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THE
EDINBURGH NEW
PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.
svi”
THE
EDINBURGH NEW
M
PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL, ~
EXHIBITING A VIEW OF THE
PROGRESSIVE DISCOVERIES AND IMPROVEMENTS
IN THE
SCIENCES AND THE ARTS.
EDITORS.
THOMAS ANDERSON, M.D., F.RS.E.,
REGIUS PROFESSOR OF CHEMISTRY, UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW,
Sin WILLIAM JARDINE, Bant., F.R.SS.L. ann E. ;
JOHN HUTTON BALFOUR, A.M., M.D.,
F.R.S., Sec. R.S. Epin., F.L.S.,
REGIUS KEEPER OF THE ROYAL BOTANIC GARDEN, AND PROFESSOR OF MEDICINE AND BOTANY,
UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH.
. FOR AMERICA,
HENRY D. ROGERS, LL.D., Hon. F.R.S.E., F.G.S.,
STATE GEOLOGIST, PENNSYLVANIA; PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE
UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW.
SANURRY 2 oie: APRIL 1868.
VOL. XVII. NEW SERIES.
EDINBURGH:
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK.
LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, & LONGMANS, LONDON.
MDCCCLXITII.
aN
G62E6922
AM Be (9.0.55
~
‘PRINTED BY NEILL AND COMPANY, EDINBURGH. ~
‘
a3
-
SS a ee
-
CONTENTS.
1. On the Organic Contents of the Older Metamorphic
Rocks : a Review and a Classification. By Joun J.
Biessy, M.D., F.G.S., &e.,
2. Some Account of Plants collected in the Counties of
Leeds and Grenville, Upper Canada, in July 1862.
By Grorce Lawson, LL.D., Professor of Chemistry
and Natural History, Queen’s College of Canada,
3. Description of some New Forms of Photometer. By
Tuomas Srevenson, F.RS.E., Civil Engineer.
(Plate IIT), ae.
4. A Record of the Plants collected by Mr Pemberton
Wallcott and Mr Maitland Brown, in the year 1861,
during Mr F. Gregory’s Exploring Expedition into
North-West Australia. By Frerpinanp MUELLER,
M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., Government Botanist for the
Colony of Victoria,
&
GE
Pe) ya!
, 197
. 208
. 214
3 ek iE, CONTENTS.
is | PAGE
j 5. On Nerve Force. By H. F, Baxrer, Esq. (Continued
Rares || from Vol, XV.)
§ 1, On the Influence of Nerves over Absorption. § 2.
On the Function of the Ganglia on the Posterior
Roots of the Cerebro-Spinal Nerves. § 3. General
Observations in regard to Nervous Action, . . 235
6. Observations on the Embryogeny of T'ropeolum majus.
By Arexanper Dickson, M.D., Edin. (Plate IV.), 261
7. On the Barometric Depression and Accompanying Storm
of 19th October 1862. By Tuomas H. Cors, Privy
Council Lecturer in Mathematics, Normal School,
Edinburgh. (Plate V.), . _. . 263
8. On the Solid-hoofed Pig; and on a Case in which the
Fore-Foot of the Horse presented Two Toes. By
Joun Srrutuers, M.D., F.R.C.S., Lecturer on Ana-
tomy in the Edinburgh School of Medicine, . 273
9. The Place and Power of Natural History in Colonisa-
tion; with Special reference to Otago (New Zea-
land). By W. Lauper Liypsay, M.D., F.R.S. Edin.,
F.L.S., and F.R.G.S. London, &c., : . 280
PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES :—
Royal Society of Edinburgh, ; : ; . 292
Royal Physical Society of Edinburgh, ; . 812
Botanical Society of Edinburgh, .. ; } . 815
= i.
CONTENTS. ili
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE :—
GEOLOGY. PAGE
1, Discovery of Remains of Vertebrated Animals provided
with feathers, in a deposit of Jurassic age, .. . 326
ZOOLOGY.
2. On Man’s Position in the System of Mammals. By
James J), Dana, . : 4 ; « Gee
MISCELLANEOUS,
83. Ferrol on the Cause of the Inundation of the Nile. 4.
Royal Society of Edinburgh.—The Keith, Brisbane,
and Neill Prizes, 5. Poisoning by Milk, . . 332
CHEMISTRY.
6. Seeds of Abrus Precatorius, . , ; . 333
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED, . r ° : . 334
—— ——
CONTENTS.
. Remarks on the Recent Eruption of Vesuvius in De-
cember 1861. By Cuartes Davuseny, F.R.S., &.,
Professor of Botany, Oxford, :
. The Buried Church in the Sands of Gwithian in Corn-
wall. By R. Epmonps, Esq., Plymouth,
. The Minute Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous
System in the Lobster (Astacus marinus). By T.S.
Crouston, M.D., Assistant Physician, Royal Edin-
burgh Asylum, (Plates I. and II.),
. Reply to some Comments of Mr F. Marcet on the
Power of Selection ascribed to the Roots of Plants.
By Cartes Dauseny, M.D., Professor of Botany,
Oxford,
. On a New Character observed in the Fruit of the Oaks,
and on a Better Division of the Genus Quercus. By
M. Arpuonse Dz CanpotiE. Communicated by the
Author, . . ; :
PAGE
14
17
51
54
ii ' CONTENTS.
PAGE
6. On the Nocturnal Cooling of the Superficial Layer of
the Soil, compared to that of a Stratum of Air in
Contact with the Earth. By Cuaries Martins,
Montpellier, ‘ ‘ ; ; . 63
7. Note to “ Notice of a Mass of Meteoric Iron found in
the Village of Newstead, Roxburghshire,” By Joun
ALexanper Situ, M.D., . . ‘ a7 |
8. Note to “Analysis of the Meteorite described by Dr
John Alex. Smith, M.D.” By Murray Tomson,
M.D., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry, ‘ . 69
9. Address delivered at the Opening of the Session of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh, on Monday, 1st Decem-
ber 1862. By Principal Forses, LL.D., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.E., Vice-President of the Society, . ‘ee
REVIEWS :—
1, The Earth and its Mechanism, being an Account of the
various Proofs of the Rotation of the Earth. By
Henry Worms, F.R.A.S., F.G.S. London: Long-
man and Co,, 1862, Z ; , . 104
2. The True Figure and Dimensions of the Earth, in a
Letter addressed to George Biddel Airy, Esq., M.A.,
Astronomer Royal. By Jouannes Von GumMpacu.
Second Edition, entirely recast, : : 105
3. On Eccentric and Centric Force ; a New Theory of Pro-
jection. By Henry F. A. Pratr, M.D. London:
Churchill, 1862. 8vo. Pp. 296, . : Ty
a a
CONTENTS, ii
PAOK
4, On the Climate of Scotland, as determined by Tempera-
ture, On the Profitable and Unprofitable Culture
of Farm Crops in Scotland, Reports of the Merror-
oLoGicAL Society or Scottanp for Quarters ending
March and June 1862, ’ , . 109
5. The Mechanics of the Heavens : an Essay on Revolving
Bodies and Centripetal Forces. By James Reppre.
London: Hardwicke. 1862, ‘ . 122
6. Catalogue of the Economic Products of the Diendenss
of Bombay; being a Catalogue of the Government
Central Museum, Division I., Raw Produce (Vege-
table). Compiled by Assistant-Surgeon Birpwoop,
M.D., Curator of the Museum, and Officiating Pro-
fessor of Materia Medica in Grant Medical College, . 123
PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES :—
British Association, : ; : . 124
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE :— .
BOTANY.
1. Ozone Exhaled by Plants. 2. Hybrid Ranunculus. 3.
Indigenous Fibres in Australia fitted for Manufac-
tures. By Ferpinanp Mvueiter, Government Bo-
tanist, ; : ; , : 155-157
GEOLOGY.
5. Glaciers in Turkistan. 6. On Celts from Bun-
delkund, and some Chert Implements from the An-
damans. By W. Tueoxoxp, jun, . . 157-161
PALMONTOLOGY.
7. Paleontology of Malta, . ; By :
ZOOLOGY.
8, Archeopteryx lithographica, Meyer. 9. On some Bur-
_mese Animals. By W. F, Buanprorp, . — . 162
i CHEMISTRY.
10. Phosphatic Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean. WP
Birds and other Animals in these Islands,, =. : 164
MISCELLANEOUS.
11. Distinctions between Man and Monkeys, 12. Com-
pressed Crania of Europe. 18. Guesses at the Age ,
of Man, 14. Saltness of the Ocean, . . 166-169 —
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED, . : . E
Sea ee ee
co
a a
BP AS
—
THE
EDINBURGH NEW
PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.
Remarks on the Recent Eruption of Vesuvius in December
1861. By Cartes Dauseny, F.R.S,, &€., Professor of
Botany, Oxford.*
The eruption to which I wish to direct the attention of this
Section has already been described by several eye-witnesses,
two of whom, namely, Professor Palmieri and M. Pierre de
Tchihatscheff, of London, have communicated to the Geolo-
gical Society brief reports of the most striking physical pheno-
mena attending it, such as the outburst of springs of acidulous
and hot water, and the upheaval of the ground at Torre del
Greco, to the height of 1.12 metre above the level of the
Mediterranean.
M. Claire Deville, also, a French savant who has made the
gases evolved from volcanos his particular study, was sum-
moned from Paris immediately upon the commencement of the
eruption, and arrived in time, if not to witness the outbreak,
at least to collect and examine the emanations which were its
immediate consequences.
All, therefore, I shall attempt to do in this brief communi-
cation, is to point out to you the facts of the greatest novelty
which others have anticipated me in recording, and to con-
sider the bearing which they may have on the general theory
of Volcanos.
Vesuvius, within the last few years, has entered apparently
upon a new phase of volcanic operations. At former periods
* Read at a Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science, Friday, October 3d, 1862.
NEW SERIES—VOL. XVII. NO, 1.—saNn. 1863. A
2 Professor Daubeny on the Eruption of Vesuvius in 1861.
its eruptions occurred at distant intervals apart, but were
distinguished by their violence and magnitude.
Thus, only 9 eruptions are recorded as having taken
place between the commencement of the Christian era and
the beginning of the seventeenth century; in the course of
the latter, viz., from 1631 to 1694, there occurred 4; in the
eighteenth century 22; and in the first half of the nineteenth,
viz., from 1802 to 1850, no less than 17.
Thus, even allowing for the greater imperfection of records
during the Middle Ages, which might have prevented a few
of the earlier eruptions from having been handed down to us,
there seems to be sufficient evidence of a gradually increasing
frequency in the volcanic outbreaks, as we approach the pre-
sent time.
As to the gfeater violence of the earlier eruptions, there
seems sufficient proof of it in the accounts given us by ancient
writers of the fearful outbreak of A.D. 79, by which Pompeii
and Herculaneum were overwhelmed; of that of 204, described
by Dion Cassius and Galen, in which the noises produced by the
ejection of matters from the crater were loud enough to be
heard at Capua; of the third, in 472, which is said by Pro-
copius to have spread alarm even at Constantinople; and of
that great one in 1631, which, after a pause of one hundred
and thirty-one years, during which the crater had been covered
with shrubs and rich verdure, overspread with lava the greater
part of the villages lying at its foot on the side of the Bay of
Naples, and occasioned the death of 4000 persons. But it is
further remarkable, that the greater number of these eruptions
took place either from the crater, or at least at a high level.
One only, that of 1760, broke out at a considerable distance
from the summit, namely, on its southern flank, about one
mile above the Convent of Camandule.
Within the last few years these conditions appear in a
great degree reversed. In the year 1858, an aperture was
formed along the south-west flank of the mountain, from
which, after a succession of detonations and earthquake-
shocks had taken place from its neighbourhood, a torrent of
lava suddenly gushed out; and this was followed, a few days
afterwards, by the issuing forth of several other vents along
Professor Daubeny on the Eruption of Vesuvius in 1861. 3
the line of the fissure, which also vomited forth streams of
molten matter.
This flow of lava continued from various points, all placed
nearly upon one transversal line to the axis of the mountain,
for more than a year, so that in May 1859, when I took my
leave of Naples, it was still going on.
Thus the lava stream travelled slowly down the sides of the
mountain, in the direction of Resina, and was finally arrested
about half a mile above that village.
The exact period of its cessation I have not ascertained,
but I believe it was not long antecedent to the outbreak of
December in last year, which took place above the town
of Torre del Greco, and has been described by Palmieri,
Guiscardi, and other local geologists. Here, it must be
observed, the vents or fissures from which the lava issued
occurred at even a lower level than on the former occasion,
namely, not more than half a mile at the most from the level
of the sea, and at a height of only a few hundred feet above
it. If, therefore, I may be allowed to judge from these two
latest outbursts of volcanic energy, it would seem as if the
sides of the mountain had become so much weakened by the
continued emission of ignigenous matter during so many cen-
turies, that its walls were no longer able to sustain, as before,
the pressure of a column of lava equal to the height of the
mountain itself, but gave way at a considerably lower level.
The first remarkable feature in this eruption was the sudden
upheaval of the coast, for a distance of several miles on either
side of Torre del Greco, to the height of 3 feet 7 inches at that
locality, gradually diminishing, both to the right and left, until
it ceased altogether.
Thus, the Balani, Patella, Ostrese, and other marine shells
that live adhering to the rocks just at the margin of the sea-
water, were found to be raised 3 feet 7 inches above it,
affording a parallel instance to the famous one of the columns
belonging to the Temple of Serapis at Pozzuoli, on the opposite
shore. We have here, perhaps, the first well-authenticated
instance that can be cited of an elevation of land near Naples
caused by, or coincident with, a volcanic outbreak; for the
4 Professor Daubeny on the Eruption of Vesuvius in 1861.
well-known case at Pozzuoli seems rather to prove an oscilla-
tion in the level of the land, than a permanently elevatory
movement, as the ground had first sunk, then had risen, and is
now apparently sinking again below the level at which it ee:
at the time of the erection of the temple.
Several cases, indeed, of apparently permanent eee
are pointed out on the neighbouring coast, but these cannot,
like the present case, be referred to any particular volcanic
outbreak, and it will therefore be the more interesting to
observe, whether the present elevation of the land near Torre
del Greco is maintained, or whether the latter again shall
subside, after a few years, to its former level.
It has struck me, that the reason why the lava-stream which
issued from the fissures on the morning of the 8th of last
December was so soon arrested in its downward progress,
may have been its flowing into the hollow occasioned by the
heaving up of the land along the coast, which took place
during the great earthquake, that ushered in the eruption,
and produced so much damage and alarm in the town of Torre
del Greco.
This last eruption has also been characterised by the evo-
lution of certain volatile matters, not hitherto observed, I be-
lieve, amongst the products of Vesuvius.
Upon approaching the town of Torre del Greco, nearly a
month after the eruption had taken place, I perceived a very
powerful and offensive smell of naphtha, which pervaded the
whole place, especially in the vicinity of the sea. Its oc-
currence reminded me of the asphalt met with in the volcanic
tuff at Pont du Chateau, near Clermont, in the midst of the
genuine volcanic rocks of Auvergne, and probably as a pro-
duct of similar operations in the Dead Sea; but the most
abundant examples of the same phenomenon are to be found
amongst pseudo-voleanic rocks, as at Trinidad, and in Sicily,
at Macaluba, and at Leonforte.
Another product, now for the first time detected amongst the
emanations of Vesuvius, and perhaps having a similar origin,
was light carburetied hydrogen or marsh gas, which M. Deville
found bearing in the proportion of from 3 to 4 per cent.
to the carbonic acid evolved from the fumeroles near the
ee ee a SS
Professor Daubeny on the Eruption of Vesuvius in 1861. 5
town. In order in some degree to appreciate what this pro-
portion of the gas would amount to, we must recollect that
the quantity of carbonic acid disengaged from the earth during,
and subsequently to, such an eruption as the one I am de-
scribing, is something so enormous, that the mind can hardly
grasp its proportions.
On the day I visited Torre del Greco, which was on the
10th of January, and therefore thirty-three days after the
eruption had taken place, the atmosphere throughout the town
of Torre del Greco, and over a considerable area on either
side of it, was so impregnated with carbonic acid gas, that my
respiration was sensibly impeded, especially as I approached
the level of the Mediterranean. There, indeed, even in the
open air, the oppression on the lungs caused by the presence
of this gas was so great, that I was glad to make a hasty
retreat to a higher part of the town, in order to breathe a
purer air. The gas was bubbling up in various places in’ the
sea like a great caldron, and a copious spring, fully charged
with carbonic acid, had appeared in a new place, and was
gushing down into the sea close to the hot mineral waters of
Torre. No wonder, therefore, that in confined situations, as
in cellars, the accumulation of noxious gas was at this time
such, as to render the atmosphere utterly unrespirable, and
that many of the dwellings of the town had been in conse-
quence deserted.
Curious to obtain some rough estimate of the proportion of
carbonic acid which pervaded the air of the town and its
vicinity, I prevailed upon M. Deville to analyse the latter in
different positions, and obtained from him the following report
respecting it :—
1st. In the first street, on entering the town from the side
of Naples, and at a height of about 30 feet above the sea’s
level, at a little distance from a fissure from which mephitic
gas was issuing, having a temperature of 40 Cent., the car-
bonic acid bore as high a proportion as 6-5 per cent. to the
remaining air. There the houses were uninhabited, but men
-. were working in the open air, within a few yards of the spot
from which the air had been taken.
2d. In a street which runs at right angles to the former,
6 Professor Daubeny on the Eruption of Vesuvius in 1861.
and at a height of about 5 feet above the ground, where there
was a free circulation of air, the percentage of carbonic acid
amounted to 31.
3d. On the road to Resina, hs of the town of Torre,
on the slope of the hill upon which it is built, 5 feet from the
ground, under a shed standing in front of a cook-shop, the
percentage was 2°6.*
I think it might be possible, by applying the formule con-
tained in Bunsen’s Gasometry to the data thus afforded, to
approximate to the quantity of carbonic acid emitted from
the ground in a given time, assuming the atmosphere to be
impregnated to this amount to the height of 20 feet from
the ground, over an area of a mile, embracing Torre del
Greco as its centre, and this state of things to continue for at
least thirty-three days from the date of the eruption ; but with-
out entering into such calculations, the amount emitted will be
seen to be something prodigious, if we- estimate the rapidity
with which a gas spreads itself through the atmosphere, when
no natural obstructions occur to prevent its diffusion. In set-
ting down, therefore, the proportion of marsh gas to that of
carbonic acid at 3 or 4 per cent., we in reality represent it as
constituting no insignificant product of the volcanic operations
going on in this locality.
But how are we to account for the presence of this new gas,
and of the naphtha which accompanied it, amongst the emana-
tions of the volcano? Are we to suppose the voleanic pro-
cesses themselves to have undergone a change, or are we to
account for it by their having been set up in connection with
certain new materials ?
The former of these explanations would probably be pre-
ferred, if we adopted the views of M. Deville, and recognised
with him two classes of volcanos,—the one those of the com-
mon kind—the other such phenomena as are exhibited at
the Lago Naftia, and at Macaluba in Sicily, as well as in the
peninsula of Taman, and in some other localities, and which
are the results of what persons imbued with this hypothesis
have designated by the name of mud-volcanos.
* In the most densely crowded apartments, the percentage of carbonic acid
has seldom been found to range higher than about 1 per cent.
=e es
Professor Daubeny on the Eruption of Vesuvius in 1861, 7
These latter are broadly distinguished from the former, by
the absence both of lava and of scoriform masses, as well as by
the ejection of semiliquid mud, consisting of a kind of unctuous
clay mixed up with water, having crystals of pyrites dissemi-
nated, and a saline effervescence on its surface. And whilst the
erupted masses of an ordinary volcano reveal a temperature
sufficient, in some instances, to fuse cast-iron and copper, the
outburst of a mud volcano is attended with comparatively little
heat ; for the ejected mud of Taman is stated by Pallas to
have issued quite cold, and the gases of Macaluba were found
by Deville to exceed only by 3° Cent. the temperature of the
surrounding air.
Moreover, whilst the gases evolved from volcanos in general,
during their active condition, are muriatic and sulphurous
acids, those which accompany the outbursts of what are called
mud volcanos seem to be confined to carbonic acid, light car-
buretted hydrogen, and nitrogen. This composition, which I
determined at Macaluba so long ago as the year 1825,* has
been also assigned to them by M. Deville, in one of his letters
to M. Dumas, as the result of his recent examination of this
locality.
There seems, therefore, nothing in common, between the
gaseous products of ordinary volcanos and those of which
Macaluba and Taman are the types, except it be carbonic
acid, which is emitted in enormous quantities both by the one
and the other.
If, then, we were to adopt the hypothesis above suggested,
it must be imagined that Vesuvius is at present in a kind of
transition state, passing, as it were, from its ordinary phase of
operations into one which approximates more nearly to those
of mud volcanos; carburetted hydrogen, naphtha, carbonic
acid, and azote, taking the place of hydrochloric and of sul-
phurous acids.
But another mode of explanation suggests itself to my mind,
which seems less encumbered with difficulties, and which,
whilst it places the pseudo-voleanic phenomena of Macaluba
and the like under an entirely different category from those of
* See my “Sketch of the Geology of Sicily” in the Edinburgh Philosophical
Journal for 1826.
ae eta
8 Professor Daubeny on the Hruption of Vesuvius in ashi. : a
genuine volcanos, will enable us to account for the occasional
occurrence of such products as have exhibited themselves for
the first time at Vesuvius, without supposing any essential
change in the character of the operations of that volcano.
On looking at the table suspended in the room,* which states
on the authority of Deville, Bunsen, and Boussingault, the
nature of the gases disengaged from those volcanos which
have been most accurately explored, it will be observed, that
some, such as hydrochloric and sulphurous acids, together with,
in certain instances, an inflammable gas—which, as it gives
rise to flames, probably contains, as one at least of its consti-
tuents, hydrogen—occur during a period of intense activity ;
others, such as carbonic and sulphuretted hydrogen, and some-
times atmospheric air, with less than its normal proportion of
oxygen, are disengaged, where the action is more languid.
Now, I would regard the former as the primary and essential
concomitants of volcanic action, the latter as the secondary
and accidental ones.
The former gases originate from the chemical actions, which
either originate, or are inseparably connected with, the inter-
nal processes or workings of the volcano.
To my mind they suggest, that the access of sea-water to
the seat of the internal action is the prime mover of the pro-
cesses going on, and at the same time indicate the existence
of a heat sufficient to disengage from the chlorides contained
in the sea-water their electro-negative principle, leaving the
bases free to combine with silicic acid or other earths, and
thus to form silicates, aluminates, &c.
They also indicate the existence in the interior of the earth,
near and about the seat of the volcanic action, of a deoxidiz-
ing as well as of an oxidizing process; the former causing the
water present to be decomposed into its elements, and its
hydrogen eliminated; the latter causing the sulphur to be
converted into sulphurous acid gas, and perhaps other ele-
ments, existing in the interior of the earth, either in @ free
state, or in combination with sulphur, also to undergo oxi-
dation.
That these two antagonistic processes should be going on at
* This Table is given at the end of the Memoir.
é
;
4
n
Professor Daubeny on the Eruption of Vesuvius in 1861. 9
the same place and time, cannot indeed be supposed; but if we
grant the existence in the interior of the earth of materials
capable of decomposing water, it is quite conceivable that the
heat produced by this reaction should occasion the volatiliza-
tion of the sulphur present, and its consequent escape into a
region where it could combine with oxygen, and thus be con-
verted into sulphurous acid gas.
But as there are doubtless many who may prefer to imitate
the caution of M. Deville, and to abstain from theorising on
the subject, I would only ask my hearers to admit with me
the essential connection of the above gaseous products with
volcanic action, as evinced by their frequent, if not their con-
stant co-existence, apart from any hypothesis as to the cause
of their being so associated.
It is different, however, with some of the other gases which
will be seen enumerated in the table alluded to.*
Carbonic acid, though, as we have seen, disengaged in
enormous quantities from the earth in the vicinity of the vol-
canic outbreak, is not in general emitted from the crater itself
during the period of an eruption, nor is sulphuretted hydro-
gen usually detected, except at the foot of the mountain, or
during the more languid phases of its action.
The same remark would seem to apply likewise to the petro-
leum or naphtha, which was so abundantly disengaged after
the late eruption, as well as to the carburetted hydrogen now
for the first time detected. With the exception, therefore, of
the sulphuretted hydrogen, which will be afterwards con-
sidered, I am tempted to regard the latter products as due
merely to the action of the volcanic heat upon certain mate-
rials, upon which it was brought to operate in the neighbour-
hood of the volcano.
Let us, for example, suppose the Apennine limestone,
which we know to occur in immense masses in the immediate
neighbourhood of Vesuvius, to contain imbedded in it beds of
bituminous shale, or even to be impregnated, as our own car-
boniferous limestones frequently are, with the same ingredients,
and we can then readily understand, that there should be a
disengagement, not only of enormous volumes of carbonic acid,
* Page 13.
NEW SERIES. —VOL, XVII, No. 1.—JaN. 1863. B
10 Professor Daubeny on the Eruption of Vesuvius in 1861.
due to the heating of the limestone itself, but also of naphtha
and carburetted hydrogen, arising from the slow distillation of
the bituminous matters imbedded or contained within it.
As for the sulphuretted hydrogen indeed, so abundantly
given off in the precincts of most voleanos, it appears to have
a different origin. Its absence from the immediate focus of
volcanic heat may be accounted for, as both its constituents
would at such a temperature take fire so soon as they came
into contact with oxygen; but the sulphur disengaged from
the voleano, whether alone or in combination with hydrogen,
would form sulphurets with the earthy materials which it met
with. Wherever the absence of oxygen admitted of this re-
action taking place, it is quite easy to understand that the mere
approach of water to these sulphurets should give rise to the’
evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen.
It is even possible, that the sulphuretted hydrogen found
in the immediate neighbourhood of volcanos may in some
instances be derived directly from the volcano, having escaped
to the surface through channels in which oxygen was not
present in sufficient abundance to cause its combustion to take
place. By adopting this hypothesis, we get rid of the neces-
sity, both of imagining Vesuvius to be passing into the con-
dition of a Macaluba, and also of admitting any connection or
analogy between this volcano and those others to which thename
of mud-volcanos has been applied. The latter probably origi-
nate in the accumulation of vast beds of earthy and metallic
sulphurets, together with bituminous materials, in the interior
of the earth, often brought together, no doubt, through the in-
strumentality of antecedent volcanic operations ; but the im-
mediate cause of their eruptions must be sought in the access
of water to such materials,* by which a heat would be pro-
duced sufficient to cause the extrication of carburetted hydro-
gen, as well as of carbonic acid, from the incandescent mass.
Hence would arise a heaving up of the semi-fluid mud, the
ejection of stones, and even at times the emission of flames.
Large as the scale may be on which these operations are
going on in the neighbourhood of the Sea of Azof, there is
nothing in the nature of the phenomena themselves there
* See Bischof, Chemical Geology, p. 325,
NE a ee ee
Professor Daubeny on the Eruption of Vesuvius in 1861, 11
exhibited, which should justify us in identifying them with
ordinary volcanic processes.
The volcanos of Central Tartary, of which we have heard
so. much, but know so little, may probably turn out to be
due to operations of the same nature as those, of Macaluba,
or of the peninsula of Taman. The most recent and au-
thentic accounts transmitted to us certainly tend to dispel
the notion that any true volcanos exist in that quarter,* so
as to establish a real exception to the general rule that all such
operations are dependent upon the near proximity of the sea.
On the other hand, it is difficult altogether to reject the
testimony of so many Oriental writers, who speak of burning
mountains, and of sal-ammoniac and other volcanic products,
as common in these regions.
Is it not more probable—as being more consistent with
analogy—that phenomena like those which, on a small scale,
were presented in the neighbourhood of Lulworth some years
ago, and which, in this enlightened age and country, were
dignified by the name of voleanic,—phenomena which, on a
scale of greater magnitude, have even produced certain not
unimportant physical changes upon the condition of the
neighbouring country (as in the peninsula of Taman),—may
also have taken place in parts of Central Tartary, and have
given rise to the accounts that have come down to us. Such
an explanation does not preclude the idea that real volcanos
may have existed there at some former period, when, per-
haps, a great Mediterranean Sea,connected the Caspian with
the Lakes of Aral and Baikal; and hence may have arisen
the volcanic appearances, of which Erman speaks, in the
neighbourhood of the latter; whilst, if this be the case, we
should have an adequate cause assigned for that accumulation
of sulphurets, which, in conjunction with bituminous or carbon-
aceous matter, would be competent, at any subsequent time,
to give rise to the phenomena of the so-called mud-volcanos.
I offer these remarks with the diffidence due to their specu-
= See Meyer’s Translation of a journey made by Schrenk, a Russian tra-
veller, in 1840, into the Eastern Kirghisian Steppes, the statements in which
narrative were confirmed by the same explorer in 1841.
12 Professor Daubeny on the Eruption of Vesuvius in 1861.
lative and hypothetical character; but what I consider of
much greater importance, and should wish to see under-
taken, if possible, in every locality where volcanos exist, is an
accurate examination of the gaseous and other emanations
proceeding from them in their various phases of activity.
Possibly, indeed, I may somewhat over-estimate the value of
this investigation, from having taken some part in it myself,
and by finding the results of my somewhat coarse methods of
analysis confirmed by the greatly more precise and extended
researches subsequently carried out by Bunsen and Deville.
But at any rate, I am quite sure, that no theory of volcanos
can be considered worth attending to, in which an accurate
account is not taken of the gases evolved, and in which their
occurrence at the time and place at which they manifest
themselves is not fully accounted for.
When this Association, some years ago, wished to become
better acquainted with the processes going on in the interior
of our iron furnaces, in spots unapproachable from their ex-_
cessive heat, we commissioned Professors Playfair and Bunsen
to examine the gases that escape from the upper orifices of
their chimneys. And in like manner, I conceive, we can in
no other way become acquainted with what is goimg on at
the focus of a volcano, in spots inaccessible, from their depth,
to man, than by collecting the products of the chemical pro-
cesses there enacted from the fumaroles by whioh they com-
municate with the surface.
Perhaps, indeed, I may take the liberty of suggesting to
geologists, that in their eager haste to class volcanic move-
ments amongst the consequences of some of those great cos-
mical changes which are supposed to be going on, they have
been sometimes too apt to ignore the chemical phenomena
which accompany these great outbreaks, and are not suffici-
ently alive to the fact, that where chemical operations con-
stitute so large a part of the problem, the aid of the chemist
must be invoked, in order to arrive at an adequate and satis-
factory solution. Should this be the case, the above remarks,
even if they should fail of their direct object, will not be
thrown away, since they may tend to direct the attention of
those geologists who make volcanos their study, to the real
a
a
aE ee
Professor Daubeny on the Eruption of Vesuvius in 1861. 13
nature of the investigation, and to the methods of research
which must be resorted to with a view to its successful pro-
secution.
TABULAR VIEW OF VOLCANIC EMANATIONS.
No. I.
Volcanic Emanations, classified according to their position with
reference to the Volcano in which they occur.
_ Locatrry, ComposiriI0n,
Water. O Other Constituents.
Vesuvius (D )
Its Crater absent | norm. HCL SO,
— Base present | def. CO, SH a trace
— Lavas absent | norm, CO, SH with or without NH,
Ditto present | def, HCL So,
Phlegrean Fields
Solfatara present | def. CO, SH; CO,; or SO,
Lago d’Agnano__| present | norm., or | CO,
slightly
def.
Lipari Group (D.)
Island of Volcano
Crater present | def. Flames, SO,; BO,; SO,
North Flank. def. so,
Base present | abs. Co,
Boiling Springs abs, SH
Etna (D.)
Crater norm HCL and SO,
Base, from Springs abs. so,
Iceland (B.)
Hecla, Crater absent | def.
Krisiwik, Solfatara abs. CO, SH; sometimes H
Equinoctial Ame- | present
rica (Bouss.)
Fumaroles, various | present | norm. CO, SH
No. II.
Volcanic Emanations, classified according to the successive periods
of their appearance.
First stage of activity,
From the fissure of the eruption.
No water, atmospheric air, with or without salts containing Cl.
14 Professor Daubeny on the Eruption of Vesuvius in 1861.
Second stage of activity,
From the lava stream, when just cooled upon the surface, but
chiefly from its lower portions.
Water, sal ammoniac, and other chlorides, with atmospheric air.
Third stage of activity,
From the crater above the point. whence the lava had issued.
Chiefly atmospheric air, O rather deficient; sometimes with
Water, HCL, SO,.
Fourth stage of activity,
From another spot in the crater, above the point aforesaid.
Water, with a bare trace of SH and of S.
Fifth stage of activity,
Found about Etna, but not at Vesuvius.
Water alone.
Siath stage,
Only appearing towards the close of an eruption, but continuing
afterwards during all the subsequent stages of languid volcanic
action, the gases being evolved, not from the lava, but from the
interior of the earth,
Water, O deficient or wanting, sometimes CO,, with or without SH.
sometimes SO,, with or without BO,.
N. B. —tTo this latter class belong thermal waters, mofettes, and
other obscure results of voleanic action. It is a significant fact,
with reference to the theory of volcanos, that whenever water is
disengaged from them, the atmospheric air that accompanies it is
either wholly, or in part, deprived of its normal proportion of
oxygen. This is the result of the examination made both by
Deville and Bunsen, neither of whom certainly were biassed by any
theory to which such a fact might lend support.
ABBREVIATIONS.—N. Nitrogen; O. Oxygen; O. Norm., Proportion of
oxygen the same as in common air; QO. def., Proportion ‘of oxygen less
than in common air. HCL. Muriatic acid ; 80>. Sulphurous; CO,. Car-
bonic; BO,. Boracic; SH. Sulphuretted hydrogen; NH,. Ammonia;
NaO. Soda; KO. Potass; ; (D.) St Claire Deville; (B.) Bunsen ; 3 (Bouss.)
Boussingault.
The Buried Church in the Sands of Gwithian in Cornwall.
By R. Epmonps, Esq., Plymouth.
The ancient British church discovered about thirty-five
years since in the sands of Gwithian, on the north-west coast
of West Cornwall, is probably coeval with that found in the
sands of Perranzabuloe, on the north-east coast of West Corn-
a4
+3
On the Buried Church in the Sands of Gwithian. 15
wall; which latter I visited in September 1835, soon after its
discovery; and the then present condition of it, as well as its
description given by Wm. Michell, Esq., in the Cornish news-
papers, immediately before I saw it, I have recorded in the
** Literary Gazette.”
Had Gwithian been within the Land’s End district, I should
have noticed its ancient church in my lately published work
on that district.
It stands three or four furlongs from the sea, in the eastern
part of St Ives’ Bay, and about the same distance northward of
the present church, near the eastern side of the road leading
to Godrevy, and close to a small tributary stream pcan
parallel with the road.
Its roofless walls were, up to the time of their discovery,
completely buried beneath the turf-clad sand; and this tumu-
lus had nothing externally to distinguish it from the hun-
dred other green mounds in its neighbourhood. The walls
may still be seen, although externally the sand is level with
their tops. They are very rudely built, without cement or
plaster, and consist of small unhewn stones of slate, quartz,
- and sandstone,—all very abundant in that neighbourhood.
The two or three old beams resting on them are, I grieve to
say, the remains of a roof placed thereon many years since,
when the building was used for a cattle-shed, by the farmer
who owns it.
The chancel and nave, lying east and west, are very dis-
tinguishable from each other,—the former being narrower
than the latter. The length of the building externally is fifty-
three feet, nineteen of which are occupied by the chancel.
The breadth of the chancel externally is sixteen feet ; that of
the nave, nineteen. The height of the walls from the ground,
on the inside, varies from six to eight feet. The doorway is
in the middle of the south wall of the nave; and midway be-
tween it and the chancel-pier was apparently the place of a
window. There are vestiges also of a small doorway, now
built up with stone, in the northern end of the eastern wall.
The dilapidated stone altar, and the stone seats all around the
chancel, are now covered with sand about a foot deep.
The farmer who discovered this ruin found several skeletons
16 On the Buried Church in the Sands of Gwithian.
near it, as he stated to the Rev. Frederick Hockin, the rector
of the adjoining parish of Phillack, whose church is the mo-
ther church of that of Gwithian. Mr Hockin, to whom I am
indebted for the above description, saw it a few years after its
discovery, when less dilapidated than at present.
There is a great similarity between the two old churches of
St Gwithianand St Piran* in the sands. Both were found with-
out roofs, the worshippers having, in all probability, carefully
removed their consecrated materials in order to use them again
for sacred edifices less exposed to the drifting sands. Both
were completely covered with calcareous sand, the Gwithian
~church having also a covering of turf,—the two coverings
being striking emblems of death and resurrection. Both had
cemeteries adjoining them. Each had an altar within, and a
small rivulet or overflowing well close by it, testifying to the
two sacraments ; whilst the chancel and nave, distinguishable
from one another, yet forming one church, represented the
clergy and laity performing different offices as different mem-
bers of the one body. The relative positions of the priests’
door and the door of the congregation are the same in each
church: in the Gwithian church, however, the stone seats are
along the walls of the chancel only; in the other church they
are also around the walls of the nave. The Gwithian altar, too,
is against the middle of the eastern wall, while the Perran
altar is midway between the priests’ door and the south end of
the eastern wall.
As Mr Trelawny considers the Perranzabuloe British church,
and would, no doubt, also have considered the Gwithian Bri-
tish church, “to have been built in the sixth century,” although
I am disposed to assign them a much earlier date,t I may
remark in conclusion, that to that century I have referred the
monument found in 18438, three miles from the latter church,
at Hayle, a creek of St Ives’ Bay. This monument, with its
inscription, is represented in the “‘ Archeologia Cambrensis”
for 1857, and my work already referred to.
* The name of this Saint is always spelt Piran ; but the name of the parish
(to which S¢ is never prefixed) was Perran in sabulo, now corrupted into Per-
ranzabuloe. ;
t See “ The Land’s End District,” p. 59.
17
The Minute Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System
in the Lobster (Astacus marinus), By T. 8. CLousvon,
M.D., Assistant Physician, Royal Edinburgh Asylum.
(Plates I and IL.)
(The following paper formed a part of the Graduation Thesis presented
by the author to the University of Edinburgh, entitled “ Contributions
to the Minute Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System, as
illustrated in the Invertebrata,” for which he received one of the Gold
Medals awarded by the Medical Faculty.)
Believing that the simpler the structure and motions of an
animal are, the less complex will be the nervous mechanism
by which those motions are stimulated, I have selected the
lobster (Astacus marinus) as the subject of the following
observations. It approaches more nearly the simple articu-
lated type in the length of the body and the distinctness and
equality of its segments than any other animal of its class
sufficiently large and sufficiently procurable in this country.
Its nervous ganglia, therefore, combine the three elements, of
large size, firm consistency, and distinct separation from each
other. These advantages have not been overlooked by pre-
vious investigators, for Newport examined most carefully
the structure of the nervous system of the lobster, and greatly
advanced our knowledge of the subject.* He demonstrated
the course of the nerve fibres as they enter the ganglia from
the peripheral nerves; and if he was mistaken in his idea
that there were two columns in the central part of the nervous
system, a motor and a sensory, and came to wrong conclusions
about the structure and functions of the ganglia,t it is more
to be attributed to the backward state of physiology and his-
tology at the time than to any want of acuteness on his part.
Valentin adopted a different plan from Newport, and arrived
at more correct conclusions.t He experimented on the river
crayfish (Astacus fluviatilis) by vivisection ; but to infer its
structure from the phenomena observed after sections and
* Philosophical Transactions, 1834.
t See Dr Carpenter’s “Inaugural Dissertation on the Physiological Infer-
ences to be deduced from the Structure of the Nervous System in the Inverte-
brated Classes of Animals,” and his Comparative Anatomy.
t Valentin, De Functionibus Nervorum, p. 8.
NEW SERIES—VOL. XVII. NO, 1.—JAN. 1863. c
ae Fs. 7 eee | ie Tae
CO “ a
18 Dr T. 8. Clouston on the Minute Anatomy and
mutilations of the nervous system, is neither so satisfactory —
nor so sure as to demonstrate that structure under the micro-
scope. The inferences can only extend to generalities, and
in many instances the effects of a section may admit of more
than one explanation. Dr Ernst Heckel, in an inaugural ~
dissertation on the tissues of the river crayfish, devotes a —
chapter to the minute anatomy of the nervous system, deserib-
ing both the cells, and fibres, and neurilemma,* but did not
attempt to describe the arrangement of these in the ganglia.
Different methods of hardening and preparing the nervous
system have been recommended and employed by different
observers. The central chain of ganglia must be carefully
dissected out first, and the nerves springing from them left
pretty long, so that the ganglia may be held steady while sec-
tions are being made. As much of the surrounding tissue must
be removed as possible, and it is well to select a live lobster, as
the nerve tissue is the first to soften after death. I tried nume-
rous methods of hardening the tissue. That recommended by
Van der Kolk, of first hardening it in spirit of wine, and then
applying chloride of calcium to the sections, I did not find to be
successful. The tissue was made too transparent, so that the
fibres could scarcely be distinguished from each other, and the
nerve-cells could not be made out atall. The method of harden- |
ing the ganglia in a weak solution of chromic acid (4 grs. to the
ounce of water), and then making the sections transparent by
applying a strong solution of chloride of calcium, I found to be
by far the best. They must not be allowed to remain in the
acid solution for more than eight or ten days or they will get
friable, and generally they are sufficiently hardened to be cut
into thin sections after four or five days’ immersion. After
the ganglia have been taken out of the chromie acid, they
ought to be put into a weak solution of bichromate of potash
(zs Or 3}, to 1 part of water). After the sections are made
they must be allowed to steep in water on the slide, to get rid
of the cheniical reagent that has permeated and hardened
them. If this is not done, crystals form after the addition of
the chloride of calcium, and obscure the section. This obvi- —
* Miiller’s Archives, 1857. Dr H. Hackel,—‘ Ueber die Gewebe des Fluss- }
krebses.”
ee rns ti at i
Physiology of the Nervous System in the Lobster. 19
ates the objections urged against this method by Van der
Kolk. I found it most convenient first to dry up the water
round the section after having placed it in the middle of the
slide, then put on the covering glass, and place a drop of
the solution of chloride of calcium at the edge of the cover,
which soon finds its way to the section, making it very trans-
parent, without destroying the distinctness of the outline of a
single cell or fibre. There is still enough of the brown colour
produced by the chromic acid left to give definition and sharp-
ness to them. The residue of the chloride of calcium solution
may then be wiped away by blotting paper, and the cover luted
by applying two or three successive layers of asphalt in solution.
The sections may be coloured by being placed in a watch-
glass containing a weak solution of carmine; and if they are
then placed on the slide and treated with chloride of calcium,
as I have described, the cells and fibres, and the relation of
these to each other, may be seen very beautifully. The
advantage of thus colouring them is not great, however, as
regards the definition of structure, as compared with the
simple method.
I also tried to put up sections, both coloured and uncoloured,
in Canada balsam, as recommended by Lockart Clarke,* but
they generally became too transparent; and even when this
was not the case, the advantages of this method over the other
did not appear to me at all to compensate for its greater diffi-
culty. I am willing to admit, however, that this may have
been the result of my own inability to apply this method
properly. Certainly it appears to have a great advantage in
the case of vertebrate nervous tissue.
Even with the best of these methods great care is required,
both in making the section, and after it is made, not to
injure it. The ganglionic matter is much more lacerable than
the fibrous; and even when as hard as chemical re-agents can
make it, plenty of spirit must be poured on the upper surface
of the razor, so as to float the section as it is being made;
and after having been transferred to the slide, if water be
added too suddenly to the spirit, the section whirls about and
is frequently broken up. A considerable number of mishaps
* Phil Trans., 1869. Part I., p. 458.
“RS oe ee oe oe ye ee
20 Dr T.S. Clouston on the Minute Anatomy and
will occur to what appear to be good sections, even in sth most
careful and practised hands.
The Investment of the Nervous System.—In the lobster the
immediate investment of the ganglia and inter-ganglionic
cords consists of a membrane somewhat like the corresponding
structure in the peripheral nerves of the vertebrata. Taking
the invertebrata generally, the density and thickness of this
structure is in proportion to the amount of support given to
the body of the animal by its external investiture. In the
lobster, with its hard shell, it is comparatively thin; in the
talitrus, with its horny plates, it is fortified with an addi-
tional cellular layer outside the fibrous one; in the leech,
with no protecting material except a tough skin, there is a
special dense covering of at least twice the thickness of the
tissue it protects; and in the limax, the neurilemma contains
a cretaceous deposit. In the fresh state, like the nervous sys-
tem of the lobster itself, this membrane is semi-transparent; _
but after being hardened in chromic acid, I found it to be
composed of two distinct layers of fibres,—the external run-
ning longitudinally, and the internal running transversely
round. Lach fibre is very distinct, and there are a few nuclei
among them. Ina very thin cross-section of a ganglion, the
sheath presents an appearance like that represented in Plate I.
fig.1. The outer layer is then seen like a bundle of rods cut
across a, and the limit between them and the transverse fibres is
very well defined. This sheath sends in septa through the gan-
glia, as well as among the fibres in the inter-ganglionic cords.
Investing the two cords that connect the first thoracic to the
cephalic ganglion, there is, in addition to the sheath I have
described, a cellular layer. The cells have very thin walls, are
pressed into hexagonal forms, and remind one of the cells in |
the loose pith of some plants. At the root of the pneumogastric
this substance is of unusual thickness, forming an investment
much thicker than the nerve substance proper. Its existence
is accounted for by the fact, that the cords at that part pass
through what corresponds to the pleural cavity, and require a
special investment to make up for the want of support on
_ either side. ;
The Nerve-Fibres.—Heckel describes and figures the nerve- —
Physiology of the Nervous System in the Lobster. 21
fibres of the river crab as simple tubes of different sizes, hay-
ing diffluent contents, frequently dividing, and having nuclei
in their walls. The nerve-fibres are very large, but irregular
in size, in most of the nerves of the lobster, and present a
double outline,—not of the same character as the double out-
line of a mammalian nerve-fibre, but two equally distinct lines
very close to each other, indicating that they are tubular.
Some of the smaller ones, where the wall of the tube is very
thin, do not show the double outline. Their average size is
about »}> of an inch in diameter, but there are many large
fibres 5} of aninch in diameter.* These large fibres were ob-
served by Ehrenberg, and fully described by Remak in other
allied species of the Crustacea. In fresh specimens they re-
semble blood-vessels, for which at first, indeed, I took them.
Leydig made a similar mistake, but at length came to the
conclusion that they were really nerve-fibres.t He figures
these fibres, along with others minutely fibrillar, from the
river crayfish.{ I have repeatedly seen the same appear-
ance in the lobster, and have one section of a cord connecting
the first thoracic to the cephalic ganglion, which might almost
have been the original from which Leydig’s drawing was made,
so similar is it, but this section happens to be cut very thin
at one end, so that the fibres can all be individualised as
they are traced towards this end of the section (Plate I. fig. 2 a).
Any one examining it in this way can satisfy himself that the
fibrillar appearance is only apparent, being produced by the
close apposition of a number of the smaller fibres, whose out-
lines, seen all together, give the appearance in question. At
the thin end of the section, where there is only one layer
of fibres, there is no fibrillar appearance, and none of the
fibres are striated longitudinally as Leydig describes them.
Every stage of gradation can be traced between the dense
longitudinal streaking and the unstriated fibres. This may
account for Leydig’s statement, that in the crab he has seen
* Heckel gives the diameter of the fibres in the river crab as from y$_ to
svov Of aninch. I measured them after they had been hardened in the chromic
acid.
t Leydig, Lehrbuch der Histologie der Menschen und der Thiere.
t Op. Citat. p. 60.
22 DrT.S. Clouston on the Minute Anatomy and
fibres in an intermediate condition between the striated and
the large tube-like ones. After the nerve-fibres of the lobster
have been hardened in chromic acid, especially if they have
lain long in the solution, they may be split up into fibrils by
being tapped smartly between the cover and the slide (Plate L.
fig. 2b). Leydig says it is only the originally striated ones.
that can be broken up in this way; but any one may convince
himself that all the nerve-fibres will split up in this way when
hardened. The inter-ganglionic cords and peripheral nerves
are entirely made up of tubes such as I have described, but in
the optic nerves the fibres are much more delicate and smaller
(Plate II. fig. 6 a), and the peduncles of the ‘ hemispherical
ganglia” seem to me to be composed of mere fibrillee, and re-
semble much the fibrillation produced by breaking up the
ordinary fibres. It is a curious and most interesting question,
which I have not been able to solve, whether those minute fila-
ments which we find in the cerebral ganglia do not, by their
aggregation with similar filaments from other ganglionic
centres in the brain, form the ordinary nerve-fibres. The
latter would thus be compound structures, and might, at
their peripheral terminations, again distribute their elements
amongst the tissues. All the fibres contain oval nuclei scat-
tered over them at regular distances. The nuclei bulge in-
wards towards the interior of the tubes. A few fresh nerve-
fibres of the lobster, coloured with carmine, and then made
transparent with acetic acid, form a very beautiful object
under the microscope, from the nuclei taking up the colour.
I have never been able to satisfy myself of the division of the
nerve-fibres described by Heeckel. ‘
When a nerve is cut across in such a thin section as to
show the structure of the fibres, as in Plate I. fig. 4, they are
seen to be tubular. This section also shows well the relative
sizes of the tubes. The large ones at a appear as a series of
open spaces, and it may be thought that they are merely the
areola of cellular tissue left after the nerve fibres have been
squeezed out in the manipulation; such, however, is not the case.
From cross sections, in this way, too, it may be seen that there
is no central solid band in any of the fibres. Cross sections of
the fibres, as they leave nerve-cells, show in many cases gra-
a
Physiology of the Nervous System in the Lobster. 28
nular contents, doubtless the granular contents of the cells
prolonged into them. The appearance of a fibre as it leaves a
cell, is frequently very different from that I have described and
figured. Itis smaller, and has not the same tubular aspect, and
the nuclei are not present. It is very difficult to account for
the existence of those large fibres, except by supposing that
they are the result of the junction of smaller ones. The nerve-
cells differ enormously in size; but as the fibres leave the
cells, no such very marked difference in size is observable.
The Nerve-Cells——Ehrenberg was the first to describe
nerve-cells in the invertebrata, but he did not appreciate
their importance. Since his time they have been particularly
described in almost every division of the sub-kingdom, by
Helmholtz, Hannover, Will, Kolliker, Wagner, Bidder, &c.
Newport described them in the lobster; but so far from esti-
mating their real value asthe most essential parts of the nervous
system, he thought they were for the nutrition of the fibres.
It would be idle here to mention the disputes that have taken
place as to whether the cells are apolar, bipolar, or multipolar.
It is sufficient to say, that as micro-neurology has advanced,
the belief has become strengthened and confirmed, that all
the cells are at least unipolar, and most of them multipolar.
Heckel described and figured the nerve-cells of the river cray-
fish as large, nucleated, and either unipolar, bipolar, or tripolar.
If a portion of one of the ganglia of the lobster be torn
asunder by needles and examined under the microscope,
nerve-cells of various sizes will be seen, but they will all seem
apolar. In the sections of hardened ganglia, however, they
appear very different. They vary in form and character
enormously. In size they range from »,th to sj,>th of an
inch in diameter.* They are filled with granular matter,
which, as was mentioned before, is prolonged into the tubes
they give off. After hardening in chromic acid this granular
matter shrinks up round the nucleus, assuming a brown
colour, more dense near the nucleus. The quantity of this
granular matter in different cells varies much. In some, after
hardening in chromic acid, the brown granular matter fills up
* In the river crab, Heckel says they are from ;3, to ,$;th of an inch in
diameter.
24 = Dr T.S. Clouston on the Minute Anatomy and —
the cell, whilst in others it is entirely absent, and the nucleus —
is uncovered. Asa general rule, however, it fills at least half
the space contained within the cell wall. It shrivels irregu-
larly, and is connected to the cell wall by prolongations in all
directions.’ ‘This is so well marked in some cases, when the
cell is large, and the nucleus is in the centre, that the granular
mass seems a stellate cell giving off prolongations to a circle
which surrounds it (Plate I. fig. 2d). Those cells have gene-
rally more than one process given off from them as nerve-fibres.
In many cases a large number of cells may all appear unipolar
in one section, whilst if the section is made in a different direc-
tion they are seen to be multipolar. This is very well seen in
the group of cells lying in front of the optic commissure in the
cerebral ganglion (Plate II. fig. 47). The large nerve-cells
generally give off larger processes than the smaller ones, but
this rule is not invariable. It is a curious fact, however, that so
far as one can judge, the number of large cells in the ganglia
is in about the same proportion to the small ones, as that of
the large fibres to the small ones in the inter-ganglionie cords.
All the cells are nucleated. The nuclei are always darker
than the shrivelled granular contents of the cell, and correspond
in size to the size of the cell.. The varying quantity of the
granular matter in the cells affords ground for curious specula-
tion as to the causes why it should be so. May it not be that
the cell’s power or irritability is in proportion to the amount
of its solid contents? They may in that way indicate the
state of nutrition of the cell at the time the animal died; so
that if this happened after the muscles of any part had been
powerfully exerted for a long time, the cells in the nerve-
centre supplying these muscles would be devoid of granular
contents, and vice versa.
In addition to the connection of the nerve-cells to the fibres,
they have also connections with each other, of which little or
nothing has been said by any one (Plate I. fig. 2 ¢). Processes
can be distinctly traced from one cell to another. Generally
there is a stellate projection where such a process comes off
from a cell. .
There are other cells existing in large numbers in the
cephalic ganglion at the roots of the cephalic nerves, which
Physiology of the Nervous System in the Lobster. 25
are much more uniform in size and shape (see Plate I. fig. 3 a,
and Plate II. fig. 6b), being all small, round, and with stellate
nuclei, which appear to send their processes to other cells, and
to the roots of the nerves and to the hemispherical ganglia.
Those cells are the smallest in the nervous system of the lobster,
requiring a very high power of the microscope to discover their
appearance. They are all about »>/55th of an inch in diameter.
In the cephalic ganglion also there are granular nuclei
surrounded by a maze of minute fibres, which I shall after-
wards describe more particularly. (Plate I. fig. 3b).
The arrangement of the cells into groups is so constant that
I must here make a few observations on the subject. It is not
the result of natural boundaries, for two or more groups are
constantly seen lying in contact, as in Plate II. fig. 1d, 7.
The cells composing each group are of various sizes, and have
~ more connections to each other than those of different groups,
giving them a more intimate relationship than mere apposition.
Each cell has generally one principal process, which runs in
the same direction as the processes of the other cells of the
same group; and this is what gives this grouping its import-
ance and interest. The approximated processes of the cells
form a kind of pedicle to the group, like the stalk of a bunch
of grapes. All the processes of the cells of a group do not take
the same course, but some of them may join the cells in an-
other group (Plate I. fig. 6c), or pass towards the cephalic
ganglion. If the section is made in any other direction than
that in which the pedicle goes, the cells may seem to be mostly
apolar, or merely with processes to each other. I have fre-
quently seen two bundles of nerve-fibres proceeding in different
directions from what appeared to be but one group of cells.
Van der Kolk has described a similar arrangement in ver-
tebrata.*
Before proceeding farther, it may be well to give a sketch
of the anatomy of the nervous system in the lobster, as seen
by the naked eye.t It consists of a series of ganglia, usually
described as fourteen in number, but I think they ought to
* Van der Kolk on the Spinal Cord. Sydenham Society’s Translation.
t I would here refer to a very correct representation of the nervous system
of the lobster given by Newport in the Philosophical Transactions for 1834.
NEW SERIES.—VOL. XVII, NO. 1.—JAN. 1868. D
26 Dr T.S. Clouston on the Minute Anatomy and
be stated as fifteen, the enlargement at the foot of the pneumo-
gastric nerve (Plate II. fig. 3 a) being in structure and func-
tion like any of the other ganglia, as will be seen from its
minute anatomy. One of these is cephalic; one esophageal ;
seven thoracic; and six abdominal. The cephalic ganglion
is supported by a strong fibrous membrane, attached to each
side and behind it, and has a large fleshy mass nearly the size
of the ganglion itself placed above it. Its form is oblong,
flattened from above downwards, so that a section across it
appears oval (Plate II. fig. 5). The two optic nerves are
given off from the anterior angles, and the two cords from
the first thoracic ganglion enter the upper surface at the
opposite angles. From the sides and under surface four
other pairs of nerves are given off to the antenne, the organ
of hearing, and the integuments about the head. The gan-
glion bulges into two prominences on the under surface behind
the roots of the optic nerves, where it has also a more opaque
appearance than elsewhere.
The two cords that connect the cephalic to the first thoracice
ganglion are separated by the zesophagus which passes through
between them. Each gives off a nerve to the «esophagus and
stomach, which is sometimes divided into two (Plate II. fig. 3).
There is always a ganglionic enlargement here, and a cross
nerve connects the two cords after the esophagus has passed
through between them. These two enlargements, together
with the cross cord, constitute, in my opinion, a true ganglion,
as was conjectured by H. Milne-Edwards.*
The thoracic and abdominal ganglia have been carefully
described by Newport.- His description, however, which
is generally accepted, is biassed by his theory as to the
existence of motor and sensory tracts. In the thoracic region,
the longitudinal cords uniting the ganglia are double; in the
abdomen, there is merely a single cord. Each thoracic ganglion
consists of two little roundish masses of friable ganglionic
substance, united by a ridge on the under surface. This ridge
consists chiefly of transverse fibres from the lateral nerves of
one side to those of the other. The nerves spring much more
* See Art. “ Crustacea,” in Todd’s Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys.
t Philosophical Transactions, 1834, p. 408.
Physiology of the Nervous System in the Lobster. 27
from the abdominal than the dorsal aspect of the ganglia.
Newport was certainly mistaken when he described distinct
abdominal and dorsal tracts in the cords. He even figures the
division between them, and says they can be dissected * away
from each other after the cords have been hardened. I have
carefully examined the nervous system in more than a dozen
lobsters, after hardening some in spirit and some in chromic
acid, and I never could see any trace of those two tracts; and
in thin cross sections of the cord and ganglia (as in Plate
I. fig. 4) it is demonstrated that they do not exist. In the
abdominal region, the inter-ganglionic cord is described as
single ; but cross sections reveal a septum prolonged from the
sheath antero-posteriorly, dividing the cord into two not very
symmetrical halves (Plate I. fig. 4). The septum bulges to
one side, but the number of fibres on the one side is much the
same as on the other. Where the septum joins the sheath on
the upper surface, d, it is thickened, appearing as a triangular
mass of fibrous matter. So distinct is this appearance, that I
was at first disposed to consider it a tract of smaller nerve
fibres. In the section represented, one of the posterior motor
nerves, ¢, is seen cut across, as it lies in contact with the
dorsal surface of the cord on one side. The fibres of those
nerves are supposed to run upwards directly to the cephalic
ganglion. The septum is present in each of the ganglia, but
is not so distinct as in the cord.
The abdominal ganglia are slight elliptical swellings on the
under surface of the cord. The lateral nerves in this region
are very much smaller than in the thorax.
The anterior lateral nerves of the thoracic ganglion are much
smaller than the posterior ; and this is also the case, but not
so much so, in the abdomen. Their distribution is thus de-
scribed in “‘ Todd’s Cyclopedia :” + “ The posterior and larger
sends branches to the basilar articulations of the extremities ;
the anterior, again, distributes twigs to the muscles of the
flanks ; the two soon anastomose, and form a single trunk be-
fore penetrating into the extremity itself, which then traverses
the whole limb, sending a branch to the muscles of each arti-
* Philosophical Transactions, 1834. Plate xvii. fig. 42.
t Vol. i. p. 765.
28 Dr T.S. Clouston on the Minute Anatomy and
culation.” The true distribution of those nerves is very easily
made out by a simple experiment. I first performed it acci-
dentally when dissecting out the nervous system in a lobster
which was scarcely dead. As the anterior and smaller nerve
of the large claw was being divided, the whole claw was
strongly drawn towards the abdomen, and the nippers convul-
sively opened, while section of the posterior large one produced
exactly the opposite effect,—viz., strong extension of the whole
extremity, and convulsive closing of the nippers. This I have
frequently since repeated, with the same result in both the
large and small claws. The anterior is therefore the extensor,
and the posterior the flexor nerve of the claw. The size of
the nerves is seen to be in exact proportion to the force of
opening and closing the pincers in the large claws, and in the
others the two nerves are much more uniform in size.
The first thoracic ganglion gives off ten pairs of nerves to
the mandibles and foot-jaws. The caudal ganglion is trian-
gular in form, with a large bulging on the under surface. It
gives off ten nerves—two to each of the five segments of the
tail, one for the outward, and the other for the inward motion.
This may easily be demonstrated by experiment.
Microscopic Anatomy.—The minute structure of one of
these ganglia can only be studied by making thin sections
through it in different directions, to show, 1st, The distribution
of the ganglionic matter; 2d, The course of the fibres given off
by the nerve-cells ; and 3d, The course of the fibres of the peri-
pheral nerves when they enter the ganglia. The second is the
most difficult part of the investigation. I selected about fifty
from the sections I made and put up permanently as micro-
scopic preparations; and after a careful examination of these,
I have drawn the accompanying plan (Plate I. fig. 7), which
embodies in one view all the facts observed in reference to the
cells and fibres in a ganglion. Many of the sections merely
show the distribution of a single group of cells; but it seemed
to me that no clear or truthful idea of a ganglion could be got
except by arranging together, in an ideal ganglion, all the iso-
lated facts observed. The interlacement of fibres is such, that
it requires many sections to be made across, and longitudinally,
and in an oblique direction, to demonstrate all the anatomy.
Ee
So ae eo
ay ST
Physiology of the Nervous System of the Lobster. 29
A ganglion in the thoracic region is the most typical, being
bilateral, and one of those I shall therefore describe first.
There are a number of fibres which enter into and pass out of
each ganglion without being connected to cells at all. These
have been well described by Newport, and I merely had the
opportunity of confirming the accuracy of his observations.
He describes four sets of fibres :—1. Those which arise in the
cephalic ganglion, and pass downwards on the dorsal surface of
the cords, not entering farther into the formation of each
ganglion (Plate I. fig. 7a). 2. Those which are given off from
the longitudinal cord, and enter into the formation of the lateral
nerves directly c. These fibres bend round, and emerge from
the ganglion ata right angle to their entrance. 3. Those which
pass transversely across the ganglion from one lateral nerve
to the one of the opposite side, and at right angles to the first
set of fibres b. At least one half, or, in some of the nerves,
(e. g. those in third thoracie ganglion), two-thirds of the fibres
pass across in this way. They bend round the longitudinal
cord on the under surface, only a few of them interlacing with
the longitudinal fibres. Their curvature in this direction ren-
ders it impossible to make sections in the longitudinal direc-
tion, showing the fibres running from one side to the other.
If the section is made in the course of the fibres of the lateral
nerve of one side, they are cut across in the middle line. Cross
sections of the ganglia through the roots of the nerves are
not much more successful, as the nerves have a very slight
direction forwards, so that they meet at an angle in the middle
line in this direction as in the other. A few cross fibres may
often be seen in this way, however. 4. The remaining set
of fibres, like the last, have no connection with the head.
They cannot be traced in the lobster from one ganglion to
another. Newport describes them in the Myriapoda, where
the ganglia are closer together, and indistinct bands of
fibres can be traced from the one to the other. They seem in
each ganglion to be part of the second set of fibres, but in-
stead of going to the head, they run a certain distance along
the cords, and then join the lateral nerves of other ganglia
on the same side of the body. In some sections a band of
fibres is seen to bend outwards and join the lateral nerves,
30 ~=6Dr T. S. Clouston on the Minute Anatomy and
corresponding to those at ¢ in the diagram. Those evidently
connect the parts of the body posterior to this ganglion, with
the segment of the body which it supplies. It is probable that
these are both fibres of reinforcement, and comprise also fibres
from the cells of the ganglia, posterior to the one from which
this section was made (those at fin Plate I. fig. 5). Some of
them run from one ganglion to the next, whilst others extend
to ganglia farther away, thus keeping up a direct connection
between all the lateral nerves of the same side. I have myself
demonstrated the existence of such fibres in the leech, connect-
ing the two lateral nerves of the same side in the same ganglion.
In that animal, some of the fibres of one lateral nerve bend
round, and, without entering farther into the composition of
the ganglion, emerge among the fibres of the adjacent nerve.
Newport calls them “ fibres of reinforcement,” because they
keep up the bulk of the longitudinal cord to the last ganglion.
The ganglionic matter is disposed-in five places in each
ganglion,—viz., in the four angles formed by the lateral nerves
and longitudinal cords, and in the space between the two longi-
tudinal cords. Those aggregations of ganglionic matter are
not really distinct from each other, for that in each angle is
connected with that in the other angle of the same side by a
bridge, that passes round the entering lateral nerve, encircling ~
itin a collar. It is this that partly forms the bulging on the
under surface, that gives the character to the ganglion.
When a longitudinal section is made in the course of the
nerve-roots as they enter the ganglion, and if the section be
near the abdominal surface, the following appearance presents
itself (Plate I. fig. 5). The longitudinal and transverse fibres
are seen crossing each other, c, and a bundle of nerve-fibres
from the lateral nerve are seen to change their course, and
become continuous with the longitudinal cords,d. In many of
the sections I made, this is seen much more distinctly than in
the one represented. In the angle of meeting of the lateral
nerve and cord, the nerve-cells are seen; and in this case
they lie in two groups fandg. The cells of each group seem
to be, for the most part, unipolar, but this results from many
of them being superposed. They are of very different sizes,
two very large ones being seen at h and 2, but most of the
Physiology of the Nervous System in the Lobster, 31
others are small. In all of them, the granular contents are
condensed round the nucleus by the chromic acid used in
hardening the specimen. Each cell gives off one principal
fibre, and all the fibres of the cells of each group collect to-
gether into a bundle. The main group sends its fibres to
become continuous with the fibres of the longitudinal cord.
These correspond to the group at f in Plate I. fig. 7. In this
section, many of the fibres from the cells thus seem to join the
longitudinal cords; but in by far the majority of the sections I
made, the fibres from the principal groups of cells join the
lateral nerves. The largest cell 7, in the other group, has two
processes going from itin the same direction,—viz., tothe lateral
nerves of the opposite side, and corresponds to those at g, in
the diagram. This section also shows a few of the cells in the
centre of the ganglion, between the two longitudinal cords, &,
whose processes evidently go in an oblique direction to the
other lateral nerve of the same side. They are a few of the
cells seen in Plate II. fig. 1. On the other side of the nerve
at 7, between it and its fellow of the same side, there are a
number of detached cells belonging to the ganglionic collar
which invests each lateral nerve as it joins the ganglion. Most
of these processes pass towards the opposite side, but many of
the cells are seen to be bipolar, each pole taking a different
direction. They correspond to a part of those at é in the ideal
section. Of the other processes of the cells, some pass into
the lateral nerve of the same side, and others upwards among
the longitudinal fibres. The cut fibres at m are a bundle of
longitudinal ones cut across as they pass over those of the
lateral nerves.
If we now examine a section made in the same direction,
somewhat more towards the dorsal part of the ganglion, as is
represented in Plate I. fig. 6, a somewhat different appearance
is presented. That at fig. 6 is a section of the same ganglion as
that at fig. 5. In it the longitudinal fibres are cut somewhat
- obliquely. In fig. 6a, many of the cells are seen to be con-
nected with each other by processes ; and not only are those of
the same group connected in this way, but also those of the
two groups seen at c andd. The cells next the longitudinal
cord, c, send the greater portion of their fibres at first trans-
32 Dr T.S. Clouston on the Minute Anatomy and
versely, but they soon change their direction, and reinforce
the longitudinal cord. This group corresponds to that at & in
fig. 7. - In this section those fibres cannot be traced, so far as
to show that they do not change their course and join the
lateral nerves, but I have other sections which demonstrate
this point. The fibres from the other group, d, join the lateral
nerve of the opposite side. They are not so distinctly seen as
those from group c, for they are on a lower level, and covered
by the longitudinal fibres. They correspond to g in fig. 7, and
are representative of a larger number of fibres in the ganglia
than any other group. This can only be ascertained by ex-
amining a large number of sections; and after doing so, and
ascertaining the comparative frequency of the groups repre-
sented in fig. 7, I find that those at g and & are by far the most
frequently met with, thus establishing the tendency of groups
of cells in the ganglia to send most of their fibres to the oppo-
site side. The groups of cells which: send their fibres to the
lateral nerve being more numerous than those which send
them to the longitudinal cord, it follows that the group at g is
representative of a larger number of nerve-cells in the ganglia
than any of the others. In connection with the group at ec,
fig. 6, there are a few fibres, whose processes, /, pass in an
altogether opposite direction to the main body of the fibres of
the group, and are represented by the upward fibre seen at g,
in fig. 7.
I selected those two sections, not because they present the
most typical cells, for their cells seem many of them unipolar,
and with fewer than ordinary observable connections to each
other, but because they are of the same ganglion, and show
the principal bundles of fibres from the groups of cells running
in a great many different directions, illustrating, more or less
fully, nearly all the ideal section in fig. 7. A section in my
possession shows, in addition to the fibres of reinforcement,
two groups of cells, whose processes pass to the lateral nerve
of the opposite side, and backwards to join the cord. The
latter are represented in Plate I. fig. 6c.
The ganglionic substance, situated between the two cords, is
best seen in cross sections of the ganglia through the roots of
the nerves, like that represented in Plate II. fig.1. The space
4
Physiology of the Nervous System in the Lobster. 33
between the cords, especially towards the abdominal aspect, we
then see to be filled up by cells, which arrange themselves into
four principal groups, two on each side of the middle line.
Those groups are indicated in the section, more from the bundles
of fibres proceeding from them, than anything else. At d we
see a group of pretty uniform cells, sending its chief bundle of
fibres across the middle line to join the lateral nerve of the
opposite side. It corresponds to the group at m in Plate L.
fig. 7. At /f there are a number of large cells, most of which
send their processes to the lateral nerve of the same side.
The nerve processes from opposite sides (¢ and d) cross in the
middle line. Those at f correspond to the fibres at / in Plate
I. fig. 7. The groups of cells situated nearest the middle line
are thus seen to send their processes to join the lateral nerves
of the same side, while those situated more externally send
theirs to the lateral nerves of the opposite side. ‘The group
at g is one whose pedicle has been cut off, and the cells appear
apolar. In another cross section in my possession, a crossing
of the fibres at the root of the nerve is seen, some of those lying
above, passing downwards to the abdominal surface of the
nerve, and vice versa. The object of this is not apparent.
The structure of an abdominal ganglion is very much the
same as I have described. The ganglionic substance is less in
quantity, and forms an oval bulging on the abdominal sur-
face of the cord. The separate aggregations of ganglionic
substance which I have described in the thoracic region are
here fused into one, the cells situated between the cords being
pushed downwards by their union. There are more cells
anterior to the lateral nerves than posterior to them. The
grouping of the cells is still seen. The arrangement is best
seen in a longitudinal section made from the dorsal to the
abdominal surface. Such a section is represented in Plate
Il. fig. 2. Numerous groups of cells are seen whose processes
all run towards the dorsal surfaces. The most anterior group,
_ and the one next it, c, send their processes far up among the
_ longitudinal fibres, and at d they may be seen to change their
_ course and join the longitudinal fibres towards the cephalic
_ ganglion. The processes of the next group, e, run towards the
_ fibres of the lateral nerves, seen cut across at b, some of them
NEW SERIES.—VOL. XVII. NO. I.—JAN. 18638. E
ere ale... e!
bs
a
34 Dr T.S. Clouston on the Minute Anatomy and
apparently joining them, whilst others run upwards among the
longitudinal fibres. All the other cells f, send their processes
D
towards the lateral nerves, showing a tendency to encircle —
them, so that we can have little doubt they reinforce them.
By far the larger number of fibres from the cells in this way
cannot be traced any further: than the lateral nerves A cross
section of an abdominal ganglion opposite a nerve displays
three principal aggregations of cells; one on either side, and
one in the middle. The mediate septum is more distinct than
in the thoracic ganglia. The middle group of these cells cor-
respond to those between the cords in the thorax (Plate II.
fig. 1). Some of the fibres from the two outer groups of cells
pass into the lateral nerves of the same side, whilst others
cross to those of the opposite side. The fibres from the middle
group run upwards along the septum at first, some of them
going to the same side, and others to the opposite side. Many
of the cells of the latter group show processes cut, across which
take a different direction from the main body of the fibres, and
which probably give them a connection to the longitudinal
cord.
Some comparative anatomists, such as Newport and Bruch,
have described ganglionic cells in the roots of the lateral
nerves in the invertebrata analogous to the ganglia on the
posterior spinal nerves. Bruch figures them in the leech.*
[ have made the most careful sections of the roots of many of
the thoracic nerves, and have not been able to detect their
presence in the lobster. Indeed, I am satisfied that they do
not exist, for I sliced the roots of several of the nerves in the
longitudinal direction, and examined all the sections under the
microscope without being able to discover a single cell. In
some cases, the collar of ganglionic substance, which I have
described as encircling the lateral nerves as they join, the
ganglia, extends a little outwards, but this is in no degree
analogous to a ganglion.
The Pneumogastric Ganglion.—The slight swelling at the —
root of each pneumogastric nerve (Plate II. fig. 3), is found on ©
examination to consist of ganglionic matter. When a thin
longitudinal section is made of it, groups of cells are seen to —
* fiven in the leech I have not been able to confirm Bruch’s observation.
Physiology of the Nervous System in the Lobster. 35
surround the roots of the nerve, whose processes pass, some of
them upwards along the cord towards the cephalic ganglion,
some of them along the nerve, but the greater number of
them downwards towards the first thoracic ganglion. If we
dissect off the fibrous covering from one of the cords, and also
from a small portion of the cross nerve (Plate II. fig. 3c),
and trace its fibres under a microscope of low power, they may
be seen to run as a distinct bundle, and aid in the ganglionic
swelling (a). Many of them pass directly into the pneumo-
gastric. Each cord is thicker at the part between the cross
nerve and the root of the pneumogastric than at any other
place. Those two swellings, therefore, are the two halves of
a ganglion, and the cross cord is the commissural fibres. It
is a ganglion dissected by Nature to let the esophagus pass
through between the two longitudinal cords at that part. This
view is taken by H. Milne-Edwards in the article “ Crusta-
cea,” in Todd’s Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys., but I am not aware
that he had any grounds for this opinion from dissection.
The Cephalic Ganglion.—Like the other ganglia of the body,
the structure of this can only be ascertained by making sec-
tions through it at different parts and in different directions.
A thin longitudinal section of the whole ganglion near its upper
surface, and through the longitudinal cords at their junction,
and the roots of the optic nerves, presents the appearance
seen in Plate II. fig. 4. But before describing this, it may be
well to describe a thin section of the roots of the longitudinal
cords alone. The fibres from each spread themselves out; a
number of the inner ones passing across the middle line, and
forming a true decussation with those of the opposite side.
Some of the fibres of each that lie most external, cross over the
inner fibres, and become continuous with corresponding fibres
from the other cord (Plate II. fig.4%.) In this way there is as
direct a communication between the two longitudinal cords of
the body as between the lateral nerves of opposite sides of a
_ ganglion. The same section includes a part of the roots of
_ the second cephalic nerve, a bundle of the fibres of which
_ turns downwards and joins with the fibres of the longitudinal
¢ cord of the same side. Scattered amongst these fibres, there
_ may be seen a few groups of ganglionic cells with no appa-
36 Dr T. S. Clouston on the Minute Anatomy and
rent connection to the fibres; but this probably results from
the way the section is made. The majority of the fibres of the
longitudinal cord do not decussate. m
If we now examine the section to which I have referred,
which is made in the same direction as the last, but deeper,
we see the arrangement of the deeper fibres of the longitudinal
cords and of the optic nerves (Plate II. fig. 4). Most of the
decussating fibres of the cords become continuous with the roots
of the optic nerves of the opposite side c, A number of the
fibres, which do not cross, are also seen to reinforce the optics
d. Passing from one optic nerve to the other, there is a
large bundle of fibres forming a commissure e, as in the verte-
brata. Indeed, it will be seen that the roots of the optics
take the same course as in the vertebrata. There are com-
missural fibres, fibres crossing to the other side of the middle
line, and fibres remaining on the same side.
In the middle of the thoracic cords.there is an oval space f,
where the fibres are cut across. This is not seen in a more
superficial section, and is a large bundle of fibres that join the
cords at this part from the large ganglionic mass to be pre-
sently described. They join the fibres of the cords at an
acute angle, and are bending down to take the direction of
the latter, where they are cut across in this section. At
three points ganglionic cells are seen 7,h,andg. They are all
towards the periphery of the ganglion, and the processes from
the cells take an inward direction. The largest group fills up
the crescentic space in front of the optic commissure. These
processes seem all to pass backwards, crossing the commis-
sural fibres in bundles. In a section in which they can be
traced, they are seen to join the longitudinal cords of the
same side. The cells seem to be all unipolar in this section,
but in a vertical one it is seen that there are other processes
from the same cells which take a different direction, passing
downwards on the under surface of the ganglion towards the
roots of the cephalic nerves. The two other groups of cells in
this section are packed as it were into the triangular space
formed by the meeting of the optic nerves and longitudinal —
cords with the fibrous sheath to the outside. These fibres go —
downwards and backwards to reinforce the cords also.
Physiology of the Nervous System in the Lobster. 87
A section still deeper, in the same direction, brings into
view a part of the granular masses to which I have referred,
exterior to the cells at g, in Plate II. fig, 4.
The structure of the deeper parts of the ganglion is best
shown by cross and vertical sections through it. But in order
to dispose of the anatomy of the optic nerve, I shall first
describe a section diagonally through the ganglion (Plate II.
fig. 6). This displays the course of the deep fibres of the optic
nerves, which are seen to radiate on entering the ganglion,
the upper ones passing over the hemispherical ganglia e,
and following the course I have already pointed out; the
deeper ones passing out first backwards, and then being re-
flected at an acute angle over the granular masses, leaving a
space b, which is filled up with cells of the kind figured in
Plate I. fig. 3a. Many of the fibres of the optic nerve seem
to lose themselves amongst those cells, some of them evidently
being connected with them.
A cross section of the whole ganglion, near the centre, or
slightly anterior to it, shows well its anatomy. Such a sec-
tion is represented in Plate II. fig. 5. Only at one part can
such a view be obtained, the slightest variation to either end
of the ganglion obscuring its most important points. The
ganglion is seen to be bilateral. On either side, and situated
somewhat more towards the upper than the lower surface, are
two large granular bodies a, of a somewhat circular form, well
defined all round, except inferiorly, where a large bundle of
fibres, which we may call the “peduncle,” emerges. Each
mass has apparently little connection with the surrounding
parts, except by means of this peduncle. Externally it comes
in contact with the fibrous sheath of the ganglion, and inter-
nally it is in contact with the longitudinal cord, seen cut across
atc. Each has seven or eight concentric rows of nuclei im-
bedded in it. The periphery, in which are the two outer rows
of nuclei, is less densely granular than the interior, and the
nuclei are less distinct. Towards the centre the granular
matter assumes a fibrillar appearance, the strie being in the
direction of the peduncle; and they gradually, when traced
further, assume the fibrous form, as seen in the peduncles. The
peduncle is narrower at the part where it leaves the mass than
388. Dr T.S. Clouston on the Minute Anatomy and
at any other part of its course. It passes at first downwards,
then turns sharply at a right angle inwards, and finally bends
to join the longitudinal cord of the same side. In one section
in my possession, a few cross-fibres may be seen, as if they
connected the.two peduncles together.* Such is the appear-
ance presented by a section of these structures, which I shall
call the “ Hemispherical Ganglia,” when examined by a power
of seventy-five diameters. Their general form can only be
seen by sections in other ways as well. They are egg-shaped
in a section of the ganglion antero-posteriorly, the long dia- .
meter running from before backwards. With their peduncles |
they form between a half and a third of the whole cephalic |
ganglion. Ina cross section they do not seem so large, but
their true size appears in a longitudinal section. Each has a
hilus, from which the peduncle emerges. If a section be
made above or below this hilus, the concentric circles of
nuclei are complete, and there is a whorl of converging fibres |
in the centre. The slight connection each hemispherical
ganglion has to the surrounding parts is well seen in the great |
difficulty of preserving it from being detached in very thin
sections, that do not include the peduncle. In a very well
hardened cephalic ganglion, the two oval masses may be dis-
sected out.
Again to refer to the section—immediately behind each
hemispherical ganglion, there is an irregularly elliptical mass
of granular matter d, with lighter striations from behind
forwards. These striations, when examined with a higher
power, are seen to be fibrous. They appear to reinforce the
peduncles of the hemispherical ganglia below; for as succes-
oe AS Ve
* Since the above was first written, Professor Goodsir, to whom [ am under
great obligations for his kindness in revising this paper, has pointed out to
me, that M. F. Dujardin (Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 3d serie, tome
xiv.), has described the external appearance of similar structures in the bee.
In that animal they are quite distinct, with their peduncles, without any dissec-
tion of the cephalic ganglion. In fact, the cephalic ganglion of the bee would
closely resemble that of the lobster, if, in the latter animal, those structures were
cleared of their surrounding tissue, and left hanging by their peduncles. Du-
jardin calls them in the bee “les corps pédonculés,” which in their interior pre-
sent “ une disposition stratifiée.”” He endeavours to make out, that in insects
the bulk of the corps pédonculés is in proportion to the intelligence of the animals.
Physiology of the Nervous System in the Lobster. 39
sive sections are made from above downwards, the fibrous
matter increases in quantity, until at the very lowest part
there is merely an aggregation of fibres, twisting about ina
very inexplicable manner.* In the spaces included by the
ganglia and their peduncles e, there is a group of those cells
seen in Plate I. fig. 3a. Most of their processes appear to pass
upwards, and are lost where the hemispherical ganglion comes
in contact with the longitudinal cord. This is the group of
cells in which a part of the fibres of the second cephalic nerve
ends, as is shown in a section I made through the root of this
nerve. In the middle line there is a large group of ordinary
ganglionic cells, such as are seen in the other ganglia f. They
send most of their processes upwards, a few of them joining
the opposite cord, but most of them going to that of the same
side. On each side of this group, and below the peduncles,
there is another aggregation of cells similar to those at the
root of the optic and second cephalic nerves g. These pro-
cesses chiefly pass outwards, and they doubtless form a
nucleus for the roots of some of the other cephalic nerves.
The only other part of the ganglion undescribed is the poste-
rior and under part, into which the other cephalic neryes enter.
On account of the different directions of these fibres, it is very
difficult to trace each to its termination. All the nerves send
a part of their fibres to join the longitudinal cords directly,
and another part to enter into the groups of ganglionic cells
which abound there. Most of these cells are of the same kind
as those in the thoracic and abdominal ganglia.
The minute structure of the hemispherical ganglia can only
be seen in very thin sections and with a very high power. If
they have been coloured with carmine, it is still better seen.
The matter, which appears granular when viewed with a power
of 70 diameters, is seen to be only partly granular when viewed
with a power of 600 diameters. It is then seen to be chiefly
composed of small fibres, very tortuous, bending and twisting
at acute angles, and in all directions, amongst each other, each
fibre being only capable of being followed for a very short
* I may mention, that in the cephalic ganglion of the crab (Cancer Pagurus)
the structure of the hemispherical ganglia is the same as that of the masses
here described.
40 Dr T.S. Clouston on the Minute Aftatomy and
distance. It is more like what we might suppose a fishing-
net crushed up to be, than anything else to which I can
compare it. Among those extremely minute fibres there are
a number of granules scattered. The nuclei-like bodies that
lie in concentric rows, are not really nuclei, or rather they are
more than nuclei, for the greater part of each of them is com-
posed of those fibres I have just described, packed more closely
than in the surrounding tissue. In the centre of each there
is a nucleus like that of an ordinary nerve-cell, only a little
more irregular in its outline (Plate I. fig. 36). This can only
be seen in the thinnest section, for it is surrounded by a dense
brush-like areolus of the small fibres which seem to be im-
planted on the nucleus—growing from it, as it were, and giving
it its irregular outline. Each nucleus has either one or two
nucleoli. In a very thin section, also, there is seen round each
of those bodies a lighter areolus, where the fibres and granules
are not so densely packed (Plate I. fig. 3 6). It is curious to
trace the origin of the fibres of which the peduncle is composed,
A little striation is at first seen, the tortuosity of the fibres
diminishing gradually till they become straight, and lie par-
allel to each other. The granules which are scattered among
the fibres, when examined by a power of 900 diameters, seem
to be, many of them, thickenings of the fibres, and others the
centres from which two or three small fibres proceed in a
stellate manner. The fibrille, of which the peduncle is at
_ first composed, very much resemble the appearance of the
large fibres after they have been split up by concussion. The
large fibres of the nerves and longitudinal cords would there-
fore seem to be composed of these minute fibrille which arrange
themselves so as to form tubes very much as a cask is made
up of staves. In the perfectly formed tubes of the peripheral
nerves, no trace of striation is to be seen in a cross or longi-
tudinal section, even when examined by a power of 900 dia-
meters. I think it is very probable, however, that at their
peripheral extremities where they come into intimate relation-
ship with the tissues to which they convey the nerve-force,
that they may again split up.*
* In the crab, the minute anatomy of the cephalic ganglion is very similar
pha ere teal Gia, <0. LNG aaa oe
Sa Bor Palla =
4 , )
a ie te
—
ee eee ee. ee
Physiology of the Nervous System in the Lobster. 41
Lying in contact with the outside of the hemispherical
ganglia, there is a kind of fibrous covering very like a vascu-
lar coat. The fibres composing it are larger, and interspersed
among them are small arteries, sending branches at regular
intervals into the ganglia (Plate IT. fig. 6). Along with the
arteries and fibres there are also many caudate and stellate
ganglion cells, whose fibres interlace and enter the ganglion.
At certain parts, groups of cells like those seen at Plate I.
fig. 8 a, lie in contact with the hemispherical ganglia, and
give off processes into them.*
I cannot help thinking that the “punctiform mass” de-
scribed by Leydig} as occurring in the Arthropoda and in
spiders, and by Leuchart in the Acalepha, must be of the same
nature as the hemispherical ganglia I have just described.
In those animals, the ganglia are so small, that sections of
them cannot be made, and without this, their true anatomy
cannot be ascertained. The idea put forward by Leydig, that
the granular matter is for the support and preservation from
injury of the delicate cells, is not consistent with whatis ob-
served in the nervous system of any other class of animals,
whose nerve-cells are as delicate, and require protection quite
as much as do those of the animals to which he refers. Ley-
dig, indeed, mentions somewhat vaguely, that ‘“‘there are often
forms of such a nature, that clear nuclei, with nucleoli, are
surrounded by part of the punctiform substance, merely in the
form of an areola, and perhaps no essential distinction can be
made between such extra cellular punctiform substance and
that enclosed within the ganglionic bodies, since in many
animals, no ganglionic bodies are present, but the homo-
geneous punctiform substance fills up equally the ramifications
of the nervous tubes.” .
Physiological Inferences from the foregoing Data.—The
physiology of the nervous system of the invertebrata was
The nuclei are not distributed in concentric rows, and striation, like that seen
where the peduncle takes its origin, is more general.
* In the crab, this investment is much better seen. Distinct bundles of fibres
run inwards from it to join the fibres of the peduncle without being in any
way connected with the nuclei. The cells that surround the hemispherical
_ ganglia in this animal are both of the large and small kinds.
t Op. cit., p. 69.
NEW SERIES.—VOL. XVII. NO. 1.—JAN. 1863. F
42 Dr T.S. Clouston on the Minute Anatomy and
greatly advanced by means of experiments on the living
animals, before much of its anatomy was known. Valentin
seems to have been the first to perform a series of experi-
ments, and he selected the Astacus fluviatilis, a species
closely allied to the subject of the present paper. He came
to many correct conclusions on the subject.* He shows a
decided tendency to compare the abdominal ganglia in this
animal to the sympathetic ganglia of the vertebrata, and he
had not the theory of reflex action to explain many of his
difficulties. It is unnecessary for me to detail fully his ex-
periments, nor those of Mr Newport, performed on the Iulus.
I have repeated those of Valentin on the lobster, with the same
results as he obtained. I have also performed one or two
others, viz., cutting one of the cords connecting the cephalic
to the first thoracic ganglion, and then observing whether a
stimulus to that side of the head on which the section was
made, was followed by reflex action on both sides of the body.
I found that the animal, after such a mutilation, although it
had lost all voluntary power over the muscles of the ex-
tremities of that side, yet displayed reflex action on both sides
alike, in response to impressions made on the eye or antennez
of the injured side. This is important, as indicating cross
action, both in the brain, in order that the impression should
pass down the uncut cord—and in the ganglia, to produce
motion on both sides of the body.
The influence of the cephalic ganglion is at once explained
by the cords that proceed from it to distribute their fibres to
the lateral nerves that supply every part of the body. The
bulk of the longitudinal cord is well kept up to the caudal
ganglion, and this can only be explained by the existence of
the “fibres of reinforcement” of Newport, or, fibres from one
ganglion to another, and going no further, The former con-
nect one part of the periphery with another on the same side
of the body, joining the cord by the lateral nerves of one gan-
glion, passing either upwards or downwards, reinforcing the
cord at that part, and then passing away as part of the nerves
of the next ganglion, or those of a more distant one. Ac-
cording to no recognised law of nervous conduction can these
* Valentin, “ De Functionibus Nervorum,” p. 8.
i
F
Physiology of the Nervous System in the Lobster. 43
fibres receive any influence from the centres through which
they merely pass, and they can only serve to connect different
parts of the body by means of that nervous apparatus which
all recent investigations prove to exist atthe periphery. Why
the nervous filaments should take such a course to connect parts
so near as the segments supplied by, contiguous ganglia, and
not go directly from one to the other, I cannot pretend to
explain, except it be taken as an explanation that they do so
for greater protection from injury, or, it may be, in consequence
of the mode of development of the nervous system.
The next question that arises about these and similar fibres
is, whether they have anything to do directly with reflex action;
in other words, whether they originate as excitor and terminate
as motor nerves. It would be contrary to all that we know of
the laws of reflex action to suppose that they do; for wherever
in the animal body we have reflex action, we have ganglionic
matter in the central parts of the nervous system that supply
the parts. But although not directly ministering to reflex
action, they seem to be in some way connected with it, for
they exist in much larger numbers where reflex action is best
seen. Where muscular action is complex, and there are
many small muscles acting in different directions, those fibres
abound most. Their number seems in fact to have some re-
lation to the complexity of action.
An examination of the absolute amount of nervous matter,
both fibres and cells, in different regions, and a comparison
of this with the number and size of the muscles which are
supplied, throws much light on this and other questions con-
nected with reflex action. In the thoracic region, the muscles
are small, but numerous. There are fourteen legs, besides
foot-jaws and mandibles, each leg having seven joints bend-
ing in opposite directions, requiring of course a flexor and
extensor muscle at each joint. There are 196 independent
muscles, therefore, connected with the legs alone, and we
find that it is in the thoracic region that the ganglia are
very large, and the longitudinal fibres numerous, as shown
by the thickness of the two cords, and the fibres running
from one side of the body to the other are numerous also,
as shown by the large nerves, at least one-half of which pass
Nei) is Bh
ee ; Ch, au PS ay A
44 Dr T.S. Clouston on the Minute Anatomy and
from one side to the other across the ganglia. In the abdo-
minal region, on the contrary, the ganglia are small, and
the longitudinal cord not the size of one of its divisions in
the thorax. The muscles, however, are at least six times
as bulky; the whole space included within the rings of the
abdomen being filled with an immense mass of muscular
structure for the propulsion of the animal through the water.
This muscular mass is very differently arranged from the 196
separately-acting muscles of the thorax. It forms large single
muscles, whose fibres act in concert, except the slender exten-
sor fibres. If we now compare one leg with another, where the
conditions are similar as to the number of joints, but different
as to the mass of muscular structure, we find the same rule
exemplified. The larger claws contain bulky and enormously
strong muscles, the smaller ones very slender and weak muscles,
while the absolute number is the same in both; but we do not
find the size of the third thoracic ganglion that supplies the
large claws at all in proportion to the bulk of the muscles. It
is certainly larger than the other thoracic ganglia, but its
bulk is principally made up on the abdominal surface by the
large lateral nerves, a great part of which cross from one side
to the other. The ganglionic matter in it is not much more
than in the others. The first and second thoracic ganglia too,
which supply ten small nerves on each side to the foot-jaws,
and mandibles, contain more ganglionic matter than any of the
other ganglia, except the cephalic, yet the mass of muscle
supplied by them is very small, while the number of muscles
is large. The caudal ganglion too contains much ganglionic
substance,—much more than any of the abdominal ganglia,—
while the muscles it has to supply are small but numerous.
What conclusions can be drawn from these facts ?
1. The ganglionic matter subserves the purpose of reflex
action, and is essential to it.
This is beautifully shown by Professor Owen, by a com-
parison of the abdominal nervous cord of the hermit crab with.
that of the lobster.* In the one animal, there are no muscles in
that region, but only viscera, and a large surface of very sen-
* Owen’s Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the In-
vertebrate Animals, vol. i. p. 171.
+
Physiology of the Nervous System in the Lobster. 45
sitive skin; in the other, the muscles are strongly developed ;
in the former, there are no ganglia, but merely a nervous cord,
to transmit impressions upwards; in the latter, there are large
ganglia.
2. The so-called “fibres of reinforcement,” and the fibres
that cross from the lateral nerves of one side to those of the
other, without being connected to ganglionic cells,—all those
fibres, in fine, which directly connect different parts of the
periphery, whether on the same or on opposite sides,—are mus-
cular at both extremities,* and are not the channels through
which reflex movements take place, but they serve to connect,
harmonize, and render consentaneous the action of muscles
otherwise independent, on the same and on opposite sides of
the body. Where the number of muscles is great, both these
kinds of fibres are numerous ; and they also have some rela-
tion to the size of the muscles, as we see the number of cross
fibres much larger in the third thoracic ganglion than in any
of the others.
3. The number of the ganglionic cells is in direct pro-
portion to the number of the muscles and the complexity of
movement, and not to the mass of muscular structure.
4. The action of those muscles which always move simul-
taneously, and for a definite end, is combined and regulated
by the ganglionic cells (in which the muscular nerve-fibres ter-
minate) arranging themselves in groups,—each group minis-
tering to a limited number of muscles.
Thus the “ fibres of reinforcement” and the cross fibres are
supplementary to the groups of ganglionic cells in the perfect
production of reflex movement, and, by their conjoined action,
give that harmony of muscular action and adaptation to de-
finite ends which is one of the most wonderful of all the
wondrous provisions of existence in the animal body.
5. Each of those groups of cells has a connection to the
cephalic ganglion, and to the neighbouring groups.
6. The groups of cells send their fibres to the same side of
the ganglion in which they lie, but chiefly to the opposite side,
and to the muscles of the. opposite side.
The fibres from the groups at /, &, and i, in Plate I. fig. 7,
* The commissural fibres of the optic must be excepted.
46 Dr T.S. Clouston on the Minute Anatomy and
are those to which I refer. We cannot suppose that those at
fand & all go to join the cephalic and caudal ganglia, and they
must therefore join the lateral nerves of other ganglia above
and below. The groups of cells like those at ¢ which send their
fibres to the lateral nerves of the opposite side, while they also
have a connection with the longitudinal cord of the same side,
are equivalent to a crossing of the longitudinal cords, so far
as reflex movements are concerned, and explain the production
of reflex movements on both sides of the body after one lon-
gitudinal cord had been divided, the stimulus having been
applied to the head. In each of those ganglia we have a me-
chanism quite sufficient to account for its independent action
so far as its own segment of the body is concerned, and its
co-operation with, and relation to the other ganglia, in pro-
ducing, regulating, and combining the motions of the hundreds
of muscles on the same and opposite sides of the body.
The third, fourth, and fifth conclusions are those to which
Schroeder Van der Kolk comes in regard to the arrangement
of the cells in the vertebrata.* Doubtless, as further advances
are made in our knowledge of the far more complicated struc-
ture of the spinal cord of mammalia, the other conclusions
will be proved by demonstrative evidence also to apply. In
this lies the peculiar value of careful investigations into the
arrangement of the cells and fibres in animals of a lower class
where they are not so much concentrated and crushed up, as it
were, that they pave the way for the discovery of similar facts
in the higher class. Although the ‘fibres of reinforcement”
and cross fibres cannot be demonstrated in the spinal cord, yet
there can be little doubt that they exist, and have the same
relation to the cells and their processes, as well as the same
function, as in the Astacus marinus.
From the structure I have already demonstrated, we may
infer that the cephalic ganglion corresponds to the brain of
the vertebrate animal. That its functions are analogous has
been abundantly proved by Valentin and Newport, and con-
firmed by my own repetitions of their experiments. 'When we
endeavour to ascertain the corresponding parts in the brain of
a lobster and a fish, considerable difficulties present them-
* Van der Kolk on the “ Spinal Cord,” Syden. Soc. Prans., p. 73.
;
;
ee i Se ae
A —_ «as
Physiology of the Nervous System in the Lobster. 47
selves. The structures which I have called the “ hemispherical
ganglia,” with their concentric rows of nuclei and slight con-
nection with the other parts of the ganglion, are so very unlike
anything that we see in the brains of mammalia, that we are
puzzled to discover their homologues. Nor does their relation
to the roots of the cephalic nerves, or the origin of the inter-
ganglionic cord, appear at first to explain their nature. Fibres
pass into them from the groups of ganglionic cells at the roots
of the various cephalic nerves; some of the fibres from those
nerves may pass into them directly, but this I was never able to
demonstrate ; and by means of their peduncles joining the longi-
tudinal cords, they have a direct connection with all the other
ganglia. They would therefore seem to have a function dif-
ferent from the ordinary nerve-cells—a general and diffused
function, which has no special relation to any part of the ani-
mal, or to any of its sensory or motor apparatus, but is sup-
plementary to, and conjoimed with, the action of those cells,
wherever innervation exists in the body. It is no unjustifiable
inference to suppose, that in them reside the higher manifes-
tations of nerve-force which the animal exhibits. The lobster
is not a mere machine, that responds to impressions made on
its nervous system from without through its organs of special
senses, or on the extremities of its afferent nerves. The ac-
tions which it performs as the result of these may be explained
by means. of the arrangement of cells which we have seen in
the ganglia, and at the roots of the cephalic nerves ; but we
cannot so account for its great cunning and perseverance in
the search for food, its sexual appetites and instincts, its re-
gular migratory habits from deep to shallow water at certain
seasons, its strongly developed instinct of self-preservation,
&c. These approaches to psychical manifestations doubtless
require special nerve-tissue for their exhibition ; just as we
know that in the higher animals the psychical functions are
connected with the cerebral hemispheres; and the only part
of the nervous system in the lobster containing nerve-cells,
to which no other function can be assigned, are these hemi-
spherical ganglia. We therefore conclude, that in them ori-
ginate those manifestations of a higher animal life.
The terminations of the nerves of special sense in the
48 Dr T.S. Clouston on the Minute Anatomy and
cephalic ganglion of this animal are extremely interesting.
Some of the fibres end in cells precisely similar to those of
the thoracic and abdominal ganglia. And not only are the
cells the same in size and appearance, but they are distributed
into groups in the same way. ‘Their other fibres run to form
part of the interganglionic cord directly. The mechanism of
nerve cells for special sensation is therefore, so far as we can
ascertain it, the same as for general sensibility through the
body. Ofcourse there must be a difference in the mode of ac-
tivity of those cells, the nature of which will probably for ever
remain inappreciable by us ; but we thus see that impressions
made on the special senses are followed by muscular move-
ments, just in the same excito-motor way as impressions on
any other part of the body. The muscles of a lobster’s large
claw may be thrown into action, either when this claw is
touched, or when a foreign body is seen; in the one case the
impression being transmitted upwards-by the afferent nerve-
fibres of the organ to the groups of cells which control its
muscles; and in the other case, the impression being trans-
mitted along the optic fibres, which we have seen to join
directly the interganglionic cord, to the same groups of nerve
cells, and with the same result,—viz., to cause a combined
muscular movement by the nerve-force originated in those
cells, and transmitted along the efferent fibres. In both cases
it is probable that an impression is also transmitted to the
hemispherical ganglia, and that the sensation of pain which
the animal is undoubtedly capable of feeling resides there.
These ganglia constitute, therefore, a true sensorium in the
literal meaning of that term. The animal is endowed with
such a high degree of functional activity—far higher in this
respect than some members of the vertebrate division—that
we must assume the existence of an organ to correspond in
function to the ganglia which constitute the brain in fishes.
The difference between the brain of a fish and that of a
lobster seems to be, that in the former, the cells which minister
directly to the excito-motor function—those through which
impressions from without are followed directly by action in
some form—are mixed and more intimately connected with
the cells whose higher function it is to direct and control all
Physiology of the Nervous System in the Lobster. 49
the other nerve-cells in the body, and give the animal its
sensational and psychical functions; while in the latter the
two kinds of cells are separated. A lobster without the hemi-
spherical ganglia would be a mere excito-motory organism,
capable of no sensation, properly so called, and showing no
desires or instincts, that would move in answer to impres-
sions on its nerves of common and special sense, and only in
answer to those stimuli.
A careful consideration of the minute structure of the
nervous system of any invertebrate animal, such as the one
we have just been examining, shows us that histologically and
physiologically the vertebrate and the invertebrate animals
are nearly allied, In every essential point the ganglia and
inter-ganglionic cord of the lobster correspond to the spinal
cord of the vertebrate, while the cephalic ganglion is ana-
logous both in structure and function to the brain, The ten-
dency to segmentation seen in both sub-kingdoms is most
marked in the nervous system of the invertebrate, because
in this division the nervous system does not form the centre
round which all the other parts are developed, as is the case
with the spinal axis of the vertebrate. Such an examination
makes us esteem lightly, too, such generalizations of the mere
external form of the nervous system, as that made by Audouin
and Milne-Edwards in the Crustacea. No doubt they were
useful, as the Linnean classification of plants was useful, as
a prelude to a more natural and scientific classification ; but
that we are to conclude an animal to be high in the scale,
merely because its nervous system happens to be compressed
into a mass to accord with the external shape of the body,
seems as rational as to affirm, that the nervous cord of the
earth-worm and nematode is more analogous to the spinal
cord of the vertebrate than that of the lobster, because it hap-
pens to have ganglionic cells all the way down.
Description of Plates.
PLATE I.*
Fig. 1, Cross section of sheath of interganglionic cord.—a, Outer longitudinal
layer of fibres; 6, inner circular layer; c, nerve-tubes cut across.
_ * The original drawings for the Thesis were made by my friend Dr Sibbald,
from my own sketches, and with the microscopic preparations before him.
NEW SERIES. —VOL. XVII. No. 1.—Jan. 1863. G
50 =Dr T.S. Clouston on the Minute Anatomy and
Fig. 2. a, Nerve-tubes of different sizes from interganglionic cord. What ap-
pear to be minutely striated fibres at one end, are at the other (where
there are fewer of them) seen to be merely smaller tubes ; b, a large
tube split up into fibrille ; c, nerve-cells from caudal ganglion; d, the
same, with what appear to be stellate nuclei.
Fig. 3. a, Small cells from cephalic ganglion; b, one of the nuclei from a hemi-
spherical ganglion.
Fig. 4. Cross section of abdominal interganglionic cord. —a, Large nerve-
tubes; b, sheath, which is thickened on the dorsal surface at d; ¢,
septum; ¢, the motor-nerve, which springs from the cord between the
ganglia, lying at this part in apposition to it.
Fig. 5. Section of about one-fourth of a thoracic ganglion,—a, Longitudinal
fibres of interganglionic cord ; }, fibres of lateral nerve ; ¢, cross fibres
from one lateral nerve to the opposite side ; d, fibres from longitudinal
cord joining lateral nerves ; ¢, sheath; f, a group of cells, with most
of their fibres passing towards the head ; g, another group, with fibres
passing across to opposite side; h and é, large nerve-cells; & and J,
scattered bipolar nerve-cells ; m, a bundle of nerve fibres cut across.
Fig. 6. A section of the same ganglion as that from which fig. 5 was made,
but more towards its dorsal surface.—a, Interganglionic cord; 6,
lateral nerve; c, a group of cells whose ‘‘ pedicle” passes backwards
towards the caudal extremity ; d, another group, whose “ pedicle”
passes to the opposite side; ¢, longitudinal fibres cut somewhat
obliquely ; f, isolated nerve-cells.
Fig. 7. Diagram of an ideal ganglion, embodying the results of all the sections _
made.—a, Longitudinal fibres ; 6, cross fibres ; ¢, fibres from longitu-
dinal cord to lateral nerves; d, ¢, fibres of “ reinforcement ;” J, group
of cells sending its “ pedicle” forwards, but with connections to other
groups ; g, group of cells sending its “ pedicle” to opposite lateral
nerve; h, group between the cords, sending two bundles of fibres, m ~
and n, to lateral nerves of opposite sides; k, group of cells sending
‘‘ pedicle ” towards caudal extremity ; 1, group of cells whose “ pe-
dicle ” joins lateral nerve of same side.
PLATE II,
Fig. 1. Cross section of thoracic ganglion, showing a, 6, lateral nerve (in out-
line) cut across ; c, a few of the fibres of longitudinal cord cut across’;
d, e, groups of cells whose pedicles pass to opposite side; /, group
with pedicle passing to lateral nerve of same side; g, group whose
connections have been cut away.
Fig. 2. Longitudinal section of an abdominal ganglion.—a, Longitudinal cord ;
b, lateral nerve cut across; c, group of cells, a few of whose fibres
pass among the longitudinal fibres, and at d join them; /, other groups
of cells, whose fibres converge towards the lateral nerves.
Fig. 3. The two cords connecting the cephalic to the first thoracic ganglion,
with the sheath taken off one of them, magnified four times.—a, Gan-
glionic swelling at root of pneumogastric nerve; b, pneumogastric
The preparations were also examined by Professor Goodsir, before the ‘*‘ De- —
fence of the Thesis.” I must here express my great obligations to Dr Sibbald —
for the manner in which the illustrations were done.
é
Physiology of the Nervous System in the Lobster. 51
nerve ; ¢, one cord, with its sheath dissected partly off ; d, other cord ;
é, cross nerve from one to the other, whose fibres, g, are dissected away
from the cord, so as to show how they join the pneumogastric ganglion
and nerve; /, accessory pneumogastric,
Wig. 4. Section of cephalic ganglion in the plane of entrance of longitudinal
cords and optic nerves.—a, Optic nerve; b, longitudinal eord ; ¢,
fibres from longitudinal cord of opposite side to optic nerve; d, fibres
to optic of same side ; e, commissural fibres of optics; /, fibres from
second cephalic nerve; g, h, groups of ordinary ganglion cells ;
i, group of ganglion cells in front of optic commissure (the whole space
vacant in the drawing had been filled up by those cells, but they had
been dislodged) ; &, a few commissural fibres from one longitudinal
cord to the other.
Fig. 5. Cross section of the cephalic ganglion, slightly anterior to the centre.—
a, “ Hemispherical ganglion ;” b, “ Peduncle ;” o, longitudinal cord
cut across; d, oval striated mass below hemispherical ganglion; ¢,
group of small stellate cells; f, h, ordinary ganglion cells; g, another
group of cells similar to those at e.
Fig. 6. Vertical section of anterior part of cephalic ganglion, in the line of one
of the optic nerves.—a, Optic nerve fibres ; b, layer of small stellate
cells, which many of the optic nerve fibres join; ¢, hemispherical
ganglion ; d, bending of the optic nerve fibres over the hemispherical
ganglion at an acute angle.
Reply to some Comments of Mr F. Marcet on the Power of
Selection ascribed to the Roots of Plants. By CHARLES
DavuBENY, M.D., Professor of Botany, Oxford.*
A friend pointed out to me, a short time ago, in the
February Number of the Bibliotheque Universelle, some com-
ments on a paper of mine relative to the power attributed to
plants of rejecting abnormal or poisonous substances pre-
sented to them by the soil in which they grow, the substance
of which paper was communicated to this Section at the Meet-
ing of the British Association for 1861.t These remarks, pro-
ceeding as they do from the respectable pen of M. Francis
Marcet, seem to call for some notice on my part, and I
therefore propose to offer, on the present occasion, a few ob-
servations in reply. I do not, however, intend to dwell at
any length upon the points of difference between his views
* Read at a Meeting of the British Association, on Tuesday, October 7th,
1862.
t See also my paper in the “ Journal of the Chemical Society of London,”
- vol. xiv. for 1861.
52 Professor Daubeny on the Power of Selection
and my own, because I am quite prepared to admit that the
subject is one which requires a more extended and perhaps a
more careful set of experiments than has been hitherto insti-
tuted.
_ I would only now wish to point out, that there really seems
to be nothing irreconcileable between the results obtained by
Saussure and by Marcet himself, and those which I have
deduced from the experiments to which allusion has been
made by the physiologist alluded to.
Normal substances, as both sides admit, are taken up by
the roots in the ratio of their respective powers of permeating
membrane. Hence, gummy matters, as Saussure has shown,
pass through them less rapidly than saline solutions. Nor can
there be any dispute as to the power residing in the plant to
reject by its roots such matters as may chance to be in excess.
The difficulty which we entertain relates, not to the case of
substances which usually enter into the circulation of a plant,
but to that of those which are abnormal or poisonous. Are
we to suppose, with respect to the latter, that they are first
taken in and afterwards excreted, or that they are denied
entrance into the system by virtue of some property belonging
to the roots, which seems in some way connected with their
vitality, as it is.not possessed by dead membrane? This is
the problem which I have proposed to physiologists, and
which, whilst suggesting the latter alternative as the more
probable one, I never concealed from myself or from them,
was yet open to further inquiries.
I would merely observe, in justification of the view which I
have preferred taking, that the presence in the vegetable sys-
tem of poisonous matters, where the latter are exhibited to
their roots in large quantities, whether this be inferred direetly
by analysis, or indirectly, as in the case of the vegetable
poisons to which M. Marcet alludes, by their effect upon the
system, is by no means inconsistent with the power I have
ascribed to the spongioles of rejecting, when in a healthy state,
such bodies, inasmuch as the first effect of the application of
poisons to the roots in sufficiently large doses would be that
of destroying their vitality, and thus of reducing them to the
condition of dead membrane.
ascribed to the Roots of Plants. 58
For this to happen, it is by no means necessary, as Mr
Marcet contends, that the poison should be of a corrosive
nature, since the destruction of life would be equally brought
about, if the noxious matter acted directly upon the irritabi-
lity of the plant, like the extract of opium, belladonna, or nux
vomica. Mr Marcet, indeed, suggests, that the negative re-
sults I obtained in my experiments may have been due to the
smallness of the dose applied, and to the substances com-
bining with some base present in the soil, by which they
were rendered insoluble. But if so, why were the same solu-
tions absorbed, when the quantity administered was slightly
increased, as the effect produced on the plant plainly de-
monstrated to have been the case? It would seem strange,
that not a particle should enter the plant in the one instance,
when it was so easily recognisable in it in the other.
Those, however, who prefer the latter hypothesis, which I
have suggested as the other alternative, and imagine the poison
to have been first absorbed and afterwards excreted, accounting
for its non-detection in the plants from the extreme minuteness
of the quantity in which it was present at any one time, must
at least admit my general position, that a principle allied to
vitality has a share in the effect brought about; inasmuch as
no such consequence would ensue in the case of a dead mem- -
brane, where, on the contrary, whatever once found admit-
tance would go on accumulating in the tissue, in proportion as
capillary attraction continued to furnish fresh supplies of
moisture, from taking the place of that got rid of by exha-
lation.
The power of selection, which must in any case be as-
eribed to the entire vegetable tissue, is a phenomenon at
least asremarkable as that of rejecting certain substances,
which I have suggested as belonging to the roots; and one
or other alternative must, I think, be adopted by all who
consider the very varying proportions in which different plants
absorb the normal ingredients which are presented to them,
when growing in the same solution.
Both these I regard as residual phenomena, which cannot
as yet be explained, except by invoking a principle present in
organic, but wanting in inorganic matter, and which I have
-
*
54. M. Alphonse De Candolle on a New Character
therefore ventured to refer to the operation of laws connected
with vitality.
On a New Character observed in the Fruit of the Oaks, and
on a Better Division of the Genus Quercus. By M. At-
PHONSE DE CaNDOLLE. Communicated by the Author.*
The general and differential characters of the oaks have
been well studied for several years, more especially by M J.
Gay, who is noted for his exactitude. I was therefore not
surprised to find the greater part of the questions elucidated,
when I came to examine the Genus Quercus and its allied
genera for the “ Prodromus.” The only difficulties which IL
-encountered had reference to the synonymy of species and their
limits. I propose in a future memoir to discuss the species of
oaks, but at present I shall limit myself to the notice of a
character which appears to have been overlooked. I shall at
the same time take this opportunity of speaking of some other
characters of the fruit which have not been studied in a suffi-
cient number of species.
Two excellent observers, Andrew Michaux and his son,
proved that certain oaks ripened their fruit at the end of the
first year, while others did so in the course of the following
year. We neglected this character for half a century, and it
is to M. Gay that the merit is due of bringing it again into
notice, and of confirming it by the examination of several
species belonging to the old world. He has more especially
discovered that, under the name of Quercus Suber, two spe-
cies have been confounded,—one with annual, and the other
with biennial fruit.
Struck with the fact that forms so nearly allied might pre-
sent two periods of maturation, I examined attentively this
character, with the view of ascertaining if it is constant, and
if it is connected with other circumstances more easily veri-
fied and more apparent. I have therefore studied it, not
only in all the species the fruits of which I could obtain, but
* Translated from the copy sent by the Author; and read to the descnsier
Society of Edinburgh, 11th December 1862.
a ei a le
i — lig
observed in the Fruit of the Oaks. 55
also in hundreds of specimens of the same species, and in
perhaps two thousand specimens of different species contained
in the rich herbaria placed at my disposal.
It is in general easy to determine the duration of fruits
even on a dried branch. It is sufficient to examine whether
the ripe fruit is connected with the wood of the year, or with
that of the preceding year. This observation is easily made,
as the peduncles persist until the maturity of the fruit. We
meet, however, now and then, with specimens which may lead
into error and cause difficulty, especially in species with per-
sistent leaves; but with a certain degree of attention, and by
the careful examination of several fruit-bearing branches, we
can generally solve all doubts. These difficulties depend on
the circumstance that the small fructiferous branches of one
year may cease to elongate or to ramify the following year,
while continuing to ripen their acorns. We may thus mis-
take a biennial for an annual fruit. On more close examina-
tion, however, we usually detect some differences of colour, of
thickness, or of pubescence, in the branches of one year com-
pared with those of the succeeding year, or a difference of
consistence in the leaves of the two years, which enable us to
recognise the true age of the branch. We meet also in her-
baria with fruit-bearing branches of the second year which
have lost their leaves by desiccation, and which being in the
axil of an old leaf, appear to be the peduncles of the year.
In such cases, the scars of the young leaves and the pubescence
of the branch, as compared with that of the principal axis,
enable us to detect the truth. We find that the character,
when once determined, is perfectly fixed in each species.
Unfortunately, however, the character is not linked with
any other, and consequently two species very analogous may
present fruits, in the one annual, and in the other biennial.
This may be shown by reference to the following species :—
Quercus microphylla, Nee, has annual fruit, and Q. Casta-
nea, Nee (Q. mexicana, H. & B.), has biennial fruit; Q.
Seemanni, Liebm., Q. Ghiesbregtii, Martens & Gal., Q. Tla-
puwahuensis, A.DC., have annual fruit, while Q. acutifolia,
Nee, has biennial fruit; Q. scytophylla, Liebm., has annual
fruit, and Q. calophylla, biennial; Q. obtusata, H. & B.
56 M. Alphonse De Candolle on a New Character
(Q. Hartwegi, Berk.), Q. tomentosa, Willd., Q. reticulata,
H. & B., have annual fruit, and Q. crassifolia, H. & B.,
biennial. In addition to these, we have already mentioned
Quercus Suber, L., and Q. occidentalis, Gay, which are so
like as to have been frequently confounded together as one,
and yet have a marked difference in regard to their fruiting.
When I had become fully familiarised with the minutest
details of the characters of oaks, I found it impossible to de-
termine whether the maturation of the species was annual or
biennial, without seeing a specimen bearing ripe fruit. This
shows how slightly the character is connected with others,
and how unfit it is for the purpose of natural classification.
I have therefore used it only for subdivisions (under the form
of paragraphs) of the natural genera or subgenera, and in par-
ticular of the subgenus Lepidobalanus of Endlicher, which
constitutes the greater part of the oaks.
There exists in the oaks another character which has not
been taken up by any one, and which seems, theoretically, to
be of some importance, but which, as in the other case, cannot
be detected at a glance. I mean the position of the atrophied
or undeveloped ovules relatively to the single perfect seed, or
to the ovary. ‘The remarkable external resemblance between
the acorns of all the species of oak has led to the belief that
they resemble each other in their interior. This, however, is
not the case, and at times when I have searched for the five
abortive ovules around the single one which is changed into
the seed, and have seen how easy it is to detect them, I have
been astonished that authors have not Jong ere this thought of
the character I am about to mention. The fact is, that none
of them have alluded to it. Even M. Schacht, who of all
others has best described the young ovules of Quercus Robur,*
in speaking of the development of the fruit, says :—*“ There
remains scarcely a trace of the ovules which we saw at the
epoch of fructification.” But the fact is, that in Q. Robur
we find constantly five abortive ovules below the seed which
fills the acorn at the period of maturity. They are placed
close to the spermoderm among the irregular remains of septa.
* Schacht, Beitrige, i. p. 37, t. iii. This plate is reproduced in his work
entitled “ Der Baum.”
— . ms ——_
Oe EP eee a ee =
observed in the Fruit of the Oaks. 57
They sometimes attain the size of a millimetre (0:03937079 of
an inch), and when less, they can still be seen either by the
naked eye, or by means of a moderate lens. They are held by
the remains of the placentas under the seed at the bottom of the
ovary; their primitive semi-anatropal evolution can be easily
recognised. This inferior position confirms the very accurate
observation of Schacht, that the ovules of Q. Robur arise from
the face of ovarian loculaments, and are ascending; whilst
most authors describe them as pendulous, or as changing their
position during evolution.* It is a universal law, at least
I have verified it in several families, for instance in Myrsin-
aces and Hippocastanes, that the ovules, once formed, are not
detached when they become abortive. We find them always at
their points of origin, if we take the trouble to search for them ;
and the examination of the ripe fruit is sometimes a convenient
method of ascertaining the primary position of the ovules.
All the oaks with annual maturation seem to have the
atrophied ovules under the seed ; at least inferior to the middle
zone of the seed. I have determined this in a great number
of American species, as well as in those of Europe. The oaks
which ripen their fruit the second year, on the contrary, have
the abortive ovules sometimes at the base, sometimes at the top
of the ovary ; and all the oaks of the other sections, as of that
called Lepidobalanus, as well as the genera Lithocarpus, Cas-
tanopsis, and Castanea, have their abortive ovules at the
summit of the seed. Thus, in the sub-genus Lepidobalanus,
the Quercus Cerris, the fruit of which ripens the second year,
and which has deciduous leaves, has ovules inferior, as in Q.
Robur ; while Quercus pseudo-suber, occidentalis, coccifera,
Vallonea, &c., of Europe, and Q. crassifolia, splendens, &c.,
of America, with biennial fruits and persistent leaves, resemble
Q. Robur and Cerris, as regards their ovules ; but a long series
of American oaks, with biennial maturation, and leaves either
caducous or persistent, such as Q. falcata, rubra, Xalapensis,
acutifolia, &c., have the abortive or atrophied ovules placed
above the seed. It will astonish the American botanist to be
* Endlicher says (Genera, p. 274) ovula apice anguli interioris appensa. The
younger Nees (Gen. Plant. Flor. Germ. fasc. i.) says, ovula primum erecta, mox
pendula. Gay (Bull. Soc. Bot., 1857, p. 506), not rn been able to verify
the position, has said nothing on the subject.
NEW SERIES.—VOL, XVII. NO. 1.—JAN. 18638. H
58 M. Alphonse De Candolle on a New Character
told, that on opening the acorns of their most common species,
we find the abortive ovules sometimes at the base, sometimes
at the apex of the seed. For instance, in Q. macrocarpa,
Prinus, stellata, alba, virens, the ovules are below, as in Q.
Robur; while in Q. ilicifolia, falcata, rubra, palustris,
coccinea, Phellos, imbricaria and nigra, they are superior as
regards the seed.
So far as I have been able to determine by the examina-
tion of several species, the position of the atrophied ovules in
- the ripe fruit depends on their position at their origin: thus,
when the ovules remain at the apex of the ovary, above the
seed, it is because they were primarily pendulous ; when they
are at the base, it is because in their young state they were
ascending. The imperfect condition of our herbaria has not
allowed me to verify these statements so frequently as I should
have wished.
This diversity in the attachments of the ovules appears at
first sight a matter of importance, whence we may derive @
division of the genera or sections. When we consider the
matter, however, more carefully, and observe how often ana-
logous species have two kinds of ovules, the character loses
much of its value. The ovules always grow sideways, on the
re-entering and usually imperfect septa which divide the
ovary into three cells or loculaments. They arise either near
the base or near the apex of the ovary, or sometimes at a cer-
tain appreciable distance from these two points. The evolution
is always semi-anatropal, the exostome being turned upwards,
and that alone proves that the upper ovules do not come
exactly from the superior angle of the loculament. In Quercus
Suber, at least in some specimens which I have been able to
observe in different states of evolution, the ovules arise a little
above the base of the ovary, and the walls are separated as
far as the middle, as in Q. Robur; but the oyules being at
their origin higher than in the last-mentioned species, they
are found at maturity around the seed, disposed in a spiral
manner, and the highest atrophied ovule scarcely reaches the
middle of the length of the seed. If this evolution is con-
stant, it will present a specific difference between Q. Suber —
and Q. occidentalis. The latter, so far as I can judge from a —
small number of acorns, has the atrophied ovules completely —
ee. ee
observed in the Fruit of the Oakes. 59
below, as in Q. Robur. Two Mexican species have the atro-
phied ovules above the base, but still below the middle of the
seed, and in some species, with the ovules above, we find the
position a little below the apex. The character, therefore, is
not so exact as we might have thought. I shall take this
character, along with duration of the fruit, to aid in the sub-
division of the sections in the “ Prodromus.”
The following is the division at which I have arrived, after
careful study and examination. The species of the genus
Quercus are grouped in five natural sections or sub-genera, ac-
cording to the nature of the involucre or cupule, combined with
the inflorescence and habit. They are nearly the sections
indicated by Endlicher (Supp. iv.), and by Blume (Museum
Lugduno-Bat.), with certain modifications. The following is
an abridged tabular view :— .
Quercus.—Sectio I. Lepidobalanus (Quercus, L.; Quer-
cus, sect. Robur, Cerroides, Erythrobalanos, Cerris, Gallifera,
Suber, Coccifera, Spach; Quereus A, Lepidobalanus, Endl.
excl. spec.)—Amenta gracilia, pendentia; floribus omnibus
masculis solitariis, absque rudimento pistilli; bracteis soli-
tariis, caducis, interdum (in spec. Americanis) deficientibus.
Stamina plerumque erga perigonium non manifeste symme-
trica. Cupula squamis imbricatis tecta, ore aperta. Ovula
abortiva, nunc prope basin, rarissime in medio, nonnunquam
prope apicem seminis persistentia. Omnes ex hemispheerio
boreali.
II. Androgyne (Q. densiflora, Hook., species sectionis
Lepidobalani, Endl.)—Spicee ima basi flores femineos, supra
masculos gerentes, erect. Flores masculi fasiculati, fasci-
culis 3-bracteatis, singuli absque rudimento pistilli. Stamina
numero duplici loborum perigonii, antheris minimis. Stigmata
3-6 in div. floribus rami. Cupula, sect. Lepidobalani. Ovula
abortiva erga semen supera.—In California.
III. Pasania (sect. Lepidobalanus, Endl. partim, Quercus
§ 2. Blume Mus. Lugd. Bat.; sect. Pasania Migq. fl. ad-
junctis char.)—Amenta erecta, floribus masc. sepius fasicu-
latis, fasiculis 3-bracteatis. Pistillum rudimentarium, libe-
rum. Stamina sepius numero duplici loborum perigonii.
. Flores feminei secus spicas segregatas vel basi spicarum an-
drogynarum. Flores fem. et ideo fructus sepe involucris con-
60 M. Alphonse De Candolle on a New Character
niventibus. Cupule Lepidobalani. Ovula abortiva supera.
—In Asia meridionali.
IV. Cyclobalanus (Endl. gen., anno 1847; sect. Gyrole-
cana, Blume Mus. Lugd. anno 1850.)—Inflorescentia et flores
masculi Pasanie. Flores feminei distincti. Cupula ore aperta,
squamis in lamellas concentricas vel subspirales, integras vel
sero crenatas lateraliter coalitis. Ovula supera.—In Asia
meridionali.
V. Chlamydobalanus (Endl. gen. anno 1847; sect. Cas-
taneopsis, Blume Mus. Lugd., non Castanopsis, Don.)—In-
florescentia et flores masculi Pasanie et Cyclobalani. Flores
feminei distincti. Cupula glandem undique tegens, sepius
apice irregulariter fissa (in eodem ramo clausa vel fissa), con-
centrice squamis connatis verticillatis cincta. Ovula supera.
—In Asia meridionali.
This last section touches the genus Lithocarpus of Blume,
in which the acorn is said to be adhérent to the involucre,
which covers it entirely. From this we pass to the genus
Castanopsis of Spach, which has the inflorescence and the
flower of the oaks in the section Pasania and following sec-
tions, with the hedgehog-like fruit of Castanea, and which
differs from the latter in its trilocular ovary. Castanea with a
6-7-celled ovary, and Fagus are too well known to require
description.
I have not admitted the genus Synedrys of Lindley, founded
on the existence of incomplete partitions, which penetrate into
the spermoderm and the cotyledons. This character, which
is a remarkable one, is found in some oaks,—as Quercus Skin-
neri of Mexico, Q. cornea of Loureiro, and Q. Korthalsii
of Blume, in the Indian Archipelago, which have no other
special relation to each other; and it is awanting in species
more nearly allied. We also see many transitions in other
species, under the form of slight foldings, partially penetrating,
or in undulations of the cotyledons; and even in the species
already noticed the foldings are irregular.
The Quercus virens of Aiton (Q. oleoides, Cham. and Schl.),
a species widely spread in the southern parts of North America,
presents a very singular character, the value and constancy of
which I have not yet been able to determine. In the four
seeds which I examined the radicle was imbedded in a homo- ~
a
ee ee eS ae i Le
ey ae a Fe
"ot ellie
observed in the Fruit of the Oakes. 61
geneous substance, which represents either two adherent coty-
ledons or a single cylindrical one. The position in the centre,
towards the upper part of the fruit, indicates rather two coty-
ledons intimately united. I have seen nothing like this in
the allied species Q. Zlew, nor in any other. It will be in-
teresting to examine the development of the seed. The state
of these specimens, in the Herbaria to which I have access, has
not allowed me to examine the matter fully.
The most troublesome point of classification is the sub-
division of the natural section Lepidobalanus of the genus
Quercus. It alone includes more than a half of the species,
and some which appear at first sight very different, for in-
stance, Quercus Robur, Cerris, Vallonea, Libani, rubra
Xalapensis, &e., I should have wished’to form natural groups
around those species which seem to present very distinct char-
acters. In other words, I should have wished to constitute
sub-sections analogous to Spach’s numerous sections in End-
licher’s genus Lepidobalanus. ‘Webb, Endlicher, and espe-
cially Gay, have endeavoured to do this; but I must say, if
they have arrived at a certain point in this subdivision,
it is only by leaving out a great number of species from
Mexico and Southern and Western Asia, which have been
little known for some years. Gay, with his usual candour,
admits this; and he allows that the subdivisions are by
no means definite.* For my own part, after careful study,
I have been led to conclude, that in the present state of science
there is no good subdivision of the sub-genus Lepidobalanus.
When we become acquainted with the male flowers of many
species which are still unknown, and when we have examined
the evolution of the buds, it is possible that we may be able to
establish a truly natural division, but, at present we can
only, by means of the fruit and leaves, arrive at artificial sec-
tions which frequently separate nearly allied species.
The form and direction of the scales of the involucre isa
kind of character which is too liable to variation to be em-
ployed as a means of division. Besides, it would isolate some
species, as Q. Cerris, while it would bring an immense num-
ber into a single group.
The duration of the leaves, according to Webb and some
* Ann. des Sciences Nat. Serie iv. vol. vi. p. 238.
62 On a New Character observed in the Fruit of the Oaks.
other authors, is variable in certain species, as Quercus
Lusitanica and humilis. It has also the inconvenience of
being difficult to determine either in herbaria, or during a
journey through a country. Webb has distinguished in oaks,
Folia decidua, subdecidua, and persistentia ; but these alone
show a want of fixedness in the character. In many southern
_ species, particularly in Mexico, it appears that the leaves fall
in the second year, shortly after the first appearance of the
new foliaceous organ, and in these circumstances we scarcely
ever find them upon specimens in herbaria, which are usually
gathered with the fruits in autumn. In general, the very per-
sistent leaves are easily seen ; but the distinction of the leaves
falling a little before or a little after the succeeding folia-
tion, is too variable in the species, and too momentary to be of
practical use.
I have therefore been compelled to divide the group Lepi-
dobalanus in a rather artificial manner, following, in the
first instance, the characters of the duration of the fruit, and
of the position of the ovules, which are fixed and important
characters, then taking into account the duration of the
leaves, which is an uncertain and inconstant character. The
result is as follows :— .
1. Abortive ovules inferior, Maturation of fruit annual.
a. Leaves caducous. Quercus Robur, Toza, Lusitanica,
alba, Prinus, macrocarpa, polymorpha, &c.
b. Leaves persistent. Q. tomentosa, microphylla, virens,
Llex, Suber, &c.
2. Abortive ovules inferior, Maturation biennial.
a. Leaves caducous. Q. Cerris.
b. Leaves persistent. Q. pseudo-suber, occidentalis, Val-
lonea, Inbani, coccifera, &c.
3. Abortive ovules inferior. Maturation biennial.
a, Leaves caducous. Q. falcata, ilicifolia, rubra, Phellos,
Xalapensis, calophylla, &e.
b. Leaves persistent. Q. acutifolia, aquatica, Castanea,
cinerea.
This last subdivision passes into the other sections of the
genus Quercus ; and I repeat, that independent of this arbi-
trary classification of the species of the principal section, all
the sections themselves, and all the genera, depend on a truly
natural combination of characters.
iii a
i! ‘
Eee oe
63
On the Nocturnal Cooling of the Superficial Layer of the
Soil, compared to that of a Stratum of Air in contact
with the Earth. By CuarLtEs MARTINS, Montpellier.”
On 7th November 1861, Professor Marcet communicated
to the Societé de Physique et d’ Histoire Naturelle de Gen2ve,t
some remarks having reference to a memoir published by me,
in regard to the nocturnal increase of temperature with the
height.{ He points out the marked accordance between the
results at Montpellier and those which he had obtained twenty-
three years previously at Geneva.§ I was glad to be able to
confirm the laws first noticed by M. A. Pictet|| at Geneva, and
now verified by Marcet. There is one point, however, on which
I cannot agree with Marcet. I stated, that during the night
the temperature of the surface of the soil was above that of
the stratum of air in contact with it. M. Marcet affirms the
contrary. This disagreement is more apparent than real.
By the surface of the soil I do not mean the mathematical
surface, or the plane of separation between the air and the
soil, but rather the most superficial layer of the soil, the
thickness of which is a little greater than the diameter of the
bulb of the thermometer used in the experiments. This layer
was two centimetres in thickness, while the diameter of the
thermometric bulbs was 0™-015. It is the temperature of this
superficial layer of the soil which I wished to ascertain, as it
has reference to vegetable physiology. When M. Marcet
lays a thermometer on the soil, the instrument only touches
the earth by a small portion of its surface, the greater part
of the surface is surrounded by air. This thermometer only
gives a kind of mean between the temperature of the lowest
stratum of air and the surface of the soil. In this mean the
temperature of the air predominates, because it covers the
larger portion of the bulb of the thermometer. Thermome-
ters with a lenticular bulb, which I have seen used by M.
* Communicated by the author, and translated from the French.
+ Bibliotheque Universelle, Archives, tom, xii. p. 267. 1861.
ft Mem. de l’Academie des Sciences de Montpellier, tom. v. p. 47. 1861.
§ Mem. de la Soc. de Phy. et d’Hist. Nat. de Genéve, tom. viii. 1838.
|| Essai sur le Feu, p. 179. 1790.
64 M. Charles Martins on the Nocturnal Cooling
Walferdin, will give a more accurate mean between the air
and the surface of the soil. The thermometer of M. Marcet,
with a spherical reservoir, when placed on the soil, indicated a
temperature slightly different from that of the air in contact
with the surface of the earth. But, according to his experi-
ments and mine, this stratum of air is colder than all the
layers placed above it. M. Marcet calls this the temperature
of the surface of the soil; and he has, as a matter of course,
found it almost always lower than that of the air, which is five
centimetres above it.
In order to clear up the facts of the case, I resumed my
experiments this winter (1861-62) in the Botanic Garden at
Montpellier. I selected four minimum thermometers, as like
as possible, and carefully compared. The bulb of the first
was placed in the most superficial layer of the soil, two cen-
timetres in thickness. The second was laid on the surface
of the soil. The third was placed on two small wooden props
or trestles five centimetres,* above the surface of the soil.
The following are the mean minima of eighteen very severe
nights in January and February 1862, as indicated by these
thermometers :—
Thermometer in superficial layer of soil, —5°15 C.
Thermometer on surface of soil, i : —6°05 ,,
Thermometer at 0™-05 above soil, , . 6°01 ,,
These results accord with those which I had previously
obtained. The most superficial layer of the soil was warmer
than the air with which it was in contact. The thermometer
placed on the surface of the soil indicated a temperature
lower than that of the soil, but nearly equal to that of the
free thermometer, placed five centimetres above the soil,—
the difference being only 0°04 of a degree of Centigrade.
Marcet suspects that the more elevated temperature of my
thermometer in the soil was owing to the slight covering of
earth, which diminished its nocturnal radiation. In order to
ascertain if this was the case, I placed upon small supports
three minimum thermometers. Their bulbs were raised five
centimetres (rather more than one and a half inch) above the
soil. The bulb of the first was uncovered ; that of the second
* A centimetre is 0°3937079 English inch.
“tin ee,
of the Superficial Layer of the Soil. 65
was covered with a thin layer of garden earth; while that of
the third was enveloped in chimney soot, which was made to
adhere by means of gum. The mean minima of seven per-
fectly calm nights of March 1862 were as follows :—
Uncovered thermometer, . 4 ; . —4"25 0.
Thermometer covered with soot, . ; . —4°28 ,,
Thermometer covered with earth, A . —4°34 ,,
It will be seen that the three thermometers indicated very
nearly the same temperature, although their radiating powers
were very different. We know that this radiating power is
proportional to the absorbing power. In order to determine
directly the absorbing power of my thermometers for solar
heat, it was sufficient to observe them between ten o’clock and
mid-day, when they were fully exposed to the sun, They
were then all equally exposed to the same sources of heat,—
the direct rays of the sun, and the reflection of heat from the
soil. The following are the results,—the numbers being the
mean of ten days’ observation :—
Thermometer covered with soot, ; : 33°38 C.
Thermometer covered with earth, . , 30°29 ,,
Thermometer uncovered, . 3 ‘ ‘ 28°-49 ,,
This order is just such as might have been anticipated.
Nevertheless, the uncovered thermometer, which absorbed the
smallest amount of solar heat, indicated, during calm nights,
a minimum a little below that of the two other covered instru-
ments. The cooling of a thermometer during the night is not
therefore owing solely to the contact of the air, and the radia-
tion towards the zenith ; for, if that were the case, then the
thermometer covered with soot would have indicated the great-
est cold, then that covered with earth, and finally, that with
the naked bulb. The difference of the result depends on this,
that the thermometers placed at five centimetres from the soil
are subjected to two opposite calorific influences,—the radia-
tion towards the zenith, which cools them, and the absorption
_ of heat emitted from the earth, which warms them. The
thermometer which radiated most being thus that which ab-
sorbs the most, there results a compensation, in virtue of
which the naked thermometer, and those covered with earth
NEW SERIES.—VOL. XVII. NO. 1.—JaNn. 1863. I
66 Mr Charles Martins on the Nocturnal Cooling
or with soot, indicate minima which only differ from each
other by one-tenth of a degree, as we have seen above.
To remove all doubt as to the heating effect of the surface
of the soil, which during the night radiates heat towards the
thermometers placed at five centimetres above it, I noted, on
ten successive calm nights of April, the minima indicated by
four thermometers, naked, or covered with earth, and raised
five centimetres. ‘Two were above the natural soil, while the
other two were separated by a bright tin plate laid on the soil,
As this plate absorbed by conductility the heat of the earth
on which it lay, it is clear that the two thermometers placed
above it were removed from the action of terrestrial radia-
tion. They were no longer heated by the soil, and ought to
indicate a lower temperature than the two others. This is
shown by the following Table, which is the result of observa-
tions made during ten calm nights :—
Mean Minima of the Night.
Thermometer above the Natural Thermometer above a Plate of
Soil. Tin.
Thermometer naked, . . 2%44/|Thermometer naked, . . 1°56
covered with earth, 3°25 ++» covered with earth, 2°60
The mean difference of 0°81 between the two thermometers
exposed to the calorific radiation of the soil, and those which
were removed from that radiation, is the expression of the
heat emitted by the soil, which counteracts the effect of the
zenithal radiation, and of the proper temperature of the air.
I think, therefore, that I have established by experiments
the following facts :—
1. During the night the superficial layer of soil is less
cooled than the stratum of air in contact with it.
2. The emission of heat from this superficial layer warms
to a small extent the bodies placed above it.
This excess of heat in the superficial layer of soil, compared
with the stratum of air in contact with it, is easily explained.
The solar heat which strikes the soil during the day, pene-
trates into the interior at the rate of about a decimetre in
three hours ; the heat of the day is therefore stored up in the
soil, and compensates in part for the loss due to nocturnal —
radiation. The excess, also, of the temperature of the soil —
of the Superficial Layer of the Soil. 67
above that of the air in contact with itis greater in summer
than in winter, as I have already shown in my memoir on
the increase of nocturnal temperature with height.
Note to “ Notice of a Mass of Meteoric Iron, found in the
Village of Newstead, Rowburghshire.” By Joun ALEx-
ANDER Smitu, M.D.*
Since this paper was read, the half: of the Meteorite, which
was broken into two portions, has been cut into several sec-
tions or slices; and in the process of doing so, it was found
that the lobed or rounded portion was very hard and dense, re-
sembling cast-iron in its character, it was harder than untem-
pered steel of the best quality, but not so hard as the pre-
pared steel plate of the engraver ; while the pointed portion was
softer and tougher, and was stated to resemble iron to which a
small portion of malleable iron had been added. The slices
showed that the mass was dense and metallic throughout, with
the exception of a small part of the pointed portion, next the
deep furrow which partially divided the mass (and by which
it became separated into two) ; the metal here was marked over
with dull spots, like corrosions, and seemed less pure and
crystalline, appearing as if mixed with dross. A portion of
this latter part was given to Dr Murray Thomson to examine
specially for the presence of magnetic oxide of iron; and Dr
Thomson has accordingly added some notes on the subject
to his previous communication.
The mass of iron was apparently not malleable, but brittle
in its character. It would therefore, according to the classifi-
cation proposed by Professor C. U. Shepard in his Report on
- Meteorites, belong to the 2d Srction—Alloyed, of the 3d
ORDER—Brittle, of his 1st CLlass—MertTALLic METEORITES.
(See “ Silliman’s American Journal” for 1846 and 1847.)
An opportunity was also taken of repeating, on one of the
polished slices, the etching with acid, to see if it was possible
to get a more distinct display of its peculiar crystalline struc-
ture, by watching the action of the acid on the metal. In place
of using the mixed nitric and glacial acetic acids of the steel
* Vide Journal, vol. xvi. July 1862, p. 108.
68 Dr John Alex. Smith on a Mass of Meteoric Iron. ~
engraver, as was formerly done, nitric acid alone was used ; but
little or no effect was produced, with the exception of a very
slight etching on the part first touched. The nitric acid was
then diluted with about an equal quantity of water, and on
its being again applied to the metal a rapid action took place,
with aconsiderable evolution of gas, and a brownish or dark-
coloured matter (carbonaceous ¢) was seen to rise and mix with
the acid solution, not from the coating protecting the rest of
the metal, but from the bitten surface of the metal itself.
The presence of this brown-coloured matter is stated not to be
observed when ordinary steel is etched. Instead of making,
as before, a large etched patch at the line of separation or
fracture of the rounded and pointed portions of the mass of
iron, a small patch was etched near the middle of the rounded
Fig. 1. Fig. 2.
Impressions of etched portions of the meteoric iron.
or lobed portion (fig. 1), and this displays very distinctly the
characteristic and beautiful frosted-like lines of crystallization,
crossing one another at various angles. As formerly stated,
these lines are finer, or more minute, than in many meteoric
irons. This finer texture seems to be also present in other
brittle irons; at least it is mentioned as occurring in those
described by Professor Shepard in his Report. (See “ Silli-
man’s American Journal,” 1847.) I am inclined to think it
not improbable that. this fine, or less-distinctly marked texture
may be simply dependent on the rapid cooling, or any other
cause which gives the iron its brittle character. Another patch
of etching was made near the narrow extremity of the pointed
portion of the mass (fig. 2). Here the crystalline structure
of crossing lines is less distinct, the metal being apparently
“Ona, =a a
Dr Murray Thomson’s Analysis of a Meteorite. 69
more granular in its texture, and exhibiting a series of shining
points. The action of the diluted acid on the metal was closely
watched, and was stopped occasionally, so as to preserve the
appearance of the etching, when its character was most dis-
tinct. Wax squeezes and electrotype casts were taken from
these etched surfaces, and are here printed from as woodeuts
(figs. 1,2). They may therefore be compared with that figured
before, which was taken in a similar way from the central part
of the meteoric iron.
A portion of this meteoric iron, with plaster cast of the
entire mass, are now preserved in the Natural History Mu-
seum, Edinburgh ; the principal part of the iron is in the
British Museum, London.
Note to “ Analysis of the Meteorite described by Dr John
Alexander Smith, M.D.” By Murray THomson, M.D.,
F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry.*
As formerly stated, the specific gravity of the meteorite, in
its entire or undivided state, was 6517. ¥rom an unfortu-
nate inadvertence, however, some of the details of the weights
and specific gravities of the divided portions of this meteoric
iron were incorrectly printed in the communications published
in this Journal in July last. It will therefore be necessary
to substitute, for those formerly given in Dr Smith’s paper
(p. 118), and in my analysis (page 125), the following correct
table of the different weights and specific gravities :—
1. Of the halves into which the iron was cut, one was rather
larger and heavier than the other, and weighs :—
In air, 181bs.20z. 7} drs. (Avoir.)
In water, 15 ,, 5 ,, 123 ,, a
Its specific gravity is therefore ; 6-499
II. The smaller half, now broken into two portions, weighs: —
1. The larger or pointed portion,
In air, 7 lbs. 9 oz. 83 drs. (Avoir.)
In water,6 ,, 7,, 8 ,, is
Specific gravity, . : 6°7400
* Vide Journal, vol. xvi., July 1862, p. 125.
70 Dr Murray Thomson’s Analysis of a Meteorite.
2. The smaller or rounded portion :—
In air, 5 lbs. 10 oz. 24 drs. (Avoir.)
In water,4 ,, 11 ,, 92 ,, FY
Specific gravity, : 5 6:1919
After the communication on the Analysis was written, and
as a portion of the mass had been cut into pieces of various
sizes, another opportunity was had of taking the specific gra-
vity of a slice (separated into two portions), embracing the
whole thickness of the mass. These pieces being more man-
ageable for the purpose of taking density, it is to be pre-
sumed that the following numbers express, with the utmost
accuracy, their specific gravity :—
Slice from the pyramidal or pointed portion gave, 6°'750 sp. gr.
a rounded or lobed ib 6°350__,,
It was also noticed, in examining a small portion of the
first of these slices, where the metal was corroded-looking, and
showed various black spots on its surface, that this iron was
very brittle; so much so, that no difficulty was experienced
in reducing a fragment of it to powder in an iron mortar.
I would likewise here record, that a further chemical ex-
amination was made, chiefly in search of magnetic oxide of
iron, which is so frequently a constituent of meteorites, but,
as before, I could obtain no evidence of the existence of this
substance.
It has been already stated that the portion of the meteorite
used for analysis was that obtained by filing the exposed
faces of its halves; it might therefore be objected, that the
material so procured, at least from the harder portion, was
likely to be mixed with particles of the file used, and especi-
ally that the percentage of the carbon in the meteorite might
thereby come out too high. It certainly cannot be denied
that minute particles of the substance of the file would mix
with the filings ; but from the texture of the mass these must
have been but a very trifling proportion, compared to the bulk
of the filings. To be certain, however, that no substantial error
had crept in from this source, another determination of the
carbon and silica was made on a solid piece of the meteorite,
the result being to show the presence of these constituents in
the following proportions :—
———————— ee ee Se
Dr Murray Thomson’s Analysis of a Meteorite. 71
Carbon, . d p ‘ 0°56 per cent.
Silica, . ‘ ‘ : ; 0:90 -,,
These new percentages being so close to the last, we may
regard the first analysis as quite correct. |
Address delivered at the Opening of the Session of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, on Monday, 1st December 1862, by
Principal Forsus, D,.C.L., F.R.S., Vice-President of the
Society.
GuntLemen,—I propose to address you on this occasion with re-
ference to the following points :—
First, to recapitulate briefly the origin, the objects, and the Con-
stitution of Societies similar to our own.
Secondly, to trace the rise and general history of the Royal So-
ciety of Edinburgh.
Thirdly, to consider what changes the progress of science and of
society render necessary or desirable in the working of associations
like ours, and how far such changes are safe and prudent.
Lastly, to recall the history of this Society during the past
twelve months, especially with reference to the Fellows whom it has
lost.
I. To recapitulate briefly the Origin, Objects, and Constitution of
Societies similar to our own.
Societies having any true analogy to the academies of modern
Europe, or to the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, or the
Royal Irish Academy, have arisen within about 300 years. Italy
was their birth-place, and perhaps, on the whole, in no country have
they flourished more. They appear to have been the direct off-
spring of the spirit of inquiry so active in that country throughout
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. According to the literary
historians of Italy, the cultivation of literature by academicians,
salaried by the Government, commenced at Rome in 1514, under
the Pontificate of Leo X. It is well known, that the cultivation of
literature and the fine arts continued to be fostered in Italy by
similar institutions during many generations. The Accademia
della Crusca (named after the Italian word for bran or chaff, from
the fanciful analogy of sifting the pure from the heterogeneous
72 Principal Forbes’s Opening Address to the
parts of the language), and the Society of Arcadians, which still
exists or existed lately, are familiar examples, But the number of
such associations was vastly greater than we can find a parallel
for in other countries or in more recent times.
After all, the typical form of the modern Royal Society or Aca-
demy is traceable to the astonishing impulse given to the experi-
mental physical sciences in Italy in the sixteenth century. The first
such society recorded by Tiraboschi and Libri, the chief annalists
of the revival of letters in Italy, was called ‘‘ Accademia Secreto-
rum Nature,” founded at Naples in 1560, of which the celebrated
Baptista Porta was president. It was suppressed, however, by the
influence of the priests. The Society of Lincei, or Lynx-eyed
scrutators into natural phenomena, of which Galileo was a member,
held its sittings at Rome. It was founded in 1604 by Cesi, a
noble Roman, and still survives, though after a long intervening
period of inactivity.*
It is easy to see how the newly-born interest of mankind in the
investigation of nature by experiment, must, far more than mere
literary discussion or dialectical argument, have fostered such asso-
ciations. In those glorious days when a virgin mine of natural
phenomena was first opened to the intelligent exploration of man-
kind, the succession of inventions, discoveries, and capital theories
in physical science, kept every thoughtful mind on the stretch.
The comparatively recent art of printing served to disseminate
rapidly both facts and doctrines; the promulgation of the true
system of the world by Copernicus, the improved astronomical ob-
servations of Tycho, the mechanics of Da Vinci and Stevinus, the
telescope of Galileo, kept all Europe in a tremble of expectation for
the discoveries of each succeeding year. What could men do in
such circumstances but assemble with others like-minded, and see
with their own eyes the facts which seemed to contradict the expe-
rience or prepossessions of ages, and either maintain or overthrow
the new philosophy? It was under such circumstances that the
Florentine Academy, “ del Cimento” was founded in 1657,+ under
the patronage of the Grand Duke Ferdinand IT. of Tuscany, and
with the personal support of his brother Leopold. The withdrawal
* See Drinkwater Bethune’s Life of Galileo, p. 37.
+ First meeting, 18th June 1657. Saggi, &c., Edit. 1841; Introd. p. 95.
As its name imports it was an association for making experiments.
r —_—*
-
Royal Society of Edinburgh, Session 1862-63. 73
of the latter from Florence in 1667, on being made a Cardinal, was
followed by the decline and virtual extinction of this remarkable
Society. This is considered by Mr Hallam as a proof of the incon-
veniences attending such exalted patronage of literary societies ;
yet it does not seem to afford a sufficient reason for the cessation
of the labours of a society which gave such indisputable proofs of
vigour, whose Transactions remain a book of reference to this day,
and whose members, including the best and ablest pupils of Galileo,
were well able to sustain their position amongst the learned men of
Europe.
The wide reputation of the Florentine Essays contributed, no
doubt, to the establishment—also under Royal sanction—of the
Royal Society of London, This took place in November 1660,
immediately after the Restoration, and from that time their pro-
ceedings may be traced with minute precision. Founded originally
upon the basis of a private Society for the cultivation of Natural
and Experimental Science instituted in 1645, it was incorporated by
charter in 1662, four years before the Academy of Sciences of Paris
was instituted in 1666 under the auspices of Colbert. This last
was incorporated with the previously existing Academie Francaise
founded for the cultivation of the French Language and Literature,
much after the manner of the Crusca Academy in Italy.
The Academy of Sciences and the Royal Society of London sub-
sist, it is needless to say, to this day; and each in their own sphere,
and in varying ways, according to the exigencies of the time, have
contributed in the most important way to the improvement of the
Physical and Mathematical Sciences. The unbroken series of
Transactions of both are without a parallel in the history of know-
ledge for continuity and importance. The publication of the
*« Philosophical Transactions” commenced in monthly numbers
on the Ist March 1665. Our own Society has very recently ac-
quired for the first time a complete set of these publications
from the commencement,—an acquisition of some difficulty and
importance,
An hundred and twenty years elapsed before the. progress of
knowledge and of organisation in the sister kingdoms of Scotland
and Ireland sufficed for the formal institution of associations on
similar principles and with similar ends to the Royal Society. The
NEW SERIES.—VOL. XVII. NO. 1.—JAN. 1863. K
74 _ Principal Forbes’s Opening Address to the
Royal Society of Edinburgh was formally constituted in 1783, and
that of Dublin, or the Royal Irish Academy, in 1785. Both arose
out of societies previously existing, though of a more private
character, and not incorporated. As most interesting to us, I
shall presently proceed to trace the rise of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh.
But before giving an account of this, let me interpose a remark
on the organisation of such societies generally. Even in early times,
they differed from one another in respect of being either under the
direct influence of the State, or of being merely private associations.
This distinction continues to the present day. The French Aca-
demies, for example, are national institutions, and the members
receive salaries from public funds. The Royal Societies of this
country, on the other hand, are free from even the vestige of
State control, and pursue their aims without pecuniary objects,
and according to their own regulations. This is not the place to
discuss the advantage of the two systems, in favour of each of
which something may be said. The place of a salaried acade-
mician is often really desirable for those whose fortunes do not
enable them to pursue the unremunerative paths of science and
literature. On the other hand, the pecuniary gain is liable to give
rise to motives less pure than mere honorary distinctions can do,
on the part both of candidates for the post and of the academical
electors. It appears from the history of the Academie Frangaise
in its origin, that the enlargement and incorporation of it under
the State influence of Cardinal Richelieu was much resented by its
original members.
The two forms of constitutions—the one creating a power in the
State with corresponding advantages to its associates, the other
receiving an impulse entirely from within—are really so distinct,
that it seems almost invidious to compare them. The latter appears,
from the history of our country, to be most congenial to English
habits in- such matters; and perhaps we have no great reason
to regret the absence of an “ Institute” under Imperial or Royal
administration. .
But another question arises with reference to such Societies as
those of London, Edinburgh, and Dublin: Whether, in default of
substantial endowments in connection with membership, an arti-
‘
Le eee
Se
Royal Society of Edinburgh, Session 1862-63. 75
ficial standard of literary and scientific distinction is to be held up
as regulating the entrance or refusal of candidates ?-—whether, in
short, the members of our Societies are to be held as unsalaried
academicians,—men selected for intellectual attainment alone, and
forming therefore a learned class ?
On this point, which is one of considerable importance, I confess
that I entertain little doubt. Whatever disadvantages may attend
the admission to Societies like this of persons who have no preten-
sions to what, for convenience, one may call a professional acquaint-
ance with science, art, or literature, I think that they ought to be
eligible. It is little likely that where no emoluments or distinc-
tions present themselves, the privilege of membership will be
sought except by those who feel some sympathy with pursuits for
which they have probably a secret leaning, but from which they
have been withheld by force of circumstances. I say, Let them
come, and freely, and let us regard their adhesion to our ranks as
a compliment on either side.
In Britain, all experience points to this resolution of what may
be in some respects regarded as a difficulty. From the day of the
foundation of the Royal Societies, both of London and Edinburgh,
the rule of mixture of classes, and the absence of an academic
standard of exclusion, has been all but universal. The co-operation
of men of all ranks, and of the most varied occupations and acquire-
ments, was the very corner-stone of these institutions. While they
diffused a taste for science amongst the nobility, gentry, and pro-
fessional men, this very mixture enhanced, in no small degree, the
interest of the proceedings of the Societies themselves, and con-
duced to the respect shown to literature and science. It also in-
directly aided the progress of the latter, by raising a large fund for
the publication of Transactions and the conduct of experiments.
To attempt to enforce a contrary principle, would be to reduce
the members of our Societies to a select few, without the advan-
tages which academicians properly enjoy, and without the cordial
sympathy which the lay-members (as they may be termed) con-
tribute to diffuse amongst an intelligent public, whose sentiments
in such matters is never to be despised.
76 Principal Forbes’s Opening Address to the
Il.—Rise and Progress of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Guided by an interesting passage in the “ Life of Lord Kames,”*
it would appear that the germ of our Society is to be found in the
Rankenian Club, instituted in Edinburgh in 1716, for literary social
meetings, and which had the unusual duration (for such associations)
of almost sixty years. It expired in 1774. It included among its
original or early members, Principal Wishart, Bishop Horsley,
Colin Maclaurin, John Stevenson, Professor of Logic, Lord Auch-
inleck, several of the ministers of Edinburgh and neighbouring
gentry, and, finally, Sir John Pringle, afterwards President of the
Royal Society of London. No publications are known to have pro-
ceeded from this Club.+
Contemporary, in part, with the Rankenian Club was a Society
for the Improvement of Medical Knowledge, instituted in 1781.
This Society, of which little perhaps is now remembered save its
published Transactions, appears to have been conducted with an
enlightened sense of the dignity and importance of associations for
the promotion of science, which its founders justly considered to be
more advanced by publishing able papers, than by making a parade
* [By Lord Woodhouselee] two vols. 4to. Edin. 1807, vol. i. p. 174, and
list of members, Appendix p. 50.
+ Since the reading of this address 1 have been indebted to Professor
Fraser of the Edinburgh University for a reference to an interesting allusion to
the “ Rankenian Club,” contained in Dugald Stewart’s First Dissertation on
the Progress of Metaphysical and Ethical Philosophy, part ii. sect. 4, where
he speaks of Berkeley’s celebrated system of Idealism having “ attracted very
powerfully the attention of a set of young men who were then prosecuting
their studies at Edinburgh, and who formed themselves into a society for the
express purpose of soliciting from the author an explanation of some parts of
his theory which seemed to them obscurely or equivocally expressed. To
this correspondence the amiable and excellent prelate appears to have given
every encouragement; and I have been told,” adds Mr Stewart, “ by the best
authority, that he was accustomed to say that his reasonings had been no-
where better understood than by this club of young Scotsmen.” To which
Mr Stewart adds this note: ‘‘ The authority I here adlude to is that of my
old friend and preceptor, Dr John Stevenson, who was himself a member of
the Rankenian Club....... ” Mr Fraser justly remarks, that the dates
tally well with this statement ; Berkeley’s ‘“ Dialogues” having been published
in 1718, and the Rankenian Club having (as stated above) been founded in
1716 :
ee
a alla
i
Loyal Society of Edinburgh, Session 1862-63. 77
of eeremonious meetings and printing lists of dignified office-
bearers. With a reticence which we all must regret, the six
volumes of Medical Essays give no clue to the constitution of the
Society, the nature or frequency of its meetings, the names of the
presidents, nor even of the diligent secretary by whom, no doubt,
its Proceedings were edited.*
I think I am entitled to assume that the papers were fully equal
in point of merit to those contributed on medical subjects to the
Royal Society of London, or any similar institution. They went
through more editions than one, were translated into foreign lan-
guages, and were highly commended by the celebrated Haller. It
is reasonable to believe that the wide reputation of the Edin-
burgh Medical Sehool dates from the publication of these im-
portant Essays.
In a paper on the Climate of Edinburgh, which I contributed a
few years ago to the Royal Society’s Transactions,} I have brought
into view the early meteorological observations contained in the
Medical Essays, though by whom they were made does not ap-
pear.
The six’ volumes of Medical Essays terminated in 1744. In
17387, at ihe suggestion of the celebrated Maclaurin, the objects of
the Society had already been extended so as to include general
science and literature.{ It had not existed for many years in this
form before political troubles antecedent to and during the insurrec-
tion of 1745-6 seriously impaired its usefulness, and probably pre-
vented the separate publication of its Transactions, which was from
the first contemplated.§ The death of Maclaurin,in June 1746, which
* An incidental notice, however, in the Introduction to the first volume of
the Royal Society’s Transactions, informs us that the secretary was the first
Professor Monro, who was also a large contributor to the Lssays.
t Vol. xxii. p. 327.
t The date usually assigned is 1739. But from two letters of Maclaurin
printed in the “ Scots’ Magazine” for June 1804, the earlier date is certainly
correct. Mr David Laing has shown me a pamphlet (of sixteen quarto pages)
containing the Regulations of the Society and a List of Members. The List
of Members is dated 1789; but at page 3, the first Thursday of December
1787 is fixed as the first day of meeting.
§ The papers read at the Society were in part printed in the later volumes
of the Medical Essays, in the Philosophical Transactions, and in Maclaurin’s
Fluxions. It appears from a notice in Mr R. Chambers’s Domestic Annals (vol.
78 Principal Forbes’s Opening Address to the
was immediately traceable to his exertions on the side of the
English in the melancholy struggles of the period, was a heavy
blow to its usefulness, and a mass of papers connected with it were
found to have been in his possession, which could be only partially
recovered. Some of these were published in 1754, under the title
of Essays and Observations, Physical and Literary, read before a.
Society in Edinburgh, and they were followed by two other volumes
in 1756 and 1771. The first president of the Philosophical Society
was the Earl of Morton (afterwards president of the Royal Society
of London), Maclaurin and Dr Plummer (Professor of Chemistry)
were secretaries. Afterwards Professor Monro (Secundus), and the
celebrated David Hume, acted as secretaries. The Society then held
its meetings in the Advocates’ Library. Medical subjects still
greatly predominated in the Transactions ; but among the contribu-
tors appear the names of Maclaurin, Lord Kames,* John Stewart
(Professor of Natural Philosophy), Matthew Stewart, Porterfield,
Melvill, and Joseph Black.+
It is no small credit to this unpretending Society that it not. only
gave from its members two Presidents to the Royal Society of
London, but reckoned amongst its contributors perhaps the two
most eminent disciples of the Newtonian school which Britain pro-
duced in the whole of the eighteenth century,—namely, Colin Mac-
laurin and Matthew Stewart. The Philosophical Society of Kdin-
burgh was the immediate parent of the Royal Society.}
The Royal Society of Edinburgh took its rise in a meeting of the
Professors of the University of Edinburgh, many of whom were also
members of the Philosophical Society,§ on the proposition of Prin-
iii. p. 477), that, in 1748, the Society advertised for specimens of stones, ores,
saline substances, bitumens, &c., to be sent to their secretary, Dr Plummer,
and it is stated that “the Society undertake, by some of their number, to
make the proper trials at their own charge for discovering the nature and uses
of the minerals, and to return an answer to the person by whom they were sent,
if they are judged to be of any use, or can be wrought to advantage.” ‘The
quotation is from the Edin. Evening Courant, 22d Aug. 17438.
* Henry Home, Lord Kames, became president about 1769, and contributed
greatly to the success of the Society.
t Dr Black’s sole contribution was his celebrated “ Experiments on Mag-
nesia Alba,” Essays, &c. vol. ii. p. 157.
t See Life of Kames, i. 184, and Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., i. p. 6.
? The last survivors in our body of the Philosophical Society were, Profes-
Royal Society of Ldinburgh, Session 1862-63. 79
cipal Robertson, towards the end of 1782. It is stated to have been
founded “ on the model of some Foreign Academies,” and so far dif-
fered from the Royal Society of London, that literary objects were
equally promoted with science, and the interests of literature repre-
sented by a Literary “Class” or subordinate Academy, having distinct
meetings and office-bearers. It appears from a curious letter of Pro-
fessor Dalzel, in Professor Innes’s Life of Dalzel,* that the Royal
Society was more particularly modelled on the Berlin Academy,
and that its rise was partly due to a contest between Lord Buchan
and the Society of Antiquaries on the one hand, and the University
and Faculty of Advocates on the other. The result, however, of
this party-war was in favour of the interests of science and literature;
for the Society received a Royal Charter, and was formally consti-
tuted at a meeting held in the College Library on the 23d June
1783, under the presidency of Principal Robertson, at which were
also present the Lord Provost, Lord Justice-Clerk Miller, Profes-
sors Cullen, Monro (Secwndus), Hugh Blair, John Walker, Adam
Ferguson, John Robison (who was thén appointed secretary), the
Solicitor-General Ilay Campbell, and several members of the
Faculty of Advocates, the celebrated Adam Smith, and Mr Hunter
Blair, M.P. for the city of Edinburgh.
The Society started at once into vigorous existence, and, looking
especially to the reputation of the members of the Literary Class,
few societies in any country have given a fairer prospect of a dis-
tinguished career. The members were either Resident, Non-Resi-
dent, or Honorary. The number of Original Residents was 102,
and of Non-Residents, 71; and this before'the Society had ever held
a meeting. A short time later, the total number of members be-
longing to the Physical Class was 101, and to the Literary Class,
114. An excerpt from the MS. list of original members, in Pro-
fessor Robison’s handwriting (exclusive of those who have been
named as founders of the Society), will give no mean idea of the
eminent position of Edinburgh in the literary world of that day :—
sor James Russell and Sir William Miller, Lord Glenlee. The latter died so
lately as 1846, in his ninety-first year. The Minute-Books of the Philosophical
Society were expressly conveyed to the custody of the Royal Society (see
Minute, R.S., of 4th August 1783); but they are, it may be feared, now irre-
coverably lost.
* Page 89 (30th Nov. 1782).
80. Principal Forbes’s Opening Address to the
The Paystoan Ctass included Joseph Black, Clerk of Eldin,
Sir John Dalrymple (Lord Hailes), James Gregory, James Hutton,
John Playfair, Dugald Stewart, Lords Bute and Dundonald, Sir
James Hall, James Watt, Dr Small of Dundee, Patrick Wilson; and
in the Lirerary Crass we find the Lord President, Chief Baron, and
Lord Advocate, John Home, David Hume, Henry Mackenzie, Alex-
ander Tytler (Lord Woodhouselee), the Duke of Buccleuch, Archi-
bald Alison, Dr Beattie, Edmund Burke, Lord Morton, Lord
Hopetoun, John Hunter of St Andrews, Thomas Reid, Young of
Glasgow, Dalzel, and Mr (afterwards Sir Robert) Liston. The
earliest meetings of the Royal Society (as well as that of its incor-
poration) took place in the University Library. A large subscrip-
tion towards the erection of the New College was made by the
Society, on the understanding that the Society should be accommo-
dated within its walls; and space was actually allotted on the
north side of the building. How this was frustrated I do not know.
The formal meetings continued to take place usually in the same
place (the Library), at least until 1808, with an occasional substi-
tution of the Physicians’ Hall. In 1810, the Society purchased
a house, No. 40 George Street, where they were accommodated
until 1826; when they removed to the rooms which they siill
occupy, under a lease from Government, in the Royal Institution
Building in Princes Street.
I proceed to trace rapidly the fortunes of the Society, which
almost on the very day that I address you has completed the
eightieth year of its existence.
The first President was the Duke of Buccleuch. He was suc-
ceeded in 1812 by Sir James Hall, who, resigning in 1820, was
followed by Sir Walter Scott. On the death of the latter in 1832,
Sir Thomas Makdougall Brisbane filled his place, to be succeeded \
at his decease in 1860 by the Duke of Argyll. Thus we have the
remarkable and very unusual fact, that the first four presidencies
endured over seventy-seven years. The chief secretaryship has in
the same period been held by only five individuals, of whom but
two were removed by death.
The earliest period of the Royal Society, and also the earliest
volumes of its Transactions, were marked by the efficiency of the ©
literary department. The first two volumes show a substantial if —
Royal Society of Edinburgh, Session 1862-68. 81
not precise equality in the extent of the published contributions
devoted to literature and to science. The balance will even pre-
ponderate on the literary side, if we include the elegant biographies
of deceased Fellows drawn up by accomplished authors, About
1798—only ten years from the origin of the Society—the activity
of the Literary Class had already become materially impaired. But
indeed at no period could the literary papers bear comparison in
point of merit, as a whole, with those on science, The great men
of letters, who lent the weight of their names to the institution,
hardly maintained its reputation by their pens. The Robertsons,
the Reids, the David Humes, the Fergusons, and the Adam Smiths,
hardly contributed to the pages of the Transactions,
It appears from the minutes of the Physical and Literary Classes
which are now before me, that towards the end of last century the
meetings of the Literary Class became rare—not averaging three in
a year—in consequence of the deficiency of communications. In
1807, when, owing to the interest excited by the geological discus-
sions of the period, in which Sir James Hall, Professor Playfair,
Lord Webb Seymour, Professor Jameson, Dr Thomas Thomson, Mr
Thomas Allan, and Mr Macknight took active parts, the business of
the Physical Class literally overflowed into the Literary Class, the
evenings appropriated to the latter, and not taken up by literary
papers, being devoted to science. In the following year the minute-
book of the Literary Class ceases altogether, and the separate
meetings appear to have been discontinued from that date (1808).
Afterwards a few literary papers were received at the ordinary
meetings, without any attempt at separation. It was, however,
only in 1827 that the distinction of the two classes was finally
abandoned in the annual election of office-bearers, and that, not
from any disinclination on the part of the Society to afford honour-
able room to literary papers, but simply from the cessation of such
communications, It is perfectly understood that a renewal of these
would be considered to be a credit to the Society, and I hope that
our literary friends will be induced to give us the benefit of their
support and their contributions.
With the exception of the Literary Class, the Proceedings of the
Society were at no time marked by more energy and importance
than during the first twelve or fifteen years of the present century,
NEW SERIES.—VOL XVII. NO. 1.—JAN, 1863. - L
82 Principal Forbes’s Opening Address to the
when the geological discussions to which I have referred made
Edinburgh the chief centre of information on such subjects. They
gave rise to the masterly papers of Sir James Hall, with which at
that time the Transactions were enriched.* These were followed
or accompanied by the early communications of Sir David Brewster
on Polarization and other parts of Optics, which added much to the
scientific reputation of the Society. .
The accession of Sir Walter Scott to the presidency in 1820 did
not reanimate the Literary section of the Society. He contributed
no paper, although he at one time very regularly presided at the
ordinary meetings. From 1832, when the printing of the ‘“ Pro-
ceedings” at every meeting commenced, to the present time, nothing
in the history of the Society calls for special remark, During that
period, as at former ones, there have been fluctuations in the pros-
perity of the Society, both as regards the number and value of the
communications received, and the interest taken in the meetings
by the Fellows at large and by the general public. That such
must occur the founders of the Royal Society were sufficiently
aware. At the very opening of our Transactions we find it ob-
served, that “ Institutions of this kind have their intervals of lan-
guor as well as their periods of brilliancy and activity. Every
associated body must receive its vigour from a few zealous and
spirited individuals who find a pleasure in that species of business,
which, were it left to the care of the members in general, would be
often reluctantly submitted to, and always negligently executed.
The temporary avocations, and still more the deaths of such men,
have the most sensible effects on the societies to which they be-
longed. The principle of activity which animated them, if not
utterly extinguished, remains long dormant, and a kindred genius is
required to call it into life.” + The truth of these remarks must be
apparent to all who have had experience in such matters. They
ought to encourage us to keep alive the interest of our meet-
ings,'and to maintain the character of our Society at times when
* The last meeting at which Sir James Hall appears to have presided, was
that of the 5th June 1820. He resigned the presidency in November follow-
ing. His last paper printed in the Transactions, ‘On the Consolidation of
the Strata of the Earth,” was read in March 1825.
t Trans. R. Soc. Edin., vol. i. p. 6.
Royal Society of Edinburgh, Session 1862-63. 88
either may appear to be in danger of flagging, resting well assured
that the development of knowledge, and the intellectual resources
of new generations, will ever from time to time give lustre and
importance to ‘associations destined not to meet the caprices or
fashions of a time, but to promote the great cause of scientific and
_ literary progress.
er eps er re
III.—I now proceed to consider what changes the progress of
science or of society renders necessary or desirable in the working of
associations such as the Royal Society, and how far such changes are
safe and prudent ?
The most casual reader of history, or observer of men, knows
that the inevitable progress of change—material, intellectual, and
social—deprives of the character of permanence all human institu-
tions. ‘Those Institutions are most likely to be perpetuated, in
which a wise forecast of progressive change adapts their parts to the
wants and circumstances of the age. If this be true of political
Constitutions, of Churches, of Universities, of Charities, nay even
of public Amusements, it is no less true of learned Societies. Con-
sidering that the Royal Society of London and the French Academy
of Sciences are each two centuries old, we rather must wonder—
taking into view the astonishing progress, or indeed reconstruction,
of the sciences during that time—that so much of their original
constitution still remains, than that changes have been needed, or
are still required, to meet the wants of successive generations.
I shall consider some of the most obvious changes of condition
under which learned associations pursue their vocation now and
formerly. In doing so, I shall speak principally of their relations
to the natural and experimental sciences.
The Florentine Academy was an excellent type of what a physical
association of the seventeenth century was and ought to have been.
The members collected apparatus, they had a laboratory, they fur-
nished funds for these; and the associated philosophers (who were
select in number) met to witness the experiments, and to argue
upon the conclusions to be drawn from them. The Royal Society
of London, as well as the lesser societies from which it sprung,
took a precisely similar course: they had a paid Operator and
Editor of their Transactions; and they remitted to individual mem-
84 Principal Forbes’s Opening Address to the
bers or small committees to try experiments, and to report the re-
sults to a succeeding meeting.
This seems to be the most perfect constitution of a society for
investigating nature which we can well imagine. ‘It bears a close
analogy to the Philosophical College of Bacon,—the Solomon’s House
in the allegory of the New Atlantis,—which is generally believed to
have been really an antecedent (in the way of suggestion) to the
formation of the Royal Society of London. But it is now less prac-
ticable than formerly, for many reasons, of which I will enumerate
afew. For example, these Societies include in our time so many
members that they can no longer consult as a committee, but must
rather listen as an audience. Again, the minute subdivisions into
which the sciences are now split, render a perfect comprehension of
one science alone almost the occupation of a single life. Hence, un-
less such a society were to consist all of chemists, all of astronomers,
all of comparative anatomists, and so forth, the proceedings, and even
the experiments, which in a former age interested nearly all well-
informed men alike, are now interesting or intelligible to only a
small section. In like manner, an experimental investigation is no
longer the simple and absolute thing which it was. A member of
the Royal Society is no longer instructed, as in former times, to try,
for instance, whether spirit of wine burns or not in an exhausted
receiver; whether salt is separated from water in freezing; to dis-
sect an oyster; to measure whether pebbles and other minerals
grow or not; whether eggs frozen continue fecund; to repeat the
Magdeburg and Torricellian experiments ; to determine the relative
weight of lead and water; and to report the result of any such ex-
periment at next week’s meeting.* But the investigations are now-a-
days complicated, the experimental means alone furnish matter for
long and anxious preliminary consideration ; the precision needed,
and the calculations on which it depends, are matters consuming
time, and often can be better attained by the patient efforts of an
individual, than through any amount of co-operation; nay, the
very results, unless involving a capital discovery (which is a rare
and fortunate accident), cannot be stated without an amount of
detail often wearisome to those who are not especially interested.
* These instances are all taken from the early Journals of the Royal Society
of London. Ks
end Piewe REE st sees eh ak 0,
Royal Society of Edinburgh, Session 1862-63. 85
These, among others, are causes why men cannot now do the hard
work of science in their collective capacity as associations. How
rarely do we even see two philosophers (at least in this country)
engaged in a common investigation !
One result of what has been stated is the breaking down of
scientific communities into special aggregations or societies for
the promotion, say, of astronomy, or geology, or chemistry, or even
minuter subjects, such as microscopic anatomy, numismatics, or
entomology. Such associations bear testimony to the difficulty,
which increases year by year, of rendering the sciences intelligible
and interesting, in respect of new discoveries, to the mass of even
well-educated men. They are so far a protest against the utility
of associations at all, since they tend to reduce the prosecution of
science more and more to an individual affair.
In communities less numerous and comprehensive than those of
London or Paris, the difficulty is not less felt, though the means of
meeting it (at least temporarily) are not so attainable. The largest
provincial town or district cannot possibly maintain the group of
associations which, even in London, may be said to enjoy a preca-
rious intellectual subsistence. I do not mean to say, that more
subordinate special associations are unadvisable, even in the pro-
vinces; on the contrary, I believe that they may do much good.
But one may fairly deprecate the encouragement of a spirit of
rivalry towards the larger and more national and permanent insti-
tutions which already exist, such as the Royal Society may fairly
claim to be. To maintain the character, for energy and stability,
of one central Society, is in reality the common interest of all of
that not very numerous body of persons who cultivate science for
its own sake. Delightful and instructive meetings may advan-
tageously be held by a local body of geologists or chemists, or
naturalists; but such associations require immense vitality to
be permanent. Practically, they fall into abeyance, in perhaps
twenty or thirty years, or even less; and if they have attempted
to record their labours by publication, these publications having
never attained more than a very limited circulation, become in-
accessible and forgotten. The matured written results of those
labours which properly form a subject of almost private discussion
in minor societies, are best consigned for final preservation to the
86 Principal Forbes’s Opening Address to the
publications of a central and enduring association. A good example
of what I here intend to indicate, may be found in a private Parisian
Society, founded early in this century, called La Societé d’ Arcewil,
from the name of the country-house of its president, Count Berthol-
let, where it met. It consisted of the élite of the French Academy
of Sciences, including Laplace, Humboldt, Gay Lussac, Biot, Arago,
Decandolle, &c. But the Memoirs (in three volumes) published by
this most distinguished and delightful club, including such papers
of capital importance as Malus’s original one on the Polariza-
tion of Light, Humboldt’s on the Isothermal Lines, Thenard on
Ethers, and Arago on the Colours of Thin Plates, must be con-
sidered as in fact withheld from the Proceedings of the national
Academy, and they must now be sought for consultation in a small —
printed collection in the hands comparatively of few. It is need-
less to add, that the Society lasted for but a few years. ,
I may also include among the causes which have of late years
affected the prosperity of our own and similar societies, that ten-
dency to centralization which, during the last half century, has
affected so many interests, political, social, commercial, and also
scientific and literary. The facility of communication with Lon-
don has facilitated that tendency to southward emigration, so longs
and not unjustly, attributed to Scotchmen. But far from aiding
their return, the facility seems to be all in one direction. The
larger arena for practical talent to be found in the metropolis at-
tracts even our writers of literary essays, and our labourers in the
cause of physical science. It is a fact which admits of no doubt,
that the Scottish Geological School, which once made Edinburgh
famous, especially when the Vulcanist and Neptunian War raged
simultaneously in the hall of this Society and in the class-rooms of
the University, may almost be said to have been transported bodily
to Burlington House. Roderick Murchison, Charles Lyell, Leonard
Homer, are Scottish names, and the bearers of them are Scottish in
everything save residence. Even the field of their labours is in no
small measure Scottish ; and the Silurian standard is waved over half
the length and breadth of our “ primitive” Highlands. Our younger
men are drafted off as soon as their acquirements become known,
Professor Ramsay was early called from his voluntary labours in
a oer
a ;
Royal Society of Edinburgh, Session 1862-63. 87
Arran to English soil; and we only retain the services which our
townsman Mr Geikie volunteers for our instruction, so long as the
central forces of Jermyn Street suffer him to linger within the
Scottish border. Others, who still reside in Scotland, not unnatu-
rally seek a larger audience, and a more rapid publicity for their
memoirs, by transmitting them to London. This is reasonable and
inevitable. Yet a certain feeling of patriotism might still retain a
portion of their labours for the Transactions of our Scottish Royal
Society. Indeed, it is remarkable that the centralization of which
I have spoken seems to reside in London chiefly; for we do not
find much tendency in Scottish towns or universities (with a few
honourable exceptions) to contribute to the literary and scientific
wealth of our national metropolis. I believe that the original list of
the Royal Society of 1783 includes more provincial members, at all
events from the Universities, than we can reckon in 1862. Of all the
changes which have befallen Scottish science during the last half
century, that which I most deeply deplore, and at the same time won-
der at, is the progressive decay of our once illustrious Geological
School. Centralization may account for it in part, but not entirely.
But I have allowed myself to be partly withdrawn from the enu-
meration of the causes of change which have affected the business
and functions of societies for the promotion of science and litera-
ture. Another of these is the alteration of domestic habits in some
important particulars. Most of the older societies commenced in
Clubs, which met at taverns, in conformity with the all but uni-
versal usage of the period. The “ Philosophical Club,” which
foreshadowed the Royal Society of London, met in 1649 at the
Bull’s Head in Cheapside; and the germ of the Royal Society of
_ Edinburgh was a club meeting at Ranken’s Tavern. All this is
past and gone. The Drydens, the Addisons, and the Johnsons of
| our day, hold forth no longer at ‘Will’s” or “The Mitre.” If
a more domestic, we are certainly a less “ clubable” generation.*
The effect tells even upon our literary and scientific undertak-
ings. The clubs of modern London are rather institutions for the
luxurious accommodation of individuals than for social intercourse ;
and the attempt of Sir H. Davy and others to combine them
systematically with literary conversation, in the case of the “ Athe-
. * “ Boswell is a very clubable man.”’ Johnson, in Boswell’s Life.
88 Principal Forbes’s Opening Address to the
neum,” proved a failure. An analogous influence is found in the
vast expansion of intellectual intercourse through the means of
the press, and in the filtering of knowledge of all kinds—of scien-
tific knowledge, perhaps, especially—through the widely extended
system of popular lectures. In these two features of the age, we
find sufficient reasons alone to account for much of the social
change to which I have referred. Newspapers, magazines, and
ephemeral literature of every kind, supplant the oral intercom-
munication characteristic of the days of clubs. A man takes
home with him to his fireside the gossip, the jokes, the discoveries,
the discussions, grave or gay, of the day. And in matters of
science it is somewhat the same. Much he finds of all that is most
occupying the thoughts of able men pursuing natural knowledge
set down in the pages of the “ Athenaum,” or “ Macmillan,” or
“‘ Good Words,” perhaps by the very persons who really are most
able to speak of such things. Nothing of importance can be com-
municated to a society which does not soon become matter of public
notoriety through such channels.
But still wider is the influence of those popular discourses or
lectures which now practically supply to many persons of general
information, but not professed students, the intellectual interest
formerly sought in the meetings of our learned Societies, and I
believe I might add, in the case of Edinburgh, in some measure
from our University courses also. The Royal Institution of Lon-
don commenced this system with splendid advantages, and its
popularity (which could scarcely increase) has been maintained
with little if any diminution for sixty years. But in fulfilling
its own task of instructing intelligent persons in the latest results
of scientific discovery, often from the very mouths of the discoverers
themselves, it has deprived of one great attraction the meetings
of the Royal Society, the great fountain and source whence such
knowledge ought naturally to flow. Similar influences have pre-
vailed in Edinburgh, to the diminution of the attendance in this
place. Those who can look back to the audiences assembled in
this room when ordinary scientific papers were read, from twenty-
five to thirty years ago, will corroborate my testimony as to the
change which less than even one generation has brought about.
The social spirit of coming together for common objects, self-im-
|
- “+ ON
¥
Royal Society of Edinburgh, Session 1862-63. 89
provement in the first place, and the charm of a periodical, a fort-
nightly meeting with like-minded persons (seldom perhaps met
with in the interval), counteracted the tendency to criticise, and the
intolerance of hearing something read not immediately or directly
interesting to the hearer.
Were I to enumerate the names of that large band of our
fellow-citizens, our professors, our distinguished lawyers, our
country gentlemen and mere amateurs, who, meeting after meet-
ing, used to occupy almost the same individual places on these
benches, so that their loss or absence could in a moment have
been noticed—lI should recall to many, even now present, the dif-
ferent phase, in this respect, which the society of Edinburgh pre-
sented then from aow. Let me first name, almost at hazard, a few
of those whose images live in my memory as I now address you, as
among those who as a rule attended, and as a rare exception were
absent: There was the ever animated, zealous, and punctual presi-
dent, Sir Thomas Brisbane; the polite and decorous Dr Hope;
_ the indefatigable, unassuming Lord Greenock ; the sagacious Dr
Abercrombie; the lively, unresting Sir George Mackenzie; the
hospitable Professor Russell (whose academic suppers are not
even now forgotten); the beneficent, large-minded Dr Alison; the
kindly, genial Professor Wallace, close to whom usually sat Mr
James Jardine, with his finely chiselled features and intellectual
forehead, the accurate Mr Adie, and the conscientious, modest as-
tronomer, Mr Henderson: there was also the ingenious Sir John
Robison, fertile in expedients; the frank and manly Dr Graham;
the quietly humorous and ornithological Mr James Wilson; the
encyclopedic Dr Traill; and the shrewd and well read, but re-
served Mr W. A. Cadell. Besides, there were many others who, if
they rarely took an active part in the business of the Society, were
not the less persevering in their attendance,—thus giving evidence
of an interest in its welfare and permanence, which any exigency,
or even opportunity, would have called in action: there were Sir
Henry Jardine and Lord Meadowbank; Dr Brunton and Dr Neill,
occupying probably the same bench with Mr R. Stevenson and Mr
Bald; Mr John Craig, Sir William Newbigging, Professor J. S.
More, Mr William Wood, Archdeacon Williams, Mr George Swin-
ton, Sir Joseph Straton, Dr Borthwick, and Mr Stark. I could far
NEW SERIES.—VOL, XVII. NO. 1.—JAN. 1863, M
90 Principal Forbes’s Opening Address to the
more than double the list by including those who, though not ab-
solutely regularly, attended so frequently that their faces were
familiar in this room, and their presence missed in the social
gathering round the tea-table later in the evening.
I fear, gentlemen, that we now-a-days allow ourselves to become
too mechanically intellectual, and also too intellectually fastidious.
If the recent movement which has been set on foot for deepening
and enlarging the interest felt by the members in our meetings is
to take any root and produce any results, I am persuaded that it
must be, though not solely, yet mainly by our Fellows recollecting
that though the meetings of the Royal Society are intended for
the communication of knowledge by the reading of papers, they
always were, and still are, intended quite as much to promote a cor-
dial feeling amongst those (at best but a small number in the
midst of a teeming and busy population) who profess an interest in
the progress of literature and science, and whose presence and con-
versation may contribute to this end, as well as the more formal
contributions of others. I ask the more numerous portion of our
Associates, if they are not disposed to contribute papers to our
meetings, at least to make a contribution of themselves—their per-
sonal attendance, their approving interest, their mite of influence
towards our commonwealth of letters. We have seen how much
popular lectures have done elsewhere towards individual improve-
ment, and the increase of a certain kind of knowledge amongst
various classes; we have attributed a still wider and more beneficial
influence to the periodical literature of the day; but neither of
these is a social form of scientific and literary effort. It is that
which we claim as one of the two remaining (perhaps only perma-
nent) functions of our great Societies planted in different times from
the present: the one is to afford to authors, especially to the
authors of learned dissertations on science, the means (otherwise
wholly unattainable) of bringing their labours in a printed form
before the scientific public; the other function is to encourage, by an
expression of personal sympathy and interest, the labours of those
who devote themselves to the too often ungrateful toil of original
investigation.* To the utility of the first, our Transactions bear, I
* To the two permanent functions of scientific associations mentioned in
the text—namely, the printing and circulation of memdirs, and the promo-
7
Pape vey
-
.
Royal Society of Edinburgh, Session 1862-63. 91
will take it upon me to say, satisfactory testimony. Of these Scot-
land has just cause to be proud, Nor, on the whole, have we to
complain of any deterioration in the memoirs by which this Society
becomes known to the learned world, The second fulfilment of
our objects of incorporation seems in some danger of being forgot-
ten, While the older members of the Society must feel a pleasure
in meeting, fortnight by fortnight, those with whom they worked in
earlier days, or with whom they perhaps strove in generous rivalry,
thus keeping alive those embers of mutual interest which the
changing gales of life are too ready to disperse and extinguish,
they may also lend their countenance to the efforts of younger men
who are treading in their steps, and who may soon, if they
have not already done so, occupy their own seats of influence or
of honour. They may thus aid in giving coherence to the chain
which binds generation to generation in the pursuit of truth, and
in establishing a personal relation between the intellect of each, the
impressive influence of which we are too apt to forget. I say, gen-
tlemen, that this is a personal affair, which no abstract ideas can
supersede,—I say that no popular lecture, listened to by hundreds
of persons immediately to be dispersed into their specific individu-
ality, no perusal of scientific digests in the study or at the fire-
tion of personal intercourse amongst literary men—we may add a third, that of
rewarding meritorious papers or discoveries by medals and other more or less
honorary distinctions, Such have existed both in British and Foreign Socie-
ties from an early period until the present. They are of two classes : rewards
offered by anticipation for researches on definite subjects proposed (this
obtains mostly abroad) ; and premiums awarded to the best paper or most con-
siderable discovery, either in science generally, or in some specified branch of
it. This last form is more usual in this country ; and such premiums are our
Keith, Brisbane, and Neill medals, I think we must conclude that the
foreign system has worked best. Many considerable memoirs of the last cen-
tury on physical astronomy and similar subjects were offered in competition
; for such prizes., The stimulus is one which addresses itself variously to dif-
ferent minds, and on the whole seems to be less effective in these later times.
One disadvantage of the award of medals for researches not previously defined,
is the greater difficulty of awarding them without partiality or bias. A fourth
kind of encouragement to science which our societies sometimes exert is the
bestowal of funds for the prosecution of experimental investigations. This is
frequently a stimulus of no small value. It was first systematically applied
in this country by the British Association ; and the Government of the coun-
try have wisely committed an annual fund for such purposes to be dispensed
by the Royal Society of London.
—————— — ——— ss Ce lC OOO hh
92 Principal Forbes’s Opening Address to the
side, can replace such influences. I could speak from personal ex-
perience, if necessary, of the influence of meetings like ours, dull
and commonplace though they may appear to some, upon the mind
of the young student; of the zest with which he feels himself, per-
haps for the first time, made the recipient of knowledge in its actual
dynamic progress, not through its past hoarded acquisitions merely ;
the enthusiasm with which he sees (perhaps also for the first time)
men of whom he has read in books, and on whom he looks with pos-
sibly excessive, yet still elevating and generous respect ; how, meet-
ing after meeting, he approaches somewhat nearer to those thus dis-
tantly regarded, and finally addresses them, though with something
of reverence, as friends having a common interest in common and
noble pursuits. If such alone were a result of our periodical meet-
ings, such would alone be an adequate object for us to aim at. It
is only by a certain measure of self-denial, a certain throwing off
of passive or indolent habits, that we can hope to render our meet-
ings attractive to ourselves and to one another. If all come, all
will be interested ; let each man, instead of pleading his inability
to contribute his share to the literary and scientific proceedings,
contribute at least his countenance. There is something magnetic
in the concourse of intelligent persons. Not only does each ele-
“ment attracted increase the aggregate by its adhesion, but the
aggregate so increased draws new molecules with greater force
within its sphere, till the whole gathers in an increasing progres-
sion, and (as physical philosophers tell us) evolves by the mere
act of aggregation that heat and light which maintain energy and
vitality even to the bounds of the universe.
We all know the history of the British Association for the Ad-
vancement of Science; some here remember its origin; few have not
been present at some of its meetings. Let me remind you how small
a fraction of that animated whole is composed of direct contributors
to the advancement of those sciences which the Society was formed
~ to promote. Let me ask you, what would be the result if every
member were requested to withdraw, who had not some paper to
communicate or some remark to offer. You may imagine the dire
scramble which would ensue, the clearing of benches, the faces of
dismay. The dismay would not be all on the side of the retreating
listeners. The small knot of studious philosophers left behind
es
Se
SF Soya»
Se. Te
Royal Society of Edinburgh, Session 1862-63. 93
would feel discouraged by the removal of that sympathising audi-
tory. Have we not all heard with patience, sometimes almost
with interest and admiration, papers read, from which we must
afterwards have confessed to ourselves, if not to others, that we
were able to carry little or nothing away? Yet that intelligent con-
course of partially instructed persons gives life to the meeting,
sanction and encouragement to the really knowing, a taste for
knowledge, respect for its professors, and some portions at least
of positive acquirements to those who are not so. I believe that
we ignore too much this element as inherent in the constitu-
tion of our learned societies. If we continue to do so, we shall
degenerate (I venture to call it a degeneracy) into mere publish-
ing clubs, whose ‘Transactions are read by a select few, but which
exist and shine by a mere “lumen siccwm,’—disembodied exis-
tences claiming no sympathies, calling forth no regard, combining
no diversities of interest.*
* I may perhaps be allowed to call attention to a striking change (on the
whole) in the character of the publications of learned societies; I mean the
great detail into which the papers generally run, especially in those on expe-
rimental Physics, mixed Mathematics, and Natural History. The bulk of
these communications is, it may be feared, too often out of proportion to the
intrinsic value of the matter which they contain. It is by no means without
example to see the pages of Transactions (as well Foreign as British) oceupied by
a description of experiments of which the results were merely negative, and by
mathematical investigations with no less indefinite conclusions. Such papers
are rarely read by any one. They increase the bulk and expense of Trans-
actions, and bewilder the unaided student, Even in cases less extreme they
- are encumbrances to scientific literature. An author, who has before him
no fear of a printer’s bill, or the remonstrances of an impatient publisher, is
but too apt to please himself by expanding a small amount of matter over a
goodly number of those handsome quarto pages, in which his lucubrations
appear so advantageously to the eye. Even where numerical precision in the
results is of primary consequence, excessive elaboration in printing the steps
of calculation and instrumental corrections is often unnecessary, as well as
extreme minuteness in describing forms of apparatus, and results of chemical
reactions, especially where such details are not remote from common appre-
hension. A stricter editorial censorship than the Councils of societies usually
venture to exert (similar in kind, though not in degree, to that which the
editors of our leading periodicals exercise over contributors not less eminent
in their departments), seems to be called for, by the expanding bulk of the
volumes published by learned Bodies.
An evil nearly allied to this, is the fragmentary manner in which authors
are apt to contribute the results of their inquiries. This is a consequence of
- Fr
94 Principal Forbes’s Opening Address to the
IV.—On the Changes in the Society during the last Twelve Months.
The past year has produced more than the usual number of
casualties both on the home and foreign lists of the Society. Dur-
ing its course the Society has had to deplore, in common with the
whole British Empire, the premature decease of H.R.H. the Prince-
Consort. It would be out of place here to offer a detailed eulogy
on one whose connection with our body was comparatively slight
and indirect, but whose loss has been profoundly felt in nearly
every home in these islands. An enlightened patronage of Science
and the Arts was one of the especial characteristics of his patriotic,
unselfish, and too short life.
Amongst Foreign and Honorary Fellows we miss three, all of
whom were on the verge of, or had exceeded, fourscore years.
These would by themselves afford topics for an address, I must
allude to them very briefly.
The venerable Juan-Baptiste Bror was born 21st April 1774.
He has been an Honorary Member of this Society for the uncommon
period of forty-seven years, having been elected in January 1815.*
He had become a member of the French Academy of Sciences in
1803, his jubilee having been celebrated nearly ten years ago.
But it is also a singular and probably unprecedented fact, that at
the time of his death he was a member of three out of four of the
Academies composing the Institute of France; that is, of the
Académie Francaise, and that of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres,
the struggle for priority in even second and third rate results of scientific in-
vestigation, though these are often no more than corollaries to propositions
well established, or assumed to be so. Such caveats are better adapted for the
weekly or monthly journals, where they properly and reasonably find a
place. It seems to be the business of societies to consult more than they
usually do, the instruction and convenience of readers, and less exclusively
the sometimes inconsiderate demands on the part of authors. There is,
perhaps, no society to which these remarks do not more or less apply; but
the case of the Comptes Rendus of the French Academy of Sciences supplies
an example of excessive publication so generally admitted to be an embar-
rassing evil that it may be referred to as a warning.
* I find by the old minute-books of this Society, that a paper by Biot on
the Polarization of Light by Crystals, was read by Sir David (then Dr)
Brewster at the ordinary meeting of the 15th January 1815.
Royal Society of Edinburgh, Session 1862-63. 95
as well as of the Academy of Sciences. His diversified abilities as
an author are well exemplified in the miscellaneous writings col-
lected by him before his death under the title of Mélanges Scienti-
Jiques et Littéraires.*
His fame, however, chiefly rests on his scientific productions,
especially in connection with the polarization of light. His writ-
ings on astronomy, though voluminous, are not original, except,
perhaps, in their historical and antiquarian aspect. Even in his
own subject, that of optics, there did not fall to his share so many
capital discoveries as from his opportunities, zeal, and unbounded
perseverance, might perhaps have been expected. His discovery
(independently of Seebeck) of the rotation of the plane of polariza-
tion caused by liquids, is the chief of these, and he pursued it
with unflagging energy into its numerous consequences during at
least forty years. Biot was an instance of all that mere talent
and perseverance, unsustained by great genius, can attain. His
long life was one scene of intellectual labour from first to last.
Brought up at the feet of the great Laplace, he was perfectly
conversant with his writings, and with all that belonged to the
most advanced state of mathematics of the time.’ His optical re-
searches were pursued according to the traditions of the same
school, as contained in the Emission- or Corpuscular-Theory. First
in his latest years did he begin to betray a consciousness that
‘Young, Fresnel, and Arago might be right, and that light is an
undulation after all. But the imperfect concession had then lost
all grace. His theory of Moveable Polarization, and generally his
modes of conceiving complex physical phenomena, were more ela-
borate than satisfactory.
One of Biot’s most considerable contributions to science was his
determination of the length of the seconds-pendulum in different
latitudes. It was the occasion of (I believe) his only visit to
Scotland, which took place in the summer of 1817, when he made
numerous observations at Leith Fort, and then undertook his me-
morable journey to the Isle of Unst, the northmost of the Shetlands,
of which he has left an interesting memorial in the first volume
of his published Essays.t Thus he had the no small distinction
* 3 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1858. .
t Taken from the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences.
96 Principal Forbes’s Opening Address to the
of having carried on these important labours, under very great
difficulties, over a terrestrial arc of 22° of latitude, extending from
the Isle of Ivica in the Mediterranean, to that of Unst, not very far
from the Arctic Circle. Of his true devotion to the scientific career
which he had proposed to himself, it is impossible to speak too
strongly. No distinctions except literary ones had any attraction
for him. He carefully eschewed those political promotions coveted
by too many of his academic compeers. His views on politics,
though definitely monarchical, were never obtruded. The isolation
induced by his habits of unremitting study fostered a coldness of
disposition often manifested by him towards other scientific men.
He had few intimate friends out of his family circle, and his
encouragement towards young aspirants was cautious and inter-
mitting. It is worthy of being added in his favour, that during
the last thirty years of his life he recognised, in a marked manner,
the obligations of his religious creed. Notwithstanding his very
advanced age, he continued his studies on Indian astronomy to
within a very short time of his death, which he met with Christian
composure, on the 3d February 1862, when he had nearly completed
his eighty-eighth year.
Frrepricu Trepemann, the eminent anatomist and physiologist,
was born at Cassel in 1781, and died on the 22d January 1861, in
the eightieth year of his age: His death was inadvertently not
noticed at our last anniversary. Tiedemann was one of the most
eminent comparative anatomists and physiologists of Hurope. His
earliest paper of note, that on the Circulation of the Echinoder-
mata, obtained a prize offered by the French Academy of Sciences.
He became Professor of Anatomy at Heidelberg in 1816, and con-
tinued so until 1848, During this period he published a cele-
brated work on the Human Brain, and another on that of the
Monkey, as well as several works in conjunction with Oppel and
Treviranus. He was blind during some of the later years of his
life, but recovered his sight through an operation for cataract.
Subsequent to his leaving Heidelberg, he lived in great retirement
at Bremen and Frankfort.
Louis Aupert Necker, honorary Professor of Mineralogy and Geo-
Ps la eee CO
Royal Society of Edinburgh, Session, 1862-63. 97
logy at Geneva, was born there in 1786, and died at Portree, in the
Isle of Skye, on the 20th November 1862, in his seventy-sixth year.
Mr Necker was far more intimately connected with this country
and with this Society than our foreign members usually are; indeed
he might be called a naturalised Scotchman, and he contributed
papers to our Transactions. It was my intention to have entered
on his biography here at some length. But I think it will be best
to bring before the Society in a separate form the facts and re-
miniscences which I have to offer.
On our home list, we have to lament the loss of 12 of our Ordi-
nary Fellows; a considerable number of whom had, however, also
attained the full term of human life. Their names are,—Robert
Bald, John Cockburn, Norwich Duff, James Forsyth, James P.
Fraser, John Fyfe, J. Burn Murdoch, James Russell,* John Russell,
Thomas Stewart Traill, James Walker, and Alex. Maconochie
Welwood.
To replace these we reckon also 12 new Fellows,—namely, Profes-
sor Archer, Rev. W. G. Blaikie, Mr Henry Cheyne, Mr Nicholas A.
Dalzell, Mr A. M. Edwards, Rev. V. G. Faithful, Dr James Hector,
Dr J. P. Macartney, Dr W. B. Mackinlay, Mr Edward F. Maitland
(now Lord Barcaple), Dr E. Ronalds, and Rev. Robert B. Watson.
Our numbers, therefore, remain the same as last year.
I must confine myself to a very short obituary notice of a few of
our deceased Fellows who showed most interest in the proceedings
of the Society.
The senior in standing asa Fellow was Mr AtexanpER Maconocu
Wetwoop, better known during his active life here as Lord Mea-
dowbank. His father also bore the same title; and was a man
of much acuteness, and an original Fellow of this Society. The
late Mr Maconochie Welwood was born in March 1777, he joined
the Faculty of Advocates in 1799, was made Lord Advocate in
1816, and a Judge in 1819. He retired from the Bench in 1848.
He joined this Society in 1817, but was not, so far as I know, a
contributor to our Proceedings. He, however, took an interest in
them, and for many years attended the meetings regularly. He
had a large circle of acquaintances in and out of the Society; and
* Who died since the Annual Lists were made up.
NEW SERIES,-——VOL. XVII. NO. 1.—JaANn. 1863.
DR, wee eRe ode he th
98 Principal Forbes’s Opening Address to the
though in public matters his manner was occasionally dogmatic, he
was of a kind and hospitable nature, and was much regarded by a
large circle of personal friends. The frequency of his attendance
here contributed to excite a spirit of interest in the meetings. For
about twenty years past he had lived in calm retirement in the
midst of his family, and on the property which he had an heredi-
tary pride in cultivating and adorning. He died at Meadowbank
on the 30th November 1861, in the eighty-fifth year of his age.
Elected in the same year with Mr M. Welwood, but his senior
by one year, was Mr Rosert Baty, who for many years occupied a
very high position as amining engineer. He was born at Culross, in
Perthshire, in 1776, and soon after removed to Alloa, where he early
gave his attention to mining, and attracted the notice of the Earl
of Marr. He was ultimately engaged in the extensive Marr Col-
lieries,—a connection which he held for a very long period. He
commenced general practice as a mining engineer in Edinburgh
about the year 1820, and was very extensively employed in Scot-
land, England, and Wales. He was requested by the Swedish Govern-
ment to report on the coalfields of that kingdom, and received from
the King of Sweden marked acknowledgments of the value attached
to his report by the Government of that country. Mr Bald was
elected a member of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1817, and
was a contributor to its Proceedings. He was author of a “ View
of the Coal Trade,’’* of the article ‘‘ Mine” in the Edinburgh Ency-
clopzdia, and of numerous other papers bearing on his profession.
Mr Bald was universally esteemed; and during his long stay in
Edinburgh he formed many lasting friendships, which death alone
terminated. He was for long in ill health, and bore his protracted
and severe illness with truly Christian resignation. The latter years
of his once active life were spent in retirement at Alloa, where he
died in December 1861, in his eighty-sixth year.
As connected by the nature of his occupations with Mr Bald, I
next notice a third octogenarian among our Fellows, Mr Jamzs
* In this work he made a benevolent and much required appeal on behalf
of the miserable lot of women then employed in coal mines, under the name
of ‘ Bearers.”
PSI e
TE PTI Ne
Royal Society of Edinburgh, Session 1862-63. 99
Watxer, the eminent civil engineer, who was born at Falkirk on
the 14th of September 1781. He was educated at the parish school
of Falkirk, and thereafter removed to Glasgow, where he studied
at the University. He went to London in the year 1800, and com-
menced the study of engineering under his uncle the late Ralph
Walker, who was then engaged in constructing the West India
Docks. Mr Walker devoted himself almost exclusively to marine
engineering, in which important branch of the profession, though
his rise was gradual, he ultimately attained the position of the first
authority of his day. He had not avery inventive cast of mind, but
he had great caution and sound judgment, and above all the faculty '
of profiting by his large and varied experience. His works were,
in consequence, eminently successful. It would be out of place in
this brief notice to attempt even an outline of his works, so varied
were they in character, and so many in number. It may be suffi-
cient to say that at the time of his death he was conducting, as
Government engineer, the national harbours of refuge at Dover,
Alderney, and Jersey, and the refuge harbour at the mouth of the
Tyne. As engineer to the Trinity House of London, he constructed
various lighthouses, including that_on the Bishop’s Rock, a very
exposed situation. He was largely consulted in navigation and
canal works; and the Stockwell Street Bridge at Glasgow may be
adduced as a favourable specimen of his bridge architecture.
Mr Walker received the degree of Doctor of Laws from the Uni-
versity of Glasgow. He was appointed president of the Institution
of Civil Engineers on the death of Mr Telford in 1834. He was
a fellow of the Royal Society of London; and in 1824 he was
elected into the Royal Society of Edinburgh. He had been for
some time before his death in declining health, but to a robust
constitution he added an abundant flow of cheerfulness and spirit ;
and even on the day before he died he was writing a report to the
Admiralty on the subject of Alderney Harbour of Refuge. He
was suddenly seized with a stroke of apoplexy, and expired on the
Sth October 1862, in his eighty-first year. At his own request,
his remains were interred in his family burial-place, at St John’s
Chapel, Edinburgh.
Dr Tuomas Stewart Trax was born on the 29th October 1781,
100 Principal Forbes’s Opening Address to the
at Kirkwall, in Orkney, of which place his father was minister.
Throughout his life he retained a most affectionate interest in his
native islands. ‘He was,” as we read in a contemporary notice,
“ Orcadiensibus orcadiensior, and his face lighted up, and his hand
gave an extra grip, when he met with a man whose young eyes had
seen the Old Man of Hoy, and who had heard the roar of the Pent-
land Firth from the south.”
He graduated in medicine in the University of Edinburgh in
1802, where he had been the fellow-student of Lord Brougham,
Sir David Brewster, Principal Lee, and other eminent persons.
He is believed to have settled in Liverpool in 1804, where he con-
stantly resided as a physician in good practice until 1832. He
was highly esteemed, professionally and personally, in that great
mercantile city, and formed intimate friendships with its leading
men. He promoted warmly the societies founded there for the
diffusion of literature and science, especially the Royal Institution
of Liverpool, of which he was one of the founders and the first
secretary. He maintained throughout life an intimacy with Lord
Brougham, having a common interest with him in many philan-
thropic objects. In 1832, he was appointed to the Chair of Medical
Jurisprudence in this University, which he filled until his death
thirty years later. He took great pleasure in lecturing. Chemistry,
mineralogy, and meteorology, were his favourite sciences. In 1804,
he delivered a popular course on chemistry for a benevolent object —
in Kirkwall. This is said to have been the first course of the kind
given in Scotland. He lectured frequently in Liverpool; and
after he became a professor in Edinburgh, he not only delivered
his own course of lectures, but also repeatedly that of Professor
Jameson on natural history; and once at least he lectured for a
session in the chemical class, during Dr Hope’s decline.
He was a diligent attender on this Society, and for many years
curator of the library, with a seat in the Council. He contributed
a great many papers to our Proceedings, and some are printed in
the Transactions.* They are not always of an important class,
but are of a kind very serviceable in promoting the interest of
* In volume ix., “ Account of a Mineral from Orkney,” and “ Electro-
magnetic Observations and Experiments.” Vol. xiv., “On a New Writing
Tuk.” Vol. xv., “On Fossil Fishes found in the New Red Sandstone of
—_
SO ae EL ee
WES eS
Royal Society of Edinburgh, Session 1862-63. 101
meetings such as ours, and a taste for science generally. This,
indeed, was Dr Traill’s forte. His tenacious memory storing up
the results of considerable reading and extensive conversational
intercourse, supplied him with ready materials for illustrating any
topic brought under his notice. It is not surprising that, trusting
largely to memory, his accuracy is not in all cases perfectly to be
relied on. He was nominally editor of the eighth edition of the
Encyclopedia Britannica, and he certainly contributed to it some
forty articles ; but his responsibility was, I believe, chiefly confined
to the earliest volumes, the greater part having been practically
edited by the able publisher, Mr Adam Black.
Latterly, owing to infirmity, Dr Traill ceased to attend the
meetings of this Society, where he had, for a quarter of a century,
occupied a familiar place. But his lectures he never discontinued,
and persevered with them until within twelve days of his death.
It was well known to his colleagues, that had he lived to complete
that course, which was his thirtieth, he would then have resigned
his chair. .He died at Edinburgh, on the 30th July last, in his
eighty-first year, being the fourth octogenarian on our list.
Yet one more venerable colleague and useful member remains
to be noticed.
Mr Joun Rvssett, writer to the Signet, and for eighteen years
treasurer of the Society, was born 22d February 1780. He was
descended from three generations of men who had exercised in Edin-
burgh the same respectable calling. By his mother’s side, however,
he inherited of right a taste for literature; for she was daughter of
Principal Robertson, an honourable connection, which Mr Russell
always loved to recall. In point of fact, Mr Russell retained through-
out an active professional career both the tastes and acquirements of
a well-educated man and a scholar. He was intimate with many of .
Orkney,” and on “ Berg-meal, or Mineral Flour of Degersfors, in Swedish
Lapland.” In vol. xvi., ‘Memoir of Dr T. C. Hope.” In vol. xx., “On a
Peruvian Musical Instrument.” In vol. xxi., “ On the Torbanehill Mineral.”
These titles give a good general idea of the varied subjects of Dr Traill’s
communications. His last contribution to the Society seems to have been that
made on 15th February 1858, “ Description of the Sulphur Mine of Conil [in
Spain], preceded by a Notice of the Geological Features of the Southern por-
tion of Andalucia.” An abstract appears in our “ Proceedings,” vol. iv. p. 77.
102 Principal Forbes’s Opening Address to the
those who, some forty years ago, rendered the literary society of Edin-
burgh famous, with not a few of whom he was associated as one of
the founders of the Edinburgh Academy, in which he took a life-
long interest. He became a Fellow of this Society in 1822, and its
Treasurer in 1838. He fulfilled the duties of the latter office in a
very exemplary manner, as I can testify from personal knowledge.
He devoted to it not a little of his time, and brought the finances into
a better state than they had been for a long time previously. Fora
good many years past his health prevented him from taking his place —
at the evening meetings; butso long as he possibly could, he assidu-
ously attended at council meetings, and in 1857, when he could no
longer do so, he resigned his office. On that occasion he received
from the Society a piece of plate as a recognition of his valuable
services. His latter years were tranquilly spent at Southbank, near
Edinburgh, a charming villa bequeathed to him by his uncle,
General Robertson. I have very often visited him there, and found
him ever cheerful and occupied, generally with literary pursuits, in
which to the last he took a real pleasure. At my very latest visit I
found him refreshing his, recollections of the Latin Classics. He
was a man of wide sympathies, and had many friends of all parties.
He was a sincere Christian, and died at peace with all men. This
happened on the 30th January 1862, when he had almost completed
his eighty-second year. He is therefore the fifth octogenarian on
our list, besides foreign members,
Of the remaining names on our obituary list I do not feel called
on tosay much. But I must mention Dr Fyrx, a highly respectable
chemist, and a well-known lecturer in Edinburgh. He was at first
chemical assistant to Dr Hope. In and after 1817, he lectured at
the Society of Arts, and in 1844 was appointed to the Chair of
Medicine in Aberdeen, having already been President, the year be-
fore, of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh. He died on
the 31st December 1861, aged nearly seventy years.
Admiral Norwicu Dorr, born in 1793, was descended from the
first Earl of Fife. His earlier years were spent in active service in
various parts of the world. Even before he was twenty he had
taken part in several great naval battles. About the time of enter-
Ss 2 Fy Og Oe IS
Royal Society of Edinburgh, Session 1862-63. 103
ing this Society, in 1828, he was well known in Edinburgh,
where he spent several winters, though he may be perhaps recol-
lected by few persons now present. He married in 1833 a lady of
Bath, and he died in that city in the course of last summer.
Mr Burn Mourpoca and Mr Jonny Cooxsurn (brother of the late
Lord Cockburn) both frequently attended our meetings, but other-
wise require no detailed notice here. The former was an active
agriculturist and country gentleman, and died in August last in his
seventieth year.
Dr Jamus Russext, whose death, at the age of sixty-one, occurred
only on the 21st November last, was the eldest son of Mr James
Russell, Professor of Clinical Surgery, and grandson of the Profes-
sor of Natural Philosophy (also in this university), who was the pre-
decessor of Dr Robison. Dr Russell lived a retired life, and although
a physician, had not for many years practised his profession.
I have now, gentlemen, with somerprolixity I fear, attempted to
go over the ground which I had in view when we started. My great
object has been to induce you to give a fair consideration to the
claims which the objects of this really national institution—the
Royal Society—has upon you, its members. I have asked you to
look back to your origin,—to the constellation of eminent men who
assisted at your incorporation,—to the important labours which the
Transactions include,—to the social meetings which, with varying
brilliancy and significance, have for eighty years connected genera-
- tion with generation of the literary and scientific men of this me-
tropolis and university-seat with one another; and I ask you to
assist now, by your personal efforts, by your literary contributions
if possible, at least by your attendance at our evening meetings,
in adding to the interest and value of these meetings; I ask you
to encourage those who labour for the promotion of original re-
search, to maintain the credit of a society established for purposes
the most disinterested and humanizing, and by so doing to justify
the position which the Royal Society of Edinburgh assumes, of
representing in some degree before the academies of Europe the
intellect and original talent of our native country.
RT Aats 2 = oe eS
‘ 4 ~— WIA
104
REVIEWS AND NOTICES OF BOOKS. .
The Earth and its Mechanism, being an Account of the
various Proofs of the Rotation of the Earth. By HENRY
Worms, F.R.A.S., F.G.S. London: Longman & Co.,
1862.
A very handsome volume,—unfortunately this is all we can
say in its favour, for, on attempting to peruse it, we found it to
resemble too truly the famous apples of the Dead Sea, most ruddy-
cheeked and luscious in appearance, but—full of ashes.
Criticism would be wasted on such a book, but we may give an
extract or two, The following are from the “popular” part,
** adapted,” as we are told, ‘‘ to the comprehension of the general
reader,”
“©« How can it be imagined,’ writes Tycho, ‘ that one and the
same body should have two motions so different, one which trans-
lates its centre of gravity, the other which changes the position of
its axis ?’”
Now, step forward, Mr Worms, and explain this in a manner
* adapted to the comprehension of the general reader.” |
‘“‘ The answer is, that the parallelism of the axis does not re- :
quire a specific motion, as he supposed, for it is a fixed position.”
Comment on nonsense like this would be useless. It follows
from the exquisite geometrical demonstration in p. 24, that the
tangential component of any force acting on the surface of a body
produces no motion of the centre of gravity. This is the more
remarkable, since, at the top of p. 25, the effects of such a force
are correctly enough stated. This little point is worthy of notice;
we shall have occasion to remark on the system of discordances, of
which it is a specimen.
The tradewinds are due to the fact that, (p. 59)—* in conse-
quence of the rotation, every particle of air transferred from the
pole to the equator must slacken its rotatory motion.”!!! |
Had we confined our reading to the first or “ popular” part of
the book, we should have at once set it down as the production
of one of those extraordinarily gifted individuals who now and
then appear on earth, capable of comprehending the true character
of that gigantic imposture which was perpetrated by Newton, and
which, to the disgrace of this enlightened age, still holds its ground
amongst so-called men of science.
But such luminaries disdain the deceitful and dangerous aid of
the differential calculus, another fraudulent production of New-
ton. Mr Worms, on the contrary, in his second part revels in
Vet 2"
Reviews and Notices of Books. 105
glorious displays of differential equations, elliptic integrals, and
what not.
We know him now—we have met some of his race before. We
remember some years ago dealing with a work which much re-
sembles this in character. It was called, if we mistake not, an
** Analytical View of Newton’s Principia,’’ and was written by a
distinguished nobleman of the most versatile powers,
The style of this work is much the same—attempted popularity
in parts, and attempted profundity in others, Alas, however, the
author ventures to add something of his own to the popular part—
some specimens of Mr Worms’ additions we have already given,
But in writing the profound part there has been a simple adapta-
tion, for it cannot be called translation, of some portions of the
more difficult writings of Laplace, Gauss, and Hansen,—and not
only are essential portions omitted, but fancied defects are sup-
plied, and the result is truly marvellous, Laplace’s investigation
of the effect of the earth’s rotation on the fall of heavy bodies has
taken, by a few applications of these processes, a form in which its
author could not possibly recognise it—in which most of the
points are lost, different symbols confounded, and little hints
added, which show the utter ignorance of the perpetrator. This
is totally distinct from the question of misprints, of which the
number is really astounding. One amusing blunder, however,
occurs which puts us into good humour again, as we close the book,
Laplace takes as his unit of time the second (according to the
decimal division of time decreed by the French Republic). Mr
Worms translates the passage thus (the italics are our own)—
‘¢ If we take the second decimal, or the 551537 Of the mean
day as the unity (sic) of time.”
Enough. We hope we shall never meet Mr Worms again—on
this subject at all events.
The True Figure and Dimensions of the Earth, in a Letter
addressed to George Biddel Airy, Esq., M.A., Astro-
nomer Royal. By JoHaNNES VON GuMPACH. Second
Edition, entirely recast.
Lest our reader may suppose the author is merely contending
for a small alteration in the value of the earth’s ellipticity, let us
at once inform him that the contest is one of much greater im-
portance. We have before us a champion of the most illustrious
pretensions,—one who, if his accuracy equals his self-assertion,
must be classed with Galileo and Newton, if indeed the latter be
not entirely deposed by his formidable opponent. And while the
gauntlet is thus thrown to the great master of science, meaner
NEW SERIES.—VOL, XVII. NO. 1.—JAN. 1863, ce)
106 Reviews and Notices of Books.
humanity is called upon to gaze with respectful admiration, and
behold the earth, which had previously been flattened into an
orange, squeezed out into a lemon. Gumpach cometh! And first
let us listen to his modest apology :—
** How I dare to oppose my individual judgment, in a matter
like this, to the conclusions arrived at, and upheld by, the whole
scientific and intellectual world? Let the reader remember that
Galileo and Copernicus did the same, and were in the right.”
We see elsewhere in the preface, how a sense of duty and of
the interests at stake ultimately overcomes the pardonable diffi-
dence of the author.
«I had reason to believe, I remarked in my pamphlet, that
naked truth, in opposition to the established system of theoretical
astronomy, would stand but a poor chance of a hearing. But
when it has in its train, I added, the wreck of colossal national
wealth, and the corpses of thousands of our fellow-beings, hurried
into eternity by the abstract idea of universal gravitation, its
voice is certain to make itself heard, sure to command the atten-
tion even of the Astronomer Royal.”
Afterwards, we find that ten thousand human beings, besides
property worth from five-and-twenty to thirty million pounds
sterling, have perished at sea solely in consequence of Sir Isaac
Newton’s erroneous theory,
The argument in favour of the opposite theory is then deve-
loped by the author in a volume of 265 pages, but we think it
may be stated in somewhat shorter compass.
The supporters of the old theory plead their cause thus :-—
A degree of latitude means that the direction of the plumb-line,
and consequently that of the tangent, to the surface, has changed
one degree. Now, in order to obtain this change, it is necessary
to traverse a greater space at the pole than at the equator, whence
it is inferred, that the earth’s curvature changes more rapidly at
the equator than at the pole, or that the globe has the shape of
an orange.
But, according to the author, these plumb-lines must all meet
at the centre of the earth, so that here we have two similar
triangles, each with a vertical angle of one degree, of which that
at the pole has the greatest base, and consequently the greatest
side,—that is to say, the pole is "farther from the earth’s centre
than a point of the equator.
It is thus that the globe is made to be lemon-shaped, and
we leave it to the reader to criticise the operation. Let us, how-.
ever, give one hint to the author. He says in his preface—
“ Unless I greatly mistake the temper of the people of Eng-
land, they will not suffer the practical solution of a alan of
this nature and magnitude to remain long in abeyance.”
As we fancy the receipts of his publisher will have already con-—
See
Reviews and Notices of Books. 107
vinced him that he has mistaken the temper of the English
people, we shall now tell him how he may obtain a hearing.
Let him not only assert but prove that a number of shipwrecks
have happened through a mistake of position, and that these
would not have taken place had the Gumpachian theory been
adopted, and we shall all swallow his life pills, although he dis-
charge them at us in a very violent manner.
And now, one word in the author’s favour before we conclude,
From an expression in page 11, we infer that he has not
altered the relation between the diameter and the circumference
of acircle. We indeed rejoice to think that our venerable and
valued friend # has escaped the general catastrophe; and we
owe a debt of gratitude to the author for exhibiting an amount of
consideration which has not always been shown by this class of
philosophers,
On Eccentric and Centric Force ; a new Theory of Projec-
tion. By Henry F. A. Pratt, M.D. London: Churchill,
1862. 8vo, Pp. 296.
This performance is one of a class usually exempted from
Serious criticism in scientific journals. It is a formal attempt to
explode the laws of motion, disprove the laws of Kepler, demolish
the Newtonian theory, and expose the fallacy of all that is
generally accepted as truth in mechanical philosophy. The book
is unexceptionable in form, is illustrated with twenty-six well
executed diagrams, and is divided, after the manner of scientific
treatises, info four parts, forty-four sections, a Preface, and an
Appendix.
1t will be conceded, that an author who professes to make short
work of Sir Isaac Newton, should, at all events, be a mathemati-
cian of the first order; other qualifications may be desirable, but
this one seems wholly indispensable. And, if it should unfortu-
nately appear that such an author is destitute of even ordinary
mathematical knowledge, it may be very safely inferred that his
most energetic assaults will fail to shake the foundation on which
the Newtonian theory reposes.
Now, in Dr Pratt’s appendix, there exist abundant materials
for guaging the depth of his mathematical attainments. We do
not find there, it is true, any elaborate parade of algebraic for-
mulz and mysterious pothooks; on the contrary, there is a
bewitching simplicity of calculation, conducted entirely by the aid
of simple numbers, manipulated in professed accordance with the
more elementary rules of arithmetic, but leading to results of the
most surprising kind. Thus, from actual measurement of the
side of a square and its diagonal, the author discovers (page 271-3)
108 Reviews and Notices of Books.
that they bear to each other the ratio of 12: 17; and after re-
marking that the area of the square is, when deduced from the
former number, 144, while calculation founded on the latter
number indicates an area of 144}, he inquires, “ Can it be that
this points to one of those inappreciable differences brought about
by change in form? for the diameter or radius (diagonal or its
half) clearly represents a departure from the rectangle.”
In perusing Dr Pratt’s remarks on the mutual relations of the
circle, the square, the cube, and the sphere, we perceived indica-
tions of a horrible hankering after the quadrature of the circle ;
but, in fairness, it should be recorded, that at page 275 and else-
where, he states his conviction, that the area inclosed by a circle
cannot be numerically squared.
At p. 276 we are introduced to a process, which (its author
being a medical man) we shall take the liberty of terming the
“ dissecting calculus.” Its principle, if we rightly apprehend it,
is simply as follows :—A circle of known radius being drawn, is
divided into any number (usually 24) of equal parts, by lines
radiating from its centre; and these parts being cut asunder, and
arranged close together, heads and tails, in a row, constitute a
sort of parallelogram, whose longer sides, regarded as straight
lines, will be equal to the circumference of the parent circle,
while the sum of the shorter sides will be equal to the diameter
of the circle, and the product obtained by multiplying a long side
by a short one will give the area of the parallelogram, which will
be equal to that of the circle. By actually measuring parallelo-
grams thus constructed, Dr Pratt appears to have satisfied himself
(p. 278) that a radius of 15 gives a diameter of 30, a circumfer-
ence of 96, and an area of 720. He uses 15 as the radius in
order to avoid fractions; but his ratio of diameter to circumference
is of course 1: 31! These discoveries, of necessity, suggest the
inference, that the area of the circle is 4ths of that of the cireum-
scribing square ; and we find it gravely asserted at page 288, that -
the contents of the sphere must be 4ths of the contents of the
circumscribing cylinder, and not 3ds only, as hitherto erroneously
taught by geometricians !
Such being a few specimens of Dr Pratt’s mathematical dis-
coveries, it seems unnecessary to follow his argument, when he
deals with the laws of motion, exposes the “ fallacies” of Newton,
and builds his own original theory on the ruins of the doctrine of
gravitation.
In conclusion, we shall notice very briefly one objection, which
the author urges as fatal to the Newtonian theory. (See pre-
face. pp. 8-9.) ‘‘ One peculiar feature of the Newtonian theory
must not be passed over here—its absolute mechanical character,
—which is such a very grave defect, that it ought long since
to have led to its rejection, for it inferentially, if not directly,
—— ey”
Reviews and Notices of Books. 109
dispenses with the sustaining power of God in the orderly manage-
ment of the universe, INTE
* And, indeed, gravity, according to his theory, is sufficient
for the movements of all the heavenly bodies; but in admitting
its sufficiency, one of His highest attributes is taken from Al-
mighty God, and transferred to a material force, which is thus
practically made the Lord of the created worlds : and if their Lord,
why not also, in conjunction with the chemical theory of the
origin of life, &c., their Creator,
“Such views, when broadly stated, are of course utterly re-
pugnant, not only to the reason, but to the innate consciousness
of every well-ordered mind, and yet they originate in, and are
the expression of principles developed by the Newtonian theory.
It is not surprising, therefore, to find that such a material and
mechanical theory is as much opposed to common sense as it is
to Christianity, &e.’’
In other words, a pure system of mechanics must not be me-
chanical; and it is impious to believe, that from the outward
manifestations of the Creator’s power indications of order or of
general laws can be extracted.
On the Climate of Scotland, as determined by Temperature.
On the Profitable and Unprofitable Culture of Farm Crops
in Scotland. Reports of the METEOROLOGICAL Society of
ScoTLAND for Quarters ending March and June 1862.
The Report of the Scottish Meteorological Society for the
quarter ending March 1862, contains an interesting and elaborate
paper by Mr Buchan, on the Climate of Scotland as determined
by Temperature, based on five years’ observations, from 1857 to
1861 inclusive. A complete set of tables accompany the paper, the
great practical value and importance of which it would be difficult
to over-estimate. To the physician and the agriculturist they are
especially valuable, considering the intimate relation which exists
between temperature on the one hand, and the public health and
farm crops on the other. A number of diagrams are appended,
which show at a glance the chief results arrived at in the investi-
gation.
Scotland is divided in the Report into four well-marked meteor-
ological districts,—the outlying islands, the west coast, the east
coast, and the central districts of the country. The mean annual tem-
perature of these districts are,—islands, 45°8 ; west coast, 47°°9 ;
east coast, 47°1; and inland, 47°-2. The east and inland districts
are therefore nearly equal, the west nearly a degree higher than
the east, and the ifland considerably under the mainland,
110 Reviews and Notices of Books.
“« The most remarkable fact which the table of mean tempera-
ture presents, is the low mean annual temperature of the island
stations ; for, whilst the mean for all Scotland is 47°°3, that of
the islands, Bressay in Shetland, Sandwick in Orkney, and Stor-
noway in Lewis, is only 45°°8, being a degree and a half below
the general mean temperature of the country. This is a result
which was quite unexpected ; the contrary, indeed, being supposed
to be the case. The fact is, however, undeniable; and an inspec-
tion of the mean temperature of these stations for each of the five
years, shows that it does not arise from any chance combinations
of anomalous years. On the contrary, each one of the three sta-
tions is below the mean in each of the five years. The nearest
approach to the mean shown by any of them is Stornoway, in the
exceptional year 1860, when it was only 0°°6 below it; but it is
to be remarked that, in the same year, Bressay was as much as
1°*8 below the mean. All the other elements of temperature
included in the tables which accompany this report, bear out the
same view. The mean temperatures are—Bressay, 45°:4, Sand-
wick, 45°°9, and Stornoway, 46°1; being respectively under the
mean for all Scotland, 1°-9, 1°-4, and 1°*2. It will be observed,
in regard to these differences, that they increase with the latitude
—a view which the mean temperature of Tongue, the next most
northern station, appears to confirm. Its mean temperature is
46°°6, forming thus an intermediate link between the islands and
the west coast. Its winter temperature corresponds more to that
of the islands, but its summer temperature shows a decided ap-
proach to that of the west coast.”
“ On.comparing the mean annual temperatures of the several
stations, it will be found that, with the exception of the islands
and stations on the west coast, their mean temperatures are almost
equal; the greatest deviations from the mean of all Scotland being
Arbroath, Elgin, Kettins, and Baillieston, whose mean tempera-
ture is 46°-8, or half a degree below the mean; and East Linton
and Thurston, which are 47°°7, or 0°-4 above the mean. On
comparing these stations in reference to their small deviations, we
are unable to see any common cause which might serve to explain
them. We are therefore inclined to ascribe them to causes
purely accidental, which further observation may be expected to
remove.””
That the difference in mean temperature between any two of
these stations is less than a degree, is a very remarkable result,
and reflects as it does the highest credit on the Society’s observers,
and on the efficient working of the Society.
“Though thus the mean annual temperature is almost the
same over Scotland, the way in which it is distributed over the
year is widely different in different places. Upon this depend the
peculiar climates of particular localities, 5,
"So wre
pipes i -. re
¢é
Reviews and Notices of Books. 111
“The geographical distribution of temperature through the
months of the year suggests some interesting and important re-
sults. The mean winter temperature of the islands and west
coast is considerably above the rest of Scotland, Leaving Kas-
dale out of view as quite anomalous, the winter temperature of
the islands is 39°°5 ; west coast, 39°:2 ; east coast, 38°°2 ; inland
37°'9 ;—the east coast being thus 1°3, and inland places 1°°6,
under the islands. The extreme stations are Sandwick, 39°°6,
and Thirlestane, 36°*7 ; the difference being nearly three degrees.
** On the other hand, the mean summer temperature of the
islands is more then proportionally lower, The summer mean
of the islands is 54°°2 ; of the west coast, 57°'8; of the east coast,
57°:'7; and inland, 58°-1 :—the differences between the last three
and the islands are therefore 3°°6, 3°°5, and 3°-9
* In autumn the four groups are all nearly of the same mean
temperature ; and in spring the islands are about two degrees
below the other groups, whose spring temperatures are almost
identical.
* From this it appears that the low mean annual temperature
of the islands is owing to their very low summer temperature,
and to the excess of their winter temperature doing no more than
eounterbalancing the deficiency of their temperature in spring.”
Another important result arrived at, on comparing the islands
and inland districts together, is this, the more strictly inland any
place is situated, the earlier and the more extreme are its seasons ;
and conversely, the further any island is distant from the main-
land, the later and the less extreme are its seasons. The late
harvests of Shetland and Orkney give ample confirmation of this
statement.
The following are a few of the chief conclusions come to, from
a consideration of the extreme high and low temperatures at par-
ticular localities :—
** From an analysis of the extreme temperatures for the several
‘ months of the year, it may be concluded, that the eastern slope of
the country is the most powerfully affected by the sun’s rays,
and that the islands are the least affected; that, on the other
hand, the places which suffer the greatest intensity ‘of cold are all
situated in narrow valleys enclosed by hills ; and that the places
where severe cold is least experienced are on the west coast, and
open to the warm waters of the Atlantic.”
‘* Generally speaking, the highest day temperatures are at
those stations which are also the highest above the level of the sea;
and it is to be noted with regard to the same stations, that they
have also the lowest night temperatures. This arises from the
circumstance that such stations all happen to be situated in hol-
lows, surrounded by rising grounds or by hills, which when
warmed by the sun’s rays, reflect their heat to the low grounds
112 Reviews and Notices of Books.
during the day, thus raising their temperature above what it
would otherwise be; but during the night, on the other hand, as
the earth parts with its heat by radiation, the air in contact with
its surface becoming cold, acquires greater density, and accord-
ingly slips down the sloping surface, and accumulates in the plain
below. By this means the minimum or night temperature of
relatively low grounds is considerably lowered below what is due
to their radiation alone. However much the maximum and mi-
nimum temperatures may vary through the year at particular
places, as compared with each other, their mean annual tempera-
tures remain the same. Each place receives its annual quantum
of heat from the sun, but it does not receive it in the same way.”
It would scarcely have been expected that the climate of Scot-
land could have included two such widely different climates as
those of Sandwick and Thirlestane, which will appear from the
following :—
“The contrast presented between the islands and the inland
stations is very striking. To take as examples Sandwick, and
Thirlestane in Berwickshire, as the extreme stations of their re-
spective groups, we observe that the protected thermometer has
not stood higher at Sandwick than 70°5, nor fallen below 15°°5 ;
while at Thirlestane during the same time the thermometer has
risen as high as 85°-0, and fallen so low as—8°*7, or nearly nine
degrees below zero. Thus the extreme range of temperature at
Sandwick during the five years has been only 55°-0; while at Thirle-
stane, on the other hand, the extreme range has been 93°°7, or
38°-7 more than at Sandwick. Again, at Sandwick the tempera-
ture has not fallen to the freezing point in any of the five months
from May to September inclusive ; while at Thirlestane it has
fallen below the freezing point in every month except July and
August. In none of the islands has the temperature fallen to the
freezing point in June, July, August, and September; on the west
and east coasts, in June, July, and August; but in every month
the freezing point has been registered at some one of the inland
stations. In the islands, the lowest temperature observed is
15°-0; on the west coast, 9°-0; on the east coast, 1°-5 ; and inland,
12°-0. Nookton, two miles distant from the sea, but from its
position favourable to low temperatures, is the only station near
the east coast where the temperature has fallen below zero. But
at all the inland stations, except Elgin (12°0) and Baillieston
(1°-5), it fell to zero or below it.” ;
Another important point established is, that at many places, at
great heights above the sea, the suminer temperature is equal to
what obtains in places but little elevated above the sea; in other
words, though the mean temperature of the whole year decreases
proportionally with the height, the mean temperature of the seasons —
does not follow the same laws.
.
er eT eee
Reviews and Notices of Books. 113
“From the day temperatures, it appears that during the day
the temperature of high-lying valleys is raised quite as high by
the force of the sun’s rays as that of places but little elevated
above the sea,—a fact not altogether in accordance with popular
notions on the subject ; but from the night temperatures, high-
lying valleys are more exposed to frosts in the latter part of
spring and in autumn than places nearer the sea-level. From this
it follows—and it is of great importance to the agriculturist—
that in valleys at a considerable elevation above the sea, there is
sufficient sunshine for maturing and ripening the crops, provided
they sustain no damage from the frosts that occasionally occur
there in May and June, and more rarely in July.”
It is concluded from the higher temperature of the West Coast,
and from the higher temperature of places situated near the sea,
and sloping up from the shore, that “the warmest winter resi-
dences which our island can hold out to invalids must be. sought
for near the shores of the Atlantic, on rising ground gently slop-
_ing up from the water’s edge, and having no hills to the south-
wést, so as to insure less rain and damp, as well as a drier, clearer,
and more cheerful atmosphere.”
The following facts and reasonings, showing that the Gulf-stream
reaches our Scottish coasts on the west, will be read with interest,
as adding additional proofs to those already adduced by Mr A.
Keith Johnston and other writers on this subject.
‘* The cause of the excess (0°:8) of the mean temperature of the
West over the East Coast, and the amount of their summer and
winter differences, cannot be explained by the south-west winds.
The Atlantic is about three degrees (2°9) above the North Sea
for the six months beginning with October and ending with March,
the greatest excess being nearly four degrees in December and
January, and the least 1°°7 in October; while the North Sea is
0°-7 in excess during the other six months, the highest being 1°°5,
and the least a tenth of a degree, On the mean of the whole
year, the Atlantic is fully a degree above the North Sea. We
may therefore assume that the observed difference (0°8) between
the temperature of the Hast and West Coasts is entirely due to the
high mean temperature of the Atlantic, imparting a higher tem-
‘perature to the south-west winds than would otherwise be the
case ; which anomalously high temperature they gradually lose
by radiation in their passage north-eastwards across the island,
“The more inland character of the North Sea, as compared
with the Atlantic, would naturally lead us to expect that the
former would show greater extremes of temperature than the
latter ; but this alone cannot account for a deficiency in winter
of four degrees, and an excess in summer of a degree and a half;
and it is manifest the principle would entirely break down when
we should attempt to explain by it a mean annual deficiency of
NEW SERIES—VOL. XVII. NO. I.—JAN. 18638. Pp
114 Reviews and Notices of Books.
more than a degree. For if the Atlantic were stationary, and
there were no influx on our western shores, and no general move- —
ment northward through the Hebrides and Orcades of warmer waters
from the south-west, it is evident that the mean annual temperature
of the opposite seas would remain nearly equal, however differently
it might be partitioned in each through the months of the year.
« That there is a general movement of the waters northward,
will be still further evident from the temperature of the sea at three
distant points, on a mean of four years, from 1858 to 1861 in-
clusive: Otter House in Argyle 49°-0; Harris, 48°°8 ; Sandwick,
48°-6.
‘“‘ From the simple fact of the very considerable excess of these
annual means over the mean annual temperature of the air on
the west, the inference is obvious, that the temperature of the sea
on the west must be abnormally raised by currents from warmer
regions. But the manner of the excess of the mean sea temperature
at these places above their respective annual means is the point to
which we would specially direct attention. The annual means show ~
a gradual decrease as we proceed northward, but a decrease totally
disproportioned to that of the air temperatures, The mean annual
temperature of the air for the West Coast we have shown to be
47°-9, and that for Sandwick 45°°9. Thus, while the excess of
the sea temperature over the air temperature on the West Coast is
one degree, the excess for Sandwick is 2°°7, or nearly three times
as great. These facts all point in one direction, which is, that
the Gulf-stream strikes on our shores from a direction probably
a little to the south of west, and is thence deflected northward
along the coast, parting with its warmth slowly, and in such a
manner, that the farther north the greater is the difference be-
tween the mean temperature and that of the air.”
The effect of large towns in raising the temperature above what
it would otherwise be, is strikingly shown in the following ex-
tract :—
* The following table is a comparison of the mean temperature
of Edinburgh with that of the East Coast; and the excess of the
former over the latter for each month of the year is also given :—
Jan. |Feb. Mar| Ap. May|Jun.| July| Aug |Sep./Oct. |Nov|Dec.|| Means
Edinburgh 40-7|40°7| 43:5| 45-4| 53-4| 59-1] 61-2) 61-4| 57-2| 60°71 432] 40-9) 49-7
xg atone nag 37°6| 38-5] 409] 43:3] 50°3| 56-6) 58-2! 58-4| 54-2) 48-1] 409] 385] 47-1
burgh Mean 21) 31) 25) 3:0) 30) 3:0, 26) 23) 24) 26
Temperature
Excess of Edin- \
31) 2:2) 2:6
“ The observations having been taken in Melbourne Place, a
crowded part of the city, the thermometers were exposed to an
excess of those artificial sources of heat which a large city pre-
Reviews and Notices of Books. 115
sents. The heat that arises from the consumption of fuel, and
from large collections of living beings ; the greater dryness of the
soil as compared with the country, caused by its more thorough
drainage, and, as a consequence, the loss of less heat by evapora-
tion; the greater stillness of the air, owing to the obstruction
which the houses offer to the winds: the vertical surfaces of the
buildings, which readily absorb the sun’s rays, and being thus
greatly heated, impart, by conduction and radiation, a higher
temperature to the surrounding atmosphere; the smoke, which,
by constantly obscuring the sky, more or less intercepts radia-
tion,—these, along with other causes, conspire to raise the tem-
perature of large towns considerably above that of the adjoining
district. By these means we see that the temperature of Edin-
burgh, in the more crowded parts, is constantly from 2°-0 to 3°0
above the mean temperature of Scotland. If the observations
had been made in any of the more open streets or squares of the
city, there is no doubt that the mean temperature would have
been less, and, as we approached the suburbs, would have ap-
proximated to the true mean temperature as uninfluenced by arti-
ficial sources of heat, It is almost needless to remark on the
Edinburgh observations, that they are worthless as a means of
arriving at the mean temperature of the city; for it is evident
that the excess indicated in the table is not the excess of the city
taken as a whole, but only of the particular spot where the ther-
mometers happened to be placed,—the amount of the excess at
each part of the city being always directly proportioned to the
combined force of the sources of artificial heat in raising the tem-
perature at the place of observation. But while of no use in
determining these points, they are of high utility considered in
a sanitary point of view. They show us that the town is to be
preferred to the country in winter in the case of those invalids to
whom low temperatures are known to prove fatal. Not only is
the general winter temperature of towns higher, but in particular
cases of severe cold it does not fall nearly so low as it does in the
country in places similarly cireumstanced. A comparison of the
minimum temperatures of Edinburgh with other places will be
sufficient to show this, these being the lowest temperatures ob-
served in each month during the five years,”
The investigation into the meteorological conditions which de-
termine the profitable or unprofitable culture of farm crops in
Scotland, originated with the Marquis of Tweeddale, president of
the Society.
“In the beginning of 1861, the Marquis of Tweeddale, president
of the Society, offered L.40, to be distributed in eight prizes of
L.5 each, for the best sets of approved observations with self-
registering thermometers, with the view of collecting data for
116_ Reviews and Notices of Books.
ascertaining the meteorological conditions which determine the
profitable or unprofitable culture of ordinary farm crops in Scot-
land. The following instructions were issued to competitors :—
The thermometers to be sent to the Society’s office, for compari-
son, before being used; the bulbs not to be blackened; as regards
position, not to be placed in a shaded or sheltered situation, but
exposed to the full influence of sun and weather, as field crops
are; to be fixed at a height of four feet above the ground, and
over old grass ; and daily observations of the highest and lowest
temperature to be carried on continuously for a year from 1st
April 1861.
“Thirteen competitors began the observations; but from various
causes five of these did not continue them, leaving thus eight who
sent in complete sets of observations. These eight competitors,
with the places of observation, are as follow :—The Rev. Charles
Clouston, Sandwick, Orkney; Duncan Forbes, Culloden ; David
Dun, Baldinnies, Bridge of Earn; John Garnoch, North Esk
Reservoir, Pentland Hills; John Storie, East Linton; Robert
Laidlaw, Chapelhope, Head of Yarrow ; Dr Rankin, Otter House,
Argyle; and Dr Macgowan, Millport, Cumbrae. The height and
distance from the sea of these Stations are such as to afford, on
the whole, good illustrations of the chief local climates of the
country, as respects latitude, elevation, exposure, and distance from
the sea.”
The greatest difference between the exposed and the protected
thermometers, viz. 25°-1, occurred at Sandwick on the 26th of
July,—the protected thermometer rising only to 551, while the
exposed thermometer rose to 80°2. This is perhaps the most
suggestive result arrived at by the observations ; for it shows that,
while the protected thermometer indicated a temperature no higher
than 55°-1, the grain crops were ripening in a temperature of fully
80°-0. The greatest difference of the thermometer during the
night was 13°°7 at Sandwick on the 22d of June. It appears that
though the absolute range of temperature is much less in Orkney
than further south, yet in the former place the temperature of ex-
posed objects is subject to greater, more rapid, and more frequent
fluctuations, which is probably due to its higher latitude, its
insular situation, and more clouded atmosphere, where, conse-
quently, gleams of sunshine, of short continuance, more frequently
occur.
The causes why in some districts cereals ripen better than in
others, are thus enumerated, together with the heat required to
mature the several crops :—
“We now come to the chief object of this inquiry, which is to
show why wheat, barley, and other crops, ripen well in one dis-
trict and not in another; and what light observations with exposed
thermometers throw on the question, The chief peculiarity of the
Ua he be Aue, tial ' ‘
ail :
Reviews and Notices of Books. 117
climate of Scotland, with regard to the cultivation of the corn
crops, consists in the mean summer temperature being within two
degrees of the minimum temperature required for the perfect
maturing of the wheat and barley crops. Hence the bad effects
which the occurrence of a colder summer than usual has on the
wheat crop over the whole country, but particularly in the north
and higher districts, both of which approach still nearer to the
limits beyond which its successful cultivation cannot be carried.
On this circumstance chiefly depend the interest and practical im-
portance which are attached to all inquiries of this nature.
“The wheat-growing districts of Scotland include the whole of
the eastern and inland parts of the country as far north as Ross-
shire, together with the West Coast south of the Firth of Clyde. It is
not grown at all in Shetland and Orkney ; and only to a very
limited extent in the Western Isles, and in the north and west of
the country as far south as the Firth of Clyde. In Dumfries,
Kirkcudbright, and Dumbarton, the breadth sown is considerably
under the average of the other grain corps. The height at which it
may be grown under ordinary circumstances is about 500 feet in the
south, gradually diminishing with the latitude, till, on the extreme
north of the country, the limits of its successful cultivation may
be considered to be confined to places but little elevated above the
sea, and enjoying a southern genial exposure. In a few localities,
where situation and other circumstances are highly favourable to
its growth, superior samples have been produced at elevations
considerably above 500 feet. Thus at Danskine farm, in Had-
dingtonshire, belonging to the Marquis of Tweeddale, wheat is
successfully cultivated at a height of 750 feet above the sea. It
is necessary, however, to state that the land, in addition to being
completely drained, is subjected to the peculiar deep culture which
is so very successfully practised on his Lordship’s farms at Yester,
The remarkable result is, that at a height of 750 feet, wheat was
produced in 1852 weighing 664 lbs. per bushel, being thus able to
‘compete with the best samples grown in any part of East Lothian,
This is in accordance witha remarkableresult arrived at in the Essay
on Climate published in the Society’s last Report. It was there
shown, that though the mean temperature of the year falls 1°-0 for
every 300 feet of elevation, the mean temperature of the seasons
does not follow the same law ; but that in valleys at considerable
elevation there is sufficient summer heat for maturing and ripen-
ing the crops, provided they sustain no damage from the frosts
which occur occasionally in spring and early summer. The great
advantage of deep culture is, that it enables the roots of the wheat
to penetrate to greater depth than the frost ordinarily reaches ;
and hence the young plants are betier preserved, and are in a posi-
tion to benefit by the first genial weather in spring.
118 Reviews and Notices of Books.
“ The superior kinds of barley require a summer temperature
nearly as high as wheat; but the coarser sorts, along with oats
and rye, grow and ripen in Shetland, and at the greatest heights
to which cultivation is carried in Scotland, Oats are cultivated
in Dumfriesshire and among the Pentland Hills, at 1250 feet above
the sea ; in Aberdeenshire, at Tomantoul and Cairnside, 1500 feet ;
in Glen Lui, 1600 feet ; and in Strathdon, 1570 feet: and barley
in Strathdon, from 1400 to 1500 feet. The greater height to
which cultivation is successfully carried in Aberdeenshire, as com-
pared with the rest of Scotland, may be explained by the greater
length of the day, by the higher and more extensive platform of
the hills, and the consequent higher summer temperature of the
incumbent air, and by the greater dryness and clearness of the
atmosphere, arising from the cireumstance that the south-west
winds, before reaching the Aberdeen hills, must necessarily be de-
prived of much of their moisture by the hills lying to the south-
west, over which they had previously passed.
“ According to M. Boussingault, wheat requires 8248° Fahren-
heit, and barley 6969°, from the time they begin to grow in spring,
in order to bring them to perfection. This heat must be so distri-
buted as to secure for wheat a mean summer temperature of 58°-0
on the continent of Europe, In Scotland, however, a lower mean
summer temperature is sufficient, because, owing to its higher
latitude, the days are longer, ‘The mean summer temperature of
Scotland as far north as the Moray Firth ranges between 58°-0
and 57°:0; on the Pentland Firth it is only 56°0; and as agri-
cultural returns show that the cultivation of wheat has reached
its northern limit there, we may infer that wheat will ripen in Scot-
land, provided the mean temperature be 56°:0,
‘‘ It is difficult to fix precisely the time when wheat begins to
grow in spring; but considering that little growth can take place
as long as the temperature falls repeatedly to the freezing point or
below it, it may be assumed that wheat will not begin to grow till
the mean daily temperature of the air be 40°-0 or 42°:0, In the
spring of 1861 this happened about the 16th of March; and as
confirming this view, tlie reports made by the Society’s observers
show that vegetation began to make decided advances about that
time. In the following Table, the days wheat took to ripen are
reckoned from the 16th of March to the date of cutting, and
barley and oats from the period of ‘brairding.’ The gross amounts
of the degrees of heat have been found by adding the means of the
mean temperature of the days. It may be remarked that the ob-
servations were confined to one field of each kind of crop, and that
the temperature is deduced from observations made with protected
thermometers; it is therefore the temperature of the air that is
given, and not that to which the crops were actually exposed.
Reviews and Notices of Books. 119
TanLe showing Temperature required to Mature Crops of
Wheat and Barley.
Days
Appeared Degrees in
Stations. Crops. b I a When cut, of heat ;
above ground, received.| Tipe”
ing.
Wheat, |Nov. 22, 1860 |August 20, 1861 8188 156
Culloden, . Barley, |April 22, 1861 » 19, 1861 6560 119
Oats, » 20,1861 we al, 1861 6767 123
Wheat, |Nov. 18, 1860 |August 23, 1861 | 8362 159
Bast Linton, Barley, |April 6, 1861 » 13, 1861 6900 129
Oats, yee Oy LEB » 16, 1861 7125 133
These results entirely corroborate the views of M. Boussingault
regarding the amount of heat required to ripen wheat and barley,
—the amounts for Culloden and East Linton being identical with —
those contained in his list of places, the means of which are given
above, In addition to these, it will be observed that the amount
of heat required for the ripening of oats is about 7000 degrees.
The suitableness of oats for cold climates, therefore, is not that
they require a less amount of heat to ripen them than barley, but
that less heat requires to be concentrated on the crop between the
dates of flowering and ripening. This remarkable fact appears
from the table, that a less amount of heat and fewer days were
required to ripen each of the three crops at the northern than at
the southern station. The explanation is probably to be found
in the circumstance, that, as their mean summer temperature is
nearly equal, less time and less heat, as ordinarily estimated, is
required to ripen the crops at Culloden, owing to the higher lati-
tude and consequently longer summer sunshine of that place.
The short periods within which crops ripen in high latitudes may
be adduced as confirmatory of this view.”
With regard to the ripening of the crops after being fully shot,
the following are the results :—
«* At Culloden and East Linton, wheat ripened in 50 days with
a mean temperature of 61°°0 by the exposed thermometer; and
at Baldinnies, in 58 days, with a temperature of 58°-6. This
would give for Baldinnies a mean summer temperature of about
56°-0 by the protected thermometer, which accords with the cir-
cumstance that wheat is cultivated only on the lower parts of the
farm, Taking the mean of Culloden and East Linton, it appears,
that with an exposed temperature of 61°:0, wheat will ripen after
it is fully shot in 50 days, barley in 48 days, and oats in 47 days.”
The following important extract deserves the attentive con-
sideration of all interested in agriculture, and in the introduction
of the finer sorts of grain into new localities :—
120 Reviews and Notices of Books.
Meteorological Characteristics of Districts capable of producing
Cereals.
“ As far as concerns temperature, the climate of Scotland may be
considered as quite sufficient for the ripening of wheat and barley
at places less than 500 feet above the sea in the south, and 100
feet in the extreme north ; and where the exposure is favourable,
at still greater heights. How then does it happen, that in large
districts of the country, wheat, or both wheat and barley, are not
cultivated though they enjoy a temperature sufficiently high for
this purpose? Is the amount of heat received directly from the
sun, in addition to that indicated by the temperature of the air,
less in these districts than elsewhere ?
“The above table shows that not only as regards the tempera-
ture of the air, but also as regards the temperature to which the
growing crops were exposed, Otter House, in Argyle, where wheat
is not grown, is more favourably circumstanced than Culloden,
Baldinnies, and East Linton are, where it is grown. The cause
is not therefore owing to a deficiency either of solar or atmos-
pheric temperature. The greater part of that wide tract of country
extending from the Firth of Clyde northward along the western
slope of the island, is removed by its height beyond the limits of
wheat cultivation. There are many valleys, however, in this dis-
trict, whose exposure and temperature would render them suitable
for this object, if the moist atmosphere and heavy rains which
there prevail did not offer a serious obstacle to the proper ripening
and securing of the corn crops. On account of the moist atmo-
sphere, the crops run rapidly into straw, which, being weak from
a deficiency of silica, are more easily beaten down and ‘ lodged’
by the torrents of rain and violent winds, which are of such fre-
quent occurrence among the western hills, The autumnal rains
also commence earlier in the west, thus increasing the risk of the
grain being safely secured in the farm-yard. Hence the rearing
of cattle, for which the climate is peculiarly fitted, to a great ex-
tent takes the place of agriculture in the West Highlands. We
thus see that the rain-gauge is nearly as important as the ther-
mometer in determining whether the grain crops may be profitably
cultivated in any locality. Considering thus the great practical
value of rain returns to the. agriculturist, it is to be hoped that
rain-gauges will come to be more extensively used by farmers
than they have yet been. But after these deductions for height
and rainy climates are made, there no doubt still remains large
tracts of land in the west, which are in every way admirably fitted
for the cultivation of wheat, barley, and oats, though, being gene-
rally believed not to be so, they are consigned to less remunerative
purposes. The counties of Ayr and Wigtown, both on the west,
constitute one of the largest as well as earliest wheat-growing
Reviews and Notices of Books. 121
districts in Scotland, This arises from the circumstance, that
where wheat is grown in these counties, there are no hills lying
to the west or south-west, which would serve as condensers to the
moist south-west winds, and thus give a cloudy, moist, and rainy
climate to all places situated immediately to the north-east of
them. There seems to be no physical reason why the finer cereals
are not cultivated in the western parts of Argyle, &c., where
there may be many places whose western and south-western hori-
zons are not broken by hills, and whose skies are consequently
clear and genial, and rain moderate. That this is no mere fancy,
the experiments made in the west of Argyle by Mr John Malcolm
of Poltalloch afford ample confirmation. Having overcome the
habits and prejudices of the natives,—the most serious difficulty
to be contended with,—a large breadth of hitherto. unproductive
land was trenched and sown with wheat; and the samples pro-
duced, both as respects quantity and quality, are vision to any
grown in Scotland.
** We may therefore conclude that the climate of Scotland is
suited for a more extensive cultivation of the finer kinds of grain
than is commonly believed,
“Tt may be interesting to inquire, whether wheat might be ex-
pected to be cultivated at greater heights than 750 feet. The
temperature of Chapelhope, at the head of the Yarrow, 900 feet
high, seems to warrant an answer in the affirmative, if the very
fine samples grown on the Yester estates, at a height of 750 feet,
did not point to the same conclusion. From an examination of
the table, it will appear that the mean summer temperature
of Chapelhope is higher than Culloden, and about equal to
Baldinnies and East Linton; and the same remark applies to
the mean spring temperature, There is, however, this impor-
tant difference: the mean temperature of the night during spring
is comparatively low at Chapelhope, and as appears from Table
II., is subject to intense frosts, 7°-0 having been observed in
March, and 19°-0 in April, and 17°-0 in May. It would be inter-
esting to ascertain whether sub-soil trench ploughing would be
successful at such great heights as Chapelhope. The autumn
temperature appears to be sufficient to enable the young plants to
push down their roots to depths where frosts rarely penetrate.
The circumstance that at Baldinnies, where wheat is grown, the
temperature fell to 19°-0 in May, and the mean temperature of the
night in spring was nearly as low as at Chapelhope, is enough to
show that we should not hastily come to the conclusion that such
is impossible, before it has been experimentally proved.
“ The position of Sandwick, in Orkney, appears to be peculiar.
Judging from the extremes of temperature given in Table IJ.,
we might suppose that it is fully as favourably circumstanced as
Culloden for the culture of wheat, higher exposed temperatures
NEW SERIES.—VOL. XVII, NO. 1.— JAN. 1863. Q
122 Reviews and Notices of Books.
:
having been observed in Orkney than at Culloden. But these
high temperatures are eminently exceptional. Their rare occur-
rence and generally brief duration render them of small importance
in ripening the crops. Its mean temperature, both exposed and
protected, seems to place Orkney just without the limits of wheat
cultivation, while its clouded, moist atmosphere, and delayed
summers, are still further disadvantageous. Any wheat grown
in Orkney must therefore be inferior both in quantity and quality,
and being withal so precarious, it cannot be expected ever to be-
come an object of profitable culture.”
‘It appears, therefore, as the result of the whole inquiry, that
where the mean summer temperature is as low as 56°:0 by the pro-
tected thermometer, or 58°°6 by the exposed thermometer, the
cultivation of wheat is quite possible, even though the character of
the springs be comparatively cold and backward, provided always
that the rainfall in summer and autumn is not in excess. Hence
it is most desirable that meteorological observations should be
established in such non-producing districts as possess the physical
features which have been above described, and, wherever the
meteorological indications turn out as favourable as those at Bal-
dinnies, there undoubtedly exist strong inducements to attempt
the cultivation of wheat and barley crops.’
The Mechanics of the Heavens: an Essay on Revolving
Bodies and Centripetal Forces. By JAMES REDDIn.
London: Hardwicke, 1862.
In our Number of last April we noticed Mr Reddie’s pamphlet
entitled ‘* Vis Inertie Victa,” and our remarks appear to have
been unsatisfactory—and (this we regret) unprofitable —to him.
In the few words which follow, we shall try a different mode of
dealing with him,—namely, calm expostulation ; for the energy
he displays is really worthy of a better cause: and we shall
endeavour to induce him to divert it to some new field, where his
imperfect apprehension of the meaning of plain statements will
not be prejudicial to his progress.
In the first place, he cannot understand that mass (or inertia)
is totally independent of the idea of weight. We suggested a blow
from a cricket-ball as something depending on inertia, and in
reality nowise connected with weight. In a postscript to his new
pamphlet he shows that he remains in his egregious error,
Now, let us merely ask him to suppose himself placed in bound-
less space, where no attracting body is present save his own—
and to suppose, further, that there a cricket-ball impinged upon _
him, as if straight from the redoubted arm of Jackson, Would —
Reviews and Notices of Books. 123
it hurt, or no? We fancy the affirmative answer cannot be for a
moment doubtful, Well, is the ball heavy ? Here again a prompt
negative must be uttered by our pupil, unless he be so sharp as to
suggest that the attraction of his own body for it will give it
weight. This would be strictly true, no doubt; but the amount
would be inconceivably small, even in comparison with that of the
puff-ball of his defiant postscript.
It would be tedious to our readers, and probably useless to our
pupil, to go through the whole series of his blunders, and show
him at every step how inconceivable is his dulness. His idea
that a string can pull back a stone, while a wooden or metal rod
cannot—his notion that a great number of very small things can-
not in any case amount to a finite quantity—and his conviction
that the advancement of science requires a careful investigation
into the claims of his works—are all parallel cases, and deserve
as effectual a snubbing as can be bestowed. But we prefer to
consider him as one of those-men whose mental bias is so strong, ,
as to present a perfectly opaque barrier to the light of truth.
We sincerely pity him, and restrain our uplifted hand. But it is
otherwise with the “ John Bull” and the “ Literary Churchman,”
who have prostituted their position and character in favourably
noticing his wretched vagaries, and thus in all probability encour-
aging him in his complacent delusion. Let him read with care
some elementary work on Physics, and he may then return to the
study of the Principia in a humble and docile spirit. Diximus!
Catalogue of the Economie Products of the Presidency of
Bombay ; being a Catalogue of the Government Central
Museum, Division I., Raw Produce (Vegetable). Com-
piled by Assistant-Surgeon Birpwoop, M.D., Curator of
the Museum, and Officiating Professor of Materia Medica
in Grant Medical College.
This useful catalogue embraces Drugs, Agricultural Produce,
Fruits and Vegetables, Narcotics, Condiments and Spices, Starches,
Sugars, Gums, and Resins, Oils, Dyes, Tanning materials, Fibres
and Woods. The plants in the different divisions are arranged
according to their natural orders; the English and vernacular
names being given with their habitat on the Continent of India,
and valuable remarks as to their properties, uses, &c, This work
will be prized by those who wish to become acquainted with the
economic products of India,
124
PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.
British Association for the Advancement of Science, held at
Cambridge, October 1862.*
Section A.— Mathematical and Physical Science.
Suggestions on Balloon Navigation. By Isaac Asue, M.B,—The au-
thor proposed a simple contrivance by means of which the opening of
the escape valve should depend, when desirable, on the relaxation of
voluntary exertion on the part of the aéronaut, so that, in the event of
insensibility supervening at great altitudes, the valve should open spon-
taneously by means of a weight attached to its rope, thus causing a
descent of the balloon to safer altitudes, and obviating the danger to
life incurred by Messrs Glaisher and Coxwell during their recent scien-
* tifie ascent from Wolverhampton, in consequence of their becoming in-
sensible.
Extract from an Account of a Visit to the Kew Observatory, pre-
sented to the Portuguese Government. By Professor J. A. De Souza,
Professor in the University of Coimbra.—Dr Jacintho Antonio de Souza
has published an account of a visit, in 1860,,to the scientific establish-
ments of Madrid, Paris, Brussels, Greenwich, and Kew ; and of a second
visit, in 1861, to the Observatory at Kew; both visits having been made
by the desire of his Government, and having for their principal object
to obtain information preparatory to the establishment of a Magnetical
and Meteorological Observatory at the University of Coimbra. He se-
lected the instruments and mode of observing adopted at Kew as the
type of what he recommended for the adoption of his Government; and
he reports, “ that the Observatory at Kew, besides occupying itself with
meteorological and magnetical phenomena, and the photographic registry
of the spots of the sun, verifies meteorological and magnetical instruments,
compares them with the excellent standards which it possesses, determines
their constants, and improves the methods of observation.”
On some Peculiar Features in the Structure of the Sun’s Surface.
By Mr J. Nasmytu.—Mr Nasmyth gave a sketch of the character of the
sun’s surface as at present known. He described tlie spots as gaps or
holes, more or less extensive, in the luminous surface or photosphere of
the sun. These exposed the totally dark bottom or nucleus of the sun ;
over this appears the mist surface—a thin, gauze-like veil spread over it.
Then came the penumbral stratum, and, over all, the luminous stratum,
which, according to him, was composed of a multitude of very elongated,
lenticular-shaped, or, to use a familiar illustration, willow-leaf-shaped
masses, crowded over the photosphere, and crossing one another in every
possible direction, The author had prepared and exhibited a diagram,
pasting such elongated slips of white paper over a sheet of black card,
crossing one another in every possible direction in such multitudes as to
hide the dark nucleus everywhere, except at the spots. These elongated
lens-shaped objects he found to be in constant motion relative to one
another ; they sometimes approached, sometimes receded, and sometimes
* This abstract is taken partly from the “ Athenwum” Report, and partly
from abstracts furnished by authors.
bis
British Association. 125
they assumed a new angular position, by one end either maintaining a
fixed distance or approaching its neighbour, while at the other end they
retired from each other. ‘These objects, some of which were as —
in superficial area as all Europe, and some even as the surface of the
whole earth, were found to shoot in thin streams across the spots, bridg-
ing them over in well-defined streams or comparative lines, as ex-
hibited on the diagram; sometimes by crowding in on the edges of the
spot they closed it in, and frequently, at length, thus obliterated it.
‘Lhese objects were of various dimensions, but in length they generally
were from ninety to one hundred times as long as their breadth at the
middle or widest part.
On the Extent of the Earth's Atmosphere. By Professor Coa.iis.—
The object of this paper was to show that the earth’s atmosphere is of
limited extent, and reasons were adduced, in the absence of data for cal-
culating the exact height, for concluding that it does not extend to the
moon.
On the Augmentation of the Apparent Diameter of a Body by its
Atmospheric Refraction. By the Rev. Professor Caauuis.
On the Hindt Method of Calculating Eclipses. By Mr W. Srorvis-
WOODE.
Description: of an Optical Instrument which indicates the Relative
Change of Position of T'wo Objects (such as ships at Sea during Night),
which are maintaining Independent Oourses. By Mr J. M. Menzirs.—
This instrument consisted of a lantern-shaped case, containing a lens or
eye in front and a concentric sheet of bent glass behind, at the focal dis-
tance of the lens ruled with parallel vertical lines. This was hung up so
as to have its axis parallel to the course of the vessel, and the bright
spot, the image of the lights of the approaching vessel, showed by its
Eee and shifting the relative place and course of the approaching
vessel, -
On British Rainfall during 1860-61. By Mr G. J. Symons.—This
paper was accompanied by a very voluminous series of tables, showing
the amount measured in each month at more than 500 stations. Mr
Symons drew attention to one result in particular, which these very ample
returns had enabled him to deduce,—viz., that during the two years under
consideration, although in the south of England, 1860 was nearly 50 per
cent. wetter than 1861; yet, as just the reverse obtained in Scotland, the
average fall for the whole country was nearly identical in the two years,
1860 being only 3 per cent. wetter than 1861.
On the Performance, under trying circumstances, of a very small
Aneroid Barometer. By Mr G. J. Symons.
Observations on Three of the Minor Planets in 1860. By Mr Nor-
MAN Pogson. Communicated by Dr Lee.
On the Mechanical Power of Electro-Magnetism, with special reference
to Dr Joule and Dr Scoresby’s Theory. By Dr J. Crout.
Provisional Report on a Proposed Standard of Electrical Resistance.
By Mr Fremine Jenx1n.
Provisional Report on Thermo-Electric Currents in Circuits of one
Metal. By MrF’. Jenxin.—Experiments were described with loose con-
tacts between wires of two dissimilar metals. The great intensity of the
currents so obtained, compared with the ordinary thermo-electric currents
from metallic contact between the two metals, was pointed out; and it
was shown that an analysis of the results proved, beyond doubt, that the
currents were of the same nature as those produced by unequally-heated
metals placed in an electrolyte: the thin films of melted oxides of copper
and iron constitute this electrolyte with equally-heated junctions at sur-
face of the two wires.
’
126 Proceedings of Societies.
Report on certain Dynamical Problems. By Mr A, Cayury.
On a certain Curve of the Fourth Order. By Mr A. Carey.
On the Representation of a Curve in Space by means of a Cone and
Monoid Surface. By Mr A, Caytey.—The author defined a monoid
surface, gave and explained the equation which determined it, and then
showed how, by following the point of contact of the cone with it, the
several loops and singular points of the curve could be accurately traced
and determined,
On a@ certain Olass of Linear Differential Equations. By the Rev.
R, Haruey.
Some Account of Recent Discoveries made in the Calculus of Symbols.
By Mr W. H. L. Russet.
On Meteorology, with a Description of New Meteorological Instru-
ments. By Mr T. I. Puant.
On an Instrument for Describing Geometrical Curves, invented by Mr
HT. Johnston. Described and exhibited by the Rev. Dr Boorn.
On Three New Craters in the Moon, not delineated in Beer and Mdd-
ler’s Map. By Mr G. R. Birr.
Observed R.A. and N.P.D. of Comet IT. 1862. By the Rey. R. Mary.
On the Dimensions and Ellipticity of Mars. By the Rey. R. Marn.—
This paper gave the results of seven sets of measures of the dise of Mars,
made for the determination of his ellipticity with the heliometer, by the
rhrony of contact of limbs of the two images formed by the half object
glasses.
On the Zodiacal Light and Shooting Stars. By Professor Cuatiis.—
The phenomena of the zodiacal light, as gathered from observations made
both in northern and in southern latitudes, were stated to be as follows:—
As seen in north latitudes, it appears in: the west after the departure of
twilight, as a very faint light, stretching along the ecliptic, about 10°
broad at its base in the horizon, and coming to an apex at an altitude of
40° to 50°. It is most perceptible in the west in the months of February
and March, at which time its apex is near the Pleiades. Similar appear-
ances are presented in the morning before sunrise in the east, in the
months of August and September. The light seen in the autumn lies in
the same direction from the sun as that seen in the spring. In the
southern hemisphere, the appearances are strictly analogous; but the
times and positions of maximum visibility are the evenings in autumn in
the west and the mornings in spring in the east. The portion best seen
in the southern hemisphere lies in the opposite direction from the sun to
that which is best seen in the northern hemisphere. The portion seen
and the degree of visibility depend on the inclination to the horizon of
the part of the eclipse along which the light stretches. The greater the
inclination the better it is seen. At the December solstice, opposite por-
tions have been seen in the northern hemisphere, one in the morning and
the other in the evening; and in the southern hemisphere opposite por-
tions have been similarly seen at the June solstice. At these seasons the
ecliptic is inclined at large and equal angles to the horizon, at equal in-
tervals before sunrise and after sunset.
On Autographs of the Sun. By Professor Sen.wyn.—Professor Selwyn
showed several Autographs of the Sun, taken with his “ heliautograph,”
by Mr Titterton, photographer, Ely, which consists of a camera and in-
stantaneous slide, by Dallmeyer, attached to a refractor of 23 inches
aperture, by Dolland,—the principle being the same as that of the instru-
ment made at the suggestion of Sir J. Herschel for the Kew Observa-
tory ; and the Professor expressed his thanks to Mr Balfour Stewart and
Mr Buckley for their advice.
Report of a Committee to inquire into the Adequacy of existing Data
ter Pee Po
British Association. 127
Sor carrying into effect the Suggestions of Gauss, to upply his General
Theory to Magnetic Variations, By the Rev, Dr H. Lioyn.
Mr F. J. Evans read a Report, by Mr A, Smira and himself conjointly,
On the Three Reports of the Liverpool Compass Committee, and other
recent Publications on the same subject,—undertaken at the request of
the British Association, The papers included were severally by the
Astronomer-Royal, the late Dr Scoresby, and Captain Johnson, K.N., on
the deviation of the compass and the magnetism of iron ships; as also
contributions in the same field of inquiry by the reporters. Among the
conclusions arrived at are the following :—1. That the magnetism of iron
ships is distributed according to precise and well-determined laws; 2.
That a definite magnetic character is impressed in every iron ship while
on the building slip, which is never afterwards entirely lost ; 3. That a
considerable reduction takes place iu the magnetism ofan iron ship on
first changing her position after launching, but afterwards that any per-
manent change in its direction or amount is a slow and gradual process ;
4. That the original magnetism of an iron ship is constantly subject to
small fluctuations from change of position, arising from new magnetic
inductions; 5, That the compass errors occasioned by the more permanent
part of a ship’s magnetism may be successfully compensated; and that
this compensation equalises the directive power of the compass-needle on
the several courses on which a ship may be placed.
Report on Double Refraction. By Professor Sroxes.
Relation entre les Phénoménes de la Polarization Rotatoire, et les
Formes Hémiédres ou Hémimorphes des Cristauw a un ow & deux Awes
Optiques. By M. A. Des Croizravx.
On some of the Characteristic Differences between the Configuration of
the Surfaces of the Earth and Moon. By Professor Hennessy.
On an Experimental Determination of the Absolute Quantity of
Electric Charge on Condensers. By Dr Esserpacn.
On some Improvements in the Barometer. By Mr Isaac Asue.
On the Determination of Heights by means of the Barometer. By Mr
J. Batt.—The object of this paper is to direct attention to the serious
errors which are involved in the ordinary process of reducing barometric
observations taken for hypsometrical purposes. This process involves
two assumptions: first, that the volume of a column of air unequally
heated is nearly the same as that of an equal weight of air of the same
mean temperature ; secondly, that the mean temperature of the column
or stratum of air between the stations of observation corresponds to the
- mean of the readings of thermometers standing in the shade at each
station. The error involved in the first assumption is not very consider-
able ; that arising from the second is, on the contrary, highly important.
Mr Bravais, who, along with Mr Charles Martins, has contributed largely
to our knowledge of the meteorology of the Alps, was the first to propose
a practical plan for applying a correction to the assumed mean tempera-
ture of the air depending upon the hour of the day and the season of the
year at which observations are made; but it is to M. Plantamour, the
distinguished astronomer of Geneva, that we owe the fullest investigation
of this important subject. Having ascertained by careful levelling the
true height of the Great St Bernard above Geneva, M. Plantamour finds
that the mean of all the barometric observations made during eighteen
years deviates by fourteen English feet from the true height; and he
attributes this deviation, with great apparent probability, to an abnormal
depression of the mean temperature of Geneva, owing to the neighbourhood
of the lake. The readings of the barometer and thermometer at the
Observatories of Geneva and the St Bernard are taken daily at nine hours
or epochs. M. Plantamour assumes that, on an average of a long period
128 Proceedings of Societies.
of years, the mean of the observations taken at any one epoch in the
twenty-four hours should give the true difference of height between the
two stations, with an error due to the difference between the mean of the
readings of the thermometers at both stations at the same epoch and the
true mean temperature of the air in the intervening stratum. Calculating,
then, the height of the St Bernard by the elements corresponding to each
epoch of the day during the four summer months from June to September,
he obtains a series of measures differing from the true height; those
corresponding to the hottest hours being in excess, and those appertaining
to the coldest hours in defect, of the true height. He then ascertains the
amount of correction which, being applied to the mean sum of the readings
of the thermometer at each epoch in each of those months, would bring
out the true heights. In this manner he obtains a table showing what he
calls the normal correction for each of the nine epochs of the day during
the four summer months. There is good reason to believe that, in reduc-
ing barometric observations which are to be compared with Geneva and
the St Bernard, the application of the normal correction ascertained in
the manner above stated will, in general, give truer results than those
where this is not applied; but as it is obvious that the conditions of tem-
perature at the moment when a given observation is made are constantly
varying from the mean of the corresponding day and hour, it follows that
a further supplemental correction should be made on this account. To
apply this further correction is a matter of no, slight difficulty. The
method employed by M. Plantamour is as follows :—He obtains from the
observations at Geneva and the St Bernard, by interpolation when neces-
sary, the elements corresponding to the day and hour of the observation
which is sought to be reduced, and from these he calculates the height of
the St Bernard. The height so obtained, when compared with the measure
which is derived from the mean of the readings for the same day and hour,
as shown in his table of normal corrections, furnishes a criterion by which
to judge of the conditions with respect to temperature of the moment when
the observations to be reduced were made. M. Plantamour thinks it not
difficult to infer, from the observations themselves, and from the gerieral
state of the weather at the time, whether the moment was one of atmos-
pheric equilibrium or the reverse. In the latter case, the observation is
treated as one of inferior utility, to which a lower value should be assigned
in the final calculation. Supposing, on the contrary, the observations not
to betray a disturbance of equilibrium between the two stations, the
deviation of the height as calculated for that particular moment from the
height derived from the corresponding means, is the measure of the amount
and sign of the supplemental correction corresponding to the moment of
observation.
On the Volumes of Pedal Surfaces. By Mr T. A. Hirsv.
On the Excentricity (or, as the author preferred it should be termed,
the Excentrality) of the Earth, and the Method of finding the Co-ordt-
nates of its Centre of Gravity. By Mr W. Oatsy.
Report on Luminous Meteors. By Mr J. Guaisner.
On a new Barometer used in the last Balloon Ascents. By Mr. J.
Guaisner.—Mr Glaisher exhibited a mercurial barometer which had been
designed and constructed by Messrs Negretti & Zambra, for the purpose
of checking the readings of the Gay-Lussac’s barometer, which had been
used in the several late balloon ascents. The correctness of the readings
of a Gay-Lussac’s barometer at low pressure depended upon the evenness
of the tube, and it is difficult to colligate so largea tube. Messrs Negretti
& Zambra.selected a good tube, 6 feet in length, attaching a cistern to
its lower end. Mercury was boiled throughout the length of the tube;
at the entrance of the cistern was placed a stopcock, by which means any
British Association. 129
definite quantity of mercury could be allowed to pass from the upper half
of the tube into the cistern, and its height in the cistern noted and engraved;
then a second portion, and so on. This process could be repeated. When
the cistern was thus satisfactorily divided, the tube was cut in two, and
to the upper half the cistern was joined; a scale was attached to this por-
tion, ns | the reverse operation was performed,—viz., allowing portions
of the mercury to pass from the cistern into the tube, which could he regu-
lated by means of the stopcock, and thus the scale was divided. The pro-
cess, in fact, is using the tube to emma itself. In carriage, the stopcock
locks the mercury in the tube. ‘This instrument was used, and acted well
on the extreme high ascent.
Report on Vertical Movements of the Atmosphere. By Professor Hen-
Nessy.—It appears that non-horizontal movements of the air are more
prevalent, upon the whole, about mid-day than at any other diurnal
period. Their sudden and atts} commencement is usually a precursor
and always accompanies great horizontal disturbances, Their gradual
and regular diminution in energy seems to point to a steady tendency in
the air towards a state of convective equilibrium, and frequently precedes
fine weather. In general, the motion of the air is not strictly horizontal,
but undulatory ; and the mingling of such undulations with the effects of
convection seems to point out the value of the study of the atmospherical
pulse as a test of changes of the weather.
On the General Solution of the Linear Equation in Finite Differences.
By Professor Syivesrer.
On the Differential Equations of Dynamics. By Professor Boor.
On the Measurement of the Temperature of Active Volcanic Foci to
considerable Depths, and of the Temperature and Issuing Velocity of
the Steam and Vapowrs evolved. By Mr R. Matter,
On the Relative Amount of Sunshine falling on the Torrid Zone of
the Earth. By Professor Hennessy.
On the Form and Motion of Waves at and near the Surface of Deep
Waters. - By Professor Rankine.
On the Additional Evidence of the Indirect Influence of the Moon
over the Temperature of the Air, resulting the Tabulation of Obser-
vations taken at Greenwich, 1861-62. By Mr J. P. Harrison.—The
author stated that the additional evidence derived from the observations
of mean temperature at Greenwich for the years 1856-62 confirmed the
conclusions arrived at from a tabulation of the observations for the forty-
three years previous,—viz., that the temperature of the air at the moon’s
first quarter is higher than it is at full moon and last quarter, and that
this is due to the amount of cloud at first quarter being greater on the
average than it is at the periods of full moon and last quarter. The differ-
ence in the amount of rain also at first quarter was shown to have been
2-27 inches more in 1861-62 than at full moon on a mean of eighty-four
observations at each period.
On the Distribution of Fog rownd the Coasts of the British Islands.
By Dr Guapstonz,
On the Hurricane near Newark of May 7, 1862, showing the Force oy
the Hailstones and the Violence of the Gale. By Mr E. J. Lowe.
European Weather Charts for December 1861. By Mr F. Gatton.
On the “ Boussole Burnier,” a new French Pocket Instrument for
measuring Vertical and Horizontal Angles, By Mr F. Gauton.
On Objections to the Cyclone Theory of Storms. By Mr 8. A. Rowen.
Meteorological Observations registered at Huggate, Yorkshire. By the
Rev. T. Rankine.
On the Means of following the Small Divisions of the Scale requlating
NEW SERIES.—VOL. XVII. NO. 1.—vJan. 1863. R
130 Proceedings of Societies.
the Distances and Enlargement in the Solar Camera. By Mr A.
CLauper.
On Eight Scientific Balloon Ascents. By Mr Guatsuer.—The author
detailed the objects of the experiments as follows :—The primary objects
of the experiments were—the determination of the temperature of the
air and its hygrometric state at different elevations, up to 5 miles. The
secondary objects were—to compare the readings of an aneroid barometer
with those of a mercurial barometer up to 5 miles; to determine the
electrical state of the atmosphere ; to determine the oxygenic condition of
the atmosphere by means of ozone papers; to determine the time of
vibration of a magnet on the earth and at different distances from it ; to
determine the temperature of the dew-point by Daniell’s dew-point Hygro-
meter and Regnault’s Condensing Hygrometer, and by the use of the dry
and wet bulb thermometers as ordinarily used, and by their use when
under the influence of the aspirator, so that considerable volumes of air
were made to pass over both bulbs at different elevations, as high as pos-
sible, but particularly up to those heights where man may be resident, or
where troops may be located, as in the high lands and plains of India,
with the view of ascertaining what confidence may be placed in the use of
the dry and wet bulb thermometers at those elevations by comparison
with those found directly by Daniell’s and Regnault’s Hygrometers, and
also to compare the results as found by the two hygrometers together ; to
collect air at different elevations ; to note the height and kind of clouds,
their density and thickness at different elevations; to determine the rate
and direction of different currents in the atmosphere, if possible; to make
observation on sound ; to note atmospherical phenomena in general ; and
to make general observations. The instruments used consisted of mercurial
and aneroid barometers ; dry and wet bulb thermometers, also an exceed-
ingly sensitive thermometer ; Daniell’s Dew-point Hygrometer; Reg-
nault’s Condensing Hygrometer ; solar radiation thermometer ; maximum
and minimum thermometers; a small magnet for horizontal vibrations,
hermetically sealed, and exhausted glass-tubes; ozone test-papers, &e.
In the ascent on July 17, a height of 26,177 feet was reached; and in
the descent a mass of vapour of 8000 feet in thickness was passed through,
so dense that the balloon was not visible from the car. In that of August
18 an altitude of 11,500 feet was attained ; then the balloon descended to
3200 feet ; then ascended to 23,400 feet, where a consultation took place,
and it was decided not to go higher, as clouds of unknown thickness and
moisture had to be passed through. In the ascent on August 20 the air
was almost calm ; the balloon for a long time hovered over the Crystal
Palace, and then over London, whilst it was lighted up, where they
seemed to be destined to remain all night; finally, went above the clouds, and
came down at night near Hendon. The balloon was then anchored for
the night, the lower valve being closed with the hope that the gas would
be retained. Before sunrise, on August 21, all the instruments were
replaced and the balloon left the earth. It was a warm, dull, cloudy
morning ; clouds were reached at the height of 5000 feet ; the light rapidly
increased, and gradually the balloon emerged from dense clouds into a
basin surrounded with immense black mountains of cloud, rising far above;
shortly afterwards there were deep ravines of grand proportions below,
bounded with beautiful curved lines. The sky was blue with cirri. The
tops of the mountain-like clouds became silvery and golden ; at the height
of 8000 feet we were on their level, and the sun appeared flooding with
golden light all space for many degrees both right and left, tinting with
orange and silver all the remaining space. It was a glorious sight. As
the sun’s rays fell on the balloon we rose more rapidly, each instant
opening to us ravines of wonderful extent, and presenting elsewhere a
British Association. 131
mighty sea of cloud. Here there were shining masses in mountain chains,
some rising perpendicularly from the plains, dark on one side, and silvery
and bright on the other, with summits of dazzling whiteness; some there
were of a pyramidal form, a large portion undulatory, and in the horizon
alpine ranges bounded the view. A height of nearly three miles was
reached, On Sept. 1, when at the height of three-quarters of a mile over
London, the whole course of the river Thames was visible from its mouth ;
and parallel to it, and bounded by its banks, a cloud or fog-bank extended
the whole distance, following all its sinuosities. For half an hour before
the descent, near Woking, in Surrey, the balloon was under one stratum
of cloud, and above another ; the upper surface of the latter was remarked
as bluish white, the middle portion the pure white of the cumulus, and the
lower surface a blackish white, and from which rain was falling on the
earth. The balloon descended to a height of 1300 feet, but still above
these clouds. It was afterwards learnt that rain had been falling from
these clouds all the afternoon, On Sept. 5, the balloon ascended from
Wolverhampton. At 29,000 feet from the earth Mr Glaisher became
insensible ; the balloon still ascended to fully the height of 35,000 feet or
36,000 feet, and may have gone even higher. Mr Glaisher recovered his
consciousness on descending, when at about the same height as he lost it
on ascending. The author had prepared and exhibited diagrams showing
the path of the balloon and temperatures of the air at different elevations
for each ascent, and extensive tables of all his observations. From these
he deduced the following table, showing the mean temperature of the air
at every 5000 feet of elevation above the level of the sea in each high
ascent :—
Mean Temperature of the Air.
, Decrease of
Height above Ss Temperature
the Level of pa pa es for an Increase
the Sea. : va nN a of Height of
4 2 a Fs we 5000 feet.
me} & op = S
FE) e 5 o 2
5 < < N a
Feet. ° ° ° ° ° °
0 61:2 | 69°6 | 62°0 | 62:2 | 638 red
5,000 39°7 | 480 | 43:3 | 41°4 | 43-1 207
10,000 28:0 | 40°7 | 32°0 | 31:0 | 32°9 10:2
15,000 31:0 | 31:1 | 19:0 | 21:0 | 25°7 72
19,500 pa eg Denies oes ieee
20,000 33:0 | 25°9 10°6 | 23°2 2-5
25,000 16:0 | 23:9 00 | 13°3 eS he
30,000 ai at By ce a
Decrease of Tem-
erature for an : ee ‘ ‘
nerease of Height SEO) BOE |: ere | B22.) 605
of 25,000 Feet.
Report of the Proceedings of the Balloon Committee. By Col. Syxes.
On the Duration of Fluorescence. By Dr E. Essenpacu.
On Electric Cables, with reference to Observations on the Malta-Alex-
andria Telegraph, By Dr EK. Essevpacu.
132 Proceedings of Societies.
On the Curvature of the Margins of Leaves with reference to their
Growth. By Mr W. Esson.
On the Disintegration of Stones exposed in Buildings‘and otherwise to
Atmospheric Influence. By Professor J. Tuomson.—Professor Thomson
having first guarded against being understood as meaning to assign any one
single cause for the disintegration of stones in general, gave reasons to
show—lIst, That there may frequently be observed cases of disintegration
which are not referable to a softening or weakening of the stone by the
dissolving away or the chemical alteration of portions of itself, but in
which the crumbling is to be attributed to a disruptive force possessed by
erystalline matter in solidifying itself in pores or cavities from liquid per-
meating the stone. 2nd, That in the cases in question the crumbling away
of the stones, when not such as is caused by the freezing of water in pores,
usually occurs in the greatest degree at places to which, by the joint agency
of moisture and evaporation, saline substances existing in the stones are
brought and left to erystallise. 3rd, That the solidification of crystalline
matter in porous stones, whether that be ice formed by freezing from
water, or crystals of salts formed from their solutions, usually produces
disintegration, not, as has commonly been supposed, by expansion of the
total volume of the liquid and crystals jointly, producing a fluid pressure
in the pores; but, on the contrary, by a tendency of erystals to increase
in size when in contact with a liquid tending to deposit the same crystal-
line substance in the solid state, even where, to do so, they must push out
of their way the porous walls of the cavities in which they are contained,
and even though it be from liquid permeating these walls that they receive
the materials for their increase.
Report on Thermometric Observations in the Alps. By Mr J. Batu.
On a Brilliant Elliptic Ring in the Planetary Nebule, R.A. 20° 36’,
N.P.D. 101° 56’. Communicated by Mr Lasseti; by Dr Lue.
Some Cosmogonical Speculations. By Mr I. Asux.
Account of an Electro-motive Engine. By Mr G. M. Guy.
Experiments on Photography with Colour. By Mr J. B. Reape,
On some Improved Celestial Planispheres. By Mr C. J. Vinta,
On some Models of Sections of Cubes. By Mr C. M. Witticu.
On the Cohesion of Gases and its Relation to Carnot's Function and
to recent Experiments on the Thermal Effects of Elastic Fluids in Motion.
By Dr J. Crow.
On Capillary Attraction: Comparison of Theory and Experiment.
By the Rev. F. Basnrorru.
Quaternion Proof of a Theorem of Reciprocity of Curves in Space.
By Sir W. R. Hamiton. ;
On the Storms i the St Lawrence Valley and the Great Lakes of
Canada. By Dr Hurxsvrr.
Some Facts relating to two Brilliant Auroras in Canada. By Dr
Horwport.
On the Probable Origin of the Heliocentric Theory. By Mr J.
Scuwakcz.—The author, in an elaborate essay, traces the origin of the
Copernican system to Pythagoras, through Aristarchus the Samian and
Archimedes of Syracuse.
Remarks on the Complementary Spectrum. By Mr J. Smrru.
On the Supernumerary Bows in the Rainbow. By the Rey. J.
Dinete.—The author said he had investigated a method of approximating
to the size of the drops of rain corresponding to any given position of the
supernumerary bows produced by the interference of the two luminiferous
surfaces proceeding from each drop.
On Electrical Tensions. By Mr L. Cuarx.
British Association. 133
Section B.—Chemical Science.
On the Luminosity of Phosphorus. By Dr Morrat.—If a piece of
phosphorus be put under a bell-glass and observed from time to time, it
will be found at times luminous, and at others non-luminous. When it
is luminous, a stream of vapour rises from it, which sometimes terminates
in an inverted cone of rings similar to those gee off by phosphoretted
hydrogen ; and at others it forms a beautiful curve, with a descending
tint equal in length to the ascending one. The vapour is attracted by a
magnet ; it is also attracted by heat, but it is repelled by cold, It renders
steel needles magnetic, and it is perceived only when the phosphorus is
luminous. Results deduced from daily observations of the phosphorus in
connection with the readings of the barometer, the temperature and degree
of humidity of the air, with directions of the wind, for a period of eighteen
months, show that periods of luminosity or phosphorus and non-lumino-
sity occur under opposite conditions of the atmosphere ; the former being
peculiar to the equatorial, while the latter is peculiar to the polar cur-
rent. By the eatalytic action of phosphorus on atmospheric air, a
gaseous body (superoxide of hydrogen) is formed, which is analogous
to if not the same as atmospheric ozone, and it can be detected by the
same tests. ‘The author has found, by his usual tests, that phosphoric
ozone is developed only when the phosphorus is luminous. Periods of
luminosity and periods of atmospheric ozone take place under similar
atmospheric conditions, and the conditions of non-luminous periods and
periods of non-atmospheric ozone are the same. From the author’s ob-
servations in connection with this matter, which extend over several
years, it appears that 99 per cent. of luminous periods, and 91 per cent.
of ozone periods commence with decreasing readings of the barometer and
other conditions of the equatorial current ; and that 94 per cent. and 66
per cent. terminate with increasing readings and conditions of the polar
current. Luminous periods commence, and luminosity increases in bril-
liancy, on the approach of storms and gales, and ozone periods commence
and it increases in quantity under similar conditions. There is, it would
appear also, from these observations, an intimate connection between the
approach of storms, the commencement of luminous and ozone periods,
and disorders of the nervous, muscular, and vascular systems. Here the
author gave the dates of many storms and gales, and the occurrence of
diseases of the above class, showing their coincidence ; and in corrobora-
tion of what he had stated, he mentioned the fact, that there was a con-
currence in the issuing of Admiral Fitzroy’s cautionary telegrams and
these diseases. He also stated, that he views the part performed by
ozone in the atmosphere as being similar to that performed by protein in
the blood ; the latter giving oxygen for the disorganisation of worn out
tissues in the animal economy,—the former giving oxygen to the products
of decomposition and putrefaction, and rendering them innoeuous or salu-
tary compounds. With these views he has used phosphorus as a disin-
fectant ; and from the results he has obtained, he believes that by using
ozone artificially formed by the action of phosphorus in localities tainted
with the products of putrefaction, just in sufficient quantity to tinge the
usual test-paper, all diseases of the pythogenic class would be prevented.
Although the data are too few to theorise upon, Dr Moffat hoped that he
would be excused for pushing the matter beyond a simple statement of
facts and observations, as many facts had been observed in nature which
strongly corroborated all he had advanced. Ozone, he observed, is in all
probability formed wherever there is phosphorescence ; and this is by no
means an uncommon phenomenon. It is seen in life and in death, in the,
animal and vegetable kingdoms, and in the mineral kingdom. Here
134 Proceedings of Societies.
many instances of phosphorescent bodies were enumerated, among which
the night-shining Rares was named as becoming particularly brilliant
with a direction of wind from points of the compass between east and
_ south ; and the fact that the sea becomes luminous on the approach of
storms by marine animals floating on its surface was noticed. Many
phosphorescent minerals were named,—the fluor spar being particularly
pointed out as being not only phosphorescent on slight increase of tem-
“perature, but as giving off ozone. The author concluded by observing,
that it is not improbable that atmospheric ozone is formed by the phos-
phorescence of these and similar bodies, and pointed to the absence of
ozone and weak magnetic action during cholera periods, which are periods
of non-luminosity, and to the disappearance of cholera with the setting in
of the equatorial current, which is ozoniferous and favourable to lumino-
sity. The aurora, the author thinks, may yet be proved to be a display
of luminosity.
Description of a Rapid Dry Collodion Process. By Mr T. Sutton.
Remarks on Ozone. By Mr E, J. Lowe.
On the Essential Oil of Bay, and other Aromatic Oils. By Dr J. H.
GLADSTONE.
On the Ewistence of Aniline in certain Fungi, which become blue in
contact with the Air. By Dr T. L. Puirson.
On the Artificial Formation of Populine, and on a New Class of
Organic Compounds. By Dr T. L. Parpson.
Analysis of the Diluvial Soil of Brabant, &¢., known as the Limon
dela Hesbaye. By Dr T. L. Puirson.
Notes on the Decomposition of the Organo-Metallic Radicles. By Mr
G. B. Buoxton.
On the Mode of preparing Carbonic Acid Vacua, By Mr J. P,
Gassior.
On the Synthesis of some Hydro-Carbons. By Mr W. Optaine.
Modification temporaire et permanente apportée par la Chaleur &
certaines Propriétés Optiques du Feldspath orthose, de la Cymophane et
de la Brookite. By M. A. Dus Croizeav.
e On the Adulteration of Linseed Cake with Nut Cake. By Mr W. H,
ARRIS.
On a Photolithographic Process adopted by the Government of Victoria
for the Publication of Maps. By Mr J. W. Ossorne.—The process was
first adopted by the Government in September 1859, and has since been
extensively used, and many hundreds of maps and plans produced by its
means. ‘The object of the process was the reproduction of drawings and
engravings in black and white, without the gradations known as half-tone.
For this purpose a perfect negative must first be obtained by the ordinary
methods. From this a photographic positive is printed by the agency of
light on paper, which has received a coating of a mixture of gelatine,
albumen, and bichromate of potash. The action of light on this compound
is te render such parts as are subjected to its action insoluble in water.
The positive so obtained is covered entirely by lithographic transfer ink.
This done, the paper is floated, with its inked side upwards, upon a tray
of boiling water. By this process the ink is fused, the albumen is coaSu-
lated, and the gelatine, not rendered insoluble by the action of light, is
softened. When these effects are completed, gentle friction with a sponge
removes the ink and the gelatine from all parts of the paper, except those
' which form the image to be produced. The resulting picture is a positive
transfer, which is transferred to the stone in the usual manner employed
by lithographic printers. The result is an image on stone, from which
any number of copies may be produced by the ordinary process of litho-
graphic printing.
British Association. 135
On the Principles upon which Atomic Weights should be determined,
By Mr G, ©. Foster.
On the Nomenclature of Organic Compounds. By Mr W. Opuino,
On Schinbein’s Antozone. By Dr G. Harvey.
On the Action of Nitric Acid upon Pyrophosphate of Magnesia, By
Mr D. Campnetu.
On the Manufacture of Hydro-carbon Oils, Paraffin, &e., from Peat.
By Dr B. H. Pavt.—The author described the results that had been ob-
tained at some works lately erected under his direction in the island of
Lewis, N.B. The peat of that locality was described as a peculiarly rich ~
bituminous variety of mountain peat, yielding from five to ten gallons of
refined oils and paraffin from the ton.
On a Particular Case of Induced Chemical Action, By Mr A. Ver-
non Harcourt, °
On the Nature of Nitrogen, and the Theory of Nitrification. By Mr
T. Srerry Hunr.
On some Principles to be considered in Mineralogical Classification.
By Mr T. Sterry Hon.
On Hypobromous Acid. By Professor H. E. Roscor.
On the Essential Oils and Resins from the Indigenous Vegetation of
Victoria. By Mr J. W. Ossorne.—Mr Osborne drew the attention of
the Section to the abundance of essential oils of indigenous growth in the
colony of Victoria. The vegetation yielding them was to be found every-
where, forming in many instances large forests of miles in extent. Mr
Osborne stated that the yield was in most cases exceedingly large; for
instance, the Eucalyptus amygadalina, a very large forest tree, bore
leaves which, with the twigs to which they were attached, gave, in the
green state, as much as three pints of the oil from 100 lb. of the fresh
material. Thirty-five specimens of oils were exhibited, all of which were
possessed of valuable properties ; some were of value as medicines, others
as perfumes, and the great majority would be serviceable in the arts as sol-
vents for resins used in the manufacture of varnishes, and also for illumi-
nating purposes, for which they were well adapted, as they burnt with a
very white and clear light in lamps adapted for the consumption of paraffin
oil, and were safe, inasmuch as they were ignited with great difficulty.
The trees yielding these valuable products covered an area of the colony
equal to 12,000,000 acres. Mr Osborne next referred to the resins of the
colony from the gum-trees or species of Eucalyptus, the Callitris verrucosa
and cupressiformis, from the Xanthorrhea australis and the various
species of the Acacia, and described some of their properties and the pur-
poses for which they were adapted.
On the Effects of Different Manures on the Mixed Herbage of Grass
Land. By Mr J. B. Lawes and Mr J. H. Griserrt.
On some of the Difficulties arising in the Practice of Photography, and
the Means of Removing them. By Mr M. Lyvz. :
— a Simple Method of taking Stereomicro-photographs. By Mr C.
EISCH.
On Ferrous Acid. By Dr W. Opttne.
On the Means of observing the Lines of the Solar Spectrum due to the
Terrestrial Atmosphere. By Dr J. H. Guapstone.
On the Decay and Preservation of Stone employed in Building. By
Dr B. H. Pavt.
On Aérolites from India. By Professor N. S. Masketyne.
On Columbite from Monte Video. By Professor N.S. Maskeyne.
Section C.—(Geology.)
On a Whittled Bone from the Barnwell Gravel. By Mr H. Serrey.
136 Proceedings of Societies.
On a Deep Well at Norwich. By J. Crompton, Esq.
On a Tertiary Bituminous Coal in Transylvania, with some Notice of
the Brown Coals of the Banube. By Professor AnsTED.
On the Alluvial Deposits of the Rhine. By Mr R. A. C. Gopwin-
AUSTEN.
On an Ancient Sea Beach and Bed at Fort-William. By Mr J. G.
JEFFREYS,
On the Wokey Hole Hyena-Den. By Mr W. Boyp Dawxtns.—Mr
Dawkins described the peculiar features of the den—its accidental dis-
covery, it being filled up to the roof with debris, stones, and organic
remains—and showed the evidence of human occupation. In three areas
in the cave he found ashes of bone, and especially of the Rhinoceros
tichorhinus, associated with flint and chert implements of the same type
as those of Amiens and Abbeville, and to those of the south-west of Eng-
land. They were, however, of ruder workmanship, and possibly are. of
an earlier date. They were found underlying lines of peroxide of manga-
nese, and of comminuted bone, and overlying in one of the three areas
remains of the hyena, which mark the old floors of the cave. From this
he inferred that man, in one of the earlier, if not the earliest, stages of his
being, dwelt in this cave, as some of the most degraded of our race do at
present ; that he manufactured his implements and his weapons out of
flint brought from the chalk downs of Wilts, the least fragile chert of the
greensand of the Black-down hills, and arrow heads out of the more easily-
fashioned bone. Fire-using, indeed, and acquainted with the use of the
bow, he was far worse armed with his puny weapons of flint and bone
than his contemporaries with their sharp claws and strong teeth. The
very fact that he held his ground against them shows that cunning and
craft more than compensated for the deficiency of his armament. Secondly,
that as he was preceded in his occupation, so was he succeeded by the
hyena. He then gave a brief summary of the organic remains found,
comprising upwards of 1000 bones, 1015 teeth, and 156 jaws belonging
to the lion, wolf, fox, bear of two species, badger, Hywna spelea, ox,
deer of six species, Irish elk, horse, and rhinoceros of two species. One
of the latter, Rhinoceros hemitechus, stamps the date of the cave as be-
longing to the preglacial ; while the rest of the organic remains belong
to the Fauna, typical of the postglacial period.
On the Last Eruption of Vesuvius. By Dr Dauseny.
(This paper appears in the present number of this Joyrnal.)
On an Extinct Volcano in Upper Burma. By Mr W. T. Buanrorp.
On the Comparative Structure of Artificial and Natwral Igneous
Rocks. By Mr H. C. Sorsy.
On the Skiddaw Slate Series. By Professor Harkness.
Contributions to Australian Mesozoic Geology. By Mr C. Moors.
On the Co-relation of the Slates and Limestones of Devon and Corn-
wall with the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland. By Mr W. Penextuy.
On the Gold-fields of Auckland, New Zealand, By Dr W. L. Linpsay.
On the Gold-fields of Otago, New Zealand. By Dr W. L. Linpsay.
On the Tooth of a Mastodon, from Tertiary Marls near Shanghai,
China. By Professor Owen.
On the Cause of the Difference in the State of Preservation of differ-
ent kinds of Fossil Shells. By Mr H. C. Sorsy.
On the Identity of the Upper Old Red Sandstone with the Uppermost
Devonian (the Marwood Beds of Murchison and Sedgwick), and of the
Middle and Lower Old Red with the Middle and Lower Devonian. By
Mr J. W. Sauter.
On a Skull of the Rhinoceros tichorhinus. By MrS. P. Saviuue.
British Association, 137
Supplementary Report on Slaty Cleavage—T heoretical Considerations.
By Professor Puriurrs.
Preliminary Report of the Committee for Investigating the Chemical
and Mineralogical Composition of the Granite of Donegal, and the
Associated Rocks. By Dr T. Sterry Honr.
On Ossiferous Caves in Malta, explored by Capt. Spratt, R.N., with
an Account of Elephas Melitensis, a pigmy species of Fossil Elephant,
and other Remains found in them. Dr Fauconer.
On the Glacier Phenomena of the Valley of the Upper Indus. By
— Gopwin- Austen.
the Diluvial and Alluvial Deposits of Central Germany, and on
the Climate of the Period. By Dr K. von Srepaca.
On the Fossils of the Boulder-clay in Caithness. By Mr ©. W. Pracu.
Notice g some Mammalian Remains from the Bed of the German
Ocean. , Mr C, B. Ross.
D On Specemens of Flint Implements from North Devon. By Rev. J.
INGLE.
Exhibited, Flint Implements from Abbeville and Amiens. By Dr
Davupeny.
‘. Exhibited, some Flint Implements from Amiens. By the Rev. G. T
ONNEY,
Exhibited, Flint Implements from Hoxne. By Mr Doveury.
Exhibited, some Models of Foraminifera. By Dr Frirscu.
On Bituminous Schists and their Relation to Coal. By Professor
ANSTED.
On the Paleontology of Mineral Veins and the Oolitic Age of some of
the Mineral Veins in the Carboniferous Limestone. By Mr C. Moone.
On the Fossil Feathered Animal (Griphosaurus of Wagner, Paléop-
teryx of Von Meyer) found in the Lithographic Slate of Pappenheim.
By Professor Owen. |
On an Early Stage in the Development of Comatula, and its Paleonto-
logical Relations. By Professor Atuman.—The subject of this communica-
tion was a small Echinodermatous animal, a single specimen of which was
obtained by the author on the south coast of Devon, where it was found
attached to one of the larger sertularide, dredged from about four fathoms
depth. The author regarded it as one of the early stages in the develop-.
ment of Comatula, and believed that it had been witnessed both by Thomp-
son and Dujardin, though not correctly deseribed or figured by either of
these naturalists. It consisted of a body borne upon the summit of a long
jointed stem. The body had the form of two pyramids placed base to
base. The upper pyramid is formed of five triangular valve-like plates,
moveably articulated upon the upper side of the lower pyramid, and
capable of being separated from one another at the will of the animal, so
as to present the appearance of an expanding flower-bud, and again
approximated till their edges are in contact, and the original pyramidal
form restored. From between the edges of these plates, long flexiie
spiniferous arms, which must not be eonfounded with the permanent
arms of Comatula, are protruded in the expanded state of the animal,
and within these is a circle of shorter, more rigid, rod-like appendages,
which seem to be moveably articulated to the upper side of the calyx,
immediately round the centre, where it is almost certain that the mouth
is placed. The lower pyramid or proper calyx is mainly formed of five
large hexagonal plates, separated from the summit of the stem by a zone,
whose composition out of distinct plates could not be demonstrated, and
having five small tetragonal plates intercalated between their upper
angles. In assigning their proper value to the several plates thus enter-
ing into the body, the author regarded the lower zone, which rests imme-
NEW SERIES.—VOL. XVIJ. NO. I.—JAN. 1863. s
138 Proceedings of Societies.
diately on the stem, as simply a metamorphosed joint of the stem itself,
while the verticil of plates, situated immediately above this, is the true
basilar portion of the calyx. The five small intercalated plates are the
equivalents of the radialia, and destined to carry afterwards the true
arms of the crinoid; while the five triangular plates which constitute the
sides of the upper pyramid are inferradialia. Professor Allman con-
sidered the little animal described in this communication as of special
_ interest, in the light which it seemed capable of throwing on the real
nature of certain aberrant groups of Orinoidea, such as Haplocrinus,
Coccocrinus, &c., in which the calyx supports a more or less elevated
pyramidal roof, composed entirely or in great part of five triangular
plates, which find their homologues in the five sides of the pyramidal roof
of the little crinoid, which formed the subject of his paper.
On the Origin and Mode of Occurrence of the Petroleum of North
America. By Dr T.S. Hunt.
On the Structure and Origin of certain Limestones and Dolomites.
By Dr T. 8. Honr.
On the Gold-bearing Strata of Merionethshire. By Mr T. A. Reapwin.
On the Geology of a Part of Sligo. By Mr A. B. Wynne.
Exhibited, some of the Six-inch Geological Maps of the Burren Dis-
trict, County Clare, Ireland, by Mr F. J. Foor.
On a Plesiosaurus from the Lias of Whitby. By Dr A. Canrz and
Mr W.N. Barty.
Report of a successful Search for Flint Implements in a Cave called
“The Oyle,” near Tenby, South Wales. By Mr G. N. Smrrn.
Exhibited, some Scutes of the Labyrinthodon, from the Keuper Bone-
Breccia of Pendock, Worcestershire, by the Rev. W. 8S. Symonns.
On New Fossil Fishes from the Old Red Sandstone of Caithness. By
Mr ©. W. Peracu.
Section D.—(Zoology and Botany, including Physiology).
On the Infloresence of Plants. By Mr J. Gress.
On two Aquatic Species of Hymenoptera, one of which swims with its
wings. By Mr J. Luszock.
Exhibition of a Specimen of Astarte compressa, having its hinge-teeth
reversed. By Mr J. Jerrruys.
On the Toot-poison of New Zealand. By Dr W. Lauper LinpsayY.
On the Influence of the Conditions of Ewistence in modifying the Cha-
racters of Species and Varieties. By the Rev. W. N. Motesworra.
Experiments with the Seed of Malformed Roots, and on the Ennobling
of Roots, with particular reference to the Parsnip. By Mr J. Buckman.
Recent Experiments on Hetorogenesis, or Spontaneous Generation. By
Mr J. Samvexson.
On the Zoological Significance of the Brain and Limb Characters of
Man, with Remarks on the Cast of the Brain of the Gorilla. By Professor
Owen.—Professor Owen exhibited two casts, one of the human brain ,which
had been hardened in spirits, and had therefore not preserved its exact
form ; but to all intents and purposes it would serve as an illustration of
the human brain. The other cast was taken from the interior of the
cranium of the gorilla. From an examination of these, the difference be-
tween the brain of man and that of monkeys was at once perceptible. In
the brain of man, the posterior lobes of the cerebrum overlapped, to a
considerable extent, the small brain or cerebellum ; whereas in the gorilla,
the posterior lobes of the cerebrum did not project beyond the lobes of the
cerebellum. The posterior lobes in the one were prominent and well
marked ; in the other, deficient. These peculiarities had been referred to
by Todd and Bowman. From a very prolonged investigation into the
British Association. 139
characters of animals, he felt persuaded that the characters of the brain
were the most stedfast ; and he was thus induced, after many years of
study, to propose his classification of the mammalia, based upon the dif-
ferences in the development of their brain structure. He had placed man
—owing to the prominence of the posterior lobes of his brain, the exist-
ence of a posterior cornu in the lateral ventricles, and the presence of a
hippocampus minor in the posterior cornu—in a distinet sub-kingdom,
which he had called Archancephala, between which and the other members
of the mammalia the distinctions were very marked, and the rise was a
very abrupt one. ‘The brain, in his estimation, was a far better guide in
classifying animals than the foot; but the same difference that existed
between their brains was also observable between their feet. The lecturer
referred to a diagram which represented the feet of the aye-aye, the
gorilla, and man, pointing out the chief differences in the structure of the
skeleton. These differences he considered sufficiently great to elevate
man from the sub-kingdom to which the monkeys belonged, and to place
him in a distinct sub-kingdom by himself.
Professor Huxley observed that the paper just laid before the Section
appeared to him in no way to represent the real nature of the problem
under discussion. He would therefore put that problem in another way.
The question was partly one of facts, and partly one of reasoning. The
question of fact was, What are the structural differences between man and
the highest apes ?—the question of reasoning, What is the systematic value
of those differences? Several years ago, Professor Owen had made three
distinct assertions respecting the differences which obtained between the
brain of man and that of the highest apes. He asserted that three struc-
tures were “ peculiar to and characteristic ”’ of man’s brain—these being
the ‘‘ posterior lobe,’’ the “ posterior cornu,” and the “ hippocampus
minor.” In a controversy which had lasted for some years, Professor Owen
had not qualified these assertions, but had repeatedly reiterated them. He
(Professor Huxley), on the other hand, had controverted these statements,
and affirmed, on the contrary, that the three structures mentioned not only
exist, but are often better developed than in man, in all the higher apes. He
(Professor Huxley) now appealed to the anatomists present in the Section,
whether the universal voice of Continental and British anatomists had not
entirely borne out his statements and refuted those of Professor Owen. Pro-
fessor Huxley discussed the relations of the foot of man with those of the
apes, and showed that the same argument could be based upon them as on
the brain,—that argument being, that the structural differences between
man and the highest ape are of the same order and only slightly different
in degree from those which separate the apes one from another. In con-
clusion, he expressed his opinion of the futility of discussions like the
present. In his opinion, the differences between man and the lower ani-
mals are not to be expressed by his toes or his brain, but are moral and
intellectual.—Professor Rolleston said he would try and supply the members
of the Association with the points of positive difference between the human
and the ape brain. For doing this we had been abundantly shown that
the hippocampus minor and the posterior lobe were insufficient. As dif-
ferentive, they must be given up at last. But as much had recently been
done for the descriptive anatomy of the brain by Gratiolet and others, as
had been done for astronomy by Stokes and Adams, for language by Max
Miiller, and that this had been ignored in this discussion, was little credit-
able to British science. This analysis of the brain’s structure had estab-
lished as differentive between man and the ape four great differences—
two morphological, two quantitative. The two quantitative are the great
absolute weight and the great height of the human brain ; the two mor-
phological, the multifidity of the frontal lobes corresponding to the fore-
140 Proceedings of Societies.
head, usually, popularly, and, as this analysis shows, correctly, taken as
a fair exponent of man’s intelligence, and the absence of the external
Ati ae figure. This had been abundantly shown by Gratiolet.
‘o reference to these most important matters had been made by Professor
Owen; and this omission could not fail to put the British Association’s
repute for acquaintance with the works of foreign fellow-labourers at great
disadvantage in the eyes of such foreigners as might be present. Professor
Rolleston concluded by saying that if he had expressed himself with any
unnecessary vehemence, he was sorry for it; but that he felt there were
things less excusable than vehemence, and that the laws of ethics and love
of truth were things higher and better than were the rules of etiquette or
decorous reticence.—Mr W. H. Flower, looking at the subject solely in
the anatomical view and as a question of fact, stated that the result of a
considerable number of dissections of brains of various monkeys was that
the distinction between the brain of man and monkeys did not lie in the
posterior lobe or the hippocampus minor, which parts were proportionately
more largely developed in many monkeys than in man, and that if these
parts were used in the classification of man and the monkeys the series
would be,—first, the little South American marmosets ; then would follow
the baboons, the cercopithea, macaque; then man must be placed, fol-
lowed by the anthropoid apes, the orang-outang, chimpanzee, and gorilla ;
and last, the American howling monkey.—Dr Humphry thought that
slight differences of structure might lead to vast functional results, and
that a moral hiatus might be greatly out of proportion to any mere phy-
sical distinction.—Professor Owen replied that Professor Rolleston had led
the meeting to conelude that he had not paid any attention to the convolu-
tions of the brain of mammals, and that the investigation of this subject
was the exclusive property of the German anatomists, whereas he might
be permitted to state, that almost at the very time that Leuret wrote his
memoir on this subject, he had delivered a course of lectures on the con-
volutions of the brain, which he regretted had not been published, owing
to the pressure of other labours; but the diagrams were still in existence,
as his successor could testify, in the Museum of the Royal College of
Surgeons.
On the Homologies of the Bones of the Head of the Polypterus niloticus.
By Professor R. Owen.
On the Characters of the Aye-aye, as a test of the Lamarckian and
Darwinian Hypothesis of the Transmutation and Origin of Species.
By Professor KR. Owen.
Observations of the Habits of the Aye-aye living in the Gardens of the
Zoological Society, Regent’s Park, London. By Mr A. D. Barriert.
On Ribs and Transverse Processes, with special relation to the Theory
of the Vertebrate Skeleton. By Dr Curtanp.
On the Structure of Corymorpha Nutans. By Professor AtuMAN.—
The body of the polype was described as presenting a continuous cavity,
as far back as the zone of posterior tentacula. From the floor of this
cavity a large conical mass of vacuolated endoderm projects forwards,
and nearly fills the posterior wider part of the cavity, whose extension
backwards seems at first sight not to be continued beyond the zone of
posterior tentacula, There is here, however, in reality, no interruption of
the general body-cavity, for the axis of the conical projecting mass of en-
doderm is perforated by a channel, which thus continues the cavity back-
wards to the summit of the stem.
A system of inosculating longitudinal tubular vacuole was described as
existing in the stem; they are indicated externally by the longitudinal
coloured lines visible even by the naked eye. At the summit of the stem
they coalesce, and become continuous with the cavity of the body. In
British Association. 141
these tubes, distinct currents similar to those so long known in the stem of
Tubularia indivisa, were occasionally very perceptible under the micro-
scope.
Under a high power of the microscope, delicate parallel longitudinal stria
may be fietecter, lying externally to the tubular vacuole ; they are situ-
ated between the ectoderm and endoderm, and may be traced upwards on
the body of the polype, as far at least as the zone of posterior tentacula ;
they seem to consist of fine tubular fibres, and are apparently the equiva-
lent of the fibres (muscular ?) visible beneath the ectoderm of Clava, Coryne,
&e, Still finer circular stria may also be occasionally witnessed under
a high power running transversely round the stem; but the author could
not determine whether these represent fibres or mere rug in the ectoderm.
The gonophores are medusiform, and were described as belonging to
the generic type of Steenstrupia (Forbes), They were liberated in
abundance from the specimens examined. The generative elements were
not visible in any of the medusoids at the time of their liberation ; but the
author obtained from the same part of the sea where the Corymorpha
occurred, a free Steenstrupia a little larger than the medusoids of the
present species, at the time when they become detached, but which he did
not hesitate to consider as identical with them, and in this the generative
elements were quite distinct between the ectoderm and endoderm of the
manubrium.
The species of Corymorpha which constituted the subject of this com-
munication was considered by the author as identical with C. nutans
(Sars), though it does not entirely agree with the diagnosis of this species
as given by Sars. It was discovered in the Firth of Forth last summer.
On the Change of the Form of the Head of Crocodiles ; and on the
Crocodiles of India and Africa. By Dr Gray.—Dr Gray stated that
the crocodile, when first hatched, has the front of the face short and
rounded, even in those that have an elongated beak in the adult state.
The nose of the different species lengthens and gradually assumes the
form which is the character of the kind; and it is at this age that the
peculiar form of the different kinds are best examined and compared.
After the animal has assumed its adult size, the bones of the head dilate
on the side, and the forehead and nose become more swollen. The change
of form thus produced is so great, that some naturalists have regarded
them as distinct species. This dilation of the sides and increase in thick-
ness of the bones of the head are doubtless produced to support the large
teeth which are developed as these animals attain their adult age. The
author observed that this was a good instance, as showing the necessity of
studying all kinds of animals in all their stages of growth, and under
different circumstances. He stated that no species could be said to have
been properly observed until all these circumstances had been examined
and noted; and that though the notice of a single individual or state of
an animal was useful, it could only be regarded as a sign-post, indicating
the existence of an animal which required further study and examination.
Dr Gray then proceeded to speak of the African crocodile. He observed
that Adanson mentioned three crocodiles as found in the Senegal. Cuvier,
in his monograph, thought that Adanson had made some mistake, and
makes some very severe remarks on the inaccuracies of travellers; but
more recent researches had shown that in this case the traveller was cor-
“rect, and the philosopher at fault. Adanson mentions the green and the
black crocodile and the gavial of Senegal. There can be no doubt, from
the specimens which are in the British Museum from West Africa, that
Cuvier was right in regarding the green crocodile as the crocodile also
found in the rivers on the north and southern parts of Africa. Cuvier,
on the other hand, considered the black crocodile of Adanson was identical
142 Proceedings of Societies.
with the alligator with bony eyebrows found in South America. This is
not the case; for there is a black crocodile found in West Africa, which
is often imported into Liverpool; and there are specimens in the British
and Liverpool Museums, and some young ones living in the Zoological
Gardens in the Regent’s Park: it is a true crocodile, but peculiar from
having three long plates in the eyelids, and it is probably this peculiarity
that misled Cuvjer. It is to be observed that the French naturalists have
not yet discovered this fact; for Dr Gray stated that he had recently pur-
chased from the French Museum the skeleton of this African black croco-
dile under the name of Alligator pulpebrosus from the Brazils, and there
is little doubt that it must have been the examination of the skull of this
animal that induced some zoologists to believe that some specimens of
alligators had the teeth sometimes fitted into notehes in the margin, as in
the crocodiles, while in fact they were observing the skull of a true croco-
dile, and not an alligator. The gavial of Senegal of Adanson is most
like the Orocodilus cataphractus of Cuvier, which has a long nose like a
gavial, but is a crocodile ; this animal has been re-described under various
names. Dr Gray stated that the crocodiles of India had been much mis-
understood: some authors said the common crocodile of Africa was found
in India, others confused more than one species under the name of C.
palustris. There are four species found in India: two are confined to
- the estuaries or the mouth of rivers where the water is brackish, as Croco-
dilus porosus or biporcatus, which is found on all parts of the coast, and
also in the islands of Java and Borneo, and even on the north coast of Aus-
tralia; and the other is a new species confined, as far as we at present
know, to the coast of Pondicherry. The latter is only known, from a
specimen lately received (French), as Crocodilus biporcatus. The other
two are confined to the inland rivers; and they are sometimes found high
up in the mountains where the water of the river is frozen, It is to be
observed that these river-crocodiles, which have been confounded with the
African kinds, are known from them by the short, broad shape of the
intermaxillary bone, which is separated from the maxilla by a straight
suture; while in the crocodiles of the African rivers the intermaxillary
bone is produced behind and between the edge of the maxilla. One species
is generally distributed over distant parts of India; the other is confined
to Siam, and is probably the animal described by the French missionaries,
though the specimen in the British Museum has no crest on the occiput ;
but Dr Gray believes that this might be either an effect of age, or an
individual peculiarity.
Report on the Mercantile Marine. By Dr Cott1nawoop.
On Geoffrey St.-Hilaire’s Distinction between Catarrhine and Platyr-
rhine Quadrumana, By Dr Cottinewoopn.
A Suggestion for the Physiological Classification of Animals. By
Mr J. Hinton.
On a New Form of Echinodermata. By Professor ALLMAN.
On Zoological Provinces. By Sir J. Ricuarpson.
On Marriages of Consanguinity. By Dr G. Curtxp.
On the Production of similar Medusoids by certain Hydroid Polypes
belonging to different Genera. By the Rev. 'T. Hincxs.
On the Generative Zooid of Clavatella. By Professor ALtMAN.
On New Species of Tubularide. By Professor Atuman.—The author’
gave the following diagnoses of new species of Tubularide, which he had
obtained during the autumn of 1862 on the coasts of Shetland and Devon-
shire.
Clava diffusa (Mihi).—Polypes about } of an inch in height, light
rose colour, developed at intervals upon a creeping reticulated stolon ;
British Association. 143
tentacula about twenty. Gonophores scattered, commencing just behind
the posterior tentacula, and thence extending singly, or in small clusters,
for some distance backwards upon the body of the polype. In rock pools
at low water spring tides. Out Skerries, Shetland Isles.
Tubiclava (Mihi, Nov. Gen.)—Polype claviform, supported on the
summit of free stems, which rise at intervals from a creeping stolon, and
are invested by a chitinous polypary ; tentacula filiform, scattered. Gono-
phores, dense clusters of sporosacs aggregated immediately behind the
posterior tentacula.
T. lucerna (Mihi).—Zoophytes about two lines in height; stems quite
simple, or rarely with a short lateral branch; polypary clothing the
stem, corrugated, dilated at the base of the polype ; pale yellowish brown.
Polype, when extended, about equal to the stem in height; white, with
pale ochreous centre ; tentacula about twenty, confined to the anterior
third of the polype. Creeping over the surface of loose stones in the
osigh of a rock pool, Torquay. On stones between tide marks, Dublin
ay.
Tdendeiie hwmile (Mihi)—Zoophyte delicate, rising to about ?ths
of an inch in height, much and irregularly branched; main stems and
branches distinctly annulated throughout. Polype yellowish vermilion,
vase-shaped, with a circular groove near its base and a trumpet-shaped
proboscis ; tentacula twenty or twenty-three, with the alternate ones ele-
vated and depressed in extension. Gonophores (male) surrounding the
body of the polype, and springing each by a short stalk from the circular
groove, which passes round the polype near its base, each gonophore con-
sisting of two super-imposed chambers. Female gonophores borne both
by the base of the polype and by the ccenosare immediately behind it.
Rooted to the bottom of rock pools near low-water spring-tides, Torquay.
Eudendrium vaginatum (Mihi).—Zoophyte much branched, rising to
about an inch and quarter in height, polypary deeply and regularly annu-
lated throughout. Polypes vermilion, with about eighteen tentacula,
and having the body, as far as the origin of the tentacula, enveloped ina
loose, corrugated membranous sheath, which loses itself posteriorly upon
the polypary. Gonophores not known. In rock pools at extreme low-
water spring-tides, Shetland,
Perigonymus serpens (Mihi).—Zoophyte consisting of short, simple, erect
stems, about two lines in height, terminated by the polypes, and rising at
short intervals from a creeping stolon, which forms an irregular net-work
upon the surface of other bodies, the whole of the stems and stolon oceu-
pied by a reddish orange ccenosare, and clothed with a delicate transparent
polypary, which does not form a cup-like dilatation at the base of the
polypes. Polypes reddish orange, with about twelve or fourteen tentacula,
so disposed that in complete extension they are held with alternate tenta-
cula elevated and depressed ; body of polype oval, with proboscis conical.
Gonophores medusiferous, borne by the creeping stolon, and elevated
each upon a rather long peduncle. Medusoids dome-shaped, with the
vertical slightly exceeding the transverse diameter. Manubrium reach-
ing to about one half the depth of the bell, with a simple mouth destitute
of tentacula ; marginal tentacula two, opposite, very extensile, and with
large reddish orange bulbous bases, without evident ocelli; the interme-
diate radiating canals terminating each in a very small bulbous dilatation.
Growing over the stems of Plumularia setacea ; dredged from about 12
fathoms, Torbay.
Perigonymus minutus (Mihi).—Zoophyte very minute, consisting of
simple stems rising to the height of about a line and half from a creeping
stolon, and bearing the polypes upon their summit; polypary dilated
round the base of the polype. Polypes ash-brown, with seven or eight,
FF Pe ey Tn
144 Proceedings of Societies.
rarely twelve, tentacula, held irregularly during extension, and with little
or no curvature. Gonophores piriform, medusiferous, borne at various
heights upon the stem, and supported on rather long peduncles. Medu-
sotd with the summit suddenly contracted so as to give a somewhat coni-
cal form to the umbrella; two opposite radiating canals terminating each
in a pale-brown bulb which is continued into a very extensile filiform
tentaculum, the alternate two canals terminating each in a much smaller
bulb without tentacle ; no evident ocellus; manubrium short, with a four
lobed lip, but without oral tentacula. Forming a fringe round the edge
of the operculum of Turitella communis dredged in Busta Voe, Shetland,
Out of between twenty and thirty specimens of living Turitella examined,
not one was free from this remarkable little zoophyte.
Perigonymus Muscus (Mihi)—Zoophyte consisting of numerous erect
stems about 4 an inch in height, not composed of coalesced tubes, spring-
ing at intervals from a creeping stolon, and sending off short branches,
which are themselves, for the most part, without further ramification ;
polypary light brown, slightly corrugated, and with a well-marked
cup-like dilatation at the base of the polype. Polypes semi-retractile,
light reddish-brown, with about sixteen tentacula directed in extension
alternately backwards and forwards. Gonophores medusiferous, borne
upon a rather long pedunele, and springing from the branches at a short
distance behind the polype. Medusoid dome-shaped, with the four
radiating canals terminating below each in a large reddish bulb, which
sends off two very extensile filiform tentacula, having an ocellus at the
base of each; manubrium extending to about a third of the entire depth
of the umbrella, and with four short oral tentacula. The medusoid is
thus, in all points, undistinguishable from that of Perigonymus ramosa,
Van Beneden. In a rock pool, Torquay, where it occurred abundantly,
creeping over the bottom in small moss-like tufts,
Tubularia Bellis (Mihi.)—Basal portion of Ceenosare prostrate, creep-
ing and sending up short, free, sparingly branched stems, which rise’ to
three-fourths of an inch or one inch in height; polypary where it covers
the lower part of the stems and the whole of the prostrate portion marked
by wide but distinet annulations; coenosare orange, deepening in tint
towards the base, expanding into a collar immediately below the polypes.
Polypes measuring in full-sized specimens about five lines from tip to tip
of the extended tentacula; body of polype scarlet. Gonophores borne
upon short erect branched peduncles, each gonophore with four well-
marked tentaculoid tubercles on its summits, peduncles and spadis searlet.
A beautiful little zoophyte conspicuous by the bright colour and large size
of its polypes. It occurs attached to the bottom of rock pools at extreme
low-water spring tides, Shetland.
Report on the Reproduction of the Hydroida. By Professor Aruman.
Report of the Dogger-Bank Dredging Expedition. By Mr H. T.
MENNELL.
Report of the Committee for Dredging on the North and East Coasts.
of Scotland. By Mr J. G. Jerrreys. :
On a Species of Limopsis now living in the British Seas, with Remarks
on the Genus. By Mr J. G. Jerrreys.
On the Cultivation of the Salmon Fisheries. By Dr Davy.
On the Occurrence of Asplenium viride on an Isolated Travertine Rock
among the Black Mountains of Monmouthshire. By the Rev. W. S.
Symonps.
Notice of some Objects of Natwral History lately obtained from the
Bottom of the Atlantic. By Professor W. Kine.
Exhibited, a Botanical Chart of the Barony of Burren, County Clare,
by Mr F. J. Foor.
British Association, 145
A alae upon the Natural History of the Herring. By Professor
UXLEY,
Notes on Spherularia Bombi. By Mr J. Lussock,
Reply to the Remarks of Mr F. Marcett on the Power of Selection
ascribed to the Roots of Plants. By Dr Dauneny.
(This Paper appears in the present number of this Journal.)
Sus-Seotion D.—( Physiology.)
On the Study of the Circulation of the Blood. By Dr G. Rontnson.
On Simple Syncope as. a Coincidence in Chloroform Accidents. By
Dr C. Kipp.
On = Physiological Effects of the Bromide of Ammoniwm. By Dr
G. D. Gres.
Observations on the Earth-Worm. By Dr J. Davy.
Remarks on all the known Forms of Human Entozoa. By Dr T.
Srencer Copsorp, F'.L.S. This paper was accompanied by an extensive
series of highly finished and original drawings, as well as by a tabulated
record of the various species, arranged in the following manner :—
1, Fasciola hepatica, Linnzus.
2. Distoma crassum, Busk.
3. Distoma lanceolatum, Meblis.
4, Distoma ophthalmobium, Diesing.
Trematopa. \ 5, Distoma heterophyes, Siebold.
6. Bilharzia hematobia, Cobbold.
7. Tetrastoma renale, Chiaje.
8. Hewathyridium Pinguicola, Trentler.
9. Hexathyridiwm venarum, Trentler.
10
11
. Ascaris lumbricoides, Linnezeus.
. Ascaris mystax, Rudolphi.
12. Trichocephalus dispar, Rudolphi.
13. Trichina spiralis, Owen,
14. Filaria medinensis, Gmelin.
Nematopa. \ 15, Filaria lentis, Diesing.
16. Strongylus bronchialis, Cobbold.
17. Eustrongylus gigas, Diesing.
18. Sclerostoma duodenale, Cobbold.
19. Spiroptera hominis, Rudolphi.
20. Oxyuris vermicularis, Bremser.
21. Tenia solium, Linneus.
22. Tenia mediocanellata, Kuchenmeister.
23. Tenia acanthotrias, Weinland.
24. Tenia flavopuncta, Weinland.
2 25. Tenia marginata, Batsch.
Custos. 26. Tenia echinococcus, Siebold.
27. Tenia nana, Siebold.
28. Tenia elliptica, Batsch.
29. Bothryocephalus latus, Bremser.
30. Bothryocephalus cordatus, Leuckart.
As will be seen by this list, the author finds that the Cestodes, Nema-
todes, and Trematodes are pretty equally divided as regards the number
of species respectively liable to invade the human body; and although
he has thus furnished a total of no less than thirty distinct forms, yet he
has considerably reduced the number of presumed species by including
all the larval Cysticerct under the adult titles to which they are severally
referable. Dr Cobbold brought forward a number of novel views respect-
NEW SERIES.—VOL. XVII. NO. 1.—JAN. 1863. T
146 Proceedings of Societies.
ing the structure, habits, mode of development, and production of par-
ticular species, and he gave the results of several experiments which he
had conducted with the purpose of establishing their genetic relations.
He especially remarked upon the fearful destruction of human life which
the larve of Tenia echinococcus occasion in Iceland, and he suggested
certain precautionary measures calculated to check the progress of this
endemic. Since the reading of the paper, the author has added other
details, and has thus expanded the communication into a considerable me-
moir, which will shortly be published, in ewtenso, in the 3d part of the
‘“‘ Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London ” for 1862.
On Tobacco Smoking : its Effect wpon the Pulsation. By Dr Surrn.
' —-Dr Smith had ascertained that tobacco-smoking causes a large increase
in the rate of pulsation in some persons, while in others no increase
occurs, and hence that there is a diversity in the mode of action of this
substance as there is in the admitted good or evil effects upon the body.
On the Question whether Arsenic taken for lengthened Periods in very
minute Quantities is Injurious. By Dr J. Davy.
On Secret Poisoning. By Professor Hartey.—Professor Harley stated
that although he had nowish to engender groundless suspicions, orexcite un-
necessary alarms, yet he was sorry to say he could not but repeat the state-
ment he made last year in a paper on slow poisoning, read before the Royal
Medico-Chirurgical Society of London,—namely,that he believed the cases
of secret poisoning that are discovered form but a small per-centage of
those that actually occur. Nay, more, he even went a step farther, and
declared that he not only believed that we magnified the difficulty of per-
petrating the crime, but that we were also inclined to exaggerate the
facility of its detection. No doubt, modern discoveries in physiology and
chemistry had enabled us not only to distinguish between the effects of
poison and natural disease during life, but likewise to detect and extract
the poison from the tissues after death. But modern discoveries had also
made known to us many poisons with which we were hitherto unacquainted.
It was in toxicology as in naval warfare, no sooner was a projectile dis-
covered that is considered irresistible, than our engineers set about discov-
ering armour-plates more invulnerable than their predecessors. So, no
sooner does the criminal find a new poison that he can use with impunity
than the experts set about discovering a means for its detection. Dr
Harley remarked that the great desire of the poisoner was to get hold of
a poison the effect of which would so closely resemble that of natural
disease as to be mistaken for it. Fortunately, however, this was attended
with extreme difficulty, as the effects of poison were generally sudden in
their onset and rapid in their termination ; for the poisoner seldom had
time or opportunity of administering the poisonous agent in so small a
quantity and for such a length of time as is requisite to produce an artifi-
cial state of disease, which may be mistaken at least by the accomplished
physician for real disease. It had been asserted that in all cases of
poisoning where death occurred, the poison ought to be found in the tissues
afterdeath. ProfessorHarley, however, pointed out that this was not strictly
true ; for even in the case of arsenic, which was supposed to be the most
persistent of all poisons, if the patient only lived along enough the mine-
ral might be entirely eliminated by the excretions before death, and
afterwards not a trace remain to be detected in the body. Such oceurred
in Alexander’s case, when, although it was known that arsenic was the
poison which caused the death, none was found in the body. Alexander,
however, did not die till the sixteenth day. For this and other reasons the
author then said, ‘‘that as the not finding poison in the system after
death is no absolute proof that the patient did not die from its effects,
the symptoms observed during life, in conjunction with the morbid ap-
British Association, 147
pearances observed after death, even when no poison is discovered by
chemical analysis, ought to be sufficient to convict the poisoner; and even
the symptoms alone, if there be good circumstantial evidence, especially
if combined with proof of a motive, ought to convict, just as was done at
Palmer's trial.”
On the Difference of Behaviour exhibited by Inuline and ordinary
Starch when treated with Salivary Diastase and other converting Agents.
By Professor Rouieston,
Observations made at Sea on the Motions of Vessels, with reference to
their pr sag in producing Sea-Sickness. By Mr J. W. Ossorne.
On the Function of the Auricular Appendi« of the Heart. By Mr I.
Asur.
On the Functions of the Oblique Muscles of the Orbit. By Mr 1. Asux.
On the Normal Position of the Epiglottis as determined by the Laryn-
goscope. By Dr G. D. Gres.
Remarks on the Loss of Muscular Power arising from the ordinary
Foot-clothing now worn, and on the means required to obviate this loss.
By Mr J. Dowre.
An Attempt to show that every living Structure consists of Matter
which is the Seat of Vital Actions, and Matter in which Physical and
Chemical Changes alone take place. By Professor Beaur.
A Tabular View of the Relation which subsists between the Three
Kingdoms of Nature with regard to Organization. By Mr H. Frexe,
On an Albino Variety of Crab ; with some Observations on Crustaceans,
and on the Effect of Light. By Mr R. Garner.
On the Termination of Motor Nerves, and their connection with Mus-
ewlar Contractions. By Professor W. Kéune.
Some Observations on the Vitality of Fishes as tested by Increase of
Yemperature. By DrJ. Davy. —
Some Observations on the Coagulation of the Blood in relation to its
Cause. By Dr J. Davy.
On Pearls: their Parasitic Origin. By Mr R. Garner.
On Tobacco in relation to Physiology. By Mr T. Reynotps.
ao the Skull Sutures, and their relation to the Brain. By Mr R.
ARNER.
Sxction E.—( Geography and Ethnology.)
Ascent of the Cameroons Mountain, West Africa. By Captain Rh.
URTON.
On Colour as w Test of the Races of Man. By J. Crawrurp, Esq.—
Colour in different races appears to be a character imprinted upon them
from the beginning, because, as far as our experience goes, neither time,
climate, nor locality has produced any change. Egyptian paintings 4000
years old represent the people as they are now. The Parsees in India who
went from Persia are now the same as when they emigrated a thousand
years ago. African negroes that have for three centuries been transported
to the New World remain unchanged. The Spaniards settled in tropical
America remain as fair as the people of Arragon and Andalusia. He
contended that climate had no influence in determining colour in different
races, Fins and Laps, though farther north, are darker than the Swedes ;
and within the Arctic circle we find Esquimaux of the same colour and
complexion as the Malays under the Equator. Yellow Hottentots and
Bushmen live in the immediate neighbourhood of Black Caffres and
negroes. ‘There is as wide a difference between the colour of an African
negro and a European, between a Hindoo and a Chinese, and between an
Australian and a Red American, as there is between the species of wolves,
jackals, and foxes. The arguments for the unity of the human race,
Ve ae era
148 Proceedings of Societies.
drawn from anatomical reasoning, would also prove that there was no
difference between hogs and bears, the bovine and equine, and the canine
families.—Sir C. Nicholson said that, notwithstanding the ingenuity dis-
played in Mr Crawfurd’s paper, he could not agree in his conclusions. The
variety of the human races, as they now are, had doubtless existed for a long
time. Tombs of very great antiquity showed this, But there is now in
India a race of Jews perfectly black; and in China the Jews had long
become the same in physiognomy as the Chinese, and the Jews never inter-
marry. Among the natives of America there was an evident approxi-
mation to the Red Indian in physiognomy; they were assuming the
hatchet face and losing the beard. The same effect could be discerned
among the European population of Australia ; and Sir Charles stated his
opinion that the question was to be settled on philological rather than
ethnological grounds.
Letter from Eastern Africa. By Dr Ltvinestone.
On the Proceedings of the United University Missions. By the Rev.
H. C. Scupamors.
Voyage on the Lake Nyassa, Eastern Africa. By the Rev. Mr
Srewart.
On the Trans-Indus Frontier of British India. By Major Waker.
On the Climate of Guernsey. By Professor Ansrep.
On Vancouver's Island. By Commander Mayne.
An Account of the Veddahs of Ceylon. By Mr J. Batury.
A Journey to Harran in Padan-Aram, and thence over Mownt Gilead
into the Promised Land. By Dr C. T. Bexzr.—In December 1861, Dr
Beke, accompanied by his wife, undertook a journey to Harran, the resi-
dence of the Patriarch Terah and his descendants, and thence over Mount
Gilead into the Promised Land, by the road taken by the patriarch Jacob,
in his flight from his father-in-law Laban. Harran is a village situate
at the eastern extremity of the plain of Damaseus,—the land of Uzof
the Book of Job. At the entrance from the west is a draw-well of great
antiquity, which Dr Beke identifies with the well at which Abraham’s
steward, Eliezer of Damascus, met Rebekah. Some of the water has
been analysed at the Royal School of Mines, by direction of Sir Roderick
I. Murchison, and found to contain upwards of 100 grains of solid matter
in the gallon. The water of a second well near the former is so impure
as to be no longer fit for use; and at the present day the inhabitants
obtain their chief supply of water through an artificial canal from the
river Barada—the Abana of Scripture. On the first day of the present
year, the travellers left Harran on their way to Mount Gilead. They
first came to the river Awaj, the ancient Pharpar, forming with the
Barada or Abana, the two ‘‘ Rivers of Damascus,” the capital of Aram
_ or Syria; which rivers gave to Aram Naharam, or “ Aram of the Two
Rivers,” its distinguishing appellation. This district, though not incor-
rectly called ‘‘ Mesopotamia of Syria,” has been supposed to be the
Mesopotamia of Assyria, between the two rivers Euphrates and Tigris,
whence have arisen considerable errors in Scripture geography and
history. When, according to the Scripture narrative, Laban set “ three
days’ journey’ between his flocks and those of his son-in-law Jacob, it is
reasonable to infer that the latter led his flocks in the direction best
adapted for his contemplated flight from Padan-Aram, that is to say, up
the left bank of the Awaj. The spot where he so crossed the river would
consequently have been at or near Kiswe, a town on the great pilgrim
road between Damascus and Mekka; and thence he would have ae
south over the plains of Hauran. This is the road taken by Dr Beke ;
and certainly nothing could so graphically describe it as the few simple
words of Scripture :—‘‘ He passed over the river, and set his face towards
British Association. 149
the Mount Gilead.” Section G.—(Mechanical Science.)
Mr J. Nasmyrtu described his Improved Form of Link Motion. 3
Mr E. E. Auten read a paper On the Importance of Economising Fuel
in Iron-plated Ships. ;
Dr F. Grimatp1 read a paper descriptive of a New Marine Boiler for
generating steam of high pressure.
Mr W. Tuorotp read a paper On the Failure of the Sluice in
Fens, and on the Means of securing such Sluices against a similar
Contingency.
Mr J. OrpHam read the Report of the Committee appointed last year
to make Tidal Observations in the Humber.
On the Strains in the Interior of Beams and Tubular Bridges. By
the Astronomer Roya.
Prof. D. T. Anstep, M.A., read a paper On Artificial Stones——In
this paper the author alluded to experiments made in the laboratory, on
the various methods suggested for preserving stone, by a Section of the
Committee recently appointed by the Board of Works in reference to the
Palace of Westminster,—Dr Hoffmann, Dr Frankland, Mr Abel, and the
Author being members of it. During their investigations, a remarkable
material was submitted by Mr Ransome for their consideration ; and its
discovery arose out of Ransome’s method of preserving stone, by effecting
a deposit of silicate of lime within the substances of the absorbent stone,
by saturating the surface with a solution of silicate of soda, and then
' applying a solution of chloride of calcium,—thus producing a rapid double
decomposition, leaving an insoluble silicate of lime within the stone, and
a soluble chloride of sodium, which could afterwards be removed by
washing. To prove this, Mr Ransome made small blocks of sand in
moulds, by means of silicate of soda, and then dipped them in chloride of
calcium. The result was the formation, almost instantaneously, of a per-
feetly compact, hard, and, to all appearance, a perfectly durable solid. —
British Association. 153
Mr W. Smrrn read, in abstract, the Report of the Steamship Perform-
ance Committee,
The Secretary read a paper by Mr ©. Arnerton, late Engineer of the
Royal Dockyard, Woolwich,—On Unsinkable Ships.
Dr Farrpamn, the President of the Section, read a paper On the
Results of some Experiments on the Mechanial Properties of Projectiles.
—He commenced by stating that, in the investigations which had taken
oe with ey to projectiles and armour-plated ships, one great
ifficulty that had arisen was to get good plates of sufficient thickness,
and vessels of sufficient tonnage to carry those plates. It appeared that
they were limited to plates of five inches in thickness; with plates
heavier than that, a ship would not be what was technically called
* lively.” He had attended the experiments at Shoeburyness from the
commencement, and they had reference to the force of impact. He would
state the results of the more recent experiments, which had not yet been
published. The first series of experiments had reference to the quality
of the plates and the properties of the iron best calculated to resist
impact. There were three qualities required: first, that the iron should
not be crystalline ; but, secondly, that it should be of great tenacity and
ductility ; and-thirdly, that it should be very fibrous. The mean statical
resistance to crushing of the two flat-ended specimens of cast-iron is
55°32 tons per square inch. The mean resistance of the two round-ended
specimens is 26°87 tons per square inch. The ratio of resistance, there-
fore, of short columns of cast-iron with two flat ends, to that of columns
with one flat and one round end, is as 55°32 to 26:87, or as 2°05 to 1,—an
extremely close confirmation of Professor Hodgkinson’s law. plying
' this same rule to the steel specimens, it would appear that the ended
shot should have sustained a pressure of 180 tons per square inch before
fracture. In the experiment it actually sustained 120 tons per square inch
without injury, excepting a small permanent set. In the experiments with
cast-iron, the mean compression per unit of length of the flat-ended speci-
mens was '0665, and of the round-ended *1305. The ratio of the compres-
sion of the round-ended to the flat-ended shot was therefore as 1:96: 1, or
nearly in the inverse ratio of the statical crushing pressures. Applying
this law to the case of the steel flat-ended specimen, it may be concluded
that the nag. See Ys before fracture would have been only ‘058 per unit
of length. The determination of the statical crushing pressure of the
flat-ended steel shot as 180 tons per square inch and its compression as
‘058 is important, on account of the extensive employment of shot of this
material, size, and form in the experiments at Shoeburyness. In the case
of the lead specimens, the compression with equal weights was the same
whether the specimen were at first round-ended or flat-ended, This is
accounted for by the extreme ductility of the metal and the great amount
of compression sustained. In regard to the wrought-iron specimens, it may .
be observed that no definite result is arrived at, except the enormous
statical pressure they sustain, equivalent to 78 tons per square inch of
sectional area, and the large permanent set they then exhibit :—
Statical Resistance Dynamical Resist-
in Tons per Square ance in Foot Ib. per
M Inch. Square Inch.
Cast-iron, flat-ended ae ie VO a Oy 13 2)
Cast-iron, round-ended_... REDU sinaiss ese ot BOLD
Steel, round-ended, «hs 90°46... ... 2515-0
In the experiments on the wrought-iron specimens, the flat-ended steel
specimens, and the lead specimens, no definite termination was arrived at,
the material being more or less compressed without any fracture ensuing.
The mean resistance of the specimens of cast-iron is 800 foot lb. per square
NEW SERTES.—VOL. XVII. NO, 1.—san. 1863. U
154 Proceedings of Societies.
inch ; that of the specimen of steel is 2515, or rather more than three
times as much. The conditions which would appear to be desirable in -
projectiles, in order that the greatest amount of work may be expended
on the armour: plate, are—1. Very high statical resistance to rupture by
compression. In this respect, wrought-iron and steel are both superior to
cast-iron; in fact, the statical resistance of steel is more than three times, and
that of wrought-iron more than two-and-a-half times, that of cast-iron.
Lead is inferior to all the other materials experimented on. 2. Resistance
to change of form under great pressures. Ne this respect hardened steel
is superior to wrought-iron. Cast-iron is inferior to both. The shot
which would effect the greatest damage to a plate would be one of ada-
mant, incapable of change of form. Such a shot would yield up the
whole of its vis viva to the plate struck; and, so far as experiment yet
proves, those projectiles which approach nearest to this condition are the
most effective, The President stated that steel shots might be made at a
comparatively small cost. M. Bessemer had told him, that if he had a
large order he could produce steel shots at a little more than the price of
iron ; but if the ingots as cast had to be rolled or hammered to give them
fibre, they would cost near L.30 a ton, instead of L.8 or L.10 a ton.
Mr T. Asurten read a paper On Projectiles with regard to their Power
of Penetration.
Mr W. Smiru read the Report of the Committee appointed at the last
Meeting of the Association to inquire into the Causes of Railway Acci-
dents.
Messrs Witutamson of Liverpool made a communication relative to
the Mexits of Wooden and Iron Ships, with regard to cost of repairs and
security for life, and in the event of accidents at sea,—calling attention, in
particular, to an iron ship of their own, the Santiago, which met with a
collision, the consequences of which would have been absolute destruction
of the vessel had she been of wood; whereas, being of iron and having
water-tight compartments, the vessel was able to pursue her voyage, and
was repaired at the cost of a few hundred pounds, instead of several
thousands, which would have been necessary had she been made of wood,
and could have been preserved from foundering.
Professor W. J. M. Rankine read a paper On the Form and Motion of
Waves at and near the Surface of Deep Waters.—This paper was a
summary of the nature and results of a mathematical investigation, the
details of which have been communicated to the Royal Society.
A paper was brought before the Section by Mr C, Vienotzs, On the
Practice and Principles of Diverting Rivers, and the Stoppage of Breaches
in Embankments.—The author proceeded to describe a method successfully
adopted by him in dealing with the River Ebro. The plan he pursued
was one very generally adopted at the present day by the Dutch engineers,
—namely, gradually ghallowing the river throughout at the required spot
by means of fascine work. It consists in forming large rafts of fascines,
and floating them down to the desired place; loading them evenly with
stones, and thus sinking them down to the bottom; and repeating the
operation till they rise above the surface of the water. This, he contended,
was a more judicious plan than that of piling from the sides to the centre,
the result of which was the continual narrowing of the waterway, which
caused the tide or stream to rush through with such accelerated violence
so as frequently to destroy the works before they were completed; whilst,
by the use of fascines, the water was gradually shallowed all over and its
force checked by degrees. The Dutch engineers had long since given up
the piling system for such purposes.
A paper, by Mr J. Szwxnx, was read, On the Prevention of Railway
Accidents.—The author considered that the main cause of accidents was
Drilish Association. 155
the want of punctuality in the trains; and that this arose mainly from the
overloading of them, which rendered it impossible that they could keep
time. Engines were made to perform certain work and draw certain
loads, and if these were exceeded it was impossible that time could be kept.
This was a matter that the public could not ascertain for themselves, and
he therefore advocated the importance of having engines licensed like
boats, omnibuses, &c., by Government, to draw certain loads; and a
statement piving that information should be placed conspicuously on the
engine. his would prevent the overloading, as it would be in the power
of every passenger to see whether the power of the engine was duly
apportioned to the carriages it had to draw.
On an Improved Painting Telegraph Apparatus. By Mr T. Sorrain.
On the Manufacture of Armour Plates By Mr A. C. Tytor.
On Instruments for observing the Motion of Vessels at Sea, with refer-
ence lo Sea-Sickness. By Mr J. W. Osporne.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE,
BOTANY.
Ozone Exhaled by Plants.—M. Kosmann has made experiments on this
subject at Strasburg. His conclusions are :—
1, Plants disengage ozonised oxygen from their leaves and green parts.
2. The leaves of plants disengage during the day ozonised ogygen in
ponderable quantity greater than that which exists in the ambient air.
3. During the night, in the caseof plants growing separate from each
other, there is no difference between the ozone disengaged by the plant
and the atmospheric ozone; but when the plants are crowded together and
grow vigorously, the ozone, during night, observed in the plant, is more
abundant than in the air, which is explained by admitting that the ozone
disengaged during the day continues to surround the plants during the
night, when the weather is calm.
4. Plants in the country give out more ozone than those in the town
during the day; this ought to be the case, since their vegetative life is
more active, and they reduce more carbonic acid.
5. From the last observation, we may infer that the air of the country,
of houses surrounded by large gardens, of lucerne and clover fields, and
of forests, is more vivifying than that of towns. :
6. In the heart of cities and of a concentrated population, the ozone is
in larger quantity in the air during the night than during the day: if we
pass from such an assemblage of human beings, and enter a crowded col-
lection of plants, the excess of the ozone at night over that during the
day diminishes ; if we go still more into the country where plants are
more numerous than men, the ozone of the air in the day becomes larger
than that during night. ‘
7. The interior of corollas does not set free any ozonised oxygen.
8. In inhabited rooms the oxygen does not exist generally in an ozonised
condition.—Comptes Rendus, Nov. 10, 1862.
Hybrid Ranunculus —M. Alfred Wesmael, of Vilvorde, has noticed a
hybrid between Ranunculus acris and R. bulbosus. It was found in the
meadows at Tournay. It has characters intermediate between the two
species, and its organs of reproduction are abortive. The andrecium is not
developed, and the carpels are represented by a small wrinkled projec-
tion.—Bulletin Acad. Roy. de Scien. de Belgique, 1862.
156 Scientific Intelligence.
Indigenous Fibres in Australia fitted for Manufactures. By Ferdinand
Mueller, Government Botanist.—The two varieties of New Zealand flax
(Phormium tenax) are deserving of especial attention, as likely to supply
the wanting material to British weavers, the strength of the phormium
fibre being almost equal to that of silk, and little doubt being entertained
that finally the genius of invention will overcome the hitherto experienced
difficulty of separating by an easy method, without sacrifice of the mate-
rial’s strength, the fibre from the leaves.
I beg further to draw attention to the extreme facility with which this
ot might be reared on places not available for any other cultivation
such as margins of swamps, periodically inundated banks of lakes, &c.) ;
further, to its great vigour of growth, to the probability of its proving
quite hardy in the southern parts of England and Ireland, and to the
certainty of its cultivation being attended with full success in South Europe,
and therefore in proximity to the British market, and under the advan-
tage of cheap labour.
Specimens for experiment on this promising, and moreover highly orna-
mental plant will be readily available in Europe, where the plant was
introduced in the beginning of the year 1788.
The fibre of the less prolific Doryanthes excelsa, or Giant Lily, of New
South Wales, greatly resembles that of the phormium.
The fibre of various of our native plants is employed by the aborigines
for making their nets and fishing lines, and indiscriminately called by
them ‘‘ Curryong.”’ It remains yet a subject of inquiry whether the pro-
ducts of these plants can be brought into qualitative competition with
other textile fibres hitherto universally used.
The Pimelea axiflora (Ferd. Mueller) was recently observed in great
frequency near Twofold Bay, whence it extends to Port Philip, and I can
have no difficulty, therefore, in obtaining samples of its tough bark, and
of that of the allied Pimelea ligustrina, pauciflora, and microcephala.
Sida pulchella (Bonpl.), Brachychiton populneum (Rob. Brown), and
Commersonia Fraseri (Gay), are the other native plants known to be
principally employed by the aborigines for obtaining cordage. Consider-
able quantity of the bark of the former might be gathered in the forests
of this colony and of Tasmania; the two other species occupy scattered
outposts on the eastern frontiers of Gipps Land, the main body of plants
extending through New South Wales and Queensland.
We possess in Victoria a few species of Asclepiadaceous plants, which
yield a kind of cotton similar to that once used by the ancients for ropes,
as demonstrated from Pompeiian relics.
A perennial flax (Linum marginale, All. Cunn.) is by no means rare
in this colony, but it is not likely to possess any advantages over the com-
mon flax.
The Tasmanian stringy bark tree, which, as I anticipated, has been by
comparison with original specimens in Sir Joseph Banks’s herbarium,
identified by Mr Richard Kippist with the original Eucalyptus obliqua
of L’Heritier (having been collected during Cook’s third voyage at Ad-
venture Bay, by David Nelson), yields, as well as an allied species, which
bears amongst the colonists the name of ‘‘ Mountain Ash,” a fibrous, but
not tenacious bark. It is therefore not available for textile fibre, although,
perhaps, it may be used for the manufacture of a coarse paper.
Attention may also be directed to the fibre of some species of Stipa,
common in this colony, and more particularly to the fibre yielded by a
sedge, Cyperus vaginatus, which occurs in the greatest abundance on the
River Murray and its tributaries, and in many other parts of Victoria.
The aborigines form very durable and tenacious cordage from this sedge,
and employ it extensively for fishing nets.
a
Geology. 157
The useful fibrous properties of the Lepidosperma gladiatum, and
another plant, the Lavatera plebeja, were brought into notice by Mr
Alexander Tolmer, of South Australia, who had observed the natives use
them for the purpose of making baskets and fishing nets. This circum-
stance tndiiced him to attempt to turn them to account for the purpose of
making paper. Accordingly, to test them, he sent a quantity to England,
where it was made into a useful paper. The Lepidosperma is perennial,
and has been found in large quantities growing most luxuriantly on the
banks of the Murray and several other parts of the Australian continent.
The manufacturer in England who tried its paper-making qualities re-
ported “ that there is no doubt whatever of its making good paper; but
that the price, exact loss of weight, &c., can only be determined by a con-
tinuous working of a large quantity.’’ To prepare it for the market, it may
be cut down close to tae roots, the root being left to pring again. It is
then left exposed to the action of the night dews, and the hot sun in the
day, and occasionally turned over, until by this exposure the plant be-
comes partially bleached. It is then cut up into short lengths in any
suitable machine, such as a chaff-cutter, and afterwards bleached by chlo-
ride of lime or any other of the well-known bleaching processes. It con-
tains a gummy matter, which it is of importance to get rid of. The
material will then be in a fit state to be manufactured in the same manner
as any other fibrous material is converted into paper. The Lavatera
plebeja is also an indigenous perennial plant, and grows freely through-
out South Australia, Victoria, and New South Wales, It may be obtained
in considerable quantities along the banks of the Murray and many of its
tributaries, and is also found scattered over various parts of the colony.
The fact of its abounding along the banks and in the marshes of a navigable
river, such as the Murray, renders it highly probable that it may be made
an article of commerce. The surveyor of the Victorian Expedition re-
ported that ‘‘ it clothes the banks of the Moriaminta Creek, and grows to
an immense size on nearly all the creeks beyond the Darling.” The
treatment of this plant for the purpose of paper-making corresponds with
that applied to the Lepidosperma gladiatum.—Trans. Royal Soc. of
Victoria.
GEOLOGY.
Glaciers in Turkistan.—Captain Montgomerie read to the Asiatic
Society some notes on the Brahma, Kun and Nun, Zanskar, Mustak, and
other glaciers. He pointed out that these glaciers have proved to be of
the most gigantic size, so large, indeed, that compared with them the
glaciers of the Alps must be reckoned as of the second order. The gla-
ciers surveyed by Captain Montgomerie’s party may be divided into those
of the Himalayan and Mustak water-sheds. The glaciers of the Hima-
layan water-shed are very numerous, varying in length from five to
fitteen miles, the largest being the Drung Drung glacier of fifteen miles,
and there are others over eleven miles in Zanskar, the Brahma glacier of
eleven and a half miles in Wurdwun, and the Purkutsi glacier of seven
and a half miles in Sooroo, besides a multitude of minor glaciers. The Pur-
kutsi gunri or glacier is perhaps the most remarkable of the whole of this
group, as it comes tumbling down in a torrent of broken and pinnacled ice
from near the summit of the Kun peak, which rises upwards of 23,000 feet
above the sea, a sight well worth looking at, though in actual length the
glacier is somewhat inferior to others in the neighbourhood ; it makes up
for the want of length by the large mass of ice that is visible from one spot.
The next group of glaciers referred to by Captain Montgomerie was that of
the Mustak, consisting of those in the Saltoro and Hushe valley around
the splendid peaks of Mashabrum, and others in its vicinity, which rise to
upwards of 26,000 feet above the sea. The most remarkable glaciers in the
158 Scientific Intelligence.
Saltoro valley, taking them from east to west, are the Sherpogong glacier,
16 miles, and the Koondoos, 24 miles in length ; in the Hushe valley the
Nang glacier, 14 miles in length, and the Atosir glaciers, 13 and 11 miles
in length. ;
The next group referred to was that of the Mustak on the Braldo and
Basha branches of the Shigar River. The;Brdldo boasting of the Baltoro
glacier, no less than 36 miles in length, with a breadth of from 1 to 24
miles ; the Punmah and Nobundi Sobundi glaciers, the longest of which
is 28 miles in length, and the Biafo géusé or glacier with a direct length
of 33 miles without reckoning its upper branches. The Biafo géusé forms,
with a glacier on the opposite slope towards Maggair, a continuous river
of ice of 64 miles running in an almost straight line, and without any break
in its continuity beyond those of the ordinary crevices of glaciers. The
Biafo glacier is supplied in a great measure from a vast dome of ice and
snow about 180 square miles in area, in the whole of which only a few
projecting points of wall are visible. Farther west the Hoh valley pro-
duces a fine glacier 16 miles in length. The B4sh4 valley contains the
Kero glacier, 11 miles in length, the Chogo glacier, 29 miles in length,
besides many branches and minor glaciers. The Bréldo and Basha, in
fact, contain such a galaxy of glaciers as can be shown in no other part
of the globe, except it be within the Arctic circle.
Captain Montgomerie pointed out that the Baltoro has a main glacier
36 miles in length, and 14 large tributary glaciers of from 3 to 10 miles in
length. The Baltoro glacier exhibits a wonderful number of gigantic
moraines which streak it with 15 lines of various kinds of rock,—viz., gray,
yellow, brown, blue, and red, with variations of the same, all in the up-
per part, quite separate from one another, but at the end of the glacier
covering its whole surface, so as to hide the upper part of the ice entirely.
In the centre of these moraines there was a line of huge blocks of ice
which had not been observed on other glaciers, and which it is difficult
to account for. The Baltoro glacier takes its rise from underneath a
peak 28,287 feet high. Captain Montgomerie was in a considerable state
of alarm at one time lest this noble peak should turn out to be in Turkis-
tan. Captain Austen has, however, removed all anxiety on that score,
as one side of the peak, at any rate, is in Her Majesty’s dominions.
Captain Montgomerie noticed that all glacier phenomena were to be
found on a gigantic scale in the Shigar valley. The crevices in the ice
were of great breadth, and of the most formidable description. An attempt —
was made to measure the thickness of the ice by sounding one of these
yawning chasms, but a line of 160 feet in length failed to reach the bot-
tom of it. Observations made at the end of the glaciers gave a thickness
of 300 or 400 feet, but doubtless higher up a still greater thickness of ice
will be found. The surface ice was regularly drained by streamers with
large lakes of a half to two miles in length, the whole water occa-
sionally disappearing down great holes or ‘“‘ moulins” in the ice with a
loud, intermittent roaring noise. The glaciers being on such a gigantic
seale, it of course took days and days to explore one of them. In the
smaller glaciers no particular precautions had to be taken, but in the Shi-
gar valley it was absolutely necessary to tie all the men of the party toge-
ther with rope, giving about ten yards between each, so as to save any one
who might slip into a crevasse. Implements for cutting ice were in con-
stant requisition, and altogether it was a service of considerable danger
exploring the larger glaciers.—Journal of Asiatic Society, Bengal.
On Celts from Bundelkund, and some Chert Implements from the
Andamans. By W. Theobold, jun.—During the past cold season I
had the opportunity of examining a portion of the country in which
Mr Le Mesurier first discovered celts (Journ. Asiat. Soc., 1861),
Geology. 159
and I was so fortunate as not only to collect, but also to ascertain
their extension, upwards of 2000 miles east of the Tons River, which
Mr Le Mesurier in his Memoir considered as their boundary in that
quarter. In other directions I had not the opportunity of tracing
them, but that their range extends over a much larger area than is at
present piqued them in Bundelkund is almost a certainty. Of the
most marked varieties of these implements I shall give a short descrip-
tion, that any one so minded may satisfy himself of the precise identity
of these celts with those found in Europe, in confirmation of which
I may quote Mr Oldham, whose acquaintance with stone weapons from
Irish and European localities is very extensive. There is something,
however, very oe in the mode of occurrence of these weapons,
which must be cleared up hereafter, for though they may be traced as
far into Behar, it is only west of the Tons that they are plentiful ;
for (rejecting a dubious case) I have not as yet obtained a single
perfect one east of that river. The most natural explanation of this
appears to be some superstition which induced men of old time to collect
these relics of a still older age and convey them to the shrines and loca-
lities where they are now so abundant, so that celts collected over thou-
sands of square miles are now accumulated about Karoi (Tirhowan or
Kirwee) and its environs. This is, of course, a mere hypothesis, but
agrees well with the scarcity of other stone weapons compared with the
multitude of celts, one stone hammer and a single arrow head only
as recorded by Mr Le Mesurier in addition to the numbers of celts scat-
tered by threes and fours under pipul trees and in temples about Karoi.
In the same neighbourhood a stone punch or chisel was procured by me,
and at Powari, east of the Tons River, a stone hammer, which should
encourage us to search more diligently for other relics of this most inte-
resting stone period. , :
Very few of the celts in this collection offer any evidence of their
ever having been fixed in handles, and where such has been the case, it
was probably by a race of far more recent date than the original fabri-
eators, for it is difficult toe conceive a form less adapted for such a purpose
than the typical celt, or more liable to be always falling out; this diffi-
culty is greatest in the case of the smallest celts, and when we consider
that a little flattening or notching the sides could have enormously faci-
litated their retention in any handle, it seems difficult to suppose that
their original makers ever so used them. No. 4, though merely chipped,
and not smoothed at the sides, presents the most perfect cutting edge of
any in the collection, and what could have been easier than to fashion its
sides if ever intended for a handle, or what form can possibly be suggested
as less applicable for firm retention in a socket than that given to it,
carefully wrought though it be? Some celts, perhaps, may have been
fitted to handles, but hardly, I think, by their original makers, for
reasons above stated, unless No. 6 is an exception. This celt presents a
curious pit or depression on one side, which might have been intended to
receive the head of a handle, and could certainly have contributed to its
firm retention, though but slightly, and the general form is, as in all celts,
singularly ill-adapted for such an application. The only other possible
use I can suggest for this depression is, that of breaking nuts or fruit
stones, which would not be so likely to fly off or slip aside if struck with
the cupped side of this celt.
Celt No. 14 is the only one in the collection which exhibits any
traces of an adaptation fitting it for a handle, and it only differs from
others in certain rude notches cut in the side, which certainly suggest the
probability of their having been made to.receive some sort of lashing.
Their rough finish, however, suggests doubts of their being as oid as the
160 Scientific Intelligence.
original date of the weapon. The séveral typical forms of European
celts may be recognised in our Bundelkund ones, though, in the illustrated .
catalogue of Irish antiquities in the Dublin Museum, there is nothing
figured like the stone-hammer or mallet found by me at Powari. The
most probable use for which this article was designed was probably
pounding, but it is doubtful if it was not furnished with a high celt-shaped
handle, as just above the neck it has suffered fracture. It is also frac-
tured at the base, seemingly from accidental usage, but enough remains
of the smooth basal surface to indicate its form beneath, and show the
purposes to which it was probably applied. The neck or shoulder is very
smoothly finished, but more specimens are required to indicate the normal
shape of the perfect instrument. Weight 1 lb. 9%0z. Only one other
blunt weapon was found, which, though perhaps used for similar pur-
poses, is much lighter, and very different in shape, which is much that of
a common native wrought-iron pestle. It has a flat top at one end, and
probably had a blunt edge at the other, though now much worn down. It
was never very highly finished, and weighs only 93 ounces. One of the
most interesting celts in the collection is the very rude one which exhibits
searcely any signs of manufacture, and might readily enough be mistaken
for an accidental fragment of rock. The natives, however, about Karoi
possessed sufficient archeological acumen to perceive its nature, and have
adorned it with a daub of red paint as Mahadeo, together with others of
greater pretensions to divine honours than it. Whether accidentally or
not, it exhibits the inaquilateral outline observable in many finished
celts, and which was, for some cause or other, intentionally produced.
The most curious point, however, about it is the presence of a few notches
in the edge, which, as the stone is much decayed, may have originally
been more conspicuous. That they are notches there is no doubt; but to
have served any purpose, they must once have been much deeper, when
they might have acted as a rude saw, the only instance of such a tool in
stone I am acquainted with. Of many scores of celts, this is the only one
of this rude type I have seen. The one marked from Debru ghat on the
Soane is, perhaps, as unfinished, but it may once have had a finer edge,
and its claims to be considered a celt are not conclusive. :
The small fragment from Sibdilla is interesting, as showing how
certainly the merest portion of a celt may be recognised, as regarding
this fragment, small as it is, there can be no doubt; and as proving
incontestably the former extension of these relics, on a very large area,
—Sibdilla being a town of Behar not far from the hills, but 200 miles east
of the Tons and the celt district proper about Karoi or Tirhowan.
Most of the celts once possessed a very sharp edge, but there are some
in the collection, as Nos. 12, 13, 17, which, though well-finished, never
seem to have been ground down to a cutting edge, and were probably
used for other purposes than the sharp-edged ones, though what precise
use that was can scarcely be guessed at. For comparison with these im-
plements, I have laid on the table a few stone chips, for which I am
indebted to Major Haughton, from the Andamans, the most finished of
which might have been intended for arrow-heads, but the majority of which
chips seem merely intended to be used with the fingers in dividing fish
or flesh. The round stone is also from the same quarter, and seems to
have been used for much the same purposes as the stone hammer from
Powari. The four chips marked with a cross may have very well been
intended for tipping arrows, to be used only against fish, but none of
them would have been very effective against the Andaman pig, or, indeed,
any land animal. As, however, the Andamenese chiefly depend on fish,
which they shoot with arrows for their food, Major Haughton is probably
correct in regarding many of these chips as arrow-heads, though of a far
Paleontology. 161
slighter character than the arrow-heads which are usually found accompany-
ing celts, The small agate fragment from Behar bears the appearance
of being the remnant of a larger shear, and whether intended as an arrow-
point or not, is, there is little doubt, an artificially formed piece of stone.
—dJouwrnal of Asiatic Society of Bengal.
PALZONTOLOGY,
Paleontology of Malta.—A. L. Adams, M.D., now quartered in Malta
with his regiment, the 22d, has been devoting his leisure time to the ex-
ploration of its caverns and paleontological deposits there, and a paper on
the “ Fossiliferous Caves” has lately been published. The Maghlah cave
Dr Adams considers as the ‘‘ fragment or extremity of what had doubt-
less been a large cave,”
The strata or accumulations on its floor were thus arranged :—‘‘ Obser-
vations showed, that its vault and sides were thickly incrusted with stalac-
tite and cale spar; the latter was of a yellowish-brown colour and tinged
with oxide of iron; the thickness of the cale spar must have been con-
siderable, as several masses in the side of the cliff measured from 14 to
2 feet. The more recent stalagmite on the floor contained no organic
remains, at least none have been discoyered to my knowledge; it gene-
rally became looser in texture and passed into a calcareous gray earth,
more or less tinged with iron, and mixed with nodules or masses of dark-
brown loam. In some situations the stalagmite resolved itself into a com-
pact reddish limestone. Both the last-named varieties contained abun-
dance of land shells, belonging to the genera Heliw and Clausilia ; there
were but few remains of rodents, but several fragments of the wing bones
of large birds were found with that of aquadruped. The organic remains
were most plentiful in the deeper portions and gray-coloured deposit,
showing evident lines of stratification. In some situations teeth and bones
of the rodents were so abundant, that I counted upwards of twenty incisor
teeth on a surface of not more than one foot in circumference. Com-
plete casts of Heliw and of Clausilia were plentiful. The fragments of
birds were numerous, especially their long and slender wing-bones; an
entire scapula of a bird, about the size of a woodcock, was found. Several
masses of this deposit, showing its connection with the surface, and of
subjacent formations, gave a thickness of from two to three feet. I par-
ticularly noted that for upwards of a foot immediately over the latter,
there was no trace of any organic remains, as if a long interval had elapsed
between the deposition of the hippopotamus and rodent. The rodent is
Myoxus melitensis (Adams) ; while at the same time he thinks the re-
mains may belong to two species, and if so, he dedicates the second to a
friend, and calls it M. Cartez. Many figures of the remains accompany
the paper, both of the natural size and magnified. Of the hippopotamus
he remarks, ‘‘ On comparing the remains from the Maghlah with deserip-
tions of H. major, by Cuvier and later authorities, I find the same dis-
crepancies with reference to size, as are met with in Sicilian specimens
and elsewhere along the Mediterranean; thus furnishing additional proof
that the hippopotamus of the south was either distinct, or belonged to a
smaller race than that of the north of Europe.”
The Maltese beds are known to be very rich in Echinodermata, and
his collections of these forms Dr Adams has sent to Dr Wright, in Chel-
tenham, a gentleman well qualified to work them out, and who is now
preparing a work for their description and illustration.
ZOOLOGY.
Archeopteryx lithographica, Meyer.*—This very remarkable fossil
* We retain the first name given by Meyer, September 1861. Synonyms
should not be multiplied without cause, and there is none here.—HD.
NEW SERIES.—VOL. XVII. NO. I.—JAN. 1863. x
162 Scientific Intelligence.
from the lithographic limestone of Solenhofen, has been lately acquired
by the British Museum It has been described by three scientific men,
the last of whom, Professor Owen, advocates the Ornithie character of the
remains, and has made it the subject of a paper read before a very full
assemblage of the members of the Royal Society of London upon the
evening of the 20th November last
The British Museum fortunately possesses both sides of the slab, just as
opened, and revealing the animal, and they mutually assist each other.
That half in which the bones are really imbedded has had the stone par-
tially removed from several parts, so as better to exhibit their form, and
the impressions of the supposed feathers have been freed from some thin
layers that covered them. On first reading a description, or seeing a
drawing of the fossil, one is tempted to ask, Do all the parts belong to
one animal? but an examination of the specimen itself tends in a great
degree to remove that-impression, and to make the observer conscious
that he is looking at the most remarkable and anomalous form yet
discovered. There are certainly strong ornithic characters in the skele-
ton. The bones of the foot and leg, and of the wings are so, but the
elongation of the vertebral column into a long and slender tail is at vari-
ance with ull known forms of birds, and cannot be sustained as analogous
to the heterocercal tail of ancient fishes, while the small bones and hooks re-
ferred to as attached to the bend of the wing, if correctly so, would militate
against the bird-form. The small bone and hook, or claw, seen upon the
left side of the crack in the slab, resembles rather the first phalanx of the
inner toe of the foot and its claw. The Os furcatorius, or merry thought,
may belong to either bird or reptile, while the ribs are exceedingly rep-
tilian in appearance, not ornithic. The idea of a bird is suggested by
the leg and foot ; and it is evident that whatever the animal may turn out
to be, the structure of this limb, if connected with a reptile form, is dif-
ferent from all yet known, as the long, slender tail is in relation to a bird.
The so-called feathers are impressions only, and show shafts with diverg-
ing rays or vanes; but it is quite possible that these may be appendages
analogous to those of many-crested and tail-fringed lizards, or where the
extremities and body are connected by membranes generally clothed with
scales, but the structure of which has never been minutely examined.
The discovery of the head will most probably reveal characters as dif-
ferent from bird-forms as the tail, the whole forming beautiful links so
difficult to understand when seen imperfect or alone.—W. J. Edit.
On some Burmese Animals, by W. T. Blandford.—Lower Pegu is dis-
tinguished from Upper Burmah, as regards climate, pretty much as Lower
Bengal differs from the Upper Gangetic plains; but in a much greater
degree: Pegu being damper than Bengal; Upper Burmah drier than the
N. W. provinces. The great change takes place above our territories,
and is most strongly marked after passing Mendha. But a very con-
siderable alteration in the vegetation, and a corresponding one in the
Fauna, take place at a much lower point, and are, perhaps, first to be
noticed about Akouk-toung, a rocky promontory on the banks of the
Irawadi, about 30 miles below Prome. A comparatively dry region,
however, stretches down the eastern flank of the Arakan hills, so far as
they form a high connected range, that is—to a little below the parallel
of Henzada; and of this the Fauna of the range of hills Bis) pe to
Cape Negrais is, in its principal features, essentially Arakanese, the hills
being covered with dark evergreen jungle. My experience of both
regions is mainly confined to the west side of the Irawadi river.
Of the upper dry region, the most characteristic animal is, perhaps,
a ground Thrush (Chatarrhea gularis, Blyth). I have never met with
this bird below Prome; nor have I ever seen it in thick or high jungle.
Zoology. 163
It is entirely an inhabitant of bushes. It is common at T ay Myo;
and higher up, about Yenan-phyoung, it far exceeds any other bird in its
numbers. Lepus peguensis is also, so far as I know, confined to this
dry region ;* as are also the few jackals which occur in Burmah. 1 have
not heard of them, however, above the frontier, but suspect they will
be found there, as well as at Meaday and Prome.
Dr Jerdon’s new species of Magpie (Crypsirina cucullata), and his
new Pericrocotus,t and probably his new Maina,f{ are other species
eculiar to the dry region; none of them appearing to occur below:
rocissa magnirostris L met with, near the base of the Arakan hills, as
far south as the neighbourhood of Gnathem-phyoung, but no further.
Of the damper climate of Lower Pegu, one of the most typical birds,
so far, at least, as abundance is concerned, is the large Buceros plicatus
(ruficollis (Blyth), the species with deep notches on the sides of the bill),
of Arakan.2 Scvwrus Revonidienis Ihave seen near Myansoing ; but it is
far more common to the south; where, also, a peculiar variety of S.
bicolor, with a light patch or band on the back, is tolerably abundant.
If S. bicolor exists in Upper Burmuh, it must be excessively scarce.|| S.
assamensis (?) is common throughout the Bassein district; and another
species (Sc. —— ? is said to occur above; but of this 1 am far from certain.
I pointed out when in Calcutta the distinction between the three King-
fishers of salt-water and those of fresh-water streams and pools.4]
The Irawadi Porpoise abounds in many parts of the river. I saw them
in great numbers above Ava in the gorge below Malé, and from their
extreme scarcity in Pegu during the rains, I think it by no means im-
probable that they migrate up the river at that season. I believe
eoceth ing similar has been observed in respect to the ‘‘Susu” of the
Ganges.
% % # %
“Of the new birds in my collection, the Maina (Temenuchus burme-
sianus, Jerdon), is from Thayet Myo, and will doubtless prove another of
the peculiar species of the dry region. The little black and white bird
* IT was assured of the existence of hares on the left bank of the Salwaen,
above the junction of the Yunzalin river.— Cur. As. Soc.
t P. albifrons, Jerdon.—ZJbis, 1860.
{ Major Tickell called my attention to a white-beaded Maina, which, he re-
marked, he had only seen about Rangoon, where I sought for it in vain. It
is, doubtless, the Zemenuchus burmesianus, Jerdon (loc. cit.), obtained by him at
Thayet Myo, and by Mr Blandford in various parts of Upper Burmah. I ob-
served, however, in Col. Phayre’s compound in Rangoon, a flock of the beau-
tiful Ploceus hypoxanthus (Daudin); Dr Jerdon obtained this bird at Thayet
Myo; and Sir R. H. Schomburgk in Siam (P. Z. S. 1859, p. 151); it having
previously been only known from Java and other islands of the great Eastern
Archipelago.— Cur. As. Soc.
? The most characteristic bird of the Martaban and Tenasserim jungles is
certainly Garrulax Belangeri, at all elevations. The Shama (Kittacincla ma-
croura) is also very abundant.—Cur. As. Soc.
|| It is not likely to occur in Upper Burmah, to judge from the analogy of
S. purpureus of Centra] India, the range of which does not extend to Upper
Hindustan.— Cur, As. Soc.
{ Halcyon amauropterus, H. atricopillus, and Alcedo meningting, being the
salt-water species noticed by Mr Blandford, which are replaced higher up the
rivers by H. leucocephalus, H. fuscus, and A. bengalensis. The little Cey#, also
appears to be peculiar to brackish water; but 1 observed H. atricapillus about
100 miles up the river Salween.— Cur. As. Soc.
** The Porpoise of the Irawadi has not yet been scientifically examined.—
Cur. As. Soc.
164 Scientific Intelligence.
(Rhodophila melanoleuca, Jerdon), is from the same place. Of Mulleript-
cus Heddeni, I believe that I obtained one specimen at Thayet Myo, and
subsequently I again shot it S. of Bassein. 57 is a very wary bird. The
rare Bunting (Emberiza rutila, Pallas), I found in grass on a stream, at
the base of the Arakan hills near Gnathim-phyoung. The Rhodophila
was shot in elephant-grass in the plains near Henzada—Jowrnal of
Asiatic Society of Bengal.
CHEMISTRY.
Phosphatic Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean.—These are chiefly
Baker's, Howland’s, and Jarvis’s Islands. "They are all of coral formation.
They are situated near the equator, and between the meridians of about
155° and 180° longitude west from Greenwich. They are without fresh
water, and almost entirely destitute of vegetation, and are the resort of
countless thousands of birds, whose accumulated ordure and dead bodies
have formed extensive deposits. ‘ Much light may be thrown on the
formation of these deposits on Baker's Island by the analysis, (I.) which
follows, showing the composition of recently deposited guano. The
sample itself does not represent any considerable part of the existing
deposit, but was taken from a locality where large numbers of birds are
still accustomed to congregate. It is the dung of the Pelicanus aquilus,
commonly called the frigate bird, which of all the birds frequenting the
island is the only one whose recent evacuations are of such a consistency
that they may conveniently be collected. They contain a large propor-
tion of solid matter, while the evacuations of nearly all the other birds
are very thin and watery. It is found in their favourite roosting-places,
and shows the character of guano before it has long been subjected to the
influence of the weather. It is alight and dry substance, consisting of
friable grains or fine powder, of a brown colour, smelling strongly of
ammonia. Of the three following analyses No. I. is this freshly depo-
sited guano; No. II. is of the light coloured guano from the deeper part
of the deposit ; and No. III. of the dark guano from the shallow part,—
E Il. ILL.
Moisture expelled at 212° Fahr., . . . . 10°40 2°92 1:82
S088, DY: LQNUON, | e.0h 6 sessed ce, yea ay a eT 8°32 8°50
Insol. in HCl (unconsumed by ignition), . ‘78 ace =
Lime, . ogy) ee Ne, we ote) ace ea eee 42:74 42:34
ROOMS eg tae 6 2 ee) oe ny eae 2°54 2°75
Sulphuricacid,. . . ..-....-. 236 1:30 1:24
PUMPRORIC WOIG, 9 ee oo ret eed po 39°70 40°14
Carbonic acid, chlorine and alkalies, undet., 4°44 2-48 3°21
100 00 10000 =100°00
Sol. in water remaining after ignition, . 3°63
No. I. contained 3°82 per cent. of actual ammonia, and all contain
traces of iron,
Birds and other Animals in these Islands.—From fifteen to twenty
varieties of birds may be distinguished among those frequenting the
island, of which the principal are Gannets and Boobies, Frigate Birds,
Tropic Birds, Tern, Noddies, Petrels, and some game birds, as the Curlew,
Snipe and Plover. Of terns there are several varieties. The most nume-
rously represented is what I believe to be the Sterna hirundo. These
frequent the island twice in the year for the purpose of breeding. They
rest on the ground, making no nests but selecting tufts of grass, where
Chemistry. 165
such may be found, under which to lay their eggs. I have seen acres of
round thus thickly covered by these birds, whose numbers might be told
y millions. Between the breeding seasons they diminish considerably
in numbers, though they never entirely desert the island. They are ex-
ert fishers, and venture far out to sea in quest of pe The Noddies
Sterna stolida) are also very numerous. They are black birds, some-
what larger than pigeons, with much longer wings. They are very
simple and stupid. ‘They burrow holes in the guano in which they live
and raise their young, generally inhabiting that part of the deposit which
is shallowest and driest. Their numbers seem to be about the same
throughout the year. The Gannet and Booby, two closely allied species
(of the genus Sula) are represented by two or three varieties. They are
large birds, and great devourers of fish, which they take very expertly,
not only catching those that leap out of water, but diving beneath the
surface for them. They are very awkward and unwieldy on land, and
may be easily overtaken and captured, if, indeed, they attempt to escape
at all on the approach of man. They rest on the trees wherever there is
opportunity, but on these islands they collect in great groups on the
ground, where they lay their eggs and raise their young. One variety,
not very numerous, has the habit of building up a pile of twigs and sticks,
20 or 80 inches in height, particularly on Howland’s, where more material
of that sort is at hand, on which they make their nest. When frightened,
these birds disgorge the contents of their stomachs, the capacity of which
is sometimes very astonishing. They are gross feeders, and I have
often seen one disgorge three or four large flying fish 15 or 18 inches in
length.
The Frigate Bird (Tachypetes aquilus) I have already alluded to. It
is a large rapacious bird, the tyrant of the feathered community. It lives
almost entirely by piracy, forcing other birds to contribute to its support.
These frigate birds hover over the island constantly, lying in wait for
fishing birds returning from sea, to whom they give chase, and the pur-
sued bird only escapes by disgorging its prey, which the pursuer very
adroitly catches in the air. They also prey upon flying fish and others
that leap from sea to sea, but never dive for fish, and rarely even approach
the water.
The above are the kinds of birds most numerously represented, and to
which we owe the existing deposits. When the islands were first
occupied they were very numerous, but have since been perceptibly de-
creasing.
Besides these are the Tropic Birds, which are found in considerable
numbers on Howland’s Island, but seldom on Jarvis’s or Baker’s. They
prefer the former, because there are large blocks or fragments of beach
rock, scattered over the island’s surface, under which they burrow out
nests for themselves. A service is sometimes required of this bird which
may, perhaps, be worthy of notice. A setting bird was taken from her
nest and carried to sea by a vessel just leaving the island. On the second
day, at sea, a rag, on which was written a message, was attached to the
bird’s feet, who returned to the nest, bringing with it the intelligence
from the departed vessel. This experiment succeeded so well, that, sub-
sequently, these birds were carried from Howland’s to Baker’s Island
(forty miles distant), and, on being liberated there, one after the other,
as occasion demanded, brought back messages, proving themselves useful
in the absence of other means of communication.
There are several varieties of Tern; those described above, however,
being the only kinds that are found in very considerable numbers. The
game birds, snipe, plover, and curlew, frequent the islands in the fall
and winter, but I never found any evidence of their breeding there.
166 Scientific Intelligence.
They do not leave the island in quest of prey, but may be seen at low
tide picking up their food on the reef, which is then almost dry.
Some of the social habits of these birds are worthy of remark. The
gannets and boobies usually crowd together in a very exclusive manner ;
the frigate birds likewise keep themselves distinct from other kinds; the
tern appropriate to themselves a certain portion of the island; each
family collects in its accustomed roosting-place, but all in peace and har-
mony. The feud between the fishing birds and their oppressors, the frigate
birds, is only active in the air; if the gannet or booby can but reach
the land and plant its feet on the ground, the pursuer gives up the chase
immediately.
Besides the birds there were but few original inhabitants found upon
_ the islands. Among those I observe several varieties of spiders, at least
two of ants, a peculiar species of fly that attaches itself to the larger
birds and the common house fly, which latter, however, may have been
recently introduced. They, as well as common red ants, are exceedingly
abundant.
Rats were found on all these islands, especially on Howland’s, where
they had become astonishingly numerous. It would seem that they had
been carried there long ago, as there are no traces of recent shipwreck on
the island, and had multiplied extensively. On Jarvis’s Island they were
much less numerous, and were probably brought by a ship that was
wrecked there thirty years since. They subsist. on eggs, and also, as I
observed on Baker’s Island, by sucking the blood of the smaller birds—
the tern and noddies; and in this connection I may observe that these
smaller kinds of birds, described above, are almost entirely wanting on
Howland’s, and their absence, I think, may be attributed to the depreda-
tions of the rats. These rats of Howland’s Island were almost as nume-
rous as the birds. They are of very small size, being hardly larger than
a large mouse, and, I think, must have degenerated from their original
state in consequence of the change of climate, food, and condition of
life. They had completely overrun the island, and on its first occupation
by men were a great annoyance. For many nights in succession a barrel
containing a few oats caught over 100, and I have known over 3300 to
have been killed in one day by a few men employed for the purpose.
A species of small lizard was also found in great numbers on Howland’s
Island, some specimens of which I had preserved in spirit, but the package
containing them was lost on the voyage home.—Silliman’s Journal,
September 1862.
MISCELLANEOUS.
Distinctions between Man and Monkeys.— Wagner, in his paper on
the structure of the brain in man and monkeys,* though always remarking
that man is distinct from the Quadrumana, has not met the objections of
Huxley ; nor are we aware that Gratiolet has given any data for clearing
up the apparent inconsistency in separating man as a sub-class, upon the
structure of his brain, from the quadrumanes, while as great or greater
differences exist among the genera of that order. But while it would be
interesting to know how far the brains of the Prosimie are essentially
identical with those of the true Simiz, the formation of the sub-class,
Archencephala, as co-ordinate to that of the Gyrencephala, does not seem
to depend on such an identity. For man may be so separated on other
grounds. On the distinction of mind, as is well known, he has already
been removed by some zoologists to a separate sub-kingdom, or even
declared not to be the subject of zoologic classification. There being
* Archiv. fur Naturgeschichte, 1861.
Miscellaneous. 167
such strongly-marked distinctions then, and these—the faculties of mind
—being so closely related to the cerebrum as their organ, a uniform
variation existing in this remarkably human organ would be sufficient,
were there no other external distinctions to characterise man from the
most anthropoid apes, or really from the whole of the Gyrencephala ;
though the same amount of variation could not be used for separating
the genera of an order in which this organ and its function are not a
characteristic feature. Not that this organ is peculiar to man, but that
it is emphasized in him, and that the high exercise of its function is one
of his most marked traits. As such, a variation, and especially a varia-
tion in the method of development, as shown by Gratiolet, is really of
great force: granting, however, that if the distinctive faculties of mind
did not follow this variation as a normal result, the mere variation in
itself could not have such weight. Hence we think Huxley’s objections
are rather against the separation of man as Archencephala, than against
the separation itself; and as such more specious than real, for it would
be of equal force in logic to object against it that the raminant or cetacean
brain differs more from the quadrumane than that of man does from the
chimpanzee’s,
But the brain, however important in function, is really an obseure
internal organ ; and since there is so complete a relation between the
external form and the mind, even some external feature would better
have been chosen as characteristic of the sub-class. It has long been
observed, that man is more justly characterised by his great toe than by
his thumb, by his foot than by his hand, since the former imply the
eréct attitude. When we see how the gradual elevation of the brain-end
of the body runs parallel with an elevation of zoologic grade, as shown
by C. G. Carus and others, we see one mark of high rank in this striking
external trait. When we further consider that the locomotive function
as performed by the spine and mesial fins in lower vertebrate forms is
gradually shared by members not on the mesial line, and becomes more
and more exclusively the work of these members, while the spine is suc-
cessively shortened, until in man we have only the posterior pair of
members applied to locomotion, we find another character of elevation in
this posture. Carus has remarked, that in using only one pair of mem-
bers for locomotion, and ‘leaving the other pair free to sensation and
esthetic uses, man stands alone among animals. More recently Professor
Dana has mentioned the same idea to the writer, and has further empha-
sized it, by observing that this application of members to the uses of the
head in man is analogous to that cephalization, which he has long ago
shown to be a principle of elevation in the Crustacea.
To sum up, then, in regard to the other Bimana, The thumb and
hands of the gorilla are far more powerful than those of man. But they
are really organs of locomotion in these arboreal animals. Man alone
has a foot with toe and heel that plants itselffirmly ; he alone stands erect
among beasts ; he alone, having four well-developed members, uses only
two for progression. With him the hand is an organ of sensation, and
belongs to the head, the central organ of the senses. This, and all other
marked features, point to the human head as dominant over the whole
body, and to the subjection of all other functions to its functions of sen-
sation, perception, and thought.
These striking features are peculiar to man among the vertebrates,
and thus on merely zoologic grounds he is clearly separated from other
mammals, and justly forms a sub-class by himself, even without regard
to his mental phenomena, if it were possible to conceive of their absence
in such a structure.
The significance of the other sub-classes also is more evident, when we
168 Scientific Intelligence.
consider their size and organic development rather than their mere brain
structure. Hence Professor Dana has suggested to the writer the terms
Macrencephala and Micrencephala for Gyrencephala and Lissencephala,
the one being principally of large forms, and the other—with the excep-
tion of the Edentata, which, however, show a sluggish overgrowth—of
corresponding small forms.
The Lyencephala would seem also to be better characterised by the
short gestation and the premature birth of their young, than by the
greater or less development of their corpus callosum ; though such indi-
cations of an unfinished structure are interesting confirmations of their
premature condition. It might also be objected that the term is too
much like Lissencephala to be a really good one.
It is interesting to observe, in the phenomena presented by microce-
phals, that the typic development may be arrested, while a vegetative
growth or mere increase in size may still continue in the part so arrested ;
indicating two kinds of forces, typic or formative, and nutritive. The
former of these is essentially hereditary, governs the embryonic life and
form, and gives rise more especially to the varieties of a species; the
latter productive of growth and health, is rather influenced by the condi-
tions of life, food, &e.—Silliman’s Journal, September 1862.
Compressed Crania of Europe—A curious and unexpected confir-
mation of the Asiatic source of the compressed crania of Europe is fur-
nished by a discovery made at Jerusalem in 1856, by Mr J. Judson
Barclay, an American traveller. The circumstances are sufficiently re-
markable to merit detail. Mr Barclay having received information of an
extensive cave near the Damascus Gate, entirely unknown to Franks, he
resolved to explore it, in conjunction with his father and brother. The
requisite permission was obtained without difficulty from the Nazir
Effendi; and they repaired to the cave, the mouth of which is situated
directly below the city wall and the houses on Bezetha. Through a
narrow serpentine passage which traverses it, they gained an entrance
into the cavern, the roof of which is supported by numerous regular
pillars hewn out of the solid limestone rock. Many crosses on the wall
indicated that the devout pilgrim or crusader had been there; and a few
Arabic and Hebrew inscriptions, too much effaced to be deciphered,
proved that the place was not unknown to the Jew and the Saracen.
About one hundred feet from the entrance, a deep and precipitous pit was
discovered containing a human skeleton. The bones were of unusually
large proportions, and gave evidence, from their decayed state, of having
long remained in their strange sepulchre. But the skull, though im-
perfect, was in good preservation; and this the explorers brought to
America, and presented to the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila-
delphia, where it attracted the attention of Dr J. Aitken Meigs, and was
made the subject of un elaborate communication, printed in the Academy’s
Transactions.
Placed in the same cabinet with the American crania collected by Dr
Morton, this skull, recovered from beneath the rocky foundations of Jeru-
salem, presents some of the most striking characteristics of the artifi-
cially modified crania of the New World. Seen by Dr Morton, without
any clue to the circumstances of its discovery, it would have been pro-
nounced, in all probability, a Natchez skull; shown to Dr Tschudi, even
in a European collection, it would be assigned unhesitatingly as the spoil
of a Peruvian grave; but the widely-extended empire of the grandson
of Ferdinand and Isabella fails to account for the discovery of such a
skull, with all the remains of the skeleton, in an ancient quarry-cayern
of Jerusalem. The most remarkable feature is, that the occipital bone |
rises vertically from the posterior margin of the foramen magnum to meet
Miscellaneous. 169
the parietal bones, which bend abruptly downward between their lateral
protuberances. After minutely describing the appearance which the
several bones present, Dr Meigs expresses his conviction that the head
has been artificially deformed, by pressure applied to the occipital region
during early youth and thus recognises in it an indisputable proof of
the practice in ancient Asia of the same custom of distorting the human
head, which was long regarded as peculiar to America,”—D, Wilson, “ Pre-
historic Man.”
Guesses at the Age of Man are summed up as follows :—‘* Here it is
obvious we are dealing with no incomprehensible series of cycles of time.
There are, indeed, difficult questions still requiring the illumination which
farther observation and discovery may be expected to supply ; nor have
such been evaded in these researches; but the present tendency is greatly
to exaggerate such difficulties. The first few steps in the progress thus
indicated cannot be reduced to a precise chronology. The needful com-
pass of their duration may be subject to dispute; and the precise number
of centuries that shall be allowed for their evolution may vary according
to the estimated progress of infantile human reason; but {vento to
believe, that to many reflecting minds it will appear that by such a pro-
cess of inquiry we do in reality make so near an approach to a beginning,
in relation to man’s intellectual progress, that we can form no uncertain
guess as to the duration of the race, and find, in this respect, a welcome
evidence of harmony between the disclosures of science and the dictates
of Revelation.””—D. Wilson, ‘‘ Prehistoric Man.”
Saltness of the Ocean.—The mean of 140 complete analyses gives
34304 of salt in one thousand parts of water, unequally distributed over
16 regions. But the specimens being principally taken at lower latitudes,
this mean is too high. If we take 34 in one thousand parts as the mean
saltness of the sea at the mean atmospheric pressure, and give the results
in differences of ten thousandths from this mean, they will become more
perspicuous.
Thus the mean saltness of the Atlantic (35°77 thousandth) is expressed
by +17°7; of the Californian Pacifie + 12:2, Japanese Pacific + 4:3,
Indian Ocean + 1°3. These numbers confirm the conclusion of Lenz
(Pogg. Ann. xx, 73). The Atlantic system of rivers drains by far the
greater portion of the continents, and has the same position in latitude ;
thus the evaporation in the Atlantic must be greater than in any other
part of the Ocean.
The Atlantic is divided into five regions, viz. :—
Reg. III, Arctic region, mean of 16 analyses. + 15°6
by II, North temperate, ,, ,, 24 ,, + 19.5
s5 I, - ,, tropical, Reve ee “21-7
ae X, South 9 - ee 33 + 24-7,
ce XI, -',; . temperate; ;, ,, 6 ” +104
» X&VI, Antarctic Ocean, oe aga | a — 544
Thus the tropical part of the Atlantic is the saltest, and the amount of
salt regularly decreases toward the poles; yet the Northern Atlantic is
more salt than the Southern (an influence of the Gulf-stream).
The first great circulation of terrestrial water is represented in these
numbers: only a part of the water evaporated between the tropics directly
returns to land and sea in form of rain; another part is carried to the
polar regions here condensed to snow and ice, returning toward the equa-
torial belt either in great fresh-water currents or in veritable ice-streams,
thus re-establishing the equilibrium. ;
Twenty-five different elements have been observed in the salt of the
NEW SERIES—vVOL. XVII. NO. 1.—JAN. 1863, Y
170 Publications Received.
ocean or in plants and animals of the sea: O, H, Cl, Br, 1, FI, 8, P, C,
N, Si, Fe, Mn, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Na, Ka: Ag, Ou, Pb, Zn, Co, Ni; but
only those printed in i/alics are predominant. Of these, chlorine, sul-
phuric acid, lime, and magnesia, may be determined with great exacti-
tude. Comparing all analyses of ocean water (including the North Sea),
it is found that the relative proportion of the components is nearly con-
stant, being,—
Chlorine 100, sulphurie acid 11°91, lime 2°95, magnesia 11°08. Total,
181-1 (for each 100 of chlorine).—Silliman’s Journal, Sept. 1862.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
1. On the Foot-Prints of Limulus as Compared with the Protichnites
of the Potsdam Sandstone. By J. D. Dawson, LL.D.—From the
Author.
2. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Nos. 2 and 3 for 1862.
—From the Editors.
3. Amerivan Journal of Science and Arts, for September 1862.—
From the Editors. i
4, The Mechanics of the Heavens, and the New Theories of the Sun’s
Electro-Magnetic and Repulsive Influence. By James Reppre.—From
the Author.
5. On Revolving Bodies and Centrifugal Force. By James Repptr.
—From the Author.
§. An Appeal to Physiologists and the Press. By H. Frexr, A.L,
M.D.—From the Author.
7. Journal of the Chemical Society, for October, November, and De-
cember, 1862.— From the Society.
8. Proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Man-
chester, Nos. 1-3, for Session 1862-63.— From the Society.
9. The Earth and its Mechanism; being an Account of the Various
Proofs of the Rotation of the Earth, By Henry Worms, F.RA.S.,
F,.G.8.—From the Author.
10. The Temperance Congress for 1862.— From the National Tem-
perance League.
11. On Our Waters, their Impurities and Purification. By H. B.
Conpy.—From the Author.
12. Proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Liver-
pool, No. 6, Session 1861-62.—From the Society.
13. Bulletin de Academie Royale des Sciences de Belgique. 1862.
Nos, 9, 10, and 11.—From the Academy.
14. Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, for October 1562.—From the
Editors.
15. Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian In-
stitution for the year 1860.— From the Institution.
16. Catalogue of Publications of the Smithsonian Institution to June
1862.—From the Institution.
17. Report upon the Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi River.
Prepared by Captain A. A. Humpareys, and Lieut. H. L. Assor.—
. >From the Smithsonian Institution.
aR
THE
EDINBURGH NEW
PHILOSOPHICAL JOURNAL.
On the Organic Contents of the Older Metamorphic Rocks :
a Review and a Classification. By Joun J. Biassy,
M.D., F.G.S., &e:
While engaged in the study of the regional affinities of the
Silurian system, it soon became evident that several prelimi-
nary inquiries were indispensable ; and among these the sub-
ject of the present essay.*
In the following pages it is proposed to treat of the circum-
stances under which numerous organic remains have been
preserved in the metamorphosed deposits of the Carboniferous,
Devonian, and Silurian formations successively.
As the general result of this inquiry, I hope to show, 1st,
Considerable variation in the metamorphic forces ; 2d, The not
unusual mildness of their operation, often transforming instead
of destroying; 3d, The unexpected frequency of the vestiges
of life in these rocks ; and, 4th, The conditions of their occur-
- rence, not forgetting the injuries they have suffered.
We shall see that metamorphism has not obliterated the
evidences of organic existence so completely and universally
as once thought; and thatthe other destructive agencies, such
* It became necessary to take into account the whole series of formations
as far as practicable; to ascertain the nature and value of the evidences of
synchronism among strata lying apart; to examine into the doctrine of
Universalism, rising anew into notice—with collateral subjects of great import-
ance, such as the effects of oscillation, the relations of fossils (native, foreign,
recurrent) to their sediments, and the circumstances connected with the in-
tervals of rest between deposits, besides several other uncultivated but pro-
ductive wastes in geological science.
NEW SERIES.—VOL. XVII. NO. I1.—APRIL 1863. Zz
172 Dr John J. Bigsby on the Organic Contents
as the violence of catastrophes, the slower action of oscillation,
the many solvents, fluid and gaseous, and animal voracity,—the
last no idle nor mean instrument,—have all been so measured
out as to leave in numberless places plentiful traces of life.
Besides pointing out new and important data for the geo-
logical annalist, this paper may not be without another use ; for
a geologist of the highest rank declares in the ‘“ Cambridge
Essays” (1857, p. 214), that “by metamorphism is meant the
obliteration of organic remains ; while another great authority,
in his Presidential Address (1861) before the Geological So-
ciety of London, quoting from Sir Charles Lyell’s “ Elements
of Geology” (1853), says, that metamorphic rocks, in their
most normal and characteristic state, are wholly devoid of or-
ganic remains ; whereas it is believed that our reader will soon
see very many examples of fossils in completely altered rocks.
On Metamorphism in General.
It is desirable to premise a few words on metamorphism in
general; chiefly, however, as it bears on organic remains.
Metamorphism results from very complex causes ; such as,
in the first place, the mechanical and chemical action of the
two rocks, plutonic and sedimentary, at the moment of erup-
tion ; together with the play of molecular action. Afterwards
comes the solvent power of water, heat and compression, accom-
panied with a very minute quantity of potash (Quart. Jour.
Geol. Soc. Lond., xvii., xlviii., Horner).
Delesse describes metamorphism thus :—* I call limestone,
or any rock whatever, metamorphic, which, at a date posterior
to its formation, has undergone notable modifications in its
chemical or physical properties; these modifications are shown
by the development of different minerals, by changes in its
structure of aggregation, or in its structure of separation, as —
well as in its chemical composition” (Bull. Soc. Geol. de
France, n, s., ix. 133).* In relation, however, to the last point,
* M. Delesse (Bull. Soc. Geol. de France, n. s., xi. 567) gives another and
more comprehensive definition of metamorphism in the following words :—
Metamorphic rocks are Neptunian rocks, simple or mixed, which heat has
modified physically and mineralogically much more than chemically; for
it has only produced a crystallization, and a new association of the pre-
existing elements—not a radical change of the elementary composition.
of the Older Metamorphic Rocks. 173
T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S., has ascertained from numerous ex-
periments (Hall, Paleontology of New York, iii. 16, 75), that
the mineral constitution of normal and metamorphic rocks is
identical; nothing is gained, nothing is lost, except form. Mr
Sterry Hunt showed, by chemical examination, that the
chromium, titanium, and iron, whose compounds in a crystal-
line form were regarded as characteristic of some of these
altered rocks, exist already in an amorphous condition in the
unaltered state (Canadian Journal, 1855, p. 255). Hence
they are one rock; and each deposit, arenaceous, calcareous,
argillaceous, &c., has its own prescribed form of alteration,
but modified by proportion and variety in the earths concerned;
and also by the agents in exercise at the time (Delesse, Bull.
Soc. Geol. de Fr., n. s., xv. 751).
The sedimentary rocks of every. period are liable to this
process, from the earliest paleozoic to the tertiary; each having
a few fossils spared.
The action of metamorphism upon the traces of life may be
modified in amount only ; or chemically, by the introduction
of some foreign substance. Its tendency is not always, but
usually, to injure or destroy organic structure, and this over
large areas; the mode of escape open to the dead organism
being either through a diminution of the metamorphic force
or a certain substitution of matter; or, again, by means of a
preserving agent, such as carbon or alumina.
M. Delesse gives us an instructive paragraph on the changes
which take place in organic matter, when buried in silt, or
left uncovered, in page 166 of his Memoir on Azote, but it is
too long for quotation. He unites also with Daubree and
Sterry Hunt in showing that the degree of metamorphism is
greatly influenced by mineral composition, a fact well known
to De la Beche and Murchison twenty-five years ago (Geol. of
Russia, i. 23); but it occasionally happens that a given bed
changes into some unexpected form. In this case the cause
lies in its compound nature, or in a difference in permeability,
or in a deficiency of alkaline carbonates. Thus, Delesse has
met with a set of beds which are altered and not altered
alternately, their mineral constitution not being the same.
Sterry Hunt (Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Lond., 1859) frequently
174 Dr John J. Bigsby on the Organic Contents
finds common limestones interstratified with crystalline
schists, Striking examples of this on a large scale are
minutely described by Keechlin-Schlumberger, at Thann,
Bitchweller, and near Overbach (Bull. Soc. Geol. de Fr., n. s.,
xvi. 681). Grtiner (Bull. Soc. Geol. de Fr.,.n. s., xvi. 1138)
presents us with similar appearance in the Department of the
Loire.
In the North-West Highlands of Scotland, according to Sir
R. Murchison, crystalline schists and flag-like gneiss overlie
Silurian beds, only mildly affected. A similar fact is men-
tioned by M. Durocher as occurring in Finmark (Norway).
Here a granular red sandstone, evidently sedimentary, is
shut up in two beds of gneiss, above and below (Geology of
Scandinavia, Mem. Soc. Geol. de Fr., vi. 98). Facts like these
have hitherto received little attention. How all this takes
place, chemistry goes far to explain. We will take the case
of siliceous sandstone, one of the most refractory of minerals.
In order to change it into quartzite, silica must become
soluble, or fuse. Now, Daubree (Horner, Quart. Jour. Geol.
Soc. Lond., xvii., p. 48) has shown that water, aided by mode-
rate heat, by compression, and a very minute quantity of
potash, has a solvent power over a wide range of substances, and
on silica among the rest; but as M. Delesse states (Bull., n. s.,
xvi.), these alkalies may and do vary in quantity, and may
even be absolutely wanting in places; so that the metamor-
phosing power acts unequally in different beds, or in different
parts of the same bed. In this way, sandstones occasionally
show themselves among quartzites in Nova Scotia (Dawson,
Geol. of N. S.), and at Framont (Vosges), where the felspathic
and petrosiliceous metamorphics were found by M. Delesse
(Bull. Soc. Geol. de Fr., n. s., xvi. 248) to retain here and there
both their arenaceous structure and their stratification. When
sandstones contain much clay they cease to be converted into
quartzite, and even continue to exhibit well defined fossils
(Durocher).
It is mostly, but only mostly, from these parcels of imper-
fectly changed strata, in the midst of the fully metamorphosed,
or about their boundaries, that we procure the vestiges of life
which reveal the age of the unfossiliferous rocks around
of the Older Metamorphic Rocks. 175
them—often a most important revelation. In becoming me-
tamorphosed, siliceous rock (and argillaceous often) assumes
a structure more compact, scaly, and conchoidal. Its density,
cohesion, and hardness augment. The lines of stratification
are preserved, and are coloured in different shades; the rock
passing into a jasper, porcellanite, or petrosilex (Delesse).
Calcareous beds, even perhaps when containing magnesia,
are more easily reduced. ‘They may probably contain their
own flux.
Normal limestones alter into white, granular, and erystal-
line, and then develop mica, garnet, hornblende, pyroxene,
spinelle, &c.; or, in union with magnesia, they give us ser-
pentine or dolomite. The argillaceous strata are rather diffi-
cult of change. When this has been effected, the segregation
of macle, staurotide, disthene, dypire, mica, garnet, hornblende,
&e,, takes place.*
Argillaceous shale turns into Lydian stone, as near Petro-
zavod on Lake Onega.t A soft foliated clay becomes a hard
roofing-slate, with or without talc, chlorite, or silex. In a
large area of clay slate, also undoubtedly metamorphosed, parts
may be left untouched, and there retain its fossils, because,
as Sterry Hunt tells us,f the alkaline salt being in insufficient
quantity for the conversion of the whole bed, metamorphism
has found its limit. With this Fournet$ agrees. For want
of the alkaline base no felspar is developed, which in most
cases constitutes (Delesse) the act of true metamorphism.
At Braintree (Massach.), the clay-slates yielding the Para-
doxides Harlani are less metamorphosed than the surround-
ing rocks, which are syenite without a fossil.||
The Silurian schists of Deville, near Meziéres (Ardennes),
in places have undergone no change, except a superficial satiny
glazing; but close by these beds, the same almost, in outward
* Delesse, Bull. Soc. Geol. de Fr., n. s., xvi. 224-228.
+ Murchison, Sir R., MM. De Verneuil and Keyserling, Geol. of Russia,
i, 23.
} Sterry Hunt, Geol. Reports of Canada, 1853-56, p. 169.
2 Fournet, Bull. Soc. Geol. de Fr., n. s., xvi. 241.
| W. B. Rogers, Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts, &c., vol. iii, p. 315.
{ Virlet d’Aoust, Bull Soc. Geol. de Fr., n. s., xvi. 422.
176 Dr John J. Bigsby on the Organic Contents
appearance, are true porphyries, with large crystals of felspar
imbedded. Doubtless, in the great field of nature, instances
of these variations in the intensity of metamorphosis are
numerous; but as this is not generally thought of, it is desirable
to bring forward a few indisputable examples.
Sir H. De la Beche* observed, that in gneiss, mica, slate,
and some other rocks, these variations take place along the
strike as well as the dip. It is as well to observe, that mere
consolidation is not metamorphism, and proceeds from different
causes, such as infiltrations of water charged with silica, lime,
magnesia, or of carbon. t
A kind of series may be observed in metamorphism, with
local arrests at some one of the stages. Thus, shale and mud-
stone pass into hard slate, and so remain. This slate else-
where passes into mica-slate; the latter into gneiss; and the
gneiss into granite in innumerable instances,
A curious series of such mutations exists at Gargantua
(N.E. shore of Lake Superior), and is worthy of notice as an
example of mineral change. At the north end of this con-
spicuous headland, along the reefs on the beach, amygdaloid
passes into granite, and the steps are these,—the amygdaloid
first gradually loses its vesicular structure, and then for a few
hundred yards becomes simply a trap, granular and tough ;
then slowly, bits of felspar and quartz are added, and the mass,
lying east and west in thick leaves, soon takes the form of
hornblendic gneiss, and is traversed by veins a foot thick of
a red jaspery mineral. Finally, at a small rocky point, next
to that of Gargantua proper, the rock is a true granite.{ Here
the same agencies are operating on different materials; the
products therefore are different.
The State geologists of New York, and particularly Dr
Emmons, twenty-three years ago, traced, near Lake Cham-
plain, the passage of the ordinary fossiliferous rocks (Lower
. Silurian) into the highly inclined metamorphic strata of the
State of Vermont. Ata somewhat later date the same was
done satisfactorily in Canadian beds of the same age, by Sir
* De la Beche, Geol. of Cornwall and Devon, p. 262.
+ Ibid., Researches in Cornwall and Devon, p. 295.
t Quart. Jour. of Royal Institution, xviii. p. 230.
of the Older Metamorphic Rocks. 177
W. Logan and his able associates; but to the best of my
recollection, the most graphic and precise details of the many
and curious steps of this change have been furnished by James
Hall, as it takes place on the north-west flank of the Appa-
lachian Mountains.* Sir W. Logan’s account of similar ap-
pearances on the south-east frontier of Canada is scarcely
second to them.
Of course, it is about the line where metamorphosed strata,
occupying at various inclinations elevated countries, meet
the normal beds of the plains, that we find the-largest areas
of imperfectly altered rocks, with their organic remains
and accidental minerals. This is general in Europe and
America, as in Mount Paradis in Norway,f in Wales, in two
known instances in France, namely, near Rieux and Lim-
merzel;t but in the Western Harz the reverse holds good
(Murchison and Morris$).
The hypothesis of Sir John Herschel and of James Hall
(Paleontology of New York, vol. iii.), of metamorphosis by
great accumulation of sediment, does not conflict with any of
the foregoing statements.
Carboniferous Formation.
It might be expected that the carboniferous strata would be
greatly affected by this process, as they are commonly asso-
ciated with eruptive rocks, and full of faults, but it is not so:
we never see them changed into gneiss, mica-slate, hornblende-
rock, &c.; and this for two reasons. The igneous rocks are
there not often in such mass as to affect.a considerable breadth
of country; and most of the coal-measures are arenaceous or
argillaceous, and thus consist of matters not easily fused; the
limestones also being more mildly, or at least differently
treated. The vast coal-fields of North America are in evidence
of the first of these statements, for Professor H. D. Rogers ob-
serves, that no part of the United States of an equal area to
Pennsylvania, full of carbonaceous deposits, has so small an
* Hall, Paleontology of New York, iii. 78.
t+ Durocher, Bull. Soc. Geol. de Fr., n. s., iii. 547.
{ Elie de B. and Dufresnoy, Explic. de la Carte, &c., p. 204. 1841.
? Murchison and Morris, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Lond., xi. 441.
178 Dr John J. Bigsby on the Organic Contents
amount of igneous or crystalline rock.* And it is probably
from the predominance of quartzose matter in the anthracite-
basins of Rhode Island and of Bristol, Massachusetts, that the
containing beds have suffered so little change. (Hitcheock.)t
In the anthracite region of Pennsylvania, all the substances
concerned are moderately but distinctly metamorphosed. The
anthracite speaks for itself. A mild graduated heat is suf-
ficient for its formation.t The accompanying sandstones are
micaceous and grey, resting on another sandstone which is
bluish-grey and argillaceous. The shales are hard splintery
slates, and a siliceous fire-clay floors the anthracite, in the
form of a fine-grained blue shale. The connection between
anthracite and heated igneous rocks is sufficiently plain, when
it is found lying on a bed of these latter near Richmond in
Virginia, as well as at Sincey, near Avallon in central France,
and in Scandinavia. (W. ©. Taylor.)§
Quartzose Rocks.——The sandstone overlying altered lime-
stone in New Mexico is fine-grained, hard, light-yellow or
grey, minutely laminated and highly micaceous ; but it is by
no means so completely changed, so dense, compact, and dis-
coloured as the limestone on which it rests. (Shumard.)
The Coal-measures of the government of Olonetz, and of
the Valdai Hills in Russia, instead of having been hardened,
have never been consolidated at all, perhaps from the abun-
dance of carbon and clay disseminated throughout them ;%
for, as already referred to, the first of these substances in par-
ticular imparts to the substance it pervades, and especially to
organic matters, a remarkable power of resistance to change.**
We see this also in the Lower Silurian of St Petersburg,
and in the black Tchernoizem-earth of Central Russia. The
carboniferous sandstones in this empire are often as incoherent
as the dunes of the sea-shore; Stigmaria ficoides, the only
* H. D. Rogers, Geol. of Pennsylvania, ii. 698.
t+ Hitchcock, Amer. Jour. of Science, xy. 327.
t De la Beche, Mem. Geol. Survey of Great Britain, i. 220.
2? Taylor, W. C., Statistics of Coal, p. 445.
|| Shumard, G. G., M.D., Trans. Ac. Sciences, St Louis, i. 282.
§ Murchison, &c., Geol. of Russia, i. 78.
*# Delesse, Annales des Mines, 5 série, tom. xviii. p. 168.
ie
of the Older Metamorphic Rocks. 179
plant they contain, representing the first and second stages of
chemical changes.”
Sir R. Murchisont shows that at Tcherkask, at Popofskoe,
and elsewhere, in Russia, the altered sandstones and shales of
this formation take on the same appearances as in other parts
of the world, as in North America, Wales, &c.,—that is, they
become micaceous, hard, and dark-brown, and, like their
anthracite, they resume their normal form as they continue in
certain directions. We see this beautifully in South Wales,
in Pennsylvania, We.
The carboniferous sandstones of the Vosges (Delesse f),
although entirely converted into felspathic or petrosiliceous
strata, often contain well-preserved animal and vegetable re-
mains.
In the coal-mines of Languin, near Niort (Loire Inferiéure)
we see vegetable impressions in sandstone, accompanied by
talcose schist ; and this is repeated in those of Bourgonniére,
(Loire Inf.), and in Dauphiné. They are partially or wholly
carbonised.§
The grits and sandstones of Thuringia, the Harz, West-
phalia, and Saxony, are changed into flinty slate (the ordi-
nary modification), not uniformly, but in patches. |
Calcareous Rocks ——The effects of metamorphism on car-
boniferous limestone vary with its composition. In New
Mexico, where it is magnificently developed, it is converted
into a dusky-brown cellular rock, often amorphous. It is
here highly inclined in most places, and has a quaquaversal
dip around the granitic (Albite) mountain of the Cornudas{
(Shumard). The usual fossils are here either obscured or
obliterated ; but whenever the metamorphism is moderate
they appear. In the Organ Mountains of the same interest-
ing region, this limestone is dingy brown-black, brittle and
hard,** semicrystalline, highly inclined, and pronounced to be
fully metamorphic by Dr Shumard, and abounding in crinoids,
* Murchison, Geol. of Russia, i. 77. + Ibid., i. 100.
t Delesse, Bull. Soc. Geol. de Fr., n. s., xi. 568.
? Durocher, Bull. Soc. Geol. de Fr., n. s., iii, 547.
|| Murchison and Morris, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, xi. 441.
q Shumard, Tr. Ac. Sc. St Louis, i. 282. ** Thid., i. 345.
NEW SERIES,—VOL, XVII, NO, 11.—aprit 1863, 2A
180 Dr John J. Bigsby on the Organic Contents
Productus cora, Productus punctatus, Athyris sublilita
(Hall), Spirifer hemiplicatus (Hall), &e.
The limestones of the Carboniferous formation, which over-
spread much of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Missouri, Illinois, &c.,
are little affected by this species of change.
In the Oural Mountains, according to Sir R, Murchison, a
coralline limestone (carboniferous) is altered into a green and
white marble.
Being frequently either dolomitic or argillaceous, this lime-
stone behaves differently under the modifying force. In the
first case it may be fawn-coloured, tough, and hard, amor-
phous, and full of short confused cracks, as at Breedon Hill
in Leicestershire, which has orthoceratites (some flattened
and stretched), large euomphali and producti, all in fine
casts. The greyish-blue and pale-grey limestones of Llangol-
len and Llandudno (Wales) are so tough, close-grained, and
massive, as to be entitled to be considered moderately meta-
morphic, and yet various corals and producti, in the state of
calespar, are common in them.
Coquand* gives a succinct but sufficient account of Profes-
sor Henslow’s striking example of change at Plas Newydd.
(We have seen the original.)
Beds of clay-slate and argillaceous limestone are there tra-
versed perpendicularly by a dyke of crystalline basalt 45
yards wide; and they are metamorphosed for 10 or 12 yards
from either side of the dyke. In many places the clay-slate
is converted into hard porcellanic jasper, and in the hardest
part of the mass are impressions of fossil shells, producti espe-
cially, together with an abundance of analceine and garnets.
That carboniferous limestone, as well as clay-slate, passes into
flinty schist, is to be explained by its mineralogical impurity
on such occasions. Alumina and silex must have been intro-
duced by epigenesis. This occurs at Lauthenthal in Thurin-
gia.t (Murchison and Morris).
Argillaceous Rocks.—Rocks consisting principally of clay,
when altered, harden into a jasper. Thus at Kronack,t in
* Coquand, Traité des Roches, p. 318.
{+ Murchison and Morris, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Lond., xi. 441.
t Ibid., p. 419.
of the Older Metamorphic Rocks. 181
Thuringerwald, the lowest carbonaceous rock, abutting against
Upper Devonian and Lower Carboniferous, is a jaspidian clay-
stone, followed upwards by a conglomerate containing frag-
ments of an older porphyry. Here the coal-strata had been
broken through by igneous rocks. Associated with the con-
glomerate, and forming its roof, is an indurated finely lami-
nated shale, in parts resembling the “ Black Bat” of Stafford-
shire.
We have little to say about the fossils in this portion of
the metamorphic series. They often disappear by a substi-
tution of the containing rock ; a white layer of calespar occu-
pies the place of the shell; and even this disappears when
the alteration is carried a little further. We have had rea-
son to believe that the fossils are not so much damaged as in
other epochs, and that, on the whole, they are not rare in these
modified strata.
As must have already been seen, the traces of life can bear
much. Where the metamorphic process is far advanced, and
the rock very felspathic, coal-plants may be numerous and
distinct, as at Thann (Delesse), and at Languin, as already
cited,
“The effect of heat on plants,”’ says Delesse, “ when toler-
ably intense, is to drive off all the water and any volatile
matters, leaving only a thin carbonaceous impression on the
mineral substance ; but since (Delesse* ) the stability of or-
ganic matters is augmented by carbon and diminished by the
presence of azote, we find vegetables more largely and more
perfectly preserved in carboniferous strata than animal mat-
ters.”
The Devonian Formation.
The nature of our materials compels us to treat this forma-
tion en masse.
The metamorphism of the Devonian rocks is more advanced,
and wears more frequently and more completely the igneous
aspect than that of any other epoch,—at least, so it seems.
Examples are numerous and distinct.
Agassiz first suggested that the broad, irregularly shaped
* Delesse, Annales des Mines, 5 ser., xviii. 817:
182 Dr John J. Bigsby on the Organic Contents
hills of syenite, clay-slate, and white marble to the south-west
of Boston (Massachusetts) are Devonian, in a paper an-
nounced, but not published; and the idea has been adopted
by T. Sterry Hunt and others.* The district in question is
large, and will, when properly examined, prove to contain the
representatives of other periods. Among these the “ primor-
dial’? has already been identified.
It is agreed that the White Mountains of New Hampshire
owe a great share of their bulk to Middle Devonian strata ;t
now converted into gneiss, mica-slate, clay-slate, and quart-
zite.t
In New Mexico, Dr G. G. Shumard has reported the pres-
ence of altered Devonian; but we have to wait for further
information. D’Orbigny,§ in like manner, found in South
America very large tracts of Devonian, and often in a state of
intense metamorphism. Other examples (Cornwall, &c.) will
appear as we proceed. Reasons founded on probability for a
higher degree of change in this age are seldom of much value,
and I have no other to offer.
Quartzose Rocks.—Alcide D’Orbigny informs us|| that on
the east side of the Bolivian Cordillera, and elsewhere in
South America, are beds of compact quartzose sandstone,
white and yellow, and passing downwards into very micaceous
foliated sandstone, blackish or iron-red, and then containing
fossils in thin, well-defined seams. They are impressions of
Terebratula antisiensis, D’Orb.; 7. peruviana, D’Orb. ; Spi-
rifer boliviansis, D’Orb.; S. guicha, D’Orb.; Orthis Inca,
D’Orb.; O. laticostata, D’Orb.; Actinocrinus? We notice
that in this sandstone the substance of the fossils is totally
absorbed.
M. Griiner,! in his excellent paper on the Transition For-
mations of the Department of the Loire, describes a Devonian
conglomerate as composed of the debris of previous formations,
* Hunt, American Jour. of Science, n. s., xiv. 54.
+ Lyell, Second Visit to the United States, i. 84. Hall, Paleont. of New
York, iii, 50.
t Hall, Paleontology of New York, iii. 50.
2 D’Orbigny, Travels in South America, iii. 221, 227.
| Ibid., Cours de Paleontologie, iii. 35.
@ Griiner, Annales des Mines, 3d series, xix. 151.
of the Older Metamorphic Rocks. 183
as well as of fragments of a granitoid porphyry. Resting on
this is a felspathic sandstone, whose beds, being greatly dis-
turbed by quartziferous porphyry, have no constant direction.
I refer to them because they contain organic matter in the
shape of anthracite,—a substance frequently seen in the
Devonian of France. We have no accounts of any interest
respecting organisms possibly existing in the quartzose rocks
(Devonian) of Russia, Britain, N. America, &c.
Calcareous Rocks.—Both Sir William Logan* and his
friend, Mr Sterry Hunt, have struck upon Devonian fossils in
the white crystalline limestone of Lake Memphragog and its
vicinity (eastern Lower Canada), where a large mass of granite
metamorphoses and penetrates that rock. This marble is
almost certainly a northern prolongation of the fossiliferous
limestone of Derby and Rutland in Vermont, sixty or eighty
miles to the south (Hitchcock); and it has been frequently
seen, as well as the wild forests will allow, to Gaspé, along a
distance of 500 miles still farther north.
Sir R. Murchison,} or one of his distinguished companions,
gives a beautiful description of the effects of metamorphism
on fossiliferous limestone, in the following words :— This de-
scent of the Kakva (Ural) would satisfy any one, with its
limestone undulations and trappose alternations, of the reality
of metamorphism ; the limestone being dark-grey, with white
veins, but red and compact near the trap. In one place,
where the limestone was in absolute contact with a dyke of
greenstone porphyry, it had been converted into a pure white
saccharoid granular marble.
** Near the eruptive rocks these Devonian limestones are
crystalline, but at certain distances they are unaltered, and
contain organic remains. For long spaces, where the lime-
stone is not absolutely saccharoid or granular, it is often com-
pact, amorphous, and without distinct trace of bedding. Among
such strata we found fossils. Even in the associated trap
(like schaalstein) we found corals like those in a similar rock
on the Lahn in Nassau,—i.e¢, Favosites polymorpha, F.
ramosa, Stromatopora concentrica [possibly in Laurentian
* Sir W. Logan, Canadian Naturalist, iv. 298.
t+ Murchison, Geol. of Russia, i. 401.
184 Dr John J. Bigsby on the Organic Contents
also], Terebratula reticularis,’ As we also see in the Trap-
pean ash of East Ogwell in South Devon (Godwin-Austen) ;
the Ogygia in the volcanic grits of Marrington Dingle, Wales ;*
and the brachiopoda in the trap of Montreal Trenton Lime-
stone.
Delesset finds well preserved Encrinites and Zoophytes in
the Upper Devonian marbles of the Vosges (France). They
are sheathed in leaflets of tale,—the production, our author
thinks, of a period subsequent to the deposition of the lime-
stone. Coquandt finds Goniatites imbedded in the marble
of Campan in the Pyrenees. It is full of the same kind
of tale which is found in rocks acknowledged to be highly
modified.
Durocher§ mentions that the dolomite of Gerolstein in the
Eifel contains numerous Zoophytes, themselves also dolomitic.
Dr Bureau|| describes an interesting example of the exist-
ence of Lower Devonian fossils in a metamorphosed limestone
at Ebray (Loire Inferiéure). It is a narrow band of lime-
stone, inclined nearly vertically, and runs east and west to a
considerable distance probably. At its north border it pre-
sents some blackish or grey limestone, interstratified with
thin layers of black schists. To these succeeds a compact
mass of grey limestone without show of stratification. It is
here that the fossils are most numerous, and they are all
Lower Devonian, especially those collected in M. Porche’s
quarry. é
Proceeding now into Devonshire, we find Sir H. De la Beche4
stating that certain portions of the Plymouth limestones are
so connected with trappean rocks, and so intruded on by por-
phyry, they are so hardened and jointed, that they are to a
certain degree metamorphosed.
These grey and black marbles contain many Devonian re-
mains, such as spirifer, atrypa, productus, nerita, pileopsis,
collected by the Rev. R. Hennah.
* Sir R. Murchison, Silur., 3d edit., p. 85.
t Delesse, Bull. Soc. Geol. de Fr., n. s., vi. 528.
{ Coquand, ibid., vi. 528. 2 Durocher, ibid., iii. 547.
|| Dr Bureau, ibid., xviii. 387.
“ Sir H. Dela Beche. Rep. on Devon and Cornwall, p. 64.
of the Older Metamorphic Rocks. 185
In the Devonian limestone of Cornwall, as in that of all
epochs, my friend, Mr S. Patterson, who is well acquainted with
the geology of that county, informs me that the fossil often is
replaced by the containing rock, and disappears without causing
the slightest change in the form of the granulation. We have
seen an Orthis from Newton Bushell, Devonshire, which, after
having been broken into four unequal portions, had been re-
cemented by white calespar, with little injury to its shape
(Cabinet Museum of Practical Geology, London). A Septena
plicata (Sowerby) has been singularly treated: the lower
quarter of one valve has been doubled down under the other,
and without other injury (same Cabinet, several speci-
mens),
The septa of the orthoceratites in Lower Devonian, South
Devonshire, are often missing by twos and threes. When
this takes place, the remaining septa, or a few of them, hang
down in a larger segment of a smaller circle. Casts of their
partitions, in a series of rather thick discs, rest upon each
other’s edges in succession, as so many counters might. (S.
Devon, and Breedon, Leicestershire.) In the Torquay collec-
tion is an orthoceras which has been broken in the middle,
and restored. An angle has been formed at the spot. Broken
apices are here, as in other formations, common among uni-
valves.
Brachiopoda at this and other periods are greatly obscured
by masses of crystallized quartz or lime forming within and
about them.
We are not acquainted with any cases of stretching, flatten-
ing, in the modified limestones of the Devonian.
Argillaceous Rocks.—Near Nictau,* in Nova Scotia, on the
river so called, a branch of the River Annapolis, is a bed of
coarse slates dipping S. 30 E. It holds a band of highly fossili-
ferous peroxide of iron, whose organic remains James Hall
finds to be much the same as those of the Oriskany Sandstone
(Devonian base) in the State of New York. They are Spiri-
fer arenosus, Strophodonta magnifica, Atrypa unguiformis,
Strophomena depressa, Avicula, Bellerophon, Favosites,
* J. W. Dawson, F.R.S., Geol. of Acadia, supplementary chapter, p. 64.
186 Dr John J. Bigsby on the Organic Contents
Zaphrentis, &¢. These fossiliferous ridges of partially altered
slates run a considerable distance to the west, and are then
interrupted by a region of white granite, which penetrates the
slates, and converts them into gneiss with garnets. On the
Moose and Bear Rivers, as well as in Annapolis basin, the
iron-ore and its slates recur on the east side of this granite,
interlaced also with greenstone and syenite-veins. Both are
in a higher state of metamorphism than near Nictau; for the
iron-ore is magnetic, but still full of the Devonian fossils of
Nictau.
In a memoir on the Devonian Rocks of Cornwall, Professor
Sedgwick* says that he found a highly fossiliferous group of
clay-slates (as we understand) ranging from New Quay by
Padstow to Tintagel. In some parts of this distance it ap-
proached a central boss of granite, and there became meta-
morphosed. Here the Devonian rock is changed into very
crystalline chiastolite slate; yet in it were some distinct im-
pressions of the long winged spirifers of Tintagel. The
“schist ardoise” of the Ardennes} is a special condition of
clay-slate. It is greenish, reddish, blue, or grey. With
dividing planes peculiar to itself, it is extremely fissile, but
presents neither wrinkles nor folds. As subordinate beds,
roofing-slates contain micaceous sandstone, quartzite, lamellar
limestone, and clay-slate; the last, according to M. Thirria,
holding vegetable impressions and animal remains. At
Rimogne in this district, the “ schist ardoise” has a lustrous
surface, and is interleaved, according to M. Rozet.{ both with
quartzite and limestone, The last contains crinoids, and at
Mondrepuises, &e., as we are informed by Dumont,§ there are
Trilobites and Strophomena.
The flinty clay-slate of this period presents us with by far
the most numerous and striking instances of distortion,
squeezing, and flattening. It is possible that these appear-
ances only occur in laminated beds.
In the hardened flinty slate from Barnstaple (North Devon)
* Sedgwick, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Lond., viii. 4.
+ D’Omalius, d’Halloy, and M. Thirria, Explic. Carte Geol. de Fr., p. 251.
Elie de B. et Dufresnoy.
+ Rozet and Dumont, ibid. % Ibid.
of the Older Metamorphic Rocks. 187
the spirifers are occasionally stretched lengthwise, and more
so on one side than on the other.
Suchlike is the occasional distortion of the Spirifer ew-
tensus of the hard greywacke of South Petherwin (Cornwall).
The Aviculas from this latter neighbourhood are often flattened
and misshapen. These instances are taken from the Sharpean
Cabinet of the Geological Society of London.
A Lower Devonian Rhynchonella, very siliceous, of Looe, in
Cornwall, has commonly a brown corroded appearance, from
unequal weathering most frequently ; and it looks ragged, and
as if gnawed round the mouth of the valves. The Orthis
circularis of Lower Devonian from Lynmouth and Woodabay
in North Devon, is similarly marked, and is coated with red
iron rust.
In ferruginous flinty slate from Padstow, in Cornwall, we
have a Middle Devonian Strophomena, much distorted. These
three specimens are in the Museum of Practical Geology,
London. (D’Orbigny, Cours de Palcont., passim, for more.)
Upper Silurian Metamorphosis.
Throughout all the countries which have been looked into
geologically, Silurian strata have been met with in the meta-
morphosed state, and under similar circumstances. North-
east America, Russia, Scandinavia, Britain, France, Spain, &c.,
abound with them. Magnificent instances were seen by David
Forbes, Esq., F.R.S.,* in the Bolivian Andes of South America.
The great chain of the Appalachians, with whose structure
Professor H. D. Rogers has familiarised us, exhibits the same
phenomena; but the very few geologists who have visited
small portions of the Alpine ranges of India have not as yet
met with them,—as probably they will do.
The Silurian rocks of every age are, in most countries,
liable to penetration and dismemberment by plutonic forces,
and in every variety of form and magnitude. Metamorphism,
therefore, is pretty frequent among them.
Quartzose Rocks.—As rocks of this composition, tolerably
pure, are not plentiful in the Upper Silurian, and, when they
* Forbes, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Lond., xvii. 60.
NEW SERLES.—VOL. XVII. NO. 11.—APRIL 1868. 28
188 Dr John J. Bigsby on the Organic Contents
do occur, are usually unfossiliferous, we are only in possession
of one example of an arenaceous rock of this stage being at
the same time metamorphosed and fossiliferous. It is fur-
nished by Sir R. Murchison,* who says, that in Scania there
is a red micaceous sandstone, connected with argillaceous
beds and porphyry (as in Norway), in which forms of modiola
and avicula are met with, as well as Leptena depressa, L.
euglypha, and a Brontes.
Calcareous Rocks—The Upper Silurian strata of the
Appalachian chain, as they go north into Vermont, and from
thence, by Memphragog Lake, through much of the Eastern
Province (so called) of Canada, and for several hundred miles
north-east to Gaspé, chiefly belong to the Niagara group (Wen-
lock) of the New York State geologists. Large masses of
these strata are altered, both in the State of Vermont on the
south-east frontier of Canada, and in the Notre Dame Moun-
tains, much farther north, as Sir William Logan has told us.
The calcareous strata in these localities are changed into
white crystalline marble, while the accompanying schists are
converted into calcareo-micaceous schists and mica-slate
(Canadian Reports). Therefore their organic contents are
injured and obliterated; but, as in other places, the white
marbles of the Niagara period at Dudsville and Georgeville,
near Lake Memphragog, exhibit many discs of Hnerinites,
Favosites Gothlandica, Porites, and Cyathophylli. The
only instances at present remembered by me of compressed
fossils, whether in normal or altered rocks of Upper Silurian
Limestone, are five in the Niagara formation, and one
in the Clinton (New York). They are Fenestella prisca
(Clinton). Hall, Paleont. of New York, ii. 96; Ortho.
annulatum, ii. 96; O. undulatum, ii. 293; O. imbricatum,
ii. 291; Cyrtoceras cancellatum, 11. 290; Spirifer bicostatus,
ii. 263.
In the Trenton limestone near Quebee in Canada, I met
with a Bellerophon within a central partition belonging to a
large orthoceratite.
The calcareous bands and coarse slates on the East river of
* Sir R. Murchison, &c., Geol. of Russia, i. 646. ”
of the Older Metamorphic Rocks. 189
Pictou (Nova Scotia) resemble those of Arisaig on the east
coast of Nova Scotia, rendered so well known by the Rev. D.
Honeyman. They hold many of the same species of fossils,
and especially Chonetes Nova Scotica; but here the beds are
vertical, much altered, and penetrated by igneous dykes.
The condition of the fossils is not mentioned ; but Dr Dawson
considers them to be Upper Silurian or Lower Devonian.
This set of beds, much metamorphosed, and having the same
fossils, recur some miles off at the east end of the Cobequid
Mountains.*
In the hills of Horton} and New Canaan, Nova Scotia, we
have fossiliferous strata of the Silurian age under the follow-
ing circumstances. The oldest beds with fossils are the
fawn-coloured and grey clay-slates of Beech Hill, whose only
organic remain is the beautiful Dictyonema Websteri. These
Beech Hill slates are of great thickness, and are succeeded
to the south by a great series of coarse slates, often micaceous
and sometimes a slate-conglomerate, with fragments in it of
still older slates. In some parts of this series are bands of
coarse, laminated, magnesian, and ferruginous limestone, con-
taining greatly distorted fossils, crinoid joints, casts of
brachiopods, trilobites, and corals. Among the last are
Astrocerium pyriforme, and A. venustum, with an Heliolites
allied to HZ. elegans. The eminent paleontologist of Albany,
James Hall, regards these beds as the equivalents of the
Niagara formation (Wenlock).
Sir R. Murchison{ found near’ Kushvnick, in the Ural,
Favosites Gothlandica in white granular marble; it is there-
fore probably Upper Silurian. As our author receded from
the igneous zone on the Ural Mountains, the altered sedi-
mentaries (Upper Silurian) parted with their talcose, quart-
* gose, or chloritic character, and resumed their normal state.
Leptena uralensis and Terebratula (?) are here.
On the rivers Yega-Lagra and Jezem, are beds of fetid
limestone, full of encrinites and no other organic remains.
On them lie thick masses of grey crystalline limestone
(marble) containing indeterminable fragments of Murchisonia,
* Dawson, Geol. of Acadia, suppl. chap., p. 59. t Ibid., p. 60.
{ Sir R. Murchison, Geol. of Russia, i. 880.
190 Dr John J. Bigsby on the Organic Contents
specimens of Pentamerus ostiacus, and Calamopora alveo-
laris, indications of Upper Silurian, while the subjacent rock
is Lower Silurian. (Murchison, Geol. of Russ., i. 408.)
M. Scheerer,* of Freiburg, in his account of the gneiss, slates,
and limestones of Norway, says that he met with large beds
of granular crystalline marble in the Paradis Bakken, running
up more or less closely to granite. Its age is sufficiently
attested by some scattered and just recognisable fossils, the
Halysites, Catenipora, Sc.
Argillaceous Rocks.—We have no materials under this
head,
Lower Silurian.
The recorded instances of organic remains existing in the
altered rocks of the lower stage of the Silurian epoch are more
abundant than in the upper; and this, not because of any un-
wonted opulence in its fauna, but because of its greater and
more numerous exposures; of its great thickness, the almost
countless varieties of its sediments, and the frequent invasions —
of plutonic rocks in most of their forms.
These remarks are of very general application.
Quartzose Rocks.—In 1856, Dr Emmons+ met with his
Taconic system (‘ primordial” of Barrande) in the centre of
North Carolina, some hundreds of miles to the south of his
first-discovered Taconic region. It is a series of schists, white
and brown sandstones, quartzites, often vitrified, and granular
limestones associated with the schists. The upper division
contains green clay-slates, novaculite, argillaceous sandstone,
sometimes chloritic, and brecciated conglomerates. Most of
the above beds indicate the agency of metamorphic and phy-
sical disturbance. Some of them, however, are but little in-
terfered with. Singular to say, the vitrified quartzites of the »
lower division of this very remote deposit, 1000 feet thick, are
full of a rare zoophyte, the Palewotrochus major and P. minor.
And there are some faint traces of Bryozca, or a coral, accord-
ing to Dr Leidy of Philadelphia. This palewotrochus has been
seen of large size from the copper-bearing rocks of Point
* Scheerer, Quart. Jour, Geol. Soc. Lond., ix. 5. Foreign Memoirs.
t Emmons, Bull. Soc. Geol. de France, xviii. 235, n. s.
of the Older Metamorphic Rocks. 191
Kewawoonan, on the south side of Lake Superior, by Dr
Leconte, an able naturalist, who was persuaded of the organic
nature of these numerous bodies.
It is almost certain, that they are also in the Potsdam sand-
stone (“ primordial” of that region).
Professor H. D. Rogers* finds, in the primal white sandstone
of Pennsylvania (Potsdam sandstone), its distinctive fossil,
Scolithus linearis, although that rock is very vitreous, and
has many crystalline segregated minerals,—conditions which
are to be accepted ag indications of true metamorphism.
M. Pouillon Boblayet gives several instances of the pre-
sence of Caradoc fossils in the metamorphic rocks of France,
as, for example, in the quartzite of D’Ecouves and St Aubin
du Cormier, near Rennes; but there is some mistake about
the exact place of this quartzite, for Durocher} calls it pri-
mordial. }
M. Caillaud,§ in a very interesting paper on a bed of white
marble, for the most part Devonian, in the department of Loire
Inférieure, says that a quartzite underlies it at Sion, containing
a layer of three or four species of Lingula, among which are L.
Brimonte and L. Hawkei (Rouault), together with the Bilobite
of Dekay (Cruziana of D’Orbigny and Frena of Rouault).
Calcareous Rocks——The Lower Silurian stage, metamor-
phosed and normal, in Canada, with their attendant aurifer- -
ous rocks, talcose slates, and chroniferous serpentines, are
simply the continuations northwardly of the crystalline lime-
stones of Western New England. Thus the great calca-
reous bands of the Trenton and other limestones (Low Silu-
rian), which are found on the river Yamaska, in the eastern
province of Canada, enter the state of Vermont near Missis-
quoi Bay, at the head of Lake Champlain; but they are there
changed into the white marble of Vermont and of Berkshire
-(Massach.) On the weathered surfaces of these marbles James
Hall finds Trenton fossils. From thence, passing south-west,
they cross the river Hudson near West Point Academy, ac-
* Rogers, H. D., Professor, Geol. of Pennsylvania, i. 224.
+ M. Pouillon Boblaye, Comptes Rendus, vi. 168. 1838.
t Durocher, Memoir on the Geol. of Scandin., p. 158.
§ Caillaud, Bull. Geol. Soc. de France, n. s., xviii. 385.
192 Dr John J. Bigsby on the Organic Contents
cording to Mather;* and we have calciferous sandstone and
Mohawk limestone highly metamorphosed in Orange and
Rockland counties, New York, as well as in Sussex county,
New Jersey. They very much resemble the white marble of
the Laurentian series; but they hold an abundance of the
fossils and accidental minerals of the same limestones in the
north just mentioned. -
The Chazy and Black River limestones (auroral of Penn-
sylvania), we learn from Professor Rogers,t exhibit in Mont-
gomery, Chester, and Lancaster valleys, all the gradations of
metamorphism, from the earthy to compact clouded marble,
and so on to hard granular limestone, dolomite, and the most
largely crystalline calespar, with segregated graphite,—the
occurrence of graphite being our chief reason for introducing
this quotation. No other organic remain finds mention.
Ferdinand Roemer{ discovered in the valley of the San
Saba, in Texas, some very instructive rocks of the Silurian
and Carboniferous epochs. They form a sort of ring around
a granite knob. The Silurian rocks, and we have now to do
with no others, are Potsdam and calciferous sandstones, to-
gether with a limestone, probably the Chazy, or Bird’s Eye of
New York. This limestone is fawn-coloured, pure, very fine-
grained, splintery, and in places crystalline. F. Roemer pro-
- nounces this caleareous bed metamorphic; but certainly it is
so only in a moderate degree. Many of its fossils, however,
are mutilated and otherwise imperfect; but among the easily
recognisable are many Orthocerata, all with their septa close
together. One resembles O. montrealensis, Billings. There
are likewise Raphistoma, Pleurotomaria, and Bellerophon.
The Potsdam sandstone is not altered, and it rests upon a
coarse conglomerate of the subjacent granite. This sandstone
is here represented, as elsewhere in the north-west, by alter-
nating beds of greenish sandstone and grey limestone, con-
taining several genera of primordial Trilobites, and some
Brachiopods.
* Mather, Geol. Report on the State of New York, p. 464.
+ H D. Rogers, Geol. of Pennsylvania, i. 224.
{ Roemer, Memoir on the Geol. of Texas, Amer. Jour. of Svieuce, n. s.,
vol vi.
of the Older Metamorphic Rocks, 193
Dr G. G, Shumard has visited this dangerous locality, ren-
dered so by hostile Indians, and has added much to our know-
ledge of its geology.
Sir Roderick Murchison* has left it doubtful whether the
following examples of fossils in marble belong to Upper or
Lower Silurian; but they are worthy of notice. “In the
upland valley of the River Miass, in the Ural, fairly jammed
in between two great parallel lines of eruptive rocks, we dis-
covered Encrinites in pure white saccharoid limestone. So
highly altered is the rock, that we could still less believe our
eyes than when in the Austrian Alps, with Professor Sedgwick,
we discovered similar organic remains in the chloritic pri-
marised limestone in the Tauern Alps.”+ Encrinites,{ in a
highly saccharine white marble, were also met with by these
gentlemen at Syrostan, in the Ural.
M. Durocher§ met with an altered limestone, near Brevig,
in Norway, with organic remains of the Silurian period
(whether Lower or Upper he does not say). It contained
numerous crystals of paranthine, a double silicate of lime and
alumina.
Mr Peach, || the very successful explorer of difficult localities,
discovered, at Durness, in Ross-shire, in the limestone
marked C? in Sir Roderick Murchison’s section, page 370,
vol. xvi. of the ‘“ London Geological Society’s Journal,” six-
teen Lower Silurian fossils, remarkably like those of North-
east America. They are Murchisonia, Maclurea, two Or-
thocerata specifically American, a Raphistoma, and other
fossils, in a mottled, greyish-blue, or whitish limestone, highly
siliceous, cherty in parts, and geodiferous. It is hard,
marbled, veined, and occasionally jointed, and so is to be con-
sidered as moderately but truly metamorphosed. In describ-
ing the transition formations of the department of the Loire,
M. Griiner@ finds that the Silurian beds there consist of a
* Murchison, Geol. of Russia, i. 426.
+ Ibid., Geol. Trans., iii. 306.
} Ibid., Geol. of Russia, i. 434.
% Durocher, Bull. Soc. Geol. de France, n. s., iii. 547.
|| Peach, Murchison, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, xy. 366.
G Griiner, Annales des Mines, 3d Series, xix, 151, 152.
194 Dr John J. Bigsby on the Organic Contents
series of sandstones, schists, and limestones, the last usually
upon the others. The schists are tender, but at their upper
limits become very tough, and pass into the form of a fel-
spathic crystalline quartzite. When these friable clay-schists
are near porphyry (which they often are), they become am-
phibolic and talcose, changing considerably in dip and direc-
tion. The limestone intercalated with these variable masses
is full of encrinital columns, Orthis, &. Whether i is
altered, M. Griiner has omitted to say.*
The granitic hill called Mont Noire, near Sorreze (Central
France), is flanked on both sides by Lower Silurian limestone,
both crystalline and schistose strata, however, intervening.
This limestone is very splintery (scaly?), and varies from red
to spotted red and brown. In this altered condition it con-
tains Orthocerata.
Argillaceous Rocks.—Dr C. J. Jackson,t an American
geologist of great experience, thus describes the clay-slate of
Braintree, ten miles south of Boston (Massachusetts), in
which Paradowides Harlani occurs. It is a grey or blue
clay-schist, rather metamorphosed, divided into rhomboidal
prisms by natural joints. It contains silicate, but not car-
bonate of lime. Near the line of junction between these
schists and the syenite which has acted upon them, and which
also borders them on the two sides, we find in the slate many
masses and veins of epidote, a segregation produced by the
syenite. With others, Dr Jackson considers this slate to be
equivalent to the ‘ primordial” of Bohemia.
The Paradowides Bennettit is from Branch in Newfound-
land. It is from a siliceous schist, hard, fine grained, and
associated with fossils at present unknown. The rock is
modified.
M. Barrande§ quotes from Dr Emmons as follows :—‘ The
schist in which I found the Ellipsocephalus and the Atops
(new genera), is on the road near Mr Reynold’s house (Ver-
* Elie de Beaumont and Dufrenoy, Explic. &c., p. 158, &c.
+ Jackson, L’institute, xliii. 883. W. B. Rogers, Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts
and Sciences, vol, ili.
t Salter, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Lond., xv. 552.
? Barrande, Bull. Soc. Geol. de France, n. s., xviii. 258.
of the Older Metamorphic Rocks. 195
mont). The rock is a deep green schist, whose surfaces are
glazed, and sometimes look as if covered with a black varnish.
This schist is imperfectly fissile, and the cracked surfaces are
ferruginous.” We take it to be metamorphosed, because we
know of no fissile, glossy, chloritic rock which is not so.
Diplograpsus secalinus of Mr Eaton has been long known
in the roofing slates of Hoosic Mountain (Massachusetts), but
James Hall thinks it is G. pristis spread out and enlarged by
pressure. The Hoosic schists are very old, almost certainly
primordial, for in this mountain calciferous sandstone lies
upon them.
M. de Verneuil* lately brought from Astorga, in the
kingdom of Leon, some slabs of black satiny slates, which,
although in an advanced stage of metamorphism, exhibit some
determinable impressions of Graptolites. These clay-slates,
then, belong to the Lower Silurian of Europe, a datum of im-
portance in the geology of that part of Spain.
The Silurian formation, apparently wanting in Italy proper,
is extensive in the Island of Sardinia, and principally in two
masses,—a north-eastern and a south-western. General della
Marmora, in his valuable work on the Geology of Sardinia,t
gives a very useful section from Flumini Maggiore, on the
south-west of this island. It displays a succession of Lower
Silurian beds lying directly on granite. The lowest, repre-
senting Lingula Flags, or the Primordial of Barraude, is
a leptinite, compact, dark-greenish, its base felspar with mica
—in fact, a kind of hornstone. It contained two distinct
casts of Orthis (and perhaps more). The calcareous talcose
shales next succeeding are also changed for considerable
thicknesses into argillaceous, talcose, and, though rarely, into
micaceous slates, containing at the same time twelve species
of zoophytes, identified by Professor Meninghini of Pavia.
Now these metamorphosed beds, it is important to notice, are
followed upwards, conformably by an unaltered limestone,
richly fossiliferous at the summit of the Lower Silurian stage,
or perhaps mid-Silurian. It has yielded sixteen species of
Orthoceratites, one of them being very large: Graptolites
* De Verneuil, Coquand, Traité des Roches, p. 310, 1857.
t+ Della Marmora, Geol. of Sardinia, i. 55.
NEW SERIES.—VOL. XVII. NO. I1,—aprit 1863. 2¢
196 Dr John J. Bigsby on the Organic Contents
(G. priodon) ; Cardiola interrupta, &c. (also verified by
Meninghini).
Near Villagrecca* (Sardinia), is another bed of highly
metamorphosed hornstone, in contorted vertical beds, and
macliferous. It is in contact with a trachyte at Nuraminis,
and can be traced to St Pantaleo, a little beyond which place
it turns into a black carburetted clay-slate with Graptolites.
A short way to the south of this, at Mount Serpeddi, these
black schists are overlaid by schistose micaceous greywacke,
with impressions of crinoid joints, lined with leaves of mica
larger than those which are sprinkled through the rock itself.
On the east slope of Mount Exi, hard by, certain limestones
contain many fossils, principally Orthoceratites and Encrinites,
but all crushed and deformed ; so that we have in this inte-
resting locality organic remains under various metamorphic
- treatment.
Proceeding now to France, we meet with useful matter.
Pouillon Boblaye t discovered impressions of an Orthis and of
Calymene trilobites in macliferous slate, 200 yards south-east
of the pond at the Salles de Rohan, near Pontivy; but the
macles were not well developed there. M. Dufrenoy, however,
afterwards brought from this spot specimens of remarkable
beauty, in which are to be seen at the same time macles fully
developed, and perfectly characterised impressions of Spirifer,
Orthis, and Trilobite. Coquand was equally successful in
1844.t He finds the Orthides to be identical with those of
Brest. One of his specimens shows clearly an insensible
passage from common to macliferous clay-slate. Good
examples of these changes are placed in the Museum of the
School of Mines at Paris.
- The beds of Lower Silurian schist, near Christiania, some-
times exhibit impressions of animal remains, even in parts
which are much hardened, and which have assumed a siliceous
aspect in the vicinity of granite (Durocher).§ Mr Salter in-
forms us, in Sir Roderick Murchison’s paper on the Silurian
* Della Marmora, Geol. of Sardinia, ii. 88.
+ Pouillon Boblaye, Comptes Rendus, 1838, p. 186.
¢ Coquand, Bull. Soc. Geol. de France, n. s., ii. 556.
% Durocher, Bull, Soc. Geol. de France, n. s., iii, 547.
of the Older Metamorphic Rocks. 197
rocks of the south of Scotland (Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Lond.,
vii. 149), that the limestone of St Aldcans, Ayrshire, is gene-
rally thick bedded or amorphous; it is highly altered, and its
chief mass very dark coloured, with white veins, and soapy ser-
pentinous saalbands. ‘This limestone has been contorted and
wrenched from its strike. It nevertheless contains many indivi-
duals of the Maclurea, some Murchisoniz, and a Cytheropsis.
We thus learn, from the details of sixty-four cases where.
organic remains have been found in altered rocks, that meta-
morphism has dealt with them more favourably than hitherto
supposed, and it has been rendered probable that there are
many cases of animal life, left by a diminished modifying
energy, to reward a diligent search. We learn, too, that the
great divisions of the paleeozoic series, as well as the smaller
mineralogical subdivisions, receive from this complex force
a treatment differing somewhat both in kind and intensity,
but always in accordance with the principles laid down by
our great investigators.
The study of metamorphism is of high importance, for it is
of very extensive application. It gives us the key to the
history and relations of districts which are hopelessly unin-
telligible to the common inquirer. The want of this key has
deprived more than one eminent geologist of the pleasure of
announcing splendid discoveries—discoveries which remain to
reward hopeful and diligent search.
Some Account of Plants collected in the Counties of Leeds
and Grenville, Upper Canada, in July 1862. By GrorGE
Lawson, LL.D., Professor of Chemistry and Natural
History, Queen’s College of Canada.*
Having accepted a kind invitation from an eminent Cana-
dian judge to join him on one of his circuits, I arrived at
Brockville, a comfortable county town on the north bank of
the St Lawrence River, at the foot of the Thousand Islands,
on Monday, 30th June. We started early on the following
morning (1st July), drove rapidly, and soon reached Farmers-
ville, a village in rear of Brockville, and distant from it about
* Read before the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, February 12th, 1863,
198 Dr George Lawson on Plants collected in the
15 miles. The only unusual plant observed on the way was
Echium vulgare, a native of Europe, long known in Virginia
as a troublesome weed, and now making its way in Canada.
One remarkable instance was mentioned to me of its intro-
duction by a farmer, and its subsequent spread for miles along
an adjoining road. The woods passed through presented no
unusual features. Throughout Central Canada we have the
same constant succession of beech and maple in good lands,
with occasional overtopping basswood and elm trees, or widely
spreading butternuts; and pines, white cedars, and hickories
spread their roots over thinly covered rocks, whilst Larix
americana forms a close and impenetrable thicket growth in
the swamps, constituting those ‘‘ tamarack swamps” that are
the terror of Canadian travellers. At Farmersville, in addi-
tion to the ordinary forest trees, there were fine groves of
Carpinus americana (Michx.), a small tree with fluted stem,
ash-coloured bark, and hard, tough timber, like ironwood.
As an undergrowth, there was an abundance of Zanthoaylum
americanum, and several species of Ribes. Viola canadensis
was still beautifully in flower, and with it Stellaria longifolia,
Owalis stricta, an upright form with perennial roots, Gewm
album, Osmorhiza brevistylis, Cryptotenia canadensis, Tia-
rella cordifolia, Mitella diphylla, Circea alpina, the last
clustering in patches around old stumps. Scattered through
the woods there was a profusion of Cornus canadensis, a
humble species nearly as small as C. suecica, and differing
from it in the larger, broader leaves clustered almost into a
verticil at the top of the short stem. In swampy and springy
spots, there were fine beds of Naumburgia thyrsiflora, with
Chrysosplenium americanum, Carex intumescens, C. gra-
cillima, with the scales of the fertile spikelets hardly awned,
C. laxiflora, normal form, C. stellulata, C. scoparia, C. poly-
trichoides, O. teretiuscula, and various other Cyperacee and
Junci. Lemna minor mantled the pools, and Linnea borealis
garlanded the black old stumps that rose out of sphagnous
swamps. In such humid places, Bryum Wahlbergii formed
broad patches. Hypnum nitens was found, and Bryum ar-
genteum was everywhere abundant on dry, rocky, and earthy
spots. Climacium dendroides was also collected; it is a
Counties of Leeds and Grenville, Upper Canada. 199
common moss in Canada, more so than C. americanum. I
have gathered it in almost every locality in Canada that I
have hitherto visited, and a moss so prevalent on the north
banks of the St Lawrence and Lake Ontario is likely not to
be rare in New York State, yet the American botanists do
not seem to be well acquainted with it. A rocky shaded bank
furnished many other cryptogamic plants, and the ferns were
especially fine ; large tufts of Aspidium Goldianum, with its
beautiful broad, regularly divided fronds, some three or four
feet long. Cystopteris fragilis displayed itself in several
forms. A few tufts of the slender green thread-like stems of
Equisetum scirpoides were met with, and miniature forests of
the more stately HZ. sylvaticum ; and there was an abundance
of Polypodium vulgare, Lastrea spinulosa, var., Osmunda
regalis, var. spectabilis, Lastrea marginalis, Adiantum pe-
datum, and Polystichum acrostichoides. Neckera pennata
is common, and frequently fertile, on the trunks of white
cedar (Thuja occidentalis), at the edges of rocky swamps,
and on beech and maple in drier woods. Dr T. F. Chamber-
lain collected for me, not far from Farmersville, fine tufts of
Barbula ruralis and Selaginella rupestris.
In the afternoon (Ist July), we proceeded to Delta, passing
on the way some very large and fine butternut trees (Juglans
cinerea). Delta is a village with water-power mills, an hotel,
and a few stores; itis picturesquely, but rather uncomfortably
situate on the banks of a short stream that connects Upper
and Lower Beverley Lakes, and which occasionally overflows
its banks when from any cause a sudden rise takes place in
the upper lake. The afternoon was spent in examining the
locality. The village street itself afforded a number of those
plants which accompany the settler and spring up around his
dwelling, and which Mr Watson has well named “colonists,”
to distinguish them from aboriginal plants. The prevalent
species in Delta were Leonurus Cardiaca, Nepeta Cataria,
Cynoglossum officinale, Galeopsis Tetrahit, Cannabis sativa,
and Datura Stramonium. The last, from its almost constant
occurrence in our village streets, gardens, and court-yards, is
a frequent cause of poisoning. Cases have been lately re-
ferred to in the newspapers, and several medical men have
200 Dr George Lawson on Plants collected in the
spoken to me of others that occurred in their private practice.
In early summer time, the leaves of the Datura are mistaken
for “‘ lambs’ quarters,” that is Chenopodium album, which is in
common use as a kind of spinage, and later in the season the
green fruit of the Datura attracts the attention of children,
who are tempted to eat it in consequence of its resemblance
to some kinds of cucumbers, &c. In the summer of 1861, I
believe Daturas were exposed for sale in the Quebec market-
place as “‘pickling cucumbers;” and the same summer, persons
brought to me the prickly fruit of a cucurbit, Hchinocystis
lobata (Torr. and Gr.), and the fruit of Datura Stramonium,
which had both grown together in their gardens, to ask which
was the right kind to pickle. I need hardly add that a more
dangerous mistake could not be made.
There being accumulations of vegetable soil in the Delta
valley, overlying, in some parts, a fine blue clay, used exten-
sively for bricks, the indigenous vegetation was luxuriant.
Basswood trees (Zilia americana) were in flower; Populus
grandidentata grew beside the stream; Frawinus pubescens,
Prunus americana, and P. virginiana, attracted attention ;
but the original forest had been pretty well cleared, and in-
stead of timber trees there was an abundant and luxuriant
undergrowth of shrubs, many of them covered with flowers.
Among the more conspicuous were Viburnum acerifolium ;
Cornus paniculata, various forms, some in flower, some in
fruit; Celastrus scandens, with its mellow-toned foliage, spar-
ing flowers, and flexile woody stems, twisted into all conceiv-
able contortions among the branches to which it clung for
support, and intermixed, as it often is, with the poison ivy
and the more abundant Ampelopsis quinquefolia, whose
foliage acquires such bright tints in autumn. There were
likewise along the river edge dense tangled thickets of Cory-
lus rostrata, whose large closed involucre envelopes the fruit,
and projects beyond its apex in the form of a long beak; this
involucre is densely clothed with silky bristles, like cowitch
hairs, which are curved at one end, and, being easily detached,
pierce the skin of the fingers. Although C. americana is
prevalent on the plains west of Canada, and, perhaps, also in
the extreme western part of our province, and is likewise the
Counties of Leeds and Grenville, Upper Canada, 201
common species apparently in the United States, yet the
common nut of Central Canada is certainly C. rostrata,
which, like its classical congener of Europe, usually grows on
thinly covered rocks overlooking lakes and streams.
On sloping banks there were acres of Rubus odoratus,
covered with its masses of large purple blossoms, each rocky
knoll in the background crested with little clumps of the stag-
horn sumach (Rhus typhina), its long pinnate fern-like leaves
overtopped by purple plumes of flowers. Wild vines (Vitis
cordifolia) hung in leafy wreaths from the branches of the
trees, or were thrown in luxuriant festoons over masses of
crumbling rock. Apocynum androsemifolium showed itself
from beneath the higher bushes, and formed a low hedge-like
edging along the side of the path over which its slender stalks
bent beneath its neat, trim foliage, and clusters of maiden-
blush flowers. Of other herbaceous plants observed were
Ranunculus recurvatus, Desmodium canadense, a fine plant,
Epilobium coloratum, Geum album, Osmorhiza brevistylis,
Cryptotenia canadensis, Erigeron strigosum, Vaccinium
corymbosum, Rumewx verticillatus, Alopecurus aristulatus,
Carew festucacea, C. stipata, C. stellulata, and one belonging
to the group Vesicarie, which I have not been able to deter-
mine, Sisyrinchium bermudiense, Orchis spectabilis, Geranium
Robertianum, in the woods, quite wild, carpels much wrinkled,
glabrous; Anemone virginiana. Of the last I find, in different
localities, forms with larger cylindrical heads of carpels, and
secondary pedicels without involucels; but the sepals are
usually obtuse, and I am doubtful whether we have the true
A. cylindrica (Gray), in Canada. Phlow divaricata was
abundant, but out of flower, and Hydrophyllum virginicum
also bore its fruit heads, shaggy with bristles. Asarum
canadense was observed in one or two spots. Amphicarpea
monoica showed its long trailing shoots in the herbage of the
woods. Of ferns, Dicksonia punctilobula was the most strik-
ing, and a singular lax form of this species, with dark foliage,
was observed. Botrychium virginicum was very fine in
dense beechen shades; Eguisetum hyemale and EL. limosum,
both simple and branched, grew on the banks of the stream,
the last usually in water.
202 Dr George Lawson on Plants collected in the
Wednesday, 2d July 1862.
On this the second day of our journey, the margins and
islands of Upper Beverley Lake were explored in a boat, the
river which passes down by the village, and the rocky, plant-
less islands in the Lower Lake. Of water-plants, the most
conspicuous were the white and yellow water-lilies, Nymphea
odorata and Nuphar advena, the former exhaling a deli-
cious but delicate perfume, and often bearing on the under
surface of its old leaves the beautiful alga Phyllactidium
pulchellum. Anacharis Alsinastrum formed green meadows
in shallow parts of the lake, where the oar brought up masses
of red ochre. Myriophyllum heterophyllum grew in shallow
muddy places, the points of its shoots bearing lanceolate,
oothed, undivided leaves, projecting above the surface of the
water. Nujas flewilis was in great quantity, and fertile. Of
Ranunculus aquatilis there was an abundance of lax, flower-
less plants in deep water, having slender unbranched stems
several feet in length, with very long internodes, and leaves
all capillary, the segments spread in all directions (not in one
plane), collapsing when taken out of the water, leaf-stalks in
the form of long close sheaths.* The species of Potamogeton
collected were P. prelongus, P. pectinatus, P. gramineus, P.
heterophyllus, P. lucens, various forms of P. natans, and
apparently floating-leaved forms of P. lucens or P. fluitans ;
also P. zosterefolius, Schum., which is apparently P. com-
pressus of Gray’s excellent Manual, although not P. com-
pressus, Linn., whose stems are described (Bab. Man.) as
slightly compressed ; in our plant they are perfectly flattened,
leaves linear, resembling the broad flat stems, and scarcely
exceeding them in breadth, with apiculate tips, three principal
* We have various other forms of Ranunculus aquatilis in Canada. One of
these, which I gathered at Yarker in 1861, appears to be referable to 2. tricho-
phyllus, Godr.; stem slender, thread-like, rooting at nearly all the joints;
leaves all submerged, formed of capillary segments not all in one plane,
sheaths inconspicuous, receptacle globose, hispid, petals small, narrowly ellip-
tic-ovate, faintly veined, white, with yellow claw and yellow nectary ; carpels
inflated on the peripheral side, conspicuously rugose when dry, with recurved
or hooked tips. We have no Batrachian Ranunculus with floating leaves in
this country, except indeed R, Purshii, a very distinct species, with bright
yellow petals, which hardly belongs to the group. .
Counties of Leeds and Grenville, Upper Canada, 203
veins, and numerous parallel intermediate ones, sepals very
short, broad, rounded; fruit obovate keeled. Hooker and
Arnott unite P. compressus, L., with P. pusillus, L. (so also
Chamisso and Schlechtendal). Around the margins of the
lake were collected Eleocharis obtusa, FE. palustris, Scirpus
sylvaticus, S. lacustris, Juncus tenuis, Phalaris arundinacea,
Chara vulgaris, Fontinalis antipyretica, var. Sunken logs
were enveloped in great green masses of Spongilla fluviatilis,
which no one is likely to mistake for a plant after smelling
the atrocious animal odour which it gives out in drying. The
swampy margins of the lake were fringed with Myrica Gale
the sweet gale or bog myrtle, a most abundant shrub in Canada,
which, mangrove-like, spreads over the mud, and by its close
habit and neat foliage marks an apparently well-defined limit
of land and water around all our lakes. The low thicket-growth
which it thus forms is impenetrable to a skiff or canoe, and
too weak to support the weight of aman. Woe to the boat
that gets aground, nestling on a bank of bog-myrtle; woe to
the man who seeks a footing on its treacherous verdure, for
often it represents nothing more than a floating island of old
logs, turf and swamp-muck, held together by creeping roots.
Nesea verticillata is often associated with the bog myrtle, its
flexile willow-like shoots, often 6 or 8 feet long, thrown
gracefully out from the bank, and dipping their tips in the
water. In winter time, when the lakes become frozen, those
arched shoots trip up snow-shoe pedestrians on the ice; hence
the plant is here called hobble-bush.
The islands in the upper Beverley Lake furnished Umbili-
caria Dillenii, U. pustulata, U. pennsylvanica, Fissidens ob-
tusifolius, Wils., Funaria hygrometrica, one or two species of
Orthotrichum, several Brya, and the cliffs were fringed with
Polypodium vulgare. The flowering plants were mostly the
same as those on the mainland. One may be noticed, Nastur-
tium palustre, the form with hirsute stem and leaves and long
pods, which is the common kind in Canada; but farther north
and west the glabrous long-podded plant apparently prevails,
of which I have specimens from Fort Good Hope, Assiniboine
River, and Fort Garry (M‘Tavish and Schultze) very similar to
some which I gathered on the banks of the Thames at Bat-
NEW SERIES,—VOL. XVII. NO. 11.—APRIL 1863, 2D
204 Dr George Lawson on Plants collected in the
tersea in 1851. At Sloate’s Lake, Sydenham (about 18 miles
north of Kingston), we have a form with reflexed hairs and
short, almost truly globular pods, which may be N. hispidum,
DC.
Leaving Delta in the afternoon, we proceeded to the retired
village of Newboro-on-the-Rideau. The Rideau Canal, which
connects the two distant cities of Ottawa and Kingston, con-
sists chiefly of a series of lakes, some of them of great extent;
in fact, much of the country lying between Ottawa and King-
ston, especially toward the latter, is interspersed with a per-
fect network of lakes. Newboro is located at that part of
the canal known as the Isthmus, where the only great cutting
occurs, and which being the highest point of the canal, forms
the water-shed of the country between Kingston and Ottawa.
The soil, where sandy, is poor, but there are also rich accumula-
tions of vegetable soil in the valleys, and good oak timber is
found. Inthe neighbourhood of Newboro, many of the plants
noticed as occurring at Delta reappeared. In a marsh between
Forfar and Newboro,some good aquatics were obtained, including
alge, &e. There were likewise several Glycerias, including
G. plicata, Lemna trisulca, which grew not merely in pools,
but mantled many broad acres of water, Utricularia vulgaris,
Veronica scutellata, Potamogeton pauciflorus, Typha lati-
folia, Sparganium eurycarpum (Engelm.), our prevalent
species; also a peculiar form of Ranunculus Purshii, with
creeping stems rooted at each joint, all the leaves rounded
and cleft into broad segments (none capillary). A very small
Chara was likewise found, perhaps only a form of C. vul-
garis.
Thursday, 3d July.
The immediate neighbourhood of Newboro is favourable for
aquatics. In the canal cutting, and along the margins of the
lakes, we obtained Potamogeton natans, P. lucens, P. pecti-
natus, P. pauciflorus, and another in a barren state that can
only be referred to P. Robbinsii (Oakes) ; also Anacharis,
Naias, Chare, Lysimachia stricta, Typha angustifolia,
Acorus Calamus, Sparganium ramosum, Asclepias incar-
nata, Myrica Gale, and Epilobium palustre, var. lineare.
Here also we found Carex pseudo-cyperus; and on an island
Counties of Leeds and Grenville, Upper Canada. 205
in Mud Lake, O. comosa (Boott), a species quite in the style of
the former, and formerly confounded with it, but distinguished
by its broader, more shortly pedicellate fertile spikes, and
especially by the longer beak and two widely-spreading teeth
into which it is divided.
The adjoining woods of maple, oaks, beech, and pines,
yielded Pyrolas, Goodyera pubescens, Shepherdia canaden-
sis, covered with beautiful scales like those of Elzagnus,
Vaccinium corymbosum, Mimulus ringens, Lycopus ameri-
cana, ferns and mosses. One of the commonest plants in the
woods was Galiwm triflorum, a species which, in drying,
gives out the odour of Asperula, the odour in this, as in other
species, depending upon the secretion, apparently a volatile
oil, of the glands at the bases of the leaves. Cephalanthus
occidentalis, a cinchonaceous shrub common in our lake-
swamps, has glands on its interpetiolar stipules precisely
similar in form to those of Cinchona Calisaya, and it secretes
also a “ wax-like” matter, like the Aceite Maria. Galium
trifidum, the ordinary state, and a very small one with linear
leaves, were found in wet places. There were a few trees of
Prunus pennsylvanica. In the village of Newboro, Trago-
pogon pratensis and Rumew Patientia were becoming natural-
ized, where Solanum Dulcamara, Datura Stramonium, and
Nepeta Cataria, were already common. Verbascum Thapsus
was abundant in the pastures, as everywhere else in Canada
where I have been. The pastures around the lockmaster’s
house furnished an abundant supply of specimens of Geaster,
also the more common Bovista plumbea and Lycoperdon
pyriforme.
Near to Newboro there are extensive beds of magnetic
oxide of iron, which are partially worked, and the ore is ex-
ported to Ohio for reduction. The ore being at the surface,
the mining operation is a very simple one. The forest trees
are cut down, the turfy herbage of Adiantum pedatum, Poly-
stichum_acrostichoides, Vaccinia, &c., is peeled of, and there
lies the ore in a massive bed, requiring merely to be broken
up and carted away.
Some time was spent in visiting the islands in Mud Lake,
one of the numerous series of lakes of which the Rideau Canal
206 Dr George Lawson on Plants collected in the
chiefly consists. The islands are mostly bare masses of un-
stratified rock, covered with groves of sumach (Rhus typhina)
and various creepers. In crevices on the bare slanting rocks,
Corydalis glauca, Danthonia spicata, and Silene antirrhina
were obtained, with an abundance of Aralia hispida and
Diervilla trifida. Polygonum cilinode, a beautiful twining
plant, was hanging in festoons from rock to rock, and run-
ning up the branches of shrubs and fallen trees, its stems often
three or four yards long. This plant seems strictly to avoid
limestone, our prevalent rock in the Kingston district. Betula
pumila was also obtained, Quercus alba, and, in the water,
Potamogeton heterophyllus, with various other aquatics al-
ready alluded to.
Friday, 4th July.
Leaving Newboro this morning, we passed through the rich
farming country of Kitley. On the way a remarkable oak
attracted attention, apparently a form of Quercus macrocarpa,
with the lower half of the leaf-blade narrowed into a mere
narrowly-winged petiole. In Kitley, several persons spoke
of huge puff-balls having been found in the rich pastures,
probably Bovista gigantea. Instructions were left to forward
for identification any remarkable specimens of the kind that
might in future appear. After a long drive over hard roads,
we reached the village of Frankville in the afternoon, We
found there extensive swamps and many good plants, such as
Vaccinium macrocarpum, Ledum palustre, Salix petiolaris,
Sm., Alnus viridis, Iris versicolor, Linnea borealis, Chiogenes
hispidula, Aralia racemosa, Cornus canadensis, C. panicu-
lata, Anemone pennsylvanica, Epilobium coloratum, and a
great number of cryptogamics. Bryum roseum was abun-
dantly in fruit, and in fine condition; Marchantia poly-
morpha was in great quantity, covered with both antheridial
and sporiferous receptacles ; and many other musci, hepatice,
lichenes, and fungi were collected. The following plants were
also common :—Triosteum perfoliatum, Galium trifidum,
Circea alpina, Epilobium angustifolium. The last grows
not on dry, sloping banks, like those of Glen Tilt, on which
we used to gather it, but in the swampy woods, among fallen
Counties of Leeds and Grenville, Upper Canada. 207
trees, often reddening the rank herbage for miles with its
bright purple flowers.
In the fine beech and pine woods there was an abundant
undergrowth of Zanthowylum americanum, and other shrubs,
such as Ribes Cynosbati, the prickly-fruited gooseberry; FR.
rubrum, with ripe fruit; 2. rotundifolium, also abundantly
fruited, which is the common smooth gooseberry of Central
Canada. The common one in the New England States is R.
hirtellum, according to Professor Asa Gray. Dirca palustris
was in great quantity. This is the mousewood, a little shrub,
with easily separable and remarkably tough flexible bark,
which is commonly used by the farmers for thread and twine
in tying up bundles of wool and other farm produce for market.
It even comes into use for thongs in temporarily repairing har-
ness, its strength is so great. I found it useful in tying up
bundles of brambles and other shrubs that were too large to be
placed in avasculum. Lonicera hirsuta was trailing through
the thickets, its long stems, with distant hirsute leaves (each
more than four inches wide), throwing clusters of golden yel-
low flowers over the plain dull foliage of the Dirca bushes,
Of brambles and raspberries there were several kinds. Rubus
strigosus, our common red raspberry, and a near ally to the
R. Ideus of Europe, is everywhere abundant in Canada, fill-
ing up the waste triangular spaces formed by snake fences,
which, like the hedgerows of England, afford shelter to the
perennial native plants long after the plough has eradicated
them from the open fields. R. occidentalis, the black rasp-
berry, or thimbleberry, was also abundant. It is a delicious
wild fruit of peculiar flavour, and the foliage has the odour of
sweet briar. I gathered one Rubus, having the habit, and
with some indication of the fruit, of R. occidentalis, but
clearly distinguished by want of the strong closely-set, hooked
prickles of the pedicels which form so striking a character of
that species. It may be distinct, or possibly a hybrid between
R. occidentalis and R. strigosus, nearer the former. Mean-
time it may be characterised as R. strigosus var. intermedius,
barren shoots pale purple, coated with a white glaucous bloom,
not at all prickly, but with somewhat scattered, very slender,
straight bristles, which are not bulbous at base; leaves pin-
208 Description of some New Forms of Photometer.
nate on long petioles, the latter covered throughout with close-
set sete, which also extend along the midribs ; leaflets five,
broadly ovate, pointed, dark-green and veiny above, whitened
beneath, coarsely but regularly doubly serrate, each serrature
ending in a small mucro; terminal leaflet shortly petiolate, the
others sessile, overlapping at base; distance between the lower
and upper pair of leaflets more than twice the length of the
petiole of the terminal leaflet.
The only other Frankville plants that need be noticed here
are Carex gynocrates, C. filiformis, C. stellulata, C. aqua-
tilis, Eriophorum latifolium, Amelanchier canadensis, with
its young shoots, leaves and fruit covered with a parasitical
fungus, Struthiopteris germanica, Cystopteris bulbifera,
Onoclea sensibilis, common in the swamps, Pteris aquilina,
Sphagna, Bovista plumbea.
In the village street of Frankville, Lchinospermum Mori-
soni and Leonurus Cardiaca were common, and the poisonous
Aconitum Napellus luxuriated in flower plots in front of the
houses as abundantly as it now does, or was wont to do, in the
villa gardens of Newington, at Edinburgh.
On Saturday, 5th July, we returned to Brockville, in time
for the afternoon train to Kingston.
Description of some New Forms of Photometer. By THoMas
STEVENSON, F.R.S.E., Civil Engineer. (Plate III.)
In 1850 I had constructed for me by the late Mr John
Adie, a photometer, the framework of which consisted of the
tubes of an old telescope, with the lenses removed, and closed
at the ends by two plane discs of glass. The instrument was
filled with a mixture of common writing ink and water, which
acted as an absorbing medium for the rays of light in their
passage from the object-glass to the eye-glass. The length of
the absorbing column was varied as wanted, by the eye-glass
tube sliding out or in, till the image just ceased to be visible.
On the top of the telescope was fixed a cistern communicating —
with the interior by an orifice, and which served as a reser-
voir for receiving the surplus fluid, which was displaced by
Description of some New Forms of Photometer. 209
the sliding in of the eye-piece. The object proposed to be
attained in the construction of this simple instrument was to
eliminate some of the sources of error which exist in the pho-
tomoters commonly used for comparing distant objects.
The photometers in general use are of two kinds. In one
of these, lights are compared by increasing or diminishing
the distances between them and the instrument; and in
the other by increasing or diminishing the lengths of an
artificial absorbing medium interposed between them and
the eye. For experimenting on lights which are far removed
from the observer, such as lighthouse apparatus, the latter
form of instrument can, in most instances, alone be used.
In such cases, a wedge-shaped prism of coloured glass is
moved horizontally before the eye till the gradually increas-
ing thickness of the interposed medium at last renders the
object invisible. The intensity of the light is measured by
the distance of the eye from either end of the prism, which is,
of course, a direct measure of the thickness of the coloured
glass at the point through which the axis of vision is directed.
In this instrument there are three possible sources of error :—
1st, The want of homogeneity in the density of the glass
itself, and the presence of strie or other local imperfections.
2d, The want of uniformity in the distribution of the
colouring matter throughout the whole extent of the prism.
3d, The variations that may exist in the polish and incli-
nations of the refracting surfaces as well as the risk of some
parts of the surfaces being accidentally soiled by the hands of
the observer while the experiments are being made.
The instrument which I had formerly constructed is ob-
viously nearly wholly free from those sources of error; for
the absorbing medium being a fluid, is uniform in its colour
and density throughout the whole extent of the column, whether
it be long or short, and the line of vision is in every observa-
tion restricted to the same two pieces of glass, which may be
reduced to very small areas; so that all errors due to im-
perfection of form or deficiency of polish are manifestly
constant, and therefore cease to be elements of error in
determining valuations that are merely comparative. I found,
however, that this instrument afforded little comfort in obser-
210 Description of some New Forms of Photometer.
vation, as it was impossible to prevent leakage of the fluid
between the sliding tubes.
Having had occasion, during the summer of 1860, to make
some photometric observations, I was led to adopt the following
improvements in the construction of photometers similar in
principle to what has just been described, which it may be
useful to record, as I have not anywhere seen an account
of similar arrangements. Figs. 1 and 2 represent sections
of an instrument similar in its construction to that already
described, but which is free from the annoying leakage to
which I have referred. GH in fig. 1 is the eye-piece, which,
in order to shorten or lengthen the column, is thrust inwards
or outwards, while J is the cistern for holding the excess of
fluid, having a stop-cock at the top for allowing air to escape.
EFDB is a stuffing-box filled with soft sponge, by which
any leakage water is readily absorbed, and prevented from
coming to the outside.
Another form of photometer is shown in figs. 3 and 4, where
A is an India-rubber bag, filled with a coloured fluid, having
two discs of plane glass, B and OC, fixed in its sides. CD is
a tube which presses against one of the sides of the India-
rubber bag, and is steadied, so as to insure parallelism of the
two discs, by passing through a collar, and by three small pins
which fit into holes in the brass framing of the glass dise on
which it abuts. F is the cistern or reservoir for holding the
excess of fluid, with stop-cock attached. The length of the
column of fluid is diminished or increased by compressing or
expanding the sides of the India-rubber bag by means of the
rack and pinion E, which moves the eye-tube out or in, and
presses it against the bag. Figs. 5, 6, and 7 represent the last
variety of the instrument. AGDB, fig. 5, is a brass box
filled to a certain depth with coloured fluid. HIJK are two
upright tubes, each having totally reflecting (45°) prisms fixed
at top and bottom. The lower prisms which project into the
fluid have their reflecting sides protected from contact with
it, in order to insure total reflection. The two tubes work in
converging slits cut in the top of the box so as to be moved
from or towards the eye-glass E, which is placed in the centre
of convergence of the two grooves.
Description of some New Forms of Photometer. 211
Rays of light proceeding from two distant objects, and fall-
’ ing upon the upper prisms, are reflected down to the lower
prisms, where they are again reflected, and finally pass through
the column of fluid to the eye, which is placed at the glass EH.
By moving the prisms along the grooves, the lengths of fluid
through which the rays proceeding from the two objects will
pass may be varied, either until there is an equalisation in the
intensity of the images, or until extinction has been effected,
when the relative lengths of fluid are to be noted. In order to
adapt the instrument for observing lights situated in different
azimuths from the observer, and at different elevations from
each other, the upper prisms are made capable of rotation round
their vertical and horizontal axes, so as to present their immer-
gent or first refracting surface in any required direction.
Figs. 8 and 9 show a method of arranging the photometers
just described, which admits of the images being thrown on
a piece of paper stretched over a triangular prism of wood or
metal, as employed in Ritchie’s Photometer, so that when both
faces of the paper seem to be equally illuminated to an eye
looking downwards, the tubes are then in the positions neces-
sary for equalising the two lights. Instead of a prism covered
with paper, a diaphragm of tissue paper, with a portion of it
oiled, as recommended by Bunsen, may be placed vertically
between the photometers.
I may mention that I have successfully used several of
these forms of instrument when experimenting on the powers
of different lighthouse apparatus; but I have found that, like
other instruments of a similar kind, a good deal of practice is
necessary before the eye becomes capable of estimating cor-
rectly the equality of any two lights.
I have now to describe a photometer of an entirely different
kind from those already explained, and which, so far as I am
aware, is new in principle. The more immediate object for
which it was designed was to supply a meteorological rather
than an optical want, though it also admits of adaptation to
other photometric purposes. I have for some time back re-
marked that several very heavy westerly gales have been
preceded, at greater or lesser intervals, by unusually dark,
gloomy weather. In one case this diminution of daylight was
NEW SERIES.—VOL. XVII. NO. 11.— APRIL 1868. 25
212 Description of some New Forms of Photometer.
so great as to produce a sort of noonday-twilight, and was the
precursor of a heavy storm. A greater number of observa-
tions can alone determine whether the suspicion be well
founded that these two atmospheric phenomena are really con-
nected together. The prognostics of storms are of such great
importance, tending as they do to the preservation of life and
property, that I consider the subject worthy of being farther
and more minutely investigated. The abnormal deficiency of
daylight to which I have referred is so great as to admit of
being readily detected by any instrument possessing only a
moderate degree of sensibility. For such a purpose as that of
measuring the varying amounts of daylight, it seemed neces-
sary that the instrument should be portable and convenient
for travellers. It seemed farther obvious, that to employ any
absorbing medium was objectionable, for there is no known
fluid which possesses a constant degree of transparency. Even
though such a fluid could be found, it is still, I believe, an un-
solved difficulty in physical optics to reduce the results to a
numerical value ; for the successive decrements of light pro-
duced by passing through equal successive lengths of fluid
may not be equal. Supposing it has’ been found that one
beam of light requires two inches of the medium to extin-
guish it, while another requires only one inch, we may still
be unable, from such data, to arrive at accurate quantitative
values. Could the amount of daylight be ascertained, as is
done in experiments on the diverging rays of lamps or candles,
by simply measuring the relative distances of the photometers
from the radiants, the difficulty would disappear,and we should
at once be enabled to arrive at numerical values, because the
decreasing intensity of a diverging cone of light is in each
case inversely proportional to the squares of the given dis-
tances from the radiant.
It occurred to me that this method of trial might be at-
tained by allowing a minute portion of daylight to pass
through a small hole pierced in a diaphragm, behind which
the light, spreading into the dark chamber in concentric sphe-
rical shells, would diverge over nearly 180°. The intensity
of this diverging light could then be ascertained by moving a
transparent diaphragm near enough the aperture to allow the
Description of some New Forms of Photometer. 218
eye to decipher any characters that may be inscribed on it;
and in all cases the distances of the diaphragm from the aper-
ture necessary for producing distinct vision would at once
represent, in the inverse duplicate ratio, the intensities of the
rays. By arranging numbers in any order unknown to the
observer, the possibility of mistake, arising from his fancying
that he has distinct vision when he has not, might be pre-
vented. The ability to decipher the symbols furnishes, in each
case, a certain proof that distinct vision has been attained. In
fig. 10, a represents the minute hole by which the light is ad-
mitted; bede and fg hi represent the outer and inner tubes,
having numerous stops in their inner surfaces to prevent stray
rays from being reflected to the eye; h is the transparent
diaphragm, which may consist either of oiled paper or ground
glass, and & / is the shield for the observer’s eye. —
In order to adapt this very simple instrument to the mea-
surement of artificial parallelized light, or of direct sun light,
a small piece of tube (fig. 11), having a lens of short focal
distance fixed in it, is attached to the outer end of the large
tube. Rays incident upon the lens will converge to a focus
in the minute orifice a, after which the rays will pass in a di-
verging cone, and be thus made susceptible of having their
intensities ascertained.
Other forms of this instrument, resembling the construc-
tion of those I have adopted for the photometers with ab-
sorbing media, might be employed. The best arrangement
would be to mount two of the photometers on pivots fixed on
a straight rod having a transparent screen attached to it, and
fitted with a training apparatus similar to that employed in
Mr P. Adie’s patent sextant, so that in whatever direction the
photometers were pointed, their axes would form equal angles
with the screen.
The only instrument for measuring the intensity of direct
solar light and diffuse daylight, with which I am acquainted,
is that proposed by Mr M. Ponton in the Transactions of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh ; but the method employed by him
is different in principle from that just described. He also
separated minute portions of daylight by passing them through
small orifices; but the method of valuation was the employment
214 Dr Ferdinand Mueller on Plants collected by the
of orifices varying in diameter from 5th to y}5th of an inch,
the intensity of the light being in each case valued by the rela-
tive areas of the orifices required to produce the same effect.
In the instrument now described a single orifice is sufficient,
and all error due to irregularity of form is constant. The in-
tensities are in each case valued, not by the areas of the ori-
fices, as in Mr Ponton’s instrument, but by the distances of
the screen from the centre of divergence.
A Record of the Plants Collected by Mr Pemberton Walcott
and Mr Maitland Brown, in the year 1861, during Mr
F. Gregory's Exploring Expedition into North-West Aus-
tralia. By Ferpinanp Muster, M.D., Ph.D., F.RS.,
Government Botanist for the Colony of Victoria.*
The despatch of an exploring party to Nickol Bay, on the
north-west coast of Australia, during the year 1861, under
the command of F. Gregory, Esq., offered a favourable oppor-
tunity of extending our very scanty knowledge of the vegeta-
tion of this part of the Australian continent. By the arrange-
ments of the leader, his companion Mr Maitland Brown
was enabled to secure a series of botanical specimens in the
interior of the country explored, whilst Mr Pemberton Wal-
cott, who had already distinguished himself by forming
botanical collections at the Murchison River towards Shark’s
Bay, prepared collections of such plants as were found growing
in the vicinity of the landing-place. These plants were
obligingly placed at my disposal for examination, and I beg
to submit the result of this task in the subsequent pages.
Of the botanical features of this part of the Australian
continent, we gained our first knowledge during the second
voyage of the talented and enterprising Captain William
Dampier in 1699; some of the plants collected by him either
at Shark’s Bay, at Dampier’s Archipelago, or at Dampier’s
Land, we find introduced by Dr Woodward into Dampier’s
work, “ Voyage to New Holland” (of which the edition of
1729 was accessible to me through the favour of the sons of
Admiral P. P. King). Of other species, Dr Woodward fur-
* Read before the Botanical Society of Edinburgh, February 12, 1863.
: Exploring Lapedition in North-West Australia, 215
nished an account in Plukenet’s “ Amaltheum Botanicum,”
vol. iv., 1705. Some of these interesting records, the first
which botanical science gained from Australia, have received
through R. Brown, and especially through Allan Cunningham,
a modern scientific elucidation. But it seems that still several
of the figures of Dampier’s plants remain enigmatical; and
although their absolute identification can only be effected by
the inspection of Dampier’s original specimens, of which,
according to R. Brown (Prodr. Fl. Nov. Holl., 587), and
Joseph Hooker (Introd. to the Flor. of Tasm., 1. exiii.), at
least some are fortunately preserved in the Museum of Oxford,
I have hazarded an opinion on these almost archwologie relies
since I had an opportunity of studying the characters of the
vegetation from localities not distant from those visited by
Dampier, in collections formed by Mr Aug. Oldfield and Mr
Pemberton Walcott, near the Murchison River, or by personal
observations in Arnhem’s Land during Mr A. Gregory’s North
Australian expedition.
Fucus, foliis capillaceis brevissimis, vesiculis minimis
donatus, tab. 2, fig. 2= Cystophyllum muricatum, J. Agardh,
spec. Algar., i. 231; Harv. Phycolog. Austr., vol. iii. t. 139.
Ricinoides Nove Hollandie anguloso crasso folio, tab. 2,
fig. 3= seemingly Adriana tomentosa, Gaud.; Solanum
spinosum Nove Hollandie, Phylli foliis subrotundis, tab. 2,
fig. 4= Solanum orbiculatum, Dun.; Alcea Nove Hollandie,
foliis angustis utrinque villosis, tab. 3, fig. 2=Sida petro-
phila, F.M.; Tab. 3, fig. 3, not named by Woodward, is already
by R. Brown referred to Diplolena Dampierii, R. Br. ; Dam-
mara Nove Hollandie, Sanamunde secunde Clusii foliis,
is referred by Allan Cunningham to Beaufortia Dampierii,
A. Cunn.; Equisetum Nove Hollandie frutescens, foliis
longissimis, tab. 4, fig. l=a Casuarina.
Colutea Nove Hollandie floribus amplis coccineis um-
bellatim dispositis macula purpurea notatis, tab. 4, fig. 2=
Clianthus Dampierii, A. Cun.; Conyza Nove Hollandie,
angustis raris marini foliis= Eurybia Dampierii, Cand.
Prodr., v. 266, identified like the last by Allan Cunningham.
Fig. 1, in plate 3, cannot be recognised without reference to
Dampier’s specimens.
216 Dr Ferdinand Mueller on Plants collected by the
Fig. 1, in plate 2, represents evidently a Lobelia, closely
allied to Z. Tupa, L., and is most likely of American origin,
several Brazilian plants being figured on the preceding plate.
Dryander (in Koenig and Sim’s Annals of Bot., ii. 531)
quotes from Plukenet’s ‘‘ Amaltheum Botanicum” : those
plants figured from Dampier’s collection, omitting only that
described as Chamelee Arabum folio, fructu ex alis folio-
rum pediculis brevibus glomerato ex Hollandia Nova which
seems a phyllodineous Acacia in flower.
Tab. 450, fig. 10, illustrates an annual Composite not con-
tained in our collections.
Tab. 451, fig. 4, represents a = myrinceou plant of the
Baeckee series.
Tab. 452, fig. 4= Boronie sp.
Tab. 454, fig. 6, seems a species of Hydrocotyle.
Tab. 453, fig. 2= Adriana tomentosa, Gaud. Although
this figure is by no means so expressive of the form of Adriana
tomentosa as to remove all doubt of the identity, I know of
no other north-west or west Australian plant to which it could
be referred. Fig. 6 of the same plate, representing also a
plant of Dampier’s collection, although said to be of Brazilian
origin, may perhaps also be referrible to the same plant.*
The next botanical collections brought from the north-west
* From the examination of a great number of plants collected in the most
widely separated parts of both tropical and extra-tropical Australia, it appears
that the genus Adriana contains not more than two (if perhaps only one
species) which are subject to great variations.
These may be distinguished as follows :—
Adriana tomentosa, Gaudich., Voy. de l’Uranie et la Physicienne, Bot.,
487, pl. 116; A. glabrata, Gaud., 1. c.
A. acerifolia, Hook., in Mitch. Trop. Austr., 871; A. heterophylla, Hook.,
1. c. 124; Trachycaryon Cunninghami, F. M. in Transact. Phil. Soc. Vict.,
i. 15.; Trachycaryon Hookeri, ¥. M., 1. c. 16.
Leaves all alternate, usually long-petioled, rarely some opposite and on
short petioles, often trilobed.
From Gippsland through a great part of East Australia to Moreton Bay, and
to beyond the Darling in the Murray Desert; on the Murchison River, at
Shark’s Bay, in Arnhem’s Land.
If the identity of Dampier’s plant could be fully established, it might be
desirable to collect the above synonyms under the name of A. Dampierii.
Adriana Billardierii, Baillon, Etude générale du Groupe des Euphorbiacées,
406; Croton quadripartitum, Lab. Nov. Holl. Plant. specim. ii. 78, tab, 228;
Euploring Expedition in North-West Australia. 217
coast were those secured by the naturalists, especially Lesche-
nault, who accompanied the French naval expedition under
the command of Captain Baudin, in the beginning of this
century. No special essay is devoted to the elucidation of the
botanical treasures accumulated on the occasion, but scattered
notices of these plants appear in various works, especially in
De Candolle’s “ Prodromus,”
The results of the botanical observations instituted by
Gaudichaud on the vegetation of Shark’s Bay, during Captain
Freycinet’s expedition in 1817, are partially incorporated in
the phytological volume and atlas of this expedition published
by Gaudichaud. Other plants of Gaudichaud’s are scattered,
like those of Baudin’s Expedition, through various works.
But the most important botanical collections from the north-
west coast of Australia were derived from Allan Cunningham,
who, as a companion of Captain, afterwards Admiral P. P.
King, in his four arduous and important survey voyages (from
1818-1821), had an opportunity of examining the vegetation
of very many coast points; of the extensive collections and
observations of this celebrated botanical traveller we have
only fragmentary records, and it appears that many of his
plants still require to be examined, a task which will devolve
on Mr Bentham, President of the Linnean Society, in the
present elaboration of the universal flora of Australia, to
whom, by the liberality of Robert Howard, Esq., these collec-
tions have become fully accessible.
Additions to our knowledge of the flora of this part of the
globe are derived from the labours of the officers of the
“ Beagle,” who visited the north-west Australian coast during
the years 1838 and 1841.
The collections of Mr F. Gregory’s expedition are interesting
as bringing, for the first time, to our knowledge, some of the
plants of the north-west interior, between the 20th and 24th
A. de Juss, de. Euph. Gen. Tentam., 30; Trachycaryon Billardierii, Kl. in
Lehm. Pl. Preiss, i. 175 ; 7. Klotzschii, F. M. in Transact. Phil. Soc. Victoria,
i. 16.
Leaves all opposite, nearly sessile, or on very short petioles, always lobeless.
Scattered along the coast, from Wilson’s Promontory to Port Gregory, near
Shark’s Bay ; occasionally inland; thus, for instance, at the Capunda between
St Vincent’s Gulf and the Murray River.
218 Dr Ferdinand Mueller on Plants collected by the
parallel, although these are not so numerous as would have
been the case had not unfortunately a considerable portion of
those specimens collected on the ranges, and which would in-
clude the greatest share of novelty, been lost during the progress
of the journey.
The issue of this memoir has afforded to me the opportunity
of giving publicity to some (now posthumous) observations on
a composite plant by my lamented friend the late Dr Joachim
Steetz of Hamburg, in whom botanical science has lost one
of its most able, correct, and philosophical promoters of this
age. His valuable observations I have introduced into this
essay unaltered and unabridged.
The total number of plants, as brought under notice by Mr
Gregory’s expedition, is not sufficient in extent to warrant an
opinion on the phyto-geographical features of the country
traversed ; but in glancing over the appended enumeration,
we cannot fail to recognise, that Malvacee, Amarantacee,
Convolvulacew, and particularly Leguminose, are evidently
numerous in the tracts explored; whilst Composite, as in
other parts of tropical Australia, are comparatively of incon-
siderable number. The scarcity of species of Eucalyptus
seems remarkable. In some instances southern genera, or even
identical species, are blended with those of Arnhem’s Land, and
of other parts of tropical Australia, the tropical types being
however by far the most preponderant. Endemic forms are
not wanting, but new genera are, judging by our specimens,
much less numerous, as might have been expected. It is
further interesting to observe, that certain Indian and south-
west Asiatic plants reappear on our north-west coast, in some
instances not previously observed in any other part of Aus-
tralia, whereby the list of Indo-Australian plants published
by Dr Hooker (Introd. to the Fl. of Tasm., 1842-49) and
supplemented in my report on the plants of Lieut. Smith’s
expedition to the estuary of the Burdekin, received some addi-
tions. The following Asiatic plants have come since the
issue of the publications above alluded to, from various parts
of Australia, under my knowledge :—
Nymphea stellata, W.; Pericampylos incanus, Miers
(fide Benth.); Harrisonia Brownii, Adr. de Juss.; Trium-
Euploring Expedition in North West Australia, 219
fetta procumbens, Forst. ; Sida Abutilon, L.; Sida crispa, 1. ;
Tribulus alatus, Delile; Mollugo Cerviana, Ser. ; Lumnitzera
racemosa, W.; Bergia ammannioides, Roth.; Luff gra-
veolens, Roxb. (fide Naudin); Huphorbia Atoto, Forst.;
Exececaria Agallocha, W.; Crotalaria ramosissima, Roxb.;
Cassia alata, L.; Cassia pumila, Lam.; T'richosanthes cucu-
merina, L.; Polyphragmon sericeum, Desf.; Lactaria
calocarpa, Hassk.; Ficus stipulata, Thunb.; Peperomia
reflewa, Dietr.; Dendrobium undulatum, R. Br. (fide Lind-
ley); Lipocarpha microcephala, Kunth; and Carex pumila,
Thunb. (jide Benth.)
ENUMBRATION OF THE SPECIES COLLECTED,
MENISPERME2,
Tinospora Walcottti—F. M. Nickol Bay.
CapPaRIDEX,
Capparis nummularia—Cand, Prodr., i. 246; F.M., Fragm.
Phytogr. Austr,, i. 143.
Nickol Bay. Closely allied to the true Caper of commerce,
Capparis spinosa, L.
Cleome flava.—Banks in Cand, Prodr., i. 241. Nickol Bay.
CRUCIFERA.
Lepidium pholidogynum.—F. M. (sect. Monoploca).
Remarkable for its somewhat lepidote ovary. Only a small
fragment without leaves, and without note of the locality
where it was found, occurs in the collection.
PITTOSPORER,
Pittosporum phillyroides.—Cand, Prodr., i. 347; F. M., Plants
Indig. to Vict., i. 72.
Stream beds at Nickol Bay.
MALyAcEz.
Abutilon.—Sp. undeterminable.
Sida physocalyxz.—¥F. M., Fragm. Phytogr. Austr., iii. 3.
Hammersly Ranges, on rocky declivities. The Sida petrophila,
F. M. in Linnea, xxv. p. 381, does not occur in the collec-
tion, although found already on the subtropical or tropical
west coast by Captain Dampier, and described by Woodward
(Dampier’s Voyages, edit. 1729, p. 110, as Alcea Nove
Hollandie foliis angustis utringue villosis, tab. ii. fig.2).
Sida otocarpa,—F, M. in Transac. Phil. Soc. Vict., i. 13.
Found in the interior during the expedition.
Sida corrugata.—Lindley in Mitch, Three Expeditions, ii. 12.
Rocky hills near Nickol Bay.
NEW SERIES.—VOL. XVII. NO. 11.— APRIL 1863. 2F
220 Dr Ferdinand Mueller on Plants collected by the
Sida tubulosa.—All, Cunn., ex. Hook, in Mitch, Tropic. Austr.,
p- 390. ©
Harding River.
Gossypium australe—F. M., Fragm. Phytogr. Austr., i. 46; iii. 6.
Temporary dry stream, beds of the Maitland River, attaining a
height of eight feet.
Hibiscus panduriformis.—Burm. Flor. Indic., p. 151, t. 47, f. 2;
F, M., Fragm. Phytogr, Austr., ii, 115.
Beds and banks of the Maitland River, reaching a height of
ten feet,
Hibiscus brachychlenus,—F. M., Fragm. Phytogr. Austr,, iii, 5.
At Nickol Bay, and on the Fortescue River.
Hibiscus Coatesii—_F. M., Fragm. Phytogr. Aust., iii, 5.
Hammersly Range.
Malva brachystachya.—F. M., in Linnea, xxv, 378 (sect. Mal-
vastrum).
Hearson Island.
STERCULIACER.
Brachychiton platanoides.—R. Br. in Horsf. Pl. Javan, Rar., 234.
On the granite hills near Nickol Bay.—A tree attaining a
diameter of the trunk of thirty inches. The branchlets
strong, with thick scars. Leaves glabrous, thin, coriaceous,
crowded at the summit of the branchlets, deciduous, divided
to about the middle into five lobes, five nerved, 5—9 inches
long, thinly net-veined, above shining, beneath paler and
almost opaque ; their lobes semilanceolate, divaricate entire,
gradually upwards attenuated. Petioles terete, 2-4 inches
long. Panicles terminal and infra-terminal, many flowered,
thinly velvet-downy. Pedicels shorter than the calyx,
Calyx infundibular-campanulate, 4—5 lines long, outside as
well as inside thinly grey or fulvid-velutinous ; its lobes five,
semilanceolate, gradually upwards pointed, little shorter than
the tube, at last reflexed; its tube obconical, the faux
hardly turgid. Column of stamens enclosed, towards the
summit glabrous, towards the base pulverulent-downy.
The glomerule of the anthers measuring only about one
line. Ovaries glabrous. Styles very short, also glabrous.
Stigmas coherent into a hemispheric bluntly five-lobed cap.
Follicles about three inches long, outside glabrous and ni-
grescent, contracted into a short and thick stipes, umbonate
at the summit.
TILIACES.
Corchorus Walcottii—_F. M., Fragm, Phytogr. Austr., iii. 9.
Nickol Bay and Hearson Island.—With this occurs a variety
remarkable for its oblong leaves.
Eauploring Expedition in North-West Australia, 221
Corchorus sidoides.—F, M., Fragm. Phytogr. Austr., iii. 9.
Imperfect specimens, seemingly referrible to this species, oc-
cur in the collection ; adhering to it are some fragments of
Cassyta,
Triumfetta appendiculata.—F. M., Fragm. Phytogr. Austr., iii. 7.
Rocky hills near Nickol Bay,
MELIACE&.
Owenia werocarpa,—F. M., Fragm. Phytogr. Austr., iii, 14.
At Nickol Bay and on the Yule River.
SAPINDACER,
Diplopeltis Huegellii.—Endl. Plant.; Hueg., p, 13; F. M., Fragm.
Phytogr. Austr., iii, 12.
Sandy land, near Nickol Bay. A soft hairy variety, with pin-
natilobed leaves.
Heterodendron oleifolium.—Desfont., Mémoires du Mus. d’Hist.
Nat., iv. 9, t. 3.
Stream beds of the Hammersly Range.
Atalaya hemiglauca,—F, M., Fragm. Phytogr. Austr., i. 98.
Hammersly Range.
MoLivGinex,
Mollugo trigastrotheca.—F. M., Plants Indigenous to the Colony
of Victoria, (note) i, 201.
Rocky sandstone hills of Hearson Island.
CaRYOPHYLLEX.
Polycarpea longiflora.—F, M., Report on Plants collected during
Babbage’s Expedition, p. 8.
On granite hills near Nickol Bay, The inflorescence less con-
tracted than usual.
ZYGOPHYLLEA.
Tribulus alatus,—Delile, Ill. p. 44.
East of Hammersly Range, growing in rocky land. Stems
two to three feet long. The Australian specimens seem
referrible to the African species, which, as far as can be
judged from their description, are evidently apt to undergo
great variations, Some specimens are hairy, others gla-
brous ; in some, the wings of the fruit are more chartaceous,
in others more membranous. It occurs rarely with four
earpels. Of another Tribulus occur fruit specimens, gathered
in the interior during the expedition ; the carpels are gla-
brous and large, attaining rather more than half an inch in
length, are slightly keeled but not crested at the back, almost
alate-acute at the dorsal angles, and armed with two long
thorns,
222 Dr Ferdinand Mueller on Plants collected by the
Tribulus Hystrie.—R. Br. in Sturt’s Central Australia, vol. ii.,
Append, p. 69.
Sandy land in the interior of Nickol Bay.
LEGUMINOSZ.
Acacia coriacea,—Cand., Memoir. Legum., 446.
The pedicels geminate, a little longer than the flower heads, as
well as the younger Phyllodia, yellowish silky. Capitula
globular, many-flowered. Bracteoles consisting of a minute
rhomboid, densely ciliolate lamina, and a slender glabrous
stipes. Calyx tubular, with five short and blunt lobes
slightly fringed, Petals narrow, glabrous, nearly twice the
length of the calyx.
Acacia holosericea.—A. Cunn. in G. Don. Gen. Syst. Dichl.,
Pl. ii. 407.
Alluvial flats near Nickol Bay ; twelve feet high. Our speci-
mens are imperfect, but belong apparently to this species.
Acacia Maitlandi.—F. M., Fragm, Phytogr. Austr., iii. 46.
Hammersly Ranges.
Acacia Gregorii.—F, M., Fragm. Phytogr. Austr., iii, 47.
Nickol Bay and Hearson Island,
Acacia lycopodifolia.—All, Cunn. in Hook. Icones Plant., t. 172.
On stony land of the Hammersly Ranges, six feet high,
Acacia pyrifolia.—Cand., Mem. sur la Fam. des Légumin., 447 ;
F. M., Fragm. Phytogr. Austr., iii, 17.
At Cape Lambert and at Nickol Bay.
Acacia bivenosa.—Cand. Prodr., ii. 452; Benth. in Hook. Lond.
Jour., i. 355, A, binervosa, Cand., Mem. sur la Famille
Legum:, 448.
On flats of good land near Nickol Bay; eight to ten feet.
Found like A. coriacea and th of an inch in length. At this stage the germ lies
obliquely in the micropylar extremity of the embryo-sac; the
axis of the germ being a straight line, while that of the sac is
somewhat curved towards its apex. The axis of the germ
coincides in direction with the apex of the embryo-sac, which
is pointed somewhat outwards. The neck of the bottle-shaped
germ is thus directed obliquely inwards towards the placenta,
while its pointed base has a corresponding outward direction.
* I have not given figures of the germinal vesicle and the succeeding stage,
as I did not make any careful drawings of them at the time I made the pre-
parations ; and in the sections which I have preserved, they are too much
altered, by shrinking, to admit of a proper representation, unless it were made
in part from memory.
256 Dr Alexander Dickson on the
In the stage seen in fig. 2, the axis of the germ is no
longer a straight line, but is a curve nearly coinciding with
the axis of the end of the embryo-sac. As is readily under-
stood, this is a natural result of the increased growth of
the germ, whereby it is necessitated to adapt itself to the
curvature of the cavity in which it is lodged. At the same
time there is a noticeable increase in the curvature of the
embryo-sac, and this, of course, has its share in producing
the curvature of the germ. The pointed base of the germ
is still directed somewhat outwards, although not so mark-
edly as in the early stage. The neck of the germ, instead
of being, as at first, directed obliquely inwards, is now
nearly vertical, and perhaps even directed a little outwards.
This part is now considerably increased in length, and is
slightly enlarged into a sort of head at its extremity. The
enlargement is the first indication of the “‘embryo,” while the
more slender portion supporting it becomes the suspensor.
The inner side of the body of the germ is somewhat rounded,
corresponding to the internal curvature of the embryo-sac.
The outer side of the germ (that furthest from the placenta)
is now marked by a small rounded enlargement, corresponding
in position to the shoulder of the originally bottle-shaped
body. This small process is what eventually becomes the
extra-seminal root; which is thus shown to be a distinetly
lateral process, and not the extremity of the primitive germ,
as held by Schleiden.. An idea of the shape of this germ is
much more readily conveyed by a figure than by description.
The body of the germ must be deeper from within outwards
than from side to side, and, in consequence, be slightly flat-
tened laterally.
In the stage represented in fig. 3, the suspensor is more
elongated, and its terminal enlargement, the embryo, is more
distinctly marked. The inner side of the body of the germ
is perhaps a little fuller and more rounded than in the last
stage, but any difference in that respect is very slight. The
future extra-seminal root, on its outer side, is now so con-
siderably developed, that the suspensor appears quite as if
thrown to the side. It has evidently been from germs such as
this that Schleiden drew his conclusion that the suspensor,
Embryogeny of Troprolum majus. 257
with the embryo, originates as a lateral branch, from a pri-
mitive oblong body.
A somewhat older germ is represented in fig. 4. The
embryo, suspensor, and extra-seminal process, do not differ
much from those in the last stage, only they are further de-
veloped. The basal point is very distinctly seen, but now con-
sists apparently of a single cell,—whether some of the cells
which I supposed in the earlier stage to be associated together
in forming the pointed base have disappeared, or have become
merged in the body of the germ, leaving only this one asa
projecting point, I cannot say. A glance, however, at the
series of stages which I have delineated, is sufficient to show
the identity of this point with the basal point of the originally
bottle-shaped germ; in other words, this projecting point
indicates the position of the extremity of the germ, organi-
cally opposed to that which is developed as the “ embryo.”
The inner side of the body of the germ now bulges consider-
ably as a rounded enlargement (fig. 4, pr), which must be
regarded as the first indication of the placental root ; which,
like the extra-seminal process, is shown by its development to
be a lateral structure.
In fig. 5 a still more advanced stage is shewn. The
bulging on the inner side of the body of the germ has now
become considerably developed, and has assumed a conical
form. This change is due to an active cell-multiplication,
which may be estimated by comparing the germs represented in
figs. 4 and 5, in which the cellular structure is indicated. The
single cell at the basal point is very distinctly seen, as indeed
it always is when the germ is carefully extracted from the
seed. The extra-seminal root at this stage has just perforated
the coats of the seed.
In the succeeding stages the extra-seminal root becomes
much elongated, and ultimately passes along the whole length
of the outside of the seed.*
The extremity of the conical process or young placental
root, represented in fig. 5, becomes more and more tapering
* Mr Wilson has figured a curious deviation in this process, in a case where
its extremity penetrates some little distance into the substance of the carpel,
opposite the chalazal end of the seed,
258 Dr Alexander Dickson on the
and elongated (figs. 6 and 7, pr). It may be said to take on
development by elongation, as distinguished from cell-multi-
plication, at a period coincident, or nearly so, with the appear-
ance of the cotyledons.*
The length to which the placental root has attained when
the cotyledons are yet in a very young condition, is shewn
in fig. 7. Having pushed its way obliquely inwards through
the neck of the seed, it has already reached the placental
vascular bundle, along which it extends in the placenta for a
short distance. The extra-seminal root is now greatly elon-
gated. Its manner and place of exit are precisely as Mr
Wilson has described them, perforating the seed-coats a
little to the outer side of the micropyle.t}
As I have already mentioned, the placental root ultimately
extends along the whole length of the course of the vascular
bundle in the placenta. It lies to the inner side of the bundle,
having made its way along the lax tissue by which the vessels
are surrounded. It is in close contact with the vascular
bundle, so that when it is dissected out there are almost
always to be found shreds of spirals adhering to it.
Mr Wilson speaks of a pore as existing at or about the
point where the placental root terminates at “the lowest
point of junction [of the carpel] with the receptacle.” This I
have not been able to find, and I am inclined to think that
there is only the appearance of a pore at that point in the
cicatrix upon the detached coccus corresponding to the rup-
tured vascular bundle. A very curious anomaly has come
under my observation, where the placental root on reaching
the vascular bundle, instead of running along the course of
the vessels in the placenta, turns back outwards again, and
runs along with the bundle in the opposite direction into the
seed.
I need not enter upon the details of the later stages of
* Schleiden’s furthest advanced figure shows this pretty well, but the
germ has evidently not been extracted without suffering some impairment of
volume.
+ I may mention that I had delineated these relations of the extra-seminal
root to the micropyle and seed-coats, as they are shown in fig. 7, before I had
seen Mr Wilson’s paper, so that my testimony, as being quite independent, is
the stronger confirmation of the accuracy of his statements.
Embryogeny of Tropeeolum majus. 259
the germ, as these have been admirably illustrated by Mr
Wilson. |
It will be seen from the foregoing remarks, that the struc-
tures making up the germ naturally fall under two heads:
1st, the main axis; and 2d, the lateral processes.
Of the main axis, the organic apex is developed as the
* embryo;”* while the organic base remains comparatively
stationary, as a point corresponding to the apex of the cavity
of the embryo-sac.
The two root-processes are, as I have shown, both distinctly
lateral structures, The earliest developed one (the extra-
seminal) springs from the outer; the other and younger one
(the placental), from the inner side of the axis of the germ.
The knob-like enlargement at the base of the suspensor
corresponds to the junction of the lateral processes with the
main axis. The larger portion of it, however, must be con-
sidered as the enlarged base of the placental process.
In conclusion, I would offer a few remarks upon the pro-
bable function of the root-processes.
That these processes perform the functions of roots, it. is
impossible for any one who looks at them to doubt. The
question, however, still remains as to when and how they
act as such. Mr Wilson believes that they act in the com-
mencement of germination. “It is scarcely to be doubted,”
he says, “that these two processes fulfil the office of rootlets
in the first stage of germination, while the embryo is still
enclosed within the carpellary integument, and that if the
latter were removed before the time of growth, the seed would
* T should mention, that Von Mohl, in his work on the “ Vegetable Cell,”
makes the general statement, that in all cases “ the terminal cell of the whole
structure [germ] is sooner or later metamorphosed, by preponderating growth
and cell-division in different directions into a cellular structure, at first of a
globular form,” “the rudiment of the embryo.’”— Vegetable Cell, Henfrey’s
translation, p. 186. I am unaware of any special observations by Von
Mohl on Zropeolum, although he alludes to it in the passage from which I
have quoted. One cannot, however, talk here of the embryo being produced
from a terminal cell, since the apex of the germ is multicellular before there is
any differentiation of embryo from suspensor, as I have represented in fig. 1.
NEW SERIES.—VOL. XVII. NO, 11.—APRIL 1868, 2%
260 Dr Alexander Dickson on the
fail, in consequence of the injury which would almost inevi-
tably be sustained by these rootlets. One of them would
necessarily be broken off.”*
On considering this question, I am led to dissent from Mr
Wilson’s conclusion. It appears to me much more probable
that these processes serve as roots to the developing than that
they serve as such to the germinating embryo, for the follow-
ing reasons :—
1st, It can hardly be doubted, that the rule in the vegetable
kingdom is, that roots are only formed in presence of wants,
and not (so to speak) in anticipation of them. It can there-
fore scarcely be supposed that these germ-roots should be
developed to such a large extent in the early stages of de-
velopment, were they only to serve as such on the commence-
ment of germination. The formation of the radicle in the
dicotyledonous embryo, and the presence of the rudiments of
adventitious roots in many monocotyledonous embryos, might
be urged as examples of roots in anticipation ; but it must
always be borne in mind, that it is only in presence of wants
that these assume a really root-like development and elonga-
tion. As to the radicle itself, its non-development in the
germination of the monocotyledon shows that it is not essen-
tially even a root in anticipation.
In the second place, I would urge that the cocci of this plant,
as sown in our gardens, are almost always thoroughly dried,
having been preserved from a previous season. In these if
is inconceivable that the root-processes of the germ should be
able to survive the desiccation they must inevitably undergo,
protected as they are only by the easily dried tissue of the
carpel and placenta; and there is nothing in the delicate and
watery structure of the roots themselves to preserve them
from total desiccation and destructive collapse. The dried
cocci, however, germinate quite freely.
From such considerations, it appears to me highly unlikely
that these rootlets are concerned at all in the germinative
process. It is probable that the period of their functional
activity extends from a time shortly after their appearance
until the seed has attained its full growth ; in fact, that their
* London Journal of Botany, vol. ii. p, 626.
Embryogeny of Tropeolum majus. 261
use is to convey nourishment of some kind to the developing
embryo,
The circumstance that one of these roots lies free in a cavity
lined with epithelium, while the other is imbedded in the sub-
stance of the placental tissue, suggests the probability of a
dissimilarity in their functions, and there are certain differ-
ences between the roots themselves, which would tend to con-
firm this idea :—
Ist. The cell-contents are comparatively dense in the ex-
tremity of the extra-seminal root, while they are more watery
and transparent in the placental process.
2d. The extra-seminal root is terminated by elongated cells,
somewhat resembling in shape the columnar epithelium cells
in animals. This characteristic is well seen even in the young
condition represented in fig.4. The character of the cells
hardly alters in the subsequent stages, only they become more
elongated. These terminal cells are always larger than the
ones immediately behind them. In the placental root, on the
other hand, the terminal cells are the smallest, and do not
present any note-worthy peculiarity. I should imagine, from
these appearances, that the roots differed from each other in
their mode of development ; that in the extra-seminal root, the
new cells were formed behind the extremity, while in the pla-
cental root they were formed afit. I would not, however, state
this positively, as I am but little experienced in histological
developments. The placental root is pointed at its extremity,
while the extra-seminal is rounded.
It might have been supposed that the placental tissue was a
more favourable locality for the supply of nutritive material,
than the cavity of the germen; but when we compare the de-
licate and slender placental root with the strongly developed,
and apparently better nourished extra-seminal process, we may
be led to entertain a contrary opinion.
This arrangement of germ-rootlets is evidently one for a
supplementary nutrition of the embryo. Whether this sup-
plementary nutrition is conditioned by the absence from the
contents of the embryo-sac, of certain matters requisite for the
growth of the embryo, or by the surface of the embryo itself
having a somewhat imperfect power of absorption, it were
262 On the Embryogeny of Tropeolum majus.
”
oe
on
perhaps impossible to determine precisely ; but it is probable
that the former supposition is the more correct one.
DesorIPTION oF PLATE IV.
In Tropxolum the ovules are anatropal and pendulous, with the raphe next the pla-
centa, It will be observed that all the objects figured are inverted, in order to let
the organic apex of the germ be directed upwards. Figs. 1-5 are all drawn on
one scale ; figs. 6 and 7 on a much smaller one.
Fig. 1. Section of young seed, with a very young bottle-shaped germ at the
apex of the embryo-sac. pri, Primine; sec, Secundine ; se, Embryo-sac ;
mic, Micropyle ; a apex, ¢ body, and b the pointed base of the germ. In
this figure the form of the germ, and the cells of its neck and body, may
be relied upon as being correctly indicated; but I'am uncertain (as I
have stated in the text) of the number of cells forming the pointed base.
I am inclined to think, however, that two cells are to be seen on the side
view as I have given them in the drawing.
Fig. 2. Section of young seed somewhat further advanced. The axis of the
germ is now curved, and its apex is a little enlarged, forming the first in-
dication of the ‘‘ embryo,” emb; the narrower portion below it becoming
the suspensor, susp. On the outer side of the-body of the germ is a small
rounded enlargement, the rudiment of the extra-seminal process, esr.
Se, b, c, and mic, as before.
Fig. 8. Young germ further advanced than that in fig. 2. Zmb, susp, esr,
and 4, as before. From the increase in size of the extra-seminal process,
the suspensor appears as if thrown to the side.
Fig. 4. Young germ still further advanced. The inner side of the body of
the germ is now distinctly bulging. This protuberance is the first indi-
cation of the placental root (pr) The cellular structure is represented
in this figure. The basal point (b) now consists of a single cell. The
extra-seminal process (esr) has not yet perforated the seed-coats. Hmb
and susp as before.
Fig. 5. Young germ at the period when the extra-seminal root (esr) has just
perforated the seed-coats. The placental process (pr) has become con-
siderably enlarged, and is now conical and pointed. The cellular strue-
ture of the placental root and base of the germ is indicated, in order to
show the amount of cell-multiplication which has occurred. Hmb, susp,
and 6, as before.
Fig. 6. Portion of young germ at a later period. The conical and pointed
placental process (pr) now tapers considerably at its extremity ; its root-
like elongation is commencing. The suspensor has been broken off short.
Lettering as before.
Fig. 7. Section of a portion of a young seed (s), and placenta (pl). The pla~
cental root (pr) is now considerably elongated, and has reached the pla~- __
cental vascular bundle (vb), along the inner side of which it already runs
for a short distance. The extra-seminal root (esr) is much elongated, and
is seen to perforate the seed-coats a little to the outer side of the micro-
pyle (mic). Vascular bundle of the raphe, r, The young cotyledons are
now distinctly visible on the embryo (emb). Susp, Suspensor. a
tc) es
263
On the Barometric Depression, and Accompanying Storm,
of the 19th October 1862. By Tuomas H. Corn, Privy-
Council Lecturer in Mathematics, Normal School, Edin-
burgh.* (Plate V.)
The data on which the present paper is founded were
obtained principally from the returns from the Society’s
stations, but from the following sources in addition: from the
returns from the Northern Lighthouses, kindly furnished to
me by Mr Thomas Stevenson; the log-books of various mer-
chant ships, obtained from several shipowners in Leith; the
files of the “Shipping and Mercantile Gazette,” and “Mitchell’s
Maritime Register,” in Leith Reading-room ; and the Board
of Trade Meteorological reports, published in each morning’s
“Times.” As the 19th of October happened to be a Sunday,
the observations connected with the storm are not so numerous
and complete as I could have wished as regards England and
Ireland; but this was partially remedied by a few special
returns I obtained, some directly from private observers, and
others from letters in the daily newspapers.
I shall first notice shortly the barometric fluctuations
throughout the month of October, and then consider more
particularly that of the 19th.
- The monthly fluctuations are represented in Diagram L., in
which are drawn the barometric curves for England, Ireland,
and Scotland. For the first nine days of the month the baro-
meter was considerably above the mean height, the weather
was generally fair, some of the days being warm and pleasant,
with bright hot sunshine, and there was comparatively little
moisture in the air. From the 9th to the 12th the barometer
sank continuously about an inch in Scotland, and four-fifths
of an inch in England and Ireland, the thermometer being
still high, and the air being nearly saturated with aqueous
vapour. The moist and warm air being thus relieved of a con-
siderable amount of barometric pressure expanded and cooled,
and its moisture was consequently precipitated in the form of
a dense fog, which was very prevalent for three or four days
* Read before the Scottish Meteorological Society on 14th January 1863.
264 Mr Thomas H. Core on the Barometric Depression,
over the whole country. From this time till the 16th a succes-
sion of fresh, and sometimes strong westerly breezes, accom-
panied by a slightly rising barometer, brought copious showers
of rain, which had the effect of considerably cooling the air.
From the 17th till the 24th the oscillations of the barometer
were extensive and remarkable, the mercury falling in some
places upwards of an inch in twelve hours. At the same time
the weather was extremely unsettled, strong gales and some-
times even violent tempests, accompanied often with heavy
rain, and at times with hail and lightning, blowing from S.W.
to N.W. These storms were particularly violent on the after-
noon of Friday the 17th, about midnight of Sunday the 19th,
and.on the evening of Wednesday the 22d, and more so in
England and Ireland than in Scotland. Both in the storms
of the 19th and the 22d, the pressure of the wind is recorded
at many stations as being twenty-five lbs. on the square foot,
which gives for its velocity the very unusual rate of seventy
wiles per hour. The newspapers were full of the details of
the disastrous effects of these hurricanes, both on land and at
sea. In London, innumerable sheds and chimney-stalks were
blown down, many serious collisions took place on the Thames,
by which some vessels were sunk and many quite disabled ; and
at high water the tide was forced over the banks, deluging
many warehouses, and destroying a vast amount of property.
In the Downs, where a large fleet was moored, several ships
went down at their anchors; and at Shields, a whole fleet of
colliers, which had put to sea in despite of a warning from
Admiral Fitzroy, was dispersed, many of them foundered,
and many were driven over to the coast of Norway. By the
wreck and damage done to vessels belonging to the Tyne
alone, the underwriters sustained a loss of L.40,000. On the
West Coast, however, where the storm was blowing towards the
land, the disasters were still more numerous, the whole shore
being literally strewn with wrecks, both on the morning of the
20th and the evening of the 22d.
Nor was the violence of the storm confined to this country;
it raged with almost equal severity over the north-western
part of Europe, the Bay of Biscay, and far out in the At-
lantic Ocean. At Antwerp the Queen was detained for six
and Accompanying Storm, of October 19,1862, 265
days, being prevented from crossing by the boisterous state of
the weather. The“ Times” correspondent, writing from Paris
on the 22d, says, “ The hurricane, which has been blowing
over Paris for the last three days, and which has not yet
abated, caused much damage. The garden of the Tuileries is
covered with broken branches of trees,’ &c., &c. ‘ A letter
from Cherbourg states, that a violent hurricane has prevailed
in the Channel for some days past, the wind varying from
S.W. to N.W. The harbour of Cherbourg, ‘the hotel of the
Channel,’ as it was called by Vauban, is crowded with vessels
seeking shelter from the storm.’’ Again, from Havre: “ The
storm is still raging with unabated violence. On Sunday
night, the wind shifting from S.W. to N.W., blew in heavy
squalls. The sea rose to an unusual height, and showers of
rain fell in rapid succession. On Monday the hurricane con-
tinued, but not with such extreme violence.” The two screw
steam-ships, “‘ Ceylon” and “ Tartar,” were both crossing the
Bay of Biscay on their voyage homeward to Southampton,—the
former on the 19th, the latter on the 20th,—and both reported
having met with heavy westerly gales, with a high sea and
thick weather. Again, the barque “ Balclutha” left Greenock
for St John’s, Newfoundland, on the 29th September, and had
proceeded half-way across the Atlantic, when, on the 17th,
she experienced such tempestuous weather, that she was con-
siderably damaged, and obliged to put back. Her track
is represented by the dotted line in Diagram IV. The fol-
lowing is a short extract from her log-book, which, as is cus-
tomary at sea, is kept in nautical time, and is thus twelve
hours in advance of civil time :—
“ Oct. 16th, N.W. by N.—Begins with hard gale and dark
cloudy weather.
“4am, W.N.W.—Cloudy, with continual rain and heavy
topping sea.
*8 aM. W. by N.—Hard squall.
* Noon, W.—Terrific squall.
17th, N.N.W. to N.W.—Begins with hard gale and dark-
ening weather, accompanied by terrific squalls, and showers
of hail, sleet, and snow.
“8 p.M.—Same wind and weather, with heavy topping sea :
266 Mr Thomas H. Core on the Barometric Depression,
ship labouring very much, and straining so much that the
trembling of her whole frame could be distinctly felt on deck.
Throughout midnight, furious gale with terrific squalls, and
blinding showers of hail, sleet, and snow.
“3-50 a.M.—Gale raging furiously, with tremendous curling
sea. About this time a sea broke aboard on the port-bow
with terrific force, sweeping the deck fore and aft, and doing
immense damage to the ship, and also carrying overboard two
able seamen.
“Latter part.—Gale somewhat abated, but heavy sea still
making a clean breach over her decks.
“ 18th, N.W. throughout.—Commences with a continuation
of heavy weather, with hard squalls and showers of rain.
“ Middle part—More moderate squalls, not so violent, and
sea abating.
« Latter part.—Still moderating. ;
“19th, from N.W. to N.N.W. throughout.—Begins with
fresh gale, accompanied with frequent squalls and showers of
hail.
‘“« Middle part.—Increasing gale with heavy squalls.
“ Latter part—Strong gale and high sea, with hard squalls
and showers of hail.”
The “ Balclutha” now put back, and on her return voyage
continued to experience very stormy weather.
What I have already said is sufficient to show that these
storms, from the 17th to the 24th, were very violent, and felt
over a wide area. From the 26th to the end of the month
the weather was more moderate, with a steadily rising baro-
meter and a low temperature, showers of sleet alternating with
snow and rain.
The barometric range for October, or difference between
the highest and lowest readings, amounted at many stations —
to more than two inches, which is 50 per cent. greater than
the average range for October. The following table of the
lowest barometric readings for each month of the year shows
this fact in a different manner. The numbers in the first
column are the means of the monthly minima for the five
years 1857-1861 inclusive, for one selected station (Sandwick
in the Orkney Islands) ; and those in the second column are
and Accompanying Storm, of October 19,1862. 267
the minima for 1862, on the average of twelve stations in
Scotland.
Tuble of Monthly Barometric Minima,
1857-61. 1862. Difference.
WRDURTY i). fiasoeies 28'706 28'983 + 277
February .........0.... 28°737 29°279 + *542
MME 388s ce ckewyaets 28'594 28°924 + '330
Mie tesiseteciecises|) aor OOS 29°124 + ‘038
DERN re schcecevistivach=sf, ) Oe OOD 29°460 + ‘130
JUNC,.....cccees......., 29404 29°136 — 268
Rice GROEN a vas ns) 29°250 29°568 + °318
PMWM oF esi dasy-core ghia ee Loe 29°310 + ‘128
September,............ 29°203 29°030 — 173
Oebober visy....ss06005 28°938 28°430 — '508
November............. 28°768 28°825 + 057
December ............. 28°758 29°110 + °852
Means......... 28°996 29:097 + 101
The minimum for October 1862, it will be observed, is
28°43, or fully half an inch below the average. This minimum
is the average of all the lowest readings at upwards of fifty
stations in Great Britain, the lowest at some places occurring
on the evening of the 19th, and at others on the morning of
the 20th. Now there are three points worthy of consideration
with regard to this sinking of the barometer on the 19th:
First, The magnitude and suddenness of the fall. Second,
The gradual advance in a north-easterly direction of the de-
pression or trough of the atmospheric wave ; and, third, Its
less vertical depth towards the south of Great Britain. I
shall now advert shortly to each of these three points in
order.
An intelligent observer at Culloden, one of the Society’s
stations, remarks: “The barometer fell rapidly during the
19th, -606 of an inch in 14 hours; and at eleven o’clock at
night the recorded height was only 28:427 inches. This was
the iowest pressure of the mercurial column, and lower than
NEW SERIES.—YVOL. XVII. NO. IJ,— APRIL 18638. 2M
268 Mr Thomas H. Core on the Barometric Depression,
on any occasion since the 3lst March 1860, when the baro-
meter fell to 28-421, and on the 21st of January and 27th of
February of the same year, to 28212 and 28-162 respectively.
Low as these readings are, they were exceeded by several still
lower in previous years; but the most remarkable and greatest
depression of all, within the last twenty-one years, occurred on
the 27th of December 1852, on which occasion the barometer
fell ‘959 of an inch in 13 hours, and sank to 27-872 inches.”
Again, at Silloth, on the Solway Firth, the barometer fell 175
in 83 hours, and at Shields an inch in 9 hours, both of these
being greater and more rapid falls than that just mentioned.
At Nottingham it fell ¢ths of an inch in 10 hours, and at Wis-
beach ‘878 inch in 14 hours. From Birmingham an observer
writes :—‘ At 8 a.M, the barometer here stood 29:245 inches,
and at 9:20 p.m. it had fallen down to 28°418, or ‘827 inch
in 13} hours. This is an extraordinary depression, and a
lower reading than any previously registered here for three
years,’ —7. ¢., since the date of the storm in which the ‘Royal
Charter’ was lost off the Anglesea coast.
At Wanlockhead it fell an inch in 13 hours.
» Bowhill ips dab ag: 43+ aaa
-s Kettins (Forfar) ,, & ogy, Laas
» Fettercairn bi: BT 4g ieee
5, Sandwick 9) O24 tiny ae
In fig. 2 are represented the curves of the 19th for
four of these stations,—viz., Sandwick, Silloth, Shields, and
Nottingham. The general form of the atmospheric wave is
best illustrated by the Silloth curve, and is that commonly
known as the “ dog-tooth" shape. The depression generally
amounted to an inch, the time occupied in falling being from
10 to 12 hours, and the time in rising again to the same
height being about twice as much.
Secondly, Nothing is more clearly brought out by the re-
turns I have obtained regarding this fall of the barometer than
that it occurred later at places situated more tothe N.E. For
instance, at the following places it occurred simultaneously
at 11 p.m. on the Sunday evening :—Stornoway, Culloden,
Kettins (in Forfarshire), Bowhill (in Selkirkshire), Brad-
ford, and Wisbeach. Accordingly, in fig. 4, the line drawn
through all these places represents the position of the trough
and Accompanying Storm, of October 19, 1862. 269
of the atmospheric wave at 11 o’clock. It reached Castle
Newe, in Aberdeenshire, at 1 o’clock ; Fettercairn at 2;
Sandwick and Kirkwall, in the Orkneys, at 4; arrived at
Sumburgh Head, the most southerly point of the Shetland
Islands, at 8; and was just passing off at North Unst at
11 o’clock on Monday morning. At 7 P.M. on Sunday, it
passed through the following places:—Ushenish in North
Uist, Ardnamurchan Point, Oban, Stranraer, Isle of Man,
Liverpool, Birmingham, and Portsmouth; at 5 P.M. it was
just arriving at Barra Head, and it had passed over Galway
at 9 o’clock in the morning. We can hence calculate its velo-
city. The distance in the direction of its motion between
Barra Head and North Unst is about 270 miles, and the time
occupied in passing from the one station to the other being 18
hours, the velocity is therefore 15 miles. When a similar cal-
culation is made for other pairs of stations, and the mean of
all the results taken, the rate is found more accurately, and
is very nearly 15 miles per hour. Towards the South of
England, however, it is a little greater, amounting there prob-
ably to 17 or 18 miles per hour.
As a confirmation of this point, I have found from the log-
book of the barque ‘ Larne,” that the same barometric depres-
sion existed in latitude 46° N., longitude 50° W., or a little
to the S.E. of Newfoundland, at 8 P.M. on the 16th. The
* Larne,” Captain Shewan, commander, left Quebec for Leith
on the 5th October, with a valuable cargo of timber, and in
her log-book the reading of the barometer is registered every
four hours—a practice which it is to be wished were a little
more general in our merchant ships. The second part of
fig. 3 exhibits these readings of the barometer from the
13th to the 19th of October, in which the depression of the
16th, and its striking similarity in form to that of the 19th,
in fig. 1, cannot fail to be noticed. Assuming this then
to be the same wave which reached this country about mid-
night of the 19th, and that it travelled in a direction making
an angle of 40° with the meridian of Greenwich, a simple
trigonometrical calculation gives the distance travelled at
right angles to its front 1150 miles; and the time being
75 hours, gives a velocity of 154 miles per hour.
Thirdly, There is considerable difference in the absolute
270 Mr Thomas H. Core on the Barometric Depression,
lowest readings for Scotland, and I have been unable to
trace any law connecting them; but for England they increase
with considerable regularity towards the south, At Shields,
Silloth, Little Ross, Stranraer, the minimum is very nearly
the same—viz., 28:1. At Nottingham it is 28°69; at Wis-
beach, 28-8; and at Dover, Plymouth, and Portsmouth, 28:9.
Throughout Scotland, the minima vary a very little on either
side of 28:4, exhibiting on the whole a tendency to rise
with the progress of the atmospheric wave, as if the hollow
of the wave in its onward march were being gradually
filled up.
The hurricane of which this fall in the barometer had
given sure warning, was not long in making its appearance ;
and its progress may also be traced from S.W. to N.E. It
commenced on the west coast of Ireland shortly before noon
of Sunday. At Limerick it caused great damage, and raised
the river Shannon several feet above its ordinary level. By
noon it had passed over Waterford, was raging in Dublin, and
had impinged on the S.W. corner of England, causing, off Start
Point, the wreck of the barque “Lotus.” This vessel had left
Demerara for London six weeks before, and had on board a cargo
of rum and a crew of fourteen men, all of whom perished
with the exception of two seamen, who were fortunate enough
to reach the shore. By six o’clock the storm had arrived at
Portsmouth, central England, and the Isle of Man; and about
midnight was raging with the utmost fury along all the east
coast. The direction of the wind at its commencement was
from the S.W., in which direction it continued for about two
hours, the storm being then at its height. Towards the north
of Scotland, however, where it did not commence till a little
after midnight, its direction was more southerly; and in the
Orkneys it was due south. From one to two hours after its
commencement, the barometer began to rise as rapidly as it
had previously fallen, the wind at the same time gradually
veering towards the west; and at nine o'clock on Monday
morning the gale was blowing from the west almost every-
where over Great Britain, its violence having now considerably
abated. On Monday evening its direction was generally
W.N.W., and on Tuesday morning N.W.; but in the Orkney
and Shetland islands N.N.W. By Monday night it had almost
and Accompanying Storm, of October 19, 1862. 271
died away in many places, and by noon of Tuesday it had
altogether ceased. (See fig. 38, where the arrows indicate
the direction of the wind on Sunday evening, Monday mor-
ning, and Tuesday morning.)
Let us now compare the direction of the storm, as expe-
rienced by several ships at sea, with its direction in Britain.
As we have already seen, the storm in which the “ Balelutha”
found herself at noon of the 17th was from the west, or
allowing for magnetic variation, from the W.S.W., and veered
round by N.W. to N.N.W. Thus, on Sunday evening, when
the wind was S.W. in Britain, it was N.W. in the North
Atlantic, 830 miles west of Greenwich.
At one o'clock on Monday morning, the Edinburgh and
Leith Shipping Company’s ss. ‘‘ Oscar” was in the German
Ocean, a little to the N.E. of the Fern Islands, when the hur-
ricane blowing from the S.S.W. passed over her, carrying
away her mizen-mast, and forcing huge waves over her decks.
At the same time the “ Volunteer,” from Leith to Rotterdam,
was lying off the Yorkshire coast, and reports the wind from
the S.W.
The s.s. “ Stirling,’’ Captain Henderson commander, left
Leith for Cronstadt on the 14th of October; and after a
rough passage across the German Ocean, in which one of her
boilers was injured, steamed into Copenhagen harbour to
repair on the morning of the 19th. During Sunday and
Monday the ship was lying in the harbour, when the wind
was blowing a strong gale from the S.W., dnd by Tuesday
morning she had got her boiler repaired, and was ready for
sea. Here is an extract from her log-book for Tuesday, kept
in ordinary or civil reckoning :—
“4 a.M., S.W.—Very hard gale, heavy squalls, with rain.
*7-30.—Got under weigh, and proceeded.
‘9.—Landed pilot off Drago, and at 9:20 passed Drago,
L. V.
“12, W.S.W.—Very hard gale, with heavy squalls and
rain. Heavy sea. Ship labouring very heavy, and filling
her decks every roll. Steamed under Stevn’s Head, to see if
the gale takes off.”
The ship lay under the shelter of Stevn’s Head for 134
hours, while the storm was raging in the open sea. This was
272 Mr Thomas H. Core on the Barometric Depression,
on the afternoon and evening of Tuesday, by which time, it
will be remembered, the storm had ceased in this country.
Now, referring to fig. 4, we have an explanation of all
the facts just mentioned regarding the time of commence-
ment and direction of this storm. Imagine a vast circular
mass of air, from 800 to 1000 miles in diameter, set in motion
by some powerful but unknown cause somewhere in North
America, and having two independent motions,—one of rota-
tion round its centre, and another of translation. Its rotatory
velocity, in a direction contrary to that of the hands of a
watch, most rapid towards the centre, and diminishing
towards the circumference, was, on the average, about 70
miles an hour; and it progressed in a north-easterly direction,
at the rate of about 15 miles per hour. Its centre passed on
the north-western side of this country, and consequently its
lower segment only traversed Britain. . The continuous circles
in fig. 4 show the storm or cyclone setting in on Sunday
evening, and it will be seen that it strikes the southern
parts of the country from the south-west, but Scotland more —
from the south, in accordance with the observed direction of
the wind. On Monday morning its centre was to the N.
of Britain, and its position is indicated by the dotted circles.
The direction of the wind is now westerly, and it has com-
menced to blow at Copenhagen from the 8.W., being still
N.W. in the Atlantic. Acircle drawn more to the N.E. would
represent its position on Monday night and Tuesday morning,
when it was passing off, with the wind from the N.W. The
diameter and velocity of this cyclone may be thus computed :
Its direction was W.S.W. at the “ Balclutha” about noon of
the 17th, and it reached the middle of England about 9 o’clock
on the evening of the 19th, thus traversing a distance of 830
miles in 57 hours, which gives a rate of between 14 and 15
miles an hour. To find the diameter of the cyclone we may
proceed thus:—Since its influence was felt at the same time
830 miles out on the North Atlantic and on the east coast of
Great Britain, if must have measured at least between 800
and 900 miles across. Or thus: When its centre was in the
latitude of Cape Wrath, or rather a little south of it, its
influence extended to the northern portion of the Bay of
Biscay, i.¢., over about 9° of latitude, thus giving it a radius
and Accompanying Storm, of October 19, 1862. 278
of 540 miles, or a diameter of a little more than 1000 miles.
Or once more: Selecting a particular station, as Shields, we
find that there the storm commenced on Sunday evening about
10 o’clock from the S.W., and ended on Tuesday about 2 p.m.
from the N,W., thus veering through an angle of 90° in forty
hours. Now, in this time the cyclone would travel 40 times
15—i.e., 600 miles. Its magnitude must therefore have been
such that the chord of 90° measured 600 miles, which gives for
the circle a diameter of 850 miles.
In conclusion, I may add that the storm seems to have died
gradually away after having passed over this country; and
by the time it should have reached the upper part of the coast
of Norway, its force was quite expended; for a merchant ship
from Archangel, which was in this neighbourhood at the very
time, and whose log-book I inspected, had fine weather
throughout the voyage. We might have anticipated as much,
having already noticed the gradual diminution of the baro-
metric depression in its journey onwards.
On the Solid-hoofed Pig; and on a Case in which the
Fore Foot of the Horse presented Two Toes. By JOHN
Strutuers, M.D., F.R.C.S., Lecturer on Anatomy in the
Edinburgh School of Medicine.
I. On the Solid-hoofed Pig.
After quoting the words of Blumenbach, that ‘“ Swine with
solid hoofs were known to the ancients, and large breeds of
them are found in Hungary and Sweden,” Dr Prichard*
states that “There are breeds of the solid-hoofed swine in
some parts of England. The hoof of the swine is also found
divided into five clefts.” The occurrence of a solid-hoofed
variety of the hog seems, however, to have escaped the notice
of modern naturalists. I have not met with any reference to
it in the works of Jenyns, T. Bell, Cuvier, Owen, or Darwin;
it is not noticed in Mr Youatt’s work on the Pig, in which
he treats of the breeds in the-various counties of England, in
Hungary and Sweden, and in the other parts of the globe in
* Researches into the Physical History of Mankind. Fourth Edition,
yol. i. p. 354. ;
274 Dr John Struthers on the Solid-hoofed Pig, de.
which the hog is known to exist, wild or domesticated; nor is
there any allusion to it in what has been called the “ Pig’s
foot controversy” between Fleming and Conybeare.*
My attention was first directed to this variation by the
appearance presented by the toes in one of the skeletons of
the pig in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of
Edinburgh. There is no record of a dissection of this pig, or
of its history, except that it was presented to the College in
1839 by the late Sir Neil Menzies of Rannoch, Perthshire.
On recent inquiry, through my pupil Mr Donald M‘Gregor,
from Rannoch, I have received some information regarding
this breed, for which 1 am indebted to the careful inquiries
made on the spot by Mr Duncan M‘Gregor. The solid-
hoofed breed has been well known and abundant on the
estates of the late Sir Neil Menzies, at Rannoch, for the last
forty years. Most, if not all of them were black. They
were smaller than the ordinary swine, and seem to have had
shorter ears. They liked the same food and pasture as the
common swine, and showed no antipathy to herd with them.
They were more easily fattened, though they did not attain
so large a size as the ordinary swine; their flesh was more
sweet and tender, but some of the Highlanders had a pre-
judice against eating the flesh of pigs which did not “ divide
the hoof,” unaware, apparently, that the Mosaic prohibition
applied to all pigs. A male and female of the solid-hoofed
kind was brought to Rannoch forty years ago, by the late
Sir Neil Menzies, which was the commencement of the breed
there ; but I have not yet been able to learn with certainty
where they were brought from. Although they did not breed
faster than the common kind, they multiplied rapidly, in
consequence of being preserved. so that the flock increased
to several hundred. At first, care was taken to keep them
separate, on purpose to make them breed with each other,
but after they became numerous they herded promiscuously
with the common swine. As might be expected in a pro-
miscuous flock, some of the young pigs had solid and some
cloven feet, but I am unable as yet to say whether any
definite result was ascertained as to the effect of crossing;
* Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, vols. vi. and vii.; and Rite:
Lithology of Edinburgh, 1859.
Dr John Struthers on the Solid-hoofed Pig, §e, 275
whether any experiments were tried as to crossing ; or whether,
after the promiscuous herding, some of the pigs of the same
brood presented cloven and some solid hoofs. No pig was
ever known there with some of its feet solid and some cloven ;
nor, so far as is known, was there any instance of young born
with cloven feet, when both parents were known to be solid-
hoofed. The numbers diminished—from what cause is not
apparent; so that last year there was only one or two—one of
them a boar, which died; and now the solid-hoofed breed ap-
pears to be extinct at Rannoch.
The condition of the toes in the specimen in the Museum
is likely to be so interesting to naturalists, in relation to the
question of variation,
that I have thought
it worth while to give
the following account
of it, with the permis-
sion of the College :—
Fort Foot.—The
distal phalanges of the
two greater toes are
represented by one
great ungual phalanx,
resembling that of the
horse, but longer in
proportion to its
breadth. The middle
phalanges are also
represented by one
bone in the lower two-
thirds of their length,
presenting separate
upper ends for articu-
lation with the proxi- Fig. A. From the right fore foot of the Solid-
mal phalanges. The ungulous Pig.
proximal phalanges
are separate through their entire length. The whole foot above
the middle phalanges presents the usual arrangement and pro-
portions in the hog. In the accompanying sketch which I
took, from the right fore foot, going high enough to show part of
NEW SERIES.—VOL, XVII, NO, 11.—aprit 1863. 2N
276 Dr John Struthers on the Solid-hoofed Pig, §e.
the metacarpal bones, the natural size is given, and the epi-
physes are also shown.
The bones affected by the variation deserve particular de-
scription.
Middle Phalanz.—There is no symphysis or mark indi-
cating a line of coalescence of the two phalanges. The sur-
face across the middle is somewhat irregularly filled up to
nearly the level of each lateral part. Each half of the phalanx,
as indicated by the notch between the separated upper ends,
has the full breadth of the proximal phalanx above it. The
breadth of the phalanx is nearly an inch at its middle, the
length of each side is seven lines.
Distal Phalanxw.—The proportions of the ungual phalanx
are,—Length, }$ inch. Breadth, behind, +3; at the middle, ,*;
at the tip, ;%. The breadth of the os pedis of the horse con-
siderably exceeds the length.
The anterior surface of the phalanx is considerably arched
transversely, and presents a raised portion in the middle, as
if two toes had come together and pushed forwards a small
middle one. This narrow middle piece is marked off by a
fissure on each side; also above, where it passes up to the
joint forming the middle of three pyramidal processes ; and
below, reaching to within } inch of the tip, it is marked off
by the depression and streaking of the laminated part of the
phalanx. The fissure which bounds it laterally presents an
elliptical vascular foramen, which increases the appearance
of former separation. .
On each side of this median raised portion is a lateral raised
portion, as shown in the sketch, suggesting the idea of three
rudimentary phalanges pushed forwards by the coalescence of
two large phalanges behind them. The lateral raised por-
tions appear to be merely the representatives of the middle
smooth part, which is marked off by the laminated portion of
a terminal phalanx, as seen in the sketch of the terminal
phalanx of the external lesser toe. Each is marked off
externally from the lower or outer half of the surface by a
distinct smooth groove, which begins a little above and in
front of, but is not continued from, the usual lateral foramen
of the phalanx, and the position of which is indicated in the
sketch. The lamina commence at the outer side of this
Dr John Struthers on the Solid-hoofed Pig, &e. 277
groove. Looking to the sketch, if we suppose two phalanges,
like the terminal phalanx of the external lesser toe, with
lamin on both sides, to become confluent, the appearances
presented by the lateral raised portions, and the laminated
parts of the great ungual phalanx, will be exactly accounted
for. The median raised piece is not so accounted for; but the
existence of two foramina, which are described in veterinary
anatomy as situated at the base of the pyramidal process of
each ungual phalanx, may partially account for it. Against
the supposition of this median portion being the rudimentary
phalanx of a median fifth toe, it will be noticed that the
lesser internal toe has the usual three phalanges, showing it
to be the index, not the pollex, as the supposition of five toes
would imply. Ihave thought it necessary thus particularly
to notice these appearances, for they do at first sight suggest
the idea of one great phalanx formed by the coalescence of
. three small and two great phalanges. They are quite as dis-
tinct on the left fore foot. The end of the phalanx presents
a notch corresponding to that in the horse, but broader and
deeper, and partially subdivided by a wavy median projection,
which bears no trace of symphysis.
Hinp Foor.—In the hind foot, only the Distal Phalanz is
single, as represented in the
accompanying sketch (fig. B).
The raised median and lateral
portions are much less distinct
than on the fore foot. The notch
at the tip is simple, and not so
wide or deep as on the fore foot.
There is no trace of a double
origin to the bone. Above, it
rises up into a broad “ pyra-
midal’”’ process, on each sloping
side of which is the articular
surface for the widely separated
lower ends of the middle pha-
langes. Its length at the middle
is ;°5 inch, at the side y; the
greatest breadth is 1yy.
The Middle Phalanges are entirely separate. ‘They are
Fig. B.—From the right hind foot
of the Solidungulous Pig.
278 Dr John Struthers on the Solid-hoofed Pig, Se.
little more than half an inch in length. Below, they are
3 inch apart, and each presents a simple convex surface for
its separate articulation with the ungual phalanx, on the
concave sloping side of which it rests obliquely, as if the
middle phalanx would tend to slip downwards and outwards
off the ungual phalanx.
The Proximal Phalanges diverge below to rest on the
middle phalanges, and approximate above, where they rest
on each other as in the fore foot.
The Lesser Toes have the metacarpal, or. metatarsal, and
three phalanges, and are of the usual proportionate length. The
ungual phalanx of one of the lesser internal toes of the fore
foot, as seen in fig. A, presents a bifurcation reaching half
the length of the phalanx; and as each of the portions has
laminz on both sides, it would seem as if the hoof had also
been divided.
On comparing the measurements of the various bones and
regions of the limbs and trunk with those of the domestic
boar in the Museum, they correspond so closely that the
skeleton of this solidungulous pig may be regarded as pre-
senting no variety, with the exception of the phalangeal pecu-
liarities already described.
The skeleton is articulated with the toes more vertically
placed than in the ordinary hog. In the hind foot, all the pha-
langes are in the same line, and nearly vertical. In the fore
foot, the metacarpus and the proximal phalanges are vertical,
the middle, and especially the ungual, sloping forwards. The
lesser toes are articulated parallel to the greater. From the
form of the articular surfaces, these positions do not appear to
be unnatural.
The Epiphyses of the limbs are still separate from the
shafts and processes. As shown in fig. A, they occur, as is
usual in other mammalia as well as in man, at the distal ends
of the metacarpals and metatarsals, and at the proximal ends
of the phalanges. The distal phalanges, as usual in the horse,
ruminant, pig, and some others, have no epiphysis. There is no
epiphysis on the middle phalanx of the lesser toes; but, from
the appearance of the upper ends, I am not certain but that
they have been lost, from their small size. The epiphyses
of the great middle phalanx of the fore foot, and of the
Dr John Struthers on the Solid-hoofed Pig, &c. 279
middle phalanges of the hind foot, have commenced to con-
solidate with the shaft towards their inner side. If the now
single phalanges were really formed by the coalescence of two
originally separate phalanges, it is worthy of notice that all
trace of that median consolidation has disappeared, while the
epiphyses of the foot are still separate, except a small part of
those of the middle phalanges.
I have endeavoured in vain to obtain the recent limbs of this
variety for dissection. The preceding description of the state
of the bones, however, shows that the solidungulous condition
is not confined to the hoof, but extends to the interior of the
foot. It would be interesting to examine the modification
also of the soft parts, especially of the tendons and nerves.
Facts regarding the breed would also be interesting: whether
the variety is known to occur occasionally among ordinary
breeds, and whether it is then transmitted ; whether there are
now separate breeds of the solidungulous hog in this country,
or in Sweden or Hungary, and if so, whether the young are
always solidungulous, and what is the effect of crossing with
the bisulcous hog; and whether it presents any other pecu-
liarities of form, or differs in its habits, or feeding, from the
ordinary hog. I would feel much indebted by receiving infor-
mation on these points from any one who may know of living
specimens of the variety.
2. Case in which the Fore Foot of the Horse presented
Two Toes.
In September 1859, I examined, on Ford Common, North-
umberland, a two-year old filly which had been born with the
left fore foot cleft like that of the ox. Each of the two toes
had its three phalanges, which could be made to move past the
corresponding phalanges of the other toe, showing the com-
plete division of the foot as far up as the fetlock (metacarpo-
phalangeal) joint. The division externally was carried to the
same extent as in the ox. The lower end of the great meta-
carpal (cannon) bone felt as if bifurcated like that of the ox,
so as to give separate articular support to the two toes.
Farther up, the great metacarpal, as in the other fore limb,
presented the usual form of that bone in the horse. The two
lesser metacarpal bones were felt to terminate at the usual
280 Dr John Struthers on the Solid-hoofed Pig, &e.
place on the right side, and as if a little farther down in the
left limb; but of this I could not be quite certain. The two
hoofs were quite separate and complete, each having its own
horny ‘“‘frog” as in the ox. No attempt at shoeing had been
made, and the hoofs having become elongated forwards, had
recently had their points sawn off. The whole foot was much
larger or more spread than the other.
Unable to obtain possession of the animal at the time, I
had to content myself with leaving instructions, with the view
of afterwards obtaining the limbs for dissection. Notwith-
standing, the death of the animal was not reported to me; and
on inquiry I learn, with the liveliest regret at losing such a
valuable preparation, that the recovery of the bones is im-
possible. The preceding description of the foot is from my
notes written at the time of the examination, which was made
in the presence of my friend Mr R. B. Robertson, F.R.C.S.,
now of Ardrossan, and of Mr Strutt, the veterinary surgeon
at Ford.
This variation would have admitted of ready explanation
under the old theory of the formation of the horse’s foot, by
the confluence of two originally separate toes, just as the
great metacarpal bone of the ruminant is known to be formed
by the coalescence of two metacarpals. But when we re-
member that the foot of the horse is developed as one toe, the
occurrence of two toes in a ‘“‘soliped” becomes a remarkable
and significant fact in the history of variation.
The Place and Power of Natural History in Colonisation ;
with special reference to Otago* (New Zealand). By W.
LAUDER Linpsay, M.D., F.R.S. Edin., F.L.S. and F.R.G.S.
London, &c.
Uses of Natural History to the Colonist.
My principal aim in the following remarks is to bring under
your notice some of the uses and advantages of the Natural
* Extracts from a Lecture prepared for, and at the request of, the “ Young
Men’s Christian Association” of Dunedin (Otago, New Zealand). Pamphlet,
pp. 80. Dunedin, January 1862.
It may be desirable here to note, in explanation or preface, that the Lecture
in question was prepared towards the close of 1861, after a four months’ re-
sidence in Otago, mostly devoted to excursions investigatory of its natural
On Natural History in Colonisation. 281
Sciences to the British colonist, and to colonial governments, more
especially to the Otago colonist and the Otago government, I
will endeavour to show how, and to what extent, practical use may
be made of such sciences as Geology, Mineralogy, and Botany ;
how far, or in what ways, they may be rendered, when judiciously
applied, subservient to the daily necessities or luxuries of the
settler; how they may minister to the material riches, the sub-
stantial progress, of the State. In recommending the study of
Natural Science to colonists, I am constantly met with the query
“ Cui bono ?” ‘ What is the precise use or value of such sciences
to me? How will a knowledge thereof add to my wealth or
prosperity? I hope to be able to indicate, by a few illustrations,
that a knowledge of Natural Science is on the one hand a solid
gain of an easily appreciable kind ; while on the other it will not
stand in the way of a colonist’s usefulness as a farmer, a runholder,
a storekeeper, a merchant, or a member of the Provincial Council ;
that scientific education does not necessarily unfit a man for
manual labour, or for entering fully on any of the departments of
colonial life. On the contrary, there is every reason to believe
that scientific knowledge would render a settler more able to take
advantage, for his own profit as well as that of the State, of the
opportunities surrounding him; more ready to develop the natural
resources of his adopted country; while it would tend to make
him, in every other respect also, a better man. I think I could
point with confidence to some of the most successful of your
settlers here, whose studies at Oxford and Cambridge, at Edinburgh
and Aberdeen, have, so far from unfitting them for the business of
wool producers, cattle breeders, or farmers—of merchants or
legislators—been the sources to them of equal pleasure and profit.
Indeed I know that some of the producers of your highest priced
wools—your most successful rearers of stock—are graduates or
undergraduates of our home universities,—striplings from Oxford
and Cambridge, Eton and Harrow, lacking apparently the bodily
vigour necessary for being pioneer settlers, —youths whose physical
history (more especially its geology and botany). At that period almost
nothing was known of the natural history of Otago; and this fact, in con-
nection with the then recent discovery of the Tuapeka gold-field, which had
directed the attention of the colonists to the natural resources of the province,
led to the urgent request that the author should embody his views on some of
the main bearings of natural science on the progress of a new country ina
popular form, and induced him, under many disadvantages, personal and
general, to accede to this request by the delivery and publication of the lecture
aforesaid. It may be further proper to remark that the observations on the
natural history of Otago, being essentially of a popular and general character,
and consisting of a traveller’s impressions during a hurried visit to a new
country, do not aim at, nor can they claim, scientific exactitude—an exacti-
tude impossible without deliberate examination and investigation, microsco-
pical and chemical—implying not only labour, but time, the latter of which,
especially, is obviously not at the command of the passing traveller.
282 Dr Lauder Lindsay on the Place and Power of
energies at home would have been expended on the exploits of
the Alpine Club, And some of your most successful farmers and
runholders are educated men, whose only feeling on the subject
is one of regret that they did not, before leaving home, study
geology, chemistry, botany, or other branches of natural history,
that would have rendered them more suited for their isolated
position as outsettlers in new fields,
To a certain class of the settlers in Otago I feel it unnecessary
to address myself. My intercourse with them, during the short
period of my visit here, has convinced me that they are fully
sensible of the advantages of natural history knowledge, as tend-
ing to make them more wealthy settlers, more useful citizens of
the State, much wiser and better men. Some of them have de-
plored to me their ignorance of geology and botany, and have ex-
pressed an anxious desire to ‘“‘ make up their lee-way” by any
means still in their power. Many of the higher classes of settlers
feel, and say, that a knowledge of some of the natural sciences
would be of immense value to them simply as a relaxation, or a
relief to the tedium of a monotonous life in isolated stations, espe-
cially during winter and in inclement weather. They frankly
admit that an additional zest would be given to their excursions
did they know something of the rocks and minerals, shrubs and
flowers, with which they come in contact. To such settlers, then,
as are already wholly or partially alive to the substantial value of
a knowledge of the natural sciences—who recognise them as being
or possessing a distinct power, and as occupying a distinct place,
in colonisation,—my remarks are less intended than for those who
are yet altogether ignorant of the practical—the money-making and
money-saving—purposes these sciences may be made to subserve.
I will firstly lay before you some illustrations based on your
local natural history, classifying them under the respective heads of
Geology, Botany, Zoology, Meteorology, and Chemistry—directing
attention more fully to those connected with the first-named
science, as being of chief importance at the present moment, when
your gold, your coal, your building stones, your fire and brick
clays, are substances and subjects of primary and absorbing inte-
rest. Thereafter I will venture some suggestions as to the best
means of promoting the general cultivation and special practical
applications of the natural history sciences in Otago.
General Geology of Otago.
I feel warranted in affirming that Otago is a most interesting
geological field, and I would congratulate the Provincial geologist,
Dr Hector, on the prospects of usefulness, the opportunities for
distinction, which such a field offers him. I think it probable,
moreover, that the Dunedin district—that is, Dunedin, with its
Natural History in Colonisation. 283
vicinity within a radius of about ten miles—will be found geologi-
cally, as well as botanically, the most interesting part of the pro-
vince,—interesting in its variety especially, At all events it is by
far the most interesting part of the province I have visited; and
I have no hesitation in saying that, if the inhabitants of Dunedin
do not cultivate the natural sciences, it is not from want of abun-
dant and magnificent opportunities. Nor in point of its mere
physical features, its picturesqueness, the variety and richness of
its scenery,—scenery that reminds the tourist or emigrant of the
Trosachs, Loch Katrine, and Loch Lomond of his native land,—
does Dunedin or the Otago harbour yield the palm to any other
part of this province, or perhaps of any other of the New Zealand
provinces. The geological formations of the Dunedin district are
both most interesting in themselves, and most varied; they may
be easily examined by any of you possessed of ordinary pedestrian
powers.
The higher or hilly portions of the town bear abundant
evidence of the presence of old volcanic agencies; there may be
seen, in almost any of the cuttings or sections for roadways or
building sites about the town, ample evidences of the most extra-
ordinary terrestrial disturbances, the result mainly of subterranean
fires. The hilly parts of the town are mostly composed of trap-
tuff, a substance of very varying character, which has been origi-
nally a volcanic mud or ash, apparently chiefly deposited under, and
sorted by, water. You will find it of all colours, and of all con-
sistencies; and those of you who are uninitiated, will regard it as
a most incomprehensible, because so variable, rock or substance.
It appears to be one of these hardened tuffs, originally a volcanic
mud, and consolidated partly by heat, partly by pressure, which
is quarried at Anderson’s Bay, and is largely used as a building
stone in town, under the name of “ sandstone.” There is much
in your trap-tuffs, and in the steatites, ochres, and other minerals
they contain, that remind me of what I have seen in the most
interesting volcanic island of Iceland. The volcanoes which have
vomited forth these masses of basalt and tuff—these trappean
rocks and deposits—appear to have been active at the era of the
formation of the auriferous drift, that is, during the tertiary epoch ;
and this finds a parallel in certain of the Australian gold-fields.
In the latter localities it is below these ancient lavas, or beds of
volcanic mud or ashes, that the auriferous drift reposes—that lie
the beds of ancient streams, whose bars detained the gold washed
down from the higher regions of the Silurian slates, and which now
constitute the “leads” so keenly searched for by the miner. Your
basalts and allied trappean rocks are closely analogous to those of
the Edinburgh district—to those of Arthur Seat, Salisbury Crags,
and the Calton Hill. The columnar basalts or greenstones of
Samson’s Ribs, of Staffa, and of the Giants’ Causeway, find
NEW SERIES.—VOL. XVII. NO, I11.—APRIL 1863. 20
284 Dr Lauder Lindsay on the Place and Power of
their representatives or analogues in the beautiful columns of
Stoneyhill (which, however, are horizontal, instead of being, as
is more general, perpendicular), of Green Island Peninsula, and
the Forbury. The basalt of Mount Cargill, Saddlehill, the
Signalhill range, Flagstaff and Kaikorai Hill, of the ravine
which forms a continuation inland of Maclaggan Street, Dun-
edin, and of many other localities, you quarry to use as road-
metal, and the best of all road-metal it makes; while an allied
rock is quarried in the Bell-hill or Church-hill, Dunedin, for
building purposes, one for which this class of rocks is not so well
adapted. The peculiar cannon-ball-like appearance of the masses
of rock in the last named quarry, which I find the subject of
general remark and wonder among the inhabitants of Dunedin, is
frequently a characteristic of the basaltic rocks of old Scotland—
just as the prismatic or columnar structure is, both being alike
due to the circumstances under which the mass has cooled from
a state of fusion. It is of some of these schistose and fine-
grained basalts (clinkstone and Lydian stone), as well.as of Ne-
phrite (or jade), the “ greenstone’’ of the Maoris, that the Maori
hatchets, so commonly found on the surface of the soil throughout
the province, are formed. Your hills all exhibit abundant evi-
dences of glacier or ice action in the immense erratic blocks, which
are scattered in wild profusion over their summits and ridges;
and the boulder clays, which are almost everywhere plentiful in
the superficial strata, at a very few inches or feet below the soil,
are a testimony of a similar kind. Your alluvial lands—your Taieri
plain and Inch Clutha—exhibit the same structure as the most
fertile ‘‘ carses”’ of Scotland, such as the Carse of Gowrie. I re-
cognise in the Taieri plain the same projecting knolls, which, in
the Carse of Gowrie, have given rise to such names as Inch-ture,
Inch-michael, Inch-yra, Inch-innans. Nor do your “ carses,” or
“inches” appear less fertile ; at all events, I do not know that I
have seen richer wheat in the Carse of Gowrie—that first of all
the wheat districts of Scotland—than I have seen but a few weeks
ago on Inch Clutha,
The sedimentary fossiliferous rocks are well represented in the
province generally, as well as in the Dunedin district. Some of
the limestones have a Cainozoic (Tertiary) facies; most of them
a Mesozoic (Secondary) appearance, resembling generally the
chalks and greensands of old England: while some of them may
be, like some of those of Nelson and Wellington, Paleozoic (Per-
mian). Jurassic (Oolitic) strata, containing the Plesiosaurus aus-
tralis :—Triassic beds, supposed to be the equivalents of the Eu-
ropean Muschelkalk :—the analogues of the beds of Maestricht in
Belgium, and Fax6 in Denmark: as well as Permian and even
Carboniferous strata, have been detected in other provinces of New
Zealand, and may be detected here; but as yet data are wholly
Natural History in Colonisation. 285
insufficient to enable me to venture on any accurate chronology*
of the rocks of Otago, Not only is it difficult to determine the
European equivalents, and thereby the geological age or chrono-
logical relations of these fossiliferous limestones—and generally
of the rocks of Otago—on account of the very meagre data that
exist, the merest fraction of the province having been examined,
and the collections being far from full or satisfactory ; but the
difficulty is rendered greater by the present confused state of geo-
logical classification and nomenclature in Europe—a confusion
that demands instant reform, with a view to the establishment of
more comprehensive and natural groups of strata, or geological
“ systems ;” less arbitrary and artificial lines of separation or
boundary between these groups or systems ; and a less local and
objectionable nomenclature of groups and their subdivisions. The
whole of the Green Island district (by which I do not refer to any
of the “ districts” of your excellent Survey Office, but to the natural
district formed by the range of the Green Island hills) is a mass of
foraminiferous and entomostracous limestone, of the age, perhaps,
of the English chalk and greensand, containing beautiful Echino-
devms or sea-urchins, marine shells (Terebratule), and the teeth
and spine rays or defences—icthyodorulites—of fishes of the shark
family. The same formation extends through the Caversham
valley and hills, and penetrates up the valley of the Kaikorai
stream towards Flagstaff. What are its limits I have had no
opportunity of determining. From this Green Island limestone
you derive the Caversham building stones, of which some of the
most substantial and handsome buildings in town are constructed.
On the Woodburn property, on the seaward flank of Saddlehill,
there is abundance of a shell Limestone; and I have met with
fossiliferous limestones, apparently of different geological age,
* Provisional Chronology of chief Rocks of Otago, as known to close of 1861.
I. Recent.
Superficial Alluvium : Brick Clays.
Certain Moa-Bone Deposits.
ll. Cainozoie.
Auriferous Drift: Upper.
< Lower: Lignite Beds and associated Strata.
Certain Volcanic (Trappean) Rocks.
5 Fossiliferous Limestones and associated Strata.
” ” Clays.
Septaria beds of Moeraki.
i i Moa- Bone Deposits.
¥ Fs Kauri-Gum _,,
111. Mesozoic.
Certain Fossiliferous Limestones and associated Stra a.
IV. Paleozoic.
Possibly certain Fossiliferous Limestones and associated Strata, &e.
Metamorphic Slates: quartziferous and auriferous.
Preponderance of Strata of Paleozoic and Cainozoic age; especially of the
Auriferous slates and their “ drifts.”
286 Dr Lauder Lindsay on the Place and Power of
about the “ Nuggets,” near the mouth of the Clutha, and elsewhere.
It remains to be seen what proportion of lime and silica these
limestones respectively contain, and how far they are suitable as
mortars or manures; this is a point for the analytical chemist.
Other purer limestones I have met with, of limited extent, in
various localities. In almost every part of the province, fossili-
ferous limestones, of great scientific interest, if not of great com-
mercial value, appear to occur; at least I have had put into my.
hands specimens from the Mataura Ferry, the Shag Valley,
Oamaru, and elsewhere. Many “industries,” as you term them
in the colonies, will probably ere long spring from the products of
your soil. Brick clays are abundant, and bricks will be desirable
where suitable building stones are deficient. Of the latter there
seem none to equal the sandstones of Craigleith and Granton.
Ochres and umbers, et hoc genus omne of pigments abound. The
Septaria of Moerak, like those of Victoria (Australia), may yield
a useful cement,
Geology of the Otago Gold-Fields,
What I may designate for present purposes the Auriferous
system of rocks and deposits,—those rocks, or strata in other words,
which yield gold to the digger,—are no less abundant in the neigh-
bourhood of Dunedin than they appear to> be throughout the pro-
vince. The rocks in question consist of gneiss, mica, chlorite, tale,
clay, and other slates, with associated quartzites. They are iden-
tical, in appearance, with the rocks of the same name, which occur
in the Grampians and other parts of Scotland, and are perhaps of
similar age (Lower Silurian), There are the same ferruginous im-
pregnations of these slates so characteristic of, or common in, the
auriferous slates of Victoria, and generally of all auriferous coun-
tries; and, though to a more limited extent than is the ease in many
other gold-yielding countries, there are disturbances of these slates
by eruptive volcanic rocks. Of this, the outburst through, and
upheaval and disturbance of, the surrounding metamorphic slates
by the basaltic wedge of Saddlehill, is an example very near your
capital. You may see the Metamorphic slates in question well
sectioned in the cuttings of the new main south road as it crosses
the shoulder of Saddlehill—that is, between the Green Island and
Taieri districts They “crop out’ in many of the gullies about the
flanks of Saddlehill ; the Chain Hills are made up of them; they
meet your gaze constantly in the hills on the left-hand-side of the
main south or Invercargill road, between Saddlehill and the ranges
that intervene between the Tokomairiro plain and the Clutha river,
where other rocks take their place, at least coastwards. Here and
there these metamorphic slates form bold jagged peaks. Nowhere
have I seen them so beautifully developed as on the coast at Otokia,
beyond Saddlehill—your future Brighton—where they constitute
Natural History in Colonisation. 287
its bold bluff or headland, and the adjoining cliffs. The whole of
the “ranges” constituting the gold-fields of Tuapeka and Waita-
huna are of the same character; which ‘‘ ranges,” in contour, and
in their general aspect of barrenness or bleakness, resemble the
uplands of Peeblesshire and Lanarkshire (the Lammermoor, Low-
ther, and Leadhill ranges of Scotland). You may study the gneiss
and mica and other slates, with their quartziferous veins and inter-
bedded masses, in any of the ‘ holes” of Gabriel’s or Munroe’s
Gullies, or Wetherstone’s and Waitahuna flats, as well as in the
flanks of the said ravines or valleys, But you may study them
equally well, perhaps better, because more quietly and deliberately,
at less expense and inconvenience—with greater comfort and with
less danger, without the risk of frightening the poor digger by the
suspicion that you are watching his operations with covetous eye
and evil intent—in the glen that runs parallel to the main south
road between Abbott’s Creek and Saddlehill, on the right-hand
side of the road, between it and the range of the Chain Hills, and
immediately behind Mr Martin’s farm of Fairfield, Here you
will find what has been a gold-field in miniature—what is geolo-
gically quite as much a gold-field as Gabriel’s or Wetherstone’s
Gullies, Waitahuna or Waipori. Some portions of this glen or
gully, especially the upper portions, are riddled with the holes of
gold-diggers, men fresh from the experiences of Tuapeka and
Waitahuna; and the structure of the strata exhibited in such sec-
tions or sinkings is precisely that of the gold-pits of the more
famed diggings of the interior. You may there see the same
series of clays—yellow, red, and blue—the same “ chopped slate”
or slaty debris of a similar diversity of colour—the so-called
‘oravel” of the digger; the same “ wash dirt”; the same “ bottom
rock ;”’ the same “ pockets” and “leads.” These pits or sinkings
are all in the so-called “ Auriferous Drift,” which appears to be,
like that of Victoria, of Tertiary age, and to be divisible into an
older or lower, and newer or upper series of beds. © The former
series includes your Lignites, with their associated clays—fire and
potter’s clays, kaolins, ochres, and laterites; and your quartz con-
glomerates and grits, so common in the Saddlehill district—the
familiar “ cement” of the gold-miner—blocks of which are strewn
over the Tokomairiro and other plains. ‘The newer or upper divi-
sion of the “ Drift” consists mainly of ‘clays, boulder clays, and
* chopped slate” gravels—the miner’s “‘ wash dirt;’ all to be seen
in the Saddlehill, or Tuapeka gold-fields. The hills bounding what
I venture to name Glen Martin—the chief site of the Saddlehill
gold-diggings—have the same configuration and the same struc-
ture as the ranges of Tuapeka and Waitahuna. That the slates
of this glen are auriferous, there is no doubt; the glen has not
only been “ prospected,” but worked, I have myself washed gold
from its clays, and have seen specimens collected by others. The
288 Dr Lauder Lindsay on the Place and Power of
gold here is very fine, scaly or granular, generally in mere specks ;
but I am told some respectable ‘“‘nuggets” were obtained by diggers,
and some good specimens of auriferous quartz were found in the road
cuttings already referred to. The precious metal does not, how-
ever, occur here in such quantity as to enable the produce of this
locality to compete with the greatly superior yields of Tuapeka ;
respectable wages have been made, but nothing more; good “finds”
and “ piles’ have been hitherto unknown. In other words, the
gold working has not paid—a circumstance by no means peculiar
to what may be called the Saddlehill Gold-field ; and the field has
consequently been deserted for more favoured El-Dorados,
From all I have seen and heard, I believe. the gold-bearing
rocks—the gneiss, mica, and other slates, with their quartzites
above described—constitute the geological basis of a large part
of Otago, especially of its interior mountains, of what may be
denominated the Lake districts, representing the basins drained
by the great central Lakes Hawea, Wanaka, Wakatip, and others,
as well as the basins of the Clutha, Mataura, and other large
rivers. I am led to this conclusion partly by such facts as
these :—I find the gravel of the Clutha and Tokomairiro rivers
composed of the debris of the rocks just named ; the same debris
is scattered over the tops of the ranges about the Clutha Ferry,—
ranges which are themselves apparently trappean; slate and
quartz debris is exceedingly common, as gravel or conglomerate,
in the Tertiary auriferous drifts which are most extensively dis-
tributed; all which debris I believe to be the result of the
disintegration of the mountain ranges of the interior, many, if
not all of which I should expect to belong to the metamorphic
formation or system—probably of Lower Silurian age. By far
the most abundant and extensively distributed rocks of Otago I
have seen are the metamorphic slates in question, and their de-
rived “ drifts :” the one probably of Paleozoic (Silurian), the
other of Cainozoic (Tertiary) age; in other words, the one as old
as the slates of the Lammermoors, and the other as new as the
boulder clays—of Scotland. These quartziferous slates, or their
derived “ drifts,” again, have been already ascertained to contain
gold in many very distant parts of the province. The inference
is natural and legitimate that they will do so, less or more, wher-
ever they occur; at all events, one is justified in prospecting for
gold wherever he comes upon rocks of this formation, or their de-
rivatives, in Otago. It is impossible, however, from a superficial
examination, to determine the absolute or comparative auriferous
richness of any given tract of metamorphic slate country—to give
an opinion as to where gold-digging may become payable or remune-
rative; nothing short of actual experiment can decide such a point,
All surmises, opinions, or reports, then, based on any data short of
actual trial by competent persons, and with the aid of proper
apparatus, ought to be received with caution. My impression is
Natural Iistory in Colonisation. 289
strong that a large part of Otago is auriferous ; how far, or
to what extent so, I will not venture to say. And I believe
further, that, so far as the adjacent provinces or other parts of
New Zealand possess the same geological structure, pro tanto
gold may reasonably be expected there also,—though here, again,
it is impossible to predict whether, or to what extent, the gold-
fields to be discovered, or that have been discovered, in other
parts of the middle or north island, will be inferior or superior to
those of Otago. The latter point can only be determined by pro-
perly organised prospecting parties, which it is manifestly the inte-
rest of governments, anxious for the possession of gold-fields, to
send forth. I would recommend that such parties should, where
possible, be headed or accompanied by persons acquainted, at least,
with the general features of geological and mineralogical science,
for reasons of a kind which the following illustrations may indicate.
In connection with this subject, let me state my conviction, that
gold mining is destined to become one of the regular, permanent
industrial resources of Otago ; that the supply of alluvial gold is,
at present, considering its mining population, and the means at
disposal for the separation of the metal, practically unlimited ; and
that even with chemico-mechanical contrivances for the extraction
of gold of a kind and quality with which the oldest gold-yielding
countries are not yet provided—which science and art have not as
yet furnished even to Europe—years, or cycles of years, will pro-
bably elapse, before your alluvial deposits are exhausted ;, after
which the perhaps even richer original quartzites will fall to be
searched for and operated on. So extensively is the auriferous
drift distributed—so largely is it developed—so rich is it likely to
prove in its gold-yield—so easily will it be worked in comparison
with auriferous quartzites, that years may elapse before it is found
necessary to make search for, or to work the latter, which as yet
have been little looked for, and of whose existence, richness, or
extent nothing may as yet be said to be known. Nor will it be
found remunerative for a long period to work the beach diggings
at Moeraki, the gold of which is the finest I have seen here, but
which demands more labour for its separation than the nuggety
golds of Tuapeka. The “drift” derived from, or the debris of,
the metamorphic slates, in the upper beds whereof all your
“ diggings’”’ are at present situated, forms plains of great extent,
as well as valleys of every size, in every part of the province I
have visited. And there are indications that it is less or more
universally prevalent throughout the province—in plains and
valleys—in river banks, beds, and terraces—lake beaches old and
new, and in other forms and localities. This circumstance is most
significant, indicating the probable extent and abundance of the
diffusion of alluvial gold; for wherever this drift occurs—espe-
cially its upper series of beds, the clays and gravels of the gold
pits of Tuapeka—gold may be looked for.
290 Dr Lauder Lindsay on the Place and Power of
Geologists know that gold is almost always associated with
certain groups of rocks, and that certain other groups need not be
expected to yield gold. There is no great difficulty in predicting
or asserting that the trap rocks of Dunedin will contain no gold,
and that diggers need make neither “ shallow” nor “ deep sinkings”
therein; though this remark does not apply to strata, which may
be auriferous drifts or auriferous rocks, covered by such traps (of
Tertiary age) ; for instance those of many of the Victorian gold-
fields. But the uninitiated may be led into fallacy and error by
the presence of such substances as quartz. I have already stated
that the ranges about the Clutha are bestrewed with quartz debris
or pebbles. These have obviously been brought by the agency of
ice or water from the Highlands of the Clutha—the great in-
terior mountain chains—and here deposited on the surface. The
subjacent rocks are trappean, not schistose, Of the significance
of such facts, or perhaps of the existence of such facts, how-
ever, the diggers are apparently unaware. They can say, with
Cesar, Veni, vidi—I came and I saw; but they cannot add vici—
I have conquered. They have espied the quartz, and they have
jumped to the conclusion—Here is quartz; itis in quartz that gold
occurs ; it is in the same quartz that it is found, or from which
it has been derived, at Tuapeka and Waitahuna ; the chances
are, therefore, ten to one, it will be equally found here. So
they sink pits, and penetrate the same yellow and bluish clays
that cover the rocks in every part of the province I have visited ;
but they come upon no slate or drift, they find no gold. They
strike upon trap, and they might possibly sink their pits to
the earth’s centre without reaching the strata of which they are
in search. I have seen prospecting pits in other situations, where
a little knowledge of geology would have prevented the error,
the trouble, and the expense of sinking pits, however shallow,
in localities where no gold could reasonably be looked for. It
is not easy to calculate the amount of time that is frittered,
labour and money uselessly expended, under such cireumstances,
by what is virtually geological ignorance and inexperience. TI
cannot say I have met with cases among the Victorian immigrants ;
along experience has made them, so far as gold-bearing strata
are concerned, geologists and mineralogists in spite of them-
selves. But I have met with ludicrous instances among the
Otago diggers, who have, in regard to gold-working, much yet
to learn from their Victorian brethren, <‘ All is not gold that
glitters” is especially true, and worthy of being carefully and con-
stantly borne in mind, in these golden days. I have known Otago
settlers carefully hoarding up “ Nuggets” of iron pyrites, which are
common in certain of the metamorphic slates, particularly in clay
or common roofing slate, in which they constitute the familiar
«slate diamonds.” I have found these pyrites, also, in the shales
associated with your lignites, for instance in Abbott's Creek. Not
Natural History in Colonisation. 291
many years since a “gold mania” suddenly bestirred douce old
Scotland, and there was a “rush” from various parts of the
country towards the Lomond Hills in Fife, and other localities
reputedly auriferous, I well remember the only trophies of the
deluded excursionists were scales of mica, or cubes of the same
iron pyrites, both glittering and both gold-like, but neither of
them the genuine article “ by a long way.” The slightest geo-
logical knowledge would have prevented any one looking for gold
on or about the Lomond Hills, which are trappean, surrounded
partly by the old red sandstone, partly by the carboniferous system.
Gold, however, does really occur in Scotland, at one period as much
as £100,000 worth having been collected in the Lead Hills dis-
trict. But though nuggets of 1 or 2 ounces were occasionally
obtained of equal quality with those of New Zealand or Australia,
it was found to exist in too small a quantity to pay its collection,
when, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, a man’s daily wages rose to
fourpence; the royal works under Sir Bevis Bulmer, Master of
the Mint, were therefore given up, and have not been resumed,
though gold may be found in the alluvium of the Lead [ill valleys
to this day. Gold occurs also in some of the Welsh rocks, and
here its extraction does pay, for the melting of the ores, in which
it is found, pays independently altogether of the gold, which is thus
a source of additional profit. These instances are adduced with a
view to show—firstly, that gold may exist, and yet its collection
not be a profitable or remunerative occupation, on account of its
quantity or the expense of labour ; and secondly, that it may exist
under circumstances, or in situations where it cannot be collected
with the same ease as the alluvial gold of Australia and New
Zealand, but where the employment of chemical or mechanical
appliances may yield a profitable return.*
Geologically your province bears a strong general resemblance
to all other auriferous countries yet known, though there are
differences in details. I speak in regard especially to California,
Australia, Nova Scotia, and Russia. And this general resem-
blance leads me to hazard the prediction that you will probably
find associated with the gold in your auriferous drifts many of
the minerals that haye been found associated therewith in
Australia and other gold-yielding countries. Such is Titani-
ferous Iron Sand (Iserine), which, though less abundant here
than in Taranaki, and perhaps the North Island generally, is still
common both on your coasts and in the interior; it is intermixed
* Allusion is not here made nor intended to the recent discovery of the rich
auriferous quartzites of the Silurian strata of North Wales (Merionethshire),
and the highly remunerative operations of the Vigra and Clogau, and other
gold-mining companies established around Dolgelly. These gold yielding
rocks are more comparable to the quartzites of Coromandel] (Auckland, N. Z.)
than to the alluvial deposits of Otago.
NEW SERIES—VOL. XVII. NO, I1.—APRIL 1863. Qp
292 Proceedings of Societies.
with the sands of the Green Island coast, just as I have found it
at Portobello, near Edinburgh, and as I have it also from Skip-
ness in Cantyre, Argyllshire. Such also are Tin Sand (Cassiterite),
Beryl, Garnet, and Zircon: which latter gems are sometimes so
abundant as to form, near Invercargill, a Garnet Sand, that
speaks eloquently of the geological character of the great central
mountain of Otago.
Perhaps the best proof I can give you that geological informa-
tion is eagerly sought after, and its want greatly felt, by your
settlers, is to repeat, under this or other heads, some of the queries
that have been put to me in the course of my excursions. In-
quiries innumerable, as you may easily conceive, have pointed in
the direction of Gold. I have repeatedly been asked, for instance,
whether a particular piece of land, or district of country, is likely to
contain gold. Some settlers are prompted to such inquiries by the
fond hope that their land may prove auriferous, the source of golden
returns ; the majority, however, of landowners fervently wish
that their possessions may have no attractions for the prospecting
party or digger—may contain none of the.“ root of all evil”—that
they may be left to their flocks and herds in peace and security.
A more specific form of the same sort of question is: Ought I to
‘* sell out” at once, while prices are high and the demand great ?
or should I “hold on,” in hope of the discovery of gold or coal,
ironstone or limestone, or some other valuable rock or mineral,
on my land? Such a querist is usually keenly on the outlook,
like Micawber, for ‘‘something to turn up” to his advantage.
Fortunately, so far as the probability of finding gold is concerned,
such queries are generally easily disposed of by any one possessing
a modicum of geological knowledge.
(To be continued.)
PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.
Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Monday, 1st December 1862.
Principal Forbes, one of the Vice-Presidents, at the request of
the Council, delivered the Opening Address.
(This Address appeared in the last number of the Journal, page 71.)
Monday, 15th December 1862.— Prorressor CHRISTISON,
V.P., in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—
Royal Society of Edinburgh. 293
1, On the Representative Relationships of the Fixed and Free
Tunicata, regarded as two sub-classes of equivalent value ;
with some general remarks on their Morphology. B
John Denis Macdonald, Ksq., R.N., F.R.S., Surgeon MS.
“Tearus.” Communicated by Professor Maclagan.
In this paper the author maintains the proposition, that the
class T'unicata may be conveniently divided into two sub-classes,
viz., the Fixed or Stationary, and the Free or Locomotive, of at
least nearly equal value in a zoological point of view, in opposition
to the opinion commonly entertained, that the so-called Pelagic
Tunicata compose a group only commensurate with the groups of
the Compound, the Social, and the Simple, into which the Fixed
Tunicata have been divided by Milne-Edwards and others.
After some general remarks on the morphology of the class
Tunicata, the author proposes the classification, of which the fol-
lowing are the leading subdivisions, and under which he groups
and classifies the various genera of Tunicata.
Tunroara.
Sub-class 1st—Animals fixed or stationary.
I. Branchial membrane closely adherent, or more or less per-
fectly sac-like; simply areolated or distinctly retiform, the
meshes disposed in many transverse series without non-ciliated
supporting bars.
1. Gemme springing directly from the parent, with a temporary
bond of union—Simple Tunicata.
2.Gemme springing separately from a definite “ascidiarium”’
(Hux.), and communicating indirectly through a central
common vascular system—Social Tunicata.
3. Gemma arising separately from the parent with or without
vascular intercommunication, but always immersed in a
common test or “ ascidiarium’”—-Compound Tunicata.
Sub-class 2d.— Animals free, locomotive.—Pelagie Tunicata.
IT. Branchial membrane sac-like, with transverse slits in single
longitudinal series, strengthened by longitudinal non-ciliated rods,
apertures terminal or sub-terminal.
_ III. Respiring by an upper and a lower gill-band, connected
with each other laterally, and with the walls of the atrium; having
branchial slits, but no supporting longitudinal rods; apertures
terminal.
IV. Respiring by a central and inferior gill-band, with free
borders and transverse ciliated stripes, but without slits or rods;
apertures terminal or sub-terminal.
V. Pharynx ciliated below, without a distinct gill-band; bran-
chial slits reduced to two ciliated openings on the sides of the
rectum,
2. On the great Refractor at Elchies, and its Powers in
Sidereal Observation. By Professor C. Piazzi Smyth,
Astronomer-Royal for Scotland.
294 Proceedings of Societies.
Monday, 5th January 1863.—Prorzesson KELLAND, WP.
in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—
1. Biographical Account of Professor Louis Albert Necker,
of Geneva. By David James Forbes, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
V.P.R.S. Ed., Principal of the United College of St Sal-
vador and St Leonard, in the University of St Andrews.
Louis Albert Necker was born at Geneva on the 10th April
1786. His father, Jacques Necker, was Professor of Botany, and
also a councillor of state and syndic of Geneva. This Jacques
Necker was nephew of the financier Necker under Louis XVI., and
cousin-german of Madame De Staél. Louis Necker was therefore
one generation farther removed from those eminent persons. His
mother, Albertine de Saussure, daughter of the illustrious Swiss
naturalist, was a person of unusual talent, and of the most amiable
disposition. His attachment to her throughout her life was of the
tenderest and most constant kind. She died in 1841. She is
known to the public by her excellent work called “ Education Pro-
gressive,” and also by a biographical notice of Madame de Staél.
The family of Necker is stated to have been originally Irish,
and to have taken refuge in Protestant Prussia during the religious
persecutions of Queen Mary of England. Early in the eighteenth
century, Charles Frederic Necker, great-grandfather of the subject
of our biography, left Custrin in Pomerania for Geneva, being
charged with the education of a young German prince. He was a
jurist of eminence, and having determined to settle at Geneva, a
chair of law was instituted for him in 1724. He died in1760. His
son Louis Necker was Professor of Mathematics at Geneva, and
author of several works, while another son was Jacques Necker,
the celebrated financier. These brothers both died in 1804, The
former was grandfather of Louis Albert Necker, the subject of our
biography, and father of Jacques Necker who in 1785 married the
daughter of de Saussure. This Jacques Necker retreated with his
family to England during the French Revolution, and after his
return became Professor of Botany at Geneva. He was remarkable
for his unflinching opposition to the French sway. On the Restora-
tion of the Swiss Government he was named one of the first magis-
trates of Geneva, and died in 1825, very highly respected and
regretted. Besides Louis Albert Necker, his eldest son, he had
another, Theodore, and two daughters.
Louis Necker finished his school studies at Geneva in 1800, and
entered the Académie, where he followed the various courses of the
higher studies for four years. In July 1803, in company with his
father, he made his first journey into the Alps, commencing with
Chamouni, and extending it to Zermatt. In 1806 Louis Necker
proceeded to Edinburgh (being then twenty years of age), for the
purpose of prosecuting his studies at the University, and of im-
Royal Society of Edinburgh. 295
roving his mind by foreign travel. After the age of twenty,
Reotland became to him a second fatherland. As became the
grandson of De Saussure, he was already conversant with miner-
alogy and geology; and he could not in all Europe have found
a school better fitted to educe his talents than Edinburgh pre-
sented at that period. In the University, indeed, under the
zealous Jameson, the doctrines of Werner reigned supreme. Yet
it was well for a young geologist of that day to become ac-
quainted with his teachings; and in so far as they were over-
strained or erroneous, there was an ample corrective in the dis-
tinguished school of Huttonians, who then discussed and eluci-
dated the theory of their master, partly in the University, but
principally in the hall of the Royal Society, and by their writ-
ings. Necker was personally acquainted with Playfair, Sir James
Hall, Lord Webb Seymour, Hope, Allan, and others, who met
nearly every week at the period of Necker’s stay in Edinburgh, to
discuss in this Society the theories of geology, and to listen and
reply to the less numerous, yet undaunted supporters of Werneri-
anism, headed by the persevering Jameson. Already, during the
winter of 1806-7, Necker had visited the interesting coast of Fife,
and the principal islands of the Forth; and under the guidance of
Sir James Hall himself had inspected the numerous and interest-
ing geological sections which abound on its southern shore as far
as St Abb’s Head. At other times he travelled in company with
Patrick Neill and others of the Jamesonian school, and had an op-
portunity of judging impartially the opinions of either party. Of
course the discussions of the winter were to be farther pursued in
the field during summer; and Necker, nothing loth to judge for
himself concerning the facts of which he had become accustomed to
hear such conflicting explanations, undertook excursions not only in
the geologically interesting neighbourhood of Edinburgh, but to the
west of Scotland, and even into the farthest Highlands, then but
little visited. The origins of granite and trap were of course the
main objects of his search, so far as geology was concerned ; and, no
doubt by the advice principally of Playfair, who used to call Arran
an epitome of the world, one of his early excursions (in May 1807)
was to visit that island, which he appears to have studied with
scrupulous care, having spent nine days in the northern and most
interesting part of the island. He was accompanied by a fellow-
student named Shute. He there became a convert to the igneous
theory of granite, and seems to have been among the first to direct
attention to the granite veins of Tor-nid-neon, afterwards more
carefully explored by Mr James Jardine.
On the 6th August 1807, Necker again left Edinburgh to visit
Staffa and the Western Highlands. He travelled by Inverary and
Oban, and traversing Mull, enjoyed at the small island of Ulva the
hospitality of Mr Macdonald of Staffa, with whom he formed a
close friendship, and of whose kindness I have heard him speak
warmly even in his later years. From Ulva he made two excur-
sions to Staffa, to the geology and mineralogy of which he of course
devoted the utmost attention. He next visited the Island of Coll,
296 ~ Proceedings of Societies.
where he observed traces of the action of the Gulf-stream in the
transported seeds and other products of West Indian origin. He
crossed to Tiree, with its ornamental marble ; on leaving which he
was driven back to Coll by stress of weather, but finally reached
Higg, ascended the Scuir, celebrated for its pitchstone, its fossil
wood, and for the cavern which was the scene of a well-known
historic massacre. Thence he touched at Rum and Canna, care-
fully visiting what was most interesting in each; crossed to South
Uist, and finally to Skye, reaching Talisker on the 23d September.
The advanced season of the year compelled him soon to think of
returning southwards. After a stay of a few days only, he left
Skye with vivid feelings of regret at having obtained only a glance
at its noble scenery and interesting mineralogy. Little did he then
think that that island should one day be as familiar to him as his
native Switzerland, and should, after more than half a century,
afford him a final resting-place! He returned to Edinburgh by Inver-
ness, Elgin, and Blair-Athole, without, however, visiting Glen Tilt.
These particulars have been chiefly gathered from a journal of
his Tour in Scotland, by Mr Necker, evidently nearly all written
at the time, but (with a procrastination which became habitual
with him) not published until 1821* (fourteen years later), when
the interest of the details was considerably diminished. It is
written, for the most part, with great animation, and conveys a
lively impression of the literary society of Edinburgh at that day,
and of the state of society in the remoter Highlands and Islands,
as well among the higher as the lower classes. It includes many
excellent descriptions of scenery, and many accurate details of the
mineralogy and geology of the places he visited. The caution with
which he holds the balance between Huttonian and Wernerian doc-
trines is almost amusing. But though the decidedly Wernerian
views of his illustrious grandfather tended, perhaps, more than any-
thing else to secure his favourable mention of Werner’s classifica-
tion of Rocks, and his adoption of his nomenclature, the Huttonian
bias of his mind is everywhere visible; and he does not hesitate to
declare, that whatever may be the worth of Hutton’s Theory of the
Earth in its most wide and speculative sense, yet that the facts of
geology have been more correctly and impartially stated by his fol-
lowers than by their opponents.
The travels described in the three volumes I have mentioned
seem all to have been performed either in the winter of 1806-7, or
in the following summer and autumn. There is no doubt that he
passed the succeeding winter in Edinburgh, but then, for a time, we
lose trace of him. It appears from a passage in his book (vol. 11,
p. 67), that he visited Devonshire and Cornwall in 1809 with geo-
logical objects. I cannot be sure whether or not he had previousl
returned to Geneva. I understand that his home journey ‘aah
place through Holland, and was not free from embarrassment, owing
to the war. In 1808 he was elected a member of the Société de
Physique et d’ Histoire Naturelle de Geneve, which seems rather to
* Voyages en Ecosse et aux Isles Hebrides, par L. A. Necker de Saussure,
3 vols. 8vo, Geneva, 1821.
Royal Society of Edinburgh. 297
indicate that he returned home in that year. In 1810 he was
appointed, under the French régime, joint Professor of Mineralogy
and Geology at Geneva; and became Honorary Professor (under
the Swiss Government) in 1817. In both these capacities he de-
livered various courses of lectures, as well on geology as mineralogy ;
and his geological excursions with his students are still advan-
tageously recollected. In 1813 he visited Auvergne, the Vivarais,
and the South of France, for geological purposes, and at the same
time the Pyrenees, and probably the coasts of Genoa.*
I find that in 1820 he made an excursion to Italy. Indeed, he
not improbably had passed the previous winter there, though I do
not know the occasion. At all events he visited Mount Vesuvius
in April; and he then made interesting observations on the dykes
or injected lavas of Monte Somma, his account of which still
remains classical, and connects itself with his studies of Huttonian
geology in Scotland.
In 1821 he at last brought out his work on Scotland, and having
thus relieved himself of a task of which he had no doubt long felt
the weight, he set himself seriously to what he no doubt considered
the main business of his life—the study of the geology of the Alps,
in continuation and verification of the labours of his grandfather,
De Saussure, whose academic chair he had for some years occupied.
He had previously travelled in Switzerland from time to time with
geological objects in view, but from and after 1821 (as he himself
tells us) he made regularly two annual excursions, one in the early
part of summer in the lower and outlying parts of the chain, and
another towards autumn in the higher Alps. He justly remarks
that the importance of the study of the inferior and external parts
of the range was at that time not fully appreciated, and still less,
- perhaps, the excegsive fatigue, heat, and even peril, attending the
investigation, step by step, of these rugged calcareous mountains,
which fully equal in height, even when allowance is made for their
elevated bases, the highest mountains of Britain. In all these
cases he examined on foot, and step by step, the range of country
within which his special journey was confined, making elaborate
notes and drawings on the spot, which he inked in at leisure, thus
accumulating a mass of authentic and valuable details, of which
unfortunately but a very small part ever saw the light. The
environs of Geneva and the important and intricate country between
its lake and the bases of Mont Blanc, formed the most frequent
scene of his geological labours. In 1826 he made a special study
of the Valley of Valorsine (near Chamouni), with its interesting
granite veins and pudding-stones. It may be conceived with what
interest he compared the former traces of the vast upheaving forces
which raised the Alps, with those which he had sedulously ex-
amined nearly twenty years before in the Isle of Arran.
But his researches were far from confined to his own district of
Switzerland and Savoy. He had previously visited the Eastern
Alps, including the environs of Trieste, and a great extent of
* Voyages en Ecosse, tome i. pp. 45 and 215. See also Etudes sur les Alpes,
p. 368.
298 Proceedings of Societies.
country then almost unknown to geologists, extending southwards
nearly to Dalmatia, and northwards to Vienna. Family affairs
in part, I believe, directed his course to Trieste, and the visit was
repeated for some consecutive years. To connect his studies in
the East with those in the Western Alps, he undertook in 1828 a
special journey, which lasted from May to September, of part of
which he published a brief account (Ltudes Geologiques, Preface,
and Bibl. Univ., Oct. 1829). This last is a paper on the inter-
esting hypersthenic syenite of the Valteline. He started by the
Tarentaise, Little St Bernard, and Val d’Aoste, by Val Sesia, along
the whole series of the Italian lakes to the Vicentin, and thence
to Belluno a Pieve di Cadore, from whence he reached Trieste by
the Valley of the Tagliamento. He thence traversed Carniola and
Carinthia, entering the Tyrol near Fassa, and pursuing his route
by the Stelvio and Valteline, until he regained his former track at
Como. In 1829, or subsequently, he returned once again with
admirable perseverance to the Alps of Carniola, and those of Istria
and Illyria; yet undertook also researches into the enigmatical
fossiliferous deposits of the Tarentaise, to which, about that time,
M. Elie de Beaumont had called fresh attention.
We have now reached the year 1829, when Necker was forty-
three years of age, and from this period we may probably trace the
commencement of the second and far less happy stage of his life.
As one of his attached countrymen observes, in a letter to me, the
two phases were so unlike, that they might seem to have belonged
to different individuals; the first period marked by the greatest
bodily and mental activity, exuberant spirits, and relish for society ;
the second by comparative indolence, too often by moody reserve,
and a painful tendency to misconstrue the kindest intentions of his
warmest friends. :
My acquaintance with M. Necker commenced at Edinburgh in
November or December 1831. The privilege of making his ac-
quaintance was to me at the time a great one. His favourite
sciences were those which then occupied most of my own attention,
—geology, meteorology, and general and terrestrial physics. He was
perfectly at home in the Alps, which I had already visited, and to
which I was about to return. I may say confidently that with few
persons have I spent more delightful hours at any period of my life,
or been rewarded by a larger amount of instruction, conveyed with
asimplicity and grace which were peculiarly his own. M. Necker’s
appearance at this time was remarkably prepossessing. He was
rather short than otherwise; well proportioned and active ; his com-
plexion was dark but ruddy; his eyes, of a fine blue, beamed with
intelligence; his nose was aquiline, and the upper and lower parts
of the face slightly retreating; the mouth firm but sweet; his gait
rapid, nervous, and earnest. He spoke English with the utmost
fluency, but with a foreign accent far from disagreeable. He had
a keen sense of humour, which never forsook him, and he pos-
sessed a stock of natural gaiety which flavoured his conversation
even long after he was subject to those fits of melancholy from
which, in later life, he suffered so severely.
Royal Society of Edinburgh. 299
He left Edinburgh for London in February 1832, where I also
passed some time in his society, Later in the same year we met
at Geneva, where I experienced his hospitality, and had the good
fortune to be introduced to his excellent mother, The same autumn
he invited me to join him in a tour through part of Switzerland,
including the Oberland and Valais. This pleasant tour lasted for
a fortnight, and showed the resources of my friend in many new
lights. From the commencement of 1832 until his death, almost
thirty years later, we maintained a correspondence which, though
often recurring at long intervals, was not discontinued, By the aid
of these letters I can trace some particulars of his migrations,
which might otherwise have escaped me.
In 1833 and 1834 he appears to have been much engaged in the
ee of a treatise on Mineralogy, which had for long occupied
is thoughts. He spent the winter of 1834-5 in Paris, carrying it
through the press. This was M. Necker’s most considerable and
most systematic work. It shows to advantage the combination of
scientific knowledge which he possessed,—which, as I have already
intimated, extended over a wide range of subjects, including not
only the Natural History Sciences, but Physics and Chemistry.
Such a combination is eminently required by the philosophical
mineralogist. His science is unfortunately at present cultivated
by few, and profoundly studied by hardly any. Had this not been
so, Necker’s fame would have been more widely spread than it is.
In a very remarkable paper, first published in Jameson’s Edin-
burgh Philosophical Journal for 1832, he treated of ‘‘ Mineralogy
as a Branch of Natural History.’”’ He showed that a well charac-
terized mineral is to be regarded as an individual, and that such
individuals are to be grouped under species, genera, orders, and
classes, as in the classification of the organic creation, by having
a philosophical regard to the whole of the characters and properties
which belong to the individuals of each species, in the same way
as was done by Cuvier for animals, and by Decandolle for plants.
His aim was to conciliate as far as may be the hitherto conflicting
systems of classification,—that by Chemical properties alone, and
that from External characters alone. His doctrine was (in brief)
that those chemical characters are most to be regarded which visibly
and palpably affect the external features of the mineral indi-
vidual; that the indications of ultimate chemical analysis are not,
correctly speaking, mineralogical characteristics at all; and that,
where chemical and external indications are in apparent contradic-
tion (which is rare), the latter are to be preferred.
I do not feel entitled to give an opinion as to the success with
which Necker applied his principles to the reform of mineralogical
classification. But it is admitted by competent judges that he laid
down those principles with great success, and in a highly philosophic
manner. I think that the labour—both mental and mechanical—of
writing and editing this elaborate treatise, so full of minute details,
and of discussions (at least in the introduction) of almost meta-
physical subtlety, was perhaps greater than the author’s then en-
feebled health could well support. Necker was never afterwards
NEW SERIES.—VOL. XVII. NO. 11.—apriIL 1863. 2a
300 Proceedings of Societies.
quite the same man as before. His nervousness increased pain-
fully, accompanied by fits of absence, and excessive love of seclu-
sion. He considered, probably with justice, that the rigorous winters
of Geneva aggravated his sufferings, and returning to Scotland, he
passed the winter of 1836-7 in Edinburgh. In the summer of 1837
he returned to Switzerland, and made probably his last journey of
any length inthe Alps. He crossed the Col of Mont Cervin, study-
ing carefully the geology of that wonderful country, and also the
southern portion of the mountains separating Grindelwald from the
Valais. In 1838 we find him again in Edinburgh, preparing to pass
the winter, which he did at Portobello, near Edinburgh, and close
to the seaside, where he hired a small house, and lived in almost
complete seclusion. I visited him occasionally ; but any society
was oppressive tohim. His windows looked right out upon the sea,
and he pleased himself by thinking that nothing but the ocean
separated him in a right line from Norway. Leaving Portobello
in May 1839, he spent part of three months in his old favourite
resort, the Isle of Arran. Here he occupied himself with much
diligence and zeal in surveying accurately the granitic and trappean
formations of the island. The results were presented to the Royal
Society of Edinburgh, in April 1840, in an elaborate paper, which
embraces a minute tabular description of no less than 149 individual
trap dykes in the north-eastern part of the island alone, besides
giving indications of many more. It was an occupation well suited
to M. Necker’s state of health, affording constant, yet moderate
occupation of mind, and attraction out of doors, with the advan-
tages of a temperate climate, and removal from any interruption,
or anxiety. The wonderful patience and conscientious ability
with which this labour was executed is worthy of all commenda-
tion; and the really astonishing nature of the phenomena which
it chronicles with so much minuteness, exempts it from the sus-
picion of being a useless or puerile employment. So close a survey
introduced M. Necker to many singular mineralogical and geological
peculiarities previously overlooked; and having myself since gone
over much of the ground with his memoir in my hand, I can testify
to its wonderful fidelity. It is impossible to foresee how important
this catalogue of dykes may one day prove to the future dynamical
geologist.
We have an interesting chronicle of Necker’s life at this time,
in a series of letters to his mother, which were printed soon after
in the Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve. They commence at
Portobello in February 1839, and they unfortunately terminate in
September. These letters, now buried in a large periodical work,
are charming in themselves, and give a delightful picture of the
writer’s capacity for intellectual enjoyment. He always presented
to his mother the gayer side of his impressions. The little traits of
his daily life are told with characteristic niiveté, and are inter-
spersed in the most natural manner imaginable with a notice of
what he saw interesting in botany, ornithology, mineralogy, or
upon other scientific topics, which he evidently felt sure would be
neither unintelligible uor uninteresting to his correspondent. In
Royal Society of Edinburgh. 301
quitting Arran, he adds the significant remark, “Je regrette Arran
ot je me suis fait un bien prodigieux.’”’ The later part of the
season he spent in the Orkney and Shetland Islands, interesting to
him, as well from the picture of primitive manners which they
ese as from their remarkable geology. This part of his tour is
etailed in his letters to Madame Necker; and there is a letter to
M. Moricand of Geneva on the geology of the Island of Unst, in
a subsequent number of the Bibliotheque Universelle. From the
Shetlands he proceeded to Skye, where he passed the winter of
1839-40. Here he found so much to interest him geologically,
and also found the damp but mild climate to suit him so well, that
he was gradually led to adopt Portree as his permanent abode.
During his residence in Skye, in the winter of 1839-40, he was,
I believe, actively engaged in preparing for the press the first
volume of his Htudes Geologiques dans les Alpes, of which no other
ever appeared, He spent the summer of 1840 at Geneva, where
the work was no doubt chiefly written. In the autumn he quitted
Geneva, with the deliberate purpose of making Portree his future
residence, He passed the winter in Paris, seeing his work through
the press,
The Etudes Geologiques form the third of Necker’s separately
published writings. They were probably expected by the author
to be, when completed, his best memorial, and the chief contribu-
tion to science of a lifetime devoted to its pursuit. But the work
as it stands goes but a little way to realise those reasonable hopes.
It is but a fragment, and a fragment of which the merits and
defects are equally characteristic. We find evidence of patient,
clear-sighted investigation into natural operations which would
have escaped a less diligent observer, and whose significance a less
intelligent reasoner might have disregarded. The work oscillates
between a memoir on local geology and a systematic treatise; and
it does not exactly fulfil the purpose of either. Even in its present
fragmentary form there is much to interest the geologist in the
isolated volume of studies which M. Necker has left. The followers
of Sir Charles Lyell will find in it a fund of admirable observations
on the effect of causes still in action; and although the doctrines
of glacial operation have made great progress since 1841; and
although Necker was systematically disinclined to side with those
who attributed to the formerly vast extension of glaciers conspicuous
effects both in and out of Switzerland, his information on the dis-
tribution of erratics in the basin of the Lake of Geneva is very in-
teresting and suggestive, and many of the facts and difficulties
which he propounds are worthy of great consideration.
As the Etudes sur les Alpes was the last, not only of Necker’s
larger and separate, but even (I believe) of his more occasional
printed contributions to science, I may as well advert here to one
or two of the latter—his detached memoirs—which I have not
already had occasion to mention, There are several on subjects of
pure mineralogy, perhaps of no great intrinsic importance. There
is a paper in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh,
Vol. XII., on the True and Apparent Dip of Strata; and there is
302 Proceedings of Societies.
a pleasing and somewhat elaborate paper in the second volume of
the Genevese Memoirs on the native birds of the district. To
these I shall merely make this general reference. But I wish to
mention three occasional papers, somewhat original in their nature,
and which are characteristic of the pleasure which Necker took in
cultivating subjects connected with Physical Geography and Natural
Philosophy, in an enlarged acceptation, just such as M, Saussure
would have relished.
The first of these was an attempt to connect in a general way
the great lines of geological stratification over the globe, with the
lines of equal magnetic intensity, as traced by Hansteen and
General Sabine. This was as early as 1830, and it is only fair
to state, that the knowledge either of the one or of the other class
of phenomena was then, at all events, too limited to justify any
confident deductions on the subject. ‘The comparison of these lines
of direction was not, however, made without considerable research,
and the growing interest of the inquiry, and perhaps the increasing
probability of its having some physical foundation, induces me to
recall attention to Necker’s memoir. The recent speculations of
Dr Lloyd tend in the same direction, and I think also the observa-
tions of MM. Schlagintweit. In Necker’s later writings, such as
the preface to his Htudes, and in his letters to Mad. Necker, we
find that he continued to give weight to the theory of the
connection of magnetic with geological phenomena.
The next of these papers is contained in a letter addressed to Sir
David Brewster, printed in the “ Philosophical Magazine” for 1832.
It describes a very beautiful optical phenomenon observed by the
author in the Alps, when the direct rays of the sun are concealed
by a line of forest fringing some rising ground between the spec-
tator and the sun. ‘The outlines of the trees, and even their
entire stems, are then seen to shine with a white light of dazzling
brillidaney, resembling frosted silver. The effect is not peculiar to
any season of the year, or to any hour of the day. It is no doubt
due to the diffraction or inflection of light acting under rather
unusual circumstances, and is the most notable example of the
kind to be seen by the naked eye, without any artificial arrange-
ment, I well recollect M. Necker showing me this beautiful
appearance in the course of our tour of 1832, and I have often
observed it since. The remarkable circumstance is, so far as I
recollect, the absence of prismatic colours, which might, however,
be anticipated from the infinite variety of dimension of the objects
diffracting the light.
The third of these occasional memoirs by M. Necker, having for
its subject certain “diverging rays which are seen long after sun-
set,” appeared in the Annales de Chimie et de Physique for Febru-
ary and March 1839. It was communicated, I believe, by Arago’s
request. ‘This paper excited little notice at the time, and is now
perhaps nearly forgotten. Yet, though somewhat diffuse in com-
position, it contains observations and speculations worthy of record.
It contains ample and specific descriptions of the second coloration
of Mont Blanc, and the exact intervals after sunset at Geneva of
Royal Sociely of Edinburgh. 308
the various appearances of illumination presented by the Alps,
which have been more vaguely described by several writers. But
the more interesting and original part of the paper refers to the
production of divergent beams streaking the calm western sky, at
a period about 45 minutes after the sun’s disappearance. ‘These,
no doubt, are most usually caused by detached clouds intercepting
the sunlight, and throwing their dusky shadows athwart the vapor-
ous sky. When such is the cause, M. Necker remarked that bad
weather usually followed within a short period. But he also ob-
served that some of these crepuscular phenomena had a more fixed
character, and did not indicate a change of weather; moreover, that
they recurred (he thought) as often as the sun set in the same
position,—that is, every spring and autumn, especially on certain
days of February and October, at Geneva.
ence he began to entertain the idea that the dark rays were
shadows of distant mountains lying westward from the spectator,
on the horizon of which the sun was situated when the rays
appeared. In the special case mentioned, he believed the Monts
Déme, near Clermont, in France, to originate those rays, and he
obtained information from various quarters tending to confirm his
idea. From having very often conversed with M. Necker on the
subject of his ‘‘ Rayons crepusculaires,’ I know that for a number
of years he gave this curious inquiry his close attention; and he
believed, I think, that from Edinburgh he could see the gigantic
shadows of the hills of Arran and Jura.
M. Necker was an honorary member of the Wernerian Society of
Edinburgh, and of the Geological Society of London. In the Pro-
ceedings of the latter (vol. i. p. 392, Feb. 1832) is a short abstract
of a paper by him, on the Geological Position of Metalliferous De-
posits.
Returning now to the history of M. Necker’s later years, I may
abridge my record of them within a brief compass. We have seen
that he returned from Paris (where he had been printing his
“Etudes sur les Alpes,”) in April 1841, through Edinburgh, to
Portree, in Skye. He was there met by the grievous tidings of the
death of the mother to whom he had.been so deeply attached. This
event occurred at Mornex, near Geneva, on the 13th April, pre-
cisely two days before he quitted Edinburgh. From this time he
never again revisited his native country, and his habits became more
and more recluse. For some years after his great loss he refused to
see almost every one who, with the kindest intentions, sought to
interrupt his solitude, and he suspended nearly all correspondence.
He rambled occasionally over different parts of the Island of Skye,
especially amongst the Cuchullin Hills, and in the environs of
Portree and the Storr. But gradually he ceased to absent himself
even for a night from home, and confined his excursions within the
distance which his pedestrian powers allowed. Once in two or three
years, as other engagements permitted, I visited Skye about this
period, for the purpose of ascertaining his condition, and of offering
such sympathy as he was willing to receive. My friendly overtures
were rarely if ever repulsed ; aud though it was painful to witness
304 Proceedings of Societies.
the isolation and depression of a person so cultivated and so ami-
able, there were always intervals in which his old spirits and old
interests awoke out of the partial torpor induced by his enfeebled
health and monotonous life. Scarcely a day passed during any
one of my visits in which we did not walk together to some of the
charming localities near Portree, and discuss with renewed interest
the scientific problems which his intelligence and quick observa-
tion were ever unfolding, whether from the noblest natural object,
or the most trivial daily occurrence, in his neighbourhood. It was
evidently agreeable to him, even in his sadder moments, to use and
listen to his native language, to recall the scenery of his glorious
Alps, the achievements and writings of his eminent grandfather,
the memory of his accomplished mother, and the cherished reminis-
cences of his early life in Edinburgh. Nothing was more sur-
prising than to find how few passing events of either public or
domestic interest escaped him in his apparent isolation, from which
even correspondence was at times almost banished. At this period,
however, he read the newspapers with great perseverance, and he
seemed never to forget anything that he once read, or to fail in
connecting it with what he had previously known. I used to be
amazed to find that he occasionally knew. more of what was hap-
pening in Edinburgh than I myself did; and he tracked with an
unfailing instinct the changes which time rapidly produced in the
wide connections of his early Scottish friends, many of whom very
erroneously believed that he had quite forgotten them. His
periodical reading at this time embraced the Journal des Debats,
the Caledonian Mercury, and the John o'Groat Journal (a Caith-
ness paper); and from this singular library he managed to ex-
tract. a wonderful amount of current information, not only public
and domestic, but also concerning physical events and changes,
and literary intelligence. Of modern books he read very few,
but probably occupied his leisure in reviewing the records of his
geological tours, and, perhaps, in extending them for the purpose
of future publication. He was avery assiduous observer of Meteor-
ological changes, of which he kept a constant record, and by the
aid of his barometer, and his great knowledge of atmospheric effects,
his cautions became of the most practical value to the fishing popu-
lation of Portree, by whom, as indeed by all the islanders, he was
regarded with much respect and interest, to which the peculiarity
of his manner of life, and his extreme shyness towards persons in
his own rank of life, no doubt contributed. The prediction of
storms was with him for many years a matter of systematic study,
and his warnings were at least as much regarded by the Skye
sailors as any which Admiral Fitzroy could now furnish. Indeed,
one use which he made of his newspaper studies was to trace, by
means of the Shipping Intelligence, the progress of gales not only
over Britain but to the most distant parts of the Atlantic, and he
_ has often discussed with me the results of these interesting, and far
from easy investigations. In other respects also he took a sincere
interest in the welfare of his poorer neighbours. His kindness was
unpretending, and the extent of his liberality will never be known.
Royal Society of Edinburgh. 305
It is little to say that it was exercised occasionally in ways pecu-
liarly of his own devising, and that he was sometimes the dupe of
designing or unworthy petitioners, But in a country, a portion of
whose population may be said to be ever on the verge of destitution,
the presence of so generous a friend was a public benefit.
The death of his only brother in 1849 affected him considerably,
but led him to welcome the younger relatives, who now almost every
summer gladdened his solitary chamber, It is cheering to know
that the later years of so good a man were blessed with a revival of
domestic interests, from which an invincible melancholy, foreign
alike to his original disposition and his principles, had for a time
debarred him. In the only letter from him of at all recent date
which I possess,—it was written in 1859, and was evidently the
result of considerable physical exertion,—there is pleasing evi-
dence that neither advancing age, nor expatriation, nor twenty
years of solitude and of struggle with constitutional depression, had
quenched his sympathy with his friends, or his interest in the cause
of science.
At this period, 1859, he was suffering severely from attacks of
rheumatism, which confined him almost entirely to the house.
Though enjoying tolerable general health, he became more and
more of an invalid. I ought here to record, that throughout the
whole of his twenty years’ residence at Portree, he was lodged in
the house of Mr John Cameron, whose attention and kindness he
very highly valued. The knowledge of this circumstance relieved
materially the anxiety of M. Necker’s friends. Nothing in his
last illness requires special notice. He sunk gradually through in-
creasing debility, and without pain, and quietly expired at 7 p.M.,
on the 20th November 1861, in the seventy-sixth year of his age.
2. On the Structure and Optical Phenomenon of Decom-
posed Glass. By Principal Sir David Brewster.
3. Notes on the Anatomy of the Genus Firola. By John
. Denis Macdonald, R.N., F.R.S., Surgeon of H.M.S. “Icarus.”
Communicated by Professor Maclagan.
4 On the Zoological Characters of the living Clio caudata,
as compared with those of Clio borealis given in Syste-
matic Works. By John Denis Macdonald, R.N., F.R.S.,
Surgeon of H.M.S. “Icarus.” Communicated by Professor
Maclagan.
or
Monday, 19th January 1863.—His Grace the DUKE of
ARGYLL, President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—
1, Notes on the Geology of Liineburg, in the kingdom
of Hanover. By the Rev. Robert Boog Watson.
Liineburg is the capital of the old Hanoverian duchy of the
306 Proceedings of Societies.
same name. It stands on the small navigable river Ilmenau, about
thirty miles §.E. from Hamburg, and about 150 feet above the
sea. The country around is a flat sandy heath, from which the
gypseous limestone rock of the Kalkberg rises, not unlike Dum-
barton Castle, to a height of 180 feet above the plain. The strata
which here present themselves are—
1. Recent sea sand.
2. Boulder sand, sometimes 100 feet thick, full of boulders large
and small, of gneiss, chalk, flints, flint-fossils, and great lumps of
amber.—Absent from the site of the town and from the Kalkberg,
but present at elevations in the neighbourhood considerably greater
than either. Liineburg was not, therefore, as it has been described,
“a Helgoland in the Boulder Clay sea.” (Roth, Zeitschrift der
Deutschen Geol. Gesell. 1860.)
3. Miocene clay, with fossils, sometimes from 200 to 300 feet
thick.—It rests unconformably on the chalk; but within the town,
and round the Kalkberg, where the chalk is absent, it lies directly
on the gypsum. It has not been disturbed by intrusion from below,
as the underlying strata have been, but its upper surface has been
violently torn and abraded during the Boulder Clay period. It often
crops out through the overlying sands, and its presence is generally
indicated by fine woods of forest trees.
4. Upper white chalk, with flints and characteristic fossils.—
Absent from the site of the town and around the Kalkberg, but
spreading out all around, appearing on the surface, however, only
in one patch on the north side of the town.
5. Triassic clays, limestones, and shales, with fossils—Present
on the surface only in a patch west of the chalk, and intermediate
between the chalk and the Kalkberg, but found below the surface
in a thin layer over the entire site of the town, and further met
with wherever borings have been made through the chalk.
6. Gypsum and anhydrite.-—Found wherever borings have been
made sufliciently deep. In the Kalkberg and the Schildstein,
a hillock to the west of the Kalkberg, they have penetrated the
surface. In general, the gypsum forms but comparatively a thin
skin over the unaltered anhydrite; but in the Kalkberg, the whole
mass of the rock, which has been quarried to the very heart, is
gypsum. The gypsum and anhydrite are a good deal like one
another; resemble marble; compact, greyish-white in colour, and
slightly translucent. The gypsum especially is full of fissures, one
of which has been followed 130 feet deep, filled with dolomite;
more commonly they are filled with a gypseous breccia, which in
one of the fissures contained the bones of a recent bat (Vespertelio
noctula). These fissures produce a false appearance of vertical
bedding. The crystal Boracite is found in the gypsum and anhy-
drite. It is only found elsewhere in the precisely similar gypsum
rock of Alsberg, at Segeberg in Holstein. on-crystalline, it
appears in the Keuper gypsum of Liineville in France.
No fossils exist.
The gypsum forms an anticlinal axis, with the Kalkberg for its
highest point, sinking away to the east under the town in the form
—
Royal Society of Edinburgh. 307
of a narrow round-backed bank, which dips steeply to north and
south. Associated with the anhydrite are brine springs almost at
saturation point, coming to judge by their temperature from a
depth of 400 or 500 feet. These have so exhausted the under sur-
face that great subsidences have occurred.
The points of geological interest connected with this locality are:—
I. That it is far the most instructive, and indeed almost the only
place in the great flat of Northern Germany, where the underlying
strata have been brought to the surface, these being generally
buried deep under sand and clay.
II. That there is here an exhibition of a very peculiar agency
by which these strata were elevated, and of the time when this
occurred.
One of these inferior strata is anhydrite, a sulphate of lime
deposited from water, but deposited without water of crystallization
entering into its formation. Later, through exposure to moisture,
it has accepted water into chemical combination with the sulphuric
acid and lime, and thus changing to gypsum, has expanded to a
bulk more than one-fourth greater than before, an increase nearly
four times as great as that of water in freezing. This expansion,
prevented from developing itself freely, has accumulated at the
point of least resistance, and forced up the Kalkberg just like the
plug of ice which rises through the fuse-hole of a mortar-shell when
filled with water and frozen.
The origin of the sulphuric acid cannot be traced. Heat, pres-
sure, and strong brine have all been proved sufficient to effect the
deposition of the sulphate of lime in an anhydrous state.
The expansion through metamorphism must have occurred after
the deposition of the chalk, and before that of the miocene clay, the
chalk having been disturbed, and the clay thrown down on it after
its disturbance.
III. That the age of these gypseous and saline deposits, though
a difficult question, can be determined.
No borings have been carried through the anhydrite to show on
what it rests. Evidence of age therefore lies in the fossils of the
overlying strata, which, resting on the gypsum, have been brought
up along with it. These strata are minute in extent, but abound
in fossils—chiefly casts. They indicate the Upper Trias, but the
particular member of it to which the beds are to be assigned has
been keenly debated. Very recently, however, the discovery of five
specimens of Ceratites nodosus have, in connection with the rest of
the evidence, and especially as associated with Myophoria pes anseris,
given the preponderance in favour of the Lettenkohl. This is a
subordinate formation now admitted to exist; but whether to be
ranked as the highest of the Muschelkalk or the lowest of the
Keuper, or a transition link between the two, is doubtful. Its flora
connects it with the Keuper, its fauna with the Muschelkalk. In
the Liineburg beds no vegetable remains have been found, and the
want of these renders the relation of these beds to the Keuper more
obscure. The absence of such vegetable remains is indeed a char-
NEW SERTES.—VOL. XVII. NO, 11.—aPRIL 1863. 2R
308 Proceedings of Societies.
acteristic of the Muschelkalk; but this is but a negative resem-
blance, and its force is counteracted by the absence in the Liineburg
beds of such distinctive fossils of the Muschelkalk as the Zncrinites
lilitformis, Nautilus bidorsatus, Terebratula vulgaris, &c.
The question then must be determined by the Myophoria pes
anseris and the Ceratites, both of them interesting in themselves
from their facility of recognition and from their very limited range
in time. The genus Myophoria is confined to the Trias, and the
two deep teeth at the hinge in either valve make it easily recog-
nisable from the Trigonia, which has three teeth. The species Pes
anseris is ribbed, so as exactly to resemble the foot of a goose. It
does not last on into the Keuper; it has just barely begun to ap-
pear in the latest strata of the Muschelkalk ; it abounds in almost
incredible numbers in the intermediate Lettenkohl. Now at Liine-
burg, the limestone is almost made up of it alone, so abundant is
it. This fact therefore connects these beds with the Lettenkohl.
The Ceratites nodosus confirms this conclusion. The entire genus
is confined to the Trias.* It forms a link both in form and in
time between the expiring goniatites and the yet future ammonites,
The Ceratites nodosus may be very easily recognised by the charac-
teristic feature of the genus, which is, that in each septum all the
lobes which point in towards the interior of the shell are toothed,
while the projecting rounded saddle between each two lobes is
smooth. The species nodosus is marked by thick ribs on the sides,
radiating outwards, and terminating just at the edge of the back in
high knobs or knots; whence its name. The projection of these
knobs being on the side of the shell, the back is rendered unusually
broad, and has a very square appearance. Minute variations are
very frequent, but are not sufficient to constitute more than mere
varieties, and the general marks mentioned are unfailing.
The Ceratites nodosus, then, thus easily recognised, is confined to
the narrowest limits, as it first appears in the upper strata of the Mus-
chelkalk, and disappears finally and for ever in the Lettenkohl, with-
out so much as reaching the Keuper. Wherever found, therefore,
it stamps the strata with one of the most definite assay-marks of
science ; and such was the importance attached to its discovery in
the Liineburg strata, that Von Strombeck, the great Triassic autho-
rity of northern Germany, in the absence of the solitary specimen
discovered, but unfortunately lost, refused to believe in its exist-
ence. Since then, however, five other specimens have been found.
They are mere casts, and but broken fragments of an inch or two
in length, and, as is so often the case with ammonites, seem to
have lain long in the water after the death of the animal. They
have, however, the distinct characteristics of the Ceratites nodosus.
These specimens have been the more carefully examined, and
the inferences deducible from them the more keenly discussed, from
the fact that they have been thought to offer some support to the
Darwinian theory of transformation. Von Strombeck and others be-
* It disappears wholly in the Jurassic, but reappears in a few species (four
or five) in the Cretaceous. See Pictet, “ Paléontolgie,’-vol. ii. p. 662. is
is therefore an exception to the absoluteness of what is stated above.
SATIN ee ap ws eam
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tit:
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opt
i= ©
*
Reras
hee
Royal Society of Edinburgh. 309
lieve that the latest generations of the Ceratites nodosus, as exhibited
in the highest strata of the Muschelkalk elsewhere, show a pro-
ooh tendency to a certain aberration from the earlier type, as
gured by Von Buch in his monograph “ iiber Ceratiten.” This
aberration, though marked, is not sufficient to constitute, but may
be represented as a step towards, a new species. ‘The Liineburg
Sa present this aberration in its widest form, while still
obviously belonging to the species nodosus. If, therefore, the beds
in which they are found can be attributed to the Lettenkobl, then
a greater lapse of time is secured. T'o this lapse of time the change
of form may be assigned, and thus some Bi 1a may be found for
attributing to this same cause the whole of those minute changes
of form which the successive species of ceratites present, and which
so completely link them on at either end with the antecedent
goniatites, and the succeeding ammonites.
As to the question of form. The Ceratites of Liineburg differs
from that figured by Von Buch in this, that in the latter the knobs
on the side are included in the first lobe, while in the. Liineburg
specimens the back is so much broader that the first lobe fails to
reach so far as the knobs, and the second saddle is as it were drawn
off the side towards the back, and it therefore, instead of the first
lobe, thus includes the knobs. Von Buch’s drawings, however,
though otherwise most careful, and in this case professedly made
from the same specimen, do not agree with one another (see “ iiber
Ceratiten,” Plate I. fig. 1, and Plate II. fig. 1.) in this very respect
of the relation of the knobs to the lobes and saddles; and so, in
regard to this particular point, nothing can be made of them.
Further, it appears that in all young specimens the back is rela-
tively narrow, and the first lobe extending round the corner of the
back at that period of life reaches the knobs on the side; but in-
- variably, as the shell increases with age, the back becomes relatively
broader, and then it is only the second saddle instead of the first
lobe which includes the knobs. The only peculiarity then of the
Liineburg specimens is precisely what in other cases would be
called a dwarfing—z.e., the signs of age appearing in connection
with smallness of size; which fact, taken in connection with the
rarity of this fossil in the Lineburg beds, probably points to the
existence of climatic or other circumstances unfavourable to the life
of this cephalopod.
The other question, that, namely, of the lapse of time,—in other
words, whether the Liineburg strata are Lettenkohl or not,—must be
settled on its own merits. Admitting the Lettenkohl as a distinct
subordinate formation later than the Muschelkalk, then it appears
that the Myophoria Pes anseris is rare in the Muschelkalk, abun-
dant in the Lettenkohl, and abundant at Liineburg; its evidence
therefore points to the identity of the Liineburg strata with the
Lettenkohl. On the other hand, the Ceratites nodosus is frequent
in the Muschelkalk, but hitherto unknown in the Lettenkoll; its
evidence therefore, unlike the other, rather connects the Liineburg
beds with the Muschelkalk. In other words, the Myophoria Pes
_ anseris proves that these strata are not Muschelkalk but Lettenkohl,
310 Proceedings of Societies.
while the Ceratites nodosus shows that they lie nearer the Muschel-
kalk than any Lettenkohl strata yet found.
As regards the underlying gypseous limestone, this conclusion
determines its age as greater than that of part of the Lettenkohl.
That it is much older is not likely; and the existence elsewhere in
the Lettenkohl of similar formations, accompanied as here by salt,
indicates that the Kalkberg of Liineberg belongs to the Upper Trias,
and probably to the Lettenkohl itself.
Curiously enough, this conclusion dissociates Liimeburg from
Germany, where the Lettenkohl is not at all, or but very slightly,
saliferous,—the saline deposits of Germany being found in the lower
Muschelkalk,—and connects it with France, Switzerland, and Eng-
land, where it is in the Lower Keuper distinctively that salt is
richly present.
2. On the Occurrence of Stratified Beds in the Boulder Clay
of Scotland, and on the Light which they throw upon the
History of that Deposit. By Alex. Geikie, Hsq., F'.G.S.
Monday, 2d February 1863.—The Hon. LORD NEAVES,
Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—
1. On the Influence of Weather upon Disease and Mortality.
By R. E. Scoresby-Jackson, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.R.C.P.,
Lecturer on Materia Medica and Therapeutics at Surgeons’
Hall, Edinburgh. 4
2. History of Popular Literature, and its Influence on §So-
ciety. By Wm. Chambers, Esq., of Glenormiston.
Having introduced the subject, Mr Chambers referred to the
earliest examples of popular literature in the reign of Elizabeth ;
they were embellished with wood engravings, believed to be executed
in Germany. Such was the origin of those very curious tracts
known as “chap books,” now very rare, and much prized by biblio-
graphic amateurs, The subjects of these books resembled the Folk-
Lore of the Germans, and were the embodiment of the superstitions,
fancies, and traditions of a much earlier period; the least excep-
tionable being the ballads of a heroic and tender kind. Next was
traced the rise of newspapers, and the importance they. began to as-
sume in the reign of Queen Anne, a period also signalised by the
popular writings of Steele, Addison, and Defoe. The imposition of
the stamp-duty in 1712 checked this sudden rise of popular litera-
ture; and various circumstances postponed its reappearance until
the reigns of George 1V. and William IV., by which time great
advances had been made in education and in a general taste for —
literature,—the writings of Cowper, Burns, Campbell, Wordsworth, —
Scott, Byron, and others, along with the influence of certain reviews
Royal Society of Edinburgh. Sil
and magazines, having Lniyerly given much impetus to thought.
Mr Chambers then spoke of the origin of Chambers’ Journal in
February 1832, the Penny Magazine in the subsequent March, and
other cheap prints, devoted in an especial manner to popularise
literature. Finally, he drew attention to the abolition of fiscal
duties on the products of the press,—the prodigious copiousness of
cheap popular sheets, cheap newspapers included,—and the capacity
of modern machinery, moved by steam-power, for their rapid pro-
duction. On investigation, he found that only a small proportion
of the whole was of an immoral, or otherwise objectionable kind ;
much of the writing in this popular department of literature being
by authors of repute, to whom large sums were paid for their services.
He estimated that there were not fewer than three hundred millions
of newspapers now circulated per annum in the United Kingdom ;
while the quantity of cheap literary sheets issued per annum
amounted to 144,000,000.
The following note from Principal Sir David Brewster
was read by Professor Tait :—
“ T send you, for the Royal Society, six of my best specimens of
Decomposed Glass. In presenting them, perhaps you might men-
tion the disappearance of all colour, by introducing a drop of water,
and the passage of a prismatic line over each film, owing to the
water entering more quickly between some of the elementary films
than between others. These may be found by using a balsam that
will quickly indurate.”
Monday, 16th February 1863.—Dr CHRISTISON,
Vice-President, in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—
1. Sketch of the Recent Progress of Sanskrit Literature.
By John Muir, D.C.L., LL.D. (This Paper was given at
the request of the Council.)
2. On a Pre-Brachial Stage in the Development of Coma-
tula, and its importance in Relation to certain Aberrant
Forms of Extinct Crinoids. By Professor Allman.
The author described a stage in the development of Comatula
‘subsequent to the free stage of the larva, and anterior to that in
which it acquires arms. He believed that the subject of the paper
was of much interest in affording a key to the nature of certain
aberrant forms of extinct Crinoidea, such as Haplocrinus, Stephano-
erimus, &c., for the peculiarities of these genera were for the most
part exhibited in the young Comatula, where they admitted of an
easy determination as elements in the composition of the Orinoid.
312 Proceedings of Societies,
Royal Physical Society.
Wednesday, 26th November 1863.—A.exanper Bryson, Esq.,
President, in the Chair.
The Chairman, as retiring President of the Society, delivered an
address bearing upon ‘‘ The Present Position of Mineralogy in regard to
Geological Science,’ in which he argued that mineralogy should have
awarded to it an important place in the curriculum of a geologist.
The following communications were read:—
I, Analysis of the Discoveries on the East Coast of Greenland, bearing
on the Site of the Eust and West Bygds, and on the connection of
Scoresby’s Sound and Jacob's Bight ; with a Plan of Renewed Explo-
ration. By Roserr Brown, Esq., Botanist to the British Columbia
Expedition.
In this paper the author reviewed the early history of Greenland, the
state of the ancient Scandinavian colonies, and the different expeditions
sent in search of them ; and brought forward a number of facts to prove
in opposition to the opinions of Eggers, Graah, and most modern
geographers, that there is not yet sufficient ground to doubt the testi-
mony of the ancient historians, that the colonies existed not only on the
Vester but also on the ester Bygds, and the probabilities are, that
under more favourable circumstances than the imperfect expedition of
Graah met with, remains will yet be found. He concluded by laying
before the Society a plan of a new expedition by means of reindeer
sledges conjoined with boats, for the settlement of this and the disputed
point regarding the connection of Jacob’s Bight on the west coast, and
Scoresby’s Sound, or some of the inlets in the vicinity on the east
coast, regarding which an almost certainty exists; and by which the
geography of the east coast, from Cape Dan to Cape Barclay, will be
explored.
II. On some Species of Hematopinus parasitic on the Pinnipedia. By
Rosert Brown, Esq.
Three species were described found by the author in Davis’ Strait and
Baffin’s Bay (Sea), during the summer of 1861. (1.) Pediculus Phoce
(Lucns, in Guerinz. Mag. Zool.), Hamatopinus setosus, Burm. On the
belly of Calcocephalus Greenlandicus, Mull. (2d coat). (2.) On the body
of the Walrus (Tricochus rosmarus). (3.) At the base of the mystachial
bristles of the Walrus.
Wednesday, 24th December 1862.—Jamers M‘Barn, M.D., R.N.,
President, in the Chair.
The following communications were read :—
I. The Bituminous Shales of Linlithgowshire and Edinburghshire. By
Anprew Taytor, Esq.
Mr Andrew Taylor prefaced his paper by a general comparison of
the stratigraphical subdivisions of the English and Scottish Carboni-
ferous systems. The progress of research may yet demonstrate the
whole Scottish coal series to be parallel in geologic sequence with the
Mountain Limestone section of the English formation. Below the
eastern outcrop of the upper fresh-water deposits of the Clyde coal basin,
ere jigs ee se =! ml: aha i
PR LT er Pee — te
Royal Physical Society. 318
near Longridge, the strata assume the character of a series of marine
limestones, mingled with several seams of true coal and ironstone. The
marine limestones attain their greatest development on the Bathgate
hills. One of the uppermost of the marine beds has for several years been
worked at Leaven Seat, near Longridge. It is capped by a thick bed of
shale, a foot and a-half of which yields, on distillation, so much paraffin
as to render it of commercial value. As the limestone may be traced
throughout the uplands of Lanarkshire into Renfrewshire, it is highly
aime that this bituminous shale may be found more or less richly
eveloped above it in various parts of its course. The course of the
marine limestone through the Bathgate hills to Fifeshire, thence across
the Forth, and again from Kirkealdy to Gilmerton and Dulkeith, encloses
a segmental area of country whose chief petralogical characteristics have
been well described by Mr Maclaren as the calciferous sandstone group.
A well-known fresh-water limestone, extensively worked at Burdiehonse,
is known to extend throughout this area. A shale capping this limestone
is in some parts of Linlithgowshire so richly bituminous as to have been
mined for the purposes of distillation. Chemical works with this view
have been erected at Mid-Calder and Broxburn; and a careful observa-
tion of this shale in other quarters has induced Mr Taylor to believe that
it retains its bituminous character throughout the county. A richly
bituminous shale had lately been examined, from Carlops, near Penicuik.
It occupies precisely the same geological position as that already described.
It was therefore highly probable that this bituminous shale might be
found throughout the whole course of the Burdiehouse limestone. He
then gave a detailed description of the Torbanehill mineral field,—which
mineral he considered neither a proper shale nor a true coal. He con-
eluded by drawing the following general conclusions: —1. The Scottish
Carboniferous system is probably of much earlier age than the true
English Coal Measures, being physically more united with the Upper Old
Red Sandstone series. Further research may probably yet prove the
Scottish Carboniferous and Upper Old Red series of rocks to correspond
with the English Mountain Limestone series in reality, and form one
formation. 2. The strata east and west of Bathgate are the underlying
beds of the Scottish series, and must be taken as covering a great lapse of
time prior to the deposition of the upper fresh-water coal formation of
Lanarkshire. 3. The petralogical peculiarities of the strata around Tor-
banehill are such as to justify us in assigning a distinct method of forma-
tion to a mineral which neither physically, chemically, nor microscopically
possesses the characteristics of a true coal. 4. The Torbanehill mineral
is diffused over a limited area; a distinct stratigraphical position cannot
therefore be assigned to it in any general synopsis of the Scottish Coal
Measures.
Il. Ornithological Notes. By Joun ALexanveR Smita, Esq., M.D.
1. Pernis Apwworus, Penn., the Honey Buzzard. A fine specimen of
ae adult female was shot by Mr Gavin Hill at Dalmahoy, near Ratho,
on the 13th June 1862. The bird was comparatively tame, flying
from branch to branch of the tree. Length from bill to point of
tail 243 inches. The extended wings measured, from point to point, four
feet. ‘The stomach was filled with the semi-digested remains apparently
of wasps and larve, and the elytra of beetles. The eggs in the ovary
were well developed. 2. Tetrao Uragallws, Penn., the Wood-Grouse
or Capercailzie. ‘The bird now exhibited was an example of a curious
change of plumage which occasionally takes place in birds,—a female
assuming the plumage of the male. This capercailzie is a female of the
314 Proceedings of Societies.
ordinary size, measuring nearly two feet in length ; but the general dark
character of its plumage is that of the adult male,—the dark head and
‘back, and the glossy green breast, the abdomen being mottled with
white. The colours, however, are not so brilliant as in the male. The
ovary contained eggs the size of rape-seed ; but was darker in colour, and
harder in texture than natural—apparently diseased. The bird was shot
on the 2d November, near Dunkeld, on the property of Hugh Bruce, Esq.
Wednesday, 28th January 1863.—Davip Pace, Esq., President,
in the Chair.
The following communications were read :—
I. Remarks on Torn-off Digits in Man; with reference to Analogous
Injuries in the Lower Animals. By A. M‘K, Epwarps, Esq. (Speci-
mens were exhibited.)
II. Some Remarks on Mineralogical Classification. By ANDREW
Taytor, Esq.
Allusion was made to certain recent and valuable mineralogical re-
searches of Professor J. P. Cooke of America, which went to show that
two crystalline forms might vary very widely in chemical composition,
and still retain their distinctive crystallographic forms. And if two
beautifully crystallized products differed so widely in composition that
any single analysis might lead to an erroneous conclusion as to the general
formula of the substance, the question arises, might not a similar per-
sistency of crystalline form, with diversity in chemical composition, be
found in the laboratory of nature? If this be so, it must greatly alter
our ideas of a mineral species. These researches were adduced to show
that methods of mineralogical classification were more artificial than
natural.
IIL. (1.) A Young Otter (Lutra ?) from Old Calabar was exhibited.
(2.) Note on the Young of the Chough—(Fregilus graculus). By
Joun ALexanper Smita, M.D
(1.) Dr Smith said, the specimen of an otter, preserved in spirits, and
now exhibited, was sent to him a few days ago by Andrew Elliot, Esq.,
publisher here, from his friend Dr Hewan, Old Calabar. He need
not remind the Society how much all naturalists, and ourselves in par-
ticular, were indebted to the gentlemen of this U.P. Mission for various
additions made by them to our knowledge both of the animal and vege-
table kingdoms. This young otter was of a light ash or pale mouse
colour, with darker patches on the head and fore legs; it measured
17 inches in length, inclusive of the tail, which was 53 inches long. Its
general characters agreed with the restricted genus Lutra of authors; but
its dentition being imperfectly developed, made it impossible to say
whether or not it was the same as the otter which Mr Andrew Murray, from
the examination of an adult skull sent from Old Calabar, considered new,
both as a genus and species. Dr Hewan writes “that it was named
jyung by the natives, and that with age it becomes as large as a spaniel
or poodle dog; it inhabits both marshy and dry land, and lives on fish,—
small kinds caught on the banks of the river at low water,—also on shell-
fish, such as craw-fish.” ,
(2.) Fregilus graculus—the Red-Legged Crow. Some time ago the
Society was favoured with some remarks on this bird by the Rev. T. B.
Bell of Leswalt. Dr Smith requested him to examine the young in the
=
Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 315
nest, as some little difference of opinion existed in regard to the colour of
the bill and legs of the young birds. Mr Bell stated, as the result of his
examination, that both the bill and legs were red, although not quite so
brilliant as in the adult.
Botanical Society of Edinburgh.
Thursday, 13th November 1862.—Professor Batrour, Vice-President,
in the Chair.
Dr Balfour apologised for the absence of Mr Archer, the President,
who was engaged with museum matters in London. He then opened the
twenty-seventh session of the Society by giving an account of its origin
and progress, and by giving biographical sketches of the members
recently deceased—among whom he noticed H.R.H. the Prince Consort,
Professor Blume and Professor de Vriese of Leyden, Mr Borrer, Dr J.
T. Mackay of Dublin, Professor Traill, Professor Blytt of Christiania,
and Dr Emile Dubuc.
The following Communications were read :—
I. Notice of Plants collected in the neighbourhood of Silloth, near Car-
lisle. By Professor Batrour.
The author gave a brief account of Silloth, noticing its advantages as
a watering-place. He communicated the meteorological observations
made in regard to it by the Rev. Francis Redford, rector of the parish,
and he enumerated some of the more interesting plants found in its
vicinity. Among them may be mentioned—Glaucium lutewm, Cheli-
donium majus, Brassica monensis, Iberis amara, Ulex nanus, Eryn-
gium maritimum, Helosciadium inundatum, Atriplex arenaria, Ruppia
maritima, Triticum acutum, Botrychium Lunaria, The communication
was illustrated by specimens.
II. Letters from Mr Writ1tam Bett, A.B.S. Ed., Saharunpore Botanic
Garden. Communicated by Mr Joun Sapuer.
III. Description of Two New Species of Lichens from Ireland. By
Bensamin Carrineton, M.D., F.L.S.
IV. On the Wild Ferns met with in the neighbourhood of Bridge of Earn,
Perthshire. By Mr Joun Sapuer.
V. Remarks on the Cultivation of Cotton and Tea in India. By Witu1am
Jameson, Esq., Saharunpore. Communicated by Professor Batrour.
In a letter to Professor Balfour, dated 30th July 1862, Mr Jameson
says :—‘‘ Much attention is now being paid to cotton cultivation in this
country. I wish the British cotton lords to send out agents. They might
get it not only of good quality but in any quantity. By recent returns
furnished to Government by the different district collectors in the North-
West Provinces, it has been shown that there are 850,000 acres under
cultivation with cotton, yielding 857,000 ewt., half of which is consumed
in the country, and the other half sent to Calcutta for exportation. In
addition, large quantities are sent from the independent States of Gwalior,
&c., also to Calcutta for exportation. But what is wanted in this country
are agents to make advances, and purchase from the native cultivators
their cotton on the spot. By so doing, the cotton cultivation in the North-
West Provinces might easily be tripled.
NEW SERIES.—VOL, XVII. NO. I1.—ApPrIL 1863. 28
316 Proceedings of Societies. .
‘* Tea cultivation in the Kohistan of the North-West Provinces and
Punjaub has now become a great success, so much as to have induced me
to recommend Government to part with their experimental tea farms.
One farm I sold a short time ago for L.10,000. The remainder will be
put up in three lots, and for them I expect to realise about L.60,000.
They will form an excellent nucleus for companies, of which there are now
many already established. Dr Cleghorn has been visiting some of my tea
plantations, and from him I daresay you have received accounts regarding
their flourishing condition, Per post I send you a report on the condition
of our gardens, which will show you that we are not idle in this country.”
VI. Letter from Dr Tuomas Anperson, Superintendent of the Botanic
Garden, Calcutta, on the Introduction of Cinchona Plants into India.
Communicated by Professor Batrour.
Dr Thomas Anderson, superintendent of the Calcutta Botanic Garden,
writing from Darjeeling of date 13th August 1862, says :—‘‘I am here
superintending the introduction of Cinchona into the Sikkim Himalayas
since the lst of June, when I had 211 plants. The experiment has been
so successful that on the 1st August the nursery contained 1611 plants and
seedlings. I have seven species under cultivation. Among these are
Cinchona succirubra, CO. Calisaya, OC. nitida, and C. micrantha. It
promises to be a most successful experiment on those moist hills.”
In the same letter he says—‘‘ I have told my gardener to send you a
small wardian case containing plants of Wallich’s gigantic bamboo from
Burmah. The largest plant in the Calcutta Botanic Garden flowered last
year after forty years’ cultivation. The plant ought to grow well in your
big palm-house.”’
A note was read from Dr Alex. J. Smith, in which he stated that
Asplenium septentrionale had recently been collected by Mr Halliday, of
Moffat, on one of the Moffatdale Hills, called Whitecoom.
Nature-printed specimens of alpine Hieracia were exhibited from Mr
Baker.
Thursday, 11th December 1862.—Professor Barounr, Vice-President, in
the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—
I. Observations on the Embryogeny of Tropeolum majus. By
Auexanver Dickson, M.D
(The paper appears in the present number of this Journal.)
Il. Remarks on the Bursting of the Spathe of Palms and Opening of
Leguminous Fruits. By Mr Joun Savuer, Curator.
Mr Sadler gave the views of different authors regarding the bursting
of the spathe of palms with an explosive report. That some species of
palms in their native habitats may make, while bursting their spathes, a
sound, caused by compressed air, audible to a very attentive ear, he did
not deny ; but he was of opinion, from certain experiments which he and
others had made on Seaforthia elegans, that in this country no indica-
tion of a report (as affirmed by some) was met with. The author then
explained that the crackling sound of various leguminous fruits while
shedding their seeds was not (as supposed) due to heated or compressed
air, but to the shrinking or tension of the tissues. He phages b
reading extracts from a letter which he had received from Mr William Bell,
of Saharunpore Botanic Garden, in which he stated that, from all the in-
E————
Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 317
formation he had gathered at Ceylon, Calcutta, and elsewhere, he could
find nothing to support the theory of explosion caused by heat developed
within the spathe.
III. On the Propagation and Irritability of Drosera and Dionwa. By
Mr Joun Scorr,
The author, after a few introductory observations on the distribution
of Droseracew, remarked that the modes of propagation and means of dis
semination of Drosera oetbih. and Dionea (Venus’ fly-trap) were varied.
Thus, independently of reproduction by seeds, the leaves of a number of
the Droseras present a remarkable aptitude for the production of adven-
titious buds. This property is well illustrated by the British species, all
of which produce with the greatest facility young plants on the surfaces
of their petioles and laminw. So frequent is this mode of ropagation,
that it must be familiar to all who have collected these plants in the
later summer or autumn months, when the earlier developed leaves are
beginning to decay, ‘These falling on the moist mossy bed are reimbued
with the formative force, and along their surfaces small cellular protuber-
ances first make their appearance with a few pale fawn-coloured scales,
after which one, or usually two leaves, are developed, and then a little
rosette of undeveloped leaves, beset with scales, forming a pseudo-hyber-
naculum. ‘The young plant up to this period is generally attached to the
generative leaf, so that its nourishment is entirely derived from the
parent. The vital activity of the recipient plant now in a great measure
ceases, the generative leaf undergoes decay, and leaves it a free and in-
dependent organism, which, ere spring returns, may have been trans-
ee to some distant nidus by the floods, which generally sweep their
abitats during winter. As illustrating susceptibility to mechanical
irritation, he gave the following experiments on Drosera rotundifolia
(round-leaved sundew), performed in a temperature of 65° Fahr. :—‘‘ Se-
lecting a vigorous plant, I carried on a gentle irritation of the hairs for a
short time; their collapsing soon became evident, and in half an hour
they were all curved in upon the surface of the lamine. Again, placing
an insect upon the surface of another, the hairs had begun to collapse in
twelve minutes, and in twenty minutes nearly all those near the base of
the leaf had their glands applied to the insect, while those on the apical
part had undergone little or no change. This had been occasioned by the
position of the insect, which had been accidentally placed on a line with
the petiole near the base of the lamina. Thus it would appear, that the
Droseras do not possess the communicative powers of either their ally
the Dionea, the lobes of which collapse on the touching of a single hair,
- or of the Mimosa, which exhibits the same rapid communicability to the
other pinna of the leaf when the equilibrium of one is disturbed.’’ The
author also detailed some experiments in support of Dr Nitsche’s state-
ment, ‘‘ that their susceptibility to irritation is invariably proportionate
to the activity of their secretions, and dependent on the process of assi-
milation.” None of the anthor’s experiments with chemical stimuli
elicited any susceptibility to irritation, though he seemed to think that
chloroform had an anesthetic influence. In one of his experiments he
placed two portions of the leaf of Drosera binata under a bell-glass
exposed to the vapour of chloroform. In four minutes no perceptible
change haying taken place in either, he took one of them out, and found
that the hairs were completely anesthetised. In treating of the cause and
functional import of these movements, he was inclined to suppose that in
regard to the former no merely physical hypothesis was sufficient to
account for the phenomenon, but that it was due entirely to the vital
318 Proceedings of Societies.
force; and in regard to the latter, he thought Mr Knight’s view, that
decomposing animal matter might be necessary for certain of the func-
tional requirements of the plant, very plausible, on considering how pecu-
liarly adapted the leaves of Drosera and Dionea were for the purpose of
catching insects.
IV. Notice of Plants collected in the Neighbourhood of Elie, Fife. By
Mr J. W. Brown.
Mr Brown gavé a list of the rarer plants met with in the district, and
noticed several which had not before been observed in that quarter. He
accounted for the appearance of some scarce species, such as Statice Lim-
onium, Senebiera Coronopus, &c., by their introduction with ballast.
V. On a New Character observed in the Fruit of Oaks. . By M. AurHonse
De Canvotix. Communicated by Professor Barrour.
(The paper appeared in the January number of this Journal.)
Mr Naylor exhibited specimens of the Peloria variety of Linaria vul-
garis, and a peculiar abortive state of the same plant.
Specimens were exhibited of Sarracenia purpurea, a plant which has
been of late used in cases of small-pox. The experience of medical men
in Edinburgh seems to lead to the conclusion that the so-called remedy is
of little or no value, Specimens of Sarracenia variolaris were also
shown. The plant receives its name not from any qualities in reference
to variola (small-pox), but from the small-pox-like markings on the out-
side of the upper part of its pitchers.
Thursday, 8th January 1863.—Professor Mactagan, President,
in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :-—
I. On Irish Hepatice. By Bensamin Carrinaton, M.D., F.L.S.
II. On some British Cyperacee recently discussed by Dr Carrington. By
Cuarues OC. Basineton, M.A., Professor of Botany, Cambridge.
It is only within the last few weeks that I have become acquainted
with the ‘‘ Notes upon the Cyperacee,”’ by Dr Carrington, contained in
the “ Transactions of the Botanical Society’ (vol. vii. pp. 259 and 320).
Having read them with much interest, I may be allowed, and indeed
perhaps I am called upon, to make a few remarks upon the species there
noticed. They are chiefly in confirmation of Dr Carrington’s statements.
(1.) Carew Grahami, Boott.—It is quite possible that this may be
a monstrous form of C, pulla, Good., but Iam much more inclined to
agree with Dr Boott in believing it to be distinct. I possess a consider-
able quantity of the ripe utricles of C. Grahami, derived from plants
cultivated in the late Mr Borrer’s garden. In such of them as I have
opened I find what seem to be ripe nuts. These are pale yellow, not
half as long as the utricle, about +45 of an inch long, oblong, compressed,
or trigonous (except very near their base, which is usually triquetrous),
prolonged into a very long beak at the top, which is often curved, on
account of its length exceeding the space between the nut and the con-
tracted mouth of the utricle, The termination of this beak of the nut is
not marked by any decided joining between it and the style; but pro-
bably the lower part, which is terete, belongs to the nut, and the com-
pressed or triquetrous part (which is often half its length) is the base of _
Oe aT
Se a Kp
le a ee ne
Wes WT
«
a
eS OTE HG OT IT IE EPO IE ITE
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|
Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 319
the style. In this 5 part the colour gradually changes from the pale
yellow of the nut to the fuscous tint of the true style.
Unfortunately I cannot find a ripe utricle of C. pulla to contrast with
that of C. Grahami. In Kunth’s ‘‘ Cyperographia” (411), the nut of C.
Sia is described as follows :—acheniwm subrotundum, mucronatum,
iconvemum, subtiliter punctulatum, pallidum.”’ This is the only
description of it that I can find. Dr Carrington does not describe the
nut, but gives a figure of it, which certainly cannot be called “ subrotun-
dum,” and is difficult to describe in few words ; it is nearly twice as long
as broad, cuspidate (if that term is understood as defined by me in the
“ Manual,” ed. 5, p. 12, and figured by Lindley in his “ Introduction,’’
ed. 4, vol. ii. p. 356, § 3), with nearly parallel sides, It is at least twice
as long, relatively to the utricle, as that of C. Grahami.
Perhaps a few words may be allowed concerning the name of the plant.
Tall it CO. pulla, after Goodenough, and am thus in accordance with a
considerable number of the best writers. Anderson remarks (Plante
Scandinavia Cyperographia, p. 19); quod ad OC. saxvatile Linnwi attinet,
in Herb. Reg. Acad., Sc. Holmiensis specimen asserratur a Dno Mon-
tin, Linnei contemporaneo, in Lapponia lectum et C0. saxatilis (Linn.)
inscriptum, quod aperte ad CO. rigidam referendum ; aliud tamen a col-
lectione Dni Solander, OC. pulle proprius accedit. It seems most pro-
bable that Linnzeus originally intended to designate 0. pulla by the name
of C. saxatilis, but afterwards he unquestionably included C. rigida under
that name, and probably made it the type of the species. As the name
C. sawatilis is most variously used by authors, and as there still remains
some reasonable doubt concerning the Linnean plant, I consider it best
to use names for the plants about which there is no ambiguity, viz.,
CO. pulla and C. rigida. Ishould be much obliged to any Scottish botanist
who would send to me the ripe fruit of C. pulla.
(2.) Eleocharis Watsoni, Bab.—Il have only one difficulty in arriving
at the same conclusion as Dr Carrington, namely, that H. Watsoni is a
state or variety of EZ. wniglumis, Link. That difficulty is, that Mr D.
Moore (who found HZ. Watsoni on the Murrow of Wicklow, in flower in
May 1862), informs me by letter, that “‘the roots are tufted, scarcely
creeping at all.” If he is correct in this remark, and there is no reason
to disbelieve him, E. Watsoni and E. uniglumis can hardly be the same
species. E. uniglumis is a very far-creeping plant; very much more so
than E. palustris. Mr Moore has the Wicklow plant in cultivation, and
will therefore be able easily, in due time, to settle this question, and thus
decide the specific identity or otherwise of the plants. The stems of the
Wicklow plant are very much taller than those of the specimen (for there
was but one) gathered at Taynloan ; one of them is 13 inches long. But
the plants seem to accord in all other respects. Dr Carrington objects to
my terminology in describing the nuts; but there is very little difference
between us. The nut of EL. palustris is too short and broad to be called
“exactly obovate,” I mean when ripe, as I believe the nuts now before
me tobe. I have never seen it so relatively long as is represented in Plate
VII. of the “‘ Transactions.” My description of Z. Watsoni, founded upon
very slight materials, is now shown to be erroneous; its nut is not “ ob-
long,” but closely resembles what I find in E. palustris, although it is
perhaps even slightly more obovate. In E. uniglumis also I find the fruit
to be better described by a pyriform (bluntly obovate, and more narrowed
at the base than in obovate) than by ‘‘ rotund-obovate.”’
(8.) Scirpus Holoschenus, Linn.—I possess a single stem of the plant,
said to have been found near Watchet in Somersetshire, which was given
to me many years since by Professor Henslow, but by whom gathered it
is now useless to inquire. As the late Professor sent a large quantity of
320 Proceedings of Societies.
duplicate specimens of British plants to the Botanical Society, it is pro-
bable that the piece received by Dr Carrington is part of the same set.
The only authority for its being found near Watchet, is contained in
Collinson’s ‘‘ History of Somerset,” from whence it is copied into the
“ Botanist’s Guide” (ii. 748) in the following form :—‘ Near the sea-side
below Watchet,”’ and from thence into the ‘‘ New Botanist’s Guide.” It
is one of a considerable number of localities of plants communicated to
Collinson’s work by Mr W. Sole, the author of the “ British Mints,” and
is therefore probably correct. The record will be found in Collinson’s
book at page xxi of the Introduction. When printing the first edition
of the “ Manual,” I believed that Mr Lingwood had gathered S. Holo-
scheenus at Watchet, but soon afterwards learned from him that he did
not do so; neither could I learn by whom the specimens given away by
Professor Henslow were gathered. |
In the earlier part of the ‘‘ Botanist’s Guide” it was only stated to occur
“on the sea-shore in this county (Somerset), Robson;” and that is all
that we learn from Robson’s ‘‘ British Flora’ (p. 240), except that he
adds “ Devon and Hampshire.”
Other authors give Petiver and Ray as authorities for the Somerset
station. Ray has very little todo with the matter. In his ‘ Historia
Plantarum” (ii. 1303), he says of the plant in question :—‘* Nuper etiam
in Anglia detexit, in comitatu Somerseti D. Stephens.” In the “ Synop-
sis’ (ed. 3, p. 429) he says, ‘‘found by Mr Stephens in Brounton
Buroughs in Devonshire;” and Dillenius adds, “it also grows in Somer-
setshire and Hantshire; Pet. Conc. Gr., 195.” As the “ Historia” was
published long before this posthumous edition of the ‘ Synopsis,” this
correction was doubtless made by Ray himself, who had learned that
Somerset was put in the place of Devon in the “ Historia.” We are thus
reduced to Petiver, who states, that ‘‘ the Reverend Mr Stephens first
found this in Devon; it also grows in Somerset and Hantshire.’ There-
fore there is no trace of Watchet in these books, and the correctness of
that station for Scirpus Holoschenus rests upon the authority of Sole.
Tt is greatly to be desired that the district should be carefully examined.
It is of small extent, and the presence or absence of the plant might soon
be ascertained.
Ill. Remarks on some Fibrous Plants of Madras. By Dr Aunxanper
Hunter.
In this paper Dr Hunter says—From experiments that I have tried in
cleaning fibres of a great number of Indian plants, I feel satisfied that the
steeping and rotting process is not suited to the heat of the climate, as
plants putrefy rapidly under water in India, and the fermentative process,
which goes on for weeks sometimes in a cold climate, is occasionally com-
pleted in from twelve to eighteen hours in India, and is immediately suc-
ceeded by putrefaction, which discolours and takes the strength from fibres,
The best method of separating the woody fibre and bark (or boon of flax,
as it is called) is to crush or beat the plant as soon after it is cut as possible,
taking care not to double up the stalks, otherwise the fibres get entangled
like tow; continue the beating for half an hour, and then place in water
for a night; to remove the sap, squeeze and hang up the bundles in the
shade to dry; when thoroughly dry, the bundles may be rolled up in
coarse gunny bags of cloth, and well beaten on a board with a wooden
mallet. This separates the woody fibre and boon, leaving the flax soft,
white, and very pliant. The more the fibre is beaten and knocked about,
the finer and softer the flax becomes, and the interposition of the cloth
prevents the fibre from being cut by the beating; it should afterwards be —
combed or hackled.
Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 321
IV, Remarks on the Cotton Plant of the Peruvian Coast. By C. R,
Markuam, Esq.
The author remarks :— While travelling in the Coimbatore and Madura
collectorates, in the autumn of 1860, I was struck with the resemblance of
the climate in many respects to that of the coast-valleys of Peru. This
part of India appeared to me to be admirably adapted for the cultivation
of the valuable species of cotton which is indigenous to the Peruvian coast-
valleys, while it seemed unlikely that North American cotton could ever
be extensively raised to advantage in so dry aclimate, It is very import-
ant to introduce a cotton with a longer staple than that of the indigenous
plant of India, and therefore better suited to the demands of Manchester,
which will tirive in the exceedingly dry climate of the Madras Presidency.
lhave therefore made arrangements to obtain supplies of cotton seeds
from the driest part of the coast region of Peru for introduction into
India. The staple of this Peruvian cotton is longer than that of ‘* Up-
lands” Pernambuco, and much longer than any indigenous Indian cotton,
though shorter of course than Egyptian or “Sea Island.’’ The respective
lengths of the staples of different kinds of cotton, compared with Peru-
vian, are as follow :—
Minimum Maximum Mean
Spectes of Cotton. inches, inches, inches.
Sea Island, ; é , ; 1:41 1:80 1°61
Egyptian, ; ‘ ‘ ‘ 1:30 1°52 1-41
Peruvian, i , ; u 1:10 1:50 1:30
Brazilian, és f ; $ 1:03 1:31 117
New Orleans or “‘ Uplands,” . 088 1:16 1:02
** Uplands” grown in India, . 0°95 1:21 1:08
Indigenous Indian Cotton, ‘ 0°77 1:02 0°89
The Peruvian cotton plant is indigenous and perennial, and was cultivated
by the subjects of the Incas in the coast valleys long before the discovery
of Peru by the Spaniards. They irrigated their cotton fields by means
of channels conducted from the numerous lakes in the Andes, picked and
cleaned the cotton, and wove it into clothes, The Jesuit Acosto, who
wrote shortly after the Spanish conquest, says that ‘‘ cotton groweth in
hot soil, and there is great store in the valleys on the sea coast of Peru.”
The ancient Peruvians used a machine for cleaning their cotton, which
closely resembled the Indian churka. It consisted of two rollers, about
the thickness of a finger, with handles at opposite ends, which turned
them different ways; the wool was pinched through by degrees, and, as
the seeds could not pass between the rollers, they were stripped off, and
dropped outside. The same machine was, according to Frezier, used by
the Beauitiacs in 1720. Fifty years ago, Stevenson tells us, that at
Casma, on the Peruvian coast, an improved method of separating the
seeds had been introduced. It consisted of a large hollow cylinder put
in motion by two mules with straps passing round it, and round a small
wheel attached to a fluted steel cylinder, a quarter of an inch in diameter,
and a second cylinder was placed horizontally and in contact with the
first. ‘The cylinders were turned different ways, the second one being
worked by a hand; the wool was dragged in between them, and the seeds
were thus stripped and thrown off. The long strip of coast line between
the Andes and the Pacific Ocean which extends from the River Loa in
20° 48’ 8., to the River Tumbez, in 3° 35’ S., a distance of 1620 miles,
consists of a sandy desert, intersected by chains of rocky, barren hills,
and traversed by sixty rivers and streams, with as many fertile valleys
on their banks. This region is bounded inland by the Cordillera of the
322 Proceedings of Societies.
Andes, and varies from nine to sixty miles in breadth. The coast valleys,
thus surrounded by sandy deserts, which extend from the foot of the
Andes to the shores of the Pacific, are the native habitat of the Peru-
vian cotton. The rivers, generally rising in small lakes in the moun-
tains, force their way through narrow gorges into the coast plains, and
form valleys, filled with luxuriant vegetation, the homes of the olive, the
vine, the sugar cane, the cotton plant, and every kind of fruit. The
climate of this region is very peculiar, rain is unknown, and the northern
part, especially, is exposed to a long season of excessive dryness. The
summer, or dry season, on the Peruvian coast, extends from November
to May, when it is exceedingly hot, and the rays of the sun are reflected
back from the sand with scorching power. During this period many of
the coast rivers are dried up during several months, though the larger ones
have a perennial supply of water. ‘The mean temperature is about 85°
Fahr., rising as high as 96°, and occasionally falling to 80° in the valleys ;
but in the sandy deserts, in places where high hills closely overhang the
plains, the thermometer occasionally falls very low during the night, the
rush of cold air from the upper region being in proportion to the degree
of radiation on the plains, and the force with which the sun’s rays have
struck on the scorched ground during the day. The winter, or moist
season, commences in May and lasts until November, In the middle of
May a veil of mist begins to spread over sea and shore, and the mornings
are damp and hazy. In June the thickness of the mist increases, some-
times amounting to drizzle, and continues until October. It never
amounts to rain ; but the moisture being formed in the lower atmospheric
region, falls on the ground in large drops, caused by the union of small
bubbles of mist. These fogs are called garuas. ‘They are formed at
about nine in the morning, and are not dispersed until late in the after-
noon. They are most prevalent in the southern and central part of the
Peruvian coast ; and when they set in, the lomas, or chains of hills, bor-
dering the desert near the sea-shore, are carpeted with wild flowers; but
in the north the garuas are very scanty, the climate is much drier, and
it is for this reason that I have selected the province of Piura, in the
northern part of the coast, as the district from which to procure supplies
of cotton seeds for introduction into India, ©
V. On the Flora of Jersey. By F. Nayuor, Esq. .
Mr Naylor stated that during two visits to Jersey in the latter part of
the summers of 1861, 1862, both of several weeks’ duration, he made
frequent botanical excursions, and left little of the island unexplored.
The list of flowering plants and ferns, so far as he knew, now amounted
to 850 species. Since the publication of Mr Babington’s “Primite Flore
Sarnice,” 1839, fifty-two species have been added to the flora of that —
island, several of which were first observed by the author. The paper
was illustrated by dried specimens of all the rarer species.
VI. Notes on the Flora of Moffat, with special reference to the Ferns
and other Cryptogamie Plants. By Mr Joun Sapier.
Thursday, 12th February 1863.—Professor Batrour, Vice-President,
in the Chair.
The following Communications were read :—
I. Notice of Plants collected in the counties of Leeds and Grenville,
Upper Canada, in July 1862. By Grorez Lawson, LL.D., Professor
of Chemistry and Natural History, Queen’s College of Canada.
(The paper appears in the present number of this Journal.) ‘
Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 323
II, A Record of the Plants collected by Mr Pemberton Wallcott and Mr
Maitland Brown in the year 1861, dwring Mr F. Gregory's Exploring
Expedition into North-West Australia, By Frerpinann Mveuurn,
M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., Government Botanist for the Colony of Victoria,
Communicated by Professor BaLrour.
This paper appears in the present number of the Journal.
paper app Pp
Ill, Ewtracts from Indian Letters from Dr Curcnorn. Communicated
by Professor Bauroun,
In one of the letters, dated Punjab, 18th October 1862, Dr Cleghorn
said :—‘‘ In fulfilment of Lord Canning’s instructions, I have just com-
pleted one of the most extensive and adventurous journeys ever made on
the Himalaya, and from the rapid nature of the movements, often very
fatiguing. It has heen my duty to follow the flexures of four of the great
Punjab rivers (Sutlej, Beas, Ravi, and Chenab) from the plains up to
the highest points where timber of value is found to grow. In some
places I diverged to examine the main tributaries, or to test the amount
of breakage in many of the timber slides.”
Lawore, Punsas, 2d December 1862.
‘IT write a line enclosing fresh seeds of Meconopsis aculeata, a most
beautiful plant, which will, no doubt, be acceptable to Mr M‘Nab. Iam
the guest of Col. Robert Maclagan, and 1 am much engrossed in putting
together my notes after ten months of continuous travel. I have lately
crossed the Indus, and examined the vegetation of the Peshawur Valley,
and the banks of the Cabul river. The great trunk road passes through
a well cultivated plain. The wheat, barley, maize, and cabbage, are
superb, The fields are fenced with Rhamnus. The avenues consist
chiefly of Melia and Tamariv. Extensive sandy tracts are clothed with
Aerua, Andropogon, and Calotropis, but the most common plant on both
banks of the Indus is Peganum Harmala. The islands in the bed of
the Indus are self-sown with Populus ewphratica and Dalbergia Sissoo
which yields the most valuable wood we possess, both for house-building
and for agricultural purposes. The trade in deodar wood will undoubt-
edly increase on the Indus and Cabul rivers, and it seems desirable to
encourage commercial relation with the wild tribes on our frontier. They
are much divided among themselves, and only a few Mahomedans, who
have great religious influence, can travel with safety through the wood ed
tracts of Suwat and Kafiristan. At the time of my visit (the end of
November) snow was falling on the surrounding mountains, and all the
herbaceous vegetation was withered. A few months hence (April) the
plain is covered with a rich carpet of various colours. The most inte-
resting plants noticed on a rapid excursion were Alhagi mawrorum,
the Camel-thorn; Withania coagulans, D.C. (Puneeria coagulans of
Stocks, see Hook. Icones, ix. 801) used in Scinde and Affghanistan for
coagulating milk; and the prophet’s flower, Arnebia echioides, much
esteemed by the Mussulman population, who assert that the fine purple
spots on the corolla are the marks of Mahomet’s fingers. The seed will
be sent to you. It is arather showy plant. Enclosed are the seeds of
Diospyros tomentosa, the fruit of which is dried and sold in the bazaars.
It is about the size of a pigeon’s egg, and tastes like a plum. ‘There are
also enclosed the seeds of Delphinium Brunonianum, the Musk plant,
athered at an elevation of 14,000 feet. It is mentioned in the 2d vol. of
Hooker's Journal, p. 95. There are also seeds of Convallaria cirrhifolia.”’
NEW SERIES.—VOL, XVII. NO. 11.—apPrRIL 1863. 2T
324 Proceedings of Societies.
IV. Notes on the Physiological Action of the Calabar Poison Bean
(Physostigma venenosum, Balfour). By Tuomas R. Fraser, M.D.
This paper was an abstract from Dr Fraser’s graduation thesis of
last session. It was concluded from an experimental investigation that
the spermoderm of the Calabar bean possesses properties as a sedative
of the spinal cord, hydragogue cathartic, and diuretic. ‘The most ener-
getic action was obtained from the kernel. It was concluded,—Ilst, To act
on the spinal cord by destroying its power to conduct impressions ;
2d, This destruction may result in two well-marked and distinct effects—
a, in muscular paralysis, extending gradually to the respiratory apparatus,
and producing death by asphyxia; b, in rapid paralysis of the heart—
probably due to an extension of this action to nervous ganglia of the
heart— causing death by syncope; 3d, A difference in dose accompanied
this difference in effect ; 4th, The action does not extend to the brain
proper, part passu with the action on the spinal cord; the functions of
the brain may, however, be influenced secondarily; 5th, It produces a
paralysis of muscular fibre,—striped and unstriped; 6th, It acts as an
excitant of the secretory system, increasing especially the action of the
alimentary mucous membrane ; 7th, Topical effects follow the local appli-
cation of the watery emulsion and aleoholie extract; these are,—destruc-
tion of the contractility of muscular fibre, and contraction of the pupil
when applied to the eyeball or eyelids. It is probable that this last
action may be of importance in illustrating the action of the bean.
Valentin has shown that the iris receives its nervous supply from two
sources, from cerebral and from spinal filaments. He has concluded that
the cerebral filaments are supplied to the circular muscle or contractor of
the pupil, and the spinal to the radiating muscle or dilator of the pupil.
The actions of these two nervous supplies must be regarded as antago-
nistic. When, therefore, the influence of one set of fibres is removed, that
of the other will be unchecked, and will produce a greater degree of its
proper action, Thus, when the influence of the cerebral supply is re-
moved, the fibres, which are acted on by the spinal nerves, will be un-
checked, and dilatation of the pupils will result. The kernel of the
Calabar bean can in its action be referred to the spinal cord in the same
way. The contraction of the pupils may be caused in three ways,—by
cerebral irritation, by spinal depression, and by a combination of cerebral
irritation and spinal depression. The symptoms disprove any cerebral
irritative action, and so neither the first nor last of these can be regarded
as the cause of the contraction. The symptoms, on the other hand, dis-
tinctly indicate a depressing action on the spinal cord. By this action
the power of the cord to transmit impressions is destroyed, and so, neces-
sarily, the power of transmitting the spinal influence to the iris. The
balance between the dilator and contractor muscles is removed, the circular
fibres, being unopposed, act, and the pupil is contracted. Dr Fraser de-
scribed a similar physiological action to result from the administration
to man.
V. Register of the Flowering of Spring Plants in the Open Air, at the
Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. By Mr M‘Nas.
The register showed the dates at which the flowering took place in
1861, 1862, and 1863 respectively. Those for the latter year were as
follows :-—
Aubretia grandiflora, Jan. 16; Corylus Avellana, Jan. 16; Tussilago
fragrans, Jan. 18; Helleborus orientalis, Jan. 18; Hepatica triloba,
Jan. 2%; Helleborus purpureus, Jan. 26; Galanthus nivalis, Jan. 26;
Garrya elliptica, Jan, 23; Rhododendron atrovirens, Jan. 27; Sym-
er oe _
eo ees laa -
han, GAH
Pome ict ence Oy eal
Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 325
phytum caucasicum, Jan. 28; Primula denticulata, Feb. 2; Leucojum
vernum, Feb. 2; Tussilago alba, Feb. 2; Omphalodes verna, Feb. 2;
Evranthis hyemalis, Feb. 3 ; Erica herbacea, Feb. 6 ; Galanthus plicatus,
Feb. 7; Crocus susianus, Feb. 9; Crocus vernus (blue), Feb. 10;
Rhododendron Nobleanum, Feb. 11; Sisyrinchium grandiflorum,
Feb. 12; Nordmannia cordifolia, Feb, 12. Plants in flower on 12th
Feb. 1863 not included in the above list, but which have been flowering
more or less during the winter months :—Helleborus niger, T'ritonia
media, Cheiranthus Cheiri, Mathiola incana, Gentiana acwulis, Arabis
albida, Viola odorata, Jasminum nudiflorum, Bellis perennis (single
white, double red, and double white), Primula veris (varieties), Primula
vulgaris (varieties), Andromeda floribunda, Viola tricolor (varieties).
Dr John Lowe sent the following list of plants flowering in the open
air on 6th February, in his garden at Lynn, Norfolk :—LHranthis hye-
malis, Galanthus nivalis, Viola odorata, Primulas of various kinds,
Coronilla sp., Hepaticas, Arabis albida, Crocus (yellow), Helleborus,
Omphalodes verna, Cheiranthus Cheiri, Erica herbacea, Jasminum nudi-
Jlorum, Doronicum caucasium, Daphne Mezxereon, D. Lawreola, Mathiola
tncana, The following wild flowers were also in flower on 6th February
in the neighbourhood of Lynn :—Galanthus nivalis, Lamium album,
L. purpureuwm, Vinca major, V. minor, Primula veris, Corylus Avel-
lana, Ulex ewropeus, Sarothamnus Scoparius, Malva sylvestris, Draba
verna, Anthriscus sylvestris, Stellaria media, Bellis perennis, Senecio
vulgaris, Leontodon Taraxacum, Mercurialis perennis.
William Ivory, Esq., exhibited thirty-one species and varieties of
lants which were in flower on 12th February, at St Rocque, near
dinburgh.
Mr John Sadler exhibited twigs of various pear trees from the Experi-
mental Garden, with flowers nearly expanded.
The following letter was read by Professor Balfour from Sir John Hill
to Dr John Hope, Professor of Botany, Edinburgh, dated November 26,
1762, in which the writer alludes to the growth of fungi in animals. The
letter was communicated by Mr Small, College Library.
Letter to Dr Joun Hors, Professor of Botany, Edinburgh, from Sir
Joun Hii, author of a ‘* General Natural History,” “The British
Herbal,” ‘* Flora Britannica,” “‘ Hortus Kewensis,”’ a work on the
** Construction of Timber,” and “ The Vegetable System, or a Lecture
on the Structure, Physiology, and Olassification of Plants.”
Lonpon, Nov. 26, 1762.
Sir,—I beg you to accept my very sincere thanks for the favour of your
-letter. I feel a satisfaction very difficult to be expressed, on seeing the
certain prospect of Botany arriving at a most respectable height and
lustre in your part of the kingdom, and I need not add that the pleasure
is greatly increased by its being under your care and inspection. I shall
not let your promises be forgotten of telling me the steps you have taken
to forward the vegetable history of Scotland, and | shall be happy in con-
tributing everything in my power toward adding to the riches of the
opt and of serving you in anything that may be agreeable to you.
y parcel of seeds I shall send by the method you mention, as soon as I
receive those which my Lord Bute proposes to give me from Kew to add
to them. I am extremely pleased to see by the Loch Rannoch cata-
logue that the Betula nana, as well as Uva Ursi, are there. It was quite
unknown to me. I had traced that Betula almost round the globe in
parallel latitudes, but did not know it was in Britain before. If it can be
done without much trouble, I should be very happy to receive the roots
326 ’ Proceedings of Societies.
of all the plants of that catalogue in a condition of growth for my garden
at Bayswater, where I have an upland bog, skirted with heath, for the
reception of such plants. I am very happy to hear of the young clergy -
man’s application to botany; I am sensible a great deal is yet to be done
and yet to be known in Scotland, and one of his sacred character is most
desirable to attain it, because he has learning, and will be above false-
hood, which has done more harm to Natural History than ignorance itself.
I beg you will dig up a root of the Cicuta, and see whether it yields a
milk on being cut, or inflames the tongue on touching it, both which Dr
Stork asserts, and neither are the case here in England.
Give me leave to add the newest matter of Natural History here. I
think one’s letters should always do that if there be opportunities. We
have been astonished and confounded with a new miracle in nature, as it
may be called,—a progression from animal to vegetable. Colonel Mel-
ville brought from Dominique insects with small plants growing on their
backs. The account he received with them was, that at a certain period
of life the creature ceased to move, and grew up into a plant. The thing
was laid before the Royal Society here. The plants were small, but the
account said that they grew to trees of two feet high. Mr Da Costa, a
Jew mineralist, confirmed the account by producing Torrubias, a Spanish
naturalist, who has figured groves of these trees with animal roots; and
Mr Edwards has figured, in a new book of birds, some of the insects flying
with trees upon their backs. My Lord Bute, a few weeks since, was
pleased to put some of the insects into my hands toexamine. I found the
accounts to be perfectly erroneous, and in some instances purposely false.
The insect is the T'ettigometra, which buries itself in the ground to rest
till the Cicada bursts out from it, as the butterfly from the caterpillar’s
chrysalis. The plant is a Clavaria, no way differing from that Clava
simply but in that it has no lobes from its sides (pray see if you have
such, this is the season). If the creature perishes by accident, the seeds
of this fungus falling upon it, shoot first a sperm, and then the entire
plant grows from it. This is the whole matter, and there is no more
miracle in the place of its growth than in that of our fungus, ew pede
equino. I blush that any one should have invented such falsehoods, as
that of the mushroom growing to a tree; I blush much more that natu-
ralists should have confirmed them. ‘Torrubias, as a Spaniard, might be
expected to exaggerate; but that a Jew should scandalise himself by such
a vain credulity is stranger. I hope Mr Edwards will retract his error.
His book is not yet published, and I have given him notice of it.—I am,
with great respect and esteem, Sir, your very humble servant,
(Signed) J. Huu.
SCIENTIFIC INTELLIGENCE.
GEOLOGY.
Discovery of Remains of Vertebrated Animals provided with feathers,
in a deposit of Jurassic age (L’Institut, Nov. 5th 1862).—We take from
the “ Bibliothéque Universelle,” the following réswmé of the publications
made by A. Wagner and H. von Meyer on the feathered fossils recently
discovered at Solenhofen.
The principal specimen, the object of these communications, is to be
found in the beautiful collection of fossils belonging to Mr Haberlein of —
Pappenheim—a specimen which has been described at Munich by A.
Wagner, not as the result of a personal examination, but after the report —
Scientific Intelligence.—Geology—Zoology. 827
of an enlightened naturalist in whom the learned Bavarian anatomist
seems to put full confidence. H. von Meyer has since then figured in
the Palwontographica a single feather, very well preserved, having both
the shaft and the vane. They describe the specimens under two different
names, the former under that of Griphosaurus, the latter under that of
Archeopteryx lithographica.
The nature of the animal made known by these curious fragments is
doubtful. Two hypotheses are possible. Hither these feathers are those
of a veritable bird, and it is cag then to carry back the date of the
appearance of this class, as has already been necessary for that of
mammals; or they covered the body of a reptile, and, contrary to all
recedent, it is necessary to admit the existence of feathered reptiles.
The details which follow seem to render this last alternative rather the
more probable one.
The specimen of Mr Hiberlein is the one which furnishes the principal
data for this discussion. It is an incomplete skeleton lacking the head,
the neck, and the terminations of the anterior members. The feathers
are preserved toward the base of the wings and about the region of the
tail. According to the before-mentioned report, it is this latter part
which is the most characteristic. The sacrum recalls the form of that of
a Pterodactyl ; the tail, which is six inches long, is composed of numerous
vertebra (twenty) diminishing uniformly, the last being the smallest,—a
structure, in our view, more analogous to the organisation of reptiles
than to that of birds. The feathers are situated upon the bone in a
manner entirely unique; they are not set as in a fan, but grow on the
two sides of the tail through its whole length, making an angle with it.
They thus form, as it were, a flat leaf-like expansion, the extremity of
which is much rounded, and extends beyond the last of the vertebra.
The feathers of the wings are larger, and form a fan upon each side,
supported by a short and stout bone, badly preserved, which corresponds
in position to the carpus. It is preceded by a fore-arm composed of a
eee, bone (radius), and this by a humerus of equal length; both are
robust.
This spinal column, by its free lumbar and sacral vertebra, recalls
rather the reptiles. The left posterior member is complete, the right is
reduced to the femur and the tibia. The femur is a stout bone, the tibia
is longer and more slender; no fibula can be distinguished. The foot
has no reptilian characteristics, but, on the contrary, approaches some
forms of birds’ feet. The tarsus is thick, composed of a single bone, a
little shorter than the tibia, and parted at its extremity into three pullies,
to which are articulated three toes of moderate length terminated by
strong hooked claws.
Upon the whole then, the animal has partly the characters of birds,
viz., the form of the foot and also the existence of feathers ; partly those
of reptiles, viz., the form of the spinal column, of the sacrum, and
especially of the tail. It has some new and anomalous characters in the
implantation of the feathers, both those of the tail and those of the
fore-arm.
Mr Wagner appears disposed to consider the reptilian characteristics
as predominating. He relies, moreover, upon a consideration which
appears to us very just, in observing that the type of birds is singularly
constant, without any marked aberrations; while we are habituated to
the fact that reptiles are excessively variable-—American Journal of
Science and Arts, January 1863.
ZOOLOGY.
On Man’s position in the System of Mammals. By James D. Dana.—
The precise position of Man in the system of Mammals has long been,
828 Scientific Intelligence.
and still remains, a subject of discussion. There are those who regard
him as too remote from all other species of the class to be subject to ordi-
nary ~priniples of classification. But zoologists, generally, place him
either in an independent order (or sub-class, if the highest divisions be
sub-classes), or else at the head of the order containing the Quadrumana.
Science, in searching out the system in nature, leaves psychical or intel-
lectual qualities out of view; and this is right. It is also safe: for these
immaterial characteristics have, in all cases, a material or structural ex-
pression; and when this expression is apprehended, and its true im-
portance fully admitted, classification will not fail of its duty in recognising
the distinction they indicate.
Cuvier, in distinguishing Man as of the order Bimana, and the Monkeys
of the order Quadrumana, did not bring out to view any profound differ-
ence between the groups. The relations of the two are so close, that
Man, on this ground alone, would be far from certain of his separate
place. No reason can be derived from the study of other departments of
the Mammals, or of the animal kingdom, for considering the having of
two hands a mark of superior rank to the having of four,
Professor Owen, in his recent classification of Mammals, makes the
characteristics of the brain the basis of the several grand divisions. But,
as he admits, the distinctions fail in many cases of corresponding to the
groups laid down; and although the brain of Man (his group Archence-
phala) differs in some striking points from that of the Quadrumana, yet
no study of the brain alone would suggest the real distinction between
the groups, or prove that Man was not co-ordinal with the Monkeys. In
fact, the nervous system is a very unsafe basis of classification below the
highest grade of subdivisions—that into sub-kingdoms. The same sub-
kingdom may contain species with, and without, a distinct nervous system,
and a class or order may present very wide diversities as to its form and
development,—for the reason, that the system or plan of structure in
species is far more authoritative in classification than the condition of the
nervous system,
The fitness of the parts of the body of Man for intellectual uses, and
his erect position, have been considered zoological characteristics of eminent
importance, separating him from other Mammals. But even these qualities,
although admitted to be of real weight, are not to many zoologists unques-
tionable or authoritative evidence on this point.
But, while the structural distinctions mentioned may fail to establish
Man’s independent ordinal rank, there is a characteristic that anpears to
be decisive,—one which has that deep foundation in zoological science
required to give it prominence and authority.
The criterion referred to is this :—that while all other Mammals have
both the anterior and posterior limbs organs of locomotion, in Man the
anterior are transferred from the locomotive to the cephalic series. They
serve the purposes of the head, and are not for locomotion. The cepha-
lization of the body—that is, the subordination of its members and
structure to head uses—so variously exemplified in the animal kingdom,
here reaches its extreme limit. Man, in this, stands alone among
Mammals.
The author has shown elsewhere that this cephalization is a funda-
mental principle, as respects grade, in zoological life. He has not only
illustrated the fact, that concentration of the anterior extremity of the
body and abbreviation of its posterior portion is a mark of elevation ;
but further than this, that the transfer of the anterior members of the
thorax to the cephalic series is the foundation of rank among the orders
of Crustaceans. In the highest order of this class—that of the Dec
(containing crabs, lobsters, shrimps, &c.), nine pairs of organs, out of the
Zoology. 329
fourteen pertaining to the head and thorax, belong to the head—that is,
to the senses and the mouth. In the second order, that of the 7'etrade-
capods, there are only seven pairs of organs, out of the fourteen, thus de-
voted to the head,—two of the pairs which are mouth-organs in the
Decapods being true legs in the Tetradecapods. In the third or lowest
order, that of the Entomostracans, there are only siw, five, or four pairs
of cephalic organs ; and, besides, these, in most species, are partly pedi-
form, even the mandibles having often a long foot like branch or extremity,
and the antenne being sometimes, also, organs of prehension or locomotion.
Two of the laws bearing on grade, under this system of cephalization
or decephalization, have been stated; its connection with (1) a concentra-
tion of the anterior extremity and abbreviation of the posterior extremity,
and the reverse; and with (2) a transfer of thoracic members to the
cephalic series, and the reverse. There is a third law which should be
mentioned to explain the relations of the Entomostracans to the other
orders,—namely, (3) that a decline in grade, after the laxness and elonga-
tion of the anterior and posterior extremities have reached their limit,
is further exhibited by a degradation of the body, and especially of its
extremities.
In the step down from the Decapods to the Tetradecapods, there is an
illustration of this principle in the eyes of the latter being imbedded in
the head instead of being pedicellate. In the Entomostracans (1), the
elongated abdomen is destitute of all but one or two of the normal pairs
of members—not through a system of abbreviation, as exhibited in crabs,
but asystem of degradation; and in some species, all the normal members
are wanting, and even the abdomen itself is nearly obsolete. Again (2),
the two posterior pairs of thoracic legs are wanting in the species, and
sometimes more than two pairs. Again (3), at the anterior extremity,
one pair of antenne is often obsolete, and sometimes the second pair
nearly or even quite so. The Limulus, though so large an animal, has
the abdomen reduced to a straight spine, and the antenne to a small pair
of pincer legs, while all the mouth organs are true legs—the whole
structure indicating an extreme of degradation.
In the order of Decapods, having nine as the normal number of pairs
of cephalic organs, the species of the highest group have these organs
compacted within the least space consistent with the structure of the type ;
in those a grade lower, the posterior pair is a little more remote from the
others and begins to be somewhat pediform ; a grade lower, this pair is
really pediform, or nearly like the other feet; and still lower, two or three
pairs are pediform. Still lower in the series of Decapods (the Schizopods),
there are examples under the principle of degradation above explained ;
(1) in the absence of two or three pairs of the posterior thoracic appen-
dages ; (2) in the absence or obsolescence of the abdominal appendages ;
(3) in the Schizopod character of the feet. These Decapods, thus de-
graded, approximate to the Entomostracans, although true Decapods in
type of structure. Thus the principle is exemplified within the limits of
a single order, as well as in the range of orders.
This connection of cephalization with rise of rank is also illustrated
abundantly in embryonic development. It is one of the fundamental
principles in living nature.
When then, in a group like that of Mammals, in which two is the pre-
vailing number of pairs of locomotive organs, there is a transfer of the
anterior of these two from the locomotive to the cephalic series, there is
evidence, in this exalted cephalization of the system, of a distinction of
the very highest significance. Moreover, it is of the more eminent value
that it occurs in a class in which the number of locomotive members is so
nearly a constant number. It places Man apart from the whole series of
330 Scientific Intelligence.
Mammals ; and does it on the basis of a character which is fundamentally
a criterion of grade. This extreme cephalization of the system is, in fact,
that material or structural expression of the dominance of mind in the
being, which meets the desire both of the natural and intellectual
philosopher.
This cephalization of the human system has been recognised by Carus ;
but not in its connection with a deep-rooted structural law pervading the
animal kingdom. It is the comprehensiveness of the law which gives the
special fact its great weight. Aristotle, in his three groups of Mammals,
the Dipoda, or two-footed, the Tetrapoda, or four-footed, and the Apoda,
or footless species, expresses distinctions according with this law. The
term Dipoda, as applied to Man, is far better and more philosophical
than Bimana.
The erect form of the structure in Man, although less authoritative in
classification, is a concomitant expression of this cephalization. For the
body is thus placed directly beneath the brain or the subordinating power,
and no part of the structure is either anterior or posterior to it. Two
feet for locomotion is the smallest possible number in an animal. Cephalic
concentration and posterior abbreviation are at their maximum. The
characters of the brain distinguishing the Archencephala (Man) in Pro-
fessor Owen’s system, so far as based on its general form or the relative
position of its parts, flow from the erect form.
Man’s title to a position by himself, separate from the other Mammals
in classification, appears hence to be fixed on structural as well as psychi-
cal grounds.—American Journal of Science and Arts, January 1563.
MISCELLANEOUS,
Ferrol on the Cause of the Inundation of the Nile.—In order to account
for the Nile’s inundations, it is necessary to understand the causes of the
rainy seasons, and the laws which govern them, in the region of the
sources of the Nile, and its principal tributaries. Although we know but
little of these from direct observations in the region itself, yet I think we
may have a pretty correct idea of them from the observation of the laws
which prevail generally at other places in the same latitude. It is well
known that there is a belt surrounding the earth near the equator where
the north-east and south-east trade-winds meet, in which an enormous
amount of rain falls daily. In the regions of the trade-winds on each
side of this belt, which embraces nearly one half the surface of the globe,
very little rain falls ; but the vapour is carried to the latitude where the
trades meet, where the ascending currents carry it up to a point where it
is condensed, and hence nearly all the rain which would otherwise fall
over the whole regions of the trade-winds, falls in a narrow belt only a
few degrees wide. ‘This belt is not stationary, but vibrates with the
seasons nearly 1000 miles in latitude, having its most northern position
in mid-summer, and its most southern in mid-winter, of the northern
hemisphere. In the Atlantic ocean the middle of this belt, when farthest
north, is about the latitude of 12°, and when farthest south, it is a little
south of the equator, and it is about 8° wide. Hence in the latitudes
occupied by the belt, when in its extreme positions, there is one rainy
season annually, continuing about five months at places near the inner
limits of this belt when in its extreme positions. The width of this rainy
belt, the range of vibration, and the amount of rain which falls, may be
considerably modified by the continents, and especially by high mountain
ranges, but still there can be no very material change in the seasons, or
the laws which regulate them. Hence in South America, when the rainy
belt occupies its most northern position about the Ist of August, the water-_
shed of the Orinoco receives an immense amount of rain, and an in .
Miscellaneous. 331
tion takes place, which, near the mouth of the river, is at its maximum
in September. In like manner, when this belt occupies its most southern
position about the 1st of February, all the tributaries which flow into the
north side of the Amazon becoming flooded by the immense amount of
rain, an inundation follows in that river, which is at its maximum toward
the mouth about the last of March, or about two months after the middle
of the rainy season.
The annual inundation of the Nile, it seems to me, can be very satis-
factorily accounted for in the same manner. Wherever the source of this
river may be, it can have little effect in causing the inundation, for it
must be a very small part of all the tributaries which make up the Nile ;
and it is to the sources of the principal tributaries that we must look for
the cause of the inundation. e have seen that at the southern part of
Lake Nyanza the rainy season is from November to April, as it should
be, if there is a vibrating rainy season there, as observed at other places
near the equator, and hence we have reason to conclude that in mid-sum-
mer of the northern hemisphere it prevails 12° or 15° north of the equator.
The extreme northern position of the north side of the rainy belt doubt-
less coincides with the southern limit of the great African desert, and the
deserts of Arabia, which, but for the narrow strip rendered fertile by the
irrigation of the Nile, would be one continuous desert, caused by the
absence of rains in the belt of the trade-winds. The rainy belt, therefore,
from May to November, must be between the parallels of about 5° and
17° north latitude. If now we examine a map of this region, it is seen
that the great water-shed drained by the Blue Nile and its tributaries,
embracing nearly all of Abyssinia, and also several important tributaries
of the White Nile, is situated principally between these latitudes. Hence
the immense amount of rain falling in this region during the rainy season,
must cause an inundation of the N ile, just as it does of the Orinoco or of
_ the Amazon. From what has been stated, the middle of the rainy season
- here must be about the Ist of August, and the greatest height of the
lower parts of the Nile is about the 1st of October, so that the flood would
have about two months to descend. From what we know of the usual
velocity of the currents of other rivers generally, this would be just about
_ the time required. :
The rainy belt from November to May is perhaps mostly south of the
equator, and the source of the Nile, or some of its tributaries, must extend
into this belt during this season, else the Nile, flowing more than 1000
miles through a rainless region, from which it does not receive a single
_ tributary, however small, could not be supplied with water. This is an
_ argument in favour of the hypothesis, that the Nile has its source in Lake
Nyanza; but I think the water-shed of that lake would not be more than
sufficient to supply the Nile at low water, and that if ever the geography
and meteorology of this region shall be well understood, the cause of the
inundation of the Nile will be found in latitudes further north, as stated
above.—American Journal of Science and Arts, January 1863.
‘ Royal Society of Edinburgh.— The Keith, Brisbane, and Neill
Prizes.—The above prizes will be awarded by the Council in the follow-
ing manner :—
; . Kerra Prize.—The Keith Prize, consisting of a gold medal and
from L.40 to L.50 in money, will be awarded early next session (1863-
64), for “the best communication on a scientific subject, communicated in
the first instance to the Royal Society during the Sessions 1861-62 and
_ 1862-63.’’ Preference will be given to a paper containing a discovery.
Award of the Keith Prize.—17th biennial period, 1859-61. John
_ Allan Broun, Esq., F.R.S., Director of the Trevandrum Observatory,
NEW SERIES.—VOL. XVII, NO. 11.— APRIL 1863. 2u
332 Scientific Intelligence.
for his papers on the Horizontal Force of the Earth’s Magnetism, on the
ee of the Bifilar Magnetometer, and on Terrestrial Magnetism
generally.
II. Maxpoveatt Brispane Prize.—This prize is to be awarded
biennially by the Council of the Royal Society of Edinburgh to such
person, for such purposes, for such objects, and in such manner as shall
appear to them the most conducive to the promotion of the interests of
science, with the proviso that the Council shall not be compelled to award
the prize unless there shall be some individual engaged in scientific
pursuit, or some paper written on a scientific subjeet, or some discovery
in science made during the biennial period, of sufficient merit or im-
portance in the opinion of the Council to be entitled to the Prize.
1. The Prize, consisting of a Gold Medal and a sum of Money, will be
awarded at the commencement of the Session 1864-65, for an Essay
rp reference to any branch of scientific inquiry, whether Material or
ental.
2. Competing Essays to be addressed to the Secretary of the Society
on or before 1st June 1864.
3. The competition is open to all men of science.
4, The Essays may be either anonymous or otherwise. In the former
case they must be distinguished by mottoes, with corresponding sealed
yrs superscribed with the same motto, and containing the name of the
uthor.
5. The Council impose no restriction as fo the length of the Essays,
which may be, at the discretion of the Council, read at the Ordinary
Meetings of the Society. They wish also to leave the property and free
disposal of the manuscripts to the Authors; a copy, however, being de-
posited in the Archives of the Society, unless the paper shall be pub-
lished in the Transactions.
6. In awarding the Prize, the Council will also take into consideration
any scientific papers presented to the Society during the Sessions 1862~
63 and 1863-64, whether they may have been given in with a view to
the Prize or not.
Award of the Makdougall Brisbane Prize.—2d biennial period, 1860-
62. William Seller, M.D., F.R.C.P.E., for his Memoir of the Life and
Writings of Dr Robert Whytt, published in the Transactions.
III. Nem. Prize.—The Council of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
having received the bequest of the late Dr Patrick Neill of the sum of
L.500, for the purpose of ‘‘ the interest thereof being applied in furnish-
ing a Medal or other reward every second or third year to any distin-
guished Scottish Naturalist, according as such Medal or reward shall be
voted by the Council of the said Society,” hereby intimate,
1. The Neill Prize, consisting of a Gold Medal, and a sum of Money,
will be awarded at the commencement of the Session 1865-66.
2. The Prize will be given for a paper of distinguished merit, on a
subject of Natural History, by a Scottish naturalist, which shall have
been presented to the Society during the three years preceding the Ist
May 1865 ; or failing presentation of a paper sufficiently meritorious, it
will be awarded for a work or publication by some distinguished Scottish
naturalist on some branch of Natural History, bearing date within five
years of the time of award.
Award of the Neill Prize.—2d triennial period, 1859-62. Robert
Kaye Greville, LL.D., for his contributions to Scottish Natural History,
more especially in the department of Cryptogamic Botany, including his
recent papers.on Diatomacee.
Poisoning by Milk.—Most of the occupants of two of the first-rate —
Miscellaneous. 333
hotels in Valetta, the Imperial and Morrell’s, were seized with symp-
toms of virulent cholera. In the former hotel, not less than twelve per-
sons, including the landlord and servants, and in the latter seven persons,
were attacked, Medical assistance was immediately procured, and appro-
priate remedies were applied. We are happy to state that the patients
are now doing well, although for a time the violence of the symptoms led
to apprehensions of a fatal result in many of the cases, From inquiries
made, it appears that all the sufferers were seized within twenty minutes
to two, or three hours after breakfast; and that as the only article of diet
common to all was milk, and as on other occasions of similar seizure the
cause was clearly traced to that article, it is reasonable to infer that in
the present instance the milk used for breakfast contained the poisonous
ingredient. This conclusion becomes almost a certainty, when it is known
that several persons living in the same hotels, who had not taken milk
that day, escaped, while, without one exception, those who had taken it
were seized with the alarming illness described. The family of Mr
Emmanuele Zammit, and, we believe, other families in Valetta, were
attacked in like manner the same morning after partaking of milk for
breakfast ; even a cat which had taken some, showed the same symptoms
of having been poisoned. Among the sufferers at the Imperial were
General Bell, 2 Mr Spence the eminent sculptor of Rome. Towards
the end of last year, a number of exactly similar cases happened at
Sliema, where the whole family of a field-officer, with one exception, was
poisoned evidently by goats’ milk; and about the same time other cases
occurred among the officers and men of her Majesty’s ships Marlborough,
Algiers, and Firebrand, but with no fatal consequences. We have also
heard of other cases occurring from time to time. Poisoning by milk,
therefore, appears to be not an uncommon occurrence in Malta; but we
are not aware if experiments were ever made by scientific men to ascertain
beyond doubt the real cause of the milk assuming this dangerous char-
acter. The natives attribute it to the a browsing on a particular
plant belonging to the natural family Hwphorbiacee, or spurgeworts,
which they call tenhuta, and which they say possesses the property of
rendering the milk poisonous to human beings without inflicting any
serious injury on the animal itself.— Malta Times, Jan. 22, 1863.
CHEMISTRY.
Seeds of Abrus precatorius.—Professor Martius of Erlangen, in a
letter to one of the editors of this Journal, says, “I wish to call your
attention to the fact, that the seeds of Abrus precatorius contain an
alkaloidal poisonous matter. It is easily obtained by boiling the crushed
seeds several times with alcohol of 0°830 to 0°812, filtering, and then
distilling the alcohol until two ounces remain from a pound of seeds.
If it stands a long time, the poisonous matter crystallises out. Weak
alcohol extracts the colouring matter.”
334 Publications Received.
PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.
1. Proceedings of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester,
Nos. 5-9, June 1862-63.—F rom the Society.
2. Journal of the Chemical Society, January and February 1863.—
From the Editors.
3. Beshrivelse over Lophogaster Typicus, By Dr M, Sars.—From
the University of Christiania.
4. Synopsis of the Vegetable Products of Norway. By Dr F. C.
Scriseter. Translated by the Rev. M. R, Barnarp, B.A.—From the
same.
5. Geologiske Undersogelser i Bergens Omegn. Af M. Hiorrpaut og
M. Ireens.—From the same.
6. Canadian Naturalist and Geologist, for December 1862.—From
the Editors.
7. Annual Report of the Geological Survey of India, and of the
Museum of Geology, for the year 1861-62.—F rom Dr T. Oldham.
8. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. IV. Part 1—
From the same.
9. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, Paleonto.
Indica, Part 2-1 and 2-2.—From the same.
9. Bulletin de l’Academie Royale des Sciences de Belgique, No. 12,
1862.—From the Academy.
10. Transactions of the Tyneside Naturalists’ Field Club, Vol. V.
Part 4.—From the Club.
11. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, No. 4. for 1862.—
From the Secretaries.
eo
INDEX.
Abrus precatorius, Seeds of, poisonous, 888
Adams, Dr A. L., on the Paleontology of Malta, 161
Address to Royal Society of Edinburgh, 71
Age of Man, 169
Anderson, Dr Thomas, on Cinchona Plant in India, 3 6
Archeeopteryx lithographica, 161
Astacus marinus, Anatomy of, 17
Australian Plants, 214
Babington, Professor, on some British Cyperacew, 318
Balloon Ascents, 124, 180
Barometer in Determination of Heights, 127
Baxter, H. F., on Nerve Force, 235
Bigsby, Dr John J., on the Organic Contents of the Older Metamorphic
Rocks, 171
Birdwood on Economic Products of Bombay noticed, 123
Botanic Garden of Edinburgh, Flowering of Plants in, 324
Brain of Man and the Gorilla, 138
British Association Proceedings, 124
Burmese Animals, 162
Calabar Poison Bean, Physiological Action of, 324
Canadian Plants, 197
Church Buried in Sands of Gwithian, Cornwall, 14
Clouston, Dr T. 8., on the Minute Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous
System in the Lobster, 17
Cobbold, Dr T. 8., on Human Entozoa, 145
Comatula, Development of, 137
Cooling of the Soil during the Night, 63 ‘
Core, Thomas H., on the Barometric Depression and Accompanying Storm of
19th October 1862, 263
Corymorpha natans, Notice by Professor Allman, 140
Cotton and Tea in India, 315
Plant of Peru, 321
Crania of Europe Compared, 168
Crocodiles of India and Africa, 144
Cyperacee, British, 318
336 Index.
Dana on Man’s Position in the System of Mammals, 827
Daubeny, Professor, on Selection by Roots, 51
on the Eruption of Vesuvius in December 1861, 1
De Candolle, Alphonse, on a New Character observed in the Fruit of the
Oaks, 54
Dickson, Dr A., on the Embryogeny of Tropeolum majus, 251
Drosera and Dionea, Irritability of, 317
Edmonds, R., on the Buried Church in the Sands of Gwithian in Cornwall, 14
Entozoa in Man, 145
Fellowships in Oxford and Cambridge, 151
Fibres in Australia fitted for Manufactures, 156
Forbes, Principal, Life of Necker, 294
Opening Address to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 71
Fraser, Dr T. R., on the Physiological Action of the Calabar Bean, 324
Geological Intelligence, 326
Glaciers in ‘Turkistan, 157
Glaisher on Balloon Ascents, 180
Guano Islands of the Pacific Ocean, 164
Gumpach on the True Figure of the Earth noticed, 105
Harran in Padan-Aram, Journey to, by Dr O. T. Beke, 148
Horse, Fore Foot of, with Two Toes, 279
Hyena Den at Wokey Hole, 186
Inundation of the Nile, Cause of, 880
Jameson, Dr, on the Cultivation of Cotton and Tea in India, 815
Lancashire, Pauperism and Mortality of, 150
Lawson, Dr G., on Plants of Leeds and Grenville, in Upper Canada, 197
Lindsay, Dr W. Lauder, on the Place and Power of Natural History in Colo- 2"
nisation, 280
Lobster, Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System of, 17
Luminosity of Phosphorus, 133
Liineberg, Geology of, 305
Macdonald, J. Denis, on the Representative Relationships of the Fixed and
Free Tunicata, 293
Man and Monkeys, 156
Man’s Position in the System of Mammals, 327
Markham, C. R., on the Peruvian Cotton Plant, 321
Martins, Charles, on the Nocturnal Cooling of the Soil, 68
Metamorphic Rocks, Organic Contents of, 171
Meteoric Iron, 67
Meteorite, Analysis of, 69 ;
Meteorological Society’s Report as to the Climate of Scotland noticed, 109
Milk, Poisoning by, 332 <
Mueller, Dr F., on Plants Collected in North-West Australia, 214
Natural History, its Place and Power in Colonisation, 280
Necker, Professor Louis Albert, Biography of, 294
Nerve Force, 235
Oaks, Character observed in the Fruit of, 54
Ornithological Notes by Dr J. A. Smith, 318
Index. 837
Otago, Geology of, 282
Gold Fields, 286
Ozone Exhaled by Plants, 155
Palwontology of Malta, 161
Photometer, New Forms of, 208
Pig, Solid-hoofed, Notice of, 2738
Poisoning, Secret, by Professor Harley, 146
Pratt on Eccentric and Centric Force, noticed, 107
Projectiles, Mechanical Properties of, 158
Races of Man, Colour as a Test of, 147
Ranunculus, hybrid, 155
Reddie on the Mechanism of the Heavens, noticed, 122
Reviews, 104
Roots, Power of Selection in, 51
Royal Physical Society, Proceedings of, 812
Society of Edinburgh, Prizes, 831
—— Society of Edinburgh, Proceedings of, 292
Saltness of the Ocean, 169
Scientific Intelligence, 155
Scott, John, on Drosera and Dionea, 317
Sir John Hill, Letter to Dr John Hope, 325
Smith, Dr John Alexander, on a Mass of Meteoric Iron, 67
Societies, Proceedings of, 124, 292
Stevenson, Thomas, on some New Forms of Photometer, 208
Stones, Artificial, 152
Storm of 19th October 1862, 263
Struthers, Dr John, on the Fore Foot of a Horse with Two Toes,
on the Solid-hoofed Pig, 273
Sun’s Surface, Structure of, 124
Taylor, Andrew, on Bituminous Shales, 312
Thomson, Dr Murray, Analysis of Meteorite, 69
Tropeolum majus, Embryogeny of, 251
Tubularide, New Species of, by Professor Allman, 142
Vertebrated Animals with Feathers, in a Deposit of the Jurassic Age, 32
Vesuvius, Eruption of, in 1861, 1
Watson, Rey. R. Boog, on the Geology of Liineberg, 305
Worms on the Rotation of the Earth, noticed, 104
Zoological Intelligence, 327
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