verd islands contain 1,650 square miles, and
had in 1879 a population of 99,317. Stations
in Senegambia, Bissao, and other parts of Guin-
ea were reported in 1873 as covering 26 square
miles and havinga population of 9,282. Prince's
and St. Thomas's islands are 454 miles in ex-
tent, and had in 1878-79 a population of 20,-
931. Ajuda is 13 miles in extent, with 4,500
inhabitants. The possessions in Asia are the
colonies in India of Goa, Salsette, Bardes, etc.,
which were reported in 1881 as embracing
1,447 square miles, and containing 419,993 in-
habitants, and of Damao and the isle of Diu,
158 square miles in extent and containing 61,-
474 inhabitants ; Macao and dependencies, cov-
ering 28 square miles and containing 68,086
inhabitants ; and Timor and Cambing, contain-
ing 5,527 square miles and about 300,000 in-

habitants. The principal possessions of Portu-
gal in extent are in equatorial and southern
Africa. The area of the dominions on the east
coast of Angola, Ambriz, Benguela, and Mos-
samedes is given as 312,509 square miles, and
the subject population as about 2,000,000 ; the
area of Mozambique and dependency, on the
other side of the continent, as 382,683 square
miles, and the population as 350,000. The de-
pendence of Mozambique on the mother-coun-
try is very incomplete. The natives treat their
white rulers with slight respect. When one
of the frequent uprisings takes place, the Por-
tuguese retire within the fortifications and
wait until the disturbance subsides. The ex-
penditures for the government and develop-
ment of the colony are not covered by the
receipts, although a duty of from 10 to 30 per
cent., which it is intended to increase to from
30 to 50 per cent., is collected on imports, and
an average duty of 2 per cent, on exports, be-
sides taxes on sales, an income-tax of 10 per
cent., municipal taxes, ete. The complex and
oppressive burdens are a hindrance to com-
merce. The chief exports are millet, gum-
elastic, ivory in small quantities, wax, and tor-
toise-shell. All these come from the conti-
nent. The island of Mozambique produces
nothing but bread-fruit trees and a few palms.
The imports consist of cotton goods, pearls,
brass utensils, powder, fire-arms, etc.

Commerce. — The total imports in 1882 were
of the value of 24,875,000 milreis, against 23,-
601,000 in 1881, and 34,948,000 in 1880; total
exports, 17,488,000 milreis in 1882, 13,588,000
in 1881, and 24,716,000 in 1880.

The commercial intercourse with the prin-
cipal foreign countries was as follows :

COUNTRIES.

Imports.

Export*.

Great Britain . .

Milreis.
15,238,000

Milreis.
10,788,000

Brazil ...

2,140,000

5,964,000

4,140 000

1 474 000

United States

5 298 000

700 000

Spain . ...

2,085,000

1,778 000

1,860,000

1,132,000

Sweden and Norway

1,212,000

447,000

Portuguese possessions

666,000
2 314,000

751,000
1,687,000

Total

34,948,000

24,716,000

The principal classes of merchandise in 1880
were of the following values:

COMMODITIES.

Import*.

Export..

Cereals .

Milreis.
6,000,000
879,000
8,258,000
473,000
4,511,000
2,192,000
4,544,000
2.337,000
1,057,000
313,000

5,738,000
3,249,000
397,000

~34,948,000

Milreis.
490,000
2.856,000
799,000
9,693,000
3,440,000
2,104,000
345,000
415.000
3,165,000
271000

304,000
659,000
419,000

24,716,000

Fruits etc

Wines etc

Animals and animal products —
Mi neral products

Metals

Hides, leather, etc

Textile materials and manufact-

Miscellaneous manufactures

Total

PORTUGAL.

651

The exports of wine to Great Britain consti-
tute about one fifth of the total quantity im-
ported into that country.

The movement of shipping in 1880 was as
follows : sail tonnage entered, 7,331,000 cubic
letres, of which 2,258,000 cubic metres were
mder foreign colors ; cleared, 7,637,000 cubic
letres ; steam tonnage entered, 3,278,000 cubic
letres, of which 2,407,000 cubic metres were
mder foreign colors; cleared, 3,110,000 cubic
letres. The Portuguese tonnage entered in-
luded sailing-vessels of 247,000, and steamers
778,000 metric tons in the coasting trade.
The merchant marine in 1881 consisted of
11 steamers, of 14,092 cubic metres, and 412
uling-vessels, of 88,829 cubic metres.
The length of railroads in operation in 1882
was 1,673 kilometres, or 1,045 miles. The
mgth of telegraph lines at the beginning of
1881 was 4,369 kilometres, or 2,715 miles;
length of wires, 10,889 kilometres, or 6,770
miles ; number of telegrams dispatched in 1880,
1,121,384, of which 423,937 were domestic.
The post-office forwarded 20,338,171 letters and
15,276,552 packets and newspapers in 1881.

Army aod Navy. — The army is raised partly by
conscription and partly by enlistment. The
effective is fixed annually by the Cortes. It
was nominally 78,200 on the war footing in
1882. The actual strength in that year was
reported as 26,059 men under arms.

The navy in 1883 consisted of 31 steamers,
with 94 guns, and 16 sailing-vessels. The only
efficient vessels were the Vasco do Gama, an
iron-clad ram with 10-inch plates and two 18-
ton and three smaller guns, and two corvettes.
Finances. — The revenue for ten years has
averaged $25,000,000, and the expenditure $28,-
750,000. The budget for 1882-'83 estimates
the yield of the different sources of revenue
as follows, in milreis (one milreis = $1.08) :

SOURCES OF REVENUE. Amount.

Land tax 3,152,000

Other direct taxes 2,914,000

Stamps and registry fees 3,075,700

Customs, excise, eto 15,210,710

Railroads, etc '. 2,573,234

Repayments, etc •. 1,104,673

Extraordinary receipts 1,613,000

Total 29,654,012

The expenditures are stated in the budget as
follow :

BRANCHES OF EXPENDITURE. Amount.

Domesticdebt ... 7,137,866

Foreigndebt 5,951,455

Ministry of Finance 5,763,370

the Interior 2,161,149

Worship and Justice 627,372

« War 4,599,980

Marine and Colonies 1,663,721

Foreign Affairs 303,486

Public Works... 2,727,084

Total ordinary expenditures. .
Extraordinary expenditures . . .

4,335,278
Total 85,276,21 1

There has been no budget for thirty years
without a deficit. The revenue during the
same period increased about 60 per cent. The

deficit in 1867-'68 was 6,811,560 milreia. It
was reduced to 1,156,000 milreis in 1879-'80.
The Minister of Finance in 1880 declared that
there was no control over the public purse,
that the balances shown in the budget for the
previous six years had been fictitious, and that
the appropriations had invariably been exceed-
ed, sometimes without the authorization of a
special law. During those years over £9,000,-
000 had been obtained by loans.

The public debt on June 30, 1881, amounted
to 430,879,399 milreis, not including the old
debt, of which 1,927,399 milreis remained to
be converted in 1879, consisting mainly of pa-
per currency. Of the new debt, 232,929,349
milreis represented the internal loans, bearing
interest at 3 per cent. The foreign debt at
that date consisted of sterling loans to the
amount of £43,908,900, or 197,950,050 milreis.
In 1882 a new loan of £5,189,000 was issued.
There is also a large floating debt, estimated as
high as £4,000,000. In 1882 there were de-
faults in the interest of the new debt amount-
ing to 2,978,469 milreis on the internal, and
3,139,689 milreis on the external loans.

Political Situation. — The republican agitation
in Spam excited in Portugal the chronic dis-
content and hostility to the King, to a degree
which rendered the political situation critical
and grave. The Progressist party accuse the
King of repeated breaches of the Constitution
in keeping the Conservatives in office. The
Republican party in Portugal is exceedingly
numerous and energetic. The Congo question
was made a ground of attacks on the Fontes
ministry by the Republicans and Radicals, as
the Delagoa Bay negotiations were in 1881.
The changes in the ministry in October, though
attributed officially to differences of opinion in
relation to the Lisbon municipal elections, were
rather due to the general dissatisfaction. The
new members of the Cabinet were more liberal
in their tendencies than their predecessors.

A revolt of peasants occurred at Couero in
October. It had its origin in religious fanati-
cism, and was only suppressed with difficulty
by troops sent from Lisbon.

Sovereignty Rights over the Congo.— The Portu-
guese have shown an ambition in recent years
to renew their ancient activity in Africa, and
share in the labors and the fruits of the com-
mercial development of the interior. Portugal's
claims to the west coast between 5° 12' and 8°
south latitude are recognized in treaties with
Great Britain and France. These limits include
the mouth of the Congo. The activity of the
French in these regions excited the jealousy of
the Portuguese. When the French occupied
Ponta ISTegra, the captain of the Portuguese
war-vessel Bengo, stationed in those waters,
protested, under the supposition that the an-
nexed district was within the territory claimed
by Portugal. He sent a dispatch home asking
for re-enforcements. The feeling aroused in
Portugal by the French annexation tendencies
shown in these regions was allayed when the

652

POTTER, HENRY 0.

PRESBYTERIANS.

English Government manifested a disposition
to oppose the establishment of French power
over the Congo mouth. In November Chi Lo-
ango, as far as the river Luisa, which lies
north of 5° 12', was taken possession of by the
Portuguese, with the object, as was said, of
having a river boundary, which would clearly
define the limits of the territory claimed by
Portugal. The Luisa flows ten miles south of
the new French station of Ponta Negra. The
entire territory, from the Massibi river to Mo-
lembo, was subsequently taken possession of, in
virtue of a treaty which was signed September
29th with the Cacongo chiefs.

POSTAGE. See page 185.

POTTER, Henry Codman, an American clergy-
man, born in Schenectady, N. Y., May 25,
1835. He is a son of Bishop Alonzo Potter,
of Pennsylvania, and grandson of Rev. Dr.
Nott, President of Union College. His edu-
cation was obtained chiefly at the Episcopal
Academy, Philadelphia, and on leaving this in-
stitution he entered upon mercantile life. Not
long after he relinquished business, studied for
the ministry under his father's direction, en-
tered the Theological Seminary of Virginia, at
Alexandria, and graduated therefrom in 1857.
He received deacon's orders at his father's
hands in St. Luke's Church, Philadelphia, May
27, 1857, and priest's orders in Trinity Church,
Pittsburg. at the hands of Dr. Bowman (As-
sistant Bishop of Pennsylvania), Oct. 15, 1858.
His first pastoral work was as rector of Christ
Church, Greensburg, Pa. In May, 1859, he
became rector of St. John's Church, Troy, N.
Y. In 1862 he was elected rector of Christ
Church, Cincinnati ; in 1863 was elected Presi-
dent of Kenyon College, Ohio; and in the
same year he was elected rector of St. Paul's
Church, Albany, N. Y. — all of which he de-
clined. But, after seven years' service in Troy,
he accepted, in 1866, the place of assistant
minister of Trinity Church, Boston, Mass. In
May, 1868, he became rector of Grace Church,
New York, which office he filled with singular
success for fifteen years. In 1875 he was
elected Bishop of Iowa, but declined. He re-
ceived the degree of D. D. from Union College
in 1865, and LL. D. from the same college in
1880. He was secretary of the House of Bish-
ops from 1865 to 1883, and also for many years
was one of the managers of the Board of Mis-
sions, in the domestic department.

In 1883, Bishop Horatio Potter having called
for an assistant, the convention, which met in
September of that year, acceded to his plea of
age and infirmity, and with promptness and
unanimity elected Dr. Henry C. Potter, the
aged bishop's nephew, to the office of Assist-
ant Bishop of New York. He was consecrated
in Grace Church, Oct. 20, 1883, a very large
number of bishops and clergy being present
and taking part in the solemn services. By
formal instruments, soon after executed, the
bishop made over the entire charge and re-
sponsibility of the work of the diocese into

the assistant's hands. The new bishop's cor-
dial sympathy with clergy and laity and with
every good work, and his signal success in con-
ducting the affairs of a large and important
parish in New York city, indicated a future of
honor and usefulness to the Church.

Bishop Potter's published works include:
"Sisterhoods and Deaconesses, at Home and
Abroad : A History of their Rise and Growth
in the Protestant Episcopal Church, together
with Rules for their Organization and Govern-
ment " (1872); "The Gates of the East: A
Winter in Egypt and Syria " (1876) ; and " Ser-
mons of the City " (1880).

PRESBYTERIANS. I. Presbyterian Church in
the United States of America. — The following is a
summary of the statistics of the (Northern)
Presbyterian Church in the United States of
America, as they were reported to the General
Assembly in May, 1883; to which are added,
for comparison, the statistics for 1881 (in which
year the synods were consolidated) and 1882 :

1881.

1883.

1883.

Synods ....

38

23

88

Presbyteries

177

180

182

Candidates

622

626

678

Licentiates

801

801

282

Ministers

5,086

5,143

5,218

Elders

16,501

18,584

18,986

Deacons

4,596

5,643

5,876

5598

5744

5,858

90

182

165

Communicants
Added on examination
Baptisms of adults

581,401
25,344
8,174

592,128
29,389
9,678

600,695
82,182
10,397

Baptisms of infants

17,489

19,026

17,728

Members of Sunday-schools

683,564

654,051

663,765

The several boards and permanent commit-
tees reported to the General Assembly con-
cerning their financial condition and the prog-
ress of their work, of which the following sum-
maries give the principal facts :

CONTRIBUTIONS.

1881.

1883.

1883.

For home missions

Dollars.
458.098
475^26
190,799
38.015
158,281
68,454
69,097
21,570
43,028
6,338,579
817,744

Dollars.
467,625
465,219
192,970
48,609
139,620
66,022
70,832
20,697
44,258
6,862,640
929,910

Dollars.
582,360
501.578
187,254
89,179
150,391
75,249
84,012
21,275
46,847
7,139,904
888,444

For foreign missions
For education

For relief fund ....

For freedmen

Total

8,674,291

9,253,397

9,661,493

Board of Home Missions.— Receipts, $504,-
795, or $81,406 more than the receipts of the
previous year. The report of the board calls
attention to the growing importance of its
work in the Eastern States, where, in conse-
quence of the constant changes of population
by the removal of old inhabitants, the influx
of foreigners, and the starting of new kinds of
industries and of new manufacturing centers,
nearly as great a demand for missionaries ex-
ists as in frontier regions. Thirteen hundred
and eighty-seven missionaries and 133 mission-

PRESBYTERIANS.

653

ary teachers had been under commission, and
136 churches and 279 Sunday-schools had been
organized during the year. The whole num-
ber of church-members was 78,669, with a
total of 125,977 in congregations, and the num-
ber of members in 1,777 Sunday-schools was
120,936. Special attention was given to the
maintenance of schools in the Indian Territory,
among the Indians in New Mexico and Ari-
zona and in Alaska, among the Mexican popu-
lations in New Mexico and Southern Cali-
fornia, and among the Mormons in Utah and
Idaho. Six new colleges had been organized
in Minnesota and Kansas, and the Territories.

Board of Education. — The receipts, $73,499,
exceeded those of the previous year by $9,474,
while the permanent fund had been increased
by $10,000. Four hundred and eighty-six can-
idates had been aided in sums of $100 or $120
each ; among them were thirty-five Germans,
three Bulgarians, sixty-eight colored students,
eleven Indians, one Spaniard, one Welshman,
and one Hindoo.

Board of Publication.— Receipts, $281,124 ;
expenditures, $252,442 ; amount of sales, $195,-
420. The publications included 443,750 copies
of books and tracts, and 11,947,319 of periodi-
cals and reports. The sum of $49,983 had
been received, and $42,077 had been expend-
ed, for missionary work.

Board of Church Erection. — Receipts, $109,-
063. Appropriations of $104,594 had been
made to 215 churches and missions, being an
iverage of $486 to each church. A book of
fifty-one designs for churches and chapels had
been published.

Board of Relief.— Receipts, $105,566, be-
sides $23,374 bequeathed to the permanent
fund; amount of permanent fund, $300,410;
number of beneficiaries, 486.

Board of Missions for Freedmen. — Receipts,
$103,741 ; amount of Endowment and Per-
manent Funds, $14,120; number of mission-
aries and teachers, 197; number of churches
under the care of the board, 173, of which
four had been organized during the year ; num-
ber of communicants, 12,823 ; number of Sun-
day-schools, 156, with 10,771 scholars. Nine
hundred and sixty-nine persons had been added
to the churches on examination, and 1,359 per-
sons had been baptized. The board maintained
60 schools, with which were connected 124
teachers and 6,995 pupils. Five of the schools
were of the grade of academies or above it,
including a theological department, and re-
turned 1,856 students.

Board of Foreign Missions.— Receipts, $656,-
237 ; expenditures, $669,620. The missions are
among ten Indian tribes of the United States,
in Mexico, Guatemala, the United States of
Colombia, Brazil, Chili, West Africa, India,
Siam (Laos), China, among the Chinese in Cali-
fornia, and in Japan, Persia, and Syria. They
returned in all 159 American ministers, 92 or-
dained and 133 licentiate native ministers, 286
American male and female and 585 native lay

missionaries, 18,656 communicants, and 21,258
pupils in day and boarding schools.

The General Assembly of the Presbyterian
Church in the United States of America met at
Saratoga Springs, N. Y., May 17th. The Rev.
E. F. Hatfield, D. D., was chosen moderator.
Fraternal delegates from the Southern Church
were received for the first time since that
Church was organized during the excitement
incident to the questions involved in the civil
war. A final motion was passed in respect to
the restoration of fraternal relations with the
Southern Church by the adoption of the report
of the committee to whom the subject had
been referred, to the effect that " fraternal re-
lations have been happily established between
the two Assemblies on the basis of a with-
drawal of all imputations which may have
been made officially from either side against
the Christian character of the other, and no
further action is necessary."

A committee was appointed to meet a simi-
lar committee, should one be appointed by the
Southern Assembly, to agree upon plans of
comity and co-operation between the two
bodies in regard to theological and collegiate
education, missions among the freedmen, the
occupation of territory, and other subjects on
which questions may arise. The following re-
port was adopted on the subject of the current
rationalistic and scientific methods of examin-
ing and criticising the Scriptures :

The General Assembly feels constrained to express
itself clearly and decidedly on the rationalistic treat-
ment of the Holy Scriptures by Protestant teachers in
Europe, whose works are introduced into our country
and whose evil influence is felt in our Church. Our
" Confession of Faith" (Chap. I, sec. 2), after giving
the names of the books of the Old and New Testa-
ments, adds," All which are given by inspiration of
God to be the rule of faith and lite." The denial of
the authenticity or truthfulness of the Holy Scriptures
is a denial of their inspiration, and any teaching that
suggests such denial should be not only carefully
avoided but studiously repelled. The Assembly would
not discourage the full use of all light in critical study,
nor does it assume that any erroneous teaching is wel-
comed or offered within the bounds of the Church, but
it would warn all pastors and teachers of the danger
to young and inexperienced minds in the free use of
crude theories and unproved speculations on the part
of religious instructors, and would remind them of
the paramount importance of sustaining in positive
doctrine the authenticity, integrity, truthfulness, and
inspiration of the Holy Scriptures against the unsanc-
tifled learning by which an unbelieving world through
nominally Christian channels assaults the Church of

The Assembly would also remind the Presbyteries
of their special responsibility as guardians of the faith,
and that in view of the apprehensions excited through-
out the Church by the rationalistic handling of the
word of God, it is incumbent upon them to see to it
that the appropriate constitutional action be taken: if
at any time it should become manifest that any min-
ister of our Church was promulgating theories of dan-
gerous tendency or contra-confessional doctrine con-
cerning the Holy Scriptures.

A new board was established, to have in
charge the interests of higher education as con-
nected with the Presbyterian Church, and to
be called " the Presbyterian Board of Aid for

654

PRESBYTERIANS.

Colleges and Academies." Its functions were
defined to be, to obtain annual offerings from
the churches for the cause ; to co-operate with
local agencies in determining sites for new in-
stitutions ; to decide what institutions shall be
aided ; to assign to such institutions special
fields open to their appeals; and to discour-
age all independent appeals to the Church at
large. Every institution hereafter established
must, as a condition of receiving aid from the
board, either be organically connected with
the Church, or must, by charter provision, per-
petually have two thirds of its Board of Con-
trol members of the Presbyterian Church ; in
the case of institutions already established and
not covered by these stated provisions, appro-
priations for endowments must be so made
that the funds shall revert to the board when-
ever those institutions shall pass from Presby-
terian control. A report on the revision of
the " Book of Discipline " was considered, the
proposed amendments being acted upon in de-
tail, and the result of the labors of the Assem-
bly on the subject was referred to a committee
to be put into shape. Among the amendments
adopted were provisions that ministers, elders,
and deacons suspended for immoral conduct
shall not be restored, and that withdrawing
members joining another church shall be
dropped from the rolls without action, unless
charges have been presented and then prose-
cuted. A declaration was adopted that the ex-
termination of the traffic in intoxicating liquors
by the "power of the Christian conscience,
public opinion, and the strong arm of the law,"
would be rejoiced over by the Assembly. A
committee was appointed to consider the ques-
tion of a permanent place of meeting, and the
erection of a hall for the General Assembly.

II. Presbyterian Chnrch in the United States.—
The summary of the statistics of the (Southern)
Presbyterian Church in the United States as
presented to the General Assembly in May, is
as follows: Synods, 13; presbyteries, 67; min-
isters, 1,070 ; candidates, 199 ; licentiates, 45 ;
churches, 2,040 ; churches organized, 46 ; rul-
ing elders, 6,290; deacons, 4,220; communi-
cants, 127,017; added on examination, 6,638;
adults baptized, 1,719 ; infants baptized, 4,485 ;
baptized non -communicants, 33,474; teachers
in Sunday-schools, 7,706; pupils in Sunday-
schools, 78,725 ; contributions for all purposes,
$1,269,416.

The executive committees of the various
missionary and benevolent enterprises made
reports to the General Assembly concerning
the condition of the trusts under their care, of
which the condensed summaries are as follow :
The receipts for publication during the finan-
cial year had been $8,534. The total receipts
for home missions had been $67,278, or $13,-
462 more than the receipts of the previous year.
The sum of $23,846 had been paid from the
sustentation fund ; 173 ministers, serving be-
tween 400 and 500 churches, had been aided
in support ; and 36 churches had been aided in

obtaining houses of worship, to the amount 01
$5,550. Appropriations of $15,190 had been
made in the support of 20 evangelists ; while
reports from various presbyteries (in no case
including the whole number aided) showed
that through the evangelists 52 churches had
been organized, 940 members had been received
into the Church, 317 destitute points had been
supplied, and 21 Sunday-schools had been or-
ganized. Appropriations had been made from
the colored evangelistic fund for 11 ministers
and two church buildings ; while the Presby-
teries co-operating with the fund reported as
under their care 12 ministers and licentiates,
28 churches, 12 candidates, and 23 Sunday-
schools. Twenty-three ministers and the fam-
ilies of 76 deceased ministers had been aided by
the invalid fund, from appropriations amount-
ing to $9,195. Payments of $3,700 had been
made from the relief fund to the families of 13
deceased ministers. The receipts of the Tus-
caloosa Institute for the training of colored min-
isters had been $3,173.

The General Assembly of the Presbyterian
Church in the United States met at Lexington,
Ky., May 17th. The Rev. Theodoric Prior,
D. D., of East Hanover, Va., was chosen mod-
erator. The most important business trans-
acted by the body was that relative to the res-
toration of fraternal relations with the Northern
Presbyterian Church, the subject being taken
up where it had been left by the General As-
semblies of the two bodies in the previous year,
and carried out to a conclusion. Delegates
were in attendance from the Northern Gen-
eral Assembly, bringing a fraternal letter, in
which were the words:

You may not have said very much that was offensive
to those on our side ; you may have thought, you proba-
bly did think, many nard things. We did not ask you
to regret or withdraw anything. You studied to do
those things that make only for peace. You, of your
own accord, expressed regret for and withdrawal of
the offensive word. In your magnanimity you got the
start of us and did this noble thing.

The fraternal delegates were afterward given
an official reception in their own persons by
the Assembly, when addresses appropriate to
the occasion were delivered by them and by
the moderator. Afterward a dispatch was re-
ceived from the Northern General Assembly
reporting that it had resolved, upon the recom-
mendation of its committee to whom the sub-
ject had been referred, that "fraternal rela-
tions having been happily established between
the two Assemblies on the basis of the with-
drawal of all imputations officially made from
either side against the Christian character of
the other, no further action of this Assembly
is necessary." The final action of the Assem-
bly upon the subject took the shape of a reso-
lution directing that—

The usual method of correspondence by letter be-
tween this General Assembly and other ecclesiastical
bodies shall hereafter include the General Synod of
the Keformed Church in America and the General
Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United

PRESBYTERIANS.

655

States of America ; with the exception, however, that
delegates be appointed by this Assembly to these
bodies at their next ensuing sessions in 1883 and 1884
respectively, to convey our most cordial Christian
fraternal salutations ; these delegates being instructed
to state to them this method of correspondence here-
after by letter as adopted by this body, with the hope
that it may meet with their co-operation ; and that
the special attention of the presbyteries be called to
this action of the General Assembly for an expression
of their opinion on the mode of correspondence for the
future.

An overture was presented from the Presby-
tery of Upper Missouri, asking the Assembly
to appoint a committee to confer with a like
committee of the Northern Assembly "to
bring about closer relations between the two
branches of the Church, and, if practicable,
open the way for organic union, or for such a
division of the Presbyterian field as may place
it under several Provincial Assemblies." The
Assembly, by a vote of 102 to 32, declared it
inexpedient to appoint such a committee. A
committee appointed by the previous General
Assembly to inquire into the expediency of re-
moving some of the higher qualifications re-
quired as tests of the competency of candi-
dates for the ministry, including acquaintance
with the Greek and Hebrew languages, made a
report adverse to any lowering of the standard.
The whole subject was considered by the As-
sembly in debate, and its decision was embod-
ied in a resolution that —

The proposed change is not necessary even to ef-
fect the object contemplated, i. e., to open the way to
the ministry for men, otherwise qualified, who have
not pursued the ordinary course of study preparatory
thereto ; inasmuch as this is a point which, so far as
it should be an open question, is left to the discretion
and decision of the presbytery. The presbyteries
already possess the constitutional powers in question,
both for licensure and for ordination.

The previous General Assembly having in-
vited expressions of opinion from the pres-
byteries upon overtures seeking the removal
from the Confession of Faith of the clauses
prohibiting marriage with a deceased wife's
sister, answers were received from fifty-five
presbyteries, forty-three of which, or more than
two thirds of the presbyteries in the Church,
had expressed themselves in favor of the
change. The Assembly decided to take the
requisite constitutional steps for having the
prohibitory clauses stricken out. A memorial
asking the Assembly to organize the colored
churches into a General Assembly was an-
swered in the negative, on the ground that the
matter was premature.

III. United Presbyterian Chureh in North America.
— The following is a summary of the statistical
reports of this Church as presented to the Gen-
eral Assembly in May: Number of synods, 9;
of presbyteries, 60 ; of ministers, 730, of whom.
525 were pastors and 205 without charge ; of
licentiates, 43 ; of theological students, 52 ; of
congregations, 839 ; of members, 85,443 ; of
baptisms, 707 of adults and 3,599 of infants;
of Sunday-schools, 823, with 8,643 officers and
teachers, and 77,300 pupils.

The Board of Publication reported to the
General Assembly that its receipts for the year
had been $56,760, and its expenditures $54,-
663, and that its assets were valued at $107,-
394. By the action of the General Assembly,
this board was given the appointment of the
Sunday-school Committee and full charge of
the Sunday-school literature of the Church.

The Board of Education had received $5,186,
and returned $18,009 of assets. It had given
assistance during the year to 14 students.

The Board of Ministerial Relief had re-
ceived $6,460, and had disbursed to beneficia-
ries, $2,900 ; and returned an endowment fund
of $30,000. It had 24 beneficiaries receiving
quarterly aid.

The receipts of the Board of Freedmen's
Missions— $16,767 — bad been sufficient to meet
all the expenses of its work during the year,
and to pay $4,375 of its indebtedness. It still
owed $6,500. The board returned an aggre-
gate enrollment of 1,197 pupils in all its schools
and 1,200 in its Sunday-schools. Seventy-
five of its students had taught during the year
in the public schools. Special reports were
made of the schools at Knoxville, Tenn. — where
an orphanage for girls had been established —
and Chase City, Norfolk, and Bluestone, Va.

The receipts of the Board of Foreign Mis-
sions for the year had been $102,975. It made
report concerning the missions in Egypt and
in India, in connection with which were re-
turned 88 principal and subordinate stations ;
17 ordained foreign missionaries, with 43 wom-
an missionaries; 11 native ordained ministers,
with 200 other native -laborers ; 22 churches,
with 1,909 communicants; 51 Sunday-schools,
with 2,555 scholars; 93 mission-schools, with
4,531 pupils ; and 467 baptisms during the
year. The increase of communicants during
the year was 482, showing an increase of 28
for every ordained foreign missionary. The
native converts had contributed for all pur-
poses $11,610, or an average of $2.58 for each
communicant in India, and of $8.47 for each
one in Egypt. The board was instructed to
consider the subject of establishing a mission
on the upper Nile, and, " if the way be clear,
to undertake the work."

The General Assembly of the United Pres-
byterian Church in North America met in
Pittsburg, Pa., May 24th. The Rev. Dr. W.
H. McMillan, of Allegheny City, was chosen
moderator. The subject of allowing the use
of instrumental music in the services of wor-
ship again received attention, a considerable
number of memorials having been introduced
asking for such modification of the action of
the previous General Assembly as should pre-
vent its being construed into a permission to
employ instruments. The memorial, most nu-
merously signed, which was regarded by the
committee to whom the number were referred
as definitely expressing what was expressed or
implied in all the others, asked the General
Assembly " to declare explicitly that in none of

656

PRESBYTERIANS.

the congregations under the care of the Assem-
bly can instrumental music be lawfully used in
worship until the Church shall have decided by
constitutional enactment that such music in
worship is divinely authorized and prescribed."
The papers were referred to the Committee on
Bills and Overtures, which made a report cov-
ering the construction to be placed upon the
action of the preceding General Assembly, and
respecting the nature — as to whether it is a
matter of binding obligation or not — of the
subject of the action. Concerning the bearing
of the action of the previous Assembly, the
report said the language in its resolution-
Must be understood in harmony with the declara-
tion in the resolution itself, " that there is no suffi-
cient Bible authority for an absolutely exclusive rule
on the subject," and also in harmony with the entire
action of which that resolution was but a part, in
which the prohibitory law was declared to be re-
pealed. The repeal of a law does not authorize any-
thing except freedom from its restraints. Formally,
it neither commands nor forbids anything. It simply
leaves the subject without the law repealed.

In regard to the second point, in which the
memorialists opposed tolerance of instrumental
music with arguments drawn from the decla-
ration in the Confession of Faith, to the effect
that God must be worshiped in the way ap-
pointed in his Word, the committee urged —

That the question is not of the correctness of the
principle so enunciated, but of the correctness of the
application that is made in this case. To an ordi-

the elements appointed for each. But there may be
mere incidents of an ordinance or helps to its observ-
ance, no part of the ordinance itself, which are not
placed under such restrictions. In regard to the ordi-
nance of praise, no intelligent Christian looks for the
appointment of the particular tunes to be sung, or
the particular means by which the key-note may be
found, or for the use of musical notes as a help in
singing, or the employment of trained singers to lead
in the praise service. Such are among the things
confessedly left to " Christian prudence.''

Now, the question is, to which of these classes does
the instrumental accompaniment belong, the essen-
tials or the incidentals of worship ? That is the very
core of the question decided in tne repeal of our pro-
hibitory law. That law was what may be said to
have been our statutory application of the principle
cited from the Confession. To repeal that law, as has
been done, was to declare it a misapplication of the
principle ; or that the thing forbidden by the law was
one to which that general principle did not properly
apply ; in other words, that there was nothing in the
ordinance of praise or any other Bible authority to
justify such prohibition. 'That is the recorded judg-
ment of the Church. While that judgment stands,
how can we consistently declare, as asked in this me-
morial, that under the principle cited the prohibitory
law is in effect still operative? And if we did. of
what authority or force would such a declaration be ?

The report of the committee was adopted,
and with it the resolutions :

1. That the action of the last Assembly on this sub-
ject be reaffirmed as explained in this report.

2. That its admonitory resolution, advising and en-
joining against all action on this subject offensive to
fellow-worshipers or disturbing of the peace of con-
gregations, be emphatically reaffirmed, and urged

with renewed earnestness on the attention of the pas-
tors and sessions and people of the whole Church.

A committee was appointed to address a pas-
toral letter to the people of the Church —

Setting forth the true state of the question as set-
tled by the Church, and urging upon them the respect
due the authority of the Church and to each other as
Christian brethren.

The party opposed to the permission of in-
strumental music, who were represented by a
minority report of the committee recommend-
ing the direct submission to the presbyteries
of a permissive overture, recorded a protest
against this action. The quarter-centennial
anniversary of the formation of the United
Presbyterian Church (which took place in
1833) was celebrated with appropriate exer-
cises during the sessions of the Assembly. The
committee which had in hand during the year
the collection of memorial funds reported that
the contributions amounted to $131,593, of
which $42,061 were designated for special ob-
jects. A scheme was approved by the Assem-
bly for the division of the undesignated contri-
butions, amounting to $89,532, among the be-
nevolent boards and educational institutions of
the Church.

Convention of Opponents to Instrumental Music, —
A convention of members of the Church op-'
posed to the use of instrumental music met in
Allegheny City, Pa., August 14th. It was at-
tended by 473 delegates, clerical and lay, in-
cluding woman-delegates, who took full part
in the deliberations. Gen. James A. Ekin,
U. S. A., was chosen president. Essays were
read by different members of the convention,
supporting the opposition to musical instru-
ments from the " History of United Presby-
terianism " and the " History of the Introduc-
tion of Music into the Reformed Churches."
The question was also argued on grounds of
Divine authority and of the traditions of the
Church ; and the action of the General Assem-
bly in admitting instrumental music was fur-
ther declared invalid, because, it was alleged, it
was taken in violation of the constitution, and
was based upon unconstitutional returns of
votes. The convention, declaring that by the
action of the General Assembly a crisis had
been precipitated in which it had become ne-
cessary to do something to secure liberty and
rights of conscience in the Church, resolved:

That whether the rule in our directory was repealed
or not, we assert that, even without such rule, the
Constitution of the Church, its Expression of Faith,
Catechism, Testimony, Book of Worship, unwritten
law, and ancient usage, preclude the use of musical
instruments in worship in the United Presbyterian
Church, and that they always have been and still are
unlawful, and their intrusion on unwilling parties is
a violation of personal liberty and the rights of con-
science.

That, standing as we do on the Constitution and
laws of the United Presbyterian Church, as adopted
at the time of the union, we claim for ourselves the
liberty of conscience guaranteed by that solemn com-
pact, and we propose to remain steadfast and main-
tain our rights and liberties in the Church by all
legitimate means.

PRESBYTERIANS.

657

That, without derogating from the just respect that
.8 due to the General Assembly as the superior court
of the Church, we nevertheless claim that our obedi-
ence and submission are due to it only as its decisions
are in accordance with the mind of Christ, as ex-
pressed in the standards of the Church.

Other resolutions looked to securing from
the General Assembly a revisal of its action
and the adoption of proper steps " for ascer-
taining in a constitutional way the sense of the
Church on the lawfulness of using instrumental
worship."

IV. Reformed Presbyterian Church, Synod.— The
Synod of the Reformed Presbyterian Church
(0. S.) returned for 1883 1 12 ministers, 80 of
whom were pastors ; and 124 congregations, 40
of which had a membership varying from 80
to 50. An increase of five ministers and an
increase of 129 members were reported. The
following statistics were returned of the mis-
sion at Latakieh, Syria : Communicants (includ-
ing the four ministers and the teachers), 138;
schools, 27, with enrollments of 648 pupils.

The Synod of the Reformed Presbyterian
Church met at Allegheny City, Pa., May 23d.
A question was started at the opening of the
session by the moderator's reading of the open-
ing sermon, whether reading of sermons was
proper. A motion was made to disapprove
the sermon on this account. It was alleged in
support of the motion that reading sermons
, was contrary to the traditions of the Covenant-
er Church, and that to allow this innovation
to remain unchallenged would be to establish
a dangerous precedent. The subject was dis-
posed of by the adoption of a resolution declar-
ing that " the reading of certain discourses on
special subjects before this court shall not be
construed as a precedent for reading sermons
in ordinary ministrations." A proposition look-
ing to the abolition of tokens or tickets for
communion was considered, and was met by
the adoption of a paper advising all the people
of the Church " to observe the custom as here-
tofore, until such time as the Church, in its
wisdom, may deem it proper to dispense with
it." A question concerning the intermarriage
of converts with non-Christians, which had
given trouble in the Latakieh mission, Syria,
was answered with the advice that " such
questions must be deter1 nined by the constitu-
tional and statute law of the Church; and in
determining particular cases, there as here, all
the circumstances must be taken into account."
The Presbytery of Vermont was organized,
. with five congregations.

V. Reformed Presbyterian (linrch, General Syn-
od.— The General Synod of the Reformed Pres-
byterian Church (N . S.) met in Philadelphia,
Pa., May 23d. The value of the endowment
fund of the Theological Seminary was report-
ed at $33,954, while the receipts of the institu-
tion had been $2,740, and its expenditures
$2,731. The management of the seminary
was criticised in the debates. The Treasurer of
the Board of Foreign Missions reported a bal-
ance on hand of $2,220.
VOL. xxiii. — 42 A

VI. Cumberland Presbyterian Chnreh. — The

summary of the statistics of this Church for
1883 is as follows:

Synods 27

Presbyteries iia

Ministers .'.'.'.'..".'.'.'.' i UJ

Congregations

Ruling elders

Deacons '.' .'.'".'.'.' •'.*.,,

Members '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. } i" T.VI

Added on profession ' ^ '.,]:>

Adult baptisms ;,' | ,-,:,

Infant baptisms ..........'... Ki.'Js

Officers and teachers in Sunday-schools .. '.

Sunday-school pupils '.'. ' :,;.' ;,u

Total contributions $417,W8

The receipts of the Board of Publication for
the year had been more than $56,000. It was
free from the debt under which it had suffered
for a long time, and contemplated the publica-
tion of works by denominational authors.

The Board of Missions reported that its re-
ceipts for the year had been $33.642, or 50
per cent, more than the receipts of the previ-
ous year. The board returned property to the
value of $31,687, while its liabilities were
small. The Japanese mission had enjoyed
great prosperity, and a very large relative in-
crease of members.

The Woman's Board of Missions had received.
$5,233 during the year, and $10,141 since its
organization three years before. It had three
missionaries in Japan, conducted a girls' school
in that country, and was about to found an or-
phanage at Osaka.

The fifty-third General Assembly of thft
Cumberland Presbyterian Church met at Nash-
ville, Term., May 17th. The Rev. A. J. Me-
Glumphy, D. D., President of Lincoln Uni-
versity, was chosen moderator. The most im-
portant topic considered was the report upon
the revision of the Confession of Faith and
Government transmitting the votes of the
presbyteries on the revised Confession which
had been submitted by the preceding General
Assembly to them (see "Presbyterians," sec-
tion " Cumberland Presbyterians," in " Annual
Cyclopaedia " for 1882). The result of the vot-
ing was recorded as follows: 1. As to the In-
troduction, Confession of Faith, and Catechism;
presbyteries approving, 99, of which 61 were
recorded as approving unanimously; presby-
teries disapproving, 8 ; presbyteries not report-
ing, 6 ; presbyteries submitting memorials, 4.
2. As to the constitution and rules of disci-
pline : Presbyteries approving, 104, of which
65 approved unanimously ; disapproving, 3 ;
not reporting, 6 ; submitting memorials, _ 4.
The report of the committee was concurred in,
whereby the Confession as revised was declared
to be the Confession of the Church. Numerous
memorials and propositions suggesting amend-
ments to the Confession were sent in, to which •
the Assembly answered that, in view of the fact
that the subject had been so recently acted
upon by the presbyteries, and their action ap-
proving the revised Confession had been so
nearly unanimous, it seemed unwise to attempt
at this time to determine what, if any, proposi-

658

PRESBYTERIANS.

tions to amend, coming from individuals, were
proper or ought to be transmitted for action
by the presbyteries. It therefore announced
it expedient to act adversely upon all propo-
sitions coming from individuals, believing it
more desirable to await expressions from the
presbyteries, if any of them should desire to
make suggestions. A committee which had
been appointed by the previous General As-
sembly to consider the subject of union with
the General Synod of the Lutheran Church,
reported that it was not best to urge positive
action now, while the Confession of Faith was
undergoing revision ; and that there was a
growing feeling in some parts of the Church in
favor of the union suggested, and a strong de-
sire in every part of the Church for a closer
fellowship with the Lutheran, and, in fact,
with all evangelical churches. The prevail-
ing impression among the members of the
committees of the two churches, as represented
in the minutes of correspondence adopted as a
part of the committees' report, appeared to be
in favor of a closer and more hearty fraternal
union of the Cumberland Presbyterian and
evangelical Lutheran churches; but the dif-
ficulties in the way of organic union at present
existing were deemed to be insurmountable.
Unless there existed a perfectly unanimous
consent on the part of all the churches, on each
side, the union would produce an additional
number of factions. Neither body seemed to
be uin a condition of gospel grace that quali-
fies them for organic union into one body."
It was also held " that as matters in Christen-
dom now stand, denominationalism is far more
desirable than ecclesiastical concentration ; that
no one existing denomination is worthy of the
high honor of absorbing into itself all the
others." A committee was appointed to draw
up a paper explaining the doctrinal status
of the denomination, to be presented to the
council of the Presbyterian Alliance which was
appointed to be held in Belfast, Ireland, in
1884. Its report, which was adopted by the
Assembly, embodies the following statement :

To the General Presbyterian Alliance, in session at
Belfast, Ireland, 1884.

DEAR BRETHREN IN THE LORD : We of the Cumber-
land Presbyterian Church in the United States of
America rejoice with you that God, by his gracious
providence, seems to indicate that it is pleasing to
him that the various families of the Presbyterian
Church should come together for fraternal counsel as
to the interests of his kingdom.

Claiming to be one of these families which God has
raised up for the spread of the gospel of his dear Son,
and having approved the Constitution of the Alliance
(see Minutes of our General Assembly, 1881, page 34 ;
and 1882, page 18), we send brethren bearing commis-
sions with the signature of our Moderator and Clerk,
as delegates to your body, and through them said
Minutes and our Confession of Faith and Govern-
ment, that by reference thereto you may decide wheth-
er we come within the pale of the consensus of the
doctrines of the Reformed Churches.

In our Confession of Faith you will find our doc-
trines stated in the following order :

The Holy Scriptures, the Holy Trinity, the Decrees
of God, Creation, Providence, the Fall of Man, God's

Covenant with Man, Christ the Mediator, Free- Will,
Divine Influence, Eepentance unto Life, Saving Faith,
Justification, Regeneration, Adoption, Sanctification,
Growth in Grace, Good Works, Preservation of Be-
lievers, Christian Assurance, the Law of God, Chris-
tian Liberty, Religious Worship, Sabbath-Day, Law-
ful Oaths and Vows, Civil Government, Marriage and
Divorce, the Church, Christian Communion, the Sac-
raments, Baptism, the Lord's Supper, Church Au-
thority, Church Courts, Death and the Resurrection,
and the Judgment.

It is well known to the religious world that our
Confession of Faith and Catechism are revisions of
the Westminster Confession of Faith and Shorter
Catechism, expressing our understanding of the teach-
ings of God's Word.

Now, dear brethren, if the difference between our
statements of doctrine and those of the Westminster
.Confession of Faith is inconsistent with our being
represented in your body, you will so decide.

A memorial was presented asking that steps
be taken toward a reunion with the Cumber-
land Presbyterian Church (colored) ; to which
the Assembly replied that as the organization
of the colored Cumberland Presbyterian Church
had been made at the request of a convention
of colored ministers, it would not be equitable,
while they were free to move in such a matter,
for the present Assembly to move first. More-
over, the experience of those churches that
had most largely succeeded among the colored
people justified the conviction that a greater
success could be reached by an independent
organization. The memorial was not granted,
but the sympathy of the Assembly was tend-
ered and all assistance in its power was prom-
ised to aid and encourage the colored breth-
ren in their work, especially in that of an edu-
cational character. Attention was called to
the increasing desecration of the Sabbath, and
prompt discipline was recommended to be ad-
ministered to all church-members offending in
this matter. The Assembly's Board of Trus-
tees reported that a bequest of $17,000 from
John P. Finley, and a bequest of $10,000 from
John A. Dougherty, were available. The money
was devoted to the cause of ministerial educa-
tion. A fraternal letter was received from the
Evangelical Union of Scotland in which was a
clause congratulating the Assembly upon the
success of its revision of the Confession of
Faith, and the thoroughness with which "'West-
minsterism '—to borrow the somewhat novel
and expressive term of the revisers — has been
eliminated by the Revising Committee."

VII. Presbyterian Church in Canada.— The fol-
lowing is a summary of the statistics of this
Church as they were presented to the General
Assembly in June : Number of pastoral charges,
799; of congregations and stations, 1,011; of
churches, stations, and mission-stations sup-
plied by pastors, 1,714; .of families connected
with the Church, 69,507; of communicants,
119,603; of sittings in churches, 350,432; total
amount of stipends paid, $553,393; total amount
raised for the schemes of the Church, $167,384 ;
total income of the Church, $1,422,783.

The Committee on Home Missions reported
to the General Assembly that its receipts for

PRESBYTERIANS.

659

the year had heen $43,401, and that it had a
balance in its treasury of $1,406.

The Board of French Evangelization had re-
ceived $32,606. It had thirteen schools, with
19 teachers and 533 pupils.

The Foreign Mission Committee, Western
section, had received $40,111. A favorable
report was made of the mission among the In-
dians in the Northwestern Territories, and
those people were represented as making satis-
factory progress in the arts of civilization. There
were connected with these missions 26 chapels
and as many native agents, and 140 converts
had been gained during the year. The Eastern
section of the committee had supported a mis-
sion in Trinidad at an expense of $18,000, of
which $8,000 had been contributed from Can-
ada. A mission in India was prosperous ; and,
in the New Hebrides, 33 teachers were em-
ployed, and 195 communicants were enrolled.

the amount of the aged and infirm minis-
ters' fund (Western section) was $8,692, and
ihe number of beneficiaries on its roll was 32.
The receipts of the Eastern section of the fund
had been $2,312.

The widows' and orphans' fund, of which
four separate accounts are kept, amounted in
all to $265,530.

This Church sustains six theological schools
and colleges, as follow : Presbyterian College
(theological), Halifax, N. S., 3 professors, 15
students in 1882; Morrin College, Quebec, 5
professors, 51 students; Presbyterian College,
Montreal, 3 professors, 7 lecturers, 72 students;
Queen's College and University, Kingston, 7
professors, 2 lecturers, 202 students: Knox
College (theological), Toronto, 6 professors and
teachers, 37 students; Manitoba College, Win-
nipeg, 5 instructors, 55 students.

The General Assembly of the Presbyterian
Church in Canada met in London, Ont., June
13th. The Rev. John A. King, D. D., was
chosen moderator. Action was taken naming
$750, with a manse, as the amount which the
Church should aim to secure as the minimum
stipend of ministers in pastoral charge. The
principle of the " Scott'" liquor act of 1878 was
approved "as an important means of limiting
the liquor-traffic and educating the people for
total prohibition " ; members were advised to
encourage the establishing of coffee-houses and
temperance hotels, and ministers to preach on
temperance on some suitable day. A remon-
strance was ordered addressed to the managers
of railroads against the desecration of the Sab-
'bath on their lines ; and the Assembly's com-
mittee was authorized to correspond with simi-
lar committees of other churches with a view
to united action for enforcing the existing Sab-
bath laws. In connection with this subject, it
was mentioned that six Presbyterian young
men had recovered damages for wrongful dis-
missal because they would not work for con-
tractors on one of the railroads on Sunday.

VIII. Church of Scotland (Established).— The
General Assembly of the Established Church

of Scotland met in Edinburgh, May 24th. The
Rev. Dr. John Rankine, of Sorn, was chosen
moderator. The Committee of Presbyterial Su-
perintendence reported that the entire num-
ber in the roll of communicants could not be
less than 530,292, or 14,506 more than were
returned in 1878. The whole number of per-
sons in Sunday-schools was 261,000. The
Committee on Christian Liberality reported
that the entire amount of contributions for
1882 to the funds and schemes of the Church
had been £386,061, or £44,698 more than the
contributions for 1881. The Endowment Com-
mittee reported the expenditure during the year
of £33,000 in the endowment of 11 parishes,
making the whole number of 323 parishes en-
dowed and erected since its commencement.
The Committee of the Aged and Infirm Minis-
ters' Fund reported the capital of the fund at
the end of 1882 to be £10,772. The income
of the Home-Mission Committee had been
£9,504. The committee had assisted 50 mis-
sion stations and 71 mission churches, con-
nected with which were 11,727 communicants
and 22,130 attendants; it had also aided in
the building or enlarging of 22 churches, in
which 9,176 additional sittings were provided.
The income of the Foreign Mission Committee
had been £25,022, and its expenditure £23,-
328. The Jewish Mission Committee returned
an income of £5,392, and reported 2,233 pu-
pils in its 11 schools. An overture having
been presented, calling attention to the ab-
sence of a uniform rule in regard to the ad-
mission of ministers from other churches, a
motion was offered to tire effect that the As-
sembly instruct the committee on the recep-
tion of such ministers to see that applicants
furnish evidence that they had received such
ordination as was required by the Confes-
sion of Faith and the Constitution of the
Church. The overture and resolution were
rejected. Respecting the clause in the Univer-
sities (Scotland) Bill pending before Parlia-
ment, which provides for the abolition of tests
in the case of the theological chairs, the As-
sembly resolved, by a vote of 176 to 52, to
petition against the clause, while it still ex-
pressed willingness "to give favorable consid-
eration to any modification of the existing con-
dition of appointment to theological chairs,
which would still leave satisfactory security
that the theological teaching in the universi-
ties shall continue to be in harmony with the
doctrinal standards of the Church of Scotland."
The Temperance Committee reported the num-
ber of members in the Church of Scotland As-
sociations to be 4,000, with 7,500 children in
Bands of Hope, and said it was evident that
u the temperance platform of the Church of
Scotland must not be more narrow than the
terras of communion in the Church," and that
it had been its aim " to unite all the members of
the Church against the evils of drunkenness."
IX. Free Chnrch of Scotland.— The General As-
sembly of the Free Church of Scotland met in

660

PRESBYTERIANS.

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND.

Edinburgh, May 24th. An important debate
took place on the subject of the use of instru-
mental music in worship, respecting which
three motions were presented. The first was
contained in the report of the committee to
which the subject had been referred, brought
forward by Dr. Adam, and was to the effect
that the introduction of instrumental music is
not contrary to Scripture or to confessional
law, and that liberty in the matter should be
granted to the congregations. The second mo-
tion was by Principal Rainey, and embodied
the substance of the former resolution ; with
the additional recommendation, in deference to
numerous protestations, that all congregations
and church courts should carefully consider
the interests of peace and harmony. The
third resolution was by Sir Henry Moncrieff,
and advised that the report of the committee,
with the accompanying documents, be given to
the Church for consideration, and that, in the
mean time, the Assembly take no action. A
protest was lodged by Dr. Begg on behalf of
himself and his friends, who supported Sir Hen-
ry Moncrieff 's resolution, to the effect that, in
taking part in the debate, they did not concede
that it was competent for the Church to sanc-
tion in any form the use of organs in praise.
The resolution of Dr. Rainey prevailed by a
vote of 390 to 259. An expression was adopt-
ed, by a decided majority, in favor of relieving
the deacons from the obligation to sign the
" Confession of Faith.'1

X. United Presbyterian Church of Scotland.— The
number of congregations on the roll of the
synod of this Church for 1882 was 551. The
statistical reports showed an increase of 1,742
in the total membership. The total income of
the Church had been £377, 717. The available
income of the foreign mission fund had been
£31,259, and the expenditures on its account
£36,694. The missions— in Jamaica, Trinidad,
Old Calabar, Caffraria, Spain, India, China,
and Japan — returned 50 ordained European
and 17 ordained native missionaries, a total of
487 educated agents, and 71 stations and 156
out-stations, with 10,808 communicants, and
12,524 pupils in 199 schools. The synod, at
its annual meeting, reiterated its declarations
in favor of the disestablishment of the State
Church, affirming the spiritual independence
of the Church and the sols headship of Christ.
Interest was expressed in the movement for
the union of the United Presbytery of Caffra-
ria, South Africa, with the Free Church Pres-
bytery, and the proposed basis of the union
was approved.

XI. Presbyterian Chnreh in Ireland.— The re-
ports of this Church show a decrease of 485 in
the number of communicants. The total income
of the Church for the year w as £746,045.

In the General Assembly resolutions were
offered condemning the ministers of those con-
gregations which continue to use instruments
in public worship, and directing the appoint-
ment of F, commission with power to deal with

such ministers in the event of their continued
disobedience, in accordance with the laws of
the Church on contumacy. An amendment
was offered to the resolution, to the effect that,
in view of all the circumstances and the grav-
ity of the issues involved, the Assembly decline
to appoint a commission to proceed in the
matter, or to take any steps which will involve
discipline or a rending of the Church. After
an active debate, the amendment was adopted
by a vote of 320 to 309 votes for the original
resolution.

XII. Presbyterian Church in England.— The Synod
of this Church embraces, according to the sta-
tistical reports submitted to it at its meeting
in June, 1883, 279 congregations, with 57,402
members. The total revenue of the synod for
the year was £235,662, and the property held
by the Church was valued at £1,244,000, less
£107,400 of indebtedness.

The contributions of the Church during the
year for foreign missions had been £8,500.
The missions were chiefly in China, and re-
turned 19 ordained European missionaries, five
medical missionaries, five woman-missionaries,
besides wives of missionaries, and a staff of
native evangelists, with 2,570 communicants.

The Synod of the Presbyterian Church in
England met in London, May 3d. The Rev.
Dr. Edmond was chosen moderator. The prin-
cipal subject considered was that of the modi-
fication of the creed in such a way as to make
it more intelligible to the people of the present
time. A motion was adopted to the effect that
the synod, "recognizing the gravity of the
matters thus brought under its notice," and
" while affirming its unabated adherence to the
doctrine contained in the Westminster Confes-
sion," consider (1) what changes may be made
in the existing formulas, by which office-bear-
ers affirm their adherence to the Confession ;
(2) the desirability of preparing an explana-
tory declaration; and (3) whether, with a view
to secure some briefer and more available
compendium of fundamental doctrine, the
Church might not approach the Pan- Presby-
terian Council to meet in Belfast next year,
by memorial or otherwise, suggesting the draw-
ing up of a digest of doctrine designed to em-
body the " Consensus of the Reformed Con-
fessions," on which the said Council is based.
The union thanksgiving fund, which the synod
had been collecting for several years in com-
memoration of the union of the different
branches of the Presbyterian denomination in
England, by which the Church had been formed,
now amounted to £144,147.

PRESIDENT'S MESSAGE. See page 157.

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND, a province of the
Dominion of Canada, in the southern part of
the Gulf of St. Lawrence, separated from New
Brunswick and Nova Scotia by Northumber-
land strait. Area, about 2,000 square miles.
Capital, Charlottetown.

Soil and Climate. — The soil is good, and two
thirds of the exports are agricultural products.

PROHIBITION.

661

Nearly the whole island is under cultivation.
The climate is agreeable, especially in summer.
The ranges of the thermometer are not ex-
treme, owing to its insular character. Very
little wheat is grown, but this is owing to the
extreme moisture of the atmosphere.

Towns and Ports. — Charlottetown, the capi-
tal, on Hillsboro Bay, is the largest town on
the island; its population is 11,484; Summer-
side, 2,853, is connected with Shediac, N. B.,
by a ferry ; Georgetown, at the western ex-
tremity of the island, has a population of 1,200,
and is also a packet-station. The minor ports
are Alberton, Princetown, and Souris.

Industries. — The agricultural exports in 1882
amounted to $1,021,344, of which $630,185
was oats, and $368,911 potatoes. Vegetables
valued at $13,767, and hay at $6,320, make up
the greater part of the remainder. These ex-
ports are nearly equally divided between the
United States and Great Britain.

The export value of products of the fisher-
ies was $541,585. Of this, $420,430 is on ac-
>unt of lobsters, shipped chiefly to Great Brit-
nn ; $81,855 of mackerel, shipped to the
Jnited States, and $12,264 of codfish. The
)roduct of animals amounts to $181,931, of
rhich $86,927 was eggs, to the United States;
^14,409, sheep; $9,696, cattle; and $13,722,
mtter. Beef, pork, hides, and horses make

the remainder. The manufactures include
lips, $107,867; leather, $4,256; and starch,
2,680. The entire exports of Prince Edward
3! and manufactures amounted only to $118,-
930. The product of the forest exported
imounted only to $20,098, chiefly lumber.

Education.— The schools are free. The educa-
ion department has been under the control of

chief superintendent since 1877, and there is a

rovincial Board of Education. The salaries of
jhers are paid chiefly from provincial funds.

ley range, in the case of first-class teachers,
rom $300 to $1,000 for male teachers. Fe-
lale teachers holding first-class certificates re-
ceive on an average $360 per annum. There
were 468 teachers .employed in the public
schools in 1882 — 256 males and 212 females.
The attendance in the same*Year was 21,269.
The total expenditure for education in 1882
was $130,446.96, of wlrch $98,476.48 was paid
for teachers1 salaries. There were 60 teachers
in training in the normal department of the
Prince of Wales College at the close of 1882,
and 33 non-professional students. These in-
stitutions were united in 1879, in which year
the college was also thrown open for ladies.
The Roman Catholics maintain St. Dunstan's
College for the higher education of members
of that denomination.

PROHIBITION. The idea of prohibiting the
use of or traffic in intoxicating liquor, in some
form or to some degree, is as old almost as
that kind of liquor itself.

Early History. — Intemperance, from the earli-
est days of history, has periodically required
some check upon its progress, which religious

or civil authority has duly presented. The
Scriptures contain many proofs of the exces-
sive use of wine, even among the chosen peo-
ple. Confucius gave sago advice against a like
use thereof in China, almost 600 years before
Christ. Herodotus, writing about the same
time, referred to a liquor drawn from barley,
by fermentation, as in common use among the
Egyptians. Pliny speaks of 195 kinds of wine
used in Rome. Tacitus, describing the man-
ners and customs of the Germans in his day,
notices their drunken broils from the excessive
use of beer. The ancient Britons produced
from grain " a pleasant, warming, and strength-
ening beverage," which they called curmi, and
of which they drank lavishly. Every people,
of historical account, have had their favorite
stroflg drink, fermented or distilled.

The earliest forms and applications of pro-
hibition were ecclesiastical and personal, and
were imposed mainly upon liquor -drinking
rather than upon liquor -vending. Ancient
Scripture tells of Nazarite and Rechabite, who
were forbidden to use wine or strong drink.
The Indian Vedas, though allowing wine as an
oblation to the gods, forbade its use as a bever-
age; and Sukracharaga, a high-priest of the
Assurus, declared the most rigid prohibitory
law. Buddhist and Brahman monks were
bound to abstain wholly from intoxicating
drinks; and on all the followers of Buddha
abstinence therefrom was rigidly enjoined.
Intoxicating wine was forbidden in Egypt, both
to priest and king; and from the accession of
Menes to the reign of Psammetichus, 600 B. o.,
a period embracing twenty-five dynasties, total
abstinence from intoxicants was taught and
practiced by them. The Egyptian priests ob-
served personal prohibition even down to the
time of Nero. Mohammed said, " Of the fruit
of the grape ye obtain an inebriating liquor,
and also good nourishment" — the former he
interdicted, the latter he allowed.

The first civil law against the manufacture
of intoxicating liquor, of which there is any
record, was promulgated in China, 1100 B. o.
It was an imperial edict called " The Announce-
ment against Drunkenness," and directed that
" the people " who drank should be put to
death. A little of the spirit of it abides in one
of the present Chinese enactments, which says,
" A man who, intoxicated with liquor, commits
outrages against the laws, shall be exiled to a
desert country, there to remain in servitude."
Among the ancient Mexicans intemperance was
accounted a grievous crime, and was punished
with the severest penalties. Charlemagne tried
by imperial edicts to stop the drinking habits
of the early Germans. According to Lecky,
one of the safeguards established to preserve
female purity in Rome was a"n enactment for-
bidding women even to taste the juice of the
grape; and this law, ingrafting itself upon
early domestic education, became, by habit
and tradition, so incorporated with the mor-
al sense of the people, that its violation

662

PROHIBITION.

was considered monstrous, and Cato could
speak " of any shameful act " on the part of
a wife, " such as drinking wine or commit-
ting adultery." Cato further says that his
countrymen were accustomed to kiss their
wives, for the purpose of discovering whether
they had been drinking ; and Pliny, who as-
cribes to Romulus the authorship of this pro-
hibitory law as applied to women, mentions
two instances in which offending wives were

Eut to death for their transgressions. Later,
eneca made bitter complaint of the drinking
habits of women ; and the prohibition had
grown quite obsolete in the time of Tertullian.
In the early days of Rome, wine was also for-
bidden to men until their thirtieth year.

According to Hector Boetius, the sellers of
strong drink, in the earlier ages of Scottish
history, were looked upon as public enemies,
who, for profit, enticed men to a vicious life;
and Argadus, administrator of the realm, A. D.
160, confiscated their goods, pulled down
their houses, and banished them. At a later
period, when the evils of drink had revived,
Constantine II re-enacted this law (A. D. 861),
adding the penalty of death, " in case the ta-
vernier refused to depart, or resisted the execu-
tion of the decree." In the reign of Philip
and Mary an act was passed suppressing in
Ireland the traffic in builcann, a spirit distilled
from fermented black oats, its manufacture
being regarded as a sinful and dangerous de-
struction of the food of the people.

Between the fifth and the fifteenth centu-
ries, when the Church of Rome bore absolute
sway over England, Ireland, and Scotland,
many laws, enactments, decrees, canons, and
pastorals were leveled at intemperance. One
of the canons enacted by the bishops, in synod
assembled by St. David, A. D. 569, affirmed
that " he who forces another to get drunk, out
of hospitality, must do penance, as if he had
got drunk himself." Under St. Dunstan it
was ordered that no drinking should be al-
lowed in the church. Soon after (A. D. 970)
a canon was passed forbidding priests to drink
in taverns like laymen, Still later (A. D. 1215)
the clergy, both of England and Ireland, were
strictly forbidden to frequent taverns.

The brewing and selling of ale and mead be-
came a considerable business in Scotland and
England at a very early day, but from the
first it was regulated, restricted, or partially
prohibited by Government. The earliest re-
corded excise was a tax of fourpence, paid in
Scotland for a yearly license to brew and sell
ale; and prohibition was linked with it by the
one licensed being forbidden to carry the ale
into another town for sale. All public offi-
cials were prohibited from brewing for sale ;
and public tasters were appointed, to test and
appraise the ale sold, most of which was
brewed by women. Any woman might brew
who should pay the tax ; but she must brew the
whole year through or forfeit her permit; and
she must ' put her ale-wand outside her house,

at her window or above her door," or be sub-
ject to fine. Ale-drinking increased rapidly,
and in A. D. 728 public booths were erected,
wherein to sell the popular drink. In the lat-
ter part of the tenth century King Edgar put
down all ale-houses, except one in each bor-
ough or small town. The price of ale was
regulated by the Norman kings, and by statute
(A. D. 1272) it was ordered that a brewer should
sell two gallons for one penny, in cities, and
three or four for that price in the country.
In the reign of Edward I (A. D. 1285) it was
enacted that taverns should not be open for
the sale of wine and beer after the tolling of
the curfew ; and in the reign of Edward III
but three taverns were allowed in the metrop-
olis. Hop plantations were established in 1552,
and were accorded special privileges in the
fifth year of Edward VI; and in 1649 the city
of London petitioned Parliament against "hop-
pers," urging that " this wicked weed would
spoil the drink and endanger the lives of the
people." In 1552 power was given to justices
of the peace to abolish ale-houses, and it was
ordered that none should be opened without
license ; two years later taverns for the sale of
wine were limited by act of Parliament to a
certain number in the different cities, London
being allowed forty, and none was permitted
to be sold to be drunk on the premises ; and in
1643 a tax was laid upon home-made ale and
beer, which was then first called an excise-tax.
The same statute imposed an excise of two-
pence a gallon upon aqua vitce, or strong wa-
ters, distilled within the Commonwealth, which
revenue was granted Charles II, and continued
to his successors, with various modifications,
until 1830, and since then upon nearly all alco-
holic liquors. In 1689 the importation of spir-
its was prohibited, and distillation, not known
in Europe until the thirteenth century, was
thrown open to all English subjects. At once
the increase of distilled liquors became enor-
mous, their consumption kept equal pace, and
within fifty years drunkenness was an ac-
knowledged national curse. Gin took the
place of ale everywhere, to an alarming ex-
tent ; and a common advertisement among the
retailers of it* was, "Drunk for a penny— dead-
drunk for twopence. Clean straw for noth-
ing." Lecky says that this fact of gin-drink-
ing, small as it appears in English history, was
probably the most momentous of the eight-
eenth century. It brought on an era of fright-
ful intemperance, which vigorous parliament-
ary measures did not terminate. Between
1684 and 1736 the distillation of spirits rose
from half a million gallons to 5,394,000 gal-
lons, and this increase was scarcely checked
by imposing a duty of twenty shillings a gallon
on all spirituous liquors, and by prohibiting
their sale in less quantities than two gallons,
without, paying £50 a year tax, in the latter
year named. The law was not enforced, but
fearful riots followed its attempted enforce-
ment. Crime and immorality of all descrip-

PROHIBITION.

663

tions multiplied. In 1751 the consumption of
spirits had reached over 11,000,000 gallons.
Then more stringent measures were tried, with
marked effect. Distillers were prohibited, un-
der a penalty of £10, from either retailing
spirituous liquors themselves, or selling them
to unlicensed dealers; debts contracted for
liquors, not amounting to twenty shiDings at
a time, were made irrecoverable by law; li-
censes were greatly limited ; the penalties for
unlicensed selling were much increased : for a
second offense the offender might be impris-
oned and whipped, and for the third he was
liable to transportation. But in spite of all
this the traffic did not remarkably diminish.

In the United States.— In this country, the
worst forms of liquor-selling were prohibited
in colonial times ; and partial prohibition early
prevailed. In the town records of East Hamp-
ton, Long Island, is an order of a town-meet-
ing, "That no man shall sell any liquor but
such as are deputed thereto by the town " ;
and in 1655 the authorities interfered between
the neighboring Indians and their drink with
prohibitory provisions. As given by Bancroft,
the summary of a new Constitution for Vir-
ginia, under date of 1676, has a prohibitory
clause as follows: "The sale of wines and ar-
dent spirits was absolutely prohibited (if not in
Jamestown, yet otherwise) throughout the
whole country."

Distillation began in Boston in 1700, with
the making of New England rum from West
India molasses ; and four years later whisky-
making, from rye, began in "Western Pennsyl-
vania. In less than 100 years there were
40,000 distilleries in the United States, and
the results thereof had excited sober concern.
On Feb. 27, 1777, the following resolution was
passed by the first Continental Congress, then
sitting in Philadelphia :

Resolved, That it be recommended to the several
Legislatures in the United States immediately to pass
laws the most effectual for putting an immediate stop
to the pernicious practice of distilling grain, by_ which
the most extensive evils are likely to be derived, if
not quickly prevented. •

There is no proof that this recommendation
bore fruit, though in 1788 the Legislature of
New York passed an act "to lay a duty on
strong liquors, and for the better regulation of
inns and taverns." It provided that the Com-
missioners of Excise should not grant permits
to any person to sell strong drink and spiritu-
ous liquors, for the purpose of keeping a tav-
ern, unless it should appear to them that such
an inn or tavern was necessary for the accom-
modation of travelers. Good character, and a
recognizance not to keep a disorderly house,
were also required. April 7, 1801, a more
stringent bill passed the same body, which
prohibited the sale of spirituous liquors by re-
tail, or to be drunk in the house of the seller;
restrained and limited the power of Commis-
sioners of Excise ; and made each violation of
its provisions a misdemeanor. In December,

1790, the College of Physicians in Philadel-
phia memorialized Congress, declaring "that
the habitual use of distilled spirits, in any case
whatever, is wholly unnecessary," and asking
Congress "to impose such heavy duties upon
all distilled spirits as shall be effectual to re-
strain their intemperate use in our country."

In 1794 Dr. Rush's " Medical Inquiries " at-
tacked the common professional belief in the
virtue of alcohol as diet, and in its prophylac-
tic power as medicine ; and, as a consequence
of the agitation which followed, the first tem-
perance society of modern times was organixe<l
April 13, 1808, in Moreau, Saratoga co., N. Y.,
entitled " The Union Temperate Society of
Moreau and Northumberland." Like the Mas-
. sachusetts Society for the Suppression of In-
temperance, formed in 1813, it did not aim at
total abstinence, but to discountenance "the
too free use of ardent spirit." Feb. 13, Ih26,
the American Temperance Society was organ-
ized in Boston, and in a manifesto, issued the
following month, its Executive Committee
declared for the total prohibition of distilled
liquors. Temperance societies were formed all
over the country, numbering above 7,000 in
five years, with a membership of 1,250,000. A
Congressional Temperance Society was among
these. Great enthusiasm prevailed everywhere,
culminating in the Washington movement of
1840, which carried total abstinence on a strong
tide of popular feeling from State to State. It
was prohibition of the individual by the indi-
vidual. No longer could it be said, as forty
years before, that Americans were the most
drunken people on thtf face of the globe, be-
cause of national revenue sought from spirits,
to pay a national debt resulting from war.

The License Question. — But while thousands
pledged themselves to abstain from strong
drink, and pledged men were enthusiastically
rallying into organizations, the dram-shop held
place as a necessary evil, recognized as such,
and legalized. No-license did not compel gen-
eral consideration till 1832, and was adopted
then but here and there. The city of New
York largely reduced the number of retail
licenses in 1819, and next year the mayor tes-
tified to an improved condition of morals there,
and imputed the same " to the suppression of
so many of these poison-shops, where a man
might buy rum enough to make himself beastly
drunk for six cents." The era of no-license
fairly overlapped on the era of organization,
the former beginning a decade before the lat-
ter may be said to have ended. Dr. Lyman
Beecher, in his famous sermons on " The Na-
ture and Remedy for Intemperance" (1826),
had proclaimed a national remedy needful,
" the banishment of ardent spirits from the
list of lawful articles of commerce." Dr. Jus-
tin Edwards, in a report of the American Tem-
perance Society (1833), had said, " The point
to be decided is, shall the sale of ardent spir-
its, as a drink, be treated in legislation as a
virtue, or a vice ? " In 1833 the question was

664

PROHIBITION.

publicly debated in the city of New York,
" Wbat right have legislators to pass laws
which enable men legally to injure their fellow-
men, to increase their taxes, and expose their
children to temptation, druukermess, and ru-
in ? " " The law which licenses the sale of
ardent spirits," said Judge Platt, in the same
year, "is an impediment to the temperance
reformation; . . . and when the public safety
shall be thought to require it, dram-shops will
be indictable, at common law, as public nui-
sances." No -license appears to have been
successfully established in the old colony of
Massachusetts in 1832 ; only two criminals
were tried in Barnstable and Dukes counties
throughout 1835, or the larger part of that
year. Georgia took it up in 1834, and expelled
the traffic from two counties. Massachusetts
extended it through two additional counties,
and in numerous towns of that State licenses
were withheld. Connecticut caught the no-
license enthusiasm in 1844, and elected com-
missioners accordingly in 200 out of 220 towns.
A year later, four fifths of the towns of New
York voted strongly for no-license ; and it was
recorded of Massachusetts that from more than
100 towns the traffic was entirely removed.

State Prohibition by Statute.— Local prohibi-
tion, by towns and municipalities, led natu-
rally to the thought of State prohibition under
general law. Maine began the agitation con-
cerning it, and the first legislative attack on
the liquor traffic was made in the Maine Legis-
lature in 1837, when Gen. James Appleton
presented a memorial demanding the abolition
of all license laws, and the entire prohibition
of liquor-selling " except for medicine and the
arts." A prohibitory bill, according with this
demand, was defeated. In 1838 Tennessee en-
acted a law which prohibited the retailing of
drink in quantities less than one quart ; and
the same year a convention of 400 delegates,
in Massachusetts, organized a total-abstinence
State Temperance Society, and presented to
the Legislature a petition asking : " Is it right
to give authority to sell insanity and deal out
sure destruction? If it is right, why should
any be forbidden to do it? If not right, why
should any be permitted to do it?" The Le-
gislative committee recommended prohibition ;
and a bill was passed prohibiting the sale of
spirits in less quantities than fifteen gallons.
Mississippi enacted the one-gallon law in 1839 ;
and Illinois granted power to towns and coun-
ties to suppress the retail traffic, on petition
signed by a majority of the male inhabitants.
The next five years might be called the local-
option era, since many of the States made lo-
cal prohibition possible by popular vote. As
local option appeared democratic in idea, it met
with comparatively little legislative opposition.

Maine, first to attack the liquor-traffic by
legislative memorial, passed the first general
prohibitory law in 1846, which year ended the
local-option era. This law failed, as has been
said, " because it was not as thorough in its

apparatus as in its principle." Delaware fol-
lowed with a similar law in 1847 ; but this was
submitted to and ratified by the people, and
was then declared unconstitutional by the Su-
preme Court, because of such submission. In
1849 the temperance men of Maine, under the
leadership of Neal Dow, carried the elections,
and on June 2, 1851, by a vote of two to one,
the first prohibitory law was superseded by
the "Maine law," as it was soon denominated,
drafted by Mr. Dow. He declared confiscation
ot'^the liquor as the practical correlative of the
principle of prohibition, and this law embodied
" search and seizure " provisions which ren-
dered it effective. Under it the first seizure
was made at Bangor, July 4th of the year the
law passed, and a second followed in Portland
shortly after, where $2,000 worth of liquor was
destroyed in presence of a great crowd of peo-
ple. In May, 1855, the Maine law caused a
mob in Portland, the military were called out,
and one of the rioters was killed and several
wounded. At the next election the Prohibition
party failed to secure its necessary plurality
of votes, and in 1856 a Democratic Legislature
repealed the prohibitory law, and substituted
a stringent license law in place of it ; but after
two years' experience with increased crime,
pauperism, and disorder, Maine re-enacted pro-
hibition by a legislative measure submitted to
the people, and ratified by a majority vote of
22,952. The only subsequent change in that
law has been to render it more rigorous.

Following the lead of Maine and partially
patterning after the Maine law, prohibition
was enacted in Minnesota (1852), Rhode island
(1852), Massachusetts (1852), Vermont (1852),
Michigan (1853), Connecticut (1854), Indiana
(1855), Delaware (re -enacted 1855), Iowa
(1855), Nebraska (1855), New York (1855),
New Hampshire (1855), and Illinois (1855).
Of the fourteen Legislatures which thus en-
acted prohibition in four years, eight were
Democratic, four "Whig, and two American;
two of the Democratic and one of the Whig
having anti-Nebraska members on the domi-
nant side. In only two of these States has the
prohibitory law stood until now — Vermont and
New Hampshire. In six it was declared un-
constitutional — Delaw are, Rhode Island, Mas-
sachusetts, Michigan, Indiana, and New York.
In Connecticut it was repealed. In Iowa a
" wine-and-beer clause" afterward rendered it
largely inoperative. In Illinois it failed of ap-
proval by the people. It was announced in
1856 that prohibition had driven the open
liquor-traffic out of three fourths of Massachu-
setts; and in the city of Lowell, in one year,
it caused a diminution of 77 per cent, in the
recorded cases of drunkenness. In Connecticut
Gov. Dutton said, " The home of the peaceful
citizen was never before so secure " ; and the
Mayor of Providence, after three months of the
law in Rhode Island, published statistics show-
ing that the commitments had been reduced
nearly 60 per cent. In Vermont the State's

PROHIBITION.

665

attorney of Chittenden county, writing from
Burlington, said, " The law has put an end to
drunkenness and crime almost entirely." In
New Hampshire several counties reported
(1856) their jails tenantless. In New York,
where the opposition was greatest, the law was
declared by Gov. Clark to hav« been generally
obeyed outside the great cities; and in Al-
bany, Syracuse, Auburn, Utica, and Roches-
ter, the police committals for offenses other
than drunkenness, in six months only, were
decreased 1,910. New York had prohibition
but a short time before its unconstitutionality
was declared by the Supreme (Jourt, not be-
cause of its principle, but because the act did
" not express itself with sufficient specificness
and discrimination " ; and in 1857 a license law
ras enacted, prohibitory as to selling to In-
lians, minors, and habitual drunkards, also as
selling on Sunday. "With some modifica-
tions, rendering it no less prohibitive in char-
3ter but more easy of evasion, it has contin-
3d until now.

The prohibition era ended in 1856, when
slavery came to the front, as a great moral
id political question, and overshadowed tem-
srance. Special work to secure the enact-
lent of prohibitory laws ceased in 3855, and
jtive effort to hold these laws and secure
leir enforcement lasted but a year or two
mger in most of the States. Five years of
iti-slavery agitation followed the decade of
iti-liquor agitation, and four years of civil
rar spread the drink-habit disastrously. Li-
ise had become the prevailing State policy,
nth such partial prohibition as the traffic
rould permit. The distilling and brewing in-
rests had swelled to enormous proportions.
Curing the last year of the war, the revenue
Government from distilled and fermented
iquors multiplied almost fourfold. Intemper-
ice was more general than at any tim 3 be-
>re in two generations. Anti-liquor agitation
again, both reformative and political,
icited largely by the beer-brewers, who were
^solved upon removing all restrictions from
fermented liquors, and doing away in particu-
with Sunday prohibition. At the seventh
ir-Brewers' Congress, held in Chicago, June
1867, they declared " the action and influ-
of the Temperance party " in " direct op-
sition to the principles of individual freedom
id political equality," and —

Resolved, that we will use all means to stay the
rogress of this fanatical party, and to secure our in-
ividual rights as citizens, and that we will sustain
) candidate, of whatever party, in any election, who

in any way disposed toward the total-abstinence
mse.

There was at this time no Prohibition party,,
lational or State ; there had been none ; and
the "Temperance party" here referred to was
but the unorganized mass of temperance voters,
* both political parties, who carried their prin-

ples into the elections as opportunity offered.

lese men, represented in the Sixth National

Temperance Convention, held in Cleveland,
Ohio, July 29 and 30, 1868, accepted the is-
sue, and resolved, "that temperance, having
its political as well as moral aspects and du-
ties, demands the persistent use of the ballot
for its promotion," and the convention, in the
same resolution, urged "the friends of the
cause to refuse to vote for any candidate who
denies the application of the just powers of
the civil government to the suppression of the
liquor-traffic," and exhorted "the friends of
temperance, by every practical method in their
several localities, to secure righteous political
action for the advancement of the cause."

A National Movement. — The idea of a national
Prohibition party was broached during the
session of the Right Worthy Grand Lodge of
Good Templars, held in Oswego, N. Y., May
25, 1869, and a committee was appointed to
issue the call. Pursuant thereto, nearly 600
delegates, representing twenty States, assem-
bled in Chicago, September 1st of the same
year, organized the National Prohibition Re-
form party, and adopted an address by Gerrit
Smith. The first nominating convention of
that party was held at Columbus, Ohio, Feb.
22, 1872, adopted a comprehensive platform,
and nominated for President, James Black, of
Pennsylvania ; for Vice-President, John Rus-
seil, of Michigan. State organizations auxil-
iary followed the Chicago Convention, begin-
ning with Ohio, in 1869, and the nomination
there of the first distinctively Prohibition tick-
et, for which 679 votes were cast. In 1870
the party's vote, in five States, was 17,401 ;
a year later it reached 17,127 in six States;
in 1872, the presidential ticket received 5,508
from six States ; the next year six States gave
22,737; in 1874 ten States counted 46,025;
and the next year twelve States gave 51,986,
Pennsylvania leading with 13,244, followed by
New York with 11,103, Rhode Island with
8,724, and Massachusetts with 9,124. The
second national nominating convention of the
party was held in Cleveland, Ohio, May 17,
1876, with an attendance of about 100 dele-
gates, from twelve States. It nominated for
President, Green Clay Smith, of Kentucky ; for
Vice-President, Gideon T. Stewart, of Ohio ;
and they received 9,757 votes in seventeen
States, while the State tickets, in ten States,
received 26,014. In 1877 seven States polled
55,779, considerably more than have been re-
corded since, with the exception of 1882, when
the aggregate, in thirteen States, reached 98,-
768, New York leading with 25,763. -The na-
tional ticket, in 1880— Neal Dow and Henry
A. Thompson— had but 10,305. Twenty of the
States have had Prohibition tickets, one year
or more, since the party was first organized.
The largest vote cast by any of them was that
of New York in 1882. But, small as these
figures appear, prohibition has entered largely
into State and national politics since 1870.
Both the Democratic and Republican parties
have pronounced upon it. In their National

666

PROHIBITION".

Convention of 1872, at Philadelphia, it was
declared :

The Kepublican party proposes to respect the rights
reserved by the people to themselves as carefully as
the powers delegated by them to the State and to the
Federal Government. It disapproves) of a resort to
unconstitutional laws for the purpose of removing
evils by interference with rights not surrendered by
the people to either State or national Government.

Mr. Herman Raster, who wrote this, avowed
it to mean " the discountenancing of all so-
called temperance (prohibitory) and Sunday
laws." The Democratic party, nationally at
St. Louis in 1876, and at Cincinnati in 1880, as
also by State conventions in many States, de-
clared its opposition to all "sumptuary laws."
In 1875 a bill passed the Senate of the United
States to provide for a commission of inqui-
ry " in reference to the question of revenue
from the manufacture and sale of alcoholic
and fermented liquors, and the effect of the
use of such liquors upon the morals and wel-
fare of the people " ; but it was defeated in the
House of Representatives. The same measure
has passed the Senate four times since, with
uniform failure in the House ; and the beer in-
terest has kept an attorney in Washington to
insure its defeat.

Prohibition by Constitutional Amendment.— On
Dec. 27, 1876, Hon. Henry W. Blair, of New
Hampshire, introduced in the House of Rep-
resentatives a joint resolution to amend the
Constitution of the United States by prohibit-
ing, "from and after the year of our Lord
1900, the manufacture and sale of distilled al-
coholic intoxicating liquors," providing that
on the last day of December, 1890, the same
should have been ratified by three fourths of
the States, and supported the measure in a
speech covering the entire question. Mr. Bla5r
has since kept this national amendment before
the Senate.

State constitutional prohibitory amend-
ments came to be considered soon after the
national amendment was first proposed. The
Woman's Crusade (1873-'74), purely moral and
spiritual in its agencies, persuasive in its ef-
forts, and marvelous in its immediate results,
had not permanently checked intemperance.
The Reform Club movement, with all its blue-
ribbon enthusiasm, did not close the saloons,
or hold in total-abstinence ranks a large per-
centage of the men swept into it. The Wom-
an's Christian Temperance Union, allied there-
with, was almost powerless in presence of
a legalized traffic, potent in politics and pro-
tected by law. The Prohibition party was ill
organized where it existed, of meager member-
ship, and only stood as a weak protest against
a mighty power. How to apply the ballot,
under existing political conditions, and make
it effective for prohibition, was a problem
•which the amendment plan appeared to solve.
It took the question out of party politics, and
separated it from the entanglements of party
necessities. It arrayed men on one side or
the other of a direct issue. Kansas began the

open fight for State constitutional prohibition.
For five years previous the work of moral
temperance reform had there been vigorously
carried on, with prohibition as the ultimate
end sought. The Governor, John P. St. John,
was a Republican Prohibitionist. In 1879
many restrictive bills were before the Legisla-
ture, and these finally gave way to an amend-
ment adding section 10 to Article XV, as fol-
lows:

The manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors
shall be forever prohibited in this State, except for
medical, scientific, and mechanical purposes.

This was passed by the Legislature, March
5, 1880, with barely a two-third vote in the
lower House, and went to the people for ratifica-
tion on the 2d of November. Gov. St. John
led the amendment campaign, and had the co-
operation of many able and active workers,
organizers, and lecturers, from other States.
The liquor-manufacturers organized secretly,
and used every means in their power to stay
the temperance tides. Prohibition was adopt-
ed constitutionally by a majority of 7,998 in
a total vote of 176,606, and enforcing stat-
utes were enacted by the Legislature. The Re-
publican party renominated Gov. St. John, in
1882, for a third gubernatorial term, by al-
most the entire vote of the nominating con-
vention ; but he was defeated at the polls by
about the majority which prohibition had re-
ceived, though his opponent, Gov. Glick, did
not have so large a vote as had been recorded
against prohibition. A prohibition Legisla-
ture was elected, which refused to submit the
anti-prohibition amendment offered. The de-
feat of Gov. St. John was everywhere account-
ed the defeat of the principle he had advo-
cated, and open organization went forward to
nullify the law. In all the larger cities and
towns it was for two years overridden, though
partially successful through the State at large.
But in the autumn of 1883 those officials who
had favored the defiance of law were deposed,
prosecutions against violators were pressed
with unusual rigor, and both open and secret
rebellion against the Constitution and laws of
the State almost entirely ceased. This new
impulse began with a monster temperance con-
vention at Topeka, Jan. 9, 1883, where 1,241
delegates assembled, and was continued
through the efforts of the Kansas State Tem-
perance Union. At the election the next au-
tumn the enforcement of prohibitory law was
made an issue in three fourths of the counties
of the State, and in nearly all of these sheriffs
were chosen duly pledged to perform their en-
tire duty. In Topeka, the capital city, was
made the most bitter fight of the liquor inter-
est. The city was proceeded against, and a
decision of the Supreme Court said that the
city could not derive a revenue from the sa-
loons. A case being made against the mayor,
the same court decided that the State must
proceed against him by criminal information
in the court below. He resigned on plea of

PROHIBITION".

667

health, a prohibitionist was elected by 492
lajority, and all the saloons were closed.
Iowa's Legislature finally submitted an
mdment to popular vote, June 27, 1882, it
iving been proposed and approved by the
jislature previous. There was a prohibitory
iw on the statute-books of that State, but its
" wine and beer " clause gave practical exemp-
'lon to the entire traffic in spirituous liquors.
)n its face, however, the prohibitory amend-
lent had sole reference to wine and beer ; and
jut 33 per cent, of the voters in Iowa were
jign-born. The contest here was carried
>rward chiefly by the Woman's Christian Tern-
mce Union, which perfected an organiza-
ion in every county, made a thorough canvass
the State, introduced a constitutional cate-
rism among the children, and in four months
jcomplished an educational work as effective
its influences as it was surprising in its ex-
it. The ablest temperance speakers were
the platform, in the pulpit, and on street
)rners, night and day. The literature of pro-
libition was scattered broadcast, but with unu-
lal discrimination. The total vote was 281,-
113, and prohibition won by a majority of
),759. A test case being mada up against it,
16 amendment was declared unconstitutional
>y the Supreme Court, on the ground of a
jrical error in the records of the Legislature,
by which it was originally passed. (See IOWA,
page 445.) Thus nullified in its constitutional
embodiment, the principle was taken by those
who supported it directly into the political can-
vass of 1883, the Republican party approving
and the Democratic opposing, and was made
the leading issue. " A school-house on every
hill-top, and no saloon in the valleys," became
the Republican rallying-cry, and again prohi-
bition won. A bill rescinding the " wine and
beer " exemption of the existing prohibitory
law was promptly passed.

Ohio followed in the work for constitutional
prohibition. After passing the Scott high-
tax law, the Legislature of that State in 1883
adopted two forms of amendment, or two
amendments, one for prohibition, the other for
license. Under the Constitution as it stood,
no license laws could be enacted, but there
might be, or there was, free trade in liquors,
except as covered by a tax, while there might
also be prohibitory enactments if the Legisla-
ture so desired. Both amendments were sub-
mitted at the regular election ensuing, October
5th. They were confusing in their antagonistic
provisions, and the temperance people appeared
for a short time in doubt as to what position
should be assumed. Then they organized for
the second, or prohibitory amendment, and in
opposition to the first. Here, as in Iowa, the
Woman's Christian Temperance Union led the
campaign; but a Constitutional Amendment
Association, composed mainly of voters, helped
to bear its burdens. Of necessity the question
became more or less mixed up with the party
struggle then in progress. The Democratic

party had declared for license, but was chiefly
antagonizing the high-tax law; the Republi-
can party openly supported the Scott law, and
gave no help to prohibition. Yet for the third
time in thirty-three years the people of Ohio,
through a majority of those voting apon it,
declared themselves against license and in favor
of prohibition; but the prohibitory amendment
was lost. It received, as counted and
turned, 323,188 votes, out of a total of 721,310
cast for the several State tickets, and a majority
of this total was required for its passage. The
license amendment had less than 100,000, and
besides these only about 100,000 voted against
the second amendment. Of the 88 counties in
the State, 83 gave an aggregate majority for
prohibition of 4,315, and 46 of these gave indi-
vidual majorities.

In Indiana a prohibitory amendment passed
the Legislature of 1882, but was defeated in
the Senate of 1883, because of an alleged error
in the legislative record. In Connecticut such
an amendment passed the House in 1882 by
140 to 20, but was beaten in 1883 by 115 to 83.
In Pennsylvania, in 1881, it passed the House
by 109 to 59, but failed in the Senate ; in 1888,
being reintroduced, it was amended in com-
mittee by a compensation clause, for the bene-
fit of all persons whose property-rights the
amendment might impair, and was killed by a
vote of 151 to 27. Wisconsin lost the amend-
ment bill in 1881, by lack of the necessary two
thirds, though the vote stood 51 for to 39
against in the House ; in 1883 the House vote
was against it. New Jersey's upper House
adopted the amendment in 1883, by 11 to 10,
but the lower House defeated it by 29 to 27.
Michigan, in 1881, gave, in the House, 63 for,
33 against ; in the Senate, 21 for, to 10 against ;
but in 1883 there was not the necessary two
thirds in favor. Maine legislatively adopted
the amendment last winter by 91 to 30, and
22 to 2, in the two houses; it is now (1884)
before the people. Massachusetts defeated it
by 115 to 83; New York (1883), by 54 to 42,
and 18 to 13 ; Nebraska (1882), by lack of two
thirds; Illinois (1882), by 21 to 16 in the Sen-
ate, 66 for to 51 against in the House; Mis-
souri (1883), by 68 to 59 ; West Virginia, by
lack of two thirds ; Texas gave it a majority
of both houses in 1881, but lost it the next
year; the Arkansas House gave it 66 to 17 in
1881, but the Senate did not concur ; Minne-
sota lost it by 49 to 38 ; and Oregon passed it
in 1883 by 52 to 6 in the House and 18 to 1C
in the Senate, thus remitting it to another Le-
gislature. Prohibition by constitutional amend-
ment is now the settled policy of temperance-
workers in nearly all the States.

Local Option.— Local prohibition by local op-
tion exists in sixteen of the thirty-five towns
in Rhode Island ; in about half the towns of
Connecticut; in portions of five counties in
New Jersey and in one entire, as also in two
or three large towns ; in fourteen out of twen-
ty-three counties of Maryland, where vigorous

668

PROHIBITION'.

local-option campaigns have been carried on ;
in large areas of Alabama and Mississippi ; in
about half of West Virginia; in many coun-
ties of Texas, of North Carolina and South
Carolina; in forty-two counties, of Georgia;
and in several counties of Missouri, Illinois,
and Kentucky. Tennessee has local prohibi-
tion very largely through her four-mile law,
which forbids the sale of liquor within four
miles of a chartered institution of learning,
outside of incorporated towns, and about one
hundred towns have surrendered their char-
ters, so as to come under the operation of the
law. Arkansas has a similar three-mile limi-
tation, applied by a majority of the people,
women also voting. Potter county, Pa., has
had prohibition many years by special law.
The towns of Vineland, N. J. ; Greeley, Col. ;
Pullman, 111. ; Bavaria, 111. ; St. Johnsbury, Vt. ;
and Millville, N. J., have absolute prohibition,
the first three by provision in title-deeds. The
entire Indian Territory has it by authority of
the United States Government (declared in
1834, in a law "for .the protection of the In-
dian tribes"), and the Cherokee nation also by
their own constitution and laws.

High License. — High-license laws, considered
prohibitory in effect, prevail in several of the
States. In Arkansas, besides the three-mile
limitation, which refers to a church as well as
a school-house, the State fee is $300, and most
counties require from $300 to $500 additional.
In Missouri the lowest fee is $550, and this
may be indefinitely increased by any town.
Illinois has a fee of $150 for ale and beer, and
$500 for distilled liquors, and every city, coun-
ty, town, or village may prohibit the sale of
intoxicants entirely, by majority vote. Michi-
gan levies $200 tax on each wholesale and re-
tail dealer in malt-liquors, and $500 on each
wholesale dealer in spirituous liquors. In Ne-
braska the fee is $1,000, and every man want-
ing license must have the approbation of thirty
freeholders, his petition must be published two
weeks in the newspaper of largest local circu-
lation, and if any objection be made to him he
is debarred; he must also give $5,000 bonds,
and must support all paupers, widows, and
orphans, and pay the expense of all prosecu-
tions, civil and criminal, which may be justly
attributable to the traffic. Minnesota has a
law quite similar. Sunday prohibition exists
by statute in every State where restrictive
laws have been enacted, but in all the large
cities of all the license States it is but spas-
modically enforced, as a rule, though generally
observed by dealers in the smaller towns.

Effects of Enforcement. — As to the general en-
forcement of prohibition law, opinions differ.
Maine, where it has been longest in operation,
is usually cited to prove its failure or success.
From the State and Government records these
figures are gleaned: There are no distilleries
or breweries in Maine. In 1883 the United
States tax of $25 was paid by 813 persons in
the State, including nearly 200 druggists, and

because of the vigilant Government-detective
service it was believed that this number repre-
sented all who were in any manner engaged in
the traffic. All these were secret dealers, save
the druggists and the dealers in seventeen cities
and large towns. Counting the druggists as
dealers, there was one dealer to about 800 in-
habitants ; in New York there is one to every
180, and the average number in the Northern
license States is one to 210. The internal rev-
enue collected in 1882, on the manufacture and
sale of liquors, was four cents and three mills
per capita ; throughout the entire Union it av-
eraged $1.71 per capita. There were 156 deal-
ers in Portland in 1883, most of them secret.
In the 14 cities, with a population of 177,863,
there were 496 persons, including druggists,
who paid United States tax, or one to 300 in-
habitants. In 60 license cities of other States
there was one dealer to 155 inhabitants. In
470 towns and plantations in the State there
were but 220 dealers, or one to about every
2,000 inhabitants. In 355 towns and planta-
tions not a single dealer was found. In two
cities and fifteen towns the law is not en-
forced, and these reported 179 dealers; while
in 12 cities and 142 towns, where the law is
enforced, 473 secret or suspected places were
reported, making in these places, all told, one
dealer to over 1,000 inhabitants. Actual ar-
rests in 60 licensed cities show an average
number of 27 to every thousand population ;
in the fourteen cities of Maine, during the
municipal year ending in 1883, the average
number was 17 to every 1,000; in all the
cities, except Bangor and Portland, it was 10
per thousand ; and in Lewiston and Auburn it
was but three. The State at large has one
high criminal to every 1,600 inhabitants; New
York, one to 690.

A multitude of senators, governors, judges,
and other officials have testified that the law
is a success, despite its confessed non-enforce-
ment in certain places. Said Judge Davis,
"The Maine law even now is enforced far
more than the license laws ever were." In a
letter written in 1882, Hon. James G. Elaine
said : " Intemperance has steadily decreased in
this State, since the first enactment of the pro-
hibitory law, until now it can be said with
truth that there is no equal number of people
in the Anglo-Saxon world, among whom so
small an amount of intoxicating liquor is con-
sumed as among the 650,000 inhabitants of
Maine." Perhaps the most impartial testimo-
ny given was furnished in 1881, by two special
reporters sent by the " Toronto Globe." One
of these was a prohibitionist and the other was
opposed to prohibition. The latter found that
"in the cities the law has been a partial fail-
ure, so far as uprooting the traffic or even the
suppression of open bars is concerned ; that
this failure has been greatly exaggerated by
quoting exceptional places or periods as typi-
cal of the whole State, and by the ingenious
perversion of statistics ; that in . the rural

PROHIBITION.

portions of the State, the Maine law has sup-
pressed open drinking, and reduced secret
drinking to a minimum, and may, therefore, be
considered as effective as any other measure
on the statute-book ; that the class of liquor-
sellers who defy the law are the same class
of men who, under a license system, would sell
liquor without license."

Constitutionality. — The constitutionality of pro-
hibition has been repeatedly considered by the
courts. In January, 1847, the cases of Thur-
>w vs. Massachusetts, Fletcher vs. Rhode Isl-
id, and Pierce vs. New Hampshire came up
>r hearing before the United States Supreme
>ench. In these cases license had been denied,
id the decision covered two points — the ex-
mt to which licenses might be conceded, and
le right to prohibit unlicensed sale. Chief-
Fustice Taney, in delivering judgment, said:
Although a State is bound to receive and per-
mit the sale, by the importer, of any article of
merchandise which Congress authorizes to be
imported, it is not bound to furnish a market
for it, nor to abstain from the passage of any
law which it may deem necessary or advisable
to guard the health or morals of its citizens,
although such law may discourage importa-
tion, or diminish the profits of the importer,
or lessen the revenue of the Government. And
if any State deem the retail and internal traffic
ardent spirits injurious to citizens, and cal-
sulated to produce idleness, vice, or debauch-
ry, I see nothing in the Constitution of the
Tnited States to prevent it from regulating and
jstraining the traffic, or from prohibiting it
altogether if it thinks proper." Justice McLean
concurred, saying that " in the exercise of that
reat and comprehensive police power which
ies at the foundation of its prosperity " the
State may "prohibit the .sale," and uevery-
ling prejudicial to the health or morals of a
city may be removed." Justice Grier said,
" Police laws for the prevention of crime and
protection of public welfare must of necessity
have full and free operation, according to the
exigency that requires their interference."
Said Justice Catron, also concurring, " I ad-
mit, as inevitable, that if the State has the pow-
er of restraint by license to any extent, she has
the discretionary power to judge of its limit,
and may go the length of prohibiting it alto-
gether."

The State courts which have declared uncon-
stitutional the prohibitory laws passed on by
them, have done so, without exception, on some
technical ground and not as regards the prin-
ciple. In Kansas a plea was made that the
amendment contravened the fourteenth amend-
ment to the Constitution of the United States,
which provided that no State should pass any
law which would abridge the privileges and
immunities of citizens of the United States;
but the Supreme Court decided otherwise.

In Foreign Countries.— In Great Britain, pro-
hibition has made considerable progress. Sales
without license are punishable by fine or im-

prisonment ; and all licensed places, in the
metropolitan district of England, must be
closed from midnight on Saturday until 1 p. M.
Sunday, and from 3 till 6 that afternoon, then
from 11 at night until 5 A.M. Monday.

Ireland has a similar Sunday-closing law,
which first took effect in 1878, save in the
cities of Dublin, Cork, Waterford, Belfast, and
Limerick ; yet, notwithstanding these are great
centers of population, the law reduced by $15,-
000,000 per annum, for four years, the con-
sumption of beer and spirits; and, contrjj.-tin^
1877 with 1882, there was a diminution in the
arrests for drunkenness, throughout Ireland,
of over 20,000.

In the Dominion of Canada, under the act
of 1878, every county or city may petition the
Secretary of State, and have a vote of the
electors taken as to whether the liquor-traffic
shall be prohibited or not, and if the major-
ity favors prohibition it must stand until that
vote has been repealed. In Ontario all licensed
places must be closed from 7 P. M. Saturday till
6 A. M. Monday ; and the council of any mu-
nicipality may pass a local prohibitory by-law,
or thirty electors may propose such a by-law,
and demand a poll to determine its adoption.

Sweden started a temperance movement in
1835, which resulted in the Gothenburg plan
of license, in 1853, whereby every individual
is prohibited from deriving any private gain
from the sale of spirits, or having any interest
in extending their consumption. Licenses are
sold by auction to a company organized for the
purpose, which pays over the profits of all sales
to the town or provincial treasuries to apply in
reduction of taxes. In ten years, it is claimed,
this system reduced drunkenness 40 per cent
By a permissive bill, also in operation now in
Sweden, the local authorities may prohibit the
traffic altogether.

Russia has the Gothenburg plan for the na-
tion at large, and limits the traffic to one dealer
in each village, with privileges equally restrict-
ed ; while any commune can enforce total pro-
hibition at pleasure.

Several towns and counties in Great Britain
maintain prohibition. Saltaire has not had
a drinking-place in many years. Bessbrook,
Ireland, has 4,000 inhabitants, with no poor-
house, no pawn-shop, no police-station. In
Tyrone county, Ireland, there are 61 square
miles of land and 10,000 people, without a pub-
lic-house or (in 1870) a policeman. In 1,456
parishes in the province of Canterbury, con-
taining over 230,000 inhabitants, and- in 80 in
the province of York, no public-house or beer-
shop is permitted. On numerous private estates
prohibition prevails ; and there are large areas
in the new portions of Liverpool and London
where, by title-deed provisions, the sale of
liquor is forever prohibited. One of these
tracts, in the south of Liverpool, is one and a
half by two miles in extent, and has 50,000
people. The annual death-rate ranges there
between 10 and 12 per 1,000, while Liverpool,

670

PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHUKCH IN THE UNITED STATES.

as a city, is reckoned as having the largest
death-rate in the United Kingdom, ranging
from 25 to 35 per 1,000 annually.

The Arguments. — Advocates of prohibition
base their arguments on the greatest good of
the greatest number; the duty of Government
to conserve general welfare ; the right of the
State to exact obedience by the citizen; the
known tendency of intoxicating liquors to pro-
duce immorality, vice, and crime ; their certain
source of taxation, and their enormous national
waste. Human brotherhood, Christian sen-
timent, moral need, and progressive civiliza-
tion, it is held, demand the suppression of a
traffic which cares for none of these considera-
tions, but debases manhood, debars Christian-
ity, and defiles the State. With John Stuart
Mill, prohibitionists believe that "to tax stim-
ulants, for the sole purpose of making them
more difficult to be obtained, is a measure dif-
fering only in degree from their entire prohi-
bition"; and the claim of "personal liberty,"
as opposed to prohibitory law, they meet with
a further declaration by Mr. Mill that " the
liberty of one man ends, however profitable it
may be to himself, when it interferes with the
well-being of another."

PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH IN THE
UNITED STATES. This Church is in commun-
ion with the Church of England (whence it
derives its origin), and with all the branches
of the Anglican Church throughout the British
Empire and elsewhere. Its position and growth
in the United States are of more than ordinary
interest at the present time, inasmuch as it
counts just one hundred years of life, as a
church existing of and by itself in the repub-
lic of the United States, and enjoying the privi-
leges of our country's laws and regulations in
regard to religious bodies of every description.
The year 1883 is further noteworthy in Epis-
copal Church affairs, because of the earnest
and zealous effort put forth and carried out to
completion, in order to give greater flexibility
in the use of the Book of Common Prayer,
and greater enrichment and fullness to the
public services of the Church. The sources of
information from which this article is drawn
are, the Journal of the General Convention of
1883, Pott's "Church Almanac, "and Whitta-
ker's "Protestant Episcopal Almanac." The
following table presents a summary of statis-
tics of Church progress from 1880 to 1883 :

Number of dioceses

Number of missionary jurisdictions

Bishops

Candidates for orders

Deacons ordained

Priests ordained

Whole number of clergy

Number of parishes.

Missions

Corner-stones laid

Churches consecrated

Number of churches and chapels

Free churches and chapels 1,337

Rectories 1,159

Families 129,961

Baptisms (infant and adult) 134,080

Confirmations 75,5'iO

Marriages —

48
15

. 68

401

409

359

3,627

2,749

1,307

140

811

3,782

Burials 77.586

Communicants 864,125

Sunday-school teachers 33,900

Sunday-school scholars. 814,910

Church hospitals 45

Church orphan asylums 48

Church homes 32

Academic and collegiate institutions 116

Theological and other institutions 72

Communion alms 1515,48584

Offerings for diocesan missions $533,672 82

Offerings for domestic missions $649.468 04

Offerings for foreign missions $357,778 46

Total of charitable offerings and income $9,487,480 04

Total offerings for religious purposes $28,912,731 08

PROGRESS BY DIOCESES.

DIOCESES.

Clergy.

Parishes

Baptisms.

Confir-
mation i

Communi-
cants.

Alabama.

27

43

647

681

3784

Albany

128

144

4905

2,822

13018

Arkansas
California
Central New York . .
Central Pennsylvania
Connecticut .

15
60
96
96

184

18
45
111
166
166

850

1,881
8,881
3,594
5,390

223
1,200
2,447
2,146
3,132

1,138
4,600
12,848
7,486
21,044

Delaware

29

36

811

844

2.101

Easton

86

59

1,163

429

2,688

Florida
Fond du Lac
Georgia
Illinois
Indiana

80
26
38
63
84
59

48
88
54
81
46
70

960
925
1,588
2,710
1,169
1 356

847
430
916
1,488

688
649

1,642
2,390
4,768
7,413

8,884
4247

80

81

523

426

2,048

Kentucky .

86

46

1,370

981

4.382

Long Island
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland

107
88
27
175

100
51
85
196

5,984

1.827
888
7457

3,336
1,197
454
4.454

16,827
3,946
2,300
22,805

172

142

6898

3,238

19,282

Michigan

103

3,540

2,097

8,472

Minnesota
Mississippi..;
Missouri

79
26

60

102
47
85

2,434
918
1,685

1,451
567
1,105

5,505
2,401
5,385

Nebraska
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New York

36
82
91

818

35
84

115

202

972
474
3,208
15.803

495
380
1,685

8.982

2,040
2.062

8,881
36,675

North Carolina
North'n New Jersey.
Ohio

76

84
74

119
75
100

2,297
4,608
2,410

1,188
2,495
1,519

6.323
9,278
7,259

Pennsylvania
Pittsburg

200
56

147

74

10,000
2593

5,583
1 332

27.746
6,206

Quincy
Ehode Island
South Carolina
Southern Ohio
Springfield

28
47
49
49
43

45
49
88
57
41

731
2,295
1,682
1,358
1,118

436
1,163
897
1,090

786

1,936

6.995
5.097
5,651
2,129

Tennessee
Texas

89

18

57
82

1,203
1,058

898
450

3,247
2,400

Vermont
Virginia

34

151

47
252

865
4,745

558
2,797

3,529
14,158

"West Virginia

24

33

667

586

2,135

Western Michigan. . .
Western New York .
Wisconsin .... ....

28

106

77

43
104
92

985
3.693
1,519

502
2,111
1,025

3,111
10.692
4,789

Missionary Juris-
dictions.
Colorado and Wyo-

82

80

1,227

407

2,111

Dakota

20

19

117

85

1,295

Idaho and Utah
Montana

12

7

9
14

595
380

181
171

728
686

Nevada
New Mexico and Ari-
zona
Niobrara
Northern California .
Northern Texas

7

7
14
11
10
19

14

7
27
17

15
26

516

71
1,329
496
498
583

132

54
801
261
216

241

302

339
794
504
1,184

889

10

11

811

104

409

Western Texas
Cape Palmas
Japan
Shanghai

ia

14

8

18

20
16
11
12

482
222
95
285

255
42
58
106

1,104
408
108
247

Total

3,627

2,933

184,080

75.560

864,125

PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES.

671

GENERAL COMPARISON.

DATE.

Number of
dioceses.

Number

of clergy.

Number of communicant..

Pop***.

1 f 90

7

190

8,920,214

8

210 increase

10 per cent

11978

.', :','i- i-.-;

9

218,

7 289 881

1320

18

831,

50

ijttSi

1330

20

534,

60

12,866,020

25

1,059,

100

17069468

29

1,5S9,

60

87,794

28,19 1^76

1Q60

88

2,156,

80

146,588. increase 66 per cent. .

81,448,821

1 g^O

40

2,888,

40

220000, " 60 "

88,666371

1880

48

8,482,

21

844,789, " 56 " ..

50,152,686

The General Convention. — This body, which
is the supreme legislature in the Episcopal
Church, meets triennially in the place ap-
pointed from time to time. It assembled this
year in Philadelphia, October 3d, and contin-
ued in session until October 26th, inclusive.
There were about fifty bishops present, and
also clerical and lay deputies from forty-eight
dioceses and two missionary jurisdictions. The
Convention consists of two houses, which hold
sessions as distinct bodies, viz., the House of
Bishops and the House of Clerical and Lay
Deputies; but concurrent action (as in the
case of the Senate and House of Representa-
tives at Washington) is necessary to valid legis-
lation. In addition to regular business re-
quiring attention, such as action on proposed
amendments to the Constitution and Canons,
reports of standing and special committees,
the state of the church, etc., the chief feature
of interest to church people at large was the
very full and able report, and its free and
careful discussion, of the joint committee on
the Book of Common Prayer, appointed three
years ago. The entire proceedings are pre-
sented in the " Journal of the General Conven-
tion," as a supplemental journal.

Domestic and Foreign Missions.— The Board of
Missions consists of the bishops of the Church,
of the members of the House of Deputies and
of the Board of Managers. It holds its sessions
at the sacrie time and place as the General Con-
vention. The Board of Managers consists of
the bishops, the treasurer of the board, and
fifteen laymen appointed triennially. This
board is charged with all the powers of the
Board of Missions during the interval between
the triennial meetings, and divides its work
between a Domestic Committee and a Foreign
Committee, with headquarters in New York.

Domestic Missions.— $*&. 1, 1882, to Sept.
1, 1883. Missionaries (13 missionary jurisdic-
tions and 25 dioceses) ; bishops, 14 ; other cler-
gymen (white, colored, Indian), 425 ; teachers,
other helpers, etc., 45 ; total, 484. The finan-
cial condition was as follows:

Collections, legacies, etc $272,082 61

Expenditures (thirteen missionary jurisdictions

and twenty-nine dioceses) ly&Sh AO

Missions among Indians and colored 61<440 4

Office and other expenses 14-240 93

Cash in bank _31,069JU)

Total *272'082 61

Foreign Missions.— Sept. 1, 1882, to Sept.
1, 1883. Missionary bishops, 3 ; other clergy

(white and native), 87 ; teachers, helpers, etc.,
154; total, 194. The financial condition was
as follows :

Collections, legacies, general rand $142,571 »6

Specials, etc 16,85s 55

Treasury overdrawn 8,711 84

Total $162,641 84

The Woman's Auxiliary to the Board of Mis-
sions renders efficient aid in the work of all the
departments, by means of parochial, city, coun-
ty, and diocesan associations of ladies, formed
for the purpose of raising money, preparing
and forwarding boxes, and otherwise helping
on the missions of the church.

Money raised for domestic, foreign, freedmen, and

Indian missions $47.627 76

Boxes for the same (1,540 in number), value 10a,619 18

Total $157,246 88

The American Church Missionary Society
(also auxiliary to the Board of Missions) has
employed during the year, in 17 dioceses and
missionary jurisdictions, 40 missionaries. The
financial condition was as follows :

Receipts from parishes, etc $12,644 28

Receipts for foreign missions 261 08

Balance in hand Sept. 1,1888 2,894 10

Total $15,799 41

Boxes of clothing sent to missionaries

Boxes of clothing, value

The society has also in legacies, securities, etc.,
over $31,000

The Mexican League, in aid of church work
in Mexico, reports that during the past three
years (Sept. 1, 1880, to Sept. 1, 1883) it has
contributed, in both general and special,
through the Foreign Committee, $54,968.39.
The interest in this work is much abated,
owing to various charges and ill rumors in
regard to Bishop Riley's doings, as well as a
general "muddle" in Mexican church affairs.
The whole subject was brought up at the
meeting of the Board of Missions in October,
but no satisfactory result was reached.-

The American Church Building Fund Com-
mission, established in 1880, is doing a good
work. The object proposed was to create a
fund of $1,000,000 to aid in building new.
churches in any diocese or missionary juris-
diction, and, if possible, to gather this sum
within three years. Although the commission
has not been able to accomplish that grand
result, it has gotten well under way, and looks
forward with confidence as to ultimate success.

672

EPISCOPAL CHURCH.

PURCELL, JOHN B.

A large number of applications for loans and
gifts was received, and to the extent of ability
help was granted. The treasurer reports (from
Jan. 1, 1881, to Sept. 1, 1883) that loans were
made to eight churches, amounting to $8,400,
and gifts amounting to $415.20. Receipts dur-
ing the same period, $50,471.77.

The Society for promoting Christianity
among the Jews (auxiliary to the Board of Mis-
sions) reports steady though not rapid prog-
ress. During the year eight new missionaries
were appointed, and three new missionary
schools and five new industrial schools were
established. Three new mission-houses have
been secured. Aid has been given to the par-
ish clergy of towns and villages in local work
among the Jews, through thirty-six 'dioceses
and ten missionary jurisdictions. Total num-
ber of workers has been 223, the Jews being
reached in 202 cities and towns.

Receipts, etc. (from April 1, 1882, to Sept. 1, 1833). $29,909 20

Expenditures for schools, salaries, etc 27,380 67

Balance to new account 2,528 53

Total $29,909 20

General Condition of Chnrch Affairs. — During the
year 1883 two bishops have died, viz., Bishops
Talbot and Pinkney (see OBITTJAEIES, AMEKI-
CAN), also sixty others of the clergy. Five
of the clergy have been raised to the Episco-
pate, viz., H. M. Thompson, Assistant Bishop
of Mississippi ; D. B. Knickerbacker, Bishop of
Indiana; H. C. Potter, Assistant Bishop of New
York; A. M. Randolph, Assistant Bishop of
Virginia; and W. D. Walker, Missionary Bishop
for Northern Dakota. The Committee of the
General Convention on the State of the Church
note the great deficiency in numbers of candi-
dates for orders, and attribute this deficiency
to various causes, such as the length of time
required and the great expense incurred in se-
curing proper education for the ministry ; the
frequent parochial changes ; and the lack of
provision for old age and infirmity.

The Church Temperance Society is spoken of
in high terms, and earnest hope is expressed
that it may be an efficient helper in " checking
the ravages of that sin which, while not so
general in America as in some localities abroad,
has, it can be averred without extravagance of
speech, consigned more to premature graves
than war, pestilence, and famine combined."

As illustrating the present spirit of the
Church, the committee's report calls attention
to the fact that "cathedrals, church schools
and colleges, hospitals and homes, have grown
apace in number and efficiency. Dioceses have
been subdivided into districts for more effective
missionary work in their own borders, bring-
ing clergy and laity of common centers into
more frequent counsel as fellow-helpers. Dea-
conesses and sisterhoods have been multiplied,
to do what only holy women with a distinctive
dress and under diocesan direction can do.
Guilds, in many leading parishes, have set all
their membership to active parochial work.
Church music has made progress; so that what

was ostentatious and unseemly in the house of
God has given place to that which is classical,
dignified, and churchly. And whereas, only
forty years ago, there was but a single parish
in all the land which had the Eucharist week-
ly, there are now some three hundred parishes
where it is celebrated as the central act of di-
vine worship, at least on every Lord's day.
The enriched Book of Common Prayer, with
the new Lectionary, is hailed with general de-
light, as not the least among the increased in-
strumentalities for pulling down the strong-
holds of sin, Satan, and death, and as com-
mending our branch of the kingdom of our
blessed Lord as pre-eminently adapted to the
composite character of the American people."

PURCELL, John Baptist, a Roman Catholic
prelate in the United States, born in Mallow,
Ireland, Feb. 26, 1800; died in the Ursuline
Convent at St. Martin's, Ohio, July 4, 1883.
He received a fair education, and in his eight-
eenth year came to America. On examina-
tion by the faculty of Asbury College, Balti-
more, he was granted a certificate, and he
soon after obtained a place as private teacher
in a family in Queen Anne county. In June,
1820, he entered Mount St. Mary's College at
Emmittsburg, Md., and prosecuted his studies
there for three years.

In the autumn of 1823 he received from
Archbishop Marechal, of Baltimore, the four
minor orders of the Roman Catholic Church.
Early in 1824 Mr. Purcell sailed for France,
to complete his studies in the seminary of St.
Sulpice, at Paris and Issy. He was raised to
the priesthood, in Notre Dame Church, with
three hundred others, on May 21, 1826. On
his return to the United States, the next year,
he was appointed Professor of Moral Philoso-
phy in Mount St. Mary's College. He also
aided Dr. Brut6 in teaching theology, and at
the same time attended to the. regular duties
of priest in the neighboring congregation. In
1829 he became president of the college, which
office he held for four years.

Father Purcell had been a priest for little
more than seven years, when, by pontifical
bull, in May, 1833, he was appointed Bishop
of Cincinnati. He was consecrated to this
office in Baltimore Cathedral, October 13th,
and installed in the Cathedral Church in Cin-
cinnati, Nov. 14, 1833. At this date there was
only one church of his denomination in Cin-
cinnati, and his diocese covered the whole
State of Ohio. His labors, consequently, were
arduous and incessant. He obtained relief as
to episcopal work proper by having Cleveland
diocese set off in 1847, and the diocese of
Columbus in 1868. He was very active and
industrious in founding churches in nearly
every considerable town in the State, as well
as in establishing an ecclesiastical seminary,
orphan asylums, protectories, colleges, gymna-
siums, convents, houses of education and re-
ligious houses, hospitals and free schools, and
various religious orders. In Cincinnati and its

PURCELL, JOHN B.

673

immediate suburbs there are now over thirty
Roman Catholic churches.

In 1839 Bishop Purcell was made assistant
prelate at the pontifical throne, and in 1850
he was promoted to the archbishopric of the
province of Cincinnati. Being in Rome, in
1851, he received the pallium from the Pope's
own hands. The Vatican Council was held in
1869-70, and Archbishop Purcell was one of
the American prelates who were present and
took part in its discussions and proceedings.
On the special point of the denning of the
Pope's infallibility and making it an article of
faith, he was constrained to record his vote
against it. On two occasions the archbishop
showed himself to be a very able debater and
an effective public speaker. The one was in
1837, when he held a discussion for seven days
with Alexander Campbell, founder of the sect
of Disciples, or Campbellite Baptists. The
discussion was published and widely circu-
lated. The other occasion was later, when, at
the age of threescore and ten, he encountered
an infidel orator, named Vickers, and defended
Christianity. This discussion also was pub-
lished under the title, " The Roman Clergy and
Free Thought " (1870). Other publications of
Archbishop Purcell's were Lectures and Pas-
toral Letters ; an introduction to the American
edition of Kenelm H. Digby's " Mores Catholici,
or Ages of Faith " (3 vols., 1847) ; Diocesan
Statutes, Acts, and Decrees of Three Provincial
Councils held in Cincinnati ; and a series of
school-books for use in Roman Catholic schools
in his diocese.

The latter years of this prelate were much
disturbed by financial difficulties. Like some
other Catholic bishops and priests in America,
Archbishop Purcell permitted his brother, the
vicar-general, to receive money on deposit, at
interest. Through bad management and care-
lessness, though with no purpose of dishonesty
or fraud, his diocese was found to be a loser
to the amount of $3,500,000. In December,
1878, the archbishop assumed the whole re-
sponsibility for these, transactions and made
a public statement, saying that he was very
deeply in debt, and unable to meet the de-
mands upon him. A large number of suits was
brought against him, ard he made an assign-
ment of all his property, real and personal, to
his brother, the Rev. Edward Purcell, who in
turn assigned the property to John B. Mannix,
an attorney, for the benefit of the creditors.
- The property assigned included the archbish-
op's residence, the old St. John's Hospital
building, the cathedral school, and some land
on the outskirts of the city. Most of the ac-
counts with the depositors, it was found, had
been kept on loose bits of paper, many of which
were lost, and some, having been made over
VOL. xxiii. — 43 A

thirty years ago, were almost illegible from age.
In the eight years 1871-'78 he had paid about
$580,000 in interest, and before the beginning
of that period he is supposed to have paid in
the same way $1,500,000.

The former assignment having been unsatis-
factory to some of the creditors, Archbishop
Purcell made a personal assignment of his
property, March 13, 1879. Three days later
the trustees appointed to take charge of the
property made their report. They found that
there were 3,485 creditors, presenting claims to
the amount of $3,672,371.57. Besides this, the
Very Rev. Edward Purcell individually owed
$117,000 and $85,000, the latter being secured
by a mortgage on real estate. They were at a
loss, they said, to ascertain the disposition of all
this property. They saw no reason to suspect
dishonesty or intentional fraud, but they thought
that bad investments, shrinkages, misplaced
confidence, and unbusinesslike management
had caused the trouble. The 'archbishop there-
upon published a letter, saying that the indebt-
edness of the diocese did not exceed $1,000,-
000 in equity. A large part of the debt, he
affirmed, was accumulated through paying in-
terest. For twenty years, he further declared,
he had supported the Diocesan Seminary with-
out taking a collection. He had bought a
church library of 16,000 volumes, nnd had
brought many priests from Europe. His broth-
er Edward, he said, had never put a dollar of
the church money to his own use. lie freely
acknowledged that he was honestly indebted to
his 3,000 creditors, and thanked the people
for their offers of assistance. Up to October,
1879, the amount collected toward defraying
this vast debt was not more than $75,600 — not
enough, in fact, to pay the interest since the
assignment. Early in 1883 the debt still
amounted to $3,500,000. The litigation grow-
ing out of the receiving of moneys on deposit
by Very Rev. Edward Purcell, vicar-general and
brother of the archbishop, was at last decided
by the court, which gave the case a long and pa-
tient hearing. The archbishop, having on his
brother's insolvency, assumed his liabilities,
the question arose, what property became lia-
ble by this assumption of the debt. The cred-
itors claimed everything that stood in his name.
The court (Smith, Justice) held that property
acquired and improved by him as bishop, with
means acquired by him in that capacity, was
liable for such a debt; but that churches,
schools, etc., erected by congregations from
their own means, were not liable, although by
a rule of the Church the legal title of the realty
was in such bishop, and that such congrega-
tions were liable to the creditors only to the
extent of loans or advances made to them by
the bishop.

674

QUEBEC.

Q

QUEBEC, a province of the Dominion of Can-
ada. Area, 188,000 square miles ; population in
1881, 1,359,027.

The People. — The inhabitants are chiefly
French Roman Catholics, though many English
and Scotch Protestants occupy the counties east
of the St. Lawrence along the United States
border. These are termed " The Eastern Town-
ships," and are much in advance of the dis-
tricts farmed by the French. Many of the
French inhabitants are descendants of Scottish
soldiers, who, seeking service in the armies of
France before and during the reigns of William
III and Anne in England, were disbanded and
settled in the province. Such names as De
Ramsay, De Murray, D'Alexandre, and De Na-
pier, are still common among the French of
these districts. The prevailing language is
French, though in Quebec and in Montreal
both tongues are familiar to the people.

The original tenures, or large farms, which,
as a rule, were located along the rivers, have
been divided and subdivided for generations,
each subdivision still retaining a frontage on
the river or highway, until now it is not uncom-
mon to see a farm only a few rods wide and
over a mile long. As the French Canadian
builds his cottage in the most picturesque spot
along the river-bank, the scene presented is in
many instances very animating, closely resem-
bling one long, straggling village. In some of
the more remote localities the parish priest is
still the shepherd of the flock in more than
spiritual matters. He directs their voting at
elections, controls their conduct at fairs and on
market-days, and even has the grain garnered
in his barns. Tithes, in Quebec Province, or
any rates levied by the authority of the Roman
Catholic Church "on the property of Roman
Catholics, no matter whether leased by a Prot-
estant or not, are collectable by law.

Soil and Climate. — On the whole, the soil of
Quebec is not good. The Eastern Townships,
and some districts north of the St. Lawrence
and along the Ottawa, are good, especially for
grazing ; but as a grain-growing province it is
not a success, compared with Ontario.

The cold currents from the Arctic regions,
entering the Gulf of St. Lawrence through the
strait of Belle Isle, preserve a continuous fri-
gid temperature along the northern shore of
the gulf. This influences the climate of the
surrounding country to a considerable extent.
A scheme is proposed to bridge or embank
the strait of Belle Isle from Newfoundland to
the mainland, and thus force the cold currents
along the east coast of that island. By this
plan, it is also claimed, winter navigation of
the St. Lawrence gulf and river, as far as Que-
bec, would be rendered comparatively easy.
At Quebec, in latitude 46° 49', longitude 71°
16', the mean annual temperature rarely exceeds

38°. It is not alone the general temperature
that renders the northern and northeastern
portions of the province comparatively worth-
less, but also the certainty of early and late
frosts destroying the crops. The maximum
summer heat is as great as Toronto's. The
means for June, July, August, and September,
respectively, are 58°, 68°, 61°, 55°.

Cities and Ports. — The important cities and
towns of Quebec, with their population in round
numbers, are: Montreal, 140,000 ; Quebec, 62,-
000 ; Three Rivers, 9,000 ; Levis, 8,000 ; Sher-
brooke, 8,000 ; Hnll, 8,000 ; St. Henri, 6,000 ;
St. Jean Baptiste, 6,000 ; Sore], 6,000 ; St. Hya-
cinthe, 5,000.

The ports are Quebec, Montreal, Three Riv-
ers, Sorel, and Rimouski, all on the St. Law-
rence, and accessible for ocean-vessels of all
sizes. Gasp£ and New Carlisle are on the
shores of the St. Lawrence and Chaleur gulfs.
The great bulk of the trade of the province is
carried on from Montreal and Quebec.

Industries. — In Quebec, as in Ontario, the chief
industry is farming. Unlike Ontario, the graz-
ing products in Quebec are in excess of the
agricultural ; the exports of animals and their
produce in 1882 being $10,694,531, and of agri-
cultural products only $9,551,745. Of the for-
mer, $8,875,318 were shipped to Great Brit-
ain, and $1,723,602 to the United States ; and
of the latter, $6,445,440 went to British ports,
and $2,021,847 to American. Peas, wheat,
flour, oats, hay, rye, and potatoes are the chief
agricultural products.

The products of the forest rank next in im-
portance, the exports amounting to $9,280,238.
Of this, $7,184,236 went to Great Britain, and
$1,409,824 to the United States.

The exported manufactures amounted only
to $1,247,147. These were chiefly leather,
woolens, wooden-ware, ships, and soap. To
Great Britain were sent $705,330 ; to the
United States, $369,306; and to Newfound-
land, $108,008.

The export value of the fisheries of Quebec
was $773,785 ; but there is a large home con-
sumption of Quebec fish. Indeed, very many
residents along the lower part of the river and
the gulf earn their livelihood in this manner,
depending almost entirely on fish for food.

Mining is in its infancy in Quebec. The ex-
ports were valued at $519,200, chiefly gold-
bearing quartz, copper-ore, and phosphates.

Education. — The educational department of
Quebec ispresided over by a superintendent, who
is the executive officer of a Council of Public
Instruction. This council is appointed by the
Lieutenant-Governor, and iscomposed of sixteen
Roman Catholics and eight Protestants. In all
matters specially affecting their own schools,
the Roman Catholic and Protestant commis-
sioners act independently. Each municipality

RAILWAYS, ELECTRIC.

D7 f>

selects a board of five commissioners, who ap-
point the teachers and have a general over-
sight. The schools are open to children from
five to sixteen years of age, but the commis-
sioners have power to charge a fee, if they deem
it proper, between the ages of seven and four-
teen. The estates of the Jesuits form a fund,
which must be increased each year by a suffi-
cient grant from public moneys to raise the
amount to $88,000. The annual grant amounts
to $155,394, and the total sum raised for edu-
cational purposes is $2,000,000. The value of
the buildings used for superior education in the
province, and the annual expenditure in con-
nection with them, are :

INSTITUTIONS.

VtlMof

buiidimo.

Aaaul
npMdtaM.

Universities . . .

AKOg ftflfl

Classical colleges

9HM«9

•AMI 1 1 1

Industrial colleges
Academies for boys

•joi.-jyj
.,-.•- ••,,,

46,140

Academies for girls

014 185

Model schools

-r.i I.',

'{n * ~ ;-

Normal schools

4-2,871

There are in the libraries of the institutions
for superior education 259,318 volume.

There are in the province 1,010 school mu-
nicipalities and 4,039 school -houses, with a re-
gistered attendance of 235,574 pupils, and an
average attendance of 180,370.

RAILWAYS, ELECTRIC. So long as we were
confined to the direct generation of electric
currents from chemical action in a battery, any
attempt to utilize electricity in industrial oper-
ations involving large power would have been
hopeless. But the development of the mechani-
cal generation of electricity has rendered feasi-
ble the use of this agent as a motive power in a
great variety of cases.

By means of the modern dynamo we can
convert mechanical into electric energy upon
the largest scale, and by reversing the process
we can obtain from this electrical energy
mechanical power. The dynamo supplies us
with electric currents if we rotate its armature,
or this will revolve if we pass electric currents
into it. Since the generating dynamo may be
at one place, and the motor which is operated
by the currents supplied by it at another, we
are not limited to using the power at or very
near its place of production. As the distance
between the two may be very considerable, and
the loss in conveyance small, this arrangement
gives us a means of transmitting and utilizing
power not heretofore possessed, and one which
can hardly fail of being of the utmost industri-
al importance. Among the applications of elec-
tricity as a motive power none promises to be
more important than its use in the propulsion
of railway-cars. Aside from the advantages
due to the absence of smoke and cinders, this
mode of propulsion possesses distinct advan-
tages on the score of economy and greater
safety. With the present system of railway-
travel a number of cars linked together are
drawn by a locomotive which must be heavy
to obtain sufficient adhesion to the rails to
move its load. In consequence of this great
weight of the motor, the whole equipment of
the road — rails, road-bed, bridges etc. — must
be of great strength. In the case of electric
propulsion it is not necessary to have any-
thing corresponding to a locomotive; each
car can be provided with its own electro-
motor, and all of these can be operated togeth-
er from a cab at the head of the train with the
same ease with which continuous brakes are

now manipulated. All the wheels of a train
can thus be utilized as drivers, and hence great
weight is not necessary to give sufficient adhe-
sion. The permanent way can therefore be
much lighter, and consequently less costly,
while the wear and tear would be greatly re-
duced. On account of the diminished weight
of trains a collision would be a much less seri-
ous matter than at present. We may not only
obtain with the electric railway lessened dam-
age in case of collision, but we can by a prop-
er construction, as we shall see further on, ren-
der collision impossible.

Electricity may be applied to the propulsion
of cars in two quite different ways. In one
case the current is supplied to the electro-
motors from storage- batteries carried by the
cars. This method requires no change in the
ordinary road-bed, and would not necessarily
introduce new methods of operating railways.
It is particularly well adapted to the operation
of cars in the streets of cities, but its adoption
is hardly feasible to-day, as the storage-battery
upon which it depends has not yet reached a
sufficiently perfect condition to make it eco-
nomical. In the second case the current is sup-
plied to the motors on moving trains from sta-
tions along the line of the road through prop-
erly placed conductors. This method requires
a construction of the road throughout with
reference to the electrical conditions which
properly constitute it an electric railway.
Several different forms of the electrical rail-
way are possible, depending upon the method
by which the current is conducted to the
motors. By one method the two rails are used
as conductors, the current going out by one
rail and returning by the other. It passes to
the electro-motors through the wheels of the
train, those on opposite sides being insulated
from each other. The chief difficulty with
this construction is that of insulating the out-
going rail perfectly enough to avoid a large
loss by leakage. It is impracticable in cities,
on account of the danger arising from touch-
ing both rails at once, and thereby diverting a
portion of the current through the person or

676

RAILWAYS, ELECTRIC.

animal forming a cross-circuit to the conduct-
ors. As, for the economical working of an elec-
tric railway, currents of high tension are neces-
sary, this danger would be too great in such
situations to tolerate such a disposition of the
conductors. In the ordinary railway this feat-
ure would be of little consequence, as the
track is not exposed to the public except at
the crossing of roads, and this can be readily
provided for. The leakage would be, however,
in this case prohibitory of the use of these rails
in this way. Professsors Ayrton and Perry
have modified the two-rail system in such a
way as to overcome the difficulty from leak-
age, as we shall see below in considering their
construction. Other inventors have essayed
to overcome it by the use of a third rail or
conductor for the outgoing current, utilizing
both rails for its return. This conductor may
be placed midway between the rails, but ele-
vated above them, as used by Siemens, or sunk
in a central trough, as in the Edison and Field
system, or it may be placed on posts at one
side of the rails, the connection then being
made between it and the car by a flexible con-
ductor. The contact between this latter and
the suspended wire is made by means of a lit-
tle traveling carriage or trolly. This method
of receiving the current would evidently not
do for rapidly moving trains, though perfect-
ly feasible for street and suburban railways.

Where high speeds are required, the third rail
must be placed so that there may be rigid con-
nection between it and the moving car, the
current then being taken off by rueans of a
rolling or other suitable metallic contact.

Siemens Railway. — The first electric railway
was constructed by the firm of Siemens and
Halske, of Berlin, at the exhibition in that city
in 1879. The line was of two-foot gauge and
2,700 feet long. The current was conveyed to
the car, which was of sufficient size to carry
twenty passengers, by a third rail placed in
the center of the track and supported upon
insulating wooden blocks. The great success
of this experimental line led these constructors
to build soon afterward the Lichterfelde line,
near Berlin, for actual traffic. This was con-
structed on the two - rail system, both rails
being placed upon insulating sleepers. The
gauge is three feet and the length about a mile
and a half. It is worked by two dynamo-ma-
chines developing a total of 12 horse-power,
and has been in operation since May, 1881.
Another line of about the same length has also
been built between Charlottenburg and Span-
dauer Bock, while a shorter one has been con-
structed in Kostverloren Park, near Amster-
dam. A short line, something less than half
a mile in length, has also been put in opera-
tion by the same firm at the Zankerode col-
liery in Saxony. The rails are not used in this

FIG. 1.— SIEMENS AND HALSKE'S ELECTRIC ENGINE.

RAILWAYS, ELECTRIC.

677

case for the conduction of the current, as they
are very roughly laid, and have to be shifted
from time to time. The electric conductors
are therefore placed along the roof of the
mine. They consist of inverted T-iron rails, on
which con tact -carriages freely slide. These
are connected with the motor by flexible wires.
The engine, shown in Fig. 1, consists of a car-
riage eight feet long by two feet seven inches
wide, which weighs one and one third tons.
The electro-motor is placed on it lengthwise,
the connection between it and the wheels being
made through the medium of bevel-gearing. It
is reversible, and handles for making and break-
ing the current, and the brake levers, are placed
at each end, so that the driver always faces in
the direction in which the engine is moving.
The engine is capable of developing sufficient
power to enable it to draw a load of eight tons
at a rate of seven and a half miles an hour.
This road has been in operation since October,
1882, and has fully realized the anticipation of
the constructors and the owners of the mines.
At the Paris Exposition of 1881, Sir William
Siemens had in operation a road about 1,600
feet in length, and of the ordinary gauge, 4
feet 8£ inches. In this case the electric con-
ductors were suspended overhead, and con-
sisted of tubes provided with longitudinal slits,
for the passage of flexible conductors, which
were connected with metallic bolts sliding in
the tubes. Fully 95,000 passengers were con-
veyed over this line in seven weeks. The
longest electric railway which has yet been
built is that constructed by the London firm
of Siemens Brothers, in the north of Ireland,
between Portrush and Bushmills, a distance of
six miles. The line is a single-track one of
three-foot gauge, and is laid at one side of the
country road, following its grades, which are
heavy, being in some parts as steep as 1 in 35,
and curves which are often sharp. The sys-
tem employed is the three-rail one, but the
conductor, instead of being between the rails,
is placed at the side of the road-bed, 22 inches
from the inner rail, -and 17 inches above the
ground. It consists of a T-iron rail weighing
19 pounds to the yard, and is carried upon
wooden posts boiled in pitch to render them
better insulators. The current is taken by the
car from the conductor by means of two steel
springs, one at each end, and, as the rail is of
iron, the wear is very slight. When the rail-
way crosses roads, the conductor is carried un-
derground. These gaps, when not too wide,
are readily bridged over by the car, as the for-
ward spring makes contact with the rail at the
farther side of the cross-road before the rear
spring leaves the rail. When the gap is too
wide to allow this, the circuit is broken by the
engineer, and the car is carried across it by^its
momentum. There are five points on the line
at which the up and down cars pass each other.
These are situated on inclines, and are arranged
so that the car ascending the hill is in contact
with the conductor, while the down car de-

scends by gravity. The course of the current
from the conducting rail through the car to the
return rails is to a switch worked by .:
by which resistance-coils can be placed in or
out of circuit, then through the electro motor
to the wheels by which it reaches tin
The direction of motion of the electro-motor
is reversed by altering the position of the
brushes on the commutator. The motor is
placed in the center of the car, beneatli the
floor, and is connected with the axle of one
pair of wheels by gearing. The reversing and
brake levers are placed at each end <>f t he-
car, so that it can be operated from either
end. The rails of the permanent way are laid
in the usual manner, and connected together
by fish-plates, these being supplemented by
strips of copper to insure good electrical con-
tact. The lengths of the conducting rail are
also joined in this manner. The resistance of
the line, conductor, and return rails, is but '23
ohm per mile. The loss due to resistance does
not exceed 4 per cent, when four cars are run-
ning, each requiring four horse-power. The
insulation is from 500 to 1,000 ohms per mile,
and the loss from leakage is under 5 per cent,
when four cars are running. It is intended to
operate the generating dynamo by means of
water-power, but at present an ordinary port-
able agricultural engine of 25 horse-power is
used for this purpose. This is not particularly
economical, but tests made have shown that
even with it the road can be operated more
economically than with a steam tramway-en-
gine. The tests were for a travel of 312 miles,
each train having the s'ame passenger capacity.
They showed that the cost of operating the
road by means of the locomotive was some-
thing over £8 ($40), and that by electricity a
little less than £6 ($30), giving a 'saving by the
use of the latter of 25 per cent.

Edison and Field Railway.— Mr. E<f ison was one
of the first to turn his attention to the electric
railway. While still occupied in designing his
system of incandescent electric lighting, he put
in operation at Menlo Park an experimental
line. On this the current was conveyed to the
electro-motor through one rail, and returned
by the other. The electro-motor was mounted
upon a separate car, as in some of the Siemens
roads. The use of the two-rail system was
simply experimental, the design being in actual
construction to use three rails, the conductor
being placed between the two rails in a sunken
trough. This is covered over, so as to leave
only a narrow slit, through which the anii rar-
rying the contact can move freely. In the
early part of the year the interests of Mr. Edi-
son were combined with those of Mr. Stephen
D. Field, who has patented a number of feat-
ures pertaining to an electric railway system,
and the company controlling these combined
interests exhibited their system at the Chicago
Exhibition of Railway Appliances.

The track was laid in the gallery of the main
exhibition building, and was of the form shown

678

RAILWAYS, ELECTRIC.

in Fig. 2. The current was conveyed to the
motor through a third rail placed between the
two others, which was not, however, sunk, as
it would have been in a permanent surface
structure. The contact between this rail and
the car was made by stiff wire brushes press-

FIG. 2. — EDISON AND FIELD'S RAILWAY.

ing on each side of the rail, which were on the
end of a lever reaching down from the car.

The road was in operation from the 9th to
the 23d of June, and made in this time 1,588
trips, and carried 26,805 passengers. The
speed at which the trains were run was eight

miles an hour. This could easily be exceeded,
but the insecurity of the gallery in which the
track was laid prohibited anything above this.
Ayrton and Perry's Railway* — Realizing the
difficulty of insulating the tread rails in a suf-
ficiently perfect manner to prevent undue loss
by leakage in long lines, and yet desiring to
retain the advantages of the two-rail system,
Professors Ayrton and Perry set themselves to
work to modify the latter system so as to an-
swer all the requirements. This they have
accomplished in a remarkably simple manner,
by the employment of an auxiliary conductor
running along one of the rails, between which
and the rail electric connection can be made
automatically by the moving train. The road
is thus divided electrically into sections, only
those in the immediate neighborhood of the
train at each moment, as it sweeps along,
being in circuit. The whole of the tread-rail
from which the current is taken by the wheels
of the moving car is well insulated from the
ground, and the successive sections into which
it is divided are also insulated from each other.
The auxiliary conductor is in the form of a
cable, and can therefore be very perfectly in-
sulated, as can also the connections by which
it makes contact with the sections of the tread-
rail. Any leakage that occurs can therefore
take place only from these short sections, and
will consequently be inconsiderable. Contact
between the cable and the tread-rail may be
made in a number of ways. One of these
consists in providing a short length of rail,
placed so as to be depressed by the wheels of
the moving car, and resting upon a corrugated
steel disk, which forms the top of the box con-
taining the exposed contact of the cable. The
flexibility of the disk allows a pin carried by
it to make contact with a suitable conducting-
piece permanently connected with the cable.
The box, which may be of cast-iron, is
made tight, so that it is always dry
within, where the exposed portion of
the conductor is. This box may be
bolted to a sleeper at the side of the
rail or sunk in the ground, as occasion
may require. The cable may be simply
insulated with guttu-percha or rubber,
or it may be carried in a metal tube
filled with paraffine.

The insulation obtained by this mode
of construction is but one of its advan-
tages, and that not the most important.
Its great advantage lies in the fact that
Gcn6lC(ltor it provides an automatic block system,
which absolutely prevents a following
train from running into the one ahead —
a block that is determined by the con-
ditions of operation, and is not depend-
ent upon the vigilance of engine-driver or signal-
man. To obtain this result the above-described
arrangement is modified somewhat. The road
is divided into a number of sections or blocks,
a mile or more in length. By the movement
of the train the current is put on the section

RAILWAYS, ELECTRIC.

which it is entering and turned off from the
one which it is leaving. The train thus always
puts between itself and a following train" a
complete section, which can not be supplied
with current until the forward train has en-
tered the next section. Any following train
entering this^blocked section is quickly pulled
up, both because it is deprived of current, and
because it is powerfully braked by the electro-
motor, whicli by the conditions of the block
becomes at once a generator on a short circuit.
In leaving this section the preceding train not
only cuts off the supply of electricity to it in
such a way that it can not be turned on again
by any following train until the first is in the
second section ahead, but it connects the two
rails electrically together. There is therefore
a complete metallic circuit, of practically no
resistance, established between the terminals
of the electro-motor of the following train
when it runs on the blocked section. The
motor, being in motion from the supply of
current in the preceding section, is thus in-
stantly converted into a dynamo working on a
short circuit, and the current generated by it
brings it to a stop. The great merit of this
system of blocking is, that it depends upon the
essential conditions of the working of the line,
and not upon special mechanism, which may
get out of order. So long as the line is in
working order the sections will be successively
blocked by the movement of a train, but when
it is not in order trains can not move, and hence
all danger of collision between following trains
is absolutely prevented. Ayrton and Perry
have also perfected, for use with their system,
a motor which is automatically governed, so
that the speed is constant whatever the load.

Telpherage. — The facility with which electric
power can be divided and applied at any de-
sired point, and the possibility it gives of con-
trolling a line of moving vehicles from the
point at which the current is generated instead
of from the train, has led Prof. Fleeming Jen-
kin to design a system of aerial transportation
to which he has given the name telpherage.
The road consists of a light conducting rail,
which may be a round steel rod, or a wire
rope, strung along on poles at a sufficient dis-
tance above the ground to clear obstacles.
The vehicles for this form of railway consist of
suspended buckets, or u skips " as they are
called, connected together by wooden strips.

A number of such vehicles, provided with an
electro motor in a separate frame at the head
of the string of carriages, constitute a train.
As the load is distributed over a considerable
distance, the supporting rail or cable can be
light, and the whole structure may be com-
paratively inexpensive. There is no need of
grading or of bridges, the line being strung
across country with the same facility as an
ordinary telegraph line, and with no more in-
terference with the ordinary use of the ground.
Prof. Jenkin has designed the road primarily
for the transportation of freight, but it seems

possible to adapt it to passenger service. He
does not regard it as a substitute for the ordi-
nary surface road, but as affording a means for
the cheap transportation of freight through
districts in which the traffic would not be suf-
ficient to warrant the building of the more
costly surface line. In conjunction with Pro-
fessors Ayrton and Perry the system has been
worked out in a practical form, and an experi-
mental line has been built at Weston, England.
The self-governing motors of these latter in-
ventors as well as their automatic block system
have been adopted. These motors are espe-
cially* applicable to such a line, as they are of
small weight in proportion to the power devel-
oped, a motor weighing only 96 pounds being
capable of giving one and a half horse-power.

The cables are attached to the supporting
posts, so as not to interfere with the passage of
the trains, by means of saddles placed at the ex-
tremities of cross-arms. These saddle* are
curved in a vertical plane so as to avoid an
abrupt change of direction or corners in the
cable roadway.

Two modes of constructing such lines have
been devised, depending upon the way in which
the current is applied, which the inventors
term the " series " and " cross-over parallel "
systems. In the former the line is divided into
a number of successive sections, the electric
connection between which can be broken by a
passing train, and restored again automatically
as the train moves on. The trains must be
slightly longer than a section, so as to avoid the
possibility of their running on to a section and
being deprived of power. With this construc-
tion, when a train is partly on one and partly
on the succeeding section, the direct connec-
tion between the sections is broken, and the
current has therefore to pass through the
electro-motor. As the train moves on, it opens
the connection between the section it is on and
that immediately ahead, and closes the con-
nection with the section just left. In this way
the motor of the train is always supplied with
current by the use of a single conductor. All
the trains on the line are thus arranged on the
line like a string of arc-lamps, the current go-
ing through the motor of each train in succes-
sion. One half of the length of the line con-
stitutes the "up" and the other half the
" down " line. The engraving, Fig. 3, shows
this form of line, from which it will be seen
that it is a very simple affair. In the other
form, the " cross-over parallel," two conduct-
ors are used, but as one of them maybe the up
and the other the down line there is no disad-
vantage in the arrangement. The two con-
ductors are arranged so that there are two cir-
cuits, one the outgoing, the other the return,
only the first of which needs to be insulated.

These circuits are not, however, disposed so
that each rail forms one circuit, but each of the
two circuits crosses from one .rail to the other,
so that alternate sections of a rail are portions,
the one of the outgoing, the other of the return

680

EAILWAYS, ELECTEIC.

Locomotive.

FIG. 3.— SEMES TELPHER LINE.

Carriage

circuit. A train standing partly on each sec-
tion would therefore form a bridge across a
simple multiple-arc circuit, precisely as an in-
candescent lamp does. This crossing over from
one side to the other is done at the supporting
posts, at which points the outgoing conductor
must he thoroughly insulated. A number of
the details of the system have yet to be worked
out, and very probably the final forms will not
be reached without considerable experiment-
ing with actually working lines. The experi-
mental line which has been constructed at
Weston is arranged on the multiple-arc system.
Different forms of rail, square and round steel
rods, and wire ropes, are being tried with a
view of determining the best form. The line
is supported on posts 60 feet apart, and di-
vided electrically into sections of 120 feet,
the alternate ones of each rail being insulated.
The train is of the same length as a section,
and consists of seven buckets, each of which
weighs one half of a hundred-weight, and
can carry a load of two and a half hundred-
weight. Tbe locomotive weighs the same as
a loaded bucket, so the total weight of a train
is a trifle over a gross ton. The motor is
connected to the driving-wheels by gearing
of a special kind which has very little fric-
tion. One pole of the motor is connected by a
wire with the leading wheel and the other with
the last wheel of the train, the other wheels
being insulated from each other, so that the
train always forms a bridge from an insulated
to an uninsulated section, and the current passes
through the motor. Exhaustive tests of the
capability of such a road have not yet been
made, but Prof. Jenkin says that the experi-

ence so far gained warrants him in stating that
with a line having rails one inch in diameter
there can be conveyed a useful load of 1,500
pounds on each alternate span of 120 feet,
which is equivalent to 16£ tons per mile.
Moving at five miles an hour, this corresponds
to the conveyance of 92-| tons per hour, and,
working 20 hours a day, to the transport of
1,850 tons a mile a day. The carriages, he says,
run as smoothly as bicycles, the grip of the
locomotive is entirely satisfactory, and there
is no difficulty in insulation even with very
high-tension currents. At present it is not
proposed to work the lines from one station
for a greater distance than five miles each
way, so that a station will be required every
ten miles. A large number of radiating lines
can of course be worked from one station.

From the above it \A ill be seen that the elec-
tric railway is sufficiently advanced to be ready
for commercial development. While much,
doubtless, remains to be done in working out
the details of a thoroughly satisfactory equip-
ment, the main features of a successful system
have been determined. No new electrical dis-
coveries are necessary to the practical reali-
zation of this mode of propulsion, and the
problems which will be encountered in actual
construction are not beyond the skill of the
engineer. The essential pieces of apparatus
which will have to be used in such a system —
the steam-engine or water-wheel, the dynamo
and electro-motor — are all in a commercial
shape. The construction of a suitable road-
way apparently presents no insurmountable
difficulties. From an engineering point of
view, therefore, the system is perfectly feasible,

REFORMED CHURCHES.

but whether it is so on the basis of cost of
operation is yet undetermined, though the ex-
perience had with the Siemens lines goes to
show that it is. Prof. Ayrton claims that the
cheapening of railway transportation is one of
the chief recommendations of the electric sys-
tem. If further experience shows that this
belief is well founded, there can be no question
the great future which awaits this system

railway operation. It is universally applica-
ble ; as capable of doing the work of a great
trunk line as that of city and suburban roads.
Its first field of operation is of course the latter,
but, if successful here, its extension to the
general railroad system of a country is simply
a matter of time.

REFORMED CHURCHES. I. Reformed Church in
America. — The summary of the statistics of this
church, as they were reported to the General
Synod in June, 1883, is as follows : Number of
particular synods, 4 ; of classes, 33 ; of church-
es, 516; of ministers, 569 ; of candidates, 3 ; of
families, 44,506 ; of communicants, 80,156 ; of
baptisms, 3,988 of infants and 940 of adults;
of baptized non-communicants, 29,599 ; of cate-
chumens, 28,595 ; of Sunday-schools, 697, with
84,595 scholars. Amount of contributions:
For religious and benevolent purposes, $224,-
144; for congregational purposes, $873,820.

The Board of Education reported to the Gen-
eral Synod that its receipts for the year, exclu-
sive of interest from invested funds, had been
$7,516 ; and that $7,522 had been paid into the
Treasury of the General Synod tor investment,
and to found scholarships. The debt of the
board was $6,165, having decreased $1,000.
Sixty-six young men had been aided in prepar-
ing for the ministry, thirteen of whom had
finished their studies and been licensed. Aid
had also been given to parochial schools con-
nected with seven of the churches.

The income of the Board of Domestic Mis-
sions, including interest from invested funds,
had been $39,224, and its expenditures $25,-
125. The board also reported the receipt of
$6,329 on account of its church-building fund,
with an expenditure of $15,210, or enough to
absorb the balance to its credit on the general
account, and leave it in debt $1,000. Seventy
missionaries had been employed at 77 missions,
with which were connected 4,459 members of
the church; 88 Sunday-schools had been con-
ducted, having an average attendance of 7,609
persons; and 445 persons had been received
on confession of faith.

The receipts of the Board of Foreign Mis-
sions had been $66,206. The missions, which
are in China (the Araoy mission), India (the
Arcot mission), and Japan, returned 12 sta-
tions, 128 out-stations, 18 missionaries, 23 as-
sistant missionaries, 18 native ministers, ^166
catechists or preachers, assistant catechists,
readers, schoolmasters, schoolmistresses, col-
porteurs, and Bible-women, 37 churches, 2,843
communicants, 5 academies with 144 scholars,
95 day-schools with 2,028 pupils, and 18 theo-

logical students. The contributions of the na-
tive churches amounted to $2,768 ; receipts of
the Woman's Board of Missions, $10,919.

The General Synod of the Reformed Church
in America met in its seventy-seventh annual
session in Albany, N. Y., June 6th. The Rev.
William R. Duryea, D. D., was chosen |.r.-i-
dent. Certain changes in the form for the ad-
ministration of baptism to adults were asked
for by the Classis of Poughkeepsie, whose
memorial on the subject had been before two.
previous sessions of the Synod, and had been
referred by the former Synod to a sjx-ci.il com-
mittee to consider and report upon. The me-
morial was supported by a petition from the
elders of Trinity Church, in Plainfield, N. J.t
asking that u some action be taken looking
toward the harmonization of the authorized
forms for admission into church-membership
of those not .baptized in infancy, and of those
who were then baptized," and " that if any
changes be made, they be made in favor of the
latter form (that for those baptized in infan-
cy), which embodies the essential faith of the
church." The action of the Synod on the sub-
ject was as follows :

That after the sentence "You are sin-

cerely to give answer before God and his Church,"
in " the form for the administration of holy baptism
to adult persons," shall be inserted a mark of refer-
ence directing attention to the following foot-note :

" The questions and answers of the form for public
reception into full communion of those who have been
baptized in infancy may at the option of nunistcrs and
elders be used in place of those contained in this form."
(The form for the admission to membership is, so far
as doctrine is concerned, the acceptance of the Apostles'
Creed.)

Resolved, That a mark of reference be inserted after
the word " good" in the second question of the form
for the administration of holy baptism to adult per-
sons, referring to the following explanatory note :

That is, " incapable of any saving good." Canons,
third and fourth heads of doctrine, Art. Ill, " only
those works which proceed from a true faith and are
performed according to the law of God and to his glory
are goody— Heid. Cat., xxxiii. Lord's Day, quest. 91.

Resolved, That a mark of reference be inserted after
the word " church " in the fourth question of the same
form, referring to the following explanatory note :

The articles spoken of are the Articles of the Apos-
tles' Creed. See Heid. Cat., vii. Lord's Day, quest. 22,
and the forms for "the administration of the Lord's
Supper," and " the public reception into full commun-
ion of those who have been baptized in infancy."

Resolved, That the Board of Publication be directed
to have the plates of the revised Liturgy amended m
accordance with this action, and to incorporate these
explanations in the copies of the Liturgy hereafter
issued.

The Synod had been repeatedly asked to
adopt expressions disapproving the connection
of members of the church with the Masonic or
other secret, oath-bound societies, and in re-
sponse to such requests had, at a previous meet-
ing, declined to express any- opinion on the
subject, but recommended that the matter be
relegated to the conscience of the individual
church-member and to the spiritual governors
of the individual church. This action was re-
affirmed, with the suggestion to members of

682 REFORMED EPISCOPAL CHURCH.

REFORM IN THE CIVIL SERVICE.

the church that, " out of regard to the fact
that membership in Masonic and similar orders
gives offense to many Christian consciences,
and has become a fruitful source of injurious
agitation and division in the church, they, in
accordance with the law of Christian love, re-
frain from connection with such societies." A
few churches in the West which had withdrawn
from connection with the Synod during the agi-
tation of this subject, were invited, in view of
the present action, to return. A resolution
adopted by the Synod called attention to the
fact that as the Sunday-school is one of the
religious services of the church, it is under the
same supervision of the consistory as are all
the other religious services. The title of the
" Adsessor " of the Synod was changed to
''Vice-President," and that of "Quasstor" of
the Classis to "Treasurer."

II. Reformed Church (German) in the United
States. — The following is a summary of the sta-
tistics of this church, as they are given in the
" Almanac of the Reformed Church in the
United States" for 1884: Number of synods,
7; of classes, 51; of ministers, 767; of con-
gregations, 1,432; of members, 166,578; of
unconfirmed members, 101,309 ; of persons
who communed, 133,435; of baptisms, 13,431
of infants and 1,163 of adults; of Sunday-
schools, 1,344, with 107,356 scholars ; of stu-
dents for the ministry, 128. Amount of con-
tributions: For benevolent purposes, $133,901 ;
for congregational purposes, $745,749. The lit-
erary and theological institutions of the denom-
ination comprise 17 colleges, collegiate insti-
tutes, seminaries, and academies. The periodi-
cals include 15 weekly, semi-monthly, monthly,
and quarterly periodicals in the English lan-
guage, and 6 in the German language. Four
orphan homes are supported. Home missions
are conducted by the Joint Board of the East-
ern, Pittsburg, and Potomac Synods, and by
the separate boards of the German Synod of
the East, the Ohio Synod, and the Synod of
the Northwest. The general foreign mission
is in Japan, with the principal station at Tokio,
conducted by two missionaries and their wives.

REFORMED EPISCOPAL CHURCH. The ninth
General Council of the Reformed Episcopal
Church met in Baltimore, Md., May 23d. Bishop
Latan6 presided. A statistical report was pre-
sented, showing that the number of commu-
nicants of the Church was 6,193 ; number
of baptisms during the year, 923 ; number of
confirmations, 519 ; number of Sunday-school
pupils, 10,507; amount of collections, $132,-
538; value of church property, $614,500. The
treasurer of the General Council reported that
his receipts had been $26,857, and that he had
a balance on hand of $687. Reports of the
condition of the several Synods were marie by
Bishop Stevens, of the special jurisdiction of
the South; Bishop Latane, of 'the Synod of
the South ; Bishop Cheney, Bishop Nicholson,
Bishop Fallows, of the missionary jurisdiction
of the West and Northwest ; Bishop Cridge,

of the missionary jurisdiction of the Pacific ;
Bishop Wilson, of the Synod of Canada; and
Bishop Sugden, of the Synod of Great Britain.
The Synod of Great Britain asked to be allowed
an organization independent in administration
and government, and this was granted. A gift
of 160 acres of land near the city limits of
Chicago, for a theological seminary, condi-
tioned upon the Council raising $20,000, was
accepted, and a Board of Regents for the pro-
posed institution was organized. A report
from the General Committee recommending a
suspension of the publication of the amended
Prayer-Book was approved, and a revision of
the Prayer-Book was referred to the Commit-
tee on Doctrine and Worship.

The observance of Dec. 2, 1883, as the tenth
anniversary of the organization of the Re-
formed Episcopal Church, was commended to
the churches. The subject of restoring the
use of the service for the fourth of July from
the Prayer-Book of 1785 was referred to the
Committee on Doctrine and Worship.

REFORM IN THE CIVIL SERVICE. An act " to
regulate and improve the civil service of the
United States," which had been prepared by
the Civil - Service Reform League and intro-
duced in the Senate by Mr. Pendleton, of Ohio,
became a law on the 16th of January (see CON-
GKESS, page 183). The national example was
followed by the Legislature of the State of New
York, which in May passed a similar act appli-
cable to the State service, with authority for
its extension to municipal service in cities of
50,000 inhabitants or more, in the discretion of
their mayors. (See NEW YOEK, page 566.)

Commissioners were appointed under the na-
tional act, and confirmed by the Senate before
the adjournment of Congress in March. They
were Dorman B. Eaton, of New York ; Leroy
B. Thorn an, of Ohio ; and John M. Gregory, ot
Illinois. Their first meeting was held in Wash-
ington, March 9th. Silas W. Burt, of New York,
who had lately been superseded in the office
of naval officer of that port, was named for
chief examiner some days before, but had de-
clined the appointment ; Edward 0. Graves,
Chief of the Redemption Bureau of the Treas-
ury Department, nlso declined the place. Dr.
B. Randolph Keim, of Pennsylvania, was after-
ward named by the President, on the recom-
mendation of the commissioners, but the selec-
tion occasioned so much criticism that, after
some delay and hesitation, Mr. Keim was in-
duced to withdraw. Charles Lyman, a clerk in
the Treasury Department, was then appointed
to the office. W. Woods White was appointed
secretary of the commission, on recommenda-
tion of Dr. Gregory, but a statement having
been publicly made that the selection was in-
fluenced by the consideration that it would give
Dr. Gregory's son a business advantage in con-
nection with Mr. White's private affairs, the
latter promptly resigned, with an indignant de-
nial that his appointment and acceptance had
been influenced by any such consideration.

REFORM IN THE CIVIL SERVICE.

On June 6th William S. Roulhac, of North
Carolina, was appointed secretary of the com-
mission. In the mean time the commission
had prepared the rules for appointments in the
civil service, which, after some slight modifica-
tions, were approved by the President on the
7th of May. They were as follow :

1. No person in said service shall use his official
authority or influence to coerce the political action of
any person or body, or to interfere with any election.

2. No person in the public service shall for that
reason be under any obligation to contribute to any
political fund or to render any political service, and
he will not be removed or otherwise prejudiced for
refusing to do so.

3. It shall be the duty of collectors, postmasters,
assistant treasurers^ naval officers, surveyors, ap-
praisers, and custodians of public buildings, at places
where examinations are to be held, to allow and ar-
range for the reasonable use of suitable rooms in the
public buildings in their charge respectively, and for
heating, lighting, and furnishing the same for the pur-
poses of examinations, and all other executive officers
shall, in all legal and proper ways, facilitate such ex-
aminations and the execution of these rules.

4. — I. All officials connected with any office where,
or for which, any examination is to take place, will give
the Civil-Service Commission and the chief examiner
such information as may be reasonably requested to
enable the commission to select competent and trust-
worthy examiners ; and the examinations by those se-
lected as examiners, and the work incident thereto,
will be regarded as a part of the public business to be
performed at every such office. II. It shall be the
duty of every executive officer to promptly inform the
commission in writing of the removal or discharge
from the public service of any examiner in his office,
or of the inability or refusal of any such examiner to
longer act in that capacity.

5. There shall be three branches of the service, clas-
sified by the Civil-Service Act, not including laborers

Washingtor

Departmental Service at Washington.'' II. Those
classified under any collector, naval officer, surveyor, or
appraiser in any customs district shall be designated
" The Classified Customs Service." III. Those classi-
fied under any postmaster at any post-office, including
that at Washington, shall be designated " The Classi-
fied Postal Service. ' IV. The several customs dis-
tricts now having the classified service herein referred
to, being those where the officials are as many as fifty,
are the following : New York city, N. Y. ; Boston,
Mass. ; Philadelphia, Pa. ; San Francisco, Cal. ; Bal-
timore, Md. ; New Orleans, La. ; Chicago, 111. ; Bur-
lington, Vt. ; Portland, Me. ; Detroit, Mich. ; Port Hu-
ron, Mich. V. The several post-offices now having
the classified service herein referred to, being those
where the officials are as many as fifty, are the follow-
ing: Albany, N. Y. ; Baltimore, Md. : Boston. Mass. ;
Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Buffalo, N. Y. ; Chicago, 111. ; Cin-
cinnati, 0. ; Cleveland, 0. ; Detroit, Mich. ; Indi-
anapolis, Ind. ; Kansas City, Mo. ; Louisville, Ky. ;
. Milwaukee, Wis. : Newark, N. J. : New Orleans, La. ;
New York city, N. Y. ; Philadelphia, Pa. ; Pittsburg,
Pa. ; Providence, K. I. ; Rochester, N. Y. ; St. Louis,
Mo. ; San Francisco, Cal. ; Washington, D. C.

6.— I. There shall be open competitive examina-
tions for testing the fitness of applicants for admission
to the service, which examinations shall be practical
in their character, and, so far as may be, shall relate
to those matters which will fairly test the relative ca-
pacity and fitness of the persons examined to dis-
charge the duties of the branch of the service which
they seek to enter. II. There shall also be competi-
tive examinations of a suitable character to test the
fitness of persons for promotion in the service.

es n wc a ower e-
ce, the commission may
. Penmanship, copying,
ndamental rules of arith-

7.— I. The general examinations under the first
cause of rule 6, for admission to the service, shall be
limited to the following subjects: 1. Penmanship,
copying, orthography, and letter-writing. 2. Arith-
metic, fundamental rules, fractions, and percentage.
3. Interest, discount, and elements of book-keeping
and of accounts. 4. Elements of the English lan-
guage, and the proper construction of sentences. 5.
Elements of the geography, history, and Government
of the United States. II. Proficiency in each of these
subjects shall be credited in grading the standing ot
the persons examined in proportion to the value of u
knowledge of such subjects in the branch or part of
the service which the applicant seeks to enter. III. But
no one shall be entitled to be certified for appointment
whose standing upon a just grading in the general ex-
amination shall be less than 65 per cent, of complete
proficiency in the first three subjects, or less than 60
per cent, in the last two subjects mentioned in this
rule, and that measure of proficiency shall be deemed
adequate. IV. But for places in which a lower de-
gree of education will suffice, ''
limit the examination to— 1.
and orthography. 2. The fundamental nil
metic ; but no person shall be certified under this ex-
amination of a less grading than 65 per cent, on each
subject. V. And the commission may also hold ex-
aminations of a higher grade, or upon additional or
special subjects, to test the capacity and fitness which
may be needed in any special place or branch of the
service.

8. No Question in any examination? or proceeding
by or under the commission or examiners, shall call
for the expression or disclosure of any political or re-
ligious opinion or affiliation, nor, if known, shall any
discrimination be made by reason thereof; and the
commission and its examiners shall discountenance
all disclosures before either of them of such opinion
by or concerning any applicants lor examination, or
by or concerning any one whose name is on any regis-
ter awaiting appointment.

9. All regular applications for the competitive ex-
aminations for admission to the classified service must
be made on blanks in a form approved by the com-
mission. All requests for such blanks and all appli-
cations for examination must be addressed as follows :
I. If for the classified service in any department at
Washington, to the United States Civil-Service Com-
mission, Washington, D. C. II. If for the classified
postal service, to the postmaster under whom service
is sought. III. If for the classified customs service,
to the head of either customs office in the customs
district in which service is sought. All officers re-
ceiving such applications will indorse thereon the date
of the Veception thereof, and transmit the same to the
proper examining boara of the district or office where
service is sought, or, if in Washington, to the Civil-
Service Commission.

10. Every examining board shall keep such records,
and such papers on file, and make such reports as the
commission shall require, and any said paper or record,
in the charge of any examining board, or any officer,
shall at all times be" open to examination, as the com-
mission shall direct, and, upon its request, shall be
forwarded to Washington for inspection and revision.

11. Every application, in order to entitle the appli-
cant to appear for examination, or to be examined,
must state under oath the facts on the following sub-
jects, as may be required by the regulations of the
commission : I. Name, residence, and post-office ad-
dress. II. Citizenship. III. Age. IV. Place of birth.
V. Health and capacity for the publio service. VI.
Right of preference by reason of military or naval ser- •
vice. VII. Previous employment -in the public ser-
vice. VIII. Business or employment and residence
for the last five years. IX. Education and such other
facts as the commission may reasonably require, as
showing fitness for the public service. The applicant
must also affirm his qualification under section 8 of
the Civil-Service Act, which is as follows: "That no

684

REFORM IN THE CIVIL SERVICE.

person habitually using intoxicating beverages to ex-
cess shall be appointed to or retained in any office,
appointment, or employment to which the provisions
of this act are applicable."

12. — I. Every regular application must be supported
by proper certificates of good moral character, health,
and physical and mental capacity for doing the public
work, the certificates to be in such form and number
as the regulations of the commission shall provide for.
But no certificate can be received which contains any
language inconsistent with the tenth section of the
Civil-Service Act. II. No one shall be entitled to be
examined for the classified postal service if under six-
teen or over thirty-five years of age, or for the classi-
fied customs service or for the classified service at
Washington, if under eighteen or over forty-five years
of age, and no one shall be examined for a clerk or
messenger who is under twenty-one years of age. But
these maximum limitations of age shall not apply to
those who have been honorably discharged from the
military or naval service during the last war and are
otherwise duly qualified.

13.— I. The date of the reception of all regular ap-
plications for the service at Washington shall be en-
tered of record by the commission, and of all other
applications by the proper examining boards of the
district or office for which they are made, and appli-
cants, when in excess of the number that can be exam-
ined at a single examination, shall be notified to ap-
pear in their order on the respective records. But
any applicants in the several States and Territories,
for the service at Washington, may be notified to ap-
pear before examination, at any place at which an ex-
amination is to be held, whether in any State or in
Washington, which shall be deemed most convenient
for them. II. The commission is authorized, in aid
of the apportionment among the States and Territo-
ries, to hold examinations "at places convenient for
applicants for several different States and Territories,
or for those examination districts which it may desig-
nate and which the President shall approve.

14. Those examined shall be graded, and shall
have their grade marked upon a register after those
previously thereon, in the order of their excellence,
as shown by their examination papers, except that
those from any State or Territory ma^, be entered
upon the register together in the order of relative ex-
cellence to facilitate said apportionment. Separate
registers may be kept of those seeking to enter any
part of the service in which special qualifications are
required.

15. The commission may give a certificate to any
person examined, stating the grade which such person
attained and the proficiency in the several subjects
shown by the markings.

•16. — I. Whenever any officer having the power of
appointment or employment shall make request there-
for, there shall be certified to him by the commission
or the proper examining board four names for the va-
cancy specified, to be taken in order from the proper
register of those in his branch of the service and re-
maining eligible, regard being had to the apportion-
ment of appointment to States and Territories, and from
said four a selection shall be made for the vacancy. II.
These certifications for the service at Washington
shall be made in such order as to apportion as near-
ly as may be practicable the original appointments
thereto among the States and Territories and the Dis-
trict of Columbia upon the basis of population as as-
certained at the last preceding census. III. In case
the request for any such certification or any law or
regulation shall call for those of either sex 'the four
highest in order of that sex shall be certified ; other-
wise sex shall be disregarded in such certification.
IV. No person upon any register shall be certified
more than three times to the same officer in the cus-
toms or postal service, or more than twice to any de-
partment at Washington, unless upon request of the
appointing officer, nor shall any one remain eligible
more than one year upon any register, and no person,

while remaining eligible on any register, shall be ad-
mitted to a new examination of the same grade.

17. — I. Every original appointment or employment
in said classified service shall be for the probationary
period of six months, at the end of which time, if the
conduct and capacity of the person appointed have
been found satisfactory, the probationer shall be ab-
solutely appointed or employed, but otherwise be
deemed out of the service. II. Every officer under
whom any probationer shall serve during any part of
the probation provided for by these rules shall care-
fully observe the quality and value of the service ren-
dered by such probationer, and shall report to the
proper appointing officer in writing the facts observed
by him, showing the character and qualifications of
said probationer and of the service performed by him,
and such reports shall be preserved on file. III.
Every false statement knowingly made by any person
in his application for examination, and every conniv-
ance by him at any false statement made in any cer-
tificate which may accompany his application, shall
be regarded as good cause for the removal or dis-
charge of such person during his probation.

18. It shall be the duty of every head of a depart-
ment and office to notify the commission of the
naftie of every person appointed to or employed in an
official place in the classified service under mm, giv-
ing the date thereof and the designation of the oifice
or place from among those examined under said com-
mission ; and further, and in like manner, to inform
said commission of the date of any rejection or final
appointment of any said person after probation, and
of every case of the promotion, removal, discharge,
resignation, transfer, or death of any said person.

19. There are excepted from examination under
these rules the following : I. The confidentif.l clerk
or secretary of any head of a department or office. II.
Cashiers of collectors. III. Cashiers of postmasters.
IV. Superintendents of money-order divisions in
post-ofhces. V. The direct custodians of money
for whose fidelity another officer is under official
bonds, but these exceptions shall not extend to any
official below the grade of assistant cashier or teller.
VI. Persons employed exclusively in the secret ser-
vice of the Government, or as translators or interpre-
ters or stenographers. VII. Persons whose employ-
ment is exclusively professional, as doctors or lawyers,
but no person so excepted shall be either transferred,
appointed, or promoted, unless to seme excepted
place, without an examination under the commission.
VIII. Heads of bureaus.

20. If the failure of competent persons to attend
and be examined, or the prevalence of contagious dis-
ease or other sufficient cause, shall make it impracti-
cable to supply in due season for any vacancy persons
who have passed competitive examinations, such va-
cancy may l>e filled by any person who has passed a
noil-competitive examination, which the commission
may provide for, but its next report shall give the
reasons for every such resort to non-competitive ex-
aminations.

21. The Civil-Service Commission will make ap-
propriate regulations for carrying these rules into ef-
fect.

22. Every violation by any officer in the executive
civil service of these rules, or of the eleventh, twelfth,
thirteenth, or fourteenth sections of the Civil-Service
Act relating to political assessments, shall be good
cause for removal.

These rules were not intended to cover ex-
aminations for promotions, those being left for
later consideration. On the 16th of May the
Civil-Service Commission adopted regulations
for the conduct of examinations. They were
as follow :

1. The chief examiner shall, as far as practicable,
except when otherwise directed by the commission,
attend the examinations held by the several Boards

REFORM IN THE CIVIL SERVICE.

of Examiners. He shall take care to secure accuracy,
uniformity, and justice in all their proceedings, which
shall at all times be open to him, but leaving the
duty of the examiners for marking and grading those
examined unimpaired. The commission will, in its
discretion, designate one of its own members, or re-
quest the detail of a suitable person, to supervise ex-
aminations whenever deemed needful.

2. He shall prepare and submit to the approval of the
commission proper forms and questions. He shall
take care that the rules and regulations are complied
with, and bring every case of injustice and irregularity
observed by him to the attention of the commission.
He shall take such part as the commission shall assign
him in the work at Washington. It shall be his duty
to confer, from time to time, with the heads of the
postal and custom-offices which he officially visits con-
cerning the regularity, sufficiency, and convenience^
the examinations for the service under them.

Paragraph 3 relates to the duties of secretary.

4. The General Board of Examiners for the depart
mental service shall consist of two persons from the
Treasury Department, two from the Post-Office De-
partment, two from the Interior Department, and one
trom each of the other departments. But any three
members may be designated by the commission to
constitute the acting Examining Board for any exami-
nation. The Secretary of the Board of Examiners
for the departmental service shall keep a record of its
proceedings and have charge of its papers.

5. A special Board of Examiners will be selected by
the commissioners for the departmental service at
Washington for holding any examination whenever, in
the judgment of the commission, the technical infor-
mation or skill to be tested seems to require it.

6. In case of examinations to be held at other places
than those having the classified service, the commis-
sion may designate an Examining Board for that pur-

7. For each post-office the Board of Examiners shall
consist of three persons.

8. The examiners for each customs district shall
consist of two persons selected from the office of the
collector, and one from each of the other customs of-
fices which are subject to the rules ; but if there be no
office subject thereto, except that of tne collector, the
three shall be selected from his office.

9. Three examiners may serve as a board for con-
ducting any examination, and the examiners for any
customs district will determine which three shall hold
any examination, taking care that if an examination
is wholly or mainly for any office, one or more of the
examiners from that office shall be on the acting board.
In case of a failure or disagreement as to which three
shall be the board for any examination, the commis-
Bion or chief examiner shall designate the local exam-
iners who shall serve. In case of the disability or
necessary absence of one of the three examiners se-
lected, the other two may conduct the examination.

10. Each Examining Board in the postal and cus-
toms service shall select on > of its members to serve
as secretary, and it shall be his duty to keep a com-
plete record of the proceedings of the board and of all
examinations held. He shall also keep the record of
applicants and examinations, and the register of per-
sons eligible for appointment. He shall have charge

•of all books and papers belonging to the board. On
application of the proper appointing officer, he shall
certify to such officer the names of the four persons of
the highest grade remaining on the register, in con-
formity to the rules. He shall also answer all proper
requests for application- blanks, and send due notifica-
tions to applicants to be examined, and shall give all
other notices required to be given by the board.

11. No examiner or officer serving under the com-
mission must attempt to control or influence removals.

12. Care must be taken by the examiners not to al-
low such visitors as they may admit, nor any conver-
sation or other cause, to obstruct or distract those be-
ing examined.

13. Examiners must not disclose for public informa-
tion, unless by the consent of those examined, more
than the general results of examinations, without the
details of answers given.

14. Complaints which show injustice or unfairness
on the part of any Examining Board, or any one act-
ing under the commission, will he considered by the
commission, and, if necessary, it will revise the murk-
ing and grading on the papers, or order a new exami-
nation, or otherwise do justice in the premises.

15. The head of each post-office and of euch cus-
toms office, to which the rules are applicable, should
inform the local Board of Examiners of probable va-
cancies, that examinations for tilling them may bo held
in due season.

10. The Board of Examiners for each office or dis-
trict must promptly notify the commission of the need
of holding an examination in and for such office or dis-
trict, and may appoint the time for the same, but sub-
ject to any change the commission may find it neces-
sary to make for the more convenient and effective
discharge of its duty to see that the examinations are
accurate, uniform, and just. The notice must state
under which clause or clauses of rule 7 the applicants
are to be examined, and must, when practicable, be
given at least twenty days before the time appointed
therein for the examinations.

17. Notices in writing shall be mailed to applicants
for examination in the postal and customs service at
least eight days before the examination, and they shall
clearly specify the place and the time, including the
hour, of holding the same.

18. All competitive examinations for admission to
the civil service shall be in writing, except that testa
of physical qualities or expertness may be added as the
commission shall approve.

19. All the questions on any subject in the examina-
tions will be given on a single sheet. The sheets will
be numbered, and will be given out in the order of
their numbers, each, after the first, being given only
when the applicant shall return to the examiners the
last sheet given to him.

20. Not less than four nor, more than ten questions
shall be given in each subject of the examination, and,
to facilitate the marking, the questions in the same
subject shall, as far as practicable, be equal in diffi-
culty. Care shall also be taken that the time allotted
for the examination shall be reasonably sufficient for
answering the questions.

21. In general, no competitive examination should
occupy more than five hours, exclusive of any inter-
mission ; and in case the examination be divided into
two sessions, no questions given out during the first
session should be allowed to be answered in the sec-

22. Every examiner will exercise all due diligence
to secure fairness, and to prevent all collusion or fraud
in the examination.

23. The examination papers of each applicant shall
be marked only with a number ; and his name, with
his number, shall be placed in a sealed envelope, which
shall not be opened till after his papers arc marked.

24 The examination papers snail be reviewed by
each examiner separately, and in every case of disagree-
ment the average of the markings to be made on the
papers by all shall be the final marking on each ques-
tion, subject to the regulation as to revision.

25 The views of the heads of post-offices and c
toms offices as to whether applicants for the several
parts of the service under them shall be examined i
the five subjects under clause 1 of rule 1, or on v in
the two subjects under clause 4 of that rule, will be
accepted bv'the commission so far as its duty to re-
quire uniformity and adequate tests of capacity for
doing the public work will permit^

26 The marking on the examinations has three
objects : First, to determine the standing in each sub-
ject • second, to determine the average standing upon
the whole examination ; third, to determine whether
the applicant is admissible to the register.

686

REFORM IN THE CIVIL SERVICE.

27. To determine standing in any subject, mark its
answer in proportion to its completeness and accuracy,
the perfect answer counting 100. Divide the sum of
the credits given to all the answers in a subject by
the number of the questions ; the quotient will be the
proper standing in the subject.

28. To give to each of the five subjects named
in clause 1 of rule 7 the value due to their respect-
ive importance in the service, it is determined that
they shall be counted, in making up the general aver-
age, when perfect, as follows: 1. Orthography^ pen-
manship, and copying, 100. 2. Arithmetic — funda-
mental rules, fractions, and percentage, 100. 3. In-
terest, discount, and elements of book-keeping and of
accounts, 100. 4. Elements of the English language,
letter-writing, and the proper construction of sen-
tences, 50. 5. Elements of the history, geography,
and Government of the United States, 50. It will be
seen that the total credits for a perfect examination in
the five subjects will amount to 400. Dividing this
by 4, being the number of hundreds, will give 100,
which is the highest attainable general average.

29. To determine the average standing of any ap-
plicant, add to his total standing in the first three
subjects one half his standing in the other two, and
divide the sum by 4 ; the quotient will be his average
standing.

30. No applicant the average of whose credits on
the first three subjects is less than 65 will be placed
on the registers of persons eligible to appointment.
All above that will be placed on the register in the or-
der of their average standing.

31. The average standing of persons examined in the
two subjects under clause 4, rule 7, will be found
by dividing the sum of their credits by 2. The aver-
age standing must reach 65 to entitle the applicant
to a place on the register.

Blank forms were prepared for the use of
applicants for admission to the civil service.
In filling out the form of application, the appli-
cant was required to state his name and ad-
dress, his residence and occupation, the place
and date of his birth, his citizenship qualifi-
cations, his residence, and his principal occupa-
tion during the five years preceding the date
of his examination. He must also, if he has
ever hefore been examined for or in the civil
service, state when and where he served, if
ever, and how long, and why he left the ser-
vice. If he claimed preference by reason of
military or naval service, he must state when
he served, under what commander, and wheth-
er he could produce an honorable discharge.
The applicant must also tell what has been his
education, and in what school, academy, or
college it was obtained; also what special ex-
perience or capacity he has which he thinks
may be useful in the public service, and
whether he uses intoxicating liquors To excess,
or has any physical disqualification for the
service. All of these statements must be made
under oath, and accompanied by vouchers as
to character, signed by not less than three or
more than five citizens of good character and
standing. Applications must be sent by mail
to the commission or to the local boards.

Examinations were conducted in the various
cities during the summer, the chief examiner
or one of the commissioners acting with the
local board in each case. The first examina-
tion at Washington began on July 12th, when
three hundred applications for places in the

departmental service were on file. Examina-
tions were held in other parts of the country
by boards made up from the ranks of officials
in the offices to which the law applied, the
chief examiner or one of the commissioners
supervising the work in all cases. Examina-
tions were also held in different States for ap-
plicants for places in the service at Washing-
ton, under the rule that assigned a certain
quota of places in the departments to the sev-
eral States. The system was considered to be
fairly in operation at the end of the year, but
opposition to it had not wholly subsided, and
there were intimations of an effort to be made
for the repeal of the Civil-Service Act.

Under the act passed by the Legislature of
the State of New York, commissioners were
promptly appointed and confirmed, as follow :
Andrew D. White, of Ithaca, President of
Cornell University ; Augustus Schoonmaker, of
Kingston ; and Henry A. Richmond, of Buffalo.
Mr. White felt compelled to decline the office,
and the Hon. John Jay, of New York, was
appointed in his place, and was made Presi-
dent of the Board of Commissioners. At the
first meeting, on May 31st, Silas W. Burt, of
New York, was chosen for chief examiner.
He promptly accepted the place, though he had
declined a similar one under the National Com-
mission. James A. Betts, of Kingston, was se-
lected for secretary of the commission. The first
work of that body was a general inquiry into
the condition and requirements of the public
service, with a view to the classification required
by the act of May 4th. The classification was
completed and approved by the Governor on
September 3d. The commission decided to re-
organize in the classification the special de-
partments of the public service by bringing
into a single class the clerks, wherever em-
ployed, into another the experts not attached
to any great administrative institutions, and
into another the non-experts not in such insti-
tutions. The last four classes represent all
those other than the deputies and clerks em-
ployed on the public works and in the correct-
ive and charitable institutions. The grades,
particularly in the first subdivision of the first
chiss, were arranged to provide for a systematic
method of promotion. In the second division
of the first class were assembled most of the
positions which, presumptively, should be filled
without examination :

doss I. All assistants and deputies of executive and
administrative officers, and all officers and all clerks
and other persons of whatever designation rendering
services similar to those of clerks in any branch of
the State service. Subdivision 1: First grade— clerks
and like employes receiving an annual compensation
of $1,000 ; second grade — clerks and like employe's
receiving an annual compensation of $1,000 or more,
but less than $1,200 ; third grade— clerks and like
employe's receiving an annual compensation of $1,200
or more, but less than $1,500 ; fourth grade — clerks
and like' employe's receiving an annual compensation
of $1,500 or more, but less than $1,800; fifth grade
— clerks and like employe's receiving an annual com-
pensation of $1,800 or more, but less than $2,000;

REFORM IN THE CIVIL SERVICE.

687

sixth grade— clerks and like employes receiving an
annual compensation of $2,000 or more, but less than
$2,500; seventh grade— clerks and like employe's
receiving an annual compensation of $2,500 or more.
Subdivision 2. Deputies and assistants of principal
officers or heads of departments, the clerk and reporter
of the Court of Appeals, the secretaries of State boards
and commissions (but not assistant secretaries, they
being rated as clerks), the chief examiner of the civil
service, treasurers of asylums, game and fish protect-
ors. Superintendent of Public Buildings.

Class II. All persons of special qualifications (ex-
cept those employed in the Department of Public
Works, the salt-works, reformatories, asylums, and
other charitable and corrective institutions), including
directors or curators of museums, geologists, botanists,
and entomologists and their respective assistants,
librarians ana their assistants, civil engineers and
surveyors, chemists, sanitary experts, principals, pro-
fessors, and teachers in normal schools, inspectors ot
quarantine hospitals, medical superintendent of emi-
grants.

Class III. All persons engaged in duties other than
lose of clerks in the courts and public offices and
wildings at Albany and the State arsenals, except as
aborers, and not included in the preceding classes,
subdivision 1. Court criers and attendants, court and

her marshals. Subdivision 2. Superintendents and

sistant superintendents in charge of public build-
igs under the General Superintendent. Subdivision

Keepers and janitors of public buildings, arsenals,

ireaus, etc., office messengers, orderlies in public
Buildings, watchmen, firemen, porters, and porter-
esses. Subdivision 4. Steam-engineers and all other
3rsons engaged in expert mechanical duties in public
uildings or arsenals.

Class IV. All persons employed in the Department
Public Works other than the assistant superin-

idents, collectors of statistics, and clerks (who are
icluded in Class I), and excepting laborers. Subdi-
'sion 1. Superintendents of repairs. Subdivision 2.
ispectors of boats and cargoes. Subdivision 3. First

ide, rodmen and levelers ; second grade, assistant
Engineers below the rank of residents 5 third grade,
•esident engineers ; fourth grade, division engineers.
Subdivision 4. All others employed in said depart-
icnt not otherwise classified ; first grade, all those

giving an annual compensation of less than $500 ;
second grade, all those receiving an annual compensa-
"on of $500 or more.

Class V. All persons employed in the Onondaga
-It-Works, except the deputy superintendent (Class
Subdivision 1. First grade, engineers, except

: chief engineer, overseers of pumps, and super-

ors of aqueducts and reservoirs ; second grade, chief

jfineer. Subdivision 2 First grade, assistant in-
^ 3ctors of salt or of barrels ; second grade, receiv-
ers and inspectors of salt or of barrels ; third grade,
chief inspector of salt and chief inspector of barrcjs.
Subdivision 3. All others employed and not otherwise
classified.

C'ass VI. All persons employed in prisons and re-
formatories, except those included in Class I. Sub-
division 1. Wardens and agents of prisons, superin-
tendents of reformatories. Subdivision 2. Physicians,
chaplains, principal matrons. _ Subdivision 3. First
grade, guards in prisons ; second grade, keepers in
prisons receiving an annual compensation of $900 or
less ; third grade, keepers of prisons receiving an an-
nual compensation greater than $900 ; fourth grade,
1 principal keepers. Subdivision 4. Steam-engineers
1 others employed as expert mechanics in prisons

id reformatories. Subdivision 5. First grade, teach-
ers in reformatories receiving an annual compensation
of less than $500 ; second grade, teachers receiving an
annual compensation of $500 or more^ but less than
$1,000; third grade, teachers receiving an annual
compensation of $1,000 or more. Subdivision 6. All
other persons employed in prisons and reformatories
except laborers ; first grade, such persons receiving an

annual compensation of less than $500; second spade,
such persona receiving an annual salary of $5oO or
more.

Class VII. All persons employed in asylums for
idiots, the insane, the blind, and in deaf and dumb,
and in other similar institutions, and by the Cmumi.—
sioners of Emigration, cxcejpt those included in < '!U*M

1 and laborers. Subdivision 1. Superintendent* of
insane asylums. Subdivision 2. Superintendent* of
asylums other than those for the inline. SuUliviM-
ion 3. Assistant physicians and potbologistB in in-
sane asylums. Subdivision 4. Physicians other than
those in insane asylums. Subdivision 6. Stewards of
asylums. Subdivision 6. Engineers and expert me-
chanics and tradesmen. Subdivision 7. First grade,
teachers receiving an annual compensation of leas
than $500 ; second grade, teachers receiving an annual
compensation of $500 or more. Subdivision 8. First
grade, attendants, nurses, and orderlies ; second grade,
supervisors of asylums and wards. Subdivision 9.
Superintendents employed in asylums and by the
Commissioners of Emigration. First grade, all such
persons receiving an annual compensation or less than
$500 ; second grade, all such persons receiving an an-
nual compensation of $500 or more.

In the above classification the inclusion of any spe-
cified official in any class, subdivision, or grade, shall
not apply to any person acting as, or termed as, a dep-
uty or assistant of such official, nor to any persons
acting for such official, in case of absence, vacancy in
office, or otherwise. The term " deputy " or " as-
sistant" is not recognized in this classification unless
such designation is authorized by law. Where any
person receives a compensation rated, not by the year,
but by the day, week, or month, the classification of
such person, when dependent upon compensation,
will be based on his or her equivalent annual com-
pensation. This classification is not intended to de-
termine nor suggest any method of appointment to,
or examination for, any class, subdivision, or grade.
The subdivisions are intended to mark the distinct
kinds of qualification necessary hi each class, and the
grades in the subdivisions, are designed as steps for
advancement by formal promotion. The omission in
the above classification of any official designation or
appellation of a position in the service will not exclude
such position from the classification, as it will be coin-
prised in the class to which it belongs by the general
specification of such class.

On submitting to the Governor the rules of
the commission regulating admission to the
service, December 6th, the commissioners said :
" In the inauguration of a new system radically
changing the methods of appointments to the
civil service some features must necessarily be
experimental. The commission has, therefore,
deemed it prudent to make the application of
the system in a measure progressive rather
than final at the outset. Any modifications
required can be made as they shall become ap-
parent by experience." The rules do not in the
general principles vary materially from those
of the National Commission. They provide
for appointments and promotions in -the vari-
ous grades of the service as established by the
classification given above. These are arranged
in -five schedules, designated A, B, C, D, and E.
The first includes the positions in subdivision

2 of Class I, and appointments may be made
to these without examination, though exami-
nations may be held at the reqnest of the ap-
pointing officer, and the commission must be
notified of all appointments within five days
after they are made. Schedule B includes the

688

REFORM IN THE CIVIL SERVICE.

three grades of subdivision 1, Class I; office
messengers and court orderlies in subdivision
3, Class III ; subdivision 2 of Class IV ; first
grade of subdivision 3 and first grade of sub-
division 5 of Class VI ; and first grade of sub-
division 7, Class VII. For these places ap-
pointments must be made by selection from
those persons graded highest as the result of
open competitive examinations. Methods of
application and general directions as to ex-
aminations and appointments are given in the
rules. Schedule C includes clerks in State-
Prisons under Class I, persons of special qualifi-
* cations in Class II; and a variety of positions re-
quiring special training or technical knowledge
as engineers, inspectors, superintendents, phy-
sicians, etc., under various classes. For these
places the appointing officer may select in each
case from the three persons graded highest as
the result of a competitive examination, or the
one graded highest of three persons named to
the commission for competitive examination ;
or a person named by himself who upon a non-
competitive examination shall be certified by
the commission as qualified. Schedule D in-
cludes a variety of employments neither cler-
ical nor requiring technical knowledge, such as
janitors, steam-engineers, mechanics, etc., not
including laborers. These are to be filled by
persons designated as qualified after non- com-
petitive examinations. Schedule E includes
higher grades of clerks, inspectors, prison-
keepers, teachers, etc., whose places when va-
cant are to be filled by promotion of those in
lower grades after an examination similar to
that which would be required for an original
appointment to the same positions. Among
the rules of the service are the following :

No person in the public service is, for that reason,
under any obligation to contribute to any political
fund or purpose, or to render any political service, and
no person shall be removed or otherwise prejudiced
for refusing1 so to do.

No person in the public service has the right to use
his official authority or influence to coerce the politi-
cal action of any person or body.

In the selection, nomination, or appointment of per-
sons to fill positions in Schedules B, C, and D, or pro-
motion of persons to positions in Schedule E, no re-
gard shall be paid to the partisan political opinions,
affiliation, or action of any person so selected, nomi-
nated, appointed, or promoted.

No question in any examination or proceeding, by
or under the commission or examiners, shall call for
the expression or disclosure of any partisan political
opinion or affiliation of any person whatever, nor shall
any discrimination be made by reason thereof; and
the commission and its examiners shall discounte-
nance all disclosure before either of them, of such
partisan opinion or affiliation by or concerning any
applicants for examinationj or by or concerning any
person on any register awaiting appointment or em-
ployment.

Every original appointment or employment in the
civil service shall be for a probationary term of three
months, at the end of which time, if the conduct and
capacity of the person appointed or employed shall
have been found satisfactory, the probationer shall be
absolutely appointed or employed, but otherwise his
employment shall cease.

Every officer under whom any probationer shall

serve during any part of such probation shall careful-
ly observe the quality and value of the service ren-
dered by such probationer, and shall report in writing,
to the proper appointing officer, the facts observed by
him, showing the character and qualifications of such
probationer and of the service performed by him;
and such reports shall be preserved on file.

Complete regulations for the conduct of
examinations and the making and grading of
applicants were prepared. Subjects for exam-
inations under the different schedules of the
service were divided into obligatory and op-
tional, and the relative weight of each was
designated, so that a general average for all
could be readily computed. The following
schemes for open competitive examinations
for places in Schedule B give an idea of the
scope and application of the system :

Clerkships, positions as collectors of
(Class I, Subdivision I, Grades 1 and 2).

Clerkships, positions as inspectors of canal cargoes
(Class IV, Subdivision II).

Age not less than twenty-one years, nor more than
forty -five years.

Relative
OBLIGATORY SUBJECTS. weights.

1. Writing from dictation 1

2. Copying from manuscript 1

B. Handwriting

4. Spelling 2

5. Arithmetic, viz. : Numeration, addition of columns,

fractions, reduction of weights and measures 8

Total.

OPTIONAL SUBJECTS.

Elements of book-keeping.
Type-writing.

Special qualification for any department of the civil service
specified by the applicant.

Clerkships and like positions (Class I, Subdivision I,
Grade 3).

Age not less than twenty-one years nor more than
forty-five years.

OBLIGATORY SUBJECTS.

Relative
weights.

1. Writing from dictation

2. Copying from manuscript 2

3. Handwriting

4. Spelling 8

5. Arithmetic, addition in columns (perpendicular and

horizontal); fractions, reduction, proportion, in-
terest and discount

6. Geography and history of New York

7. Constitution of N,ew York State

8. Giving abstracts from documents

Total.

OPTIONAL SUBJECTS.

English composition or letter-writing.
Book-keeping.
Shorthand-writing.
Type-writing.
Foreign languages.

Special qualification for any department of the civil service
specified by the applicant.

Office messengers and orderlies in public buildings
(Class III, part of Subdivision III).

Age not less than twenty-one years nor more than
forty-five years.

Guards in prisons (Class IV, Subdivision III,
Grade 1).

Age not less than twenty -five years nor more than
forty years.

REFORM IN THE CIVIL SERVICE.

689

OBLIGATORY SUBJECTS.

1. Writing from dictation

2. Handwriting ................................

8. Spelling ....................... ........ .........

4. Arithmetic, numeration, simple addition, subtraction
multiplication, and division ...................

Relative
weights.

2
4

Total.

Candidates for the positions of office-messenger
or orderly must be in approved physical conditfon
for active duties. Applicants for position of prison-
guard, in addition to the other requirements specifi-
cally named in Rule X, must furnish satisfactory
vouchers that they are not irascible or passionate, and
are of a kind and humane disposition. They must
be not less than five feet nine inches in stature when
unshod, and before being admitted to service must
pass a physical examination by the prison physician.

The first Board of Examiners was appointed
at Albany, on the 25th of December. It con-
sisted of Hiram E. Sickles, official reporter of
the Court of Appeals; James E. Morrison, Dep-
uty Superintendent of Public Instruction ; Wil-
lis E. Merrirnan, a clerk in the Comptroller's
office ; Richard G-. Milks, a book-keeper in the
Treasurer's office ; and John G. Clifford, a clerk
in the Insurance Department. The law respect-
ing competitive examinations and the rules of
the commission were to apply to appointments
made after Jan. 4, 1884.

The application of the provisions of the law
to cities of more than 50,000 inhabitants was
left to the discretion of mayors, but before the
close of the year steps had been taken in both
New York and Brooklyn for the introduction of
competitive examinations. Mayor Seth Low,
of Brooklyn, was the first to take the matter up,
and, after consultation with the commission,
rules were formulated, the municipal service
was classified, and examiners were appointed.
Similar action was taken in New York, the
mayor and heads of executive departments
having first had a conference with the State
Commission in September. The service was
classified under four schedules, as follow :

Schedule A includes all deputies of officers and
commissioners duly authorized to act for their prin-
cipals, persons occupying a strictly confidential posi-
tion, and stenographers.

Schedule B includes clerks, copyists, recorders,
book-keepers, and others rendering clerical services
not specially included in Schedule A.

Schedule C includes all per'->ns not laborers or day-
workmen who are not included in Schedules A and B.

Schedule D includes persons employed as laborers
or day-workers.

Appointments to positions in Schedule A
could be made without examination, but the
appointing officer was required to file with the
Examining Board, within five days after mak-
ing such appointment, a formal notification set-
ting forth the full name of such appointee, date
and place of birth, length of residence in the
city of New York, nature of previous employ-
ment, date of beginning of service and term
for which appointed, salary, the name of the
person in whose place the new man is appoint-
ed, and such other statistical information as
the board may deem proper for registration.
VOL. xxui. — 44 A

Applications for appointments under the other
schedules were to be filed with the Examining
Board, accompanied by the following papers :

1. The affidavit of the applicant that he is eighteen
years of age ; that he Is a citizen of the United States
and a resident of the city of New York, stating the
street and number of his residence, the extent, place,
and nature of his education, and of his business train-
ing and experience.

2. A list of the optional subjects upon which he de-
sires to be examined, if any ; and a statement whether
such application is limited to any particular office or
offices in the service.

3. The certificate of not less than three nor more
than five reputable citizens of the city of New York,
that they have been personally acquainted with the
applicant for at least one year, and believe him to be
of good moral character, of temperate and industrious
habits, and in all respects fit for the service he wishes
to enter, and that each such citizen is willing that such
certificate should be published for public information.

All examinations were to be in writing, on
the following subjects:

OBLIGATORY.

1. Handwriting (as shown in next subject).

2. Copying from dictation.

8. English spelling (as shown in previous subject).

4. Arithmetic, viz. : Addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division, as applied to whole numbers and fractions.

5. Abstracting or digesting returns into summaries.

6. Questions relating to the city of New York.

OPTIONAL.

7. Copying from manuscript and indexing.

8. Arithmetic applied, viz. : Practical problems in propor-
tion, percentage, interest, discount, and average.

9. Letter-writing on subjects connected with New York
city affairs ; grammatical correctness, clearness, and brevity
of expression will be considered.

10. Book-keeping.

Every applicant must be examined in the six obligatory
subjects, and may be examined further in such of the optional
subjects as he may select.

The relative " weight" given to the obligatory sub-
jects in making up the average standing will be as
follows : Handwriting, 3 ; copying from dictation, 1 ;
English spelling. 2 ; arithmetic, 2 ; digesting returns,
1 ; New York city data, 1.— Total, 10. Each subject
will be marked upon a scale of 100, which represents
the highest possible attainment.

The standing of a candidate on the optional subjects
is to be marked according to the scale of 100, and is to
be recorded in the same way. The aggregate results
of each examination will be entered upon a register of
eligible candidates. The name of no person can be
entered upon the eligible list whose general standing
on the obligatory subjects is less than 70.

The rules require that whenever the head
of an office or department certifies a vacancy
coming under the head of Schedule B to the
Board of Examiners, he shall signify whether
the position to be filled is a minor clerkship,
or whether any of the special qualifications
denoted by the optional subjects are essential,
and if so, which ones. If a minor clerkship be
certified, the names of the five persons having
the highest standing on obligatory subjects
will be returned by the board to the appoint-
ing officer, who shall fill the vacancy by ap-
pointing one of the five so certified to him,
and shall notify the board of the appointment.
If the appointing officer signifies that attain-
ment in one or more of the optional subjects
is essential, the Board of Examiners will re-
turn to him the names of the five candidates

690

RHODE ISLAND.

original appointments to or employment in po-
under Schedules B and C shall be provisional,

whose standings on the subject in question are
the highest (not being below the minimum of
70), and the vacancy shall be filled by the ap-
pointment of one of these five ; but the Exam-
ining Board may at any time hold a competi-
tive examination to fill a vacancy of this kind
if in their judgment the eligible list does not
contain five well qualified to fill the vacant
position. No candidate on the eligible list
shall be certified more than five times to the
same appointing officer, except at the latter's
request, nor shall the name of any person re-
main on the eligible list more than one year
from the date of examination. In determining
the special qualifications required for any posi-
tion, the Board of Examiners will be required
to consult the head of the department in which
the position is to be filled.

The following are also among the regulations
adopted by the mayor:
_ All or
sitions

and such provisional service shall not continue longer
than six months, during which period the person 54
appointed or employed may at any time be perempto-
rily discharged from service. If, during that period,
the conduct and character of the appointee are found
satisfactory, he shall receive an absolute appointment,
but otherwise his employment shall cease. Any one
failing to receive permanent appointment at the end
of six months shall be ineligible for one year for ap-
pointment upon the municipal service in any depart-
ment.

No recommendation or question under the authority
of ^hese rules shall relate to the political opinions or
affiliations of any persons whatever.

No one dismissed from the service for misconduct
shall be eligible to appointment in any other capacity
in any department of the municipal service within
three years.

Directions were given by Mayor Edson that,
as soon as practicable before Feb. 1, 1884, the
service in the several departments shall be
organized by the systematic classification by
grades of the positions in each department, so
that positions of the same responsibility, and
requiring the same degrees of capacity, within
certain limits, shall be placed at the same rate
of compensation; "and the relative rates of
compensation for the several grades of posi-
tion shall be proportioned as near as may be to
the relative responsibility and character of the
duties properly devolved upon such positions,
provided that in such adjustment a proper al-
lowance may be made for previous length of
service. Such classification will be considered
in no sense as promoting or degrading the per-
sons occupying such positions as may be in-
creased or reduced in compensation, but as re-
organization of the service with reference to
the absolute importance of the duties in each
position and its relation in such regard to other
positions."

REVENUE AND TARIFF. See CONGRESS, p. 193.

RHODE ISLAND. State Government — The fol-
lowing were the State officers during the year :
Governor, Alfred H. Littlefield, succeeded,
May 29th, by Augustus O. Bourn, Republicans ;
Lieutenant-Governor, Henry H. Fay, succeed-

ed by Oscar J. Rathbun ; Secretary of State,
Joshua M. Addeman ; General Treasurer, Sam-
uel Clark ; State Auditor and Insurance Com-
missioner, Samuel H. Cross; Railroad Com-
missioner, Henry Staples ; Attorney-General,
Samuel P. Colt ; Adjutant - General, Elisha
Dyer, Jr. ; Commissioner of Public Schools,
T. B. Stockwell. Judiciary, Supreme Court:
Chief-Justice, Thomas Durfee; Associate Jus-
tices, Pardon E. Tillinghast, Charles Matteson,
John H. Stiness, and George M. Carpenter, Jr.
Legislative Sessions.— The Legislature of 1882-
'83, consisting of 30 Republicans and 6 Demo-
crats in the Senate and 63 Republicans and 9
Democrats in the House, convened in Provi-
dence for its second session on the 30th of
January and adjourned on the 13th of April.
Among the bills passed were the following:

Amendments to the act for, the suppression of in-
temperance ; in relation to truant children, and of the
attendance of children in the public schools ; making
appropriation of $15,000 for the completion of the
State Reform School buildings and grounds ; estab-
lishing the northern boundary-line of the State of
Ehode Island, between Ehode Island and Massachu-
setts ; in amendment of, and in addition to, chapter
158 of the Public Statutes, " Of Railroad Corpora-
tions" ; in amendment of, and in addition to, chap-
ter 37 of the Public Statutes, " Of the Election and
Qualification of Town Officers"; in amendment of
chapter 163 of the Public Statutes, " Of Marriage" ;
in amendment of chapter 27 of the Public Statutes.
" Of the Revenue of the State " : SECTION 1. A tax of
twelve cents on each one hundred dollars of the rata-
ble property of the several towns, as herein set forth,
shall be annually assessed, collected, arid paid by the
several towns to "the General Treasurer, one half there-
of on or before the fifteenth day of June, and one half
thereof on or before Dec. 15 in each year.

On March 30th the Judges of the Supreme
Court gave their unanimous answer to a reso-
lution of the Senate requesting their opinion
in regard to the legal competency of the Gen-
eral Assembly to call a convention for the re-
vision of the State Constitution.. They are of
opinion that such power does not exist, and
that the only legal mode in which changes can
be effected in the Constitution is the mode
pointed out in the Constitution itself for its
amendment. The provision for amendment in
the Constitution is singularly explicit. The
proposed amendment is first to pass the two
houses of the^General Assembly by a majority
of the members elected. It is then to be pub-
lished with the vote thereon in the newspapers,
and otherwise brought to the attention of the
people ; it ia then to pass the Assembly elected
after such publication by a majority of both
houses ; and, finally, it is to be submitted to
the approval of the electors, and, if it be ap-
proved by three fifths of the electors voting
(and not otherwise), it is to become incorpo-
rated in the Constitution.

The Legislature of 1883-'84 convened in New-
port on May 29th, and adjourned on June 1st,
to meet in Providence on the last Tuesday of
January, 1884. State and county officers were
elected, and a few acts were passed.

Finances. — The receipts from all sources from

RHODE ISLAND.

691

Jan. 1, 1883, to Dec. 31, 1883, were $930,433.-
43 ; balance in the treasury Jan. 1, 1883,
$324,919.44; payments for the fiscal year,
$889,935.96; balance in the treasury Jan. 1,
1884, $365,416.91. The receipts were from
the following sources :

State taxes and other taxes $582,114 25

Liquor-licenses 71,87788

Courts and jailers 88,706 83

Shell fisheries 10,757 00

State institutions, Cranston 52,E63 50

School fund 12,053 50

Judgment against the city of Boston 129,981 41

Miscellaneous 82,879 61

Total $930,433 43

The payments were for the following pur-

Principal and interest of State debt and sinking

fund $330,321 02

Salaries 67,459 03

The courts, and the care and support of offenders

and dependent persons 251 ,328 88

The military 22,992 97

Educational purposes 106,613 82

Purchase of land and erection of buildings 37,525 35

' '1 other expenses 73,634 89

Total $839,935 96

By a vote of the General Assembly at the
[ay session, an additional sum of $129,981.41
ras ordered to be paid to the sinking fund.
he amount of the State debt Jan. 1, 1883, was
1,615,500. The bonds outstanding, Jan. 1,
1884, were as follow :

>nds issued Oct. 1, 1861 $500 00

i issued Sept. 1, 1862 8i),000 00

>nds issued April 1, 1865 11,000 00

>nds issued July 1, 1863 631,000 00

ads issued Aug. 1, 1864 738,000 00

Total $1,410,500 00

To provide for the payment of the outstand-
ig bonds the General Treasurer is required

pay annually, in January, $100,000 into the
sinking fund.

Education. — The Commissioner of Education
eports the following statistics relating to
shools :

Iren from five to fifteen years enumerated.. 58,399

.ildren attending public schools 36,109

iildren attending all other schools 7,680

lildren not attending school 14,610

iildren attending school less than the time re-
quired by law— viz., twelve weeks 2,241

Turnber of schools 842

Average length of schools 9 mos. 4 days

Number of different pupils enrolled

42,671
31,579
28,553

Average number belonging. .

Average attendance

Number of teachers regularly employed .

Amount paid teachers $412,008 76

Total receipts 674,395 52

Current expenditures 512,389 79

Permanent expenditures, buildings, apparatus,
etc 134,925 70

State Institutions. — The appropriation for the
Board of Charities and Corrections for the year
was $100,000, in addition to the amount re-
ceived for labor, board of inmates, and sale of
the product of the farm and workshop, which
amounted to $52,563.50. An appropriation of
$23,153.55 was, also made to meet the defi-
ciency of 1882. The board drew from the"
treasury the sum of $97,011.30 in addition to
the amounts received by them as above. This

sum of $97,011.80 represents the actual cost to
the State of supporting the State- Prison, the
Providence County Jail, the Sockanossc-i
for Boys, the Oaklawn School for (iirls, the
State Workhouse and Mouse of Correction, the
State Almshouse, and the State Asylum for the
Incurable Insane.

The number of inmates in each of the de-
partments, December 31et, was as follows:
State-Prison, 95 ; Providence County Juil. 1 74 ;
Sockanosset School for Boys, 173 ; Oukhnvn
School for Girls, 37; State Workhouse and
House of Correction, 240; State Alnishouse,
200 ; State Asylum for the Incurable Insane,
300. Total, 1,219.

According to the practice under the present
statute, insane paupers not regarded as incur-
able are sent for treatment to the Butler Hos-
pital, the State aiding in their support to the
extent of $120 a year, whether they have or
have not legal settlements in the town. Dur-
ing the year the State paid the Butler Hospital
$3,091.71, and all the towns, $5,905.62.

The State School for the Deaf has satisfac-
torily continued its workings during the year.
The number of pupils attending at any time
was 33, the same as in the preceding year ; but
the average was 21'9, against 18 in 1882.

Institutions for Savings. — The amount of de-
posits and of profits on hand December 31st
was $52,445,334.43, an increase of $1,787,457.-
63. The number of depositors was 120,482,
an increase of 8,010. The average amount due
each depositor was $416.07. There has been
a gratifying increase of the number of small
depositors, as the number of those having less
than $500 deposited has increased 6,796.

The sum of $15,000 was appropriated for the
support of the insane poor at Butler Hospital
and for the education of indigent deaf, dumb,
idiotic, and blind persons, for the year 1883.

Divorce. — On this subject the Governor says :

The State of Khode Island has acquired a reputation
in regard to divorces as unenviable as it has in the
matter of illiteracy. The proportion of divorces to
marriages is constantly increasing. In 1882 there
was one divorce to every 9 '7 marriages. And when
we consider that probably one third of our population
are adherents of the Roman Catholic Church, in which
divorces are not recognized for any cause, the propor-
tion of divorces becomes absolutely startling. For
the ten years ending Dec. 31, 1882, there were 2,824
applications for divorce in the State, of which 2,201
were granted. The large majority of these divorces
were granted without opposition, and therefore upon
ex parte depositions, which are practically only such
depositions of interested parties as would make »
prima facie cass. Though the law provides that no
divorce shall be granted if it shall appear that there
is collusion between the parties, yet it is a well-known
fact that in a large number of cases there is actual col-
lusion, though it may not be brought to the attention
of the court. About one fifth of the applications al-
Jeo-e adultery as a cause for divorce, and yet I am in-
formed by the Attorney-General that no prosecution
for adultery was ever known to him based on evi-
dence brought out in a divorce case. In fact, a divorce
for this cause would be granted upon evidence that
would not warrant for a moment the holding of a per-
son upon a criminal charsrc for the commission of the
crime. Our statute practically limits the causes of

692

RHODE ISLAND.

ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.

divorce to the discretion of the court, and is so much
more favorable to easy divorces that instances are not
rare of persons coming to the State and remaining the
time required to obtain standing in our courts.

Railroads. — The following are statistics of the
railroads of the State for the year :

Whole number of corporations (including Ap-
ponaug, operated by the New York, Provi-
dence, and Boston, and no separate account

kept; 18

Total amount of capital stock $39,654,170 86

Total amount of indebtedness 30,773.463 23

Total receipts 13,094,812 58

Total expenses 12.254,836 46

Total net earnings 1,689,934 34

2,665,962 34
32,671,430
4,550,814
80WH&
354
885
7,820$

Total net surplu

Total number of passengers

Total tons of merchandise

Total miles of track in this State

Total number of locomotives

Total number of passenger-cars owned. .
Total number of all other cars owned . . .

Compared with previous year the result is :

Total capital stock, increased $3,326,300 00

Total indebtedness, increased 4,643,713 95

Total receipts, increased 600,688 80

Total expenses, increased- 1,316,900 32

Total net earnings, decreased 481,951 54

Total surplus, decreased 60,881 16

Total number of passengers, increased 2,836.389

Total tons of merchandise, decreased 698,977^

Total miles of track in this State, increase. . . 6-T%60%

Political.— The Republican State Convention
met in Providence on March 15th, and nomi-
nated the following ticket : For Governor,
Augustus O. Bourn, of Bristol ; Lieutenant-
Governor, Oscar J. Rathbun, of Woonsocket ;
Secretary of State, J. M. Addeman, of Provi-
dence; Attorney- General, S. P. Colt, of Bris-
tol ; General Treasurer, Samuel Clark, of Lin-
coln.

On the same day a convention of Independ-
ents in Providence nominated William Sprague
for Governor, and appointed a committee of
conference on the other nominations.

The Democratic State Convention met in the
same city, on the 20th of March, and having
nominated Mr. Sprague for Governor, in con-
ference with the Independent committee, agreed
upon the following ticket for State officers :
For Lieutenant-Governor, Charles H. George,
of Providence ; Secretary of State, Warren R,
Perce, of Providence ; Attorney-General, Wil-
lard Sayles, of Providence ; General Treasurer,
James B. Cottrell, of Newport. Z. O. Slocum
was substituted for Mr. George.

The election, on the 4th of April, resulted in
the success of the Republican ticket. The fol-
lowing is the vote :

Republican.

Democratic.

Independent
Democratic.

Governor

13 068

10201

726

Lieutenant-Governor
Secretary of State
Attorney-General

13.179
13,257
13622

10,214
10,166
9,905

690
673
628

Treasurer

18257

10 174

674

The Legislature chosen has 30 Republicans
and 7 Democrats in the Senate, and 55 Repub-
licans and 17 Democrats in the House.

RITUAL MURDER CASE. See AUSTRIA-HUN-
GARY, page 47.

ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. Rome — The most
important event of the year was the seizure by
the Italian Government of the property of the
Congregation de Propaganda Fide. This body,
one of the committees of cardinals to which
the various departments of the Catholic Church
are confided, controls funds and property given
for missionary purposes in all countries. The
Italian Government undertook to seize and
sell this property, and give the Propaganda a
credit for the amount in the Italian debt, pay-
ing a yearly interest. Against this the Prop-
aganda appealed ; the case was tried in the
Italian courts, and finally carried to the Court
of Cassation, which sustained the Govern-
ment. The Congregation of the Propaganda
has under its charge a great missionary college,
and a printing-office established in 1626, in
which religious works in a great number of
languages are printed. It has also a museum,
founded early in this century by Cardinal Ste-
phen Borgia, and has a rich collection of early
maps, and geographical, ethnological, and lin-
guistic contributions from missions in all parts
of the world. Cardinal Siineoni, Prefect of the
Propaganda, by a circular to bishops in mis-
sionary countries, Oct. 20, 1882, appealed for
further contributions to this great collection.

Among the other notable events was the
opening of a college in Rome for Armenian
theological students, under the direction of
Cardinal Hassoun, who belongs to that rite.
It had been established by Pope Leo XIII, by
his brief of March 1.

On May 30, Pope Leo XIII issued a con-
stitution in regard to the Third Order of St.
Francis, a branch of the Franciscan order, em-
bracing persons living in the world, even in
the marriage state. The Pope revised and
amended the rule of the order, and recom-
mended it highly to the faithful.

On August 17 the Pope addressed a re-
markable letter to Cardinals de Luca, Pitra,
and Hergenroether, in which he announced
that the Vatican Library would henceforth be
at the service of those who were prosecuting
historical labors. Under this policy, the Vati-
can archives had already been examined at the
instance of the English Government, and copies
obtained of documents supplementing what
was already known of various important events.

On September 12 the Pope issued an en-
cyclical to stimulate Catholics throughout the
world to resort to the devotion of the Rosary,
to which, in Catholic annals, the victories of
Lepanto and Vienna, which saved Christen-
dom, are especially ascribed.

On October 7 he received in St. Peter's a
great pilgrimage from all parts of Italy, and
replied to the address by Count Viancino.

The venerable Father Beckx, General of the
Society of Jesus, feeling the infirmities of age,
sought to retire, or be aided injiis duties. For
the first time in the history of the order, a co-
adjutor to the General was elected by the pro-
curators of the various provinces assembled in

ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.

general congregation. The choice devolved
on Father Anderledy, who had for a time been
a missionary in the United States.

No new promotions of cardinals were made
during 1883, and several members of the Sa-
cred College died: Cardinal Ignatius Moraes
Cardoso, Patriarch of Lisbon (Feb. 24) ; Cardi-
nal Deschamps, Archbishop of Mechlin (Sept.
29) ; Cardinal Henry Mary Gaston de Bonne-
chose, Archbishop of Rouen (Oct. 28).

Ireland.— On the first day of the year 1883
Pope Leo XIII addressed to Cardinal McCabe,
Archbishop of Dublin, an important brief in
regard to the agitation in Ireland, in which he
said:

The adherents of evil societies, as we have been
grieved to observe during the past months, do not
cease to put their trust in deeds of crime to excite the
isious of the people, and, by seeking remedies
rse than the disease, to adopt a course calculated
lead their fellow-countrymen, not to safety, but to
.^truction. Hence the faithful people should be
rrnly persuaded, as we have already reminded them,
lat the standard of utility and honesty is one and the
ne ; that the national cause should be kept distinct
m the aims, purposes, and deeds of unhallowed as-
ciations ; that while it is just and lawful for those
_jffering oppression to seek their rights by lawful
means, it is not allowable to make use of the protec-
tion which crime affords ; and that Divine Providence
allots to the virtuous the enjoyments of the fruits of
patience and well -doing, but subjects the evil-disposed,
after their fruitless labors, to heavy punishment from
God and men. While we thus speak from our ear-
nest desire for the relief, peace, and happiness of Ire-
land, we have no doubt that you, our beloved son, and
your venerable colleagues in united counsels and
brotherly love, will continue to keep your faithful peo-

Ele entirely apart from those who, led away blindly
y their own passions, think that they can serve their
country by steeping themselves in crime, by drawing
others into tbe same depraved courses, and imprinting
a foul stain upon their country's cause. We rejoice,
beloved son, that you have lately so effectively dis-
charged this priestly zeal when, in view of the snares
and dangers prepared for the Catholic youth of Ire-
land, you issued a pastoral letter in which you pub-
licly denounced these dangers, stirred up the faithful
to vigilant care, and consulted at once for their salva-
tion and for the interests of religion and your country.
These grave duties of the pastoral office and the pub-
lic interests of the Irish people imperatively demand
that the clergy should give every assistance to their
bishops, in calming the passions of their countrymen
and checking public disturbances.

For the proper exercise of this salutary influence of
the sacred ministry— especially when the question of
popular meetings "in whi.h affairs are very warmly
discussed and dissensions arise — we deem it a wise
plan if, adhering strictly to the decrees you have al-
ready made regarding the junior clergy, you would
give leave to attend such meetings only to those eccle-
siastics in whose wisdom you have special confidence,
whose mature age and experience have rendered them
conspicuous for prudence, wisdom: and weight, and
who are, therefore, best able to guide an excited as-
sembly to what is right and honest, to meet the falla-
cies of the evil-disposed, to guard the cause of justice,
and be the best defender of the most judicious courses.

The exhortations of the Holy See were re-
newed by the Archbishop of Tuam and other
members of the Irish hierarchy in their pasto-
ral letters. In the course of time the Parnell
testimonial fund was started, and collections
were made in some parts of Ireland in the

Catholic churches. This elicited from Cardi-
nal Simeoni a circular letter to the bishops, in
which he said :

It is not forbidden to collect money to better the
condition of the Irish people, but, according to the
apostolic commands, conections are to be p"
condemned which are avowedly intended to inflame
still more the passions of men, so that leaden* may
easily abuse them to form wild plots against the lawn.
But most especially are they to keep aloof fi
movements, when it distinctly appears that tl
to excite hatred, to assail the character of eminent men,
and utter no condemnation of crimes and a».-:i.-<-iiia-
tions with which wicked men dishonor thorn
and most of all when it is put forth that real love or
country is to be gauged by tbe amount of money con-
tributed or refused, so that men are driven by a kind
of force or fear to take part in them.

Germany. — The situation of the Catholic
Church in Germany began to improve during
1883. Negotiations were carried on at Rome,
and some concessions were made. A Catholic
relief act, mitigating to some extent the sever-
ity of the Falk laws, passed the lower house
of the Prussian Parliament, June 25, and be-
came a law July 17. The condition of the
Church had by this time become one of great
distress: 8,000 priests were in exile; in the
archdiocese of Posen, 171 parishes, contain-
ing 300,000 Catholics, were without parish
priests, and 135 of them without clergy of any
kind ; in the archdiocese of Cologne, 286 par-
ishes out of 813 were deprived of priests; in
the diocese of Miinster, 137 were vacant.

The Relief Act enabled bishops to perform
episcopal acts, even out of their own dioceses,
and to appoint vicars, chaplains, etc., in vacant
parishes. The celebration of mass by priests
not authorized by tbe Government was no
longer a criminal offense, and the right of ap-
peal to the Minister of Public Worship was
granted.

The organization of the Catholics m Germa-
ny, called forth by the oppressive acts of the
Government, continued active, as was shown
by a general meeting of delegates at Dussel-
dorf, in Prussian Rhineland, in September.

France.— The course of the Government of
the French Republic during 1883 was hostile
to the Catholic Church, which was that of the
vast majority of its citizens. Seminarians in
their theological course were made subject to
conscription, and compelled to serve in the
ranks; clergy were made subject to be de-
prived of their stipends at will ; religions in-
structions and emblems were removed from
the schools, and books of morality, written by
avowed infidels, were introduced. . In the
same spirit the Municipal Council in Pans ^up-
pressed the chaplaincies in the hospitals, closed
the chapels, and forbade visits by the clergy,
unless in cases where they were specially sum-
moned by the patients. This, was done against
the protest of the Archbishop of Pans. In
June Pope Leo XIII addressed a letter to
President Grevy, personally urging him t
exert his influence to secure a more just and
equitable policy. The French Cabinet decided

694

ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.

that the President should answer the letter
personally, not officially.

Belgium. — Belgium, imitating the policy of
France, adopted a line of proceeding to dimin-
ish the influence of the Catholic Church. Re-
ligious teaching was suppressed in the schools,
and (June 26, 1883) a law was passed making
theological students liable to conscription. The
Catholic party established schools of their own
in which the pupils increased from 580,380 in
1880 to 622,437 in 1882.

A curious case in the Belgian and American
courts resulted, August 14, in the acquittal
of Canon Bernard, who had been arrested in
America for embezzling the funds of the dio-
cese of Tonrnai. The bishop of that see, Mgr.
Dupont, becoming more or less insane, was
removed by the Pope, who appointed Bishop
Rousseaux to the management of the diocese.
Bishop Dupont, however, endeavored to gain
possession of the diocesan funds, and the Gov-
ernment claimed that the funds really belonged
to the state. Canon Bernard, acting under
orders to remove the funds, brought them to
the United States. As there had been no mis-
appropriation, his innocence was recognized.

Louise Lateau, the stigmatica of Bois d'Haine,
died there on August 24. S-he was. born
Jan. 30, 1850, and from childhood was noted
for her piety and charity, especially in the
cholera-season of 1866. She was prostrated
by a lingering malady the following year,
and the stigmata, or wounds like those of
Christ, began to appear in 1868, that in the side-
being the first. She was also declared to have
lived without food from 1871. Her case ex-
cited much attention, and for a considerable
period her symptoms were examined by medi-
cal men of all opinions. By Catholics gener-
ally the facts were accepted as well established,
and she was regarded as one of those record-
ed to have received the stigmata, St. Francis
of Assisi being the first. Others, however, im-
peached the evidence and denied the facts.

A congress, theological and devotional, was
held at Liege, Belgium, June 5-10, 1883, called
the Congress of Eucharistical Works.

Switzerland. — Early in the year an attempt
was made to give the Catholic cantons reore-
sentation in the Federal Council, from which
they had been excluded for thirty years, but
the project failed. The position of the Catho-
lic Church, however, was improving; Mgr. Mer-
millod, Bishop of Lausanne and Geneva, who
had long been in exile, was permitted to re-
turn. The Old Catholic body, though support-
ed by the Government, had not gained ground,
and was unable to retain the Church of St.
Joseph, which had been taken from the Cath-
olics, who accordingly recovered it.

Austria-Hungary. — The year was marked by
a great national pilgrimage to the. tomb of St.
John Nepomucene, at Prague, in May, and by
the religious and national celebration in Aus-
trian Poland of John Sobieski's victory over
the Turks at Vienna in 1683. During the

year the laws making seminarians amenable to
military service were to some extent a dead
letter.

Russia. — The negotiations which Pope Leo
XIII had conducted with the Emperor led,
early in 1883, to a greater prosperity for the
Catholic Church in the Russian dominions
than it had enjoyed for many years. "With the
consent of the Russian Government, the Pope
appointed twelve bishops to sees which had
long been vacant. Numbers of priests were
allowed to return from exile. The Catholic
Metropolitan of Russia, Mgr. Fialkowtski,
Archbishop of Mobile v, died on Feb. 11.

United States.— The Catholic Church in the
United States, at the close of 1883, had 13
archbishops, 57 bishops, 6,835 priests, and
6,613 churches — an increase of 289 priests and
372 churches since 1882. The total number of
Catholics is uncertain, the estimates being, as
far as statistics can be depended on, below the
real population, which, judging by the ratio
of births and deaths, must exceed 7,500,000.
In Vermont, of 7,350 children born, 2,037
were baptized in Catholic churches ; the ratio
of births to population is 1 to 45 '2, but the
Catholic population is estimated at only 36,-
000, when probably 50,000 would be nearer
the truth. Of 90,980 births in Ohio, 16,216
were baptized in Catholic churches.

A provincial council, called at New York,
met on September 23. Besides the cardinal,
who presided as Archbishop of New York, it
was attended by seven bishops of New York
and New Jersey, and the Coadjutor Arch-
bishop of New York. The decrees of the
Council were transmitted to Rome for ap-
proval. About the same time the Pope called
the various archbishops of the United States
to Rome to discuss the matters to be treated in
a Plenary Council of the whole Church in the
United States, to be held in .Baltimore in
1884. As several of the archbishops were
unable from ill health to go, bishops from the
provinces represented them and vacant sees.
Many sessions of the American archbishops
and bishops were held, and various points re-
lating to the adaptation of the law governing
the Church in the United State? to the general
law of the Church, and to the position of af-
fairs in this country, were finally settled upon.

The celebrations in the year showed a
strange contrast. The Jesuits celebrated April
17, the 250th anniversary of the founding of a
mission of their order in Maryland, at the very
outset of its colonization ; and Chicago, now
the see of an archbishop, celebrated the 50th
anniversary of the erection of the first Catholic
church, May 27; and the first resident priest
at Chicago, Rev. J. M. J. St. Cyr, almost wit-
nessed the celebration, dying Feb. 21.

Several cases touching the Catholic, Church
were before the courts in 1883. In March,
Chief-Justice Morton, of the Supreme Court
of Massachusetts, decided that a bequest of
money to have masses said for the soul of the

ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.

testator was valid ; but in another case in New
York in June, Judge Freeman, of an inferior
court, held such a bequest invalid.

Churches for colored Catholics were dedi-
cated during the year in Baltimore and New
York, and a Colored Home for the Aged at
Louisville, Ky.

Canada. — The Catholic Church in Canada,
and adjacent provinces, in 1883, had 5 arch-
bishops, 25 bishops, 2,032 priests, and 1,699
churches, with a population of 2,082,895.

The pilgrimage to St. Anne at Beaupre1 was
increased greatly from all parts of Canada.

A difficulty arose in connection with the
establishment of a branch of the University
Laval, of Quebec, in Montreal. Bishop Con-
roy, at the time of his death, had made prog-
ress in adjusting the questions regarding the
succursal Medical College of Laval University
and the H6tel Dieu, Montreal, but new diffi-
culties arose, which even injunctions from
Cardinal Siraeoni failed to remove. A new
apostolic delegate, Mgr. Henry Smeulder, was
sent out and made his solemn entry into the
Basilica, Quebec, Oct. 22, 1883. The questions
at issue were still undecided.

Chili. — The Spanish-American republics
claim the right of patronage granted by Pope
Julius II to Philip II, and under it assume the
right of nominating bishops. This has led to
frequent vacancies, as the candidates presented
are not always such as any Pope can con-
scientiously appoint. In Chili the Government
nominated Mgr. Tafarofor the archbishopric of
Santiago; the Pope declined to appoint him,
and finally sent Mgr. del Mate as delegate to
Chili, to endeavor to adjust the difficulty ; but
the Chilian Cabinet almost immediately sent
him his passports.

Australia.— The Catholic Church in Australia
sustained a great loss in the death of Arch-,
bishop Roger Bede Vaughan, of Sydney, who
died suddenly while in England, Aug. 18, 1883.

Foreign Missions. — The Catholic missions in
Anam and China were involved in great dan-
ger by the French operations in Anam, as
they led to a general exasperation against all
.Christians supposed to be connected with
France. The Rev." M. Bechet, of the Semi-
nary of the Foreign Missions, Paris, was de-
capitated, May 1st, in the province of Thang
Hoa, Tonquin. The Abbe" Terrasse was put to
death at Yunnansen, China, and about 70 na-
tive Christians were driven from their homes
and put to death. The church in Anam con-
tained six vicariates apostolic, with 396 priests
and 501,223 Christians, exclusive of the part
under French rule, which contained 98 priests
and 65,242 Christians.

In Madagascar Father Gaston de Batz and
Brother Martin Bmtail were starved to death
at Mananzary, July 28 and 29.

The revolt of El Mahdi in the Soudan broke
up all the Catholic missions, and the clergy fell
into his hands, but no details of their fate have
been obtained.

ROUMANIA.

li'Jf,

At Colombo, in Ceylon, on Easter-day, the
Buddhists, at the instigation of a fanatic booze,
got up a procession near the Catholic cathe-
dral, bearing a crucified monkey, grotesque
figures in derision of the Virgin Mary, and
other emblems intended to provoke the "< lu-U-
tians. A bloody riot ensued. The trouble
spread, and several Catholic churches in the
rural districts were burned or pulled down.

ROUMANIA, a kingdom of Eastern Europe,
formerly a province of Turkey. Absolute in-
dependence was proclaimed May 22, 1877, and
was recognized by the powers at the Congress
of Berlin, June 13, 1878. The principality of
Roumnnia was erected into a kingdom March
26, 1881. The Constitution was elaborated by
a Constituent Assembly in 1866. It delegates
the legislative power to the Senate, of 70
members, and the Chamber of Deputies, of
145 members. Every citizen who pays taxes
is a voter. The electoral colleges are four in
number, corresponding to four classes of voters.

The King, Carol I, the son of Prince Ho-
henzollern-Sigmaringen, was born April 20,
1839. He was elected Prince of Roumania in
1866, after the abdication of Couza, who was
elected Hospodar of Moldavia and Wallachia
in 1859, and assumed the title of Prince Alex-
ander John I upon their union into the Prin-
cipality of Roumania in 1861. The executive
authority is exercised by a council of seven.

Area and Population. — The area, as fixed by
the Treaty of Berlin, is about 49,979 square
miles. The population of the kingdom is
known only by estimates. The official esti-
mate of the total population in 1882 was
5,376,000. In Roumania, as it was before the
Treaty of Berlin, the estimated population of
5,073,000 souls included 772,700 strangers.

About 4,529,000 of the inhabitants of Rou-
mania proper belong to the Greek Orthodox
Church, 114,200 are Roman Catholics, 400,-
000 Hebrews, 13,800 Protestants, 8,000 Ar-
menians, and 2,000 Mohammedans. The capi-
tal, Bucharest, contains 221,000 inhabitants;
Jassy, 90,000 ; Galatz, 80,000. The number of
marriages in 1882 was, exclusive of the Do-
brudja, 44,242 ; births, 191,653 ; deaths, 134,627.

Commerce. — The imports increased from 82,-
927,228 lei (the leu is the equivalent of a
franc) in 1871 to 255,336,415 lei in 1880, 274,-
757,458m 1881, and 268,850,921 lei in 1882;
the exports from 177,682,783 lei in 1871 to
218,918,878 in 1880,206,518,317 in 1881, and
244,730,199 lei in 1882. The commerce with
the principal foreign countries in 1881 was in
round numbers as follows, in lei :

COUNTRIES.

Import!.

Exporta.

185,000,000

72,100.000

00,000.000

x-.VJnn.o.xl

81.800,000

1,600.000

22,700,000

19,300.000

16,400,000

11.400.000

Other countries

19,800,000

19,900,000

Total

274,700,000

206,000,000

696

ROUMANIA.

The values of the principal classes of imports
and exports were as follow :

CLASSES OF MERCHANDISE.

Imports.

Export*.

Cereals . .

5,600,000

157.200,000

Animals

5,000,000

16,600,000

Hides, leather, and manufactures.
Timber and manufactures of wood
Textile materials and manufact-
ures

86,500,000
13,900,000

98,400,000

1,800,000
5,200,000

7,100,000

Metals and manufactures thereof.
Vegetable oils

48,600,000
6,300 000

700,000

All other articles

60,400,000

17,400,000

Total

274,400,000

206,000,000

The number of vessels entered at Danubian
ports in 1880 was 19,875, of 2,969,848 tons;
number cleared, 18,564 — tonnage, 3,174,131.

Communications. — Railroads have contributed
greatly to the development of Roumanian com-
merce and industry. The first line was built
in 1869, to connect Bucharest with the Dan-
ube at Giurgevo. On July 1, 1882, there
were 914 miles completed and 568 miles in the
course of construction. Nearly the entire net-
work was constructed by the state. The cost;
was 376,450,000 lei ; gross receipts in 1881,
22,800,745 lei; expenses, 16,854,441 lei.

The length of telegraph lines in 1882 was
4,622 kilometres; length of wires, 9,640 kilo-
metres; messages sent in 1882, 1,213,903; re-
ceipts, 4,076,921 lei; expenses, 3,659,549 lei.

The post-office forwarded 15,432,128 letters,
newspapers, and packets, in 1882.

The Army.— By the law of 1868, last modified
by the act of June 8, 1882, the military forces
are composed of the permanent army and its
reserve and the territorial army and its re-
serve, constituting the active army, the militia,
and the civic guard in the urban, and the levy
in mass for the rural communes. All Rou-
manians are obliged to serve three years in the
active and five in the reserve permanent army,
or the same period in the territorial army ; or,
if legally exempt, are enrolled in the militia,
together with those who have completed their
term of service, until they have passed the
thirty-sixth year of their age, from which time
of life they are inscribed for ten more years in
the civic guard, or levee en masse. The effective
of the permanent army in time of peace is 19,-
812 officers and men, with 2,945 horses and
180 pieces of artillery. The strength of the
territorial army is about 100,000 men, with
90 cannon. There is a naval force of four
dispatch - boats, three gunboats, a torpedo -
boat, and eight launches for the Danube po-
lice.

Finances. — The capitation-tax of nine lei, or
francs, with a higher rate for merchants, was
reduced to three francs per head of the peasant
population on the 1st of January, 1882. The
state derives the chief part of its revenue from
this source, from its valuable domains and
salt-mines, and from tobacco and salt monopo-
lies.

The budget for 1882-'83 states the revenues
as follow :

RECEIPTS. Lei.

Direct taxes 25,190,000

Indirect taxes 51,836,000

Domains 18,481,600

Ministries 17,282,522

Miscellaneous 7,817,922

Tithe of direct taxes for collection 2,519.000

Total revenue 122,627,044

The following were the main heads of the
budget of expenditures :

EXPENDITURES. Lel

Public debt 45,45s',481

War Ministry 26,404,838

Ministry of Finance 13,755.997

Ministry of the Interior 9,705.959

Worship and Instruction 11.831,890

Public Works 8,705,959

Ministry of Justice 4,276,496

Foreign Affairs 1,550,001

Council of Ministers 63 560

Reserve fund 1,874,660

Total 122,627,044

The public debt has been contracted since
1864. Two thirds of the borrowed sums have
been employed in the construction of railways.
A sinking fund exists for the redemption of all
loans between 1888 and 1968. The principal
loans bear interest at 5 and 6 per cent. The
nominal amount of the debt, April 1,1883, was
593,191,006 lei. About one third was held in
the country, and the rest mainly in Germany.

The Danube Question.— The form in which the
jurisdiction of the Danubian Commission was
prolonged was an infringement on the inde-
pendence of Roumania. In the Berlin Treaty,
as well as in the previous ones, the principle
of the equal rights of all the sovereign riverain
states was not denied. International law fur-
thermore universally intrusts to the immediate
riparian states the administration of regulations
for international rivers. Yet at the London
conference which, in February, extended the
powers of the commission for the minimum
term of eighteen years, and extended its juris-
diction to Galatz, Roumania was offered only
a deliberative voice, while Austria was by a
fiction granted the privileges of a riverain
state for a stretch of 1,221 kilometres where
it is none. This result, compromising the
rights of Roumania and humiliating to na-
tional feeling, she has striven for years to
prevent. When it was finally accomplished,
the anti- German feeling in Roumania rose
to a dangerous pitch. Gen. Brialraont, the
distinguished Belgian engineer officer, was
summoned to Roumania to plan a system of
fortifications for the frontier and the capital.
Senator Gradisteano, on the occasion of the un-
veiling of a monument of Stephen the Great at
Jassy, uttered belligerent threats against Aus-
tria. The difficulties of this young and striving
nation, situated within the circle of the East-
ern maelstrom, and in danger of being swept
away by one or the other of the mighty pow-
ers on either side, suggests in critical emer-
gencies desperate action, to which the hot
and eager temperament of the Roumanian peo-
ple is prone. Obliged to maintain an army
in a constant state of preparation for war,

ROUMANIA.

697

an army whose efficiency and bravery is
proved, and which taxes the resources of the
country severely — although they have thus
far expanded since the Russian war under this
burden and that of a heavy debt for railroads
which do not yet pay interest and expenses —
the Roumanians have a chance of not only
maintaining, but of improving, their position
by precipitating the conflict between Russia
and Austria. Whichever side they aid with
their formidable military resources, there is a
large piece of " unredeemed " Roumanian soil
to be annexed as the fruit of victory. There
are between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000 Rouma-
nians in the adjacent portions of Hungary and
Russia. The district which could be claimed
on the ground of nationality in Transylvania
and Northwestern Hungary is the most ex-
tensive and valuable. The Roumanians of Bes
sarabia, however, are related to the country
by a closer tie. They were faithful subjects
of King Carol until separated by the Treaty
of Berlin. That experience stands in the way
of an alliance with Russia. When no power
would aid Roumania in maintaining the neu-
trality of her soil, she was obliged to become
the partner of Russia in a costly war. The
important services rendered by the Roumanian
troops at Plevna helped to turn the scale of
victory. Yet they were requited by the an-
nexation to Russia of the province of Bessa-
rabia. The Dobrudja and its ports, and the
decree of independence, are not considered in
Roumania sufficisnt compensation for the loss
of Bessarabia. Of the two ports, Kustendje
alone will be utilized, and to render that one
available, five years more of time and the
expenditure of 20,000,000 francs in the con-
struction of a bridge and harbor will be re-
quired. The withdrawal of the Kilia branch
of the Danube from the jurisdiction of the
International Commission was a fresh warning
of the danger from the side of Russia. (See
DANUBE, EUKOPEAN COMMISSION OF THE.)

More sleepless and constant, however, than
jealousy of Russia, is the mistrust of German
influence and Austria, because the policy of
the King and of the present Government lays
them open to attacks, on the ground of sub-
servience to German interests. The King, as
a Hohenzollern, had difficulty in winning the
confidence of the people. He maintained his
position by sinking his nationality, and taking
the lead in Roumanian national tendencies and
. aspirations. His present advisers have gained
the confidence of the country by the tact and
devotion with which they have served the
cause of national independence, but their atti-
tude toward the German powers is sometimes
called in question. French political influence
has vanished from Roumania, but French
thought ia not extinct. The Germans have
pursued their commercial expansion in Rou-
mania more actively than in any other part
of the East, attracted by the richness of the
country, and by its social and political condi-

tions. Their economical dependence upon
German capital is a source of uneasiness and
fear to the Roumanians. A sign of this feeling
is the recent action of the legislature in en-
hancing the disabilities of foreigners to hold
land, etc., instead of sweeping them away, BO
as to promote the inflow of German capital.
Their sensitiveness, on account of the ex i
sion of German energy and culture, is as great
as that of any of the Slav peupladea of the
Balkans. A Roumanian Government coold not
venture to show too great complaisance t«»
Austria. To the Germans an independent
Roumania is a bastion to shield the " civilizing
mission " of the German race in the Orient, a
dam against the " Slavic deluge " ; while to the
Russians it is an obstacle in their path to Con-
stantinople, to be eventually erased from the
map.

Political Parties. — The Red, or Democratic
party, which has guided the state during a
period of remarkable development and prog-
ress, has governed for many years without an
organized and permanent political opposition.
Rosetti's electoral reform project raises the old
class conflict, and produces dissension in the
dominant party. The Reds, inspired with the
ideas of French liberalism, emancipated the
serfs and expropriated the landlords. The
Whites, or Conservatives, overthrew the Gov-
ernment, drove out the reforming Hospodar,
Colonel Couza, and set a German prince on the
throne ; but, as they could not undo the great
reform, they had to resign the helm again into
the hands of the Reds. They only succeeded
in making a better bargain for their lands.
Rosetti was the man of ideas, butBratiano and
other practical statesmen took the direction of
the Government. The Boyar families were
many of them won over, while Cogelniceano
and the men who were identified with Prince
Couza's revolutionary reforms were left out.
The Reds thus became merged in the National-
Liberal party. The excluded Radicals were an
insignificant group. The Conservative Oppo-
sition, though few in number, were politically
powerful until they melted away to a small
remnant. The qualified acceptance by the Gov-
ernment of Rosetti's project, revived the con-
flict between democratic and oligarchic ele-
ments. His plan is to abolish the distinct elec-
toral colleges, and have the great proprietors
with incomes of over 300 ducats net, the inter-
mediate class, with 100 ducats of income from
real property, and the indirect peasant voters,
elect their candidates to the Chamber together.
The question was not decided by the general
election to a Constituent Assembly, which took
place in May. The regular Opposition won
only 13 of the 145 seats in the Chamber, while'
the Government obtained more than the neces-
sary two-third majority in the Senate. This
and the other internal reforms which the Con-
stituent Assembly have to consider, were
obscured by the conflicts and intrigues to which
the understanding arrived at between the

RUSSIA.

Austrian and Roumanian cabinets gave rise.
The Old Conservatives, who lean toward a
Russian connection as the means of preserv-
ing the class privileges of the great families,
uttered covert threats of revolution and de-
thronement. A pretender. Prince Bibesco,
has laid plans to contest the succession to the
throne with the King's brother or nephew,
who are his constitutional successors, as he
has no male issue. The Young Conservatives
approved the foreign policy of the Government.
The group which calls itself the Pure Liberals,
accused the ministers of reducing the country
to vassalage under Austria and Germany, and
submitting to the dictation of Prince Bismarck.

Reform Legislation. — The Legislature which
reassembled in November, is intrusted with
the revision of three articles of the Consti-
tution. One of the projected reforms is an
alteration in the militia system, which pro-
vokes no opposition. On Rosetti's scheme to
extend suffrage and unite the three classes of
electors, the Government party is divided.
The third change is reactionary. It is to ex-
tend to thirty-two years the period during
which the peasantry are not allowed to sell
their lands. The Liberal opponents of the
Government, who receive support and encour-
agement from Russia as well as the Conserva-
tives, make this obnoxious proposal the ground
of a popular agitation. The people are invited
to compare their condition with that of the
Servians and Bulgarians, who enjoy more
political liberty and individual rights than the
Government is ready to accord to them. The
emancipated serfs are taught to believe that
they should have received their farms as a
gift, instead of paying a heavy price to the for-
mer serf proprietors. The idea of a natural
ownership in the soil is a logical outgrowth
of the condition of being bound to the land.
Personal liberty without land, therefore, seems
to them a delusion, particularly since the
quantity of land apportioned to them, and the
conditions of payment and amount of the re-
muneration exacted by the proprietors, were
such as to deprive their liberation of its vir-
tue to a considerable extent. The peasantry,
therefore, now clamor against the sale of the
public lands, and demand that they should be
restored to their rightful owners. The agita-
tion reached such a height in the autumn that
whole communes refused to pay to the Govern-
ment the annual quota of the purchase-money
for their farms.

RUSSIA, an empire in eastern Europe. The
law-making, executive, and judicial authority
is concentrated in the person of the Emperor,
who is also the spiritual head of the Church.
The government of the country is under the
supreme direction of the Emperor's private
Cabinet. Subordinated to the Imperial Cabi-
net is the Council of the Emperor, divided into
a legislative, an administrative, and a financial
department, the functions of which are to su-
perintend the administration of the laws, and

to suggest alterations and amendments. A
second great council is the directing Senate,
which is the highest court of judicature, be-
sides exercising a control over the other tribu-
nals of the empire. It is divided in to eight
sections, each of which acts as the court of
final resort in a particular branch of the law.
A third great governing body is the Holy Syn-
od, directing ecclesiastical affairs. All its de-
cisions must be ratified by the Emperor.

The Imperial Cabinet is divided into eleven
departments. The Minister of the Imperial
Household is Gen. Count Vorontzoff Dashkolf,
who succeeded Count Adlerberg in 1871. The
Minister of Foreign Affairs is Nicholas de
Giers, who was the practical head of the depart-
ment for some years before the retirement of
Prince Gortchakoff in March, 1882. The Min-
ister of War is Gen. Vannovski, appointed in
March, 1881. The Minister of the Interior is
Count Tolstoy, who succeeded Gen. Ignatieff
in June, 1882. Baron Nicolai took the place
of Count Tolstoy as Minister of Public Instruc-
tion. The Minister of Finance is M. Bunge,
successor to Count Abaza. The Minister of
Domains is M. Ostrovski. The Minister of the
Navy, which is under the command of the Ad-
miral-General, the Grand Duke Alexis, is Vice-
Admiral Chestakoff. The Minister of Public
Works is Vice- Admiral C. Possiet, appointed
in 1874. All the ministers and chiefs of supe-
rior administrations are members of the Com-
mittee of Ministers, which is presided over by
Secretary of State Reutern.

The Lieutenant of the Emperor in the Cau-
casus is Prince Dondoukoff-Korsakoff. The
chief of the first section of the Privy Coun-
cil is Secretary of State Taneieff ; of the sec-
ond, Marcus. The adjunct in charge of the
third section is Secretary of State Delianoff.
The President of the Council of the Empire is
the Grand Duke Michael ; the heads of the
three departments are Prince Ourousoff, M.
Titoff, and Admiral Metline. The head of the
Ministry of Justice is Secretary of State Nabo-
koff. The President of the Holy Synod is Isi-
dore, Metropolitan of Novgorod, St. Peters-
burg, and Finland ; the Procurator-General,
M. Pobedonostzeff. The Comptroller- General
of the Empire is Secretary of State Solski.

Area and Population. — The area of the Russian
Empire is 21,702,230 square kilometres, or 8,-
387,816 square miles. The total population, ac-
cording to the latest estimates, is 100,372,562.
The following table gives the area and popula-
tion of the main political divisions of the empire:

DOMINIONS.

Square
kilometres.

Population.

Eussia In Europe
Kingdom of Poland
Grand Duchy of Finland

4,888,718
127,310
878,608
472,666

75,731,398 ("BO)
7,245,419 f 60)
2,081,612 ('81)
6,087,539 ('80)

Transcaspian territory
Siberia

827,068
12495,109

203,000
8,947,903 ('80)

3,017,760

5,075,696 ('80)

Russian Empire

21,702,230

100,372,562

RUSSIA.

European Russia is divided politically into
fourteen general governments, or viceroyalties,
and fifty-one governments. The governors-
general have discretionary powers in all affairs,
civil and military. Geographically and ethno-
graphically it is divided into Great Russia, con-
taining 880,798 square miles and a population
in 1879 of 26,364,757 souls ; Little Russia, con-
taining 80,226 square miles and 8,806,895 in-
habitants ; Eastern Russia, containing 546,470
square miles and 17,213,607 inhabitants ; South
Russia, containing 168,381 square miles and
6,857,949 inhabitants; Western Russia, con-
taining 161,897 square miles and 11,508,243
inhabitants ; and the Baltic provinces, con-
taining 57,267 square miles and 3,743,356 in-
habitants. The government of Poland, which
was formerly separate, was finally merged in
that of Russia by a ukase issued Feb. 23, 1868.
Various provinces have their peculiar institu-
tions and customs. The Baltic provinces en-
joy particular rights, but these have been much
modified lately. The Grand Duchy of Finland
preserves its separate government and repre-
sentative institutions.

The average density of the population of
Russia in Europe, including Poland and Fin-
land, is forty persons to the square mile ; that
of Asiatic Russia two to the square mile; that
of the entire empire twelve to the square mile.
According to official returns for 1867-70 the
natural increment of the population of the em-
pire is about 781,000 per annum.

The Slav population of European Russia is
divided into three groups — the Great Russians,
or Veliko-Russ ; the Little Russians, or Malo-
Russ ; and the White Russians, or Belo-Russ.
The Great Russians, inhabiting the central
provinces, number about 35,000,000 souls. The
Little Russians, some 11,000,000 in number,
constitute the bulk of the population of Pol-
tava, Kharkov, Chernigov, Kiev, Volhynia, Po-
dolsk, Ekaterinoslav, and Taurida. The White
Russians, numbering about 3.000,000, are dis-
tributed over the provinces of Mobile v, Minsk,
Vitebsk, and Grodno.

The area in square kilometres and estimated
population of the provinces of Central Asia in
1880 were as follow :

GOVERNMENTS.

Area.

Population.

Uralsk

866,402

525,332

Turirai

523,656

320,075

545,839

456,325

487,678

526,380

New territory on the Black Irtysh
Semiretchensk
Russian part of III

24,167
402,202
11,288
72,684

6S5.945
70,000
808.000

Zanifshan

50,980

851,897

Syr Daria

429,980

1.109,542

103,535

222,200

Central Asia

8,017,760

5.075,696

to the decree of March 8, 1861, was estimated
to be 22,000,000. The number of owners was
109,340. The peasants paid for the lands al-
lotted to them on a scale by which the value
of their previous labor was capitalized at 6 per
cent, interest. Of the capital sum 20 per cent.
was paid down by the peasant and 80 per cent.
advanced by the Government, to be ivpji'nl
with interest by the peasant in forty-nine an-
nual installments. Of the cultivable land of
Russia proper about 5 per cent, is held by for-
mer serfs, and lo£ per cent, by crown peas-
ants, while 34£ per cent, belongs to the state,
20 per cent, to nobles and other great proprie-
tors, and 20 per cent, is the property of other
owners or is unsurveyed, and the remaining
5 per cent, town lands and mining property.
The movement of population is reported for

1880 in Russia, Poland, and Siberia, and for

1881 in Finland, as follows:

DOMINIONS.

MarrUge*

Birth..

Demthi.

Exceuof
birth*.

European Kassia
Poland •• .

7-25.427
62,771
14,288
82,952

8,678,071
2..4,021
74,469
180,802

2,684,828
189,514
68,777
181,798

MM*

104,607

20,6!»2
49,009

Finland

Siberia

The number of crown peasants liberated by
the late Emperor was 22,225,075. The num-
ber of serfs belonging to nobles and other pri-
vate owners who were emancipated according

The following is a list of the cities which
contained at the latest returns more than 100,-
000 inhabitants :

CITIES. Population.

St. Petersburg (1880) 8«,|20

Moscow (1882) 7&0,8«7

Warsaw(lS82) 406,261

Odessa (1882) 217,OoO

Riga (1881) ™S,£M

Kichinev (1880) ' ™W

Kiev(1374) 127-251

Saratov (13%) }JW«g

Kharkov (1879) 102,059

Roman Catholics are most numerous in the
formerly Polish provinces, Lutherans in the
provinces of the Baltic, and Mohammedans in
Southern Russia, while the Jews are almost
entirely settled in the towns and larger vil-
lages of the western and southwestern frontier
districts.

Education.— The empire is divided into nine
educational districts, over each of which a cu-
rator is appointed. There are nine universi-
ties, attended in 1878 by 6,250 students. There
were in 1876 24,456 elementary schools, with
1,019,488 pupils. The number of pupils in the
normal schools in 1877 was 4,596 ; the number
in the lyceums, gymnasia, and other secondary
schools was 88,400. In the budget for 1882,
18 030 867 rubles were appropriated for public
education. In 1860 only 2 per cent, of the
recruits for the army could read and write; in
1870 11 per cent. In Finland all of the popu-
lation who are of adult age are able to read, if

Commerce.— The following table shows the
growth of the export commerce in ten years,
giving the value of the merchandise exported
each year to Europe and the West, to Finland,
and to Asiatic countries, in millions of rublt
and tenths of millions :

roo

RUSSIA.

YEAR.

Europe.

Finland.

Alia.

Total.

1872
1873
1874

811-6
845-9
411-2

6-2

8-8
10-8

9-8

9-8
10 8

327-1
364-5
431-8

1875
1876
1877
1878
1879

860-6
879-8
508-8
596-5
606-4

11-8
12-0
12-8
12-3
10'8

9-6
9-4
6-9
9-3
10-5

382-0
400-7
528-0
618-1
627 • 7

1880

476-4

9'6

12-7

498*7

1881

481-8

12-0

13 -1

50t)-4

The following table, corresponding with the
above, shows the development of the import
commerce during the same period :

YEAR.

Europe.

Finland.

Asia.

Total.

1872 . . .
1878

407-7
41'2 "5

8-3
9-5

19-2
21'0

435-2

443- o

1^74

440'2

10'7

20-5

471-4

1875 .. .

29S-9

11-8

20'8

531-0

1S76

442'8

10-8

24'5

477-6

1877

291 '5

9-0

20'5

821-0

1878

557-7

9-8

28-1

595-6

1879 . . .

548-2

9-2

30-8

587'7

1880 . . .

578-8

11-4

33-0

622 -7

1881

476-1

10-4

81-2

517-7

The following table shows the extent of the
commerce in 1881 with each of the principal
foreign countries:

COUNTRIES.

Imports.

Exports.

219 901 000

148 881 000

Great Britain

108 441 000

155 795 000

19 546 000

53 484 000

Austria-Hungary

23 091 000

28 105 000

27 692 000

28 857 000

4 737 000

28'389'000

Turkey

22 307 000

9 534 000

Italy

9 535 000

4 718 000

6217 000

13 2S8'oOO

Denmark

721 000

2 883 000

Greece . .

2 567 000

1 943 000

Eoumania

945 000

8,160 000

United States

18 315 000

381 000

14 681 000

China

20 247 000

2 631 000

Persia . .

7 636 000

3 869 000

Other countries

23,643,000
530 2^2 000

9,015,000
494 433 000

The gold-mining industry, which produces
about 40,000,000 rubles a year, is believed to
be capable of great improvement. Alluvial
mines in the Altai mountains produced 6,739,-
325 rubles of gold in 1883. It was formerly
necessary to import the sulphur from abroad,
but rich sulphur-mines have been discovered
on Lake Baskunjak, and near Kazan. Valu-
able zinc-mines have been found near Khod-
jent, in Turkistan. The notion that the gold
production of Russia is diminishing is contrary
to the facts. The aggregate product of the
crown works for fifty years, from the time of
the introduction of quartz-mining down to 1869,
was 84,960 kilogrammes, of the value of 100,-
000,000 rubles, of which the cost of working
was 56,000,000 rubles, leaving a net profit of
44,000,000. In the private works 146,912 ki-
logrammes were taken out, yielding 23,000,000
rubles in royalties to the Government, and 78,-
000,000 rubles in net profits to the private
owners. The production has steadily increased,
particularly since the transfer of Government

works to private individuals. In 1868 the
number of mines and diggings in Siberia was
993, the number of persons employed 56,260,
the output 26,376 kilogrammes. In 1877 the
quantity got out was 39,000 kilogrammes, and
the number of persons employed 66,127. The
mining industry in the Altai is on the decline,
although the deposits of gold and argentiferous
lead-ore are as far from being exhausted as
they are in the Ural. In the course of the hun-
dred years from 1745 to 1845 there were mined
1,232,000 kilogrammes of silver, and 34,856 of
gold, of the total value of 138,000,000 rubles.
Now most of the mines are flooded with water,
and the mining authorities recoil from the ex-
pense of placing them again in working order.
The platinum product of the Ural is compara-
tively small, amounting in the year 1876 to
1,550 kilogrammes. The greater part of the
platinum is exported, since the Government
gave up minting coins of this metal. Rich sil-
ver, lead, and copper mines have been discov-
ered in the Kirghiz Steppe, near Bajanaul, but,
for the lack of capital and communications,
they remain almost entirely un worked. In the
iron-furnaces of the Ural the product has in-
creased in ten years. About 1870 it already
amounted to 220,000,000 kilogrammes, or two
thirds of the total product of Russia, valued at
50,000,000 rubles. The copper-mines of the
Ural are exceedingly productive. The graphite
mines of the Sayan mountains are becoming
exhausted, and the most valuable deposits have
already given out. The demand for this sub-
stance is greater since its employment for cru-
cibles. Rich beds were discovered near the
lower Yenisei, between 1859 and 1862. By
the sea-route, discovered by Nordenskiold, the
product of the new mines, which has hereto-
fore been transported by land through West
Siberia to the mouth of the Petchora, can now
be conveniently got to market. The product
of Siberian furs of the more valuable sorts has
greatly declined. The number of ermine-pelts
offered at the annual fair at Irbit declined from
108,000 in 1850 to 56,000 in I860, and 24,000
in 1870. Sable-pelts decreased in like pro-
portion from 43,600 to 10,200 and 5,150. Squir-
rel-skins, on the other hand, increased from
3,490,000 in 1850 to 4,175,000 in 1870. The
cause of the decline of the Russian fur-trade
is supposed to be the imperfect manner of
preparing and coloring the fur. The skins of
Siberian water-fowl are exported in large num-
bers. Siberia has become the chief source of
the ivory-supply. The tusks of the mammoth
are twice as heavy as those of the African ele-
phant. There have been exhumed altogether
about 22,000 mammoth-skeletons. The carved
and polished objects in diorite, porphyry, and
other metal colored stones, are manufactured
at Kolivan in the Altai, and Ekaterinenbnrg
in the Ural, where very low wages are paid,
but their cost is greatly enhanced by the trans-
port in sledges over the Ural mountains.
The rock-oil of the Caucasus has already be-

RUSSIA.

701

gun to compete with the American. In 1882
the new industry suffered from a crisis through
overproduction. The quantity of naphtha pro-
duced in the Baku district during that year was
53,000,000 poods (1 pood = 36 pounds). There
were shipped by sea 12,663,645 poods of petro-
leum, and 500,000 poods went by rail to Tiflis
and Batoum. There were exported, besides
naphtha, residuum to the extent of 17,842,946
poods, 1,267,530 poods of crude naphtha, 483,-
027 poods of lubricating oil, and 7,242 poods
of benzine. In 1883 the yield of the wells
reached an unprecedented figure, and a great
quantity went to waste for lack of reservoirs.
The producers, crippled by speculation, place
their chief hope in the railroad recently begun
between Baku and Tiflis, although the heavy
grade rising to the Suram pass, 4,000 feet
above the sea, precludes extensive shipments
and low rates. The present mode of trans-
portation is tedious and costly. The oil is
loaded in vessels in the excellent harbor of
Baku ; but, within 120 miles of Astrakhan, it
is transshipped to lighters, and again reloaded
in the river-boats of the Volga at Astrakhan.
The town of Baku, which before 1872 was
only known as the place where the worshipers
of the "eternal fire" assembled, has grown
into an important place, although the country
around is absolutely sterile, the water is saline
and bitter, and the protracted heat of summer
and the rude storms of winter render it un-
wholesome and uncomfortable.

Deposits of phosphorite, about a foot in
depth, extend over 20,000 square versts in
Smolensk, Orel, Kursk, Voroneje, Tambov,
Penza, Nijni - Novgorod, and Simbirsk. The
existence of this valuable manure has been
known for twenty years, but it has only re-
cently been exploited to satisfy a demand for
export to England and other countries. It
then came into use in Russia, and is found to
have valuable qualities, especially in the culti-
vation of the beet-root.

Navigation. — The number of vessels entered
at Russian ports in 1881 was 12,801, of which
7,859 were with cargoes; the total number
cleared was 12,313, of which 10,442 were with
cargoes. Among those entered there were 5,-
515 steamers, among those cleared 5,593. The
number entered at the ports of the Baltic was
6,209; at southern ports, 4,973; at the White
Sea ports, 763; at Caspian ports, 856. Of the
total number entered, 2,322 carried the Russian
flag, 2,509 the English, 1,883 the German, 1,-
483 the Swedish or Norwegian, 1,384 the
Turkish, 881 the Greek, 586 the Danish, 691
the Austrian, and 576 the Dutch. The entries
of coasting vessels numbered 46,604, of which
17,806 were of steamers.

The mercantile marine consisted in 1878 of
3,643 sailing-vessels, of 308,230 tons, and 259
steamers, of about 74,324 tons.

Railroads.— The total length of railways on
the 1st of January, 1878, was reported as 20,-
417 versts, or 13,611 miles. The length on

January 1, 1883, is reported as 21,457 versts,
or 14,304 miles. The aggregate capital of the
railroads amounted in 1878 to 1,450,288,196
rubles, about two thirds in bonds and one
third in stock. Over two thirds of the bonds
are held by the Government, representing near-
ly one half of the whole railroad property of
the country.

The project of a great Siberian railroad was
declared most urgent by a special commission
which sat in 1870. Seven lines are projected
in the coal-fields of the Don to connect them
with the Black Sea, the Sea of Azof, and the
existing trunk lines. Their total length is 1.-
734 miles.

In 1880-'81 a military railroad was built
from Michaelovsk, on the Caspian Sea, to Kizil-
Arvat, and a tramway from that point to
Beurma, near Bami, within 200 miles of As-
trabad and 260 of Sarakhs, on the northwest
frontier of Afghanistan. The Russian Govern-
ment has long entertained the scheme of build-
ing a railroad through Central Asia, to com-
pete with the sea-route for a part of the India
traffic, as well as to develop the commerce of
the countries it will traverse. The route from
Orenburg via Tashkend, Samarcand, and Cabul
to Peshawer, on the Indus, was given up, on
account of the unproductive nature of the
country, in favor of a line through the Cau-
casus. Gen. Anenkoffs project of a mixed
land and water line with a ferry for railroad-
trains across the Caspian, from Baku to Kizil-
Arvat, was preferred to the route from Tiflis
through Persia, passing through Tiflis, Ta-
breez, Teheran, and Candahar, and ending at
Thikarpur, on the Indus. The length of the
route chosen from Paris, via Warsaw, Mos-
cow, Vladikavkas, Baku, Kizil-Arvat, Herat,
and Candahar, to Shikarpnr, is 8,000 kilome-
tres ; the time required for the journey sixteen,
and eventually twelve days. The length of
railroad to be constructed to connect the Eu-
ropean with the Indian net- work by this route
is only 2,000 kilometres. The line already con-
structed from Michaelovsk to Kizil-Arvat
passes through the most difficult and inhos-
pitable portion of the region. To extend the
line to Astrabad, Sarakhs, and Cabnl, or to
Herat and Candahar, and join the Indian sys-
tem of railroads, involves no question but that
of the political susceptibilities of Great Britain.

Posts and Telegraphs.— The number of letters,
newspapers, and parcels forwarded through
the post-office in 1881 was 221,992,520 by the
internal service, and 25,016,496 by the inter-
national service. The number of post-offices
in 1881 was 4,521 ; of employes, 15,405.

The length of the state telegraph lines in
1881 was 56,340 miles; length of wires, 168,-
8SO miles; the length of other lines, 4,855
miles ; the number of domestic paid dispatches
in 1881, 7,202,930; the number of internation-
al dispatches . sent, 534,133; the receipts in
1881, 33,513,218 francs; expenditures for ser-
vice, 15,059,333 francs; for maintenance and

702

KUSSIA.

materials, 9,619,523 francs; for the construc-
tion of new lines, 3.437,432 francs. The an-
nual surplus of receipts is by imperial decree
devoted to the extension of the lines.

The Army. — The military forces of the em-
pire are divided into the active and the territo-
rial armies. The active army is composed of
the regular troops, recruited by annual con-
scription; the reserve, consisting of men on
furlough, who are destined to complete the
army on a war footing ; the Cossack irregular
cavalry ; and troops made up of foreign ele-
ments. The territorial army is recruited from
all the rest of the male population capable
of bearing arms, between twenty and forty
years of age. It is divided into two classes.
The first comprises the men who have escaped
the conscription after four drawings, and of
those who have completed their time of ser-
vice in the active army and its reserve. This
class can be turned into the active army if the
reserve is insufficient. The second class is to
be called out solely for the defense of the
country. Service in the regular army lasts six
years, and in the reserve nine years. There
is no immunity from service by substitution.
Young men of a certain degree of education
are accepted as volunteers at the age of six-
teen or upward, and after a short service un-
dergo an examination wThich releases them for
service except in the reserve, or pass a high-
er examination as candidates for officers' com-
missions. The Cossack levies are regulated by
special treaties. Many tribes of diminutive
stature and unwarlike disposition are excused.
An average levy of one in 250 males makes a
force of about 100,000 men. The Don Cos-
sacks and some of the other tribes, numbering
from 600,000 to 700,000 souls, are all bound to
render military service, and to furnish their
own horses and equipments, and provision
themselves while remaining within the borders
of their own country. In return they are ex-
empt from all taxes, and receive an annual trib-
ute from the Emperor, paid to the tribe.

The strength of the regular army on the
peace footing is 660,025 men, with 67,951
horses; on the war footing, 1,970,208 men,
with 224,788 horses. The Cossacks number
51,946 men. with 38,707 horses, on the peace
footing, and 145,325 men, with 138,036 horses,
on the war footing. The other irregular troops
number 5,776 men on the peace footing, and
6,331 on the war footing. Other bodies bring
the peace effective of the active army up to
about 770,000, and the war effective to 2,200,-
000 men. With the territorial militia the full
strength of the military forces of the empire
in time of war is about 3,000,000 men.

Fortification works, strategic railroad con-
struction, and the massing of detached regi-
ments on the German frontier, excited the sus-
picions of the Germans in 1883. A semicircle
of six forts along the left bank of the river,
seven kilometres from the city, was begun for
the protection of Warsaw, which has hitherto

possessed no fortifications. Another line of
four large forts is planned seven kilometres
from Praga, the suburb on the right bank of
the river. Ivangorod, on the Weichsel railway
line, is to be fortified. Fortifications at Kovno
on the river Niemen, and on the Konigsberg
and Wilna railroad, are in process of rapid con-
struction. The irritation caused by stationing
cavalry regiments in Poland led to their recall
later in the year, in earnest of the pacific as-
surances of M. de Giers.

The Navy. — Russia maintains a fleet in the
Baltic, one in the Black Sea, and smaller naval
forces in the Caspian Sea, in the Sea of Aral,
and in the waters of Siberia. The Baltic
division comprised, in 1882, 27 ironclads,
including the two under construction, car-
rying 282 guns; 33 other steamers, carrying
275 guns ; 59 transports, 8 sail-ships, and (J5
torpedo-vessels. The Black Sea division con-
sisted of 4 ironclads, with 14 guns; 27 armed
steamers, with 105 guns ; 59 unarmed steamers,
and 14 torpedo-vessels. The Caspian fleet
comprised 12 armed and 4 unarmed steam-
ers ; the Aral fleet, 6 steamers, with 13 guns ;
the Siberian fleet, 8 armed steamers, with 42
gnns; 13 other steamers, and 6 torpedo- vessels.
The ironclad navy consists of 1 mastless double-
turret vessel, the Peter the Great, with 14-inch
armor and 4 40-ton guns of 12-inch calibre ; 12
sea-going cruisers, plated with from 4£ to 7
inches of metal ; 16 battery-ships and monitors
for coast-defense ; and 2 circular monitors of
the type designed by Admiral Popoff. The
crews are recruited by conscription, but partly
by enlistment also. The period of service is
nine years, seven active and two in the reserve.

Finances. — The Russian budget is modeled
after the financial accounts of the French Em-
pire. The revenues are classified as ordinary
receipts, extraordinary receipts, and recettes
d'ordre. The latter are the proceeds of cer-
tain sources of revenue, and are balanced by
equal sums on the other side of the accounts.
The extraordinary receipts consist principally
of sums borrowed for the purpose of subsidiz-
ing railroads and for other works of general
utility. There have occurred large annual defi-
cits for more than half a century, occasioned
partly by the construction of railroads, but
mainly by war expenditures. The war expen-
ditures for the four years 1876-'80 were 1,075,-
396,653 rubles. (The silver ruble is the legal
unit of account, and is worth 73'4 cents; the
circulating medium is paper money, which is
exchanged at a discount of from 10 to 20 per
cent, and over.) The closed accounts for 1881
state the amount of the ordinary receipts as
651,754,009 rubles, and the ordinary expendi-
tures as 732,413,150 rubles, supplemented by
extraordinary military expenditures of the
amount of 29,980,687 rubles ; leaving a defi-
ciency of 110,639,828 rubles. To cover this, the
proceeds of various loans, to the amount of
112,679,027 rubles, were applied, leaving a bal-
ance in the treasury of 2,039,199 rubles. The

KUSSIA.

703

receipts in 1881 from the various sources were
of the following amounts :

SOURCES OF REVENUE. Ruble..

Land and poll taxes 114,469,000

Trading licenses 22,4ti<;.ooo

Liquor 224.8h9.000

Tobacco 12,*5G.Oi H )

Beet-root sugar 8,695,000

Customs 84,628,000

Stamps 14,969,000

Registration 9,710,000

Passports 3,281,000

Navigation dues 727.000

Quick-transit taxes 7,788,000

Highways 171,000

Miscellaneous imposts 5,852,000

Mining royalties - 865,000

Mint 2,687,000

Post-Office 14,134,000

Telegraphs 8,339,000

Railroads of the state 8,796,000

Forests . 14,4'*2,000

State mines 4,491,000

Farmed domains 6,992,000

Sales of domains 4,745,000

Other state property 661,000

Special funds 13,442,000

Receipts applicable to railroad debt 15.622,000

Repayments 8,743,000

Revenue of Transcaucasia 8.507,000

State institutions 1,336,000

Sales , 3,226,000

Fines 2,102,000

Temporary receipts 42,000

Accidental receipts 13,853,000

Budget d'ordre 24,869,000

Total 651,754,000

The expenditures in 1881 under the various
heads were as follow :

EXPENDITURES. Rubles

Public debt 195,600,000

Imperial Chancery , 2,171,000

Holy Synod 10,171,000

Imperial household 10,342,000

Foreign Affairs 4,211,000

War 253.671,000

Marine '. 82,138,000

Finances 108,379,000

Domains 19,837,000

Interior 67,462,000

Public Instruction 17,413,000

Communications 12,168,000

Justice 16,847,000

Control 2,438,000

Stud 904,000

Transcaucasia . 8,641,000

Total 762,393,000

The budget for 1882 gives the total ordinary
revenue as 656,717,870 rubles, the recettes
cTordre as 22,165,068 rubles, and the extraor-
dinary receipts as 83,121,574 rubles; total,
762,004,512 rubles. The ordinary expenditures
are set down as 658,595,151 rubles, the defenses
cTordre as 22,165,068 rubles, the anticipated
deficiency in the receipts as 8,500,000 rubles,
and the extraordinary expenditures as 72,744,-
293 rubles; total, 762,004,512 rubles.

In the budget for 1883 the ordinary receipts
are estimated at 707,573,007 rubles, the recettes
d'ordre at 5,974,581, the extraordinary receipts
at 62,457,835 rubles, and the balance in the
treasury at 2,500,000 rubles; total, 778,505,423
rubles. The ordinary expenditures are esti-
mated at 702,371,492 rubles, the depenses d^or-
dre at 5,974,581, the extraordinary expendi-
tures at 63,659,350 rubles, and the anticipated
deficits in the receipts at 6,500,000 ; total, 778,-
505,423 rubles.

The public debt has accumulated since 1860.
The loans were contracted in England, Holland,
France, and Germany, and the proceeds applied
partly to cover the annual deficits and partly
in the construction of railroads. Before that
year the interest- bearing debt was small, al-
though large amounts of inconvertible paper
currency were in forced circulation since the
time of Catharine II. A loan of £6,400,000
was issued in 1850 for the railroad between St.
Petersburg and Moscow; a loan of £12,000,000
sterling in 1859, one of £8,000,000 sterling in
1860, and a fourth for £15,000,000 sterling in
1862. These were folio wed. by other ;
loans. Large sums were raised also by domes-
tic loans. The total amount of the debt in
September, 1878, was estimated to be 2.4-X-
000,000 rubles, including two internal loans,
called the Eastern loans, issued after the com-
mencement of the Turkish War. The total
amount on Jan. 1, 1882, was stated to be 3,-
051,180,190 rubles, including 545,042,630 ru-
bles of paper notes. This sum did not include
railroad bonds and the debt repayable by the
peasantry for their lands, amounting together
to 630,555,049 rubles. The amount of paper
money in circulation was reported to be 716,-
515,125 rubles, of which 171,472,495 rubles
were protected by a reserve. A new foreign
loan of 50,000,000 rubles was raised in 1883.

One of the objects of the latest loans was to
withdraw from circulation 50,000,000 paper
rubles. On the ground that it would disturb
commercial values, the Finance Minister re-
duced the sum to 30,000,000 rubles. By a
ukase, dated Nov. 23, 1883, 30,000,000 rubles
were devoted to railroad construction.

Finland. — The Constitution of the Grand
Duchy of Finland was confirmed at the Diet of
Borga, and by proclamations issued by each suc-
cessive Emperor.

The Governor-General is General Count Hei-
den, appointed in June, 1881 ; the Minister for
Finland, at St. Petersburg, is Baron T. Bruun.

The population on Dec. 31, 1880, was 2,081,-
612, of whom 1,019,187 were of the male and
1,062,425 of the female sex. In respect of
religion it was divided into 2,040,535 Luther-
ans, 38,757 Greek Orthodox, and 2,320 Roman
Catholics. The population of Helsingfors, the
capital, was 44,584 in 1881.

The total foreign commerce in 1882 was in
value 167,100,000 gold marks of imports and
119,800,000 marks of exports (the Finnish mark
is equivalent to a franc, or 19-3 cents). The
imports from Russia amounted to 71,700,000
marks, the exports to Russia to 54,500,000
marks; the imports from Germany to 42,600,-
000 marks, the exports to Germany to 8,800,-
000 marks; the imports from Great Britain to
15,900,000 marks, exports to- Great Britain to
24,400,000; the imports from Sweden and
Norway to 13,700,000 marks, exports to Swe-
den and Norway, 7,800,000. The United States
received none of the exports, but furnished 2,-
200,000 marks of the imports.

704

EUSSIA.

The length of railroads in operation in 1882
was 732 miles, all except 20 miles the property
of the state.

The number of letters transmitted through
the post-office in 1881 was 6,249,932, of news-
papers 7,790,439. The receipts were 687,400
marks ; expenditures, 585,486 marks.

The revenue of the Government is set down
in the budget for 1883 as 38,019,135 marks.

The public debt on the 1st of January, 1883,
amounted to 70,085,739 marks, including a
loan of 8,100,000 German marks issued in De-
cember, 1882, through the Bank of Finland
and Rothschild & Son, of Frankfort, at 4 per
cent, interest.

The Senate of the Grand Duchy of Finland
has lately received the additional powers to
make over land to purchasers who are not
Finns, to establish all kinds of economical,
scientific, and literary associations, to raise
public buildings, to grant concessions for tram-
ways, etc., and to reduce the customs tariff of
the duchy. The central authority does not,
however, give the Finnish state the right to
issue passports to Finns for going abroad or to
naturalize foreigners.

Coronation of the Emperor. — From the begin-
ning of the year the approaching ceremony of
the coronation engrossed the thoughts of offi-
cial circles and of the general public, to the ex-
clusion of all other subjects. It was a subject
of anxiety to the loyal classes, among whom
the feeling of gratification over the end of the
anarchic interregnum, which would be signal-
ized by the appearance of the Emperor duly
crowned and anointed as the head of the na-
tion, was tempered by dread of the threatened
blow of the Nihilists. Such was the fear of
regicidal plots, that the date of the ceremony
was not publicly announced until a short time
before the event. On New-Year's day the
Emperor expressed the intention of assuming
the imperial crown at an early date. In Feb-
ruary he issued a proclamation announcing that
the ceremony would take place in the month
of May. He declared that he had postponed
the rite so long because it was not a fitting
time while feelings of grief and horror over-
whelmed the hearts of his subjects, and that he
had therefore determined to wait until the sen-
timents excited by the crime, of which his
father, the benefactor of his people, fell a vic-
tim, had time to subside.

On April llth the imperial regalia were carried
in state from St. Petersburg to Moscow. The
preparations in the Kremlin and cathedral and
in the city of Moscow occupied several months.
The festival was planned on a scale of unusual
splendor and magnificence, but the most elab-
orate part of the preparations was the un-
wonted and ominous police precautions. Every
nook and crevice was searched for explosives,
the underground cavities and passages were ex-
plored, and every spot of earth sounded. Every
person had a spy to watch his coming and go-
ing. Each gang of workmen was guarded by

an armed sentry. It was forbidden to use the
windows and balconies in the streets through
which the Emperor would pass, to view the
procession. The owners and occupants were
required to give guarantees that they would not
let them out for the purpose, or admit any per-
son into their houses.

The sum appropriated from the imperial
treasury for the festivities was six millions
and a half of rubles. The Moscow author-
ities also voted large sums for the purpose.
Besides the gorgeous ceremonies of the corona-
tion and the courtly entertainments, popular
pageants were prepared and arrangements
made for feasting a million people on the Kho-
dynsky plain. The collection of booths and
barracks and of theatres in which free exhibi-
tions were given, erected there, resembled a
city. Electric lights, arc and incandescent,
were placed on the public buildings of Moscow,
and so disposed as to bring out their archi-
tectural outlines in a grand illumination. More
than 12,000 men from regiments whose loyalty
was unquestioned were in the city, and 40,000
were encamped in the vicinity.

The Czar and Czarina left St. Petersburg on
the 20th of May. Their formal entry into Mos-
cow took place on the 22d. It was not until
the middle of the month that the date of the
coronation, May 27th, was officially announced.
Every country was represented by some royal
personage or dignitary of state : England by
the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh ; Ger-
many by Prince Albrecht Hohenzollern ; Aus-
tria by the Archduke Carl Ludwig ; Italy by
Prince Amadeus; France by M. Waddington ;
Spain by the Duke of Montpensier ; Denmark
and Greece by Prince Waldemar and Queen
Olga, brother and sister to the Czarina; and
Norway and Sweden by Prince Charles. Prince
Nicholas of Montenegro and Prince Alexander
of Bulgaria were present in person. The Khan
of Khiva came from that distant dependency,
while the Ameer of Bokhara sent his son. The
Shah of Persia was represented by his brother.

The official entry was a striking spectacle,
from the great variety of races and costumes
seen in the procession, a picture of the ethnic
conglomeration which constitutes the empire
of the White Czar. The Emperor, mounted on
a white charger, was clothed in the sheepskin
caftan and other features of the old Muscovite
garb which he has revived in the uniform of
his army. Ceremonious adorations at the vari-
ous shrines of the Holy City characterized this
pageant. The next day the imperial standard,
which is renewed every successive reign, was
consecrated. Then the Czar and Czarina re-
tired to the Neskotchenaya summer palace, to
pass the three days before the coronation in
fasting and prayer. The approaching solem-
nity was proclaimed by heralds to the people.
On the 26th devotional exercises were gone
through in the Church of the Redeemer.

The ceremony of the coronation was per-
formed on Sunday, the 27th of May, in the

RUSSIA.

705

Church of the Assumption,-which could only
accommodate the court and the state guests.
The coronation, attended by long and compli-
cated observances, was performed by the Czar
himself, who received the crown from the Met-
ropolitan of Novgorod, placed it on his head,
and was anointed with holy oil by the bishop.
After crowning the Czarina, the Czar entered
the sanctuary and partook of the sacrament, in
token of entering upon his functions as the
head of the Russian Orthodox Church. The
couple then displayed themselves in robes and
crowns before the people. A mystical inci-
dent, which was prepared', to work upon the
superstition of the people, was the appearance
of a white dove hovering over the Czar at the
moment of the coronation.

The festivities which folio wed the coronation
lasted a week. The spectacles provided for the
people embraced the national drama, military
pantomimes, fairy extravaganzas, and harle-
quinades, performed in four great open-air
theatres, besides circus-feats and displays in
an enormous hippodrome, and a great variety
of minor shows. The mujiks assembled from
many miles around. On the day of the popu-
lar fete there were nearly a million persons on
the grounds. Baskets of meat-pies, cakes, and
sweetmeats were distributed, and beer was
served out without stint. About 400,000 peo-
ple partook of the lavish feast. The two hun-
dredth anniversary of the formation of the
Preobrajensky Guard by Peter the Great was
made the occasion of a grand feast, presided
over by the Emperor, at which the two oldest
regiments of the Russian army which composed
the Guard, deputations from all the other regi-
ments, and the select society of Moscow and
the visiting guests were regaled in the village
of Preobrajensk.

Although the glories of the coronation festi-
val were designed to outshine if possible the
display and munificence of former occasions of
the kind, the essential character of the great
national feast was lacking. The citizens of the
loyal city and the faithful Muscovite peasantry
were not wanting in devotion, but their enthu-
siasm was chilled by the precautions which
were taken to prevent them from approaching
the Czar. Wherever the imperial cortege passed
a wide space was cleared by the military. The
mujiks were forbidden to toss their caps in
the air, lest they should contain bombs. Every
one felt the restraint of the police regulations,
which spread a gloom over the whole occasion.
There was not the slightest attempt at riot or
disturbance in Moscow. It was intended to
have the return of the Czar to St. Petersburg
celebrated by an illumination and popular fes-
tivities, but the plan was abandoned and all
demonstrations interdicted. A report of the
death of the German Emperor was fabricated,
to excuse the omission of the projected state
entry. A demonstration of disloyal sentiment
occurred on the evening of the coronation,
when an immense mob of workmen rushed
VOL. XXHI. — 45 A

through the Nevsky Prospect and the principal
streets. The disturbances were renewed the
following day, when the police forbade illu-
minations and out-of-door festivities on the re-
turn of the Czar. The royal couple arrived
secretly and returned to their seclusion in the
Peterhof palace.

Foreign Poliey.— The Russian Government was
constrained by the firmness and strength of the
European league, formed by Prince Bismarck
to preserve the status quo and uphold the de-
cisions of the Berlin Congress, to abandon any
design it had of reopening the Eastern ques-
tion. The prospect of aRusso-French alliance
faded from the range of probabilities. In the
Balkan lands the influence of the Austro-Ger-
man alliance, at least among the governing
circles, was supreme. The Muscovite war party
in Russia, which stood nearest to Alexander
III at the time of his accession, showed signs
of activity and influence before the coronation,
but after M. de Giers had tested the consistency
of the peace league the chances of an aggres-
sive policy disappeared. The journey of Min-
ister de Giers to the European capitals was in
itself an indication that the Czar refused to be
ruled by his Panslavistic advisers, and desired
to cultivate peaceful relations with the Central
European powers. M. d« Giers arrived in Vi-
enna in the latter part of January, and also con-
ferred with the German Chancellor at Varzin.
An imperial message to M. de Giers after the
coronation was designed to allay the distrust
of European governments. " The great glory
and power," he wrote, " which, thanks to
Providence, have been acquired by Russia, the
extent of her empire, and her numerous popu-
lation, leave no room for any idea whatever of
further conquests. My solicitude is exclusively
devoted to the peaceable development of the
country and its prosperity, to the preservation
of its friendly relations with the powers on the
basis of existing treaties, and to the mainte-
nance of the dignity of the empire." In an-
other circular the Czar expressed appreciation
of the representation of foreign powers at the
coronation as "fresh pledges of concord which
agree with his own pacific intentions." The
Panslavist party did not cease their efforts in
the Balkan lands, but thev met with no popu-
lar response. The question of the union of
Eastern Roumelia with Bulgaria was agitated.
Later in the year the Bulgarians themselves
evinced impatience at the interference of Rus-
sia in their affairs, and administered a severe
rebuff. Panslavistic agitations are awkward
for the Russian Government, for domestic rea-
sons, since the confirmation of the autocratic
principle, because the Russian people in asking
for political freedom are apt to cast up to the -
Czar and his Government the -constitutions to
which they have helped the Servians and the
Bulgarians. The visits of King Carol of Ron-
mania, King Milan of Servia, Prince Alex-
ander of Bulgaria, as well as King George of
Greece and King Alfonso of Spain, to Berlin

706

KUSSIA.

and Vienna were a counter-check to the Pan-
slavistic agitations and warlike preparations in
Eussia. The only advantage in the Orient
gained by Russia during the year was the
recognition of her sovereignty over the Kilia
branch of the Danube at the London Confer-
ence, which point was gained through the sup-
port afforded by the English Government.

Asiatic Expansion. — Checked on the European
side, the Eussians showed the more activity in
Asia. The new commercial route across the
Hyrcanian steppe from the Caspian to Kun-
grad, is still more important as a military route.
The preoccupation of England with Egypt
offered the opportunity for the annexation of
the oasis of Merv, an act which was only de-
layed because the late British Government
was prepared to make it a casus ~belli. The
way was made smooth by the Merv Turkomans
themselves, who were prompted to send a
deputation to Gen. Tchernaieff, begging that
a Eussian governor be appointed over them, as
the only way to put an end to constant quar-
rels between factions among the tribes.

Internal Politics. — The coronation was looked
forward to by the upholders of the autocratic
principle as a token of the resurgent power
and glory of the czardom — a signal for a
triumphant outburst of loyalty, temporarily
eclipsed by revolutionary delusions. Not less
disappointed than they were the party, com-
posed of the bulk of the educated class, who
long for the beginning of constitutional life in
Eussia. The most ominous and disturbing
sign in the Nihilistic developments is the ma-
licious satisfaction with which the majority
of the middle and upper classes regard the
acts of the terrorists. It was confidently ex-
pected that the Emperor would signalize the
formal inauguration of his reign by proclaim-
ing the liberties which his father had made up
his mind to grant. Even in Moscow, the
stronghold of autocracy, the Czar was greeted
with an expression of the universal desire in
the address of the mayor, Prof. Tchicherin,
who boldly called upon him to admit the
people to participation in the work of govern-
ment. A manifesto was issued granting am-
nesty to criminals of various classes, but not
to Nihilist convicts. Polish exiles who had
not seen their homes for twenty years were
given permission to return under police sur-
veillance. Taxes which people were unable
to pay were remitted. But in the manifesto
there was no inkling or promise of a charter
of political liberties. The peasantry, who have
been encouraged to expect special favor and
protection, were also grievously disappointed
when the Czar, in answer to a deputation, de-
clared that there would be no further derange-
ment of the vested rights of property for the
benefit of the peasant. The fate of the Kacanoff
Commission, appointed to consider the question
of local self-government and other important
reforms, indicates the reluctance of Alexander
III to inaugurate political reforms. Their re-

port was met by a reactionary project from
Count Tolstoy, and then the whole subject was
suffered to drop. One of the few progressive
measures of the year was the introduction in
the northwest provinces of the new judicial
system, which has been in operation in the
rest of Russia for twenty years.

The Eussian press was shackled in 1883 as
it never had been before. The papers were
allowed to publish neither information nor
comments on important events, several in-
fluential papers were suppressed, and others
ceased their issues. Political thought and
party life were thus crushed out to a great
extent, and society was pervaded by dread,
gloom, and uncertainty. The Liberal party,
which is far more numerous than the Con-
servative, is divided into two sections. The
more numerous one demands simply politi-
cal freedom and the introduction of repre-
sentative institutions. The other group, called
Friends of the People, think that education
and the improvement of the economical
condition of the people should go before.
The Conservatives are also divided. The
bulk of the party follow Katkoff as their
journalistic exponent, and have for political
leaders Count Tolstoy, the Ministers of In-
struction and Justice, and Procurator Pobo-
donostzeff, and thus control the policy of the
Government. The other group is the Slavo-
phile party, led by Aksakoff, which has a
strong democratic tendency, and wishes to re-
turn to the conditions existing before Peter
the Great, and extirpate European " civiliza-
tion " and liberalism.

Agrarian Measures. — Many concluded from
words uttered by the Czar at Moscow that the
noble class would be taken into special favor,
a policy advocated by the Minister of the In-
terior. Yet the predilection of the Czar for
the peasant class was evinced by fresh enact-
ments for their benefit. The fidelity of the
peasantry is the surest prop of the autocracy,
while the revolutionary and opposition parties
are recruited exclusively from the nobility and
other educated classes. The redemption pay-
ments which have weighed down the liberated
peasants since the abolition of serfage were
reduced. The poll-tax was partially removed.
Another measure intended for the improve-
ment of their circumstances was the creation
of a state land-bank.

Commercial Policy. — Schemes of ambition or
improvement are a necessity to the enthusias-
tic and visionary Eussian mind. Since the
extension of Eussian influence and power to
the southwest was effectually resisted by the
German powers, attention was directed to ex-
pansion in Asia, to which the present English
Government opposes no decided objections.
The extension of Eussian manufactures is a
correlative of Asiatic conquest. The Govern-
ment was the more inclined to favor the idea
of encouraging industry and commerce, because
the promises held out to the peasantry of im-

RUSSIA.

707

proving their condition were doomed to disap-
pointment. The merchants and manufacturers
were called upon to contribute heavily to the
hopeless attempt to lift up the agricultural
class to a satisfactory economical condition.
To take the place of the remitted arrears of
taxes and the abolished poll-tax, an impost of
3 per cent, on the net income of all commer-
cial concerns was proposed, whereas hitherto
the only special tax resting upon them was the
annual fee for their guild papers, or trading
license. This proposition, coming at the time
of a commercial crisis, caused partly by the
depreciation of the paper ruble, prompted the
mercantile class to demand that a separate
Ministry of Commerce and Manufactures be
created, to look after their interests, instead
of trusting them to the Minister of Finance,
whose chief concern is to fill the coffers of
the state. They had a candidate ready in
Gen. Ignatieff, who, when Minister of the In-
terior, set on foot the movement for the en-
couragement of the national industries. Un-
der his protection members of the Panslavist
party started an association for the advance-
ment of national labor and industry, with
local councils all over the country, sending
delegates to a general council, which assem-
bled in the capital. After his retirement from
office, Count Ignatieff was elected president of
this industrial association. A fever of com-
mercial enterprise has prevailed for a year or
two past. The merchants and manufacturers
of Moscow have insisted on the recognition
of the destiny of Russia as a manufacturing
country. A great industrial exhibition was
held at Moscow in 1882, followed by a series
of exhibitions in many other places. While
American and Indian competition is likely to
deprive Russia of her importance as the gran-
ary of Europe, the young industries of Mos-
cow and Central Russia are capable of in-
definite expansion, because with the Volga and
Caspian route they possess the key to the
trade of all Central Asia. The first stimulus
to industrial production on a large scale was
given when English manufactures began to be
imported into Persia through India. Moscow,
where the capital and the intelligence existed,
became the manufacturing center. The Rus-
sians have traded with the Asiatics for cen-
turies, and consequently best understand how
to suit their requirements, besides possessing
the readiest means of access and political con-
trol and preponderance. For these reasons a
renewal of Russian activity in Asia suggests
the development of the manufacturing inter-
ests. The new German tariff, and more re-
cently the prohibition of the export of Rus-
sian raw spirits through Germany to Spain,
which Prince Bismarck inserted in the new
Hispano- German commercial treaty, impelled
the industrialists to call for fresh protective
and retaliatory measures. But the Russian
tariff is already so highly protective that the
Government could find hardly any article on

which the duty could be increased, to suit the
various clamoring interests, without hind. Tin;,'
other industries by enhancing the cost of ma-
terials or implements. A duty on coal was no
sooner imposed, than it was found to ;K t in
this way, and was again removed. While atten-
tion was directed to the East as the proper
field for Russian trade, the notion of ou-iiu^
the Austrians from the Bulgarian mark,
entertained, although Austrian trade- t
more than twelve times greater than that of
Russia. A lower tariff for Russian products
entering Bulgaria, and other privileges were
obtained. A line of steamers was started by
Prince Gagarine to ply between the Black
Sea and Bulgarian ports on the Danube. Po-
litical motives and military concomitants are
frequently connected with Russian coninu-r-
cial schemes. This steamship company, which
is subsidized by the Government, has permis-
sion to take its officers and physicians from
the imperial navy. A volunteer fleet of
cruisers has lately been established, which in
time of peace are to carry on trade between
the Black Sea and the ports of the Orient.

The way in which the Russian Government
can best further the commerce between Cen-
tral Russia and Asia is by improving the
means of communication. The withdrawal in
1883 of the right of free transit across the Cau-
casus, will have the effect of excluding some
foreign goods from Persia, but it was scarcely
needed, since Russian products command the
market. The extent and importance of the
Russian trade are little known. The transac-
tions at the annual fair of Nijni-Novgorod
have declined since the development of Rus-
sian manufacturing industry. While the aver-
age number of annual visitors since 1869 was
250,000, the number in 1882 was only 180,-
000. The fair of 1883 was particularly un-
satisfactory. Gen. Tchernaieff, the Governor-
General of Turkistan, has established a new-
trade route to Turkistan, Bokhara, and Khiva.
Two principal caravan routes have heretofore
been used to communicate with Russian Cen-
tral Asia and the khanates. The eastern
route, 2,700 miles long, starts at Eknterinen-
burg, traverses southwest Siberia to Omsk, fol-
lows in a southeast direction the right bank of
the Irtish to Semipalatinsk, and thence by a
long bend reaches Chemkent, lying directly
southwest. The western and more frequented
route, though more difficult and dangerous
from robbers, goes from Orenburg through
Orsk to Kazalinsk on the Syr Daria, and fol-
lows the right bank to Cherakent and Tash-
kend. The journey requires about 112 days.
The new route is only 300 miles long, and will
take not more than 33 days. It starts at the-
Mertvi, or Dead Bay, on the Caspian, opposite
Astrakhan, and crosses the Ust Yurt Steppe to
Kungrad, at the delta of the Oxus, whence the
journey is made by water to Charjui or Ilchig.
The route across the plateau has the advan-
tage over the Orenburg route of a firm soil,

708

RUSSIA.

which permits of wagon transport, without the
tramway projected by Gen. Tchernaieff, and
that of abundant and succulent grass at cer-
tain seasons , but the disadvantage of preca-
rious wells of brackish water. This does not
apply to the last third of the road, which
passes through a part of the oasis of Khiva.
One of the causes which led to a search for a
direct route to Central Asia, was the improve-
ment of steam navigation on the Caspian Sea.
Formerly navigation was retarded by the want
of coal, but an excellent fuel has been found in
the refuse of petroleum-refineries.

Religions Legislation.— A relaxation of the de-
crees against the Raskolniks, or sectaries, con-
trasts with the general reactionary tendency
of the Emperor's policy. He has need of
the good- will of this great clan's, powerful in
wealth, intelligence, and numbers, which has
flourished under persecution. While numbers
of Old Believers have embraced the Orthodox
creed, the partly or wholly rationalistic sects
have gained thousands of recruits annually
among the peasantry. The present number of
dissenters is estimated at 12,000,000. The
official estimates divide them into 3,000,000
with priests, 8,000,000 without priests, about
1,000,000 Spiritual Christians, and 65,000 en-
thusiasts. The latter category, comprising the
Chlistli, or flagellants, the Skopze, or eunuch
sect, etc., is on the decline. The "heretics"
possess a rich literature. Education among
them is almost universal. The tendency of the
priestless sects is toward rationalism and indif-
ferentism in religious belief. This makes them
cling the more earnestly to the principle of in-
tellectual liberty and the ideas of the ancient
Slav democracy, corrupted through Tartar
rule and aristocratic institutions imported from
Europe. They constitute, therefore, a power
in the state which can not be won over to the
support of the existing order, and which has
many points of contact with Nihilism. The
Mennonites, who refuse to perform military
service, are forced to emigrate. The Khan of
Bokhara has declined to allow them to settle
in his territory. Small colonies went to China
and other parts of Asia during the year.

Of a progressive nature also were measures
taken to conciliate the Poles, especially the
arrangement of a modus vivendi with the Vati-
can. The terms of a convention were settled
with the Curia in the early part of 1883. The
subject was first broached in 1880 by M. d'Ou-
bril, then embassador at Vienna, who dis-
cussed it with Cardinal Jacobini, Papal nun-
cio to that court. The negotiations were con-
tinued by M. Mossoloff, Director of Foreign
Creeds, but were interrupted in consequence
of the murder of the Czar. The Russian Gov-
ernment expressed a desire to terminate the
period of ecclesiastical pressure by a practical
arrangement, without going into questions of
principle. The details were arranged by M.
Mossoloff and M. de Giers at the Vatican. The
exiled Bishops of Wilna and Jitomir and the

Archbishop of "Warsaw were pardoned. The va-
cant sees were filled, the seminaries placed under
the control of the bishops, sermons and pasto-
rals were exempted from censorship, and the
rights of the bishops enlarged in other respects.
In return, the Vatican promised to bind the
clergy to a loyal demeanor, to secure the
state interests of Russia, and to have Russian
taught in the seminaries. The language of the
pulpit is to be that of the majority of the par-
ishioners. A Polish Catholic, Gen. Gurko, was
appointed Governor-General of Poland.

Kussitiration of the German Provinces.— The
confirmation of the autocratic system, and the
adoption of a stationary internal policy, con-
tributed not less than the anti-Russian politi-
cal combinations of Prince Bismarck to the
eclipse of Russian influence and the Panslavis-
tic idea among the South Slavs, and left the
Balkan Peninsula open to the intellectual activ-
ity and commercial facilities of the Germans.
Within the confines of the Russian Empire
under Alexander III, Muscovite ideas have
every chance of prevailing in the conflict be-
tween Teutonic and Slav civilization. German
placemen, of the class which since Peter the
Great has battened in the public service, and
with arrogant pride developed an oppressive
and alien method of government, have made
way for Russians who understand the people
and can talk to them in their own language.
The Russification of the Baltic provinces pre-
sents practical problems which are difficult of
solution. The autonomous institutions of this
German corner of Russia work well, and dis-
closed few abuses to the commission appointed
to examine into them. The agrarian question
is a still more delicate one. Any measure to
relieve the Esth and Lett peasantry from their
economical subjugation would be a weapon in
the hands of the Socialists. The agitation in
Livonia, Esthonia, and Courland continued
through 1883, and in some places degenerated
into agrarian murder and arson. One symptom
of the movement is the wholesale conversion
of the peasantry from the Lutheran to the
Greek Catholic confession. The course of the
Government authorities would be simpler if the
disaffected people were Muscovites, but they
hesitate to aid and countenance the national
Ruthenian movement, which was formerly
rigorously suppressed with the assistance of the
German barons. Here, as in Austria, the con-
flict of nationalities takes the form of a battle of
languages. The Little Russian language is a
pure Slavic idiom, while the Muscovite dialect,
which has been imposed by the power of the
autocracy upon the Western Slavs, is the prod-
uct resulting from the imposition in former
centuries of the Russian language upon the
Finno-Tartar population of Great Russia.*

* Nestor, who wrote in the eleventh century, distinguishes
the Turanian race, which inhabited Muscovy, from the Aryan
people of Kiev. Olearius, a German traveler, who wrote
in the latter part of the seventeenth century, says the in-
habitants of the eastern part of the land of Moscow spoke
Finnish. The Abbe Chappe found the same radical difference

RUSSIA.

709

In 1859 permission for the literary use of
Little Russian was granted. A luxuriant growth
of literature in the ancient tongue and an
enthusiastic revival of philological studies re-
sulted. This movement was hemmed, but not
checked, by the recall of the permission in
1876. The idiom, banished from the church,
the school, the theatre, and the book-shop, and
persecuted in the land of its origin, took refuge
in the eastern districts of the Austrian prov-
ince of Galicia. Among the Ruthenians of
Galicia the Russians set agencies to work to
encourage the national sentiment which they
endeavor to crush out in Esthonia and Li-
vonia.

Educational Measures. — The reform of univer-
sity education is under consideration. The
indications are that the changes will be reac-
tionary. It is proposed to reintroduce bodily
punishment in the gymnasia. An order of
Delyanoff, issued in 1882, allows students to
be transferred from one university to another
at the discretion of the curators. The eccle-
siastical censorship over scientific books has
ceased, and the jurisdiction of the censors is
confined to political works. The universities
gave the authorities much trouble in the spring.
First occurred an outbreak of the students at
Nova Alexandria, on the Polish border, result-
ing in the closing of the college and the ex-
pulsion of 143 students. Subsequently the
students at Kazan revolted against the uni-
versity authorities, and then those at St. Pe-
tersburg.

Nihilism. — Numerous arrests, made under the
administration of Count Tolstoy, reduced the
number of daring and desperate conspirators.
The coronation passed off without any terror-
istic act, though various plots were frustrated
by the police, to whose vigilance it was due that,
for a long time after, no political crime oc-
curred. Yet the issue of proclamations from
the secret press showed the vitality of the
revolutionary party, and by many evidences,
kept from the knowledge of the public as far
as possible, the Government perceived that it
was not less numerous or dangerous than be-
fore. Arrests were made in great numbers,
particularly among the students. The old pre-
fecture of police was re-established. The Holy
League, formed to combat the Nihilists by
means of their own system of secret organiza-
tion, was not approved of by the Government,
and accomplished no results of importance.
-In April a great Nihilist trial took place at St.
Petersburg. Bogdanovich, who was accused

between the Slavs and the Muscovites in the middle of tha
eighteenth century. The process of Slavification is still go-
ing on in the eastern governments, where Finnish, with only
an admixture of Slavic words, is spoken ; while, in the west-
ern and northern parts of the same region, the lower classes
still speak a compound language. The number of Slavifled
Tartars in European Russia is estimated at 40,000,000, against
only 15,000,000 pure Eusso-Slavs. After the time of Peter
the Great, the Government began to conceal and deny
the Asiatic origin of the Great Russians. A protest of Cath-
arine the Great provoked the remark of Mirabeau that " the
Russians are Europeans only by virtue of a declaratory defi-
nition of their sovereign."

of laying the mine under the Little Garden
street, made a noteworthy declaration of the
aims and principles of the Party of Terror,
which were not to overthrow all authority, but
to establish a just system of administration.
The seventeen prisoners belonged to all ranks
of society, from the peasantry to the nobility.
All but one were convicted, and six of them
sentenced to death, including Bogdanovich,
Telahoff, who was implicated in the attempt
to blow up the imperial train at Alexandroff-
sky in 1879, and Gracheffsky, who was charged
with being one of the assassins of Alexander
II. Soon after the trial a number of officers
of the army were said to have been arrested.
At the very end of the year, Lieut.-Col. Sudei-
kin, of the St. Petersburg gendarmerie, the
most efficient officer engaged in the detective
work against the Nihilists, was murdered by
subordinates, who enticed him into an empty
building, on the pretext of arresting a female
Nihilist. The perpetrator was Degajeff, alias
Jablonsky, formerly a captain on the artillery
staff, who was known to have been a mem-
ber of the revolutionary party, and was em-
ployed by Sudeikin as a spy.

Anti- Semitic Disturbances. — Spasmodic out-
breaks of anti-Jewish feeling occurred during
the year, and serious disturbances in Ekate-
rinoslav, the district of Southern Russia which
is most notorious for such excesses. In May
occurred anti-Semitic disturbances in Rostov,
where one hundred and thirty houses were
wrecked by rioters, fifteen of whom were shot
down by the police. In July the Jewish burial-
ground at Ostrog was violated and the attend-
ants murdered. In August grievous excesses
were committed in Ekaterinoslav. They be-
gan on the 2d with the destruction of the
shop of a Jewish merchant who struck a peas-
ant-woman. The riot then took the usual
course. The mob broke into one house after
another, and with knives and hammers demol-
ished everything. The Jews who did not es-
cape in time to the woods were beaten and
maltreated. Some of them died of their in-
juries. The military arrived immediately and
fired into the mob, killing fourteen and wound-
ing twenty-eight, but without stopping the
work of demolition. This disturbance in Eka-
terinoslav was characterized by a new and por-
tentous feature. The Jews were not the only
objects of the rage of the mob, but the houses
of Christians were attacked as well, indicating
the prevalence of communistic sentiments, and
the dangerous discontent caused by the eco-
nomic distress which exists in many parts of
Russia, particularly in the south. In Novem-
ber a riot, in which Jewish dram-shops and
nouses, and houses of Christians as well, were
plundered, broke out in Krivbrog, a town in
the government of Ekaterinoslav.

A Jewish commission, presided over by
Count Pahlen, formerly Minister of Justice,
proposed in their report methods for abating
the evil practices to which the Jews are ad-

710

SALVADOR.

SALVATION ARMY.

dieted. Chief of these are smuggling at the
German and Austrian frontiers, and the abuses
connected with the liquor-traffic. They are
accused of seducing the peasantry to drink,
and getting away their earnings. A third

complaint is the avoidance of military service.
The greater portion of Jewish conscripts are
detailed as musicians or attached to the depart-
ments. Extremely few distinguish themselves
by bravery, or rise to the grade of officer.

S

SALVADOR, a republic of Central America.
Area, 18,720 square kilometres; population,
954,785. The President is Dr. R. Zaldivar y
Lazo (elected in May, 1876). The Cabinet is
composed of the following ministers : Foreign
Affairs and Justice, Seflor 8. Gallegos; War
and Finance, P. Melendez ; Public Instruction,
D. Lopez. The President of the Senate was J.
Moreno, and of the Chamber of Deputies, J.
Avila. Capital, San Salvador.

Finance.— The revenue in 1881 was $3,952,-
000 ; the outlay, $3,827,000.

In the budget for 1882 the revenue and ex-
penditure were estimated as follow :
INCOME.

From customs $1,847,000

Spirit and powder monopolies 988.000

Stamp-tax 73,000

Post-Office and telegraphs 82,000

Sundry items of revenue 1,012,000

Total $3,952,000

OUTLAY.

Civil-list of President

Assembly

Foreign Department

Department of Justice

the Interior

Public Instruction . .
" Finance and War . . .

Army ,

Public Works..

$15,000

26,000

40,000

92,000

55,000

152,000

112,000

900,000

265,000

Publicdebt 852,000

Subsidy to Pacific Mail steamers 65,000

Post-Office and telegraphs 83,000

Customs 85,000

Tax collection (monopolies) 323,000

Other expenditure 1,307,000

Total $3,827,000

The national debt amounted, on Oct. 1, 1881,
to $566,505 ; the floating debt, $1,668,124.

Railroads. — The first line of railway, between
Acajutla and Sonsonate, went into operation
in July, 1882 ; the line between Sonsonate and
Santa Ana (La Libertad, the port) is being
built. Engineers are surveying the line for the
railroad from La Libertad to San Salvador,
which is about to be constructed by English
capitalists under a concession from the state.

Telegraphs. — There were in operation, in 1881,
about 2,100 miles of wire, the service being
carried on in 48 offices. Number of telegrams
sent in the same year, 138,869; 83,894 were
private dispatches and 54,975 Government.

Commerce. — There entered the ports of Salva-
dor, in 1881, altogether 334 vessels, of an ag-
gregate tonnage of 413,988, 245 being steamers,
including eleven men-of-war.

The imports in 1881 were valued at $2,705,-
410, the exports at $4,902,436.

The most important articles of export in 1881
were coffee, 1,940,000 pounds, worth $2,909,-

200; indigo, 1,470,000 pounds, worth $1,470,-
200; bar silver, $105,440; sugar, 3,493,000
pounds, worth $104,800; specie, $55,634; Pe-
ruvian balsam, hides and skins, etc.

By decree of Sept. 21, 1883, the Government
of Salvador, desirous of stimulating foreign
trade, decided that, dating from October 1st in
the same year, the import duty on all goods
should be reduced 10 per cent., and that, dating
from Jan. 1, 1884, a further duty reduction of
10 per cent, should be made.

SALVATION ARMY, a religious band, claiming
to be converted men and women, who are or-
ganized somewhat in military fashion ; their
purpose being to make all men listen to the
claims which God has upon their time and ser-
vice, and compel them to yield him his due.
The Army was originated in London, England,
in the year 1865, by the Rev. William Booth,
its present general-in-chief. He was brought
up in the Church of England, converted among
the Methodists, and afterward became a travel-
ing preacher among them, and labored as such
till 1861, when he gave himself up, with his
wife (who is the author of several works), to
evangelistic work. They were eminently suc-
cessful, and thousands were added to the
churches. In 1865 Mr. Booth was led to the
east of London, where the ignorance and vice
were appalling, and here he gave himself to the
work of making these people hear and know
of God and salvation. The Salvation Army
is the result. He set out with the purpose of
getting his apostles of salvation out of the gin-
mills. How far he has succeeded, this won-
derful Army is his witness.

The present name was adopted when, after
eleven years of deliverance to captive sinners,
it was found that it was virtually an army
of salvation, since which epoch it has made its
most rapid advances. It has made greater
progress than any other religious movement
since the Lutheran reformation. It numbers
500 corps in Great Britain and Ireland, and
reaches millions of people by its out-door
marches and meetings. It has divisions and
divisional headquarters in Sweden, Switzer-
land, France, Germany, Africa, India, Aus-
tralia, New Zealand, Tasmania, and the United
States. Sixteen weekly papers, each known
as "The War-Cry," are published in these dif-
ferent countries. Their aggregate circulation
is 26,000,000 copies a year.

The movement reached America in 1880.
Commissioner Roilton and seven Hallelujah
lasses were the first contingent. After a time
Roilton was recalled, and Major Thomas E.

SALVATION ARMY.

711

Moore was sent out to take command. After
severe fighting and persistent efforts, it mus-
tered five corps and eleven officers in 1882.
Since then its prospects have brightened con-
tinually. At present there are 75 corps and
160 officers. Of these, only eleven are English ;
the rest are the product of the soil. It is op-
erating in more than thirty towns and cities of
the Dominion of Canada, and in the chief cities
of fourteen States of the Union. This does not
include California, which is a separate com-
mand. The American headquarters are at the
Lyceum, Washington Street^ Brooklyn, N. Y.
Major Moore is on the wing most of his time,
in Canada and the States, visiting the various
corps, dedicating barracks, presenting colors,
and directing affairs generally, besides writing
for the "War- Cry."

It appears from their official organ that the
Army have been subjected to more arrests and
imprisonments in this country than in all other
countries together. The charge on the police
record is " disorderly conduct," for marching
in the streets. Yet they are defiant in prose-
cutions, claiming that " God has a right to the
streets." The first necessity with them is, to
attract attention ; it is necessary to awaken the
people, in order to rescue them. This is the
only explanation necessary as to the proces-
sions, carrying of colors, and beating of drums.

The uniform consists of military tunic and
trousers of navy blue, sparingly trimmed with
red braid, and marked with the letter S on the
collar. Their head-gear consists of a military
helmet with flaming frontal piece bearing the
words : " Blood and fire ! Prepare to meet thy
God ! S. A." The women wear a neat skirt
and bodice of the same color and trimming,
with a u poke " bonnet encircled with a red
band bearing in gilt the inscription, " The Sal-
vation Army."

They believe they are acting in accordance
with the mind of the Spirit in utilizing the
services of female speakers ; that as the devil
has freely used this instrumentality for the de-
moralizing of men, they are at liberty to em-
ploy the same agency for the recovery of men.
As a matter of fact, they find the female agency
the most effective, especially among rough
men. Sin and Satan, death and hell, are as
real to them as " the enemy " is to the men
who fight with carnal weapons ; so also are
the possibilities of victory. Their uniform
makes them realize this everywhere they go ;
it attracts attention, and serves as a safeguard
against worldly conformity.

The usual military titles — general, colonel,
major, captain, etc. — ar« conferred on the offi-
cers of various grades. When asked the reason
of this, they reply: "Because we find them
ready made to our hand, they harmonize with
our organization, and readily convey to the
minds of the common people the rank of the
officer; and because they are considered to be
less objectionable to the mass of the people
than those used to describe church officers."

The Salvation Army has a regular system of
government, and from one central head its au-
thority reaches through the varied grades of
office, controlling and directing all. It is at
once the most aggressive and the most success-
ful missionary organization in the world.

The Army has no political character or aims.
It teaches obedience to the laws, and respect
for their administrators. Its great business is
to bring men to God, that is, to all that is good
and virtuous. It is an uncompromising enemy
of tobacco and strong drink, and every form of
ruinous self-indulgence.

As its object is to conquer sin, and not to
capture the righteous, it openly avows its ob-
jection to receiving church -members into its
ranks. It prefers the uncared-for; hence it
seeks to operate more especially upon the great
mass of indifference found among Catholics
and Protestants alike. It seeks after souls
abandoned by others, those whom the isolated
forces of religion have not reached, adapting
its invitations and means to meet their tastes,
and attract them to its meetings.

" The Salvation Army," says a writer in the
" Barry Gazette," " strives to be temperance
society, church, Sisters of Charity, civilizer,
and Christianizer, all in one. By its ' knee-
drill,' 'sharp-shooting,' 'sword-exercise,' and
'heavy-artillery meetings ' — as they are pleased
to call them — it has conquered the enemy on
all sides, and brought many valiant soldiers
into the service of the Great Captain. The
meetings have been crowded for months, and
more than rival the run of the best plays.
Many who at first go out 'of curiosity, are after-
ward drawn by the power of the Spirit; and
many who go to scoff, remain to pray. Al-
ready a great improvement is noticeable in the
lower classes, in increased industry, better ap-
parel, and more orderly conduct."

Their methods, though contrary to the gen-
eral usage of religious denominations, are sim-
ple, plain, direct, and unique; yet none the
less, they believe, in accordance with Scrip-
tural teachings. Their posters, placards, and
other advertisements are studiously made as
far as possible from anything like the usual
religious announcements. While they may
offend refined taste and the religious preju-
dices of cultured people, they attract the very
class they want to reach — gamblers, drunk-
ards, harlots, thieves, and neglecters of God
generally. They study the law of adaptation.
A few headings from "The War-Cry" will
serve to show the class of people they address :
"The Boy and the Broom-stick," "The Last
Black Eye," " Salvation in the Sawdust," ** A
Wakefield Jail-Bird to the Front."

They frequently occupy old and dilapidated
buildings, and sometimes the best that a town
affords ; but such places as the old jam-factory
in a populous neighbor hood suit them better.
A place of this description was taken in a city,
and the public were invited to "come and get
real jam, and see Jesus." They could taste be-

712

SALVATION ARMY.

SANTO DOMINGO.

fore buying, and buy without money and with-
out price. They name their buildings Salva-
tion barracks, store, factory, or warehouse, as
the case may be — anything to avoid the pre-
judice that is supposed to exist in the minds
of the common people against churches arid
religion generally. By adding the head " Sal-
vation," they describe the nature and object
of the meetings held there.

They parade the streets with banner and
music. Their songs of praise, instruments of
music, and distinct uniform, attract the crowd
wherever they go. By this means many are
induced to enter their " barracks " who for
years have never entered a church, and sel-
dom, if ever, listen to the word of God. They
recognize the philosophy of making the people
feel at home. Formality and stiffness must be
got rid of, and the services rendered homely,
varied, and bright. They do not adhere to any
particular routine or form of service ; but, as
a general rule, the leader announces a hymn,
and reads and expounds it verse by verse in
the order of singing. The singing is of the
heartiest description. The tunes are mostly
old Methodist tunes ; but even worldly airs do
not come amiss to them. Many of their songs
have lively and inspiriting choruses and re-
frains, which easily impress themselves on the
popular mind. The chorus, with the Salvation
Army, is the principal part of the singing. It
is repeated over and over again, sometimes with
striking variations. The soldiers are massed
upon the platform facing the audience, and
beat time on their drums and tambourines.
"While singing the last stanza, they drop on
their knees. Their prayers are invariably short,
and are characterized by an apparent free-and-
easiness which seems to border on undue fa-
miliarity. But they never for a moment lay
aside their consciousness that they are in the
immediate presence of God. After about three
prayers, interspersed with snatches of song,
they rise from their knees. Then follows a
Bible-lesson, and sometimes a brief comment.
Their creed is extremely simple ; it is just that
which is deemed essential to salvation by all
orthodox churches. They say to their hear-
ers: " You are serving either God or the devil.
It is infinitely blessed to serve God, and eter-
nally disastrous to serve Satan." And on this
statement they base their appeal for an instant
decision to renounce the evil and choose the
good ; at the same time they declare that Christ
is present, ready to save every one who feels
he is a sinner and desires to be saved.

Their public speaking is singularly destitute
of the controversial element. There is no theo-
logical discussion, no expounding of doctrines.
They never argue or dispute. They attack no
system of religion. There is nothing that can
possibly stir up resentment in any person of
another faith. At the close of a meeting, sin-
ners are urged to come forward for prayer.

They live and move in the revival spirit all
the year round. As a preaching medium they

use the experiences of their converts, on the
principle that the class they seek to rescue can
best be influenced by members of the same
class. They teach their converts that they are
responsible for the salvation of others, and ex-
hort them to put forth continuous and daily
efforts to this end.

Contributions are received at the services
of the various stations, and the converts are
taught that they must contribute to the sup-
port of the work. Local treasurers have charge
of the finances, and present balance-sheets to
their corps, and all accounts are inspected by
the staff. The officers have no salary guaran-
teed, but are instructed to trust in God for
their support. Every station makes a weekly
return of its receipts and expenditures, attend-
ances and converts, so that the material and
spiritual state of the force may always be seen
at a glance. After the expenses of the corps
are met — such as rent of hall and gas, officers'
support, etc. — the remainder, if any, is sent to
the " war-chest," at headquarters, to become
the "sinews of war" for prosecuting the work
in other fields. General Booth receives noth-
ing out of the Army funds, being sustained
from an independent source.

Major Moore says: "In this our America,
after three years of severe toil and suffering,
the work has taken a deep hold, notwithstand-
ing many unexpected difficulties. It is confi-
dently expected to extend its efforts to every
State' of the Union, and never retreat till the
judgment-day. It is only a question of time
requisite to train officers for the work, and
every city in the United States will have its
corps of the Salvation Army, and the question
of how to reach the masses will have been
settled by reaching them."

SAJTTO DOMINGO, a republic occupying the
eastern portion of the "West Indian island of
that name, the western portion being Hayti,
which see.

Area and Population, — The area of the republic
of Santo Domingo is 17,827 square miles. The
population was estimated in 1880 at 300,000,
but it has since then been considerably on the
increase, a strong current of immigration hav-
ing set in from neighboring islands, and many
settlers and planters arrived from the United
States. The republic is divided into five
provinces and four maritime districts. The
capital city is Santo Domingo.

Government. — The President is Gen. Ulysses
Heureaux, and the Vice-President Gen. Casi-
miro N. Moya. The Cabinet in 1883 was com-
posed of the following ministers: Interior,
W. Figueredo; Foreign Affairs, S. Imbert; Jus-
tice, Public Works, and Instruction, T. Mejia ;
Finance and Commerce, E. G. Marchana; and
War and Navy, A. Woz y Gil. The United
States Consul at the city of Santo Domingo is
Mr. H. C., C. Astwood, and the Dominican
Consul-General, for the Union, at New York,
is Mr. J. Delmonte ; the Consul at New York,
Mr. H. Billini ; and at Boston, Mr. E. M. Fowle.

SANTO DOMINGO.

713

Finance. — The budget for 1882 estimated the
income at $1,500,000, and the outlay at the
same figure.

In 1869 the Government had contracted a 6
per cent, loan in London to the amount of
£757,000, at 70 per cent., but it has been offi-
cially proved that it never received more than
£82,000 ; hence in 1872 it repudiated the loan,
and has since stopped paying interest on it.
The home indebtedness is $2,000,000, and to
pay it off a sinking fund has been created by
means of 15 per cent, set aside annually from
import duties collected.

The Government had decreed in 1883 the
levying of an import duty of 12 per cent, on
Mexican silver coin, and prohibited the intro-
duction of old and mutilated coin; but as this
law created a scarcity leading to great incon-
venience, it had to be abrogated. It is now
proposed to coin $4,000,000 silver, of the same
standard and weight as the legal silver circula-
tion in the United States. A National Bank
has been founded in the city of Santo Domin-
go, by authority of Congress, under the pat-
ronage of the Government.

Commercial Facilities. — Early in May, Congress
passed a bill creating San Lorenzo a free port.
This port is to be divided into two zones, the
one free, for " in transitu " goods, and the
other for importation. This measure has in
view the increase of trade that is expected to
result from the completion of the Panama
Canal, the bay of Samana being conceded to
be the finest in the West Indies, and very con-
venient as a port of call and repair on the
route to Panama from Europe.

The Government has granted a subsidy of
$500,000 to a French company, which engages
to improve the navigation of Oyama river.

A port rapidly rising in importance, where
great activity is being displayed in the way of
public and private improvements, is San Pedro
de Macoris, where the Clyde American steam-
ers call and take cargo, principally sugar.
Kailroads are to connect the sugar region with
San Pedro, and a concession to that effect has
been granted to Don Juan Serralles.

The construction of the Saraana Railroad
was pushed with vigor in 1883.

The Government made arrangements in 1883,
with Baron Aimed a and an English telegraph
company, not only to have a cable laid con-
necting with the one between the West Indies
and the rest of the world now in operation,
but land-lines all over the republic.

Education.— There were in 1883, in the city
of Santo Domingo, two colleges ; twenty-one
schools of various grades ; a professional insti-
tute where civil and commercial rights, politi-
cal economy, medicine, mathematics, etc., are
taught ; a school for teaching 'natural history,
chemistry, botany, etc., and a Municipal Insti-
tute, where the higher branches of education
can be obtained.

Exhibitions. — A National Exhibition is to open
in the city of Santo Domingo in August, 1884.

The Government was informed in 1883 that
Baron Almeda and M. Collin de Parade had
carried out the project of permanently exhib-
iting in the French capital specimens of the
agricultural and mineral products.

Sugar. — Sugar belonging to estates that suf-
fered from the hurricane of September 6th will
for six months pay only half the export duty.
Sugar estates in the districts of San Cristo-
bal, Monte Grande, near San Pedro de Maco-
ris, and the city of Santo Domingo, were in a
most flourishing condition in 1883, and the
sugar industry was evidently on the eve of a
remarkable development. American capital
has also been extensively invested in this in-
dustry. The machinery is imported from the
United States. Portable railways for the con-
veyance of cane and sugar were being gener-
ally adopted by the estates.

Coasting Steamers. — Messrs. Mayans & Co.,
bankers in the city of Santo Domingo, have
secured the privilege of establishing a line of
steamers for service between the ports of Bara-
hona, Tortuguero de Azua, San Pedro de Maco-
ris, Samana, Puerto Plata, and Monte-Cristi.

Commerce. — Importations into the ports of
Santo Domingo and Puerto Plata in 1879
amounted, jointly, to $1,179,349, and the ex-
ports to $978,066. Since then the commercial
movement has expanded very much, the in-
crease of traffic being notably through the
ports of Samana, Azua, and Monte-Cristi. The
principal export articles are sugar, tobacco,
coffee, honey, wax, mahogany, other cabinet,
and especially dye-woods. Guano exportation
had very nearly ceased altogether, but had also
revived.

In 1881 the exports and imports were :

PORTS.

Imports.

Export*.

Through Santo Domingo.
Through Puerto Plata. . .
Through Azua, Monte-
Cristi, and Saman&

$765.271
752,861

248,194

$687,261
686,762

817,052

Total

$1,761,316

$1,691,075

The American trade with St. Domingo has
been as follows:

YEARS.

Import! from
into the
United States.

Export* of domestic
merchandise from the
United State*.

l^SO

$660,493

$939,601

1881

924,731

757,600

1882

908.060

904,149

1883

1,417,519

1,179,200

The chief articles imported into the United
States in 1883 were sugar, 27,281,049 pounds;
and molasses, 448,587 gallons.

The number of vessels that entered the port
of Santo Domingo in 1881 was'169 ; aggregate
tonnage, 79,114; while 159 left, measuring
-jointly 76,058 tons. The arrivals at Puerto
Plata in 1882 were 136, with 62,472 tons of
cargo, of which 40 were steamers, with 60,689
tons; 87 sailing-vessels, with 1,783 tons.

714

SEE VIA.

SERVIA, a kingdom in Eastern Europe. Com-
plete independence was recognized in the Treaty
of Berlin. The Constitution of 1869 reaffirmed
succession in the family of Obrenovich, de-
clared the responsibility of the ministers to the
Assembly, and vested the legislative power in
the Skuptschina, jointly with the sovereign.
The Senate was transformed into a Council of
State, charged with the elaboration of laws.
The Skuptschina, which is elected for three
years and holds sessions annually, consists of
174 members, of whom 129 are elected by the
people, every tax-payer having a vote, and 45
are appointed by the King. A Great National
Assembly, composed of four times the number
of the ordinary, is elected to decide on consti-
tutional questions. Servia was proclaimed a
kingdom, March 6, 1882.

The King, Milan I, is the fourth of the dy-
nasty. He was born in August, 1854, and suc-
ceeded his cousin, Prince Michail, assassinated
June 10, 1868. The Cabinet is composed of the
following members: President of the Council
and Minister ol the Interior, N. Cristich ; Min-
ister of Foreign Affairs, M. Bogwichevich ;
Minister of War, Col. Petrovich ; Minister of
Justice, G. Pantelich ; Minister of Finance, A.
Spasich ; Minister of Public Works, 0. Protich ;
Minister of Instruction and Ecclesiastical Af-
fairs, G. Pantelich, ad interim.

Area and Population. — The area of Servia is
20,850 square miles, including 4,250 square
miles added by the Treaty of Berlin, from which
the Turkish population has nearly all emigrated.
The population returned by the census of 1878
was 1,669,337, composed of 850,275 males and
819,062 females; estimated population at the
beginning of 1883, 1,810,606. The bulk of the
population are of Serbic race and of the Or-
thodox Greek religion. There were in 1878
13,367 Mohammedans, 3,492 Israelites, 4,178
Roman Catholics, and 27,289 gypsies. Bel-
grade, the capital, contained at the beginning
of 1883 an estimated population of 36,177.

Commerce.— The chief trade is with Austria.
The largest article of export is live hogs. The
principal exports in 1881 were of the follow-
ing quantities: Hogs, 325,240; cattle, 27,752;
sheep and goats, 64,935 ; grain, 26,523,369
okes (the Turkish oke = 2-83 pounds) ; dried
prunes, 10,563,201 okes: wine, 2,460,298 okes.

Finances. — The revenue is derived mainly
from direct imposts. The budget for 1882-'83
makes out the receipts as 34,930,000 dinars,
or francs, and the expenditures as 34,469,919
dinars. The public debt is over 100,000,000
francs, incurred for the construction of the
Belgrade and Vranja Railroad, to repay the
war requisitions, and lesser sums to compen-
sate the disinherited Turkish proprietors, and
repay a war debt to Russia.

The Army. — The introduction of the German
military system causes a considerable increase
in the national expenditures. Before the war
with Turkey the military forces consisted of a
militia. The standing army musters 9,710 men.

The reorganization is calculated to create an
available war force of 165,000 men.

Political Crisis. — King Milan, having entered
on a career of despotic violence by dissolving
the Skuptschina in 1882 and refusing to recog-
nize the constitutional majority, did not shrink
from the conflict which he invited, but in 1883
openly established a military despotism in the
place of parliamentary government. The King
and the Pirotchanatz ministry were not re-
strained from pursuing their pro- Austrian pol-
icy by the popular disapprobation. The de-
cision of the Conference d quatre settled the
route of the railway to connect Western Eu-
rope with Constantinople, which passes through
Belgrade and Nish (see AUSTRIA-HUNGARY).
The discord between Russia and Servia was
increased by the enactment of a new law regu-
lating the relations between church and the
state, particularly with reference to the elec-
tion of a metropolitan. The appointment of
the primate had previously been left to the
church, and thus controlled by the Emperor
of Russia. The arbitrary suspension of the
metropolitan by King Milan in 1882 exasper-
ated the people and drove the clergy into the
camp of the opposition. The Russians were
therefore the more inclined to contest the eccle-
siastical question as a means of preserving their
political influence. The Synod elected the
Archimandrite Theodosius Mraovich in April,
after the provisions of the new law. The new
metropolitan was consecrated a few days later.
The Servian chaplain in Moscow, having com-
plied with the request of the Servian Govern-
ment to pray for the new archbishop, was ig-
nominiously expelled from Russia during the
coronation, by order of the metropolitan of
Moscow. In August, King Milan visited Vi-
enna, where he was cordially received, and
subsequently attended the autumn manoeuvres
of the German army as the guest of Emperor
William. These friendly conferences were in-
tended as a counter-check to Russian political
activity in Montenegro, Roumania, Bulgaria,
and Eastern Roumelia. The marriage of the
Servian pretender, Peter Karageorgevich, to
the daughter of the Prince of Montenegro, in-
dicated the complete withdrawal of Russian
confidence in King Milan and the prosecution
of Servian schemes without the Obrenovichs.

The Servians are thoroughly imbued with
the idea of popular sovereignty. They have
always been conscious of their power, and in
former struggles with their rulers have come
out victorious. Recently doctrines of Euro-
pean radicalism and Russian socialism have
been widely disseminated among the peasantry
by Belgrade professors and other Servians ed-
ucated at Paris and in Germany.

The political parties in Servia were the Con-
servative, the Liberal, and the Radical. The
party at the helm of government, the Conser-
vative, may be described as the party of the
King and of the Austrians, and described itselt
as the Progressive party, because it pursued

SERVIA.

the policy of developing the resources of the
country. The King, in breaking with Russia
and accepting Austrian domination, adopted a
course which was inevitable and advantageous
to the country. The Pirotchanatz ministry
was appointed after the dismissal of Ristich to
consummate the accommodation with the Haps-
burg Government. By excluding Servian hogs
and other products, through the operation of a
prohibitory tariff, Austria could cut tbe Ser-
vian farmers off from the only natural outlet
for their produce. A favorable commercial
treaty was arranged. The Servian concessions
favored Austrian manufactures at the expense
of the English trade. Servia came to terms on
the railroad question.

The popular jealousy at the humiliating sub-
serviency of their Government to a foreign
power was intense. The railroad convention,
however advantageous from a commercial
point of view, leveled all defensive barriers, and
laid the country open to the ingress of an Aus-
trian army at any moment. The Liberal party,
composed of the followers of Ristich, was as
weak in numbers as the supporters of the King.
The Radical party was composed of the liberal
elements of the old Ristich party, reorganized
by Pashich, Tedorovich, and other professors
and journalists, whose teachings indued it with
a more advanced and democratic character.
The refusal of the King to be controlled by the
result of the last election greatly increased its
strength. The following of the pretender Kara-
georgevich was not large, and its influence was
restricted by the Draconic laws against anti-
dynastic agitation. The declared foreign pol-
icy of the Radical party was to cultivate friend-
ly relations with both Austria and Russia,
without entering into any alliance,

The King, who was absent during the au-
tumn elections on his visit to Germany, trusted
to his ministers to secure the forty-and-odd
votes necessary for a majority. The Radicals,
with the dozen votes or so of the Ristich party,
had a clear majority as the result of the election
of September, which the invalidation of the re-
turns in certain districts failed to upset. The
Assembly was opened on the 28th of Septem-
ber. The victorious party attempted to elect
a president by acclamation, but after a stormy
scene were obliged to go through the formality
of a vote. King Milan, determined to be
master, chose a desperate course. As Pirot-
chanatz and his colleages, who had resigned,
•were unwilling to be the instruments of his
will, he appointed a new Progressist ministry
under the presidency of Nikola Cristich. The
Skuptschina was at once dissolved. The King
sounded the officers of the army and made sure
of their fidelity. The disarmament of the mili-
tia was proceeding in pursuance of a previous
enactment. The people in certain districts of
the mountains refused to deliver up their arms.
This complication rendered the situation ex-
tremely critical. The Radical leaders deemed
the moment favorable for a revolutionary at-

SHERIDAN, PHILIP H. 715

tempt, and prepared a constitution, embodying
democratic principles under monarchical forms.
Pashich and the whole eighteen members of
the Radical committee were arrested in tho
dead of night and thrown into prison. Liberty
of the press and of assembly was suspended.
Martial law was proclaimed in various districts.
In Zaizar, the principal seat of the revolt,
troops were speedily collected. Wherever
there was a sign of resistance, soldiers were
quartered on the people. The people of the
eastern and southeastern districts of the coun-
try, who are largely of Roumanian extraction,
were soon in open rebellion. At Cerna Reka
there were 3,000 insurgents in arms against the
Government. The revolt did not become gen-
eral, because the Servian people had no strong
confidence in the Radical leaders, and were not
ripe for a political change. The insurrection
was put down by the military after a few en-
counters. The Radical leaders were court-
martialed and condemned. Some of the least
influential were executed, others were par-
doned. The revolted districts were not easily
restored to order, although the military power
was employed with relentless severity. Hun-
dreds of arrests were made, and a large num-
ber were executed. The new law of conscrip-
tion was passed, with the disarmament bill, in
the spring session of the Skuptschina. The
various arbitrary acts of Milan, culminating in
the sending home of the Skuptschina, inspired
them with a thorough distrust and dislike of
the King, though it was not easy to alienate
them from the popular Qbrenovich dynasty.

The increased taxes and the oppressive mili-
tary conscription appealed powerfully to those
who were susceptible only to immediate prac-
tical grievances, and not conversant with ques-
tions of high politics or capable of patriotic
enthusiasm. The disarmament of the militia
at this time provoked resistance because the
Servians thought it deprived them of the means
of defending their national liberties, which was
the reason why King Milan proceeded so expe-
ditiously to have it carried into effect.

SHERIDAN, Philip Henry, Lieutenant-General
of the United States Army, born in Somerset,
Perry co., Ohio, March 6, 1831. A few years
at the village school, followed by service in the
village store, furnished his education and train-
ing until a fortunate application to the Congress-
man of his district made him, in 1848, a cadet
at West Point. He should have been graduated
in 1852 ; but a year's suspension, the result of
a quarrel with a fellow-student, transferred him
to the class of 1853, in which he ranked 34th
among its 52 members. He was appointed a
brevet second-lieutenant of infantry, July 1,
1853 ; in the following year was assigned to the
1st Infantry, in Texas ; and on Nov. 22, 1854,
received his commission as second-lieutenant
of the 4th Infantry. With the latter regiment
he served during the next six years, in Wash-
ington Territory and Oregon. In one of Gen.
Scott's orders we find this mention of him:

716

SHERIDAN, PHILIP H.

" April 28, 1856, bvt. Lt.-Ool. E. J. Steptoe,
9th Infantry, commanding Cos. A, E, F, and I,
same regiment, and detachments of Co. E, 1st
Dragoons, and Co. L, 3d Artillery, in all 200
men, at the Cascades, W. T., repulsed the
Indians in their attack of that place. The
troops landed under fire, routing and dispers-
ing the enemy at every point. . . . Second-
Lieutenant Philip H. Sheridan, 4th Infantry, is
especially mentioned for his gallantry."

The outbreak of the civil war made promo-
tion rapid, both through the resignation of
Southern officers and the creation of new regi-
ments; and Sheridan, who thus secured a
first - lieutenancy in the Fourth Infantry on
March 1, 1861, received a captaincy in the
Thirteenth, on the 14th of May. Still, save
for six weeks' service as president of a board
for auditing claims at St. Louis, that memora-
ble year brought him little employment and no
laurels. The day before Christmas he was ap-
pointed quartermaster on the staff of Gen.
Curtis, commanding the Army of Southwest
Missouri. On being relieved from Curtis's staff,
he reported to Gen. Halleck, whom he accom-
panied in his advance upon Corinth, and was
by him recommended to the Governor of Michi-
gan, who had applied for some regular officer
to take charge of the 2d Michigan Cavalry.
Commissioned May 25, 1862, as colonel of this
regiment, then near Corinth, Sheridan at once
took part with it in Elliot's raid against the
railroad, which was destroyed at Booneville.
During June he commanded the 2d Cavalry
Brigade in several skirmishes, and on the 1st
of July fought a brilliant battle at Booneville.
His appointment as brigadier-general of volun-
teers was dated from the action at Booneville.

During the autumn of 1862 Sheridan was
transferred to Kentucky, and there received
command of the Eleventh Division of the Army
of the Ohio, under Buell. Moving out from
Louisville with Buell against Bragg, he took
part, October 8th, in the hard-fought battle at
Perry ville, where he manoeuvred his division
with conspicuous skill and effect. Rosecrans
succeeded Buell in command of what became
known as the Army of the Cumberland, and
at the prolonged and bloody battle of Murfrees-
boro, Sheridan, for several hours in the first
day's fighting, held the key-point, displaying
superb tactical skill and the greatest gallantry.
All his brigade commanders were killed in
this battle, and on Rosecrans's recommenda-
tion he was made major-general of volunteers,
to date from Dec. 31, 1862, the opening of that
deadly struggle among the cedar-brakes of
Stone river.

In March, 1863, Sheridan engaged in the
pursuit of Van Dorn to Columbia and Frank-
lin, making captures near Eagleville. Advanc-
ing with Rosecrans's army from Murfreesboro
to Tullahoma, and across the Cumberland
mountains and the Tennessee, Sheridan, on
-September 19th and 20th, distinguished himself
again in the battle with Bragg at Chickamauga.

Rosecrans fell back to Chattanooga, and the
command of his besieged army was transferred
to Thomas. Grant, arriving with re- enforce-
ments from Vicksburg, resolved to dislodge
Bragg, who was posted on Lookout mountain
and Missionary Ridge. Hooker having carried
Lookout mountain, Thomas assaulted the Ridge
November 25th, with overwhelming success.
Sheridan's division was the first to cross the
crest, and pressed the enemy's rear- guard until
long after dark, capturing wagons and artillery.
This was the culminating point of Sheridan's
career at the West, although he continued to
serve through the winter in East Tennessee,
and on January 17th was engaged in a skirmish
at Dandridge.

In the spring of 1864, Grant, now lieuten-
ant-general, established his headquarters in
Virginia. He told Halleck he must have an
energetic commander for the cavalry there,
and Halleck, mindful of the result of his for-
mer recommendation, brought Sheridan for-
ward again. "The very man!" answered
Grant; and accordingly Sheridan, on April
4th, took command of the cavalry corps of the
Army of the Potomac. When the May cam-
paign of this army opened, he pioneered its
path to the Wilderness, and thence to Spottsyl-
vania, skirmishing on the 5th and 6th, and
fighting a battle at Todd's Tavern on the 7th.
Two days later he made a cavalry expedition
within the enemy's lines to the Chickahominy
and the James, dashing upon the outworks of
Richmond itself, where he took a hundred
prisoners, and thence moving to Haxall's Land-
ing, from which point, after resting three days,
he returned to the army on the 24th, having
destroyed many miles of railroad -track, besides
trains and a great quantity of rations, and re-
capturing 375 Union soldiers on their way to
Libby Prison. This expedition included re-
pulses of the enemy at Beaver Dam, May 10th,
and at Meadow Bridge on the 12th, and the
defeat, on the intervening day, of J. E. B.
Stuart's cavalry at Yellow Tavern, where Stu-
art was killed. Sheridan was next engaged
at Hanovertown and Totopotomoy creek, May
27th ; Hawes's Store, May 28th ; Matadequin
creek, May 30th ; Cold Harbor, May 31st and
June 1st. On June 6th he was sent with two
divisions to cut the Virginia Central Railroad
near Charlottesville, and to escort acrosS to
Grant's army the Shenandoah Valley forces of
Gen. Hunter. The enemy's cavalry, under
Hampton, disputed his progress at Trevillian
Station, June llth, but were driven back after
a severe battle. The next day, however,
Sheridan, satisfied that neither Charlottesville
nor Gordonsville could be reached, and hear-
ing nothing of Hunter, withdrew his forces,
having broken the railroad at Trevillian. On
his return the enemy's cavalry attacked him at
Tunstall, on the 21st, and he skirmished again
on the 24th at St. Mary's Church. Toward
the end of July Sheridan moved north of the
James, to aid Gen. Hancock's operations at

SHERIDAN, PHILIP H.

717

Deep Bottom, and on the 28th was engaged at
Darby town.

Meanwhile, Early maintained a threatening
position in the Valley. Grant, accordingly, on
the 7th of August, put Gen. Sheridan in com-
mand of the Middle Military Division, with an
army comprising two divisions of his own cav-
alry, the Sixth Corps, under Wright, a part of
the Nineteenth, under Emory, and the Army
of West Virginia, under Crook. Six weeks
passed without result, as Early had been re-
enforced, and kept Sheridan on the defensive
near Harper's Ferry. But on September 19th,
when Early's forces had been diminished, Sheri-
dan crossed the Opequon, and, in a hard battle,
completely defeated him, sending him, as Sheri-
dan telegraphed, " whirling through Winches-
ter." The next day, President Lincoln, at
Grant's recommendation, appointed Sheridan
a brigadier-general in the regular army. Pur-
suing Early up the Valley turnpike, on the 20th,
Sheridan found him strongly posted on Fisher's
Hill, just beyond Strasburg. Secretly mov-
ing Crook's command through the woods, he
turned the enemy's left on the 22d, and drove
him from his stronghold, capturing 16 guns.
The losses of Sheridan and those of Early were
almost exactly equal in these two battles com-
bined, being about 5,400 each ; but Sheridan
had also captured 21 guns and many small-arms.
Sheridan continued the pursuit up the Valley,
and took post at Harrisonburg, while Early
withdrew to Brown's Gap. Believing it im-
practicable or hazardous to proceed either to
Lynchburg or Charlottesville, Sheridan, with
Grant's approval, withdrew down the Valley,
burning its mills, barns, and crops on the
way. Early followed with his cavalry un-
der Rosser and Lomax to Tom's Brook, near
Fisher's Hill, where Sheridan's horsemen, un-
der Torbert, turned and defeated them, Oc-
tober 9th, capturing 11 cavalry - guns, and
indeed almost u everything on wheels," and
driving them back twenty miles. Sheridan
then passed through Strasburg and posted his
troops on the farther bank of Cedar creek,
while he himself, on the 16th, went to Wash-
ington in response to a request from Mr. Stan-
ton, for consultation. Before sunrise of Octo-
ber 19th, Early, who had been re-enforced,
aided by a fog, "surprised the left of the Union
army, held by Crook's command, and uncov-
ered the position also of the Nineteenth Corps,
capturing 24 guns and about 1,400 prisoners.
. Gen. Wright succeeded in retaining his grasp
on the turnpike by moving the Sixth Corps to
its western side and the cavalry to its eastern,
but the whole army, in the process, had been
driven b.ack beyond Middletown. Sheridan,
who was at Winchester, on his return from
Washington, hearing the noise of battle, dashed
tip the pike with an escort of twenty men,
rallying the fugitives on the way, and, after a
ride of a dozen miles, reached the army, which
received him with great enthusiasm. Having
fully prepared his forces, during a lull of sev-

eral hours, he ordered an advance, and swept
the enemy from the field in one of the most
overwhelming routs of the war. All of the
lost Union guns were retaken, and 24 Con-
federate guns and many wagons were capt-
ured. Congress passed a vote of thanks to
him and his troops for the <k brilliant series of
victories in the Valley," and especially the one
at Cedar creek. Sheridan was appointed by
the President a major-general in the regular
army, "for the personal gallantry, military
skill, and just confidence in the courage and
patriotism of your troops, displayed by you
on the 19th day of October."

On Feb. 27, 1865, Gen. Sheridan moved
his cavalry, 10,000 strong, up the Valley to
Waynesboro, where, March 2d, it overthrew the
remnant of Early's force, capturing about 1,500
men. He then destroyed the locks of the
James river canal, and broke the railroads
toward Gordonsville and Lynchburg. Making
his way toward Grant's army, he arrived at
White House, March 19th.

With Sheridan's cavalry at his disposal,
Grant now began the final campaign. Cross-
ing the Peninsula to James river, March 24th,
Sheridan passed to the left of the Union army,
and on the 29th occupied Dinwiddie Court-
House. Two days later he was attacked by a
heavy force of Lee's infantry under Pickett
and Johnson ; but the following day, April 1st,
being re-enforced by the Fifth Corps, under
Warren, Sheridan, by a beautiful tactical move-
ment, entrapped and completely routed Pickett
and Johnson at Five Forks, capturing thou-
sands of prisoners. Petersburg being assault-
ed the next morning, Lee abandoned that city
and Richmond, and took to flight. The pur-
suit was prompt, with Sheridan far in the van,
constantly harassing the enemy,, and finally,
aided by the Sixth and Second Corps, captur-
ing nearly all of Ewell's command, on the 6th,
at Sailor's creek. Two days later, Sheridan
again fought the enemy at Appomattox Sta-
tion, and on the 9th occurred Lee's surrender.
Later in April Sheridan conducted an expe-
dition into North Carolina, and on June 8d
took command of the Military Division of the
Southwest, at New Orleans. Relieved by
President Johnson, Aug. 26, 1867, during the
reconstruction troubles in Louisiana (see " An-
nual Cyclopedia" for 1867, pp. 451 to 462),
he was assigned, September 12th, to the De-
partment of the Missouri. On the 4th of March,
1869 he was promoted to the rank of lieuten-
ant-general, and on the 16th assumed com-
mand of the Division of the Missouri, with
headquarters at Chicago. During the Franco-
German War of 1870-'71 he visited Europe,
and was present as a spectator at ; several fa-
mous engagements. On Nov. 1, 1883, by di-
rection of President Arthur, he assumed com-
mand of the Army of the United States, with
headquarters at Washington, in place of Gen.
Sherman, who was relieved by request, pre-
paratory to retirement in the spring of 1

718 SIEMENS, CHARLES W.

SMITH, JAMES L.

SIEMENS, Charles William, an English electri-
cian and engineer, died in London, Nov. 20,
1883, of rupture of the heart, the result of a
fall. He was born at Lenthe, in Hanover,
April 4, 1823, and was educated in the gymna-
sium at Ltibe3k, the Polytechnic of Magdeburg,
and Gottingen University. In 1842 he entered
as an apprentice the engine-works of Count
Stolberg, and the following year he went to
England to introduce the electroplating pro-
cess invented by his elder brother, Werner Sie-
mens, and improved by himself. Applying to
the firm of Elkington, he found them engaged
in the same process, but was able to furnish
valuable suggestions as to practical details. In
1844 he returned to England to patent a differ-
ential governor for steam-engines, invented by
the two brothers. From that time he remained
in England, becoming naturalized in 1859.

In conjunction with his brother he brought
out the anastatic printing process in 1844, and
perfected the chronometric governor in 1847.
He turned his attention to the study of the
dynamical theory of heat. The recovery of
the heat of the exhausted steam of an engine
was made the subject of experiments. In 1851
he introduced the Siemens water-meter. Be-
tween 1856 and 1861, with the assistance of
his brother Frederick, he worked out the re-
generative gas-furnace, and in 1867 he applied
the invention in the manufacture of open-
hearth steel. He experimented on the manu-
facture of iron and steel direct from the ore,
establishing for this purpose the experimental
works at Birmingham, from which samples of
steel were sent to the Universal Exposition at
Paris. Dr. C. W. Siemens interested himself
in telegraphy as early as 1848, and in 1858, in
connection with Werner Siemens and Halske,
of Berlin, and with his brother Carl, he estab-
lished the works which manufactured the Di-
rect United States, the Indo Telegraph, and
other cables, including the one to be laid for
the Bennett-Mackay company from Ireland to
the United States in 1884.

Dr. Siemens gave much attention to pure
science, and was a prominent participant in
the proceedings of the Royal Institution, the
British Association, the Institution of Civil
Engineers, the Iron and Steel Institute, and
other learned bodies devoted to theoretical and
practical science, and was also a frequent con-
tributor to the scientific press.

SIMS, James Marion, an American surgeon,
born in Lancaster district, S. C., Jan. 25, 1813 ;
died in the city of New York, Nov. 13, 1883.
He was graduated at South Carolina College
in 1832, studied medicine, and entered upon
practice in Charleston. Thence he went to
Philadelphia, where he took a full course at
the Jefferson Medical College, and in 1836
he settled in Montgomery, Ala., where he
turned his attention more especially to sur-
gery. The idea of curing vesico-vaginal fis-
tula, at that date considered incurable, origi-
nated with Dr. Sims about 1845, and for the

purpose of demonstrating his theories he estab-
lished a private hospital for women in Mont-
gomery, and supported it for four years at his
own expense. In the course of his experi-
ments he invented many new instruments,
one of which was a speculum that still bears
his name. The peculiarity of Dr. Sims's treat-
ment of the distressing ailment above named
was the substitution of silver wire for silken
sutures. In after-years he extended the use of
metallic sutures to every department of surgery
where they are employed.

In 1849 Dr. Sims was prostrated with a
serious illness; in 1853 he began to improve,
and after his removal to New York his health
grew steadily better. During this period he
pondered over the idea of establishing a wom-
an's hospital, and in May, 1854, soon after
reaching New York, he delivered an address
upon that subject. Much discussion ensued,
and unexpected opposition followed. A pub-
lic meeting was held for the purpose of giving
definite shape to his idea ; and Drs. Delafield,
Francis, Mott, Stevens, Green, and Sims, to-
gether with Peter Cooper and the Hon. E. C.
Benedict, were appointed a committee for or-
ganizing a hospital for the treatment of dis-
eases of women. From this movement origi-
nated the Woman's Hospital Association. A
building on Madison Avenue was leased for
three years, and a temporary hospital was
opened in May, 1855, with Dr. Sims as surgeon-
in-chief. A charter was procured in 1857,
and in 1858 the Legislature of New York
appropriated $50,000 for the new hospital.
Soon after, the city authorities gave the site
on which the hospital now stands. Dr. Sims
devoted himself with enthusiastic energy to
this great work, and was largely aided and
encouraged by professional brethren, as well
as by ladies and gentlemen of New York. He
went abroad to study the subject, and by
special invitation operated in several of the
great hospitals in Paris, Brussels, London, and
Dublin, and received numerous decorations.

Dr. Sims took his family to Europe in 1862,
and a large part of his time during the next
six years was spent there. In 1870, while he
was on a visit to Paris, the Franco-Prussian
War broke out, and he took charge of the
Anglo-American Ambulance Corps as snr-
geon-in-chief. He built up a large practice,
more particularly in France and Belgium.

Dr. Sims was an honorary member of many
medical and scientific societies both in Europe
and America. In 1875 he was elected Presi-
dent of the American Medical Association.
His more important publications are, " Trismus
Nascentium"; "Silver Sutures in Surgery"
(1858) ; " Clinical Notes on Uterine Surgery "
(1866) ; " History of the Discovery of Anaes-
thesia"; and "Treatise on Ovariotomy." He
was also a frequent contributor to medical
and surgical journals.

SMITH, James Lawrence, an American chemist
and mineralogist, born near Charleston, S. C.,

SMITH, JAMES L.

Dec. 16, 1818; died in Louisville, Ky., Oct. 12,
1883. He received a classical education at
Charleston College, and then studied at the
University of Virginia. Afterward, having
chosen medicine for a profession, he received
his degree from the Medical College of South
Carolina. This course he supplemented by
three years' study in Europe. In 1841 his
first memoir, " On the Means of detecting
Arsenic in the Human Body," marked him
as an investigator of the first rank. He be-
gan the practice of medicine in Charleston,
and at the same time delivered an important
series of lectures on toxicology. Soon after,
he was appointed by the State of South Caro-
lina to assay the bullion then coming into
commerce from the gold-fields of Georgia and
North and South Carolina. His attention was
also directed at the time to the marl-beds in
the vicinity of Charleston. His investigations
on the value of these deposits for agricultural
purposes were among the earliest scientific
contributions on this subject. During these
years he prepared a report on u The Meteo-
rological Conditions, Character of Soils, and
Cultures, affecting the Growth of Cotton.1'

In 1846 Mr. Buchanan (afterward President),
at the request of the Sultan of Turkey, recom-
mended Dr. Smith as a competent authority to
suggest methods for the cultivation of cotton
in the Turkish provinces. On reaching the
East, he found the scheme somewhat im-
practicable, and subsequently accepted the ap-
pointment of mining engineer from the Sul-
tan. In this capacity his services were of the
greatest value, and the Turkish Government
still derives an important portion of its rev-
enue from his discoveries of ores and coal.
Chief among these was that of emery, whose
subsequent development .in this country is
largely due to the papers published by Dr.
Smith. "The Thermal Waters of Asia Mi-
nor " was likewise a subject to which he
devoted much attention while in the Turkish
employ.

In iS51 he returned to the United States.
He devised the inverted microscope, whose
construction he had superintended while in
Paris. His appointment to the chair of Chemis-
try in the University of Virginia dates from
this period. While occupying this post, with
the aid of his assistant, George J. Brush (now of
the Sheffield Scientific School), he prepared an
extensive memoir on the "Re-examination of
American Minerals." It included examina-
tions, with analyses, of thirty-seven species,
"forming," says Prof. B. Silliman, "at that
time, the most important contributions yet
made by any American chemist." In 1854-'55
he accepted the professorship of Chemistry in
the Medical Department of the University of
Louisville, and settled there. Subsequently
he became President of the Louisville Gas-
Works, which he personally superintended.

In 1867 he was one of the commissioners to
the Paris Exposition, and furnished for the

SOUND-SIGNALS.

719

Government reports an able contribution on

" The Progress and Condition of Several 1 ».--
partments of Industrial Chemistry." Again,
at Vienna, in 1873, he represented the United
States, and his report on "Chemicals and
Chemical Industries " supplements his excel-
lent work at the earlier exhibition. At the
Centennial held at Philadelphia in 1876, he
was one of the judges in the department re-
lating to chemical arts, and contributed a valu-
able paper on petroleum to the official reports.

Of late years, his attention was devoted
very largely to the chemistry of meteorites,
and his collection of these celestial bodies is
probably not surpassed in this country. It
has recently become the property of Harvard
College. He was also occupied with the
separation of some of the rarer earths, and in
1878 he announced his discovery of the ele-
ment mosandrium.

Prof. Smith was a member of many of the
learned societies in this country and abroad.
He was one of the original members of the
National Academy of Sciences, and in 1872
was the presiding officer of the American As-
sociation for the Advancement of Science.
The French Academy of Sciences elected him
a corresponding member in the department
of Mineralogy. His published papers were
very numerous; the more important of these
were collected and published by him, under
the title of " Mineralogy and Chemistry, Origi-
nal Researches" (Louisville, Ky.. 1873).

SOUND-SIGNALS. The sound-signals generally
used to guide mariners, especially during fogs,
are, with certain modifications — sirens, trump-
ets, steam-whistles, bell-boats, bell-buoys,
whistling-buoys, bells struck by machinery,
cannons fired by powder or gun-cotton, rock-
ets, and gongs.

Gongs.— Gongs are somewhat used on light-
ships, especially in British waters. They are
intended for use at close quarters. Leonce
Reynaud, of the French lighthouse service, has
given their mean effective range as barely 550
yards. They are of most use in harbors, short
channels, and like places where a long range
would be unnecessary. They have been used
but little in United States waters. The term
" effective range " is used here to signify the
actual distance at which, under the most un-
favorable circumstances, a signal can generally
be heard on board of a paddle-wheel steamer
in a heavy sea-way.

Guns. — The use of guns is not so great as it
once was. Instances are on record. in which
they were quite serviceable. Admiral Sir A.
Milne said he had often gone into Halifax har-
bor, in a dense fog like a wall, by the sound of
the Sambro fog-gun. But in the experiments
made by the "Trinity House" off Dungeness
in January, 1864, in calm weather, the report
of an eigh teen-pounder, with three pounds of
powder, was faint at four miles. Still, in the
Trinity House experiments of 1865, made in
light weather with a light gun, the report was

720

SOUND-SIGNALS.

clearly heard seven miles away. Dr. Gladstone
records great variability in the range of gun-
sound in the Holyhead experiments. Prof.
Henry says that a twenty-four-pounder was
used at Point Boneta, San Francisco Bay, Cal.,
in 1856-'57, and that, by the help of it alone,
vessels came into the harbor during the fog at
night as well as in the day, which otherwise
could not have entered. The gun was fired
every half -hour, night and day, during foggy
and thick weather in the first year, except for
a time when powder was lacking. During the
second year there were 1,582 discharges. It
was finally superseded by a bell-boat, which in
its turn was after a time replaced by a siren.
A gun was also used at West Quoddy Head,
Maine. It was a carronade, five feet long, with
a bore of 5J inches, charged with four pounds
of powder. The gun was fired on foggy days
when the Boston steamer was approaching the
lighthouse from St. Johns, and the firing was
begun when the steamer's whistle was heard,
often when she was six miles away, and was
kept up as fast as the gun could be loaded,
until the steamer answered with its whistle.
The report of the gun was heard from two to
six miles. " This signal was abandoned,1' Prof.
Henry says, " because of the danger attending
its use, the length of intervals between succes-
sive explosions, and the brief duration of the
sound, which renders it difficult to determine
its direction with accuracy." In 1872 there
were three fog-guns on the English coast, iron
eighteen-pounders, carrying a three-pound
charge of powder, which were fired at intervals
of fifteen minutes in two places, and of twenty
minutes in the other. The average duration
of fog at these stations was said to be about
six hours, and, as it not unfrequently lasted
twenty hours, each gun required two gunners,
who had to undergo severe labor, and the risk
of remissnessand irregularity was considerable.
In 1881 the interval between charges was re-
duced to ten minutes. The Trinity House, in
its experiments at South Foreland, found that
the short twenty-four-pound howitzer gave a
better sound than the long eighteen-pounder.
Tyndall, who had charge of the experiments,
sums up as to the use of the guns as fog-signals
by saying :

The duration of the sound is so short that, unless
the observer is prepared beforehand, the sound,
through lack of attention, rather than through its own
powenessness, is liable to be unheard. Its liability
to be quenched by local sound is so great that it is
sometimes obliterated by a puff of wind taking pos-
session of the ears at the time of its arrival. Its lia-
bility to be quenched by an opposing wind, so as to be
practically useless at a very short distance to wind-
ward, is very remarkable. . . . Still, notwithstand-
ing these drawbacks, I think the gun is entitled to
rank as a first-class signal.

The minute gun at sea is known the world
over as a signal of distress. The English light-
ships fire guns to attract the attention of the
life-boat crew when shipwrecks take place in
sight of the 3hips, but out of sight of the boats ;

and guns are used as signals of approaching
floods at freshet-times in various countries.

Rockets. — As a signal in rock lighthouses,
where it would be impossible to mount large
pieces of apparatus, the use of a gun-cotton
rocket has been suggested by Sir Eichard Col-
linson, deputy-master of the Trinity House. A
charge of gun-cotton is inclosed in the head of
a rocket, which is projected to the height of
perhaps 1,000 feet, when the cotton is exploded,
and the sound shed in all directions. Compara-
tive experiments with the howitzer and rocket
showed that the howitzer "was beaten by a
rocket containing twelve ounces, eight ounces,
and even four ounces of gun-cotton. Large
charges do not show themselves so superior to
small charges as might be expected. Some of the
rockets were heard at a distance of twenty-five
miles. Tyndall proposes to call it the Collinson
rocket, and suggests that it might be used in
lighthouses and light-ships as a signal by naval
vessels.

Bells. — Bells are in use at every United States
light-station, and at many they are run by
machinery actuated by clock-work, made by
Mr. Stevens, of Boston, who, at the suggestion
of the Lighthouse Board, has introduced an
escapement arrangement moved by a small
weight, while a larger weight operates the
machinery which strikes the bell. These bells
weigh from 300 to 3,000 pounds. There are
about 125 in use on the coasts of the United
States. Experiments made by the engineers
of the French Lighthouse Establishment, in
1861-'62, showed that the range of bell-sounds
can be increased with the rapidity of the bell-
strokes, and that the relative distances for 15,
25, and 60 bell-strokes a minute were in the
ratio of 1, lTVb> and ly2^. The French also,
with .a hemispherical iron reflector backed
with Portland cement, increased the bell range
in the ratio of 147 to 100 over a horizontal
arc of 60°, beyond which its effect gradually
diminished. The actual effective range of the
bell-sound, whatever the bell-size, is compar-
atively short, and, like the gong, it is used only
where it needs to be heard for short distances.
Mr. Cunningham, Secretary of the Scottish
Lighthouse Establishment, in a paper on fog-
signals, read in February, 1863, says the bell at
Howth, weighing 2£ tons, struck four times a
minute by a 60-pound hammer falling ten
inches, has been heard only one mile to wind-
ward against a light breeze during fog; and
that a similar bell at Kingston, struck eight
times a minute, had been so heard three miles
away as to enable the steamer to make her
harbor from that distance. Mr. Beaseley, C.
E., in a lecture on coast fog-signals, May 24,
1872, speaks of these bells as unusually large,
saying that they and the one at Ballycottin are
the largest on their coasts, the only others
which compare with them being those at Stark
Point and South Stack, which weigh 31f cwt.
and 41£ cwt. respectively. Mr. Cunningham,
speaking of the fog-bells at Bell Rock and

SOUND-SIGNALS.

721

Skerryvore lighthouses, says he douhts if either
bell has been the means of saving a single
vessel from wreck during fog, and he does not
recall an instance of a vessel reporting that
she was warned to put about in the fog, or
that she ascertained her position in any respect
by hearing the sound of the bell in either place.
Gen. Duane, U. S. A., says a bell, whether oper-
ated by hand or machinery, can not be consid-
ered an efficient fog- signal on the sea- coast. In
calm weather it can not be heard half the time
at a greater distance than one mile, while in
rough weather the noise of the surf will drown
its sound to seaward altogether. The use of
bells is required, by the International Code, on
ships of all nations, at regular intervals during
fog. But Turkish ships are allowed to substi-
tute the gong or gun, as the use of bells is
forbidden to the followers of Mohammed.

Whistling-Buoys. — The whistling-buoy now in
use was patented by Mr. J. M. Courtenay, of
New York. It consists of an iron,
pear-shaped bulb, 12 feet across at
its widest part, and floating 12 feet
out of water. Inside the bulb is a
tube 33 inches across, extending
from the top through the bottom
to a depth of 32 feet, into water
free from wave-motion. The tube
is open at its lower end, but pro-
jects, air-tight, through the top of
the bulb, and is closed with a plate
having in it three holes, two for
letting the air into the tube, and
one between the others for letting
the air out to work the ten-inch
locomotive whistle with which it is
surmounted. These holes are con-
nected with three pipes which lead
down to near the water -level,
where they pass through a dia-
phragm which divides the outer
cylinder into two parts. The great
bulb which buoys up the whole
mass rises and falls with the motion
of the waves, carrying the tube up
and down with it, thus establishing
a piston-and-cylinder movement, the
water in the tube acting as an im-
movable piston, while the tube itself
acts as a moving cylinder. Thus the air admitted
through valves, as the buoy rises on the wave,
into that part of the bulb which is above water,
is compressed, and, as the buoy falls with the
- wave, it is further compressed and forced
through a 2-J-inch pipe which at its apex con-
nects with the whistle. The dimensions of
the whistling-buoy have recently been much
diminished without detracting materially from
the volume of sound it produces. It is now
made of four sizes. The smallest in our waters
has a bulb six feet in diameter, and a tube ten
feet in length, and weighs but 2,000 pounds.
The largest and oldest whistling-buoy has a
12-foot bulb, a tube 32 feet long, and weighs
12,000 pounds.

VOL. xxiu. — 46 A

There are now 34 of these whistling-buoys
on the coast of the United States, which have
cost, with their appurtenances, about $1,200
each. It is a curious fact that, in proportion
as theyare useful to the mariner, they are obnox-
ious to the house-dweller within ear-shot of
them, and that the Lighthouse Board has to
weigh the petitions and remonstrances before
setting these buoys off inhabited coasts. They
can at times be heard 15 miles, and emit an
inexpressibly mournful and saddening sound.

The inspector of the First Lighthouse Dis-
trict, Commander Picking, established a series
of observations at all the light-stations in the
neighborhood of the buoys, giving the time of
hearing it, the direction of the wind, and the
state of the sea, from which it appears that in
January, 1878, one of these buoys was heard
every day at a station 1£ mile distant, every
day but two at one 2£ miles distant, 14 times
at one 7-J miles distant, and 4 times at one 8£

FIG. 1.— COURTENAY' s WHISTLING -BuoT.

miles distant. It is heard by the pilots of the
New York and Boston steamers at a distance
of one fifth of a mile to 5 miles, and has been
frequently heard at a distance of 9 miles, and
even, under specially favorable circumstances,
15 miles.

The whistling-buoy is also used to some ex-
tent in British, French, and German waters,
with good results. The latest use to which it
has been put in this country has been to place
it off the shoals of Cape Hatteras, where a
light-ship was wanted but could not live, and
where it does almost as well as a light-ship
would have done. It is well suited for such
broken and turbulent waters, as the rougher
the sea the louder its sound.

722

SOUND-SIGNALS.

Bell-BuoySt — The bell-boat, which is at most
a clumsy contrivance, liable to be upset in
heavy weather, costly to build, hard to handle,
and difficult to keep in repair, has been super-
seded by the Brown bell-buoy, which was in-
vented by the officer of the lighthouse estab-
lishment whose name it bears. The bell is
mounted on the bottom section of an iron buoy
6 feet 6 inches across, which is decked over
and fitted with a framework of 3-inch angle-
iron 9 feet high, to which a 300-pound bell is
rigidly attached. A radial grooved iron plate
is made fast to the frame under the bell

FIG. 2. — BROWN'S BELL-BUOY.

and close to it, on which is laid a free cannon-
ball. As the buoy rolls on the sea, this ball
rolls on the plate, striking some side of the
bell at each motion with such force as to cause
it to toll. Like the whistling-buoy, the bell-
buoy sounds the loudest when the sea is the
roughest, but the bell-buoy is adapted to shoal
water, where the whistling-buoy could not
ride ; and, if there is any motion to the sea, the
bell-buoy will make some sound. Hence the
whistling-buoy is used in roadsteads and the
open sea, while the bell-buoy is preferred in
harbors, rivers, and the like, where the sound-
range needed is shorter, and smoother water
usually obtains. In July, 1883, there were 24
of these bell-buoys in United States waters.

They cost, with their fitments and moorings,
about $1,000 each.

Locomotive-Whistles.— It appears from the evi-
dence given in 1845, before the select commit-
tee raided by the English House of Commons,
that the use of the locomotive- whistle as a fog-
signal was first suggested by Mr. A. Gordon,
C. E., who proposed to use air or steam for
sounding it, and to place it in the focus of a
reflector, or a group of reflectors, to concen-
trate its sound into a powerful phonic beam.
It was his idea that the sharpness or shrill-
ness of the whistle constituted its chief value.
And it is conceded that Mr. C. L. Daboll, un-
der the direction of Prof. Henry, and at the in-
stance of the United States Lighthouse Board,
first practically used it as a fog-signal by erect-
ing one for use at Beaver Tail Point, in Narra-
gansett Bay. The sounding of the whistle is
well described by Price-Edwards, a noted Eng-
lish lighthouse engineer, " as caused by the vi-
bration of the column of air contained within the
bell or dome, the vibration being set up by the
impact of a current of steam or air at a high
pressure." It is probable that the metal of the
bell is likewise set in vibration and gives to
the sound its timbre or quality. It is noted
that the energy so excited expends its chief
force in the immediate vicinity of its source,
and may be regarded, therefore, as to some ex-
tent wasted. The sound of the whistle, more-
over, is diffused equally on all sides. These
characteristics to some extent explain the im-
potency of the sound to penetrate to great
distances. Difference in pitch is obtained by
altering the distance between the steam orifice
and the rim of the drum. When brought close
to each other, say within half an inch, the sound
produced is very shrill, but it becomes deeper as
the space between the rim and the steam or air
orifice is increased.

Prof. Henry says the sound of the whistle is
distributed horizontally. It is, however, much
stronger in the plane containing the lower edge
of the bell than on either side of this plane.
Thus, if the whistle is standing upright in the
ordinary position, its sound is more distinct in
a horizontal plane passing through the whistle
than above it, or below.

The steam fog-whistle is the same instru-
ment ordinarily used on steamboats and loco-
motives. It is from 6 to 18 inches in diame-
ter, and is operated by steam under a pressure
of from 50 to 100 pounds. An engine takes
its steam from the same boiler, and by an au-
tomatic arrangement shuts off and turns on the
steam by opening and closing its valves at de-
termined times. The machinery is simple, the
piston-pressure is light, and the engine requires
no more skilled attention than does an ordinary
station-engine.

"The experiments made by the Trinity House
in 1873-'74seem to show," Price-Edwards says,
"that the sound of the most powerful whistle,
whether blown by steam or hot air, was gen-
erally inferior to the sound yielded by other

instruments," and consequently no steps were
taken to extend their use in Great Britain,
where several were then in operation. In Ca-
nadian waters, however, a better result seems
to have been obtained, as the Deputy Minister
of Marine and Fisheries, in his annual report
for 1872, summarizes the action of the whistles
in use there, from which it appears that they
have been heard at distances varying with their
diameter from 3 to 25 miles.

The result of the experiments made by Prof.
Henry and Gen. Duane for the United States
Lighthouse Board, reported in 1874, goes to
show that the steam- whistle could be heard
far enough for practical uses in many posi-
tions. Prof. Henry found that he could hear
a 6-inch whistle 7i miles with a feeble op-
posing wind. Gen. Duane heard the 10-inch
whistle at Cape Elizabeth at his house in Port-
Ian1!, Maine, 9 miles distant, whenever it was
in operation. He heard it best during a heavy
northeast snow-storm, the wind blowing then
directly from him, and toward the source of the
sound. Gen. Duane also reported that " there
are six fog-signals on the coast of Maine ; these

SOUND-SIGNALS.

7-J.-J

et, operated by a caloric engine, should only
be employed in exceptional cases, such as at
stations where no water can be procured, and
where from the proximity of otln
may be necessary to vary the nature of the
sound." Thus it would seem that the Dultoll
trumpet is an exceptionally fine instrument,
producing a sound of great penetration ami of
sufficient power for ordinary practical use, but
that to be kept going it requires skillful man-
agement and constant care.

The Siren. — The siren was adapted from the
instrument invented by Cagniard de la Tour,
by A. and F. Brown, of the New York City
Progress Works, under the guidance of Prof.
Henry, at the instance and for the use of the
United States Lighthouse Establishment, which
also adopted it for use as a fog-signal. The
siren of the first class consists of a huge trump-
et, somewhat of the size and shape used by
Daboll, with a wide mouth and a narrow throat,
and is sounded by driving compressed air or
steam through a disk placed in its throat. In
this disk are twelve radial slits ; back of the
fixed disk is a revolving plate containing as

have frequently been heard at the distance of many similar openings. The plate is rotated
OA ™;i™ » ™-i,iMi /Hatanna ii a «.i™a oa +>,o 2,400 times each minute, and each revolution

20 miles," . . . which distance he gives as the
extreme limit of the 12-inch steam- whistle.

Trumpets. — -The Daboll trumpet was invented
by Mr. 0. L. Daboll, of Connecticut, who was
experimenting to meet the announced wants
of the United States Lighthouse Board. The
largest consists of a huge trumpet 17 feet long,
with a throat 3^- inches in diameter, and a flar-
ing mouth 38 inches across. In the trumpet
is a resounding cavity and a tongue-like steel
reed 10 inches long, 2| inches wide, 1 inch thick
at its fixed end, and half that at its free end.
Air is condensed in a reservoir and driven
through the trumpet by hot air or steam ma-
chinery at a pressure of from 15 to 20 pounds,
and is capable of making a shriek which can
be heard at a great distance for a certain num-
ber of seconds each minute, by about one quar-
ter of the power expended in the case of the
whistle. In all his experiments against and at
right angles and at other angles to the wind,
the trumpet stood first and the whistle came
next in power. In the trial of the relative
power of various instruments made by Gen.
Duane in 1874, the 12-inch whistle was re-
ported as exceeding the first-class Daboll trum-
pet. Beaseley reports that the trumpet has
done good work at various British stations,
.making itself heard from five to ten miles.
The engineer in charge of the lighthouses of
Canada says: "The expense for repairs, and
the frequent stoppages to make these repairs
during the four years they continued in use,
made them [the trumpets] expensive and un-
reliable. The frequent stoppages during foggy
weather made them sources of danger instead
of aids to navigation. The sound of these
trumpets has deteriorated during the last year
or so." Gen. Duane, reporting as to his ex-
periments in 1881, says: "The Daboll trump-

causes the escape and interruption of twelve
;'ets of air or steam through the openings in
the disk and rotating plate. In this way 28,800
vibrations are given during each minute that
the machine is operated ; and, as the vibrations
are taken up by the trumpet, an intense beam of
sound is projected from it. The siren is oper-
ated under a pressure of 72 pounds of steam,
and can be heard, under favorable circum-
stances, from twenty to thirty miles. "Its
density, quality, pitch, and penetration render
it dominant over such other noises after all
other signal-sounds have succumbed." It is
made of various sizes or classes, the number
of slits in its throat-disk diminishing with its
size. The dimensions given above are those
of the largest. (See engraving on page 448,
" Annual Cyclopaedia" for 1880.)

The experiments made by Gen. Duane with
these three machines show that the siren can
be, all other things being equal, heard the
farthest, the steam-whistle stands next to the
siren, and the trumpet comes next to the whis-
tle. The machine which makes the most noise
consumes the most fuel. From the average of
the tests it appears that the power of the first-
class siren, the 12-inch whistle, and first-class
Daboll trumpet are thus expressed: siren 9,
whistle 7, trumpet 4; and their relative ex-
penditure of fuel thus: siren 9, whistle 3, trura-

Sound-signals constitute so large a factor in
the safety of the navigator that the scientists
attached to the lighthouse establishments
the various countries have given much atten-
tion to their production and perfection, notably
Tyndall in England and Henry in this country.
The success of the United States has been such
that other countries have sent commissions here

724

SOUND-SIGNALS.

to study our system. That sent by England in
1872, of which Sir Frederick Arrow was chair-
man, and Captain Webb, E. N., recorder, re-
ported so favorably on it that since then "22
sirens have been placed at the most salient
lighthouses on the British coasts, and 16 on
light-ships moored in position where a guiding
signal is of the greatest service to passing navi-
gation."

The trumpet, siren, and whistle are capable
of such arrangement that the length of blast
and interval, and the succession of alternation,
are such as to identify the location of each, so
that the mariner can determine his position by
the sounds.

In this country there were in operation in
July, 1883, sixty-six fog-signals operated by
steam or hot air, and the number is to be in-
creased in answer to the urgent demands of
commerce.

Use of Natural Orifices — There are, in various
parts of the world, several sound-signals made
by utilizing natural orifices in cliffs through
which the waves drive the air with such force
and velocity as to produce the sound required.
One of the most noted is that on one of the
Farallon islands, forty miles off the harbor of
San Francisco, which was constructed by Gen.
Hartmann Bache, of the United States Engi-
neers, in 1858-'59, and of which the following
is his own description :

Advantage was taken of the presence of the work-
ing party on the island to make the experiment, long
since contemplated, of attaching a whistle as a fog-
signal to the orifice of a subterranean passage open-
ing out upon the ocean through which the air is vio-
lently driven by the beating of the waves. The first
attempt failed, the masonry raised upon the rock to
which it was attached being blown up by the great
violence of the wind- current. A modified plan with
a safety-valve attached was then adopted, which it is
hoped will prove permanent. . . . The nature of this
work called for 1,000 bricks and four barrels of cement.

Prof. Henry says of this :

On the apex of this hole he erected a chimney which
terminated in a tube surmounted by a locomotive-whis-
tle. By this arrangement a loud sound was produced
as often as the wave entered the mouth of the indenta-
tion. The penetrating power of the sound from this
arrangement would not be great if it depended merely
on fhe hydrostatic pressure of the waves, since this
under favorable circumstances would not be more than
that of a column of water twenty feet high, giving a
pressure of about ten pounds to the square inch. The
effect, however, of the percussion might add consider-
ably to this, though the latter would be confined in
effect to a single instance. In regard to the practical
result from this arrangement, which was continued in
operation for several years, it was found not to obvi-
ate the necessity of producing sounds of greater power.
It is, however, founded on an ingenious idea, and may
be susceptible of application in other cases.

There is now a first-class siren in duplicate
at this place.

The sixty-six steam fog-signals in the waters
of the United States have been established at
a cost of more than $500,000, and are main-
tained at a yearly expense of about $100,000.
The erection of each of these signals was au-
. thorized by Congress in an act making special

appropriations for its establishment, and Con-
gress was in each instance moved thereto by
the pressure of public opinion, applied usually
through the member of Congress representing
the particular district in which the signal was
to be located. And this pressure was occa-
sioned by the fact that mariners have come to
believe that they could be guided by sound as
certainly as by sight. The custom of the mari-
ner in coming to this coast from beyond the
seas is to run his ship so that on arrival, if after
dark, he shall see the proper coast-light in fair
weather, and, if in thick weather, that he shall
hear the proper fog-signal, and, taking that as
a point of departure, to feel his way from the
coast-light to the harbor-light, or from the fog-
signal on the coast to the fog-signal in the har-
bor, and thence to his anchorage or his wharf.
And the custom of the coaster or the sound-
steamer is somewhat similar.

Aberration of Sound. — The fog-signal being
found trustworthy in its usual performance,
mariners relied on it, and occasionally met dis-
aster. But the failure was, ns a rule, ascribed
to the signal-keeper rather than to the signal.
Still, the complaints set the Lighthouse Board
at work to ascertain the cause and, if possible,
to provide the remedy. A series of experi-
ments with fog-signals was made by Prof.
Henry, beginning in 1865 and continuing till
the latter part of 1877. Certain abnormal
phenomena were observed relative to the au-
dition of the sound the fog-signals made, and
finally examinations were made to ascertain
the extent of these aberrations and the cause
of them. The aberrations in audibility had not
escaped the attention of earlier writers.

The causes assigned for these abnormal phe-
nomena of sound are almost as various as the
writers on them. Dr. Derham, writing in 1 708,
seemed to consider them as caused by variations
in temperature, moisture, and wind. Baron
von Humboldt, and after him Dr. Dove, Sir
John Herschel, and Dr. Robinson, held that
aerial flocculence is answerable for these phe-
nomena, a theory adopted and amplified by Dr.
Tyndall. Prof. Henry, however, has presented
another and different theory, and has worked
it out in a series of long-continued and careful
experiments, accounts of which are published
at length in the reports of the Lightbouse Board
and by the Smithsonian Institution in its regu-
lar series, and in a separate volume. He reached
the conclusion that the wind, when moving at
the rate of eight or ten miles an hour, could not
act in perceptible retardation of sound when it
was moving at the rate of 750 or 780 miles an
hour, but be had accepted the idea that it might
act by deflection. At this time the suggestion
of Prof. Stokes, of Cambridge, England, which
offered a plausible explanation of the action of
the wind, became known to him, when it " was
immediately adopted as a working hypothesis
to direct investigation." Prof. Stokes's ex-
planation, which Tyndall speaks of as suggest-
ed by some remarkable observations of De la

SOUND-SIGXALS.

726

Roche, roughly stated, is this : " The several
strata into which a current of air may be di-
vided do not move with the same velocity. The
lowest stratum is retarded by friction against
the earth ; the one immediately above by fric-
tion against the lower; hence the velocity in-
creases from the ground upward." And when
the direction of the sound is perpendicular to
the sound-wave, as when it is projected against
the wind, it will be thrown upward ahead of
the observer; and when it is projected with
the wind, it will be thrown downward toward
the earth. Proceeding on this suggestion of
Prof. Stokes, Prof. Henry worked out by care-
ful tests, and gave as the results of his experi-
ments, the causes of the five formulated phe-
nomena, as follows :

1. The audibility of sound at a distance, and its in-
audibility nearer the source of sound.

2. The inaudibility of a sound at a given distance
in one direction, while a lesser sound is heard at the
same distance in another direction.

3. The audibility at one time at a distance of several
miles, while at another the sound can not be heard at
more than a fifth of the same distance.

4. While the sound is generally heard farther with
tiie wind than against it, in some 'instances the reverse
is the case.

5. The sudden loss of a sound in passing from one
locality to another in the same vicinity, the distance
from the source of sound being the same.

Prof. Henry explains these abnormal phenom-
ena thus : u The first four of these phenomena
find a ready explanation ... by supposing an
increase or diminution in the relative velocity
of the currents of wind in the upper or lower
strata of air. The fifth is explained by the in-
terposition of an obstacle which casts, as it
were, a sound-shadow, disappearing at a given
distance by the divergence of the rays on each
side of the obstacle into what would be an op-
tical shadow."

Prof. Henry read a paper before the Wash-
ington Philosophical Society, Dec. 11, 1872, in
which he announced his idea that its cause was
due to the deflection of the sound by the action
of the wind, an idea which. he afterward devel-
oped into what he styled a good working hy-
pothesis.

Prof. Tyndall, in May, 1873, began his series
of investigations on the subject of the trans-
mission of sound, under the auspices of the
Trinity House, of England, in which whistles,
trumpets, guns, and the siren were used, the
last-named instrument having been lent by the
Lighthouse Board of the United States to the
Trinity House for the purpose. President Wel-
ling makes effective use of these dates in set-
tling the question of precedence as between
these authorities.

Among Prof. Henry's last out-givings on this
subject, one which, it may be said, occupied
much of his attention even in his last illness,
were those styled in his last report to the Light-
house Board "General Conclusions," which
may be thus briefly summarized, his own words
being used as far as possible:

1. The audibility of sound at a distance— the state

of the atmosphere being constant — depends on the
character of the sound.

2. The audibility of sound depends on the state of
the atmosphere. A condition mo>t tavorabl.
transmission of sound is that of perfect Btillness, and
unilbrm density and temperature throughout.

8. But the most cmcu-nt cau>c of the loss of audi-
bility is the direct effect produced by the wind. . . .
Sound moving with the wind is refracted or thrown
down toward the earth; while, moving again-t tho
wind, it is refracted upward and passes over the bead
of the observer.

4. Although, as a general rule, the sound U beard
farther when moving with the wind than when mov-
ing against it, yot in some instances the sound is heard
farthest against the wind, owing to a dominant upper
wind blowing at the time in an opposite direction to
that at the surface of the earth.

5. Although sound issuing from the mouth of the
trumpet is at first concentrated in a given direction,
yet it lends to spread so rapidly that, at the distance
of three or tour miles, it fills tho whole space of air in-
closed within the circuit of the horizon, and is heard
behind the trumpet nearly as well as at an equal dis-
tance in front of its mouth.

6. Neither fog, snow, hail, nor rain materially inter-
feres with the transmission of loud sound.

7. In some cases sound-shadows are produced by
projecting portions of land, or by buildings situated
near the origin of the sound ; but these shadows are
closed in by the spread of the sound-waves, and thus
exhibit the phenomenon of sound being heard at a
distance and afterward lost on a nearer approach to
the station.

8. It frequently happens on a vessel leaving a sta-
tion that the sound is suddenly lost at a point in itu
course, and, after remaining inaudible some time, is
heard again at a greater distance, and then is gradu-
ally lost as the distance is further increased. This is
attributed to the upward refraction of the sound-wave,
which passes over the head of the observer, and con-
tinues an upward course until it nearly reaches the
upper surface of the current -wind, when the refraction
will be reversed, and the sound sent downward to the
earth. Or the effect may be considered as due to a
sound-shadow produced by refraction, which is grad-
ually closed in at a distance by the lateral spread of
the sound-wave with the earth on either side, in a di-
rection which is not affected by the upper refraction.
Another explanation may be found in the probable
circumstance of the lower sheet of sound-beams being
actually refracted into a serpentine or undulating
course.

9. The existence of a remarkable phenomenon has
been established, which is exhibited in all states of the
atmosphere, during rain, snow, and dense fog, to which
has been given the name of aerial echo. It consists of
a distinct echo, apparently from a space near the hori-
zon of 15° or 20° in azimuth, directly in the prolonga-
tion of the axis of the trumpet. The loudness of this
echo depends upon the loudness and quality of the
original sound, and therefore it is produced with the
greatest distinctness by the siren. It can not be due
to the accidental position of a flocculent portion of the
atmosphere, nor to the direct reflection from the crests
of the waves, as was first supposed, since it is always
heard, except when the wind is blowing a hurn-

' As a provisional explanation, the hypothesis has
been adopted that, in the natural spread of the waves
of sound, some of the waves must take such a curvi-
linear course as to strike the surface of the water in an
opposite direction, and thus be reflected back to the
station or location of the origin of the sound.

Prof. Tyndall referred these phenomena, in
his book on " Sound," to the existence of acous-
tic clouds consisting of portions of the atmos-
phere in a flocculent or mottled condition due
to the unequal distribution of heat or moisture,

726

SOUND-SIGNALS.

•which, absorbing and reflecting the sound, pro-
duced an atmosphere of acoustic opacity.

In the mean time ship-masters were occa-
sionally bringing their ships to grief by placing
too much confidence in their hearing of the
fog-signals. Complaint would follow against
the signal-keeper, who would be charged with
having failed on that particular occasion to
operate his fog-signal. Thereupon the matter
would be investigated by a disinterested per-
son, usually an officer of the navy, and it would
generally be made to appear that the fault lay
not in the fog-signal, nor in the signal-keeper,
but in the audition by the mariner of the blast
the fog- signal made.

In fact, these investigations have shown the
fallacy of the sailor's idea that sound is always
heard in all directions from its source, accord-
ing to its intensity or force, and according to
the distance of the hearer from it; and they
have also proved to the sailor, what was be-
fore known to the scientific world, that though
there may be no lack in the volume of the
sound emitted by the fog-signal, there may be
a decided lack in the audition of that sound ;
that it may not be heard at the intensity prop-
erly expected ; that it may not be heard at all
at the place expected ; that it may be heard
faintly where it ought to be heard loudly ; that
it may be heard loudly where it should be
heard faintly ; that it could not be heard at all
at some points within easy ear-shot ; and then
farther away it could be heard better than
near by ; that it could be heard and lost and
heard and lost again within reasonable hear-
ing distance, and all this while the signal was
in full blast and sounding continuously.

A resume of certain of these investigations
made by disinterested officers of the Govern-
ment, showing their method and their results,
will make these statements more readily com-
prehended.

On the night of Nov. 6, 1880, the steamer
Ehode Island was wrecked on Bonnet Point,
at the western entrance to Narragansett Bay,
when more than $1,000,000 was lost. The
cause of the disaster was alleged to be the
failure of Beaver Tail fog- signal (then a Daboll
trumpet) to sound its blast. This signal was
on the southern end of Conanicut island, which
divides the entrance of Narragansett Bay. The
western entrance is but If of a mile wide, with
rocky shores. Bonnet Point is but !$• mile
from Beaver Tail. As the fog-signal was gen-
erally heard at Newport, five miles distant,
and had been heard ten miles away, it seemed
almost self-evident that the fog-signal keeper
had failed to operate his machine when it could
not be heard on a steamer at Bonnet Point, or
even when she was in the middle of the chan-
nel not a mile away from the signal. But the
Lighthouse Board, as usual, caused investiga-
tion to precede action. An officer of the navy,
detailed to look into the matter, found copious
evidence that the fog-signal was in full blast
before, after, and during the disaster, and that

it had been heard and acted on by other ves-
sels much farther off than the Rhode Island.
Then he took the testimony of the officers and
passengers of the ill-fated steamer, and found
it certain that they listened for and expected
to hear the fog-signal; that they practically
did not hear it, and the effect on them was the
same as if it had not been operated at all
Thereupon, on Nov. 16, 1880, ten days after
the wreck, he set the fog-signal going, though
it was on a clear, cold, sunny day, and ran
over in a sail-boat the course the Rhode Island
had taken, going to .the wreck itself, and then
ran out of the western channel up by the fog-
signal, through the eastern channel, by Castle
Hill and Fort Adams, to Newport. The result
is shown in Fig. 3, in which the intensity of
the sound as heard from the sail-boat is graphi-
cally indicated by the width of the track taken
by the boat. Where the line is widest, the
sound had the most volume ; where the line is
narrowest, the sound was the least ; where the
line is broken, the sound could not be heard at
all. The wind was moderate, from the west.
The observations began at 11.25 A. M. and oc-
cupied several hours. The result showed all
the aberrations of audition named as possible
in the preceding paragraph.

In the summer of 1881, while on a light-
house steamer, the writer experienced some-
thing of the variations in the audition of sound
made by the Beaver Tnil fog-signal, then a ten-
inch steam whistle. When the steamer left
the landing at that lighthouse, the fog-signal
was to sound for a given time and to begin
when the steamer had reached a point about
half a mile distant. When that point was
reached, we could see from the steam-puffs
coming from the stack-pipe that the signal was
being blown ; but we could not hear it, nor
did we, as we continued on our course, running
at the rate of six miles an hour, for the next
five minutes. When near Whale Rock, slightly
less than a mile and a half from the signal, the
steamer's paddle-wheels were stopped, silence
was ordered fore and aft, and we all listened
intently. The expert naval officers thought
they heard a trace of the fog-signal, but my
untrained ears failed to differentiate it from
the moan of the whistling-buoy near Whale
Rock. Yet the blast of the ten-inch whistle
for which we were listening is often heard ten
miles away, with distinctness and certainty.

Soon after I had another opportunity to ob-
serve the operations of this signal. We left
Narragansett Pier, R. I., on Aug. 6, 1881, at 4
p. M., in a dense fog, with a strong breeze from
the west-south wrest and a heavy chop sea.
We wrished to ascertain how far the Beaver
Tail fog-signal conld be heard dead to wind-
ward, and in the heaviest of fogs. At Whale
Rock, one and one third mile from it, we did
not hear a trace of it; then the steamer was
headed directly for Beaver Tail Point, and we
ran slowly for it by the compass until the pilot
stopped the steamer, declaring we were almost

SOUND-SIGNALS.

727

Brenton's Reef
Light Vessel

(Bell and Horn)

This diagram shows the result of observations made by Lieut. -Commander Chadwick, U. 8. N., on Beaver Tall -,
Ehode Island, made November 16, 1880, from a sail-boat. Thermometer at beginning, 58' Fahr.; ending, 67*. Wind,
moderate, from the west. Weather, clear and cold, with bright sun. Time, beginning at 11.15 A. M.

aboard of the signal itself. Every one strained
his ear to hear the signal, but without success ;
and we had begun to doubt of our position
when, the fog lifting slightly, we saw the
breakers in altogether too close proximity for
comfort. We passed the point as closely as
was safe, and when abreast of it and at right
angles with the direction of the wind, the fog-
signal broke on us suddenly and with its full
power. We then ran down the wind to New-
port, and had the sound with us all the way.
The fog continuing during the next day, the
signal kept up its sound, .and we heard it dis-
tinctly and continuously at our wharf, though
five miles distant.

The keeper of the lighthouse at Point Judith
has declared that at a particular place between
that point and Beaver Tail Point the paddle-
strokes of a steamer become inaudible for a
moment or two, giving the impression that the
vessel has stopped, notwithstanding the fact
that they are seen to be revolving and had pre-
viously been plainly heard at a longer distance.

On the night of May 12, 1881, about mid-
night, the Galatea, a propeller of over 1,500
tons burden, with a full load of passengers and
freight, bound through Long Island Sound from
Providence to New York, grounded in a dead
calm and a dense fog on Little Gull island,
one eighth of a mile from and behind the fog-
signal, and got off two days later without dam-
age. . That portion of the island itself which is
above water is but a knob, barely large enough
to hold a circular platform about one hundred

feet across, on which stand the lighthouse and
fog-signal building. Great Gull island, per-
haps half a mile from it, is the nearest land.
Little Gull island is so surrounded by deep
water that vessels can sail around it. It was
alleged, as is usual in cases of accident near a
fog-signal, that the siren at Little Gull was
not in operation at the time of the accident.
The signal there was a second-class steam-siren ;
it was of a similar instrument that Tyndall said
in reference to his experiments for Trinity
House : " What may with certainty be affirmed
is, that in almost all cases the siren may cer-
tainly be relied on at a distance of two miles ;
in the great majority of cases it may be relied
on at a distance of three miles ; and in the
majority of cases at a distance greater than
three miles" ; and yet the Galatea failed to hear
the Little Gull siren, and went ashore about
two hundred yards from it, on an under- water
prolongation of the island on which the siren
was in full blast.

The Lighthouse Board ordered an investiga-
tion. This was made by the Assistant Inspector
of the Lighthouse District, a naval officer, who
reported that after taking the sworn evidence
of the light-keepers at Little Gull and the other
light-stations within hearing distance, of other
government officers who were so located that
they might have had knowledge of the facts,
and of the officers of vessels that were within
ear-shot, including those of the Galatea, he
reached the conclusion that the fog-signal was
sounding at the time of the accident ; and that,

728

SOUND-SIGNALS.

although the fog-signal was heard at Mystic,
fifteen miles distant in another direction, and
although it was heard on a steam-tug a mile
beyond the Galatea, it was heard faintly, if at
all, on that vessel ; and if heard at all, was so
heard as to be misleading, though the Galatea
was but one eighth of a mile from the source
of the sound.

It appears that this officer spent several days
steaming around Little Gull, while the fog-

CON8TELLATION RK.
BREESE RK.*

FIG. 4.

This diagram shows the result of fog-signal tests at Little Gull
Island, Long Island Sound, July 11, 1881. Time, 10 A.M.
Wind, N. N. E. ; force, 2. Barometer, 29-77. Thermome-
ter, 61° Fahr. Weather at beginning, dark, overcast, with
squalls of Scottish mist from N. N. E. It began to clear at
11.80 A. M.

signal was in full blast, in various kinds of
weather, and that he found the aberrations in
audition here were as numerous and even more
eccentric than those before mentioned as ex-

FIG. 5.

This diagram shows the result of observations at Little Gull
Island, Long Island Sound, July 15, 1881, beginning at 6.30
A. M. Thermometer, 59° Fahr. Barometer, 29 '80. Wind,
W. N. W. ; force, 3, hauling westward and increasing grad-
ually.

perienced at Beaver Tail. The results of his
observations are given in Figs. 4 and 5, and in

each case the condition of the atmosphere as
to humidity, pressure, temperature, and motion
are shown, as is also the tidal condition.

On August 3d the writer had an opportunity
to hear this fog-signal and to note its audibil-
ity. The wind was from the south and very
light ; the air was damp, smoky, hazy, and, as
the sailors say, hung low ; the barometer stood
at 29-90 ; the tide was about flood. Our steam-
er was run for six miles in the axis of the
siren's trumpet, which was sounded for our
benefit at its full force. Note was made every
third minute in a scale of ten of the intensity
of the sound, and it was found that the audi-
tion decreased normally with the distance for
the first two miles; at 2J miles it had fallen
off one half; at 3 miles it had fallen off to one
tenth of its power ; at 3£ miles away we could
hear but a faint murmur, and, when 4 miles
distant, we had lost it completely ; and yet
there seemed to be no reason why we should
not have heard it clearly at three times that
distance.

The next morning was calm, but heavy with
white fog; yet we heard the Little Gull siren
distinctly, though it was 10£ miles off, as we
lay at our wharf in New London. The steam-
er ran out of the harbor, but was compelled
to anchor, so thick was the fog ; yet we heard
Little Gull, though 7i miles off, at a force of
six in the scale of ten, and the sound was so
distinct that we could differentiate it from the
siren at the New London light, which was
much nearer to us. The steamer worked round
to inspect the neighboring lights, and we heard
the Little Gull siren when at North Dumpling
light station, Y miles off, at a force of six ; at
Morgan's Point Light, 10 miles off, at a force
of five; and we continued to hear it at an in-
tensity of from five to six as we worked around
among the other lights, within a compass of 10
miles, till the fog broke and the siren ceased.

Opportunity soon occurred for making more
critical experiments. On a fine day we ran out
to Little Gull, had the siren started under full
steam, and then, following out a pre-arranged
programme, ran around Little Gull island in
such way as to describe a rectangle of about
eight by ten miles, its longest side running near-
ly north and south. No fixed rate of speed was
maintained, but the steamer slowed, backed, or
stopped, as was necessary. The atmosphere
was what the sailors call lumpy, and Prof.
Tyndall calls non-homogeneous. Prof. Henry, .
when writing of a like condition, said, "As
the heat of the sun increases during the first
part of the day, the temperature of the land
rises above that of the sea, and this excess of
the temperature produces upward currents of
air, disturbing the general flow of wind, both
at the surface of the sea and at an elevation
above." Observations were made and noted
in a scale of ten, of the force or intensity of the
signal's sound as it reached us at the end of
each minute. The diagram, Fig. 6, shows a
sufficient number of the results for our pur-

SOUND-SIGNALS.

729

FIG. 6.

This diagram shows the result of observations at Little Gull Island, Long Island Sound, Aug. 9, 1881, beginning at 10 A. M.
Thermometer, dry bulb, 78-09° ; wet bulb, 73° F. Barometer, 2<J'77. Wind 8. W., force 8. Cir. Btrat. clouds about the
horizon.

poses, taken from the tabulated schedule of our
notes.

At 4 P. M. two of us went in a row-boat to
Little Gull, from the steamer which lay at
anchor half a mile off, and verified the fact
that the fog-signal had been in full operation
during the time of our observations. It then
occurred to us to investigate still more closely
what appeared to be a space, a circle of silence,
in which, during the experiments of the morn-
ing, we had failed to hear the signal. After
having had the siren put in full operation again,
we pulled toward the nearer end of Great Gull
island, the siren sounding meantime with ear-
splitting force. When about 600 yards away,
we suddenly lost the sound as completely as if
the signal had stopped. Pulling toward the
steamer, not more than 200 yards, we reached
a position at right angles with the axis of the
siren's trumpet, when we suddenly heard the
sound again at its full force. Thus, in pulling

500 yards, we passed from complete audition
of the signal to absolute inaudition; and then
we passed back again to complete audition by
pulling 200 yards in another direction. All
this took place within half an hour, in open
water, always in full view of the signal-sta-
tion, and without any visible obstacle being
interposed or removed. While on the island
we learned that one of the light house keep-
ers, who had been on leave, had just returned
from Sag Harbor, twenty miles to the south-
east. He had failed to hear the signal at all.
until opposite the eastern end of Great Gull
island, and until he was within half a mile of
the siren, which was in full operation.

The next morning our steamer anchored
about a mile north of Little Gull ; the wind
was light, the air was clear, and the day was
warm and beautiful. As it had been preceded
by a warm night, the atmosphere was homo-
geneous, and it was expected that we should

730

SOUND- SIGNALS.

have a day of normal audition and barren of
curious phenomena. After the siren had begun
its noise, we ran down to a point within half a
mile of the lighthouse, and then steamed for
Plum island, running a little south of east for
six miles, when we returned as nearly as might
be on our own track. The results were curi-
ous. We lost half the force of the sound when
within a quarter of a mile of the siren ; a mo-
ment later we had lost four fifths of it. Run-
ning another half-mile, we were off the middle
of Great Gull island, and the sound had in-
creased to a force of four ; in five minutes more
it had dropped to three ; from that time, till
we reached the end of our six-mile run, it
gradually weakened, and it had dropped to a
force of two when we turned and ran back to
our anchorage. It is especially curious that
the sound had the same intensity at three six-
teenths of a mile from its source, and at six
whole miles from that point, while it varied
from two to ten in a scale of ten between those
points. The results of the trip are more fully
and exactly given in the diagram, Fig. 7.

GREAT GULL I.

FIG. 7.

This diagram shows the result of observations at Little Gull
island, Long Island Sound, Aug. 10, 1881, beginning at
10.30 A. M. Thermometer, dry bulb, 76° ; wet bulb, 75°
F. Barometer, 29-40. Wind W. by N., force 8, and steady
throughout. Day clear and beautiful?

Thinking that possibly this peculiarity might
have been induced by those differences of
temperature in the strata of the atmosphere
suggested by Tyndall as probable cause for
such phenomena, effort was made to ascertain
something of these differences by sending a
thermometer to the upper air. In the course
of the afternoon we made a kite six feet high,
attached to it a self-registering thermometer,
and after several trials succeeded in getting
it up about 500 feet, and in hauling it safely in
again after it had been up over an hour. The
thermometer had a wet bulb, and was pro-
tected from the direct rays of the sun ; but it
registered only half a degree more of heat at
its highest point than it had registered in the
pilot-house. The course the kite took showed

NOTE. - Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 7, were prepared from diagrams
made and sent the writer by the eminent chief of the
French Lighthouse Service, Emile Allard, Inspecteur-Gene-
ral des Fonts et Chaussees, Directeur du Service Central des
Phares et Ballses. M. Allard made them from the diagrams
in the writer's paper on the " Aberrations of Audibility of
Fog-Signals," in which the intensity of sound at each point
was indicated by Arabic numerals in a scale of ten. The
writer submits Allard's diagrams, because they convey the
desired meaning better than do his own diagrams.

no difference between the air-currents alow
and aloft.

The result of these and other observations
was laid before the Washington Philosophical
Society on Oct. 22, 1881, and then, and at a
subsequent meeting, was made the subject of
some discussion, an account of which appeared
in its publications, and was published in pam-
phlet form.*

M. Allard, Director of the French Lighthouse
Service, in his "Memoire sur la Portee des
Sons et sur Jes Caracteres a attribuer aux
Signaux sonores," recently published by his
Government, records some curious experiments
with various fog-signals made in France, Ger-
many, and England, as well as in this country.
He has compared, in tabular form, the results
of these experiments, and gives the range of
sound of each instrument under a variety of
conditions, taking into consideration the in-
tensity and pitch of the sound, the direction
and force of the wind, and its angle of action
on the phonic beam. He has established a
mathematical formula for the calculation of
the range of the sound of each instrument,
under certain given circumstances, in which
he expresses what he styles the acoustic trans-
parency of the atmosphere by a coefficient,
and he has also expressed graphically the
set of results obtained, thus assisting largely
the intelligent discussion of the general sub-
ject.

Tillamook Light and Fog-Signal Station is on
an isolated rock about half a mile west of the
coast of Oregon, and about 20 miles south of
the mouth of Columbia river. The signal is a
steam-siren. The surface of the rock is about
86 feet above the water, and the trumpet,
which points almost westward, has an elevation
of fully 100 feet. (See engraving on page 443,
"Annual CyclopaBdia " for 1880.) Col. Gilles-
pie, of the Corps of Engineers, TJ. S. A., who
built the tower and put in the illuminating and
fog-signal apparatus, tested the latter, steaming
to the west directly from it on a clear bright
day, and found that the sound became practi-
cally inaudible at a distance of two miles. In
a letter dated Nov. 6, 1882, he wrote :

My first attention was called to the defects of audi-
bility by the captain of the Shubrick, who stated, in
May, 1881, that, when anchored in a small bight south
of the rock near Arch Eock, and about one mile dis-
tant, he could hear the sound but faintly. On my
next visit I directed the engineer to get up steam^ and
when he had a pressure of fifty pounds, to whistle,
and then set the machinery in motion. On receiving
the signal, I made a circuit of the rock and then pro-
ceeded westward under slow bell, recording my dis-
tance by interval of sound at each blast. At two miles
the sound became quite weak, and at the next blast
no sound was received. Our engine was not stopped
when receiving the sound, and my station was aft
quite near the propeller ; the day was bright and clear,
without any wind. The temperature was 65° or there-
about; don't know the barometer reading. On re-
ceiving the next sound the boat was at rest, that is,

* Aberrations of Audibility of Fog-Signals. By Arnold B.
Johnson, Chief Clerk of the Lighthouse Board. Washington,

1882.

SOUND-SIGNALS.

731

just as soon as the puff was noticed the engine was
stopped, and we waited for the sound. A very faint
sound was noticed up to four miles, and beyond that
nothing was heard.

I was then on the point of returning to the rock to
examine the machinery personally, when it struck me
that I ought to go out to the estimated limit of the
range. On resuming our course, nothing was heard
until we were out seven miles approximately, when
the sound became audible again — a clear, resonant
sound, but low-toned. We carried this characteristic
sound for another four miles, when it likewise disap-
peared. The engineer afterward told me that he car-
ried at least sixty pounds of steam. It was growing
late, and as the sea and rising winds gave promise of
a squall, we hurried back to get inside of the bar. . . .
The sea-captains on the iron vessels plying to San
Francisco reported later that they were able to hear
the sound at a distance of eight miles. . . . My im-
pression is that the cliffs of the east side are too far
distant to affect the sound one way or the other. I
have never heard an echo there, and I believe that the
distance is too great to have the noise of the surf upon
the rocky beach deaden the sound seaward of the sta-
tion.

The ends of the trumpet are bent toward the hori-
zon, terminating in bell-shaped lips. The sound is
propagated therefrom in a horizontal plane, and pre-
vious experiments have shown that the sound pro-
duced is as strong as if the whole trumpet lay hori-
zontally.

This is quoted as showing that the sound,
which on one occasion intermitted at two miles
from its source, was heard faintly at four miles,
and then again distinctly at seven miles, and
was carried out to eleven miles, when the
steamer turned back without ascertaining how
much farther the sound might be carried. This
is deemed a peculiar and important instance,
as there was practically no land or other thing
in front of the source of sound, unless it be an
opaque cloud from which the sound could re-
bound, or which could cast a sound-shadow for
hundreds of miles.

Some curious experiments have taken place
off Whitehead Light and Fog-Signal Station,
which is in the Atlantic on a small island about
one and a half mile from the coast of Maine.
The fog-signal is on the southeastern slope of the
rock, and about seventy-five feet above mean
tide. The phenomena observed by Prof. Hen-
ry consisted in great variation of intensity of
sound while approaching and receding from
the station. One instance occurred during a
thick night-fog in 1872, when, approaching the
station in the steamer City of Eichmond at a
distance of six miles, the fog-signal, a ten-inch
steam-whistle, was distinctly heard and con-
tinued to be heard with increasing intensity
until within three miles, when the sound sud-
denly ceased to be heard, and was not heard
again until the steamer was within a quarter
of a mile of the station, though it was known
that the signal had been sounding during the
whole time. The wind was from the south, or
almost opposed to the sound, but daring the
whole of this time the fog-signal keeper could
hear the sound of the steamer's six-inch whis-
tle.

Commander H. F. Picking, U. S. N., then in-
spector of the First Lighthouse District, having

frequently received complaints from ship-mas-
ters that they lost the sound of the Whitehead
fog-signal, determined to ascertain the facts by
personal investigation, and in July, 1877, ap-
proached Whitehead from the southeast during
a fog. He reports that he heard the sound dis-
tinctly from six to four miles, then lost it, mul
could hear nothing until within a quarter of a
mile of the island, when the blast of the wins-
tie burst forth in full sound. The wind was
then against the sound.

Previously, Gen. Duane, of the Corps of En-
gineers, U. S. A., then engineer of that light-
house district, reported that, approaching the
signal from the southwest, he heard the sound
at about six miles' distance, then lost it, and
did not hear it again until within about a quar-
ter of a mile. The wind was then also against
the sound.

On Sept. 4, 1877, Prof. Henry made further
experiments at Whitehead. The weather was
clear, the wind west-southwest, with a velocity
of from ten to twelve miles, remaining nearly
constant during the day. The barometer stood
at 28-9 ; the thermometer at 67° Fahr. in the
open air, and about 67° in the water. As they
steamed from the station directly to windward,
the sound slightly diminished. When they were
between a quarter and a half mile distant, they
lost the sound completely, and it continued in-
audible for about a mile, when it was faintly
heard, and continued to increase in loudness
until they were four miles off, when it was
heard with clearness, but on going on it dimin-
ished gradually. They then went back over
their course, and observed the phenomena in
the reverse order. Experiments tried on three
other days showed curious results, which dif-
fered somewhat from those previously macie,
of which a full report is given in the " Annual
Report of the Lighthouse Board for 1877,"
together with Prof. Henry's views as to the
cause of each observed phenomenon. A full
account of the matter is also given in the book
entitled " Henry on Sound."

Col. C. E. Blunt, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A.,
then engineer of the First Lighthouse District,
was also at a later date struck by the peculiar-
ity in the audition of the sound from this sig-
nal. Writing from Portland, Maine, on Sept.
28, 1882, he said:

The peculiarities of Whitehead whistle have already
been noted. Quite recently I have myself noted one
of them. Leaving there for Portland, in the Myrtle,
early on the morning of the '2d instant, the \\ I. i>t It-
having been blown during fog part of the- previous
night for the first time, with its new characteristics
(4^-second blast and 26-sccond interval), the keeper
kept it going for a short time after the weather had
cleared, as I wished to test it. It was bright sun-
shine, with the light air from the southeast. I think.
Leaving the Head, the whistle was plainly heard for
two or three miles ; when, still in plain sight, the
sound began to grow fainter, and at length was quite
inaudible, though it was plainly blowing. In a few
minutes the sound was again faintly heard, and, in-
creasing in volume, soon came out in full force, and eo
continued. It was clearlv deflected upward, and then
downward, as I imagined, thus :

732

SOUND-SIGNALS.

Ares of Audibility.

Area of Inaudibility.

FIG. 8.— BLTJNT'S DIAGRAM.

Area of Audibility.

With regard to snow, it is thought by seamen in
this vicinity that it is favorable to sound; certainly,
Portland rfead trumpet is very distinctly heard here
during violent northeast snow-storms, when it is di-
rectly to the leeward.

Prof. Henry made observations at a number
of light-stations for various purposes connected
with the investigation of the laws of sound,
from his report of which it appears that he
noted a number of instances of remarkable
aberrations of audition of several fog-signals.
These are recorded at length in " Henry on
Sound," in the reports of the Lighthouse
Board of 1874-'75, and in the reports of the
Smithsonian Institution for several years.

The experiments were" not confined to our
own shores. Prof. Tyndall, who stood in the
same relations with the British Lighthouse
Establishment that Prof. Henry did to our
own, reported thus :

With a view to the protection of life and property
at sea in the years 1873-'74, this subject received an
exhaustive examination, observational and experi-
mental. The investigations were conducted at the
expense of the Government, and under the auspices
of the Trinity House. The most conflicting results
were at first obtained.^ On the 19th of May, 1873, the
sound-range was 31 miles ; on the 20th it was 51 miles ;
on the 2d of June, 6 miles ; on the 3d, more than
9 miles ; on the 10th, 9 miles ; on the 25th. 6 miles ; on
the 26th, 9i miles ; on the 1st of July_, 12| miles ; on
the 2d, 4 miles ; while on the 3d, with a clear, calm
atmosphere and smooth sea, it was less than 3 miles.

From the letters received from officers of the
navy and of the merchant marine service, also
from officers of the English, Scotch, and French
lighthouse establishments, it is evident that pub-
lic attention is being given to the subject, and
that observations are being made as to such
aberrations simultaneously in various parts of
the world.

Dr. Welling, President of Columbian Uni-
versity, in a paper read before the Washington
Philosophical Society, Nov. 5, 1881, said :

In a paper presented to the Eoyal Society in 1874,
Prof. Eeynolds showed that the form of the sound-
wave is liable to flexure from changes in the tempera-
ture of the atmosphere, as well as from the unequal
motion of the wind. These abnormal phenomena of
sc-und, considered in connection with the hypothesis
of Prof. Stokes, as enlarged and applied by Prof.
Henry, may be reduced in the following generaliza-
tions, which, if accurate in point of logical form, and
true in point of the facts to which they are applied,
may be stated under the guise of aphorisms, as fol-
lows :

1. Where the condition of the air is nearest that of
a calm, the larger will be the curve of audition, and

the nearer will the shape of the curve approach to a
circle, to which the point of origin of the sound, or
the . point of perception, will be the center. (This
aphorism is stated abstractly from any consideration
of temperature-refraction which, so far as it exit-ts,
will always tend to modify the shape of the curve of
audition.)

2. Apart from all consideration of temperature-
refraction, a sound will be heard farthest in the direc-
tion of a gentle wind, because the portion of the
sound-wave thrown down from above, in this case,
is re-enforced by the sound reflected from the surface,
and will thus more than compensate for the loss by
friction.

3. Other things being equal, the area of audition
will be proportionately diminished in the case of
sounds moving against winds more or less strong, be-
cause the sonorous waves will be refracted above the
ears of the observer.

4. The area of audition will be diminished in the
case of a sound moving with an over-strong favoring
wind, because the sound-waves in this case will be so
rapidly and strongly thrown to the ground that the
intensity of the sound will suffer more diminution
from absorption and friction than can be supplied by
the upward reflection of the sound-rays conspiring
with the gradual downward flexure of the sound-
waves, as in the case of a gentle favoring wind.

5. Sounds moving against a gentle wind will, cce-
teris parihus, be heard farther than similar sounds
moving with an over-strong favoring wind, for rea-
sons already implied, because the downward flexure
of the sound-waves, being excessive in the latter case,
tends to extinguish the conditions of audibilitv more
rapidly than is done by the slight upward refraction
in the former case.

6. When sounds moving against the wind are heard
farther than similar sounds moving with a wind of
equal strength, it is because of a dominant upper wind
blowing at the time in a direction opposite to that at
the surface.

7. A sound moving against the wind, and so refract-
ed as in the end to be thrown above the head of the
observer, will, at the point of its elevation, leave an
acoustic shadow. But this acoustic shadow, at a still
further stage, may be filled in by the lateral spread of
the sound-waves, or may be extinguished by the
downward flexure of the sound-waves, resulting from
an upper current of wind moving in an opposite direc-
tion to that at the surface, or resulting in a less degree
from an upper stratum of still air. Under these
circumstances, there will be areas of silence inclosed
within areas of audition.

8. As sounds may be refracted either by wind, or
by changing temperatures^ or by both combined, it
follows that, under many circumstances, a sound lost
at one elevation may be regained at a higher eleva-
tion.

9. As sounds moving against the wind are liable to
become inaudible (by being tilted over the head of the
observer), ev.en before their intensity has been extin-
guished, we may find in this fact an explanation of
the statement made by Eeynolds, that " on all occa-
sions the effect of wind seems to be rather against dis-
tance than distinctness."

SOUND-SIGNALS.

733

10. As sounds may be inaudible at certain dis-
tances and elevations without being wholly extin-
guished, it follows that the comparative inaudibility
of sounds at different times can not always be cited as
an evidence of their relative intensities. The com-
parative inaudibility may be a function of variable
refraction, rather than of variable intensity. Hence
the law of inverse squares, though perfectly true in
its theoretical application to the measurement of the
intensity of all sounds, can not always be legitimately
used to calculate backward from the audibility of a
sound, as empirically ascertained at a given point and
elevation, to its relative intensity as previously heard
at the same point and elevation.

11. The hypothesis of Stokes, as applied by Henry,
does not exclude the hypothesis of Humboldt, but
reduces the latter to a very subordinate and inappre-
ciable place in interpreting the abnormal phenomena
of sound.

12. The hypothesis of Stokes, as applied by Henry,
does not exclude the reasoning or the experimental
proofs by which Prof. Eeynolds demonstrates that
differences in temperature exert a refracting power in
sound, but finds in that refraction an influence which
may sometimes accelerate and sometimes retard the
refraction produced by wind.

The officer who made the reports as to the
fog-signals at Beaver Tail and Little Gull, after
the accidents to the steamers Rhode Island
and Galatea heretofore mentioned, was then
Assistant-Inspector of the Third Lighthouse
District, Lieut.-Commander F. E. Chadwick,
U. S. N. ; and it was he who had charge of the
lighthouse steamer while the foregoing observa-
tions were being made, after Capt. George
Brown, U. S. N., the inspector, was called else-
where. In answer to certain questions as to
the opinions which had forced themselves upon
him, he said :

It seems to me that navigators should understand
that, when attempting to pick up a fog-signal, atten-
tion must be given to the direction of the wind, and
that if they are to windward (in a moderate breeze)
the chances are very largely against hearing it, unless
close to : that there is nearly always a sector of about
120° to windward of the signal, in which it either can
not be heard at all, or in which it is but faintly heard.
Thus, with the wind east-southeast, so long as they
are bearino- from the signal between northeast and
south, there is a large chance that the signal will not
be audible until it is very close.

As they bring the signal to bear at right angles with
the wind", the sound will almost certainly, in the case
of light wind, increase, and it will soon assume its
normal volume — being heard almost without fail in
the leeward semicircle. '

Fosr, to my mind, and so far as my experience goes,
is not a factor of any consequence whatever in the
question of sound. Signals may be heard at great dis-
tances through the densest fogs, which may be totally
inaudible in 'the same directions and at the Baine dis-
tances in the clearest atmosphere. It is not meant by
this last statement that the fog may assist the sound,
as at another time the signal may be absolutely inau-
dible in a fog of like density, where it had before been
clearly heard. That fog has no great effect, can easily
be understood when it is known, as it certainly is
known by observers, that even snow does not deaden
sound, there being no condition of the atmosphere so
favorable for the far-reaching of sound- signals as is
that of a heavy northeast snow-storm, due, supposably,
to the homogeneity produced by the falling snow.

It seems to be well established by numerous observa-
tions that on our own northern Atlantic coasts the best
possible circumstances for hearing a fog-signal are m
a northeast snow-storm, and, so far as these observa-
tions have extended, they seem to point to the extra-

ordinary conclusion that they are best heard with the
observer to windward of the signal ; and that in lijjht
winds the signal is best heard down tbe wind, or u»
right angles with the wind.

The worst conditions for hearing sound seem to be
found in the atmosphere of a clear, frosty mon.
which a warm sun nas been shining for two or three
hours.

The curve of audibility in a light or moderate breeze,
in general, is similar to that plotted by Prof. Henry,
as in the accompanying diagram.

—

Wind.

FIG. 9.— THE HENRY DIAGRAM.

I think it is established that there are two great
causes for these phenomena : non-homogeneity of the
atmosphere, and the movement of the wind. How
this latter acts, no one can say. The theory of retarda-
tion of the lower strata of the atmosphere near the
earth's surface, as advanced by Prof. Stokes, of Eng-
land, seems good for moderate winds, but it hardly
holds in cases where the siren is heard from eighteen
to twenty miles to windward during northeastern gales.

While the mariner may easily expect to hear
the sound of the average fog-signal normally as
to force and place, he should be prepared for
occasional aberrations in audition. It is im-
possible, at this point in the investigations,
which are still in progress, to say when, where,
or how the phenomena will occur. But cer-
tain suggestions present themselves even now
as worthy of consideration.

It seems that the mariner, in order to pick
up the sound of the fog-signal most quickly,
should, when approaching it from the wind-
ward, go aloft; and that when approaching it
from the leeward, the nearer he can get' to the
surface of the water the sooner he will hear the
sound.

It also appears that there are some things
the mariner should not do. He should place
no negative dependence on fog- signals; that
is, he should not assume that he is out of hear-
ing distance because he fails to- hear the sound.
He should not assume that, because he hears a
fog-signal faintly, he is at a great distance from
it. Neither should he assume that he is near
it because he hears the sound plainly. < He
should not assume that he has reached a given
point on his course because he hears the fog-
signal with the same intensity that he-did when
formerly at that point. Neither should he as-
sume that he has not reached this point because
he fails to hear the fog-signal as loudly as be-
fore, or because he does not hear it at all.

He should not assume that -the^ fog-signal has
ceased sounding, because he fails'to hear it even
when within easy ear-shot. He should not as-
sume that the aberrations of audibility which
pertain to any one fog-signal pertain to any
other fog-signal. He should not expect to hear

734

SOUND-SIGNALS.

SOUTH CAROLINA.

a fog-signal as well when the upper and lower
currents of air run in different directions ; that
is, when his upper sails fill and his lower sails
flap, or when his lower sails fill and his upper
sails flap. He should not expect to hear the
fog-signal so well when between him and it is
a swiftly-flowing stream, especially when the
tide and wind run in opposite directions. He
should not expect to hear it well during a time
of electric disturbance. He should not expect
to hear a fog-signal well when the sound must
reach him over land, as over a point or an
island. And when there is a bluff behind the
fog-signal he should be prepared for a regular
interval in audition, such as might be produced
could the sound ricochet from the trumpet as
a ball may go from a cannon ; that is, he might
hear it two, four, six, eight, and ten miles from
the signal, and lose it at one, three, five, seven,
nine, and eleven miles, or at any other com-
bination of distances, regular or irregular.

These deductions, some made by the first
physicists of the age, and some drawn from the
original investigations here noted, are submitted
for consideration, rather than given as direc-
tions. They are assumed as good working
hypotheses for use in further investigations.
While it is claimed that they are correct as to
the localities in which they were made, it seems
proper to say that they have not been disproved
by the practical mariners who have given them
some personal consideration, and who have tried
to carry them into general application. If Prof.
Tyndall's finely phrased assertion that " we
know both the reason and the range of their
variations " may be taken as a prediction, the
time may then come when the variations of au-
dition may be corrected as we now correct the
variations of the mariner's compass. Until
then, it will be well for the mariner, when he
does not get the expected sound of the fog-
signal, or when he does not get it as his sailing
directions teach him to expect it, to assume
that he may not hear the warning that has been
faithfully given, and then to heave his lead and
resort to the other means used by the careful
navigator to verify his position.

Bibliography. — The following authorities were
consulted in the* preparation of this paper :

" Documents relating to Lighthouses," vol. i ;
" Annual Keports of the Lighthouse Board " ; Par-
liamentary Papers, 1864 ; Stevenson's " Lighthouse
Illumination"; Tyndallon "Sound"; "Transac-
tions of the Epyal Scottish Society of Arts," vol. vi •
" Coast Fog-Signals," a lecture at the Royal United
Service Institution, by Alexander Beazeley ; " Signal-
ing by means of Sound," a lecture by E. Price Ed-
wards ; " Philosophical Society's Transactions," vol.
xxyi ; " Annales de Chimie et de Physique," tome
xiii, and 1816, vol. i; " Wirkungen aus der Feme " ;
"Encyclopaedia Metropolitana " ; Smithsonian Ke-
ports and Miscellaneous Collections; Henry on
''Sound"; "Proceedings of the British Associa-
tion," 1857; "Washington Philosophical Society's
Transactions," vol. v; Dublin "Philosophical Mag-
azine," vol. 1 ; " American Journal of Sciences," third
series, vol. xi ; " Reports of the British Association,"
xxiv, second part • " Phares Electriques et les Signaux
Sonores," par MM. Sautter et Lemonnier ; " Meinoire

sur la Portee des Sons et sur les Caracteres a attri-
buer aux Signaux Sonores," by Emile Allard.

SOUTH CAROLINA. State Government.— The fol-
lowing were the State officers during the year :
For Governor, Hugh S. Thompson, Democrat ;
Lieutenant- Governor, John 0. Sheppard ; Sec-
retary of State, James N. Lipscomb; Treas-
urer, J. P. Richardson; Comptroller-General,
W. E. Stoney ; Attorney-General, 0. R. Miles;
Superintendent of Public Instruction, Asbury
Coward ; Commissioner of Lands, A. P. But-
ler. Judiciary, Supreme Court : Chief-Justice,
W. D. Simpson ; Associate Justices, Henry
Mclver and Samuel McGowan. Railroad Com-
missioners, M. L. Bonham, L. J. Walker, and
D. P. Duncan.

Legislative Session. — The Legislature convened
on November 27th and adjourned December
23d. Among the acts that became laws are
the following :

To limit the ages of pupils attending the free public
schools.

To prohibit the sale of unsound meat.

To amend the law in regard to the registration of
electors.

Providing the manner in which joint debtors may
separately compound their indebtedness.

In relation to bonds heretofore executed, or which
may hereafter be executed, to secure the payment of
the phosphate royalty to toe State.

To prevent the netting and trapping of partridges
except by persons upon their own lands.

To require foreign co-operation assessment com-
panies to complv with the insurance laws of the State,
and to clearly define who shall be considered agents
of insurance companies.

To declare the persons occupying offices in railroad
stations agents of the corporations.

To declare void contracts for the sale of articles for
future delivery made under certain circumstances.

To declare the law in reference to the liability of
stockholders in corporations.

To secure the rights of persons having an interest
in lands forfeited for taxes.

The supply bill levies a State tax of 5 mills, exclu-
sive of the school-tax, for the support of the govern-
ment for the fiscal year beginning Nov. 1, 1883. A
tax for county purposes, of varying rate, is levied in
each county. The Governor and Treasurer are author-
ized to borrow as much money as needed to meet the
interest on the bonds, provided the amount shall not
exceed $200,000.

An important act was that amending the railroad
law. All those sections of the late law giving the com-
mission power to fix rates are repealed. The railroads
are to submit their rates to the commission for ap-
proval or modification before putting them into effect.
If the commission approve, they go into effect almost
immediately. If the commission disapprove and mod-
ify after hearing argument from the roads, and the
roads will not accept the commission's modification,
they have the right to appeal to the Circuit Judge of
Richland county, or in his absence to some other Cir-
cuit Judge selected by the Chief Justice. The evi-
dence taken before the commission is submitted to
him, and he must decide the case within ten days, his
decision to be final. The rates to be submitted to the
commission by the roads include through and .joint
rates. The sections against discrimination remain in
the law.

An act was passed for the organization of boards
of health, and for the protection of the public health.

A constitutional amendment, to be submitted to the
people in November, 1884, was adopted, which pro-
poses to limit the amount of indebtedness that may

KING- OF SPAIN.

SOUTH CAROLINA.

be contracted by the several counties to 8 per cent, of
the assessed taxable value.

Finances.— At 'the date of the last report the
debt of the State was $6.571,825. During the
past fiscal year a few bonds were issued under
special acts, and the sinking-fund commission
purchased and canceled $41,207.67 of defi-
ciency bonds, thus reducing the amount of
the debt to $6,531,290.63. The Comptroller-
General reports that very little progress has
been made in funding the old bonds under
the act of 1873 and its amendments. He esti-
mates that it will require $348,235 to meet the
ordinary expenses of the government during
the fiscal year 1883-'84. To this amount must
be added $391,878 for interest on the public
debt, making $740,113. The proceeds of the
phosphate royalty and the probable surplus in
the treasury, estimated at $197,251, will re-
duce the amount to $542,862, which can be
raised by a levy of four mills.

The amount of property returned for taxa-
tion in 1882 was $145,442,292. The amount
returned for 1883 is:

Real estate $87,131,401

Personal property 43,249,939

Eailroad property 15,227,964

Total $150,609,304

This is an increase in one year of $5,167,012.

The reports of the Secretary of State show
each year a large increase in the amount of
land held nominally by the commissioners of
tiie sinking fund for non-payment of taxes.

Education. — There were enrolled in the public
schools during the year, 74,157 white and 98,-
938 colored pupils, making a total of 173,095.
This is an increase of 27,121 over the large en-
rollment for the preceding year. From a com-
parison of this enrollment with the data fur-
nished by the census of 1880, it appears that
over 73 per cent, of the white children, and
nearly 55 per cent, of the colored children of
the State, between the ages of six and sixteen
years, were in attendance on the public schools,
The average length of the school session was
four months. The number of teachers em-
ployed was 3,494, of whom 2,165 were white
and 1,329 were colored ; number of schools in
operation was 3,269, an increase of 86.

Claflin College, at Orangeburg, was founded
in 1869, and is designed for the higher edu-
cation of colored youths of both sexes. Since
1879 thirty have been graduated. Attached to
the institution is a farm of 150 acres, which is
. cultivated chiefly by the labor of the students.
A mechanical department has been added. The
enrollment of students for the last year was
424, of whom 30 were in the collegiate depart-
ment and 11 in the normal school.

The Military Academy had an enrollment on
the 1st of October last of 155 ; of this number,
68, being two from each county, are main-
tained by the State. The beneficiary cadets
are chosen by competitive examinations.

The South Carolina College is now thor-
oughly reorganized. Its buildings have been

SPAIN. 7;;;,

repaired, its grounds improved, and its several
departments fairly equipped. Its teaching force
consists of a president, seven professors, and
three tutors. Arrangements havi- U-cn made
for post-graduate instruction. The catalogue
of last year shows a total enrollment of 185.

State Institutions.— The Institution lor t :
cation of the Deaf and Dumb and the- Blind l,us
72 pupils, an increase of 10 in a year. A de-
partment for the colored has been estul

The number of patients in the Lunatic Asy-
lum at the beginning of the last !i«
was 550; the number admitted during the
year was 239. At the close of the year the
number was 603, of which 852 were white
and 251 colored. The annual increase in t lie-
number of patients is from 50 to 60. The Gen-
eral Assembly has provided for the erection of
an additional building at a cost not to exceed
$50,000. It will be finished Oct. 1, 1884.

The number of convicts in the Penitentiary,
Oct. 31, 1883, was 886, an increase of 72 in a
year; 55 were white, and 841 colored. The
convicts are employed under lease, or on pub-
lic works, and are a source of revenue to the
State. If all were returned to the prison, the
cell-room would be greatly insufficient.

Miscellaneous. — The uncertainties and disasters
attending the cultivation of rice, since 1860,
have reduced the average crop of twenty-five
years since, which was 120,000 to 160,000
tierces, to about 40,000 or 45,000 tierces. The
planting now is restricted to such . places as
have escaped the action of time and war.

There are in the State 26 cotton- factories,
which are either in full operation or expect to
be within a very short time.

Toward the close of the year several persons
were brought to trial in the United States
Court, charged with violation of the congres-
sional election acts. The juries, however, failed
to convict.

SPAIN, a kingdom of southern Europe.

Government. — The reigning sovereign, Alfonso
XII (son of the ex-Queen Isabel II), was born
Nov. 28, 1857; proclaimed King of Spain at
Madrid, Dec. 31, 1874; assumed the govern-
ment Jan. 9, 1875; married, Jan. 23, 1878,
Princess Maria de las Mercedes (youngest daugh-
ter of the Duke de Montpensier), who was
born June 24, 1860, and died June 26, 1878;
married, Nov. 29, 1879, the Archduchess Maria
Christina of Austria (daughter of the late- An-h-
duke Charles Ferdinand of Austria), born July
21, 1858. Two daughters have been born of
the second union.

By the terms of the Constitution of June
30, 1876, the executive power is vested in the
King, and the legislative power in the l\»rte*
" with the King." The King is inviolable, but
his ministers are responsible, and by one of these
all royal decrees must be countersigned. Tin-
King can not contract matrimony without the
approval of the Cortes, nor can he marry any
one excluded by law from the succession to the
throne. In the event of the extinction of the

736

SPAIN.

line of the legitimate descendants of Alfonso
XII, the following order of succession shall be
observed : first, his sisters ; next, his aunt (the
Infanta Luisa, second daughter of King Fer-
dinand VII), and her legitimate descendants ;
and, finally, his uncles (the brothers of Ferdi-
nand VII). Should all the lines become ex-
tinct, " the nation will elect its monarch."

The Cortes is composed of a Senate and a
Chamber of Deputies, equal in authority. The
senators are of three classes: Senators "by
their own right"; life-senators appointed by
the Crown ; and senators elected by the cor-
porations of the state and by the largest tax-
payers. Senators " by their own right " are .
the sons of the sovereign and of the heir-ap-
parent to the Crown, who have attained their
majority ; grandees of Spain in their own right
and having an annual income of not less than
60,000 pesetas ($12,000); captain-generals in
the army ; admirals ; the Patriarch of the In-
dias and the archbishops; the presidents of
the Council of State, of the Supreme Court,
and of the Tribunal de Cuentas del reino. The
number of senators of the first two classes
together and of the third class cannot exceed
180. The elective senators must be renewed
in one half every five years, and completely
whenever the King dissolves that portion of
the legislative bodies. The Chamber of Depu-
ties is composed of members chosen for five
years by the electoral colleges, in the propor-
tion of one to every 50,000 inhabitants. A royal
decree of Aug. 8, 1878, grants to Cuba the
privilege of sending deputies to the Cortes in
the proportion of one to every 40,000 free in-
habitants paying taxes to the amount of not
less than 125 pesetas ($25) annually. Deputies
must be at least twenty-five years of age, and
may be re-elected indefinitely. A deputy can not
without resigning accept a pension, an office
under the Government or in the royal house-
hold, or a decoration. Ministers are exempt
from this law. Both houses sit every year.
The King has the power to convoke, suspend,
or dissolve them; but in the last case a new
Cortes must meet within three months. The
president and vice-president of the Senate are
appointed by the Crown from among the sena-
tors only.

The Council of Ministers of Jan. 9, 1883,
was composed as follows: President of the
Council, Don Pedro Manuel Sagasta, appointed
Feb. 8, 1881 ; Minister of Foreign Affairs, Don
Antonio Aguilar, Marquis de la Vega de Ar-
mijo; Minister of Grace and Justice, Don V.
Rimero Giron; Minister of Finance, Don J.
Pelayo Cuesta; Minister of the Interior, Don
Pio Gullon; Minister of War, Gen. A. Mar-
tinez Campos ; Minister of Marine, Vice-Ad-
miral R. R. Arias; Minister of Commerce and
Agriculture, Don G. Gamazo; Minister of the
Colonies, Don Gaspar Nunez de Arce. This
Cabinet was replaced in October by the fol-
lowing : President of the Council, Seflor Po-
sada Herrera; Minister of Foreign Affairs,

Sefior Ruiz Gomez ; Minister of Grace and Jus-
tice, Sefior Navarro Rodrigo ; Minister of Fi-
nance, Sefior Gallostra; Minister of the Inte-
rior, Sefior Moret; Minister of War, Gen.

Lopez Dominguez ; Minister of Marine, ;

Minister of Commerce and Agriculture, Mar-
quis Sardoal ; Minister of the Colonies, Sefior
Suarez Inclan. The present Council of Minis-
ters, formed on Jan. 18, 1884, is made up thus:
President of the Council, Sefior Canovas del
Castillo ; Minister of Foreign Affairs, Sefior J.
de Elduayen; Minister of Grace and Justice,
Sefior Silvela ; Minister of Finance, Sefior Cos-
Gay on ; Minister of the Interior, Sefior Romero
y Robledo; Minister of War, Gen. Quesada y
Matheus, Marquis de Miravalles; Minister of
Marine, Admiral Topete y Carballo; Minister
of Commerce and Agriculture, Sefior Pidal y
Mon ; Minister of the Colonies, Count Tajada
de Valdosera. The President of the Senate
was the Marquis de la Plabana ; and the Vice-
Presidents, Sefior T; Montejo y Robledo, the
Count de Torre Mata, the Duke de Tetuan, and
Sefior J. Moreno Benitez. The President of
the Chamber of Deputies was Sefior Jose Posa-
da Herrera; and the Vice-Presidents, the Mar-
quis de Sardoal, Sefior T. Ruiz Capedon, the
Marquis de Valdeterrazo, and Sefior A. Linares
Rivas.

The Spanish Envoy Extraordinary and Min-
ister Plenipotentiary to the United States is
Don Juan Valera (accredited in 1884). The
United States Envoy Extraordinary and Min-
ister Plenipotentiary to Spain is Hon. John W.
Foster. The Spanish Consul-Gen eral at New
York is Don M. S. Guanes.

Area and Population. — Spain, with an area (in-
cluding the Balearic and the Canary islands) of
195,774 square miles, is divided into forty-nine
provinces, and had, in June, 1883, according
to official statistics, a population of 16,858,721,
against 16,625,860 (inclusive of 12,170 inhab-
itants of the Spanish possessions in Northern
Africa, not figuring in the returns for June,
1883), as given in the census reports for Dec. 31,
1877. The excess of females is commonly about
250,000. The mean density of the population
is 85 per square mile : the maximum, 280, being
in the province of Barcelona ; and the mini-
mum, 32, in the province of Ciudad Real. The
number of births registered in 1882 was 493,-
817 (6/g- per cent, illegitimate) ; that of deaths,
435,477: surplus, 58,340. The increase of
population during the past hundred years has
not exceeded 75 per cent. From 11,000,000 in
1820, the number of inhabitants had reached to
about 13,698,000 in 1828: the census of 1846
showed it to be 12,168,774; and that of 1860,
15,658,531. By comparing these last figures
with those of the census of Dec. 31, 1877, the
annual rate of progress for the seventeen years
is seen to have been '35 per cent, approximately.
The cities credited with upward of 50,000 in-
habitants in the census returns of 1877 were :
Madrid, 397,816;* Barcelona, 248,943; Va-

* The municipal government of the capital reported the

SPAIN.

tencia, 143,861 ; Seville, 134,318 ; Malaga, 115,-
882 ; Murcia, 91,805 ; Saragossa, 84,575 ; Gra-
nada, 76,005; Carthagena, 75,908; Cadiz, 65,-
028; Jerez de la Frontera, 64,533; Palma,
58,224; Lorca, 52,934; Valladolid, 52,206.

The colonies, with their areas and popula-
tions (returns for 1877, 1880), are as follow :

EXPENDITURE.

737

PeMU..

COLONIES.

Area In
square mileg.

Population.

AMERICA.
Cuba

48220

1 521 684

Porto Kico

3 550

731 648

Total in America

46770

2 253 332

ASIA.

Philippine islands

65 100

5 559 020

Caroline islands and Palaos
Marian islands

'905
420

36,000
8665

Total in Asia

66,425

5,603,685

AFRICA (GUINEA).
Fernando Po, Anabon, Corisco,
Elobey, and territory of Ban
Juan

483

81,106

Grand total

118678

7 888 123

Religion. — The established religion of the
kingdom is the Roman Catholic, whose clergy
are, by the terms of the Constitution, to be
maintained by tlie state. Protestant services
must be absolutely private; the number of
Protestant churches was reported at 53 in
July, 1876. Of the 16,625,860 inhabitants in
1877, about 16,605,000 were Catholics; 6,220
Protestants; 9, 640 Rationalists; 400 Jews; 300
Mohammedans ; 200 Buddhists.

Education. — According to the census of 1846
but 1,221,001 persons of both sexes could read
and write, and the total number able to read
and not write was only 1,898,288. The cen-
sus of 1860 showed that 3,129,921 (of whom
715,906 were females) could read, but not
write ; and that some 12,000,000 could nei-
ther read nor write. The number of primary
schools throughout the kingdom in 1878 was
given at 29,600, with an attendance of 1,611,-
000. Secondary or intermediate instruction
is given in 58 public schools, with an aggre-
gate of 757 teachers and 13,881 pupils. The
average annual experditure, by the Govern-
ment, for public instruction, does not exceed
$1,250,000.

Finances. — The following tables exhibit the
revenue and expenditure, as estimated in the
budget for the year ending June 30, 1884:

REVENUE. Pesetas.*

Direct taxes.... .. 239,295,000

Indirect taxes 152,829,000

Customs receipts 123,808,000

Registration, stamped paper, state monopolies,

etc 251,290,000

Yield of national property 13,944,886

Treasury receipts 21,210,000

Total 802,376,886

population at 475,568 on Dec. 81, 1882. The number 500,900
stated for June, 1883, by the " Almanach de Gotha," is exag-
gerated.

* The peseta equals twenty cents.
VOL. xxni. — 47 A

Civil list

Cortes

Nationaldebt ' 278888448

Indemnities '.'." 1/1.77.

Pensions, etc ' 47968144«

Presidency of the Council of Ministers . . . 1 101 709

Ministry of Foreign Affaire s'676'870

Justice 64J80,'217

War. 128,621,705

Marine 88,595,222

the Interior 46,106.065

Commerce and Agriculture 44.989 717

" Finance 20871921

Expenses of collecting direct tax, and of stamp

etc., department 187,894,060

Total 801,640^898

Besides the foregoing estimates of the rev-
enue and expenditure in ordinary, there was
for the same year a budget extraordinary,
comprising :

Peietai.

.Revenue extraordinary 86,981,050

Expenditure extraordinary

Thus the aggregate estimates for the year
stand thus :

REVENUE.

Ordinary 802,376.886

Extraordinary 86,981,050

889,807,936

EXPENDITURE.

Ordinary 801,640,898

Extraordinary 80,827,896

881.967,794

Estimated surplus 7,840,142

The revenue extraordinary was calculated
to be made up partly of the proceeds of sales
of national property and partly of the pro-
ceeds of conversions <5f the debt.

Here follow the budget estimates for the
years ending June 30, 1880, 1881, and 1882,
respectively :

YEARS.

Revenue.

Expenditure.

1879-'80

Pesetas.

778,478,888

Pesetas.
806,590,940

ISSO-'Sl

791 650792

836 651 198

1881-'82

783,000,000

782650000

A balanced budget, the first for many years
in Spain, was presented by Sefior Camacho in
1881. But his flattering estimates were not
realized, and a large deficit, as usual, resulted.
Convinced that improvement was hopeless
under the financial system followed by his
predecessors, that minister introduced a series
of reforms which in a short time placed the
Spanish finances in a more satisfactory condi-
tion than ever before, and which, it was freely
admitted even by the most decided opponents
of the present Government, would permanently
raise the standard of the national credit. A
chief point of his policy was, to avoid past
causes of deficiencies, and to attain this he
proposed several measures 'of administrative
economy, to be supplemented by new indirect
taxes. But his most important scheme was
that for the conversion of the whole national
debt into a series of 4 per cents., with the ex-
ception of the 5 per cent, consolidated due to
the United States, the 3 per cent, to Denmark,

rss

SPAIN.

and the 3 per cent, securities and guarantees.
The entire capital of the debt was reduced
from 12,800,000,000 pesetas, as estimated for
Jan. 1, 1881, to 6,000,000,000. In accomplish-
ing this reform, sanctioned by the law of Dec.
9, 1881, Sefior Oamacho, far from .overlook-
ing the rights of the foreign holders of the
2 per cent, stock, allowed them an additional
2 per cent, beyond the price of 50 fixed for
the interior, thus compensating them for loss
by exchange, and bringing up the value slight-
ly in excess of the difference which existed in
their favor at the time of emission. The capi-
tal of the debt as converted stood as follows :

Pesetas.

Foreign debt, at 4 per cent 2,000,000,000

Redeemable home debt, at 4 per cent 1,750,000,000

Perpetual home debt, including the railway ob-
ligations, at 4 per cent 2,250,000,000

Total converted debt, at 4 per cent 6,000,000,000

Under the reform, the annual service of the
debt would amount to 237,500,000 pesetas.
Not included in the foregoing statement is the
estimated amount of obligations incurred on
behalf of Cuba, 250,000,000 pesetas.

Army. — The peninsular army of Spain is re-
cruited by conscription or by enlistment, every
male Spaniard having completed twenty years
of age being liable to serve for a period of
twelve years: three in the permanent army,
three in the first, and six in the second reserve.
Immunity from service may, however, be pur-
chased for 1,500 pesetas. The period of service
in the colonial army is eight years : four with
the colors, and four in the reserve. The classi-
fication by arms is as follows:

INFANTRY.

60 line regiments of 2 battalions each.

20 battalions of light-infantry (cazadores).
140 reserve battalions.
140 depot battalions.

CAVALRY.

12 regiments of lancers.
10 regiments of cazadores.

2 regiments of hussars.
24 regiments of reserve.
24 depot squadrons.

ARTILLERY.

6 regiments and 1 battalion of foot.
8 regiments of horse.

3 regiments of mountain.
6 regiments of reserve.

PIONEERS.
5 regiments of 2 battalions each.

GUARDIA CIVIL (POLICE FORCE).
15 regiments, comprising 780 officers and 14,756 men.

COAST AND FRONTIER GUARDS.
92 companies of foot and 22 sections of horse.

By a decree, under date of July 18, 1883, the
strength of the permanent army was fixed as
follows for the year 1883-'84: For home ser-
vice, 114,894, including 20,000 officers; for
Cuba, 25,653 : for Porto Rico, 8,302 ; for the
Philippine islands, 7,870. The infantry corps
in Cuba in April, 1883, was as follows : eight
line regiments with two battalions of six com-
panies each, eight battalions of light-infantry
(cazadores) with alike number of companies,

one battalion of public order, two sections of
writers and orderlies, one disciplinary brigade,
two regiments of militia, two independent bat-
talions, the squadrons of Santa Catalina dp
Guaso, and two battalions of guerrillas. These
troops were officered by 22 colonels, 41 lieu-
tenant-colonels, 124 commandants, 33 cap-
tains, 490 first-lieutenants, and 481 second-
lieutenants.

Toward the end of 1883, Gen. Lopez Do-
minguez, Minister of War of the Posada-Her-
rera Cabinet, introduced a bill into Congress
raising the pay of all officers and non-commis-
sioned officers, from sergeants to colonels, both
inclusive. The opposition press estimated the
increase to the budget from this cause at 12,-
000,000 ; and the newspapers favorable to the
Government, at 3,000,000. The Minister of
Finance, however, in reply to a question put
to him in Congress, said that there would be
no additional charge to the budget. The skep-
ticism as to this last statement was great. A
journalist suggested, as a possible explanation
of Gen. Lopez Dominguez's plan, the proposed
reduction of the strength of the permanent or
active army by 20,000, in time of peace ; the
war budget being maintained at the same level
as before the reduction, the saving might be
applied to give officers sufficient pay to allow
them to live. One thing was, however, stated
as certain, namely, that no increase in the ex-
penses of the War Department could be sanc-
tioned by Congress, unless extraordinary re-
sources were provided to meet the outlay.
Spain, like Italy, spends 16 per cent, of her rev-
enue on the army.

Navy. — The navy was, according to official
reports, composed of the following craft in
1883:

FIRST CLASS.

5 iron-clad frigates..,

12 screw-frigates

2 paddle-steamers . . .

Guns.
60
220
18

SECOND CLASS.

5 paddle steamers 12

10 screw-steamers 86

2 screw-transports 4

THIRD CLASS.

1 iron-clad monitor 8

1 floating battery.

26 screw-steamejs

48 screw-gunboats 5T

1 paddle-gunboat

6 paddle steamers 12

1 screw-transport 2

4 sailing-vessels

124 Total... . 462

The aggregate horse-power of the foregoing
craft was 27,986.

The navy was manned by 14,000 sailors, 7,-
033 marine infantry, and a considerable corps of
marine artillery, and commanded by 1 admiral,
30 vice- and rear-admirals, and 644 subaltern
officers of various grades.

Commerce. — The exports and imports of the
kingdom, for the quinquennium 1878-'82, were
respectively of the values expressed in the sub-
joined table :

SPAIN.

739

YEARS.

Importi.

Export..

18T8

Pesetas.

541,183 774

Pesetas.
479 878 207

1879

604 947 481

528 198 542

1880

712,846813

6^2'968'l79

1881

495,364283*

608090160*

1882

614 790 798*

642 809'208*

In the official returns the values of the item
" sundries " are commonly omitted from the
tables of imports. Judging from the amount
of import duties represented by that item in
the customs returns for 1872, namely, 14,720,-
000 pesetas, the invoice value of the item they
recorded must have been approximately 96,-
800,000, which sum, added to the 614,790,798
given in the foregoing table, would bring the
total value of the imports for the year in ques-
tion to 711,590,198.

The chief imports in 1882 were:

Pesetas.
94,500,000
91,750,000
61,750,000
44,250,000
35,500,000

Cereals

Cotton and cotton fabrics

Other fabrics

Fermented liquors

Timber

Machinery 88,000^000

Sugar 21,000,000

Iron and ironwares 27,000,000

Coal 27.800,000

Animals and animal food 25,000,000

Drugs, dves, and chemicals 23,000 000

Hides, skins, etc 16,200,000

The principal exports were :

Pesetas.

Wine ; 297,000,000

Metals and minerals 190,000,000

Fruits 58.750,000

Olive-oil 12,750,000

Cork-wood and corks 18,200,000

The subjoined table exhibits the quantities
of the various mineral products exported in
the years 1881 and 1882:

1881.

1883.

Quicksilver

Tons.
1,779

Tons.
1,067

17710

22708

Iron

87903

40116

Metallic lead

105 809

116 132

Zinc-ore

30,604

25,832

Eio Tinto copper-ore

452.475

571,442

8 187 083

4 021 761

Other ores

70327

70,094

Totals

3,853,690

4,869,152

The values of the exports to and imports
from Germany, Great Britain, France, Belgium,
and the United States, for each of the years
1878 and 1882, were as follow:

' COUNTRIES.

EXPOETS.

IMPORTS.

1878.

1883.

1878.

1883.

Germany
Great Britain..
France
Belgium
United States. .

Pesetas.

6,750,000
155,000,000
120,000,000
7,125,000
14,750,000

Pesetas.
6,100,000
237,250.000
310,000,000
7,000,000
28,000,000

Pesetas.
12,800,000
141,250,000
173.250,000
24,750,000
65,000,000

Pesetas.
82,500,000
170,750,000

32,500,666
91,500,000

The foregoing figures, resulting from an
analysis of the Spanish Gray-Book, show the
exports to Great Britain to have increased 50

per cent., despite the falling off in wine and the
low price of lead in 1882. The imports from
England have practically remained stationary
in the period here considered, although less
than in 1872, 1873, 1874, and 1875, and show-
ing no increase over 1877. The exports to
France have increased 160 percent.; and the
imports 13 per cent. In the exports to Ger-
many a slight decline is observed, while the in-
crease in the imports therefrom is no less than
540 per cent.

The total value of the imports from Belgium
has remained practically without change ; but
the imports show an increase of 31 per cent.
A considerable development is noticeable in
the general commerce with the United States,
both the imports from and the exports to that
country having increased about 50 per cent.
'There is a growing trade between Spain and
the Scandinavian countries, with which the
final negotiations for a commercial treaty were
made early in 1883 : the imports from Sweden
and Norway are reported at the annual value
of 18,000,000 pesetas, and the exports thereto
at 3,000,000. Codfish is yearly imported from
Norway into Spain to the amount of some 12,-
500,000 pesetas, or about 72 per cent, of the
total annual Norwegian catch.

The total value of the exports from Spain
for the month of January, 1883, amounted to
57,567,446, against 56,182,978 for the corre-
sponding month in 1882.

The prohibitory import duty on refined pe-
troleum in Spain secures a monopoly of that
article to native refiners. At Ferrol, in the
province of Corunna, a refinery yielding 1,000,-
000 gallons annually, has been in operation
since 1880 ; and another of longer standing has
proved very successful in the city of Corunna.

A proposed Anglo-Spanish commercial treaty
has met with vigorous opposition in the indus-
trial centres of Catalonia, while its conclusion
has been anxiously desired elsewhere through-
out the kingdom. (For details concerning a
treaty of commerce with the United States, see
page 649 of this volume.)

Navigation. — The shipping movements at the
several ports of the kingdom were as follow
for 1879, since which year no official returns
of this class have been published :

FLAGS.

EKTEKBD.

CLEARED.

Vessels.

Tons.

Vessels.

TOM.

4,759
7,166

918,902
2,695,561

5,931
8,296

2,206,586
8,985,225

Foreign

Totals

11,925

3,614,463 14,227

6,191,761

* Official.

The merchant navy of Spain, in April, 1883,
comprised 1,674 sailing-craft representing a
total of 186, 164 tons; and 389 steamers, rep-
resenting an aggregate tonnage of 304,192, and
an aggregate of 93,923 horse-power.

Railways.— The total length of the railways
of Spain on Jan. 1, 1883, was 4, 942 miles; 1,075
have been built in the reign of King Alfonso.

SPAIN.

All the lines are the property of private com-
panies, but subsidized by the state. The total
amount of Government subventions to railways
down to Dec. 31, 1880, was 650,000,000 pese-
tas. The aggregate receipts of the railways
of Spain reached 139,218,525 pesetas, for 1880,
against 61,3f3,275 pesetas working expenses.

Telegraphs. — The state telegraph lines in 1881
were of a total length of 10,417 miles. Of the
aggregate of 3,978,804 dispatches, one fourth
were international, and one fifth of the re-
mainder, official.

Post-Office. — The number of letters and postal-
cards that passed through the post-office in 1881
was 94,962,000; that of newspapers, 40,000,-
000 ; and that of packets of samples, 6,000,000.

Philippine Islands. — The chief export staples
of this archipelago are sugar, hemp, tobacco,
cigars, coffee, and dye-woods; the first repre-
senting alone about 60 per cent, of the total
value of the export trade, which in 1881
amounted to $20,777,000, against $25,493,319
in 1880. The sugar shipped in 1881 was of the
value of $12,403,993 ; and the hemp, raw and
manufactured, $9,026,404.

The exports to Great Britain in 1882 were
reported at the value of $11,535,585, of which
$7,128,440 stood for unrefined sugar, and $4,-
150,165 for hemp. The imports from Great
Britain in the same year were of the value of
$8,963,975, about two thirds of which were
for cotton fabrics.

Historical Sketch.— By the beginning of 1883
Socialism had extended its contagion to the
Peninsula, and made its presence so sensibly
felt as to divert public attention from the
wearisome debates of the legislative halls. An-
archy had developed in the industrial centers
and throughout Andalusia, but particularly in
the provinces of Cadiz and Seville, where the
tenebrioua society of the Mario negra (Black
Hand) was organized with tendencies little less
alarming than those of the Nihilists of other
parts of Europe. As many as one thousand
members of the organization were detected
and imprisoned in February; and documents
found in their possession showed the adherents
of the Mano negra to number eight or nine
thousand scattered throughout the kingdom.
Ramifications were discovered in Portugal also,
and a band of seven Nihilists was seized in
Oporto in March, one of these being the editor
of a socialistic journal, u O Operario." Despite
this singularly vitiated state of society, party
wars and parliamentary dissensions continued
with unabated intensity ; and the Sagasta min-
istry had to struggle hard to maintain its entity
between its allies of the left and its more mod-
erate allies, and escape entanglement in the
conflicts incessantly rising around it. Spain
was not, indeed, free from political crises
which might well become serious one day or
other ; but in May these and other concerns of
a purely national character were for a moment
forgotten, and Castilian courtesy was displayed
in a succession of splendid fetes in honor of

their Majesties of Portugal, whose visit to their
cousins of Spain, rather than a mere return for
that of King Alfonso and Queen Christina to
Lisbon the year previous, was intended as a seal
of friendship between the two families and a re-
newal of cordial intimacy between the two coun-
tries. Not that the Utopian idea of an Iberic
union had been revived ; indeed, in exchanging
toasts Dom Luiz and Don Alfonso hinted clear-
ly that no alliance, however close, between the
two nations should interfere with the ''inde-
pendence or autonomy of either." Such, in-
deed, is the only possible basis of an enduring
union between Spain and Portugal, serving the
latter as a shield against any oppressive influ-
ences that might threaten her, and bringing to
the former an additional sense of security in
the friendship of her neighbor.

Before the apprehensions aroused by the
Socialistic movement already alluded to had
been completely lulled, the country was thrown
suddenly into consternation by the announce-
ment that on the night of August 4th, some
officers of the reserve, at the head of a handful
of troops, had seized the citadel of Badajos, and
that a revolutionary junta had proclaimed the
republic. No military insurrection had taken
place since the accession of the present sov-
ereign, and the incident, although alarming,
might have been regarded as purely local and
temporary, had it not been immediately fol-
lowed by an outburst in a regiment encamped
near Logrono, on the banks of the Ebro, and
tidings of disturbance in Barcelona. By prompt
action on the part of the Minister of War, the
manifestations of sedition were effectually re-
pressed both in the north and the southwest;
but in most minds a feeling of doubt remained
as to whether they were not the symptoms
prematurely developed of a general anti-
monarchical agitation. Meantime the danger
seemed to have entirely passed away; and
Don Alfonso, in a tour through some of the
provinces, received from the people as well as
from the army unequivocal proofs of unshaken
popularity. An immediate result of the trouble,
however, was a painful conflict of opinion be-
tween the President of the Council and the lib-
eral members of the Cabinet, on the one hand,
and the Minister of War and his friends on the
other, as to the expediency of a vigorous policy
of precaution or one of conciliation. Seflor
Sagasta's views prevailed; the state of siege
was discontinued in the centers of the recent
tumults, and the constitutional guarantees, for
a time suspended, were restored. The breach
already existing between the liberal portion of
the Cabinet, represented by the Premier, and
the more conservative faction, represented by
Gen. Martinez Campos, was now widened be-
yond remedy, and the inevitable crisis was only
deferred until after the King's return from
Germany. Recreation was the ostensible ob-
ject of Don Alfonso's visit to the northern
courts, at a time when the kingdom was in
such an unsettled condition; but the inter-

SPAIN.

STEPHENS, ALEXANDER H. 741

ruption of friendly relations with France had
like to be a conspicuous result of the tour. As
the sovereign of a generous nation, allied be-
sides to the imperial family of Austria and to
most of the royal houses, he was cordially re-
ceived beyond the Rhine, and honored by the
Emperor of Germany with the title of colonel
of a German regiment of cavalry. That dis-
tinction, granted also to the Prince of Wales
and to most European princes, and hence de-
void of political significance, was, neverthe-
less, in this instance, the cause of a distressing
incident. On returning homeward, through
France, the King was met at Paris by the jeers
and hootings of an infuriated mob whom
" demagogues of the press " had taught to
regard the German title as an insult to the
French nation. " The incident," says a French
journalist, uis profoundly humiliating, not for
the King of Spain, but for our Government,
who did not protect their guest from insult.
We can only except from this charge the Pres-
ident of the Council and the Minister of For-
eign Affairs, who alone appear to have done
their duty." Satisfaction was demanded and
obtained by the Spanish Government. But,
not content with this, the Marquis de la Vega
y Armijo persistently demanded of France still
further reparation, regarded as unnecessary by
his colleague ; and here was a new element of
dissension in the Cabinet, which, though not
the primary, proved to be the precipitating
cause of the downfall of the Sagasta ministry.
The primary cause dated from the reappear-
ance of sedition in the army. The King now
resolved upon a somewhat hazardous experi-
ment, and charged Sefior Posada-Herrera with
the task of reconstituting the Cahinet, and on
October 13th the new ministry was composed
partly of the personal friends of Sefior Posada,
and partly of those of Marshal Serrano (the
leader of the party now called the Dynastic
Left), including among the latter Gen. Lopez
Dominguez, one of the most distinguished offi-
cers of the army, and Sefior Moret, one of
the most brilliant orators of the Spanish Par-
liament. The members of the Dynastic Left
came to power under the banner of Posada
Herrera (one of the oldest statesmen of Spain,
formerly a Moderate, later a minister in the
Liberal Union with Gen. O'Donnell, and a con-
servative by instinct, education, and tradition),
with a programme embracing, among others,
such bold and ambitious reforms as the revis-
ion of the Constitution, universal suffrage, the
re-establishment of civil marriage, and the re-
organization of the army. It soon became ap-
parent, however, that the ministry could neither
live nor carry out its plans without the aid of
the late Sagasta Cabinet, and that the majority
so sincerely devoted to that statesman's policy
and which had so long sustained him was far
from being favorable to the revision of the
Constitution of 1876 or the re-establishment
of civil marriage. And as for the doctrines of
free-trade, advocated by a few members of the

Posada Cabinet, they are anything but popular
in Spain, particularly in the more agitated re-
gions of the north, such as Catalonia. While
the Free-traders were planning a banquet in
honor of the proposers of the preliminary ar-
rangements for treaties of commerce with Eng-
land, Italy, and Portugal, the Catalans were
quietly working with other protectionists to
dispose the Cortes unfavorably toward those
preliminary arrangements. It was asserted
that the Fusionist party would not accept uni-
versal suffrage, "an outcome of revolutions,
which would bring soldiers to the polls, and
enable the caciques to work Their will by means
of the ignorant masses." They were willing
to accept the suffrage granted in 1882 for the
election of provincial deputies, which included
all males of Spanish birth over twenty-five
years of age who could read and write and paid
an almost nominal amount of taxes. Practi-
cally this suffrage would only treble the num-
ber of electors. Thus the change of ministry
was productive of no improvement in the gen-
eral situation ; on the contrary, the nervous
apprehensions revived by the Badajoz and Lo-
grofio incidents, after a slumber of eight years,
had rather increased than diminished at the
end of the year under the additional disquiet-
ing causes due to the prolonged political crisis
in Government spheres. The newspapers an-
nounced that precautions had been taken in
various parts to preserve order, and private
letters from bankers and merchants to the
capital confirmed the alarm felt among the re-
spectable, peaceful classes at a course of events
indicative of the return of elements of disor-
der believed to have disappeared for a long
time, if not forever. A dissolution appeared
inevitable. But with whom would the King
make it? Sagasta was neither a Liberal nor a
Conservative. Posada Herrera headed a Cabi-
net of the Left without belonging to the Left;
he was expected to be conciliatory, but he was
powerless either for conciliation or domina-
tion. The restoration of the Conservatives
under Canovas del Castillo seemed to be a more
promising alternative, and the events of Jan.
18, 1884, confirmed its adoption.

Meanwhile the Carlists and Zorillists were at
work, and, as it was said that although the
King could reckon on his generals, it was not
certain that he could reckon on the soldiers,
the question was whether the latter u would
raise the butt-ends of their muskets or the
bayonets."

The marriage of the Infanta Maria de la Paz
Juana de Borbon y Borbon, the King's sister,
to the Prince Royal, Ferdinand Louis, of Ba-
varia, was celebrated on April 3, 1883, in Mad-
rid.

The visit of Frederick William, of Prussia,
to Madrid, in December, was unattended by
any "change in the foreign policyof Spain."

STEPHENS, Alexander Hamilton, an American
statesman, born in Taliaferro county, Georgia,
Feb. 11, 1812 ; died in Atlanta, Ga., March

STEPHENS, ALEXANDER H.

4, 1883. He lost his father when he was a
mere boy ; after which he lived with his uncle,
till friends sent him to a classical academy ;
thence he went to the State University at Ath-
ens, known as Franklin College, where he was
graduated in 1832. He was admitted to the
bar in 1834. In 1836 he was elected to the
State Assembly, though known to be opposed
to nullification doctrines and vigilance com-
mittees. His health broke down the next year,
and was never afterward vigorous. He was
re-elected to the Legislature in 1837 and the
three following years, but declined re-election
in 1841 ; yet in the year following he was sent
to the State Senate. Here he was active and
industrious on the subject of internal improve-

ALEXANDER HAMILTON STEPHENS.

ments. He also drew up the minority report
on the state of the republic, and gained great-
ly in reputation as an orator in the debates.

Mr. Stephens was nominated for Congress
in 1843, on the general ticket (there being no
districts in Georgia as yet). He engaged ar-
dently in the canvass, and gained his election
by a large majority. He thereupon began ser-
vice in the House of Representatives which
lasted for sixteen years, and was then inter-
rupted by his course as to secession for nearly
as long a time. In 1844 he supported Henry
Clay for President, but he urged the admission
of Texas into the Union, thus taking ground

against the Whigs. In February, 1847, he sub-
mitted a series of resolutions in relation to the
Mexican War, which war he charged upon
President Polk as a violation of the Consti-
tution, undertaken for conquest. The House,
however, refused a vote on the resolutions.
He opposed the Clayton Compromise in 1848,
despite opposition and denunciation at home
and elsewhere. At this time he was murder-
ously attacked by a man from his own State,
and was nearly cut to pieces. In 1850 he op-
posed the growing secession sentiment in the
South, which made headway because of the
admission of California into the Union, and
after an active canvass in Georgia he carried
the day against the secessionists. The Geor-
gia platform of 1850 was the work
\ of the committee of which Mr. Ste-
phens was a member. He opposed
Gen. Taylor's policy, and supported
the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854.
The next year he took ground against
the " Know - Nothing " movement,
and was returned to Congress on
this issue alone. Some of his noted
speeches of this date may be named
here — as, the eulogy on Andrew
Pickens Butler ; debate with Zolli-
coffer, of Tennessee, on slavery in
the Territories ; on the neutrality
laws ; on impeachment of Judge
Watrous ; and his last, on the ad-
mission of Oregon into the Union.

At the close of the Thirty-fifth
Congress, Mr. Stephens declined be-
ing a candidate for re-election, and
in a speech which he made at Au-
gusta, July 2, 1859, he announced his
retirement from public life. Dur-
ing the presidential canvass of 1860,
however, he sustained. Mr. Douglas.
In November of that year he spoke
out boldly against secession, and
begged the South not to be the ag-
gressor. "If the republic is to go
down,1' said he, " let us be found to
the last moment standing on the
deck, with the Constitution of the
United States waving over our
heads. Let the fanatics of the North
break the Constitution, if such is
their fell purpose. Let the respon-
sibility be upon them." But he reserved the
right to " strike " if Lincoln should violate
the Constitution, and professed himself to be
perfectly subservient to his State and her will
in all matters. He further proposed a con-
vention to consider the question of secession,
which convention met two months later (Jan.
16, 1861), at Milledgeville, and passed an ordi-
nance of secession, though Mr. Stephens voted
against it. His idea was with others (as he
sets forth in his book on the u War between
the States ") that by seceding, or threatening
to secede, the South could force better terms
in the struggle against the free States and

SUEZ CANAL, THE.

743

for the continuance of slavery. He was a
member of the Congress which met in Mont-
gomery, Ala., Feb. 4, 1861, and was made
Vice-President of the Confederacy. On March
21st he made a speech in Savannah, in which
he announced himself as ready to do all that
was to be done to break up the Union and se-
cure a separation from the North and West.
A month later he went to Virginia, and urged
upon the convention in Richmond that the ven-
erable mother of States should cast in her lot
with the Confederacy. When in the progress
of the war it became evident that the Confed-
eracy was doomed, Mr. Stephens made vari-
ous efforts to open negotiations looking to-
ward peace with the national Government. He
avows, in his book, that he desired to give up
all opposition and return to peaceful submis-
sion, provided the United States would guar-
antee absolute State sovereignty. He was at
the Hampton Roads conference, where Presi-
dent Lincoln and Secretary Seward met him
and two others, R. M. T. Hunter and J. A.
Campbell, on a gunboat, Feb. 3, 1865, and for
four hours discussed the whole situation and
the terms on which peace would be possible.

After Lee's surrender he returned to his
home in Crawfordville, where he was arrested,
May llth, and sent to Fort Warren, in Boston
harbor. After five months' imprisonment he
was dismissed on parole, Oct. 11, 1865. In
February of the next year he made a speech
before the Legislature of Georgia, in which he
favored the restoration policy of President
Johnson. The same month he was elected to
the United States Senate, but, as Georgia was
not yet readmitted, he was not permitted to
take his seat. He was elected to Congress in
1872, and again in 1874, 1876, and 1878.

In a speech, Feb. 12, 1878, on occasion of
Congress receiving a painting of the signing of
the Emancipation Proclamation by President
Lincoln, Mr. Stephens took occasion to speak
in high terms of Lincoln, and to say further
that, in advocating secession in 1861, he did
not suppose the dissolution of the Union
would be permanent.

Mr. Stephens was nominated for Governor
of Georgia in 1882, and after an active can-
vass, in which he participated, was elected, and
entered upon his duties, but, after two months
of service, he broke down in health. He was
a man of large acquirements and varied read-
ing, and was noted for his kindness and official
aid to struggling young men.

A volume of speeches and letters by Mr.
Stephens was published in 1867. His chief
work, lt A Constitutional View of the Late
War between the States, its Causes, Character,
and Results," appeared, in two volumes, in
1868-'70.

SUEZ CANAL, THE, a tidal ship-canal connect-
ing the Mediterranean with the Red Sea by a
cutting through the Isthmus of Suez, belonging
to the Compagnie Universelle du Canal Mari-
time de Suez. In the acts of concession it was

declared neutral, and free to all nations. It
was opened for navigation Nov. 17, 1869. The
canal has a total length of 160 kilometres, a
uniform depth of 8 metres, and a width of
from 58 to 100 metres at the surface of the
water and 22 metres at the bottom. The com-
pany is incorporated in France and. Egypt. Its
president is Ferdinand de Lesseps.

Finances. — The capital outlay, including cost
of enlargement, improvements, and loans,
amounted at the end of 1878 to 479,175,683
francs. The capital was derived from the sale
of shares, authorized to the amount of 200,-
000,000 francs ; 1'rom a subvention of 84,000,-
000 furnished by the Khedive ; from first-mort-
gage 5 per cent, bonds issued, to the amount
of 100,000,000, at 60 per cent, and redeemable
at par; from 120,000 thirty-year bonds of 125
francs, at 8 per cent, interest, issued in 1871 at
the price of 100 francs ; from various conces-
sions, the product of which was about 30,-
000,000; and from sales of lands and other
sources. In 1882 there were outstanding 397,-
438 of 500-franc shares ; 301,848 obligations of
500 francs; 83,993 delegations of 500 francs
each, bearing interest at 5 per cent. ; 99,990
thirty-year bonds ; 15,152 3 per cent. 500-franc
bonds ; and 400,000 bonds of 85 francs, bear-
ing 5 per cent, interest, representing unpaid
share coupons, besides 100,000 founders' shares
which participate in the surplus profits.

Of the 397,438 shares, 176,602 originally be-
longed to the Khedive. They were purchased
from him by the British Government in No-
vember, 1875. The sum paid was £3,976,582.
The Khedive in 1869 assigned the dividends on
these shares up to 1894 to the company, which
issued 120,000 delegations entitling the holders
to these dividends. The company's charter
provides that, of the net profits, when more
than sufficient to pay the 5 per cent, dividend
on the shares, 71 per cent, shall go to the
shareholders, 15 per cent, to the Egyptian
Government, 10 per cent, to the holders of
founders' shares, 2 per cent, to form an invalid
fund for employes, and 2 per cent, to the man-
aging directors. The founders' share of the
surplus profits in 1881 was £98,721. The
canal yielded a surplus profit in 1872 for the
first time. It amounted to 2,071,279 francs,
increased in rapid progression to 16,048,451
francs in 1877, and then fell off to 12,330,145
francs in 1880, but was much greater in the
succeeding two years. The surplus dividend
in 1881 paid to shareholders was 13'7'per cent.
The receipts of the canal were 8,993,732 francs
in 1871; 16,407,591 in 1872; 22,897,319 in
1873 • 24,859,383 in 1874; 28,886,302 in 1875;
29,974,998 in 1876; 32,774,344 in 1877; 81,-
292,347 in 1878; 29,876,367 In 1879 ; 41,790,-
900 in 1880 ; 54,676,000 in 1881 : and 60,504,-
878 in 1882. The total expenditure in 1880
was 28,811,803 francs; in 1881, 28,699,000.

Statistics. — The number and tonnage of ves-
sels passing through the canal each year since
1875 were as follow :

744

SUEZ CANAL, THE.

YEAR.

Number.

Tonnage.

1875

1,494

2,940 708

1876 .. ..

1,45T

8,072,107

1S77

1,663

8,418,949

1878

1 593

3 291 535

1879

1477

3 236,942

1880

2,026

4,344,519

1881

2,727

5,794,401

1882

8,198

7 122 126

Somewhat more than three fourths of the
shipping that passed through the canal in the
ten years 1870-'79 belonged to Great Britain.

History. — M. de Lesseps, immediately after
the accession of Said Pasha, laid before him
the scheme for the canalization of the isthmus,
and received, Nov. 30, 1854, a deed of conces-
sion from the Viceroy, conferring upon him
authority and exclusive power to construct a
canal. A second act of concession, signed Jan.
5, 1856, defined more fully the privileges and
obligations of the company. The company
was endowed with the absolute grant of a wide
strip of land and the right to claim patents for
any lands it should reclaim by irrigation-works,
besides the use of forced labor and other priv-
ileges. The canal was to revert to the Gov-
ernment ninety-nine years after the date of
completion. Lord Palmerston combated the
project, and sought to have the charter re-
jected by the Sultan. He was opposed to the
opening of a shorter route to the East under
French auspices, and feared the establishment
of a French colony on the isthmus. British
shipping interests favored the longer and more
profitable route. The English opposition stim-
ulated the subscription of French capital.
The Porte declared its opposition to the scheme,
and, in consequence, a new arrangement was
made between the company and the Egyptian
Government, Jan. 30, 1866. All the lands of the
company but about ninety yards on each side
of the canal were retroceded, as well as the
sweet-water canal from Cairo. The question
of compensation for the revoked concessions
was submitted to the arbitration of the Em-
peror Napoleon, in accordance with whose
awards the Khedive paid the company 30,000,-
000 francs for the canceled land-grant, 10,000,-
000 for the sweet-water canal, 10,000,000 for
land and buildings near Cairo, and 74,000,000
to compensate for the concession of forced
labor. This settlement was the cause of the
hypothecation of the Khedive's shares. The
Government spent 31,000,000 in completing
the sweet-water canal, and 25,000,000 in va-
rious missions to Europe and on the opening
festivities. The charter, thus modified, was
ratified by the Sultan, March 19, 1866. The
canal was completed at a cost of about 200,-
000,000 francs for the work of construction,
though the total disbursements, including im-
provements, were more than double that.

Military Operations in 1882.— Having secured
the safety of the canal by means of assurances
to Arabi Pasha that its neutrality would be
respected, M. de Lesseps protested against its

occupation by English troops in September,
1882. The British Government asserted that
the declaration of neutrality did not apply,
since it was at war with the de facto master of
Egypt, and also because it had the authoriza-
tion of the Khedive to suppress the rebellion.
The concession documents recognize the power
of the Khedive to exercise police control over
the canal, and also the right to occupy every
strategical point necessary for the defense of
the country. The military operations brought
in for the company about 2,000,000 francs.
The British Government did not acknowledge
the obligation to pay transit dues for its mili-
tary transports, but paid them voluntarily, in
recognition of the service rendered by the canal
in the suppression of the rebellion.

English Shipowners.— The English steamship
companies, during the earlier diplomatic con-
troversies over the canal, had forced the com-
pany to come to their terms regarding the
measurement of tonnage, etc. The English pro-
tectorate over Egypt was assumed chiefly to
preserve the neutrality and freedom of the
canal. The ship-owners thought to force the
company to concede advantages which they
could not have obtained through diplomacy or
by direct treaty with the managers, if they
could not oust the French management alto-
gether. The Beaconsfield Government had
provided for the bringing of the canal ulti-
mately under English direction by purchas-
ing the Khedive's shares, constituting 44 per
cent, of the capital stock. This menace to the
prospects of the canal as a richly-paying in-
vestment, and the diversion of M. de Lesseps's
attention to other enterprises, caused many
shares to be turned out into the speculative
market, so that an amount sufficient to make a
majority, with the shares owned by the Gov-
ernment, could easily be acquired, if it was not
already in the hands of English holders. Yet
during the twenty-five years for which the
Khedive had alienated the dividends of his
shares, the voting proxies for those shares be-
longed to the holders of the delegation certifi-
cates, and for that period, therefore, M. de Les-
seps and his friends were firmly seated in the
control of the company.

The existence of political levers by which
the English customers could bring pressure to
bear on the company, led to constant friction
and complaints of the company's management,
of the officialism, the rigid regulations, etc.
The chief object and main burden of the com-
plaints, however, was to compel the company
to reduce its tolls, fixed by statute at 10 francs
a ton, and yield other pecuniary advantages.
The ship-owners demanded that the company
should divide with them its profits, which,
under the statutes, would soon reach the nor-
mal rate of from 20 to 30 per cent., and that
the transit, dues be lowered to 6 francs a ton.

The Project of an Alternate Canal.— When the
president and directors, in the interest of the
stockholders, refused to accede to the pecuniary

SUEZ CANAL, THE.

SUGAR.

745

sacrifices demanded, the scheme was broached
of a second competing canal across the isthmus,
constructed with English capital, and managed-
in the interest of English navigation. M. de
Lesseps averred, in reply, his exclusive right.
Projects of a ship-canal through Egypt by
way of Cairo, and of one through the Jordan
valley, failed to arouse practical interest. The
Lesseps canal route, through the Bitter Lakes,
follows a natural depression, and is the only
practicable one across the isthmus, so that a
second canal would have to be dug close be-
side the existing one.

Provisional Agreement of the English Government.
— The English Government, having strong mo-
tives to avoid giving fresh cause for irritation
to France, was the less likely to be influenced
by the chicanes of the steamship-owners, ani-
mated by private commercial considerations.
An agreement was reached between it and M.
de Lesseps, whereby it secured valuable con-
cessions to the ship-owners, and. arranged for
the enlargement or duplication of the canal,
but recognized the monopoly of the Universal
Company in the Suez route, and offered to
advance the £8,000,000 required, at 3J per
cent, interest. A storm of reproaches assailed
the Government for refraining from annulling
the franchises of the company in the interest
of English navigation, which furnished four
fifths of the Suez traffic. As enormous pecuni-
ary interests were involved, the subject was
fiercely agitated ; and the Government, in the
face of this opposition, reluctantly withdrew
the proposals, and suggested that M. de Les-
seps and the ship-owners come to an agree-
ment among themselves.

The Ship-owners' Agreement. — Such an agree-
ment was finally arrived at in the beginning
of December. The company promised to en-
large the canal or construct a second one, in
accordance with the report of a commission of
.experts, one half of whom should be English
engineers. In addition to the three directors
nominated by the English Government, seven
new English directors should be admitted ; mak-
ing ten Englishmen on the board to twenty-two
Frenchmen. These English directors are to
constitute an advisory board. The company
will open an office anu receive dues in London,
and largely increase the number of English-
speaking officials. The last sur-tax of 50 cen-
times disappears on Jan. 1, 1884, and pilotage
dues July 1st. All expenses from groundings
and other accidents, except collisions, or such
as are due to negligence, are to be borne by
the company. The company reduces the tran-
sit dues to 9£ francs after Jan. 1, 1885, and
will divide half the profits in excess of 18 per
cent, with the ship-owners, in addition to the
abatement of 50 centimes. Each successive
rise in the profits is to be divided in the same
way, by reducing the transit dues for the next
year but one, that is, from the 1st of January
following the report, by the quotient of the
total tonnage into the moiety of the increment

of profit. Above 25 per cent., the whole ex-
cess will be divided, until the transit dues are
reduced to 5 francs a ton. A reduction in the
tolls for ships in ballast to 7£ francs had been
already made, Oct. 1, 1883.

SI GAR. The importation of crude sugar
during the earlier part of the year 1883 was
lower than that of the corresponding months
in 1882, on account of the proposed change in
the duties. On June 1st the revised tariff came
into force. The new rate is as follows :

All sugars not above No. 13 Dutch standard in
color shall pay duty on their polariscopic test, as fol-
lows, viz. : All sugars not above No. 13 Dutch stand-
ard in color, all tank-bottoms, sirup of cane- juice or
of beet-juice, melada, concentrated melada, concrete
and concentrated molasses, testing by the polariscope
not above 75 degrees, shall pay a duty of one and forty -
hundredths cent per pound ; and for every additional
degree or fraction of a degree shown by the polari-
scopic test, they^ shall pay four-hundredths of a cent
per pound additional. All sugars above No. 13 Dutch
standard in color shall be classified by the Dutch
standard of color, and pay duty as follows, namely :
All sugar above No. 13 and not above No. 16 Dutch
standard, two and seventy-five bundredths cents per
pound. All sugar above No. 16 and not above No. 20
Dutch standard, three cents per pound. All sugars
above No. 20 Dutch standard, three and fifty-hun-
dredths cents per pound.

Molasses, testing not above 56 degrees by the po-
lariscope, shall pay a duty of four cents per gallon ;
molasses testing above 56 degrees shall pay a duty or
eight cents per gallon.

This act led to examinations by the polari-
scope, and laboratories were equipped at the
sugar-importing ports. The method is quite
simple : 13*024 grammes of the raw substance
is brought into solution in a graduated 50-cubic
centimetre flask. When it is dissolved, a few
drops of lead acetate are added. Then the
solution is increased to exactly 50 cubic centi-
metres by adding water, well shaken and fil-
tered, and the filtrate is poured into the polari-
scope-tube.

The receipts of sugar during 1882 and 1883
were as follow :

IMPORTED FROM

1883.

1882.

Cuba,

Tons.
425,481

Tons.
502,410

British West India islands. . .
Trinidad P 8

45,738
80,048

23,710

8,538

French West India islands . .
Porto Rico

82,780
46,526

28,649
84,693

902

1,537

59,614

84,519

476

971

ga]jze

833

605

1,687

1,944

Mexico

373

430

Hayti and San Domingo
Brazil

11,759
91,343

12,017
81,029

1,137

S60

45,889

7,204 -

Philippine islands

109,081
'576

75,634
5.422

C^hina

7,593

8,827

595

864

7,759

9,801

Foreign

920,090

884,155

4,386

5,296

Total

924,476

839,451

746

SUGAR.

Of this quantity there was received at —

1883.

1882.

New York

Tons.
637,058

Tons.
575,330

205 738

190 524

Philadelphia

78.066

6'.»,506

Baltimore

8,619

4,091

Total

924 476

839 451

In addition to the foregoing, about 13,380
tons were received at Portland, New Haven,
and other Eastern ports, mostly from Cuba and
Porto Rico. At New Orleans and other South-
ern ports 3,886 tons were received from Cuba,
etc. The total receipts of cane-sugar were
941,742 tons. The effect of the new tariff is
felt in the increased receipts of sugars of a
lower grade. Large quantities of these infe-
rior sugars, coming both from the East and the
West Indies, are now refined in this country ;
formerly they were sent to England. The re-
sult of this increased importation has been the
lowering of the price ; and the condition of the
market during the year is described as dull and
In January the price of fair refin-

ing sugar was 6f| cents ; this advanced to 7T8R-
cents in May, and has since steadily declined till
it closed in December at 6£ cents.

The low prices and greater importation of
raw sugar show an increased consumption for
1883 of 86,482 tons over that of 1882, which,
on a basis of a population of 55,000,000, shows
a per capita consumption of 47-^ pounds against
45£ pounds for last year.

The crop of cane sugar produced in the South-
ern States, during the season of 1882-'83, was
the largest obtained since the war. In Louisi-
ana the yield was 241,220 hogsheads, or 135,-
298 tons, which, compared with 122,982 hogs-
heads, or 71,373 tons, shows an increase of
118,238 hogsheads, or 63,925 tons, over last
year. From the remaining Southern States the
product was about 7,000 tons, making a total
of 142,298 tons of domestic cane-sugar. The
crop for the season of 1883-'84 is estimated at
240,000 hogsheads, which is lower than that of
the preceding season. At San Francisco the
importations of sugar have largely increased
during the present year, as the following fig-
ures show :

RECEIVED FROM

1883.

1883.

Sandwich islands

Pounds.

103 842 000

Pounds.
97 9l>0 670

Manila.

20 598 562

1 528 156

China

4'l57'392

940 946

Central America

1 ()32 296

1 670437

Peru

600

Mexico

43 417

Total

130 574 267

102 060 209

Beet-Sugar. — The production of beet-sugar
in this country has of late been very unsat-
isfactory. In 1880 there were six factories
in active operation, while at present but one
refinery is working, the Standard Sugar Manu-
facturing Company of Alvarado, Cal. The

out-put of this establishment is given as 1,200,-
000 pounds for 1883, against 1,000,000 for the
previous year. The difficulty experienced by
those who have attempted to produce sugar
from the beet in the East, has been the impos-
sibility of inducing farmers to cultivate the
beet-root at prices which the factories could
afford to pay. The beet-crop in Europe was
unusually large during 1882-'83, and the pro-
duction is given by Licht as follows :

Tons.

Germany 798,124

France 423,194

Austria 473,000

Kussia 250,000

Belgium 82,723

Holland, etc 85,000

Total 2,062,000

As the beet-sugar coming to this country is
exported almost entirely through German ports,
it is impossible to ascertain exactly where it
comes from, but it is supposed to be the surplus
stock of Austria and Germany. The following
data show the receipts of beet-sugar at the port
of New York, with their corresponding polari-
scopic test, for the last three months of 1883 :

October 1,007 bags, testing 91 degrees.

November 16.733 bags, testing 93 degrees.

December T8,996 bags, testing 94 degrees.

The second product consisted of —

October 300 bags, testing 84 degrees.

November 7,701 bags, testing 87 degrees.

December 8,894 bags, testing 88 degrees.

Maple-Sugar. — It is impossible to estimate, ex-
cept very roughly, the crop of maple-sugar, not
only because no data are available concerning
its manufacture, but also for the reason that
large amounts of a spurious article are thrown
on the market and openly sold as maple- sugar.
More of this sugar is produced in Vermont than
in any other section of the country, and during
the past year the cold weather .and heavy
snows have materially decreased the out-put.
In 1882 the total product, East and West, was
estimated at 20,000 tons, but in 1883 not more
than 18,500 tons were manufactured.

Starch-Sugar.— The manufacture of sugar and
sirup from starch derived from corn is an
industry of comparatively recent origin. In
1863, at Buffalo, F. TV. Gessling and Lyman
Bradley began the manufacture of this product,
and in 1864 the first patent on this subject was
issued for the process which they devised. At
present the starch-sugar industry in the United
States gives employment to 29 factories, having
an estimated capital of $5,000,000, consuming
about 40,000 bushels of corn a day, and pro-
ducing grape-sugar and glucose to the annual
value of nearly $10,000,000. The process of
making starch-sugar consists, first, in separat-
ing the starch from the corn by soaking, grind-
ing, straining, and settling ; and second, in con-
verting the starch into sugar by the action of
dilute sulphuric acid, this acid being subse-
quently removed by the action of chalk. To
make the solid " grape-sugar," the conversion
is carried further than to make liquid " glu-

SURGERY.

747

cose." After clarifying, the liquid is concen-
trated in vacuum-pans and is decolorized with
bone-black. Starch-sugar is chiefly used in
making table-sirup, in brewing beer as a sub-
stitute for malt, and in adulterating cane-sugar.
It is also used to replace cane-sugar in confec-
tionery, in canning fruits, in making fruit-jel-
lies, and in cooking. Artificial honey is made
with it, and so also is vinegar. In response to
a request by the Commissioner of Internal
Revenue, in regard to the status of glucose, the
following statement was prepared by the Na-
tional Academy of Sciences:

That the manufacture of sugar from starch is a long-
established industry, scientifically valuable and com-
mercially important.

That the processes which it employs at the present
time are unobjectionable in their character, and leave
the product uncontaminated.

That starch-sugar thus made and sent into commerce
is of exceptional purity and uniformity of composition,
and contains no injurious substances ; and

That though having at best only about two thirds
the sweetening power of cane-sugar, yet starch-sugar
is in no way inferior to cane-sugar in healthfulness,
there being no evidence before the committee that
maize-starch sugar, eitherjn its normal condition or
fermented, has any deleterious effect upon the system,
even when taken in large quantities.

Sorghum-Sugar. — Since 1878, considerable in-
terest has been developed in the cultivation of
sorghum (Sorghum vulgare) for the production
of sugar. Largely through the influence exerted
by the Chemist of the Agricultural Department
at Washington, numerous experiments were
made, all of which have tended to demonstrate
the practicability of obtaining sugar from this
source. Only estimates of the quantity an-
nually produced are available. The following
works are in active operation: The Yates
County Sugar Company, at Penn Yan, N. Y. ;
the refineries at Rio Grande, N. J. ; at Cham-
paign, 111. ; at Stirling and at Hutchinson, Kan.
At the last four the production during 1883 is
said to have exceeded 200,000 pounds each.
At Dundee, Kinsley, and Lawrence, Kan., are
works whose out-put was about 10,000 pounds
each ; making a total of 830,000 pounds.

SURGERY. Antiseptics.— The whole practice
of surgery has undergone a radical change
during the past few vears, because of the in-
fluence of the germ theory of disease. This
theory — the theory of Pasteur — may be briefly
stated as follows: "Wherever there is de-
composition of an organic liquid or solid sub-
stance, such decomposition is caused by the
physiological action of living beings, the germs
of which pullulate in the air. Wherever a
wound is made, air penetrates, and, with the
air, germs, which have the power of develop-
ing themselves, even in the interior of blood-
vessels, where the circulation carries them.
Hence result inflammations of the lymphat-
ics and of the veins, erysipelas, gangrene, etc.
The more cutting the instrument with which
the operations are performed, the more freely
are the vessels divided, the better do the germs
penetrate, the more easily do microphytes and

microzoa cause complications, especially in loose
and vascular tissues."

This theory — for it is still a theory— though
it met with little favor in the country where
it originated, was unhesitatingly adopted by a
distinguished British surgeon, Mr. Lister, and
by certain leading German surgeons — Volk-
mann, von Nussbaum, and Konig — and the
practice based upon it has added a new word
to surgical literature. " Listerism " is the
practice of Mr. Lister, based upon his accept-
ance of Pasteur's theory of the origin of many
surgical diseases. It consists in a systematic
endeavor to prevent the access of air, ami
therefore of germs contained in the air, into
wounds ; and to destroy any germs which may
have entered. Carbolic acid was the germi-
cide upon which he placed his main reliance,
and all wounds were immersed in it, and all
operations were performed in its vapor instead
of in the air. The most essential part of every
operation became a spray - apparatus, which
should surround the tissues to be operated
upon with a vapor of carbolic acid. The sur-
geon himself, his assistants, the instruments
used, everything which could possibly convey
a microscopic germ into a wound, was thor-
oughly impregnated with the germicide, and
after this the wound was dressed with an
absolutely impermeable complicated dressing
composed of many layers of different materi-
als, each adding to the wished-for result — the
avoidance of the entrance of air. When it
became necessary to open a wound which had
once been dressed, the same elaborate perform-
ance was repeated, and the part could only be
inspected and examined under a covering of
carbolic acid, either in the form of a solution
or of spray. This is what is now understood
by antiseptic surgery, by Listerism, and this
it is that has to so great a degree modified the
surgery of the day. The practical details of
the treatment have been modified from time
to time ; other antiseptics, such as the bichlor-
ide of mercury, thymol, and eucalyptol, have
been substituted for carbolic acid; the dress-
ings have been changed in various ways, both
by Mr. Lister and his followers, but the essen-
tial features of the treatment remain.

In this article we have to deal rather with
the antiseptic treatment of wounds than with
Pasteur's germ theory upon which it rests.
Good practice may result from false theory,
and Mr. Gamgee is not alone when he says :
"That infection is always floating in the at-
mosphere, ready to settle, in the shape of im-
palpable and implacable germs, into any breach
which may be made in the surface of a living
body, is an idea which has never troubled uie.
The prescription, inspired by that idea, to rub
strong carbolic acid into the innermost recesses
of a compound fracture, to pursue and kill the
germs ; the warning that an antiseptic dressing
may lose all its potency through a hole no big-
ger than a pin's point, in the investing Mackin-
tosh, admitting countless germs; that a dress-

748

SURGERY.

ing must be changed as soon as a little discharge
permeates it, lest a septic channel be established
for the ubiquitous and maleficent vibrios ; that
these will settle down, as a swarm from the
air, on a granulating sore, if the spray be not
kept in action while it is dressed — are (I say
it with the sincerest respect) questionable
propositions."

Irrespective of the theory upon which it
was based, the results of the practice of anti-
septic surgery were at once subjected to a
rigorous comparison with the results of sur-
gery without antiseptics, or with modified an-
tiseptic treatment, and the discussion assumed
considerable acrimony. For many months the
various medical journals abounded in statistics
of the treatment of wounds by the old and the
new method. Mr. MacOormac reported forty-
five operations for the division of various bones
for the removal of deformity, thirty of which
involved the knee-joint, and every one of which
"recovered in the speediest, easiest, and safest
manner possible." All his cases of compound
fracture (fracture combined with a wound of
the soft parts, allowing the entrance of air)
recovered, except one, and those of the leg
almost as though they had been simple ; and
so on through all the range of major surgical
operations. He says :

Is there any other method — even that with the " sim-
plest, safest, best of antiseptics," clean water — which
will permit the surgeon to view a mass of dead blood
lying in an open wound being transformed day by
day oefore his eyes into living tissue ? If this be true,
and I suppose its truth will not be denied ; if the
great joints may be opened with absolute impunity
by the surgeon's knife; if such formerly fatal in-
juries as gunshot wounds of the knee may be saved
amid the difficulties of an army in the field ;, if ovari-
otomy be made more successful in the hands of ex-
perts, who operate on such cases by hundreds, and,
what is to my thinking more important, the operation
is rendered safer and more successful in the hands of
other surgeons ; if, in injuries of the head, in ordinary
amputations and excisions, and operations of various
kinds in compound fractures, not only is the risk of
life diminished, but the recovery of the patient marked
by a minimum of pain, fever, and suppuration— then
a gain has been accomplished for surgery which it is
scarcely possible to characterize ; and I do not know
which to admire the more, the scientific mind that
has grasped a great principle and applied it, or the
character of the man who has unswervingly pursued
the object of his life, patiently perfecting, one oy one,
the means adapted to secure the end in view.

This may be regarded as a glowing tribute
to Mr. Lister and to Pasteur by one who ac-
cepts entirely the practice of the former and
the theory of the latter, and there are many
surgeons who come within this class. There
are many others, however, who hold modified
views. For example, Mr. Holmes, arguing on
the basis of 162 compound fractures treated to
their conclusion, admits the great improve-
ment observed in the results of injuries and
operations since Mr. Lister began his attempts
to secure the healing of wounds without putre-
faction; but denies that this is due entirely
to the method itself, since it is noted in the
practice of those who repudiate Mr. Lister's

teachings. He thinks that all wounds and
injuries are now much more carefully treated
than they were some years since; and the
effect of such increased care must show itself
in the practice of those who follow the old
methods of treatment, as well as of those who
have adopted the new system. The question
is, whether the results of the antiseptic system
are so decidedly superior to those of other
methods of treatment as to show that it is
the only system adapted for general use in
hospitals. The fractures occurring in St.
George's Hospital, on which Mr. Holmes's
statistics were based, were treated by no one
method to the exclusion of others, his idea
having been to give all methods a fair trial,
and thus form an unbiased judgment as to the
worth of the antiseptic method in particular.
The result was, that he formed a strong gen-
eral impression that the antiseptic method is
superior to the others, at any rate during the
dangerous period following the injury, in which
the occurrence of surgical fever is so common
under ordinary treatment, and during which
erysipelas, diffuse inflammation, sloughing, ex-
tensive suppuration, and general blood-poison-
ing are so common.

The views are those of the greater number
of the surgeons of to-day. The best results
obtained by the strictest antiseptic treatment
may be matched in individual cases by as good
results obtained by almost no treatment, but
on the whole there has been a vast improve-
ment since Mi-. Lister began to teach the use
of the spray, though this improvement is not
entirely due to the spray. It is found equally
in hospitals where antiseptic surgery as taught
by Lister has never been practiced. True an-
tiseptic surgery is much older than Mr. Lister,
though this in no wise detracts from the debt
of gratitude the world owes to him for recall-
ing and insisting upon its real value. There
are also other antiseptics more powerful than
carbolic acid and impermeable dressings. In
the words of Mr. Gamgee, "Life and putre-
faction are not correlative, but antagonistic;
and, in proportion as the surgeon utilizes and
economizes the attributes of life, he will find
himself independent of those changes which
are inherent in decaying organic matter;
whether it be in bagging wounds or boggy
lands, Life is the great antiseptic. Preserve
it, restore healthy function, control by rest,
position, and pressure, nervous, vascular, and
muscular action, so as to minimize the material
for and the causes of discharge, carry this off
as it is produced, by drainage-tubes and absorb-
ent dressings, and the repair of injuries pro-
ceeds, like healthy nutrition, uninterruptedly
and painlessly." In addition* to these things,
the antiseptic properties of the balsamic prepa-
rations, of turpentine and resinous gums, of
alcohol, bark, and acids, have been utilized in
wound-treatment for generations.

Thus, then, as a result of theory and practice,
the surgery of to-day has reached a stage in

SUEGERY.

749

which the greatest possible care is given to the
details of cleanliness, the prevention of putre-
faction, the avoidance of any collection of pus
in wounds by drainage, and to the securing
of absolute rest to injured parts. The extent
to which absolute cleanliness may be carried,
and the good results of such care, are shown
by the answer Volkmann makes to the question
whether a surgeon or obstetrician is justified
in making an autopsy. His answer is affirma-
tive, but with many restrictions which would
have seemed ridiculous a few years ago. It is
evident that the infection-material which neces-
sarily attaches to the surgeon in making an au-
topsy can do no good in a wound, and, there-
fore, a general surgeon should not come in
contact with ulcers, wounds, sensitive mucous
membranes, as those of the eye, or make vagi-
nal examinations of pregnant or puerperal wo-
men, until a suitable time has elapsed since
an autopsy, or until he has carefully disinfected
himself and the instruments he employs. Since
1873 no diseases arising from accidental wound-
poisoning have arisen in Volkmann's clinic.
Since that time every nurse and assistant has
submitted to careful disinfection before touch-
ing any breach of surface, no matter how tri-
fling. All sounds used for exploration, and
even scissors used for cutting sutures in wounds
not treated antiseptically, are first disinfected.
During this period the slighter forms of phleg-
mon have entirely ceased, and erysipelas is
only rarely seen in its so-called spontaneous
form. Visitors going through his wards and
seeing recent wounds on the face treated by
the open method, without any inflammatory
action being visible, have remarked that the
wards must be so entirely carbolized that all
wounds heal readily ; or that such cases show
what good results may be obtained by the old
method. Both conclusions are incorrect, for
all the cases were treated on the antiseptic
plan, the occlusion dressing alone being omit-
ted. In every case, in every part of every op-
eration, the causes of putrefaction are exclud-
ed. So thoroughly are his best nurses imbued
with this idea that they disinfect the scissors
with which they cut off the plaster bandage
from a simple fracture. His own practice is to
use a five-per-cent. solution of carbolic acid
freely for washing. He does not consider it
necessary to go to the extent of changing the
linen ; but, for operations and dressings, both
he and his assistants put on white linen coats,
and of these he often uses three or four for
himself of a morning. He discards the old
cloth operating-gowns, and does not approve
of the water-proof sleeves and aprons. By
this means he is enabled to deliver his course
on operative surgery from six to eight o'clock
in the morning, during which his hands are
constantly in the blood and fluids of fresh and
putrid subjects, and then occupy himself im-
mediately with operations on the living and
with fresh wounds, without carrying infection.
He thinks it much better to disinfect a visitor

and to dress him in a fresh, clean gown, than
to trust to his assertion that for a certain num-
ber of days he has not been exposed to putrid
influences. If it were not possible thus rapid-
ly and yet thoroughly to purify one's self, it
would be necessary to establish special stations
and special assistants for all patients whose
wounds were not entirely free from any septic
character; for every surgeon is liable to be
called from a foul wound or a septic inflamma-
tion to give immediate attention to some case
particularly susceptible to septic influences.
At first he felt great anxiety on this point;
the bad cases were all isolated, and their dress-
ings were postponed till the last, and, after fin-
ishing, his assistant took a bath and changed
all his clothes. Now the only cases isolated are
erysipelas, diphtheria, and the like. "Where he
has a long series of operations, he begins with
those in which the danger of infection is great-
est, and ends with those already suffering from
septic disease. First he opens a peritoneum,
then removes a loose body from the knee, then
excises diseased joints, and finally comes to the
acute progressive inflammation.

Drainage. — One of the most potent influences
for evil in wounds is the accumulation of fluids
in sacs or pouches of the tissues which may
become putrid, and, by being absorbed into the
circulation of the blood, produce general blood-
poisoning and death. This difficulty has also
been in a great measure overcome by the adop-
tion of a system of drainage of wounds which
has already been referred to. Small soft-rub-
ber tubes, with numerous perforations in the
end, are introduced into all the deeper parts
of wounds, to allow of the constant escape of
the fluids. When these do not answer the pur-
pose, or can not be introduced into the neces-
sary parts of the wound, the latter may be
enlarged to permit of their introduction, or
entirely new openings in the tissues may be
made for no other purpose than to allow of
the free escape of matter. For example, in a
bad fracture of the thigh by a bullet entering
from before, the patient must of necessity be
placed upon his back, and all the fluids of the
wound tend naturally to gravitate toward the
back of the limb and to form pockets and
pouches for themselves, where they remain
and undergo putrefaction. In such a case it is
not uncommo'n to make another opening in the
back of the thigh, communicating with the frac-
ture, for the sole purpose of discharge. The
increased injury is trifling, and the good can
not be estimated.

Under the influence of these two principles,
perfect cleanliness and free drainage, almost
a revolution has occurred in surgery within
the past few years. Operations are performed
successfully to-day which three years ago it
was considered necessarily fatal to undertake.
It is but a few years since a wound of the ab-
dominal cavity was looked upon as almost sure
to produce an inflammation of the delicate in-
ternal covering of that cavity and of the in-

750

SURGERY.

testines — the peritonaeum — and peritonitis was
almost necessarily fatal. The peritonaeum is
now opened with impunity whenever occasion
seems to justify it, and even as a means of
diagnosis. If, after the opening is made, the
diagnosis is confirmed, the operation, what-
ever it may be, is completed ; if the diagnosis
be not confirmed, or the condition be found
to be incurable, the wound is cleansed and
closed, and the patient is but little worse
than if the abdomen had not been opened.
This discovery of the comparative impunity
with which the abdomen may be explored has
opened to the range of the surgeon an entirely
new field of work. All of the abdominal or-
gans were a few years ago considered beyond
the reach of surgical interference ; now almost
every one of them may be, and indeed has been,
reached by the surgeon's knife and hand; and
entirely new surgical operations, by which
many lives have been saved, are the result, a
few of which may be enumerated.

Operations npon the Alimentary Canal. — The num-
ber of successful operations which may be
practiced for diseases of various parts of the
alimentary canal has increased greatly. Begin-
ning with the stomach, it is now not an unusual
thing to open successfully the abdomen, seize
the stomach, stitch it to the wall of the abdo-
men, open into it, and thus establish a means
of conveying food into the system when the
natural channel of the gullet has been occluded
by disease at some point between the mouth
and the stomach. In this way a person may
be fed for any length of time, as has always
been known ; but the operation for opening
the stomach, formerly so fatal, has now become
comparatively successful.

By a very similar operation a cancer of the
stomach may be removed, the opening caused
by its removal closed with stitches, the organ
returned to its place, and the abdomen closed,
with a successful result. It is not an uncommon
thing for the bowel to become closed at some
part of its length by disease, or to become so
twisted upon itself that its caliber shall be oc-
cluded, and the condition is necessarily fatal
unless it be remedied. Only a few years ago
these cases were treated medicinally, and those
which did not recover, either spontaneously
through the efforts of nature or as a result of
general treatment, were lost. No surgeon
dared to cut into a patient's abdomen, find out
by actual exploration with the hand the exact
nature of the obstruction, and endeavor to re-
lieve it. These operations have now become
exceedingly frequent. If, from the symptoms,
the surgeon is led to believe that the bowel has
become twisted upon itself, he opens the abdo-
men, first of all to discover if his opinion be
correct ; if correct, he gives what relief he can,
and often directly saves a life. If the disease
prove to be a stricture or contraction of some
portion, he may be able to relieve the condition ;
if a cancer of the bowel be found, it may be cut
out and the two ends above and below the

disease stitched together ; if the condition be
found to be entirely unrelievable (for the diag-
nosis of these troubles is exceedingly difficult),
the wound in the abdomen may be closed and
the patient's chances of recovery be none the
less.

M. Kceberle recently reported the most suc-
cessful case of excision of a portion of the in-
testine that has thus far been brought to the
notice of the profession. The patient was a
girl, aged twenty-two years, who had suffered
for a long time with symptoms of intestinal
obstruction, though the symptoms were not
such as enabled him to arrive at any satisfac-
tory conclusion as to the exact pathological
condition. As the trouble was steadily in-
creasing in severity, and the patient losing
ground from suffering and malnutrition, an
exploratory incision was made in the median
line of the abdomen. Four cicatricial contrac-
tions were discovered in the small intestine,
involving between them about two metres of
the bowel, and the whole affected portion was
consequently removed rather than retire from
the operation and leave the patient to certain
death. The result was a perfect success, and
established several points which were before
doubtful. It proves among other things that
considerable portions of the small intestine
may be removed without interfering to any
appreciable extent with digestion, and that,
practiced under certain conditions, the opera-
tion is to be considered as perfectly legitimate.

The operation of excision has also been ap-
plied to cancers of the large intestine, the sig-
moid flexure, and the upper part of the rectum.

This operation, to which the name of " colec-
tomy " has been applied, has now assumed a
definite place in surgery. It dates from the

time of Reybard, of Lyons, who in 1833 re-
moved a tumor the size of an orange from the
sigmoid flexure of a man aged twenty-eight
years. In this case the tumor could be felt
through the abdominal wall, far down on the
left side, and an incision was made over it.
The tumor was drawn out through this wound
and excised with three inches of the adjoining
intestine. The two ends of the bowel were
stitched together * and replaced within the ab-
domen, and the abdominal wound was com-
pletely closed. There was considerable local
trouble for a few days, but on the thirty -eighth
day the wound had entirely healed, and natu-
ral passages were restored. The operation
thus successfully inaugurated in 1833 was re-
vived in 1877, with some modifications, espe-
cially as to the best point for making the in-
cision, and as to the best way of disposing of
the cut ends of the bowel after the removal of
the disease ; since which time seven additional
cases have been reported. There seems to be
little difference in the mortality, whether the
ends of the divided intestine be sewed together,
dropped into the abdominal cavity, and the
wound in the abdomen closed, or the upper
end be stitched to the surface of the body at

SURGERY.

751

the seat of the incision for the formation of an
artificial anus. The latter is the simpler pro-
cedure, and the lower segment of the bowel,
being closed with a ligature, is dropped back
into the abdomen and left to nature.

A bullet-wound of the intestines has always
been considered one of the most fatal of in-
juries. The following account illustrates the
difference between the surgery of to-day and
that of a few years ago, when to interfere ac-
tively in any way with such a case would have
been considered hardly less than criminal. A
man is shot in the abdomen between tbe navel
and the pubes. He is not seen by the surgeon
until nine hours have passed, when the abdo-
men is found distended and painful, and a
wound of the intestine is distinctly made out.
Opening of the abdomen gives the only chance
of saving the patient's life, and this is done
with all the modern antiseptic precautions.
The intestines are examined, and five perfora-
tions of the smaller bowel and two of the mes-
entery are discovered. The edges of all the
wounds are vivified with the scissors and all
are sewed up with silk, rendered antiseptic by
soaking in a solution of phenol. The abdomi-
nal cavity is then thoroughly cleansed of blood
and fecal matter, and a drainage-tube inserted
into the lower end of the wound. The patient
died three days after. At the autopsy it was
found that all the wounds which b^ad been
sewed up were healing nicely, but one had
escaped observation and had caused death.

Hernia. — The operation for the radical cure
of hernia, or rupture, has attained considerable
prominence. In many cases, by a compara-
tively trivial operation, which consists in the
injection of a small quantity of an irritating
fluid, like the tincture of white-oak bark, into
the tissue over the canal through which the
hernia descends, an amount of irritation is ex-
cited just sufficient to cause an adhesive in-
flammation in the canal, and thus close it. In
this way a disease which a few years ago was
only curable by a severe and dangerous surgi-
cal operation, and which on this account was
simply treated with a truss, without any ex-
pectation of a cure, is now often radically
cured. For this discovery, surgery is indebt-
ed to Dr. Heaton, ot Boston, who practiced
it successfully but secretly during his lifetime.

Haemorrhoids. — The exceedingly common and
troublesome disease known as hsemorrhoids, or
piles, was formerly curable only by operations
which removed the tumors, such as cutting
them off with a knife, tying them off with a
ligature, or destroying them with powerful
caustics. This treatment also has been radi-
cally changed, and an equally efficient method
of cure by injections has been discovered,
which is almost painless, is devoid of danger,
and free from the objections generally consid-
ered inseparable from a surgical operation.

Not only has the alimentary canal for its
entire length thus been brought within the
range of successful operative measures for the

relief of incurable disease, but all the other
organs contained within the abdominal cavity
have each in their turn been reached by the
hand of the surgeon.

Operations upon the LlYer. — Abscess of the
liver was formerly very fatal, owing to the
unapproachable position of the pus, which,
though beyond the reach of the surgeon, might
at any moment be discharged into the abdomi-
nal cavity and cause death. A few years since
it was found that a very fine hollow needle,
might be plunged into the liver with compara-
tive safety ; that to this an air-pump might be
attached, and the abscess emptied of its con-
tents by suction. This was in itself a great
advance; but now, when an abscess is sus-
pected, the needle is boldly plunged into the
organ as a means of exploration. If pus is
found, the region over the liver is cleansed
with a disinfecting . solution, the needle is al-
lowed to remain as a guide, and an incision is
made through the abdominal wall into the
liver till the pus is reached. The cavity of the
abscess is next washed out with a disinfectant,
a large drainage-tube is inserted, and the
wound is covered with an antiseptic dressing.
This dressing is changed daily. Each time the
tube is cleansed and replaced, and the abscess
is forced in this way to close, as an abscess in
any other part of the body would, by a gradual
healing from the bottom.

Spleneetomy. — This is another of the great
operations of surgery which have become more
prominent within the past few years. Though
at first invariably fatal, it now numbers several
successful cases. The operation is seldom un-
dertaken except for the cure of a fatal disease
known as leucocythsemia, which is marked by
a great enlargement of the spleen, and by a
great increase in the number of white corpus-
cles found in the blood. The change in the
blood is supposed to depend upon the change
in the spleen, and it is thought that if the
spleen could be removed from the body the
patient's life might possibly be saved. The
operation is performed by opening the abdo-
men from near the end of the breast-bone to
the pubes. drawing out the enlarged organ,
which sometimes fills nearly the entire abdo-
men, placing a ligature around the vessels that
supply it with blood, and cutting it loose. Al-
though never but once successful in a case of
leucocythsBmia, it has often been done in cases
of other disease with a favorable result.

Nephrotomy and tfephreetomy.— The number of
cases in which surgeons have cut into the kid-
ney, or have taken out the kidney, is now very
considerable, while a few years ago the opera-
tion was a rarity. The kidney is subject to
many incurable diseases, and especially to the
formation of stone in its substance. Such a
stone can be reached in no way except by the
knife. An incision is made through the loin
down to the diseased organ, and it is laid open.
If the disease be calculus, this may be removed
and the kidney left in its place ; or, if the kid-

752

SURGERY.

ney be found extensively diseased, it may itself
be removed. Another affection until lately
considered beyond tbe reach of help is what
is known as floating kidney, in which the or-
gan, on account of the laxity of its attach-
ments, changes its position from one side of
the abdomen to the other, and can easily be
felt by the hands, first in one place, then in
another. Such a condition is enough to render
the sufferer's life of no value to himself, and
justifies almost any attempts at relief. Up to
a few yenrs ago nearly all such attempts ended
fatally. Now they are recognized as legitimate
surgical operations, and are attended by a
very fair percentage of success.

Extirpation of the Gail-Bladder.— Not at all an
uncommon affection, and one which a few
years since was entirely beyond relief, is the
formation of gall-stones and their retention in
the gall-bladder, where they cause an amount
of suffering and inflammation often leading to
death. In such cases the usual treatment now
is to cut down upon the disease and not only
to remove the calculus, but to remove the gall-
bladder with it, and such operations are at-
tended by exceedingly good results.

Rapid Lithotrity.— The old and well-known
operation of crushing a stone in the bladder by
seizing it with instruments especially designed
for the purpose has been signally modified by
Bigelow, of Boston. Formerly such an opera-
tion was only completed after several sittings,
and was attended by great danger of inflam-
mation from the presence of the sharp frag-
ments resulting from the crushing. The opera-
tion is now done at a single sitting, the calculus
is completely crushed, and all the fragments
are removed before the patient leaves the
table. This operation of u rapid lithotrity,"
as it is called, is not original with Dr. Bigelow,
it having long been known though seldom
practiced. But he has brought it again into
popularity, and has added to the facility of its
performance by the invention of a new instru-
ment for drawing the fragments out of the
bladder by the force of suction, after the crush-
ing has been completed. The operation, as
now practiced, constitutes one of the greatest
advancements in the surgery of the bladder.

Drainage of CaTities in the Lungs. — To whom
belongs the honor of first suggesting the bold
plan of opening into cavities in the lungs of
consumptive patients, and treating them on
general surgical principles, is a question which
will never be decided. Probably many men
have considered the practicability of it without
attempting it. Recently it has been accom-
plished with a considerable measure of success.
The walls of such cavities are generally ad-
herent to the chest- wall, and may be opened
into without any immediate danger ; and there
would seem to be no reason in the nature of
the case why, when such a cavity is laid open,
cleaned out, drained, and properly dressed, it
should not heal. The number of cases in
which drainage has been resorted to is consid-

erable, and, although only a few have resulted
in the entire recovery of the patient, most of
them have been sufficiently relieved to justify
the operation. A soft drainage-tube is intro-
duced into the bottom of the cavity, which is
syringed out daily with carbolic acid, while the
wound is dressed antiseptically.

Internal Illnmination of the Body.— The desire
to see within the body for the purposes of diag*
nosis is a very natural one to the surgeon, and
with modern instruments much may be seen
which formerly could only be guessed at. With
the laryngoscope, for example, the whole ac-
tion of the larynx, the production of sound,
and morbid processes down to the bifurcation
of the trachea, may be exposed to the eye; as
with the ophthalmoscope the deeper parts of
the eye may be examined. Milliot, in 1867, in-
vented an instrument for lighting up the ab-
dominal cavity so that its contents could be
seen through the abdominal wall, but only
used it on animals and dead bodies. His ex-
periments led Lazarewitch to apply the same
thing to gynaecology. He, however, failed to
get light without at the same time getting an
amount of heat which rendered the instrument
both useless and dangerous. More recently
Dr. Nietze, of Vienna, originated the idea of
illuminating the interior of the bladder by
passing into it a white-hot platinum wire, and
the idea has been practically carried out by
Leitner, the surgical-instrument maker of that
city; hence the name Nietze - Leitner endo-
scope. The instrument consists of a platinum
wire heated by electricity, and surrounded by
a current of water to keep it from burning the
tissues. Sir Henry Thompson, though speak-
ing very cautiously, says there are some con-
ditions the existence of which we sometimes
suspect, but can not positively affirm to exist,
whose presence may now be ascertained by this
instrument. He refers to the identification of
sacculated stone as the cause of existing and
unrelieved symptoms; to the detection of
growths removable by operation ; and to the
investigation of the nature of foreign bodies
other than calculi which have become lodged
there. He says he has recently seen a fatal
case of vesical growth which might have been
easily removed by operation ; and in such a
case the new endoscope may possibly render
essential service.

Carbolic-acid Poisoning.— The almost universal
use of carbolic acid as an antiseptic for the
dressing of wounds has resulted in the knowl-
edge of a peculiar form of poisoning. It has
been proved that too much of the acid applied
to an open sore may be absorbed into the cir-
culation and cause death, with high tempera-
ture, a peculiar dark, smoky appearance of the
urine, convulsions, and symptoms of heart-
trouble. The peculiar diagnostic appearance
of the urine is supposed to be due to an escape
of the coloring-matter of the blood in the form
of indicin. Carbolic acid, when taken into the
circulation, is quickly eliminated by the kid-

SURGERY.

SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 753

neys, at the expense of a great deal of irrita^
tion and congestion of the organ. The poison-
ous effects of the acid may occur in a certain
small number of cases, in spite of the best
management, and in such cases is the result of
a rare idiosyncrasy in those affected. Several
interesting cases may be cited in proof of this
statement. One in particular, from the practice
of Dr. Whiteford, which shows the peculiar
susceptibility possessed by the members of
some families, and also the small quantity
which will sometimes suffice to produce symp-
toms of poisoning. Two. children of one family
came under his care suffering from ringworm
of the scalp. The treatment in both cases was
a two -and -a -half -per -cent, solution of car-
bolic acid applied in the form of a water-dress-
ing. In both, symptoms of poisoning occurred,
in one case exceedingly severe, and coming on
very shortly after the first application, while
in the other the symptoms were delayed for
two days and were altogether less severe. Re-
moval of the acid removed all the symptoms in
both cases. To satisfy his mind that the acid
was really at fault, and that the symptoms were
not merely a coincidence, he repeated the ex-
periment twice in each case — once to the scalp,
as before, and again to another part of the
body — with the result of bringing back the
urinary and gastric disturbances and the other
symptoms of carbolic irritation. In none of
these applications did the size of the portion of
the skin in contact with the acid exceed that
of a half-dollar. The result of the study of
these cases has been to diminish the strength
of the solutions of carbolic acid, as well as the
frequency of their application, and also to
substitute other substances which answer the
purpose even better and are attended with less
danger, such as eucalyptus globulus, acetate of
aluminum, and bichloride of mercury.

Erysipelas. — The proof of the pathogenic na-
ture of the niicrococci of erysipelas has been
given by Fehleisen, who has not only found
them present in all cases of erysipelas exam-
ined during life, but also cultivated them, and
with equal success inoculated the cultivated
organisms in animals and in man. In small
portions of skin excised from the diseased part
in patients suffering w:th erysipelas he found
in all cases numerous micrococci arranged in
chains. They were especially abundant in the
parts most recently affected; and here they
were found most abundantly in the superficial
layer of the corium and in the subcutaneous
adipose tissue, filling the lymphatics and the
lymph-spaces, while the rest of the tissue
showed a cell-infiltration. Contrary to the older
observers, they were never found in the blood-
vessels. To prove that their presence was not
merely accidental, Fehleisen cultivated some
small excised portions of skin on gelatin, after
carefully disinfecting the affected part, and suc-
ceeded/in the course of two months, in pro-
ducing fourteen generations. The cultivated
micrococci formed a whitish film, easily de-
VOL. XXIH. — 48 A

tached from the surface of the gelatin, and
consisting entirely of the specific tnicrococcus.
Nine rabbits were inoculated on the ears with
the pure and cultivated organisms. In one the
effect was merely a slight elevation of tem-
perature ; in all the others, after thirty-six to
forty-eight hours, the temperature rose, and a
characteristic erysipelatous rash appeared and
gradually extended to the root of the ear, and
thence spread to the head and neck. Within
eight days the disease had run its course, and
the animal recovered. Not one of the animals
died. The light-red color of the affected part,
the absence of oadema or suppuration, and the
presence of the micrococci in the lymphatics
of the affected part (seen in one case where the
eor was amputated during the height of the
disease), showed that the affection was true
erysipelas, and not septicaemia.

More valuable still to show the etiological
importance of the micrococci in erysipelas are
the inoculations on man. (Such a proceeding
was perfectly justifiable, when it is considered
that many of the older surgeons have quoted
cases showing the curative and beneficial effect
of erysipelas when occurring in cases of a more
serious nature, as cancer and lupus.) Fehl-
eisen inoculated the pure and cultivated micro-
cocci in seven patients, all suffering from severe
and incurable disease. Six out of the seven
cases showed, after a period of incubation vary-
ing from 15 to 60 hours, typical erysipelas, set-
ting in with chills and high temperature, and
running the characteristic course. In some the
symptoms were very -severe, in one there was
threatening collapse, and one was complicated
with pleurisy, which, however, soon subsided.
As regards the therapeutic effect, the inocula-
tions are of some interest. One case of lupus
was almost entirely cured. In another case the
cancerous tumors completely disappeared, and
there had been no recurrence.

The effect of antiseptics on the vitality of
the micrococci was also tried. Two substances
only were experimented with — carbolic acid and
corrosive sublimate. A three-per-cent. solu-
tion of the former stopped the growth of the
micrococci after a contact of 45 seconds, while
the same effect was produced in 15 seconds
with a one-per-cent. solution of the corrosive
sublimate. The list of diseases due to a spe-
cific organism is thus increased by one.

SWEDEN AND NORWAY, two kingdoms occu-
pying the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern
Europe, united indissolubly, by the Riksact of
1815, in the person of the sovereign. Succes-
sion to the throne is hereditary in the house of
Ponte Corvo. The throne is to be filled, in
case of absolute vacancy, by the joint action
of the two Parliaments. The common affairs
of both kingdoms are decided upon by a Coun-
cil of State.

The reigning King is Oscar II, born Jan. 21,
1829, grandson of Marshal Bernadotte, and the
fourth sovereign of the line.

SWEDEN. Constitution.— The legislative pow-

754

SWEDEN AND NOKWAY.

era are vested in the Diet, subject to the ap-
proval of the King, save in matters of political
administration and taxation, the former of
which is the exclusive province of the sover-
eign, and the latter that of the Diet. The Diet
consists of two chambers, both elective. The
franchise is limited by a property qualification.

Area and Population. — The area of Sweden is
170,979 square miles. The population in 1880
was 4,565,668. The estimated population on
Dec. 31, 1882, was 4,579,115, The mean an-
nual emigration in 1851-60 was 1,690; in
1861-70, 12,245; in 1871, 17,450; in 1872, 15,-
915; in 1873, 13,580; in 1874, 7,791 ; in 1875,
9,727; in 1876, 9,418; in 1877, 7,610; in 1878,
9,032; in 1879, 17,637; in 1880, 42,109; in
1881, 45,992.

Commerce* — The imports increased from 82,-
469,000 crowns, in 1860, to 288,060,000 in
1881 ; the exports from 86,496,000 to 223,196,-
000 crowns (1 crown=26'8 cents). The im-
ports from the United States in 1881 amounted
to 9,820,000 crowns; exports to the United
States, 355,000 crowns. The staple articles of
export are timber, pig-iron, and grain. The
leading imports are textile manufactures, coal,
and colonial merchandise, the latter largely on
the increase.

The length of railroads in operation in 1881
was 3,830 miles, of which the state owned
1,365 miles. The length of telegraph lines
was 7,210 miles; of wires, 18,380 miles. The
number of letters and journals carried by post
in 1881 was 68,731,121.

The Army. — The army is composed of five
classes of troops: men enlisted for three, four,
and six years, forming the guards, hussars, ar-
tillery, and engineers; the Indelta, who are
enlisted for life and cantoned on the estates of
the land-owners : the Gothland militia, not lia-
ble to service outside of the island ; the con-
scripted troops, who are called out annually
for 15 days; and the volunteer rifle corps, in
1881 numbering 11,065 men. The total
strength of the army in 1883 was 182,572
officers and men, with 836 guns and 6,649
horses.

Finances. — The ordinary receipts of the treas-
ury are estimated in the budget for 1884 at
21,270,000 crowns; the balance carried over
from former years, 4,100,000 crowns; net re-
ceipts of the Bank of Sweden, 1,300,000
crowns; extraordinary receipts, 52,340,000
crowns; total, 79,010,000 crowns. The ordi-
nary expenditures are estimated at 59,135,665
crowns; extraordinary expenditures, 8,221,335
crowns ; expenditures on account of the public
debt, 10,240,036 crowns; balance carried over,
1,412,964 crowns; total, 79,010,000 crowns.
Not only a large part of the army, but a great
number of the ecclesiastical functionaries, are
paid wholly or in part from the produce of
certain public domains. The expenses of pub-
lic instruction are mainly borne by the com-
munes and provinces.
Politics and Legislation. — For many years past

the Government has urged upon the Diet the
necessity of army reorganization, without
avail, until finally the question has been al-
lowed to rest. The great land-owners, who
control the vote of the First Chamber, are not
in favor of a change, because the charge of the
militia at present bears not so much on them
as on the farming class; while the Land-men's
party, who are in the majority in the popular
house, are averse to the new system because it
would greatly increase the burdens of the peo-
ple. The financial returns for 1883 are favora-
ble for the first time in a long period, and allow
of a reduction in the coffee duty instead of the
accustomed increase of taxation. In 1883 the
stamp-duties were enhanced, and the tax on
the manufacture of spirits increased.

NORWAY. Constitution. — The Grundlov of
Nov. 4, 1814, vests the legislative power in
the Storthing. Laws passed in three Stor-
things can not again be vetoed. The King has
command of the army and navy, and makes all
civil appointments. Since 1869 the sessions of
the Storthing have been annual. All property-
holders are electors. The members of the
Storthing are elected indirectly every three
years. After assembling they divide them-
selves into two bodies, three fourths forming
the Odelsthing, which originates all bills ; and
the other fourth the Lagthing, which approves
or rejects them.

The executive authority is exercised in the
name of the King by a State Council, com-
posed of two Ministers of State and at least
seven councilors. Two councilors, who are
changed annually, and one of the ministers,
form a deputation residing near the person of
the King, at Stockholm.

Area and Population. — The area of Norway is
122,869 square miles. The population in 1875
was 1,806,900, as compared with 1,701,365 in
1865. The town population in 1875 was 332,-
398, showing an increase of 24 per cent.,
against 4 per cent, in the rural districts. Emi-
gration has assumed considerable proportions
of late years, the movement being almost ex-
clusively to the United States. The number
of emigrants in 1871 was 12,276; in 1872,
13,865; in 1878, 10,352; in 1874, 4,601; in
1875, 4,048; in 1876, 4,355; in 1877, 3,206;
in 1878", 4,863 ; in 1879, 7,608 ; in 1880, 20,-
212; in 1881, 25,976; in 1882, 28,804.

Commerce. — The average annual value of the
imports in the five years, 1877-'81, was 161,-
300,000 crowns (one crown = 26'8 cents) ; of
the exports, 102,300,000 crowns. The imports
in 1882 amounted to 160,475,000 crowns. The
imports from the United States were valued at
2,569,000 crowns; the exports to the United
States at 156,000 crowns.

The tonnage entered at Norwegian ports in
1881 was 1,976,462 tons, of which 1,306,960
were Norwegian. The merchant fleet, which
in proportion to population is the largest in the
world, comprised in 1881 7,977 sail-vessels, of
1,520,404 tons, against 1,007,908 in 1870, and

SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

SWITZERLAND.

755

859 steamers, of 65,627 tons. The number of
sailors was 60,064.

The Army.— The troops are raised mainly by
conscription. The military forces are divided
into line troops, the train, the militia, or Land-
vaern, the civic guards, and the Landstorm, or
final levy. All men of the age of twenty-two
are liable to conscription. They are called
out for practice only about thirty days each
year, for a period of from three to five years.
The active force is limited to 750 officers and
18,000 men, which numbers can only be ex-
ceeded by special act of the Storthing.

Finances. — The receipts in 1882 amounted to
39,694.400 crowns from the ordinary revenue,
and 8,637,900 crowns from extraordinary
sources. The ordinary expenditures amount-
ed to 39,350,300 crowns; the expenditures for
railroad construction to 6,627,300 crowns.

The national debt on June 30, 1882, amount-
ed to 106,124,000 crowns, the greater part
bearing interest at 4£ per cent., the last loan,
contracted in 1880, at 4 per cent. The funds,
railroad stock, and other assets of the state,
exceeded the debt.

Political Crisis. — The Storthing passed twice
over the royal veto a bill to compel the minis-
ters to be present at the sittings and to answer
questions. The question raised by the Radi-
cal majority was that of the responsibility of
the ministers, which had never before been
brought to a practical issue. The King in-
sisted on his appointing power and the abso-
lute right to choose his own advisers, and
therefore denied the jurisdiction of the Stor-
thing over matters pertaining to the executive.
The last Storthing was dissolved with an angry
reproof. The new one contained a largely in-
creased Radical majority. When the Stor-
thing was opened in February, by the King in
person, the deputies showed an unbending
spirit. The King not only contests the prin-
ciple of ministerial responsibility, but desires
to alter the Constitution of the country, and,
in fact, deprive the Norwegian people of the
cherished right to make their own laws. He
proposes to reconstitute the Lagthing and
transform it into a real Senate, which will act
as a counterpoise to the popular chamber. In
this he has with him the Conservative party,
which is composed of a portion of the towns-
people, and largely of the German and other
foreign population in the few large towns of
Norway; while he is opposed by the entire
farming population, which composes the Lib-
eral party. The King has persisted in select-
ing his ministers from the Conservative party,
and exasperated the people by imposing upon
them a Government at variance with the sen-
timent of the country. The point directly at
issue in the constitutional struggle between the
King and the people is the absolute veto which
he claims over the acts of the Legislature.
The ultra-monarchic principles which he en-
deavors to import into the extremely liberal
Norwegian Constitution have excited a strong

reaction of feeling in favor of a republican
form of government. The ministers still re-
fused to occupy the seats placed for them in
the legislative hall. In April, on the recom-
mendation of the parliamentary committee,
the Odelsthing decided to impeach the minis-
ters and Councilors of State. Toward the
close of the year the tribunal, composed of
certain members of the Lagthing and of the
nine judges of the Supreme Court, was consti-
tuted, and the recalcitrant ministers were sum-
moned to stand their trial.

SWEDENBORGIMS. See NEW JERUSALEM
CHURCH.

SWITZERLAND, a federal republic in central
Europe. The legislative and executive au-
thority of the confederacy is vested in the
State Council, composed of 44 members, chosen
by the twenty-two cantons, and the National
Council or Nationalrath, chosen by direct elec-
tion at the rate of one member for every 20,000
inhabitants. Every male citizen over twenty
years of age is a voter. Clergymen are not
eligible. Both Chambers united form the Fed-
eral Assembly. The executive authority is
delegated to the Bundesrath, or Federal Coun-
cil, consisting of seven members, chosen for
three years by the Federal Assembly. The
President and Vice-President of the Federal
Council are elected by the Federal Assembly
for one year, and are not eligible, for the next
consecutive term.

The President of the Confederation for 1883
was L. Ruchonnet ; the Vice-President, Dr. E.
Welti. The other members are Dr. K. Schenk,
W. F. Hertenstein, B. Hammer, N. Droz, and
Dr. A. Deucher.

Area and Population. — The area of Switzer-
land is 41,389 square kilometres, or 15,992
square miles. The population, Dec. 1, 1880,
was 2,846,102, against 2,669,138 in 1870. The
number of Protestants was 1,667,109, or 58-6
per cent. ; of Catholics, 1,160,782, or 40-8 per
cent, of the total population ; there were 7,373
Israelites, and 10,838 of other creeds, the
number of emigrants in 1882 was 10,896, of
whom 10,047 settled in the United States.

Education. — The number of elementary schools
in Switzerland is 4,586 ; the number of pupils
434,080 in 1883; of teachers, 5,840 males and
2,525 females. Of the pupils, 218,191 were
boys and 215,889 girls. Switzerland expends
for primary instruction about 15,000,000 francs
a year, and for new school-buildings about
3,000,000.

Railroads, Posts, Telegraphs.— The Swiss rail-
roads in 1882 had a total length of 2,571
kilometres, or 1,594 miles. The length of tele-
graph lines was 6,744 kilometres at the end
of 1882; length of wires," 16,336 kilometres.
The post-office in 1882 forwarded 84,069,486
letters and post-cards, of which 57,872,718
were internal and 26,196,768 international.

Finances. — The gross receipts of the Federal
treasury in 1882 were 43,736,106 francs; ex-
penditures, 43,247,797 foancs ; receipts com-

rse

TENNESSEE.

puted in the budget for 1883. 48,382,000 francs;
expenditures, 48,674,000 francs ; the net re-
ceipts of the cantons in 1876, 39,743,726 francs;
of the Confederation, 17,239,733 francs; total,
56,983,459 francs; the net disbursements of
the cantons, 44,103,073 francs; of the Con-
federation, 18,303,499 francs; total, 62,406,572
francs. The total assets of the Confederation,
Jan. 1, 1883, were 54,664,510 francs, and the
total debts 36,457,895 francs, showing a sur-
plus of 18,206,615 francs. The total amount
of the cantonal debts in 1877 was 252,793,373,
and of the assets 456,267,202 francs, making
a reproductive public fortune of 203,473,829
francs ; or, including the surplus capital of the
Confederation at that time, of 208,074,391
francs.

The Army. — The Federal army is composed of
the regular army (Bundesauszug), to which nil
are liable between the ages of twenty and
thirty-two, and the reserve (Laudwehr), which
comprises all the male citizens between 33 and
44 years of age. The effective of the regular
army, Jan. 1, 1883, was 114,620; of the re-
serve, 90,259 men; total, 205,176.

Religions Conflict.— In 1873 Monsignor Mer-
millod, the most active champion of Ultramon-
tane doctrines, and one of the most eloquent
and successful preachers in Switzerland, per-
suaded the Pope to renew the attempts made
under his predecessors to separate the united
sees of Lausanne and Geneva, and erect Geneva
into an independent bishopric. Abbe Mer-
millod had built up the flourishing church of
Notre Dame, and since 1864 officiated as aux-
iliary for Geneva, with the title of a bishop
in partibus. The Federal Government refused
to sanction the creation of a separate diocese
of Geneva. The Holy See then constituted it
a Catholic vicariate, and appointed Monsignor
Mermillod apostolic vicar. He at once in-
stalled himself in the post, and paid no atten-
tion to protestations of the Federal Council.
The Council then forbade him to discharge any
ecclesiastical functions, and upon his continued
disobedience issued a decree of banishment, and
had him conducted across the frontier. The

Pope, in an encyclical note, Nov. 21, 1873,
denounced the act as infamous, whereupon the
Swiss Government, Dec. 12, 1873, broke off
diplomatic intercourse with the Vatican.

The Old Catholic movement was then in its
most nourishing stage, and the cantonal au-
thorities endowed the schismatic branch with
the diocesan subsidies, and attempted to estab-
lish it as the state church of the Catholic con-
fession in 1876. This National Church, which
obtained the official recognition of the Prot-
estant legislators, dwindled away, while the
strength and zeal of the Catholic community
were stimulated. The animosities of the con-
flict between church and state subsided to a
considerable extent in Switzerland, as in other
lands, after the accession of Leo X. The re-
establishrnent of the Catholic authorities in
Geneva was a public necessity. The see of
Lausanne and Geneva was left vacant by the
death of the late incumbent in the beginning
of 1883. The Pope first prepared the way for
the restoration of normal conditions by abol-
ishing the office of apostolic vicar, and then,
in vindication of the course of the Curia, ap-
pointed Monsignor Mermillod Bishop of Lau-
sanne and Geneva, announcing that he would
reside in Freyburg, so as to avoid the revival
of the old controversy. The appointment was
at first greeted with violent remonstrances,
but the Federal Government rescinded the
decree of exile, and the authorities of Vaud,
Neufchatel, and Freyburg expressed themselves
satisfied with the appointment, though Geneva
still objected. He came back as the repre-
sentative of a conciliatory policy, and surprised
his old enemies by using his authority to re-
press the political activity of the clergy, and
by favoring the liberal section of the church.

There were other difficulties between the
civil and Catholic ecclesiastical authorities, in
the diocese of Ticino and elsewhere. Yet far
more exciting was the controversy over the
suppression of the missionary meetings and ex-
pulsion of the English Salvationists, a question
which agitated Switzerland for many months.
(See SALVATION ARMY.)

TARIFF. See page 129 et seq.

TENNESSEE. State Government.— The follow-
ing were the State officers during the year:
Governor, William B. Bate, Democrat ; Secre-
tary of State, D. A. Nunn ; Treasurer and In-
surance Commissioner, Atha Thomas ; Comp-
troller, P. P. Pickard; Attorney-General, B. J.
Lea ; Superintendent of Public Instruction, J.
H. Paine; Commissioner of Agriculture, Sta-
tistics, and Mines, A. T. McWhirter ; Register
of Lands, W. S. Winbourn; Railroad Commis-
sioners, J. H. Savage. G. W. Gondon, and J. A.
Turley. Judiciary, Supreme Court: Chief-
Justice, J. W. Deaderick ; Associates, W. F.

Cooper, T. J. Freeman, Robert McFarland, and
Peter Turney.

Legislative Session. — The Legislature convened
on January 1st, and adjourned on March 30th.
Among the acts passed were the following:

To exempt from execution tobacco to the amount of
300 pounds, in the hands of the actual producers ; to
prevent the sale, loan, or gift of pistol-cartridges ; to
prohibit the sale of toy -pistols ; to provide for a more
efficient management of public schools, and taxing dis-
tricts where there is an incorporated system of public
schools ; to protect employe's and day-laborers of cor-
porations and partnersnip firms against the insolvency
of such corporations and firms ; providing an improved
system for the assessment and collection of taxes ; to

TENNESSEE.

757

provide for the infliction of the death-penalty in pri-
vate ; to prevent the owners of billiard, bagatelle, or
pool tables permitting minors to play thereon ; to reg-
ulate pool-selling, book-making, and combinations
upon turf, trotting, and pacing races ; to punish crimi-
nal abortions ; to provide for the erection of an insane
hospital in the eastern division of Tennessee ; to em-
power municipal corporations and taxing districts to
compromise and fund their indebtedness ; to provide
for the lease and management of the State Peniten-
tiary ; to define the measure of damages recoverable in
case of the death of a person caused by the wrongful
act, fault, or omission of another ; to provide for the
regulation of railroad companies and persons operating
railroads ; to prevent discrimination upon railroads, to
provide for the punishment of the same, and to ap-
point a railroad commission ; to protect contractors and
laborers for work performed and materials furnished
for railroads ; to provide for the redemption of the
notes of the Bank of Tennessee, and to protect the
State therein.

Debt Question.— The act of 1882 providing for
compromising and funding the bonded indebt-
edness of the State was repealed, and a new act
was passed, based in its terms upon the Demo-
cratic platform of 1882. The most important
portions of this law, which its friends hope will
prove a final settlement of the much-vexed debt
question, are the following :

Such part of the State debt proper as now bears in-
terest at the rate of six per cent, per annum shall be
funded by adding to the sum of the face of the exist-
ing bond the matured interest thereon, evidenced by
the coupons thereto attached, including the coupons
maturing the 1st day of July, 1883, and from the total
sum of the face of the bonds and matured interest there -
on, evidenced by the coupons attached, twenty-four
per cent, will be deducted and the remainder funded
in coupon bonds, bearing interest at the rate of six per
cent, per annum. Such part of the State debt proper
as now bears interest at the rate of five and one fourth
per cent, per annum shall be funded by adding to the
sum of the face of the existing bonds the matured in-
terest thereon, including the coupons maturing the first
day of July, 1883, evidenced by the coupons thereto
attached ; and, from the total sum of the face of the
bonds and the accrued interest, twenty-one per cent,
will be deducted and the remainder funded with cou-
pon bonds bearing interest at the rate of five and one
fourth per cent, per annnm. Such part of said State
debt proper as now bears interest at tne rate of five per
cent, per annum shall be funded by adding to the sum
of the face of the existing bond the matured interest
thereon, including the coupons matured first day of
July, 1883, evidenced by the coupons thereto attached,
and from the total sum of the face of the bond and
the accrued interest twenty per cent, will be deducted,
and the remainder funded into coupon bonds bearing
interest at the rate of five per cent, per annum :

Provided, however, That none of the bonds or parts
of bonds heretofore issued under the previous funding
acts for matured coupons shall be funded under this
section as State debt proper bonds, but the same shall
be funded at fifty cents on the dollar.

Re itfurtTier enacted, That such part of the before-
recited public debt of the State as may have been
funded under the act of 1882, shall be funded under
this act upon the following basis : To the sum of the
face of each of said bonds shall be added the coupons,
now matured, thereto attached, including the coupons
maturing the 1st day of July, 1883, and five sixths of
such total amount of said bonds to be funded into cou-
pon bonds, and said bonds to bear interest at the rate
of three per cent, per annum, except such State debt
proper bonds as are designated in section one of this
act, and funded under the act of 1882, which shall be
funded by adding to the face of each of said bonds
the matured coupons thereto attached, including the

coupons maturing the 1st day of July, 1883; to which
shall be added 261 per cent, on bonds which bore 6
per cent, when originally issued and funded into new
coupon bonds bearing interest at the rate of 6 per
cent, per annum, and to such part of said State debt
proper bonds as bore interest at the rate of 5^ per cent,
when originally issued shall be added 31| per cent.,
and they shall be funded into new coupon bonds bear-
ing interest at the rate of 5i per cent, per annum, and
to such part of said State de Dt proper bonds as bore
interest at the rate of 5 per cent, when originally is-
sued shall be added 33i per cent., and they shall be
funded into new coupon bonds bearing interest at the
rate of 5 per cent, per annum.

Education. — The scholastic population of the
year was 418,822 white and 142,624 colored ;
number of schools, 4,727 white, 1,384 colored ;
total 6,111, sixty-nine of which were under
the control of city boards. White pupils en-
rolled, 261,297; colored, 65,934; total, 327,-
231 ; average daily attendance, white, 144,306;
colored, 31,498— total, 175,804. Number of
white male teachers employed, 3,762 ; female,
1,518 ; colored male, 1,031 ; colored female,
422— total, 6,733. The receipts of the year
were $1 ,206,392. Expenditures (of which $795,-
483 was for teachers, and $57,804 for school-
sites), $918,863; balance, $287,529.

The present school law, which was passed
March 6, 1873, created a school fund, of $2,512,-
500, with interest at 6 per cent, per annum.

Finances. — The cash received by the Treasurer
from Dec. 19, 1880, to Dec. 19, 1882, was $1,-
870,224.02, which, with $222,424.39 cash in
the treasury, made a total cash account of
$2,092.648.41. The disbursements from Dec.
19, 1880, to Dec. 19, 1882, were only $1,584,-
633.33, which left in the treasury a cash bal-
ance of $508,015.08. The total amount due
by delinquents, Dec. 18. 1880, was $375,804.-
70; Dec. 18, 1882, $345,626.56, being a reduc-
tion of $30,178.14 in the two years. The total
State tax for 1882 on taxable property assessed
at 20 cents on the dollar was $443,849.42 ; in

1881, at 30 cents, it was $675,869.58, making
a deficit in tax of $232,010.16.

The valuation of property in 1882 was as
follows :

Value of land in acres $146,657,833

Value of town lots 48,725,735

Value of other taxables 26,546,245

Total value of taxable property in the State. $221,929,818

Early in January the State Treasurer, M. T.
Polk, fled from the State, and upon investiga-
tion it was found that he was a defaulter to
the amount of $374,364.50.

Railroads.— The total length of railroads in
the State is 2,035 miles; and their total tax-
able value, $31,197,200.

Congressional Districts.— The following are the
congressional districts formed under a law of

1882, as amended in 1883 :

1. Johnson, Carter, Sullivan, Washington, Unicoi,
Hawkins, Greene, Hamblen, Hancock, Claiborne,
Cocke, and Grainger counties.

2. Jefferson, Union, Sevier, Blount, Knox, Loudon,
Koane, Anderson, Morgan, Campbell, and Scott.

3. Monroe, Polk, Bradley, Hamilton, Meigs, Ehea,
Cumberland, James, McMinn, Bledsoc, Sequatchie,
Marion, Grundy, Van Buren, White; and Warren.

758

TENNEY, WILLIAM J.

TEXA8.

4. Sumner, Wilson, Macon, Trousdale, Smith, De
Kalb, Clay, Jackson, Putnam, Overton, Fentress, and
Pickett.

5. Cannon, Coffee, Franklin, Lincoln, Moore, Mar-
shall, Bedford, and Kutherford.

6. Davidson, Kobertson, Cheatham, Montgomery,
Stewart, Humphreys, and Houston.

7. Williamson, Maury, Giles, Lawrence, Wayne,
Lewis, Hickman, and Dickson.

8. Henry, Benton, Perry, Decatur, Hardin, Mc-
Nairy, Henderson, Madison, and Carroll.

9. Weakley, Gibson, Crockett, Haywood, Lauder-
dale, Dyer, Obion, and Lake.

10. Hardeman, Fayette, Shelby, and Tipton.

TENNEY, William Jewett, an American jour-
nalist, born in Newport, R. I., in 1814; died
in Newark, N. J., Sept. 20, 1883. His father
was the Rev. Dr. C. J. Tenney, pastor of the
orthodox church in Newport, and his mother
was Ruth Ohanning. Mr. Tenney was gradu-
ated at Yale College in 1832, and studied

JEWETT TENNEY.

medicine in Boston, but turned his attention
to law, which he studied in New Haven,
Conn. After being admitted to the bar, Mr.
Tenney opened an office in New York city;
but soon after joined the editorial staff of
the "Evening Post," in which connection he
continued for two years. He completed Ben-
ton's " Abridgment of the Debates of Con-
gress " (left unfinished at Senator Benton's
death) ; edited the " Queens of England "
(1852) ; was editor of " The Mining Magazine,"
monthly (1853) ; and was a contributor to
Hunt's " Merchants' Magazine." He was also
occupied with various other literary works,

among which may be named " The Military and
Naval History of the Rebellion in the United
States " (New York, 1865). He was presiding
judge of one of the criminal courts of Brook-
lyn, N. Y., for two terms, and during Mr. Bu-
chanan's administration he was collector of the
port at Elizabeth, N. J.

Thirty years ago Judge Tenney accepted a
place in the establishment of D. Appleton &
Co., New York. The "Annual Cyclopaedia,"
issued by this house (of which the present vol-
ume is the twenty-third in consecutive order),
was begun by him, and by him edited year by
year, from its inception to his decease. He
also did a large amount of other literary and
critical work.

Judge Tenney was from time to time elected
a freeholder, and was a member of the City
Council of Elizabeth, N. J., for fourteen years.
He prepared the plan for organizing
the public-school system, and was
president of the board. Important
decisions also were constantly re-
ferred to him.

He was twice married. His sec-
ond wife was a daughter of Orestes
A. Brownson.

Judge Tenney was known to his
friends as a man of great purity
and excellence, as well as possessed
of clear intellectual power. He left
two sons and three daughters.

TEXAS. State Government. — The
State officers during the year were
the following: Governor, John Ire-
land, Democrat ; Lieutenant-Gov-
ernor, Marion Martin ; Secretary
of State, J. W. Baines ; Treasurer,
Frank R. Lubbock; Comptroller,
W. J. Swain; Attorney-General,
J. D. Templeton ; Commissioner of
Lands, W. C. Walsh; Commissioner
of Insurance, H. P. Brewster ; State
Engineer, J. H. Britton. Judiciary,
Supreme Court : Chief-Justice, Asa
H. Willie; Associate Justices, John
W. Stayton and Charles S. West.

Legislative Session.— The Legisla-
ture convened on January 9th, and
adjourned on April 13th. On Jan-
uary 23d, Richard Coke, Democrat,
was re-elected United States Sen-
ator without substantial opposition. Of the
700 bills introduced, about 150 became laws.
In reviewing the work of the session, the Gov-
ernor said :

By the act to protect the wool-growing industry of
western Texas, a great enterprise is aided and encour-
aged. By the act organizing the judicial districts, the
disposition of business in the courts will be greatly
facilitated. The act to facilitate the collections of
claims from the General Government on account of
moneys expended hi frontier defense, will enable
Texas to reclaim money she should have had long
since. The railroad bill is a measure designed on the
one hand to satisfy a reasonable demand for a system
of supervision sufficiently extensive and minute as
regards the safe condition of road-beds and bridges,

TEXAS.

759

and as regards fair dealing with shippers; and de-
signed on the other hand to avoid the over-regulation
that might work serious injury alike to the public and
to legitimate railroad business. The law regulating
the management of the penitentiaries was amended so
as to forbid the leasing of the same, but authorizes the
board to hire convicts to planters for a term of years
if in then-judgment the interests of the State will he
served. The food-adulteration act provides that no
person shall manufacture, offer for sale, or sell any
article of food, wines, beers, fermented or distilled
liquors or drugs, which is by him known to be adul-
terated, within the meaning of this act.

Four amendments to the Constitution were
passed, and directed to be submitted to a vote
of the people on the second Tuesday of August.
These amendments follow : The first provides
for the sale of lands set apart for schools. The
second limits the amount of taxation by the
State to 35 cents on $100, exclusive of taxes to
pay the public debt and for free schools ; and
by counties and towns to 25 cents on $100, ex-
cept for debts incurred before the amendment,
or for permanent improvements. The third
relates to taxes for a free-school fund. The
fourth regulates the terms of the county courts.
These were ratified by the following vote :

AMENDMENTS.

For.

Against.

First

29,734

21,060

29482

20,188

Third

80,553

20,237

Fourth

30,640

17,498

Congressional Districts. — The new congressional
districts formed in 1882 are as follow :

1. Harris, Chambers, Liberty, Jefferson, Orange,
Hardin, Waller, Montgomery, Grimes, Walker, Polk,
Tyler, Jasper, Newton, San Jacinto, Brazos, Madison,
Trinity, and Angelina counties.

2. Eobertson, 'Leon, Houston, San Augustine, Sa-
bine, Freestone, Anderson, Cherokee, Nacogdoches,
and Henderson.

3. Panola, Harrison, Kusk, Gregg, Smith, Wood,
Van Zandt, Upshur, Camp, Hunt, Shelby, and Rains.

4. Cass, Marion, Bowie, Bed River, Morris, Titus,
Franklin, Lamar, Delta, Fannin, and Hopkins.

5. Grayson, Collin, Copke; Denton, Wise, Mon-
tague, Clay, Rockwall, Wichita, Wilbarger, Archer,
and Baylor.

6. Ellis, Kaufman, Dallas, Tarrant, Hill, John-
son, and Bosque.

7. Galveston, Brazoria, Fort Bend, Wharton, Mat-
agorda, Jackson, Calhouc, Victoria, Goliad, Refu-
gio. Bee, San Patrick), Nueces, Duval, Cameron,
Hidalgo, Starr, Zapata, Encinal, Webb, McMullen,
La Salle, Dimmit, Aransas, Maverick, Zavalla, De
Witt, and Frio.

8. Austin, Lee, Fayette, Colorado, Lavaca, Gon-
zales, Caldwell, Hays, Guadalupe, Wilson, Karnes,
Live Oak, and Atascosa.

9. Washington, Burleson, Milam, Bell, Falls, Mc-
Lennan, Limestone, and Navarro.

10. Travis, Comal, Blanco, Bexar, Medina, Ban-
dera, Uvalde, Kinney, Edwards, Kerr, Kendall, Gil-
lespie, Kimble, Burnet, Llano, Mason, Menard, Lam-
pasas, McCulloch, Concho, Coleman, Runnels, Bas-
trop, Williamson, Crockett, and San Saba.

11. Parker, Hood, Somerville, Coryell, Hamilton,
Brown, Comanche, Erath, Eastland, Palo Pinto, Ste-
phens, Jack, Young, Throckmorton, Shackleford, Cal-
lahan, Taylor, Jones, Haskell, Knox.Nolan, Mitchell,
Howard, Martin, Andrews, Gainea, Dawson, Borden,
Scurry, Fisher, Stonewall, Kent, Garza, Lynn, Terry,
Yoakum, Cochran, Hockley, Lubbock, Crosby, Dick-

ens, King, Cottle, Motley, Floyd. Hale, Lamb, Bailey,
Tom Green, Pecos, Presidio, ChildreBS, Swisher, Deaf
Smith, Donley, Gray, Oldnam, Hutchinbon, Lips-
comb, Sherman, Hall, Castro, Randall, Collingsworth,
Carson, Hartley, Roberts, Ochiltree, Dallam, Greer,
Briscoe. Parmer, Armstrong. Wheeler, Potter, Moore,
Hempmll, Hardeman, Hansford, and El Paso.

Finances.— The reduction of the State debt in
the past four years has been $1,745,157.21. Of
the bonds now outstanding, $1,712,200 bear 6
per cent, $1,254,000 are 7 per cents, $1,068,-
900 are 5 per cents, and $2,630 are 4 per cents.
The school fund, university fund, and other
State special funds hold $2,547,100 of these
bonds, and Texas counties hold nearly half a
million more, leaving only about $1,000,000
held by private parties. The following table
shows the appropriations made by the 18th
Legislature, used and to be used during the
two years from March 1, 1883, to March 1,
1885, with corresponding appropriations by
the 17th Legislature for the years beginning
March 1, 1881, and ending March 1, 1883;

APPROPRIATIONS.

17th Legislature,
two years.

18th Legislature,
two years.

$58,820
84,170
27,400
96,400
115,820
19,400
6,500
148,400
22,870
55,380
278,440
88,845
2,800
4,000
40,000
21,737
3,000

15,000

4,500
76,000
413.500
625.455
200,000

$50,600
82,570
41,200
119,700
157,540
83,000
10,400
161,700
23,620
180,872
536,960
71,820
92,800
4,000
41,000
25,600
12,000

40,000

5,000
105,000
210,500
488,124
161,508
242,050
5S2,OT4
21,750
117,581
779,975
62,689

120,666
$4,551,688

Department of State

Comptroller's Department
General Land-Office
Insurance Bureau

Adjutant-General's Office
Attorney-General's Office
Deaf and Dumb Asylum
Lunatic A sylum

Prairie View Institute

Agricultural and Mechanical Col-

Survey University and school

Capitol Commission

82,000
90,629
755,801
468,817
8,500
140,000
1,120,091
45,000
50,000

$5,107,775

Legislature, mileage, etc

l o retire

fT* P *t 1

Total

These amounts do not include the available
school fund derived from taxation, either for
the last term or the ensuing two years. The
valuation for 1884 is estimated at $527,500,000.

Education. — Texas has more liberally endowed
all the State educational institutions than any
other State in the Union. This endowment
amounts to nearly $100,000,000. To this may
be added buildings at the Agricultural and Me-
chanical College, some $200,000, and college
lands, $12,000; buildings and lands at Prairie
View Normal School (for colored teachers).

760

TEXAS.

THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS.

$15,000; buildings, etc., at Sam Houston Nor-
mal School, $10,000; university grounds and
buildings, $100,000, and school-houses in many
of the counties belonging to the State. The
scholastic census shows a population of about
310,500, to which is to be distributed about
$1,375,000, or about $4.41 per capita, which
will probably support a term of 5£ months.
The change in the Constitution separates the
school-tax from that for general purposes, and
will permit an increased school revenue.

The State University was opened in the au-
tumn. The State, by the last Constitution,
gave a million acres of land to the institution,
which was located in the pastoral regions of
southwest Texas, and which will probably be
leased and produce a handsome income. Also,
at the last session of the Legislature, a fur-
ther donation of a million acres of land was
made, which is in Northwest Texas. The uni-
versity permanent fund now comprises about
$539,198.40 in bonds and 2,000,000 acres in
lands.

The Agricultural and Mechanical College,
endowed by act of Congress, has a permanent
fund in State bonds of $209,000, and enjoys
annual appropriations from the State treasury,
supporting 93 State students. At the last ses-
sion of the Legislature the sum of $40,000 was
appropriated to equip the agricultural and me-
chanical departments.

The two permanent normal schools, one at
Huntsville for white, and the other at Prairie
View for colored students, are liberally sup-
ported. Not only are the students provided
free tuition, but their bourd and lodging are
paid for out of the State treasury. The State
also, during one or two months in the sum-
mer, supports thirty-one normal schools for
whites, and eleven for colored teachers. The
average attendance is about 25 each, or
about 1,000 teachers preparing for the public
schools.

The Penitentiaries.— During the year the Legis-
lature made a change from the system of leas-
ing the penitentiaries and convicts so long in
vogue. Under the new system contracts are
made for working 1,500 of the 2,300 State con-
victs in the walls of the two penitentiaries.

Railroads. — The following figures relate to
the close of 1883 :

Total miles of railroad (including side tracks) 6,465-24

Total miles of wood bridges 154-07

Total miles of combination bridges 2 - 50

Total miles of iron and steel bridges 5 • 50

Total number of locomotives : 601

Total number of passenger-cars 26!)

Total number of baggage, express, and mail cars. . . Ill

Total number of freight-cars 18.242

Total miles of steel rails 2,243'20

Total miles of iron rails 4,222-04

There is little prospect of railway construc-
tion being resumed to any very great extent
during 1884.

Crops and Shipments.— The following is an ex-
hibit of the amount and value of State prod-
ucts—principally exports — for the year ending
Aug. 31, 1883:

Values.
Cotton, 1,513.310 bales $75.6(55,500

Wool, 22,780,230 pounds 4,100,441

Hides, 13,312,746 pounds 1,464,402

Cattle, 703,642 head (including the drive) 16,346,950

Horses, 19,224 head $480,60

Lumber and shingles 9,226,413

Grainandhay 5,674,815

Cotton-seed, cotton-seed cake and oil 8,428,516

Miscellaneous products 2,876,419

Sugar and molasses 642,210

Total $119,906,296

THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS OF THE UNITED
STATES. The early New England colonists
brought from the Old World their Puritan
doctrines and customs. Many of the first
preachers had received their training in the
English universities. When the earliest col-
leges were founded, the prime object contem-
plated was the fitting of young men to preach
the gospel, which accounts for the fact that
the colleges on this continent are mostly de-
nominational. No professors of divinity were
appointed, nor were theological topics intro-
duced into the courses of study ; but the presi-
dents of the colleges were expected to be able
to give timely and special counsel to young
men who might contemplate devoting them-
selves to the work of the ministry. Dr. D wight,
at Yale College, taught theology in his Sunday
sermons, which were so arranged as to form a
body of divinity. Rev. Charles Backus (born
1749, died 1803), while a pastor in Connecticut,
educated nearly fifty theological students. The
first actual experiment in public theological
instruction was begun by the Rev. Dr. John
M. Mason, of New York. Dr. Mason was
graduated at Columbia College in 1789, went
to Edinburgh to study theology, and in 1793
assumed the pastorate of the Reformed Church
in New York city. He gathered ministerial
candidates about him, and for some years
gave them regular instruction in Greek and
Hebrew exegesis, and kindred topics. At
length he projected the plan of a theological
seminary, which (the first on this continent)
was established in New York in 1804, Dr. Ma-
son being its professor of theology. In 1808
the Congregationalists organized a theological
seminary at Andover, Mass., which was the
first in the United States having a fully
equipp'ed faculty. In 1812 the Presbyterians
founded a theological seminary at Princeton,
N. J. In 1817 the Protestant Episcopal Church
founded the General Theological Seminary in
New York. Since the above dates such insti-
tutions have multiplied rapidly, and now all
the larger denominations have well-organized
theological schools.

The regular course of study in all the fully
organized theological schools extends over a
period of three years. A few of the semi-
naries have recently added a fourth year, for
post-graduate study. The curriculum is de-
signed for College graduates, but others are
admitted if their previous studies enable them
to pursue it profitably. Young men who have
not enjoyed the benefits of liberal culture are

THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS.

permitted to take a partial course, omitting
the advanced studies, and more difficult and
critical questions. Among the topics embraced
in the regular course are the following: 1.
Biblical interpretation, including study of the
Hebrew language, exegesis of parts of the
Greek Testament and history of manuscripts.
2. Theology, including a systematic examina-
tion of the proofs of the existence of God,
origin and inspiration of the Scriptures, and
Jesus Christ, his deity, his humanity, his the-
anthropic personality, the atonement, etc. 3.
Ecclesiastical history, including study of the
ancient, mediasval, and modern Church,
schisms, history and development of doc-
trines, the Reformation, Reformed Churches,
etc. In addition to class recitations from text-
books, the student is expected to do much
collateral reading, and to prepare essays upon
the subjects gone over. The professors of the
department also give instruction by lectures.
4. Homiletics, or a study of the best methods
of preparing and delivering sermons. 5. Prac-
tical duties of the pastor. 6. Elocution. In ad-
dition to instruction in breathing and voice-
culture, particular attention is given to the
reading of Scripture and hymns, and to lect-
ures on pulpit oratory. 7. Lectureships. Dur-
ing the past few years provision has been made
in nearly all of the larger institutions for a
course of lectures each year, by men who have
been successful as ministers and of acknowl-
edged eminence in scholarship, on subjects re-
lating to preaching, and to the practical work
of the pastor.

The following is a statistical summary,
from the latest reports available, January 1,
1884, of the theological schools in the United
States :

TIME, STANDARD.

761

STATES.

Number of

seminaries.

Number of
professors.

Number of

students.

Alabama

8

4

58

California

3

10

15

Colorado

1

4

1

Connecticut

3

27

157

Georgia

3

122

Illinois

16

55

464

Indiana

8

9

79

Iowa

5

11

66

Kansas

1

2

2

Kentucky. . .

5

18

216

Louisiana...

4

5

68

Maine

2

9

45

Maryland .

5

31

834

Massachusetts . . .

7

40

260

Michigan

2

6

49

Minnesota

3

28

66

Mississippi

Missouri . .

2
3

4
12

28
153

Nebraska..

2

2

7

New Jersey . . .

5

27

306

New York

14

62

627

North Carolina
Ohio

5
18

10
44

68

274

Pennsylvania

14

63

454

South Carolina

8

4

69

Tennessee . .

7

21

259

Texas

2

3

26

Virginia

Wisconsin

4
6

16
27

171
270

District of Columbia

2

6

75

Totals

148

565

4784

DENOMINATION.

Seminiriei.

Profouon.

Student*.

Baptist...

19

67

Congregationalist
Christian

11

6

68

jj

887

Free-will Baptist

2

7

51

Lutheran
Methodist

19
17

49
56

476

New Jerusalem
Presbyterian .

1
17

>t*

79

6

Protestant Episcopal ... .
Reformed ...

20
5

67
18

886

Eotnan Catholic

21

121

1 008

Unitarian

2t

lot

Universalist
Others .

2

|

8
19

81

Totals. .

148

565

TDIE, STANDARD AM) COSMOPOLITAN. The

subject of fixing upon auniform standard of time,
with which the local time of all places may be
compared, has been discussed for many years.
The confusion which may arise from the "exist-
ence of so many varying standards of time as
now prevail at different meridians has long
been recognized by sailors, who, when they have
reached a point half-way around the earth from
the one whence they started, are accustomed
to add a day to their reckoning, or to subtract
one, according as they have sailed east or west.
The same difficulties exist, but lessened in a
degree, in all the continents and in all single
countries of considerable extent. They have
not, however, forced themselves upon the at-
tention of the general public as matters de-
manding practical treatment until since the
general extension of the railroad systems and
telegraph lines. They have been felt with pe-
culiar force in the United States, because of
the great longitudinal extent of the country,
which causes a difference of four hours in time
between the Atlantic and the Pacific States, and
of the intricacies of the railroad connections.
Previous to the adoption of the uniform stand-
ards, in November, 1883, the managers of the
several railroads in the United States endeav-
ored to conform to the local time of the most
important or most central stations on their re-
spective lines. Sometimes they used one stand-
ard to control the running of the trains on one
part of their line, and another standard on an-
other part. Sometimes they had to arrange for
time-connections with other railroads running
by standards differing from their own and from
one another. It was computed that there were
about 75 different standards controlling the
moving of the trains in different parts of the
country. A traveler going from Boston to
Washington would have to set his watch five
times in order to keep correct time while on
the journey. From Boston to Providence he
would be traveling on Boston time; from
Providence to New London on Providence
time; from New London to New York on
New York time ; from New York to Baltimore
on Philadelphia time ; and from Baltimore to
Washington on Washington time, which is 24

* Tn several schools as well as this the number of teacher*
is not given in reports,
t Including Divinity at Harvard, marked "non-sectarian."

762

TIME, STANDARD AND COSMOPOLITAN.

minutes slower than Boston time. Sometimes
three or four standards of time competed with
each other in the same city, as in Hartford,
Conn., where some of the trains left on Boston
time and others on New York time, while the
local time was used in the city at large. The
same embarrassment had already been felt,
though on a much smaller scale, in England ;
and, to remedy it, on Jan. 13, 1848, all the
clocks in the kingdom were set to conform to
Greenwich time; and they have been regu-
lated by that standard ever since.

The question of introducing a uniform sys-
tem in the United States was discussed for
several years before a practicable plan was
found. It was agreed that the adoption of a
single standard for the whole United States
would be impracticable, because it would in-
troduce too many and too great discrepancies
between the time by the clock and the solar
time, and would be repugnant to the habits
and convenience of the people. Four stand-
ards were accordingly proposed, so adjusted as
to be one hour apart, and to differ by exact
hours from the time at Greenwich ; the effect
of which would be, that the only difference
should be in the numbering of the hours, while
the numbering of the minutes and seconds
should be the same at all places using the
standards as well as at all places using Green-
wich time. The details of a plan embracing
these principles were worked up by Mr. W. F.
Allen, Secretary of the General and Southern
Railway Time Conventions ; and at the meet-
ings of the time conventions, held in New York
and Chicago in April, 1883, the following reso-
lutions were adopted :

1. That all roads now using Boston, New York,
Philadelphia, Baltimore, Toronto, Hamilton, or Wash-
ington time as standard, based upon meridians east
of those points, or adjacent thereto, shall be governed
by the 75th meridian or Eastern time (four minutes
slower than New York time ).

2. That all roads now using Columbus, Savannah,
Atlanta, Cincinnati, Louisville, Indianapolis, Chicago,
Jefferson City, St. Paul, or Kansas City time, or
standards based upon meridians adjacent thereto,
shall be run by the 90th meridian time, to be called
Central time, one hour slower than Eastern time and
nine minutes slower than Chicago time.

3. That west of the above-named section the roads
shall be run by the 105th and the 120th meridian
times, respectively, two and three hours slower than
Eastern time.

4. That all changes from one hour standard to an-
other shall be made at the termini of roads or at the
ends of divisions.

This scheme was received favorably by most
of the railroads whose time would be regulated
by tfiat of the Eastern and Central meridians,
and was put in operation by the principal rail-
roads of the New England States on October
7th, and, with few exceptions, by those of the
other States east of the Rocky mountain re-
gion on November 18th. The local time at
most of the towns and cities was also made to
conform to the new standards, the greatest al-
teration in clocks required to do so being about
half an hour. The following table gives a gen-

eral view of the relations in round minutes of
the standard meridians to Greenwich and to
the true local times of the places adopting
them:

SECTION.

West of
Green-
wich.

Standard time,
compared with true
local times.
+ = Faster than.
— = blower than.

Designation ol
standard time.

Min.

Newfoundland
New Brunswick...

!• 60"-

29- St. Johns, N.F.
24+ St. John, N.B.

Nova Scotia

|

14+ Halifax, N.S..

Canada

15- Quebec

-j

18+ Toronto

16- Boston

Maine *

3- New York....

to I

! 750

8+ Washington..

(Eastern

Florida \

> to -

19+ Charleston...

| time.

Ohio )
to V
Alabama )
Lower Lakes

. 1

45+ Montgomery..
14+ Buffalo
30+ Detroit
3S + Cincinnati....

f

0+ New Orleans..

Mississippi valley.

1+ St. Louis

Missouri valley
Upper Lakes

J

12+ St. Paul
18+ Kansas City., i

Central
time.

Texas

19+ Galveston....

I

10- Chicago

Eocky Mt. region .

105° -j

0+ Denver

28+ Salt Lake City

t Eocky
x Mountain
( time.

Pacific States

I J

12 -San Diego....
10+ San Francisco.

1 Pacific

British Columbia..

[3

11 + Olympia
12+ Victoria

f time.

The belt of country situated 7i° on either
side of a standard meridian generally (with
such exceptions as the peculiar relations of cer-
tain places may make it expedient to recognize)
is expected to adopt the time of that meridian.

Related to the subject of Standard time for
the United States is that of Cosmopolitan time,
or the selection of a uniform meridian and
standard of time for the whole world. A scheme
for an international system of time-reckoning,
embodying this principle, was proposed inde-
pendently by the Hon. Sandford Fleming, Chan-
cellor of Queen's University, Toronto, and Prof.
Cleveland Abbe, of the United States Signal
Service, and was presented by President Bar-
nard, of Columbia College, to the International
Association for the Reform and Codification
of the Law of Nations, at its meeting in Co-
logne, in August, 1881. It recommended that
24 standard meridians be fixed upon, distant
from each other 15° or one hour each in longi-
tude, to which only the arbitrary local times
kept at all places on the earth's surface shall
be referred ; that the prime meridian, by refer-
ence to which all the other hour meridians
shall be determined, be that of 180° or twelve
hours from the meridian of Greenwich ; a me-
ridian which passes near Behring strait and
lies almost wholly on the ocean; that the di-
urnal change of count in the monthly calendar
begin when it is midnight on this prime meri-
dian, and take place for the several meridians
successively : that the hour of the day at each
place be reckoned by the standard meridian
nearest to it in longitude, it being reckoned as
twelve o'clock, noon, at the moment the mean

TIME, STANDARD.

sun passes such standard meridian, while the
minute and second shall be the same at all
times and for all places; that the hours of the
day be numbered from one to twenty-four;
that for special purposes, as with a view to
promote exactness in chronology and to facili-
tate synchronous observations in science, the
day and the time of the day, as determined by
the prime meridian, be employed as a kind of
universal time-reckoning, under the name of
" Cosmopolitan Time," its hours to be denoted
by distinct symbols (as. by the letters of the
alphabet), to distinguish them from the hours
of local time. The Government of the United
States recommended the calling of an interna-
tional conference, to perfect some scheme of
uniformity. The subject was again considered
at the seventh General Conference of the In-
ternational Geodetic Association, which met
in Rome, Oct. 16, 1883, the United States
being represented by Gen. Cutts, of the Coast
Survey. A full report was made upon it by
Prof. Hirsch, of the Observatory of Neufchatel,
Switzerland, and the Conference resolved that :

The unification of longitudes and of hours is desira-
ble as well in the interest of the sciences as in that
of navigation, of commerce, and of international com-
munication ; the utility, scientifically and practically,
of this reform far surpasses the sacrifices in labor ana
changes required of a minority of civilized countries.
It ought, then, to be recommended to the govern-
ments of all countries interested, to be adopted and
consecrated by an international convention.

Notwithstanding the great advantages which the gen-
eral introduction of the decimal division of the quad-
rant for geographic and geodetic co-ordination, and the
corresponding expressions for time, is destined to re-
alize, scientifically and practically, reasons eminently
sound appear to justify the passing by the considera-
tion thereof in the great measure of unification pro-
posed in the first resolution. -Meanwhile, to satisfy at
the same time important scientific considerations, the
Conference recommends on this occasion the extension,
in multiplying and perfecting the necessary tables, of
the application of the decimal division of the quad-
rant, at least for the great numerical calculations for
which it presents incontestable advantages, even if it
be desired to preserve the sexagesimal division for
observations, maps, navigation, etc.

This Conference proposes to the governments to
-choose as initial meridian that of Greenwich, defined
by the middle of the pillars of the meridian instru-
ment of the Observatory of Greenwich, because this
meridian fulfills, as point of departure of longitudes,
all the conditions required by science, and because,
being already the most extensively used, it offers
better prospects of being generally adopted. The
longitude should be reckoned from the meridian of
Greenwich, in the sole direction of from west to east.

This Conference recognizes the utility for certain
wants of science, and for the service of important
lines of communication, adopting a universal hour, to
be used together with the local or national time, which
will necessarily continue to be used in ordinary life.

This Conference recommends, as the point of de-
parture of the universal hour and of cosmopolitan
date, the mean noon of Greenwich, which coincides
with the instant of midnight or with the beginning of
the civil day, under the meridian situated at 12 hours
or 180° from Greenwich, the universal hours to be
counted from zero to 24.

It is desirable that those countries which, in order
to adhere to the unification of longitudes and of
hours, have to change their meridian, should intro-
duce the new system of longitudes as early as possi-

TONQUIN.

763

blem their ofiicial ephemerides and almanacs, in their
geodetic, topographic, and hydrographic works, and
into their new maps. It would be advisable, in new
editions of old maps, to inscribe alongside the num-
bers of the old meridian what it would be according
to the new system. Then the new system should be
introduced without delay into the schools.

The Conference hopes that, if the whole world is
agreed upon the unification of longitudes and hours
in accepting the Greenwich meridian as the point of
departure, Great Britain will find in this fact an ad-
ditional motive to take on her side new steps in favor
of the unification of weights and measures, by joining •
the Metrical Convention of May 20, 1875.

These resolutions will be made known to the gov-
ernments and recommended to their favorable consid-
eration, with an expression of the wish of this Con-
ference that an international convention, consecrating
the unification of longitudes and hours, may be con-
cluded as early as possible by means of a special
conference.

TONQUIN, the most populous province of the
kingdom of Anam, with which it was incor-
porated in 1802. Anam is an absolute mon-
archy. The total area is about 440,500 square
kilometres; the total population about 21,000,-
000, exclusive of the tributary states of the
Laos and the independent Moi tribes. The
residence of the King is Hue, which has 50,-
000 inhabitants. ' Tonquin has a population of
15,000,000. The capital is Hanoi, containing
150,000 inhabitants, of whom 3,000 are Chi-
nese. The mass of the people worship tutelary
gods. The majority of the educated class fol-
low the doctrines of Confucius. The Christian
religion is professed by about 420,000 persons,
under six Catholic bishops. The Anamese
army musters about 150,000 men. The total
commerce of the port of Haiphong in 1881
amounted to 2,171,428 taels. The principal
exports are silk, lac, tin, medicinal drugs, cot-
ton, mushrooms, and anise-seed oil. The trade
is chiefly in the hands of the Chinese. The
French possessions in Farther India consist of
the six provinces of Lower Cochin-China, ceded
to France in 1862 and 1867, and containing 1,-
597,013 inhabitants in 1880.

Historical Review.— The political and military
power of France in Farther India dates from
before the Revolution. A French force landed
in 1789, by the aid of which, after a ten years'
war, Nguyen Anh, or Giacong, established him-
self upon the throne. This Emperor did not
acknowledge the suzerainty of China, of which
four centuries before Anam, with Cochin-Chi-
na and Tonquin, had formed an integral part.
His son and successor paid homage to the
Emperor of China in order to escape through
his protection the tutelage of the missionary
priests, who were the officious vehicles of
French domination. In 1825 he refused to re-
ceive a French embassy. Tonquin, which was
incorporated in the new empire of Anarn, but
chafed under the foreign rule, welcomed the
missionaries because they were obnoxious to
the Emperor. This was the occasion of a long
and cruel persecution of the missionaries by
the Anamite authorities. The horrors only
ceased upon the death of the tyrant in 1841.
His successor, Thieutri, was disposed to repeat

764

the crimes of his father, but took warning from
the successes of English arms in tfie opium war.
In 1847 Commodore Lapierre arrived in Tu-
ron with two war- vessels, to demand the re-
ligious freedom from the Anamite monarch
which the Emperor of China had recently
granted by treaty. The French commander
was warned during the negotiations of an in-
tended massacre, and prepared for combat.
Anamite armed craft collected in the harbor,
and, when they did not depart upon Lapierre's
warning, he opened fire and annihilated the
whole fleet. A few months later Thieutri's
son succeeded him, under the name of Tuduc.
On the pretext that the Christian priests in-
trigued with one of the imperial princes, he
ordered his officers to throw into the water
every missionary who fell into their hands.
In 1851 and 1852 many were executed. After
the termination of the Crimean War, another
French vessel of war brought a written mes-
sage, which the Emperor refused to receive.
The commander thereupon bombarded the port
and landed troops. Yet after long procrasti-
nation the French force sailed away without
obtaining any definite terms. This embold-
ened Tuduc to persist in his persecutions.
One of the missionaries, Bishop Pellerin, at
last moved Napoleon III to dispatch another
expedition, which, under the command of Ad-
miral Rigault de Genouilly, arrived at Turon
in August, 1858. The French took the town
by assault, and proceeded to fortify it, but by
the unwholesome climate the force was soon
so reduced that it could not hold the place.
The troops therefore re-embarked, and in the
beginning of 1859 took Saigon, in Cambodia,
by storm. Admiral Rigault de Genouilly wa8
replaced by Admiral Page. While the latter
was planning operations against Turon and
Hue, the former commander convinced Napo-
leon of the importance of Saigon and its dis-
trict. The consequence was, that in the follow-
ing years the French continued the conquest of
Cambodia, fortified and garrisoned Saigon, and
repelled the Anamites several times. On June
5, 1862, Tuduc was obliged to sign a treaty
which reduced his sovereign rights, and ac-
cepted French protection. He would not have
submitted to such terms if the Tonquinese had
not broken out in rebellion at that time. The
leader of the rebel army was Pedro Phuong, a
descendant of an ancient dynastic family and a
zealous Catholic. The French availed them-
selves of the difficulties between Anam and
Tonquin to encroach upon the powers of Tu-
duc until, in 1874, after the campaign of 1873,
in which Francois Gamier lost his life, they
extorted from him a treaty which reduced him
to vassalage. It admitted the French to three
ports of Anam, with the right of maintaining
a garrison, required the King of Anam to con-
form his foreign policy to the wishes of France,
and promised him assistance in preserving or-
der, suppressing piracy, and defending his land
against foreign attacks.

Tuduc, instead of carrying out his part of the
compact, embraced the ancient feudatory rela-
tion to China, which the Peking Government
now hastened to reassert, in order to escape
the French protectorate. The French Govern-
ment made no attempt to enforce the treaty,
but postponed the matter year after year, un-
til the events in Egypt and the new impulses to
external activity spurred them to action.

The absorption of Anam and Tonquin would
open the gates of China under as favorable con-
ditions as were enjoyed by English merchants in
Hong- Kong and Canton. The Alpine province
of Yunnan, inhabited by Chinese Mohamme-
dans and aboriginal Mino-tses, is bound by very
loose political ties to the Celestial Empire.
They held out many years against the Peking
Government before their rebellion was sup-
pressed in 1872. It was this rebellion which
suggested to the Indian Government, to which
the rebels appealed for assistance, the possibil-
ity of reopening the great commercial route of
antiquity through Burmali to the mouth of the
Irrawaddy. The British home authorities, re-
luctant to give any encouragement to the rebel
King, Suleiman, recalled the expedition of Maj.
Sladen. The second expedition, in 1874, was
driven back by the Chinese, after the in-
terpreter Margary had first been murdered.
The route has only recently been explored by
Mr. Colquhoun. The rebellion of Suleiman
first put, likewise, the Red river route into the
minds of the French, and was the occasion of
the last war in Tonquin. The French mer-
chant Dupuis was commissioned by the Gov-
ernor of Yunnan to explore the Red river
with reference to transporting materials of
war into the disturbed province. The Ton-
quin authorities forbade the transport of arms
and ammunition, Dupuis appealed to his gov-
ernment to punish the Tonquinese, and gallant
young French officers were eager for the ad-
venture. With an incredibly small force they
stormed citadels, routed armies of the worth-
less Anamese troops, and occupied the whole
country, meeting with no formidable resistance
until they encountered the Black Flags.

The inaccessible regions in the interior of
China were the objective point of the aggres-
sive policy in Burmah of the late British Gov-
ernment. The Red river has every advantage
over the overland commercial route from Brit-
ish Burmah. It is an uninterrupted water
route ; the distance from the ocean is much
shorter ; and it passes through a country capa-
ble of a high material development.

Controversy with China. — The treaty was con-
cluded at Saigon, March 15, 1874, between
France and Tuduc. The text was communi-
cated to the Chinese Government on March
25, 1875. A protest was immediately (June
10th) returned by China, which declared that
it refused to recognize the treaty. In 1880
the Marquis Tseng interrogated M. de Freyci-
net with reference to a rumored French ex-
pedition to Tonquin, and was assured that no

VjNNAN-SEN

766

TONQUIN.

expedition was contemplated, but that France
was considering the question of upholding the
treaty of Saigon. Subsequently, upon the cir-
culation of fresh rumors, the Chinese repre-
sentative addressed a letter of inquiry to the
succeeding Minister for Foreign Affairs, -M.
St. Hillaire, asking whether the intentions of
the French Government had undergone any
change with regard to the kingdom of Ton-
quin, " whose prince has hitherto received
investiture as a vassal from the Emperor of
China.1' The reply, of the date of Sept. 27,
1880, declared the intention of France to con-
form to the treaty of 1874, which " guaranteed
the kingdom of Anam its entire independ-
ence of all the powers," and "placed all the
European interests in Anam under the pro-
tection of France." The Marquis Tseng wrote,
under the date of Sept. 24, 1881, that the Pe-
king Government does not recognize the treaty
of 1874, or the right of the Prince of Anam
to change by his sole act China's "unquestion-
able rights of suzerainty." M. Gambetta, who
succeeded in the ministry, sent the reply, Jan.
1, 1882. He described Anam as an " em-
pire." "I can not," he wrote, "allow you to
protest against the treaty of 1874. That treaty
was duly notified, and in its reply of June
10, 1875, your Government made no protest.
Anam was mentioned solely as formerly a
tributary of China, which is merely of histori-
cal interest." On this plea the French minis-
ter refused to agree to a protest against a
treaty "the time for carrying out which has
arrived," but declared that "the Government
of France cherishes no designs which can
harm Chinese interests." The Marquis re-
plied on Feb. 12, 1882, after M. Gambetta
had given place in the Foreign Office to M.
de Freycinet, correcting the allusion to the
colony of Cochin-China, and denying the con-
struction put upon the Chinese protest of June
10, 1875, to the treaty of Saigon. The terms
used by Prince Kung in that reply, he assert-
ed, far from referring to the tributary position
of Anam as merely a question of historical
interest, " signify that Anam has been, and
still is, a country tributary to China, whose
constant acts of submission still make it a vas-
sal state. ' If Prince Kung did not discuss the
articles of the treaty,' he explains, 'it was be-
cause he refuses to recognize it ; for the Chi-
nese Government protested against the treaty
of 1874 as soon as it was submitted to it.' "

In April, 1882, when rumors of the capture
of Hanoi reached the Chinese embassador,
he sought explanations from M. de Freycinet,
who assured him that the affair was of no im-
portance, and that what had been done was
without the sanction of the French Govern-
ment. This explanation was forwarded to the
Peking Government, and on May 6, 1882, the
Marquis Tseng informed the French minister
that he had tranquillized the court at Peking.
On the 31st of May he received from M. de
Freycinet a dispatch correcting the interpre-

tation which had been put upon his words,
couched in the following terms : " I confined
myself to saying that the French Government
had given orders for carrying out the treaty
of 1874. I added that the consequences of
the influence 1 intended to exercise concerned
only the signatories of the treaty, and that
consequently we had no explanation to give to
the Chinese Government." In his reply, dated
June 14, 1882, the Marquis Tseng protested
against this position in the following language :
" If a suzerainty of centuries over Tonquin, a
contiguous frontier for thousands of lis, a nu-
merous colony settled in the country, commer-
.cial interests whose extent yields to those of
no other country, and the navigation of a river
which is the outlet of the southwest of China
• — if, I say, all these titles put together, do
not give the Imperial Government a right of
being interested in what happens in Tonquin, I
should be glad to know what could confer such
a right." This remained unanswered, and for
many months there was little intercourse with
the- European representative of China.

Meanwhile negotiations were opened at Pe-
king, and in November, 1882, M. Bourse, the
French minister, agreed upon a scheme of ar-
rangement which, however, was rejected by
the French Government. On May 16, 1883,
M. Bourse was recalled to France, and M.
Tricou, embassador to Japan, was sent on a
special mission to China, and entered into ne-
gotiations with the Viceroy, Li Hung Chang,
who was proceeding to take command of the
Chinese troops in the four southern provinces.
On July 4th M. Tricou announced that any
aid given by China to Anam would involve a
casus belli. The Chinese Government disa-
vowed any responsibility for the acts of Chi-
nese subjects in Anam.

About this time the scene of negotiations
was again transferred to Europe. On Aug.
18, 1883, the Marquis Tseng declared the bases
on which China was willing to treat, which
were the preservation of Chinese suzerainty
and the evacuation of Tonquin by France, on
the one hand, and the opening of the Red
river to commerce on the other. M. Challe-
mel-Lacour, in reply, August 27th, denied the
suzerainty, and declared that the affairs of Ton-
quin must be settled with Anam alone. A
new situation was now created by the French
military successes, the change of rulers in
Anam, and the treaty concluded at Hue, Au-
gust 25th. The Chinese diplomats protested
that there could be no king in Anam without
investiture by the Emperor of China, and that
the treaty therefore possessed no force or va-
lidity. Thence ensued a month's negotiations
between the Marquis Tseng and MM. Jules
Ferry and Challemel-Lacour, in which Lord
Granville unofficially played the part of medi-
ator. On September 15th propositions were
submitted by the French Government, agree-
ing to the establishment of a neutral zone and
providing for the opening of the town of Man

TONQUIN.

767

Hao, in Yunnan, to foreign commerce. The
answer of the Chinese Government, October
15th, was to the effect that, if France was de-
termined to disregard the suzerainty of China
and the integrity of Anam, it would accept a
neutral zone between the southern frontier of
Tonquin and the 20th degree of latitude, and
make Kuang Ho Khuang, opposite Sontay, a
treaty port. By this arrangement China would
acquire possession of the delta of the Songcoi
and the control of the route to Yunnan, aban-
doning the other less valuable portions of the
kingdom to be annexed to French Cochin-
China. The Chinese Government offered to
suppress piracy, subdue the Black Flags, and
keep the Songcoi river open for commerce.

M. Jules Ferry, on Nov. 22, 1883, declared
that France was inclined to respect the tradi-
tional bond between Anam and China, so far
as it was not incompatible with the French pro-
tectorate. He announced that it was neces-
sary to occupy certain new positions in Ton-
quin. In a communication, dated November
24th, the Marquis expressed regret that the
French contemplated the occupation of Hanoi,
Sontay, and Bacninh, which did not accord
with the declarations of former ministers, who
spoke only of a protectorate. M. Ferry re-
plied, November 30th, that the object was to
secure the protectorate, and added : " The
plan of our military campaign in Tonquin has
not been changed, and can not be changed.
The responsibility for a conflict would rest
upon China."

The Black Flags. —More formidable than the
Anamese army were the irregular soldiers
known as the Black and the Yellow Flags.
These troops were not Anamese, but Chinese,
and it is not known to what extent they were
augmented by volunteers from the neighboring
Chinese provinces. They are survivors of the
valorous Taeping rebels who held the military
power of the Chinese Empire at bay for many
years. In 1865 the rebels, who had retired
before the Chinese troops into the province of
Kwangsi, were finally driven across the border
into Tonquin, and found a secure retreat in
the mountains on both sides of the Red river
valley. This band of exiles, numbering about
5,000, were accompanied by their wives and
families. Their chief was Watsong, one of
Taeping Wang's principal lieutenants, and many
of them continued the freebooting practices
into which the rebellion degenerated in its lat-
ter period. They offered no further hostility
to the Chinese Government, but rather became
the supporters and instruments of Chinese
policy and influence in Anam. The Anam-
ese troops were sent against them several times,
but were invariably defeated. In 1868 they
held undisputed possession of the whole right
bank of the Red river above the capital. With
the assistance of the Chinese Viceroy of Can-
ton, or Governor-General of the two Kwang,
they were finally expelled from the low country
and confined to the upper course of the river.

Soon after Watsong died, and his followers
divided into two bands. The main body of
the original Taeping rebels were disposed to
settle down to peaceful pursuits, and t«> make
their submission to the Chinese and Anamese
authorities. They adopted the yellow flag for
their ensign, and chose for their chief Hwang
Tsong In, who had been a soldier in the Chi-
nese territorial army of Kwangsi. The smaller
band, which retained the black flag, was com-
posed of criminals and desperate characters
who had joined the band of Watsong in tlie
hope of plunder or to escape from justice, and
their new leader was formerly the most famous
brigand in the province of Kwangsi. The
principal settlement of the Black Flags is at
Laokai, on Red river; that of the Yellow
Flags at Hagiang, farther in the interior and
east of that place. The Anamese subsidized
the Yellow Flags, partly to act as a check upon
the troublesome Black Flags, and were glad to
avail themselves of both in their conflicts with
the French. It was through a want of pre-
caution against the skill and courage of the
Black Flags that Gamier lost his life in 1873,
and through a repetition of the same blunder
Riviere suffered defeat and death in 1883.
Both the Black and Yellow Flags have greatly
increased in number since they were expelled
from Chinese territory, the former numbering
in 1883 probably not fewer than 5,000 war-
riors, and the latter perhaps twice as many.

French Military Expedition.— Capt. Riviere, a
naval officer, obtained command of the expedi-
tion sent out for the purpose of enforcing the
treaty of 1874, and embarked in October, 1881.
The changes in the Foreign " Office, which was
directed successively by St. Ilillaire, Gambetta,
Freycinet, Duclere,and Challemel-Lacour, were
the cause of Capt. Riviere being left with his
small force in Tonquin without support or in-
structions, to act at his own discretion. The
worthless Anamite militia offered no formida-
ble resistance to his insignificant band of ma-
rines. He ascended to Hanoi, and took the
citadel by assault, the Anamite garrison being
driven out at the first onset, in May, 1882.
Nothing further was done until the following
spring, when the Government at home began
to consider a forward movement, and the hos-
tile natives showed signs of activity. There
was no declaration of war against Anam, nor
any expressed intention of effecting political
changes. The declared object of the expedi-
tion was to clear the Red river of the Black-
Flag pirates, and keep it open for European
commerce. A desultory warfare was carried
on with the natives. The Black Flags were
re-enforced by Anamites and by volunteers
from China, who united to harass and compel
the retreat of the hated foreigners. Yet, dur-
ing this time, the official assumption was that
the French had to do simply with pirates, and
were acting on behalf of the ^ Emperor of
Anam. After many vacillations, in May, 1883,
the French Government decided to send a mill-

768

TONQtJItf.

tary expedition on a larger scale, which would
be sufficient to subjugate the country, and
announced to China and Europe its inten-
tion practically to annex the province of Ton-
quin.

Campaign of 1883. — About the same time the
fresh activity of the hostile Anamites drove
Commandant Rivi&re to resume offensive op-
erations. He had in vain appealed to the Gov-
ernment for re-enforcements. The moment
was now favorable, and his fresh action was
an incitement to French politicians to take up
the mooted scheme of the acquisition of Ton-
quin. M. de Kergaradec was sent to Anam
as the bearer of an ultimatum of the French
Government to the King Tuduc, whereby he
would virtually resign the government of his
country into the hands of the French, and ac-
cept the position of a mediatized Indian prince.
The Assembly was asked for a vote of 5,300,-
000 francs to enforce these demands.

The French commander feared that the com-
munications between Hanoi and the sea would
be cut off by the entrance into southern Ton-
quin of the bands on the Bod6, or chief arm of
the Red river, and their occupation of the
country in combination with forces from
Anam. Commandant Riviere therefore deter-
mined to occupy the fortress of Namdmh, the
most important point in the Bode region, com-
manding the river. The city is the capital of
a rich province, and was one of the centers of
the hostile Anamite and Mandarin sentiment.
He requested the governor several times to
pull down his flag and admit a French garri-
son, but was answered : " Why have you come
here ? If you want to fight, let us fight ; oth-
erwise stay away." On March 2Vth Riviere
embarked, in seven small steamers and gun-
boats, a force of 800 men to attack Namdinh,
which was captured after a bombardment of
several hours. The same day the Anamites,
in the absence of the commander and a large
part of the garrison, assailed the citadel at Ha-
noi. Commandant Riviere telegraphed home
for 2,000 more troops.

On May 15th the vote of credit for the Ton-
quin expedition came up in the French Cham-
ber and was carried by a large majority. M.
Challemel-Lacour, in defending the project,
characterized the objections of China as purely
platonic, since it was not a military nation.
There would be no conquest of Tonquin, be-
cause the King of Anam had no fighting
troops, but merely a military demonstration.
The expeditionary corps would occupy certain
points in Tonquin until Tuduc showed a will-
ingness to renew and revise the treaty in the
desired sense. The collection of customs dur-
ing the occupation would pay all the costs of
the expedition. He represented that the Ton-
quinese were weary of the yoke of Anam and
would welcome the French as deliverers. Im-
mediately after the Chamber determined to
prosecute the operations for the enforcement
of the treaty, news came of the annihilation

of a French force before Hanoi, and of the
death of the commander.

A heavy cannonade from the Anamite guns
annoyed the French troops for several days.
The Black Flags became bolder and more dan-
gerous, and their commander sent a challenge
in extravagant language, of the kind which is
usual in Chinese warfare, threatening to kill
the French commandant with his own hands.
On May 19th Commandant Riviere called out
his troops for a sortie in force. Commandant
Berthe de Vilers led the column, consisting of
400 men, with sailors to draw the guns. The
Anamites fell back as they took up a position
in the open and advanced with confidence,
until they reached the spot where Francois
Gamier fell. Here they were brought up short
by a stockade concealed by bushes, in which a
strong force of Black Flags were waiting for
them. A heavy fusillade was opened upon the
French column, and before a shot was fired in
reply 80 soldiers fell dead or wounded. Com-
mandant Riviere attempted to bring up his
artillery, and, while he and Cadet Moulin were
assisting the sailors with the cannon, they were
both killed. Commandant de Yilers was mor-
tally wounded, and two other officers were
killed. The soldiers retreated precipitately.
When the news was brought to Saigon, Chef-
de-Bataillon Chevalier was sent with 500 regu-
lar troops and two gunboats.

On receiving the news of this disaster, May
26th, the Chamber, which had been wrangling
over the appointment of a civil commissioner,
at once passed the bill for the expedition.
Transports were dispatched under the com-
mand of Admiral Courbet, followed by others,
until in July 7,000 troops were landed in Ton-
quin, 4,000 of whom were sent up to Hanoi.
Admiral Courbet commanded the sea-forces,
Gen. Bouet the land troops, and Dr. Harmand
was appointed civil commissioner.

This triumvirate, in communication with the
authorities at home, planned an extensive cam-
paign. The French troops proceeded at once
to take possession of the delta of the Red riv-
er. At the apex of the triangle is the city of
Hanoi, and the two arms of the river constitute
the lines of communication between the princi-
pal points. They already had possession of Nam-
dinh on the southern arm. They next occupied
without difficulty the seaport of Haiphong, at
the mouth of the northern arm. Between the
latter and the main position of the French at
Hanoi the fortress of Haiziuong remained in
the hands of the defenders of the country. On
August 13th, Col. Brionval marched on this po-
sition, and captured it without loss. About the
same date, Gen. Bouet, the chief in command,
undertook an expedition against the city of
Sontay, on the Red river, twenty miles above
Hanoi. While this operation was being carried
out from Hanoi, Admiral Courbet was expected
to gain possession of the forts at the mouth of
the Hu6 river, with a squadron and a division
of land-troops, and then advance upon Hue.

TONQUIN.

769

Gen. Bouet set out from Hanoi on the even-
ing of August 14th, with a force of 2,000 men
and six guns, advancing in three columns, one of
which, commanded by Col. Revillon, followed
the river, with the intention of storming or
flanking the works along the bank. Five gun-
boats ascended the river to support the troops.
The first intrenchments, not four miles from
Hanoi, were vacated after a few shells had been
sent into them from the gunboats. A second
fortified position was speedily deserted by the
Anamites. The third was the town of Phou-
hai, palisaded with stout bamboo stakes. After
pouring in a hot fire of shells from the vessels,
Revillon's infantry advanced to the assault, but
met with such vigorous resistance that they
were obliged to retreat. The gunboats shelled
the place again for more than an hour, but a
second attack was repelled. A third was not
more successful, and Revillon prepared for a
final eflbrt at the break of day. -

The middle column, under Col. Coronat, had
by this time advanced without meeting with
any resistance, to the village of Yenoi, where
it awaited the issue of the detour undertaken
by the column on the left, commanded by Col.
Thier. The latter sent out a detachment to
reconnoitre, which found the road a little dis-
tance ahead closed by intrenchments and stock-
ades. The road, leading through bogs and
overflowed fields, was so narrow that the guns
could not deploy properly, and the horses and
wheels stuck fast in the mire. The column
advanced to the point where the road was
blocked by fortifications, which was at the
village of Vong, beyond the spot where, on the
same narrow road. Riviere had lost his life.
The cannon opened fire at a distance of a thou-
sand paces from the village. The artillery
fire was not answered ; but when the troops
approached the fortifications they were met
with a sharp fire of musketry, which drove
them back. When the Anamites saw the
French in retreat, they sallied in force and
strove to flank the retiring column on the left,
where were the Cochin-China auxiliaries and
Yellow Flags, who had now joined the French.
The situation in the afternoon of the 16th was
at times exceedingly critical. The Anamites
and Black Flags followed the French a long
distance, though the latter several times turned
front and poured volleys into their pursuers,
supported as well as was possible by the artil-
lery. Thier reached Hanoi by evening, and
the middle column, after waiting in vain for
him to join it, returned the following day.

The assault of Revillon on the morning of
the 16th was successful, and the village and its
pagoda were finally captured after fourteen
hours of fighting, with a total loss to the
French of 3 officers and 14 men killed and
about 50 wounded, not counting the 30 dead
and the wounded among the native auxiliaries.

The entire French force, with the exception
of a small garrison in the pagoda of the capt-
ured village, was back in Hanoi by the 17th.
VOL. xxin. — 49 A

The continued rising of the waters necessitated
the abandonment of the captured town and a
cessation of operations for some weeks.

On the Hu6 River, in the center of Anain,
the invaders met with better success. The
forts at the mouth of the river were bombard-
ed on the 18th, 19th, and 20th of August. A
landing could not be made on the north bank
on the 19th, but on the following day it was
successfully accomplished, in spite of an ener-
getic defense by the Anamites from behind
the dunes. The fortifications on the southern
bank were occupied without fighting on August
21st. Steamers took part in the bombardment,
and delivered their fire to good effect. The
landing force consisted of sailors from the first
three vessels, two companies of marines, one
of native riflemen, two batteries of native ar-
tillery-men, and 100 coolies — in all 1,050 men,
with 15 guns. The French lost but a few
wounded, but their shells caused severe losses
on the other side, the Anamite dead number-
ing over 600.

The fortress of Haiziuong was captured Au
gust 19th, by a sudden assault which was
so well conducted that the Anamites had no
time to spike their guns, and fled in disorder
into the interior. This town is the capital of
a province, and has a population of 30,000. It
was strongly fortified with palisades, after the
Anamite manner, and occupies a command-
ing site on the Taibigne arm of Red river.

After the capture of the fortifications at the
mouth of the Hue a-truee was made, and Dr.
Harmand, the civil commissioner, with M. de
Champeaux, the deputy of the Governor of
Cochin-China, went to Hue" in the Bayard,
escorted by two small steamers, with a guard
of 90 marines, to negotiate for peace. Re-en-
forcements were sent from France to hold the
positions, and a blockade was declared.

The Treaty of Hne. — King Tuduc, the deter-
mined enemy of the French, had died in July,
and was succeeded by Vian Lau, also an ad-
herent of the war policy. But on the capture
of the Hue forts the new King and his court
fled in consternation into the interior, leaving
the throne vacant. His rival, Hiep Hoa, or
Hiephma, the leader of the peace party, who
was amenable to French influences, now as-
sumed the supreme power, and at once sent a
request that Dr. Harmand come to Hue" to
negotiate terms of peace. A treaty was drawn
up and signed August 25th. The articles pro-
vided for the payment of a war indemnity;
the cession of the province of Bin Thuan to
France; the recall of Anamite troops from
Tonquin, and the transfer of the command- of
the Anamite army to Gen.. Bouet, who would
employ the troops, lately in the field against
the French, to expel the Black Flags from
Tonquin; the confirmation of the French pro-
tectorate, established by the treaty of 1874;
the opening of the ports of Quinhon, Turon,
and Quangai to commerce. The treaty, stipu-
lated furthermore that the French should have

770

TONQUIN.

TUBERCLE BACILLUS.

control over the Anainite finances and cus-
toms, and should permanently occupy the forts
at the entrance of the harbors of Hue and
Turon. In Tonquin they engaged to preserve
order, establish good government, and clear
the country of pirates. The right to maintain
an armed force there, and to occupy any mili-
tary positions that were deemed necessary for
these objects, was also reserved.

On September 1st, although the country was
still inundated, the French advanced within
twelve miles of Sontay, to the village of Pal-
Ian, where they found the enemy in casemated
forts, on which the gunboats produced no ef-
fect. After three days of fighting, they car-
ried the works by storm. Leaving 300 men
with a gunboat to hold the position, Gen.
Bouet returned to Hanoi to await re-enforce-
ments before marching upon Sontay. The
Black Flags about this time became more ag-
gressive, interrupting traffic on the Songcoi,
and occupying posts within 5 miles of Hanoi.

Differences between Dr. Harmand and Gen.
Bouet, who by the terms of his instructions
was obliged to act in concert with the civil
commissioner, led to the recall of the military
commander. Admiral Courbet took command
of the armed forces, and in the middle of
October Dr. Harmand's joint direction in stra-
tegical matters was taken away.

Operations were then suspended until Octo-
ber. The citadel of Ninhbinh was occupied with-
out opposition by Col. Badeus on October 18th,
and Phunor, near the coast, on the 21st. The
pending negotiations with China were a cause
of delay in the operations. When the advance
upon Bacninh was contemplated and the capture
of Sontay about to be undertaken, the Marquis
Tseng informed the French Government that
they would come into collision with the Chinese
regular troops, and that the Chinese Govern-
ment was determined to defend those points.
These Chinese garrisons had been in Tonquin
since 1870 or earlier. They had been sent at the
solicitation of Tuduc to suppress brigandage,
and had accomplished that task at a cost to the
Imperial Government of a million dollars. The
Marquis broke off all communications with the
French Government at this point. The French
minister declared in the Chamber that the
attitude of the embassador was disavowed by
his Government, but this was promptly denied
in a dispatch from Peking. The French min-
istry asked for a further credit of 9,000,000
francs to strengthen the expeditionary force,
and continue the operations in 1884, which
was sanctioned by the Assembly.

On November 17th the garrison at Haiznong
had to sustain a severe attack by Black Flags,
which was only repelled by the aid of the gun-
boat Lynx, that arrived unexpectedly.

Before the middle of December Admiral
Courbet advanced with the main body of his
troops against Sontay, and fighting began on
the 14th, the flotilla assisting. The attack
upon the fortifications began at eleven o'clock,

and the outer works were carried in the even-
ing by the Algerian troops, together with the
infantry, marines, and sailors. The losses were
reported by the correspondent of the "New
York Herald" to be nearer 1,000 than 200
men, as officially stated. The Chinese, Black
Flag, and Anamite garrison began to with-
draw, but kept up the defense until the 17th,
when the French entered the town. The cita-
del was still held by the Black Flags, who
were expelled after another fight on the 18th.

This victory severely crippled the French
army, and the Government prepared to send
a much larger force than had been deemed
necessary before testing the quality of the
Black Flags and the Chinese troops. The
movement against Bachninh was postponed
until the next year. Re-enforcements were
sent which raised the strength of the French
army to about 25,000 men, besides 5,000 or
6,000 Cochin-Chinese auxiliaries. The cost
of the new expedition, with the amount al-
ready expended, was about 43,000,000 francs.
Additional credits to cover this were voted
in December. Gen. Millot was selected to
take command of all the forces. The question
of occupying the islands of Formosa, Hainan,
and the Chusan group, and exacting a heavy
indemnity from China, was discussed. At the
end of December Hunghoa, another important
point, was captured. In the beginning of
December there was another change of rulers
in Anam. The King Hiephma was poisoned
by his subjects for his submissiveness to the
French. His successor was Hiephoa, a youth
of fifteen, a nephew of Tuduc. The French
hastened to reduce the new King to a state
of subjection. A French garrison took posses-
sion of the citadel of Hue, while the French
diplomatic agents, M. Champeaux and M.
Tricou, who had been recalled from the futile
mission to Peking, imposed their authority
upon him without reserve. Although they
held the King in their power, and had a large
army in Tonquin in possession of every strong
position in the delta, yet the French were far
from being masters of the country, which
swarmed with enemies.

TUBERCLE BACILLUS. The discovery of a
microscopic organism supposed to hold a con-
stant causative relation to tubercle in the lung
marks one of the advances in medical science
of the past year. The bacilli are believed to
be present in all cases of fully -developed phthi-
sis, as well as in cases which are still in the
early stage and exhibit no physical signs.
They are not found in chronic, non-phthisical
pulmonary affections; and the quantity pres-
ent seems to bear no relation to the intensity
of the morbid process, and hence has no prog-
nostic value. The conditions necessary for
the generation of phthisis are found first in
the presence of bacilli in the lungs, and, sec-
ond, in an hereditary or acquired predisposi-
tion which favors the occurrence of congestive
and inflammatory changes in the lungs, par

TURGENIEFF, IVAN S.

771

ticularly at the top, where the circulation is
naturally retarded. The coexistence of these
two factors seems to be essential to the pro-
duction of true pulmonary phthisis. The treat-
ment of the disease must regard both of these
factors, and hence the indications are, first, to
promote the general health, improve the con-
dition of the blood and of the vessels, and
exercise the respiratory function, in order to
prevent stagnation of the blood and inflamma-
tion in the apices of the lungs ; second, to pre-
vent the access of bacilli, and to destroy them
by antiseptic applications when they have once
effected an entrance.

For the detection of the tubercle bacillus
under the microscope, two solutions are ne-
cessary, one of magenta, which colors the ba-
cillus, and one of chrysoi'dine, which colors the
surrounding substances but spares the bacillus.
The formula for the magenta solution is us fol-
lows :

Magenta crystals 2 grat

Aniline, pure 8 grar

amines.

pure 3 grammes.

Alcohol 20 grammes.

Distilled water 20 grammes.

The solution of chryso'idine is prepared by
making a saturated solution of chrysoi'dine in
distilled water, then by adding a
crystal of thymol in a little abso-
lute alcohol to preserve the solution.
It is also necessary to have a dilute
solution of nitric acid (one part of
the acid to two parts of distilled
water). A fragment of tuberculous
expectoration is placed on a glass
and allowed to dry; it is then passed
three or four times through the flame
of a lamp, and again allowed to cool.
A few drops of the magenta solution
are placed in a small glass, which is
exactly covered with the glass hold-
ing the sputum, the latter being in
contact with the coloring fluid with-
out the interposition of any air. It
is left thus for fifteen or twenty min-
utes, and then treated with the ni-
tric acid, which removes all the col-
oring-matter in a few minutes. It
is then washed in distilled water
and subjected to chrysoidine, which
colors the entire preparation, again
washed in distilled water, then treat-
ed with absolute alcohol, dried, and
mounted in Canada balsam. The
bacillus is so highly colored as to be
visible to the most inexperienced
with a low magnifying power.

TUNIS. See page 358.

TURGMIEFF, Ivan Sergyevieh, a
Russian novelist, born at Orel, Nov.
9, 1818; died at Bougival, near Paris,
Sept. 3, 1883. He came of a noble
and ancient family, was taught by
French and German tutors on his mothers
estate, learned English in the Lasareff Insti-
tute at Moscow, entered the University there
at the age of sixteen, proceeded to the St.

Petersburg University after the death of his
father in 1833, and, after graduation, went to
Berlin in 1838 to study history, philosophy,
and the classics. Returning in two years to
St. Petersburg, he was appointed to an office
in the Ministry of the Interior. He published
his first poem, " The Old Proprietor," in 1841,
and continued to write poetry until 1846, but
attached little value to these productions. In
1843 appeared a dramatic sketch in prose, and
in 1844 his first novel, "Andrei Kolossoff,"-
which attracted little attention. Those which
followed, however, were received with avidi-
ty. They were published under the initials
" T. L." (Turgenieff-Lutovitotf ), but the pseu-
donym was soon deciphered by curious inquir-
ers. The first of the sketches of serf -life,
collected in " Memoirs of a Sportsman" (1852),
appeared in the " Contemporary Review," in
1847. The effect of these natural and life-like
pictures of the narrow joys and many suffer-
ings of serfdom was like that produced in the
United States by Mrs. Stowe's " Uncle Tom's
Cabin." They raised Turgenieff to the highest
rank in Russian authorship, and created, among
the serf-owning class, his first political ene-

•t^lPf ;p£g®V

Ik ' iKRiii^^^HK

IVAN SERGYEVICH TURGENIEFF.

mies. The Emperor Alexander declared that
this book first turned his mind to the question
of liberation. The last of these sketches ap-
peared in 1857. A French translation was

772

TURKEY.

published the same year, and a German trans-
lation in 1858. Other contributions to Russian
magazines, tales, dramas, and critical essays,
with an occasional article in the Revue des deux
mondes, were published during this period. In
1852 TurgeniefF drew upon himself the ven-
geance of the bureaucracy by uttering some
sharp, but not illegal, strictures on Russian
officialism, in a notice of Gogol, after the lat-
ter's death. For this he was deprived of his
office, thrown into prison, and then banished
to his estate in the distant Government of
Orel. After this decree was canceled, through
the intercession of the Grand Duke Alexander,
afterward Alexander II, in 1854, he lived
most of the time abroad, first in Baden-Baden,
and then in Paris. In 1859 appeared " A Nest
of Nobles," a novel, which attracted much at-
tention. The next novel, "Fathers and Sons"
(1862), created a sensation such as had never
before been stirred up in Russia by a literary
production. It depicted, in artistic contrast
and with realistic candor, the conservative and
the radical phases of political life in Russia.
Both schools were indignant at his analysis of
their feelings and motives, most of all the hold-
ers of advanced opinions akin to his own. The
epithet "Nihilist," which he attached to the
materialistic and revolutionary tendencies, was
accepted by the party of action and caught up
by the Government, which applied it to all
democratic and socialistic aims. This work
was translated into English by Eugene Schuy-
ler. It was succeeded by " Smoke " (1867), in
which the author's own views of the future of
Russia were expounded. This widened the
breach made between him and the school of
thought with which he most sympathized by
his objective delineations. His friend Nek-
rassoff, editor of the " Contemporary Review,"
was alienated, and the students of Russia
turned against him. While he was branded
as a renegade by his own party at home, the
admirers of his genius multiplied in France,
Germany, and the English-speaking countries.
In purity of style, as welj as in the power of
exploring the human soul and touching the
springs of sentiment and action, and in minute-
ness of observation and circumstantial natu-
ralism, he resembled Balzac, with a satirical
quality added, recalling the incisive humor of
Thackeray. His principal subsequent work
(1877) described the life and activities of the
secret revolutionary party. It was translated
into English under the title "Virgin Soil."
Though he was denounced as a reactionist by
the Liberals of Russia, the Nihilists claimed
him as a friend and sympathizer. In the later
years of his life public opinion turned again
in his favor. His sorrow at being misunder-
stood and deserted by his former friends, and
the intensity of his patriotism, are revealed in
the poems in prose, published under the title
of "Senilia" (1883). His last novel, "Clara
Militch," is a mystical romance of an original
stamp. A collection of his earlier novels and

tales was issued in 1856, and a complete col-
lection of his writings appeared in 1865, at
Carlsruhe, and was reprinted in several edi-
tions at Moscow.

TURKEY, an empire in Europe and Asia,
The fundamental laws are derived from the
precepts of the Koran and the Multeka. When
not in conflict with the sacred Mohammed at
laws the will of the Sultan is absolute. The
Constitution proclaimed by Abdul-Hamid,
Dec. 23, 1876, is modeled upon European
forms of government; but, like the previous
Constitution of Sultan Abdul-Medjid, it has
not been carried into effect. The reigning
Sultan is Abdul-Hamid II, born Sept. 22, 1842,
who succeeded to the throne upon the deposi-
tion of his brother Murad, Aug. 31, 1876.

The executive and legislative authority is ex-
ercised under the Sultan by the Grand Vizier,
who is the head of the temporal government,
and the Sheik-ul-Islam, who is the chief inter-
preter of the Koran and head of the TJlema, or
council summoned to expound the laws.

The Grand Vizier and President of the
Council of Ministers is Said Pasha; the Sheik-
ul-Islam, Ahmed Essad Effend.i.

Area and Population. — The Treaty of Berlin re-
duced the area of the dominions under the rule
of the Sultan in Europe from 138,264 to 56,-
868 square miles, and the population from 8,-
315,000 to 3,982,000. The area and estimated
population of the divisions of the Ottoman Em-
pire, including the vassal and tributary states,
are as follow :

GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS.

Europe :

Immediate possessions

Eastern Roumelia

hosnia, Herzegovina, and Novi-

Bazar

Bulgaria

Total Europe

Asia.

Africa:
Tripoli.
Egypt.

Total Africa

Total Turkish Empire

(53,850
13,500

23,570

Population

4,900,000
815,951

1,826.440

115.289 8,631,400
16,172,000

The population of Constantinople is between
600,000 and 700,000.

Fully half the population of Turkey in Eu-
rope, about 174- per cent, of the population in
Asia, and about 23 per cent, of the total popu-
lation of the empire, are Christians of the vari-
ous Oriental and Occidental rites, and Jews.

Commerce. — The total imports in the year
1878-'79 are reported as amounting to 1,969,-
498,742 piasters (1 piaster = 4'3 cents), the
exports as 839,586,490 piasters ; the imports of
1879-'80 as 1,931,403,524 piasters, the exports
as 863,209,246 piasters. The year 1880-'81
was unfortunate in every respect. The major-
ity of the farming population did not produce

TURKEY.

773

enough food for their needs, and were obliged
to borrow money at high rates of interest.
The importation of food-stuffs amounted to 3,-
600,000 Turkish liras (about $16,200,000), the
exports to 600,000 liras. Another such disas-
trous year would have brought famine, but
happily average crops were obtained in 1881-
'82. The total exports of 1880-'81 amounted
to about 9,800,000 liras ($41,850,000), includ-
ing 6,958,531 okes (about 19,715,000 pounds)
of tobacco, which pays no export duties. The
values of the leading exports were as follow :
raisins, 998,558 liras; tobacco, 810,000 liras;
raw silk, 836,500 liras; opium, 447,618 liras;
valonia, 377,253 liras; olive-oil, 347,876 liras;
coffee, 346,852 liras; cotton, 289,510 liras;
figs, 225,235 liras ; sheep and goat skins, 224,-
514 liras; sesame, 205,455 liras; soap, 199,474
liras; wheat, 219,022 liras. The export of
raisins to France for the manufacture of wine
has recently sprung up and become the most
important branch of the export trade. Since
the rise of this demand a large part of the coast
regions has been planted to vineyards.

The Army. — The reform in the military or-
ganization, approved by the Padishah in April,
1880, has made considerable progress, though
retarded by the lack of financial means and
the opposition of the older officers, whose
emoluments are threatened with diminution.
The army is divided into the nizam, or active
army ; the re'dif, or reserve; and the mustahtiz,
or levy in mass. The duration of military ser-
vice in the three bans is twenty years, of which
six are passed in the active army and its reserve.
The war effective of the active army is to be
610,200 men, with 1,512 guns. The actual
strength of the nizams in 1883 was 10,311 offi-
cers and 150,106 men, with 650 guns. There
is great lack of horses and war material, though
contracts have been made in the United States
and Sweden for rifles, torpedoes, etc.

Finances. — The budget for the year ended
March 13, 1881, makes the total revenue 16,-
155,840 liras, and the expenditure 19,148,763
liras. A commission appointed to -inquire into
the condition of the finances reports that for
1882-'83 the total revenue amounts to 15,000,-
000 liras, and the expenditures to 20,340,000
liras. Estimates for 1883-'84 make the total
revenue 16,313,006 liras, and the current ex-
penditures of the Government 12,126,001 liras,
leaving 4,187,005 liras for the state cred-
itors.

The loans of 1858, 1860, 1862, 1863-'64,
1865, 1869, 1872, and 1873, consolidated at 5
per cent, interest, and the railroad debt, repre-
sented by the Turkish lottery bonds, amounted
to £190,997,980 and the defaulted interest .to
£61,803,905. The Turkish Government began
contracting a foreign debt in 1854. Except
the guaranteed loan of 1855, £5,000,000 in
amount, bearing 4 per cent, interest, the vari-
ous loans, bearing interest at 6 and 5 per cent.,
were issued at a discount ranging from 30 to
60 per cent. In 1875, when the borrowing

power of the Government was quite exhausted,
the creditors were notified that only half the
interest would be paid in money, and the fol-
lowing year it was announced that no more
payments would be made until the internal
affairs of the empire were more settled. In
July, 1881, delegates from the bondholders met
at Constantinople and effected an arrangement
with the Government. The Council of Ad-
ministration, created under this arrangement,
took charge of the ceded revenues in March,
1882. One fifth of the product is to be ap-
plied to the reduction of the capital, and four
fifths to be paid out in interest. The interest
is never to exceed 4 per cent., and when the
yield of the ceded revenues exceeds 5 per cent,
of the debt in amount, the surplus is to be
turned over to the treasury. The quotas of
Servia, Greece, Bulgaria, and Montenegro, in
the expenses of the public debt, are to be ap-
plied to amortization.

The Council of Administration paid in Sep-
tember, 1882, and March, 1883, the semi-an-
nual interest at the rate of 1 per cent, on the
reduced amount of the consolidated debt. Ar-
rangements are made for a tobacco regie, to
begin operations in April, 1884.

Revision of Commercial Treaties. — The Porte
took the opportunity of the expiration of the
treaties of commerce with England, France,
Italy, Russia, and the United States, to secure
an augmentation of its revenues by increasing
the customs duties. It proposed to abolish ad
valorem duties and substitute for them specific
duties, adopting provisionally, pending the ne-
gotiations, a general ad valorem rate of 8 per
cent. The proposal was resisted resolutely by
the interested governments, particularly Great
Britain and the United States. The British
Government, in the interest of the Lancashire
cotton-manufacturers and other English im-
porters, insisted on being treated, under the
most-favored-nation clause, on the same terms
with Germany, whose commercial treaty has
yet eight years to run. Gen. Wallace, the
American minister, contested particularly the
increase in the duty on petroleum. The im-
ports of American petroleum are so large,
amounting in 1882 to 400,000 cases, and the
demand for this article so strong, that the
Turkish Government expected to derive from
this source a large and steady accession to its
income. The British Government likewise ob-
jected to the application to British subjects of
the tax for trade-licenses, a newly:established
source of revenue and one of those which were
abandoned to the bondholders. •

The Armenian Question.— The Porte had thrice
promised Great Britain to carry out adminis-
trative reforms in the Armenian vilayets. Min-
ister Layard obtained the promise of a gendar-
merie under English officers to defend the Ar-
menian Christians from the violence and op-
pression of the Kurds and Circassians. An
article in the Treaty of Berlin provided for Ar-
menian reformSj and the special convention be-

774

UNITED STATES.

tween England and the Porte, concluded prior
to the Berlin Congress, treats of the reform of
Turkish administration throughout Asia Minor.
The interest of England in Armenia is chiefly
negative. It is to prevent the advance of the
Eussians, who crossed the Caucasus in the be-
ginning of the century and established their
power in ancient Georgia, and then acquired
successively the Persian khanate of Erivan,
Turkish Georgia, and after the last war a part
of Turkish Armenia. They not only have a
large army within striking distance, but have
acquired great influence over the Armenians.
Upon their approach, the Armenian question
loomed up, ancient history was searched for
records of the kingdom of Armenia, grievances
became chronic, and soon the Sultan had an
"Asiatic Bulgaria" to reckon with. Belying
on the sympathies of the Russians and of the
English, a party in Armenia conceived that, if
they showed the proper degree of spirit and
resolution, their rival protectors would force
the Sultan to grant them an independent gov-
ernment. The revolutionary agitation ad-
vanced at the close of 1882 to the stage of in-
surgency, and an attempted rising took place
at Erzerum. The Ottoman Government, which
has really lived in the best accord with the
Armenians for centuries, proceeded energeti-
cally to crush the incipient revolution. The
leaders were put on trial for high treason.
Authors of revolutionary songs and other ap-
peals were imprisoned or banished. The trial
for treasonable conspiracy resulted in the con-
viction of the prisoners, but the Porte, deem-
ing the sentences too severe, and moved by the
intercessions of the foreign patrons of the Ar-
menians, ordered a new trial. The Moham-
medan brigands took license from the new
condition of affairs, and committed many out-
rages on Armenians and Greeks. The English

Government renewed its efforts to secure Ar-
menian reforms, and, before Lord Dufferin's de-
parture for Egypt, representations were made
to the Porte. The Turkish Government, more
reluctant even than usual to submit to foreign
dictation in its internal affairs, evaded action
by the old device of promising to consider the
question of a comprehensive reform in all the
Asiatic provinces.

Cretan Troubles. — The spirit of rebellion, which
is always latent in Crete, owing to the large
degree of autonomy already extorted by insur-
rection and foreign pressure, came to an out-
burst again in 1883, as it usually does after a
period of prosperity. The immediate cause of
the ferment was a controversy over the Vacouf
taxes. About half the real estate of the island
is affected to the mosques, partly by the as-
signment of the revenues of certain villages by
the Sultan, and partly by the bequest of pro-
prietors. The imperial taxation was aban-
doned by the convention of 1878, which con-
ferred practical autonomy on the island, to the
Assembly. The Vacouf taxes amount to about
one sixth of the total obligations of the island.
The diversion of so much of the revenue to the
support of the Mohammedan religion, which is
professed by only one fifth of the population,
is a cause of dissatisfaction. The Assembly,
on June 8, 1883, passed a resolution declaring
that the religious taxes would no longer be
paid, distinguishing the taxes from the rents
from property given to the mosques. Photia-
des Pasha, the governor, was directed to col-
lect the taxes, by force if necessary. After
appealing to the people in vain, he sent a body
of troops into Apokorona; but the whole
population rose against the military demon-
stration and drove out the troops, and, when
he ordered another force into the province of
Canea, the officers resigned.

U

UNITED STATES. There were comparatively
few important official changes under the United
States Government during the year. Post-
master-General Timothy O. Howe died on
March 25th, and on April 4th Judge Walter
Q. Gresham, of Indiana, was appointed to the
vacant place, it having been decided by the
Attorney-General that under the law the duties
of the office could be performed by a person
temporarily designated for a period of ten days
only. Mr. Gresham was born at Corydon,
Ind., March 17, 1833. He was graduated from
Bloomington University, and entered upon the
practice of law in his native county. He served
in the State Legislature prior to 1861, and after
the outbreak of the civil war entered the mili-
tary service as lieutenant-colonel of the Thirty -
eighth Indiana Regiment. He was a brigadier-
general under Grant in the Vicksburg cam-
paign of 1863, and was in command of a division
under Sherman before Atlanta in 1864, where

he received a severe wound in the leg. The
brevet title of major-general was given him in
1865. He took a somewhat prominent part in
politics after the war, and was twice a candi-
date for Congress against the late M. C. Kerr,
but was defeated. Judge William C. Woods,
of the Supreme Court of Indiana, was appointed
to succeed Judge Gresham as United States Dis-
trict Judge on the 2d of May. Gen. Green B.
Raurn, Commissioner of Internal Revenue for
nearly seven years, resigned on April 28th,
and on May 21st Walter Evans, of Kentucky,
was appointed as his successor. United States
Treasurer James Gilfillan resigned on April 1st,
and the Assistant Treasurer, A. U. Wyman, was
appointed to the place. Edward O. Graves,
chief of the Redemption Bureau, was made
Assistant Treasurer. Pierre C. Van Wyck,
Superintendent of the Assay-Office in New
York, died in April, and on the 24th of that
month, Andrew Mason, previously the melte'

UNITED STATES.

775

and refiner in that office, was advanced to the
post of Superintendent. On September 1st Mr.
Marble retired from the office of Commissioner
of Patents, and Benjamin Butterworth, of Ohio,
was subsequently appointed to that office.

Some slight political agitation was caused by
official changes in New York city at tbe be-
ginning of March. Elihu Root was appointed
District Attorney in place of Stewart L. Wood-
ford, who had sougbt a reappointment. Naval
Officer Silas L. Burt was superseded by Charles
K. Graham, previously Surveyor of the Port;
James L. Benedict was made surveyor; A. P.
Ketcbum was promoted from general appraiser
to appraiser of merchandise; and Andrew J.
Perry was made general appraiser.

Appointments made during the year in the
diplomatic service were: Lucius H. Foote, of
California, Minister to Corea; Seth Ledyard
Phelps, of the District of Columbia, Minister
to Peru ; John W. Foster, of Indiana, Minister
to Spain; W. W. Thomas, Jr., of Maine, Min-
ister to Sweden and Norway; Richard Gibbs,
of New York, Minister to Bolivia; Wickham
Hoffman, of New York, Minister to Denmark ;
S. G. W. Benjamin, of New York, Minister to
Persia; D wight T. Reed, of New York, Secre-
tary of Legation at Madrid.

Foreign Relations. — In reply to a resolution of
inquiry from the Senate, the Secretary of State,
on February 27th, submitted to the President
the following explanation regarding the action
of the American Minister to Peru :

The Secretary of State has the honor to report that
he received a dispatch from Mr. Partridge, who stated
that for reasons therein given the representatives of
Great Britain, France, Italy, and the United States
(Germany declining to take 'any part) were led to con-
sider, at an informal meeting at Mr. Partridge's house,
by what mode a solution of the existing difficulties
might he reached. Mr. Partridge and his colleagues
accordingly agreed on a memorandum which was to
be sent by each of the ministers to his own Govern-
ment as setting forth their views and hopes. The
ministers state in substance that they are unanimously
of the opinion that each should declare to his Govern-
ment that they believe the only possible means of
bringing about a cessation of hostilities, of saving
Peru from complete destruction, and of arresting the
ruin of neutrals, would be an agreement between the
Governments to address representations to the Chilian
Government, and cause it to understand that their
wish is to see peace made on the basis of a cession of
Tarapuca, reserving all further conditions for further
negotiation. The ministers further declare that they
consider it a duty to invite their respective Govern-
ments to agree among themselves to take the step in-
dicated at once as an urgent necessity. Upon the
receipt of this dispatch Mr. Partridge was telegraphed
by the Secretary of State in substance that the leave
of absence which he had requested was granted, and
that he was expected to return to the United States
by the first steamer. He was further informed that
the action set forth in his dispatch having been taken
by him without authority, was disapproved, and -he
was directed to so inform those of his colleagues who
had acted with him. A telegram was at the same
time sent to the Ministers of the United States in
London, Paris, and Koine, informing them that Mr.
Partridge had joined with the representatives of Great
Britain, France, and Italy in a recommendation to
their respective Governments to intervene in the
Chili-Peru difficulties, and instructing them to in-

form the Governments to which they are respectively
accredited, that this action was taken by Mr. Par-
tridge without authority, and has not been approved.

Ratifications of new trade- mark and extra-
dition treaties between the United States and
Spain were exchanged at Washington on April
15th. The former was intended to secure re-
ciprocal protection in the exclusive use of
trade-marks in the two countries, and the lat-
ter increased the list of crimes for which ex-
tradition would be granted, adding embezzle-
ment, kidnapping, extorting money or other
property by threats of injury, false devices, etc.
A commercial agreement was negotiated by
Minister Foster at Madrid, involving the re-
moval of differential duties between the United
States and the Spanish colonies. (See page 649.)

Among the extensions of the diplomatic
relations of the United States effected during
the year, was the appointment of a minister
resident and consul-general at the capital of
Persia. Mr. S. G. W. Benjamin was appointed
to that post, and arrived at Teheran in June.
Treaty relations with Corea were perfected by
an exchange of ratifications on May 15th at
Seoul. An American representative remained
at that capital, and a Corean embassy visited
the United States during the year to learn
something of their institutions and promote
commercial intercourse. A Chinese consulate
was established in New York in June, the first
incumbent being Ow Yang Ming.

Consular and commercial treaties with Ser-
via and Roumania were perfected and pro-
claimed during the year, and a new treaty was
effected with Madagascar. Notice of the ter-
mination of the fishery clauses of the Treaty
of Washington was given by the President, in
pursuance of a joint resolution of Congress, to
take effect July 1, 1885. The sending of pau-
per emigrants from Ireland by government
assistance was the subject of remonstrance,
and assurance was received that precautions
would be taken to prevent it in the future.
The action of France and Germany in prohib-
iting or restricting the importation of the
pork products of the United States was also
the subject of correspondence which reached
no definite result. (See PORK, PROHIBITION OF
AMERICAN.)

Political Movements. — The general political
movements of the year were without special
importance. The National Committee of the
Republican party held a meeting at Washington
on Jan. 17th to consider the basis of repre-
sentation and the method of selecting dele-
gates for the next National Convention. Ste-
phen W. Dorsey, of Arkansas, resigned the
post of secretary of the committee, and John
A. Martin, of Kansas, was .chosen in his place.

Two propositions were offered for securing
representation proportioned to the strength of
the party in the different States. One of these,
offered by Mr. Martin, of Kansas, would give
to each State four delegates-at-large and one
for each congressional district, and an additional

776

UNITED STATES.

delegate-at-large for every 12,000 votes cast
for Republican electors in 1880. That submit-
ted by Mr. Chandler, of New Hampshire, gave
to each State four delegates-at-large, with one
additional for every Republican senator, and
two delegates from each congressional district,
with one additional for each Republican repre-
sentative in Congress. These plans were an-
tagonized with the proposition that the old
basis of four delegates-at-large for each State,
two delegates for each congressional district,
and two tor each Territory and the District of
Columbia, be retained. This was adopted by
a vote of 21 to 17. The following resolution
was adopted after some debate :

Resolved, That the Eepublicans of the various
congressional districts shall have the option of choos-
ing their delegates at separate conventions held
within the districts, or by subdivision of State con-
ventions, but all district delegates selected shall be
accredited by the officers of such district conventions.

It was decided that State conventions
should be held not less than thirty nor more
than sixty days before the National Conven-
tion, and that separate district conventions,
when held, should be within fifteen days prior
to the State Convention. The question of hold-
ing the next National Convention was decided
in favor of Chicago, and Tuesday, June 3, 1884,
was fixed as the date. The Democratic Na-
tional Committee made no preparation during
the year for the convention of the party.

There was a convention of delegates of the
colored race from various parts of the country
at Louisville, Ky., in September. It was char-
acterized by a good deal of excitement, arising
out of antagonistic feeling in regard to declar-
ing in favor of the adhesion of the race to the
Republican party. On the last day, September
27th, an address to the people of the country
was adopted, of which the following are the
most significant passages :

We do not ask for any more class-legislation.
We have had enough of this. But we do believe
that many of the laws intended to secure to us our
rights as citizens are nothing more than dead letters.
In the Southern States, almost without exception, the
colored people are denied justice in the courts, denied
the fruit of their honest labor, defrauded of their po-
litical rights at the ballot- box? shut out from learning
trades, cheated out of their civil rights by innkeep-
ers and common-carrier companies, and left by the
States tr> an inadequate opportunity for education and
general improvement.

We regard the labor question, education, and
sound moral training paramount to all other ques-
tions. We believe that these questions, especially in
the South, need recasting, and that the plantation
credits and mortgage system should be abolished;
that honest labor should be remunerated ; that the
landholders of the South should recognize that this
question is to be solved by encouraging the negroes
to industry, to frugality, and to business habits by
inciting them to habits ot thrift, by assisting them to
acquire an interest in the soil, by paying them honest
wages for honest work, and by making them con-
tented and happy in the land of their nativity.

A National Free-Trade Conference was held
at Detroit. On the last day, June 1st, an ad-
dress was adopted setting forth the demands

of those taking part in the conference, and
officers were chosen, David A. Wells, of Con-
necticut, being president. The following are
the material passages of the address :

American manufacturers need cheaper materials
in order to contend successfully in the markets of the
world against foreign competitors. The protected
manufacturers are few among the many, and even
these have generally been hindered rather than helped
by so-called protection. American labor, even in
protected industries, is discovering that it gets no
higher wages by protection ; that it can buy less with
its money and can save less. The poorer a man is the
more the tariff hurts him. The higher wages which
generally prevail in America are due to superior ad-
vantages which would be increased by the removal of
the tariff restrictions. While there is absolute free
trade in labor, and manufacturers can import the
cheap labor of Europe, the laborer is denied the right
to buy goods in the cheapest market. The Govern-
ment of the United States has no constitutional or
other right to impose taxes on the people except with
the intent and result of getting sufficient money in
the public treasury to pay the public debt, provide for
the common defense, and provide for the general
welfare: and all tariff taxes called protective, laid
with different intent and result^ ought to be abolished.
We favor the promotion of reciprocity and the repeal
of the navigation laws which have destroyed pur
merchant marine. We do not counsel the immediate
formation of a new party, though we recognize that
many Eepublicans and many Democrats are losing
faith in their own parties and desire to unite politi-
cally for genuine revenue reform. But in case the
existing parties, in their utterances, in their candi-
dates, or in designating their leaders in Congress, per-
sistently oppose or evade reform, we advise revenue
reformers to prepare for independent political action.

Some time before the meeting of Congress in
December, an unusual contest was developed
over the speakership of the House of Repre-
sentatives, owing to different tendencies in the
Democratic party on the tariff question. Sam-
uel J. Randall, of Pennsylvania, was known to
be an advocate of the policy of protection for
American industry, and was supported for the
speakership on the ground that he Would be
opposed to reopening the question of tariff re-
vision. He was also understood to favor the
abolition of all internal revenue taxes. John
Gr. Carlisle, of Kentucky, was a prominent ad-
vocate of a further revision of the tariff and
of the principle of a tariff for revenue, with
only such incidental protection as might accrue
from duties arranged primarily with a view to
meeting the finRncial needs of the Government.
He was not favorable to an immediate repeal
of the internal revenue taxes. Samuel S. Cox,
of New York, whose views on the tariff ques-
tion were not materially different from those
of Mr. Carlisle, was also a candidate for Speaker,
but his support rested largely on considerations
of locality and long service in the House of
Representatives. A caucus of Democratic
members of the House was held on the eve of
the session of Congress, when on the first bal-
lot Mr. Carlisle received 106 votes, to 52 for
Randall, and ,30 for Cox. He was thereby
made the Democratic candidate for Speaker,
and received the full support of the members
of his party, being elected over J. W. Keifer,

UNITED STATES.

777

of Ohio, the Republican candidate. There had
been some opposition to Mr. Keifer among the
Republicans, and an effort was made to secure
his withdrawal before the caucus.

Second Star-Rente Trial.— The second trial of
the alleged Star-Route conspirators continued
until about the middle of June, and ended in an
acquittal. (For an account of the first trial and
beginning of the second, see " Annual Cyclo-
paedia," 1882, pp. 753-767.) Special incidents
of the second trial were the substitution of a
plea of "guilty" for that of "not guilty," on
the part of Montfort 0. Rerdell, and his testi-
mony for the Government against the other
defendants, and the testimony of Thomas J.
Brady, S.W. Porsey, John W. Dorsey, and Har-
vey M. Vaile, in their own behalf. The taking
of evidence closed April 12th. Mr. W. W. Ker
occupied several days in summing up for the
Government, finishing on April 27th. lie was
followed by George Bliss on the same side, who
spoke for seven days, closing May 8th. A ques-
tion arose as to the right of the Government
to two closing addresses, the plea of counsel
being that Mr. Merrick should make the prin-
cipal closing address, to be followed by the
Attorney-General. When the point was dis-
cussed, a letter from the Attorney-General to
Mr. Merrick was read, in which he argued in
favor of that method.

Judge Wylie said the former arrangement
had been a matter of agreement between coun-
sel, and he saw now no reason for departing
from the usual rule. It was the universal
practice in jury cases to allow only one reply
to the Government, and that order would be
preserved in this case. The argument for the .
defendants was begun by Mr. Wilson on May
9th. He was followed by other counsel, the
longest address being made by Robert Ingersoll.
The final summing up for the prosecution by Mr.
Merrick began on May 28th, and was finished
on June 8th. The charge to the jury was deliv-
ered on June 12th. In its interpretation and ap-
plication of the law there was no material
variation from the charge on the first trial.
The jury retired on the evening of June 12th,
and on the morning of the 14th rendered their
verdict, " Not guilty as indicted."

On April 18th, William P. Kellogg was indict-
ed for receiving money while a Senator of the
United States for services rendered in relation
to a Star-Route contract, and Thomas J. Brady
was indicted for receiving money while Second
Assistant Postmaster-General, in relation to
the same matter. Pleas in abatement were over-
ruled in July, as were also motions to quash the
indictments. Postponements took place, and
the case did not come to trial during the year.

The Army. — There was no material change
during the year in the force of the United
States army, or the manner of its employment.
On November 1st it consisted of 2,143 officers
and 23,335 enlisted men. The only warlike inci-
dent of the year was the pursuit of a band of
Indians into Mexico and the capture of a part

of it by Gen. Crook, of the Department of
Arizona. This band belonged to a branch of
Apaches known as the Chiricahuas. They
crossed the frontier fro in Mexico on March 21st,
and made a raid through southern Arizona and
New Mexico, running off cattle and horses and
plundering and terrifying the inhabitants. They
moved with such rapidity that the troops in
pursuit failed to come up with them before
they had again crossed -the border nnd betaken
themselves into the fastnesses of the Sierra .
Madre mountains. One of the number, Pe-Nal-
Fisher, known by the sobriquet of " Peaches,"
had deserted and made his way to the San
Carlos Agency, where he was seized and turned
over to Gen. Crook. He agreed to conduct
that officer to the stronghold of the hostile
savages in the Sierra Madre, on the border-line
between the Mexican States of Sonora and
Chihuahua. Gen. Crook concluded to trust him
and accept his services. On the 1st of May he
left San Bernardino Springs with 193 Apache
scouts, commanded by Capt. Emmett Crawford,
Third Cavalry, assisted by Lieuts. C. B. Gate-
wood, Sixth Cavalry, and J. O. Mackay, Third
Cavalry, and Capt. A. R. Chaffee's company of
the Sixth Cavalry (42 enlisted men and two offi-
cers, Lieuts. Frank West and W. W. Forsyth).
This force was the maximum which could be
supplied by the use of every available pack-
animal in the department. They had supplies,
field rations for 60 days, and 150 rounds of
ammunition. Officers and men carried only
such clothing and bedding as were absolutely
necessary, and instead of keeping up their own
messes shared the food of the packers. The
pack-train comprised over 350 animals. The
forced moved southeast down the San Bernar-
dino, through a country that had been com-
pletely laid waste by the Apaches. Following
a trail under the guidance of " Peaches," they
entered the Sierra Madre on the night of May
8th. In his report, Gen. Crook said :

The indications of the proximity of the enemy had
now become so marked that I concluded to keep the
pack-trains back in the stronghold guarded by Chat-
fee's company, while the Apache scouts under Craw-
ford should scour the country in front and on our
flanks. On May 15th the scouts discovered the camps of
Indians, which were afterward found to be those of
Chato and Bonito. In accordance with my careful
instructions, they would have been surrounded but for
the fact that some of the scouts incautiously fired upon
a buck and squaw. The surprise was complete, and
in the subsequent fight, which lasted several hours,
the Indians were thoroughly beaten, the camps and
their contents captured, and'five half-grown girls and
young boys taken prisoners. Nine dead Indians were
found afte'rward that had been killed in the fight, the
extremely rugged nature of the country, the camps
being situated half-way up the face of a precipitous
mountain, gashed with ravines and arroyos, preventing
any exact count being made without extreme danger
from the Indians who might be wounded or hidden
in the rocks. The eldest of the captive girls said
that, if permitted, she would go out to her people and
have a delegation of them come in next day, as she
was sure they wanted to make peace. Her manner
satisfied me of her sincerity, and I allowed her to
leave the camp.

778

UNITED STATES.

After considerable parley with messengers
from the Indians, all the chiefs surrendered.
They desired to make peace, and to be placed on
the San Carlos Reservation. Efforts to bring in
the scattered warriors were but partly success-
ful, and when Gen. Crook felt compelled to be-
gin his return march on account of his scanty
supplies, he had with him 384 Cliiricahua In-
dians and six Mexican captives who had been
found in their possession. Other Indians were
to be sent in afterward according to agreement
with Hieronymo. The force reached the sup-
ply-camp at Silver Springs, Arizona, on June
10th, and 52 warriors and 273 women and
children were sent to the San Carlos Reserva-
tion. Gen. Crook strongly urged the retention
of the surrendered Indians and such others as
should come in at the San Carlos Reservation.
This was objected to by Secretary Teller, of the
Interior Department, and the general was sum-
moned to Washington for consultation, which
resulted in an arrangement for retaining the
Indians on the reservation as prisoners of war
under the direct charge of that officer.

The expenditures of the War Department, for
the fiscal year ending June 30th, were $49,-
791,055, and $1,663,151 was credited to the
subsidized Pacific Railroads, for transportation
services rendered the War Department during
the fiscal year 1883 and prior years.

The cost of maintaining the Soldiers' Home
was $139,557.63. The number of national
cemeteries under the care of the Quartermas-
ter's Department was 83, in which there were
321,369 interments. The total number of
deaths reported from the army for the year
was 242, of which 162 were from disease, "and
80 from wounds, injuries, and accidents. From
the casualties of actual warfare there was but
one death and nine injuries. The cost of med-
ical and hospital supplies was $180,139.73.
There were nearly 3,600 desertions from the
army during the year. At the national armo-
ry, Springfield, Mass., 33.621 small-arms were
manufactured. Contracts were entered into
for making, converting, and testing rifled can-
non, but it was impossible to secure those for
the larger steel f orgings in the United States, and
resort was had to the works of Great Britain.

Gen. William T. Sherman retired from the
head of the army on November 1st, and was
succeeded by Lieut.-Gen. Philip H. Sheridan,
Maj.-Gen. J. M. Schofield being transferred to
the Division of the Missouri, with headquarters
at Chicago.

The Navy. — The naval vessels in commission
at the beginning of 1884 were as follow :

North Atlantic Station, Bear- Admiral George. H.
Cooper. The Tennessee, first rate, 22 guns, Capt. Jo-
seph N. Miller ; Vandalia, second rate, 8 guns, Capt.
Rush R. Wallace ; Alliance, third rate, 6 guns, Com-
mander Allan V. Reed ; Galena, third rate, 8 guns,
Commander Oliver A. Batchellor ; Swatara, third rate,
8 guns, Commander Philip H. Cooper. South Atlan-
tic Station, Commodore Thomas S. Phelps. Brook-
lyn, second rate, 14 guns, Capt. Aaron W. Weaver ;
Nipsic, third rate, 6 guns, Commander Henry B. See-
ly. European Station, Rear- Admiral Charles H. Bald-

win. Lancaster, second rate, 10 guns, Capt. Edward
E. Potter ; Quinnebaug, third rate. 8 guns, Com-
mander Nicoll Ludlow ; Kearsarge, third rate, 7 guns,
Commander William R. Bridgman. Pacific Station,
Rear- Admiral Aaron K. Hughes. Pensacola, second
rate, 22 guns, Capt. Henry Erben ; Hartford, second
rate, 16 guns. Capt. Charles C. Carpenter ; Lacka-
wanna, second rate, 9 guns, Capt. Augustus P. Cooke ;
Shenandoah, second rate, 9 guns, Capt. Charles S.
Norton ; Iroquois, third rate, 7 guns, Commander
James II. Sands ; Adams, third rate, 6 guns, Com-
mander Joseph B. Coghlan; Wachusett, third rate,
7 guns, Commander Alfred T. Mahan; Onward, fourth
rate, 3 guns, Lieut. -Commander Francis W. Dickins.
Asiatic Station, Acting Rear- Admiral John L. Davis.
Richmond, second rate, 14 guns, Capt. Joseph S. Sker-
rett ; Trenton, second rate, 10 guns, Capt. Robert L.
Phythian ; Ossipee, third rate, 8 guns, Commander
John F. McGlensay ; Juniata, third rate, 8 guns, Com-
mander Parnell F. Harrington ; Essex, third rate, 6
guns, Commander Alexander H. McCormick ; Enter-
prise, third rate, 6 guns, Commander Alberts. Barker;
Mpnocacy, third rate, 6 guns, Commander Francis J.
Higginson ; Alert, third rate, 4 guns, Commander
Charles J. Barclay ; Palos, fourth rate, 6 howitzers,
Lieut. -Commander George D. B. Glidden. Training
Squadron, Commodore Stephen B. Luce. Minnesota,
first rate, 24 guns, Capt. James H. Gillis, at New York ;
New Hampshire, first rate, 16 guns, sails, Capt. Ed-
mund O. Matthews, at Newport, R. I. ; Jamestown,
third rate, sails, 12 guns, Commander Charles V. Grid-
ley, at New York • Sataroga, third rate, 12 guns, Com-
mander William H. Whiting, training-ship, at New
York ; Portsmouth, third rate, sails, 12 guns, Com-
mander William C. Wise, at Norfolk for repairs.
There were also on special service, the Alarm, fourth
rate, torpedo-ram, and the Dispatch, fourth rate, at
Washington ; the Michigan, fourth rate, at Erie, Pa. ;
the Pinta, fourth rate, on the way to San Francisco ;
Powhatan, second rate, 14 guns, Capt. Andrew W.

Tallapoosa, dispatch- vessel, at Norfolk ; Yantic, third
rate. 4 guns. Commander Frank Wildes, at New
York Navy-Yard. The Colorado, first rate, 30 guns,
Capt. William A. Kirkland, was a receiving-ship at
New York ; Franklin, first rate. 26 guns. Capt. Lester
A. Beardslee, like service at Norfolk; Wabash, first
rate, 26 guns, Captain Fr. M. Bunce,.same at Bos-
ton • Independence, third rate, at Mare island ; St.
Louis, third rate, at League island ; Wvandotte, fourth
rate, at Washington Navy- Yard. The Speedwell,
fourth rate, arrived at Norfolk in January. The iron-
clads Ajax, Catskill, Lehigh, Mahopac, and Manhat-
tan were laid up at City Point, Va., in command of
Commander D. W. Mullen.

Authority was given by an act of Congress,
approved Aug. 5, 1882, to strike from the reg-
ister of the navy such vessels as should be
deemed of no further service to the Govern-
ment. Under this authority 47 vessels were
so stricken from the register. An act approved
March 3, 1883, authorized the Secretary of the
Navy to dispose of such of these vessels as
might be deemed expedient, by sale in accord-
ance with sealed proposals. A circular was
issued June 21st, inviting such proposals for
the purchase of 24 of these vessels, their names,
location, and appraised value being as follow :

The Congress, $25,400; Guard, $2,800; Kansas,
$6,100 ; and Sabine, $10,400, at Portsmouth, N. H.
Iowa, $44,600 ; Niagara, $29,000 ; and Ohio, $15,700,
at Boston. Blue Light, $500 ; and Florida, $64,400,
at New London, Conn. New Orleans, $200 (on the
stocks), at Sackett's Harbor. N. Y. Susquehanna,
$9,000, at New York. Burlington, $3,000 ; Glance,

UNITED STATES.

779

$400 ; Supply, $1,200 ; Sorrel, $200 ; and Dictator,
$33,800, at League island, Pa. Frolic, $8,600; and
Relief, $2,600, at Washington. Worcester, $25,400 :
Shawmut, $5,300 ; and Savannah, $10,600, at Nor-
folk. Roanoke, $37,200, at Chester. Pawnee, $5 -
600 ; and Sea-weed, $500, at Port Royal, S. 0.

Proposals were received until September
24th, and the vessels were awarded to the
highest responsible bidders. The aggregate
amount realized was $384,753. Condemned
stores and supplies were also sold to the amount
of $135,000. The other vessels stricken from
the register were not considered of sufficient
value to be sold, and were condemned to be
broken up on the stocks.

The Advisory Board appointed to consider
the needs of the United States Navy, recom-
mended the gradual substitution of new steel
vessels for all the old type of wooden vessels.
It fixed the standard for the navy at 70 vessels,
43 for service at sea, and 27 to be held in re-
serve, and recommended that they be built at
the rate of seven a year. Under authority of
the acts of Aug. 5, 1882, and March 3, 1883,
proposals were invited for the construction of
three cruisers, one dispatch-boat, and three
double-turreted monitors. The cruisers were
to be of steel, and were intended to equal any-
thing afloat in speed and efficiency. The Chi-
cago was to be of 4,500 tons, and the Boston
and Atlantic of 2,500 tons each. The contract
for the three cruisers and the dispatch-boat
Dolphin was awarded to John Roach, of Ches-
ter, Pa., the aggregate of his bids being $2,-
440,000, and less on each vessel than those of
any other bidder. The three monitors, Puri-
tan, Amphitrite, and Terror, were launched on
the Delaware before the close of the year, and
a similar one, the Monadnock, was launched in
California. The contracts for the engines and
fittings of the monitors require their comple-
tion by July 15, 1884, and the cruisers must be
finished during that year.

The Advisory Board recommend the imme-
diate construction of three more large cruis-
ers, together with two gunboats of 1,500 tons,
and two of 750 tons, at an estimated cost of
$4,283,000. They also recommend one steel
ram, one cruising torpedo-boat, and two har-
bor torpedo-boats.

A commission was appointed to examine the
navy-yards, with a view to determining wheth-
er any of them should be dispensed with, and
what should be done to put the others in a bet-
ter state of efficiency. A report was made to
the Secretary of the Navy in December.

The commissioners recommended the reten-
tion of the Mare Island Navy-Yard, as it was
the only one on the Pacific coast. Of that at
Portsmouth, N. H., they reported that it af-
fords ample depth of water, is rarely obstructed
by ice, is in a region where skilled labor can
always be obtained, has a healthful climate, is
susceptible of defense, and has excellent plant
for the construction and repair of wooden
ships. In view of these advantages they did

not recommend the sale of this yard. They
did not think it advisahle to sell the navy-yard
at Boston, of which they said: "Its geo-
graphical position, excellent plant, fine dry-
dock and buildings, and adaptability to further
improvements, give it too much value to be
relinquished. Sooner or later defensive works
for the protection of the city of P.oston must
be constructed, when the yard will be safe from
attack." The discontinuance of the yard at
New London, Conn., was recommended, and
the use of the site for a Naval Asylum was sug-
gested. The commissioners then set forth and
considered the advantages and disadvantages of
the Brooklyn Navy-Yard, and expressed the
opinion that it should not be sold. They rec-
ommended, however, the sale of a portion of
land, comprising about fifty-eight acres, lying
to the eastward of Marine Barracks, and in-
cluding a part or the whole of the hospital-
grounds. The commissioners next review the
situation, plant, and capability of defense of
the League Island Navy- Yard, and say : " Your
commissioners do not recommend the sale of
this yard. Of all the places on the Atlantic
seaboard the Delaware is the best for iron-ship
building, and on the Delaware League island
has been selected hy several boards as the site
for a navy-yard."' The commission advised
against the abandonment of the naval station
at Sackett's Harbor, N. Y. The recommenda-
tions with regard to the other navy-yards were
as follow : Washington Navy- Yard. — The sale
of this yard is not recommended. Pensacola
Navy- Yard. — The commissioners do not rec-
ommend the sale of this yard, as it is the only
one on the Gulf. Norfolk Navy- Yard. — The
commissioners do not recommend the sale of
this yard, because the advantages it undoubt-
edly possesses far outweigh its deficiencies.
Key West Naval Station. — The commissioners
do not recommend the sale of this station, be-
lieving that, in any maritime war, Key West
must be retained at whatever cost.

The New London Navy- Yard has been al-
ready abandoned, and that at Pensacola closed.

The Post-Offlce.— The revenues of the Post-Of-
fice Department for the fiscal year ending June
30th were $45,508,692, and the expenses $42,-
816,700. There was an increase of 8*6 per cent,
in the receipts over those of the previous year.
The estimated receipts for the year ending in
1885 are $47,104,078; expenditures, $50,062,-
189. The anticipated deficiency is due to the
reduction of letter-postage from three to two
cents per half- ounce, which went into effect
October 1st (see page 185, et seg.). The number
of post-offices increased during the fiscal year
from 46,231 to 47,863, and the number of em-
ployee in the department,' from 65,777 to 69,-
020. The free-delivery system was in opera-
tion in 154 offices, at an annual expense of $3,-
173,336. The cost of inland mail transportation
for the fiscal year was $19,234,899, an increase
of $353,847 over that of the previous year.
The service on Star-routes, which in 1880 cost

780

UNITED STATES.

$7,321,499 for 76,070,995 miles of transporta-
tion, was done at a cost of $4,739,478 for 77,-
998,782 miles of transportation. At the close
of the fiscal year there were 993 railway post-
office lines, against 769 the previous year. The
miles on which the railroad companies were
paid had increased from 100,565 to 109,827,
and the service upon the lines was measured by
86,180,430 miles. There were 5,927 money-
order offices, at which the aggregate issues for
the year were $125,047,238.42; and payments,
$120,407,468.83. The fees amounted to $1,-
272,060.60, affording a net profit on the busi-
ness of $159,104.34. The total number of let-
ters and packages received at the dead-letter
office was 4,440,822, an increase of about 4 per
cent. The number of registered letters and
parcels was 10,594,716, on which the fees
amounted to $926,549.71. The cost of ocean
transportation of mails to foreign ports, under
the provision of the law which limits the com-
pensation to the postage on the mails conveyed,
was $316,522.13, of which $265,621.52 was for
transatlantic service.

The Postmaster-General confirmed and re-
newed the orders of the department, made in
1879, forbidding the delivery of registered let-
ters and the payment of money-orders to the
managers of lotteries. Specific instructions
were given to the Postmaster of New Orleans
not to deliver mail -matter to the Louisiana State
Lottery, or to M. A. Dauphin, its president.
An arrangement having been made for the pay-
ment of money-orders and the delivery of reg-
istered letters to the New Orleans National
Bank on account of the lottery company, in-
structions were also issued forbidding delivery
and payment to the bank. The result of this ac-
tion was a suit against the Postmaster-General
for $100,000 damages, brought by the lottery
company, and a suit against the Postmaster of
New Orleans, brouglit by the National Bank,
for an injunction restraining him from inter-
fering with mail-matter addressed to the bank,
and from refusing to pay money-orders payable
to it on account of the lottery company. The
latter case was decided early in January, 1884,
by Judge Pardee, at New Orleans, in favor of
the bank, on the technical ground that the
Postmaster-General could not revive an order
which his predecessor had revoked. He could
issue a new order based on evidence presented
to himself, but he could not appeal to evidence
which his predecessor had discarded, and de-
clare that an order previously revoked was still
in force, as he had undertaken to do in this case.

Pensions* — On June 30th there were 303,658
pensioners on the Government rolls, of whom
198,648 were army invalids, 74,374 army wid-
ows, minor children, or dependent relatives,
2,468 navy invalids, 1,907 navy widows, minor
children, or dependent relatives, 4,831 survivors
of the War of 1 81 2, and 21,336 widows of those
who served in the War of 1812. During the
year preceding, 38,958 names had been added
to the rolls, and 20,997 dropped, leaving a net

increase of 17,961. The average annual value
of pensions was $106.18, and the aggregate an-
nual value of all pensions $32,245,192.43. The
total amount paid for pensions during the fiscal
year was $60,064,009.23, nearly half the sum
being for arrears. The total number of claims
allowed for pensions since 1861 is 510,958,
and the aggregate amount paid during the 22
years is $621,073,297.60. (See page 248, et seq.)
A new building for the use of the Pension
Bureau is in process of construction at Wash-
ington, for which an appropriation of $400,-
000 has been made. Many complaints were
made of the swindling practices of pension-
agents or attorneys during the year, and an
effort was made by the Pension Commissioner
to break them up. The assistance of the De-
partment of Justice was invoked, and the mat-
ter was taken up by the District Attorney of
the District of Columbia. In a letter to the
Secretary of the Interior announcing his pur-
pose to bring the matter before the Grand Jury,
the District Attorney said :

The character of the enormous frauds which are be-
ing perpetrated upon applicants for pensions by certain
claim agents of Washington will, if the allegations
are sustained by the evidence, surprise the public.
The devices employed arc as numerous as the skill of
dishonest men can contrive. Some of the cases be-
fore me are heart-rending in their details. Maimed
and decrepit soldiers, and the poor widows and help-
less orphans of soldiers, pay their pittance of $1, $2,
$4, or $10 to agents who must know their claims are
worthless and can never be paid, and these agents
merely file a formal application to enable them to col-
lect money from their deluded clients.

Several firms and individuals charged with
the fraudulent practices were suspended from
the privilege of prosecuting claims before the
bureau, and others discontinued business. No
new regulations were adopted at the time, but
in December a number of the agents accused
of deceiving and defrauding their clients were
indicted by the Grand Jury of the District.

Revenue Questions. — On June 25th an execu-
tive order was issued making important changes
in the internal revenue collection districts.
The total number of districts was reduced by
consolidation from 126 to 82. As a rule,
where two districts were consolidated into one,
the collector most recently appointed was re-
tained, and the other was dismissed ; but in
some cases a new collector was appointed.

A question arose in the early part of the
year as to the date on which the repeal of the
tax on the capital and deposits of banks took
effect. The law had required the payment of
these taxes half-yearly, on the 1st of January
and the 1st of July, and returns of the average
amount of capital and of deposits for the six
months preceding were required to be made
within ten days of those dates. The act of
March 5, 1883, simply repealed these provis-
ions, without designating any time for the re-
peal to take effect. The Attorney-General
gave it as his opinion that the tax could not be
collected for any part of the half-year already

UNITED STATES, FINANCES OF THE.

781

begun when the repealing act was passed, and
this view was acted on.

Miscellaneous* — The amount of public lands
disposed of during the last fiscal year was
19,430,032-80 acres, of which 339,235.90 were
Indian lands, and 1,999,335'71 acres were
grants to railroads. The receipts for lands
disposed of were $11,718,888.70, an increase
on 1882 of $3,319,367.66. There were pre-emp-
tion and private entries of 4,465,665 49 acres;
timber - culture entries, 3,110,930-23 acres;
homestead entries, 56,565 in number, aggre-
gating 8,171,914-38 acres.

The work of educating the Indians was ex-
tended during the year, and there is now pro-
vision for the education of 11,000.

A noteworthy event of the year was the
completion of the main line of the Northern
Pacific Railroad in September. The last spike
was driven on the 9th 'of that month, at a point
on the Pacific slope of the Rocky mountains
50 miles west of Helena, Montana, and 30
miles west of the Grand Divide, 2,500 miles
from the Atlantic Ocean, and 800 miles from
the Pacific. The opening of the line from
Lake Superior to the Pacific was celebrated
by the company, under the direction of its
president, Henry Villard, an excursion being
made over the' whole line in September.

The President made a trip to Florida in the
spring, leaving Washington April 5th. On the
30th of July he left the capital tor a trip to
the West. He attended the opening of the
Exposition at Louisville, Ky., on Aug. 1st, and
proceeded to the Yellowstone Park by way of
Chicago, St. Paul, and the Northern Pacific
Railroad. He reached Chicago on his return
Sept. 5th, and two days later arrived at the
capital, but made no extended stay there until
nearly two months later.

UNITED STATES, FINANCES OF THE. The most
noteworthy events in the financial history of
the year 1883 were the reduction of the inter-
nal revenue taxes and the revision of the tariff;
the steady decrease of the public debt, involv-
ing the redemption of the remainder of the 3£
per cent, bonds and the calling in of a part of
the 3 per cents.; the agitation of the question
of a further revision of the tariff, in order to
bring about the reduction of the revenue which
the first revision seems to have failed to pro-
duce ; and the discussion of plans to avert the
contraction of the currency, which it is feared
may follow the rapid redemption of the bonds
most desirable as a basis for the bank circulation.

Receipts and Expenditures.— The receipts and
expenditures of the Government for the calen-
dar years 1882 and 1883 were:

RECEIPTS.

1889.

1883.

C ustoms

$225 786 1 80 84

$202 160839 56

Internal revenue

145 783 158 82

130 789 936 88

Sales of public lands. . ...

5718,446 46

10,687,311 87

Tax on national banks

9,161,138 23

6,149,863 57

Profits on coinage, etc .... •

4,188,296 91

4,449,466 73

1 442 576 61

1 251,328 00

Fees — consular, patent and lands

2985,843 28

3,479,698 39

Repayment of interest by Pacific Railway companies

1,461,886 43

1,5 8,108 63

Sinking fund for Pacific Railway companies
Deposits for surveying public lands

1,269,850 84
2,265,303 66

1,286,039 46
557,513 56

342866 55

412,289 36

Sale of Post-Office property in New York city

648.694 82

Indian trust funds .

8,200,303 76

4,632 14

Donations for liquidating the public debt

968,391 87

1,889,588 99

Immigrant fund

88,540 00

247,361 50

Revenues of the District of Columbia

1,962,569 03

1,645,578 88

Miscellaneous sources

2,826,309 47

. 2,'-68,854 98

Total ordinary receipts

$409,446,612 26

$370,086,552 22

EXPENDITURES.

1883.

1883.

For civil and miscellaneous e; penses

$64,871,480 64

$67,047,450 24

For Indians .. ...

10,000.099 18

7,143,484 41

55363.891 73

67,772,009 72

For the military establishment, including river and harbor improvements and
arsenals .... . . . . .

44,996,957 09

45,573,687 64

For the naval establishment, including vessels, machinery, and improvements

15,001,608 90

15,329,466 14

63,775,410 95

55,704,556 57

Total ordinary expenditures

$254,009,448 44

$258,570,604 72

Surplus revenue

$155,437,163 82

$111,515,947 50

The surplus revenue for 1883, with $3,624,-
333.36 drawn from the cash in the treasury,
and $1,500 recovered of moneys heretofore
charged off as unavailable, making a total of
$115,141,780.86, was expended in the redemp-
tion of the public debt.

There was a falling off of $44.328,925.45 in
1883, as compared with the preceding calendar
year, in the receipts from the following sources :

Customs, $23,625,791.28; internal revenue,
$14,993,221.99; tax on national banks, $3,-
011,274.66; and miscellaneous, $2,698,637.52.
There was an increase of $4,968,865.41 in the
receipts from sales of public lands, making a
net decrease of $39,360,060.04 in the total
revenues of the Government.

There was an increase of $15,488,625.38 in
the expenditures during the year on the fol-

782

UNITED STATES, FINANCES OF THE.

lowing accounts: Civil and miscellaneous, in-
cluding foreign intercourse, public buildings,
lighthouses, collection of the revenue, and the
District of Columbia, $2,175,969.60; pensions,
$12,408,117.99; the military establishment,
$576,680.55; and the naval establishment,
$327,857.24. There was a decrease of $2,856,-
614.72 in the expenditures on account of the
Indians, and of $8,070,854.38 in the interest
on the public debt, making a net increase in
the expenditures of $4,561,156.28, which add-
ed to the decrease of $39,360,060.04 in the re-
ceipts, made a falling off of $43,921,216.32 in
the surplus revenues applicable to the redemp-
tion of the public debt.

The following table, giving the receipts from
customs and internal revenue by quarter-years
for 1882 and 1883, shows in a summary form
the reduction in the receipts from those sources
under the act of March 3, 1883, reducing inter-
nal revenue taxes and duties on imports :
CUSTOMS.

QUARTER.

1883.

1883.

First

$58,585,485 33

$52,711,024 34

Second

53,591,231 79

4^.386,058 87

Third

64,908,875 71

57.402.975 67

Fourth

48,700,538 01

43,660,280 68

Total

$225786,130 84

$202 160,339 56

INTERNAL .REVENUE.

QUARTER.

1883.

1883.

First

$30,362.131 93

$"3,363,601 89

Second . .

40,675,698 47

36,611.438 67

Third

87,760,804 58

29,662,078 60

Fourth

36,984,523 84

31.152,817 67

Total

$145 783 158 82

$130789,936 83

The receipts from customs in the last half of
1883 were $101,063,256.35, as compared with
$113,609,413.72 for the corresponding period
in 1882, a reduction of $12,546,157.37. This
falling off was not entirely caused by the re-
duction in the rates of duty, but was due in
part to a decrease in importations. The re-
ceipts from internal revenue fell off from $74,-
745,328.42 in the last six months of 1882 to
$60,814,896.27 in the last half of 1883, a reduc-
tion of $13,930,432.15.

The reduction in the rates of duty took effect
July 1st, but the receipts for the second quarter
were somewhat affected by importers postpon-
ing until July 1st the withdrawal from ware-
house and entry for consumption of goods on
which the rates were reduced. The opposite
course was pr.rsued with goods on which the
rates were increased. The repeal of the in-
ternal revenue taxes on bank deposits and
capital, and the reduction in the tax on to-
bacco, cigars, and cigarettes, and in the spe-
cial taxes on dealers in, and manufacturers of,
tobacco, took effect May 1, 1883, and therefore
affected the receipts from internal revenue for
the second quarter.

The following is a condensed statement of
the receipts and expenditures for the fiscal
years ending June 30, 1882 and 1883 :

RECEIPTS.

1889.

1883.

$220,410,780 25
146,497,595 45
4,753,140 37
8,956,794 45
22,906,989 76

$214,706,496 98
144,720,868 98
7,955,864 42
9.111,008 85
21,793.842 7T

Sales of public lands
Tax on national banks
Miscellaneous

Total

$403,525,250 28 $398,287,581 95

EXPENDITURES.

1882.

1883.

Civil and miscellaneous
War

$57.219,750 98
43,570,494 19
15,032,046 26
9,736,747 40
61,845,193 95
71,077,206 79

$68,678,022 21
48,911,382 93
15,283,437 17
7,362.590 34
66,012;573 64
59,160,131 25

Navy

Pensions .

Interest on public debt
Total

$257,981,43957

$265,408,137 54

Surplus revenue

$145,543,810 71

$132,879,444 41

The receipts for the fiscal year 1883 as com-
pared with 1882 increased $3,202,724.05 in
sales of public lands and $154,214.40 in tax on
national banks; and decreased $5,704,233.32
in customs revenue; $1,777,226.47 in internal
revenue and $1,113,146.99 in miscellaneous;
making $5,237,668.33 of net decrease. The
customs receipts were larger than for any fiscal
year except 1872 and 1882, when they were
$216,370,286.77 and $220,410,730.25, respec-
tively. The receipts from public lands were
larger than in any year since 1856, when they
were $8,91 7,644.93. The net receipts were larger
than in any year since 1870, except 1882. The
expenditures increased $11,458,271.23 in civil
and miscellaneous; $5,340,888.74 in the War
Department; $251,390.91 in the Navy Depart-
ment; and $4,667,379.69 in pensions; and de-
creased $2,374,157.06 in the expenses on ac-
count of the Indians and $11,917,075.54 in
interest on the public debt.

The amounts received from the various
sources of internal revenue during, each of the
last two fiscal years were :

SOURCE.

1883.

1883.

Spirits

$69,873,408 18

$74,368,775 20

Tobacco

47,891,988 91

42,104,249 79

Fermented liquors
State banks and bankers.

16,153,920 42
5,253,458 47
7,850,497 74

16,900,615 81
3,748,994 60
7,430,709 46

Total

$146,523,273 72

$144,553,344 86

The State of the Treasury. — The condition of
the treasury on Dec. 31, 1883, as compared
with Dec. 30, 1882, is thus shown :

LIABILITIES.

Dec. 30, 188S.

Dec. 31, 1883.

Post-Office Department
Disbursing officers
Funds for retirement of bank
circulation
Five per cent, redemption fund.
Other funds held for special pur-

Dollars.
6,891,189 71
25,567,480 00

39,098,798 10
14,583,922 38

6,458,160 50

16,832,742 60
64.619,840 00
72,848,660 00
9,585.000 00
149,733,040 03

406,218,728 82

Dollars.
8,043,208 87
32,178,862 28

88,814,572 60
14,511,274 72

4,167,481 91
17,405,223 96
91,031,920 00
109,898,611 00
14,560,000 00
143,173,156 08

473,783,810 87

Matured bonds and interest
Gold certificates

Silver certificates
Clearing-House certificates

Total

UNITED STATES, FINANCES OF THE.

783

ASSETS. Dec. so, i882. Dec. si, 1883. f old. ^longing to the Government, after de-

ducting the amount held for the redemption of

i^Pno1^ «„ ,. Dolla"- £old certificates actually outstanding, incr.

Gold com... . 119,523,18604152,608,89346 Soo AQQ QAI OA ft.™ <&1Q1 nun >T-Q

Gold bullion 51,981,43-2 35 eMOftMB IT $28,439,841.24:, from $131,989,758.39 to $lo5,-

standard silver dollars 94,016,84200119,449,38500 429,599.63. The standard silver dollars held

Fractional silver coin 26,521,692 20 i 27,224,126 88 rqn iin frnm &Q4. 01 fi ttd.9 in «£11QAAOQ«^ r

Silver bullion 4,468;i93 10 4 534,372 93 J*" "Po t™m tV1 A » 9,449,385, Or

United States notes 28,454,394 86 89,644,248 72 $2o,432,543, while the amount not represented

Gold certificates 25105,03000 27,446,78000 by outstanding silver certificates ran down

Silver certificates 4,405,00000 18,180,89000 fjnm <feoPC KTQ i QO + <*oo ^01 a a A TU u

National-banknotes 6,5^2,02095 &96&I830 16 fr°m $25,573,182 to $22,731,664. Thegold

u. s. bonds and interest 28,721,580 82 certificates actually outstanding increased dur-

Minor coin and miscellaneous ;n0- thft vpnr from *£'^Q K1J. «1ft +n 4ftQ fiftK 1Afi •

items 2,753,35645 1,020,36777 "5*2!* J m..^9'5114'81' 3.585,140,

Deposits held by national-bank and the outstanding silver certificates from

depositaries ^8,786,09955 ^13,313,080J3 $68,443,660 to $96,717,721— adding $52,344,-

Totai 406 218~728~32 478 783 810 87 391 to ^e paper circulation of the coun-

— try.

The gross amount of gold coin and bullion The Public Debt. — The changes during the year

held by the treasury ran up during the year 1883 in the character and amount of the pub-

from $171,504,568.39 to $219,014,739.63. The lie debt are shown below :

CHARACTER OF DEBT. Dec. 30, 1882. Dec. 31, 1883.

Bonds at 4* per cent $250,000.00000 $250,000,000 00

Bonds at 4 per cent 788,950,55000 737,682,75000

Bonds at 3i per cent 99,826,20000

Bonds at 3 percent 289,563,950 00 274,937,250 00

Refunding certificates at 4 -per cent 404,750 00 815,150 00

Navy pension fund at 3 per cent 14,000,00000 14,000,00000

Interest accrued on the above loans 12,067,188 54 11,881.895 22

Debt on which interest has ceased 14,887,015 26 15,188,795 26

Interest on matured debt 446,814 88 836,198 78

Demand and legal-tender notes 846,740,311 00 846,739,696 00

Clearing-House certificates 9,585,000 00 14,560,000 00

Gold certificates 64,619,84000 91,031,92000

Silver certificates 72,848,660 00 109,898,611 00

Fractional currency 7,022,074 17 6,989,428 81

Unclaimed Pacific Railway interest 5,339 96 4,229 96

Total . . , $1,920,467,693 31 $1,878,415,924 48

Lesscash in the treasury 812,924,016 47 875,374,200 68

Netdebt $1,607,543,6'76 84 $1,498,041,723 80

Decrease in the debt during the year $109,501,953 04

The decrease during the year in the principal The following table shows the changes dur-

of the debt proper, excluding the various classes ing the year in the denominations of United

of certificates for the redemption of which mon- States notes outstanding :
eys are held in the treasury, was as follows :

Bonds at 4 per cent. . $1,317,800 00 DENOMINATION. Jan. 1, 1883. Jan. 1, 1884.

Bonds at 3i per cent 107,651,20000

Bonds at 3 per cent 4,918,75000 Dollars. Dollars.

Refunding certificates at 4 per cent 89,600 00 One dollar 27,726,002 80, 30,778,487 80

Demand notes ... 615 00 Two dollars 26,012,096 20 27,686.538 20

Fractional currency ; 82,645 86 Five dollars 69,020,712 50 73,079.670 W

Debt other than above on which interest has Ten dollars 72,207,801 00 72,52b,?86 00

ceased . 1,131,170 00 Twenty dollars 65,760,019 00 58.842,149 00

„, , , •nK-mJira?raA Fifty dollars ... 23,992,895 00 22,831,045 00

Total $115,141,780 86 On/hundred dollars 34.459,490 00 ! 83,022,790 00

Calls were issued during the year for the re- Five hundred dollars 14,244,5110 oo, 14,524.000 oo

demption of $45,968,700 in 8* per cent, bonds, J&'^AaSE '. 'So'dS o°S "SS 2o°

and $40,614,500 in 3 per cent, bonds, a total of Ten thousand dollars 210,000 oo 110,000 oo

$86,583,200 and -calls ''amounting to $107,- WW^\9*WM*

7 1 6, 1 00 fell d ue during the year. Deduct f0'r unknown denomina-

The only refunding operation of the Gov- ' tions destroyed 1,000,000

ernment during the year was the completion outstanding 346,681,016 oo 846,681,016 oo

of the conversion of the " continued " 3^ per —

cent, bonds into the 3 per cent, bonds author- The increase jn the notes of the lower de-

ized by the act of July 12, 1882. These ex- nominationSj which has been going on since

changes continued until July 26, 1883, when a 1879 kept up during the year. The notes of

call was issued for the redemption of the re- Denominations less than $10 in circulation

mainder of the outstanding 3J per cents. have increased from about $90,400,000 to

The exchanges made prior to Dec. 30, 1882, about $131,500,000 in the last four years and

amounted to f 289.obd,yoo 01 *•

The exchanges during the year were 16,017,800 00 a nalt.

Making the total amount of 3 per cents issued The National Banks.— During the year end-
in exchange for 3j per cents $305,581,250 oo ing ]^ov< ^ J883, 262 national banks were or-

And effecting an annual saving of interest of "il^^els ganized with an aggregate authorized capital

784

UNITED STATES, FINANCES OF THE.

of $28,654,350. Circulating notes amounting
to $7,909,190 had been issued to these asso-
ciations to that date. The number of banks
organized was greater than in any year since
1865. Of these new banks seven, with $1,275,-
000 capital, were organized in the Eastern
States; forty, with $3,115,200 capital, in the
Middle States; forty-six, with $3,798,650 capi-
tal, in the Southern States ; one hundred and
thirty-two, with $18,295,500 capital, in the
Western States ; eleven, with $620,000 capital,
in the Pacific States; and twenty-six, with
$1,550,000 capital, in the Territories. Forty
banks, with $7,736,000 capital, and $4,137,033
circulation, voluntarily ceased doing business
during the year ; and two banks, with $250,--
000 capital, failed. The number of banks in
operation Nov. 1, 1883, was 2,522.

The condition of the national banks, Dec.
31, 1883, is shown below, there being 2,529
banks then in operation :

RESOURCES.

Loans and discounts $1,302,223,212 35

Overdrafts 5,268,03799

United States bonds to secure circulation . . 345.595,800 00

United States bonds to secure deposits 16,846,000 00

United States bonds on hand 13,1*0,550 00

Other stocks, bonds, and mortgages 71,609,839 62

Due from approved reserve agents 126,999,606 92

Due from other national banks 77,905,564 28

Due from State banks and bankers 19,399,267 91

Eeal estate, furniture, and fixtures 49,540,750 85

Current expenses 4,878,318 44

Premiums paid 8,637.534 98

Checks and other cash items 17,634,799 73

Exchanges for Clearing- House 134,402,278 68

Bills of other national banks 28,809,729 00

Fractional currency 427,73435

Specie, viz. :

Gold coin ... $46.404,061 08

Gold treasury certificates.. 28,555,260 00

Gold Clearing-House cer-
tificates 27,043,000 00

Silver coin 8,470,646 96

Silver treasury certificates. 3,803,190 00

114,276,158 04

Legal-tender notes 80,559,796 00

United States certificates of deposit for

legal-tender notes 10,840,000 00

Five per cent, redemption fund with Treas-
urer U. 8 15,287,684 97

Due from Treasurer other than redemption

fund 1,578,253 88

Aggregate $2,445,880,917 49

LIABILITIES.
Capital stock paid in ... . $511,837,575 00

Surplus fund 144,800,252 13

Other undivided profits 58,787,945 91

National-bank notes issued. $309,699,950 00
Amount on hand 4,755,319 00

Amount outstanding 804,944,131 00

Btate-bank notes outstanding 181,121 Off

Dividends unpaid 7,082,682 28

Individual deposits 1,106,453.008 23

United States deposits 10,026,777 79

Deposits of U. S. disbursing officers 3,Y68,862 04

Due to other national banks 200,867,280 06

Due to State banks and bankers 84,776,421 60

Notes and bills rediscounted 8 248 562 67

Bills payable 4,106,297 78

Aggregate $2,445,880,917 49

The paid-in capital stock of the national
banks, as shown by their reports, increased
during the year from $484,883,492 to $511,-
837,575 ; their individual deposits from $1,-
066,901,719.85 to $1,106,453,008.23, and their

loans and discounts from $1,225,889,530.22 to
$1,302,223,212.35.

The circulation shown to be outstanding by
the books of the national banks at the close o"f
the year was $304,944,131 as against $315,-
230,925 on Dec. 30, 1882— a decrease of $10,-
286,794, caused by banks voluntarily giving
up their circulation. The amount outstand-
ing, as shown by the books of the Comp-
troller of the Currency, including the notes
of banks which have failed, gone into volun-
tary liquidation, or made deposits of lawful
money for the retirement of their circulation,
decreased during the year from $362,651,170
to $350,482,829. The lawful money depos-
ited during the year for the redemption of
the circulation of insolvent, liquidating, and
reducing banks, amounted to $23,909,383, and
the circulation redeemed out of the money so
deposited to $24,644,924. The total amount
deposited on these accounts is $199,916,952;
the total redeemed, $160,387,444, and the bal-
ance on deposit in the treasury, Dec. 31, 1883,
$39,529,508.

The national-bank notes redeemed and as-
sorted by the Treasurer, under the act of June
20, 1874, during the years 1882 and 1883, were
disposed of as follows :

1883.

1883.

Notes fit fof circulation, assorted
and returned to the banks which

$4 766 400

$22 782 100

Notes unfit for circulation, assort-
ed and destroyed

82 402,965

88 266 492

Total

$87 169 3G5

$111 048 592

The increase during the last year was $23,-
879,227.

The United States bonds held by the Treas-
urer of the United States to secure the circu-
lation of national banks, on Dec. 3'0, 1882, and
Dec. 31, 1883, were:

CLASSES OF BONDS.

Dec. 30, 1882.

Dec. 31, 1883.

$3,526,000

$3 538 000

Five per cents ....

15,000

Four and one hah" per cents

85,915,500

106 080 600

42,584,000
107 512 300

Three and one half per cents
Three per cents

22,300,850
192,693,700

422,000
193,481,900

Total $360,531,650

$347,538,200

The deposits and withdrawals of United
States bonds during the year were :

CLASSES OF BONDS.

Deposited.

Withdrawn.

$224,000

$212,000

Five per cents
Four and one half per cents

'9,668,160

10,070,100

15,000
2,994,600
8,638,400

Three and one half per cents.

21,878,850

25 224 200

24 436,000

Total

$45,181,400

$58,174,850

The act of July 12, 1882, under which the
3 per cent, bonds were issued, provided that

UNITED STATES, FINANCES OF THE.

785

those bonds should be payable at the pleasure
of the United States, but should not be called
in and paid so long as any bonds of the United
States theretofore issued bearing a higher rate
of interest than 3 per cent., and redeemable at
the pleasure of the United States, should be
outstanding and uncalled. The only bonds an-
swering to this description were those which
had been continued at 3£ per cent. The " call "
for the redemption of the last of these bonds
having fallen due Nov. 1, 1883, the 3 per cent,
bonds by the terms of the authorizing act be-
came redeemable, and '^calls'' for the redemp-
tion of $iO,000,000 of them were issued before
the close of the year, of which $30,000,000
matured during the year. All other classes of
the United States bonds had risen to so high a
premium, that the 3 per cent, bonds had been
very largely deposited with the Treasurer of the
United States by the national banks as security
for their circulation, and for public money de-
posited with them. Of $374,464,500 in bonds
on deposit for these purposes on July 31, 1883,
$210,656,850 was in 3 per cent, bonds, being
more than two-thirds of the entire amount out-
standing. The calling in of large amounts of
these bonds for redemption, and the certainty
that under the present revenue laws their rapid
retirement will continue, must have a very se-
rious effect on the bank circulation. The pre-
mium on the 4 and 4| per cent, bonds is so
great as to reduce the profit on circulation to
a very low rate. This fact, added to the gen-
eral dislike of bankers to carrying a large pre-
mium account, has deterred the banks from
substituting these bonds for their called 3 per
cents. The only alternative is to surrender
their circulation by depositing the proceeds of
their called bonds in the treasury as a fund
for its redemption, and this course is being
very generally pursued. Various plans to pre-
vent the contraction of the bank circulation
have been suggested. The more important of
these are discussed in the annual reports of
the Secretary of the Treasury and the Comp-
troller of the Currency, and in the President's
message to Congress.

The Comptroller of the Currency repeats
the recommendations made in his report for
1882. After advertiig to the facts mentioned
above, he says :

The contraction of the bank circulation may be
avoided by reduction of the redundant revenue, and
there is no doubt that this is the true policy. . , .

The contraction of the bank circulation may also be
avoided by the conversion of the long bonds into three
per cents. , by offering inducement to the holders of
these bonds to exchange them for three per cents, to
mature in 1907, the Government paying to the holders
thereof a reasonable amount for their difference -in
value. . . . The premium to be paid to the holders of
these long bonds may be considerably reduced by
providing that the circulation to be issued upon the
proposed bonds when deposited by the national banks
as security therefor shall not be subject to the present
tax of 1 per cent, per annum, or by postponing the
time for their payment. Such legislation would make
the new bonds more valuable for this purpose than

VOL. XXIIL— 50 A

for any other, and would be likely to prevent their
withdrawal until maturity, if once deposited, and for
this reason the bonds would-be more desirable as a
basis for circulation than any which have heretofore
been issued.

The contraction would also be avoided by providing
for the removal of the tax on circulation, and the in-
crease of the amount of circulation to be issued to the
banks upon the bonds deposited by them. . . .

Other propositions have been suggested in order to
postpone or prevent the contraction of national-bank
circulation which Is now imminent, but the Comp-
troller considers that, so long as there is a sufficient
amount of United States bonds outstanding, legisla-"
tion should be so shaped as to continue them in use
as a basis for national- bank circulation. . . . A law
authorizing increase of issue to 90 or 95 per cent, upon
the lowest market price during the calendar or fiscal
year previous to the deposit, together with the re-
peal of the tax upon circulation, would result in
the deposit of a sufficient amount of the 4 and
4i per cents, to maintain the circulation at about its
present aggregate. ... If considered desirable, in
anticipation of a gradual decline of premium, the pro-
posed law could require the amount of circulation is-
sued to be reduced 1 per cent, yearly, or such per
centum that the total amount outstanding could not at
any time exceed the value of the bonds on deposit,
and _ the Treasurer also could be authorized to retain
the interest upon bonds when necessary upon the re-
quest of the Comptroller.

The proposition to convert the long bonds into
threes, is more desirable than the proposition to in-
crease the rate of circulation, for the reason already
referred to, that the new three per cents, payable in
1891 and 1907 would bear but a comparatively small
premium in the market, and that the Government
would be enabled to use its surplus revenues to advan-
tage. They would be the onlv bonds available for
circulation, and would not be likely to be withdrawn
for sale for the purpose of realizing the market price ;
and the profit on circulation would be sufficient to in-
duce banks to deposit them whenever additional cir-
culation is required.

The Secretary of the Treasury in his annual
report thus discusses the various measures of
relief proposed :

The public mind is naturally turned to the inquiry :
How shall the national- bank notes be kept in circula-
tion ; what shall be taken as a safe foundation there-
for, and yet be so low in price as that the banks can
afford to buy and deposit ; or what can be proposed
which will give to the banks safeguard against loss in
taking and issuing circulating notes? 1 am not in
favor of anything but the interest-bearing obligations
of the United States Government. . . . There are other
propositions, the vertebral idea of which is the crea-
tion of a new form of public debt. A plausible one is,
for the Government to offer a new bond, of its own
issue, at low rate of interest, to run a long period,
in exchange for its 4 per cents, and 4i per cents.,
allowing such a rate of premium upon the latter,
but lower than that at present ruling, as would
induce the holders to surrender them and take the
ne w ; and to make this a security for bank circulation.
I doubt not that this is feasible. In that way, a holder
of fours or four-and-a-halfs could capitalize the pre-
mium allowed on his bond, and draw interest at the
new rate on that as well as on the principal, whereby
there would be an inducement to exchange, rather
than to hold, or, in the present" difficulty of desirable
reinvestment, to sell. . . . Should ttiis project be
favorably considered, details can be furnished. Yet I
am so averse to recommending the creation of another
or a different public debt, that as great as are, in my
judgment, the advantages of the national-bank circu-
lation in safety, in uniformity of value everywhere,
and in other matters of convenience and confidence, I

786

UNITED STATES, FINANCES OF THE.

look upon such project as a dernier ressort. I rather
recommend, and so I do, that the internal revenue tax
upon circulation be taken off in whole or in part.
This is 1 per cent, per annum, and amounts to aoout
three millions and a quarter each year. ...

I further recommend that this Department be au-
thorized to allow to the banks circulation to the
amount of 90 per cent, upon the average market
value, for the twelve months prior to the deposit, of
the United States bonds deposited on security. Thus
a bank would be enabled to obtain circulation upon
the premium it paid for bonds, as well as upon the
par value of them. . . . For greater caution, there
may be fixed a limit of value, above which the valu-
ation of them for adjusting a ratio shall not go. A
collateral advantage, not only to the banks but to the
community, is that an amount of banking assets laid
away in the premium paid for bonds would thereby
be released and brought into active use. It is under-
stood, as was before stated, that in business circles
United States bonds are taken as a good collateral up
to 95 per cent, of their market value at the time. To
be sure, there is the right reserved, in case of lower-
ing fluctuation in market value, to demand an increase
of security. There should the same power be given
to this department, and the difference of 5 per cent,
in the business and governmental margin, -will coun-
terbalance the nimbleness of the individual creditor,
greater than that of the public agent, in looking after
change in market value and in calling for further se-
curity.

The statements above made show that there is little
danger of ultimate loss to the Government or note-
holder, upon a circulation based upon the interest-
bearing bonds of the United States, though taken as
security at a margin coming near to the current mar-
ket value thereof.

The President's remarks and recommenda-
tions upon the subject of the currency are as
follows :

If the revenues of the next four years shall be kept
substantially commensurate with the expenses, the
volume of circulation will not be likely to suffer any
material disturbance.

But if, on the other hand, there shall be great delay
in reducing taxation, it will become necessary either
to substitute some other form of currency in place of
the national-bank notes, or to make important changes
in the laws by which their circulation is now con-
trolled.

In my judgment the latter course is far preferable.
I Qommend to your attention the very interesting and
thoughtful suggestions upon this subject which appear
in the Secretary's report.

The objections which he urges against the accept-
ance of any other securities than the obligations of
the Government itself as a foundation for national-
bank circulation, seem to me insuperable.

For averting the threatened contraction, two courses
have been suggested, either of which is probably feasi-
ble. One is the issuance of new bonds, having many
years to run, bearing a low rate of interest, and ex-
changeable upon specified terms for those now out-
standing. The other course, which commends itself
to my own judgment as the better, is the enactment
of a law repealing the tax on circulation and permit-
ting the banks to issue notes for an amount equal to
90 per cent, of the market value instead of as now the
face value of their deposited bonds. I agree with the
Secretary in the belief that the adoption of this plan
would afford the necessary relief.

Bills designed to carry into effect these va-
rious suggestions have been introduced into
both houses of Congress. The most impor-
tant of these are the bills of Senator Aldrich
and Representative Potter, which provide for

issuing in lieu of the 4 and 4| per cents. 2£
per cent, bonds, having an equal time to run,
paying out of the surplus revenues a premium
on the bonds taken up equal to the aggregate
present worth of the surrendered interest, com-
puted at 4 per cent., and for reducing the tax
on the bank circulation issued on the new
bonds from 1 to £ per cent. ; and the bill of
Senator McPherson, which provides simply
that banks may issue circulation equal in
amount to the par value of the bonds which
they have deposited as security for their notes.
The last-mentioned bill passed the Senate on
the 25th of February, 1884, all propositions to
make the market value of the bonds in any
way the basis of the amount of circulation to
be issued to the banks having been voted
down.

The Coinage. — The following statement shows
the coinage that was executed by the various
mints during the fiscal year which ended June
30, 1883 :

DENOMINATION.

Pieces.

Vain*.

GOLD COIN.

Double-eagles

1,876,806
661 179

Dollars.
27,526,120 00
6,611 790 00

Halt-eagles

355,072

1,775,860 00

1,555

4,665 00

Quarter-eagles

4,055

10,187 50

Dollars .

8,855

8,855 00

Total gold

2,407,022

85,986,927 50

SILVER COIN.

28,111,119

28,111,119 00

Half-dollars

5,519

2,759 50

Quarter-dollars

16,319

4,079 75

Dimes

7,175,119

717,511 90

Total silver

85,308,076

28,885,470 15

MINOR COIN.

20,455,488

1,022,774 40

28,619

858 57

40,467,400 '

404,674 19

Total minor

60,951,526

1,428,807 16

Total coinage

98,666,624

66,200,704 81

The deposits of gold coin and bullion were
$46,347,106.05; and of silver, $36,869,834.65.
Including redeposits, the total amount of bullion
and coin received and operated upon by the
mints and assay-offices was $87,758,154.05, of
which $49,145,559.16 was gold, and $38,612,-
594.89 silver. Of the bullion deposited, $32,-
481,642.38 in gold bullion, and $32,758,487.68
in silver bullion, were of domestic production.
The total amount of silver dollars coined under
the act of Feb. 28, 1878, to June 30, 1883, was
$147,255,899, and to Dec. 31, 1883, $161,425,-
119. Of the latter amount, $119,449,385 was
held by the treasury, and $41,975,734 was in
circulation.

Exports and Imports. — The following table
shows the value of the exports and imports for
the fiscal year 1883 in the commerce of the
United States with the principal foreign coun-
tries, in the order of magnitude :

UNITED STATES, FINANCES OF THE.

787

10

COUNTRIES.

United Kingdom (England
Scotland, and Ireland)

2 France

3 Germany

4 West Indies

5 British North American Prov-

inces

6 Brazil

Belgium. .

8 Netherlands

9 Mexico

Spain

lliChina

12 Italy....

13 Russia
14

15 Japan ,

British possessions in Austral-

16

IT United States of Colombia

18 Hawaiian islands.

19 Spanish possessions other than

Cuba and Porto Rico . . .

27

81

British East Indies.

Argentine Republic.
Guiana

21 Guiana

Venezuela

23 Central American states

24 Portugal

25 Hong- Kong

26 Uruguay

Dutch East Indies

Denmark

Austria

80 Sweden and Norway

British possessions in Africa

and adjacent islands

32 Turkey

83 Chili

34 Peru

85 All other countries

Total $823,839,402 $723,180,914

Exports.

$425,424,174 $188,622,619
97,989,164
57,877,728

46,580,253
9,252,094
27,778,975
18,919,583
16,587,620
16,931,287
4,080,322
10,313,558
19,141.751
2,185,804
8,376,434

9,795,656
6,868,971
3,776,065

324,474
8,543,196

2,403,705

5,485,037
8,777,759
1,452,818
2,407,181
4,508,876
1,779,904
2,824,548

1,369,703

4,412,205

IrnporU.

2,984,923
1,831,171

1,840,020
2,168,967
435,584
2,526,918
7,618,103

The dutiable merchandise imported increased
from $514,060,567 in the fiscal year 1882 to
$515,676,196 in 1883, or $1,615,629, and the
merchandise free of duty imported decreased
from $210,579,007 in 1882 to $207,504,718 in
1883, or $3,074,289, making a net falling off of
$1,458,660 in importations from $724,639,574
in 1882 to $723,180,914 in 1883. The exports
of domestic merchandise increased from $733,-
239,732 to $804,223,632, and of foreign mer-
chandise from $17,302,525 to $19,615,770, mak-
ing the total exports in 1883, $823,839,402, as
against $750,542,257 in 1882, and increasing
the total foreign commerce from $1,475,181,-
831 in 1882 to $1,547,020,316 in 1883.

The value of the exports of products of agri-
culture, manufacture, mining, forestry, and the
fisheries, during the last fiscal year, is shown
below :

PRODUCTS OF—

Value.

Per cent, of
total.

Agriculture

$619,269,449

77-00

111 890 001

18-91

Mining (including mineral oils). .
Forestry ...

51,444,857
9,976,148

6-40
1-24

The fisheries

6,276,375

•78

5,366,807

•67

Total

$804,223,682

100-00

The value of the exports of agricultural prod-
ucts increased from $552,219,819 in 1882 to
$619,269,449 in 1883, and of manufactures from
$103,132,481 to $111,890,001-

The following table shows by articles the
value of the merchandise imported into the
United States during the fiscal years 1882
and 1883, in the order of their magnitude

44,740,876
44,488,459
23,161,200
12,253,788
8,177,128
7,794,345
20,141,331
11,909,658
2,599,995
19,467,800
15,098,890

4,021,895
5,171,455
8,238,461

10,617,563
6,192,11 1
6,437,909
5,901,724
5,121.315
1,093,476
1,918,894
8,980,110
2,645,917

ARTICLES.

>

VihiM, 1883.

V..!.,.-,. ]--,.

1 Sugar and molasses
2 Wool, and manufactures of. . .
3 Silk, and manufactures of
1 Chemicals, drugs, dyes, and
medicines

J!»'.i.:{-j«5.:«»:,
55,224,288
60,807,616

48 126 285

*]inu>-..'.ii-2:>
4-.4.--7.MO
61,875,959

42 957 360

5 Coffee

4'2 OM 513

Iron and steel, and manufact
ures of

40 796 007

51 877 688

Cotton, and manufactures of.
Hides and skins, other than
furs

87,654,2*1
27640080

35,141,186
27 841 126

Tin, and manufactures of
Flax, and manufactures of . . .
Fruits of all kinds, including
nuts
Tea.

23,917,887
19,787,542

19,313,041
17 802 849

21,611,178
19,2-28,198

18,518,606

India-rubber and gutta percha
and manufactures of

15,814,802

14 586 927

Breadstuff's, and other farina
ceous food
Wood, and manufactures of. . .
Leather, and manufactures of.
Jute, and other grasses, anc
manufactures of
Wines, spirits, and cordials . . .
Tobacco, and manufactures of.
Provisions, including eggs, fish,
and potatoes
Earthen, stone, and china-ware.
Fancy goods, perfumery, and
cosmetics ....

15,880,605
14,857,578
13,104,415

12,606,513
12,308,307
11,771,596

10,653,278
8,620,527

8,358,471-

19,295,094
14.532,604
12,145,761

10,872,832

9,849,588
9,847,762

12,691,355
6,979,659

10,212,101

Purs, dressed and undressed . .
Glass and glassware

7,959,759
7 762,543

8,030.970
6634871

Precious stones

7,692,385

8444525

Articles, the produce or manu-
facture of the United States,
brought back

6 514 999

6796898

Paper materials
Semp, and manufactures of. . .
Buttons and button materials .
Animals, living

5,829,876
5,118,508
4,223,161
4 042 367

6,014.183
6,292J310
3,940,860
4,812 939

Sooks and other publications. .
Straw and palm-leaf, manufact-
ures of.

8,651,590
8,565 137

8,573,924
8 449 041

Paintings, engravings, and stat-
uary

8 403 874

8 086 822

Metals, and manufactures of,
not elsewhere specified
Oils of all kinds
iVatches, and watch materials,
lair, and manufactures of
Spices

2,897,972
2,736,758
2,522,111
2,496,699
2,474,088

8,026,581
3,042,996
2,584,420
1,902,508
2 603,231

Household and personal effects,
old and in use . ...

2 315 853

2 429 028

Coal, bituminous ....

2,085,972

2 189 298

Paper, and manufactures of,
not elsewhere specified
Seeds ...

1,958,118
1 702,345

2,084,289

2 846 392

Salt

1,674,308

1,678,515

Musical instruments

1,652,528

1,580,144

Paints, of all kinds
Bristles
Cocoa, not including chocolate.
Clothing (except of silk, and
hosiery, etc., of cotton and

1,336,229
1,228,543
1,218,871

1 182855

1,218,112
1,082,355
1,528,998

1 865 405

1 12'2 010

970 326

Stone, and manufactures of ...
Cork bark and wood, unmanu-

1,011,803
933 935

980,071
1 124216

Manufactures of gold and sil-
ver, not elsewhere specified .
Juano, except from bonded
islands
Jrass, and manufactures of ...
Bolting-cloths

912,625

535,742
530,281
418,711

712,781

856,622
682,886
859584

Copper, and manufactures of. .
Barks, used for tanning
All other articles

394,765
343,998
27 884 837

564,128
490,588
24364655

Total

723 180 914

724,689 574

788

UNITED STATES, FINANCES OF THE.

Goods entered for Consumption, and Unties col- year ending June 30, 1883 ; the duties col-
lected.'— The following statement shows the lected on each commodity or class of corn-
value of dutiable merchandise entered for con- modities, and the average ad-valorem rates
sumption* in the United States during the of duty :

DUTIABLE MERCHANDISE ENTERED FOR CONSUMPTION DURING THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 80, 1888.

J

1

2
8
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

81

82
83
84
85
86
87
88
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
E4
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63

ARTICLES DUTIABLE.

Value*.

Duties.

Average ad-
valorem rates

of duty.

50-51
63-32
59-01
37-81
32-85
40 87
40-37
25-35
30-21
87-52
29-66
29-80
20-84
69-45
72-86
17-87
43-10
88-43

10-01

55-05
21-99
35-00
28-57
20-00
24-81
10-03
26-49
30-00
24-71

34-63
21-94
51-95
20-36
24-27
28-46
30-00
47-79
32-88
12-86
44-59
32-88
21-26
10-00
19-68
41-40
40-00
20-00
29-72
46-31
35-47
63-51
25-00
32-01
20-00
40-00
35-00
33-48
44-99
32-16
32-37
52-41
34-09
30-18

Sugar, molasses and confectionery

$91,406,717 67
51,044,444 22
33,307,112 37
32,359,343 70
23,088,891 18
20,531,532 59
20,305,843 60
18,157,686 79
16,797,321 75
16,134,203 94
12,667,786 23
12,653,722 46
12,615,392 82
12,586,869 36
10,515,806 00
9,530,364 12
8,693,272 68
7,908,102 48
7,603,752 51
7,597,897 48
5,142,022 65
4,929,445 87
4,061,293 00
4,030,822 51
8,109,702 66
8,088,673 34
2,960,908 04
2,360,738 55
2,084,151 46

1,864,549 30
1,857,447 42
1,682,163 23
1,542,996 78
1,474,953 68
1,489,445 09
1,486,251 15
1,476,946 43
1,284,206 11
1,193,797 00
1,146,796 74
1,091,990 08
1,021,828 25
954,813 09
894,282 58
802,982 81
802,396 67
802,294 06
702,274 76
684,709 01
684,074 20
607,630 82
592,978 15
570.660 57
450J561 13 •
434,705 74
869,919 28
339,670 76
304,118 77
283,956 79
257,140 07
204,741 89
191,255 02
7,094,744 05

$46,172,378 85
82,320,892 52
19,654,946 28
12,234,371 24
7,584,342 87
8,392,115 29
8,198,388 64
4,608,455 38
5,075,052 15
6,053,574 13
8,756.719 38
8,770,547 32
2,565,560 01
8,741,957 96
7,661,637 64
1,708,096 20
8,746,488 74
8,039,082 96
761,483 41
4,182,616 58
1,130,574 90
1,725,305 88
1,160,395 50
806,164 47
771,508 05
309,847 94
784,443 11
708,221 57
515,097 28

645,691 84
407,462 74
873,585 70
814,228 89
357,978 61
423,917 03
445,893 19
705,844 48
422,244 58
147,586 09
511,382 75
353,544 81
217,139 73
95,486 21
176,032 14 '
332,428 27
320,958 68
160.458 80
208,795 13
817,086 63
242,623 61
885,876 65
148,244 53
182,6(54 30
90.072 23
173,882 27
129,471 75
113,707 81
136,810 63
91,338 29
83.233 42
107,310 17
65,210 16
2,140,995 99

Cotton manufactures of .

Flax, and manufactures of

Steel, and manufactures of

Tin, manufactures of

Chemicals, drugs, and medicines ....

Hemp jute, etc and manufactures of

Spirits and wines

Tobacco, and manufactures of

Fancy articles . ... .

Diamonds (cut) cameos mosaics, etc.

Glass, and manufactures of

Furs, and manufactures of

Embroideries

Animals living

Books and other printed matter

Paintings, etc., not by American artists ....

Clocks and watches

Braids, plaits, flats, laces, trimmings, etc

Coal

Paper, and manufactures of, not otherwise specified (except
books) .. .

Provisions, not otherwise specified

Seeds

Fish

Metals and manufactures of not otherwise specified

Musical instruments and strings ....

Bristles

Potatoes

Hair, and manufactures of

Hay

Hats, bonnets and hoods .

Cement . . ... ....

Brass, and manufactures of .

Glue '.

Oils . .

Clay .

Copper and manufactures of .

Another dutiable articles..

Total dutiable

$493,916,383 81
206,913,289 47

$209,659,698 86
977,594 '51

42-45

Total free of duty ...

Total

$700,829,673 28

$210,637,293 37

29-92

Of the total duties collected, 22-02 per cent,
was collected on sugar, molasses, and confec-

* The value of the merchandise entered. for consumption
amounted .to $700.829,673, and embraced both goods entered
for immediate coasumption on arrival in the United States,
and goods withdrawn from warehouse during the year for
consumption. The value of the imports into the United

tionery; 15'42 per cent, on wool and manu-
factures thereof ; O'SV per cent, on manufactures

States amounted to $723,180,914, embracing goods entered
for immediate consumption on arrival, goods entered for
transportation to interior ports without appraisement, and
goods entered for warehousing awaiting the payment of
duties.

UNITED STATES, FINANCES OF THE.

789

of silk ; 5-84 per cent, on manufactures of cot-
ton; 3'91 per cent, on iron and manufactures
thereof ; 4 per cent, on steel and its manufact-
ures; and3'62 per cent, on flax and its manu-
factures. The aggregate amouni of duties col-
lected on these seven commodities and classes
of commodities was $134,557,435.69, and 64*18
per cent, of the total amount.

The free goods entered in the fiscal year
1882 amounted to $210,721,981, and the dutia-
ble goods to $505,491,967, making the total
entries $716,213,948, as compared with $700,-
829,673 in 1883.

The following statement shows the amount
of duties collected during each of the last two
fiscal years on the six commodities yielding the
greatest revenue :

ARTICLE.

1883.

1883.

Sugar, molasses, and confec-
tionery . .

$49,193,312

$46 172 879

Wool and its manufactures.. .
Iron and steel, and their manu-

29,253,016
24 175 547

32,320,893
16 590 504

Manufactures of silk
Manufactures of cotton
Wines and spirits . . .

22,633,137
12,227,103
6.771.483

19,654,946
12,234,371

8.741.958

The Reduction of Taxation. — The report of the
Tariff Commission, appointed under the act of
May 15, 1882, with a schedule of the changes
in the rates of duties recommended by it, was
submitted to Congress Dec. 4, 1882, the be-
ginning of the second session of the Forty-sev-
enth Congress. It was referred to the Commit-
tee on Finance in the Senate and to the Com-
mittee on Ways and Means in the House. The
commission said that the average reduction in
duties at which it had aimed was not less than
20 per cent., and that in its opinion it would
reach 25 per cent. The Ways and Means Com-
mittee, on Jan. 16, 1883, reported a " bill to im-
pose duties on imports and for other purposes/'
This measure was based on the commission's
schedule of proposed duties, but made a less
reduction in the duties on many important ar-
ticles than that recommended by the commis-
sion. A computation made on the importa-
tions for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1882,
showed that the reduction proposed by the
committee would amount to $20,855,799.08 on
$215,395,628.58 duties collected in that year,
or less than 10 per cent. This bill was, how-
ever, never completed by the House. Its con-
sideration was abandoned on the 17th of Feb-
ruary, the House having, after a long and tedi-
ous discussion, passed upon only 45 of its 140
pages. In the mean time the same question
was being considered by the Senate. A bill to
reduce internal revenue taxation had passed
the House at the preceding session, and was
still pending in the Senate. This bill, having
been recommitted to the Committee on Fi-
nance, was reported on January 4th with an
amendment embracing an entire revision of
the tariff, based like the House bill on the com-
mission's report. The reduction of revenue
which the bill would cause was estimated by

the chairman of the committee (Senator Mor-
rill) at $45,049,000 in the duties on imports
and $34,790,324 on internal revenue, includ-
ing national-bank taxes, making a total reduc-
tion of $79,839,324.* This bill, having been
exhaustively debated, item by item, by the Sen-
ate, and amended in many particulars, passed
that body on the 20th of February, and was
sent to the House. The House adopted an
amendment of its rules, declaring that it should
be in order at any time during the remainder
of the session by a majority vote to suspend the
rules, declare a disagreement with the Senate
amendments, and ask for a committee of con-
ference on the bill ; and that, if that motion
should fail, the bill should remain on the Speak-
er's table, unaffected by the failure. This
proposition was opposed by a minority of the
House, who desired an opportunity to vote in
favor of concurring in the Senate amendments,
which provided for a greater reduction of du-
ties than the unfinished House bill, and the
Democratic members generally refrained from
voting on it. The House non-concurred in the
Senate amendments, and asked for a committee
of conference on the 27th of February. The
conference committee having submitted its re-
port, the bill passed both houses and became a
law, March 3, 1883. The changes made by the
conference committee in the bill as it passed
the Senate were mainly in the direction of an
increase of rates. Among other- changes the
duty on iron-ore was raised from 50 cents a
ton, as proposed by the Senate, to 75 cents ; on
pig-iron and wrought and cast scrap-iron, from
$6.50 a ton of 2,240 pounds to T% of a cent a
pound; on steel railway bars, weighing more
than 25 pounds to 1>he yard, from TV of a cent
a pound to $17 a ton; on iron or steel T-rails,
weighing not over 25 pounds to the yard, from
^_ to TV of a cent a pound ; on steel not oth-
erwise provided for, from 30 to 45 per cent,
ad valorem ; on manufactures of metal not oth-
erwise provided for, from 35 to 45 per cent. ;
on sugar above No. 13 and not above No. 16,
Dutch standard, from 2 £ to 2| cents a pound ;
on books, pamphlets, etc., from 15 to 25 per
cent. ; on salt in packages, from 10 to 12
cents a hundred pounds ; and on salt in bulk,
from 6 to 8 cents a hundred pounds. Books
in a foreign language were taken from the
free list and made subject to 25 per cent,
duty. The chairman of the Senate Finance
Committee, in explaining the conference report,
said that if there should be no greater importa-
tions than in the year before, the aggregate
reduction of taxation under the bill would
probably be more than $75,000,000 a year.
The report of the House conference commit-
tee said that the bill provided for an estimated
aggregate reduction of $67,000,000, of \vhich
it was estimated that about $35,000,000 would

* The bill was afterward so amended, by the cutting down of
the tax on tobacco in all its forms to one half the former rare,
as to increase the reduction in internal revenue taxes, includ-
ing the tix on the capital and deposits of national banks, to
about $43,000,0 JO.

790

UNITED STATES, FINANCES OF THE.

result from the changes made in the internal
revenue laws, and $30,000,000 to $32,000,000
from the cutting down of customs duties.

The act as passed repealed the tax on the
capital and deposits of banks, bankers, and na-
tional banking associations ; the stamp-tax on
checks and drafts; and the tax on matches,
perfumery, medicinal preparations, cosmetics,
and the like. The tax on dealers in and manu-
facturers of tobacco was largely reduced ; the
tax on tobacco was reduced from 16 to 8 cents
a pound ; on cigars from $6 to $3 a thousand ;
and on cigarettes from $1.75 to 50 cents a
thousand. The following are some of the
more important changes in the rates of duty
made by the bill :

The duty on sugar was reduced from rates
ranging from 2T3¥ to 5 cents a pound, to rates
ranging from 1-^j- to 3£ cents a pound ; on
clothing and combing-wools valued at less
than 30 cents a pound, from 10 cents a pound
and 11 per cent, ad valorem to 10 cents a
pound ; on car pet- wools, from 3 and 6 cents
for different grades to 2£ and 5 cents; on
woolen cloths and other manufactures of wool
not otherwise provided for, from 50 cents
a pound and 35 per cent, ad valorem to 35
cents a pound and 35 and 40 per cent, ad
valorem ; on ready-made clothing and wear-
ing-apparel of wool and worsted, from 50 cents
a pound and 40 per cent, to 40 cents a pound
and 35 per cent. ; on silk goods, from 60 to 50
per cent, ad valorem ; on hats of vegetable ma-
terial, etc., from 40 to 30 per cent., and on such
hat materials from 30 to 20 per cent. ; on bar-
ley, from 15 to 10 cents a bushel; on cleaned
rice, from 2£ to 2£ cents a pound ; on bleached
cottons (except jeans, etc.), from 5£ to 3£, 4,
and 5 cents a square yard according to grade ;
on finer and lighter cotton prints (except jeans,
etc.), from 5£ cents a square yard and 20 per
cent, ad valorem to 5 and 6 cents a yard and
to 40 per cent, ad valorem for the higher-
priced goods ; on linens, etc., valued at above
30 cents a yard, from 40 to 35 per cent. ; on
raisins, from 2£ to 2 cents a pound ; on articles
of fur, from 35 to 30 per cent. ; on jute-butts,
from $6 to $5 a ton; flat bar- iron of medium
dimensions, from 1 to -^ of a cent a pound ;
on pig-iron, from $7 a ton to*^ of a cent a
pound; on wrought scrap-iron, from $8 a ton
to f^ of a cent a pound; on steel railway-
bars or rails, from 1£ cent a pound to $17 a
ton; on calfskins, from 25 to 20 per cent.;
on musical instruments, from 30 to 25 per
cent. ; on molasses not above 56 degrees, from
6^ to 4 cents a gallon ; on tin plates or sheets,
terne plates and tagger's tin, from 1TV cent to
1 cent a pound ; on woolen dress goods valued
at not exceeding 20 cents a yard, from 6 cents
a yard and 35 per cent., to 5 cents a yard and
35 per cent. ; valued at above 20 cents, from 8
cents and 40 per cent, to 7 cents and 40 per
cent. Considerable reductions were also made
in the chemical schedule, and some additions
were made to the free list. The duty on cot-

ton laces, embroideries, etc., was advanced
from 35 to 40 per cent. ; on decorated china
and porcelain-ware, etc., from 50 to 60 per
cent. ; on similar ware not decorated, from 45
to 55 per cent. ; on all earthen, stone, and
^crockery ware, white, glazed or edged, not
otherwise provided for, from 40 to 55 per
cent. ; on the finer grades of cotton hosiery,
from 35 to 40 per cent. ; on opium, from
$6 to $10 a pound ; on champagne and other
sparkling wines, from $6 to $7 a dozen quarts;
on still wines, from 40 to 50 cents a gallon ;
and on paintings and statuary, from 10 to 30
per cent, ad valorem.

The act also repealed the provisions of law
requiring the cost of transportation from the
place of production to the vessel in which ship-
ment is to be made to the United States, the
value of the covering of the goods, commissions,
brokerage, export duty, and other charges for
putting up, preparing, and packing for trans-
portation or shipment, to be added to the
dutiable value of merchandise. It further pro-
vided for the assessment of duties on all su-
gars not above No. 13 of the Dutch stand-
ard in color, according to their saccharine
strength as shown by the polariscope test, in-
stead of according to their color by the Dutch
standard, as formerly.

The reduction of revenue thus far has not
come up to the estimates of either the Tariff
Commission or the committees of conference.

The reduction in the receipts from customs
for the six months ending Dec. 31, 1883, as
compared with the corresponding six months
of 1882, was $12,546,157.37; in internal rev-
enue, $13,930,432.15 ; and in the tax on capital
and deposits of national banks, $2,971,146.28.
The total decrease is at the rate of $58,895,-
471.60 a year.

The Commissioner of Internal Revenue, in
his annual report for 1883, estimated that the
aggregate amount of the reductions in internal
revenue taxes would not be less than $37,000,-
000, but that the revenue from distilled spirits
would be so increased as to make the aggre-
gate receipts for the fiscal year at least $120,-
000, or about $24,700,000 less than for the
fiscal year 1883. ~ The actual receipts from in-
ternal revenue for the six months ending Dec.
31, 1883, were $60,814,896.27, or at the rate of
$121,629,792.54 a year, conforming very nearly
to the commissioner's estimate.

The reduction in the receipts from duties on
imports for the six months is at the rate of but
little more than $25,000,000, or less than 12
per cent, of the receipts for the fiscal year 1883.
A computation made by the Bureau of Statis-
tics shows that for the three months ending
Sept. 30, 1883, as compared with the corre-
sponding three months of 1882, the reduction
in the average ad-valorem rates of duty on
dutiable merchandise was only 2*12 percent. —
from 44-20 to 42-08 per cent. The reduction
in the average ad-valorem rate of duty on both
free and dutiable merchandise was from 32-12

UNITED STATES, FINANCES OF THE. UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. 791

to 30-48 per cent., or 1 *64 per cent. The en-
tries of dutiable merchandise for consumption
fell off during the same period from $144,012,-
940 to $133,330,848.

The failure of the tariff revision to produce
the expected reduction of revenue, and the
plans for a further reduction which had been
brought forward, were discussed by the Presi-
dent in his message, and by the Secretary of the
Treasury in his report. The following extracts
summarize the Secretary's views :

The question recurs : Shall we now seek again for
that reduction which was not attained, and is it now
advisable to attempt a reduction of the revenues for
future years to arise from duties on imports ? There
was general agreement that a substantial reduction of
the tariff should be made. The estimates of the Tar-
iff Commission and of the Senate committee show what
was the contemplated reduction. The actual results
so far obtained indicate that the reduction labored for
has not been effected by the new tariff act. It is to "
be considered, too, that the failure is not to be charged
to the increase of importations keeping up the amount
of customs revenue. The statistics of our foreign
commerce show that there has not been an increase
chargeable therewith. As to the principles of reduc-
tion, if a revision be practicable, there seems to be lit-
tle disagreement. The reduction should be made on
articles entering into general consumption as neces-
saries— as sugar, molasses, and the like — rather than
upon luxuries • upon raw materials, rather than man-
ufactured, with due regard to the fostering of domes-
tic industries and occupations, especially those not
fully established. In the report of this department
last year, the reduction as applied to the principal
classes of dutiable articles was considered somewhat in
detail, and, adhering to the views there expressed, a
repetition of them is unnecessary.

It may not be deemed expedient so soon to make
again a revision of the tariff to effect a reduction.
And there are considerations which are apt upon this
head. The new tariff act went into operation, in all
its parts, on the 1st day of July, 1883. There has
gone by since then but little, over one third of a fiscal
year. It is a short time in which to learn with accu-
racy how so important and wide-reaching a law as
that, touching all the business and industrial interests
of the country, will permanently affect the revenues.
It is known that in some respects the first effects of it
may not be relied upon as stable. . . . On the whole,
then, this department does not recommend an imme-
diate revision of the tariff act. It adheres, however,
to its conviction that ultimately the just and expedi-
ent method of relief from taxation, and of limiting the
revenues to the needs of an economical Government,
must be found in a reduction of the duties on imports.
.... Propositions are made to repeal the whole sys-
tem of internal revenue. As to this, I repeat my
remark of last year : " I see no public sentiment or
political action, indicating a desire on the part of tax-
paying citizens to strike out this class of taxes."

The President said :

There are cogent reasons, however, why the nation-
al indebtedness should not be thus rapidly extin-
guished. Chief amo ig them is the fact that only by
excessive taxation is such rapidity attainable. In a
communication to the Congress at its last session I
recommended that all excise taxes be abolished except
those relating to distilled spirits, and that substantial
reductions be also made in the revenues from cus-
toms. A statute has since been enacted by which the
annual tax and tariff receipts of the Government have
been cut down to the extent of at least fifty or sixty
millions of dollars. While I have no doubt that still
further reductions may be wisely made, I do not ad-
vise the adoption at this session of any measures for

large diminution of the national revenues. The re-
sults of the legislation of the last session of the Con-
gress have not as yet become sufficiently apparent to
justify any radical revision or sweeping modifications
of existing law.

Notwithstanding these recommendations, a
bill was reported by the Committee on Ways
and Means of the House, March 11, 1884, plac-
ing wood, sawed or squared timber, sawed
lumber, salt, and coal, on the free list, and
making a "horizontal" reduction of 20 per
cent, in the duties on all other articles, except-
ing wines, liquors, silks, precious stones, and
certain kinds of glass, with the proviso that the
rates shall in no case be reduced below those
of the " Morrill " tariff of 1861, and that no ar-
ticle in the cotton schedule shall pay more than
40 per cent, ad valorem, no article in the wool-
en schedule more than 60 per cent., and no ar-
ticle in the metal schedule more than 50 per
cent.

UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. The
United States Fish Commission was estab-
lished in 1871 by a joint congressional resolu-
tion, which became a law on February 9th.
The text of the resolution is as follows:

Whereas it is asserted that the most valuable food-
fishes of the coast and the lakes of the United States
are rapidly diminishing in number, to the public in-
jury, and so as materially to affoct the interests of
trade and commerce : Therefore,

Be it resolved, by the Senate and Home of Repre-
sentatives of the United States of America in Congress
assembled, 'That the President be, and he hereby is,
authorized and required to appoint, by and with the
advice and consent of the Senate, from among the civil
officers or employe's of 'the Government, one person of
proved scientific and practical acquaintance with the
fishes of the coast, to be commissioner of fish and
fisheries, to serve without additional salary.

SEC. 2. And be it further resolved, That it shall be
the duty of said commisbioner to prosecute investiga-
tions and inquiries on the subject, with the view of
ascertaining whether any and what diminution in the
number of the food- fishes of the coast and the lakes
of the United States has taken place ; and, if so, to
what causes the same is due ; and also, whether any
and what protective, prohibitory, or precautionary
measures should be adopted in the premises ; and to
report upon the same to Congress.

SEC. 3. And be it further resolved, That the heads
of the Executive Departments be, and they are here-
by, directed to cause to be rendered all necessary and
practicable aid to the said commissioner in the prose-
cution of the investigations and inquiries aforesaid.

SEO. 4. And be it further resolved, That it shall be
lawful for said commissioner to take, or cause to be
taken, at all times, in the waters of the sea-coast of
the United States, where the tide ebbs and flows, and
also in the waters of the lakes, such fish or specimens
thereof as may in his judgment, from time to time,
be needful or proper for tfie conduct of his duties as
aforesaid, any law, custom, or usage of any State to
the contrary notwithstanding.

For fifteen or twenty years public interest
in the fisheries had been constantly increasing,
this being largely stimulated by the action of
the French Government in fostering the still
infant art of fish-culture, which, although dis-
covered before the middle of the previous cen-
tury in Germany, and never really abandoned
in Europe, was not deemed worthy of gov-
ernment aid until the successes of Re"my and

792

UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Gehin were popularized by the brilliant gen-
ius of M. Coste, under whose directorship the
first public fish-cultural station was planted at
Huningue, in Alsace. The publications and
experiments of Fry, Garlick, Ainsworth, At-
wood, Stone, Green, Slack, Lyman, and oth-
ers, and especially the reproduction in this
country of the admirable essay of M. Jules
Haime on pisciculture, awakened everywhere

to be appointed should be a civil officer of the
Government, of proved scientific and practical
acquaintance with the fishes of the coast, to
serve without additional salary. The choice
was thus practically limited to a single man.
Prof. Spencer F. Baird, at that time the Assist-
ant Secretary (since 1878 Secretary) of the
Smithsonian Institution, was appointed, and
entered at once upon his duties.

ROOM IN HATCHERY AT HUNIWGUE, ALSACE.

a sense of the fact that our coast-waters were
being rapidly depopulated, and of the coun-
ter-fact that their restoration was practicable
through reparative and protective measures.
Massachusetts appointed a Commissioner of
Fisheries in 1865, and prior to 1870 her ex-
ample was followed by several other States.
The establishment in 1871 of the American
Fish-Culturists' Association (now the Ameri-
can Fish-Cultural Association) marks the pe-
riod at which interest in the fish and fisheries
had become sufficiently great and wide-spread
to warrant the founding of a national associa-
tion.

The immediate cause of the establishment
of the Government Commission was a differ-
ence of opinion between the governments of
Massachusetts and Rhode Island as to the ex-
tent of the destructive effects of the trap and
pound fisheries of southern New England, and
the proper function of legislation in their regu-
lation.

In 1872, at the instance of the American
Fish-Culturists' Association, the commission
was charged with the task of restoring fish to
depleted waters, and its field of labor was
thereby greatly extended.

The resolution establishing the office of Com-
missioner of Fisheries required that the person

It is generally admitted that the success of
the Fish Commission work has been due entire-
ly to the wise and energetic management of
the commissioner, whose position, as an officer
of the Smithsonian Institution, enabled him
to secure at once the aid of a body of trained
specialists.

The principal activity of the commissioner
has been directed to the wholesale replenish-
ment of our depleted waters. The success of
fish-culture is well recognized in the United
States, and it was especially gratifying to its
advocates that in 1880 the grand prize of the
International Fisheries Exhibition at Berlin
was awarded to Prof. Baird as the " first fish-
culturist of the world," and that in 1883, at
London, many gold and silver medals were
awarded to the Fish Commission, in addition
to others distributed among its officers and
employe's.

Division of the Work. — The work of the com-
mission is naturally divided into three sections:

1. The systematic investigation of the waters
of the United States, and the biological and
physical problems which they present. Scien-
tific research of this character is based upon a
liberal and philosophical interpretation of the
law. In making his original plans, the com-
missioner insisted that to study only the food-

UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION".

793

fishes would be of little importance, and that
conclusions, to be really useful, must rest upon
a broad foundation of purely scientific investi-
gation. The life-history of species of economic
value should, of course, be understood from
beginning to end, but no less requisite is it to
know the histories of the animals and plants
upon which they feed or upon which their
food is nourished; to know the histories of
their enemies and friends, and the friends and
foes of their enemies and friends, as well as
the currents, temperatures, and other physical
phenomena of the waters in relation to migra-
tion, reproduction, and growth.

2. The investigation of the methods of fish-
eries, past and present, and the statistics of
production and commerce of fishery products.
Fishery methods and apparatus must be exam-
ined and compared with those of other lands,
that the use of those which threaten the de-
struction of useful species may be discouraged,
and that those which are inadequate may be
replaced by others more serviceable. Statistics
of industry and trade must be secured for the
use of Congress in making treaties or imposing
tariffs, also to show to producers the best mar-
kets, and to consumers from what source and
wherewithal their needs may be supplied.

neighbors. The propagation of fish is at pres-
ent by far the most extensive branch of the
work of the commission, both in respect to the
number of men employed and the money ap-
propriated.

Since the oldest and most important fishery
industries center in New England, the coast of
this district must be the seat of the most active
operations in marine research. For thirteen
years the commissioner, with a party of spe-
cialists, has devoted the summer season to work
at various stations along the coast from North
Carolina to Nova Scotia. The routine of work
is usually as follows : A suitable place having
been selected, a temporary laboratory is fitted
up with the necessary appliances for collection
and study. In this are placed tables, often at
headquarters as many as thirty, each occupied
by an investigator, either an officer of the
commission or a volunteer.

The work at a summer station includes all
the various forms of activity known to natural-
ists: collecting along the shore, seining upon
the beaches, setting traps for animals not other-
wise to be obtained, and scraping with dredge
and trawl the bottom of the sea at depths as
great as can be reached by a steamer in a trip
of several days. In the laboratory are carried

SECTION OP STEAMER FISH-HAWK.

3. The introduction and multiplication of
useful food-fishes throughout the country, es-
pecially in waters under the jurisdiction of the
General Government, or those common to sev-
eral States, none of which would undertake to
make expenditures for the benefit of their

on the usual structural and systematic studies,
the preparation of museum specimens and of
reports.

The permanent headquarters are now at
Wood's Holl, Mass., where wharves are being
built for the accommodation of the fleet of the

794

UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

commission, and houses for use for scientific
and fish-cultural laboratories, and where the
propagation of sea -fishes will be continued
on a larger scale than has hitherto been at-
tempted.

For several years, steamers were lent for the
summer work by the Secretary of the Navy, the
Coast Survey, and the Eevenue Service. In
1880, however, a steamer of 450 tons, the Fish-
Hawk, was built for the commission. This be-
ing needed for fish-hatching purposes, another
large steamer, of 1,000 tons, the Albatross,
was built and put into commission in 1883.
At the time of writing this article the Alba-
tross is detailed in the service of the Hydro-
graphic Office of the Navy, making a series of
deep-sea soundings in the Caribbean Sea. Her
trial trips have been very fruitful in results to
science.

Hundreds and even thousands of specimens
of a single species are often obtained in a
summer's work. After those for the National
Museum have been selected, a great number
of duplicates remain. These are identified,
labeled, and made into sets for exchange with
other museums, and for distribution to schools
and small museums. Several specialists are
employed solely in making up these sets and
in gathering material required for their com-
pletion. Within three years fifty sets of fishes
in alcohol, including at least 10,000 specimens,
have been sent out, and fifty sets of inverte-
brates, embracing 175 species and 250,000 speci-
mens. One hundred smaller sets of represent-
ative forms intended for educational purposes,
to be given to schools and academies, are being
prepared.

The arrangement of the invertebrate du-
plicates is in the charge of Richard Rathbun ;
of the fishes, in that of Dr. Tarleton H. Bean.
Facilities have also been given to many insti-
tutions for making collections on their own
behalf.

In addition to what has been done at the
summer station, and by the vessels of the com-
mission at sea, investigations have been carried
on by smaller parties everywhere in our coast
and interior waters.

The co-operation of the Superintendent of
the Life-saving Station has been of areat impor-
tance in obtaining knowledge of the occurrence
of unusual marine animals on remote portions
of the coast. The patrols of the life-saving
stations visit nearly every part of the Atlantic
coast daily, and report by telegraph to Wash-
ington the stranding of whales, porpoises,
sharks, etc. When the importance of the case
seems to warrant it, naturalists are sent to
study and bring in these animals for preserva-
tion.

One important feature in this work has been
the preparation of life-histories of the princi-
pal fishes, great quantities of material having
been accumulated relating to almost every spe-
cies. A portion of this has been published,
including biographical monographs on the blue-

fish, the scup, the menhaden, the salmon, the
white-fish, the shad, the mackerel, and the
sword-fish ; and others are being printed.

The temperature of the water, in its relation
to the movements of fish, has from the first
received special attention. Observations are
made regularly during the summer work, and
at the various hatching- stations. At the in-
stance of the commissioner, an extensive series
of observations has for several years been
made under the direction of the Chief Signal-
Officer of the Army, at lighthouses, light-ships,
life-saving and signal stations, carefully chosen,
along the whole coast. One practical result of
the study of these observations has been the
demonstration of the cause of the failure of
the menhaden-fisheries on the coast of Maine
in 1879 — a failure on account of which nearly
two thousand persons were thrown out of em-
ployment ; another, the explanation of the
variations in the shad-fisheries of the Potomac
from 1881 to 1883.

A series of analyses is being made by Prof.
W. O. Atwater to determine the chemical com-
position and nutritive value of fish as compared
with other articles of food. (See page 342 of
this volume.)

In connection with the work of fish-culture
much attention has been paid to embryology.
The breeding-times and habits of nearly all of
our fishes, and their relations to water-tem-
peratures, have been studied. The embryo-
logical history of a number of species, such as
the cod, shad, alewife, salmon, smelt, Spanish
mackerel, striped bass, white perch, and the
oyster, have been obtained under the auspices
of the commission, by Messrs. Ryder, Brooks,
and others.

The second branch of the work, the investi-
gation of the statistics and history of the fish-
eries, has perhaps assumed greater, proportions
than was at first contemplated. It has been
said above that one of the immediate causes of
the establishment of the commission was the
dissension between the line and net fishermen
of southern New England with reference to
laws for the protection of the deteriorating
fisheries of that region. The first work of Prof.
Baird, as commissioner, was to investigate the
causes of this alleged deterioration, and the re-
port of that year's work included much statis-
tical material. In the same year a zoological
and statistical survey of the great lakes was
accomplished, and various circulars were sent
out in contemplation of the preparation of
monographic reports upon special branches of
the fisheries.

In 1877 the commissioner and his staff were
summoned to Halifax, to serve as witnesses
and experts before the Halifax Fishery Com-
mission, then charged with the settlement of
the amount of compensation to be paid by the
United States for the privilege of participating
in the fisheries of the provinces. The infor-
mation available concerning the fisheries was
found to be so slight and imperfect that a plan

UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

795

for systematic investigation of the subject was
arranged and partially undertaken. This work
was carried on for two seasons, receiving some
financial aid from the Department of State.
In 1879 an arrangement was made with the
Superintendent of the Tenth Census, who
agreed to bear a part of the expense of carry-
ing out the scheme in full. Thirty trained ex-
perts were for several months engaged in the

gathering of material for a statistical report on
the history and present state of the fisheries
of the United States. This has since been fin-
ished, and is now being published. Many of
the statistical results, being the first which have
ever been prepared as the outcome of an ex-
amination of the fishery centers by experienced
statisticians, are shown in the accompanying
table.

STATISTICS OF THE FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1880.
Prepared for the Tenth Census, under the direction of G. Brown Qoode.

STATES AND TERRITORIES.

Persons
employed.

Capital

inverted.

Value of
product..

VMMll.

Value of
minor ap,«-
rattuand
ontfiu.

Other capital
Including

,l,,.r. | -.,,,-
•rty.

No.

Tomug..

The United States

181,426

$87,955,849

$43,046,058

6,605

203,297-82

$8,145,261

$i".y->7.4ia

I '..VJ7..W,
U8KM88

4,7-j.v*
\HJOH

l.:c;n.imo
818,175

New England States

37,043
14,981
52,418
5,131
16,808
5,050

$19,987,607
4,426.078
8,951,722
545,584
2,748,883
1,845,975

$14,270,898
8,676,579
9,602,737
1,227,544

7,484,750
1,784,050

2,066
1,210
8,014
197
56

113,602-59
23,566-98
60,886-15
8,009-86
5,463-42
1,768-87

$5,088,171
674,951

1,145,878
52,828
467,2:38
766,200

Middle States, exclusive of Great Lake fisheries..
Southern Atlantic States

Gulf States

Pacific States and Territories

Great Lakes

Alabama

635
6,130
3,094
8,131
1.9T9
2,480
899
300
52
1.599
11,071
26,008
20,117
1,781
35
186
414
6,220
7,266
5,274
1,046
6,835
552
2,810
1,005
601
18,864
744
800

$88,200
447,000
1,139,675
1,421,020
268,231
406,117
78,770
83,400
29,360
93,621
8,375,994
6,342.443
14,334,450
442,665
10,160
8,800
209,465
1,492,202
2,629,585
506,561
478,800
1,131,350
119,810
596,678
66,275
42,400
1,914,119
80,358
222,840

$119,275
2.661,640
1,860,714
1,456,866
997,695
643,227
119,993
60,100
82,740
892,610
8,614,178
5,221.715
8,141,750
716,170
5,200
22,540
176,684
8.176,589
4:380,565
845,695
518,420
2,781,024
820,050
880,915
212,482
128,300
8,124,444
181,372
253,100

24

"49

291
69
124
1
8
1
49
606
1,450
1,054
86
1

"23.
590
541
95
9

"ii

92
22

>:«?

11

817-20

5,246 : 80
9,215-95
1,226-00
2,152-97
12-00
209-78
21-90
539-69
17,632-65
48,500-00
88,282-17
914-42
83-59

1,019:05
10,445-90
11,582-51
1,457-90
859-51

82i:99
2,502-77
837-32

15,578:93
216-62
220-25

$7,000

7,r.oo

205,*40
875,585
70,824
89,927
18,445
11,900
20,210
18,000
984.593
297,145
8,528,925
272,920
8,760
1,600
60,885
282,889
890,200
225.486
258,795
245,750
40,588
188,788
25,985
4,400
560,768
8,648
145,165

$6,400
H0,006

807,000
tSlJOM
118,080
65,087
44,450
01,000
5,000
50,000
LMi^80
4,108£M
7,282,600
.*,.:,,:,
500
2,600
BfLSM
490,000
1,171,900
118,950
151,775
689,000
55,500
204,850
15,500
M.OOO
489,636
4,000
26,000

Alaska

California

Connecticut

Florida. ...

Georgia

Illinois

Louisiana

Maine

Maryland

Massachusetts

Minnesota

Mississippi . .

New Hampshire

New Jersey

New York

North Carolina

Ohio ....

Oregon ....

Rhode Island

South Carolina

Texas ....

Virginia

Wisconsin

The third and last department of the work
is that of propagation. The various States have
numerous laws for the protection of fish and
fishermen, generally worse than useless, though
there are many definitions of close-time, which
appear to be beneficial. To enforce these laws
would, however, render necessary a large
number of fish-wardens. The policy of the
United States Commissioner has been, to carry
out the idea that it is better to expend a small
amount of public money in making fish so
plenty that they can be caught without restric-
tion, to serve as cheap food for the people at
large, rather than to employ a much larger
amount in preventing the people from catching
the few that still remain after generations of
improvidence.

The propagation-work has increased in im-
portance from year to year, as may be seen by
the constant increase in the amount of the an-
nual appropriation. A review of the results
of the labors of the commission, in increasing

the food-supply of the country, may be found
in the annual reports ; the rude appliances of
fish-culture in use ten years ago have given
way to scientifically devised apparatus, by
which millions of eggs are hatched where
thousands were, and the demonstration of the
possibility of stocking rivers and lakes to any
desired extent has been greatly strengthened.

This work, from 1871 to 1877, was most effi-
ciently directed by James W. Milner, whose
untimely death was caused by his over-stren-
uous labors in fish-culture. It is now under
the immediate direction of Maj. T. B. Fergu-
son, Assistant Commissioner, by whom much
of the machinery for fish-culture on a gigantic
scale, by the aid of steam; was devised, and
Col. Marshall McDonald, Chief of the Division
of Propagation. The work of the commis-
sion in fish-culture has been that of stimulation
and co-operation, which has been extended to
the State Fish Commissions and to fish-cultur-
ists in every part of the world.

796

UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

Hatching-Stations* — As the operations of the
commission have increased, and the propaga-
tion of additional species has been undertaken,
it has been found desirable to increase the
number of hatching-stations. These are of
two kinds, known as collecting and distribut-
ing stations. The former are near the spawn-
ing-grounds of those species for which they are
especially intended. The eggs are secured at
these stations, and enough having been re-
served to stock the waters of that region, the
remainder are sent to distributing stations, to
be hatched and shipped to the waters for which
they are intended. The following is a list of
the hatching-stations operated by the United
States Fish Commission in 1883, for which we
are indebted to R. Edward Earll :

1. Grand Lake Stream, Me., station for collecting
eggs of the Schoodic salmon (Salmo salar, subsp. se-
bago).

2. Bucksport, Me., station for collecting and hatch-

and the gold-fish (Carassius auratus), the golden ide
(Idus melanotus, var. auratus), and the tench (Tinea
vulqaris).

(L) Arsenal Ponds. Ponds for the propagation of
carp ( Cyprinus carpio).

(c.) Navy-Yard. Station for collecting and hatch-
ing eggs of the shad (Clupea sapidissima).
' (d.) Central hatching-station. A station fully
equipped for scientific experiments connected with the
propagation of fishes. The station is also provided
with apparatus for hatching the eggs of all the more
important species, including light, heavy ? and ad-
hesive eggs. It is the principal distributing station
of the Fish Commission, for both eggs and young fish,
to all portions of the United States.

7. Wytheville, Va. A station for hatching eggs of
brook-trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and California
trout (Salmo irideus).

8. Saint Jerome's Creek, Point Lookout, Md. A
station for the artificial propagation of the oyster ( Os-
trea Virginiana), the Spanish mackerel (Scomberomo-
rus maculatus), and the banded porgy (Chcetodipterus
faber).

9. Avoca, N. C. A station on Albemarle Sound, at
the junction of Koanoke and Chowan rivers, for col-

PROOESS OF TAKING SALMON-EGGS.

ing eggs of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar), and for
hatching eggs of white-fish (Coregonus clupeiformis),
to be distributed in the waters of the State.

3. Wood's Holl, Mass. Permanent coast-station,
which serves as a base of operations for the scientific
investigations of the commission, and as a hatching-
station for the eggs of the cod ( G-adus morrhua) and
other sea-fishes.

% 4. Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. \ . Sta-
tion for hatching eggs of various species of Salmonidce
ibr distribution in New York and vicinity ; also work
with salt-water fishes, as cod, etc.

5. Havre de Grace, Md. Station located on Bat-
tery island, in the Susquehanna river, for the purpose
of collecting and hatching eggs of the shad (Clupea
sapidissima).

6. Washington, D. C.

(a.) National Carp Ponds. Ponds for the propaga-
tion of the three varieties of carp ( Cyprinus carpio),

lecting, hatching, and distributing eggs of the shad
(Clupea tapidimma). alewife (Ciupea vernalis and
cestivalis), and striped bass (Roccuslineatus).

10. Northville, Mich. A hatching- station for the
development and distribution of eggs of the white-
fish (Coregonus clupeiformis'). This station is also
provided with tanks 'and ponds for the spawning,
hatching, and rearing of brook-trout (Salmlinus fon-
tinalis) and California trout (Salmo irideus).

11. Alpena, Mich. A station for the collection and
development of the eggs of the white-fish ( Coregonus
clupeiformis).

12.'Baird, Cal.

(a.) Salmon-station. A station on the McCloud
river for the development and distribution of eggs of
the California salmon (OncorhyncJius cTwiticha}.

(b.) Trout- ponds. A station near Baird. for col-
lecting, developing, and distributing eggs of the Cali-
fornia trout (Salmo irideus).

UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

797

13. Clackamas river, Oregon. A station on Colum-
bia river for collecting and hatching eggs of the Cali-
fornia salmon (Oncorkynchus chomcha).

Appropriations and Prizes. — The following state-

ment of the money appropriated for the work
of the United States Fish Commission, from its
organization in 1871 to the fiscal year 1882-'83,
is from the records of the commissioner :

APPROPRIATIONS FOR THE UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

YEAR.

Inquiry.

Propagation.

Hatcheries and
ponds.

Steamers, car, etc.

IlloitrmUon.

Tool.

187l-'72 ...

$8,500

*- ">«NI (III

1872 '73

5000

$25 000

• KAA

1873-'74 . .

5,000

32'500

1 000

1874-' 75

5.000

17500

1 000

1875-'76

' 5,000

65000

1 000

71 000 00

1876 -'77

5000

80 045

1S77 '73

67500

$2 200 00

I'ooo

1878-'79 ...

TO 000

s'ooo oo

1 000

76000 00

1879--80

8,500

90000

5'000 00

$57 500

I'ooo

157 000 00

1830-'81

3,500

85,000

17000 00

is'ooo

I'ooo

121 500 00

1881-'S2

3,500

130,000

20,001 45

174 209*

1 000

828 710 45

1882-'83

3,500

115000

80000 00

79 500f

1 000

229 000 00

$47,500

$727,545

$79,201 45

$326,209

$10,500

$l,H»n,'jW. 4.-,

* Of this amount, $1,500 was for rent of offices.

Besides the ahove, Congress appropriated
$20,000 to enable the United States to partici-
pate in the International Fisheries Exhibition
at Berlin in 1880, and $50,000 for our repre-
sentation at the International Exhibition in
London in 1883, and in both cases the highest
honors were awarded to the exhibits of the
United States. An inspection of the table will
show that more than one third of all the mon-
ey disbursed by the United States Fish Com-
mission has been devoted to permanent im-
provements.

At the International Fisheries Exhibition
held in London from May 10 to November 1,
1883, which was the largest representation ever
made of a single industry, the United States re-
ceived more than one fifth of all the awards
given to foreign and colonial government dis-
plays. A much larger proportion of gold med-

INTERNATIONAL FISHERIES EXHIBITION, LONDON, 1888.

Ju/ry Awards to Foreign and Colonial Countries.

8

5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
1.6
17
18
19
20
21
22
23

25
26

COUNTRIES.

Gold
medals.

Silver
medals.

Bronze
medals.

Diplo-
mas.

41
7
19
4
1
3
8
6
5
2

*8
2
1

'i
'i

1
5

'i

Total.

168
145
122
42
25
26
42
53
28
15
9
20
16
6
5
4
4
•4
5
5
8
8
1
1
1
8

United States
Norway

50
28
27
17
11
10
9

6
4
4
3
3
2
1
1
1

47
70
86
15
9
9
17
21
11
5
8
6
2
8
4
8
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

80
40
40
6
4
4
18
19
6
4
2
8
9

'i

2
8
3
2
2

'2

Canada
New South Wales..
Newfoundland
Spain

Netherlands
India

Italy

France.

China

Tasmania
Greece
Bahamas

Chili

Germany

Pelgium

Straits Settlements.
Austria-Hungary. . .
Tunis

Ceylon

Japan

Total . . .

184

271

200

106

761

t Including $8,000 for a car and $1,500 for office-rent.

als fell to our lot than was received by any
other country. This result was due mainly to
the participation of the United States Fish
Commission and National Museum, whose ex-
hibits called forth the highest praise and were
awarded the most substantial honors. The ta-
ble in the preceding column, showing the rela-
tive standing of the competing countries, is
based upon the official list of jury awards.

Publications of the Commission.— The regular
official publications of the Fish Commission
are in two octavo series : 1. The report of the
commissioner, issued in yearly parts. Each
volume consists of two sections, the first be-
ing the report proper, containing the com-
missioner's summary of the year's work, to-
gether with his recommendations, practical
suggestions, and the announcement of his
plans for future activity. This is issued in
advance of the full volume, which usually
appears about two years later than its date.
The second part, five or six times as large as
the first, contains the contributions and re-
ports of the officers and collaborators of the
commission, together with translations of simi-
lar writings by European authorities.

The " Bulletin of the Fish Commission" was
established in 1881. One volume of about 500
pages is distributed each year.

The commission is now publishing a report
in quarto volumes, with illustrations, upon the
fishery industries of the United States, the re-
sult in part of the alliance with -the Census
Office in 1880. The statistical results of this
alliance will occupy a volume of the census
series. A special bulletin was published in 1880,
consisting of the original edition of Elliott's
monograph on the seal islands of Alaska. Much
material collected by and relating to the work
of the commission is published in the Proceed-
ings and Bulletins of the United States National
Museum. Bulletin 27, now (April, 1884) going
through the press, is a catalogue of the collec-
tions exhibited by the United States at the
London Fisheries Exhibition, arid contains a

798

UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

summary of the present condition of the vari-
ous departments of work. The publications of
the commission up to 1884 include 9,296 pages,
besides 2,39V pages of the Bulletins of the Na-
tional Museum. In Mr. 0. W. Smiley 's list,
which extended to August, 1883, 1,077 papers
are mentioned, and this list does not include
nearly all of those pertaining to the work
which have been printed in outside journals.

History of Yearly Work.— The following sum-
mary of the annual work of the commission is
expanded from a paper entitled "The First
Decade of the United States Fish Commis-
sion," read before the American Association
for the Advancement of Science, at iis Boston
meeting in 1880 :

1871, — The commissioner, with a party of zoolo-
gists, established the first summer-station at Wood's
Holl, Mass., other assistants being engaged in a simi-
lar work at Cape Hatteras and on the great lakes. He
also personally investigated the alleged decrease of
the fisheries in southern New England, taking the
testimony of numerous witnesses.

1872,— The summer-station was at Eastport, Me.,
particular attention being paid to the herring-fisher-
ies. The survey of the great lakes was continued.
Dredging, under the direction of Prof. Packard, was
begun on the off-shore banks. At the instance of the
American Fish - cultural Association, Congress re-
quested the commissioner to take charge of the work
of multiplying valuable food-fishes throughout the
country. Work was begun on the shad, salmon, and
white-fish, and the eggs of the European salmon were
imported.

1873,— The summer - headquarters were fixed at
Portland, Me. The opportunities lor research were
greatly increased by the aid of the Secretary of the
Navy, who granted the use of an eighty -ton steamer.
Explorations in the outer waters, between Mount Des-
ert and Cape Cod, were carried on in the United
States coast-surveying steamer Bache. Operations
in fish-culture were carried on upon an extensive

1874-'75,— In 1874 the zoological work centered at
Noank, Conn. The attempt was made to introduce
shad into Europe. In 1875 the station was for a sec-
ond time at Wood's Holl, where a permanent sea-side
laboratory, with aquaria, was now established. The
number of investigations this year was about twenty.
The increase in the propagation-work was proportion-
ately much larger.

1876. — The commissioner was unable to take the
field for fishery investigations, having been instructed
to exhibit, in behalf of the commission, the fishes and
useful invertebrates, as well as the methods of fish-
culture and the American fisheries, at the Philadel-
phia International Exhibition. Much, however, was
accomplished by single investigators in various locali-
ties. The propagation- work continued. This year
the first carp were introduced from Germany.

1877,— The field of investigation was resumed at
Salem, Mass., and later at Halifax, N. S. A larger
steamer, of 300 tons, made deep-sea research possible.
The commissioner and his staff served as experts be-
fore the Halifax Fishery Commission. The propa-
gating work was on the increase, and the Government
carp-ponds were established in Washington.

1878-'79.— In 1878 the summer-station was at Glou-
cester, Mass., in 1879 at Provincetown. These cen-
ters of the fishing interests were selected that more
attention might be devoted to studying the history,
statistics, and methods of the sea-fisheries ; a plan for
the systematic investigation which seemed yearly
more necessary, in view of the dissensions between
the Governments of the United States and Great
Britain. In 1879 a combination was formed with the

Superintendent of the Tenth Census, by which the
commissioner was enabled to carry forward this
branch of the work more rapidly. Specialists were
dispatched to all parts of the country, to study the
biological, statistical, and practical aspects of the
fisheries. In 1878 the breeding of cod and haddock
was accomplished at Gloucester. In 1879 the propa-
gation of the oyster was accomplished, by co-opera-
tion with the Maryland Commission, under the direc-
tion of Maj. Ferguson, and the distribution of the
carp throughout the country was begun.

1880,— The summer- station was at Newport, E. I.
The Fish-Hawk, a steamer of 484 tons, constructed
expressly for the work, lies at the wharf, now equipped
for scientific research, later to be employed in the
propagation of sea-fish, such as the cod and the mack-
erel. Over fifty investigators are in the field in the
service of the commission. The season was opened
by the participation of the commission in the Inter-
national Exhibition at Berlin. The first- honor prize,
the gift of the Emperor of Germany, was awarded to

1881.— The summer-station was at Wood's Holl,
Mass. The investigation of the area of distribution
and the economical qualities of the tile-fish was one
of the practical results of the work of th'e season. A
railway-car was constructed for the express purpose
of distributing fish, and an entire change was effected
in the methods of fish transportation. Experiments
were made in hatching cod and Spanish mackerel, and
in the retardation of the development of shad-eggs.
Land was acquired at Wood's Holl for a permanent
station for hatching cod and other sea-fishes and for
general biological research. The publication of the
''Bulletin" of the Fish Commission was begun.
Fishery bulletins were issued relative to the fisheries
of the Pacific Coast States, the Great Lakes, Maine,
Virginia, and the oyster industry.

1882. — The summer-station was again at Wood's
Holl, and the explorations of the Fish-Hawk from this
place were conducted mainly in the Gulf Stream, re-
sulting in the acquisition of much valuable material
and information. Congress appropriated money for
building a pier in Great Harbor, Wood's Holl. The
Armory station in Washington was fitted up for hatch-
ing enormous quantities of eggs of food-fishes, and
railroad-tracks were laid within the inclosure, so that
the Fish Commission cars can be loaded from the
doors of the hatchery. The white-fish hatchery at
Alpena, Mich., was established ; $50,000 was appro-
priated for the representation of the United States at
the London Fisheries Exhibition, under the charge of
the United States Fish Commission. The station for
rearing California trout at Wytheville, Va., and that
for propagation of the oyster at St. Jerome's creek,
Md., passed into the possession of the Government.
The fishery census of 1880 was practically completed.
Congress ordered the publication of a report on Ameri-
can fish and fisheries. The disappearance of the
tile-fish in the North Atlantic was demonstrated. The
steamer Albatross was completed.

1883. — Wood's Holl, Mass., was again occupied as a
summer-station, and the deep-sea investigations of the
Albatross, begun off Chesapeake Bay early in the sea-
son, were continued from this place with surprising
results. The United States exhibit in London in charge
of the commissioner, Mr. G. Brown Goode, was suc-
cessful over all other competitors, owing mainly to
the participation of the Fish Commission and the Na-
tional Museum. The feasibility of the artificial rear-
ing of oysters was shown by Mr. J. A. Eyder, Em-
bryologist of the Commission, at Chincoteague Bay,
Md. The distribution of fishes was enormously in-
creased.

Work at the Principal Stations.— The hatchery
at North ville, Mich., was established in 1874
by N. W. Clark. In 1880 it passed into the
control of the United States Fish Commission,
and continued under the care of Frank N.

UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

799

Clark, who has developed it into one of the

most important stations in the world for the

treatment of eggs of the

Salmonidce — brook-trout,

lake - trout, white - fish,

rainbow- trout, and Cali-

fornia salmon. It is es-

pecially active in the

propagation of the white-

fish, having, from 1874

to 1883, distributed more

than 20,000,000 eggs and

upward of 80,000,000 of

the young of that species.

Up to 1879 Mr. Clark

hatched 1,600,000 Cali-

fornia salmon ; since that

date the hatching of that

species at Northville has

been discontinued. Of the

landlocked salmon, 104,-

000 have been hatched ;

633,000 eggs and 310,000

young of the brook-trout

have been shipped; 250,-

000 eggs and 127,000

young of the lake-trout

were distributed ; 247,500

rainbow-trout were

hatched and sent out.

White - fish have been

planted mostly in the great lakes, but large

numbers of them have been forwarded, also,

to Michigan, California, Nevada, Maine, Iowa,

Minnesota, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, Connec-

ticut, New Jersey, Maryland, New Hampshire,

North Carolina, Germany, New Zealand, and

France. Lake-trout eggs have been success-

fully sent to Germany and France. Brook-

trout eggs have safely reached Germany,

France, England, and South America. By the

aid of refrigeration for retarding the devel-

opment of white-fish eggs, Mr. Clark expects

to be able to hatch 500,000,000 annually

at North ville. The Northville hatchery has

a series of natural and artificial ponds, in

which are kept brook-

trout, rainbow-trout,

landlocked salmon,

and lake - trout for

breeding. In the au-

tumn of 1882 the Uni-

ted States Commis-

sioner built a second

white-fish hatchery at

Alpena, Mich., and

that, without public fish-culture, half of them
would be obliged to abandon their calling.

NORTHVILLE FlSH-HATCHERY.

The hatchery for Atlantic salmon at Bucks-
port, Maine, is under the direction of Charles
G. Atkins. The supply of living salmon is ob-
tained early in June,' from weirs in the Penob-
scot river, on the shores of Verona island. The
fish are transported by water in tanks made
out of fishing-boats, for more than seven miles,
to the ponds adjoining the hatchery, and are
there confined until the breeding-season, which
is late in October and in November. At the
proper time the eggs and milt are taken, and
the salmon are released. Since 1871 nearly
15,000,000 eggs have been distributed. The
Schoodic salmon - breeding establishment, on
Grand Lake stream, Maine, is also in charge

charge of Mr. Clark.
This establishment has a nominal capacity for
100,000,000 eggs. In the two hatcheries at Alpe-
na and Northville there were produced, in the
winter of 1883-'84, over 100,000,000 eggs of the
white-fish, and the total number of young fish to
be placed in the great lakes in 1884, by these and
the various State hatcheries, will exceed 225,-
000,000. The fishermen of the great lakes admit

ATLANTIC SALMON

of Mr. Atkins. Here the fish are intercepted
in the stream on their way to their spawning-
grounds, and led into inclosures of netting,
where they are kept until the supply of eggs
is obtained. After that the breeders are car-
ried back into the lake and liberated. From
1875 to 1883 this establishment distributed 10,-
249,500 eggs of the landlocked salmon, and

800

UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION.

they have been successfully introduced into
lakes of Maine, New York, and other States,
and even as far south as North Carolina.

The California salmon-hatchery, on the Mc-
Cloud river, was established in 1872, under the
direction of Livingston Stone, who has made

CALIFORNIA SALMON (Oncorhynchus chouicha).

it the greatest station of the kind in existence. Washington.
The native salmon are stopped in their ascent
of the river by a dam near the hatchery, and
they congregate in vast numbers. In 1877 Mr.
Stone built the salmon-hatching establishment
on Clackamas river, Oregon, and in 1879 the
McCloud river trout-pond station was estab-
lished for treating eggs of the rainbow-trout.
Mr. Stone has summarized the work of the
salmon station in the following words: "In
the eleven years since the salmon - breeding
station has been in operation, 67,000,000 eggs
have been taken, most of which have been dis-
tributed in the various States of the Union.
Several millions, however, have been sent to
foreign countries, including Germany, France,

Great Britain, Denmark, Russia, Belgium. Hol-
land, Canada, New Zealand, Australia, and the
Sandwich Islands. About 15,000,000 have
been hatched at the station, and the young
fish placed in the McCloud and other tributaries
of the Sacramento river. So great have been
the benefits of this re-
stocking of the Sacra-
mento, that the statistics
of the salmon -fisheries
on the Sacramento show
that the annual salmon-
catch of the river has in-
creased 5,000,000 pounds
during the past few
years."

The principal shad -
hatching station of the
United States is in the
Armory, Army Square,
This building now has all the
modern appliances for the work, and can ac-
commodate an unlimited number of eggs.
Nearly 50,000,000 were received there in one
year. Eggs are received from small camps
from fifty to one hundred miles away, and the
fry are shipped in cars constructed for fish-
transportation. The station near Havre de
Grace, in the lower waters of the Susquehanna
river, is also important, and it has the advan-
tage of a large pool in which shad may be con-
fined until their eggs are ripe. Fully 70,000,000
eggs of shad have been hatched in a single year
at all the stations of the commission. Instances
of great improvement might be cited in con-
nection with nearly every shad-river in the

CENTRAL STATION, ARMORY, WASHINGTON, D. C.

UNITED STATES FISH COMMISSION. UNITED STATES, FISH-CULTURE IN. 801

United States. In the Potomac alone the an-
nual yield has been increased from 668,000
pounds in 1877 to an average of more than
1,600,000 pounds in recent years.

The carp-ponds for the rearing of German
carp, in Washington, have been furnishing
these ti.sh to the people since 1879. Into every
State and Territory of the Union the carp have
gone to increase the stock of domesticated
fishes, and in suitable waters their growth has
been remarkable. A scale-carp sent to Texas
when four inches long increased to twenty and
one half inches in eleven months, and gained
about four and one half pounds. Large carp
not infrequently are sold in the market of
Washington, which have sprung from escaped
fishes in the Potomac, and they are readily
sold notwithstanding the high price (twenty-
five cents a pound). It is estimated that fully
30,000 ponds have been supplied with carp.
In 1882 alone, carp were distributed from the
Fish Commission ponds in Washington, in lots
of twenty, to 10,000 applicants, representing
every State and Territory of tbe Union, at an
average distance of more than 900 miles ; the
total mileage of the shipments baing about
9,000,000, and the actual distance traversed by
the transportation-cars, 34,000 miles.

UNITED STATES, FISH-CULTURE III THE. Mod-
ern fish-culture involves the artificial taking
and impregnation of eggs ; providing for them
shelter and a suitable supply of water during
the period of incubation; the protection and
feeding of the young; the transportation of
the fry and eggs; facilitating the ascent of
fish in streams to their natural spawning-beds
by removing obstructions and impurities in
the waters; legislating against over-fishing,
injurious fishing, and otherwise destroying in-
dustries; the artificial rearing of inferior spe-
cies as food for such as have commercial val-
ue ; the introduction into new waters of species
which are known to be important elsewhere;
and the systematic study of all the natural con-

ditions which affect the movements and some-
times the existence of aquatic animals.

The mere hatching and depositing of fish-
eggs artificially is but a small portion of the
art of fish-culture as now practiced. It is
quite as important to remove obstructions and
impurities from streams, to prevent improper
fishing, and to study the capabilities of waters
for supporting life as it is to stock them with
an abundance of fry. The word u fish-culture "
no longer serves to convey the meaning in-
tended ; the term " aquiculture " is more near-
ly adequate to the purpose, for we have to deal
with all the objects of fishery — whales, seals,
crustaceans, oysters, corals, sponges, and every
form of aquatic life. Fish-culture is simply
one of a series of means to an end. Wherever
unfavorable conditions exist, it must be com-
bined with systematic investigation of the nat-
ural causes affecting the movements of aquatic
animals, and with such intervention against
obstacles of all sorts as will insure the full
benefits of artificial introduction of economic
species.

All civilized countries now make provision
for the artificial rearing of fish. The necessity
for this is more particularly felt in the rivers,
where the direct consequences of man's mis-
takes are more apparent than in the open sea.
If the salmon and the shad, which periodically
ascend our streams for the purpose of repro-
duction, met with no serious obstructions upon
their way, perhaps the necessity of fish-culture
would not be so clearly seen. In July, 1879,
at Bainbridge, Lancaster co., Pa., I saw great
shoals of shad-fry, the individuals of which
averaged more than two and a half inches in
length, lining the east shore of the river. At
the same time the Pennsylvania Canal, which
there follows the course of the river, contained
similar s\varms of the young fishes. At vari-
ous times during different years this phenome-
non has occurred, yet at no time since those
observations has there been a good catch of

VOL. xxin.— 51 A

802

UNITED STATES, FISH-CULTURE IN THE.

adult shad above the obstruction at Columbia,
except when there was a break in the dam.
We believe, therefore, that the removal of ob-
structions in streams would restore them to
something like their primitive value for the
fisheries. The obstructions, however, exist,
and the additional element of pollution enters
into the problem. We can not depend upon
Nature to restore the fisheries ; we must sup-
ply the deficiency by artificial hatching, and
facilitate the ascent of fisb in streams by intro-
ducing fish-ways. As early as 1830, Mr. Smith,
of Deanston, Scotland, invented a salmon-lad-
der, of which an illustration is given with this
article. The object of a fish-way is secured
by retarding the velocity of the descending
water sufficiently to allow the fish to overcome
the current and pass beyond the obstruction.
Numerous devices have been employed for the
purpose, but seldom with good results, and a
successful fish-way is scarcely demonstrated as
yet. The best general paper on the subject
was written by Mr. C. G. Atkins for Part II of
the U. S. Fish Commissioner's Report. In the
''Transactions of the American Fish-cultural
Association for 1883 " will be found a valuable
paper by Col. M. McDonald, on " A New Sys-
tem of Fish-way Building." The McDonald

MCDONALD FISH-WAY, ON THE KAPPAHANNOCK.

fish-way is the most promising of recent inven-
tions, and there is good reason for believing
that it will solve the problem of impassable
dams. In this the water is made to act against
gravity by the employment of a series of bent
tubes, which receive the water at one end and
discharge it with greatly diminished force at
the other.

Artificial breeding has numerous advantages
over natural breeding. A much greater per-
centage of eggs can be fertilized and developed
by artificial methods ; the eggs after impreg-
nation are protected from the inroads of their
numerous natural enemies, and the young
fishes are nourished until they have gained a
degree of strength which they would scarcely
acquire under natural conditions, and are de-
posited whe^e the chances for their survival
are the best. In a state of nature only a very

small percentage of the eggs deposited ulti-
mately produce adult fishes. The ova are
preyed upon by hosts of insects, by swarms of
cyprinoids, cottoids, and siluroids, which infest
all streams, and by numerous aquatic birds
and mammals ; they are liable to be smothered
in a mass of mud, or washed away by floods,
or crushed by floating timber ; they are sub-
ject, also, to fatalities which do not beset them
in the nurseries provided by man. In the wild
state the larger fishes destroy the smaller, but
in rearing-ponds such losses are entirely pre-
ventable, only fishes of equal size being kept in
the same inclosure, and they receive a suffi-
cient supply of food.

The early history of fish-culture relates to
the utilization of ova naturally impregnated,
and the rearing of fish which have been trans-
ferred from their natural habitat to an artifi-
cial one, in which they are fattened and pre-
pared for market. This form of fish-culture is
believed to have begun in China at a remote
date, and the literature of this portion of the
subject is considerable. The Chinese have ex-
tensively collected, transported, and developed
eggs laid under natural conditions, and they
continue to do so. The art of fish-culture, as
practiced to-day, dates from about the middle
of the eighteenth century. Stephen Ludwig
Jacobi, a lieutenant of militia of Lippe-Det-
mold, in Westphalia, was, at that date, acquaint-
ed with the idea of artificially impregnating the
eggs of fish and thereby restocking ponds and
streams. Jacobi's discovery was not made
public till 1763, when he embodied in a letter,
which is printed in the " Hanover Magazine,"
the results of his experiments. As early as
1758 he had corresponded upon the subject
with Bufibn. A Latin translation of Jacobi's
essay was made by Count de Goldstein, and his s
memoir was published in French in 1770, in
an abridgment of the " Memoirs of the Berlin
Academy. In 1773 Duhamel du Monceau pub-
lished a translation of Jacobi's treatise on " Ar-
tificial Propagation," from the Latin version of
Goldstein (u Traite generate des peche," etc.,
Paris, 1773, Part II, p. 209). England was the
first country to recognize the importance of
this discovery of Jacobi. In 1771 George III
granted him a life-pension. The first public
illustration of the processes of fish-culture was
given in 1772 by Prof. Adanson, in his lectures
in the Royal Garden of Paris, now the Jar din
des Plantes. The first English translation of
Jacobi's memoirs was published in London in
1788, with the title US. L. Jacobi's Method of
breeding Fish to Advantage."

Notwithstanding the importance of this dis-
covery, it was practically lost sight of for a
long period, and it was then in France that the
revival of the art took place. The chief im-
portance of this renewed activity on the part
of the French is to be found in the stimulus
which it gave to new efforts in other countries,
particularly in the relations of governments to
the subject. The results accomplished by the

UNITED STATES, FISH-CULTURE IN THE.

BOO

French were soon appreciated in England, and
especially in America. One of the earliest
American translators to bring to notice the
essays of French fish-culturists was William H.
Fry, who, in 1854, published "A Complete
Treatise on Artificial Fish-Breeding : including
the .Reports on the Subject made to the French
Academy and the French Government, and
Particulars of the Discovery as pursued in
England," etc. Dr. Theodatus Garlick, who
is now generally recognized as the "father of
fish-culture in America," in the preface to his
treatise on the " Artificial Propagation of Cer-
tain Kinds of Fish " (Cleveland, 1857), bears
testimony to the value of Fry's contribution to
the history of fish-culture in Europe. Dr.
Garlick had previously prepared the reports of
Coste and Milne-Edwards on artificial fish-
culture, for publication in the " Ohio Farmer,"
together with original articles, these papers
being afterward combined to form the treatise
above mentioned.

Previous to 1850 all that was accomplished
in the way of artificial culture of fishes was
done by individuals at their own expense. In
1850 fish-culture was begun by the French
Government, and the first breeding station
under government auspices was established, at
Hilningue, in Alsace, under the direction of
Prof. Coste. Here the practical application of
artificial culture was first demonstrated. (See
engraving, page 792.) Public fish-culture was
not permanently established in the United
States until 1865, when New Hampshire formed
a fish commission, and the Legislature sent Dr.
Fletcher to Canada, to obtain salmon-eggs.
Massachusetts had taken a preliminary step
ten years before, but New Hampshire made
the first practical move. Massachusetts estab-
lished its fish commission upon a working basis
in 1865, and Vermont, also, created a commis-
sion in this year. The first hatching establish-
ment for public fish -culture in the United
States was the shad-hatchery erected at Had-
ley Falls, on Connecticut river, by the State of
Massachusetts. Public fish-culture in America,
originating in New England, has rapidly been
introduced into other States, and at this time
most of the States and Territories of the Union
have fish commissions. The total amount of
appropriations for State commissions from 1866
to and including 1882 was $1,101,096.

On Feb. 9, 1871, the United States Govern-
ment authorized the appointment of a Com-
missioner of Fish and Fisheries, as stated at
the beginning of this article. The propagation
of fishes was not contemplated by the Govern-
ment till 1872, when, at the suggestion of the
American Fish-Cultural Association, Congress
requested the commissioner to undertake the
work of increasing the valuable food-fishes of
the country, and appropriated $25,000 for^the
purpose. The total amount of appropriations
for the work of the United States Commission,
from 1871 to 1883, is $1,190,955.45, of which
$727,545 was devoted to propagation ; the re-

mainder was employed chiefly in the construc-
tion of hatching-houses and ponds and steam-
vessels. The work of the commission is di-
vided into three sections, as hereinbefore ex-
plained.

The beginning of fish-culture contemplated
the propagation of different members of the
SalmonidcB— trout and salmon ; the former es-
pecially occupying attention. These fishes still
claim a large portion of the time of fish-cult-
urists everywhere; but other species now re--
ceive as much care. This is more noticeable
in the United States than elsewhere, because of
our numerous anadromous fishes of far greater
economic value than any salmon, unless we
may except those of the Pacific coast. The
shad, the alewife, and the striped bass are
among our most valuable anadromous species,
and, fortunately, they are good subjects for
artificial propagation.

Hatching-Apparatus. — The earlier forms of
hatching-apparatus used in the United States
were, naturally, imitations of foreign appli-
ances, particularly those of France and Eng-
land. Boxes were placed in streams, and the
eggs were received upon a bed of gravel.
Floating-boxes in streams were employed for
many years, and are still used to some extent.
The hatching-box invented by Seth Green, in
1867, was the first successful piece of apparatus
used in the United States for the. hatching of
semi-buoyant eggs. This is a rectangular wood-
en box with a wire-cloth bottom, and with
long wooden floats so attached to the sides as
to tilt the box at an angle with the current,
thus securing the necessary movement of the
eggs during the period of incubation. Until
recently, this was the only successful apparatus
used for the hatching of shad, and in it many
millions of this species have been developed.
Formerly, it was a matter of considerable im-
portance to select material for the construction
of hatching-apparatus which would not act in-
juriously upon the eggs, but this was soon ad-
Justed by giving a coating of asphalt to the
whole interior of the box. The use of the
floating-box involved the necessity of placing
it in a stream where it was subject to various
dangers. In tidal waters, too, there was fre-
quently entanglement of the series of boxes,
and a lack of current during the turning of the
tide. The introduction of glass materials for
hatching purposes, and the protection of this
apparatus in hatching-houses, either floating
or fixed, was a very great advance over the old
methods. In the glass vessel, thus protected,
it is much easier to regulate the force of the
current, and to remove diseased or dead eggs,
than it was in the early apparatus. Formerly,
it was necessary to skim off, or pick out, the
dead eggs; but this work is now done auto-
matically and with great facility. Floating-
boxes for the hatching of semi-buoyant eggs
could be employed only where there was a
current ; hence, it became necessary to substi-
tute some other form of apparatus, in Which a

804

UNITED STATES, FISH-CULTURE IN THE.

continual motion could be kept up independ-
ently of the action of the current. The plung-
ing buckets, invented by Mr. T. B. Ferguson,
which were operated by steam machinery, were
at one time used instead of the Green box for
hatching shad-eggs in still water; but they
were soon replaced by less expensive appa-
ratus.

At present, it is customary among fish-cult-
urists to classify hatching-apparatus with refer-
ence to the kind of eggs for which it is intended
to be used. Four types of eggs are recognized :

applied from an engine by means of a horizon-
tal arm fixed to its axis, and is kept constantly
turning backward and forward through an arc
of ninety degrees, thus creating a free circula-
tion of water which gives a motion to the eggs.
For hatching semi-buoyant eggs, such as those
of the shad, the Green hatching-box was former-
ly the only one successfully used in the United
States. Several modifications of it have been
made, the most prominent among them being
that invented by Mr. Brackett, and first used
in 1873. " In this the box floats horizontally,
but has the up-stream
end beveled, and the
water, striking against
it, produces an eddy
under the box, which
causes a gentle agita-
tion of the eggs." An-
other substitute was
suggested by Mr. E.
M. S til well, Fish Com-
missioner of Maine,
and Mr. Charles G.
Atkins, now in charge
of the United States
salmon - hatchery at

WHITE-FISH (Coregvnus clupdformis).* Bucksport, Me. None

of the modifications,

however, succeeded so well as the Green box.
The form of apparatus now used by the United
States Commission and by many of the State
Commissions, is the hatching-jar devised by
Col. Marshall McDonald, of the United States
Fish Commission. This is " a glass jar with
metal cap containing two circular openings.
Through one of these, in the center, a glass
tube for the introduction of water passes to
within a short distance of the bottom of the
jar. The other, near one side, contains a
shorter glass tube, which serves as an outflow-
pipe. The McDonald jar is successfully em-

1. Buoyant eggs, such as those of the cod and
the mackerel, which will float in water; 2.
Semi-buoyant eggs, such as those of the shad
aiidthe white-fish; 3. Heavy eggs, such as those
of the trout and the salmon ; and, 4. Adhesive
eggs, like those of the perch, the smelt, and the
sea-herring, which adhere to surfaces with
which they may come in contact. No form of
apparatus has yet been devised which will sat-
isfactorily hatch floating eggs. Some of the
first experiments in the hatching of cod-eggs
were made by Prof. G. O. Sars, of Christiania,
Norway. At the International Fisheries Exhi-
bition, in London, 1883, was shown a vase, in-
vented by Mr. Oldham Chambers, for hatching
buoyant eggs. In this the supply-pipes are
perpendicular and perforated at an angle of
forty -five degrees, and with an upward tend-'
ency, thus assisting the floating of the ova.
A form of apparatus used with moderate suc-
cess by the United States Fish Commission at
Gloucester, Mass., in 1878, was devised by Capt.
H. C. Chester, for eggs of the cod, and this
was the first to accomplish the purpose desired.
The hatcher known as " Chester's Semi-rotat-
ing Hatcher," is a cylindrical can, with five
rectangular openings of wire-cloth on the side
and a bottom of like material, to allow a cir-
culation of water, and to prevent the loss of
eggs or the escape of newly-hatched fish. Be-
neath the bottom are four strips of tin, radiat-
ing from the center and placed at such an an

•^

MCDONALD'S JAB.

ployed in the hatching of various species of

gle that the rotation of the cylinder upon a heavy eggs," as well as for semi-buoyant ova.
vertical axis forces the water against them and " The water in entering is thrown against the
up through the bottom. Several of these cans bottom with considerable force, and is deflect-
are placed in a trough of running sea-water, ed upward around the sides of the jar. The
Each can turns on a pivot, the power being eggs, which tend to settle to the bottom, are

UNITED STATES, FISH-CULTURE IN THE.

805

carried upward along the sides, thence inward
toward the center, from which point they

again sink to the bottom. The current is regu- another device for securing the same ends was

the greatest advantages derived from the Hoi-
ton hatcher was economy of space. In 1874

lated to give the desired motion to the eggs.
With heavy eggs like those of the salmon there
is no motion, but the water coining from be-
neath tends to buoy the eggs upward, thus
preventing any injurious pressure on the lower
ones by the mass above. The outflow-pipe is
movable, and can be lowered to a point where
the dead eggs, which are lighter than the good
ones, come in con-
tact with it and
are carried off.
By this means the
eggs are kept
comparatively
free from the in-
jurious effects of
fungous growth or
decaying eggs.1'
The jar is fifteen
inches high, six
inches in diam-
eter, and has a
capacity of five
quarts. It ;' can
be filled two
thirds full of eggs

with very satisfactory -results ; 60,000 shad-
eggs are considered a fair quantity."

For the hatching of heavy eggs, almost any
device will answer. The early forms of boxes
were perforated for the entrance of water, sup-
plied with gravel to cover the bottom, and on
this the eggs were deposited ; the boxes were
placed in running water, and hatching pro-
ceeded with little difficulty. Later, parallel
glass tubes, or grilles, were substituted. for the
gravel. A very good invention for hatching
heavy eggs in layers was the Holton box, pat-
ented March 18, 1873, in which the eggs in

patented by Mr. N. W. Clark, of Clarkston,
Mich. The Clark hatching-trough is divided
into ten to twenty compartments, each 15
inches long, 12 inches wide, and 12 im-lu-s
deep, inside measurement; the divisions are
made by water-tight partitions or bulkheads.
Each compartment contains a box in which is
placed a series of trays filled with eggs and

COSTE'S THAT.

single layers were received upon trays placed
one above another ; the current of water, en-
tering from below, passed through each tray
and escaped at the top. This was one of the
earliest forms of apparatus by which an upward
current of water is utilized, such apparatus
marking a decided advance in the art. One of

SIB JAMBS MAITLAND'S HOWIETOTTN HATCHERY.

covered with a pan of perforated tin upon
which the water falls, to descend upon the eggs
in the trays beneath, escaping at the bottom,
and then passing up around the sides and ends
of the box on its waj to the second compart-
ment. All of the water passes through each
compartment before it escapes through the
waste-way at the end of the trough. This was
intended more especially for white-fish, but is
used for all salmonoids. The Williamson or Cali-
fornia box is similar to the Clark box, but the
water is introduced from below instead of above.
This form is now extensively used in Ger-
many. In 1874 Mr. Livingston Stone de-
signed an apparatus for hatching salmon-
eggs in bulk by suspending from frames,
in a Williamson trough, wire baskets con-
taining the eggs. The compartments are
separated by double partitions, the first
reaching to the bottom and the second
raised a little from it. The water falls
over the first partition and passes under
the second into the compartment, upward
through the basket of eggs and out over
the next partition. Mr. Stone often placed
12 to 15 layers of eggs in a basket without
injuring them. One modification of the
Holton system is the Ferguson jar, a cy-
lindrical jar of glass containing wire-cloth
egg-trays and having, a circular opening
to admit water at the bottom and a simi-
lar one at the top for the outflow. This j.-ir
was patented in 1876. Before the Ferguson
jar came Chase's hatching-jar, a cylindrical
jar of glass with a metal rim notched at one
side, and furnished with a screen to prevent
the escape of the fish. In this Excellent jar

806

UNITED STATES, FISH- CULTURE IN THE.

the water is introduced through a funnel-
shaped glass tube upon the bottom, and thence
passes upward through the eggs. Clark's hatch-
ing-jar is similar to Chase's, differing mainly in
having upon the bottom a metal cone to re-
ceive the funnel-shaped end of the supply-
tube, which is kept from contact with the
cone by slight projections on the inner surface
of the tube. The "Wilmot jar was subsequent
to and in imitation of Chase's.

For hatching adhesive eggs, one of the ear-
liest forms of apparatus employed was that de-
scribed by Christian Lund, in Norway, in 1761.
This was a box charred on the inside and lined

LUND'S Box.

with bushes, its sides being perforated. This
box was placed in shallow water near the bank
of a river, and in it were confined the parent
fish when about to spawn. The eggs adhered
to the bushes and were left to hatch in the
stream, but the fish were removed. Subse-
quently the sides were made movable, so that
they, with the egg-bearing bushes, might be
transported. The Lund principle of hatching
adhesive eggs, with some modifications, is still
extensively applied in many countries. In
1876 James Ricardo, of New Jersey, success-
fully used for hatching smelt a rectangular box
with a hinged cover, and perforated ends fur-
nished with wire-cloth, the inside provided
with twigs to which the eggs became attached.
This box was placed in a strong current in the
river. In 1878 Mr. Frank N. Clark employed,
for hatching eggs of the sea-herring, a rectan-
gular box containing numerous oblique grooves
in the sides, in which were placed panes of
glass resting alternately on the bottom and at
a distance of a half-inch above the bottom.
The eggs were taken, impregnated, and hatched
on these panes. The current of water passed
over the top of the first pane, under the second,
over the third, and so on. Adhesive eggs may
be manipulated with great ease by the use of
the McDonald egg-reel, a contrivance by means
of which they are attached to cotton cord, to
facilitate transporting and hatching. A frame
23 inches high and 14 inches wide supports a
reel 12 inches long and 10 inches broad. Be-
neath the reel is a square box containing at the
bottom a ball of twine, and receiving in the
top a funnel 6 inches in diameter. One end

of the twine passes through the funnel and is
fastened to the reel. The eggs are placed in
water in the funnel, and, as the twine passes
through them upon moving the reel, quantities
of them adhere to it and are drawn upon the
frame.

Methods of Treating Eggs.— For. the fertilization
of eggs two methods have been employed— the
"wet" and the "dry." It was at first sup-
posed that the eggs must be received in water,
some culturists even taking the trouble to press
them out under the water, and the milt was
treated in the same manner. This, the " wet "
method, was superseded by the " dry" method,
which some claim was first practiced in
America ; it was, however, first published
by Vrasski, a Russian, in 1856, and is now
used almost universally. By this method
the eggs are received in a dry pan, and the
milt is distributed directly upon them. It
is claimed that 99 per cent, of the eggs have
been impregnated by the " dry " process.

The method of impregnating fish-eggs in
general is as follows : Having found a fe-
male from which the eggs will flow freely
upon slight pressure, grasp her firmly with
the left hand around the tail, pressing her
head closely against your body ; then with
the right thumb and forefinger exert a
gentle pressure on the opposite sides of
the belly, beginning at the breast-fins and
continuing about to the middle of the length.
The eggs should be received in a dry pan.
By similar treatment of the male, squeeze
jets of milt upon the eggs, swaying the pan
gently to and fro, to insure commingling of
the two elements. (See engraving, page 796.)
Add a little water from time to time un-
til the eggs increase in size and feel hard to
the touch. All foreign substances, such as
scales, dirt, blood, etc., must be carefully washed
off. The period of incubation of fish-eggs
depends upon the temperature of the water,
increasing with a rise and diminishing with a
fall. In the treatment of eggs of salmon and
white-fish, artificial refrigeration is employed to
retard development and protract the hatching-
season. In a state of nature the white-fish sea-
son is especially brief, but by refrigeration,
Frank N. Clark, of the United States Fish Com-
mission, has extended it materially, and is now
developing three times as many eggs as he
could without refrigeration. Sir James Mait-
land has taken advantage of another principle
of retardation. By giving the females an abun-
dance of substantial food when the pairing-
season approaches, he can perceptibly hasten
the date of spawning, and by feeding them
sparingly he can materially retard that event.
In this way he extends the hatching-season of
salmonoids considerably.

The production of shad has been greatly in-
creased by Col. McDonald's discovery of the
method of transportation of eggs in the dry
state. The eggs, after fertilization, are placed
in trays with a wire-cloth bottom and covered

UNITED STATES, FISH-CULTURE IN THE.

807

by a wet cloth ; eighteen of the trays fill a
crate, which is inclosed in canvas and secured
by frames connected by leather straps. The
crates are then shipped to the hatchery.

Oysters. — Artificial hatching of eggs is not
confined to the fishes; it has recently been
successfully applied to the oyster, although it
can not be asserted at present that this process
may be profitably employed in oyster-culture.
A great difficulty encountered by those who first
attempted the artificial propagation of the oys-
ter, was the escape and loss of the embryos be-
fore, they became fixed; John A. Ryder, embry-
ologist of the United States Fish Commission,
has hit upon a device for detaining the embryos
and compelling their fixation upon artificial
stools. The pond in which he operated was sup-
plied from the bay through a diaphragm con-
structed of boards perforated with auger-holes,
and lined on the inside with gunny-cloth, the
space between the boards, two inches, being
filled with sharp, clean sand. Through this
porous gate the tide ebbed and flowed, the
temperature and saltiness of the pond remained
the same as that of the bay, and the young
oysters found the necessary food, and grew as
rapidly as in the waters of the open bay. The
method of rearing now so largely and success-
fully employed is that of receiving upon arti-
ficial stools spat naturally produced, empty
oyster-shells being employed to receive the
seed. By such means very much has been done
in the New England States and elsewhere to-
ward increasing the market supply of oysters.
Another development of oyster-culture is the
planting of oysters upon suitable bottoms and
allowing them to remain there to grow and
fatten.

Sponges and Lobsters.— Sponges have been arti-
ficially propagated from cuttings. Illustrations
of sponge-culture were shown at the Interna-
tional Fisheries Exhibition, by McKesson and
Robbins, of Florida. It is claimed that this
may become a successful industry. The arti-
ficial culture of lobsters has received much at-
tention in some of the European countries. At-
tempts have been made by the United States
Fish Commission to transport adult lobsters to
the Californian coast, but without successful
results from the introduction.

Results of the Commission's Work.— Most of the
States have fish commissioners, who undertake
to supply the streams of their own States. The
General Government occupies itself with such
bodies of water as the great lakes, with rivers
which no single State or combination of States
could be expected to take under its charge,
and with marine species. It undertakes, also,
the acclimatization of species which must be
brought long distances and at great expense, as
well as transportation across the continent, and
even to remote countries. Some of the results
are so well known that it seems hardly neces-
sary to mention them. We might refer to the
successful introduction of the shad in the Mis-
sissippi Valley and upon the Pacific slope ; to

the improvement of the shad-fisheries in nearly
every important river which has recently been
stocked; to the great impression made upon
the coregonus fisheries of the great lakes; to
the deposit in 30,000 ponds of the German
carp; to the annual increase of nearly 5,000,000
pounds of salmon in the Sacramento river, due
to the artificial breeding in the McCloud ; to the
successful introduction of the California salmon
into Europe, where it thrives in ponds ; and to
the general improvements in fish-hatching ap-
paratus.

Practical Information.— The limitations of fish-
culture are purely physical. Cold or obstruc-
tions or impurity of the water, may neutralize
the efforts of the fish-culturist. just as frost, or
flood, or plague, may render unavailing the
labors of the agriculturist ; but the practicabil-
ity of the art remains the same. Because of
the general interest in several of our native
species, I append brief descriptions of the meth-
ods employed in their propagation. The notes
relate to some of the salmonoids, the shad, and
the carp :

Trout and Salmon,— One of the first requisites for
hatching eggs of the Salmonidcn is a steady supply of
pure springs-water, having a uniform and low tem-
perature. If the water contain sediment, this must
be kept out of the hatching-apparatus by a series of
filters. Perhaps the best temperature of water for
hatching purposes is about 45 Fahr. ; it would not
be well to have it much higher. In water of 45°
trout-eggs will hatch in about seventy-five days, and
the yolk-sac will remain nearly fifty days longer. For
the proper accommodation of the apparatus and the
embryo fish, a hatching-house is necessary. Neither
rain-drops nor the sun's rays must fall upon the eggs.
Modern apparatus made of glass, and closely sealed,
except where the water enters and escapes, will pre-
vent numerous accidents.

Connected with the hatchery must be a series of
ponds, which should be at different levels and united
by long, narrow race-ways. The rearing-pond.s arc to
be supplied with brook or river water of a tempera-
ture never exceeding 65° Fahr. The fishes of each
pond must be prevented by screens from leaving their
mclosure. The depth of ponds is made to vary with
the size of the fishj and from the head, where it is
usually about six inches, to the foot, which, in the
largest pond may measure six feet. It is customary
to construct ponds narrow and long, with a view of
sweeping them readily with a seine. It is desirable
to arrange the ponds BO that they can be entirely emp-
tied when necess'ary. Fish kept in confinement must
be fed. Feeding should begin a week or two before
the yolk is entirely absorbed. One successful fish-
culturist uses a mixture of the yolks of nine eggs with
one pound of beef, which is pressed through a fine
sieve. Livingston Stone believes that young living
perch and suckers, which can readily be obtained in
abundance, would probably be the best food for very
young trout ; but as artificial food he recommends
liver and curd from sour milk in about equal propor-
tions, or with two parts of liver to one of curds. Raw
liver alone is extensively used : it must be chopped
quite fine and pressed "through a fine sieve. Seth
Green reduces it to the consistency of pulp, and, after
diluting it with water to about the thickness of cream,
gives a teacupful of the mixture to 100,000 fish just
beginning to feed. The larvae of gnats, as well as of
Daphnia, Cyclops, etc., may be skimmed off stagnant
waters with a fine muslin net, and fed to the young
fish. Whatever is given to the frv, care must be taken
that it does not choke them, and no refuse must be
allowed to remain in the water to putrefy. •

808

UNITED STATES, FISH-CULTUKE IN THE.

Artificial Impregnation of Shad-Eggs,— After the shad
are taken from the gill-nets or seines, they should
be examined to see if the eggs and milt will flow out
freely when gentle pressure is made upon the belly.

If the process of taking eggs or milt is continued
too long, traces of blood will appear. After impreg-
nation, the eggs should be kept either in pans or on
trays ; if in the former, they must be filled with wa-
ter, which should be changed every hour or oftener.
In pouring water into the pans, always let it fall on
the side. The eggs must be preserved from shock's

SHAD (Clupea sapidissima).

of all kinds. When trays are used, the bottom 01
the tray should be covered with a wet flannel cloth,
and the eggs must not be more than two layers deep.
The apparatus used by the United States Fish Com-
mission for the transportation of eggs is McDonald's
egg-transportation crate, described above. This crate
marks the beginning of the dry transportation of shad-
eggs.

The spawning-pans used by the commission are
made of " marble ized iron," which will not rust in
salt-water.

The period of incubation of all fish-eggs varies with
the temperature of the water. I cpuote from the " Ee-
port of the United States Commissioner of Fish and
Fisheries," Part II, p. 430, the record of observations
made by Mr. J. W. Milner: "In the shad-eggs the
period required for the release of the fish from the
eggs was, with an average temperature of 64°, though
actually varying between 62° and 68°, about seven
days. With an average temperature of 65°, actually
between 62° and 69°, the time was about six days.
With an average temperature of nearly 66°, actually
between 62° and 69°, the time for the most of the fish
to be free was about five days.
An average of 68°, between
60° and 75°, released them in
about three days. An average
of 72°, really between 65° and
80°, released the fish in about
seventy hours, the shortest
time observed for a large
quantity of eggs, though usu-
ally some were hatched a few
hours before the ma.iority, and
a few eggs lingered for several
hours after the eclosion of the
rest." A newly-hatched shad
is a little less than half an inch
long. The yolk-sac is ab-
sorbed in four or five days
after hatching. Glass vessels
are the best for hatching pur-
poses ; the Chase, the Clark,
and the McDonald jars pos-
sess great advantages over

all forms of metallic apparatus, the principal being
their prevention of the formation of fungus, by
the continuous movement which they insure, and
the facility for removing dead eggs. Embryo shad
are transported in cans of block -tin, resembling
milk-cans. The style extensively used by the United
States Fish Commission is cylindrical, with a con-

tracted top and a cover. The usual dimensions are:
height, 24 inches, diameter, 14 inches. This can will
accommodate from 5,000 to 20,000 embryos^ depend-
ing on the distance to be traveled and the time occu-
pied in transit. Until recently it was supposed to be
necessary to change the water at least once in two
hours. Now it is known that a change every four or
six hours will generally give better results. Young
shad have been kept alive and deposited in streams
after a journey lasting 184 hours ; they have been kcpc
alive even as long as 240 hours by Messrs. Mather
and Anderson in the at-
tempt to carry them to
Germany.

Carp-Cmlture.— The carp is
said to have been intro-
duced into Europe from
Central Asia many cen-
turies ago. It is now com-
mon in most of the large
European rivers, and has
become extensively domes-
ticated in Bohemia, Aus-
tria, Germany, and 1 ranee.
From Europe the carp was
imported into England in
1514 by Marshall. One of
the varieties was brought
from Holstein to Sonoma,

California, in 1872, by Mr. J. A. Poppe, and, from
the five puny little fish which he placed in one
of his ponds in August of the same year, many
portions of his own State and of those adjacent
were supplied with scale-carp, and some were sent
even to the Sandwich islands. A much more ex-
tensive introduction of a superior breed of carp into
the United States was effected by the commissioner.
May 26, 1877, on which day Mr. Kudolph Hessel placed
in ponds in Druid Hill Park, Baltimore, 227 naked
and mirror carp and 118 common carp. These were
kept in Baltimore until the completion of the ponds
in Washington. The distribution of young carp reared
in Washington began in 1879, and up to the present
time upward of 30,000 ponds have been supplied in
all suitable parts of the United States. Shipments
have been made, also, to Colombia and Ecuador. The
successful domestication accomplished in Europe has
been repeated here. The varieties of carp known
among us are three : the common, or scale-carp, the
mirror-carp, and the leather-carp. Cart) will hybrid-
ize with gold-fish and with other related members of
the family of the Cyprinidce, forming a worthless and

CARP (Cyprinus carpto).

troublesome product, which can not easily be distin-
guished externally from true carp. Carp prefer stag-
nant or sluggish waters, with a loamy, muddy bot-
tom, and deep places abounding in vegetation. They
live upon vegetable food, worms, and insect larvae,
and will sometimes devour their own egg« and the
bait intended for predaceous species. The} hibernate

UNITED STATES, FISH-CCLTURE IN THE.

BOO

CARP PONDS, WASHINGTON, D. C.

in deep water, refusing food, in moderately cold coun-
tries, from October to April. In the warmer Southern
States the period of winter sleep is greatly reduced,
and the time of growing increased. Carp do not lose
weight in their natural retreats during winter, nor do
they grow. The spawning-season begins when warm
spring weather has fairly set in, and continues into
July, or later. The number of eggs averages about
100,000 for each pound of the weight of the fish. The
scale-carp is somewhat more prolific than the other
two varieties. The favorite spawning -places are spots
overgrown with such aquatic plants as the bladder-
worts ( Utricularia)* water-plantain (Alisma), water-
milfoil (Myriophyllum), pond-weed (Potamogeton),
and some members of the water-lily family. The
eggs are adhesive. The period of incubation depends
mainly upon temperature ; in the colder portions of
New England it may be sixteen days, while in Georgia
it has been reduced to as little as forty-eight hours,
with a temperature of 90° or more.

The rate of growth of the carp depends upon the
average temperature of the water, the nature of the
bottom of the pond or river, the amount of food, and
the extent of water area. According to Rudolph Hes-
sel, a carp-culturist of wide experience, who has charge
of the ponds of the United States Fish Commission,
the average normal weight of a three-year-old carp of
any of the three varieties is three pounds. This aver-
age may be greatly increased or diminished through
variations of the conditions above mentioned. The
carp may be reared in brackish waters, as well as in
rivers, lakes, and ponds.

_ In establishing ponds it is desirable to have a suffi-
cient supply of brook or river water at all seasons.
The bottom of the pond should consist of clayey loam
intermingled with some marl or vegetable mold. But
there must not be too much humus or dissolved peat.
Surface drainage from fertile fields is advantageous in
carp-ponds. Artificial ponds are most readily^ con-
structed in a low, undulating region which is without
great elevations, and where reservoirs may be cheaply
lormed by closing up the small valleys by dams. The
depth of the pond need not exceed three feet in the
center, and from the margin to a distance of 70 or 100
feet it should not be more than one foot. The area
intended for breeding must be still shallower, not ex-

ceeding a few inches in depth. Near the center of the
pond a deep cavity, fulty two feet lower than the rest
of the bottom, and varying in size according to the
area of the pond, must be dug, to serve as a retreat
from excessive heat and cold. The pond must be so
made that it can be perfectly drained. Near the out-
flow end must be provided another excavation, about
one foot deeper than the rest of the pond, to receive
the fish when the water is drawn off through the out-
let-pipe; this cavity is called a "collector." The
drainage is effected by means of a main ditch leading
into the "collector," and having intersecting ditches
from all parts of the pond. The " collector" ought
to have a plank flooring, and must be kept free from
mud. The inflow of water into the pond from a
stream should be lateral and never direct. Both the
inlet and the outlet of the pond must be supplied
with series of screens, to prevent the escape of the
carp and the intrusion of other fishes. All wood-work
exposed to the action of the air: or the water, or both,
should be well protected by paint or some other pre-
servative. If the pond receives a considerable supply
of surface-water, or is liable to overflow in rainy
weather, an "overflow" must be provided at the
side, and this must be protected by wire-cloth screens.
Knolls and islands must be entirely removed from the
pond, or they will serve as lodging-places for numer-
ous enemies of the fish. In stocking ponds, three fe-
males and two males, or sometimes twice as many of
each sex, are allowed to one acre of water. Mr. Hes-
sel recommends that small ponds be surrounded by a
tight board fence, three to four feet hi^h, and imbed-
ded in the ground from four to six inches. This will
keep out the snapping-turtle, the most voracious and
dangerous enemy of the carp. Aquatic birds, otters,
musK-rats, minks, frogs, water-snakes, and a host or
other animals, in the water and out of it, prey Upon
fish and are especially destructive to carp. Carp must
be kept entirely apart from other fishes, and they
must be protected from the enemies above mentioned.
Facility in draining the pond will insure the extermi-
nation of foes within, and the outride foes must be
killed by shooting and trapping. Regular carp-cult-
ure requires a hatching-pond, a breeding-pond, and a
culture-pond. The hatching-pond need not be as
large as the breeding-pond, ana its depth should not

810 UNITED STATES, FISH-CULTURE IN.

UNIVEESALISTS.

be greater than eighteen inches. Its shallow margin
may be from thirty to forty feet wide and from two
to five inches deep. Water-grass (Festuca Jiuitans)
should grow in it plentifully. The breeding-fishes
should be removed after the close of their spawning-
season. The young fry are to be left in the hatching-
pond during one winter, and are then transferred to the
breeding-pond. The breeding-pond is constructed in
the same way as the hatching-pond, but it is larger
and deeper; its average depth may be twenty -one
inches, and the " kettles " or retiring-places may have
a total depth of four and a half feet. The shallow
margin should be from seventy to eighty feet wide.
There should be a good growth of grass in this pond.
They are to be stocked in March and April from the
hatching-pond. About 800 carp to the acre is a fair
average. After remaining one year in the breeding-
pond, the fish should be transferred to the culture-
pond, 400 to 500 being allowed to an acre.

In feeding carp, distribute the food in different
places -near the banks^ and change the feeding-place
frequently. Do not give them much food at one time.
The best times are early in the morning, or in the
evening, and, in hot weather, late at night. Never
use more food than the fish will consume, else frag-
ments will remain in the pond to putrefy and cause
sickness among them.

Bibliography. — The literature of fish-culture
is extensive and scattered. A list of the prin-
cipal treatises accessible to American readers
is given below. In addition to the papers and
books mentioned, much and varied information
upon the subject is to be found in the reports
of the United States Fish Commissioner, Bul-
letin of the United States Fish Commission,
reports of many of the State Fish Commis-
sioners, and Transactions of the American Fish-
Cultural Association. The papers bearing the
date 1883 were read at the conferences of the
International Fisheries Exhibition of 1883;
they are, as a rule, modern, comprehensive,
and valuable :

FBT, W. H.— A Complete Treatise on Artificial Fish-
Breeding : including the Reports on the Subject made
to the French Academy and the French Government ;
and Particulars of the Discovery as pursued in Eng-
land. Translated and edited by W. H. Fry. Illus-
trated with Engravings. (New York, 1854.)

GARLIOK, THEODATDS, M. D. — A Treatise on the
Artificial Propagation of Certain Kinds of Fish, with
the Description and Habits of such Kinds as are the
most suitable for Pisciculture, etc. (Cleveland. 1857.)

FRANCIS, FRANCIS.— Fish-Culture : a Practical Guide
to the Modem System of Breeding and Rearing Fish.
With numerous Illustrations. (London, 1863.)

BUCKLAND, FRANK T., M. A., M. R. C. S., F. Z. S.
—Fish-Hatching. Hlustrated. (London, 1863.)

GREEN, SETH. — Trout-Culture. (Rochester, N. Y.,
1870.)

SLACK, J. H., M. D.— Practical Trout- Culture.
(New York, 1872.)

STONE, LIVINGSTON.— Domesticated Trout, and How
to Breed and Grow them. (Boston, 1873 ; Charles-
town, N. H., 1877.)

NORRIS, THADDEUS. — American Fish-Culture, em-
bracing all the Details of Artificial Breeding and Rear-
ing of Trout, the Culture of Salmon, Shad, and other
Fishes. Illustrated. (Philadelphia, 1874.)

HESSEL, RUDOLPH.— The Carp and its Culture in
Rivers and Lakes, and its Introduction in America :
In Report of United States Fish Commissioner, Part
IV, 1878, pp. 865-900. Also printed separately.

ROOSEVELT, R. BARNWELL, and GREEN, SETH. —
Fish-Hatching and Fish-Catching. (Rochester, N. Y.,
1879.)

BORNE, MAX VON DEM, HAACK, H., MICIIAELIS, K.

— Amtliche Berichte uber die Internationale Fisch-
erei-Ausstellung zu Berlin, 1880. I. Fischzucht.
With thirty-nine Wood-engravings. (Berlin, 1881.)

DAY, FRANCIS, F. L. S. — Fish -Culture. Illus-
trated. (London, 1883.)

GOODE, G. BROWN, M. A. — The Fishery Industries
of the United States. (London, 1883.)

HOME, DAVID MILNE, F. R. S. E. — Salmon and
Salmon-Fisheries. (London, 1883.)

HOWITZ, D., ESQ. — Forest- Protection and Tree-
Culture on Water Frontages. (London, 1883.)

HUBRECHT, PROFESSOR. — Oyster-Culture and Oys-
ter-Fisheries in the Netherlands. (London, 1883.)

HUXLEY, PROFESSOR, F. R. S. — Address at the
Inaugural Meeting of trie Fishery Congress, Interna-
tional Fisheries Exhibition, London, 1883. (London,
1883.)

KENT, W. SAVILLE, F. L. S., F. Z. S.— Artificial
Culture of Lobsters. (London, 1883.)

MAINWARING, HON. W. F. B. MASSEY.— The Pres-
ervation of Fish-Life in Rivers by the Exclusion of
Town Sewage. (London, 1883.)

MARSTON, R. B.— Coarse Fish-Culture. (London,
1883.)

MAITLAND, SIR JAMES RAMSAY GIBSON, BART. — On
the Culture of Salmonidse and the Acclimatization of
Fish. (London, 1883.)

SHAW-LEFEVRE, RIGHT HON. G., M. P. — Principles
of Fishery Legislation. (London, 1883.)

FNIVERSALISTS. The following is a sum-
mary of the statistics of the Universalist
Church in the United States, as given in the
" Universalist Register " for 1884 : Number of
State conventions, 22; of parishes, 919; of
families, 38,320; of churches, 696 ; of church-
members, 35,058; of Sunday-schools, 609; of
members of Sunday-schools, 52,758 ; of clergy-
men in fellowship,- 672, with 11 licensed lay
preachers ; of church edifices, 797, of which
the value, above indebtedness, is $6,894,100.
There were 12 schools and colleges in 1883,
with 101 instructors and 1,063 students, and
property valued at $2,373,000.

The Universalist General Convention met in
Washington, D. C., October 24th. Mr. John
D. "W". Joy, of Massachusetts, was chosen pres-
ident. The Board of Trustees reported that
the contributions and bequests actually paid
during the past year for the missionary work
of the Church, through conventions and other-
wise, had amounted to more than $75,000;
and that the actual receipts from gifts by the
educational institutions exceeded $254,000.
The Murray centenary fund amounted to
$123,932; the theological scholarship fund to
$18,044 ; and the J. G. Gunn ministerial relief
fund to $8,790. The church in Washington,
D. C., in which the sessions of the convention
were held, had been completed at a cost of
$46,053, all of which was paid before the
meeting adjourned. The payment of the entire
indebtedness of the General Convention was
also announced. A committee, to which had
been referred the subject of a revision of the
creed, reported that it had come to the conclu-
sion that no general revision was called for at
this time. "The present profession," the re-
port said, u may not be regarded as a complete
statement of doctrine, nor should it be held as
too sacred for amendment. Beyond question,

URUGUAY.

811

however, this formula expresses in substance
the fundamental beliefs of Universalism, while
it is happily adapted for use by the brief forms
in which its propositions are affirmed," The
committee, however, recommended a modifica-
tion in the second article of the declaration, by
the substitution of the word "save" for "re-
store " and of " in " for " to," so that the article
should read, " We believe that there is one
God, whose nature is love, revealed in one Lord,
Jesus Christ, by one Holy Spirit of Grace, who
will finally save the whole human family in
holiness and happiness." The convention was
not satisfied with this proposition, and the re-
port was recommitted. A minute was adopt-
ed expressing admiration of the character and
courage of Martin Luther, and appreciation
of the value of the work he did, and recom-
mending the participation of Universalists in
the celebration of the four-hundredth anniver-
sary of his birthday. An additional or assist-
ant secretary was appointed, to advance mis-
sionary work in the West.

The Woman's Centenary Association had re-
ceived $14,745, and had paid out $9,668. Its
work is the maintenance of missions in the
United States, Canada, and Scotland.

The Universalist Historical Society reported
2,500 volumes in its library.

URUGUAY, a republic of South America. Area,
69,835 square miles; population, 438,245 ; capi-
tal, Montevideo. The President is Gen. Maxi-
mo Santos, elected March 1, 1882, after the
resignation of Dr. Vidal, for the term of four
years. The Consul-General for the United
States is H. Estragulas, resident in New York.

Army. — The standing army comprises four
battalions of foot, three regiments of horse,
and two regiments of artillery, together 4,500
men. There is besides a police force of 3,200
men, and a national guard of 20,000 men.

Finances. — The public indebtedness stood, on
Jan. 1, 1883, as follows:

Debts redeemable without being liable to interest. $16,970,167
Debts originally bearing 12 per cent interest, but
subsequently converted into consols bearing 5
per cent, interest during three years, and 6 per

cent, during the subsequent seven 17,143,281

Debts bearing 2 and 3 per cent, interest during a
term of ten years 27,465,756

Total $61,579,204

The income in 1883 was $9,920,000, and the
outlay $9,925,000. During the summer of
1883 Uruguay caused a meeting of its foreign
bondholders to be held in London, and an ar-
rangement was made to the following effect:
The home and foreign debts were acknowl-
edged to constitute the following equivalents
in English money :

Interest.

Internal debt

£9,112,220

£519,462

External debt

8,467,520

86,888

.

Total

£12,579,740

£606,350

The consolidation of this joint indebtedness
has been effected by leaving the amount due

foreign creditors as it stands above, but reduc-
ing the internal debt, some of which, as shown,
bore no interest, by about 60 per cent. The
consolidated debt was thus fixed at £11,127,-
000, including £851,000 of a new issue.

A National Bank.— Parliament passed the bill
creating a national bank. The bank is to be
incorporated for forty years, and to have its
seat in the city of Montevideo, where it will
remain, subject to the laws of the republic.
The capital is to be $10,000,000, in shares of
$100 each, 50 per cent, to be paid in cash, and
the remaining half in two years, unless an
earlier call for the same should become im-
perative. Branch banks are to be estab-
lished.

The Tariff. — During 1883 the Committee on
Revision of the Tariff terminated its labors. It
proposed a notable raising of the duties, es-
pecially on articles imported from France.

Postal Service. — The post-office forwarded, in
1883, 1,000,000 ordinary letters, 20,000 regis-
tered ones, 70,000 Government dispatches,
1,000,000 periodicals; paid out $2,000,000 of
money-orders, and collected $140,000 of post-
age, there being in operation 294 post-offices.

Railroads. — The railroads in operation in 1883
were: 1. The Central of Uruguay, in running
order 205 kilometres from Montevideo to Du-
razno, 210 to the Yi river, and 32 of branch
line to Saa Jose; about to be added, 70 kilo-
metres. 2. Ferro-carril del Peste; length of
line in operation, 35 kilometres. 3. Ferro-
carril del Salto ; out of 181 kilometres to be
built, 100 were in 'operation. 4. Ferro-carril
del Norte; length of line, 21 kilometres.

Telegraphs. — There were in operation in 1883
five lines of telegraph. On Jan. 25, 1883, the
Uruguayan Government signed a convention
with that of the Argentine Republic, author-
izing the former to extend its land lines
and establish a new one to connect with
the Argentine system on the island of Martin
Garcia.

Telephones.— The " Compania Telef6nica" of
Montevideo was founded in 1882, and in the
year following had a length of line in opera-
tion of 360 miles.

Education.— There were in 1883, 688 public
and private schools, attended by 42,486 pu-
pils, 22,944 of whom were boys and 19,542
girls, taught by 1,182 teachers.

The Press.— The Oriental press was repre-
sented in 1883 by twenty-one daily news-
papers and forty weeklies and magazines, the
aggregate circulation being 20,000.

Cattle and Sheep Show.— The Rural Associa-
tion of Uruguay held its first cattle and sheep
exhibition at Montevideo on Oct. 1, 1883. Pre-
miums were awarded to raisers of the finest
rams, and it was made apparent that sheep-
breeding had made marvelous progress in the
Oriental country.

Live-Stock.— So far as the official direct-tax
returns show, the live-stock in Uruguay was
distributed as follows in 1883 :

812

UTAH.

DEPARTMENTS.

Head of
cattle.

Sheep and
goats.

Salto

1 040 420

616134

Paysandu

722 982

459 215

Bio Neirro

483 173

709 930

Soriano

292,481

2,015,106

Colonia

142 4i)6

1 314 9^4

San Jose

196543

1 907 902

Florida

170,064

1 329 494

Cauelones

18,405

285 80->

112,342
1 101 753

1 006,815

754854

Cerro Largo

831.85-1

4(.5 970

Minas

273,566

655,008

Roc ha

230 003

261 818

93 171

204,932

There were believed to be in all the repub-
lic about 8,000,000 head of cattle, estimated to
be worth on an average $6 a head ; 16,000,000
sheep at $1, and 1,000,000 horses and mules
at $5. The annual slaughtering of cattle was
estimated in 1883 at 1,000,000 head.

The amount of iron and wire fence in posi-
tion in Uruguay in 1883 was estimated to rep-
resent a value of $10,000,000.

Agriculture. — There were of arable lands un-
der cultivation in Uruguay in 1883 about
500,000 acres, and pasturages of 35,000,000.
Wheat and maize are extensively grown.

Immigration.— Between 1866 and 1875, both
inclusive, there landed in Uruguay 162,592
immigrants; in 1876, 5.570; in 1877, 6,168;
in 1878. 9,464; in 1879, 11,188; in 1880, 11,-
367; in 1881, 8,336. There left, on the other
hand, 6,376 emigrants in 1878; in 1879, 6,250;
in 1880, ,6,641 ; and in 1881, 6,339.

Commerce. — The amount of merchandise im-
ported into Uruguay in 1883, in the absence
of official returns at the close of the year, was
estimated at $20,000,000 worth; the exports
at $22,000,000.

American Trade. — Uruguay's trade with the
United States has been as follows :

FISCAL YEAR.

Import from
Uruguay.

Export to
Uruguay.

1880...

$5.542.035

$880.371

1831

4164 663

1 586 396

1882

6 837 736

1 457 978

1883.

8,980 110

1,385,755

While importation from Uruguay has fluctu-
ated widely, exportation has risen suddenly,
and since then remained tolerably steady.

The wool and hide importation from Uru-
guay has been as follows:

Wool.

Hides.

1880...

Pound?.

9,577,309

8,575,785

1881 . .

4 823 562

2 060 259

1882

6 894 885

5 088 253

1883...

5,920,713

2,716,240

From this it is evident that the falling off in
American importation from Uruguay has been
due chiefly to the decreased amount of hides
coming from there.

UTAH. Territorial Government.— The follow-
ing were the Territorial officers during the

year: Governor, Eli H. Murray; Secretary,
Arthur L. Thomas ; Auditor, Nephi W. Clay-
ton ; Treasurer, James Jack ; Superintendent
of Public Instruction, L. J. Nuttall. Supreme
Court: Chief-Justice, John A. Hunter; As-
sociates, P. H. Emerson and S. P. Twiss.

Material Condition. — The assessed value of
property in 1882 was $29,080,656; Territorial
and school taxes thereon, at £ of 1 per cent.,
$174,483.93.

In 1883 the assessed value of property was
$30,834,425, with no returns from Emery and
Piute counties. The gross revenue for the two
years 1882 and 1883 was estimated by the Au-
ditor at $459,390.48 ; net revenue, $323,559.44.
The Treasurer's report shows payments during
the two years to the amount of $307,609 05 ;
balance in treasury, Dec. 31, 1883, $51,988.10.

The area of the Territory is 84.000 square
miles. The population is about 150,000, about
40,000 being non-Mormons, many of whom are
so-called apostates from the Mormon Church.
The people are generally engaged in agricultu-
ral pursuits. Since 1869 the business of min-
ing has become an important interest, and from
that time the total out-put has been over $60,-
000,000 in silver, lead, and gold. There are
also valuable deposits of coal, iron, and copper.

The bullion product of 1882 has been stated
at $8,143,175; 1883, $7,017,682. There is a
territorial insane asylum at Provo city.

Polygamy. — On July 1, 1862, an act was passed
by Congress which provides that " every person
having a husband or wife living, who marries
another, whether married or single, in a Terri-
tory or other place over which the United States
have exclusive jurisdiction, is guilty of bigamy,
and shall be punished by a fine of not more
than $500, and by imprisonment for a term not
more than five years." Under this law there
have been very few convictions, not more than
three, as it is said, for over a period of twenty
years, which is due largely to the fact that a
great majority of the community are in sym-
pathy with the accused. The law of March 2,
1882, known as the u Edmunds law," is much
more comprehensive. In addition to repeating
the same penalty for entering into the poly-
gamic relation, it amends the former law by
providing a penalty " against any man who
simultaneously, or on the same day, marries
more than one woman." New sections are
introduced into the present act relating to the
qualification of jurors, amnesty to offenders,
and the legitimation of children born before
Jan. 1, 1883. The last section declared vacant
the registration and election offices in Utah,
and provided for a board of five, appointed by
the President, to take their place.

The Commission and its Action. — Under this act,
Alexander Ramsey, A. S. Paddock, G. L. God-
frey, A. B. Carlton, and J. R. Petiigrew were
appointed - commissioners, and proceeded to
the discharge of their duties in August of that
year. They conducted a revision of tlie regis-
tration, appointed election officers, and under

VENEZUELA.

813

their direction, and the provisions of the ''Ed-
munds law," an election for delegate to Con-
gress was held on Nov. 7th. The total num-
ber of registered voters was 33,266, of whom
18,772 were males and 14,494 females. About
12,000 men and women were excluded from
registration by reason of polygamy. The elec-
tion resulted in the success of John T. Caine,
the candidate of the " People's party," or Mor-
mons, who received 23,039 votes, while Philip
T. Van Zile, the candidate of the " Liberal par-
ty," or Gentiles, received 4,884.

But the most important election was that of
Aug. 6, 1883, a general election for Territorial
and county officers ; 960 were elected, all of
whom, as well as all the voters, are monoga-

mists. The total vote of the People's party was
20,508; Liberal, 1,453 ; from which it appears
that large numbers of the Liberals refrained
from voting. The Legislature is composed
wholly of Mormons, none of whom, however,
live in polygamy.

The commissioners, in their reports to the
Secretary of the Interior, make many state-
ments and recommendations; the chief one
being that Congress should pass a comprehen-
sive marriage law, requiring marriages to be
solemnized publicly and registered, and mak-
ing the first wife a competent witness in prose-
cutions for polygamy.

Acts are now before Congress embodying
the recommendations of the commissioners.

V

VENEZUELA, a republic of South America.
Capital, Caracas. (For details relating to area,
territorial divisions, population, etc., see " An-
nual Cyclopaedia " for 1881.) The President is
Gen. A. Guzman Blanco. The Venezuelan
Minister Resident, accredited to the United
States in 1880, is Senor Sirnon Camacho.

The Army and Navy. — The regular army has a
strength of 2,545 men ; in times of war the
militia is enrolled. The navy is restricted to
two small steamers and two schooners, mount-
ing together eight guns.

Finances. — The budget for 1882-'83 estimated
the income from duties at $19,425,000; from
internal revenue at $2,596,667— together, $22,-
021,667; and the outlay : General administra-
tion, $12,285,000 ; interest on home debt. $2,-
097,900; interest on foreign debt, $2,097,900;
payments in settlement of foreign claims, $1,-
010,100; public works, $4,530,767— together,
$22,021,667.

The internal debt amounts to $45,376,064,
and the foreign debt to $278,403,659.

Decree of 1883. — The Venezuelan Govern-
ment issued in 1883 the following decree :

The products, goods, and merchandise exported
from Europe and the United States to Venezuela, and
accompanied with all the documents required by the
customs laws, may be transshipped in foreign colonies
from one vessel to another to proceed to their destina-
tion, and will be considered as arriving directly from
the original points of export. When, by lack of im-
mediate transport, it may become necessary to disem-
bark the said products, goods, and merchandise in
foreign colonies, they may be re-embarked for Vene-
zuela without being considered as colonial exports,
always provided that, in addition to the consular
documents from the port of original dispatch, the
owners or consignees present at the custom-house of
the republic where the goods are landed a certificate
from the Venezuelan consul in the colony^ asserting
that the said goods were only there on deposit for lack
of vessels to take them to their destination.

This decree removed the extra import duty
of 30 per cent, upon goods introduced into
Venezuela by way of the Antilles.

Railroads.— The railway from La Guayra, the
port of Caracas, to the latter city, recently

opened, though only twenty-four miles long,
encountered great obstacles from the fact that
a mountain 7,000 feet in height separates La
Guayra from the capital. Another line of rail-
way was in operation from Tucacas to the
Aroa mines, seventy miles. A line was being
built from Caracas to the Tuy river, and work
is begun on the railroad that is to connect
Puerto Cabello with Valencia.

Telegraphs. — On Sept. 1, 1880, there were in
operation 356 miles of line. In 1883 the west-
ern line had reached the Colombian frontier,
with branch lines from Valencia to San Carlos,
from Valencia to Nirgua, San Felipe, and Bar-
quisirnento, and from Valencia to Puerto Ca-
bello ; the southern had extended to Villa de
Cura, and the eastern to Guacara. From Villa
de Cura the southern will be carried to San
Fernando, the western from San Carlos to Ba-
rinas, and from Puerto Cabello to Maracaybo.

Education. — In 1873 there was spent by the
nation only $129,042 for gratuitious instruction
of children and youths; in 1877 the amount
spent was $507,962, and in 1882 $1,349,039
was thus expended. Various Federal col-
leges and normal schools have also been found-
ed, there being four of the former of the higher
order, and fifteen of a degree lower, including
five for girls and five normal schools.

Agriculture. — The only plow in use (says the
United States consul) is of domestic manufact-
ure, made by pointing a round stick about six
inches in diameter and incasing the point in
iron. This iron-pointed stick set in a frame
at a suitable angle and drawn by a team turns
a furrow each way, very much as a hog would
root it. Most of "the tilled land is cultivated
by hoeing. Of the cultivated crops, corner
maize is the most important. Near the cities
it is grown expressly for horse-feed, and it is
likewise the principal food of all the ox-teams,
horses, mules, and donkeys used for the inte-
rior transportation of merchandise. The trade
in green corn-stalks is heavy and regular. In
places remote from the large towns the corn
fully matures and is sold in the -grain. The

814

VERMONT.

corn is of excellent quality, and in quantity
ample to supply the home demand. Three
crops of corn a year can be raised on the same
land. Sugar-cane is grown by a process of
cultivation similar to that of corn. Sugar is
produced in quantities sufficient to supply the
home demand. Nine or ten varieties of beans
are grown, and usually in great perfection, but
only in quantity sufficient for domestic use.

Yimiari Gold-Mines. — These rich mines were
more productive than ever in 1883, the " Cal-
lao" mine averaging 5,000 ounces monthly,
the "Potosi" 1,500, and the uNew York"
1,300, without counting the yield obtained at
the "Eureka," "Chile," "Cicapra," "Nacu-
pay," and numerous other quartz gold-mines.
The mines are situate at a distance of sixty
leagues from Ciudad Bolivar.

Commerce. — The imports into Venezuela in
1882 amounted to $14,000,000 worth of mer-
chandise, of which $5,000,000 came from Eng-
land, $2,400,000 from France, and $2,000,000
from the United States. The amount of prod-
ucts exported in the same year was $15,000,000.
The United States consul at Puerto Cabello re-
marked in January, 1883 : " It may be reason-
ably stated, however, that the consumption of
purely British goods is no greater than the
consumption of American goods in Venezuela.
In the character of the goods, however, both
England and France have the advantage, for
their exports thither consist principally of
manufactures, while the principal portion of
American exports thither is limited to provis-
ions, breadstuff's, petroleum, etc."

FISCAL YEAR.

Imports from
Venezuela into the
United States.

Domestic exports
from the
United States to
Venezuela.

1880

$6 039 092

$2 °68 705

1881

6 601 817

o 104 068

1882

5 746 300

2 187 100

1888

5 901 724

2 863 211

The imports in 1883 embraced 47,742,466
pounds of coffee, worth $4,498,207.

VERMONT. State Government.— The following
were the State officers during the year : Gov-
ernor, John L. Barstow, Republican ; Lieuten-
ant-Governor, Samuel E. Pingree; Secretary
of State, George Nichols; Treasurer, William
H. Du Bois; Auditor, E. Henry Powell; In-
spector of Finance, Charles Dewey ; Railroad
Commissioner, Wayne Bailey; Adjutant-Gen-
eral, Theodore S/Peck; Superintendent of
Public Instruction, Justus Dartt. Supreme
Court: Chief-Justice, Homer E. Royce; As-
sistant Judges, Timothy P. Redfield, Jonathan
Ross, H. Henry Powers, Wheelock G. Veazey,
Russell S. Taft, and John W. Rowell.

Political. — There was no general election dur-
ing the year, nor was the Legislature in session.
At the town meetings on March 6th two
amendments to the Constitution were sub-
mitted to the people. The vote was as fol-
lows: On the first, providing for the election
of Secretary of State and Auditor by the peo-

ple— for the amendment, 11,135; against, 556.
On the second, providing for an additional
oath to members of the Legislature that they
hold no United States office — for the amend-
ment, 11,056; against, 559.

Finances.— The following statement shows the
financial condition of the State at the close of
the fiscal year ending July 31, 1883 :

LIABILITIES.

Agricultural College fund $135,500 00

United States surplus fund, unpaid balances to

soldiers and outstanding checks, about 20,000 00

Due towns on account of savings-bank tax, bal-
ance of 1882 tax, payable Aug. 25, 1SS3 24,875 58

Temporary loan, 1882, unpaid 40.724 15

Huntington fund 4.404 47

Total liabilities $225,504 20

Cash on hand and in bank $50,923 54

The annual statements have lately exhibited
a cash balance of about $100,000 to the credit
of the State, and a similar sum in available as-
sets with which to meet current expenses. The
change in this respect in the exhibit this year
is by reason of the adoption of the Hooker
revenue bill. By this provisions of that bill
the railways, savings-banks, and trust compa-
nies, express, telegraph, and telephone com-
panies, steamboat, car, and transportation com-
panies are required to pay the tax assessed
upon their earnings semi-annually, in the
months of February and August, and the in-
surance companies annually, in February.

The total valuation of real and personal
estate is $154,135,984. To 1 per cent, of this
sum add $151,310 for 75,655 polls at $2 each,
deduct $2,442 for exemptions, and the total
grand list of the State is $1,690,227.84.

The following table shows the results of the
corporation tax law for the first year of its
operation, with the exception of a few com-
panies that had made no returns:

Savings-banks $52,771 76

Trust companies. . 80,50967

Telegraph companies 597 50

Express companies 1,282 89

Steamboat companies 1,949 24

Car companies 5,964 02

Eailways 67,087 27

Insurance companies 16,664 44

Total. ...,.......* $176,826 79

* Railroads.— On the 31st of July, 1882, there
were in Vermont 858 miles of main line and
branches, and 88 miles of sidings, etc.

Sayings-Banks. — The following is a statement
of deposits in each savings-bank and trust
company in Vermont, Jan. 1, 1884 :

NAMES.

Burlington Savings Bank $1,464,111 95

Burlington Trust Company 291,099 60

Bellows Falls Savings Institution 598,596 80

Brattleboro Savings Bank 925,115 92

Bradford Savings Bank and Trust Company.. 802,722 43

Bennington County Savings Bank 178,482 66

Farmers' and Mechanics1 Trust Company. . . . 808,837 03

Jamaica Savings Bank 135,956 39

Marble Savings Bank, Rutland 163,383 85

Montpelier Savings Hank and Trust Company. 740,121 73

Northfleld Savings Bank 278,592 27

Ottauquechee Savings Bank, Woodstock 843,416 1 7

Passuinpsic Savings Bank, St. Johnsbury .... 1,240,000 00

VEUILLOT, LOUIS.

NAMES.

Rutland Savings Bank $1,814,120 10

Rutland Trust Company 126,855 00

Richford Savings Bank and Trust Company.. 52,101 88

SpringfUd Savings Bank 404,804 42

State Trust Company, Rutland 867,032 fil

Vermont Savings Bank, Brattleboro 2,045,482 98

Wilmington Savings Bank 258,27688

Winooski Savings Bank 186,408 21

Windham County Savings Bank, Newfane 868,945 80

West Fairlee Savings Bank 80 210 54

Windsor Savings Bank 602,495 OT

Total $18,421,67814

The number of depositors is about 45,000.
Schools. — The following are the school statis-
tics for the year ending March 31, 1883 :

School districts 2.330

Public schools 2,558

Average number of days of school in the year. . . 181

Pupils enrolled in the public schools 72,842

Average wages per week for male teachers $812

Average wages per week for female teachers $4 83

Total revenue for school purposes $548,610 45

Total expenditure for school purposes $558,289 84

Appropriations to normal schools $7,620 00

VECILLOT, Lonis, a French journalist, born at
Boynes, Loiret, in 1813 ; died in Paris, April 7,
1883. His father removed to Paris and opened
a wine-shop, and Louis, at the age of thirteen,
was placed in an attorney's office. The attor-
ney's wife took an interest in him and excited
his literary ambition, and when he was nine-
teen, M. Thiers, then Minister of the Interior,
engaged him to defend the Orleans government
in the semi-official organ at Rouen. His po-
lemic talent was at once recognized, and in the
following year he was made editor of the simi-
lar journal at P6rigueux, and in 1837 was
summoned to Paris to write for " La Oharte,"
which he left to take the chief-editorship of
" La Paix." At this period he bore the repu-
tation of a free-lance, actuated simply by pro-
fessional ambition and government pay, to
write in the cause of his employers with a ve-
hemence and acerbity which involved him in
several dueling affairs. This circumstance, in
conjunction with certain intrinsic qualities in
his style, always suggested a doubt of the per-
fect sincerity of the opinions he upheld during
the rest of his life. In 1838 he visited Rome
with a friend, and was so impressed with the
religious pomps of holy week and the rever-
end majesty of Pope Gregory's manner, that
he returned a devoied Catholic. His life, as
well as his writings, bore witness to his con-
version. He published in the next two years
several books of meditation, romance, travel,
and poetry. Accompanying Gen. Bugeaud to
Algeria, he wrote a volume on the " French in
Algeria," interspersed with religious philoso-
phy. He was appointed, on his return, chief
of a bureau in the Ministry of the Interior,
but resigned to become one of the editors of
" L'Univers." He soon took the management
of the paper, and made it the chief organ of
the clericals. For attacks on the University
he was sentenced to a term of imprisonment.
All the changes effected by the Revolution of
1789 he condemned, taking the extreme ground
in favor of absolute monarchy by divine right.

VIRGINIA.

815

The Revolution of 1848 was hailed by him as
ushering the return of theocratic absolutism.
The pamphlets entitLd " Les Libres-penseurs,"
" L'Esclave Vindex," " Le Lendemain de la
Victoire," "Petite Philosophie," and "La
Legalite," written between 1818 and 1862, are
masterpieces of style. While the bishops were
disputing as to which of the ancient classics
were improper for the study of youth, Veuillot
argued vigorously in favor of relegating to obliv-
ion the entire heathen literature. The Arch.-
bishop of Paris warned his flock against such
extreme views, whereupon Veuillot posted off
to Rome and obtained, through the general of
the Jesuits, an apostolical letter, ordering the
prelate to make peace with the "illustrious
Paladin of the Church." Napoleon III, in-
stigated by the Gallican clergy, finally sup-
pressed "L'Univers" in 1861, and forbade
other journals to print contributions from
Veuillot, who again sought revenge at the
hands of Pius IX, but could not induce the
Pope to quarrel with his political ally. Six
years later Napoleon had need of a brilliant
polemic to defend the threatened temporal
power of the Pope. When " L'Univers " re-
appeared, it waged a fierce war against the
Gallican clerics for not upholding the Syllabus.
At the (Ecumenical Council, Veuillot was the
only layman present. After the fusion at Frohs-
dorf, when the royalist politicians claimed to
have persuaded Henry V to renounce the
white flag and accept a constitution, Veuillot
showed himself more royalist than the King
by declaring that he no longer deserved the
support of good Catholics. Veuillot insisted
on identifying the restoration of the power of
the. Pope with the royalist cause, on which ac-
count his paper was repeatedly suspended dur-
ing the septennate of MacMahon. Of his nu-
merous published books of fiction, philosophy,
history, etc., all of them stamped with his ex-
treme religious views, the most remarkable is
" Les Odeurs de Paris," a terrible satire, de-
nouncing the corruption of manners under the
third empire. As a writer, Veuillot ranks
among the greatest masters of French prose.

VIRGINIA. State Government.— The following
were the State officers during the year: Gov-
ernor, William G. Cameron, Readjuster; Lieu-
tenant-Governor, John F. Lewis ; Secretary of
State, William C. Elam ; Treasurer, David R.
Revely; Auditor, S. Brown Allen; Second
Auditor, Henry H. Dyson ; Attorney-General,
Frank S. Blair ; Superintendent of Public In-
struction, Richard R. Farr; Commissioner of
Agriculture, James M. Blanton ; Superintend-
ent of the Land-Office, J. W. Brockenborough ;
Railroad Commissioner, George A. Martin.
Court of Appeals : Chief-Justice, Lansford L.
Lewis; Judges, R. A. Richardson, T. T. Faunt-
leroy, B. W. Lacy, and D. A. Hinton.

Political.— Although the November election
of this year did not include any general State
officer, but was confined to members of the
Legislature (half the Senate and the entire

816

WAGNER, RICHARD.

House), it aroused unusual interest, and led
to one of the most heated canvasses in the
history of the State. The Democrats had de-
termined to wrest the State from the control
of the Readjusters led by Senator Mahone, and
to place it securely in the Democratic column
in the next presidential election. Their State
Central Committee met in February, and de-
termined to call a convention to meet at Lynch-
burg on July 25th. The convention met at the
appointed time and place, every county being
represented except Buchanan, Lancaster, Lee,
and Wise. A committee on party organization
was appointed, which after deliberation re-
ported in favor of electing the chairman of the
State Committee by the convention, who should
be ex officio chairman of the Executive Com-
mittee, that the State Committee should con-
sist of five members from each congressional
district, and the Executive Committee of five
members chosen by the State Committee. The
report also defined the duties of the State Com-
mittee, and laid down a detailed plan for or-
ganization in each congressional district, sena-
torial district, county and city and ward dis-
trict, and for listing the voters of every pre-
cinct; and, in fact, contemplated the most
exact and search ing enrollment and instruction
of the voters of the State. A committee for
each precinct was provided. In several places
the word " assessment," referring to collections
from voters, appeared. Objection was made
to this, but it was allowed to stand, and the
report was adopted. John S. Barbour, believed
to be the best organizer in the State, was elect-
ed chairman of the State Committee.
„ The platform opposed increase of taxation ;
accepted as final the recent settlement of the
State debt; favored abolition of internal reve-
nue ; favored tariff for revenue ; favored free
education ; opposed mixed schools ; demanded
civil - service reform; and denounced "boss-
ism " and " ring rule."

A Straigbtout Republican Convention, at-
tended by about one hundred delegates, was
held in Richmond, August 15th, and pro-
nounced against the Readjusters. The elec-
tion resulted in a decisive Democratic vic-
tory. The Legislature was constituted as fol-
lows: Senate — Democrats, 24; Coalitionists,

12; vacant seats, 4; total, 40. House— Demo-
crats, 65 ; Coalitionists, 35 ; total, 100.

The vacancies were caused by the resigna-
tion of Readjusters after the election.

Subsequently, a sufficient number of Read-
justers or Coalitionists were unseated on con-
tests to give the Democrats a two-third vote
in each House. The aggregate popular vote
was as follows: Democratic, about 145,000;
Readjuster, about 127,000. In 1881 a Read-
juster Governor was elected by a vote of 113,-
473 to 100.758 for the Democratic candidate.
The following was the vote in 1882 for Con-
gressman-at-large : Readjuster, 99,992; Demo-
cratic, 94,184; Straightout Republican, 4,342.
The election did not pass off without violence.
The most serious affray occurred at Danville,
just prior to election-day, and resulted in the
death of several negroes. The Readjusters
claimed that it was instigated by the Demo-
crats to intimidate the colored voters and pre-
vent them from going to the polls, and that it
had that effect.

Legislative Session.— The Legislature convened
on December 5th, and was in session at the
close of the year. State officers for the term
beginning in January, 1884, were chosen, but
no considerable legislation had been per-
fected.

Public Revenue. — The Governor, in his mes-
sage, says:

Notwithstanding the interception by coupons be-
tween the tax-payer and the treasury of more than
a half of a million of dollars, the sum remaining to
the credit of the Commonwealth on Oct. 1, 1882, was
$551,540.51. Dining the year ending Oct. 1, 1883,
there has been paid, on account of interest on the pub-
lic debt, $313,935.17, and the balance on hand in the
treasury as of that date to the credit of all funds was
$1,537,204.88. This sum will be increased by several
hundred thousand dollars during the current month,
but the amount available for general purposes is sub-
ject to deduction in the sum of $200,000. yet remain-
ing to the credit of the school fund as by proceeds ap-
propriated, but yet unexpended, of the sale of trie
State's interest in the Atlantic, Mississippi, and Ohio
Railroad. During the period commencing on Jan. 1,
1882, the floating debt of the State has been practi-
cally extinguished.

The Governor recommends the passage of
a law for the regulation of railroads, similar
to those of California and Georgia.

WAGNER, Richard, a German composer and
dramatist, born in Leipzic, May 22, 1812, the
youngest of nine children, died in Venice,
Feb. 1 3, 1883. His father, a petty official, died
the same year that Richard was born. His
mother married Ludwig Geyer, an actor and
painter, who also died when Richard was seven
years old. When eleven years of age he at-
tempted to write tragedies after the model of
Shakespeare. In school he showed no applica-
tion, but he studied music by himself, and,
when sixteen years old, persuaded his family

to give him a musical education. Yet, instead
of applying himself to study, he attempted to
write overtures, one of which was produced m
the Leipzic Theatre. Then he attended lectures
on philosophy and aesthetics, but he was not
more diligent than before, and for a time led a
wild student's life, until he became disgusted
with dissipation. This was his turning-point.
He took up the study of music again, and, un-
der the teaching of Theodor Weinlig, soon be-
came proficient in counterpoint. His teacher,
who was the leader of the Gewandhaus or-

WAGNER, RICHARD.

817

chestra in Leipzic, produced in 1833 an over-
ture and a symphony. The symphony was
played also in Prague, but the score was lost
by Mendelssohn, who came in 1834 to direct
the Gewandhaus concerts, and was not found
until fifty years later. On a visit to his brother
Albert, an opera-singer and manager in Wtirz-
burg, Wagner was encouraged to attempt an
opera in Weber's style. The libretto of this
romantic opera, "Die Feen," he adopted from
a dramatization by Gozzi of an Indian myth.
He could induce no manager to produce his
work, and complained that French and Italian
music had driven German art from the
This experience and the success of
Wilhelmine Schroder-Devrient as Ro-
meo, in Bellini's insignificant opera,
induced him to adopt for a time the
style of the Parisian opera, and seek
to combine the highest qualities of
French and Italian music. " Rienzi "
was composed under this impulse.
Wagner was carried away with the
ideas of the July revolution as de-
veloped in "Young Germany." He
associated intimately with Heinrich
Laube, and was influenced by the ma-
terialistic tendencies of that school,
as well as imbued with their revolu-
tionary and democratic ideas, to which
he remained true all his life. " Das
Liebesverbot," a frivolous adaptation
of Shakespeare's " Measure for Meas-
ure," showed the influence of the ma-
terialistic thought and of the artificial
French musical taste then prevailing.

In 1834 the young composer became
director in the Magdeburg Theatre,
which failed two years la,ter. Here
he fell in love with the actress Wil-
helmine Planer, whom he married in
Konigsberg, where he was employed
in 1836. He next obtained an en-
gagement in Riga. Here he wrote
the text and part of the score of
" Rienzi," and determined to give his
genius free rein and seek recognition
in the musical capital of the world as
a composer of grand opera. When
his contract expired he embarked
with his wife for Paris. The conception of
" Der fliegende Hollander " took form during
the long and stormy voyage. He was received
with kindness by Meyerbeer, but for the pres-
entation of " Rienzi " there was no chance.
Put off with promises, he supported himself
miserably by letters to German newspapers
and musical critiques. The text of the "Fly-
ing Dutchman" he sold to a manager who
had the score written by an insignificant com-
poser and produced it without success. Wag-
ner was at last reduced to work for the musi-
cal publishers, adapting for the piano selections
from HaleVy's operas.

He returned to Germany in April, 1842.
"Rienzi "was accepted in Dresden, and Ti-
VOL. xxni. — 52 A

chatchek (Schroder-Devrient) was persuaded
to take the principal r61e. The music of the
"Fliegende Hollander" was written in seven
weeks at Meudon in 1841. This opera was of-
fered at Munich and Leipzic, but was refused
with the excuse that it was not adapted to
German taste, but by the influence of Meyer-
beer it was brought out at Berlin. It, and an
incomplete Faust symphony, written in Paris
under the inspiration of Beethoven's Ninth
Symphony, were the first works produced in
Wagner's own manner. The success of
" Rienzi " was complete, and spread the fame
stage, of its author and composer through Germany.

RICHARD WAGNER.

He was engaged as a conductor in the Court
Theatre at Dresden, and then received the ap-
pointment of court chapel-master, an office
which he unwillingly assumed, forced by pe-
cuniary difficulties, arising from losses incurred
in the publication of his works. When the
"Fliegende Hollander" was given in Dres-
den, Wagner was disappointed to find that
his later and more characteristic style was not
appreciated. " Rienzi " kept' the stage only in
Dresden, for the lack of singers who could
take the title-r61e elsewhere. During the next
two years he was occupied with "Tan-
hauser," in which he followed his artistic in-
spirations regardless of his experience with the
"Fliegende Hollander." He next worked

818

WAGNER, RICHARD.

out the comic opera of the " Meistersinger."
"Lohengrin" was matured about the same
time, and "Parsifal" was conceived. When
" Tanhauser " was produced in 1845, the pub-
lic was dissatisfied at the depressing effect
of the drama and the unfamiliar musical ef-
fects. Even the singers rebelled at the ex-
traordinary demands made upon their vocal
powers, which after all did not please the pub-
lic. A controversy between the critics ensued,
and lasted many years. Dramatic art, it was
argued, should aim to leave pleasing impres-
sions, and the musical drama should have
plenty of melody. The "Meistersinger" was
instanced as containing no airs at all. Wag-
ner was represented by these critics as wasting
his genius on vain theories, though the theories
were mostly of their own invention. "Tan-
hauser" gradually became popular, when the
public got used to Wagner's original style, and
found that it contained melody of the purest
quality. Every one of Wagner's operas had
to undergo the same probation. For ten years
no theatre was willing to give "Tanhauser"
a representation, except Wagner's own in
Dresden, where it slowly won popular ap-
proval. Wagner's material circumstances con-
stantly grew worse ; yet he still remained true
to his art, and proceeded with the composition
of the words and music of " Lohengrin." Al-
though incapable of enjoying his productions,
the people of Dresden prized Wagner as the
greatest of operatic directors. He selected
none but the highest products of German mu-
sical genius, and subjected the text and instru-
mentation to a thorough revision. His method
of presenting Glilck's operas, in particular, be-
came the model which is everywhere followed.
Even more famous was the rendition under his
direction of classic orchestral works, particu-
larly the Beethoven symphonies of the royal
chapel band. The management of the opera-
house, discouraged by the mere succes cTestime
of " Tanhauser," and dismayed at the cost of
the mounting which Wagner insisted upon, de-
layed putting the piece on the boards until the
composer felt the neglect. A scheme which
he advocated for the establishment of a Saxon
national theatre was disregarded.

When the outbreak of May, 1849, occurred,
Wagner took an active part in the insurrection.
He arranged the signals with church-bells, or-
ganized the arrival of bands from outside, and
delivered fiery revolutionary speeches. After
the suppression of the revolution he escaped
from prison by hasty flight, and became a po-
litical refugee. He settled at Zurich, and first
turned to the pen as a means of support, writ-
ing three important and characteristic books,
entitled "Art and Revolution" (1849), " The
Art of the Future " (1850), and " Opera and
Drama" (1851). Franz Liszt, soon after re-
ceiving the appointment of chapel-master to
the Grand Duke of Weimar, became the first
applicant for " Tanhauser " in 1848. Wag-
ner, when in his flight he saw the representa-

tion at Weimar, declared that Liszt was his
alter ego. Liszt now took up "Lohengrin"
and made it a success, after which he wrote
Wagner that he should create a new work.
Though he composed no music between 1849
and 1853, he became immersed in the dramatic
reproduction of the Germanic mythology.
" Siegfried's Tod " was already finished in
1848. He felt impelled to proceed with the
dramatization of the rest of the story of the
"Nibelungenlied," corrected by the study of the
" Edda." In 1853 Wagner printed his poetical
work on this subject, in order to acquaint his
friends with the musical task he had under-
taken. Liszt was the only one who did not
lose courage. In order to render possible the
realization of an artistic project so unusual and
formidable, he proposed a national prize, with
the obligation to present the crowned work,
and, when this was rejected, attempted to have
a grand festal theatre built in Weimar. When
Wagner had completed "Rheingold," "Wal-
kiire," and the two first acts of "Siegfried,"
he stopped, discouraged and exhausted. His
next work was " Tristan und Isolde," in which
the development of his style had proceeded so
much farther, and his demands on the techni-
cal theatrical art were so much greater, that
no theatre would undertake its representation.
Wagner determined to make another appeal
for recognition to the wealth and taste of Paris.
His plan was to collect a German troupe to
represent his operas. He was obliged to aban-
don this project, but in concerts he presented
fragments of his works, won friends and ad-
mirers, and succeeded in having " Tanhauser"
presented in the Grand Opera-House. Anti-
German feeling was already rife in Paris, and
fashionable rowdies conspired to destroy the
chances of the opera. The performance was
interrupted by hisses and ejaculations, and not
allowed to be finished. The same year (1861),
through the intercession of the Grand Dukes
of Weimar and Baden, he was arrested and
permitted to return to Germany. Efforts of
his friends to obtain him a place were fruitless,
from the fear of operatic managers that with
his services they would have to accept his
operas and their impossible conditions. For
some years he presented fragments of his un-
completed great work in concerts throughout
Germany and Europe. In Russia he earned a
great deal of money, and in London and other
cities he gained reputation, but the prospects
of his operas were gloomier than ever. He
offered to write a new piece for the Vienna
company, but received a cool refusal.

At length, in 1864, to his greatest astonish-
ment, he received an invitation from the young
King of Bavaria to come and complete his
Nibelung series. His first movement after his
arrival in Munich was to bring out the oft-re-
jected "Tristan und Isolde," in 1865, with
such success that his friends came from all
over the world to witness the triumph. Hans
von Billow was called from Berlin to direct

WASHINGTON TERRITORY.

819

the orchestra. Under his and the master's
training, with artists selected and schooled for
effects never attained before with the human
voice, and possessing dramatic talent of a high
order, with scenery and costumes in which ex-
pense was not spared, with stage-machinery
invented for the purpose, with instruments of
new designs, Wagner's operas were placed on
the stage, one after the other, as no operas had
ever been. In 1868 the " Meistersinger " was
brought out, and even this extreme example
of the " music of the future " became a popu-
lar favorite. Wagner was resolved that the
Nibelung cycle, if ever produced at all, should
be presented in a special theatre, and not left
to its fate on the regular stage. For this pur-
pose the Wagner Union was founded, and in
1872 the corner-stone of an opera-house in
Bayreuth was laid. The completion cost far
more than was expected, and the deficiency
was made up from the private purse of King
Louis. Wagner intended to found a school of
operatic art in connection with the monumental
theatre. In order to carry out the project, he
was obliged to allow the Nibelung cycle to be
played in ordinary theatres, and, singularly
enough, the managers of Germany, one after
another, introduced it in their repertoires. The
great work was presented in Bayreuth in
1876. Richard Wagner's last work was " Par-
sifal." Wagner separated from his first wife,
after living with her twenty years, and subse-
quently married Cosima, Liszt's daughter, the
divorced wife of Billow.

WASHINGTON TERRITORY. The Governor
during the year was William A. Newell; Sec-
retary, N. H. O wings. Present population, esti-
mated at 125,000.

Legislative Session. — The Legislature met on
October 2d, and adjourned on November 28th.
Among the acts passed were the following:

To establish and provide for free scholarships in
Territorial .University.

To change the time of convening the Territorial
Legislature.

Memorials praying for various river improvements.

Memorial for the admission of Washington Territory
to the Union.

Memorial to abolish Indian reservations.

Consolidating New and Old Tacoma.

Creating the counties of Skagit, Douglas, Kittitas,
and Lincoln.

Prohibiting hogs from running at large.

Relative to inspection and measurement of logs.

In relation to drift saw-logs.

To secure for the owners of live-stock payment for
injuries sustained by railroad-trains.

For the inspection and ventilation of coal-mines.

In relation to habitual drunkards.

Submitting to electors the question of taxing church
property.

Prohibiting the sale of pistols and tobacco to chil-
dren under sixteen years of age.

To preserve and protect school lands.

Relative to liens on rolling-stock of railroads.

An act was also passed extending^ the right of
suffrage to women. A memorial was introduced for
the creation of a separate Territory from eastern
Washington and northern Idaho, but it failed to pass.

Finances. — The total receipts for two years

ending Sept. 30, 1883, including balance, were
$156,016.27; disbursements, $127,703.44.

The total valuation of property in the Terri-
tory in 1882 was $32,568,901. In 1883 it was
$44,107,567.

Penitentiary and Insane Asylum.— The Peniten-
tiary at Seatco contains 73 persons. The coat
of their maintenance for the past two years
has been $33,000.

The Insane Asylum is near Steilacoom. The
number of patients, Aug. 15, 1833, was 129.
The expenditures for two years were $57,-
106.52, which includes repairs and improve-
ments to the amount of $7,389.18.

Education. — The public-school statistics for
the year ending Aug. 31, 1883, are:

Of school age, between 5 and 21 82,000

Pupils enrolled «4,°00

School districts 700

School-houses 700

Teachers employed 650

Graded schools 15

Average length of schools in months H

Paid to teachers $97,000 00

Paid for buildings $60,000 00

Paid for furniture and apparatus $20,000 00

Amount paid for school purposes $177,000 00

Indians. — Thirteen thousand Indians occupy
fifteen reservations, which contain seven mill-
ions of acres of the best agricultural, grazing,
timber and mineral lands of the Territory, using
them variously for hunting, fishing, farming,
and strolling; besides the use of which, they
receive liberal assistance from the Government
in the guardianship of agents, the benefit of
physicians, medicines, hospitals, schools and
teachers, with donations for food, clothing, and
implements for forest and land.

Statehood. — On the subject of the admission
of the Territory, Gov. Newell says :

Our ability to sustain a State government and our
claim to admission based upon resources and popula-
tion— which are the only reasonable requirements—
are conceded. Our people are quite unanimously in
favor of the measure, desiring to be possessed or the
rights and privileges exercised by other American
citizens. If there be any doubt as to the population
required to entitle us to a member of Congress, a new
census would solve the question.

The people of the Territory have already adopted a
State Constitution preparatory to admission, which
instrument is generally regarded as being too volu-
minous and cumbersome, containing many provisions
which might properly be embodied in statutory en-
actments, and others not adapted to our present and
advanced requirements.

Northern Pacific.— The completion of the
Northern Pacific Railroad from Lake Supe-
rior to Puget Sound is an event of vast im-
portance to the Territory of Washington.
The Governor says:

Forty -five millions of acres of timber, coal, pasture,
and mountain lands, mines of precious metals, quar-
ries of lime, stone, marble, granite, slate, and stone,
and beds of mica ; ocean front and inland salt sens ;
many lakes and rivers affording thousands of miles
of navigable waters, all alive with a hundred varieties
of fish, some of them of great value: water-powers; a
climate of even temperature and healthful ; grand
scenery of water and mountains, facilities for manu-
facturing the staples from our own material, wood,

820

WEST INDIES.

iron, wool, and hides ; maritime opportunities unsur-
passed for internal, coastwise, and foreign commerce ;
in a line to absorb the trade of Alaska in fish, fur,
cedar, and gold ; to obtain the largest share from
Asia in coffee, teas, opium, porcelain, silks, and ivory
— all of these are our resources and advantages.

Political — In 1882 Thomas H. Brents, Re-
publican, was elected delegate to Congress by
a vote of 11,252, against 8,244 for his Demo-
cratic opponent. The Legislature of 1883 con-
sisted of 6 Democrats and 6 Republicans in
the Council, and 14 Democrats and 10 Repub-
licans in the House.

WEST INDIES. British.— The G o vernor of the
Bermudas is Lieut.-Gen. T. L. Gallway; of
Barbadoes and the Windward Islands, W. Rob-
inson.

Jamaica. — After the negro rising in Jamaica
in Gov. Eyre's time, fifteen years ago, the par-
liamentary government of the island was abol-
ished, and the colony became what is called a
crown colony, ruled by officials appointed by
the Colonial Office in London. An influential
party in Jamaica now claims that the con-
dition of the island is so much changed that it
is time to reinvest the people with self-gov-
ernment.

The shipments to the United States amount-
ed during the six fiscal years, 1877 to 1882, to
$234,650 from Kingston, and $520,446 from
Port Antonio ; of oranges from Kingston, to
$429,575 ; of cocoa-nuts from Port Antonio, to
$148,545, besides moderate amounts of limes,
pineapples, and mangoes. The latter, now per-
haps the most common fruit in Jamaica, is of
comparatively recent introduction.

The Bahamas. — The cultivation and ship-
ment of pineapples is the most important in-
dustry of the Bahamas. The vessels engaged
in this trade are mostly schooners of from 75
to 150 tons, noted for speed, and able to make
the run from the islands to Baltimore, Phila-
delphia, and New York, in from four to eight
days, more than two thirds of them being New
England fishing-vessels and Baltimore pungies.
There were shipped to the United States in
1882 something over 100 cargoes, mostly in
American bottoms, amounting to 462,000 dozen,
worth $141,000. There was also a marked in-
crease in the shipments of preserved pineap-
ples, $43,000 worth, against $32,800 in 1881.
In the item of sponges the increase has been
very marked, a brisk trade continuing all
through the year 1882. In 1881 there were
shipped to the United States 234,529 pounds ;
value, $113,643. In 1882 the amount was 464,-
748 pounds, valued at $190,752.

Dominica. — During the night from Sept. 4
to Sept. 5, 1883, the island, for the first time
since 1834, was visited by a terrific hurricane,
causing destruction to the extent of half a
million pounds sterling. This hurricane also
struck Porto Rico and other West India isl-
ands, but it nowhere proved so disastrous.

The shipments of produce from the British
West Indies to the United States, during the
first half of the year 1883, were :

Nevis *o onn

Barbadoes...:.'.':: l,372'oOO

Jamaica .......... 6T5000

Trinidad ...... 2225141

Turk's islands ....

The Bahamas ...... $214,400

The Bermudas ..... 875,000

^tigua ........... 267,000

Dominica .......... 56,000

Montserrat ......... 18,000

Total ....................................... $5^541

The principal products imported into the
United States from British Honduras during
the fiscal year 1882 were: Coffee, 829,604
pounds; India-rubber, 161,288 pounds; and
sugar, 2,867,905 pounds.

The chief product imported from British
Guiana into the United States is sugar, and
next to it molasses. Sugar importation has of
late years increased as follows :

Pounds.

Poundi.

1S81 47,821,626

18T8 87,435,270

1879 18,074,378

1880 84,072,783

Total 196,861,742

Danish.— The Danish West India colony con-
sists of three islands forming the extreme
western group of the Virgin islands. Ste.
Croix, commonly called Santa Cruz, measures
218 square kilometres; St. Thomas, 86; and
St. John, 54; together, 358, or 138 square
miles. The total population is 33,763.

Ste. Croix is called the garden of the West
Indies ; it is fertile, every foot almost is culti-
vated, and it produces the best grade of musco
vado sugar. St. Thomas and St. John produce
little sugar, and hardly anything besides.

St. Thomas is a free port, and has a roomy
harbor, with facilities for the repair of vessels.

The American trade with the Danish West
Indies has been as follows :

FISCAL YEAR.

Import into the
United States.

Export of
domestic merchandiie
from the United
States.

1880 ..

$461 497

*«0q 1A4

1881

359 900

721 128

1882...

539'024

716 591

1883

384'008

- 694,565

Dnteh.— The West India possessions of the
Netherlands cover an area of 1,130 square kilo-
metres, and consist of the following islands:

ISLANDS.

Area, square
kilometres.

Population.

Curacoa

550

24506

Bonaire

385

5,060

Aruba

165

6193

St. Martin's (Dutch portion).
St. Eustatius
Saba

4T
21
13

8,236
2,258
2 202

The colony of Surinam, or Dutch Guiana, m
South America, measures 119,321 square kilo-
metres, and has a population of 69,856; its
capital is Paramaribo, with 27,416 inhabitants.

The island of Curacoa is a free port, and has
been till latterly a sort of entrepot for Dutch
colonial trade with Venezuela.
* The American trade with the Dutch West
Indies in the past five years has been as fol-
lows:

WEST INDIES.

WEST VIRGINIA.

821

FISCAL YEAR.

Import Into
the United

States.

Exportof
domeitic goods
from the United

States.

1879

$647,402
1,355,517
2,584,376
1,582,133
882,053

$7,061,486

$622,171
837,2^8
921.475
743;304
679,690

$8,708,927

1880

1881

1882

1888

Total

French. — The French West Indies consist of
the island of Martinique on the one hand, and
of Guadeloupe and dependencies, Les Saintes,
Marie-Galante, St. Martin, and St. Barthelemy
or St. Barts, on the other. Martinique has an
area of 988 square kilometres, while Guade-
loupe and dependencies measure jointly 1,870.
The population of the former is 166,100, and
of Guadeloupe and dependencies 192,735.

Martinique. — Sugar-making has increased
notably both in Martinique and Guadeloupe of
late years, due to the introduction of central
sugar-houses, perfected machinery, and the
latest improved processes. In 1880 there were
under cane-culture in Martinique 19,364 hec-
tares, of 2£ acres, producing 41,820 tons sugar
of 2,240 pounds, worth 19,320,000 francs; 1,-
326,000 litres molasses (100 litres = 22 gallons),
worth 265,000 francs; and 9,170,000 litres of
rum, worth 3,209,000 francs. Sugar had pretty
much superseded all other agricultural prod-
ucts. The aggregate value of landed property
in the island was 73,000,000 francs.

Guadeloupe. — In 1880 Guadeloupe turned
out 49,982 tons of sugar, worth 31,666,000
francs; 4,580,000 litres of molasses, worth
1,145,000, and 2,842,000 litres of rum, worth
2,274,000 francs; 865 tons of coffee, 21 of cot-
ton, 103 tons cocoa, and 4,000,000 francs' worth
of cereals and vegetables, besides 566 tons of
annatto. In 1881 Guadeloupe exported to
France 21,446,095 francs' worth of produce,
and imported thence 15,770,070 francs' worth
of merchandise.

The sugar importation from the French West
Indies into the United States is shown in the
following :

Pounds.

1881 59.964,077

1882 59,952,340

326,020,274

During the fiscal year 1883 the United States
imported from the French West Indies $2,895, -
857 worth of products, and exported thither
$1,783,322 worth of domestic merchandise.

Guiana. — French Guiana, commonly called
Cayenne, is a penal colony in South America.
It has an area of 121,413 square kilometres, and
27,333 inhabitants. The subject of predominant
interest in the colony in 1883 was the change
in the methods employed for working the gold-
fields. Instead of confining the search for the
precious metal to placer or surface mining, a
shaft has been sunk on the St. Elie placer, and
a quartz-mill erected. The French mining-
engineer, M. Nibaut, says: "Gold-mining is

at present the chief and, it may even be said,
the only source of wealth in the country. The
local authorities have made grants to work the
auriferous region to the extent of 10,000,000
hectares, although only 2,000,000 hectares of
surface in the colony really contain any gold.
For these concessions the colonial government
collects annually, from the parties to whom
the privilege of working the mines is granted,
half a franc per hectare ; it levies besides a tax
of 5 per cent, on the gold extracted, and 8 per
cent, export duty."

American Trade. — The American trade with
French Guiana has been as follows :

1878 65,528,322

1879 70,551,547

1880 70,023,''8S

Total .

FISCAL YEAR.

«

Import Into
the United
Statei.

Export of
domMtic good!
from the United

States.

1879

$15 789

$69887

1880

8272

75645

1881....

8,108

65762

1882...

18,453

97,677

1883

18487

101 018

Total

$59,054

$409984

WEST VIRGLMA. State Government— The fol-
lowing were the State officers during the
year : Governor, Jacob B. Jackson, Democrat ;
Secretary of State, Randolph Statnaker, Jr. ;
Treasurer, Thomas O'Brien ; Auditor, Joseph
S. Miller; Superintendent of Free Schools,
Bernard L. Butcher; Attorney-General, 0. 0.
Watts. Court of Appeals: President, Okey
Johnson ; Judges, Thomas 0. Green, Adam C.
Snyder, and Samuel Woods.

Legislative Session.— The Legislature convened
on the 10th of January, and adjourned on the
23d of February. On the 23d of January, John
G. Kenna, Democrat, was elected United States
Senator by a vote of 53 to 28 for George G.
Loorais, Republican, and 5 for John Y. Jarney,
Greenbacker. Among the acts passed were
the following :

To suppress prize-fighting ; to prohibit the obstruc-
tion of the pubJic streams of this State by felling and
leaving timber in the same ; to authorize railroad
corporations to become surety for or guarantee the
debts of railroad companies ; imposing a tax of twen-
ty-five cents on the one hundred dollars valuation of
all real and personal property not exempt from taxa-
tion, for general purposes, for the year 1883 ; provid-
ing for the keeping of ropes, wire-ladders, or other
proper fire-escapes, in all rooms above the second
floor hi all hotels and taverns ; establishing " Scrib-
ner's rule" as the lawful rule for the measurement of
lumber, logs, and timber of all kinds ; regulating
the working and proper ventilating and drainage of
coal-mines, and providing for the appointment of a
mine inspector ; for the appointment of a commission
to ascertain the facts concerning and to consider the
assessment and taxation of property in this State,
with a view to the revision or existing laws.

A joint resolution was adopted striking ont
section 7 of Article IV of the Constitution, and
inserting in lieu thereof the following :

The general elections of State and county officers,
and of members of the Legislature, shall be held on
the Tuesday next after the first Monday in Novem-
ber, until otherwise provided by law. The terms of
such officers, not elected, or appointed to fill a vacancy,

822

WISCONSIN.

shall, unless herein otherwise provided, begin on the
first day of January ; and of the members of the Legis-
lature on the first day of December next succeeding
their election. Elections to fill vacancies shall be
for the unexpired term. When vacancies occur prior
to any general election, they shall be filled by appoint-
ments, in such manner as may be prescribed nerein,
or by general law, which appointments shall expire
at such time after the next general election as the per-
son so elected to fill such vacancy shall be qualified.

This proposed amendment is to be submitted
to tjhe people at the general election in 1884.
If it shall be adopted, it has been questioned
whether in 1884 there will not have to be two
elections — one in October under the old provi-
sion, and a second in November under the new.
A prohibitory amendment passed the House
by a vote of 49 to 14, but it was rejected in
the Senate by a vote of 15 to 11.

Congressional Districts.— The following are the
new Congressional Districts, formed in 1882 :

1. Braxton, Brooke, Doddridge, Gilmer, Hancock.
Harrison, Lewis, Marshall, Ohio, Tyler, and Wetzel
counties.

2. Marion, Monongalia, Preston, Taylor, Barbour,
Randolph, Tucker, Pendleton, Grant, Hardy, Mineral,
Hampshire, Morgan, Berkeley, and Jefferson.

3. Boo ^e, Clay, Fayette, Greenbrier, Kanawha,
Logan, Mercer. Monroe, McDowell, Nicholas, Poca-
hontas, Ealeign, Summers, Upshur, Webster, and
Wyoming.

4. Mason, Pleasants, Eitchie, Wirt, Jackson, Wood,
Calhoun, Eoane, Putnam, Cabell, Wayne, and Lin-
coln.

An election was held in the third district
on May 15th to fill the vacancy caused by the
resignation of Mr. Kenna, elected to the Sen-
ate. The following was the result : Charles P.
Snyder, Democrat, 9,621; J. H. Brown, Re-
publican and Greenbacker. 8,391. The vote
in 1882 was: Democratic, 10,279 ; Republican,
5,814; Greenback, 1,454.

Finances. — The estimated receipts for the fis-
cal year ending Sept. 30, 1884, are :

For the State fund ............................. $395,850 00

Add balance (estimated) on hand ............... 14,465 40

Total .......... . . $410,315 40

The estimated charges for that year are ......... 338,780 69

Leaving a balance of. ....................... $71,614 71

The assessed value of personal property in
1881 was $37,562,854; of real estate, $105,-
448,502.37.

Education. — The total value of school prop-
erty in 1882 was $1,823,987.16 ; whole number
of school-houses, 3,839 ; number of teachers
employed, 4,360.

The catalogue of the State University for
1881-'82 shows an increase of students over
former years, the number being 177.

WISCONSIN. State GoTernment.— The following
were the State officers during the year : Gov-
ernor, Jeremiah M. Rusk, Republican ; Lieu-
tenant-Governor, Samuel S. Fifield ; Secre-
tary of State, Ernst G. Timme ; Treasurer,

E. C. McFetridge ; Attorney-General, Leander

F. Frisby ; Superintendent of Public Schools,
Robert Graham ; Insurance Commissioner, P.
L. Spooner; Railroad Commissioner, Nils P.

Hanger. Judiciary, Supreme Court: Chief-
Justice, Orsamus Cole ; Associate Justices,
William P. Lyon, Harlow S. Orton, David
Taylor, and John B. Cassody.

Legislative Session. — The Legislature convened
on January 10th, and adjourned on April 4th.

The following is a brief outline of the most
important business session :

The 14th judicial circuit was created out of the 10th.
The income of the State University was increased by
about $13,000 per annum. The county of Sawyer
was created out of portions of Ashland and Chippewa,
and Washburn from a portion of Burnett. A bill
was passed allowing two or more continuous railway
lines running to a particular point to consolidate ; this
is a scheme for the especial benefit ot the Northwest-
ern and Omaha lines. A bill went through allowing
the St. Paul Kail way Company to issue stock on any
lines heretofore or hereafter purchased, or on coal
lands purchased by it. Another railway bill allows
companies to condemn lands for spur tracks running
to mills and warehouses. A very stringent tramp law
was passed, providing for the incarceration of vagrants
for one year in the State prison. A bureau of labor
statistics was created. The following villages were
incorporated as cities : Kewaunee, Menomonie, Marsh-
field, Hartford, De Pere, Tomah, Sparta, Merrill, Ed-
gerton. Sturgeon Bay, Black Eiver Falis, Nicolet,
Geneva, Mauston, and Colby. The bill regulating
the dealing in futures was passed.

The direct appropriations of the session
amounted to $573,470.71, of which the sum of
$523,800 was for the charitable, reformatory,
and penal institutions. The tax-law provides
that a State tax of $110,000 shall be levied upon
the taxable property of the State of Wisconsin
for the year 1883, and a State tax of $240,000
shall be levied upon the taxable property of
the State of Wisconsin for the year 1884, in ad-
dition to all other taxes and charges authorized
to be levied for each year aforesaid.

Finances. — The following were the balances
at the close of the month of December, 1883 :

Generalfund ,.. $482,739 23

School fund .- . . 83,408 90

School-fund income 23,501 50

Normal School fund 52,24905

Agricultural College fund 8,048 50

Drainage fund 80,597 84

Delinquent tax fund 1,300 88

Deposit fund 11,285 88

Redemption fund 15706

St. Croix L. S. K. R. trespass fund 86,783 18

St. Croix L. S. E. R. deposit fund 408 02

"Wisconsin farm mortgage fund 6,038 61

Allotment fund 916 54

Total $682,379 14

Schools. — At the close of the school year,
May 31, 1882, there were in the State 257,429
children between the ages of seven and fifteen
years. Of these, 223,575, 87 per cent., at-
tended public school some time during the year
— an average of seventy -three days. The num-
ber of school-houses in the State was 5,808.
The number of city school systems was thirty-
one, and the number of school districts and
sub-districts, outside of cities, 5,593. There
were twelve towns maintaining the township
system. There were required for all the pub-
lic schools 7,093 teachers. During the year
there was spent for teachers' wages $1,437,-
439.19 ; building and repairing cost $272,824.-

WOOD, JAMES F.

WORLD'S FAIRS.

68 ; the salaries at the State University amount-
ed to $48,429.40, and the Normal School salaries
to $59,642.84.

In 1879 the Legislature of the State adopted
the compulsory education scheme. The at-
tendance of the children between seven and
fifteen years of age was required for at least
twelve weeks in each school year.

Railroads. — The comparative tables annually
prepared by the State Railroad Commissioner
show that the roads which traverse Wisconsin
have a total of $157,618,520.30 of common
stock, of which $40, 674, 630.17 are apportioned
to Wisconsin. The total of preferred stock is
$100,374,834.47; for Wisconsin, $19,888,974.-
63. Total debt of whole lines, $183,830,621.-
73; for Wisconsin, $57,556,114.68. The total
amount spent for construction and equipment
for the whole lines during the year, not includ-
ing the Northern Pacific, was $24,838,902.61 ;
for Wisconsin, $8,002,066.19. The earnings
for all lines in Wisconsin were, during the
year: From passengers, $5,306,176; from
freights, $13,299,305.95 ; from mails, express,
etc., $1,052,165.51 ; making the total earnings
for this State $19,706,857.84. For Wisconsin,
the taxes paid by railroads from June, 1882, to
June, 1883, were $648,395.27; rentals paid,
$543,056.47; interest paid, $3,603,390.88; divi-
dends paid, $1,812,128.65.

Lumber. — The report of lumber district No. 2
shows the following :

Logs scaled at the mouth of Black river 178,589,490 ft.

Lumber manufactured at La Crosse and imme-
diate vicinity 144,500,000 ft.

Shingles manufactured in district 58,000,000

Lath 27,600,000

The report of district No. 11 contains the
following figures : Logs scaled, 46,000,000 feet ;
manufactures, 49,000,000 feet ; lath and shin-
gles, 14,700,000.

WOOD, James Frederick, an American Roman
Catholic prelate, born in Philadelphia, April
27, 1813 ; died there June 20, 1883. His par-
ents were English, and came to America a
few years before his birth. His father was a
merchant and importer. After being educated
in England, he went to Cincinnati, in Novem-
ber, 1827, and, having taken a clerkship in the
United States Bank, he rose gradually, in the
course of eight yea *s, to the place of cashier.
He was also for three years in the Franklin Bank
of Cincinnati. Mr. Wood was of Protestant par-
entage, but became a Catholic, and was baptized
April 7, 1836. His attention was now turned to
the vocation of the priesthood, and he accord-
ingly went to Rome in 1838, studied there for
nearly seven years, and in March, 1844, was
made a priest. In the autumn of that year he
returned to the United States, and was appoint-
ed assistant rector of the cathedral in Cincin-
nati. He filled this place for ten years, when
he became pastor of St. Patrick's Church in
the same city. While discharging his duties as
pastor he was appointed Coadjutor-Bishop of
Philadelphia, with the right of succession. He
was consecrated bishop April 26, 1857. The

diocese at that date included nearly all -

sylvania, West New Jersey, and the whole of
Delaware. The diocese was in a very bad con-
dition financially, but the new bishop showed
himself equal to the situation. He began at
once to organize the cathedral . parish, built a
chapel, introduced a wider range of devotions,

JAMBB FBEDEKICK WOOD.

gathered the people together, and discharged
all the duties of a parish priest with a zeal and
regularity which soon made the parish one of
the strongest in the city. He gave particular
attention to financial questions, and it is not
too much to say that to him almost alone is
due the credit of extricating the diocese from
its difficulties.

On the death of Bishop Neumann, Jan. 5,
1860, Bishop Wood succeeded to the title and
full administration of the diocese. In Novem-
ber, 1864, he consecrated his cathedral. All
the charitable institutions received improve-
ment and extension. New religious orders
were introduced. He established the Home for
Destitute Orphan Girls, enlarged St. Vincent's
Home, aided the Sisters of the Good Shepherd,
brought in the Little Sisters of the Poor, and
established the Sister Servants of the Immacu-
late Heart of Mary. He was especially urgent
in forwarding the interests of his Theological
Seminary at Overbrook, near Philadelphia, the
corner-stone of which was laid April 4, 1866.

In February, 1875, Pope Pius IX erected
Philadelphia into a new metropolitan see, and
Bishop Wood attained to the dignity of arch-
bishop. He was invested with the pallium
June 17, 1875. Bishop Wood was a firm be-
liever in the doctrine of infallibility.

WORLD'S FAIRS. Amsterdam.— The Interna-
tional Colonial and General Exportation Ex-
position was opened in Amsterdam, Holland,
May 1, 1883, and closed on October 81st. It

824

WORLD'S FAIRS.

was organized by a syndicate of Belgian and
Dutch capitalists. The foundation of the un-
dertaking was a complete representation of the
Dutch East India colonies, including the man-
ners and customs of the natives, their systems of
agriculture, transportation, and commerce, do-
mestic arts, mechanical trades, weapons of war,
types of the people, costumes, and general prod-
ucts. This department of the Exposition was
comprised in a special building, with minor
structures. The entire Exposition occupied
twenty-five acres, in the suburbs of the city.
Within this space were grouped the various
buildings, about fifty in number. In the main
building were arranged the manufactures and
products of the different countries exhibiting.
Of these the countries exhibiting the most fully
were in this order — France, Belgium, Holland,
Germany. The finest exhibit, and said to be
the finest ever made by that country, was by
France. The poorest was from the United
States, from which country no commissioners
were sent, the display made being by agents in
Europe of American manufactures, and com-
prising only a few articles. Machinery Hall
included machinery in operation from France,
Germany, Belgium, Holland, the United States,
and Great Britain. A special building, form-
ing an annex to the main building, contained
representations of numerous small industries
and manufactures in operation, and here were
disposed the greater number of those minor
exhibits which are usually scattered through-
out an exhibition, and which include small
wares for sale and strictly for exhibition or
competitive purposes. There were also sepa-
rate structures devoted to special exhibitors,
besides a pavilion for the city of Amsterdam,
one for the King of Holland, the Press Pavil-
ion, and numerous restaurants representing
Holland, Germany, France, England, and other
countries. The grounds were tastefully laid
out in flower-gardens; and as the situation
was intersected by canals, there was opportu-
nity for a novel display of Chinese junks, Java-
nese and other East Indian boats and bridges,
displaying the designs of different countries.
One building was devoted to a Javanese band
or orchestra, the Gramelang, comprising thirty-
eight native performers on the musical instru-
ments of Java, a most novel and interesting
attraction. Of the entire colonial exhibit it
is to be said that it was the largest, most com-
prehensive, and most instructive ever made.
The general exhibition, while it partook of the
characteristics of all such displays, was notable
in having fewer insignificant and frivolous ex-
hibits than any other. In point of size, the
Amsterdam Exposition will rank next after
that of Paris in 1878. The fine-art exhibits
were contained in a special building, and num-
bered as many as 2,000 paintings of Holland,
Belgium, France, Italy, Spain, Germany, and
Great Britain. This display was not, as a
whole, first rate in merit, though the Dutch
and Belgian -works presented the best speci-

mens of the artists of those countries. The
principal structures were remarkably hand-
some, highly ornamental, and arranged to dis-
play the exhibits to the best possible advan-
tage. Nothing could be finer, within the same
limits, than the general effect of the display,
nor any scene more picturesque than the
grounds and the buildings, particularly the fa-
cade of the main building, constructed after an
Oriental pattern, in a semicircular form, sup-
ported by two towers resting, respectively,
upon the backs of four monster elephants, and
surmounted by figures of Indian gods. The
entrance to this was through the New Royal
Museum, in which were exhibited the splendid
articles from the Kensington Museum, and
those brought by the Prince of Wales from
India, gifts made to him by the native rajahs.
An important and most interesting special ex-
hibit was that of diamond cutting and polish-
ing, an industry for which Amsterdam is the
most famous locality in the world. The horti-
cultural display was contained in a separate
building, but was of minor importance. The
Press Pavilion was an elegant structure, con-
taining all necessary accommodations for the
journalists of the world who visited the Expo-
sition in the prosecution of their duties.

The charge for admission to the Exposition
varied on different days, the highest being a
florin, or forty cents. Arrangements were ef-
fected with the French and Belgian railways,
by which parties of excursionists came from
remote parts of the Continent at reduced
prices, while the entire system of Dutch rail-
ways offered similar facilities. By these means
the peasantry and farming classes were able to
visit Amsterdam and the Exposition at a mod-
erate expense, and the grounds and buildings
were made peculiarly interesting by the pres-
ence of the Friesland and North and South
Holland peasantry in their peculiar costumes.

The entire grounds of the Exposition were
granted to its administration by the city offi-
cials of Amsterdam. As a charge for space
was made to exhibitors, of fifteen florins per
square metre, an enormous income was realized
from this source, and the Exposition was thus
organized on a profitable basis without regard
to the sale of admissions. The articles exhib-
ited, excepting in certain specified cases, were
all offered for sale, and a considerable traffic
was conducted in the smaller objects. The
administration and general supervision were
excellent, the police and sanitary arrangements
entirely satisfactory.

An important feature of the Exposition was
the series of conferences or scientific reunions
for the discussion of topics in the arts and sci-
ences, hygiene, political economy, international
jurisprudence, etc., which were participated in
by some of the leading specialists of Europe.
Medals and diplomas were awarded by a care-
fully chosen list of juries comprising some of
the leading scientists and experts of the differ-
ent countries exhibiting.

WORLD'S FAIRS.

WYOMING.

The colonial exhibits were collected under
the auspices of the Colonial Department of the
Government, by experts sent to the East In-
dies for the purpose, and at the close of the
Exposition these were given by the Govern-
ment to the Museum of Leyden.

India, China, Japan, and the English Aus-
tralian colonies were largely represented in
the Exposition; Uruguay, Chili, and Brazil
made also a fair display. The Dutch colony
of Surinam made a fine exhibit, including types
of the natives. Egypt was fully illustrated, as
were also Tunis and Morocco. No more per-
fect and comprehensive display was ever made
in any exhibition by any country, in proportion
to its size and capacity, than was made by
Holland at the Amsterdam Exposition. This
portion of the collection was a matter of sur-
prise to visitors, on account of its extent, and
the general beauty and excellence of the ex-
hibits. In the articles of manufacture special
to Holland, the display was complete ; in
Schiedam gin, candles, Delft china ware, Delft-
Smyrna carpets, and pipes, this country has
made a world-wide reputation. Such was also
the case in regard to the Belgian exhibits of
laces, carved-oak furniture, glass, metal-work,
and carpets.

At the close of the Exposition, as was the
case in that of Paris in 1878, a monster lottery
of exhibits was organized under Government
permission, the prizes being articles purchased
from the exhibitors of the different countries.
The official report of the Amsterdam Exposi-
tion not having been made at the time of this
writing, its statistics are not accessible. In a
general way, it is believed to have been, finan-
cially, more successful than any previous un-
dertaking of the kind. The President of the
Exposition was Herr D. Cordes, and the Com-
missioner-General, M. E. Agostini.

Boston (Mass.) Foreign Exhibition.— This exhibi-
tion differed from all that have preceded it in
the United States, in being devoted exclusively
to products and manufactures of foreign coun-
tries. It was organized in 1882, under the gen-
eral laws of Massachusetts, by charter granted
for " the general improvement of the manufact-
uring and mechanical interests of the United
States, by means oi holding worthy and ade-
quate exhibitions of foreign manufactures, ar-
tistic and natural productions; the improve-
ment of educational facilities afforded to arti-
sans ; the providing of foreign libraries of ref-
erence, for use at such exhibitions ; the pro-
viding of lectures and discussions on subjects
of industry, science, and art ; and the provid-
ing of all other proper means by which these
objects can be accomplished." By an act of
Congress, approved June 28, 1882, all goods
intended for this exhibition were admitted free
of duty while on exhibition, the building being
made a bonded warehouse for this purpose,
and the goods permitted to be sold at the close
upon payment of duty.

The exhibition was organized under the

name of the Foreign Exhibition Association,
by the issue of stock to the amount of $25,000.
The officers of the association were as follow :
Nathaniel J. Bradlee, President ; 0. B. Nor-
ton, Secretary; Frederic W. Lincoln, Treas-
urer. Directors — Nathaniel J. Bradlee, Fred-
eric W. Lincoln, Frederick O. Prince, Lansing
Millis, James H. Wilson, Francis A. Walker,
Henry W. Peabody, William A. Hovey, Hart-
ley Lord, S. D. Sergeant, J. W. Wolcott, Na-
than Appleton, Theodore N. Vail, Joseph B.
Thomas, Jr., Edward 0. Ellis, Charles D.
Barry. The general manager was 0. B. Nor-
ton, secretary. Commissioners were sent to
foreign countries to obtain exhibits, which
were obtained from Algeria, Australasia, Aus-
tria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Ceylon, China,
Colombia, Corea, Cuba, Denmark, Egypt, Eng-
land, Fiji islands, France, Germany, Guate-
mala, Hawaiian islands, Holland, India, Ire-
land, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Morocco, Norway,
Persia, Portugal, Russia, San Salvador, Scot-
land, Siam, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Tur-
key, and Venezuela. The exhibition was held
in the building of the Massachusetts Charitable
Mechanics' Association, on Huntington Ave-
nue, in the reclaimed district, an irregular
brick structure, three stories in height, built
for exhibition purposes; the second and third
stories formed galleries around the two main
halls into which it was divided, with side-rooms
for offices, restaurant, picture-gallery, etc.

The interior of the building was handsomely
decorated with Persian and Indian rugs, tro-
phies of flags, and other ornamentation. It
was lighted by electric light and heated by
steam, this exhibition being the first of its kind
ever held in winter. On the main floors spe-
cial buildings were erected by exhibitors ; in
the center of Washington Hall (so called) was
a music pavilion, where an orchestra performed
at stated times, music being also supplied by
the great organ at one end of the same hall.

Of the foreign countries represented, the
following sent commissioners having charge
of their exhibits: Japan, Guatemala, Persia,
France, Hawaii, Austria, San Salvador, Den-
mark, Norway, and Sweden. The number of
separate exhibits was, in round numbers, 5,000,
of which the largest display was from Japan,
in china-ware, bronzes, ivory-carvings, and em-
broideries.

The Foreign Exhibition opened on Septem-
ber 3d, with appropriate ceremonies, including
an oration by the Hon. John Jay, and closed
on Jan. 12, 1884. The charge for admission
to the exhibition was fifty cents, and there was
no charge for space to exhibitors. Medals and
diplomas were awarded. Financially, the -ex-
hibition was not successful, there being a defi-
cit of about the amount of the original issue
of stock, which was made up by subscription
on the part of the stockholders.

WYOMING. Territorial GoTernment.— The Ter-
ritorial officers during the year were as follows :
Governor, William Hale ; Secretary, Elliot S.

826

WYOMING.

N. Morgan ; Treasurer, F. G. Warren ; Audit-
or, Jesse Knight ; Superintendent of Public
Instruction, John Slaughter. Supreme Court:
Chief -Justice, James B. Sener; Associate Jus-
tices, J. B. Blair and S. C. Parks.

Resources and General Condition.— The area of
Wyoming is nearly 100,000 square miles. Its
population is about 35,000, more than half of
whom are in the towns on the line of the Union
Pacific Railroad and its branches.

.The mean elevation is 6,400 feet above the
sea-level. The Kooky mountains traverse the
territory from the northwest to the southeast
in irregular ranges. The air is pure, light, and
dry. The average rainfall is not one fourth
that in the Mississippi river basin ; irrigation
is therefore depended upon for the raising of
crops. The winters are open ; there are but
few snow-storms, and the strong winds which
form a feature of the climate usually clear away
the fallen snow in a few days.

The precious and superior metals are found
widely distributed over Wyoming. The mines
are, however, not far developed.

More than one fifth of the territory is cov-
ered with timber.

Cheyenne, the capital, has a population that
is estimated at between 5,000 and 6,000. The
stockmen of the territory make it their head-
quarters, and many of them have built hand-
some residences in the city.

Laramie City is the county town of Albany
county, and the center of trade for the Lara-
mie plains. Its population is about 4,000. The
Union Pacific Railroad operates large rolling-
mills in Laramie, and is now building works
for the preparation of soda for the market.

Cattle. — In round numbers, the statistics of
Wyoming's cattle business for 1883 may be put
down thus: Stock, 800,000 head; value, $30,-
000,000 ; shipments, 200,000 head ; value, $9,-
000,000 to $10,000,000.

Sheep. — It is safe to estimate the number of
sheep now in Wyoming at upward of 750,000.
Next to the cattle business ranks sheep hus-
bandry. Very little loss is sustained on ac-
count of disease. The dryness of the soil not
only prevents foot-rot, but sheep affected with
it when brought here are readily cured.

Horses. — Of late years many Wyoming ranch-

men have been turning their attention to horse-
raising. The business can be conducted here
cheaply, horses being allowed to graze all the
year round. The number of horses assessed
in 1883 was 26,863.

Miscellaneous Statistics.— In the following table
the first column of figures represents the popu-
lation of Wyoming as ascertained by the census
of 1880. The second is the population of 1 882,
as estimated on a comparison of the vote cast
at every election precinct in 1880 and 1882:

1880.

1889.

The Territory

20779

27 200

Albany county

4625

6200

Carbon county .

3438

4400

Crook county
Laramie county

239
6400

300

8200

Johnson county
Sweetwater county

637
2561

1,400
8800

Uintah county. .

287S)

8400

The number of schools in 1883 was 76; pu-
pils enrolled, 3,371. The assessed value of
property the same year was $21,566,993.50.

At the close of business on Dec. 31, 1883,
on a levy of 1 mill on the dollar, the balance
in the hands of the treasurer was $49,782.68.

In 1882 Morton E. Post, Democrat, was
elected delegate to Congress by a vote of 5,813
against 4,702 for his Republican opponent.

Indians. — Although there have been no hos-
tilities with Indians for several years in Wy-
oming, the settlers in the northern part of the
territory have been annoyed by bands of reser-
vation Indians roaming at large over the pub-
lic lands, professedly on hunting expeditions.
The stockmen of northern and northeastern
Wyoming have Indian reservations on three
sides of their grazing country. They assert
that the Indians live for protracted seasons in
localities where there is little or no game, and
that the losses to herd-owners, through having
their cattle killed by them for food, are increas-
ing every year, and are now so great that or-
ganized bodies of stockmen will take stringent
measures to check the evil if no action is taken
with that end in view by the Indian Bureau.

ZFLVL1ND. See CAPS COLONY AND SOUTH
AFRICA.

INDEX

TO THE EIGHT VOLUMES, NEW SERIES, OF ANNUAL CYCLOPEDIA.

1876 to 1883.

Aarifi Pasha, sketch, ii, 1.
Abbe, C.. observations by, iii, 34.
Abbott, C. C., discovery by, vi, 19.
Abbott, J. C., obit., vi, 678.
Abbott, J. S. C., sketch, ii, 1.
Abbott, W. P., obit., iii, 631.
Abd-el-Kader, sketch, iv, 1.
Abdul- Aziz, deposition of, i, 760 ;

sketch, i, 1.
Abdul Ghafar, Akhoond of Swat,

obit., iii, 648.
Abdul-Hamid II, sketch, i, 2 ; reign

of, vi, 841.

Abdul Kerim Pasha, sketch, ii, 1.
Abdallah, the Sheik, v. 623.
Abdurrahman Khan, sketch, y, 1 ;

struggle with Ayoob, vi, 3;

viii, 1.

Abdy, Sir T. N., obit., ii, 591.
Abel, experiments by, iv, 131.
Abercrombie, J. J., obit., ii, 574.
Absenteeism of the Crown Prince

of the Netherlands, i, 584.
Abydos, Tablet of, vii, 257.
Abyssinia, i, 3, 9 : ii, 2 ; war with

Egypt, i, 3; ii, 2; iv, 2,333;

v, 236 ; cession of Massowab

to, viii, 302.
Acadia College, i, 67.
Acetoxims, viii. ill.
Achard, invention by, vi, 255.
Acharenza, Duchess of, obit., i, 627.
Achterfeldt, J. H., obit., ii, 591.
Acids, new, ii, 91 ; viii, 111.
Adair, W. P., obit., v, 587.
Ada Kaleh, fortress of, occupation

of, by Austria, iii, 45.
Adam, Edmond, obit., ii, 551.
Adam, experiments by, vii, 87.
Adam, WTP., obit., vi, 690.
Adams, Alvin, obit., ii, 574.
Adams, Edwin, sketch, ii, 3.
Adams, J. F., obit., vi, 678.
Adams, Wm., obit., v, 587.
Adirondack Forests, Preservation

of, viii, 356, 576.
Adrain, G. B., obit., iii, 631.
Adulterations of Food, iv, 2 ; vi, 81,

407, 523, 639 ; test for glucose

in sugar, viii, 112.
Advent Christian Church, v, 2.

Adventists, i, 5 ; ii, 3 ; iii, 1 ; iv;
5; vi, 1; a prophetess, ii, 4,
differences between Seventh-
Day and Seventh-Day Bap-
tists, iii, 49 ; articles of faith,
vi, 1.

Aerial Navigation, vi, 548.

Aerial Transportation. See Tel-
pherage, viii, 679.

Affirmation Question in Parlia-
ment. See Oaths.

Afghanistan, i? 6 ; ii, 4 ; iii, 2 ; iv,
6 ; y, 3 ; vi, 2 ; maps, i, 7 ; iii,
3 ; iv, 8 ; v, 5 ; viii, 1 : map of
Cabul, iv, 13 ; map of Canda-
har, v, 7.

Afghans, descent claimed by, ii, 4 ;
tribes of, v, 3.

Afghan War, the. See Afghanis-
tan in vols. iii, iv. v, and vi ;
effect in India, iii, 437; iv,
491 ; meeting in London, iv,
494; discussed in Parliament,
v, 330, 337, 343 ; vi, 362 ; Eus-
sian correspondence, vi, 800;
cost of, v, 386 ; effect in Per-
sia, v, 622; change in British
policy, vi, 2; withdrawal of
British troops, vi, 359.

Africa, i, 8 ; ii, 7 ; iii, 7 ; iv, 14 ; v,
_9; vi, 4.

Africa, Central, exploration of.
See Geographical, etc., in every
volume; treatment of travel-
ers in, iv, 401, 402, 406, 407 ;
customs, iv, 403, 404 ; extermi-
nation of a tribe visited by Liv-
ingstone, iv, 407.

Afridis, hostilities by, ii, 394.

Agaricine, vii, 88.

Agoult, Countess d'? sketch, i, 9.

Agriculture, i, 10 ; ii, 8 ; iii, 7 ; v,
10 ; percentage of cultivated
lands in various countries, ii,
8 ; department of, in N. C., ii,
573; sugar in Minn., ii, 523;
in Miss. 2 iii, 574 ; wheat weigh-
ing and inspection, iv, 623 ; fa-
cifities in N. C., iv, 690; de-
cline of, in England, _ vii, 1 ; ex-
periment station, vii, 511.

Ahmed Vefyk Pasha, sketch, ii,

Aigan, J., obit., iii. 631.

Aiken, F., obit., iii, 631.

Ains worth, W. H., obit., vii, 644.

Air-thermometer, vii, 92.

Aird, Thos., sketch, i, 14.

Airy, G. B., observations, vi, 39.

Aitken, John, on fo^s, v, 275.

Akerman, A. T., obit., v. 587.

Akhoond of Swat, obit., hi, 648.

Akkas, the, vi, 4.

Alabama, in every volume ; Depart-
ment of Agriculture, viii, 2;
tax law, viii, 2 ; Treasurer ab-
sconded, viii, 3.

Alaska, iv, 24 ; map, iv, 25 ; peo-
ple, v, 301 ; need of govern-
ment, v, 648 ; statistics, vi, 9 ;
fur-seal industry, vii, 6 ; vol-
canoes, viii, 287.

Albanian LeaguCj the, against sur-
render of territory, v, 687, 688 ;
vi, 842 ; opposition to Monte-
negro, v, 542 ; viii, 549 ; map of
Albania, i, 751.

Albany, Capitol at, iv, 671; vi,
658 ; vii, 614 ; viii, 570, 575.

Alberger, F. A., obit., ii, 574.

Alberi, E., obit., iii, 649.

Albert, J. S., obit., v. 588.

Albert, W. J., obit., Iv, 692.

Albert Lake, circumnavigated, i,
831 ; Stanley's journey, i, 833.

Alberta, Territory of, viii,* 81.

Albertis, explorations by, i, 829.

Albrecht, W. E., sketch, i, 18.

Albufe>a, Due do, obit., ii, 591.

Albuminoids, in grain, v, 92.

Alcoholj test for, i, 97 j estimation
of, in a mixture, ii, 92 ; freez-
ing-point of mixtures, vi, 100 ;
statistics, iv, 24.

Alden, Admiral J., sketch, ii, 13.

Alencar, J. M. de, obit., ii, 591.

Aleko Pasha, sketch, iv, 26.

Alexander I, of Bulgaria, sketch,
iv, 26 ; strife with Busaia, viii,
74.

Alexander II, of Russia, sketches,
ii, 18 ; vi, 10 ; assassination, vi.

828

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FEOM 1876 TO 1883.

795, 796 ; trial of assassins, vi,
796.

Alexander III, of Eussia, accession,
vi, 798 ; portrait, v, 661 ; cor-
onation, viii, 704, 706.

Alexander, Grand Duke of Kussia,
obit., ii.591.

Alexander, B. S., obit., iii, 631.

Alexander, E. B., sketch, vi, 9.

Alexander, H., Jr., obit., iii, 631.

Alexandria, Anglo-French squad-
ron at, vii, 242 ; riots in, 244 ;
bombardment of, 244 ; British
fleet at, vii, 568; indemnity
commission, viii, 297 ; trials on
charge of burning, 298.

Alfonso, King of Spain, portrait,
viii, 735.

Algeria, i, 9, 19 ; map, i 19 ; French
Government in, ii, 14; shotts
of, iii, 725 ; revolt, iv,_ 27 ; gov-
ernment, v, 285 ; incursions
from Tunis, vi, 311 ; expro-
priation of lands, viii, 358.

Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse-
Darmstadt, sketch, iii, 11.

Alima river, discovery of, iv, 401.

Alimentary canal, viii, 750.

Alison, Sir A., in Egypt, and por-
trait, vii, 251.

Alkali Desert, the, iv. 340.

Alkaloid, new volatile, iv, 137 ;
vegetable, v, 89 ; of piturie, vi,
98.

Allard, Gen. N., obit., ii, 591.

Allen, A. H., experiments, vi, 94.

Allen, G. A., obit., iii, 631.

Allen, Wm., sketch, iv, 27.

Allen, W. A., obit., vii, 635.

Allen, W. F., obit., ii, 592.

Allen, W. F., obit., iii, 631.

Alliance expedition, vi, 323, 324.

Alliance electrical machine, iii, 275.

Alloys, determination of, iv, 502;
new, viii, 524.

Alluard, invention by, iii, 545.

Almshouse, Tewksbury, viii, 517.

Alphonso, King, attempt to assas-
sinate, v, 673 ; insult to, in
France, viii, 397.

Alps, Tunnels of the, vii, 11.

Alsace-Lorraine, map, i, 345 ; pow-
ers of Parliament, ii, 349 ; final
regulation of government, iv,
438 ; incident, v, 208 ; govern-
ment of, vii, 359 ; language
question, viii, 397.

Alsina, Adolfo, sketch, i, 21.

Altitudes, highest mountain, pass,
and inhabited place, vi, 332.

Aluminum, wear of, ii, 500 ; atom-
ic weight, vi, 93; production
of3<vii, 531; manufacture of,

Alvensleben, Gen., obit., ii, 592.

Alzog, J. B., obit., iii, 649.

Amalie Augusta. ex-Queen of Sax-
•ony, obit., ii, 592.

Amat, Thaddeus, obit., iii, 631.

Amat di San Filippo e Surso, Car-
dinal, sketch, iii, 11.

Amazon, survey of the, iii, 865, 589 ;
explorations near, iii, 365.

Amberley. Viscount, obit., i, 627.

Ambros, A. W., sketch, i, 21.

America, i, 22; ii, 15; iii, 12; iv,
28; v, 15.

Amerman, John, Jr., obit., i, 611.

Ames, Adelbert, impeachment, i,
561.

Ames, E. E., sketch, iv, 29.

Ames, J., Jr., obit., iii, 631.

Ames, Oliver, obit., ii, 574.

Amidon, experiments, viii, 99.

Aminof, Baron, explorations by, iii,
359.^

Ammonia, in saliva, vi, 1 00 ; in po-
table waters, vii, 91.

Amnesty, bill in Congress, i, 182-
193; to Cubans, ii, 700; in
France, iv, 389 ; v, 284 ; return
of exiles, v, 285 ; for press
offenses, iii, 343, 344.

Arnr-el-Makasef, revolt, viii, 299.

Amsterdam fair, viii, 824.

Amusements, Presbyterian Assem-
bly on, v, 630.

Analytic chemistry, viii, 117.

Anam. See Tonquin. '

Anderson, A. A., explorations by,
iv, 404.

Anderson, Larz, obit.; iii, 631.

Anderson, Louise, obit., ii, 574.

Anderson, E. H., obit., iv, 692.

Anderson ville, prison at, i, 184-192.

Andes, the, explorations in, vi, 330 ;
new pass over, viii, 123, 384.

Andlaw, F. X. von, obit., i, 627.

Andral, Gabriel, sketch, i, 22 ; in-
vestigations by, viii, 60.

Andrassy, Count, policy of, i, 387,
388, 710, 760 ; ii, 55? 57, 381 ;
iii, 43, 44 5 resignation of, iv,
67 ; and Bismarck, iv, 67.

Andrassy, Countess, obit., i, 628.

Andrews, invention by, vi, 258.

Angelin, N: P., obit., i, 628.

Angelis, Cardinal, obit., ii, 592.

Anglican Churches, in every vol-
ume.

Anglican ritualistic controversy, vi,
15 ; viii, 6.

Aniline salts, new, iv, 132.

Animal chemistry, vii, 94 ; viii, 119.

Animal plants and plant-animals,
iv, 36.

Animals, societies for prevention of
cruelty to? iv, 601.

Annexations, intervention in cases
of, vii, 626.

Anson. A. H. A., obit., ii, 592.

Ansted, D. T., obit., v, 597.

Anthon, G. C., obit., ii, 574.

Anthony, Allard, ii, 575.

Anthony, James, obit., i, 611.

Anthony, J. G., obit., ii, 575.

Anthropology, vi, 19.

Anti-ferment, an, ii, 97.

Anti-Mason party, the, v, 697.

Anti-Monopoly League, vi, 652.

Antimony-mines in Mexico, v, 18.

Antinori expedition, iii, 362.

Antiquity of man. See Anthropol-
ogy, vi, 19.

Antiseptics, vii, 95, 315 ; viii, 116,
747.

Antonelli, Cardinal, sketch, i, 27.

Antonelli, Count, explorations by,
viii, 386.

Antonucchi, A. B., obit., iv, 697.

Antwerp harbor, improvement of,
iv, 345 ; vii, 280.

Apfaltern, Iwan, obit., i, 628.

Appleton, Geo. S., sketch, iii, 16.

Appleton, John A., sketch, vi, 20.

Apponyi, E., Count, obit., i, 628.

Apportionment of Eepresentatives,
bill in Congress, vi, 184 ; vii,
142; in New York, iv, 671.
See also Eedistricting.

Apuzzo, F., obit., v. 597.

Aquilonda, Lake, v, 295.

Aquinas. Leo XIII on, iv, 773.

Arabi Ahmed Pasha (Arabi Bey),
vi, 236 ; vii, 241 ; sketch and
portrait, vii, 21.

Arabic Lexicon. See Lane, i, 442.

Araucania, Chilian possession of,
vii, 99.

Arbitration, obligation of mer-
chants to abide by, after agree-
ment, vi, 21 ; of United States
on disputed boundaries, vi, 777,
778 ; of claims between United
States and Mexico, viii, 469.

Arbuthnot, W., obit.j i, 628.

Archaeology, i, 28 • vi, 21.

Archibald, Sir T. D., obit., i, 628.

Arconati-Viscqnti, obit., i, 628.

Arctic exploration, in every volume,
under Geographical Progress ;
map of Arctic North America,
i, 325 ; islands discovered, iii,
354; vii, 331, 334; circumpo-
lar stations, viii, 382. See
Greely Expedition, viii, 420.

Ardmillan, Lord, obit., i, 628.

Area of United States by census of
1880, vi, 850.%

Arfak Mountains,' iv, 408.

Argentine Eepublic, in every vol-
ume ; maps, i, 37 ; vi, 26 ;
American products in, viii, 14.

Argyll, Duke of, sketch, v, 23.

Arizona, i, 38 ; viii, 16.

Arkansas, in every volume ; pro-
nunciation of the name, v, 24.

Arlberg Tunnel, viii, 310.

Armenia, misgovcrnment of, v,
337 ; scheme for government,
v? 689 ; question of, vii, 803 ;
viii, 773 ; map, iii, 789.

Armenian churches, tne, viii, 153.

Armies, discipline bill in Great
Britain, iv, 452; reorganiza-
tion in Denmark, iv, 313 ; new
laws in France, ii, 301 ; y, 278 ;
strength of, in France, iii, 348 ;
bill in Germany, v, 317 ; new
law in Netherlands, vi, 627 ;
the Persian, vi, 733 ; reorgan-
ization of the Spanish, vii, 750 ;
the Swiss, vi, 829.

Arminius, statue of. See Bandel,
i, 61.

Armitage, Sir E., obit.j i, 628.

Armstrong gun, the, vii, 581.

Army of the United States, in every
volume but viii ; reorgani^a^
tion of, iii, 30 ; appropriation
bills, iii, 136, 196-213, 802 ; iv,
226, 234, 251-274; veto, 265,
272 ; v, 167-172 ; use of, as a
posse comitatus, iii, 30, 196-213 ;
retirement of officers, vii, 149.

Arnaud, F., obit., iii, 649.

Arndt, H., obit., i, 628.

Arndts von Arnesberg, K. L., obit.,
iii, 649.

Arnim, Count Harry von, trial of,
i, 348 ; sketch, vi, 36.

Arnold, Aaron, obit., i, 612.

Arnold, T. J., obit., ii. 592.

Arrivabehe, Count, obit., vi, 690.

Arrom, Cecilia de. See Caballero,
i, 82.

Arsenic, solvent for, i, 98 ; tests for,
i, 100 ; vi, 95 ; in the body, i,
101 ; v, 92 ; viii, 119 ; separa-
tion from antimony, iii, 90;

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

from copper, yiii, 113 ; as col-
oring-matter, iv, 2, 4 ; in wall-
ar, vi, 99 ; poisoning by, v,

Atwater, L. II., obit., viii, 586.
Atwater, W. O., investigations by,
vi, 671.

paper, vi, 99 ; poisoning by, v, vi, 671.

91 ; vi. 751 ; poisoning from Aubin, experiments by, viii. 120.

bismuth, vii, 90. Aucbietta, residence of, in Central
jsian wells, ii, 280 ; deepest in Africa, iv, 405.

Artesian

the world, ii, 281 ; in Georgia,
vii, 348 ; patents, viii, 446.

Arthur, C. A., sketch and portrait,
vi, 36 ; inaugural and procla-
mation, vi, 847. Messages,
see Congress and Public Doc-
uments.

Ascherson, explorations, i, 331.

Ashantee, King of, war .declared
by, vi, 4.

Ashcroft, J. H., explorations by,
v, 290.

Ashtabula disaster, report, ii, 617.

Asia, in first five volumes ; Cen-
tral, explorations in, i, 328 ; ii,
325 ; iii. 359, 360 ; iv, 399 ; v,
289 ; vii, 335 ; new route to,
viii, 385 ; routes to Central, and
trade with, viii, 707.

Asia Minor, reforms proposed for,
v, 689.

Aspinwall, T., obit, i, 612.

Assab, taken by Italy;, v, 9.

Assassinations, political, and at-
tempts at, in Abyssinia, v, 69 ;
in Austria, vii; 54; in Colom-
bia, iv, 149 ; in England, vii,
369 ; in Germany, in, 381 ; in
India, iv, 494 ; in Ireland, vii,
368 ; viii, 414 ; in Italy , iii, 458 ;
in Japan, iii, 462 : in Peru, iii,
687 ; in Russia, iii, 744, 745 ;
iv, 682-684, 776; v, 662, 663,
665 ; vi, 12, 796, 799 ; in Spain,
iii, 774 ; iv, 822 ; v. 673 ; in Tur-
key, v, 690 ; in United States,
iii, 501, 502.

Assing, L., obit., v, 597.

Assimboia, Territory of, viii, 81.

Assyrian and Babylonian Eesearch-
es, recent, vii, 262.

Asteroids discovered. See Planets,
Minor, under Astronomical
Phenomena, in every volume.

Astringents, strength of, i, 95.

Astronomical Journals, vii, 41.

Astronomical Phenomena and
Progress, in every volume.

Astronomical Prizes. See under
Astronomical Phenomena, etc.,
in every volume.

Asylum, right of, in Switzerland,
vi, 829 ; violation of, hi Spain,
vii, 751.

Atcheen, revolt in, i, 584 ; ii, 541 ;
iii, 597; iv, 657; v, 555; vi,
625; vii, 590.

Athabasca, Territory of, viii, 81. _

Atheists, admission of, to Parlia-
ment, v, 334. See also Oaths.

Athens, map of, and ports, i, 367 ;
of ancient, i, 368.

Atkinson, E., suggestion of, for
cotton exhibition, vi, 260.

Atlanta, exposition at, see Expo-
sition, vi, 260; to be State
capital, iii, 370.

Atlas Mts., the, vi, 327.

Atomic Theory, vi, 40 ; address on
the growth of, vi, 91.

Atomic Weights, v, 86 ; vi, 92 ; vii,
89 ; viii, 117.

Attorney-General of Indiana, inves-
tigation as to fees of, iv, 499.

Africa, iv, 405.

Audebert, explorations, viii, 387.
Audenried, J. C.2 obit., v, 588.
Audiphone, the, iv, 54.
Auerbach, B., obit., vii, 644.
Auersperg, Count, sketch, i, 51. 59.
Aurelle de Paladines, Gen., obit.,

ii, 592.
Aurora Borealis, displays of, vii,

34 ; studies of, viii, 28 ; an ar-
tificial, viii, 383.
Aurora King, the, 382.
Austin, new Capitol at, vii, 794.
Australasia, explorations in, i, 329.
Australasian Colonies, movement

to consolidate, viii, 30 ; postal

union, ibid. ; defenses^ ibid. ;

annexation schemes, viii, 31.
Australia and Polynesia, in every

volume.

Austrian Electoral System, vii, 46.
Austrian influence, Gladstone on,

v, 334.
Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, in

every volume.
Autran, Jos., obit., ii, 592.
Auzoux, T. L. J.. obit., v, 598.
Avalanche in Switzerland, vi, 830.
A very, D. D., obit., iv, 692.
Awdry, Sir J. W., obit., iii, 649.
Ayer, J. C., obit., iii, 631.
Ayoob Khan, v, 4; vi, 2; defeat

and flight, vi, 4.

Ayrton, electric railway, viii, 678.
Aztec Calendar, the, viii, 536.

Babcock, G. E., obit., i, 612.

Babinet, invention by, v, 51.

Bache, H. W., obit., iii. 632.

Back, Sir G., sketch, iii, 46.

Bacon, Geo., obit., i, 612.

Bacon, Leonard, sketch, vi, 51.

Bacteria, vi, 669 ; relations of, with
various gases, vi, 98. See also
Germ Theory and Tuberculo-
sis, vii, 798.

Badger, George, obit., ii, 575.

Baer, K. E. von, sketch, i, 60, 322.

Bagehot, Walter, obit., ii, 592.

Bagley, G. E., obit., i, 612.

Bagley, Jas., obit., i, 612.

Bagley, J. J. , sketch, vi, 52.

Bagration - Mouchransky, Prince,
obit., i, 628.

Bahadoor, Sir J., obit., ii, 592.

Bahtiares, revolt of, vii, 681.

Bailey, G. A., obit., i, 575.

Bailey, Theodorus, sketch, i, 59.

Bain, Alex., obit., ii, 592.

Baird, Matthew, obit., ii, 575.

Baiter. J. G., obit., ii, 593.

Baker! Eev. G., obit., ii, 575.

Baker, Sir H. W., obit., ii, 593.

Baker Pasha. See Egypt, viii, 295-
302.

Baker, N. B., obit., i, 612.

Baker, Thos., obit., i, 628.

Baker, W. M., obit., viii, 586.

Baking-powders, alum in, iii, 85.

Bakumn, Michael, sketch, i, 60.

Balard, A. J., sketch, i, 61.

Balch, Thos., obit., ii, 575.

Baldasseroni, G., sketch, i, 61.

Baldwin, Judge C., obit., i, 612.

Ball, I. W., obit., v, 588.

Ballantine, J., obit., ii, 598.

Ballay, Dr., explorations by, ii,
333, 334 ; iv, 401.

Ballot, law to prescribe form for,
iv, 17, 18.

Ballou, G. C., obit., i, 612.

Balmain, invention by, v, 98.

Baltic provinces, government
change in, i, 71.

Baltimore anniversary, v, 494.

Bamangwato, docription, iv, 408.

Bananas, culture of, viii, 588.

Bandel, J. E. von, sketch, i, 61.

Bandon, Earl of, obit., ii, 593.

Bangs, G. S., obit.ii, 675.

Bankruptcy bill in Parliament, viu,
410.

Banks, decision on national, i, 506 ;
laws for.in Mass., i, 508 ; vi,
536 ; of Tenn., decision on, ii,
711 ; failure of the City, of
Glasgow, iv, 175 ; savings, in
E. L, iv, 769 ; fees of receivers
in Conn., v, 195 ; sale and taxa-
tion of shares of national, vi,
52; U. S., vi, 126; vii, 392;
taxation of, in Del., vi, 205 ; in
Argentine Republic, vii. 25, 26 ;
of States, vii, 392 ; of Canada,
viii. 84 ; in Colombia, viii, 189 ;
statistics of 1883. viii, 332.

Baptists, in every volume.

Baraguay d'Hilliers, sketch, iii, 53.

Barbadoes, riots hi, i, 366.

Barbed-wire fence, vi, 266.

Barbour, J. M., obit., vi, 678.

Barca, F., obit., viii, 597.

Barcelona, riots in, vii, 752.

Bard, S., obit., iii, 632.

Bardoux, Age"nor, sketch, ii, 320.

Bardsley, Sir J. L., obit., i, 628.

Barff, Prof., discovery by, vii, 315 •
invention by, vii, 633.

Barger, Father, obit., ii, 575.

Bariii, Antonio, sketch, i. 68.

Barilochi Pass, Andes, viii, 385.

Barker, G. W., obit., iii, 632.

Barker, Prof., observations by, iii,
34.

Barksdale, H., obit., vi, 678.

Barlow, S. Ba obit., i, 612.

Barnard, E. E., discoveries by, vi,
39 ; vii, 38.

Barnard, J. G., sketch, vii, 65.

Barnes, J. K., obit., viii, 586.

Barni, J. R., obit., iii, 649.

Barometers, water-, v, 51.

Barrett, Rev. M., obit., i, 612.

Barrett, Com., obit., v, 588.

Barriere, Theodore, obit., ii, 593.

Barrot, F., obit., viii, 597.

Barrow, Sir G., obit., i, 628.

Barry, E. M., obit., v, 598.

Barry, G. E., obit., i, 612.

Barry, W. F., sketch, iv. 73.

Earth, Baron, death of. ii, 380.

Barth, J. B. P., obit:, ii, 593.

Bartlett, F. W., invention by, i, 91.

Bartlett, J. H., discovery, v, 288.

Bartlett, W. F., obit., i, 612.

Bartley, Mrs. Judge, obit., i, 612.

Barton, Clara, vii, 718.

Bary, E. von, death of, ii, 329.

Base, a new, iv, 134.

Bashford, C., obit., iii, 632.

Basque provinces, dissatisfaction
in, i, 730.

Bassamas. tribe of the, v, 291.

Bastian, Dr., on the germ theory,
iii, 390.

830

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

Bastide, J., obit., iv^ 698.
Bastile, the, celebration of removal

of, v, 285.
Basutos, the, v, 80 ; law to disarm,

v. 81 ; vi, 85 ; revolt of, v, 81 :

vi, 86 ; vii, 84 ; history and.

separation from Cape Colony,

viii, 89.
Baths and bathing among various

nations, v, 354 ; bath-rooms, v,

362.

Bathurst, Earl, obit., iii, 649.
Battenberg, Prince, vii, 73.
Battle, W. H., sketch, iv, 74.
Baudot, Paul, obit., ii, 593.
Baudissin, W. H. F. K., obit., iii,

649.

Baudot, invention by, vi, 256.
Bauer, Caroline, obit., ii, 593.
Bauer, Clara, sketch, i, 68.
Baumstark, A., obit., i, 628.
Baxendell, J., discoveries by, v, 35,

36.

Baxter, S., obit., iii, 632.
Bayard, J. A., sketch, v, 52.
Bayer, Prof., discovery by, vi, 428.
Bayer, H. J. P. von, sketch, i, 69.
Bay ley, J. E., sketch, ii, 66.
Beach, E. J., obit., ii, 575.
Beaconsfleld. See Disraeli.
Beamer and Clarke, experiments

by, iv, 132.

Beard, G. M., obit., yiii, 586.
Beaton, Euth, obit., ii, 575.
Beatrice Gulf, an arm of Albert

Lake, iii, 362.

Beaubien, J. C., obit., ii; 593.
Beaumont's air-engine, vi, 513 ; per-
forator, vii, 281 ; viii, 31.
Beaunis, experiments by, viii, 635.
Beauregard, A. T., obit., vi. 679.
Beaver, J. A., sketch, vii, 677.
Beccari, 0., explorations of, i, 330 ;

iv, 408.

Bechamp, investigations, viii, 636.
Bechterew, experiments, viii, 634.
Bechuanaland, war in, viii, 92. See

also Cape Colony.
Beck, J. T. von, obit., iii, 650.
Becker, K. F., obit,, ii, 593.
Beckmann, J. H., obit., iii, 650.
Beckwith, T., obit., iii, 632.
Becquerel, A. C., sketch, iii, 53,

650.

Bedford, H. M., obit., v, 588.
Beecher, Catherine E., sketch, iii,

53.

Beegerite, vi, 98.
Beekman, J. W., obit., ii, 575.
Beer, vii, 65 ; tax on, in Great Brit-
ain, ibid.
Beet-Sugar, i, 94; new product

from, iv, 75 •, in Del., iv, 311 ;

in Me., iv, 578; in Md., iv,

590.

Behring Strait, current, vi, 325.
Belcher, Sir E., obit., ii, 593.
Belgian Free churches, iii, 57.
Belgium, in every volume.
Belknap, W. W., impeachment of,

i, 42, 203, 686.
Bell, Sir G., obit., ii, 594.
Bell, A. Graham, inventions and

experiments by, i, 740 ; vi, 239,

257, 787.
Bell, G. Lowthian, invention by, i,

522.

Bell, T., obit., v, 598.
Belli, invention by, iii, 545.
Belly, L. A. A., obit., ii, 594.

Beloochistan, rebellion in, i, 73 ; ii,
69 ; British occupation of Quet-
ta, ii, 70.

Belshaw, J., invention, viii, 466.

Benedek, L. von, obit., vi, 690.

Benedict, E. C., sketch, v, 56.

Benedict, Mrs. J. T., obit., ii, 575.

Benedict, St., anniversary, v, 658.

Beni river, exploration of, vi, 332.

Benic, Eear- Admiral, obit., i, 629.

BenkerandLasne, experiments by,
viii, 115.

Bennet, 0., obit., v, 588.

Bennett, J. G., expedition sent by,
vi, 322.

Bennett islandj vii, 322.

Bennigsen, retirement of, viii, 395.

Bennington, centennial of the bat-
tle of, ii, 757.

Benson, E. W., sketch, portrait,
viii, 57.

Benson, S. P., obit., i, 612.

Bentinck, Sir H. J. W., obit., 650.

Benton^J. G., obit., yi, 679.

Benue river, exploration of, v, 290.

Benzoic acid, v, 89.

Berardi, Cardinal, sketch, iii, 57.

Berdclle, J. B., obit., i, 629.

Berden, H., invention, ii, 626.

Beresford, M., obit., i, 629.

Beresford, Lord, in Egypt, and
portrait, vii, 248.

Berglund, E., experiments by, viii,
113.

Bergmann, Carl, obit., i, 613, 629.

Berlier, invention by, vii, 741.

Berlin, Treaty of, iii, 292 ; Glad-
stone on, iii, 402 ; dissatisfac-
tion in Greece, iii, 409 ; in
Hungary, iii, 425 ; in Italy,
iii, 458 ; in territory ceded to
Montenegro, iii, 586 ; in Eou-
mania, iii, 739 ; territory gamed
by Eussia, iii, 741 ; dissatisfac-
tion in Eussia, iii, 744 ; in the
Turkish provinces, iii, 795,
796 ; discussion in Austria, iv,
62 ; indistinctness as to Monte-
negro, iv, 648 ; measures to en-
force, v, 543, 687, 688 ; as to
Greek boundaries, vi, 374 ; re-
lations of Germany and Eus-
sia after, vii, 353 ; difficulty in
carrying out, viii, 550.

Bernard affair, the, viii, 57? 694.

Bernard, Claude, sketch, iii, 57.

Bernhardt, Sarah, sketch, v, 57.

Bernstein, A., electric lamp of, viii,
303.

Berrien, J. M., obit., viii, 586.

Berry, J. H., sketch, vii, 30.

Berry, E. M., expedition, vi, 323.

Bert, Paul, appointment of, vii,
324 ; attack on the church, 324,
325.

Berthaut, Gen., obit., vi, 691.

Berthelot, experiments by, i, 92 ;
iii, 93, 725.

Bertin. L. A., obit., ii, 594.

Bertim, H., obit., i, 629.

Bertrand, Felix, sketch, i, 74,

Beryllium, atomic weight, vii, 89.

Bessarabia, retrocession of, to Eus-
sia, iii, 739, 741, 742 ; viii,
697.

Bessemer steel process, ii, 403 ; iii,
128; vii, 580; in U. S., vii,
531 ; applied to copper, viii,
522.

Beta, H., obit., i, 629.

Bethmann-Hollweg, M. A. von,
obit., ii, 594.

Bible Christians, ii, 510.

Bible, thej Japanese translation, iii,
463; into Oriental languages,
iii, 586 ; heretical views on in-
spiration of, iii, 698 ; Brahman
opinion of, iv, 91 ; case of Eob-
ertson Smith, vi, 760, 769 ; of
W. L. MacFarlane, vi, 769;
Colenso on the Pentateuch,
viii, 135.

Bibra, Baron E. von, obit., iii, 650.

Biddlecomb, Sir G.. obit., iii, 650.

Bid well, W. H., obit., yi, 679.

Bigelow, E. B., invention by, viii,
94.

Bigelow, G. T., sketch, iii, 58.

Bigelow, J., sketch, iv, 78.

Biggs, Judge A., sketch, iii, 58.

Bigler, Win., obit., v, 589.

Bimetallic system, see Currency, ii,
235 ; vi, 60, 287 ; Latin Union,
viii.419.

Bindi, Archbishop, obit., i, 629.

Bindseil, H. E., obit., i, 629.

Bingham, Samuel, obit., i, 613.

Binghamton Asylum, v, 572.

Binz and Schulz, theory of arseni-
cal poisoning, v, 91.

Bird, W. A., obit., 632.

Birmingham, observations by, iii,
38.

Bishop, Victor, obit., i, 613.

Bishopric of Grahamstown, vii, 21.

Bishoprics, new, in England, iii,
403.

Bishops, colonial jurisdiction of, ii,
24 ; consecration of, ii, '27 ; lia-
bility of church property for
debts of, vi, 793 ; viii, 673 ;
right of nominating, viii, 695.

Bismarck, Prince, contest with Lib-
erals, i, 344 ; resignation of-
fered by, iij 350 ; v, 320 ; and
Socialists, iii, 380 ; negotiations
with Papal Nuncio, iii. 382;
end of alliance with Liberals,
iv, 436. 740 ; and the German
Parliament, vi, 338 .; defeats of,
vi, 344 ; state socialism of, viii,
393 ; influence in Europe, viii,
397.

Bitter, K. H., sketch, iv, 740.

Bixby, J. M., obit., i, 613.

Bizzardi, Cardinal, obit., ii, 594.

Bizzozero, experiments, viii, 633.

Bjerknes, C. A., experiments in
magnetism by, vi? 404.

Bjornson, B., in politics, vi, 827 ;
on the King's veto, vii, 772.

Black, J. S., sketch, viii, 58.

Black Death, the, iv, 730.

Black Flags, viii, 767. f

Black Hills, mines in, ii, 245.

Black-mailing, act against, iii, 619.

Blackwood, J., obit., iy, 698.

Elaine, J. G., sketch^iv, 78; por-
trait, vi, 738 ; official papers.
See Peru, Chili, etc., and Pan-
ama Canal ; oration on Gar-
field, vii, 127.

Blair, B., obit., v, 589.

Blair, F. P., sketch, i, 74.

Blair, Montgomery, obit., viii, 587.

Blair, Mrs., obit., ii, 575.

Blake, Jas. , experiments by, vi, 99 ;
vii,89.

Blake, E., sketch, viii, 59.

Blanc, C., obit., vii, 645.

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

831

Blanc, Louis, sketch, vii, 67.

Blanchard, J. W., obit., ii, 575.

Blanchard, W., obit., ii, 575.

Blanqui, A., sketch, vi, 65.

Bias and Miest, experiments by,
viii, 524.

Blasphemy, trial for, viii, 418.

Blatchford, S., appointment to Su-
preme Court, vii, 807.

Bleaching, agent in, viii, 115.

Bledsoe, Dr. A. T., obit., ii, 575.

Bleuler and Lehmann, experiments
by, vi, 400.

Blind, education of the. See Howe,
i, 384.

Blitz, Signer, obit., ii, 575.

Blodgett, F., obit., ii, 576.

Blood, pressure of the, vi, 748 ; me-
chanism of arrest of haemor-
rhage, viiij 60 ; discoveries con-
cerning, viii, 632.

Bloss, Geo., M. D., obit., i, 613.

Blue Licks, battle of, anniversary,
vii, 453.

Blue Nile, the, revolt on, viii, 299.

Bluethner, J., improvements of the
piano by, i, 517.

Blumenburg, Mai. L., obit., i, 613.

Blunt, G.W., obit, iii, 632.

Blunt, W. S., study of Islam, vi,
440.

Bluntschli, J. G., sketch, vi, 65.

Boardman, G. S., obit., ii, 576.

Boardman, H. A., obit., v, 589.

Bochfontaine, experiments by, viii,
634.

Bocholtz, Countess, death, v, 659.

Bodisco, W., obit., iii, 632.

Boeresco, B., obit., viii, 597.

Boers, war with the, vi, 87, 88 ; viii,
89, 92.

Bogy, L. V., sketch, ii, 71.

Bohemia, conflict of nationalities
in, v, 45.

Bohmer, C., experiments by, viii,
112.

Boisbaudran, L. de, metal discov-
ered by, i, 524; experiments
by, iii, 89; vi, 41.

Bolan Pass, the, secured to Great
Britain, i, 74; occupation of
Quetta, ii, 70.

Bolckow, H. W. P., obit., iii,. 650.

Bolivia, in every volume . but i ;
map, ii. 73 ; rebellion in, ii, 72 ;
war with Chili, iv, 82 ; vi,
738.

Boll, Jacob, obit., v, 589.

Bolles, J. A., obit., iii, 632.

Bolton, H. C., investigations by,
v, 93.

Bona, Marquis, obit., i, 629.

Bonaparte, Anthony, obit, ii, 594.

Bonaparte, Constance, obit., i, 629.

Bonaparte, Eliz. P., sketch, iv, 86.

Bonaparte, Eugene Louis, the
Prince Imperial, sketch, iv,
88 ; excitement concerning, iv,
127 ;, proposal for statue in
Westminster Abbey, iv, 89;
v, 342.

Bonaparte family, the, iv, 85.

Bonaparte, Jerome, manifesto of,
viii, 365.

Bonaparte, Pierre, obit., vi, 601.

Bonapartists, leader of, iv, 394.

Bond, R. C., obit.,v, 589.

Bonds, United States and State,
see Indebtedness, etc., vii,
392 ; State legislation on, see

Obligation of Contracts, vii,
648 ; and stocks, variations of,
iii, 120; municipal, ii, 526,
636; iv, 643, 545, 720; rail-
road subsidy, v, 540 ; the levee,
in Arkansas, iii, 23 ; repudi-
ated, iv, 659 ; of Colombia, iii,
104 ; of Peru, iii, 687 ; of Chili,
iv, 140, 141 ; of Argentine Re-
public, v, 21 ; of Brazil, v, 63;
of Mexico, v, 571. See also un-
der titles of States and coun-
tries for bonded indebtedness.

Bonetty, A.,obit,iv, 774.

Bonnechose, Cardinal de, obit.,
viii, 697.

Bonnefoy-cibour, A., obit., i, 629.

Bonneville, B. L. E., obit., iii, 632.

Bonomi, Jos., obit., iii, 650.

Bontroux, L., experiments by, vii,
92.

Booth, Sir H. G., excursion of, iv,
417.

Booth, Jas., obit., Hi, 651.

Booth, J. C., experiments by, viii,
522.

Booth, J. W., obit., i, 613.

Booth, Sir R. G., obit., i, 629.

Booth, W. C., obit, i, 613.

Boracic acid, antiseptic properties
of, i, 96 ; vii, 315.

Bordeaux clocks, the, iv, 344.

Borel. Gen., sketch, ii, 320.

Borelly, discoveries by, ii, 44, 46 ;
iv, 51 ; vii, 21.

Borghese, Prince, travels, vi, 326.

Borgnis-Desbordes Expedition, vii,
335.

Borie, A. E., obit., v, 590.

Boro-glyceride, viii, 95.

Borneo, vi, 329 ; North Borneo Co.,
ibid. ; discussed in Spain, vi,
819 ; North, vii, 68.

Borrow, Geo., obit., yi, 691.

Bosco, Baron del, obit., vi, 691.

Bosio, A. S., sketch, i, 74.

Bosnia, i, 756 j mapSj i, 751, 754;
article on, in Berlin Treaty, iii,
257 ; v, 46.

Boss, Lewis, observations by, viii,
24 ; prize to, vii, 42.

Boston, anniversary of, v, 501 ;.
foreign exhibition, viii, 825.

Bosworth, Jos., sketcn, i, 75.

Bottger, invention, viii, 641.

Bottfger, K. V., obit., iii, 651.

Boullon, Probert and So ward, elec-
tric lamp of, viii, 303.

Boult, S., obit.,i, 629.

Boundaries, disputed, between Tur-
key and Greece, v, 688; vi,
359; war threatened, vi, 374;
new line, vi, 377 ; vi, 840 ; vii,
371 ; Montenegro and Turkey,
v, 542, 687, 688- viii, 549;
Roumania and Bulgaria, v,
660; Switzerland and Baden,
v, 677; of Canadian prov-
inces, v, 113 ; vii, 216 ; United
States and British Ameri-
ca, i, 382 ; Mexico and Guate-
mala, iii. 415 ; iv, 462 ; vi,
379; official documents, vi,
570; settled, vii, 375; Costa
Rica and Colombia, v, 113 ; vi,
112 ; Colombia, Brazil, and Bo-
livia, ii, 74; Colombia and
Venezuela, viii, 139; Bolivia
and Chili, iv, 29, 82 ; Chili and
Argentine Republic, ii, 28 ; iii,

12, 20, 22 ; iv, 137 ; settled, vi,
25; Chili and Peru, viii, 121 ;
of Guiana, viii, 66 ; arbitration
of United States, vi, 777, 778 ;
between Now York and Con-
necticut, v, 195; New York
and New Jersey, viii, 564;
Delaware and New Jersey, iii,
236; Maryland and Virginia,
i. 502 ; vii, 507 ; Georgia and
Alabama, ii, 12 ; of Texas, vii,
794.

Bourbeau, L. O., obit., ii, 594.

Boutaric, E. P., obit, iii, 651.

Boutell, Rev. C., obit., ii. 594.

Bouton, Nathaniel, sketch, iii, 59.

Bove, Lieut., expedition of, vi, 388.

Bovy, F. A., obit, ii, 594.

Bowditch, H. P., experiments by,
vi, 751.

Bower, invention by, vii, 538.

Bowers, G. V., obit, iii, 632.

Bowler, Mrs. A. K., obit, 613.

Bowles, Sir Geo., sketch, i, 75.

Bowles, Samuel, sketch, iii, 59.

Bown, Geo. , invention by, iv, 184.

Boyce, Rev. Jas., obit, i, 613.

Boyd, Sir H. H.. sketcn, i, 75.

Boyd, Percy, obit., i, 629.

Brachvogel, A. E., obit, iii, 651.

Bradlaugh, Chas.. case of, in Par-
liament, v, 334 ; vi, 365 ; vii,
365 ; viii, 409.

Bradshaw, Dr., residence of, in
Africa, iv, 407.

Brady, Alex obit., iv. 692.

Brady, Mrs. R., obit., ii, 576.

Brahe, Tycho, statue of, i, 230.
Brahmanism, reform of. See Brah-

jno Somaj.

Brahmans, conspiracies of, vi, 423.

Brahmo Somai, the, sketch, iv, 89;
v, 389 ; vi, 65.

Brain, chemistry of the, i, 89 ; lo-
calization in the function of,
vi. 748. See also Cerebral Lo-
calization, viii, 98.

Brake, electric, vi, 255.

Brame, J. L. J., obit, iii, 651.

Brandt, drill invented by, yi, 820.

Brassais St. Marc, obit., iii, 651.

Braun, Alex., obit., ii, 594.

Bravard, J. P., obit, I, 629.

Bray ton, G. A., obit., v, 590.

Brazil, in every volume.

Brazilein, crystalline, vii, 88.

Brazza, S. de, explorations by, ii,
333 ; iv, 401 ; vi, 328 ; vii, 336 ;
viii, 385.

Bread, alum in, iii, 86.

Breadstuifs, commerce in, iv, 165.

Breese, S., obit, iii, 632.

Brent* H. J., obit., v, 590.

Brestel, R., obit., vi, 691.

Brewer, J.S., obit, iv, 698.

Brewster, B. H., portrait, vii, 812.

Bribery, charges of, iv, 718; law
in N. J., v. 561 ; trial for, v,
621 ; case of L. B. Sessions, vi,
648.

Bridges, new-, i, 256, 257 ; over the
Kentucky, ii, 273; over the
Ohio, ii. 273 ; v, 244 ; in Cali-
fornia, ii, 273 ; over the Tay,
ii, 274; disaster at the Tay,
v, 844 ; report on, v, 244 ; over
the Severn, ii, 2r.r»; iii, 288;
iv, 340 ; over the Erewash, U,

832

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA. FROM 1876 TO 1883.

275 ; at Buda-Pesth, ii, 275 ;
over the Douro, ii. 276 ; iii,
283; East Eiver, iii, 280; vi,
245 ; vii, 582 ; viii, 311 ; upper
East Eiver, vii, 2b2 ; over tlie
Missouri, iii, 282 ; v, 242 ;
over the Volga, iv, 342 ; in
America, iv, 342 ; over the
Nile, iv, 342; Forth, vii, 283;
Kinzua valley, vii, 283 ; Niag-
ara Cantilever, viii, 313 ; Forth,
viii, 315 ; Garabit viaduct, viii,
316; renewal of Niagara, vi,
245 ; railroad in y. S., v, 242 ;
use of steel for, iv, 342.

Brigandage in Italy, i, 422; in
Thessaly and Epirus, v, 690.

Briggs, Mrs. H. H., obit, i, 613.

Briggs, J., obit., i, 613.

Briggs, C. F., sketch, i, 79.

Bright, John, sketch, v, 65.

Brinkerhoff, J., obit., v, 590.

Brinsmade, H. N., obit., iv, 692.

Brion, G., obit., ii, 595.

Brisbane, W. H., obit., iii, 633.

Bristol, dock at, iii, 287.

Bristow.E., obit., i, 630.

British Columbia, viii, 72.

British politics, interest in, in In-
dia, v, 383.

Broca, Paul, sketch, v, 66.

Brockhaus, H., obit., ii, 595.

Brodie, Sir B. C., obit., v, 598.

Broglie, Due de, message of, as
head of the Cabinet, ii, 311 ;
sketch of, ii, 319.

Bromfield's iron process, vii, 529.

Bromide of ethyl, as an anaesthetic,
v294.

Bromine, discovery of, see Balard,
i, 61 ; manufacture of, v, 89.

Bromley, V. W., obit., ii, 595.

Brongniart, A. J., sketch, i, 80.

Bronzes and brasses, new methods,
vi, 542.

Brooks, C. T., obit., viii, 587.

Brooks, D., invention, iv, 347.

Brooks, Elisha, obit., i, 613.

Brooks, E. P., obit., iii, 633.

Brooks, Jos., obit., ii, 576.

Brooks, Lewis, obit., ii, 576.

Brooks, W. E., observations by,
vii, 35 ; discoveries, viii, 24.

Brooklyn Theatre, burned, i, 605.

Brophey, Geo., obit., v, 590.

Brougham, John, sketch, v, 66.

Brown, D. S., obit., ii. 576.

Brown, H. A., obit., iii, 633.

Brown, H. S., obit., i, 614.

Brown, John, monument to, ii, 417.

Brown, Jos. E., sketch, v, 311.

Brown, J. G. L., obit., iii, 633.

Brown, Wrn^ obit., i, 630.

Brown. W. F., obit., vi. 679.

Browning, 0. H., sketch, vi, 73.

Brownlow, W. G., sketch, ii, 79.

Brownson, O. A., sketch, i, 81.

Brugsch, E., researches of, vii, 261.

Bruhl, M., obit., ii, 595.

Brunet, J. M., sketch, ii, 320.

Briininghausen, C.. obit., i, 614.

Brush, C. F., electric light, vi, 258 ;
experiments, vii, 266 ; storage-
battery, vii, 273.

Bryant, W. C., sketch and portrait,
iii, 64.

Buchanan, E. C., obit., iii, 633.

Buchholtz, Eeinhold, sketch, i, 81.

Buck, Dr. G., sketch, ii, 79.

Buckland, F. T., obit., v, 598.

Buckminster, W. J., obit., iii, 633.
Budberg, Baron, obit., vi, 691.
Budd, Dr. C. A., obit., ii, 576.
Budd, C. H., obit., v, 590.
Budde, Dr., viii, 528.
Buddhism, in Japan, i, 428.
Budget, biennial, in Germany, viii,

394.

Budington, W. I., iv, 94.
Budrtzki, E. O. von, obit., i, 630.
Buenos Ay res, financial crisis in,

i, 35 ; project for a port, iii, 20.
Bugbee, S. C., obit., ii, 576.
Building and Loan Societies, viii,

85.

Bulas, tribe of the, v, 291.
Bulgaria, iii, 65 ; map. ii, 722 ; in

the Berlin Treaty, iii, 256 ; first

Parliament, iv, 95 ; election of

prince, iv, 97 ; disturbances, iv,

98 ; national debt, v, 67 ; Con-
stitution annulled, vi, 73 ; vii,

73; viii, 74. _

Bulgaria, D., obit., iii, 651.
Buh Dupis, tribe of, vi, 330.
Bull, dephosphorization process,

viii, 521.
Bull-fights, motion for schools for

toreadors in Spain, v, 671.
Bullock, E. B., ex-Gov. of Ga.,

trials of, iii, 372.
Buloz, F., obit., ii, 595.
Bunscn, Baroness, obit., i, 630.
Buoys, v, 451 ; signal, viii, 721,

722.

Burch, J. C., sketch, vi, 7«.
Burdach, E.,obit., i, 630.
Burgers, T. F., obit., vi, 691.
Burgin, invention of, vi, 253.
Burial, regulations for, in Great

Britain, i, 360; of the unbap-

tized. i, 23 ; of dissenters in

parish church-yards, ii, ] 7, 66 ;

iii, 13 ; v, 16, 17 ; discussed in

Parliament, v, 341.
Burke, T. M., obit., viii, 597.
Burke, T. H.. obit., vii, 645. See

Phoenix Park Murders.
Burleigh, C. C., obit., iii, 633.
Burleigh, J. H., obit., ii, 576.
Burlingame, A., embassador from

China, iii, 810 ; treaty, vii, 387.
Burinah, iv, 98 ; v, 68 ; map, iv, 99 ;

Chinese influence in, iv, 143 ;

British in, vii, 416.
Burnett, Sir J. H., obit., i, 630.
Burnham, S. W.. discoveries and

experiments by, iii, 38 ; v, 36 ;

vii, 36 ; viii, 26.
Bums. Eev. J., obit., i, 630.
Burnside, A. E., sketch, vi, 76.
Burnside, John, sketch, vi, 77.
Burnside Will Case, vii, 486.
Burr, D. J., obit., i, 614.
Burrell, Sir Percy, sketch, i, 82.
Burril, T. J., observations by, vi,

669.

Burritt, Elihu, sketch, iv, 102.
Burroughs, Wm., obit., i, 614.
Burrows, Sir J. C., obit., i, 630.
Bursian, C., obit., viii, 598.
Burton, J. E., obit., i, 630. ^
Burton, Capt., theory of, iii, 361.
Buschmann, J. K. E., obit., v, 598.
Bushnell, Horace, sketch, i, 82.
Buss, F. J. von, obit., iii, 651.
Butcher, Samuel, sketch, i, 82.
Butler, Mrs. B. F., obit., i, 614.
Butler, B. I., obit., vi, 679.
Butler, T. L., obit., v, 590.

Butler, W. 0., sketch, v, 70.
Butt, Isaac, sketch, iv, 103.

Caballero, Fernan, sketch, i, 82;
ii, 595.

Cables, Atlantic, viii, 338; Inter-
national Protection of Subma-
rine, viii, 76.

Cabrera, Count, sketch, i, 82.

Cabulj map, iv, 13.

Cadmium, atomic weight of, vi, 93.

Caesium, isolation of, vii, 97.

Caffre War, the, ii, 85 ; iii, 7, 81 ;
iv, 128, 129.

Caillaux, Eugene, ii, 319.

Caillet de Poncy, experiments by,
vi, 751.

Cairns, Eobert, obit., i; 614.

Calderon Centenary, vi, 819.

Calderon, G., vi, 738. See Peru,
Chili, and the U. S., vi, 738.

Caldwell, C. H. B., obit., ii, 576.

Calendar, the Gregorian, vii. 371.

Calhoun, S. H., obit., i, 614.

California, in every volume ; map
of Yosemite Valley, iii, 70.

Cambier, M., explorations by, iii,
361.

Cameron, plan for exploration, ii,
329.

Cameron, D., observations, vii, 39.

Cameron, J. Donald, sketch, i, 88.

Cammarota, F., obit., i, 630.

Camoens, tercentenary of, v, 628.

Campagna, reclamation of, viii, 454.

Campbell, J. A., obit., v, 591.

Campbell, T. C., obit., ii, 576.

Canada, Clem, obit.,v, 591.

Canals, interoceanic, i, 117, 253 ; iii,
105 ; iv, 340 ; v, 200 ; vi, 662 ;
vii, 279; yiii. 581. See also
Interoceanic Canal, iv, 503, and
Panama Canal, vi, 714 ; obli-
gations of U. S., v. 379 ; Suez,
i? 244, 247, 355 ; ii, 263, 270 ;
hi, 268 ; enlargement, viii, 307 ;
proposed, to the Sahara, i, 254 ;
Chinese Grand, iii, 291 ; Ob to
Yenesei, iii, 358 ; Krah, vi, 244 ;
projected in Germany, Austria,
and Holland, vi, 244 ; v, 249 ;
the North Sea, i, 253, 254, 583 ;
Corinth, vi, 243 ; viii; 308 ; pro-
posed Zuyder Zee, i, 254 ; in
Switzerland, iii, 291 ; Black Sea
to Caspian, i, 253; proposed
Mississippi, v, 379, 719 ; vi,
410; vii, 381; proposed Flori-
da, iv, 377 ; vii, 312 : viii, 309 ;
proposed Cape Cod, v, 247 ;
proposed Hudson and East riv-
er, iii, 291 ; v, 250 ; from L.
Huron to L. Ontario, iv, 240 ;
proposed from Baltimore to At-

lantic Ocean, iii, 239, 521 ; iv,
589 ; Columbia, ii, 627 ; in Can-
ada, v, 219 ; Welland, vii, 215 ;
Lachine, iv, 321 ; Chignecto,
vi, 244 ; Erie, new mode for
propelling boats on, iv, 345 ;
N. Y. Assembly on, iii, 616 ;
abolition of tolls, vi, 651.

Canaris, C., obit., ii, 595.

Candahar, battle near, v, 7 ; evacu-
ated by the British and taken
by Ayoob, vi, 3 ; map, v, 7.

Candia, insurrection in, i, 2.

Canning, Sir S. See Stratford de
Eedcliffe.

Canovas, retirement of, vi, 818.

IXDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

Canterbury, J. H. T. M. S., Vis-
count, obit., ii, 595 ; archbishop
of, viii, 6, 57.

Cantilever bridge, viii, 313.

Canton riots, viii, 128.

Capalti, Cardinal, obit., ii, 596.

Cape Colony, and South Africa, in
every volume but i ; map, iv,
122.

Capello, B., explorations by, iv,
405 ; v, 293.

Caperton, A. T., sketch, i, 88.

Capital punishment, abolition of, i,
420 ; ciime before and after in
the Netherlands, vi, 627.

Capponi, Marquis, sketch, i, 88.

Capron, S. M., obit., iiij 634.

Carbolic acid, test for, iii, 92 ; poi-
soning by, viii, 752.

Carbon, water on alloys containing,
iii, 91 ; estimation of, in iron,
vi, 97.

Carbon bisulphuret, new com-
pounds, iii, 84.

Carbon disulphide, increased im-
portance of, v, 88.

Carbon sulphobromide, vii, 88.

Carbonic acid, in the air, viii, 120.

Cardinals, creation of, i, 703 ; iv,
773 ; vii, 724.

Cardozo, L. F., sentence and par-
don of, iv,820.

Cardozo, T. W., impeachment, i,
561.

Carey, murder of, viii, 416.

Carey, H. C., obit., iv, 129.

Carl. Prince, obit., viii, 598.

Carhle, J. S., obit., iii, 634.

Carlisle, J. G., sketch, with por-
trait, viii, 93.

Carlisle, J. M., obit., ii, 576.

Carlyle, Thomas, letter on the East-
ern question, ii, 365 ; sketch,
vi, 89.

Carlist War, close of the, i, 261,
728 ; party, v, 673.

Came", Count de, sketch, i, 88.

Carnelly . T., discovery by, vi, 405.

Carnot, M. S., v, 281.

Caroline, ex-Queen of Denmark,
obit., vi, 691.

Caroline, Duchess of Mecklenburg-
Strelitz, obit., i, 630.

Caron, R. E., obit., i, 630.

Carpender, E. W., obit., ii, 576.

Carpenter, Mary, obit., ii, 596.

Carpenter, M. H., sketch, vi, 91.

Carpets, viii, 94 ; wools, 96.

Carre, M., invention by, iii, 270.

Carruthers, R., obit., iii, 652.

Carter, B., on eye-sight, vi, 272.

Carter, Sir J., obit., iii, 652.

Casamaior, P., experiments by, vi,
352; viii, 12.

Casamicciola destroyed, viii, 285.

Caselli, invention by, vi, 256.

Cash, Dr., experiments by, vi, 750,
753.

Cassagnac, Paul de, trial for viola-
tion of press laws, ii, 305.

Casserly, E., obit., viii, 587.

Castelnau, A., obit., ii, 596.

Castellani, A.? obit., viii, 598.

Cast-iron, action of sea-water on,
vi, 97.

Caswell, A., D. T)., obit., ii, 577.

Cataracts, in Africa, ii, 331.

Caterini, P., Cardinal, obit., vi, 692.

Cathedral, a floating, viii, 67.

Cattle, lung-plague of, vii, 486.

VOL. xxiii. — 53 A

Cauchy, E., obit., ii. 596.
Cavagnai, Sir L., iv, 10, 11, 13,

Cavendish, F. C., obit., vii, 645.
See Phoenix Park Murders.

Caventou, J. B., obit., ii, 596.

Cavour, Count, on the Roman ques-
tion, vii, 627.

Cazot, T. J. J., sketch, iv, 386.

Celibacy, priestly, abolished by Old
Catholics, iii, 669.

Celluloid, iii, 459.

Cellulose, chemical production of,
i, 97.

Cemeteriesj bill in Chili to secular-
ize, viii, 122. See Burials.

Census of the U. S., v, 83; vi, 848 ;
with maps, showing density of
population, and of foreign and
colored population, vii, 815.

Central America, i, 89 ; v, 85 ; hid-
den tribes in, v, 298 ; proposed
union, viii, 97.

Ceramic wares, manufacture of, v,

Cereals, U. S. production, vii, 85 ;

commerce in, vii, 112.
Cerebral localization, vii, 688 ; viii,

98.
Cernagora. See Montenegro, viii,

549.
Cesnola, Count di, explorations of,

i, 28, 31.

Cete^yayo, King, iv, 121 ; restora-
tion of, vii, 85 ; portrait, ibid. ;

defeat, viii, 91.
Ce"zaune, E., obit., i, 630.
Chaixd'Est Ange, G. L. V. A. C.,

sketch, i, 89.
Chadbourne, P. A., sketch, with

portrait, viii, 102.
Challen, J.,obit., iii, 634.
Chalmers, J., explorations by, v,

135.

Cham (A. de No4), obit., iv, 698.
Chamberlain, claim as Governor of

S. C.,i,725.

Chamberlain, Jos., sketch, v, 85.
Chamberlain, J. A. D., observa-
tions by, vi, 401.
Chamberlain, J. P., obit., iii, 634.
Chamberlain, Sir N., iii, 4.
Chamberlain, N. B., obit., iii, 634.
Chamond, C., invention, i, 519.
Champerico, growth of, viii, 427.
Chambers, AL, obit., v, 591.
Chambers, Win., sketch, viii, 103.
Chambers, W. H., obit., vi 679.
Chambord, Count de, speech of, ii,

305 ; birthday celebration, iv,

394 ; sketch, with portrait, viii,

103.
Chance, A., experiments by, viii,

115.

Chandler, J. R., obit., v, 591.
Chandler, S. C., Jr., observations

by, hi, 37,38 ; vii, 38.
Chandler, W. E., portrait, vii, 809.
Chandler, Z., sketch, iv, 129.
Changarnier, Gen., obit., ii, 596.
Chanzy, A. E. A., sketch, with

portrait, viii, 107.
Chapin, E. H.. sketch, v, 85.
Chapin, H., obit., iii, 634.
C'hareton, J. J. V. de, obit., iii,

652.
Charities, report on, in Mass., ii,

486 ; in N. Y., iv, 672.
Charles I, Prince of Roumania,

sketch, ii, 87.

Charles II, of Parma, obit., viii,

598.
Charles William Louis, Prince of

llcsse, obit., ii, 596.

Charnay, D., explorations by, v,
298: vii, 337.

Chase, P. E., observations by, iii,
39.

Chasles, M., obit., v 599.

Chatterton, S. S., obit., i, 614.

Chavde, H. J.. obit., ii, 597.

Chef kin, C. V., 5,322.

Chelius, M. J., sketch, i, 89.

Chelmsford, Baron, obit., iii, 652.

Chemistry, in every volume.

Chemical processes, new, vi, 94 ;
viii, 11; analysis of foods, viii,
34 ; nomenclature and philos-
ophy, viii, 110.

Cheney, Margaret S., experiments
by, ii, 502.

Cheney, Ward, obit., i, 614.

Chenu, J. C., obit., iv, 698.

Chesney, Col. Chas., obit., i, 630.

Chevalier, M., sketch, iv, 137.

Chilcott, G. M., sketch, vii, 109.

Child, Lydia M., sketch, v, 96.

Childers, H. C. E., sketch, v, 97.

Childers, R. C., obit., i, 630.

Children, labor of, i, 510 ; iii, 524 :
iv, 659 ; vi, 575.

Chili, in every volume; map, iv.
139.

Chilian War, the, iv, 727 ; v, 98,
625; vi, 734, 737, 738; vii,
681 ; inquiry as to U. S. action,
vii, 698 ; viii, 158 ; terms of
treaty, viii, 121; peace, viii,
64 ; Pros. Arthur on, viii, 64 ;
the guano contracts, viii, 628.

China, in every volume ; map of
'Cochin-China, i, 109.

China Merchants' Steam Naviga-
tion Company, vii, 101.

Chinese, the, in U. S., in Cal.. i,
84 ; ii, 80 ; iii, 71, 74, 76 ; iv,
107 ; v; 71, 73, 78 ; viii, 78 ;
riot against, in Col. , v, 1 20 ; in
Nev., iv, 657 ; in Oregon, iii,
676 ; iv, 712 ; embassy of, iii,
810 ; immigration to U. S., vii,
387; transit across, vii, 391;
Frelinghuy sen's letter, vii, 192;
alleged letter of Garfield, v,
576 ; letter of G. F. Seward, i,
231.

Chinese, the, troubles with Russia,
Portugal, and Spain, v, 101 ;
threatened war with Russia,
vi. 107 ; anti-European riots,
viii, 128 ; superstition of, vii,
101 ; in Brazil, vii, 70 ; in Cu-
ba, iv, 822 ; in Australia, ii,
51 ; v, 37.

Chisholm, Mrs. C., obit., ii, 597.

Chisholm, Judge, murder of, by a
mob, ii, 528.

Chittenden, R. H., investigations
by, v, 92 ; vi, 95 ; vii, 90, 690 ;
viii, 119, 635.

Chlorates, improvement in manu-
facture o£ vii, 95.

Chlorine, in water, i, 99.

Chlorohydric acid, i, 100.

Chlorophyl, physiological function
of, vi, 110.

Cholera, in Asia, i, 44 ; spread by
pilgrims, iv, 494; in Egypt,
viii, 298. See also Epidemio
Diseases, vii, 286; viii, 317.

834

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

Choppin, S. P., sketch, v, 106.

Christian Connection, i, 113 ; ii,
103 ; iii, 101 ; vii, 102.

Christian Union, i, 113 ; iiit 102.

Christianity, growth of, viii, 128.

Christides, obit., ii, 597.

Christie, D. M., obit., ii, 577.

Christie, S. T.. obit., i, 630.

Christie, W. H. M., observations
by, vii, 33 ; viii, 26.

Christina Maria, dowager-Queen of
Spain, iii, 102.

Chromium compounds, iii, 85.

Chunder Sen, iv, 90, 91 ; vi, 65.

Church, A. E., obit., iii, 634.

Church, S. E., death of, v, 569.

Church of God, the. iii, 50. ^

Church of Jesus, the Mexican P.
E.. iv, 611.

ChurcheSj burials act, see Burial ;
liability of property, see Bish-
ops ; church and state, ii, 21,
22; iii, 96; iii, 14; yi, 15;
vii, 13, 18 ; heresy trials, i,
672; ii, 648; iii, 693, 698,
700; v, G34; vi, 767, 769; P.
E. appellate court proposed,
vi, 773 ; patronage question,
vii, 19 ; question of union, i,
22 ; iii, 14 ; vii, 537 ; viii, 658;
of fellowship, i, 496 ; vi, 521 ;
viii, 654; proposed revision of
creeds, iii. 133, 134; v, 133;
vi, 135 ; viii, 657, 660 ; of the
Prayer-Book, viii, .671, 672 ;
Anglican, on confession, iii, 15;
Reformed, on secret societies,
viii, 682 ; U. P.j on instru-
mental music, vi, 766, 769,
V70 ; viii, 656, 660; on dancing,
i, 668 ; iv, 734 ; Lutheran, on
predestination, vi, 521 ; ritual-
ism in Anglican, see Ritual-
ism ; use of " Rev." by clis-
' senters, see Keet ; doctrinal
qualifications for theological
professorships, vii, 122 ; rela-
tion of Roman Catholic to
European governments ; see
Papacy; monastery in Scot-
land, i, 706; decrees against
religious orders, v, 628, 658 ;
insult to Catholics in France,
vii, 324 ; disturbances in Mar-
seilles, iii, 349.

Ciamician, experiments, v, 95.

Cibot, F. B. M. E., obit., ii, 597.

Cinematics, experiments in, i. 515.

Cinchona-Bark, cultivation of, viii,
427 ; in Colombia, vii, 105 ; in
Ecuador, viii, 289.

Cincinnati, fountain at, see Kre-
ling, i,442.

Cipher telegrams, the, see Public
Documents, iii, Investigation,
etc.^

Circulation of animals, action of in-
organic substances on, vi, 99 ;
in the brain, vii, 691 ; contrac-
tion of the ventricle, ibid.

Circumnutation, v, 107.

Cissey, E. L. C. de, obit., vii, 645.

Cisterns, v, 367.

Cities, population of large, i, 239 ;
ii, 260.

Citric acid on mineralSj v, 93.

Civil service, instruction in lan-
guages for, ii, 368 ; Pros. Hayes
on, ii, 665; v, 641.

Civil-service reform, Pres. Arthur

on, vi, 785; viii, 164; bill on,
in Congress, viii, 165 ; text of,
viii, 183 ; provisions of, on po-
litical assessments, vii, 695 ;
see Reform, etc., viii, 682; in
N. Y., viii, 566.

Civil-rights act, vii, 459; provisions
of, vii, 695 ; cases, vii, 102 ;
opinions on, viii, 129.

Claesson, experiments, viii, 112.

Clanriearde, Harriet, Marchioness
of, obit., i, 631.

Clark, Sarah, obit., vi, 680.

Clark, T., obit., i, 631.

Clark, cotton-cleaner of, vi, 265.

Clarke, C. Cowden, obit., ii, 597.

Clarke, E. H., obit., ii, 577.

Clarke, F. W., investigations by,
vi, 42: vii. 89.

Clarke, W. T., obit., viii, 587.

Clausen, H. N., obit., ii, 597.

Clay, C. C., sketch, vii, 102.

Clay and Randolph case, vii, 198.

Claypole, E. W., observations by,
v, 36.

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, vii, 813 ;
viii, 278. See Panama Canal,
vi, 714.

Clements, invention, iv, 638.

Cleopatra's Needle, iii, 283 ; vi,
659.

Clerical laws in Prussia, v, 639.

Cle" singer, J. B. A., obit., viii, 598.

Cleve, discovery by, iv, 137 ; ex-
periments, viii, 117.

Cleveland, E. H., obit., iii, 634.

Cleveland, Grover, sketch and por-
trait, vii, 611 ; letter of accept-
ance, 610.

Cleveland, J. F., obit., i, 614.

Clifford, Sir A., obit., ii, 597.

Clifford, J. H., sketch, i, 114.

Clifford, N., sketch, vi, 111.

Clinch, C. P., obit., v, 591.

Clinchant, Gen., obit., vi, 692.

Clinton, J. J., sketch, vi, 112.

Clinton A., obit., iii, 634.

Cloez, Prof., experiments, iii, 91.

Closson, M., process for obtaining
magnesia, vi. 94.

Clothing materials, improved prep-
aration of, v, 89.

Cloture, the, vii, 203, 364 ; Glad-
stone's resolutions, vii, 206 ; in
France, vii, 208.

Clouds, genesis of, see Fogs and
Clouds, v, 275.

Cloue", Vice-Admiral, v, 281.

Coal, ii, 103 ; spontaneous combus-
tion of, i, 93 ; in China, iii,
101 ; monopoly, iii, 619 ; com-
merce in, iv, 173 ; mining with
caustic lime, vii, 104; bitumi-
nous, in IT. S., vii, 103.

Coal-eras, injury to books by, v, 87.

Coan,"Titus, obit., viii, 588.

Coango river, exploration, v, 294.

Coanza river, exploration, v, 294.

Cobalt, magnetic, i, 250.

Cobb, Carlos, obit,, ii, 577.

Cobb, S. A., obit., iii, 634.

Cobbett, J. M.,obit., ii, 597.

Cobden, Mrs. Richard, obit., ii,
597.

Cochery, L. A., sketch, iv, 386.

Cockburn, Lord, v, 112.

Cockshott and Jowett, alloy pro-
duced by, viii, 525.

Cocoa in Ecuador, viii, 289.

Cocoa-matting, viii, 97.

Codeine, experiments with, vii, 87.

Coercion bills, Gladstone's, vii, 204.

Coffee, increasing demand, i, 80 ;
adulteration, i, 96 ; duty on,
in Austria, iii, 42 ; culture in
Brazil, iii, 62 ; parasite of, iii,
62 ; rise in, viii, 71.

Coffin, Leyi, obit., ii, 577.

Coggia, discoveries by, ii, 46 ; iii,
36; iv 51; v, 34.

Coinage. See Finances of U. S.

Coke, treatment of, viii, 372.

Colburn, J. E., obit., iii, 634.

Cold, artificial, v, 88 ; as a chemical
agent, v, 93.

Coleman, L., obit., vii, 635.

Colenso, J. W., sketch, viii, 135.

Coleridge, Sir J. T., sketch, i, 114.

Colet, Louise R., sketch, i, 114.

Colladon, drill of, vi, 820.

College-discipline, iv, 842.

Collegiate Ref. Ch. in New Jersey,
250th anniversary of, iii, 720.

Colley, Sir G. P.. sketch, v, 80.

Collier, J. P obit., viii, 598.

Collins, E. K., obit., iii, 634.

Collins, Mortimer, sketch, i, 114.

Collins, T. W., sketch, iv, 147.

Collisions, marine, viii, 136.

Colombia, in every volume ; map,
iii, 106.

Colonial extension, movement for,
of European nations, viii, 31.

Colonies, British, viii, 405 ; Portu-
guese, viii, 650 ; French and
English government of, ii, 14.

Colorado, in every volume.

Color-blindness, report on, iii, 526.

Color-hearing. See Hearing.

Coloring principle, a new vegeta-
ble, vi, 97.

Colors, for cloth, v, 90.

Colquitt, A. H Gov. of Georgia,
charges against, iii, 367-369.

Colt, John, obit., ii, 577.

Colton, J. S., obit., iii, 635.

Columbia river, improvements of,
v, 614.

Columbus, canonization of, solicit-
ed, vi, 792.

Combs, L., obit., vi, 680.

Comets, in every volume, under
Astronomical ; origin of, iii, 36 ;
announcements of discovery,
vii, 39 ; spectroscopic examina-
tion, vii, 38 ; periodicity, viii,
25. See Electricity, i, 248.

Commerce, International, ii, 109 ;
. iv, 161 ; treaties, vii, 364, 438,
441 ; viii, 649.

Commerce of the United States, in
first five volumes ; and finance
in 1882, vii, 110 ; bill on inter-
state, vi, 172.

Committees, grand, in Parliament,
viii, 409.

Common, A., discoveries by, v, 35 ;
vii, 37.

Commune, the motion for amnesty
to, i, 315.

Communion, deprival of. See An-
glican Churches, i, 24.

Communism in Russia. See Ba-
kunin, i, 60.

Compressed air, as a motor, i, 478,
516; injuries from, vi, 753;
drills, vi, 820.

Comstock, S. M., obit., iii, 635.

Condor, Lieut., explorations of, i
327.

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1888.

835

Condon, S., obit., vi, 680.

Confederation, a South- African,
project for, i, 8.

Conference, International Mone-
tary. See Bimetallic Standard.

Confederate monument, iii, 372.

Confederate States, preservation of
the archives of, iii, 571 ; de-
cision on bank-notes, iii, 784.

Confederate soldiers, amnesty bill,
i, 182 ; artificial limbs provid-
ed for, v, 308 ; claim of Mrs.
Page, vi, 145.

Congo river, Stanley's voyage, ii,
332 ; his map, 333 ; course and
tributaries, iii, 363 ; iv, 403 ;
explorations, vii, 336 ; viii,
385 ; claims of Portugal, viii,
651.

Congregationalists, in every vol-
ume ; fiftieth anniversary of
union, vi, 136.

Congress, United States, in every
volume ; disciplinary power,
vii, 194 ; criminal jurisdiction
of, vii, 196 ; pairing off in, vii,
199.

Conkling, Epscoe, sketch, iv, 295 ;
resignation, vi, 644.

Connecticut, in every volume.

Connolly, Michael, obit., i, 614.

Connolly. K. B., sketch, v, 198.

Conrad, C. M., obit., iii, 635.

Conrad, T. A., obit., ii, 577.

Conroy, G., obit., iii, 652.

Conscience, H., obit., viii, 598.

Conservatism, proposed triple alli-
ance in the interest of, v, 47.

Consolati, Count, obit., i, 631.

Conspiracies in India, vi, 423.

Constans, J. A. E., v, 281.

Constantinople, Russian occupa-
tion, and British fleet sent to,
iii, 793 ; riot in, iii, 795.

Constitutions, national, proposed
revision of French, viii, 253 ;
new, in Guatemala, iv, 464;

E-oposed change in Nether-
nds, viii, 557; proposed
amendments to United States,
1,133,138,172, 180; vii, 462;
13th and 14th, viii, 130.

Constitutions, State, new, in Cali-
fornia, iv; 103 ; effects of, v,
77 ; new, in Louisiana, v, 478 ;
convention to frame, -in Dako-
ta, viii, 266 ; amended, Arkan-
sas, iv. 25 ; viii, 18 ; Connecti-
cut, vi, 196 ; Delaware, viii,
272 ; Georgia, ii, 338 ; Indiana,
ii, 395; iv, 496; v, 393; vi,
425 ; viii, 444 ; Iowa, v, 396 ;
vi, 439 ; vii, 428 ; viii, 445 ;
Kentucky, vi, 468 ; Massachu-
setts, vi, 535 ; Michigan, ii,
514 ; vi, 574 ; viii, 540 ; Min-
nesota, ii, 625 ; vi, 595 ; viii,
542; Missouri, ii, 529; viii,
546 ; Nevada, viii, 557 ; New
Hampshire, viii, 561 ; New
Jersey, iv, 663 ; v, 562 ; New
York, ii, 568 ; North Carolina,
v, 586 ; Ohio, iv, 703 ; Oregon,
v, 611 ; South Carolina, ii, 697 ;
Texas, vi,836 ; West Virginia,
iv, 846 ; Wisconsin, vi, 876.

Consuls, jurisdiction of, vi, 778.

Contracts, damages for prospective
profits on, iv, 676.

Convallaria Maialis, viii, 256.

Convict-labor, iv, 819 ; v. 374 ; in
Ala., v, 11; vi, 7; vii, 4; in
Cal.. v, 76 ; in Conn., v, 196 ;
in Fla., v, 272 ; in Ga., vi, 334 ;
vii, 340; in Ky., vi, 470; in
Mass., v, 495 : in N. J., v, 563 ;
vi, 636 ; in N. Y., viii 566 ; in
N. C., v, 583-inS. C.,vi,813;
vii, 745 ; in Texas, v, 685 ; in
W. Va., iv, 845.

Coyngham, Jane, Marchioness of,
obit., i, 631.

Conyngham, T. N., Marquis of.
sketch, i, 212.

Cooke, H. D., obit., vi, 680.

Cooke, J. P., experiments by, v, 87.

Coolies, exportation of, to Cuba, v,
103.

Coombs, N., obit, iii, 635.

Cooper Institute, i, 212.

Cooper, Peter, nomination of, i,
781 ; sketches, i, 212 ; viii, 256.

Copenhagen, proposed fortification
of, vni, 275.

Copper, method for welding, i, 523 ;
determination of, ii, 92; from
pyrites, ii, 500 ; hardening, ii,
500 ; preparation, vii, 532 ; re-
moval of arsenic, etc., viii, 113 ;
extraction, viii, 521.

Copyright, commission on, iii, 223 ;
laws of, and discussion on, iii.
223-227; treaty, France and
Germany, viii, 397.

Corder, H., observations by, iii, 36 ;
vii, 39.

Corea, i, 425 ; v, 413 ; vii, 175 ; viii,
257 ; insurrection, vii, 176 ;
American treaty, ibid. ; viii,
259, 260, 455.

Corinth Canal, the, viii. 308.

Corning, H. K. obit., iii, 635.

Cornwall, H. B., investigations by,
v, 95.

Corona, observations of the, iii, 34.

Coroners, office abolished in Mass.,
' ii, 483.

Coroninij Count, sketch, iy, 101.

Corporations, liability of, iv, 21,
720.

Corps Le*gislatif, under Louis Na-
poleon, vii, 208.

Cort, F. de, obit., iii, 652.

Corundum, production of, ii, 93.

Corwin, the, cruise of, v, 301 ; vi,
323, 324.

Corwine, A. B., obit., v, 591.

Cosmic Dust, viii, 526.

Costa Rica, in every volume ; map,
ii, 228.

Cottenot, discovery by, iii, 36.

Cotterill, H. B., discovery by, iii,
363.

Cottey law, the, iv, 644.

Cotton, i, 213 ; ii, 229 ; iii, 229 ; vi.
200; vii, 178; production and
value of, iv, 633; seed ^cotton,
iv, 638 ; manufacture, ii, 120 ;
iv, 143, 820 ; v, 130 ; vii, 502 ;
commerce, iv, 171 ; weighing
by sizing, Hi, 229; Atlanta ex-
position^ vi, 260 ; statistics, vii,
113 ; factories in S. C., viii, 735.

Cotton-worm, see Cotton, yi, 200.

Coulson, Dr. Win., obit., ii, 598.

Coulthurst, W., obit., ii, 598.

Coumoundouros, resignation of, vii,
370.

Courbet, G., sketch, iii, 230.

Courtenay's fog-signal, v, 449.

Courts, three rival, in Spain, i, 731.

Courtat U. 8. and State, aee
Cnminal Jurisdiction, vii, 179 ;
crowded, v, 649; in Conn., iii,
215; v. 196; coat in N. C., v,
684 ; bill on jurisdiction of cir-
cuit, and to regulate removal
of causes from State, v, 137-
150.

Cow-boys, the, vi, 782.

Cox, E. W., obit., iv, 698.

Cox, S. H., obit., v, 591.

Cox, Hannah, obit., i, 614.

Cox, Hannah, obit., vi, 680.

Coxe, Sir J., obit., iii, C52.

Cox, E. T., discovery of mines by,
v, 18.

Cozzens, W. C.. obit., i, 614.

Craig, Sir W. G obit., iii, 652.

Crane, Rev. J., obit? ii, 577.

Cranston, H., obit., ii, 577.

Craven, A. W obit., iv. 692.

Crawford, David, obit., i, 614.

Crawford. Earl of, obit., v, 599.

Creasy, Sir E. S., obit., iii, 652.

Creedmoor, international rifle-
match at, ii, 234.

Creeds. See Churches.

Cremation, i, 216; iv, 442.

Cremer, Camille, sketch, i, 218.

Cremieux, I. A., sketch, v, 200.

Crete, insurrection in, iii, 411 ; arti-
cle on, in Berlin Treaty, iii,
257; union with Greece, iii,
793 ; close of troubles in, iv,
834.

Cresson, Dr. J. C., obit, i, 614.

Crevaux, Dr., explorations by, ii,
330 ; iii, 365.

Crime, punishment of, in N. C., i,
'611.

Criminal Code Bill, British, viii,
411.

Criminal Jurisdiction in the United
States, vii, 179 ; of consuls,
case of O'Neill, vii, 442.

Crittendeh. G. B., obit., v, 591.

Crivoscia, insurrection in, vii, 55 ;
viii, 548.

Croatia, dissatisfaction in, v, 370;
viii, 48.

Crocker, W. M., description of the
Milanows by, vi, 330.

Croll, Jas., on nebulae, iii, 38 ; cal-
culations by. vi, 349.

Cronin, E. A., obit, iii, 635.

Crookes, W., observations by, viii,
526.

Crops, vi. 851 ; viii, 335.

Crosby, Dr. A. B., obit, ii, 577.

Crosby, J. P., obit., i, 614.

Crosman, G. H., obit., vii, 635.

Cross, Gen. 0., obit., i: 614.

Crow-Bar Case, the, viii, 101.

Cruikshank, G., obit. ..iii, 653.

Cruls, Dr., discovery by, vii, 87.

Cruto, electric lamp of, viii. 303.

Crystals, quartz, artificially pro-
duced, iv, 417.

Cuba, viii, 261 ; demand for TJ..8.
products, vi, 817; war in, i,
729, 732 ; ii, 700 ; iii, 774 ; iv.
468, 822; v, 672; results of,
viii, 262.

Cubango river, source of, iv, 405.

Cullen, Cardinal, sketch, iii, 230.

Cullom, S. M. .sketch, i, 895.

Cummins, G. D., sketch, i, 218.

Cunningham, H., obit, iii, 635.

Currency, U. S., ii, 235; v, 646;

836

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

vi, 127 ; discussed in Congress,
iii, 138, 175; bill to redeem
fractional, i, 202. See also Fi-
nances of the U. S. in each vol-
ume, and Indebtedness, etc.,
vii, 392.

Currency, paper of Turkey, iv? 832 ;
law in Canada, v, 211 ; of Arg.
Eep., vi, 29 ; of Japan, vi, 455.

Curry, G. L., obit., iii, 635.

Curtis, N. M., indictment of, vii,
694.

Curtis, W. E.. sketch, v, 201.

Gushing, Caleb, sketch, iv, 303.

Cushman, Charlotte, sketch, i, 218.

Cust, Sir E., obit., iii, 653.

Custer, Gen. G. A., sketch, i, 219 ;
death of, i, 22, 43.

Cuthbert, J. A., obit., vi, 681.

Cutting, Jonas, obit., i, 615.

Cuyler, Theodore, obit., i, 615.

Cyclone in India, i, 405 ; in Minn.,
viii, 543.

Cyprus; iii, 231 j vi, 202 ; iii, 401 ;
articles on, in Berlin Treaty,
iii, 259 ; finances, v, 336 ; Ces-
nola's explorations, i, 31.

Cyril II, Patriarch of Jerusalem, i,
373 ; obit., ii, 598.

Czar, the, attempts on the life of,
iv, 776, 778 ; v, 662, 665. See
Alexander.

Czechs, the, v, 44, 45 ; vi, 49, 50 ;
viii, 45.

Czermak, J., obit., iii, 653.

Daboll, C. L., fog-signal of, v, 447.

Daft, Olivia, obit., v, 592.

Daggett, 0. E., obit., v, 592.

Dahomey, war with, i, 8.

Dahlen, Gen. von, vii, 58.

Dakin, T. S., obit., iii, 635.

Dakota, i, 219; ii, 245; vi, 202;
viii, 265 : new capital, 266 ;
Constitution, 267.

D'Albertis, explorations by, iii,
364 : iv, 398, 408.

Dall, W. H., exploration by, v,
289 ; vi, 325.

Dalmatia, i, 757.

Damour, experiments by, ii, 501.

Dana, R. H., sketch, vii, 182.

Dana, E. H., sketch, iv, 304.

Danby, A. G., obit., i, 615.

Dancing, churches on, i, 668; iv,
734.

Danenhower, J. W., portrait, vii,
333.

Danforth, Chas., obit., i, 615.

Daniel, K. T., obit., ii, 578.

Danube, European Commission of
the, i, 753 ; vii, 728 ; viii, 268 ;
Kilia question, vii, 729 ; under-
ground connection with the
Aach, iii, 722 ; the Iron Gate,
viii, 309, 696. t

Danvers Hospital, investigation, ii,
483.

Darby, John, obit., ii, 578.

Dargan, E. S., sketch, iv, 304.

D'Arlingcourt, invention, vi, 256.

Darwin, Charles, experiments by,
v, 106 ; memoir on earth-
worms, vi, 224 ; sketch of, vii,
183.

Darwin, Francis, experiments by,
iii, 444 ; iv, 36 ; v, 106.

Darwin, G. H. and 11., observa-
tions by, vii, 223.

Daubigny, C. F., obit., iii, 653.

Daubree, experiments by, iv, 417.

Daucher, L., obit., iii, 635.

Davenport, E. L., sketch, ii, 246.

David? F. C., sketch, i, 220.

Davidis, Henrietta, obit., i, 731.

Davidson, G. S., obit., vi, 681.

Davidson, R., obit., i, 615.

Davidson, T. G., obit., viii, 588.

Davies, Chas., sketch, i, 220.

Davies, H. E., sketch, vi, 204.

Davis, Alex. K, impeachment, i,
560.

Davis, C. H., sketch, ii, 246.

Davis, David, sketch, ii, 383.

Davis, G. T., obit., ii, 578.

Davis, Jefferson, amnesty to, dis-
cussed, i, 183-192 ; Miss, reso-
lutions on portrait of, v, 528.

Davis, Mrs. P. W., obit., i, 615.

Davitt, Michael, viii, 413.

Davy, C. F., obit., iii, 635.

Davy, E. W., discovery by, iii, 92.

Dawes, H. L., sketch, vi, 536.

Dawson, Arctic voyage, viii, 383.

Dawson, H., obit., iii, 653.

Day, H. H., obit., iii. 635.

Dayan, Chas., obit., ii, 578.

Daza, Hilarion, sketch, iv, 305.

Deaconesses, v, 638 ; viii, 4.

Deak, Francis sketch, i, 221.

Deas, Sir David, obit., i, 631.

De Bar, Benedict, obit., ii, 578.

Debreul, J. P., obit., iii, 636.

D&bris from mines. See Mines.

Debts, of U. S., of the various
States, and of other nations.
See Indebtedness of the United
States, etc., vii, 392, with maps
and diagrams. See also under
titles of States and Countries ;
of Cities, iv, 839. _

Decaisne, J., obit., vii, 645.

Decatur, Stephen, sketch, i, 222.

Decazes, Due de, ii, 320.

Decipium, vi, 93.

Dederick, cotton-press, vi, 265.

Defenses, system of, in U. S., iii,
31 ; v, 647 ; of Switzerland, v,
676 ; vii. 774.

Defrees, J. D., obit., vii, 636.

Degenfeld-Schonburg, Count von,
sketch, i, 222.

De Koven, Jas., sketch, iv, 305.

Delafontaine, M., disco very by, iii,
86 ; experiments, vi, 93.

Delafosse, G., obit., iii, 653.

Delane, J. T., sketch, iv 305.

De la Rive, theory of, viii, 28.

Delaware, in every volume.

De Lesseps, v, 16.

Deligeorgis, obit., iv, 698.

Delitzsch, Johannes, sketch, i, 225.

De Long, C. E., obit., i, 615.

De Long, G. W., expedition of, v,
288 ; vi, 322 ; vii, 331 ; sketch,
vii, 189 : portrait, vii, 331.

Delord, Taxile, obit., ii, 598.

Delorme, explorations by, vi, 329.

DC Lunes, C., obit., iii, 636.

Dembowsky, prize to, iii, 39.

Denfert-Rocnereau, obit., iii, 653.

Denison, A. W., obit., ii, 578.

Denison, S; D., obit., v, 592.

Denmark, in every volume.

Dennett, observations by, iv, 52.

Denning, W. F., observations by,
iii, 36 ; vi, 39 ; viii, 20, 23, 26.

Dennison, W., obit., vii, 636.

Denominations, Religious, num-
bers of, viii, 129.

De Norman ville, W., invention by,
ii, 499.

Denza, F. P., observations, v, 36.

Denzin, K. F. von, obit., i, 631.

Depauw, observations by, viii, 436.

De Puy, H. W., obit., i, 615.

Derby, Mrs. L. F., obit., v, 592.

De Rossi, observations of, vii, 223.

Dervish Pasha, sketch, ii, 250.

Deschamps, Cardinal, obit., viii,
599.

Desert Great American, vi, 203.

Desgodin, Abbe, travels of, ii, 327.

Despois, E. A., sketch, i, 230.

Detlef, Karl. See Bauer, i, 68.

Deutsch, S., obit., ii, 598.

Devens, Chas., sketch, ii, 251.

Deville, E. H. S. C., sketch, vi, 212.

Deville and Debray, experiments
by, iii, 89.

Devin, T. C., obit., iii, 636.

Devrient, P., obit,, ii, 598.

DeWitt, R. M., obit., ii, 578.

Deyrolle, invention by, iii, 725.

Diamonds in China, iv, 143 : arti-
ficial, v, 86 ; the trade, viii, 277.

Diaz, Eugene, i. 230.

Diaz, Porfirio, sketch, i, 547 ; gov-
ernment of, established, ii, 511 ;
recognized by U. S., iii, 12.

Diaz de la Pena, sketch, i, 230.

Dick, A., experiments by, viii, 524.

Dickson, J. B., obit., i, 631.

Dickson, Oscar, expedition fitted
out by, iii, 354.

Didot, A. F., sketch, i, 230.

Dieringer, Rev. F. X., obit, i, 631.

Diestel, L. von, obit., iv, 698.

Dietl, Jos., obit., iii, 653.

Dieulafait, discovery by, iv, 419.

Diez, F. C., sketch, i, 230.

Digby, K. H., obit., y, 599.

Digestion, new agent in, yi, 96 ; ex-
periments, vi, 749 ; vii, 94, 690 ;
viii, 635.

Diman, J. L., obit., vi, 681.

Dingelstedt, F. von, obit., vi, 692.

Dindorf, W., obit., viii, 599.

Dinsmore, S. P., obit., vii, 636.

Dion, C., obit., iii, 636;

Diplomatic Service in China, iv,
146.

Diplomatic Correspondence and
Foreign Relations of the U. S.,
i, 231 : ii, 251 ; iii, 242 ; vi, 212 ;
vii, 192; viii, 278.

Disciples of Christ, in every vol-
ume but viii.

Disciplinary Power of Legislative
Assemblies, vii, 194.

Disease, germ theory of, see Germ
Theory ; progress in study of,
vi, 552.

Disestablishment, viii, 9.

Disinfectant, a new, i, 93.

Dissocipscope, Tommasi's, vii, 92.

Disraeli, Benj., sketches, ii, 251;
vi, 213 ; portrait, ii, 354 ; effect
of death of, vi, 359.

Disston, H.. obit., iii, 636.

Distilling, illicit, y, 308.

Disturnell, J., obit., ii, 578.

Dittmar's method of assaying,!, 524.

Divers, experiments by,' viii, 111.

Divorce, in Conn., iv, 301; viii,
254; in Del., iv, 306; in Vt.,
v. 708 ; in Mass., vi, 535 ; viii,
5J9; in Me., viii, 509- in N.
H., viii, 562 ; bill on, in France,
vi, 111; in R, L, viii, 691.

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

837

Dix, John A., sketch, iv, 315.

Dix, J. W obit., ii, 578.

Dixon, Archibald, obit., i, 615.

Dixon, N. F., obit., vi, 681.

Dixon, W. H., sketch, iv, 316.

Doberck, on binary stars, iii, 37.

Docks, improvements to, ii, 279,
2,80 ; Thames, in London, v,
244 ; in South Wales, v, 245 ;
at Hartlepool, v, 244.

Dode", invention by, iv, 134.

Dodge, W. E., sketch, with por-
trait, viii, 282.

Dod worth, Thos., obit., i, 615.

Doelsch process with copper, viii,
522.

Doggett, D. S., obit., v, 592.

Dogs, decision as to tax on, ii, 711.

Dolbear, invention by, vi, 258.

Doilo, observations by, viii, 436.

Dominion of Canada, in every vol-
ume; map of Western Prov-
inces, viii, 80.

Donaldson, H. H., experiments, vi,
95 ; viii, 632.

Don Carlos, defeat of, i, 729.

Donders, experiments by, vi, 272.

Donavan, M., obit., i, 631.

Doomsday-Book, The New, i, 365.

Doran, John, obit., iii, 653.

Dore, Gustave, sketch, with por-
trait, viii, 283.

Doling, T., obit., iii, 654.

Dorsey, J. W. See Star-Eoute
Trial, vii, 753.

Dorsey, Sarah A., sketch, iv, 323.

Dosseh, interdiction of the cere-
mony, vi, 239.

Dost Mohammed, family of, v, 3 ;
relations with the British, v, 4.

Dove, H. W., obit.j i, 698.

Dove, John, obit., i, 615.

Dow, Neal, viii, 664.

Dowell, J. R., obit., i, 615.

Dowing, Benj., obit., i, 615.

Dowling, John, obit^ iii, 636.

Dowling, Jos., obit., i, 615.

Doyle, Richard, obit., viii, 699.

Dragomiroff, Gen., sketch, ii, 259.

Drainage, works for, iii, 288.

Drake, F., obit., vii, 645.

Draper, Henry, experiments by, iv,
130 ; sketch, vii, 218.

Draper, J. W., experiments of, iii,
34; viii, 378; sketch, vii, 219.

Dreber, A., obit., i, 631.

Dresser, Horace, obit., ii, 579.

Dreuteln, assassination of, iv, 683.

Drew, Mrs. Daniel, obit., i, 616.

Driggs, J. F.. obit., ii, 579.

Drouyn de L/Huys, obio., vi, 692.

Drummond, J., obit., ii, 598.

Dubs, J., obit., iv, 699.

Dubuclet, A., contested election of,
i, 493 ^ ii, 467.

Duclerc ministry, vii, 326.

Ducrot, A. A., obit., vii, 646.

Dudevant, Madame. See Sand.

Dudley, T. U., obit., i, 616.

Dudley, W. L., discovery by, iv,
137 ; v, 94, 95.

Duels, challenges to. parliamentary
discipline for, vii. 201.

Dufaure, Jules, sketch, ii, 320.

Dufaure, J. A. S., sketch, vi, 222.

Duff, Alex., obit., iii, 654.

Dufresne, experiments by, vi, 750.
Dulcigno, contest for, v, 543 ; sur-
render, and sketch of, v, 545.
Dullert, W. H., obit., vi, 692.

Dulong, law of relativity, yi, 41.
Dumas, experiments by, vi, 42.
Dumas and Benoit, invention by,

iii, 279.

Dumbreckj Sir D., obit., i, 631.
Dumont, Leon, obit., ii, 598.
Du Motay, C. T., sketch, v, 222 ;

inventions, v, 88 ; viii, 375.
Dundas, Sir D., obit., ii, 598.
Dunham, Dr. C., obit., ii, 579.
Dunkards. See Baptists.
Dunn, John, governor resident in

Zoolooland, iv, 126, 127.
Dunwoody, H. C., tables compiled

by, viii, 528.

Dupanloup, sketch, iii, 248.
Dupin, characteristics of, vii, 208.
Dupre", G., obit., vii, 646.
Dupr6, Admiral, obit., vi, 692.
Dupuis, Sir J., obit., i. 631.
Dupuy, Eliza, obit., vi, 681.
Durbin, J. P.,D. D., sketch, i, 237.
Durgee, G., invention by, vii, 530.
Durham, Jos., obit., ii, 598.
D aringsfeld, Ida von, sketch, i, 238.
Dusch, A. von, obit., i, 631.
Dussard, Hippolyte, sketch, i, 238.
Diisseldorf, exhibition at, v2 321.
Duties, demand for in Belgium, v,

55 ; in Colombia, excessive, y,

16 ; reduction of. in India, vii,

416 ; evasions of, viii, 148.
Duties, United States, viii, 195, 788 ;

articles duty freej viii, 207 ;

proposed treaty with Mexico,

vii, 546.

Dutrieux, explorations, iii, 361.
Duvergier de Hauranne, L. P. E.,

obit., ii, 598.

Duyckinck, E. A., sketch, iii, 249.
Dwellings, construction of, v, 357 ;

laborers', vii, 220.
Dyeing, by electricity, vii, 90 ;

dyes, viii, 114 ; fustic, 141 ;

improved, v, 90.
Dyer, C. V., obit., iii, 636.
Dynamite manufacture, vi, 223.
Dynamite plots, viii, 415.

Eadie, J., obit, i, 632.

Earth, the, i, 238 ; ii, 259 ; iii, 249 ;
v, 222 ; vii, 221 ; mass of, ii,
43 ; theory of solidity, iv, 419 ;
density ofj vii, 35.

Earthquakes, in Austria, i, 59- in
Switzerland, v, 677 ; in Ischia,
vi, 451 ; hi Ecuador: viii, 288.

Earthquakes and volcanic disturb-
ances in 1883: viii, 284.

Earth-tremors, vii, 223.

Earth-worms, Darwin on, vi, 224.

Eastern question, the, ii, 261 • iii,
252 ; v, 224 ; maps, i, 751, 754 ;
iii, 722, 789; v, 225; confer-
ence on, i, 771; ii, 281, 723;
Kussia's declaration of war,
ii, 282: policy of France, ii,
307 ; iii, 344 ; contest for Dul-
cigno, v, 543; new phase, vi,
839 ; Turkey and Germany,
vii, 802; discussed in Hun-

ry, ii,.379; in Italy, ii, 409 ;
'458; iv, 526; in England,
ii/362, 367; iii, 397; v, 331,
333, 335, 343 ; enforcing re-
forms in Asia Minor, iv, 833 ;
Turko-Grecian dispute, v, 345 ;
Montenegrin frontier, v, 542;
in Austria, ii. 55 ; iii, 43, 44;
in Germany, iii, 378 ; in Greece,

iii, 408; relation to Bulgaria,
iii, 67 ; to Persia, iv, 724 ; Berlin
Congress, iii, 255 ; treaty be-
tween England and the Porte,
iii, 258; Russia held by the
European League, viii, 705.

Eastern Koumelia, iv, 324 ; Consti-
tution of. v, 227; proposed
union with. Bulgaria, v, 67, 68,
228 ; insurrection in. v, 229.

Eastman, H. G., obit., iii, 686.

Eastman, M. E., obit., ii, 579.

East River Bridge, viii, 811.

Eaton, A. B., obit., ii, 579.

Eaton, Margaret L., sketch, iv, 826.

Eberhard, Rt. Rev. M., obit., i, 682.

Ecclesiastical courts, viii, 8.

Ecclesiastical funds, rights over the
Bernard affair, viii, 57.

Eclipse of the sun, vii, 33 ; viii, 20.

Economical Council, created in
Prussia, v, 640.

Ecuador, in every volume ; map, ii,
267 ; revolution in, viii, 287.

Eddystone lighthouse, undermined,
ii, 276 ; the new, iii, 286 ; iv,
343 ; vii, 283.

Edgell, Admiral H. E., obit., i, 632.

Edhem Pasha, sketch, ii, 268.

Edison, T. A., sketch, iii, 261;
analysis of nis genius by G. B.
Prescott, iii. 262 ; inventions
by, i, 518 ; the phonograph, ii,
638 ; vi, 252. 256 ; improve-
ments by. viii, 304; electric
railway, viii, 677 ; observations
by, iii, 34; the megaphone, iii,
537 ; microtasimeter, iii, 563 ;
lamp, iv, 335 ; vii, 270, 275.

Edmunds, G. F., sketch, v, 231.

Edoux, M. L., invention by, yi, 246.

Education and illiteracy hi the
' United States, statistics, etc.,
vii, 225 ; technical, in Saxony,
vi, 229 ; technical, in Pennsyl-
vania, iii, 680 ; iv, 719 ; vi, 549 ;
in New Jersey, y, 564 ; yi, 410 ;
iv, 663 ; reform in Russia, viii,
708 ; religious, i, 67, 364, 583,
704 ; iii, 579 ; iv, 77, 773, 825 ;
v, 44, 54, 56 ; vi, 58, 828 ; vii,
591, 775; Old Catholics on,
ii, 622; Leo XIII on, vi. 792;
Bible-reading in schools, ii,
132; v, 380: reactionary law
in Austria, viii, 47 ; Ferry bill
in France, iv, 390 ; y, 281 ; de-
nounced, iv, 394 ; Episcopal, v,
638; in Irelandj hi, 403; iv,
453 ; new law m Japan, iv,
529; higher, vi, 49; vii, 31,
339, 481, 508, 536, 796; Mag-

Sar school, v, 370 ; Greek and
ulgarian, ii, 372 : India, i.
400; Afghan, iv, 7; colored
schools, Ii, 697; iv, 538, 563,
588 ; vi, 7, 727 ; Boston system,
iv, 602 ; New York system, iv,

mal sch'ools, iii', 62*1 ; iv' 845 ;
vi, 470 ; reform schools, v, 567 ;
vi, 463 ; free high-schools, iii,
511 ; in Canada, viii, 539, 585,
610 ; changes in Great Britain,
vi, 373 ; right to exclude pupils,
iii, 430 ; case in Philadelphia,
vi,793.
Edwards, Sir B., obit., i, 632.

838

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

Edwards, W. W., obit., i, 616.

Egan, W. B., obit., iii, 636.

Egerton, invention by, ii, 498.

Eggert, F. X., sketch, i, 242.

Eggertz, Prof., experiments by, vi,
97.

Egypt, in every volume ; maps,
vii, 252; viii, 291.

Egyptian Chronology, vii, 255.

Egyptian Finances, i, 244 ; ii, 269 ;
iii, 263; iv, 329; Khedive's
decree, iv, 331 ; v, 233 ; vi, 232 ;
French and English interven-
tion, vii, 236, 250 ; new scheme,
vii, 363 ; Italian feeling on,
vii, 437 ; viii, 292. See Egyp-
tian War.

Egyptian Monuments, vii, 258.

Egyptian War, the, causes leading
to, vii, 232 ; intervention of
French and English, 236 ; bom-
bardment of Alexandria, 244 ;
conference at Constantinople,
244, 248 ; campaign, 251; Egyp-
tians defeated, 254; questions
of settlement, viii, 289-297 ;
political trials, 297 ; amnesty,
298.

Egyptological and Assyriological
Kesearch, vii, 255.

Ehrbar, F., invention by, i, 518.

Ehrenberg, C. G., sketch, i, 248.

Ehrenfeuchter, obit., iii, 654.

Eichcns, F. 2., obit., ii, 599.

Eichwald, K. E., obit., i, 632.

Eira, cruise of, vi, 325 ; vii, 334.

Ekmann, G., obit., i, 632.

Eldridge, Dr. E., obit., i, 616.

Election, presidential, of 1876, i,
298, 779 ; bill on counting votes,
ii, 137 ; President's message
on, ii?>163; work of Electoral
Commission, ii, 169 ; reports
on frauds, iii, 712: Tilden on,
iii, 717, 802; Anderson trial,
iii, 494.

Election, Presidential, of 1880, v,
702.

Election riots, i, 71 ; v, 22, 204, 275.

Elections, contested, i, 297 ; ii, 455,
694, 748 ; iii, 334 : iv, 394, 532,
582; v, 486; vii, 564; State
acts to prevent frauds and cor-
ruption, ii, 515, 572, 748; iv,
108, 497, 601 ; v, 202, 418, 717 ;
vi, 205, 535; viii, 410, 567;
power of Congress touching,
viii, 474 ; Federal interference,
ii, 710; iv, 561. ^

Elections, presidential, proposed
amendment regarding, i, 132,
158; Pres. Grant on, i; 685;
disqualifications of candidates,
i. 702; bill on counting votes,
ii, 137 ; iii, 167 ; iv, 207 ; vi,
176; debate on rights at, iv,
194, 226 -j on marshals, v, 152.

Elections, primary, N. Y. bill, vii,
600.

Elections, senatorial, N. H., iii,
606; N. Y., vii, 12-4.

Electoral System of Austria, vii,
46 ; of Italy, vii. 438.

Electrical energy, storage, vii, 264.

Electricity, i, 248 ; dimensions of
iron in current, 251 ; applica-
tions of, i, 518, 519, 520, 740 ;
ii, 497, 498; eifect on plants,
iii. 725 ; exhibition at Paris, vi,
252 ; recent theories, vi, 239 ;

measurement, yi, 259 ; possible
applications, vi, 548.

Electric Light, nitric acid from, iv,
135 ; vegetation under, v, 237.

Electric Lighting, iii, 269 ; v, 238 ;
Edison's, iv, 335 ; systems, vi,
252 ; progress of, vii, 268 ; act
of Parliament on, vii, 366 ;
progress, viii, 302 ; use in
France, i, 520.

Electric Motor, an, i, 251.

Electric Kailwa^s, viii, 675.

Electroplating, ii, 498 ; vii, 533.

Elements, new, iii, 86 ; iv, 137 ;
nature of, iii, 91 ; iv, 133 ; vi,
240 ; table of atomic weights,
vi, 41 ; families, vi, 42.

Elephants, Indian, use of, in Afri-
can exploration, iii, 362.

El Hadsh, sketch, i, 570.

Elio, Joaquin, sketch, i, 252.

, bankruptcy of, iv,

Eliot, George, sketch, v, 241.
"' ibeth,N. J.,~
669.

Elizal

Elkin, observations by, viii, 26.

Ellet, Mrs. E. L. F., sketch, ii, 272.

Elliott, J., observations, iii, 37.

Elliott, J. H., D. D., obit., ii, 579.

Elliott, Judge, murder of, iv, 541.

El Mahdi. See Mahdi, El.

Elmore, H. M., obit., iv, 693.

El Obeid, taken by El Mahdi, viii,
300.

Elton, Capt., discovery by, iii, 363.

Elwart, A. A. E., obit., ii, 599.

Ely, J. S., experiments by, vii,
690 : viii, 635.

Emanuel, M., obit., v, 592.

Embezzlement, act on, in Conn.,
iii, 216.

Emerson, E. W., sketch, vii, 277.

Emigration, German, vii, 348 ; to
Palestine, viii, 614 ; state-aided,
from Ireland^ viii, 418 ; of coo-
lies from India, viii, 440 ; from
Italy, viii, 449.

Engelhard, J. A., sketch, iv, 339.

Engineering, in every volume.

Engines, solar, vi, 251 ; improve-
ments in steam, ii, 494, 495 ;
vi. 545.

English, the, in Persia, vi, 732.

English Channel Tunnel Panic,
vii, 284.

English, J. E., sketch, i, 203.

Ensilage. See Silos, vi, 808.

Eosin, i, 102.

Epidemic Diseases in 1883, viii,
317; Sanitary Control of, vii,
286 ; maps of infected dis-
tricts, 291, 292.

Erichsen, A. L. von, obit., i, 632.

Erk, L., obit., viii, 599.

Erman, G. A., obit., ii, 599.

Erysipelas, viii, 753.

Esmonde, Sir J., obit., i, 632.

Espartero, Duke, sketch, iv, 348.

Espin, T. E., observations by, vi,
39 ; vii, 40 ; viii, 27.

Esquiros, H. A., sketch, i, 258.

Estcourt, Sir T. H., obit., i, 632.

Este, D. K., obit., i, 616.

Estee, M. M., sketch, vii, 82.

Estorge, J. L.. obit., v, 592.

Ettmuller, E. L., obit., ii, 599.

Etna, eruption of, viii, 286.

Eulenben.', Count, obit., vi, 692.

Europe, in every volume but vi
and viii.

Evangelical Alliance, the, i, 261 ;

ii, 282 ; iv? 350 ; on intolerance
in Bohemia, iv, 351.

Evangelical Association, in every
volume.

Evangelical Union of Scotland, iii,
294.

Evans, Marian. See Eliot, George,
v, 241.

Evans, Wm., obit., iii. 654.

Evarts, Wm., obit., iii, 636.

Evarts, W. M., sketch, ii, 284 ; por-
trait, ii, 284; speech on Seward,
i, 717.

Eve, Dr. P. F., obit., ii, 579.

Events of 1883, viii, 321.

Everett, experiments, ii, 500.

Everglades, the, viii, 342.

Ewer, F. C., obit., viii, 588.

Ewing, Chas., obit., viii, 588.

Examinations for civil service. See
Keforin in the Civil Service,
viii, 684.

Exercise, physiology of, vii, 688 ;
of infants, 689.

Exhibition, Centennial, i, 22, 262,
685, 778 ; appropriation for,
193-202.

Exhibitions, leather, in Berlin, ii,
352 ; paper, in Berlin, iii, 381 ;
arts in Japan, ii, 414; Austra-
lia^ ii, 52 ; iv, 55 ; v; 39, 40 ;
Paris, iii, 294 ; Egyptian con-
tribution to Pans, iii, 268 ;
appropriation of Denmark, ii,
249 ; of electricity at Paris, vi,
252 ; Atlanta cotton, vi, 260 ;
Southern, at Louisville, viii,
464; in Santo Domingo, viii,
713.

Exner, experiments by, vi, 748 ; vii,
688.

Exodus of colored people, iv, 354,
537, 634 ; v, 417 ; vi, 812.

Explorers, see under Geographi-
cal in every volume ; murder
of, iv, 6.

Explosions, boiler, causes and pre-
vention of, vi, 259 ; experi-
ments, vii, 296.

Explosives, ii, 626 ; Hi, 93 ; iv, 131.

Exposition, International Cotton,
at Atlanta, vi, 260.

Exposition, Paris, iii, 294.

Express companies, liability of, ii,
753; v,14.

Extradition treaties, i, 232, 361,
733 ; difficulty with Mexico, ii,
513j 712 ; with Spain, ii, 699 ;
decisions on, iii, 473 ; v, 585 ;
case of Randazzo, vi, 451 ; U. S.
and Belgium, vii, 67 ; viii, 157.
See Winslow.

Eye-sight, its defects and treat-
ment, vi, 271.

Ey tinge, experiments by, vii, 33.

Faber, P. C. F., obit., ii, 599.
Failures in business, 1883, viii, 327.
Faience, viii, 641.
Falk laws, the, iii, 736; iv, 773;

vi, 792 ; vii, 357, 358 (note) ;

viii, 395.

Falke, J. F. G., obit., i, 632.
Falkenhayn, Count, iv, 60.
Falkland islands, vi, 274.
Fallows, Samuel, sketch, i, 698.
.Falls, M. N., obit., i, 616.
False Prophet, the. See Mahdi, El.
Famines, in China, i, 110 ; ii, 100 ;

iii, 98 ; in India, i, 404 ; ii, 42,

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

839

392 ; iii, 436 ; iv, 494 ; vi, 419 ;
in Brazil, iii, 64 ; in Egypt, iv,

Famine, hi Persia, v, 623 ; in Tur-
key, y, 690 ; in Iceland, vii,
191 ; in Highlands, viii, 418.
Fanfani.P., obit., iv, 699.
Fargo, W. C., obit., iii, 636.
Fargo, W. G., obit., vi, 682.
Farley, J. T., sketch, ii, 285.
Farmers, Minn., Board of Trade,

iv, 623; Cal., convention of,
vii, 82.
Farms and live-stock in the United

States, vii, 298.

Faroe Channel, ridge in, vii, 331.
Farr, E. W., obit., v, 592.
Farre, Gen., sketch, iv, 386.
Farrell, Thos., obit., v 592.
Farrelly, Philip, obit., iii, 636.
Fat-cells, vii, 689.
Faucher, J., obit., iii, 654.
Faure, C. A., inventions by, vi,

254 ; vii, 265.

Favre, A., experiments by, iv, 379.
Favre, J. C. G., sketch, v, 255.
Favre, L., work on the St. Gothard

Tunnel, iii, 290.
Fawkes, Capt. H., obit., i, 633.
Fawsitt, Miss Amy, obit., i, 616.
Fay, F. B., obit., i, 616.
Fazy, J. J., sketch, iii, 314.
Fechter, C. A., sketch, iv, 358.
Federal jurisdiction. See Law, vi,

477.

Feejee, cannibalism in, i, 53.
Feild, E., obit., i, 633.
Feiizi Pasha, sketch, ii, 285.
Felkin, Mr., on technical education

in Saxony, vi, 229.
Fenians, supposed conspiracy of,

vi, 370.

Fenyes, A., sketch, i, 281.
Ferenz, Rev. Jos., i, 778.
Ferghana. See Khokan, i, 775.
Ferguson, Sir W., obit., ii, 599.
Ferments in fruits, vii. 92.
Fernkorn, A., obit., iii, 654.
Ferranti's invention, vii, 269, 270.
Ferrari, Giuseppe, sketch, i, 282.
Ferrie, Wm., method for obtaining

ammonia, viii, 114.
Ferrier, Capt. J. M., obit., i, 616.
Ferrier, I. P., experiments by, vi,

748 ; discovery, vii, 37.
Ferry, right of U. S. to acquire a,

lv, 847.
Ferry, J. F. C., sketch, iv, 387 ;

fall of ministry of, vii, 324;

Cabinet, viii, 367.
Fertilizer, vi, 275 ; of S. C., vi,

814; phosphorite, viii, 701.
Feuchtvvanger, experiments by,

viii, 522.

Feuerstack, experiments, viii, 633.
Feutsch, E., obit., ii, 599.
Fever, action of remedies, vii, 690.
Fever, yellow, iii, 315 ; iv, 359 ; vii,

293 ; map of infected district,

vii, 292. See also Health, iv,

466; Epidemic Diseases, viii,

319 ; and Germ Theory.
Fichte, I. H., obit, iv, 699.
Field, Mrs. D. D., obit., i, 616.
Field, G. E., obit., iii, 637.
Field, S. D., inventions, viii, 677.
Fields, J. T., sketch, vi, 283.
Fillmore,- Caroline, obit., vi, 682.
Finances of Egypt. See Egyptian

Finances.

Finances of India, censure of man-
agement of, iv, 492, 494.

Finances of the U. S., in every vol-
ume. See also Commerce, etc.,
vi, 120 ; vii, 110.

Financial crisis over the world, ii,
109.

Financial review of 18S3, viii, 332.

Financial depression, in Peru, i,
665- in Chili, iii, 12; in Eng-
land, iv, 175 ; in Germany, iv,
180 : cause of, iv, 163.

Finlay, Mr., discovery by, vii 37.

Finotti, J. M., sketch, iv, 370.

Fire-arms, etc.? Ala. law against
carrying, vi; 5.

Firemen, inventions for, i, 518.

Fires, Brooklyn Theatre, i, 605;
Czech Theatre, vi, 50 ; Vienna
Theatre, vi, 51 ; in Quebec, vi,
221; in Michigan, vi, 586. in
Haverhill, vii, 5-20.

Fish; culture and preservation of,
iv, 668 ; as a food, viii, 348.

Fish, A. I., sketch, iv, 370.

Fish, Benj., obit., v, 592.

Fish, Eev. H. C., obit., ii, 579.

Fish Commission, U. S., viii, 791.

Fish-culture, viii, 791.

Fisher. Sir J. W., obit., i, 633.

Fisheries, U. S., statistics, viii, 795.

Fitton, Jas., obit., vi, 682.

Fitzeau, experiments by, vi, 41.

Fitzgerald, Sir J. F., obit., ii, 599.

Fisheries, Chinese in Cal., iii, 71 ;
protection in Cal., v, 75 ; sal-
mon, in Oregon, iii, 671 ; vii,
670; viii, 612; shad in Md.,
iv, 591 ; on the Conn, river,
vi, 639 ; N. J., vii, 598.

Fisheries of U. S. in 1880, vii, 309.

Fishery Convention, International,
vii, 590.

Fishery Exhibition at Berlin, v,
321 ; representation of IT. S.
at, v, 150.

Fishery questions, between U. S.
and Canada, ii, 15, 253; iii,
247 ; v, 218 ; vi, 776 ; payment
and protest, iii, 242; Pres.
Hayes on, v, 648 ; Fortune Bay
outrage, v, 218.

Flagg, W. C., obit., iii, 637.

Flame, luminosity of, id, 85 ; tem-
perature, 93.

Flatters, G., explorations, v, 293.

Flaubert, G., obit., v, 599.

Flegel, observations, v, 290.

Fleischer, K. M., obit., i, 633.

Fleitman, Dr., discoveries by, vi,
542 ; viii, 522.

Floods, in China, i, 110 ; viii, 128 ;
in S. America, i, 333 ; in Ger-
many, i, 348; viii, 397; in
Hungary, i, 388 ; iv, 477 ; in
Nev., iii, 601 ; in 111., y, 380 ;
protection against, in Miss. ,5 v,
635; in Ark., vii, 31 ; in Ty-
rol, vii, 59 ; in Italy, vii, 438 ;
in La., vii, 480 ; in the Ohio
valley, viii, 339.

Florida, in every volume.

Flotow, F. von, obit., viii, 599.

Flourens, theory of, viii, 634.
Floyd, Sally B., sketch, iv, 378.
Fludyer, Sir S., obit., i, 633.
Fluorine, free, vi, 99.
Fly river, explored, iv, 409.
Fogg, G. G., sketch, vi, 301.
Fogs and Clouds, Genesis of, v,

275; fog-signals, v, 447 ; viii,

Foley, Thos., sketch, iv, 879.

Folger, C. J., sketch, v, 576 ; por-
trait, vii, 807.

Foltz, P. von, obit., ii, 600.

Fontaine, locomotive of, vi, 511.

Food-Preservation, vii, 315.

Foods, nutritive values of, vi, 670 ;
viii, 342; adulteration of, see
Adulteration.

Foot, S. A., obit.. Hi, 637.

Foot-and-Mouth Disease, viii, 848.

Foote, H. S., sketch, v, 276.

Foote, R. E., obit., iv, 693.

Forbes, David, obit., i, 683.

Forbes. Geo., on planets, v, 34.

Ford, B. G., obit., iv, 693.

Ford, E. L., obit., v, 592.

Ford, Kev. J., obit., ii, 600.

Ford, Mary A., obit., 1. 616.

Fordyce, Sir J., obit., ii, 600.

Foreign Exchange, 1883, viii, 338.

Forel, observations by, viii, 526.

Forestry, viii, 349.

Forests, area of, in Europe, vii,
317; destruction of, v? 650:
viii, 164 ; cedar and pine ia
Mexico, viii, 538 ; Adirondack,
viii, 576.

Forests of United States, vii, 316.

Formation of Mountains, iv, 379.

Forney, J. W., sketch, vi, 302.

Forrest, N. B., sketch, ii, 299.

Forster, Sir G., obit., i, 633.

Forster, H.. obit,, vi. 693.

Forster, John, sketch i, 306.

Forster, W. E. sketch, v, 276.

Forsyth, Col. J., obit, ii, 579.

Forth Bridge, viii, 315.

Fortune, R., obit, v, 599.

Fortune Bay outrage, v, 218.

Fossil Birds, vi, 303.

Foster, C. J., obit., viii, 589.

Foster, L. S., sketch, y, 277.

Foucault, M., invention by, iii,
270.

Foulis. Sir H., obit., i, 633.

Fourmer, E., obit, y, 599.

Fournier, F., obit., ii, 600.

Fournier, G. , invention by, v, 93.

Fourton, Barry de, sketch, ii, 319.

Fox, Edward, obit., vi, 683.

Fox, G. L., obit., ii. 579.

France, in every volume.

Franchi, A., obit, iii, 654.

Francis, Charles Joseph, of Aus-
tria, obit., iii. 654.

Francis, Lewis, obit., ii, 580.

Francis, Sir P., obit, i, 633.
Franking privilege, resolution on

the, vi, 138.

Franklin, J. R., obit., iii, 637.
Franklin, Sir John, search for, ii,

324 ; v, 298.

Franclieu, Marquis de,. obit., ii, 600.
Franco-German War. See Chanzy,

viii, 107.

Fraternity of Jesus, the, ii, 22.
Frauds, alleged, ot officials in

Georgia, TV, 421.

Frederick William, Prince of Hes-
se, obit,'i, 633.
Fredro, Count, obit., i, 633.
Free Church of England, i, 319 ;

ii, 821.

Freeman, Mrs. E., obit, i, 616.
Free Religious Association, vii, 326.
Freethinkers, Congress of, v, 55.
Freiligrath, F., sketch, i, 319.

840 INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

Frelinghuysen, F. T., portrait, vii,

806.

Frementin, E., obit., i, 633.
French advances in Central Africa,

v} 280 ; vii, 335, 336.
French, Rev. M.,obit., 616.
French, Virginia L.. obit., vi, 683.
Frere, Sir Bartle, li, 85, 86 ; iv,

121, 125.
Freycinet, ii, 320 ; sketch, iv, 394 ;

ministry, vii, 325.
Freytag, theory of, vii, 93.
Frias, F., obit., vi, 693.
Fried berg, H., sketch, iv, 740.
Friedlander, I., obit., Hi, 637.
Friendly, or Tonga, islands, treaty

with Germany, ii, 53 ; annexa-
tion, viii, 31.

Friends, in every volume but v.
Fries, Eliaa M., sketch, iii, 350.
Frisby, E., observations by, viii,

20, 26.

Frost, W. E., obit., ii, 600.
Frotscher, K. H., obit., i, 633.
Fruit-Growers, Convention of, iii,

573.

Fruits, George, obit., i, 617.
Fuel, heat-value of, iii, 92.
Fiihrich, Joseph von, sketch, i, 321.
Fulahs, tribe of the, v, 291.
Fuller, Jerome, obit., v, 593.
Fuller, J. B., experiments by, viii,

305.

Fuller, Kev. Eichard, sketch, i, 321.
Fuller, W. H., obit., iii, 637.
Fulton, E., obit., iii, 637.
Funk, H., obitM>ii, 600.
Furnaces, gas, viii, 372.
Fur-seals. See Alaska, vii, 7.
Fusion-disk, vi, 313.

Gaboon, the, ii, 7 ; vi, 328, 329.

Gage, S. F., investigations by, vii,
689.

Galimart, N. A., obit., v, 599.

Gallaher, J. S., obit, ii, 580.

Gallatin, James, obit., i, 617.

Gallaudet, Mrs. S. F., obit., ii, 580.

Gall-bladder, extirpation of, viii,
752.

Galle, Dr., experiments by, vii, 36.

Gallic acid, test for, v, 95.

Galliera, Duke of, obit., jj.633.

Gallium, equivalent of, iii, 89 ; in
American blendes, v, 95.

Galton, F., invention by, iii, 726.

Galway, Viscount, obit., i, 633.

Gama, Vasco da, tercentenary of, v,
628.

Gambetta, sketch and portrait, vi,
313; speech of, ii, 312;_ mani-
festo and prosecution, ii, 316 ;
inaugural, vi, 310 ; defeat of
scrutin de liste bill, vi, 311, 807 ;
course and death of, vii, 326 ;
influence of, viii, 365.

Game-laws, in Parliament, v? 341.

Gamgee, Mr., invention by; i, 517.

Gamond, Thome de, obit., i, 633.

Gansevoort, Judge P., obit., i, 617.

Gape, Admiral jT, obit., i, 634.

Garabit viaduct, viii, 316.

Garbage, burning, vi, 249.

Garbard, J. H., obit., i, 617.

Garbett, J.. obit., iv, 699..

Gardiner, Addison, obit., viii, 589.

Gardiner, S. B., obit., vii, 636.

Gardner, A. K., i, 617.

Garfield, J. A., sketches, v, 286;
vi, 317 ; portrait, v, 15 ; letter

of acceptance, v, 700 ; inaugu-
ral, vi, 843 ; Blaine on policy
of, vi, 845 ; vii, 192 ; memorial,
the, vii, 121 ; Elaine's oration,
vii. 127 ; compensation to phy-
sicians of, vii, 809.

Garibaldi, sketch and portrait, vii,
328 ; gift to, i, 421 ; resigna-
tion of, v, 410 ; death, vii,
438.

Garlington, E. A., relief expedition
under, viii, 420 ; court of in-
quiry on, 424.

Gamer, W. T..obit.,i, 617.

Gamier, J., obit., vi, 693.

Gamier, M. J., experiments by,
viii, 113, 523.

Gamier-Pages, sketch, iii, 350.

Garrard, K., obit., iv, 693.

Garrettson, Mary JR., obit., iv, 693.

Garrison, A. F.. obit., ii, 580.

Garrison, S., obit., iii, 637.

Garrison, W. L., sketch, iv, 396.

Garthwaite, J. C., obit., viii, 589.

Garvim2 S. B., obit., iii, 637A

Gas, viii, 372 ; a heating, iii, 88 ;
Lowe's process, i, 517 ; other
water processes, viii, 374 ; nat-
ural, 377 ; improved burner, i,
91.

Gas-engines, viii, 377.

Gaskell, W. H., experiments by,
viii, 631.

Gas-lighting, regenerative system
of viii, 377.

Gas-lime, regeneration of, iii, 89.

Gas-stoves, viii, 376.

Gases, liquefaction of, ii, 87.

Gates, E., Treasurer of Missouri,
indictment of, iii, 575.

Gaudoin, M., invention by, iii, 270.

Gaule, experiments by, viii, 632.

Gaume, Mgr. , obit. , iv, 774.

Gauntlett, H. J., sketch, i, 322.

Gaurisankar, Mount, highest in the
world, vi, 332.

Gauss, statue of, ii, 353.

Gaylord, G. K., obit., i, 617.

Geudes, experiments by, iv, 37.

Gegenbaur, J. A., sketch, i, 322.

Geissler tubes, for electricity, iii,
279.

Gelatine, blasting, iv, 131.

Geldart, Eev. J. W., obit., i, 634.

Gemmill, W. D.. obit., vii, 637.

Genin, S. N., obit., iii, 637.

Geodetic conference, viii, 454.

Geographical Progress and Dis-
covery, in every volume ; Con-
gress, i, 73.

Geological Surveys, State N. H.,
ii, 548, 557 ; Ga., iii, 366 ; Ind.,
iv, 501 ; N. J., iv, 670.

Geology j fossils in Oregon, ii, 628 ;
glacial period, vi, 349 ; explo-
rations in Asia, iii, 359 ; for-
mation of mountains, iv, 379 ;
Favre's experiments, iv, 379;
fossil birds, vi, 303 ; the igua-
nodon, viii, 436.

Geology, Experimental, iv, 417.

George V., ex-King of Hanover,
death, iii, 384 ; obit., iii, 654.

George, Duke of Mecklenburg-
Strelitz, obit., i, 634.

Georgia, in every volume.

Gerber, M., experiments by, vij
42.

Gerken, John, obit., i, 617.

Gerlach,E. L. von, obit., ii, 600.

Gerlach, Franz, sketch, i, 338.

German Centralism in Austria, vii,
48.

German Emigration, vii, 348.

German Government, in Polynesia,
ii, 53.

German National Monument, viii,
399.

German Parliament, vi, 337.

German Provinces, Russiflcation
of, viii, 708.

German Railroads, vii, 349.

Germany, in every volume.

Germ Theory and Spontaneous
Generation, iii, 387.

Germ Theory of Disease, iv, 442 ;
vi, 347, 551 ; vii, 286 ; in tu-
berculosis, vii, 798 ; vaccina-
tion, vi, 347. See Epidemic
Diseases^ viii, 320.

Germs, Vaccination with Disease,
vi, 347.

Gescheidt, Dr. L. M., obit., i, 617.

Geselschap, E.,obit., iiij 654.

Gessi, Signer, explorations of, i,
330, 331.

Ghillany, F., obit.,i. 634.

Gholain Hussein Khan, obit., vi,
693.

Gibbons, Sir S., obit., i, 634.

Giegler Pasha, viii. 299.

Giers, N. C., sketch, vii. 734.

Gifford, C. L. C., obit., ii, 580.

Giiford, S. R., sketch, v, 322.

Gilbert, G. A., obit. ,11, 580.

Gilchrist, S., invention by, y, 208.

Giles, Ernest, in Australia, i, 330.

Gill, Capt., iii, 359.

Gill, David, observations by. vii,
36, 37 ; viii, 26 ; prize, vii, 41.

Gillette, A. D., obit,, vii, 637.

Gilpin, E. W., i, 225 ; obit., i, 617.

Ginzel, J. A., obit., i, 634.

Girardin, E. de, sketch, vi, 348.

Giseke, B. L., obit., i, 634.

Giskra, K.. obit., iv, 699.

Gittings, E., obit., v. 593.

Gjess, G., invention by, vii, 530.

Glacial Period, vi, 349.

Gladstone, W. E., sketch, v, 322.

Glais-Bizoin, A., obit., ii, 600.

Glass, process for toughening, i,
517 ; improvements in, v, 91.

Glass brenner, A., sketch, i, 348.

Glenn, W. W., obit., i, 617.

Glick, G. W., sketch, vii, 447.

Glucose, vi, 350.

Gobriffht, L. A., obit., vi. 683.

Goddard, D. A., obit., vii. 637.

Gddey, L. A., obit., iii, 637.

Godon, S. W., sketch, iv, 444.

God win- Austen, Col., explorations
of, ii, 328.

Goessmann, experiments, iii, 87.

Goff, G. W., obit.,i, 617.

Goffart, A., experiments, vi, 809.

Gold, allotropic, ii, 499; produc-
tion of, ii. 240, 242 ; in Ala.,
iii, 8 ; in Dakota, ii, 245 ; dust
from Colombia, viii, 141 : ex-
periments with, viii, 524 ; Ven-
ezuela mines, viii, 814. See
Mines.

Gold, as the only standardj see
Currency, ii, 235, and Bimet-
allism; and silver, relative
values of, i, 290 ; conference to
fix, iii, 326 ; issue of certifi-
cates, vii, 117.

Goldsborough, L.M., sketch, ii, 353.

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO .1883.

841

Goldsborough, W. T., obitn i, 617.

Goldschmid, invention by, lii, 545.

Goldschmidt, discoveries by, ii, 44.

Goldschmidt, P., obit., ii, 600.

Goldsmid, Sir F. H., obit., iii,
654.

Goldsmith, W. L., impeachment
of, iv, 421.

Goldthwaite, G., sketch, iv, 444.

Golther, L. von, sketch, i, 348.

Goodwin, W. H., obit., i, 617.

Goodwin, J., obit., iii, 637.

Goppelsroeder, invention by, vii,
90 ; experiments, viii, 115.

Gordon, Sir A. , defeat of cannibals
by, i, 53 ; Governor of Feejee,
ii, 52.

Gordon, C. G., sketch, with por-
trait, yiii, 399 ; hi Abyssinia,
ii, 2 ; iVj 2, 333 ; operations in
Egypt, i, 246 ; excursions on
the Nile, ii, 330 ; in the Sou-
dan, ii, 269 ; v, 235 : viii, 290 ;
proposed to flood the Jordan
valley, viii, 307.

Gordon, Sir H. P.; obit., i, 634.

Gordon, J. E. H., invention by, vii,
269, 270.

Gordon, L. D. B., obit., i, 634.

Gordon, Sir W. H obit.,i, 634.

Gorgas, J., obit., viii, 589.

Gorman, Gen. W. A., obit., i; 617.

Gorrnanston, Viscount, obit., i, 634.

Gortchakoff, Prince, sketch, ii, 353 ;
viii, 400 ; retirement, vii, 734.

Goss, Wm., obit., i, 618.

Goszczynskis, L., sketch, i, 348.

Goulard and Gibbs, induction-coils
used by, viii, 305.

Gould, B. A., discoveries and ob-
servations, iii, 35 ; vi, 38 ; vii,
37 ; prize to, viii, 27.

Gould, JT, obit., vi, 693.

Gould, T. K., sketch, vi, 353.

Gourko, Gen. J. V., sketch, ii, 353.

Gove, W. H., obit., i, 618.

Grace, F. J., obit., ii: 580.

Grace-Calvert, experiments, vi, 99.

Grafton, E. C., obit., i, 618.

Graham, Gen. G., in Egypt, with
portrait, vii, 253.

Graham, J. H., obit., iii, 637.

Graham, J. L., obit., i. 618.

Graham, J. L. .Jr., obit., i, 618.

Graham, Van Wyck, obit., i, 618.

Graham, Lieut. W., obit., i, 618.

Grain Inspection, vii, 560.

Gramme, M. , inventions by, iii, 277,
307 ; vi, 253 ; electric lamp of,
vi, 258.

Gramont, Due de, obit., v, 599.

Grandeau, experiments by, iii, 725.

Gran din, Lieut., invention, i, 518.

Granger cases, the, ii, 753.

Granger, Gordon, sketch, i, 348.

Granier de Cassagnac, A. B., obit.,
v, 599.

Grannis, T. C., obit., iii, 637.

Grant, Sir F., obit., iii, 654.

Grant, Gordon, obit., iii, 638.

Grant, President, messages of, i,
680 ; travels of, iv, 146, 445 :
proposal to place on retired
list, vii, 156.

Granville, Earl, sketch, v, 323.

Grapes, chemistry of, iii, 87 ; cult-
ure of, see Viticulture.

Grape-Sugar, vi, 350.

Grass, Philippe, obit., i, 634.

Grasses, analysis of, viii, 118.

Grasshoppers, in Dakota, protec-
tion against, i, 219 ; in Minne-
sota, i, 558.

Grassmann, H. G., obit., ii, 601.

Graves, K. H., obit., i, 618.

Gravez. T., obit., viii, 599.

Gray, A. G., obit., i, 618.

Gray. E. P., inventions by, vi, 255.
See Telephone, i, 740.

Gray, H. P., sketcn, ii, 354.

Great Britain and Ireland, in every
volume.

Great Salt Lake, filling up of, v,

Greece, in every volume ; map of
Athens, i 367, 368.

Greek Church, organization of, i,
371, 372 ; ii 371, new transla-
tion of the Bible, 372 ; iii, 411 ;
iv, 461 ; v, 346 ; project for
union of Servian churches, v,
347.

Greek invasion of Turkey, iii, 793.

Green, F. M., corrections in lati-
tudes and longitudes, ii, 336.

Green, J. R., sketch, viii, 424.

Green, H., Jr., obit., i, 618.

Green, N. E., observations by, viii,

Green. S. F., imprisonment, vii, 14.

Greenback party, the i, 204, 781.

Greene, E. W. C., obit., ii, 580.

Greene, G. W., obit., viii 589.

Greene, Nathaniel, obit., ii, 580.

Greene, W. B., sketch, iii, 412.

Greenfield, Eliz. T.. obit., i, 618.

Greenland, explorations in, iii, 358 ;
viii, 384.

Greely, A. W., expedition under,
vi, 325.

Greely relief expedition, viii, 420.

Gregg, J., obit., iii, 655.

Gregorian Calendar, vii, 371.

Gregory, Dr. H. H., obit., ii, 580.

Grenell, Geo., obit., ii, 580.

Grevy, F. J. P., sketch, iii, 413;
portrait, iv, frontispiece ; elect-
ed President, iv, 388.

Grey, Sir Geo., obit., vii, 646.

Grifiith, J. E., obit., ii, 580.

Griflith, Sir R. J., obit., iii, 655.

Grigsby, H. B., obit., vi, 683.

Grimaux, M. E., experiments by,
_ v, 96 ; vii, 87.

Grimshaw, experiments, vi, 99.

Grimston, invention by, viii, 381.

Groeben-Neudorfchen, Count, obit,
i, 634.

Groen van Prinsterer, W., obit., i,
634.

Grotius, on international law, vii,
618.

Grove, inventions by, vi, 254 ; vii,
265.

Grover, Lafayette, sketch, i, 653.

Griin, Anastasius, i, 51.

Grtineisen, K. von, obit., iii, 655.

Grunwald, explorations, iii, 359.

Gruppe, 0. F., sketch, i, 875.

Guadeloupe, yiii, 821.

Guano Deposits in S. A., war over,
iv, 82 ; as a fertilizer, vi, 276.
277; in Peru, vii, 683; and
Nitrate Deposits, controversy
on, viii, 628.

Guardia, Gen., death of, vii, 176.

Guatemala, in every volume ; map,
i, 374; attempted murder of
the President, ii, 375 ; bound-
ary dispute, see Boundaries.

Gubert, Louise, obit., vii, 63Y.

Guelph fund, vii, 358.

Gucncke. 11. E. F., obit., iii, 655.

Guest, John, sketch, iv, 464.

Guiana, viii, 821.

Guidi, P. M., obit., iv, 699.

Gui:,oiiant, J. D. sketeh, i, 875.

Guion, J. M., obit., iii, 688.

Guiteau's Trial, vi, 881 ; execution,
vii, 809.

Gulf Stream, investigation of, v,
288 : Pacific, v, 289 ; vi, 826.

Gum-gelactine, vii, 88.

Gum-lac, from Anzona, vi, 100.

Gungi, J., obit., viii, 599.

Gunnery, improvements in, vi, 547.

Gunnisonite, vii, 87.

Guns, construction of, vii, 576;
three types of, vii, 578 ; experi-
ments with, 578; the Arm-
strong, 581.

Gunther, J. C., obit., i, 618.

Gurney, R., obit., iii. 655.

Gurney, Wm., sketch, iv, 464.

Gussfeldt, explorations, i, 381.

Gustavus, Prince, obit., ii, 601.

Gutzkow, K. F., sketch, iii, 418.

Gylden, observations, viii, 26.

Hackett, Sir W., obit., ii, 601.
Hackett, W. H. T., obit., iii, 638.
Hacklandcr, F. W., obit., ii, 601.
Haddan, J. L.. invention, iii, 286.
Heematein, anhydrous crystalline,

vii, 88.

Heematoblasts. See Blood, viii, 60.
Haemorrhage, arrest of, viii, 60.
Haemorrhoids, viii, 751.
Haffner, K., obit., i, 635.
Hagen, E. A., obit., v, 600.
Haggan, experiments, vi, 751.
Haggenmacher, G. A., explorations

of, i, 331.

Hague, Mrs. S., obit., ii, 580.
Hahn-Hahn, Countess, obit., v,

600.

Haight, H. H., obit., iii. 638.
HaiDe, ex-Gov. Wm., obit., i, 618.
Hainan, revolt hi, iv, 144.
Haines, D., obit., ii, 580.
Haines, W. S., experiments by, vi,

851.
Halberstadt, W., experiments by,

viii, 112.

Haldeman, S. S., sketch, v, 350.
Hale, C. B., obit., i, 618.
Hale, Sarah J.. sketch, iv, 465.
Halevy, L., obit., viii, 599.
Hall, Anna M., obit., vi. 698.
Hall, Asaph, prizes to, iii, 89 ; iv,

63 ; observations by, iv, , 52 ;

viii, 26.

Hall, E., D. D., obit., ii, 580.
Hall, Edward, obit., ii, 580.
Hall, Ezra, obit., ii. 680.
Hall, F. P., experiments by, viii,

116.

Hall, Dr. W. H., obit, i. 618.
Hall, Sir W. H., obit., iii, 655.
Haller, F. N., obit., i. 685.
Hallett, J. H.. obit., iii, 638.
Halliday-Dufij A., obit., ii, 60V.
Halstead. 0: S., obit., ii, 581.
Halated, R. F., sketch, vi, 899.
Halsted. Wm., obit., iii, 688.
Haly, Sir W. O'G., obit., iii, 655.
Hamassen, i. 8, 4 ; rebellion in, ii, 8.
Hambruch, invention, 1, 518.
Hamburg, in the Customs Union,

vii, 855.

842

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPEDIA, FRO^ 1876 TO 1883.

Hamilton, J. A., obit., iii, 638.

Hamilton, Sir J. J., obit., i, 635.

Hamilton, Sir W., obit., li, 601.

Hamlet, W. H., experiments by,
vi, 99.

Hammerich, F., obit., ii, 601.

Hammond, Gen., obit., i, 618.

Hampton, Wade, sketch, ii, 375 ;
Gov. S. C., i, 725.

Hampton, Wade, Jr., obit., iv, 693.

Hancock, W. S., sketch, v, 350;
portrait, v, 351 ; letter of ac-
ceptance, v, 701.

Hand, A. C.. obit., iii, 638.

Handy, I. W. K., obit., iii, 638.

Haneberg, D. von, sketch, i, 375.

Hanel, G. F., obit., iii. 655.

Haney, investigations by, vi, 19.

Hanfstangl, F. von, obit., ii, 601.

Hannay, J. B., experiments by, iii,
85 ; iv, 136 ; v, 86.

Hanover, death of the ex-King, and
claim to the crown of, iii, 384 ;
Guelph fund, vii, 358, note.

Hansa, the, expedition of, i, 81.

Hansen, J. E., obit., ii, 602.

Hanson, invention by, vii, 741.

Hanson, Sir E. D., sketch, i, 375.

Hanston. experiments by, iv, 136.

Harbor defenses of U. S., v, 29.

Harbor Improvements, v, 244 ; Ant-
werp, vii, 280 j docks at Mil-
ford Haven, yii, 279.

Harcourt, G. "V., invention, vi, 96.

Harcourt, Sir Win., sketch, v, 352.

Hardic, Gen. J. A., obit., i, 618.

Hardie, Sir G. D., obit., iii, 655.

Harkness, J., obit., iii, 638.

Harlan, J. M., sketch, ii, 376.

Harlech, Baron, obit., i, 635.

Harper, Fletcher, sketch, ii, 376.

Harris, S. D., obit., ii, 581.

Harris, T., obit., iii, 638.

Hart, E.. experiments by, viii, 633.

Hart, John S., sketch, ii, 377.

Hart, Joel T., sketch, ii, 376.

Hart, S., obit., iii, 639.

Hartford, new Capitol at, iii, 219.

Hartington, Marquis of, sketch, v,
353.

Hartmann, J. yon, obit., iii, 655.

Hartridge, Julian, sketch, iv, 465.

Hartt, C. F., obit., iii, 639.

Hartwig, Dr., discoveries by, iv,
51 ;' v, 35 ; observations, vi, 39.

Hartzenbusch, J. E., obit., v, 600.

Harvests of the World, vii, 376.

Harvey, Sir G., sketch, i, 376.

Harvey, Peter, obit., ii, 581.

Hasenclever, E., sketch, i, 376.

Haskett, W. J., obit., i, 619.

Hastings, G. F., obit., i, 635.

Hastings,, Hugh J.. obit., viii, 589.

Hatficld, E. F., obit., viii, 590.

Hatfleld, H., observations by, iii, 37.

Hatton, F., experiments by, vi, 98.

Hatzler, Elizabeth, obit., vii, 638.

Haug, Martin, sketch, i, 376.

Hautefeuille and Chappuis, discov-
ery by, v, 86,

Haven, E. 0., sketch, vi, 399.

Haven, Gilbert, sketch, v, 353.

Hawes, Eichard, obit., ii, 581.

Hawkes, Gen. E., obit., I. 635.

Hawkshaw, Sir J.. drainage en-
gineering bv, iii, 29.

Hay, J. S., explorations of, i, 333.

Hayden, F. V., survey by, i, 335;
ii, 336.

Hayden, Josiah, obit., ii, 581.

Hayem, experiments by, viii, 60.

Hayes, E., bridge designed by, viii,
313.

Hayes, I. I., obit., vi, 684.

Hayes, B. B.. sketch, i, 376 ; por-
trait, i, frontispiece 5 election,
see Election of 1876 ; inaugural,
ii, 659 ; messages, see Congress
and Public Documents.

Haymerle, Karl von, sketch, iv,
465 ; vi, 399.

Hays. Isaac, sketch, iv, 466.

Hayti, viii, 428 ; insurrection, 429.

Hay wood, B., obit., iii, 639.

Hazlehurst, Eev. T., obit., i, 635.

Head. Natt, obit., viii, 590.

Health, influence of chemical works
on, see Chemistry, i, 84 ; cli-
matic influence in Col., iv, 156.

Health, Charity, and Lunacy, Mass.
Board of, established, iv, 596.

Health Congress, i, 72.

Health, National Board of, iv, 466.

Healy, imprisonment of, viii, 413.

Healy, J. P., obit., vii, 638.

Hearing, instrument for testing
the, iv, 503.

Hearing, or Color-Hearing, vi, 400.

Heart, electrical condition of the,
i, 250; experiments, viii, 631.

Heat, magnetic equivalent, 1, 251.

Heath, E. E., explorations by, vi,
332.

Heating and Ventilation of Dwell-
ings, v, 359.

Heating of Houses, vi, 400.

Heaton, Judge, obit., ii, 581.

Hebert, P. 0., sketch, v, 353.

Heckel, experiments by, viii, 118.

Hecker, F., obit., vi, 694.

Hedstrom, Eev. 0. G., obit., ii, 581.

Heemskerk. M. J., obit., vi, 694.

Heer, I., obit., iv, 699.

Heimann, B. A., sketch, ii, 377;
obit., iii, 655.

Heinrich, experiments, viii, 521.

Heis. E., obit., ii, 602.

Heiskell, J. M., case of, in Con-
gress, v, 187.

Heisler, F., obit., i, 635.

Helfmann. Hessy, vi, 796, 798.

Heliograph, the Mance, iv, 471 ;
use of, in Afghan War? v, 8.

Hell- Gate, improvement of, i, 377 ;
v, 250 ; vi, 272.

Hemans, C. I., sketch, i. 382.

Hendricks, T. A., sketch, i, 382.

Henneberg, Eudolf, sketch, i, 383.

Henni, J. M., sketch, vi, 400;
obit., vi, 794.

Henningsen. C. F., obit., ii, 581.

Henrietta island, discovery of, vii,
331.

Henry, Jas., obit., i, 635.

Henry, Jos., sketch and portrait,
hi, 419 ; experiments, v, 446.

Henry, J. T., obit., iii, 639.

Henry Paul, discoveries by, i, 46 ;
ii, 44 ; vii, 35 : prize to, iii, 39.

Henry, Prosper, discovery by, iii,
36 ; prize to, iii, 39.

Henry, Sir T., obit., i, 635.

Henselj Louise, obit., i, 635.

Herat, importance of, iv, 6.

Herbeck, J., Eitter von, obit., ii,
602.

Herbert, Sir Percy E., sketch, i,
383.

Herculano de Carvalho e Aranjo,
A., obit., ii, 602.

Bering, Constantino, sketch, v,

354.

Hernia, viii. 751.
Heron, Matilda, obit., ii, 581.
Herries, Baron, obit., i, 635.
Herschel, observations, iii, 36.
Hertzen, Alex., iv, 682.
Herz, C., experiments by, vi, 258 ;

computations, viii, 21.
Herzegovina, i, 757; v, 46 ; vii, 55 ;

viii, 548 ; maps, i, 751, 754.
Herzen, experiments by, viii, 635.
Herzog, Bishop, (sketch, i, 650.
Heuglm, T. von, sketch, i, 322, 383.
Heunert, K., obit., i, 635.
Hewes, C. M. A., obit., iii, 639.
Hewett, Com., i, 9 ; contest with

Africans, i, 9.

Hewitt, E. A., obit., ii, 581.
Hewson, Jas., obit., iii, 639.
Heyward, experiments, vi, 100.
Hibben, E. C., obit., i, 619.
Hicklin, J., obit., ii, 602.
Hicks Pasha, in the Soudan, viii,

300 ; defeat and death of, viii,

301; sketch, with portrait, viii,

430.

Hiddenite, vi, 401.
Hildcbrand, B., obit,, iii. 656.
Hildebrandt, P., obit., vi, 694.
Hilditch, Sir E., obit., i, 635.
Hill, Benj. H., sketches, ii, 337;

iv, 471 ; and portrait, vii, 378.
Hill, Mrs. H.. obit., ii, 602.
Hill, Sir Eowland, sketch, iv, 472.
Hillard, G. S., sketch, iv, 473.
Hilliard, F., obit., iii, 639.
Hilliard, Henry, sketch, ii, 377.
Hilton, Dr. J., obit., iii, 656.
Himly, Dr., experiments by, ii,

501.

Hind, discovery of asteroids, ii, 44.
Hirzel, S., obit., ii, 602.
Hitchcock, J. E., obit., iii, 639.
Hittites, the, vii, 263.
Hobart Pasha, sketch, ii, 377.
Hodge, Chas., sketch, iii, 420.
Hodgson W. N., sketch, i, 384.
Hodson-Doveton, obit., i, 635.
Hoeck, K. C. F., obit., ii, 602.
Hoff, H. K., obit., iii, 639.
Hoffman, M., obit., iii, 639.
Hofmann, J. von, obit., ii, 602.
Hofmeister, W., obit., ii, 602.
Hogg, Sir J. W., sketch, i, 384.
Hoghton, Sir H. de, obit., i, 635.
Hohenthal, Countess, obit., ii, 603.
Holdefleiss, F., observations by, iv.

135.

Holland, J. G., sketch, vi, 401.
Hoilins, G. N., sketch, iii, 420.
Holly's steam- heating, iii, 421.
Holmes, Alfred, obit, i7> 635.
Holmes, Senator, obit., i, 635.
Holmes, T. H., obit., v, 593.
Holub, Dr. E., explorations of, i,

332 ; ii, 333.

Holzgethan, L. von, sketch, i, 384.
Home Hygiene, v, 354.
Homestead acts, in some States, i,

203 ; in Georgia, i, 337 ; iii,

370 ; in Arkansas, iv, 45 ; in

Minnesota, iv, 627 ; in South

Carolina, iv, 818; in Florida,

vi, 297 ; vii, 314.
Honduras, revolution in, i, 22 ; iii,

423: viii, 431.

Hone, Mrs. E., obit., ii, 582.
Hood, J. B., sketch, iy, 473.
Hooker, Jos., sketch, iv, 475.

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1873.

843

Hooper, Capt., voyage of, y, 301.

Hopkins, G. H., observations by,
viii, 526.

Hopkins, J. C., obit., ii. 582.

Hopkins, Lucius, obit., i2 619.

Hopkinsou, invention, vi, 253.

Hore, discoveries, v, 135, 297.

Horn, Eph., obit., ii^ 582.

Horse, paces of the, lii, 723.

Horsley, 0. E., obit., i, 619.

Horsman, E., sketch, i, 384.

Horst, Baron, iv, 60.

Hort, Sir J. W., obit., i. 635.

Iloskyns, C. W., obit., i, 635.

Hosnier, G. W., obit., vi, 684.

Hosmer, W. H. C., obit., ii,' 582.

Hospitals, for seamen, history of.
See Service, United States Ma-
rine Hospital ; N. Y. Woman's,
viii, 718.

Hotchkiss, G. W., obit., iii, 639.

Hotchkiss, J., obit., iii; 640.

Hot Springs, Ark., disputed title
to, iiL 24 • iv, 45 ; v, 25.

Hough, G. W., observations by,
vii, 36 ; viii, 22.

House-drainage, v, 364.

House of Commons, discipline in.
See Parliament.

Houzeau. experiments by, viii, 115.

Hovas of Madagascar, the, vii, 492.

Hovgaard, expedition of. vi, 323.

How, Mary K., obit., viii, 638.

Howard, Dr. B., his method of re-
suscitation, iii, 765.

Howard, Gen., Indian campaign,
ii, 40 ; iii, 673.

Howard, W. C., invention by, vi,
267.

Howarth, Eev. H., obit., i, 636.

Howe, Earl, obit., i, 636.

Howe, Dr. S. G., sketch, i, 383.

Howe. T. O., sketch, with portrait,
viii, 432.

Howgate, Capt. H. W., Arctic ex-
pedition, ii, 324 ; vii, 810.

Howitt, Wm., obit., iv, 700.

Hubbard, J. F., obit., i, 619.

Hubbell, Judge L., obit., i, 619.

Huber, J.. obit., iv. 700.

Hiibner, O., obit., ii, 603.

Hue, treaty, viii, 769.

Huelva pier, the, iii, 287.

Huger, Benj., obit., ii, 582.

Huggins, Dr., observations by, vii,
37 ; prize to, viii, 28.

Hughes, E. D., invention by, iv,
502. See Microphone, iii, 562.

Hull Harbor improvements, viii,
310.

Hull, H. H., obit., i. 619.

Hull, J. H., obit., iii, 640.

Hull, W. H., obit., ii. 582.

Hulsse, J. A., obit., i, 636.

Humbert I, of Italy, accession of,
iii, 456 ; attempt on the life of,
iii, 458 ; assassin's sentence
commuted, iv, 528.

Humphreys, A. A., sketch, viii,
433.

Hungary, in every volume but viii.

Hunias, the, iv, 400.

Hunt, C. S., sketch, i, 389.

Hunt, G. W., obit., ii, 603.

Hunt, W. M., iv. 478.

Hunt, S., obit., iii, 640.

Hunter, D. E., observations by, iii,
37 ; iv, 52 ; v, 36 ; vii, 39, 40.

Huntington, O. W., experiments
by, vi, 93.

Hurlbut, S. A., sketch, vii, 879:
in Peru, vi, 738.

Huron, proposed Territory of, i,
220.

Huron, wreck of the, ii, 537.

Hussein- A vni Pasha, sketch, i, 889.

Huston, A. C., obit., i, 619.

Hutchinson, S., obit., i, 619.

Huxley, on medicine and biology,
vi, 550.

Hyatt, celluloid made by, iii, 459.

Hydrodynamic Analogies to Elec-
tricity and Magnetism, vi, 404.

Hydrofluoric Acid, molecular
weight of, yi, 92.

Hydrogen, purification of, ii, 94 ;
manufacture, y, 88 ; peroxide
of. iii, 89 ; vii, 96 ; dioxide,
viii, 117.

Hydrography, i, 324 ; ii, 323 ; iii,
351; v,288; of Behring strait,
vi, 325 ; surveys, vii, 331.

Hyett, W. H., obit., ii, 603.

Hygiene, Home, v^ 354.

Hylton, Baron, obit., i, 636.

Ice, Artificial, i, 517.

Ice, Hot, vi, 405.

Iceland, Parliament of, iv, 314.

Ichthyol, viii, 434.

Idaho, i, 390 ; viii, 434.

Ide, Jacob, sketch, v, 371.

Iglesias, J. M., sketch, i, 391 : claim
and defeat of, ii, 512 ; viii, 65.

Ignatieff, N. P, sketch, ii, 381.

Iguanodon, the, viii, 436.

Ilbert Bill, the, in India, viii, 441.

Hi. See Kulja.

Illinois, in every volume.

Illumination in surgery, viii, 752.

Immigrants, cost of care of, to N.
y., vt 579 ; taxation of, vii, 463.

Immigration, to U. S., ii, 386; vi,
412 ; rules on, yi, 414 ; of pau-
pers and criminals, vi, 487 ;
viii, 157 ; abuses, viii, 571 ; to
Australia, ii. 51 ; v, 37 ; vi,
44; to Canada, v, 216, 219; to
Central America, iii, 418, 748 ;
to South America, i, 77 ; ii, 28,
74, 75 ; v, 22 ; viii, 68, 123 ; to
Southern States, iii, 331 ; iv,
641; v, 308, 539, 584 ; vi, 299 ;
to Western States, i, 84, 85,
231 ; ii, 80 ; iii, 74, 76, 676 ; iv,
657 ; v, 612 ; viii, 78, 268.

Immigration, Chinese, vii, 387.
See also Chinese ; diplomatic
correspondence, i, 231 ; bill on,
iv, 218 ; treaty on, v, 704.

Impeachments, report on, of Judge
Archibald, ii, 297.

Imprisonment, damages for false,
iv, 675.

Improvements, Internal, Pres. Ar-
thur on, viii, 161.

Inability or Disability of the Presi-
dent, vi, 414.

Indebtedness of the United States,
of the States, and of the world,
vii, 392 ; maps showing dis-
tribution, 392, 408.

Indemnity Funds, from China and
Japan, vi, 778.

Induction-Balance, Hughes' s, iv,
502.

India, in every volume ; adminis-
tration of government hi, v,
887, 388 ; Ilbert bill, viii, 441.

Indiana, in every volume.

Indianapolis, Capitol at, iii, 440.

Indians, American, minni-

64, 76 ; iv, 190 ; in the Black
Hills, i, 681 ; cession to Canada
by Blackfeet, ii, 254.

Indians, President Hayes on, ii,
669 : iii, 710 ; wars and raids
of, ii, 89 ; iii, 28, 29. 463, 678 ;
iv, 46 ; v, 27, 28 ; vi, 35 ; viii,
17 ; numbers killed in engage-
ments with, v, 26 ; plan to
transfer care of, iii, 29 ; iv, 47 ;
for a body of cavalry, iii, 2:i ;
for education of children, iii,
29 ; v, 28, 649 ; Western reser-
vations, u, 539 ; iv, 150 : v, 29,
116,118: vi, 117,781; census
of Penobscots, iv, 576 ; elec-
tions, vi, 524 ; decision in favor
of Poncas, iv, 653 ; the Narra-
gansetts, iv, 772; their tribal
relations abolished, v, 654 ; in
Florida, vi, 298 ; in Canada, y,
218 ; Baptist convention of, viii,
52 ; famine in Montana, viii,
548 ; statistics of, v, 28 ; new
policy toward, v? 783 ; troubles
in Chili with, viii, 64 ; educa-
tion, viii, 781.

Indian Territpry,territorial govern-
ment in, iii, 28 ; occupation of,
iv, 43 ; opening to settlers rec-
ommended, v, 417.

India-rubber, manufacture of, v,90.

Indigo, artificial production of, vi,
428 ; vii, 95.

Indigo-blue, derivation of, iv, 135.

Industries, British and American,
ii, 111 ; new appliances for the
chemical, v, 88 ; statistics of
U. S., vii, 500.

Infallibility, i, 703 ; ii, 676.

Infanticide, suppression of, in In-
dia, i, 400.

Ingalls, Senator, charge against, v,
419.

Inglis, David, obit., ii, 582.

Inglis, J. A., obit., iii, 640.

Insane Criminals, act concerning, i,
597.

Insanity, plant producing, viii, 538.

Insanity as a Defense tor Crime,
evidence and opinions in the
Guiteau, Coleman, and Graves
trials, vi, 429. See also Gui-
teau's Trial, vi, 381.

Insectivorous Plants, iii, 444.

Insolvency, amendment to Conn,
law, v, 195.

Insurance, Commissioners of, in
Conn., ii, 225 ; Del., act on, iv,
807 ; Miss, laws, iv, 636 ; Mo.
laws, iv, 642 ; assessment com-
panies, vi, 727 : general statis-
tics for U. S., vii, 424 ; " grave-
yard" companies, vii, 835.

Insurrections. See Ware, etc.

Internal Revenue and Tariff in Con-
gress, viii, 193.

International Arbitration, viii, 409.

International Law, obligation of,
vii, 618 ; source of authority
of, 618 ; vtews of various writ-
ers, 618-622; beginning of the
science, 622.

International Monetary Conference.
See Bimetallic Standard.

Interoceanic Canal, iv, 503; map
showing routes tributary to, iv,
506. See also Panama Cuual.

844

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

Inuits of Alaska, the, v, 301.

Iodine, from sea-weed, i, 97 ; com-
mercially produced, v, 89.

Iowa, in every volume.

Ireland, and the Irish Question, v,
399; home-rule, i, 360; iii,
407; agitation, iv, 457 ; in Par-
liament, v, 330, 333, 338, 343 ;
vi? 358, 359, 363 ; obstruction,
vh, 204; coercion bills, vii,
204; cases of Dillon and oth-
ers, 205 ; debates on, vii, 364 ;
crimes bill, vii, 366; arrears
bill, vii, 367; "Irish World,"
the, vii, 368 ; land scheme, vii,
368; Ladies' Land League, ibid.;
arrest of High-Sheriff of Dub-
lin, vii, 369 ; political crimes
in, viii, 414 ; condition of, viii,
416 ; brief of Leo XIII on, viii,
693 ; legislation on, viii, 411.

Irish Land Bill, vi, 363.

Irish members of Parliament, ob-
struction by, ii, 365.

Irish National party, viii, 412.

Iron, new process, i, 522; direct,
vii, 528 ; protection of surfaces,
ii, 93; iv, 134; commerce in,
iv, 173 ; vii, 533 ; dephosphor-
ization of, v, 208 ; vii, 530 ; viii,
520 ; absorption of nitrogen, vi,
99 ; statistics, 1882, vii, 115.

Iron and Steel, ii, 401 ; microscopi-
cal analysis, vii, 532 ; tax on,
viii, 213.

Iron Manufacturers' Convention,
vii, 455.

Irrigation, in Cal., iii, 72 ; viii, 78 ;
inCoLiii, 111; iv, 151.

Irving, J. B., obit., ii, 582.

Irving, P. M., obit., i, 619.

Irving, Theo., obit., v, 593.

Isaacs. S. M.; obit.; iii, 640.

Isabella Mane, Princess of Portu-
gal, obit., i, 636.

Ischia, earthquake in, viii, 285, 454.

Islam, the future of, vi, 440 ; sects
of, ibid.

Islands of the Pacific, claims on,
viii, 31.

Ismail Pasha, i, 2 ; sketch, ii, 405 ;

abdication, iv, 332 ; vii, 232 ;

• financial operations of. vii, 234.

Istomin, Admiral C. I., obit., i, 636.

Israel, lost tribes of. See Afghan-
istan, ii, 4.

Italia Irredenta, or Irredentist par-
ty, v, 408, 409 ; vi, 50; vii, 54,
43? ; crime of Overdank, vii,
438 ; viii, 452.

Italy, in every volume; map of
Rome, ii, 408.

Ivory, Artificial, iii, 458.

Ivens, R., explorations by, iv, 405 ;
v, 293.

Iwakura, T., obit., viii, 600.

Izard, J. A. S., obit., iv, 693.

Jablochkoff, inventions by, i, 520 ;

ii, 497 ; Hi, 273, 307.
Jackson, C. T., sketch, v, 410.
Jackson, I. W., obit., ii, 582.
Jackson, T. I., obit., vi, 684.
Jackson, T. P., obit., i, 619.
Jackson Monument Funds, i, 802.
Jacobs, J. A. M., obit., v, 600.
Jacoby, J., obit., ii, 603.
Jacquel, P., invention by, vi, 250.
Jacques, D. H., obit., ii, 582.
James, Daniel, obit., i, 619.

James, Sir H., obit., ii, 604.

James, Henry j sketch, vii, 438.

Jamin, inventions by, vi, 258.

Jaminet, observations, vi, 753.

Janes, Bishop E. S., sketch, i, 423.

Janin, theory of, vi; 240.

Jan Mayen, Austrian Expedition
to, vii, 335.

Jannay, experiments by, viii, 111.

Janney; A. M., obit., ii, 582.

Japan, in every volume.

Japanese, social and political
changes of, vi. 452.

Jaspar, invention by, vi, 258.

Jaurreguibery, Admiral, iv, 386.

Java, eruption in, viii, 286.

Jeannette, the voyage of, iv, 417 ;
v, 288; vi, 322; vii, 331.

Jeannette Island, vii, 331.

Jetfers, W. N., obit., viii, 590.

Jeffries, Dr. J., obit., i, 619.

Jejeebhoy, Jamsetjjee, obit., ii, 604.

Jeliaboff, trial of, vi, 796, 797.

Jelinek, K., obit., i, 636.

Jenkin, F., invention, viiij 679.

Jenkins, Geo. , invention, u', 497.

Jenkins, T., obit., i, 619.

Jenson, Lieut., explorations by, iii,
358.

Jessel, Sir G., obit., viii, 600.

Jessen, investigations, viii, 636.

Jeter, J. B., sketch, v, 41 3.

Jetty System, the, v. 533.

Jevons, W. S., sketch, vii, 442.

Jewell, Marshall, sketch, viii, 457.

Jewett. Col. E., obit., ii, 582.

Jews, i, 430 ; iv, 530 ; restrictions
on, in Servia, ii, 691 ; in Rou-
mania, iii, 740 ; vii, 729 ; per-
secution in Morocco, v, 546,
644 ; anti-Semite movement in
Prussia, v, 640; agitation
against, in Hungary, vi, 403;
viii, 48 ; numbers of, and per-
secutions in Germany and Rus-
sia, vi, 456; vii, 735; relief
measures, vh^ 35 ; increase of,
in Austria, vii, 51 : ritual mur-
der case, viii, 47; outrages
against, viii, 709.

Johannsen, E., island discovered
by, iii, 354.

John, King of Abyssinia, i, 2, 3 ; ii,
2 ; iv, 2 ; v, 236.

John, Franz, Freiherr von, sketch,
i, 434.

Johns, J., obit., i, 619.

Johns Hopkins University, admin-
istration of, vii, 508.

Johnson, Abram, sketch, yi, 461.

Johnson, Alice, observations by,
viii, 437.

Johnson, A. S., obit., iii, 640.

Johnson, B., obit., v, 593.

Johnson, H. V., sketch, v, 414.

Johnson, Reverdy, sketch, i, 434.

Johnson, S. W., investigations by,
v, 92.

Johnston, A. Keith, African jour-
ney of, iii, 362 ; iv, 402 ; obit.,
iv, 700.

Johnston, A. R., obit., iv, 693.

Joint Rales of Senate and House, i,
153-158.

Joint-stock companies, new Conn,
law on, v, 195.

Jolly, experiments by, vii, 35.

Jones, Jos., discoveries by, iii, 320.

Jones, J. B., sketch, vi, 461.

Jones, J. G., obit., iii, 640.

Jones, J. S., obit., ii, 582.

Jones, Lloyd, observations, v, 36.

Jones, O., obit., iii, 640.

Jones, T. R., obit, v, 600.

Jordan valley, proposal to flood,
viii, 307.

Joseph, Chief, ii, 40.

Josephine, ex-Queen of Sweden,
obit., 1,636.

Jovanovics, Gen., vii, 57, 58.

Judges, investiture, tenure, and re-
moval of. See Criminal Juris-
diction, vii, 179.

Judicature, reform of, French, viii,
370.

Julian Year, the, vii, 372.

Julio, E. D. B.. sketch, iv, 532.

Jung, M. E., observations by, viii,
526.

Jung, Sir Salar, in England, i, 366 ;
obit., viii, 600.

Jungfleisch, experiments by, viii,
118.

Junker, Dr., explorations by, ii,
330 ; iii, 362.

Jupiter, satellites of, ii, 44 ; physi-
cal condition of, ibid. ; spots
on, iv, 51 : v, 34 ; vi, 38 ; viii,
22 ; period and light, v, 34.

Jurgan, Jeanne, obit., iv, 774.

Junes, grand, iii, 447 ; Ind. law, vi,
425 ; negroes in, see Negroes.

Justice-boxes, in Persia, i, 660.

Jute, vi, 462 ; cultivation, iii, 682 ;
v, 64 ; vii, 485 ; machine for,
vii, 485.

Jute and Jute-Butts, viii, 458.

Kabyles, insurrection of, iv, 15.

Kahnweiler, invention by, vi, 266.

Kailas. Mt., iv, 400.

Kalloch, I. S., impeachment, v, 77.

Kalnoky, Count, sketch, vi, 463.

Kanawha River, improvement of,
iii, 827.

Kankakee Survey, the, vii, 421.

Kansas, in every volume.

Kaolin discovery of, viii, 641, 642.

Karond, massacres in, vii, 415.

Kars, surrender, ii. 743.

Kartseff, Gen. A. P., i, 323. _

Kashgaria, war with China, i, 109,
776 ; ii, 417 : iii, 96 ; iv, 145.
See also Turkistan.

Kassatkine, N., v, 348.

Kaufmann, C., obit., vii, 646.

Kavanagh, Julia, obit., ii. 604.

Kaye, Sir J. W., sketch, L 438.

Kearney, D., trial of, v, 77.

Keatinge, R., obit., i, 636.

Kedzie, experiments, vi, 352.

Keely.G. W., obit., iii, 640.

Keet, Rev. H., use of title, i, 25.

Keifer, experiments, viii, 121.

Keil, &. obit., iii 656.

Keirn, T., obit., iii, 656.

Kekule", theory of, vi, 92.

Keller, F., obit., vi, 694.

Kellogg, E. H.. obit., vii, 639,

Kellogg, W. ?., impeachment, i,
482 ; protest, v, 479.

Kelso, Thos., obit., iii, 640.

Kemp, invention by, vi, 265.

Kemper, I. de B., obit., i, 636.

Kent, Edward, obit., ii, 583.

Kentucky, in every volume.

Keogh, W., obit., iii, 656.

Keridec, Count de, obit., iii, 656.

Kerosene, Improved Test for Dan-
gerous, viii, 464.

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

845

Kerr, Dr.. experiments by, vi, 239.
Kerr, J. B., obit., iii, 640.
Kerr, Col. J. K., obit., i, 619.
Kerr, M. C., sketch, i, 441.
Keteltas, E., obit., i, 619.
Ketteler, W. E., Freiherr von,

obit., ii, 604.

Key, D. M., sketch, ii, 423.
Khedive, private debt of the, i,

245 ; decree on commission of

inquiry, iii, 264.
Khokan, annexed to Russia, i, 44,

775, 776 ; discoveries, ii, 325.
Kidd, J., invention by, hi, 88.
Kiel, naval station at, ii. 279.
Kilpatrick. Gen. See Peru, Chili,

etc., vi, 788.
Kimball, E., obit., vii, 639.

fests, vii, 354.

King. Clarence, explorations by, v,
297.

Ring, E. A., inventions by, iii,
275 ; iv, 339.

King, Louisa W., obit, iii, 641.

King, Richard, i, 323 ; obit., 636.

King, Rufus, obit., i, 619.

Kingdom, J. M., obit., i, 620.

KingslancUA. C., obit., iii, 641.

Kingsley, Henry, sketch, i, 441.

Kinfsley, W. C., viii, 311.

Kinney, explorations by, iv, 400.

Kinney, W. B., obit., v, 593.

Kinny, Mary C., obit., ii, 583.

Kirby, T., obit., i, 620.

Kirchhoff, spectroscopic observa-
tions, vi, 242.

Kirkbride, T. S., obit., viii, 590.

Kirkwood, S. J., sketch, i, 412.

Kirsner, L., obit., i, 636.

Kirwan, D. J., obit., i, 620.

Kitchen, W. K., obit., i, 620.

Kitchener, Lieut., survey of Pales-
tine, ii, 325.

Klebs, experiments, iv? 414.

Klein, Dr., investigations by, iv,
442.

Klein, J. L., sketch, i, 441.

Knit cloths, viii, 466.

Knorre, discoveries, i, 46 ; v, 34.

Knox, J. J., obit., i, 620.

Knox, S. R., obit., viii, 591.

Koch, Dr., experiments by, iii, 388;
iv, 442 ; vii, 799.

Koch. H. A., obit., i. 636.

Kochly, Hermann, sketch, i, 442.

Kohatpass. opened, ii, 5.

Kohl, F., obit., i, 636.

Kohl, J. G., obit., iii, 656.

Kohn, invention by, iii, 275.

-rr i VT . /¥• • 'L i1_* •••

Kratschner, experiments, vi, 750.
Krause, expedition, viii, 386.
Kreling, August, sketch, i, 442.
Kriegk, G. I,., obit., iii, 656.
Kries, experiments, vi, 748.
Krudener, Baron, sketch, ii, 422.
Krug, Anna C., obit., ii, 604.
Kruger, K. W., obit., 637.
Kuh, Emil, obit., i, 637.
Kuhne, observations, viii, 635.
Kuhner, R., obit., iii, 657.
Ku-klux, law, vii, 457 ; cases, viii,

Kulja, restoration of, to China, iv,

144 ; v, 101 ; vi. 107, 800.
Kuo-Tung-tao, recalled, iv, 145.
Kurds, insurrection of, v. 623 ; vi,

731 ; rescue of Obeidullah by,

vii, 805.
Kurile islands, exchanged for Sag-

halien, i, 427.
Kuro-Siwo, the. See Gulf Stream,

Pacific.
Kurupatkin, Capt, explorations of,

ii. 326.

Kutschker, Cardinal, obit., yi, 695.
Kwangsi, revolt in, iii, 101 ; iv, 143.

Labor, Chinese. See Chinese.

Laborers' Lien Act, iv, 845.
•Labor Legislation, in France, viii,'
369 ; in Germany, vii, 354, 356 ;
in England, 411.

Labor, movements and agitations
of, vii, 453 ; iii, 73 ; v, 77.

Labor Statistics, Mo., bureau of,
iv, 641 ;N.Y., viii, 570; Mich.,
vii, 540.

Labor Strikes, i, 649 ; ii, 421, 423,
530, 636, 750 ; iii, 407 ; iv, 714,
717 ; v, 119 : vi, 516 ; vii, 506,
614. See also Labor, vii, 453.

Laboring-men, idle, in San Fran-
cisco, iii, 69.

Laboulaye, E. R. L., obit., viii, 600.

Labye, L., invention by, vi, 258.

La Cour, telephone, i, 740.

Ladoue, T. C. F. de, obit, ii, 604.

Ladreyt, Cassimer, obit., ii, 583.

Lafayette, 0. de, obit., vi, 695.

Laflin, L., obit., i, 620.

La Hitte, Vicomte de, obit., iii, 657.

Lahrbush, Capt. F., obitn ii, 583.

Laing, Ma]., murder of, vi, 328.

Lalla Rookh, Queen of Tasmania,
i, 53.

Lamarmora, Marchese di, obit., iii,
657.

Lamater, Dr. J., obit., ii, 583.

Lamont, G. D., obit., L 620.

Land Bill, in Cal., v, 71.

Land-Grants, in Oregon, v, 612 j

, , . W •»«• ;?_ _!;:: ECC

Land

Konig, H., obit., i, 637.
Konigsinark-Plaue, obit., i, 637.
Konn, invention by,iv, 339.
Korb-Weidenheim, Baron; iv, 60.
Kossel, experiments by, viii, 119.
Kostenko, Col., explorations in

Khokan, ii, 325.
Kovalensky, D. E., i, 323.
Krabbe, N. C., obit., i, 637;>>
Krakatoa, eruption of, viii, 526;

possible connection with the

red light, 526.

Krapotchkin, assassination, iv, 683.
Krapotkine, Prince, imprisonment

of, vii, 326 ; trial, viii, 368.

New S. Wales, viii, 35; in
Roumania, viii. 698 ; in Russia,
viii, 706. See Land Tenure.

Land League, arrest of leaders, vi,
367, 368; clergy on, vi, 367;
viii, 413 ; Ladies', vii, 368.

Lands, laws on mineral, vi, 76 ; pub-
lic, i, 84; iv, 830; v, 25,271*
vi, 300, 597 ; alleged title frauds
in W. Va., vii, 835.

Landseer, C., obit., iv, 700.

Landseer, Thos., obit., v, 600.

Land Tenure in Europe, vi, 472.

Lane, E. W., sketch, i, 442.

Lane, H. S., obit., vi, 684.

Lane, Jo3.,8ketch, vi, 475.

Lane-Fox Electric Lamp, vii, 275.

Lanfrey, P., obit, ii, 604.

Lang, Ileinrich, obit., i, 687.

Langley, J. N., experiments by, ri,
749, 750.

Langiey, 8. P., observations by,
iii, 85 : vii, 83 ; viiL 526.

Lanier, Sidney, obit., vi. 685.

Lansdowne, Marquis of, viii, 88;
sketch with portrait, viii, 468.

Lanza, Signor, obit., vii, 646.

Lapham, E. G., fiketch, vi, 648,

Larabit, M. D., obit., it 637.

Largeau, explorations, i, 332.

Lariviere. P. C., sketchx i, 442.

Larkin, observations, vii, 84.

La Rochette, E. de, obit., i, 687.

Larsen, experiments, viii, 113.

Lasker, Eduard, retirement of,
viii, 395 ; sketch, viii, 468.

Lassen, Christian, sketch, i, 442.

Lasteyrie, Marquis de, obit., viii,
601.

Latrobe, B. H., obit, iii, 641.

Latour, I., obit., ii, 604.

Lauderdale, Earl of, obit., iii, 657.

Laurentie, P. S., sketch, i, 443.

Lauzanne de Vaux-Roussel, Che-
valier de, obit, ii, 604.

Laval, University of, difficulty con-
cerning, viii, 695.

Laveau, Marie, obit., vix 685.

Lavoesium, new metal, ii, 502.

Law, Constitutional. International
Arbitration, viii, 469; W«il
and La Abra cases, ibid. ; Le-
gal-Tender Acts, 471; power
of Congress in elections, 474.

Law, Constitutional: its recent
progress, vi. 475 ; vii, 457.

Law, practice or, by women. See
\N omen.

Lawes, explorations of, i, 330.

Lawrence, E., obit., iii, 641.

Lawrence, G. A., obit., i, 637.

Lawrence, J. L. M., Baron, sketch,
iv, 543.

Lawrence, W. B., sketch, vi, 483.

Laws of War and Red Cross Socie-
ties, vii, 715.

Laws, State, codification of N. Y.,
iii, 615 ; revision of Vt, v, 708 ;
compilation of Mich. , vi, 575.

Lawson, D. T., experiments of, vi,
259; theory of boiler explo-
sions, vii, 296.

Lawsuits against U. S., vii, 460.

Lay, Mr., invention by, ii, 719.

Laycock, T., obit, i, 687.

Lead and Silver, new process, viii,
521.

Lead-poisoning, iv, 4; viii, 116.

Lead ville, growth of, iv, 161 ; mines,
vi, 118.

Leander McCormick Observatory,
vii, 41.

Leather-board, iv, 662.

Le Bon, experiments, viii, 116.

Lebreton, E. C.. obit., i, 637.

Lecesne, J. N. A.. obit.x iii, 657.

Le Conte, J. L., obit, viii, 591.

Lecoq, discovery by, vi, 93.

Lederer, J., obit., i, 637.

Leeds, experiments, viii, 111.

Lee, J. D., obit, ii. 583.

Lee, R. E., estate of, vii, 460 ;
ument to, i, 802.

Le Faure, A., obit, vi, 695.

Lefebre-Durufle, obit, iir 605.

846

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

Lefferts, Col. M., obit., i, 620.

Lefranc, experiments by, viii, 118.

Let'rauc, P. J., obit, ii, 605.

Legagneur, H. M. F., obit., i, 638.

Legal Tender, U. S. notes as, iv,
367 ; legality of their issue, iv,
835 ; during the rebellion, vii,
399 ; acts on, viii, 471.

Leggett, F. A., obit.? i, 6'20.

Legislative Assemblies, how creat-
ed, and Disciplinary Power of.
See Disciplinary Power, etc.,
vii, 194.

Legislative, Executive, and Judicial
Appropriation Bill, iv, 234-
249 ; in extra session, 274-288 ;
President's veto, iv, 239;
amended bill, 291, 292 ; judi-
cial appropriation bill, 292 ;
vetoed. 294.

Lehmann Pasha, obit., ii, 605.

Leigh, Egerton. obit., i, 638.

Leitrim, Earl of, murder of, iii, 406.

Leland, Henry, obit., ii, 583.

Leland, G. S., obit., vii, 639.

Leieiohoku, W. P., obit., ii, 605.

Lemaire, P., obit., v, 600.

Lemaitre, Frederic, sketch, i, 443.

Lennox, Lord, obit, ii, 605.

Lenormaut, F., obit., viii, 601.

Lenox, Jas., sketch, v, 426.

Lenox, S., obit., i, 620.

Lenox Library, v, 427.

Lenstrom, experiments, viii, 29.

Lenz, Oscar, explorations by, v,
293 ; vi, 327 : viii, 386 ; classi-
fication of African tribes by, ii,
334.

Leo XIII, elected, iii. 732 ; encycli-
cals, iii, 733; vii, 723; corre-
spondence with German Em-
peror, vii, 725. See also Pecci
and Papacy.

Leo, H., obit., Hi. 657.

Leonard, J. E., obit., iii, 641.

Leopold I, of Belgium, statue of, v,
55.

Leopold IIt of Belgium, African
expeditions due to, v, 295.

Leopold, Prince, marriage of, vii,
369.

Lepere, E. C. P., sketch, iv, 386.

Le Plon^eon, Dr., explorations of,
v, 298.

Lerdo, Pres., defeated, ii, 512.

Leslie, Frank, sketch, v, 427.

Leslie, T. E. C., obit., vii, 646.

Lesseps, F. de, vi, 714; viii, 307,
308.

Lessing, K. F., obit.,v, 600.

Letellier de St. Just, L., sketch, vi,
485.

Letellier- Vala/e, sketch, i, 444.

Letheby, H., obit., i, 638.

Letrange, zinc process of^ vii, 532.

Letters, opening of, decision con-
cerning, iii, 809.

Leuchtenberg, Duke of, obit., ii.
605.

Levee Convention, a, viii, 495.

Levee System, the. v, 532.

Leven, Earl of, obit., i, 638.

Leverich, C. P., obit., i, 620.

Leverrier, U. J. J., obit., ii, 605.

Le Vert, Octavia W., obit., ii, 583.

Lewes, G. H., obit., iii, 658.

Lewis, Estella A., sketch, v, 429.

Lewis, Harriet, obit., iii, 641.

Lewis, H. C., rese-irches of, vi, 19.
Lewis, Ida, lives saved by, v, 456.

Lewis, J. F., sketch, i, 444.
Lewis, Tayler, sketch, ii, 432.
Lewis, Wmslow, lantern invented

by, v, 444.

Liberia, i, 9 ; v, 429 ; viii, 387.
Libraries, the vice-regal in Egypt,

i, 247 ; the Corvina, ii, 379 ; dis-
covered at Sippara, vii, 262.
License question, the, viii, 663. See

also Temperance.
Lichens, iii, 476.
Lichtenfels, T. P., Freiherr von,

obit., ii, 605.

Lick, James, sketch, i, 444.
Lick Observatory, v, 36 ; viii, 28.
Licona river, discovery of, iv, 401.
Lidy, C. M., experiments, iv, 136.
Liebermann, invention, viii, 465.
Life-saving Service. See Service,

Life-Saving.
Lighthouse establishment, the U.

S., v, 430.
Lighthouses, Cape Henry, vi, 240 ;

Eddystone, see Eddystone ;

Tillamook, v, 443 ; vii, 283.
Lightning, effects of, on species of

trees, i, 250.

Lignc, Prince de, obit., v, 601.
Li-Hung-Chang, i, 112.
Likwa, or Hikwa, lake, explored,

v, 297.

Limairac, J. de, obit., i, 638.
Lincoln, Mary T., obit., vii, 639.
Lincoln, Robert T., portrait, vii,

808.

Lindblad, A. F., obit., iii, 658.
Linderman, H. K., sketch, iv, 543.
Lindsay, J. W. S., obit., ii, 605.
Lindsay, T. N., obit., ii, 584.
Lippmnn. experiments by, viii, 111.
Lipsey, A. B., invention by, viii,

381.
Liquor laws, in Virginia, ii, 758 ;

the Moffett Register. 759.
Liquor question. See Temperance

and Prohibition.
Lisgar, Baron, sketch, i, 444.
Literary Congress, iii, 314.
Literature, American, British, and

Continental, in every volume.
Lithium, discoveries of, iv, 419.
Lithotrity, viii, 752.
Littrow, K. L. von, obit., ii, 605.
Liver, ^operations on, viii, 751.
Liversidge, A., investigation by,

vi, 97, 98.

Livron, C., experiments, vi, 751.
Li-Yung-Choi, revolt led by, iii,

101 ; iv, 143.
Lobbying, penalties on, in Ga., iv,

421.
Lockwood, Capt., discovery by, ii,

325.

Lockwood, F. F., obit., i, 620.
Lockyer, J. N., observations by,

iii, 35; iv, 133; vi, 243; vii,

33, 37 ; viii, 526, 528.
Locomotive, first built in America.

See Cooper, i, 212.
Locomotive, compressed-air, i, 478 ;

vi, 512.

Locomotive with duplex driving-
wheels, vi, 511.

Lodyguine, invention by, iii, 275.
Loew, discovery by, vi, 99.
Logan, J. A., sketch, v, 477.
Logan, S. J., obit., v, 593.
Log-rolling, definition of, iv, 718.
Lohe, Emil, obit., i, 638.
Lomenie, L. L. de, obit., iii, 658.

London and its environs, map of,
ii, 360.

Long, C. C.. sketch, iii, 493.

Long, J. D., sketch, v, 501.

Longfellow, H. W., sketch, vii,
478 ; portrait, vi, 485.

Longman, W., obit., ii, 606.

Lonsdalej Earl of, sketch, i, 480.

Loochoo islands, claimed by China
and Japan, iv, 147, 529 ; v, 413.

Loom, positive-motion, vii, 479.

Looms, carpet, viii, 94.

Lopez, A., Marquis of Comillas,
obit., viii, 601.

Lopez, P. M., obit., ii, 584.

Lord, Rev. J. C., obit., ii, 584.

Lore, C. B., sketch, vii, 189.

Loris-Melikolf, Gen., sketch, ii,
455 ; attempt on life, v, 663 ;
letter to, from Nihilists, 664.

Lome, Marquis of, Governor-Gen-
eral of Canada, iii, 12.

Lorquet, L. M. P., sketch, i, 480.

Lott, J. A., obit., iii, 641.

Lotteries, in Ky., v, 425.

Lottimer, Wm., obit., i, 620.

Lotze, H., obit., vi, 695.

Lough, J. G., sketch, i, 481.

Louis IV, of lles.se, ii, 352.

Louisiana, in every volume ; Con-
stitution of 1879, vii, 483.

Lourdes, Basilica of, i, 705.

Loutin, M.. invention by, iii, 271.

Louvain, Reformatory Prison at,
viii, 497.

Lowder, H. R., observations by,
vii, 39.

Lowe, water-gas process, viii, 374.

Lowell, J. R., sketch, ii, 467.

Loyola, anniversary of, v, 673.

Lualaba river, the, ii, 331 ; iii, 363,
364.

Lubbock, Lady E. F., obit., iv>700.

Lucas, Louis A., i, 322.

Lucius, R., sketch, iv, 740.

LudwigllL Grand Duke of Hesse,
obit., ii, 606.

Lunatic asylums, commitments to,
in 111., iv, 479.

Lunge, G., experiments by, vi, 94.

Lung-Plague of Cattle, vii, 486.

Lupton Bey, discovery py, viii, 386.

Lushington, Sir S., obit., ii;>606.

Luther Quadricentennial, viii, 498 ;
statue in Eisleben, 501.

Luther, Prof., discovery by, ii, 44.

LutheranSj in every volume.

Lyall, J., invention by, vii. 479.

Lyle, D. A., invention by, iii, 754,
762.

Lyman, S. P., obit., i, 620.

Lynch, Patrick, vi, 735, 739 ; viii,
64.

Lynch, P. W , sketch, vii, 491.

Lyndon, P. F., obit., 641.

Lyons, Rev. J. J., obit.. ii; 584.

Lyttleton, Baron, sketch, i, 498.

Lytton, Lord, sketch, i, 406 ; Vice-
roy of India, i, 44, 402; at-
tempt on the life of, iv, 494 ;
v, 389 ; resignation of, v, 384.

Macao, claim on, by China, v, 103.
McCance, J. L., observations by,

iii, 37.

McCandless, W., obit., vii, 640.
McCarthy, Patrick, obit., ii, 584.
McClay/W. B., obit., vii, 640.
McClellan, G. B., sketch, ii, 492.
McClelland, Robert, sketch, v, 503.

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

847

McCloskey, John, sketch, ii, 498.

McCloskey, J.. obit., v, 594.

McCook, G. W., obit., ii, 584.

McCoskrey2 _S. A., .Bishop, de-
posed, iii,704.

McCoun, W. T., obit., iii, 641.

McCrary, G. W., sketch, ii, 493.

MacdonaJd, invention by, ii, 719.

Macdonald, A., obit., vi, 695.

Macdonald, J. A., sketch, and por-
trait, vii, 492.

Macdonald, J. M., obit., i. 620.

McDonald, W. J., obit., hi, 641.

Macdonnell, Kev. D. J., trial of, i,
672.

Macedo, M. B. de, obit., vi, 695.

McElroy, John, ii, 584.

McElroy, Jos., obit., i, 621.

Macfarlane, K., obit., viii, 591.

Macfarlane, S., explorations of, i,
330 ; ii, 335.

MacGahan, J. A., obit., iii, 658.

McGrath, H. P., obit.^vi, 686.

McGraw, John, obit., ii, 584.

MacGregor, Col., discovery by, ii,
325.

McHale, J., obit., vi, 695.

Mackenzie, K. S., sketch, vi, 522.

McKeon, J., obit., viii, 591.

Maokonoohie. Rev. A. H., viii, 6.

M'Lean, Sir IX, obit., ii, 607.

McLin, S. B., i, 298 ; testimony of,
iii, 718.

Macmahon, Pres., on cabinets, ii,
308, 310; on prolonging his
tenure of office, 310 ; opposi-
tion to, 311-318 ; resignation
of, iii, 338 ; iv, 388.

McMullen, J., obit., viii, 591.

McNeill, observations by, viii, 21.

McVickar, W. A., D. D., obit., ii,
584.

MacWhorter, A., obit., v, 594.

Macy, J., Jr., obit., i, 621.

Macy, R. H., obit., ii, 584,

Madagascar, vii, 492 ; map, 493 ;
viii, 505 ; explorations in, viii
387 ; new tribes, ibid.

Maddox, S. T., obit., i, 621.

Madou, J. B., obit., ii, 606A>

Madras, new harbor at, iii, 287 ;
breakwater, vi, 250 ; riots hi,
vii, 415.

Magne, Pierre, obit., iii, 658.

Magnin, J., sketch, iv, 386.

Magyars^ the, v, 369, 370 ; demon-
strations against, viii, 49.

Madhi, El, sketch, viii, 507; vi,
444; vii, 255; viii, 298, 299;
first reverse, 300 ; capture of
El Obeid, ibid. ; victory over
Gen. Hicks, viii, 301. See also
Hicks, viii, 430.

Maief, explorations of, iii, 359.

Maine, in every volume.

Majlath von Szekhely, obit., viii,
601.

Major, J. R., D. D., sketch, i, 501.

Maklay, Dr. M., observations of, in
Papua, ii, 335.

Malay Peninsula, troubles hi, i,
404.

Maiden, Henry, sketch, i. 501.

Mallet, J. W., researches by, vi, 92,
93.

Manet, E., obit., viii, 601.

Manganese, new compounds of,
iii, 85 ; new mineral, vii, 87 ;
bronze, vii, 529 ; viii, 525.
Manitoba, ministerial crisis in, Iv,

819; new route for merchan-
dise of, iv, 321 ; growtli of, iv,
321 ; land kws, v, 217 ; bound-
aries, vi, 216, 222 ; history,
etc., viii, 511.

Manly, M. E., sketch, vi, 527.

Mannj Dr. Geo., obit., i, 021.

Manning, A. R., sketch, v, 491.

Mannsteld, Count, obit., vi, 696.

Mansfield, E. D., sketch, v, 491.

Mansfield, W. R. See Sandhurst.

Manstein, G. von, obit., ii, 606.

Mantell, Dr., viii, 436, 487.

Manteucci, P.. explorations by, vi,
326 ; death of, vi, 327.

Manteuffel, Baron, obit., vii, 647.

Manufactures of the United States,
vii, 498 ; in foreign markets, ii,
126; iv, 187; v, 512 ; vi, 854,
857 ; of States, see under titles
of States.

Manufacturing industries hi 1883,
viii, 334.

Maoris, the, decrease of, v, 37 ; vii,
45 ; peace with, viii, 37.

Marc-Dufraisse, obit., i, 638.

Marcere, Emile, sketch, ii, 320.

Marchaud, Count, obit., i, 638.

Marche, M., explorations by, ii,
333, 334.

Margary, H. J., obit., i, 638.

Margary murder, the, i, 44, 108.

Mana, ex-Queen of Saxony, obit.,
ii, 606.

Maria, ex-Queen of Spain, obit., i,
638.

Maria, Grand Duchess of Russia,
obit., i, 638.

Marie Luise Alexandrine, Princess
of Prussia, obit., ii, 606.

Mariette, A., researches of, vii, 260.

Mariette Bey, obit., vi, 696.

Marignac, discoveries by, iii, 87;
iv, 137.

Mario^ G., sketch, with portrait,
viii, 514.

Markham, A. H., excursion of, iv,
417.

Markham, C. R., quoted, vii, 682.

Marks, A. S., sketch, iii, 784.

Marno, E., African journey of, iii,
362 ; obit., viii, 601.

Marquardt, L., experiments by,
viii, 113.

Marriage, laws on, in Austria, i,
57; with a step-daughter, i,
510; with a sister-in-law, iv,
454; v, 111, 411; kinship
in, iv, 690; between whites
and negroes, ii, 714; iv, 845 ;
vii, 459 ; Catholics and Prot-
estants in Chili, iii, 96 ; of un-
frocked priests in France, iii,
348 ; polygamous, iii, 813, 814 ;
civil, in Italy, iv, 526, 773 ; in
Denmark, vi, 209.

Mars, satellites of, ii, 43 ; iii, 35 ;
ellipticity of, v, 33.

Marsh, C. W., experiments by, vui,
113

Marsh, G. P., sketch, vii, 504 ; on
forests, viii, 356.

Marsh, 0. C., observations by, vi,
304 ; viii, 437.

Marshals, U. S., proposed appro-
priation for compensation and
expenses of, v, 152-167

Marshes, drainage of, in Italy, i,
255.

Martigny, G., death of, v, 659.

Martin, B. N.. obit., viii. 592.

Martin, H., obit., viii, 601.

Martin, K., obit., iv, 700.

Martin, N., obit., ii, 606.

Martin des Pallieres, obit., i, 688.

Martineau, Harriet, sketch, i, &<•!.

Martinique, viii, 821.

Martins, experiment* by, viii, 682.

Martinucci, case of, vii, 724.

Marvin, E. M., obit., ii. 684.

Marvine, A. R., obit,, L 621.

Marx, K...obit, viii, 602.

Maryland, in every volume.

Mason, discovery by, iii, 362.

Mason, Sir J., obit, vi, 696.

Mason, Sergeant, trial of, vi, 848.

Maspero, Prof., discoveries by, vi,
21 : vii, 260.

Massachusetts, in every volume.

Massari, Lieut, explorations by,
vi, 326.

Matabeli-land described, iv, 403.

Matagong island seized by France,
iv, 16.

Matiere-noire, experiments with,
vii, 93.

Matsell, G. W., obit., ii, 584.

Matthews, Julia, obit., i, 621.

Maturin, E. S., sketch, vi, 541.

Matzerath, J., obit, i, 639.

Maumen6, discovery by, iii, 90.

Maurice, Jules, obit; i, 639.

Maxim, H. S., inventions by,v, 239 ;
vi, 259 ; vii, 275.

Maxwell, Lady, obit., ii, 606.

Maxwell, J. C., theory of electri-
city of, vi, 239.

Mayer, L., experiments b^, v, 87.

Mayer, J. R. von, obit, iii, 658.

Maynard, H., obit., vii, 640.

Mead, W. C., obit, iv, 694.

Meaux, Viscount de, ii, 319.

Mechanical Engineering, progress
of, vi, 541.

Mechanical Improvements and In-
ventions, i, 515 ; ii, 494.

Mechi, J. J., obit, v, 601.

Mecklenburg Declaration Celebra-
tion, vii, 634.

Medical Diplomas, unlawful sale
of, v 622.

Medical Science and Practice: its
Progress, vi, 549.

Megaphone, the, iii, 537.

Meheddin Buhran Uddin Effendi,
obit, i, 639.

Mehemet Ali Pasha, sketch, ii, 499 ;
obit, iii, 659.

Meiggs, H., obit., ii, 585 ; bridge
built by, viii, 317.

Meigs, Col., survey by. viii, 809.

Meinickc, K. E., sketch, i, 521.

Meissner, experiments by, iv, 36.

Mekarski, invention by, i, 516.

Melikoff, Gen. See Lons-Molikoff.

Mcllin. Henrik, sketch, i, 521.

Mellish, Sir G., obit, ii, 606.

Melville, G. M., portrait, vii. 334.

Melville, H. D., Viscount, obit., i,
639.

Memphis, debt of, iv, 829 ; vi, 832 ;
unsanitary condition of, iv,
380; ye'llow lever in, iv. 359,
829. "See also Fever, Yellow.

Mendelieff, invention by, iii, 545;
classification of elements by,
v. 87 ; law of atomic weights
discovered by. vi, 40.

Menelek. King of Shoa, ii, 2 ; iv,
2 ; viii, 886.

848

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

Menier, invention by, vi, 255.

Mennonites, iii, 50.

Mercadier, experiments by, vi, 787.

Mercedes, Queen of Spain, obit.,
iii, 658.

Merchant Marine of the United
States, vii, 520.

Mercury, mass and density of, ii,
43 ; transit of, iii, 35 ; bright-
ness, ibid. ; spots, viii, 20.

Meridian, common prime, vii, 150.

Meritens, invention by,-vii, 265.

Merriam, Geo., obit., v, 594.

Merrill, S., explorations of, i, 328;
ii, 324.

Merrhnan, C. S., invention by, iii,
752, 766.

Merry, Francisco, sketch, i, 521.

Mersey Tunnel, viii, 311.

Merv, decay of, i, 7 ; importance
of, iv, 775 ; Bussian annexa-
tion, viii. 706.

Messiah, prediction of the Moham-
medan, vi, 444 ; vii, 804 ; viii,
507. See also Mahdi, El.

Metallurgy, vii, 528 ; viii, 520.

Metals, i, 522 ; ii, 499 ; new, ii. 90,
502; vi, 93; detection of al-
loys, iv, 502 • new compound,
y, 93 ; annealing, vi, 542 ; melt-
ing-points, ii, 501 ; vii, 91 ;
production of the precious, ii,
240.

Meteoric Showers, vii, 39.

Meteorograph, the, vi, 258.

Meteorological Observations, Inter-
national, i, 525.

Meteorology, iii, 537; viii, 525;
stations for observations, iii,
538 ; vii, 335 ; map showing
annual rainfall, viii, 527.

Meteors. See Astronomical Prog-
ress, in every volume.

Methodist (Ecumenical Congress,
vi, 557.

Methodists, in every volume ; new
sect of, iv, 608.

Methyl alcohol, etc., v, 89.

Mexican War, the, see Santa An-
na, i, 715 ; bill for pensions to
veterans of, debated, viii, 248.

Mexico, in every volume.

Meyer, H. von, observations by, vi
303.

Meyer, L., table by, vi, 41.

Meyer, M. W., researches, vii, 38.

Meyer, V., observations by, viii,
111 ; invention by, viii, 465.

Meyer, W., observations by, viii,

po

Miall, E., obit., vi, 696.

Michael, Grand Duke, sketch, ii,
514.

Michel, Louise, trial of, viii, 369.

Michell, Dr., obit., ii, 607.

Michigan, in every volume.

Michigan fires, vi, 586.

Micrometer-Telescope, i,*554.

Microphone, the, iii, 562.

Microtasimeter, the, iii, 563.

Midhat Pasha, sketch, i, 774; trial
of, vi. 841.

Midian, the land of, theory con-
cerning, iii, 361.

Mieroslavski. L., obit., iii, 659.

Miers, J., obit., iv, 700.

Miklucho-Maclay, journey in New
Guinea, iii, 364.

Milan IV of Servia, sketch of, ii,
520 ; vii, 738.

Miles, M. H., obit., ii, 585.

Milford Haven, docks, vii, 279.

Military defenses, of Denmark, v,
207; of Austria, vii, 51.

Military forces of China, v, 100.
See Armies.

Military interference at elections,
bill on, iv, 835.

Militia, bill on, in Georgia, iv, 421 ;
in Illinois, report, iv, 485 ; v,
380 ; improvements in New
Jersey, iv, 668 ; needed in Ne-
braska, v: 552; laws for, in
Canada, viii, 83.

Miller, G. J., obit., i, 639.

Miller, J. W., obit., i. 621.

Miller, Eobert, obit., i, 639.

Miller, Warner, sketch, vi, 648.

Mills, Clark, obit., viii. 592.

Mills, T. W., investigations by,
viii, 636.

Milman, Eobert, sketch, i, 554.

Milmore, M., obit., viii, 592.

Miltzin, Mt., vi, 327.

Minchin, J. B., survey in South
America by, ii, 336.

Minerals, in Tennessee, i, 742;
new, vi, 98, 401.

Miners, convention of, vii, 77.

Mines, of Mexico, i, 542; v, 18;
viii, 537 ; side lines of, iii, 112 ;
v, 119; draining of, iii, 280;
Sutro Tunnel, iii, 288 ; in Peru,
iii, 291 ; iii, 688 ; in Arabia, iii,
361 ; gold, in Georgia, iii, 371 ;
iv, 428; debris from, iv, 119;
v, 71, 73; vi, 78; vii, 75; of
Colombia, iv, 149 ; of Nevada,
iv, 658 ; in Arkansas, vi, 33 ;
in Alabama, vi, 8; of Colo-
rado, vi, 118; viii, 143; new,
v, 119 ; coal, in Kentucky, v,
425 ; decreased value of Neva-
da, vi, 628 ; laws on claims to,
vi, 628 ; United States, vi, 853,
856; iron, in Minnesota, vii,
560 ; in Tennessee, vii, 789 ; in
South Carolina, vi, 814; of
Chili, viii, 124- of Honduras,
viii, 432; of Montana, viii,
547 ; tin, in Dakota, viii, 523 ;
quicksilver, of Siena, viii, 523 ;
gold, of Eussia, viii, 700 ; Chi-
nese superstition concerning,
vii, 101 ; Bureau of, in Califor-
nia, v, 71 ; inspector of, in In-
diana, iv, 501.

Ministerial contest, in Denmark,
viii, 275.

Ministerial crisis, in the Nether-
lands, vii, 590.

Minneapolis and its Mills, vi, 588.

Minnesota, in every volume.

Minor Planets. See Astronomical
Progress, in every volume.

Mintj U. S., statistics of, vii, 484.

Missionaries, civil relations of, vi,
566, 768- case of Eev. G.
Brown, ibid.; starved to death,
viii, 695 ; in the Soudan, ibid.

Missions, Foreign, i, 559 ; in Den-
mark, iv, 312. See under titles
of Churches.

Mississippi, in every volume.

Mississippi river, celebration of
La Salle's discovery, vii, 486.

Mississippi Eiver Improvement, v,
530 ; vi, 600 ; i, 684 ; ii, 279 ;
iii, 502 ; iv, 344, 635.

Missouri, in every volume.

Missouri river, convention on im-
provement of, vi, 610.

Mitchell, Sir W., obit., 659.
« Mizon, explorations of, vii, 336.

Mobile, charter repealed, iv, 20 ;
debt of, v, 12.

Mobius, Prof., observations of, vi,
712, 714.

Mobs, crimes by, in Kentucky, iii,
473 ; in Louisiana, iii, 501 ; in
Mississippi, iii, 570.

Moffat, E., obit., viii, 002.

Mohammed Taha, viii, 299.

Mohammed Tewfik, proclaimed
Khedive, iv, 333 ; sketch, 335 ;
vii, 233.

Mohammedanism, iii, 581 ; iv, 647 ;
v, 541 ; reported danger to, ii,
5. See also Islam, vi, 440.

Mohammedans, races of, in Turkey,
i, 571 ; supposed movement to
excite discontent among, v,
689 ; excitement of, in Turkey,
vii, 804.

Mohl, Julius von, sketch, i, 568.

Mohr, Eduard, explorations of, i,
331 ; death of, ii, 330.

Moleva, E., researches of, viii, 536.

Molesworth, Sir W. N., obit., ii,
607.

Mollenda, experiments, viii, 112.

Moller, Axel, medal to, vi, 40.

Moltke, Marshal, on war, vii, 716.

Monahan, J. H., obit., iii, 659.

Monastery, first in Scotland since
the Beformation, i, 706.

Monastic Association Bill, in Aus-
tria, i, 57.

Monastic Order, in the Anglican
Church, ii, 22.

Monell, C. L., obit., i, 621.

Monetary Congress, International,
iii, 314 ; conferences, vi, 60.

Monetite, vii, 88.

Money bills, definition of, iii, 523.

Monite, vii. 88.

Monnier, H., obit., ii, 607.

Monroe Doctrine, vii, 813. See
also Panama Canal.

Montague, H. J., obit., iii, 641.

Montana, ii, 531 ; viii, 547.

Montano, Dr., explorations by, vi,
330.

Montenegro, ii, 532 : iii, 586 ; iv,
468 ; v, 542 ; viii, 548 ; revolts
in, viii, 549 ; map, i, 754 ; ar-
ticles on, in the Berlin Treaty,
iii. 257.

Montero, Gen., vi, 738; viii, 64.

Montgomery, Sir H. C., obit., iii,
659.

Moon, the, crater Plato, viii, 21 ;
diameter of. viii. 21.

Moore, B. F., obit., iii, 641.

Moore, Geo., obit., i. 639.

Moore, J. G., obit., i, 621.

Moore, T., invention by, vi, 95.

Moore, Tredwcll, obit., i, 621.

Moravians, i, 569 ; ii, 532 ; iii, 587 *,
iv, 649 ; vi, 611.

Moreno, in Patagonia, ii, 335.

Moresby, Sir F., obit,, u\607.

Morgan, Campbell de, obit., i, 639.

Morgan, D. H., statue of, vi, 815.

Morgan, E. D., sketch, viii, 552.

Morgan, L. H., sketch, vi, 613.

Moriarty, Bishop D., obit., ii, 607.

Morier, D., obit., ii, 607.

Mormons, the, emigration of, iv,
837; Pres. Hayes on, v, 642;

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

849

missions of, vi, 859 ; mono-

gamic, vi, 860 ; viii, 548. See

Polygamy.

Morocco, i, 569 ; y, 545 ; persecu-
tion of Jews in, 546 ; trade of,

viii, 386.
Morrill, Lot M., sketches, i, 571 ;

viii, 553.

Morris, J., experiments, viii, 524.
Morris, Wm., designs of, viii, 616.
Morrison, J. I., obit., vii, 640.
Morrissey, J., obit., iii, 641.
Morse, E. S.. discovery by, vi, 453.
Morton, Prof., observations by, iii,

34.

Morton, O. P., sketch, ii, 533.
Mosenthal, S. H., obit., ii, 607.
Moser, Jas., experiments by, vi,

257.

Moses, Chief- Justice, obit., ii, 585.
Moss, Lemuel, observations by, iv,

53.

Motley, J. L., sketch, ii, 535.
Motors, experiments in, i, 515, 516.
Mott, A. J., observations by, viii,

26.
Mott, H. A., experiments by, iii,

86 ; vii, 663.

Mott, Lucretia, sketch, v, 547.
Mouchot, solar boiler of, iii, 722 ;

experiments by, vi, 251 .
Mountains, of Central Asia, ii, 325,

326 ; iii, 359? 360 ; iv, 399, 400 ;

in Africa, ii, 328 ; altitude of

high, vi, 332 ; formation of,

see Formation of Mountains.
Mount Brace, highest point in

Conn., ii, 227.
Mount Wollaston, lost whaler, vi,

323.

Moustier, explorations by, v, 290.
Mowett, J. A., obit, i, 621.
Moynahan, C., obit., iv, 694.
Mozley, J. B., obit., iii, 659.
Mtesa, Emperor of Uganda, obit.,

viii 602.
Muhlenberg, Rev. W. A., sketch,

ii, 535.
Muir, Pattison. on the nature of the

elements, iii, 91.
Mukhtar Pasha, sketch, ii, 535.
Mulder, G. J., obit., v, 601.
Mulledy, Jos., death of, v, 659.
Mtiller, J., obit., iii, 659.
Mumford, T. J., obit.,.ii, 585.
Mummies^ discovery of, vii, 261. ^
Municipalities, indebtedness of, iii,

680, 685, 772 ; vi, 832 ; liability

of, for damages in riots, iv,

769; N. J. laws or, v, 562;

Fla. act on dissolution of, vi,

297.

Munster, W. F., obit., ii, 607.
Muntz, M. A. , experiments by, iii,

83 • vii, 88 ; viii, 120.
Murad V (Efiendi), attempt to bar

from succession, i, 2 ; sketch,

i, 774.

Murat, Prince, obit., iii, 659.
Murat, Princess, obit., iv, 701.
Murchison, Chas., sketch, iv, 650.
Murphy, Lady B., obit., vi, 794.
Murphy, J. K., obit., i, 621.
Muscles, observations on the, vi,

753.

Mushketof, explorations, iii, 359.
Music, i 571.
Music, instrumental, in churches.

See Churches.
Musical telephone, iii, 588.
VOL. xxin. — 54 A

Musset, Paul de, obit., v. 601.
Mutiny, of Japanese soldiers, iii,

Muybridge, electro-photograph of,
iii, 723.

Mycenae, Schliemann's explora-
tions in, i, 28.

Myer, A. J., sketch, v, 548.

Myopia. See Eve-Sight, vi, 271.

Mysore, restored to native rule, vi,
422.

Nagas, of India, revolt of, iv, 494 ;
v, 388.

Nageli, experiments by, iv, 36.

Nain Sing, explorations of, i, 329.

Nairne, C. M., obit., vii, 641.

Naphtha, in Eussia, viii, 701.

Napoleon, Jerome, portraitj vii, 321.

Nares, Sir G., voyage of, hi, 352.

Narragansett Indians, tribal rela-
tions abolished, v; 654.

Nasmyth, J., observations, iii, 35.

Natal, colony of, v, 80 ; vii, 84.

National party, the, iii, 806.

Nationalities, conflicts of, in Aus-
tria, y, 45, 46, 369 ; vi, 48.

Nations, intervention among. See
Non-intervention, vii, 618.

Natural history, 111. report on, vi,
409.

Naturalization, in Brazil, viii, 68.

Naturalization in U. S., its validi-
ty, vi, 613 ; cases of Buzzi and
others, vi, 613, et seq. ; when
fraudulent, vi, 615; Pres. Grant
on, i, 683 ; case of the Bersse-
liers, iv, 837.

Naturalized Americans in Germany,
iii, 245.

Navarre, dissatisfaction in, i, 730.

Navies of Europe, vii, 568 ; Ger-
man, viii, 392; Italian, viii,
449.

Navigation, steering indicator for,
i, 518 ; sounding instruments,
i, 518 ; iii, 725 ; bathometer, i,
519; acts on, in Chili, iii, 95;
in Germany, v, 319 ; the Nar-
ragansett and Seawanhaka dis-
asters, v, 580 ; fees to Spanish
consuls, viii, 157 ; unseaworthy
vessels, 418; signals, life-sav-
ing appliances, etc., see Collis-
ions, viii, 136. See also Com-
merce and Navigation, viii,
145.

Navy of Colombia, v, 114.

Navy, U. S., i, 574; ii, 536; iii,
589: vi, 619; vii, 582; Pres.
Arthur on, vi, 781 ; viii, 162.

Navy-Yards, U. S., vii, 583.

Neal, John, sketch, i, 574.

Neale, S. A., obit., v, 594.

Neaves. Lord C., obit., i, 639.

Nebraska, in every volume.

Nebulae, i, 50; star changed to, ii,
48 ; origin of, iii, 38 ; discov-
ery of planetary, vii, 41.

Negroes, admitted to the bar in
Cal.,iii, 71; trial of, iii, 825;
intimidation in Ark., iv, 40;
intellectual status of, iv, 41;
as jurors, iv, 845, 847 ; v, 424,
703 ; condition in La., v, 481 ;
university for, v, 484; prog-
ress of, v, 595; taxes and
schools of, in Ga., viii, 389;
conventions of, iv, 45 ; vii,
448, 721 ; viii, 439 ; votes of,

in presbytery, vii, 702 ; civil
rights of, vii, 459; viii, i^. ;
marriage with whites, Be*
Marriage; exodus of, see Ex-
odus, iv, 854.

Neher. Michael, sketch, i, 579.

Nepaul, Chinese influence in, iv,
148; conspiracy in, vii 415.

Nepokoitchitzky, sketch, ii, 539.

Nervous System, the, viii, 684.

Nephrotomy, viii, 751.

Netherlands, the, in every volume.

Nevada, in every volume.

New, J. H., obit., iv, 694.

New Brunswick, viii, 659.

Newburg, celebration at, viii, 577.

New Church, the, vi, 630.

Newcomb, W. W., obit., ii, 585.

Newfoundland, vii. 218.

New Guinea, explorations in, ii,
335; iii, 364, 865; iv, 408;
claims to, viii, 31.

New Hampshire, in every volume.

New Jersey, hi every volume.

New Jerusalem Church, i, 595 ; ii,
557 ; iii, 614 ; viii, 564.

New Mexico, ii, 558; viii, 565;
disorder in, iii, 31.

New Orleans, debt of, v, 480 ; vii,
483.

New Testament, revision, vi, 639.

Newton, Henry, obit., ii, 585.

Newton, H. A., observations by,
iii, 36, 37.

New York city, viii, 577 ; defalca-
tions, 578 ; new aqueduct, 567,
579 ; East River Bridge open-
ing, 580 ; amendment of cnar-
ter, viiit 567; elevated rail-
roads, viii, 568-580 ; new parks,
580; city politics, 581; bills
'on, vetoed, ii, 567 ; street-
cleaning bill, vi, 651 ; removal
of police commissioners, vi,
659 ; consolidation of elevated
railroads, vi, 659.

New York Harbor, improvements
in, v, 250.

New York State, in every volume ;
canal amendment, vii, 601;
primary elections bill, vii, 600.

New Zealand, native question in,
vii, 45; government, etc., 46;
land system, 46 ; viii, 37.

Nez Perces Indians, war with, ii,
39 ; removal of, ordered, iii, 28.

Niagara Falls, scheme to transmit
power from, vi, 253.

Niagara Falls Park, commissioners
appointed, viii, 570.

Niblo, Wm., obit,, iii, 642.

Nicaragua, difiiculty with Ger-
many, iii, 386 ; vi, 661 ; canal
in, proposed, vi, 662 ; vii,
616.

Nicholas I, of Montenegro, sketch,

ii, 571.
Nicholas, Grand Duke, sketch, U,

571.

Nicholls, F. G., government head-
ed by. ii, 455.

Nicholls, F. T., sketch, i, 493.
Nichols, S., obit., v, 594.
Nichols, W. R., investigations by,

v, 87.

Nicholson, Commodore, at Alex-
andria, vii, 248.

Nickel, magnetic properties of, i,
250 ; in iron-ores, ii, 501 ; de-
termination of, ii, 502 ; Ores in

850

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

U. S., vii, 532; processes with,
viii, 522.

Niege, oleomargarine process of,
vii, 661.

Nieritz, K. G., sketch, i, 606.

Niessl, G. von, observations by,
viii, 25.

Niger, the, exploration of, v, 290.

Nihilism in Russia, iii, 744 ; Meli-
koflfs policy, vi, 795 ; methods,
vi, 802 ; beginning, vii, 736.

Nihilists, iv, 681 ; disturbances by,
iv, 776, 777; v, 662,664; ar-
rests and trial of, for the mur-
der of the Czar, vi, 796 ; two
sections of, vi, 797 ; proclama-
tions of, vi. 798; attempt to
assassinate Gen. Tcherevin, vi,
799 ; alleged plot of; in Switz-
erland, vi, 829 ; omitted from
amnesty, viii, 706 ; arrests, viii,
709.

Nile, composition of waters, i, 99.

Nilson, S., discovery by, iv, 137;
experiments, v, 87 ; viii, 117 ;
obit., viii, 603.

Nitrate deposits in Chili, iii, 95 ; in
Peru, iii, 688 ; vi, 276 ; viii,
124.

Nitric acid as a solvent, i, 98.

Nitric ferments, vi, 98.

Nitrification, iii, 83.

Nitrites in water, test for, vii, 91.

Nitrogen absorbed by plants, i, 92.

Nitzsch, K. W., obit.j v, 601.

Nobel, discovery by, iv, 131.

Noble, Matthew, sketch, i, 607.

Noggerath, J., obit., ii, 607. .

Nollet and Van Malderen, inven-
tion by, iii, 275.

Nominations, Presidential. See
United States, vols. i and v.

Nonconformists, use of title uRey."
by, i, 25 ; burial of, in parish
churchyards, iii, 13.

Non-intervention among nations,
the principle of, vii, 618 ; sci-
ence of international law, 618-
622 ; responsibility of nations,
623 ; intervention when asked
for, 625 ; when nationality is
involved, 625 ; union of states,
626 ; cases of succession and
religion, 627 ; the Roman ques-
tion, 627.

Nordenskiold, explorations of, i,
328 ; iii, 354 ; iv, 411 ; viii, 28 ;
in Greenland, 384.

Nordqvist, explorations by, iv, 412.

Norris, experiments by, viii, 633.

North Borneo Co., the, vi, 329.

Northbrook, Lord, sketches, i, 406 ;
v, 580.

Northbrook island, vii, 334.

North Carolina, in every volume.

Northeast passage, search for, iv,
411 ; Nordenskiold' s conclu-
sions as to, iv, 415.

Northen, Adolf, obit., i, 639.

Northwest passage, iii, 354, 355.

Norton, Caroline. See Maxwell.

Norton, W. A., obit., viii, 592.

Norway. See Sweden.

Nova Scotia, viii, 584.

Noxious insects and plant parasites,

NoyesJ A. C., obit., v, 594.
Nubar Pasha, iv, 329, 330 ; vi, 237.
Numismatic discovery, ii, 411.
Nunez, Dr., sketch, viii, 138.

Nussbaumer, observations by, vi,
400.

Nut-pine tree, utility of, iv, 658.

Nutrients, function of, viii, 343 ;
proportions of, in foods, 348.

Nutritive ingredients and values of
the food we eat, vi? 670 ; com-
parative cost of, viii, 346.

Nutt, G. W. M., obit., vi, 686.

Nye, J. W., obit., i, 621.

Oakey, Emily S., obit., viii, 593.

Oath, the iron-clad, iv, 24 ; decis-
ions on, iv, 24.

Oaths and affirmations in British
Parliament, the Bradlaugh
case, vi, 627 ; vii, 365 ; viii,
409 ; Cong. Union on, viii, 155.

Oaths, test, for jurors, iv, 293 ; de-
cisions on, in Florida. 376.

Oatman, Dr. J. S., obit., i, 622.

Obeidullah, surrender and rescue
of, vii, 804; obit., viii, 603.

O'Brien, W. S., obit., iii, 642.

Obituaries, in every volume.

Obligations of Contracts, vii, 648 ;
case of Virginia bonds, 648 ; of
Louisiana, 652 ; Supreme Court
decisions, 653.

Obrenovitch, house of, vii, 739.

Obstruction, resolution in Parlia-
ment on, v, 331. See Cloture,
vii, 203, 208.

O'Callahan, E. B., obit., v, 594.

O'Connell, Morgan, challenged by
Disraeli, ii, 252.

O'Connor Don, the, bill of, in Par-
liament, iv, 453.

O'Connor, John, expelled from
Ohio Legislature, iii. 666.

Odell, W., observations by, v, 36.

Odger, Geo., obit., ii, 607.

Odlin, Peter, obit., ii, 585.

O'Donnell, P., crime and trial of,
viii, 416 ; diplomatic corre-
spondence on, viii, 281.

O'Donovan, E., death of, viii, 301.

O'Dwyer, A. C., obit., ii, 608.

Offenbach, J., obit., v, 601.

Office-hunting, vi, 846. 847.

Officials, State, case of Mo. Treas-
urer, iv, 641 ; Neb. Auditor, v,
549 ; N. J. Treasurer, v, 566 ;
county, payment of, by fees,
vi. 205.

Officials, U. S., alleged abuse of
power by, iv, 18.

Ogden, W. B., sketch, iij 614.

Ogier. experiments by, vii, 89.

Ogilvie, R. A., obit., iv, 701.

Oglethorpe Celebration, viii, 389.

Ogowe" river, exploration of, iv,
401 ; vi, 328 ; vii, 336.

Ohio, in every volume.

Oil, a new, viii, 111.

Oil, calming waves with, experi-
ments, vii, 660.

Oil-cloths, floor, viii, 97.

Okechobee, lake, drainage of, viii,
309.

O'Keefe, E., obit., v, 594.

Oklobjio, I. D., sketch, ii, 621.

Okubo, assassination of, in Japan,
iii, 462.

Old Catholics, i, 649 ; ii, 621 ; iii,
669; iv, 704; v, 609; Arch-
bishop of Canterbury on reso-
lutions of, i, 22; abolition of
priestly celibacy, iii, 669 j com-
munion in both* kinds, iii, 670 ;

recognition asked of Angli-
cans, iv, 32 ; relations with the
Papacy, v, 609.

Olden, C. S., obit., i, 622.

Oldham, Thos., obit., iii, 659.

Old Ironsides, history, vi, 620.

Oleomargarine, its manufacture,
vii, 661 ; N. Y. law on, 664 ;
foreign demand for, ii, 112;
tests for, vii, 89.

O'Loghlen, Sir C., obit., ii, 608.

O'MaTiony, J., obit., ii, 585.

Omer Pasha, obit., iv, 701.

Omohundro, J. B., obit., v, 594.

O'Neill, E. C., experiments by, vii,

O'Neill, J.. obit., iii, 642.
Ontario, viii, 609.
Opdyke, G., obit., v, 594.
Opium, attempts to suppress the

use of, ii, 131, 132 ; iii, 100 ; vi,

109 ; culture in China, iii, 100 ;

in Persia, v, 623 ; Americans

prohibited from traffic in, v,

704; monopoly in India, vii,

416 ; reduced trade in China,

viii, 126.
Opium-traffic in India and China,

vL 703 ; vii, 666.
Ord, E. O. C., sketch, viii, 611;

service on the Rio Grande, ii,

513, 668.
Order of the Double Dragon, vii,

102.
Ordnance, improvements in, ii,

622 ; experiments with, v, 29 ;

of various countries, vii, 576.
Oregon, in every volume.
Orense, Marquis, obit., v, 602.
Orientalists, Congress of, i, 711.
Orpen, Sir R., obit., i, 639.
Orr, C. A., obit., i, 639.
Orton, Jas., sketch, ii, 628; explo-
rations, ii, 336.
Orton, Wm., obit., iii, 642.
Osborne, B., obit., vii, 647.
Osgood, Samuel, sketch, v, 614.
Osman Pasha, sketch, ii, 628.
Ostrich-Farming in U. S., vii, 672.
Otter, Admiral H. C.,.obit., i, 639.
Ouray, Chief, sketch, v, 615.
Overcomers, sect of, vij 707.
Overdank, crime of, vii, 54, 438.
Overstone, Baron, obit., viii, 603.
Overweg, K., obit., i, 639.
Owen. R. D., sketch, ii, 628.
Oxenford, J., obit., ii. 608.
Oxus, attempt to deflect the, vii,

335.
Oxygen, making ofj v, 88 ; vii, 92 ;

passive and active, viii, 120.
Oyster-Beds, Deterioration of, vi,

707 ; protection for, vii, 506,
"Oyster Navy," the, vi, 529, 532.
Ozone, curative properties of, i, 91 ;

from oxides of manganese, 92 ;

liquefaction of, v, 86.

Pacific, South, German Trade on

the, iv, 442.

Pacinotti, inventions by, vi, 253.
Packard, claim to governorship

of Louisiana, i, 489; ii, 455,

465.

Packer, Asa, sketch, tv, 712.
Padelford, S., obit., iii, 642.
Page, Elizabeth P., claim of, in

Congress, vi, 145.
Paine, R., obit., vii, 641.
Paint, luminous, v, 93.

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

851

"Pairing -off" practice in the
House, vii, 199.

Palacky, F., sketch, i, 654.

Palestine, explorations in, i, 327,
328 ; ii, 324 ; survey ? 325.

Palestine, German Colonies in, viii,
614.

Palffy, Count, obit., i, 640.

Palfrey, J. G., obit., yi, 687.

Palikao, Comte de, obit., iii, 660.

Palisa, Dr., discoveries by, ii, 44;
iii, 36 ; iv, 51 : v, 34 ; vii, 35 ;
viii, 21, 22.

Palladium, new compound of, iii,
89.

Palladius, obit., iv, 701.

Palmer, E. H., obit., vii, 647;
sketch, viii, 614 ; murderers
indicted, viii, 297.

Palmer, N. B., obit., ii, 586.

Palmer, W. B., obit., i, 622.

Pamir, the, iv, 399.

Panama Canal, vi, 714; vii, 107,
813-815; viii, 140, 308.

Panslavists, sentence of a leader of,
iii, 426 ; agitations of, viii, 705.
See Slavs.

Pantelophone, the, vi, 258.

Papacy, the, relations of Germa-
ny, i, 260, 680 ; ii. 659, 682 ;
iii, 381 ; v, 639 ; vi, 346, 775,
792 ; vii, 357, 358, note, 724 ;
viii, 395, 693 ; with Italy, i,
422,703; ii, 408, 410, 677; iii,
736 ; vi, 450, 792 ; vii, 437, 724 ;
viii, 692- with Austria, viii,
694 ; with Belgium, iii, 56 ; v,
54, 56 ; viii, 56, 693 ; with Rus-
sia, vii, 726 : viii, 694 ; with
Switzerland, ii, 682 ; viii, 694 ;
with South American govern-
ments, i, 707 ; with France, iii,
343, 348 ; vi 793 ; vii, 726 ; viii,
370 ; in United States, vi, 793 ;
viii, 694 ; establishment of the
hierarchy in Scotland, iii, 732 ;
instructions to bishops in U.
S., iii. 737 ; the papal guaran-
tees, ii, 408; viii, 454. See
also the allocution, ii, 677, and
Eoman Question, vii, 627.

Paper Exposition, iii, 724.

Paper-hangings and wall-paper,
viii, 615.

Paper-pulp, new process for, viii,

Papuans, the. See New Guinea.
Paraguay, i, 654 ; iii, 677 ; vi, 724 ;

vii, 673 ; viii, 617.
Pardo. Don Manuel, assassination

of, iii, 687.
Pardons, Board of, in Conn., viii,

253.

Parian Wares, viii, 640.
Paris, Auguste, ii, 319.
Paris, first meeting of the Chambers

in, since 1870, iv, 392 ; map of,

and environs, ii, 306.
Parisel, Dr. F.,obit.,ii, 608.
Parker, E., experiments by, iii,

722.

Parlatore, F.. obit., ii, 608.
Parliament, the German, organiza-
tion of, vii, 209 ; absenteeism,

210 ; rules, 210 ; groups in, 211 ;

general aspect, 211.
Parliamentary system of England,

the, vii, 199 ; rules, ibid., 206 ;

penal power, 202 ; expulsions,

202 ; the clbture, 203.

Parmentier, Gen., observations by,
viii, 22.

Parncll, C. S., sketch, v, 615; ar-
rest, vi, 368 ; proposed suspen-
sion, vii, 204; u Treaty of Kil-
mainham." vii, 367 ; contro-
versy with Mr.Foster, viii, 412

Parrott, E. P., obit., ii, 586 ; inven-
tion by, iii, 754, 762.

Parsons, Dr., murder of, v, 690.

Parsons, E. Y^ obit., i, 622.

Parsons, H. B., experiments by,
vi, 95.

Parsons, P. M., invention by, i,
523.

Parsons, T., sketch, vii, 673.

Paschall, G. W., obit., iii, 643.

Pasolini, Count, obit., i, 640.

Passerini, L., obit., ii, 608.

Pasteur, germ theory of, iii, 387 ;
experiments by, iv, 443; vi,

Patagonia, partition of, i, 34.
Patents, viii, 618; grounds and
methods of obtaining, laws
on, etc., 618-623; change in
English law, 623 ; international
conferences, 624; bill in Ger-
many, ii,351 ; office organized,
352 ; Congress, iii, 314 ; to two
or more, 809; Burdett-Estey
suit, iv, 842 ; drive-well suit, v,
418 ; British law, viii, 410.

Patin, H. J. G., sketch, i, 654.

Patrizi, C., obit., i, 640.

Patterson, Capt., explorations and
death of, iv, 403.

Patterson, Eobert, sketch, vi, 725.

Patterson, "W. C., obit., viii, 593.

Pattison, E. E., sketch and por-
trait, vii, 678.

Paul, H. M., observations by, viii,
21.

Paulding, H., obit., iii, 643.

Pavement, for cities, ii, 277.

Payne, Joseph, sketch, i, 654.

Paynter, J. A., obit., i, 640.

Peacock, Mary T., obit., iy} 774.

Peanut-crop in Virginia, vii, 829.

Pearl-fishing, viii, 141.

Pearson, E. M., obit., iii, 643.

Pease, A. H., obit., vii, 641.

Pease, J. L., obit., iii, 643.

Pecci, Cardinal, sketch, ii, 629. See
Leo XIII.

Pechiile, Dr., discovery by, vi, 38.

Peck, Asahel, obit., iv, 694.

Peck, Ebenezer, obit., vi, 687.

Peck, G., D. D., obit, i, 622.

Peck, J. J., obit., iii, 643.

Peck Jesse T., obit., viii, 593.

Peckham, F. A., obit., i, 622.

Peckham, S. F., observations by,
iv, 53.

Pedersen, Knud, obit., i, 640.

Pedro II, of Brazil, sketch, ii, 629 ;
portrait, ii, 74.

Peeples, Judge C., obit., ii, 586.

Peirce, Benj.. obit., v, 595.

Pel, Gen., obit., i. 640.

Pelham, Wm., obit, iv, 694.

Pellicier, A. D., obit, v, 595.

Pemberton, J. C., sketch, vi, 726.

Penn, John, obit, iii, 660.

Pennock, Bear- Admiral A. M.,
obit., i, 622.

Pennsylvania, in every volume.

Pensions, in Japan, i, 427 ; in New
Jersey to soldiers of 1812, vi,

Pensions, increase of, bill in Con-
gress, viii, 248 ; amendment to
pension veterans of Mexican
and Indian wars, viii, 248.

Peptones, the, viii, 119.

Pereire, I., obit., v, 602.

Perger, Rt. Rev. J., obit, i, 640.

Pener, A. C. V. L., sketch, i, 659.

Perinchief, Rev. O., obit., ii, 688.

Perkins, G. R., sketch, i, 659.

Perkins, J. C., obit., ii, 566.

Perkins, S. E., sketch, iv, 728.

Peroffskaya, Sophia, vi, 797.

Perraud, J. J., obit., i, 640.

Perrin, R. P., obit, i, 622.

Pen-one, G., sketch, L 659.

Perrotin, discoveries by, i, 46 ; U,
44 ; iii, 36.

Perry, electric railway of, viii, 678.

Persia, in every volume.

Persian succession, the, vi, 731.

Pertz, G. H., obit., i, 640.

Peru, in every volume but ii ; war
with Chili, see Chilian War.

Peru, Chili, and the United States,
vi, 738 ; vii, 810.

Pestilence in India, i, 404.

Peter, Mrs. S., obit., ii, 586.

Petermann, A., obit, iii, 660;
theory of African rivers, 363.

Peters, Adolf, obit., i, 640.

Peters, C. A. F., obit, v, 602.

Peters, C. H. F.. discoveries by, i,
46; ii, 44; iii, 36; iv, 51; v,
34 ; viii, 21 ; star-charts of,
viii,27.

Peters, T. C.. obit, i, 622.

Petitot, Abbe, explorations by, v,
297.

Petrella, E., obit., ii, 608.

Petrie, invention by, iii, 275.

Petfoleum? vii, 687 ; pipe-line trans-
portation of, iii, 618 ; export of,
682 ; iv, 174 ; test, vii, 96 ; sta-
tistics, viij 114 ; Government
monopoly in Greece, viii, 419 ;
in Mexico, 537 ; in Ontario,
609. See Naphtha.

Pettit, John, obit, ii, 586.

Peucker, E. von, sketch, i, 662.

Peyton, B.. obit., iii, 643.

Pfordten, 0. F., experiments by,
viii, 113.

Pfund, Dr., obit., i, 640.

" Phantom City " in Central Amer-
ica, vii, 337.

Pharmacy, colleges, associations,
legislation, and. literature of,
viii, 630.

Phelps, E., obit, v, 595.

Phelps, J.F.. obit, iii, 643.

Phelps, P., obit., i, 622.

Philippine islands, viii, 740.

Phillips, J. B., obit., ii, 586.

Phipson, T. L., experiments by,
vii, 88.

Phoenix Park murders, the, vii,
366 ; viii, 414 ; trials for, 415.

Phoneidoscope, the, iii, 727.
Phonograph, the, ii, 638.
Phosphorus, production of, v, 86 ;

new form, viii, 121.
Photography, improvements in, ii,

498 ; iii, 725 ; vi; 747.
Photometry, new unit of light for,

ii, 96 ; standards, vi, 96.
Photophone, the, v, 447.
Phthallic acid, v.89.
Phylloxera, vi, 670.
Physiology, recent, vi, 748; viu,

852

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA. FROM 1876 TO 1883.

631 ; literature of, vi, 754 ; vii,
692 ; viii, 638.

Piaggia, Carlo, explorations by, ii,
330.

Piano, improvements in the, i, 517.

Picard, L. J. E., obit., ii, 608.

Pichot. A., obit., ii, 608.

Pickering, C., obit., iii, 643.

Pickering, E. C., observations by,
vi, 40 ; vii, 41.

Pictet, Raoul, design of, for ships
of war, vi, 246.

Pierce, L., obit., iv, 695.

Pie"rola, N. de, made " supreme
chief" of Peru, v, 625 ; flight
of, vi, 737. See also Peru,
Chili, and the United States,
vi, 738.

Pierpont, John, sketch, vii, 693.

Pierre, P. J. G., obit., viii, 603.

Piers, new, iv, 344.

Pillot, A. P., obit., v. 595.

Pillow, G. J., obit., iii, 644.

Pillsbury, J. S., sketch, i, 558.

Pine-wood oil,, vii, 634.

Pinheiro, Lieut., invention by, iii,
725.

Pinkney, Wm., obit., viii, 593.

Pinoleum, vii, 94.

Pinto, Serpa, explorations by, iv,
404; v, 293; sketch of, iv,
405.

Piracy, at Foochow, i, 109, 347.

Pisciculture, viii, 791.

Pistorius, H. A., obit., ii, 609.

Pita, viii, 638.

Pituri, vi, 755.

Pius IX, sketch, iii, 689 ; episcopal
jubilee of, ii, 681 ; insult to the
remains of, vi, 451, 792.

Placide, Thos., obit., ii, 586.

Plague, the, iv, 728 ; vii, 286, 291.

Planch6, J. R., obit., v, 602.

Planets, supposed intra-Mercurial,
i, 45 ; iii, 33 ; viii, 20 ; ultra-
Neptunian, v, 34; discoveries
of minor, see Astronomical
Progress.

Plante, invention by, vi, 254 ; ex-
periments of, vii, 265.

Platinum, atomic weight of, vi, 93.

Platt, T. C., resignation of, vi,
644.

Plants, electrical phenomena in, i,
249 ; insectivorous, iv, 36 ; ab-
sorption of noxious substances
by, vii, 93.

Plener, Dr., on financial reform in
Austria, v, 44.

Plevna, fall of, ii, 744.

Plimpton and Graves, experiments
by, viii, 113.

Plotz, Albert von, obit., i, 640.

Plumer, W. S., sketch, v, 626.

Pneumatic excavation, ii, 275.

Pocci, Count, obit., i, 640.

Pocock, Francis, death of, ii, 332.

Pogge, Dr., explorations of. i, 331.

Poggendorff, J. C., obit., ii, 609 ;
^ iii, 364.

Poisons, in food, clothing, etc., iv,
34. See Arsenic.

Poland, change in administration,
i, 711 ; demand for political
rights, v, 666.

Polar Conference, third, vi, 325.

Polarization, vii, 265.^

Polar Regions, statistical tables, v,
626.

Folding, Archbishop, obit., ii, 609.

Poles, conciliation of, viii, 708.

Policy, Indian, changes of, vi, 421.

Political Agitations, in Denmark,
iv, 313 ; vi, 209, 210 ; in Port-
ugal, vi, 760 ; in France, ii,
308 ; map of France, ii, 314 ;
in Italy, see Italia Irredenta ;
in U. S., i, 71 i). See also un-
der titles of countries.

Political Assessments, vii, 693. See
also Civil-Service Reform.

Political Cases in S. C., pardons,
iv, 820.

Political crimes, by supposed Fe-
nians, vi, 370. See Assassina-
tions.

Political parties, English, viii, 412.

Political parties, U. S., conventions
of. See under names of States
in each volume.

Polk, Trusten, obit., i, 622.

Polygamy, in Utah, vi, 783, 859 ;
in Idaho, viii, 435, 812.

Polynias, the, vii, 332.

Pomare II, Queen of the Society
islands, ii, 53.

Pompeii, celebration of destruction
of, iv, 527.

Ponroy, P. G. A., sketch, i, 663.

Pope, Com. J., obit., i, 622.

Population, the center of, in the
U. S., with maps, vi, 755.

Population, density and death-
rate, iii, 723.

Porcelain, viiij 639.

Pork, prohibition of American, viii,
396, 643.

Porter, A. D., invention by, ii.
720.

Porter, Fitz- John, case of, iv, 49 ;
in Congress, viii, 236.

Porto Rico, viii, 648.

Portraits, composite, iii, 726.

Ports opened in China, i, 119 ; ii,
102. .

Portugal, in every volume.

Postage, review of legislation on,
viii, 163 ; bill in Congress for
reduction, viii, 185 ; review of
reductions, viii, 188.

Postal Dispatch, Pneumatic, ii,
497.

Postal Statistics, i, 240 ; iv, 836.

Potagos, Dr., explorations by, v,
292.

Potanin, G. N., explorations of, ii,
327.

Potassa, determination of, ii, 93;
manufacture, viii, 115.

Potel, invention of poteline, vii,
316.

Pothuan, Louis, ii, 321.

Potomac marshes, the, drainage
recommended, v, 650.

Potter, C. N., sketch, vii, 697.

Potter, H. C., sketch, viii, 652.

Pouget, trial of, viii, 369.

Poujoulat, J. J. F., obit., y, 602.

Power of Congress over Witnesses,
vii, 698 ; Kilbourne case, ibid.

Powys, Bishop, obit., ii, 609.

Prado, M. L, sketch, iv, 732.

Praga, E., obit., i, 640.

Prat, M., new metal discovered by,
ii, 502.

Pratt, D. D., obit., ii, 586.

Pratt Public Library, vii, 509.

Pray, E. H., obit., i, 622.

Prayer-book, revision of the, ii,
24.

Prazak, Dr. A., iv, 60.

Predegram, A., obit., ii, 587.

Preece, W. H., observations by,
viii. 526.

Prejevalsky, explorations of, v,
289.

Preller, F.. obit., iii, 660.

Prentiss, Mrs. E. P., obit., iii, 644.

Presbyterian Alliance, the, ii, 650.

Presbyterians, in every volume.

Prescott, A. B., investigations by.
y, 92.

Presidency of Mexico, three claim-
ants to, ii, 512.

President of'tue United States, pro-
posed amendments on the elec-
tion and length of term of, i,
132-138,158-166; salary of the,
i, 171 5 third term of, i, 167 ;
executive^ acts, where per-
formed, i, 169 ; election of,
see Elections, Presidential.

Presidential electors, vii, 147.

Presidential Inability, vi, 414.

Presidents, absences of, from
Washington, i, 169-171.

Press, the, suppression of news-
papers, i, 709 ; laws in France,
ii, 304-308 ; trial of Cassagnac,
305 ; colpprtage bill, iii? 343 ;
amnesty for offenses of, 343,
344; bill on, vi, 311 ; in India,
restrictions on, iii, 33 ; the na-
tive, 435 ; laws in Japan, iii,
462 ; silenced in Ecuador, iii,
261.

Preston, J. S., sketch, vi, 771.

Preston, S., obit., ii, 587.

Pretenders, French, bill to exile,
viii, 366.

Price, Roger, in Africa, iii, 362.

Prince Edward island, viii, 660.

Princeteau, Gen., obit.j i, 641.

Princeton Telescope, vii, 41.

Pringsheim, theory of, vi, 111.

Printing, improvements in, i, 518 ;
vi, 548.

Prisons, in New York, i, 597, 605 ;
Maryland, ii, 478; Massachu-
setts, ii, 482 ; vi, 537 ; Ken-
tucky, iv, 539 ; Texas, iv, 831 ;
California, vi, 82 ; viii, 78 ; re-
formatories in Michigan, vii,
554; at Louvain, viii, 497;
contract system, iv, 600, 653,
665 ; the separate system, vii,
675 ; English system, viii, 403.
t See also Convict Labor.

Prisons, Southern, during the
civil war, i, 184-192.

Pritchett, observations by, iv, 52.

Prjevalsky, Col., explorations of,
ii. 326 ; iii. 359, 360.

Prohibition, viii, 661 5 by statute,
664 ; by constitutional amend-
ment, 666; license, 663, 668;
effects of enforcements, 668;
constitutionality, 669 ; argu-
ments for, 670.

Prohibition Reform party, i, 780.

Prokesch-Osten, Count A., sketch,
i, 675.

Propaganda Fide, congregation of,
seizure of pioperty of, viii, 692.

Property Rights of Foreigners in
Mexico, viii, 538 ; great estates
in, viii? 538.

Protection in Germany, iv, 435 ; in
France, v, 284 ; in Mexico, v,
14; in Canada, vi, 217; Speakei

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

651

Carlisle on, viii, 94. See Duties

and Tariff.

Proteids, sources of the, ii, 94.
Protestant Episcopal Church, in

every volume.
Proteus, destruction of the, viii,

421.
Prout, chemical hypothesis of, vi,

42.

Prout, Skinner, obit., i, 641.
Provisions, commerce in, iv, 167.
Prussia, in every volume but viii.
Prussia, General Synod of, iv, 742.
Prussian and German Govern-
ments, antagonism between,

iii, 378.

Pruyn. R. H., obit., vii 642.
Ptomaines, discovery of, vii, 94.
Public Documents, in first six vol-

Public Meetings, bills on, hi

France, v, 283.

Pugh, Geo. E., sketch, i, 691.
Purcell, J. B., sketch, viii 672;

vii, 726. See Bishops, Liabil-
ity of, etc.
Pusey, E. B., sketch and portrait,

vii, 711.

Putnam, E. G., obit., iii, 644.
Putnam, J. P., obit., vii, 642.
Puttkammer, B. V. von, sketch,

iv.740.

Piitz, W., obit., ii, 609.
Pyramid, in Mexico, viii, 536.
Pyramids, the Egyptian, vii, 258 ;

opening of, 260 ; of Senefru,

262.

Quackenbush, J. V. P., obit., i,
622.

Quain, Sir John, obit., i, 641.

Quarantine rules, v, 12.

Quebec, Province or, viii, 674 ; po-
litical controversy in, iv, 319.

Quicksilver-Mines of Siena, viii,
523.

Quincy, Edmund, obit., ii, 587.

Eace, G. W., obit., vi, 687.

Eaces, conflicts of, in Austria, vii,
47, 53.

Eadetzki, Gen., sketch, ii, 671.

Eadiophony, vi, 787.

Eaff, J., obit., vii, 647.

Eaffray, explorations by, iii, 365;
iv, 411.

Eahway, N. J., bankruptcy of, iv,
669.

Eaikes, Eobert, v, 674.

Eailroad Land Grants, i, 692.

Eailroads of the United States, vii,
712; statistics, v, 242; viii,
336 ; Northern Pacific, vi, 130 ;
viii, 613 ; completion, viii, 781 ;
Southern Pacific, iii, 571; vi,
518 ; Transcontinental, viii,
316; famous fights between,
iv, 158, 159 ; war of rates, vii,
560 ; suits on, ii, 754 ; vii, 456,
464 ; priority of liens, iv, 842 ;
effect of freight rates in Ver-
mont, iv, 840 ; memorial on,
from Vermont Grange, iv, 841 ;
board to supervise, iv, 601,
602 ; anti-Monopoly League,vi,
652 ; decision on taxation of,
viii, 341 ; validity of bonds in
aid of, iii, 580 ; v, 309 ; inter-
state commerce bill, vi, 172;

reductions on freight, viii, 152 ;
N. Y. commission act, vii, 600.
Eailroads, Elevated, iii, 284; Vi-
enna circular, vi. 247 ; bill on
taxes of N. Y., vii, 600 ; inves-
tigation of charges, 602 ; case
of Judge Westbrook, 602 ; bill
on taxes of, vii, 600 ; investiga-
tion of charges, 602; case of
Judge Wcstbrook, 602, 603;
decision on damages to prop-
erty by, 616.

Eailways, Electric, viii, 675.
Eailways, government control of,
in Germany, i, 344, 679 ; ii,
352; iv, 441, 742; vii. 349;
viii, 391, 394 ; in Italy, i, 418 ;
in Hungary, viii, 40 ; in Den-
mark, vi, 209 ; Danube and
Turkish, viii, 43 ; first in Chi-
na, ii, 102; closed in China,
vi, 107; Indian, vii, 414; new
system of mountain, vi, 246;
trans - Andean, iii, 20, 291 ;
Himalayan, vii, 284 ; proposed
Sahara, iv% 27 ; v, 293 ; Eu-
phrates, viii, 306 ; in Austra-
lia, v, 38, 40 • vii, 42 ; in Per-
sia, vi, 732 ; in New Zealand,
vii, 46 ; in Seuth America, iii,
63, 677; y, 59, 65; vii, 682;
viii, 66 ; hi Central America,
iii, 417 ; iv, 460 ; v, 199 ; Can-
ada Pacific, v, 214, 221 ; vii,
217; viii, 87.

Eailways, Improvements in, en-
gines, ii, 494, 496 ; brakes, ii,
496 ; signals and speed indi-
cators, i, 252, 516 ; car-wheels,
i, 516; bridges, v, 242, 244;
improvements, vi, 544 ; Ameri-
can engines and cars, iv, 188 ;
constant-circuit rail system, iv,
602 ; plan for a ship, iv, 345 ;
narrow-gauge, iii, 279.

Eainfall, annual, of U. S., with
map, viii, 528 ; affected by for-
ests, 351.

Bains, G. J., sketch, vi. 788.

Eajah of Pooree, trial of, iii, 438.

Ealston, J., cotton-cleaner of, vi,
265.

Eameau, S., obit., i, 641.

Eamsay, Prof., theory of, vi, 350.

Eamsey, Alex., sketch, iv 834.

Eanavalena II, Queen of Madagas-
car, death of, viii, 507.

Eandall, S. J., sketches, i, 692 ; iv,
748 ; portrait, iv, 193.

Eandolph, T. F., obit., viii, 593.

Eanke, F., obit., i, 641.

Eanvier, experiments by, vi, 753 ;
viii, 60.

Baoult, researches by, vi, 100.

Eapieff, invention by, iii, 271.

Baspail, F. V.. obit., iii, 660.

Eassam, Hormuzd, discoveries by,
vi, 22 ; vii, 263.

Eau, H., obit., i, 641.

Baumer, B. von, obit., i, 641.

Eavensworth, Earl of, obit., in,
660.

Eawlins, J. H., obit., i^ 622.

Eawson, G. W., obit., ii, 587.

Bay, C. S., experiments by, vi, 748,
751.

Bay P. H., expedition under, vi,
325.

Eaymond, J. H., obit., iii, 644.

Bead, Sophia H., obit., v, 595.

Reay. Baron, obit., i, 641.

Rebellion, war of the, collection of
tax for expenses of conducting,
iv, 429.

Reciprocity treaty between Mexico
and Lnited States, viii, 686.

Reconstruction. See President's
messages, i, 681 ; ii, 660, 662.

Bed-Grow Societies and the laws of
war, vii, 715.

Redfield, II. J., obit., ii, 687.

Redfield, J. F.; sketch, i, 692.,

Re-districting m Conn., vi, 198 ; in
N. Y., viii, 569; in Pa., viii.
624.

Redgrave, S., obit., i, 641.

Red-gum tree, the; viii, 545.

Red light, the, viii, 525 ; connec-
tion with sun - color, ibid. ;
theories on, 526.

Red men, the, iv, 846.

Red Sea coast annexed to Egypt, v,
235.

Reed, Jos., obit., ii, 587.

Reed, W. B., obit., i, 622.

Reese, J., fusion-disk of, vi, 313.

Reform in the Civil Service, viii,
682; examinations, 684; New
York Board, 686 ; classes of
the service, 686 ; rules, 688 ;
subjects, 688, 689.

Reformed Church in France, threat-
ened schism in, i, 695.

Reformed Churches, in every vol-
ume but vi.

Reformed Episcopal Church, i, 696 ;
ii, 673 ; iii, 721 ; iv, 750 ; viii,
682 ; peculiar tenets of. i, 697 ;
first church in England of, iii,
721 ; admission to Anglican
pulpits of clergymen of, iv, 30.

Reforms proposed in Russia, vi,
799 ; in Germany, vii, 853 ;
acts in Victoria, vi, 45 ; elec-
toral, in Brazil, vi, 71 ; pro-
posed electoral, in Great Brit-
ain, iv, 454.

Refunding the national debt, his-
tory of, iv, 751.

Regicides, attempted, iii, 292, 293,
379-381, 458.

Regnault, H. V., obit., iii, 660.

Reichert, E. T., experiments by,
vii, 690.

Reichlin - Meldegg, Freiherr von,
obit., ii, 609.

Reichstag, the. See Parliament,
the German.

Reid, Sir Jas., obit., i, 641.

Reid, Mayne, obit., viii. 608.

Eeinhart, K. A., obit., ii, 609.

Eeinsberg, Baron. See Durings-
feld,i, 238.

Beisbach, Freiherr von, obit. , i, 641 .

Eeiset, M. J., experiments by, viii,
120.

Beligion, intolerance in the Tyrol,
i, 59; iv, 67; v, 45; in 'Bel-
gium, i, 71 ; v, 53. 54 ; in Bo-
hernia, iv, 351 ; in China, i, 110;
iii, 101 ; v, 690 ; in Coreat iii,
738 ; in Spain, i, 705, 729, 781 ;
in Turkey, i, 261, 709, 759 ; v,
685; secularizing measures in
Brazil, iii, 63 ; military honors
refused at funerals where re-
ligious services are forbidden,
i, 318 ; public aid to sects, i,
133, 138, 172-180, 261, 597 ; De-
partment of Worship in France,

854

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FKOM 1876 TO 1883.

vi, 305; intervention in cases
of, vii, 627 ; legislation in Rus-

ment on, i, 591 ; persecution of

Jews, see Jews ; of Mussul-
mans, iii, 795. See also Church-
es, and Education.
Religion, Society for the Liberation

of, from State Control, iv, 34 ;

v, 17 ; vi, 14.
Religious Orders, expelled from

France, v, 658 ; proposal to

settle in Spain, v, 673.
Remsen, I., experiments by, vi, 99 ;

viii, 121.
Renfroe, J. W., impeachment of, iv,

423.
Representation, demand in Japan

for popular, iii, 462, 463.
Representatives, apportionment of.

vii, 142 ; " Alabama paradox,"

143.
Reprieve, extraordinary case of, iii,

818.
Republican party in Norway, vii,

771.
Republican party, divisions of, in

New Jersey, vii, 605, 610.
Researches and Experiments, iii,

722.

Resonant Alloys, i, 522.
Resumption of specie payments, iv,

763.

Retorts, platinum, i, 94.
Returning Boards. See Electoral

Commission.
Reuleaux, Prof., experiments in

cinematics, i, 515.
Revenue and Tariff, viii, 193.
Revenue-Cutter Service, vii, 584.
Revenue districts, changes, viii, 780.
Revillout, researches of, vii, 262.
Revolutionary War, claim of Ga.

for money expended in, viii,

387.

Revolutions. See Wars, etc.
Rey, Paul, explorations by, vi, 330.
Reynier, M., invention by, iii, 272 ;

vii, 269.
Reynolds, Emerson, experiments

by, iii, 93 ; v, 86.
Rhallis, Geo., obit., viii, 603.
Rhett, R. B sketch, i, 698.
Rhode Island, in every volume.
Rhodes, R. S., audiphone invented

by, iv, 54.

Ribblesdale, Baron, obit,, i, 641.
Ricasoli, Baron, on the Roman

Question, vii, 628; obit., v, 602.
Ricco, observations by, viii, 22.
Rice, opposition to culture of, v,

483; production in U. S., vii,

722.

Rice, N. L., obit., ii, 587.
Richards, A. B., obit., i, 641.
Richardson C., experiments by,

viii, 118.
Richards, Ellen S., experiments by,

ii, 502.
Richards, Windsor, experiments

by, v, 208.
Richardson, J. M., invention by,

iii, 761.

Richardson, M., obit., i, 623.
Richardson, 0. D., obit., i, 623.
Richter, Eugene, speech by, vi, 346.
Richter, H. E., obit., i, 641.
Ridderhold, H., obit:, i, 641.

Rider, Jas., obit., i, 623.
Riecke, F. J. P., obit., i, 641.
Riedeck, E., expedition of, viiif

386.
Rifle-match at Wimbledon, viii,

418.

Rifles, the Martini-Henry, Win-
chester, Berdan, and boper, ii,
623, 624.
Ringer, S.. experiments by, vii,

691 ; viii, 633.
Rio Grande, troubles on the, ii,

712 ; iii 555.

Riots, in Miss., ii, 528 ; in Col., v,
120 ; in Ark., vi, 31 ; in Ky.,
vii, 453 ; in Canton, viii, 128.
See Labor-Strikers.

Ripley, Geo., sketch, v, 657.

Ripon, Marquis of, Viceroy of India,
v, 384 ; policy of, vii, 416.

Hitachi, Friedrich, sketch, i, 702.

Ritter, invention by, vi, 254.

Ritualism, in the Anglican Church,
i, 25 ; the confessional, ii, 17,
21 ; vestments, ii, 18, 19 ; con-
troversy, vi, 15 ; trials for. vii,
14, 17 ; iv, 31, 32. 33 : viii, 6.

River and Harbor Bill, vii, 148.

Rivers, fluctuations of, iv,_ 805 ;
channel improvements in, v,
273 ; devices to prevent shift-
ing of channels, v, 249.

Rivers, African, singular rise of, iv,
406 ; other phenomena of, iv,
407.

Riviere, H., obit., viii, 604.

Robber bands in Missouri, vii, 567.

Robbins, Chandler, obit., vii, 642.

Roberts, C., experiments by, viii,
524.

Roberts, Sir F. See Afghan War.

Roberts, J. J., obit., i, 642.

Roberts, M. 0., sketch, v, 658.

Roberts, 0. M., sketch, iii, 787.

Roberts, S. W., obit., vii, 642.

Robertson, J. B., obit., ii, 609.

Robertson, W. 11., appointment of,
vi, 644.

Robie, F., sketch, vii, 498.

Robinson, Sir H. G. R., sketch, v,
79.

Robinson, John, proposed monu-
ment to, ii; 132.

Robinson, Lucius, sketch, i, 606.

Robinson. W. S., obit., i, 623.

Robson, B. R., obit., iii, 644.

Roca, J. A., inaugural of. v, 22.

Rodgers, John, sketch, vii, 722.

Rodgers expedition, the, vi, 323 ;
viii, 162.

Rodney, G. B., obit., viii, 593.

Roebling, J. A., viii, 311, 313.

Roebling, W. A., viii, 313.

Rogers, micrometer-telescope of, i,
554.

Rogers, D. L., obit., ii, 587.

Rogers, F., obit., i, 623.

Rogers, H., obit., ii, 609.

Rokitansky, Baron von, iii, 732.

Rolland, P. C. A., obit., i, 642.

Roman Question, the, vii, 627.

Roman Catholic Church, in every
volume. See also Papacy and
Education.

Rontgen, invention by, Hi, 545.

Roon, A. T. E., Count von. sketch,
iv, 774.

Roosevelt, Mrs. C., obit., i, 623.

Roosevelt, Theo., obit., iii, 644.

Rosetti, experiments by, iii, 92.

Rosetti, C. A., reform plan of, in
Roumania, vii, 729, 730.

Ross, A. M., sketch, iii, 739.

Ross, Sir D.. obit., i, 642.

Ross, Sobieski, obit., ii, 587.

Rossetti, D. G., obit., vii, 647.

Rothschild, Sir A., obit., i, 642.

Rothschild, Baron L. de, obit., iv.
701.

Roudaire, Capt., survey in Africa,
ii, 328.

Rouland. G.. obit., iii, 661.

Roumania, h, 683 ; iii, 739 ; v, 659 ;
vi, 794 ; vii, 726 ; viii, 695 ; ar-
ticle on, in Berlin Treaty, iii,
257 ; dissatisfaction, 740 ; act
to prevent Jews from buying
lands, 740 ; attitude toward
Danube Commission, viii, 270,
272.

Roumelia. See Eastern Roumelia.

Rous, Admiral, obit., ii, 609.

Rousseau, M. L., invention by, i,
516.

Rowland, W. L., discovery by, vi,
97.

Roux, M., on the Panama Canal
route, vi, 715.

Royal succession, the, in France,
viii, 106.

Ruberine, vii, 88.

Rubner, Prof., investigations by,
vi, 676.

Rudersdorff, Emma M., obit., vii,
643.

Ruge, A., obit., v, 603.

Ruggles. Prof. W., obit., ii, 587.

Rugs, viii, 96.

Runeberg, J. L., obit., ii, 609.

Russel, S., obit., vii, 647.

Russell, Alex., obit., i. 642.

Russell, Earl, sketch, iii, 740.

Russia, in every volume.

Russian advances in Asia, ii, 6;
iii, 2, 33, 97, 404; iv, 9; vi,
732 ; vii, 415, 681, 734 ; terri-
tory gained, iii, 258; annexa-
tion of Merv, viii, 706.

Russian Government, the, vi, 800.

Russian language, act to establish
in literature, i, 711.

Russians, troubles with the Chi-
nese, v, 101 ; aid of, to Persia,
v, 623.

Russo-Turkish War. See Turko-
Russian War.

Rustow, W., obit., iii, 661.

Rutherford, Gen. G.V., obit., i, 623.

Ryall, explorations by, iv, 400.

Ryan, G. P., obit., ii, 587.

Ryerson, A. E., obit., vii, 643.

Ryssakoif, vi, 796.

Sabbath, Congress for promoting

the observance of, i, 740.
Sabine, Sir E., obit.; viii, 604.
Sabine, Lorenzo, obit., ii, 587.
Sablin,N vi, 796, 797.
Sachan, E., explorations of, viii,

385.
Sa Da Bandeira, Viscount, sketch,

i, 713.

Sadtler, S. P., discovery by, vi, 97.
Safarik, Prof., observations of, viii,

24.
Safvet Pasha, sketch, ii, 689 ; obit.,

viii, 604.

Sagasta, speeches of, vi, 818,819.
Saghalien, exchanged for Kurile

islands, 427.

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

855

Sahara, exploration of the, vi, 327 ;
proposed railway, y, 293 ;
scheme for flooding, iv, 340;
viii, 308.

Said Pasha, reforms proposed by,
vii, 803 ; dismissed, 803 ; re-
called, 804.

St. Bartholomew, island of, bought
by France, ii, 319 ; iii, 777 ;
price returned, for a charitable
institution, iv, 824.

St. Germans, Earl of, obit.,ii, 612.

St. Gothard Kail way and Tunnel,
vi, 819 ; vii, 11.

Saint Hilaire, B., on Greek bound-
aries, vi, 375.

St. John, I. M., sketch, v, 673.

St. Louis, growth of, v, 539.

St. Simonists. See David, i, 220.

Salah Aga-el-Mek, viii, 299.

Salamanca, Marquis of, obit., viii,
604.

Saldanha, Oliveira E Daun, Duke
of, sketch, i, 713.

Salkowski, E., researches by, viii,
637.

Salt, in Michigan, vi, 581.

Salt deposits, formation of, ii, 92.

Salt-tax, in India, vii, 417 ; in Rus-
sia, vii, 733.

Salvador, vi, 803 ; viii, 710.

Salvation Army, viii, 710.

Samarium, vi, 93.

Samoan islands, treaty with Ger-
many, iv, 442.

Sampson, Capt., observations by,
viii, 20.

Sampson, W. T., experiments by,
iv, 134.

Sand. George, sketch, i, 713.

Sandborn, Judge, obit., ii, 610.

Sandeau, J., obit., viii, 604.

Sandeman, Major, mission of, i,
74; ii, 70.

Sanders, W. F. L., observations
by, vii, 39.

Sandhurst, W. E. Mansfield, Bar-
on, sketch, i, 715.

Sands, B. F., obit., viii, 593.

Sands, J. R., obit., viii, 594.

Sanford, C. W., obit., iii, 645.

Sanford, J. L., obit., ii, 610.

San Francisco, vote on proposed
new charter, v, 78.

Sanitary Commission, work of the.
vii, 718.

Sanitary Conference, appropriation
for, vi, 142.

Sanpoo River, the, identical with
the Brahmapootra, iv, 399.

Sans, A., discovery by, vi, 20.

San (Salvador, war with Guatemala,
iii, 747 ; i, 22.

Sansas, Pierre, obit., ii. 610.

San Stefano, Treaty of, iii, 292, 396,
402, 739, 798 ; principal pro-
visions of, iii, 791.

Santa Anna, Gen. A. L. de, sketch,
i,715.

Santa Maria, D., sketch, vi, 806 ;
message of, viii, 63.

Santini, G., obit., ii, 610.

Santo Domingo, proposed annexa-
tion of, i, 685 ; article, viii, 712.

Sappey, experiments by, vi, 751.

Sargent, Epes, sketch, v, 667.

Sarhad mountains, the, discovery
in, ii, 325.

Sarnstrom, Prof., experiments by,
viii, 520.

Sarzek, researches of, vii, 263.
Saskatchewan, Territory of, viii,

81.

Sassulitch, Vera, assassination at-
tempted by, iii, 744 ; effect of

acquittal of, iv, 682.
Satsuma, rebellion in, ii, 414.
Satterlee, R. S., obit., v, 595.
Saturn, rings of, i, 46 ; ii, 45 ; iii,

36 ; rotation of, ii, 45 ; orbit of

Hyperion, 46; density of, iv,

52; system of, viii, 23.
Saulsbury, E., obit., vi, 688.
Save, Carl, obit., i, 642.
Savoy, neutrality of, vi, 829.
Sawyer, E. F., observations by,

iii, 37 ; iv, 52 ; vii, 40.
Sawyer, G. Y., obit., vii; 643.
Sawyer, W. E., invention by, i,

520 ; v, 240.

Say, Leon, sketch, ii, 320 ; Presi-
dent of Senate, v, 281.
Saybolt, oil-tester of, viii, 464.
Sayn-Wittgenstein-Sayn, Prince,

obit., i, 642.

Sayre, D. M., obit., i, 623.
Schaberle, J. M., discoveries by, v,

35 ; vi, 39.
Schaffner and Helbig, experiments

by, viii, 115.

Schem, A. J., obit., vii, 643.
Scherr, Archbishop, obit., ii, 610.
Schiaparelli, observations by, viii,

20, 24.
Schilling, monument designed by,

viii, 399.
Schlagdenhauffen, experiments by,

viii, 118.
Schlagintweit, Emil, quoted, i, 7,

73, 74 ; ii, 5, 70.
Schleicher, G., obit., iv, 695.
Schleswig-Holstein, final disposal

of, iv, 440 ; Danish subjects in,

viii, 276.
Schliemann, Heinrich, explorations

of, i, 28.

Schloesing, theory of, iii, 83 ; in-
vention by, vii, 741.
Schmid, Theodor, obit., ii, 610.
Schmidt, Gen. von, obit., i, 642.
Schmidt, Prof., discoveries by, ii,

48 ; vii, 38.

Schmitz, Gustavus, obit., ii, 588.
Schnitzler, Dr., discovery by, ii,

330.
Schneider, C. C., bridge designed

by, viii, 313.
Schone, Prof., investigations by,

iii, 90.
Schroeder, "W. von, experiments

by, viii, 637.

Schulhof, Dr., prize to, iii, 39.
Schulze-Delitzsch, H., obit., viii,

604.
Schwick, E., experiments by, iv,

135.

Schur, W., prize to, viii, 28.
Schurz, Carl, sketch, ii, 689.
Schutt, Otto, explorations by, iv,

403.
Schiitzenberger, experiments by,

viii. 110,
Schwackhofer, invention by, 111,

Schwann, T., obit., vii, 647.
Schwatka, Lieut., voyage of, v,

298.
Schweinfurth,Dr., explorations of,

i, 331 ; ii, 328 ; iii, 363.
Scialoja, A., obit., ii, 610.

Sclopis de Salerano, Count, obit.,
iii. 661.

Scott, Sir G. G., obit., iii, 661.

Scott, Levi, sketch, vii, 788.

Scott, T. A., sketch, vi, 806.

Scott, Gen. Walter, obit., i, 642.

Scribner. J. B., obit..iv, 695.

Scropo, G. P. obit, L 642.

ticrutin de Li*U, vi, 807.

Seal Industry. See Alaska, vii, 6.

Sea-Lions, vii, 9.

Searle, G. M., observations by, vilL
24.

Sears, B., obit., v, 596.

Sears, E. J., LL.D., obit., i, 628.

Sears, G. B.. obit., ii, 588.

Scaring, J. A., obit., 5,628.

Sebehr Pasha, in Daribur, viii, 290,
296 ; command of, 801 ; re-
moved, 802.

Secchi, P. A., obit., iii, 738.

Secret Societies, Reformed Church
on, v, 652.

Sedden, J. A., obit,, v, 596.

Seed-cotton, bill on, in Ala., iv,
16 ; invention for spinning, iv,
638.

Seegen, experiments by, vi, 750.

Seguin, E., obit., v, 596.

Seiberlmg, J., obit., 623.

Selden, S. L., obit., i, 623.

Sell, E., study of Islam by, vi, 444.

Sellon and Volckraar, invention
by, vii, 265.

Selwyn, G. A., obit., iii, 661.

Semmes, Raphael, sketch, ii, 690.

Senate, office of President of, i, 138-
152 ; expulsions from, vii, 196.
See Congress.

Senatorial Question, the, in N. H.,
vi, 633.

Sennaar, insurrection in, viii, 299,
' 301.

Serfdom, vi, 473 ; in Java, vii,
589.

Serrigny, D., obit., i, 642.

Servia, i, 754 ; ii, 691 ; iii, 748 ; vii,
738 ; map, i, 754 ; viii, 714 ;
insurrection, viii, 715; arti-
cles on, in the Berlin Treaty,
iii, 257 ; differences with Aus-
tria, v, 47 ; project for church
union of, y, 347 ; troubles in,
viii, 43 ; Russian views for,
viii, 549.

Service, U. S. Life-Saving, iii, 749.

Service, U. S. Marine Hospital, iv,
778.

Sessions, L. B., case of, vi, 648 ;
viii, 577.

Settembrini, L., obit., i, 642.

Seubert, K., experiments by, vi, 98.

Severtzoo, explorations by, iv, 899.

Sevier, R., obit., iv, 695.

Sewage, influence of, on ground-
atmosphere, i, 94; in houses,
v, 363.

Sewage disposal, vii, 741.

Seward, Maj. A. H.t obit., i, «23.

Seward monument in New York,
the, i, 716.

Sewers, ventilation of, iii, 722. •

Sewing-machines, improvement in,
ii, 497.

Seymour, Edward, obit., ii, 588.

Seymour, Sir F. B. P., and por-
trait, vii, 245.

Seymour, 0. S.. sketch, vi, 808.

Sforza, Cardinal, obit., ii, 610.

Shachovski, Prince, sketch, ii, 692.

856

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

Shah of Persia, travels of, i, 660.

Shandley, E. J., obit., i, 623.

Shannon, Wilson, obit., ii, 588.

Shari River, the, iii, 363.

Sharkey, S. J., observations by,
viii, 634.

Sharswood, G., obit., viii, 594.

Shaw, R., obit., i, 642.

Shawe, C. A., obit., i, 643.

Sheep-husbandry, in Georgia, iv,
427 ; in Australia, vi, 46.

Sheldon, George, obit., vi, 688.

Shelton, J. T., obit., i, 624.

Shelton, William, obit., viii, 594.

Shepard, Prof., observations by,
iv, 53.

Shepherd, T. P., obit., ii, 588.

Shepley, G. F., sketch, iii, 767. ,

Shere Ali, i? 8 ; negotiations with
Russia, ii, 6, 42 ; disputed suc-
cession, iii, 6 ; answer of, to
the British Government, iii,
437; flight from Cabul, iii,
437; flight of, iv, 7; death,
iv, 9 ; secret correspondence
of, captured, vi, 2.

Sheridan, Gen. P. EL, sketch, por-
trait, viii, 715.

Sherif Pasha, vii, 239.

Sheriffs, Texas convention of, v,
683.

Sherman, John, sketches, ii, 692 ;
iv, 794 ; portrait, 794.

Sherman, Mrs. S. M. G., obit., iii,
645.

Sherman, T. W., obit., iv, 695.

Sherman, Mrs. T. W., obit., iv,
695.

Shields, Jas., sketch, iv, 796.

Shields, Jas., experiments by, vii,
660.

SMlder-Shuldner, J. I., obit., iii,
661.

Shilleto. Rev. R., obit., i, 643.

Shimose, experiments by, viii, 111.

Shinwarri rebellion, viii, 1.

Shipka pass, contest for, ii, 741.

Shipping, acts on, in Great Britain,
i, 358 ; decline of American, ii,
110; iv, 837 ^125 ; vi, 786 ;
vii, 520; statistics of Ameri-
can, viii, 150 ; committees on,
vii, 522, 523 ; bill on, in Con-
gress, viii, 220 ; fines on, in for-
eign ports, vi, 777 ; restrictions
in Spanish West Indies, viii,
263; deductions to British,
ibid. ; bill on, in France, vi,
308.

Ships, machinery for lifting, ii, 497:
for conveying cars, 498 ; speed
indicator, 499 ; sounding in-
strument, 498 ; steering large,
iii, 724; rules for preventing
collisions, vi, 778 ; building,
246 ; vii, 521 ; statistics of, in
Maine, viii, 510 ; armored, iii,
591 ; classes of war, vi, 547 ;
history of " Old Ironsides," vi,
620 ; the Grosser Kurfiirst, iii,
385 ; iv, 441 ; lists, of war, and
descriptions of the Calliope,
Teme'raire, Inflexible, Lepan-
to. etc., see Navies of Europe,
vii, 568.

Shirley, Com. Paul, obit., i, 624.

Shoemaker, J. L., obit., i. 624.

Shuvaloff, Count, sketch, ii, 692.

Siberia, Northern, difficulties of
the new ocean route to, iii, 358.

Sicilian Vespers, anniversary of,
vii, 438.

Sickels, J. B.,obit.,i, 624.

Sidersky, Dr., experiments by, viii,
113.

Sidi Muley Hassan, obit., iii, 66L

Siemens, Chas. W., sketch, viii,
718.

Siemens, Frederick, experiments
by, iv. 419 ; viii, 378.

Siemens, Werner, invention by, iii,
276 ; experiments, v, 237 ; vii,
528.

Siemens, Sir Wm., inventions by,
i, 519 ; vi, 255, 258, 400 ; viii,
676 ; theory of the sun, vii, 32.

Sight and touch, relative accuracy
of, vi, 751.

Signal Service, Meteorological Di-
vision of the United States,
with weather maps and map
of the sea-coast telegraph, iv,
797.

Signals, sound-, viii, 719.

Silk, weighting of, hi, 229 ; substi-
tute for, 724 ; commerce in} iv,
173; reduced yield in China,
viii, 126.

Silliman, Benj., invention by, i,
522.

Silos, their construction and uses,
vi, 808.

Silver, salts of, ii? 91 ; reduction of,
from ore, viii, 521.

Silver certificates and coins, vi,
779. m

Silver coinage, L6on Say on, iii,
314 ; in Germany, iv, 440 ; as
legal currency, ii, 235, 291 ; iii,
138-164; effects of deprecia-
tion, iv, 163, 613 ; vi, 626 ; see
Bimetallic Standard.

Simon, Jules, resignation of, ii, 307;
speech of, 312, 313.

Simon, M., obit., ii, 610.

Simons, M. L., obit., v, 596.

Simons, T. Y.. obit., iii, 645.

Simony, trial for, in Greece, i, 369-
371.

Simrock, Karl, sketch, i, 718.

Sims, J. Marion, sketch, viii, 718.

Simson, Alfred, voyage of, i, 333.

Simpson, R., obit., i, 643.

Sinkat, fall of, viii, 302.

Sioux, war with the, i, 43.

Siren fog-signal, v, 448 ; viii, 723.

Sitting Bull, i, 43.

Skene, J. H., researches of, vii,
264.

Skin-Diseases, remedy for. See
Ichthyol, viii, 434.

Skobeleff, M. D., sketches, ii, 693 ;
vii, 742.

Slade, Adolphus, obit., ii, 611.

Slade, E.. obit., iii, 645.

Slag, utilization of, iii, 722.

Slaughter, W. B., obit., iv, 695.

Slavery in Brazil, i, 7v ; vii; 70 ;
movement to abolish, viii, 67 ;
the Soudan, ii, 269, 270 ; v, 235;
viii, 290, 292; in Cyprus, iii,
402 ; in Cuba, iii, 774: iv, 822 ;
abolition, viii, 262 ; in United
States, see Exodus, iv, 354;
Southern Presbyterian Church
on, i, 270 ; among Turkomans,
vi, 733 ; in Madagascar, vii, 493 ;
form of, in Queensland, viii, 36.

Slave-trade, the field of, ii, 270,
329, 331 ; inquiry into, ii, 641 ;

efforts of Gen. Gordon to stop,
viii, 399.

Slavs, the, and schemes for their
union, i, 58-60 ; ii, 263 ; v, 47 ;
vii, 47, 53; viii, 46, 48. See
also Panslavists.

Sleeper, J. S., obit., iii, 645.

Small-pox, Ceeley case, vii, 287.

Smalls, R., pardon of, iv, 820.

Smee, Dr. A., obit., ii, 611.

Smell, experiments on the sense of,
viii, 636.

Smirke, S., obit., ii, 611.

Smith, Albee, invention, vii, 485.

Smith, Albert, obit., hi, 645.

Smith, Asa D., sketch, ii, 693.

Smith, Avery, obit., i, 624.

Smith, C. M., observations by, viii,
525.

Smith, C. P., obit., ii, 588.

Smith, D. M., obit., vi, 688.

Smith, E. Darwin, obit., viii, 594.

Smith, E. F., experiments by, iv,
134 ; v, 96.

Smith, E. P., obit., i. 624.

Smith, F. G., obit., hi, 645.

Smith, George, sketch^ i, 718 ; re-
searches of, vii. 232, 263, 264.

Smith, H. B., sketch, ii, 694.

Smith, Ida G., obit., vii, 643.

Smith, Jos., obit., ii, 588.

Smith, J. Cotton, sketeh, vii, 742.

Smith, J. Lawrence, discovery by,
iii, 87; sketch, viii, 718.

Smith, J. P., buoy invented by, v,
452.

Smith, J. Y., obit., i, 624.

Smith, Leigh, cruises of, v, 303 j
vi, 323, 325 ; vii, 334.

Smith, N. R. obit., ii, 588.

Smith, Lady P., obit., ii, 611.

Smith, W. Robertson, trial of, for
heresy, ii, 648; iii, 698; v,
634 ; vi, 760, 769.

Smoke-consumer, a, i, 518.

Smyth, J. F., Insurance Superin-
tendent, trial of, iii, 616.

Snead, J. T., obit., vi, 688.

Snell, Prof. E. L., obit., i, 624.

Snowden, J. R., obit.; hi, 645.

Socialism, state, of Bismarck, viii,
393.

Socialists, in Denmark, ii, 250;
increase of, in Germany, 282 ;
measures against, iii, 379, 380,
381, 384 ; attempt on the Em-
peror's life, 381; effect of
anti-Socialist bill, 383 ; in the
Reicb.stag.iv, 440 ; law against,
* y^ 318 ; Emperor's rescript,
iii, 393 ; trials in Russia, ii,
688 ; iii, 744 ; trials in France,
vii, 326 ; schools of, viii, 368 ;
riots in Austria, viii, 46 ; in
Italy, iii, 458; congress pro-
posed, vij 829 ; held at Copen-
hagen, viii, 276.

Socotra, i, 9 ; British treaty, 718.

Soda, manufacture of, viii. 114.

Sojourner Truth, obit., viii, 595.

So'kolo, town of, vi, 328.

Soldiers and sailors, committee on
violations of statutes as to ap-
pointments of, iv, 770.

Soldiery, mutiny of Egyptian, vi,
236.

Soleillet, Paul, expeditions of, iii,
364 ; v, 292.

Solids, solubility of, in gases, iv,
136.

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FKOM 1876 TO 1888. 857

Sofcnerby.G. A., obit, iv, 696.

Sophia. Queen of the Netherlands,
obit, ii, 611.

Sophocles, E. A., obit., viii, 595.

Sorby, H. C., investigations by,
vii, 532.

Sorghum, experiments with, iv,
841.

Sosnovski, expedition to China, i,
329.

Sothern, E. A., sketch, vi, 811.

goto, M. A., sketch, iii, 424.

Soudan, the, Col. Gordon appoint-
ed, ii, 269 ; his intentions re-
garding slavery, ibid. ; slave-
trade in, v, 235 ; exploration of,
vi. 326 ; rebellion m, vii, 255 ;
viii, 298, 507 ; history and pro-
ductions, 290 ; commerce, 386 ;
British policy, 301; Gordon's
mission, 399.

Souillart, Prof., prize to, viii, 28.

Soule. G. L.. obit, iv, 696.

Souli6, E., obit., i, 643. ^

Sound, aberration of, viii, 724.

Sound-Signals, viii, 719.

Soust de Borckenfeld, A. van, obit.,
ii, 611.

South Africa. See Cape Colony,
etc.

South African Confederation, dis-
cussed in Parliament, v, 338.

South America, boundaries in, i,
333. See Boundaries, Disput-
ed.

Southard, W. F., experiments by,
vi, 751.

South Carolina, in every volume.

Spafford, M. H. G., sect founded
by, vi, 707.

Spain, in every volume.

Sparkman, J. D., obit., i, 624.

Spaulding, Judge A., obit., i, 624.

Specie Resumption, in Italy, viii,
451; inU. S., ii, 237, 290, 663;
iii, 164, 175, 325, 801 ; iv, 28,
367. See also Eesumption of
Specie Payments, iv, 763.

Spectra of vapors and gases, v, 95.

Spectroscopic Observations, i, 49.

Spectrum, the solar, evidence from,
iv, 130.

Spelling Reform, Faculty of Uni-
versity of Miss, on, iv, 637.

Spence, J. B., discovery by, v, 93.

Spence, T. A., obit, ii, 589.

Spencer, Herbert, on the nature of
the elements, iii, 91.

Spicer, W. F., obit., iii, 645.

Spinoza, statue of, v, £ o5.

Spleen, the, function of, vi, 751 ;
viii, 635.

Splenectomy, viii, 751.

Spofford, H. M., obit, v, 596.

Spooner, A. J., obit, vi, 688.

Spottiswdode, W., obit., viii, 605.

Spotts, J. H., obit., vii, 644.

Sprague, J. J., obit., iii, 646.

Sprague, Peleg, sketch, v, 673.

Sprague, W. B., sketch, i, 733.

Sprpat, M. L.j obit., i, 624._

Spring, experiments by^ viii, 113.

Spring, Samuel, obit., ii, 589.

Stafford, Conn., broken dam in, ii,
227.

Stahl, on lichens, iii, 476.

Stahr, A. W. T., sketch, i, 733.

Stampfli, J.,obit, iv, 701.

Stanley, A. P., sketch, vi, 822.

Stanley, H. M., sketch, ii, 701 ; ex-

plorations of, i, 833; ii, 823,
829; iii, 868; vii, 336; viii,
385. •

Starkweather, H. H., obit., i, 624.

Starr, Chandler, obit., i, 624.

Star-Route Trials, vii, 753; viii,
163 \ viii, 777.

Stars, discoveries of, i, 49 ; ii, 47,
48 ; double, ii, 37 ; v, 86 ; vii,
36 ; viii, 26 ; red, iii, 38 ; vari-
able, iii, 38 ; v, 36 ; vi, 39 ; vii,
40 ; viii, 27 ; motion of, vi, 39 ;
charts of, viii, 27.

State Claims, Fla., against Federal
Government, v, 269 ; Mo., vii,
565; Ga., viii, 387.

State judges, indictment of, v, 703.

State officials, suits against, in Ga.,
v, 304. '

State RightSj Congress on, i, 166 ;
as to suits against municipali-
ties, iii, 10 ; conflict between
U. S. and Ark. courts, 25 ; al-
leged Federal interference with,
v, 203 ; decisions on, vi, 477.

States, claims against, v, 479 ; New
York law on, vij 516 ; proposed
amendment, vii, 462 ; obliga-
tion of contracts, vii, 648 ; viii,
493 ; Board of Claims, 570.

Statistical Congress, International,
i, 734.

Steam, exhaust, utilization of, iii,
723 ; pressure, vi, 546.

Steamboat Accidents, v, 580 ; vi,
220.

Steam- Engine, Wells's Balance, iii,
774.

Steamships, line from Rio Janeiro
to New York, iii, 63 : to Hali
fax, v, 16 ; from Hudson Bay,
218.

Steam-tugs, for canals, vi, 250.

Stearns, Onslow, obit., iii, 646.

Stearns. W. A., obit., i, 624.

Steel, rerro-manganese process, i,
515 ; new theory, vi, 100 ; use
and manufacture, vi, 542 ; vii,
530.

Steere, Bishop, African journey of,
i, 332.

Steifensand, X., obit., i, 643.

Steinmetz, K. F. von, obit., ii, 611.

Steinway, Albert, obit., ii, 589.

Stein wehr, A. A., Baron von, obit.,
ii, 589.

Stenhouse, C. F., observations by,
viii, 526.

Stephens, Alex. H., sketch^ ii, 702 ;
inaugural address, vii, 346;
sketch and portrait, viii, 741.

Stern, Daniel. See Agoult.

Stewart, Alex., obit., i, 643.

Stewart, A. T., sketch,!, 735.

Stevens, Ambrose, obit., v, 596.

Stevens, L. I., experiments by, viii,
632.

Stevens, W. B., sketch and portrait,
vii, 767.

Stever, G., obit., ii, 611.

Stigmata, case of Louise Lateau,
viii, 694.5

Stille, R. B., obit., iv, 696.

Stillman, J. M., expenments by,
vi, 100: vii, 86.

Stillman, W. J., observations by,
viii, 526.

Stillwell, S. M.. obit,vi, 689.

Stirling-Maxwell, Sir W., obit., ui,
661.

Stinted, Sir H. W., obit, i, 648.
Stock Exchange, the London, r»-

port on, iv, 176.

Stockley, C. C., sketch, vii 189.
Stock Market vii, 117 ; viii. 885.
Stockton, J. D., obit, ii, 589.
Stockton, R., obit, i, 624.
Stone, Prof., observations by, vi. 89.
Stone, Dr. W., opinions on yellow

fever, iii, 816.
Stoney, G. J., observations by, iv,

Stoney, G. M., explorations by, viii,
888.

Storm-Signals, cautionary, iv, 806.

Storer, Prof., extract from, vi, 676.

Stoughton, E. W., sketch, ii. 708.

Strandberg, C. W. A., obit, ii, 612.

Stratford de Redcliffe, Viscount,
obit., v, 603.

Stratton, J. W obit., i. 624.

Street, A. B., sketch, vi, 825.

Street, G. E., obit, vi. 696.

Street-Cars, law regarding, iii, 528 ;
modes of traction, ii, 4!»f> ; iv,
346. See Railroads, Elevated.

Stremayr, Dr. von, iv, 60.

Strikes. See Labor-Strikes.

Stringham, S. H., sketch, i, 736.

Strong, water-gas process, viii, 875.

Strype. W. G., experiments by,
viii, 113.

Stuart, Sir J., obit., i, 648.

Stubbs, W. C., experiments by, vi,
280.

Sturgeon, D., obit., iii, 646.

Suakin, expedition in, viii, 800.

Subsidies, Congress on, i, 166.

Successions, intervention in cases
of, vii, 627.

Suez Canal, effect of, ii, 263 ; prof-
, its of, 270; affected by the
Turkish War, 271 ; cost of, to
Egypt, 271: profits in 1878,
iii, 268; value to Egypt, vii,
236 ; Granville's proposal, 363 ;
enlargement of, viii, 307 ; con-
dition in 1883, viii, 743.

Suffrage, resolutions on interference
with the right of, i, 180, 181 ;
Garibaldi on universal, iv, 526 ;
property qualification for, 771 ;
agitation in Belgium for uni-
versal, vi, 59. See Reforms
and Women.

Sugar, culture in Minnesota, iii,
568 ; commerce in, iv, 169 ; test
for, v, 94 ; culture in Queens-
land, vii, 44 ; in Cuba, viii,
264; duty on, 219 ; tests, etc.,
viii, 745.

Suleiman Bey Sami, obit, viii, 605.

Suleiman Pasha, sketch, ii, 708;
obit., viii, 605.

Sulphur, new oxide of, i, 98 ; as a
mordant, 99; new process, vii,
90; test for, viii, 112; from
alkali waste, 115.

Sulphurets, reducing action of, ii,
93.

Sulu, cession of, to North Borneo
Company, vi, 829.

Sumatra, revolt in, iii, 597, 598 ;
vii, 590 ; viii, 557.

Sun, the, observations on, i, 44, 45;
utilizing the heat of, 519 ; oxy-
gen in, ii. 42 ; iv, 130 ; spots,
cycle of, ii, 42; explosion, ii,
43 ; total eclipse, in. 83 ; vii,
83 ; viii, 20 ; spots, iii, 85 ; iv,

858

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

51 ; v, 33 ; vii, 33 ; parallax, v,
33 ; vi, 38 ; vii, 36 ; Siemens' a
theory, vii, 32 ; heat from, vii,
33 ; spectrum of the corona, iv,
134; disturbances in, vi, 38;
viii, 20.

Sunday Laws, iv, 667; in Mary-
land, 591 ; in Texas, 830 ; in
Ohio, vi, 699; in California,
viii, 78.

Sunday-schoo]s; in India, i, 405;
Eaikes anniversary, v, 674.

Sungarians, revolt 01', in China, ii,
101.

Surgery, progress in, vi, 555 ; viii,
747.

Sutro Tunnel, the, iii, 288.

Sutter, J. A., sketch, v, 674.

Button's Battery, vii, 266.

Swamp-Lands, reclamation of, iv,
625 ; vi, 251.

Swan, electric lamp of, vii, 275.

Swann, Thos., obit., viii, 595.

Swat, the Akhund of, authority of,
see Afghanistan, ii, 4, 6; hatred
for British influence, 7; iii,
582; obit., 648.

Sweat-ducts, effect of closing the,
v, 356.

Sweden and Norway, in every vol-
ume.

Swedenborgians. See New Church.

Sweets, disease from use of, viii,
289.

Sweetser, S., obit., iii, 646.

Swift, Lewis, discoveries by, ii,
46 ; iii, 33, 36 ; iv, 51 : y, 35 ;
vi, 38, 39 ; prizes to, iii, 39 ;
vii, 41 ; observatory for, v, 36.

Swinhoe, K., obit., ii, 612.

Switzerland, in every volume ; re-
ligious conflict in, viii, 756.

Syntheses, new, v, 96.

Syr Darya, diversion of, viii, 309.

Szechenyi, Count, explorations by,
v, 289 ; sketch, 871.

Taaffe. Count E., sketch, iv, 60.

Taffc, Alphonzo, sketch, i, 740.

Tahiti, annexed to France, v, 40.

Taimyr -Laud, discoveries in, iii,
356, 357.

Tainter, experiments by, vi, 257,
787.

Tait, A. C., sketch and portrait,
vii, 775.

Telbot, Sir C., obit., i, 643.

Talbot, Jos., obit, viii, 595.

Talbot, W. H. F.j obit., ii, 612.

Taljanzeff, experiments by, viii,
632.

Tanganyika, Lake, outlet of, v, 297.

Tappan. H. P., obit., vi, 689.

Tariff, in Argentine Eepublic, ii,
32; Austria, 56, 58; iii, 42;
France and Germany, ii, 114 ;
iv, 435 ; Mexico, iii, 553 ; Bra-
zil, v, 63 ; Chili, 97 ; Canada,
213, 219; iv, 317; Peru, vi,
735 ; Spain, vii, 752 ; effect of
high, in Germany, viii, 394;
United States, Presidents on,
ii, 667 ; viii, 160 ; bill for com-
mission, v, 172 ; vii, 139. See
Tariff Eevision.

Tariff Revision, vii, 777 ; viii, 193 ;
text of act, 194.

Tarnoczy, Archbisohp, obit., i. 643.

Tasmania, viii^ 36 ; queen and last
native ofj i, 53.

Taxation, in Italy, iv, 524 ; v, 408,
409 ; vi, 449 ; in Austria, v,
44 ; viii, 42 ; in Great Britain,
vi, 362 ; remission of, in Prus-
sia, vi, 775 ; in India, vii, 416 ;
in Eussia, 733 ; in United
States, President Arthur on,
vi, 780 ; on reduction of, viii,
160; of State property, vii,
409 ; of sectarian asylums, iv,
721 ; of mortgages and mort-
gaged property, iv, 598, 673 ;
vi, 535 ; reduction, viii, 789.
For State laws, see under titles
of States.

Tay bridge. See Bridges.

Tayler, E. W., obit., m. 646.

Taylor, A. F., obit., viii. 595.

Taylor, Bayard, sketch, iii, 778.

Taylor, Sir H., obit., i. 643.

Taylor, Eichard, sketch, iv^ 825.

Taylor, S., experiments by, iii, 727.

Taylor, Tom, obit., v, 603.

Taylor, W. EL theory of, viii, 24.

Tchcrkaskij, Prince, obit., iii, 662.

Tchernytchevsky, nihilism of, iv,
683.

Tebbutt, J., discovery by, vi, 38.

Tees river, breakwater on, iii, 287.

Teisserenc de Bort, Edmond, ii,
320.

Telegraph companies, contest be-
tween, v, 417 ; suits against,
viii, 576 ; confidential nature
of messages, iv, 533.

Telegraphs, subterranean, ii, 278 ;
iv, 347 ; v, 252 ; ocean, iv, 346 ;
v, 242, 251, 252. _

Telegraph system, Signal-Service,
iv, 816.

Telegraphs and Telephones, statis-
tics of, vii, 785 ; i, 240 ; vii, 119.

Telegraphy, improvements in, i,
515, 520 ; vi, 255, 256.

Teleki, Count, obit., i, 643.

Telephone, the. i, 740 ; ii, 706 ;
statistics, vii, 785.

Teller, H. M., portrait, vii, 811.

Tellkampf, J. L., sketch, i, 741.

Tellurium, new oxide of, viii, 111.

Telpherage, viii, 679.

Tempel, Dr., discoveries by, ii, 46 ;
iv, 51.

Temperance, local-option laws, iii,
519; iv, 421; viii, 519; civil
damages, iii, 625 ; iv, 516, 599 ;
high license, vii, 567 ; viii, 546 ;
Scott act, vi, 219 : screen-law,
539 ; Pond bill^ vii, 658 ; reso-
lution in Parliament on, iv,
456 ; v, 342 ; decisions on ques-
tions of, iv, 579, 592 ; vi, 467 ;
vii, 448. See also Prohibition,
viii, 661. For conventions and
State acts, see under titles -of

Temporal Power, the, Spanish Cor-
tes on, ii, 699. See Papacy.

Tenants, compensation for im-
provements by, viii, 410.

Tenduf, vi, 327.

Tennessee, in every volume ; debt
question, viii, 757.

Tenney, Sanborn, obit., ii, 589.

Tenney, Sarah M.. B., obit., i, 624.

Tenney, Wm. J., sketch, portrait,
viii, 758.

Tergukassoff.A. A., sketch, ii, 712.

Territories, U. S., survey of, i, 333 ;

Teuffel, W. G., obit., iii, 662.

Tewfik Bey, death of, viii, 302.

Tewflkl. See Mohammed Tewfik.

Tewksburv Almshouse, Gov. But-
ler's charges, viii, 517.

Te Whiti, vii, 45.

Texas, in every volume.

Texas Indemnity Stock, vii, 399.

Textile manufactures, improve-
ments in, vi, 543.

Thaxter, E. E., obit., vi, 689.

Thayer, K, obit., viii, 595.

The baud, Dr. J. S., obit., i, 625.

Thebaw, King, attempt to assassi-
nate, v, 69 ; position of, vii,
416.

Thein, detection of, ii, 95.

Theological Schools in United
States, viii, 760.

Thermo- Chemistry, discovery in,
iii, 90.

Thibet, explorations in, i, 329 ; iii,
359 ; iv, 399 ; v, 289 ; cause of
difficult access, iv, 400 ; pro-
ductions, 400, 401?

Thiers, L. A., sketch, ii, 715; ad-
dress of, to electors, 315.

Thollon, observations by, viii, 20,
25.

Tholuck, F. A. G., obit., ii, 612.

Thomas, B. F., obit., iii. 646.

Thomas, Francis, obit., i, 625.

Thomas, Sidney, invention by, v,
208.

Thompson and Houston, invention
by, iii, 279 ; vii, 266.

Thompson, Geo., obit., iii, 662.

Thompson, J. P., obit., iv, 696.

Thompson, L., discovery by, iii,
84.

Thompson, S. P., theory of elec-
tricity, vi, 240.

Thompson, E. W., sketch, ii, 716.

Thomsen, Julius, experiments by,
ii, 499.

Thomson, Jos., explorations by, iv,
402 ; v, 296 ; viii, 385.

Thomson, Sir C. Wyville, expedi-
tion of, vii, 331 ; obit., 647.

Thomson, Sir Wm., inventions and
researches of, ii, 498; iii, 351;
iv, 419 ; vi, 239, 253, 255 : vii,
223, 269 ; viii, 116.

Thome, C. E., obit., viii, 596.

Thome, J. S., obit., v, 596.

Thornton. J. W.. obit., iii, 646.

Thorpe, T. B., sketch, iii, 788.

Thousand Islands, the, vi, 838.

Thrasher, J. S., obit., iv, 696.

Thrift Congress, iii, 314.

Thurston, E. H., discovery by, vi,
542.

Thymol, as an anti-ferment, i, 95.

Tidemand, Adolf, sketch, i, 747.

Tidy. Meymott, on water analysis,
hi, 91.

Tierra de la Guerra. v, 298.

Tiff, in white-lead, iv, 640.

Tilden, M. Y., obit., i, 625.

Tilden.S. J., sketch and portrait,
i, 748; nomination, 785; let-
ters from, iii, 717 ; v, 697.

Tileston, W. M., obit., v, 596.

Tilghman, E. C., obit., iv, 697.

Tillamook Lighthouse, vii, 283.

Timbuctoo, vi, 328.

Time, standard and cosmopolitan,
colored map, viii, 761.

Timoffaki, i, 323.

Tin, alloys of, iv, 4 ; deterioration

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

NVJ

of, vii, 533 ; viii, 116 ; in Da-
kota, 523.

Tindall, Admiral L. S., obit., i,
643.

Tirard, P. E., sketch, iv, 386.

Tisserand, M., observations by, iii,
36.

Tithes, in Quebec, viii, 674.

Titiens, Theresa, obit, ii, 612.

Tobacco, commerce in, iv, 170 ; cul-
tivation of seed, v, 197 ; inspec-
tion, vii, 463; monopoly in
Germany, 356.

Tobler, T., obit., ii, 612.

Tocqueville, Count de, obit., i, 644.

Todleben, F, E., sketch, ii, 716.

Tokio, University of, vi, 453.

Toloachi Plant, the, viii, 538.

Tolstoy, Count, v, 346.

Tommasi, Prof., experiments by,
iy.444.

Tom Thumb, obit., viii, 596.

Tonquin, war in, viii, 370 ; article,
map, viii, 763.

Toomath, John, obit., i, 625.

Tornado, in Iowa, vii, 433.

Torpedoes, ii, 717.

Totten, Capt. C. L., invention by,
ii, 626.

Tracy, P. L., obit., i, 625.

Trade-marks, decision on, iii, 831.

Tramps, iv, 307, 516, 663, 675, 686,
715, 848 ; vi, 6.

Transportation, bill for commis-
sion: v, 183 ; on the Missis-
sippi, 483.

Transvaal Republic, war in, i, 748 ;
annexation to the British Em-
pire, ii, 7, 721 ; dissatisfaction
in, iv, 128 ; revolt in, v, 81, 83 ;
independence, vi, 4 ; outbreak,
86 ; settlement, 88, 359 ; feel-
ing in Holland, 626; troubles
in, viii, 92.

Traube, L., obit., i, 644.

Traube, M., theory of, viii, 120.

Travancore, Rajah of, v. 386.

Treadwell, J. P., obit, i, 625.

Treat, S. B., obit.,ii, 589.

Treaty, right of government to
make a, viii, 396.

Trelawney, E. J., sketch^ vi, 838.

Tremain, Lyman, obit., iii, 646.

Tranchard, S. D., obit., viii, 596.

Trenholrn, G. A., obit., i, 625.

Tripled, M., observations by, vii,
37.

Tresca, experiments by, vi, 255.

Trespass suits, in 111., v, 381.

Trevisanato, Cardinal, ol it., ii, 613.

Trials, Criminal, vii, 182.

Trichinosis. See Pork, viii, 643.

Trieste, anniversary of union with
Austria, vii, 54 ; harbor-works
of, viii, 306.

Triple Alliance, the, viii, 452.

Trollope, Anthony, sketch, vii, 798.

Tromholt, S., experiments by, viii,
30, 383.

Trommel, experiments by, iii? 91.

Trouvelot, observations by, i, 46 ;
iii, 37.

Tschabuschnigg, Adolf, Rittervon,
obit., ii, 613.

Tso-Tsung-t'ang, Gen., v, 105.

Tubercle bacillus, viii, 770.

Tuberculosis, bacterial origin of,

vii, 798.

Tu Due, Emperor of Anam, obit.,
viii, 605.

Tufts, Charles, obit., i, 625.

Tulane donations, the, vii, 484.

Tundra, or Thaddeus island, vii,
333!

Tungus, the vii, 333.

Tunis, i, 9 ; French intervention
in, vi, 309, 311, 449, 840 ; Ital-
ian excitement over, vit 448;
vii, 437 ; treaty, 322 ; viii, 358.

Tunkers. See Baptists.

Tunnels, i, 255 ; ventilation of, vi,
248 ; spiral, ibid. ; restoration
of an old Roman, 249 ; the Hud-
son River, ii, 278 ; iii, 291 ;
disaster at, v, 580; vii, 281 ;
Baltimore, ii, 278; cost of
Hoosac, vi. 537 ; Severn, ii, 278 ;
vi, 249 ; vii, 282 ; British chan-
nel, iv, 340 ; vi, 243, 248 : panic
concerning, vii, 284 ; viii, 306 ;
Mersey, viii, 31 ; in Saxony, ii,
278 ; St. Gothard, iii, 280 ; iv,
340 ; v, 246 ; vi, 248, 819 ; vii,
11, 280 ; Mont Cenis, v, 247 ;
Arlberg, vi, 243, 244, 247 ; vii,
281 ; viii, 310 ; proposed Sim-
plon, vii, 11 ; through the Pyr-
enees, vi, 243 ; through Popo-
catepetl, viii, 537.

Tupman, G. L., observations by,
iii, 36 ; iv, 53.

Turgenieff, Ivan, sketch, portrait,
viii, 771.

Turkey, in every volume ; maps, i.
751 ; ii, 732.

Turkistan, i. 775. See Turkomans.

Turko-Greek Commission, the, iv,
459.

Turkomans, robberies by_, i, 7;
Persian expedition against, 44 ;
irruption of, 661 ; war with
Russians, iv, 775 ; successes of,
776; turning of the Attrek,
776 ; character of, vi, 733 ; vii,
681.

Turko-Russian War, the, i, 260,
756; ii, 269, 638, 683, 691;
Russia's declaration of war,
688, 724; conference, 723;
operations, 725-745 ; armistice,
745 ; treaty of peace, iii, 791 ;
iv, 834 ; effect on markets, ii,
119. See Eastern Question.

Turnbull, Robert, sketch, ii, 745.

Turner, John, obit., ii, 589.

Turpentine, manufacture of, iv,
428.

Tuthill, J. H., obit., ii, 589.

Tweed, W. M., sketch, iii, 798.

Twesten, A. D. C., sketch, i, 776.

Twiggle, J. W., obit., iii, 646.

Tylert J. E., obit., iii, 647.

Tyler, J. S.. obit., i, 625.

Tyler, Morns, obit., i, 625.

Tyler, Samuel, sketch, iii, 799.

Tyndall. John, on the germ theory,
iii, 387; experiments by, vi,
787

Tyrol, the, autonomy jefused to, ii,
58 ; first Protestant church in,
iv, 67 ; intolerance in, v, 45.^

Tyson, Capt.,' explorations by, in,
353.

Dchatius. Baron von, experiments
by, ii, 500; obit, vi, 696.

Uchatius gun, the, i, 57.

Uffelmann, observations by, vi,
749.

Uhrich, Gen., obit., vi, 697.

Ujfalvy, M. de. ethnologic re-
searches of, ii, 827.
Ule, O. E. V., sketch, i, 777.
Uled-Bonasok, rebellion of, i, 21.
Uled-Sidi-Sln-ik. tribe of, i, 20.
Ulundi, battle of, iv, 126.
Umbellulic acid, vii, 87.
Uncle Tom, obit., viii, 596.
Underwood, J. R., obit, i, 626.
Unitarians, in vols. i, ii, iii, v, vii.
United Brethren Church, in vola. i,

ii, iii, v, vii.

United States, in every volume. .
United States, census of, vii; 815 •

maps showing distribution of

population, of foreign, and of

coiored, vi, 850.
United States Finances for 1888,

viii, 781.
United States, Fish-Culture in, viii,

791.
Universalists, in vols. i, ii, iii, v,

vii, viii.
University of Copenhagen, 400th

anniversary ot, iv, 818.
Upjohn, R., obit, iii, 647.
Uranus, ellipticity of, viii, 24.
Urea, formation of, viii, 637.
Uruguay, i, 794 : vi, 857 ; troubles

in, v, 16 ; viii, 811.
Usibepu, defeat of Cetewayo by,

vni, 91.

[Mar, Baron, i, 823.
Usury, W. Va. bill, iv, 845 ; Ga.

law, vi, 334; effect of Kiernan

law, vii, 117.
Utah, ii, 755 ; iii, 813 ; vi, 859 ; viii,

812.

Vaccination with disease, vi, 847.
Vail, A. S., obit, vi, 689.
Valuation and taxation in the States,

vii, 409.

Vanata, A., obit., i. 625.
Vanatta, J., obit., iv, 697.
Van Buren, W. H., obit., viii. 596.
Vanderbilt, Cornelius, sketch, ii,

756.

Vanderbilt, John, obit., ii, 589.
Van der Heyden, Gen., honors to,

vi, 625.

Vanderpool, Dr. J., obit, i, 625.
Van dcr Weyd, invention by, ii,

498.

Van Dyke, J. , obit., iii, 647.
Van Malderen, invention by, iii,

275.
Varna and Dijmphna, loss of the,

viii, 383.

Varroy, H. A., sketch, iv, 386. >
Vatican, the, relations of, with

governments. See Papacy.
Vatican Library open to historians,

viii, 692.

Vaughn, 0. A. J., obit, i, 625.
Vaughan, R. B., obit, viii, 695.
Vedder, A.M., obit, iii, 647.
Vega, the voyage of, iv, 411 ; eii-

trance into Behring Strait, 415 ;

in Yokohama, 416.
Vegetable Analysis, vi, 96.
Vegetable Chemistry, vii, 92.
Veintemilla,'Gen.. made dictator

in Ecuador, iii, 260: govern-
ment of. iv, 828 ; v, 281 ; defeat

and flignt of, vii, 225 ; viii, 287.
Venezuela, i, 795 : vi, 860 ; viii, 812.
Ventilation, v, 861.
Venus, diameter of, ii, 48 ; transit

of, ibid., vii, 85;. viii, 20.

860

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

Verboeckhoven, E., obit., vi, 697.

Vermilye, W. R., obit., i, 625.

Vermont, in every volume.

Vetromille, E., obit., vi, 689.

Veuillot, sketch, viii, 815.

Viardot, L., obit., viii, 605.

Victor Emanuel II, sketch, iii, 819.

Victoria, Queen, power of, to cede
Indian territory, iii, 438 ; at-
tempt on the life of, vii, 369.

Victoria, Province of, reforms in,
v, 38.

Victoria Nyanza, mission at, iii,
362.

Vieuxtemps, H., obit., vi, 697.

Vigilant, the, lost whaler, vi, 323.

Vilain, Chas., Vicomte, obit., iii,
662.

Vincent, C., discovery by, iv, 75.

Vines, S., experiments by, iv, 36.

Virchow, R., theory of, vi, 550.

Virginia, in everv volume.

Vitale, Count Luigi, obit., i, 644.

Viticulture, in U. S., vi, 353; viii,
79 ; in Ecuador, 283 ; in Mex-
ico, 537.

Vivisection, bill to prohibit, iv, 457.

Vogel, H. C., observations by, vii,
37 ; star catalogue by, viii, 28.

Vogt, C., discovery by, vi, 303.

Voice, physiology of the, viii, 636.

Voigts-~Rhetz, Gen., ii, 613.

Volcanic eruptions, of Cotopaxi, ii,
268 ; in Patagonia, iii, 365 ; of
Etna, iv, 527 ; in Ecuador, vi,
331 ; of Krakatoa and others,
viii, 526 ; atmospheric effects
of, ibid. ; of Ometepe, 582. See
Earthquakes, etc., viii, 284.

Volkhart, W., obit., i, 644.

Volkmann, A. W., obit., ii, 613.

Vollmer, A. J., obit., i? 644.

Volta, researches of, vii, 265.

Vories, H. M., obit., i, 626.

Vote by Proxy, viii, 47.

Wackernagel, P., obit., ii, 613.

Wadai, vi, 327.

Waddington, J.. obit., i, 644.

Waddington, W. H., sketch, ii,
320 : Cabinet of, iv, 386.

Wade, B. F., sketch, iii, 825.

Wagner, A., process for water-ex-
amination, vi, 94.

Wagner, R. J. von, obit., v, 604.

Wagner. Richard, music of, i, 571 ;
festival at Baireuth, 572 ;
u Ring des Nibelungen," i,
573 ; sketch, portrait, viii, 816.

Wahala, Bishop, obit., ii, 613.

Waite, M. R., sketch, vii, 831 ; por-
trait, frontispiece.

Walda, Michael, revolt of, i, 4.

Waldegrave, Countess, obit., iv,
701.

Waldensians. ii, 762.

Waldo, L., observations by, v, 36.

Walenn, W. H., inventions by, vii,
533.

Wales, Prince of, in India, i, 44,
401.

Walker, Sir B. W., sketch, i, 802.

Walker, Jonathan, obit., iii, 647.

Wallace, J., invention of, 5, 91.

Wallace, W., invention by, iii,
272.

Wallace, W. R., obit., vi, 689.

Wallis, R.,obit., iii, 662.

Wallner, F., obit.,- i, 644.

Walloon Churches, vii, 709.

Walpole, F., obit., i, 644.

Walpole, Sir R., obit., i? 644.

Ward, Captain, invention by, iii,
766.

Ward, E. M., obit., iv, 701.

Ward, L. F., quotation from, vi,
241.

Wardell, D., obit., iii. 647.

Ware, Jairus, obit., ii, 590.

WareJ J. F. W., obit., vi, 689.

Warington, R. , experiments by, vi,
98.

War-levy, on Southern States, iv,
429, 835.

Warner, H., obit., vi, 690.

Warner Observatory, the, v, 36 ;
vii, 41.

War Records of the Rebellion,iii,32.

Warren, E. J., obit., i, 626.

Warren, F. H., obit., iii, 647.

Warren, H. J., obit., i, 626.

Warren, Joseph, sketch, i, 802.

Warren, Samuel, obit., ii, 613.

Warrington. See Robinson, W. S.

Wars, Revolutions, and Insurrec-
tions, in Turkey, see Turko-
Russian War, ii, 725 ; iii, 793 ;
vii, 804 ; in Roumelia, v, 236 ;
in Montenegro, v, 543 ; vi, 842 ;
viii, 549 ; in Servia, viii, 43 ;
in Croatia, 49; in Crivoscia
and Herzegovina, vii, 55 ; in
Spain, see Carlist War; in
Crete, iii, 411 ; in Candia, i,
2 ; in Greece, vii, 370 ; in Af-
ghanistan, see Afghan War;
in Beloochistan, i, 73 ; in Kur-
distan, v, 623 ; vi, 731 ; in
Kashgaria, see Kashgaria; in
Turkistan, see Turkomans ;
in Persia, vii, 631 ; in Japan,
i, 428 ; ii, 413 ; in Corea, vii,
176 ; in China, i, 110 : ii, 101 ;
iii, 98, 101 ; iv, 143 ; in India,
ii, 394 ; iv, 494 ; v, 388 ; vii,
415 ; in Tonquin? viii, 370 ;
in Madagascar, iii, 41: viii,
370, 507 ; in Sennaar, viii, 299 ;
in Egypt, see Egyptian War ;
in the Soudan, see Soudan ;
in South Africa, see Zulus,
and Cape Colony ; in Abys-
sinia, see Abyssinia ; in Alge-
ria and Morocco, i 9 20 ; Iv,
27 ; vi, 311 ; in West Africa,
vi, 4; in Sumatra, see Su-
matra ; in Dahomey, i, 8 ; iv,
15 ; in Feejee, i, 53 ; in New
Caledonia, iv, 58 ; in Chili and
Peru, see Chilian War ; others
in South America, i, 22,118,240,
662;ii,72, 266; iii, 21, 261 ; iv,
29,_82, 149; v, 117, 625; vii, 225 ;
viii, 287 ; in Mexico and Cen-
tral America, i, 22, 213, 545 ;
ii, 229 ; vi, 663 ; in Cuba, see
Cuba ; in Hayti, viii, 429 ; in
North America, see Indians.

Washburn, Emory, sketch, ii, 762.

Washburn, Israel, obit., i, 626.

Washburn. Israel, obit., viii, 597.

Washburn Observatory, vii, 41.

Washington Territory, ii, 763 ; viii,
819.

Water, analysis of, iii, 91 ; iv, 136,
628 ; vii, 9 ; viii, 111, 118 i; loss
of oxygen in electrolysis of,
iii, 93; purification of, v, 94,
367 ; chemical analysis insuffi-
cient, iv, 135.

Water-gas, processes, viii, 373.

Water-motor, the, vi, 871.

Water-shed of South Africa, iv,
405.

Watkins, Gen. N. W., obit., i, 62«.

Watson, J. C., discoveries by, i,
46 ; ii, 44 ; iii, 33 ; v, 34 ; obit,,
v, 597.

Watts, Sir J., obit., iii, 662.

Watts, W. L., explorations in Ice-
land, ii, 324.

Waugh, W. B., obit., ii, 590.

Weather, instrument for forecast-
ing, iv 808; affected by for-
ests, viii, 350.

Weather Bureau, maps, observa-
tions, and reports. See Signal
Service, iv. 797.

Weaver, Gen., letter of acceptance
of presidential nomination, v,
699.

Webb, M.,obit., viii, 606.

Weber, K. P. yon, obit., vi, 697.

Webster, experiments by, viii, 524.

Webster, Albert F., obit., ii. 590.

Webster, Caroline L. R., obit., vii,
644.

Webster, Daniel, centennial of, vii,
520.

Webster, J., invention by, vii, 531.

Webster, J. A., obit., ii, 590.

Webster, J. D., obit., i, 626.

Weed, Thurlow, sketch, vii, 833.

Weekes, H., obit., ii, 613.

Weilenmann, invention by, iii, 545.

Weir. Col. T. B., obit., i, 626.

Weiske, J., obit., ii, 613.

Welle river, conjectures concern-
ing, iii. 363 ; exploration of, v,
292; viii, 386.

Welles, Gideon, sketch, iii, 825.

Wells, C. S., discovery by, vii, 36.

Wells, Elijah, obit., ii, 590.

Wells, Henry, obit., iii, 647.

Wells, J. R., invention by, iii, 774.

Wells, Mary, obit., iii, 647.

Welsh, John, sketch, iii, 826.

Werdermann, R., invention by, iii,
272.

West, S. W., obit., i, 626.

West Indies, viii, 820.

Westbrook, T. R., charges against,
vii, 602.

Western, Lucille, obit., ii, 590.

Weston, E., invention by, viii, 303.

West Point hazing case, v, 30.

West Virginia, in every volume.

Wetmore, P. M., obit., i, 626.

Weyher, C. L., musical telephone
of, iii, 588.

precht, K., plan for polar sta-
ions, vi, 325; vii, 335; viii,
382.

Whalley, G. H., obit., iii, 662.

Whalley, W. H., obit., i, 626.

Wharton, J., experiments by, vii,
532 ; viii, 522.

Wheatley, Wm., obit., i, 626.

Wheaton, on international law, vii,
620.

Wheeler, A. D., obit., i, 627.

Wheeler, W. A., sketch, i, 805.

White, Edwin, obit., ii, 590.

White, Gilbert, observations by,
viii, 526.

Whites, a supposed tribe of, in
Africa, iv, 406.

Whipping-post, bill to introduce

into Missouri, iv, 639.
Whipple, G., D. D., obit., i, 627.

INDEX OF ANNUAL CYCLOPEDIA, FROM 1876 TO 1883.

8C1

Whitman, Mrs. S. II., obit., iii, 648
Whittaker, Cadet, case of, v, 30
Whittingham, W. R., sketch, iv,

Wholmuth, Arctic voyage of, viii,

383.
Whymper, E., explorations by, vi,

330 ; viii, 528.

Wieniawski, H., obit., v, 604.
Wilde, invention by, iii, 276.
Wilde, Sir A. T., obit., iii, 662
Wilde, Sir W.. okt., i, 644.
Wildermuth, Ottilie, obit., ii, 613.
Wiley, Chas., obit., iii, 648.
Wiley, H. W., experiments by, vi,

351.

Wilkes, Chas., sketch, ii, 766.
Wilkes, John, expulson of, from

House of Commons, vii, 202.
Wille, Capt., explorations by, iii,

353.

Willett, J. M., obit., ii, 590.
William Barents, the polar voy-
ages of, iii, 353 ; iv, 416 ; v

303 ; vi, 323 ; vii, 334, 335 ; viii!

383.

Williams, A., obit., i, 627.
Williams, A. S., obit., iii, 648.
Williams, A. S., observations by,

viii, 21.

Williams, Barney, sketch, i, 805.
Williams, J. D., sketches, i, 411 ;

y, 715.

Williams, J. S., obit., i, 627.
Williams, Wm., obit., i, 627.
Williams, Wm., obit., iii, 662.
Williams, W. M., new theory of,

vi, 100 ; observations by, viii,

Williamson, A. W., address on the

atomic theory, vi, 91.
Willis, Lieut. -Gen., in Egypt, vii,

253 ; portrait, ibid.
Wills, act on, in Michigan, viii, 539.
Wills, T., experiments by, iv, 135.
Wilmer, J. B. P., obit., iii, 648.
Wilson, Mr., observations by, vi,

39.

Wilson, Andrew, obit., ii, 590.
Wilson, H. D., surveys by, ii, 337.
Wilson, H. M., new process for

copper, ii, 500.
Wilson, John, obit., i, 627.
Wilson, Rivers, appointed Minister

of Finance in Egypt, iii, 266 ;

iv, 328 ; assailed, 329 ; recalled,

332.

Wilson, Thos., bequests of, vii, 510.
Wilson. T. P., obit., ii, 590.
Wiltz, L. A., death of vi, 514.
Winans, Ross, obit., ii, 590.
Winchester, O. F., obit., v, 597.
Wines, commerce in, iv, 169 ; sul-
phates in, vii, 90.
Winkler, Dr. C., experiments br

ii, 500.
Winnecke, Dr., discovery, ii, 46;

observations, vi, 39.
Winslow, E. D., case of, i, 232.
Winslow, F., observations of, vi,

713, 714.
Winalow, H. C., obit., i, 627.

Winther, C., obit., i, 644.

W isconsm, in every volume.

Wise, Henry A., sketch, i, 809.

Wissmann, Lieut., explorations of
viii, 385.

Wolfe, Joel, obit., v, 597.

Wolff experiments by, vi, 753.

Wo o&ki, L. F. M. R., sketch, i, 810.

Wolseley, Sir Garnet, sketch, vii,
839; portrait, vii, 232; in
South Africa, iv. 125.

Women, in India, ii, 389; order
conferred only on, iii 406 ; in-
struction at Harvard for, iv
602; admitted to the bar in
Maryland, ii, 481 ; in Cali-
fornia, iii, 71 ; not in Massa-
chusetts, vi, 539 ; deaconesses
v, 638; Presbyterian Church'
on preaching by iii, 693; v,
630 ; m office in Massachusetts
viii, 519 ; in Belgium, in pub-
lic service, vii, 67: property
rights of married, ii, 223, 340 :
iii, 676 ; iv, 107, 299, 847 ; v
610 ; yii, 365 ; of widows, v,
610; yi, 575- contracts by mar-
ried, in Indiana, vi, 426 ; right
of husbands to vote in conse-
quence of the property of their
wives, iii, 732 : suffrage ques-
tion, ii, 108 ; iii, 525, 808 : iv,
454,598,639; v, 611 ; vi, 622
vii, 47, 134, 516 ; viii, 411, 444.
For conventions, see under
titles of States.

Wood, James F., sketch, portrait

viii, 823.

Wood, John, obit., v, 597.
Wood, H. C., experiments by, vii,

Wood, Wm., obit., iL 590.
Woodbridge, Rev. J. E., obit., ii,

Wood-gas, viii, 376.
Woodruff I. C., obit,, iiij 648.
Woods, Oregon pine, vi, 222 ; in
Brazil, viii, 72 ; cedar, 141 ;
pine in Honduras, 431 ; cabinet,
in Japan, viii, 456 ; of Mada-
gascar, viii, 505.
Woods, L., obit., iii, 648.
Woods, J. A., obit., iv, 697.
Woodson, E. C., obit., iii, 648.
Woodward, C. M., experiments by,

vi, 753.

Woodward, W. J., obit., iv, 697.
Woodworth, I. M., obit., iv, 697.
Wool, commerce in, iv, 172.
Woolridge, L. C., experiments by,

viii, 633.

Woolworth, S. B., obit., v, 597.
Worcester, T., obit., iii. 648.
Working -people, accidents and
sicknesSj insurance for, in Ger-
many, viii, 394.
World's Fairs, viii, 824.
Wortley, S., observations by, viii,

528.

Wrangel, Count von, obit., ii, 613.
Wrangel Land, v, 301 ; an island,
vi, 323,324.

Wright, Prof. A. W., invention by,

11. 498.
Wunderlich, Dr. K. A., obit., ii,

Wurtz, experiments by, vi, 96.
Wuttke, if., obit., i, 644.
Wyatt, Sir M. D., obit., ii. BH.
Wyckoff-Dr.W. H.,obit.,ii,5tfl.
Wyhe, Robert, obit., ii, 591.
Wyman, L. B., obit., iv, 697.
Wyoming Territory, ii, 770; viii,
8 25*

Yachts, trials of steam, vi, 546.

Yakoob Beg, i, 776 ; ii, 41, 418 : iii,
96 ; burning of the body of, iv,
145; children of, ibid.

Yakoob Khan, iii, 437 ; iv, 7, 9 18
491. See Afghan War, v, 4. '

Yellow Fever, ii, 298 ; iii, 12. See
Fever, Yellow.

Yellow Flags, viii, 767.

Yellow river, exploration of, v, 289.

Yelverton, Sir H. R., obit., iii, 668.

Yeo. Prof., experiments by, vi, 748.

Yorktown, centenary of, and mon-
ument, vi, 869.

Yosemite Valley, map, iii, 70.

Young, Brigham, sketch, ii, 771.

Young, C. A., observations by, iii,
34; viii, 21, 24, 26.

Young, Dominic, obit., iii, 648.

Young, D. P., obit., iii, 648.

Young, E., explorations of, i, 831.

Young Men's Christian Associa-
tion, ii, 773.

Yunker, Dr., explorations by, viii,

YunnaniteSj Chinese methods for

converting, iv, 146.
Yussuf Pasha, viii, 290 ; defeat of,
' 300.

Zakzaga, battle of, i, 5.
Zanzibar, seizure of ports of, i, 246.
Zenger, theory of, viii, 25.
Ziegler, F,, obit., i, 644.
Ziemialkowski, Dr., iv, 60.
Zimmermann, A. E., sketch, ii,

773.
Zimmermann, C., experiments by,

viii, 117.

Zimmermann, K., obit., ii, 614.
Zimmermann. W., obit., iii, 668.
Zinc-ores, reduction of, vii, 581.
Zopfl, H. M., obit., ii, 614.
Zorbas, battle at, vii, 371.
Zorka, Princess, marriage of, viii,

549.

Zsedenyi, E. von, obit., iv, 702
Zuccalmaglio, V. von, obit., i, 644.
Zulus, the. history of, iv, 852 ; war
with, iii, 82 ; iv, 121 ; discussed
in Parliament, v, 830 ; Cete-
. wayo reinstated, viii, 91 ; ef-
fects of, ibid. •

Zululand. See Cape Colony, etc.
Zuyder Zee, proposed reclamation

of, vii, 280.

Zweifel, explorations by, v, 290.
Zwysen, Bishop, obit., ii, 614;

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