ayes \ (22 WlSsy Ary Cos 5 Tag. Kes. GAL a& Mo TA aay) (AD-1b&l 72\) T.M. 39 OCEAN DUMPING IN THE NEW YORK BIGHT: AN ASSESSMENT OF NVIRONMENTAL STUDIES by George Pararas-Carayannis TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM NO. 39 MAY 1973 U.S. ARMY, CORPS OF ENGINEERS COASTAL ENGINEERING ee RESEARCH CENTER 4 , Approved for public release; distribution unlimited. m-34 Reprint or republication of any of this material shall give appropriate credit to the U. S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Center. Limited free distribution within the United States of single copies of this publication was made by this Center. Additional copies are available from: National Teehntcal Information Service ATTN: Operations Divtston 5285 Port Royal Road Springfield, Virginia 22151 At the time of publication, prices were $3.00 for hard copies and $.95 for microfiche copies. Contents of this report are not to be used for ad- Citation vertising, publication, or promotional purposes. of trade names does not constitute an official endorsement or approval of the use of such commercial products. The findings in this report are not to be construed as an official Department of the Army position unless so designated by other authorized documents. WHO] DOCUMENT \ COLLECTION 09n30 IN Hilly VN 008995 QO 0301 OCEAN DUMPING IN THE NEW YORK BIGHT: AN ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES by George Pararas-Carayannis TECHNICAL MEMORANDUM NO. 39 MAY 1973 U.S. ARMY, CORPS OF ENGINEERS COASTAL ENGINEERING RESEARCH CENTER Approved for public release; distribution unlimited. ey AHT Al OAM Via ‘THOIa ABOY WAKA JO TA IMeAde2A VA 22 LA TAINVOAI ES | iene ere anh ee Ye. Ori nUCHAROMAN: ee 7 ENGE Ym, ~ ie , caNSyaNE AO BOD OVINE: 1A% Seah sat: Voviaina lin i : z z m bs) N oy CONTOURS IN FEET EEE) timo 1 2 SCALE IN NAUTICAL MILES 73°50 73°40' CEREN-GE Figure 3. Recent Bathymetry of the Continental Shelf Outside New York Harbor (After Williams and Duane, in press) 30 BROOKLYN STATEN IS ATLANTIC HIGHLANDS SURVEY DATE 1845 SCALE !N KILOMETERS contour vatues In FEET CED CEREN-GE Figure 4. Bathymetry of the Shelf Outside Harbor Based on an 1845 Survey (Williams and Duane, in press) 3| 74°00! 73°50’ BROOKLYN STATEN IS. BAY 90°30" 10 DIAMOND ATLANTIC HIGHLANDS 40°20' CONTOUR VALUES IN FEET SCALE IN KILOMETERS [sae a) QO ft 2s) CEREN-GE Figure 5. Isopach of Fill Material (Williams and Duane, in press) 32 BROOKLYN Me STATEN IS : ie is cy { oO 2 e New 7A iF FeFXC-40 NI Tet co-4 34 ei) EXPLANATION ' EN So Air : Ws Soto 0 jottom Sample An, \ 3 Lese0]| | | oy (fis —— Geophysical Line “any, 5 Pe yr ©) Boring C hig H 72) } nAtos s << Coe | K ; ve EN 4) Xe) L on wegen if p | a PVA a Pies ea C ( [oA a . Cioa “= . 10 2, 40" 20 40°20" 4 iad C-86 C-85 46 Ses C-aq c-88 38 a] a a p aC! e % a & SCALE IN NAUTICAL MILES SCALE IN KILOMETERS mune p aap oe [os en = = oa) ag 87 OU 2.3) CEREN-GE Figure 6. Track of Geophysical Reflection Studies and Location of Core, Boring and Sampling Sites of CERC's Inner Continental Shelf Study Program (ICONS) (Williams and Duane, in press) 33 taken for foundation engineering studies for Coast Guard navigation buoys in the Bight. These indicate that gently southeast dipping Coastal Plain Strata underlie the Shelf off the Harbor. Shrewsbury Rocks, extending offshore from Long Branch, N.J., (Figure 3) mark the physiographic and geologic demarcation between deeply eroded Upper Cretaceous strata to the north and evenly truncated Tertiary Strata to the south (Figure 7) (Williams and Duane, in press). Overlying the Coastal Plain sediments are sands, gravel and fine detritus which in part owe their origin to the ancestral Raritan and Hudson Rivers which flowed over the exposed Shelf during Pleistocene time. Additional material from melt water erosion of the terminal moraines of Long Island was deposited concurrently on the Shelf. ICONS geophysical records east of Sandy Hook show an elongate area containing complex sets of cross stratified Pleistocene sand and gravel up to 75 feet thick on top of deeply eroded Coastal Plain strata. The crossbed sediments are overlain by flat lying stratified sand with an average thickness of 15 feet (Williams and Field, 1971). Stratigraphy of the sediments of the Inner New York Bight in the dump grounds follows: Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary strata (sands, silts, clays and some gravels) form the base material of the Shelf of the Bight. Pleistocene glaciofluvial material was deposited unconformably upon the erosion surface represented by these sediments. In certain areas of the Bight, especially near ancestral river beds, east of Sandy Hook these sediments are crossbedded. Superimposed on the Pleistocene sediments are horizontal, sand deposits of variable thickness of Holocene age. Subbottom profiling and coring studies indicate the existence of a thin veneer of Holocene material near the dumping grounds. This material is covered by dredge spoils and sewage sludge. Ambiguity persists about the thickness of the waste materials on the present dumping grounds. Random core sampling in this area has shown accumulation of waste sediment having thickness of only a few centimeters. One core showed waste thickness of about one meter. This core, it is believed, was taken in a topographic low where such accumulation is more probable. The apparent absence of a thick accumulation of waste material on the ocean floor as revealed by ICONS cores and geophysical records indicates either resuspension and transport of this sediment or rapid biodegradation. Such a magnitude of bio- degradation may be more true for the sewage sludge which has a higher organic content in contrast to excavation rubble or dredge muds. c. Surface Sediments. A large percentage of the sediments found in the designated dredge spoil dumping area originate from dredging and maintenance of navigation channels in the Harbor. These channels are dredged to accommodate the large volumes of shipping into the Harbor. Sediments of the Inner Harbor are generally fine grained sands and silts subject to continuous shifting by bottom currents. In the outer part of the Harbor, including Sandy Hook Bay, the bottom is typically 34 Scale in Feet ut 3315 3313 3311 MM 3317 o) 1 aae T T T T T T | of) CORE 102 40! CORE 101 | LINE 37 0 “gt 910Y Silly Fine Sond Groy Sill-Cloy | Fe 100 150 =—— ——————————————— coe ppp PA 250 300 NORTH— 3309 3307 3305 NN 3303 330! Or T T T [= T T T HUDSON SUBMARINE CHANNEL CORE 99 0 O' Gray Silt with Spoil 4° Gray Sil!-Sond Pleistocene Erosion Surface SHREWSBURY ROCKS NORTH —~ 3299 3297, © T a ae T — —4r ] T T T T ED CORES Oo © Gray Fine Sand @ Silt H Pleistocene Erosion Surface NORTH — 3291 3289 20 3287 3285 ° T T Teen T ay T T = eas DIAMOND 50 ! oy Colne ae COAST GUARD we DISPOSAL AREA CORE 40 O-7' Silt with Spoil COAST GUARD a) rey, Very Fine, Sand Pleistocene Erosion Surface BORING NO. 4 Des Groy Silt-Clay 4 BORING NO 2,3 100 150 Te eS ernie es Approximate Horizontal Scale 300 Nautical Miles NORTH —~ o) 0.25 0.5 3283 3281 ° at “=r hn T T 1. Pleistocene Erosion Surface (0) (o} 5 (0) 8 Kilometers CEREN-GE NORTH —— Figure 7. Stratigraphy of Sediments in the Vicinity of the Dumping Grounds as Revealed from Cores and Subbottom Profiling (Williams and Field, 1971) SS) covered with coarser sands (Fig. 8). Sediment distribution and char- acteristics in both the Inner and Outer Harbor are affected by the nature of sediment from the Hudson River, the quantity and type of wastes discharged within the harbor, tidal circulation, and frequency of dredging. Near the Harbor entrance, the sediments are coarser, consisting typical- ly of sand and gravel. Further offshore, sand is the principal sediment with a few scattered patches of gravel (Fig. 8). Near the dumping grounds the sediments are not typical of sediments found elsewhere in the Bight. These sediments are usually mixed, since they originate from different regions, and include medium or fine grained sands, muds with high organic content, and sewage sludge at different stages of degradation. The sediments of the dumping grounds can be termed anthropogenic because their deposition is not the result of natural processes. Certain physical properties of the sediments dredged and dis- posed of in the dumping area are given in Table 4. There appears to be little natural sedimentation on the Continental Shelf of Bight at the present time. Topographic features, cut by rivers flowing across the Shelf when sea level was lower, have not been covered by more recent sediment deposition. The rivers carry little suspended sediment, and the large estuaries and lagoons along the coast appear to effectively trap this sediment (Meade, 1969). According to Gross (1970), there is little or no natural sediment deposition to dilute or bury ocean disposed wastes in this region. Removal of the waste sediments from the dumping grounds - at least the finer sediments - may be taking place as a result of lateral movement due to bottom currents, storm waves, in- ternal waves and turbidity currents. The extent of lateral movement of the sediments of the dumping area is not satisfactorily documented. Turbidity currents probably play an important role in the removal of waste sediment. Because the dumping grounds are near the head of the Hudson Channel, it is possible that the channel acts as a conduit moving such sediments to deeper water in the form of density currents. The WHOI study concluded that a possible reason the Los Angeles area did not experience a degraded marine environment was because of canyons. So the nearness of the Hudson Canyon to the disposal grounds may be bene- ficial provided that the ecological damage in the Canyon, resulting from the presence of polluted sediments, is not too great. 2. Water Motion and Circulation Characteristics The water motion and circulation characteristics of the Bight have been studied in relation to dispersion patterns of waste materials dis- posed of in the area. (Ketchum and Ford, 1948; Ketchum, et al, 1951; Redfield and Walford, 1951; Beyer, 1955; Saila, 1968; Buelow, 1968; Sandy Hook Laboratory, 1972). Hydrographic studies of the Bight have also been undertaken by Bowman and Weyl (1972). No comprehensive synoptic hydrographic studies of the nearshore area of the Bight have been made, and complete understanding of the surface 36 ee CEREN-GE Figure 8. Sediment Distribution in Lower New York Bay and on the nearby Continental Shelf (Williams and Duane, in press) 37 Table 4. Physical Properties of Sediment Dredged in the New York Metropolitan Area Dredged Area Yearsof | Median Grain Size | Grain Density | Bulk Density | Porosity Observation in si ste oe New York— 1958—1967 New Jersey Channels Ambrose Channel 1956-1968 Sandy Hook Channel | 1960—1968 South Shore 1955-1968 Long Island t Percent Loss on Ignition: 15.0, 13.0, and 2.3. * One gram per cubic centimeter is equivalent to one metric ton per cubic meter or 62.4 pounds per cubic foot. after Gross, 1969 38 ! and bottom circulation in the area of the disposal grounds has not been obtained. The reason for this lack of understanding is that the Bight dumping grounds are not strictly marine but have estuarine characteristics. The hydrographic conditions in this area constantly change as freshwater flows from the Hudson and Raritan Rivers into the oceanic environment. Generally, conditions in the Bight are similar to those off the mouths of large rivers. The flow of the Hudson and Raritan Rivers varies seasonally from less than 0.6 x 10? to more than 1.3 x 10% cubic feet per day. With such an influx freshwater, it would be expected that the distribution of physical properties would be greatly affected. Paradoxically, a study of hydro- graphic conditions in the Bight by Ketchum, et al (1951) has shown that when- the river flow was great, a steady state condition existed and the distribution of properties was explainable. When the river flow was low, the patterns were erratic, changeable, and unpredictable. ‘To maintain a steady-state condition within the Bight, nontidal drift of mixed water in a net seaward direction must be taking place. To counter- act rapid flushing, and to maintain the steady-state condition, a large quantity of ocean water must also enter the area. This oceanic counter- drift would be expected to be rich in oxygen and nutrients. The study by Ketchum and his associates, concluded that an active circulation pattern exists in the Bight having a beneficial cleansing action on whatever pollutants enter the area. The rate of flushing was estimated to be from 6 to 10 days, and to be independent of the river flows, but depend- ent on tidal oscillations. This active circulation pattern within the Bight was inferred by studying the spatial distribution of properties and by identification of water masses and boundary conditions. Although it appears correct in explaining total water mass exchange and drift, it does not answer immediate questions concerning circulation patterns within the dumping grounds. The Sandy Hook Laboratory (SHL) attempted to directly measure the circulation in the Bight related to the movement and dispersal of dumped Materials. SHL established a sampling grid of 23 hydrographic stations in part of the Bight (Figure 9) and made periodic measurements of tempera- ture, salinity, and dissolved oxygen. Attempts to measure directly velocity, current direction, and particulate transports were made, but were partially unsuccessful. Three of four current meters placed at fixed stations, 40 feet above the bottom within the study area (Points A, B, C, Figure 9), gave satisfactory records for only limited periods. The results of this current data are discussed in the section on bottom circulation. Estimates of surface and bottom sediment transport were obtained by SHL using seabed and surface drifters. The Seabed drifter used was a positively buoyant plastic saucer (diameter 18 cm) fastened to a small diameter stem 54 cm long. The free end of this stem was weighted so that the whole drifter had a slight negative buoyancy. Sur- face drifters were small bottles ballasted to float vertically and to 39 (ZL61 “IHS 10ajy) suotieig oOTYder30IpAH THS SUL “6 OANSTY 0200p @n ococe SUOI}DJS JOUIO ff S-| SUOIJDJS JayowW jUaIND SUOI}D}S Hulj|dwos 4aJDM PUD aASDdAJes Ja}jlIg @ 39aN1S JOVM3S M0dS ® 3903ud S—G ) Cog q 3JSOUENY © C) c-€ a yOOH Apups yo di IPE B g hong A M,00 ob 40 present little above surface exposure reducing wind effects. The analysis of circulation patterns was based on the limited current meter data and on returns from about 4,000 surface and seabed drifters, re- leased during 1969. The history of returns for these drifters is shown in Figure 10. Details on the construction and operation of drif- ters can be found in papers by (Bumpus, (1965), Harrison, et al, (1967). a. Surface Circulation. Knowledge of surface currents is important in understanding the dispersion of surface pollutants near the dumping grounds. Surface circulation of the waters of the Bight is controlled by tides and prevailing winds. It is difficult to determine the net effect of tidal and wind-driven surface circulation on waste dispersion in the absence of comprehensive synoptic hydrographic surveys, because both tides and winds are dependent on time of day and season of year. However the following general remarks can be made: (1) Tidal Circulation. The New York Harbor tidal circulation has been studied by Marmer (1935), and Jeffries (1962). Under flood conditions, water flows into the Lower Bay through Ambrose Channel while ebbing still occurs at the surface and along the bottom of the channel. The ebb in the Lower Bay is generally stronger than the flood by 10 percent or more, so, in addition to the net transport of water from the Hudson River, there is a net flow of water in a seaward direction. Net currents in Raritan and Lower Bays are shown in Figure 11. The tidal pattern in Upper Bay, south of Manhattan, is complicated by cross currents due to differences in ebb and flood, and effects of tidal resonance. Tidal currents in the Narrows are quite strong. The nearshore tidal circulation, along the New Jersey and Long Island coasts near the entrance to the Harbor, is quite different than the off- shore circulation. According to the United States Coast Pilot for Area 2 (Cape Cod to Sandy Hook), tidal currents near the Fire Island Lighted Whistle Buoy, have a mean velocity of about 0.2 knots west on the flood and east on the ebb. At the seaward end of Ambrose Channel, the mean velocity of the tidal currents at flood is 1.7 knots, at ebb, 2.3 knots. Tidal currents are less significant offshore of the present dumping grounds than in the nearshore area. Velocities are probably no more than 0.3 knots shifting direction continuously to the right in a clockwise direction with each tidal cycle of about 12.4 hours. This direction shift would have an average rate of about 30' per hour and would have the effect of isotropically dispersing any suspended lightweight material in the upper part of the water colum. (2) Wind-Driven Circulation. Wind-driven circulation in the New York Bight is far more significant than tidal circulation in the dispersal of suspended waste material in the surface waters. Circulation of surface water due to wind-driven surface currents at the ocean dump- ing grounds similarly cannot be deduced without synoptic field investi- gations and measurements. On the basis of known wind patterns, the following generalizations can tentatively be made. 4l DRIFTER RETURNS (% OF TOTAL RELEASED) Figure 10. I969 July | Aug! Sep ! Oct Surface Seabed Time History of Drifter Returns Used in Water Circulation Studies (After SHL, 1972) 42 Figure 11. Net Surface Currents in Raritan and Lower Bays (After Jeffries, 1962) 43 Under extreme storm conditions, the largest velocities of surface currents due to winds in the area are about 1.5 knots. Such strong currents would be due to gales with force of 40 miles per hour, predom- inantly from the northwest. Since the prevailing winds are from the northwest, about 10 months of the year, the net movement of surface water and its suspended material, during these months, would be in a south or southeasterly direction. In July and August, when prevailing winds are southeasterly, net movement of surface water and of suspended matter in the upper water layer would be in a north, northeast direction. Such surface flow was confirmed by the SHL drifter studies. The layer of water that may be affected by storm winds would be the upper layer, 0 to 50 feet thick. Below that depth, net movement of the water due to subsurface currents may be in any direction and even in a direction opposite to the surface flow. (3) General Surface Circulation. General patterns of surface circulation can be obtained inexpensively over a large area by the use of surface drifters. Such a surface drifter study was undertaken by the Sandy Hook Laboratory. Surface drift bottles were released intermittently at several points of the Bight (Figure 9) to determine the seasonal and spatial character of the surface currents. Of 1,886 surface drifters released by SHL, 497 (26 percent) were recovered. The total percent recovery of surface drifters is illustrated in Figure 12, and the origin of surface drifters recovered on the Long Island and New Jersey shores on Figures 13 and 14. To estimate speed, the SHL study assumed a straight-line course between release and recovery. To estimate time at sea, the duration between re- lease and recovery was used. By this method, changes in the direction of currents were only roughly depicted, and speed could be underestimated. The SHL study concluded that there is a general clockwise circulation in the Bight, which was associated with bifurcation at the head of the Hudson Channel. Surface drift patterns suggested strong seasonal sur- face circulation. During winter, surface flow was predominantly south- east, in summer the flow tended northward toward the south coast of Long Island. These results are in agreement with earlier observations of Bumpus and Lauzier (1965). Density patterns derived from temperature-salinity values for a cross section aligned with the axis of the Hudson Channel near Station C where current measurements were obtained, infer according to the SHL study, an estuarine type of circulation. Although not quantitatively definable, according to the SHL study, a landward flow of water near the bottom should occur preferentially in the Hudson Channel region of the Bight. The force driving the estuarine and coastal circulation, according to the SHL study, is the horizontal pressure gradient. 44 Figure 12. Surface Drifter Returns Total Percent Recovery Lines for 1969 (After SHL, 1972) A Neste me: 30 Figure N56 Origin of Surface Drifters Recover- ed on Long Island (After SHL, 1972) ee & 90 ae 20 Contours in patas 73° 30) Palen 114! Origin of Surface Drifters Recover- ed on New Jersey Coast (After SHL, 1972 50 3010 (0) Contours in Percent 45 b. Bottom Circulation. A study of bottom circulation of waters outside the Harbor was attempted by the SHL using current meters and bot- tom drifters. Current measurements were made by the SHL for only three stations A, B, C (Figure 9). At station A, 3.5 miles south of Atlantic Beach, bottom and mid-depth observations were made in late June 1969. At station B, 2.5 miles south- west of Ambrose Light, bottom measurements were taken in late February 1969. At station C, 3.5 miles east of Sandy Hook, bottom measurements were taken in late May - early June 1969. The records are few, nonsynop- tic and cover only short periods. It is difficult to generalize from only three measurements the total bottom circulation of the Bight, or to correlate with drifter studies as the SHL attempted to do. Although not conclusive, the results of these current measurements taken by SHL are illustrated in Figure 15. For each of the three stations A, B, C, in this figure, the progressive vector diagram is presented for the valid portion of the record. On the basis of these current measurements, the following conclusions were reached by the SHL study. At station A, according to bottom-drifter analysis, the bottom flow should be predominantly east. For the period of the record (late June) local winds were variable but generally from the south. The current-meter measurements (Figure 15) show such an init- ial eastward movement of mid-depth and bottom water. One week later, however, the mid-depth flow swings in a northeast direction, bottom drift shifted to a southeast direction. The average net drift at point A was 3.3 miles per day for mid-depth water, and 1.9 miles per day for bottom water. Y At station B, the station nearest the dumping grounds, bottom water flow (February) was generally east, switching later toward the north until the record became invalid. The average net drift for the entire period was 3.9 miles per day. Finally, at station C (late May - early June) the path of the infer- red bottom flow was northwest into the Bay. Figure 15 shows there was substantial tidal oscillation, but net drift followed a heading of about 320° True. The average net drift over the period, according to the SHL Study, was 4.2 miles per day. In addition to the current measurements, bottom seabed drifters were also reieased at stations shown in Figure 9. The total percent recovery of seabed drifters is shown in Figure 16. Of 2,190 seabed drifters released in 1969, 710 (32 percent) were recover- ed over a period of 6 months from beaches of Long Island. The origins of seabed drifters recovered in the Hudson Estuary and the Long Island and New Jersey coasts are shown in Figures 17, 18, 19. SHL data suggest a strong flow at the bottom along the axis of the Hudson-Ambrose Channel northward and towards Long Island and into the mouth of the Hudson Estuary. Few drifters were recovered in the bay, but low drifter return was 46 Ke) NOTE All grid distances are nautical miles. Mid- depth Bottom Bottom Figure 15. Progressive Vector Representation of Current Meter-Data from Stations A, B, and C of Sandy Hook Laboratory (After SHL, 1972) 47 (ZL61 “THS 1935V) 6961 OF Sout] ATOAODSY JUSsdTeg TeIO], NO2Zo0p MOEokL jugos9q Ul SINOJUOD O¢ :SUINJOY LoYFTIq peqees ‘oT oanstTy M 00ob2 O¢ O£ < N02 006 Ov asouany © Ov N,0f 006 Od N,Ofo0p OS Ce aR ea aie OP if O£ G ll S M,000b2 48 FascumenslW// Origin of Seabed Drifters Recovered in Hudson Estuary Expressed and Con- toured as Percent- ages of all Returns from Individual Stations (After 40° 20 SHER S972) Contours in Percent Figure 18. Origin of Seabed Drifters Recovered on Long Island (After SHL, 1972) [-} (24 0 (0) aS 20 \ 30 4 50) \ 60 \ 3 8 igure : * Wie So) 40° 30 ied 80 Se Origin of Seabed Sy Drifters Recovered IN on New Jersey aes SS Coast (After SHL, Ne 1972) Contours in Percent 40° 20 73°30) 49 attributed by SHL to public inaccessibility to the area, reduced drifter buoyancy, or other forms of drifter entrapment. On the basis of bottom drifter returns (Figure 10), SHL concluded that the bottom circulation of this region of the Bight undergoes mild seasonal variation. 3. Chemical Characteristics Physical-chemical studies of the Bight in the past (Ketchun, Redfield, and Ayers, 1951; Redfield and Walford, 1951) have described the distribu- tion of temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen and iron in the area. Iron content of sediments in and northeast of the dumping grounds has been. studied by Corwin and Ketchum (1956). Salinity, temperature, total phosphorus, total iron and chlorophll-a data have been reported by Ketchum, Yentsch and Corwin (1958). Buelow, Pringle and Verber (1968), analyzed water extracts of sediment samples taken near the sewage sludge dumping ground for copper, zinc, chromium and lead. Limited trace metal analyses were also conducted on black quahog Arctica islandica samples. Gross (1970) provided more in- formation on the chemical nature of sediment in the Bight. The study correlated high concentrations of metals with carbon-rich waste deposits. A later investigation by Gross et al, (1971) measured the copper, lead, silver and chromium content of surface deposits. SHL (1972) determined concentrations of phosphorus (ortho, organic, meta and total), nitrate, total iron, dissolved oxygen, and chlorophyll-a in water samples, and measured temperature, salinity, turbidity and pH. Sediment samples were analyzed for heavy metals, petrochemicals, pesti- cide metabolites and redox potential to correlate these characteristics with the distribution of Lenthic organisms. Figure 20 shows the stations occupied for chemical studies. Samples were collected on 27 cruises from late January 1969 to mid-July 1970. Initially, stations on east- west transects through the sewage sludge and acid disposal areas were sampled bimonthly. These included Stations 69, 70, 71, 75, 76, 77, and 78. Stations located on transects to the north, south and between the above stations were sampled monthly. This pattern included Stations OO, O%5 O85 725 185 V4, 795 GO, anal Sl. Table 5 summarizes the ranges of values for certain chemical para- meters measured in the Bight by the SHL. Fig. 21 shows the seasonal variation of properties at two stations in the Bight determined by Ketchum, et al, (1951). One station was near Scotland Lightship, the other just southeast of the dumping grounds. a. Temperature and Salinity. Temperature and salinity data for the waters of the New York Bight have been obtained by a number of investi- gations studying physical-chemical properties (Ketchum, et al, 1951; SHL, 1972; Bowman and Weyl, 1972). Some of these data have been summarized in the report by Horne and his associates (1971). The temperature and salinity of the Bight vary seasonally. Greater 30 N (ZZ61 “THS LeaFy) SeTpnjs [edtWeYyD TOF JHS 942 Aq patdnddQ suoTieIS ‘QZ daNBTY 10200 MOEokL S3LSWM qv “e 92 39qan1S JOWM3S e IZ O2 S10dS 39d 34d @ CI AE zzz © asouswy INIOd AVMV AD0U M ,O0obd S| Table 5. Ranges of Chemical Data Measurements Near the New York Dumping Grounds. Siri abet iron to 37.3 Mian Chlorophyll-a 38 to 33.3 pg-at/1 Nitrate to 3.28 ug-at/1 Orthophosphate 02 to 5.64 ug-at/1 Organic phosphate : to 2.28 ug-at/1 Metaphosphate 01 to 2.35 ug-at/1 Total phosphate 84 to 7.48 ug-at/1 Dissolved oxygen 2.0 to15.2 ppm t pH 7.10 to 8.40 Lead in sediment 0.55 to 249 ppm Copper in sediment 0.013 to 338 ppm Chromium in sediment 0.25 to 197 ppm * microgram-atom per liter after SHL 1972 t parts per million 52 ae OXYGEN % SCOTLAND LIGHT SALINITY Yoo TEMPERTURE °C OXYGEN mI/L. SATURATION “IRON 2 g/L © SURFACE ° BOTTOM FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV Figure 21. Seasonal Variation of Certain Physical Chemical Properties at Two Stations in the New York Bight (After Ketchum, et allies leis) 53 variation occurs near the mouth of the Harbor estuary where large flows of fresh water from the rivers enter. The flow of the Hudson and Raritan Rivers varies seasonally from less than 0.6 x 102 cubic feet to more than 1.3 x 102 cubic feet per day. This flow, in addition to other seasonal variations, affects the physical-chemical properties of the nearshore waters. During the winter, in the absence of a thermocline, the waters be- come vertically homogeneous. Waters near the shore are colder and less saline; further offshore, the waters are warmer and more saline. A tongue of warmer ocean water is found along the Hudson Canyon (Horne, et al, 1971). Water temperature near the shore reaches a low of around 0°C; offshore water fluctuates around 5°C. The salinity varies also from 31 parts per thousand (0/00) nearshore to 34 0/00 offshore, with lower salinities at the mouth of the Hudson River. During spring, large flows of warmer, fresh water enter the Bight. This water stays on the surface, and establishes the beginning of a thermocline. The temperature differ- ence between surface and bottom temperatures, at this time, is about 4°C. During April, surface temperature varies from a little less than 7°C to over 8°C, and salinities vary from 20 0/00 at the Hudson River mouth to 32 0/00 offshore. During the summer, the thermocline becomes pronounced; surface tempera- tures vary between 20 and 25°C, and bottom temperatures vary from under 10°C in the Hudson Canyon to 20°C elsewhere. Temperatures differ 5° to 6°C offshore and over the Hudson Canyon. Surface salinity varies from 25 0/00 to 32 0/00; the lower values are near the mouth of the river. Bottom salinity varies from 28 0/00 to over 32 0/00 offshore. The difference in salinity between surface and bottom ranges from a maximum of 3 0/00 near the mouth of the estuary to a slight value offshore. In autumn, the temperature-salinity structure is re-established. The temperature drops and salinity increases as the river flow decreases. The coldest water is again found onshore. Salinities vary from 27 0/00 to 33 0/00 and temperatures from 10°C-15°C. Figure 21 illustrates season- al variation in salinity and temperature at two stations in the Bight, measured by Ketchum, et al, (1951). The SHL investigation confirmed Ketchum's results. Low salinity was found in the surface waters moving from New York Harbor to the southwest. b. Dissolved Oxygen. Oxygen content is an important measure of seawater's ability to support life. Dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration in the sea varies with temperature, salinity, biological processes, and degree of mixing. Oxygen content of the waters in and around the dumping grounds of the Bight varies seasonally. (Fig. 21). Reduction of the DO in bottom waters in this area has been correlated with biochemical oxygen demand (B.0.D.) of the organically rich waste materials. 54 WHOI's studies in 1948-49 showed the oxygen content near the bottom of the dredge disposal grounds to be 61 percent of saturation and 50 per- cent in the sludge disposal area. In July 1964, the WHOI investigation found an oxygen minimum (which is considered normal for summer months) , and in 1969 oxygen content in the sludge dump area had dropped to 27 percent of saturation (Ketchum, 1970). Oxygen content of sea water near the bottom, compared to surface concentration, is lower during the summer months; concentration between surface and bottom levels differs from 2 to 13 parts per million (ppm). These differences diminish with the breakdown of the thermocline in October-November. Reduced values of DO in bottom waters were found during summer in both the sewage sludge and dredge spoil disposal areas by the SHL. Ac- cording to the SHL study, DO in the dumping grounds is 2-3 ppm less than in water outside the dump area at the same depth, and the DO level in bottom water over the sewage sludge dump is frequently less than 2 ppm from late July to mid-October. This level is insufficient to support life. On the average, dissolved oxygen ranged from 2.0 ppm to 15.2 ppm depending on sampling sites, season, and depth. Fig. 22 shows the DO content of surface and bottom water for a cross section along both the sewer sludge and the dredge spoils dumping sites. The sparcity of data precludes statistically significant conclusions and the quantification of the B.0.D. in the area of the dumping grounds. c. Nutrients. In the Bight, concentrations of natural nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen vary seasonally. Nitrate-nitrogen concentra- tion in the surface waters is sometimes completely exhausted; small con- centrations of phosphorus are always present. Nitrogen-phosphorus (N:P) ratios fluctuate widely. During summer, vertical mixing provides nutrients to the euphotic zone where there is enough light to permit growth of green plants. In deep offshore waters of an area just east, of the Bight, the N:P ratio was about 12:1 with low seasonal variation at the oxygen- maximum-nutirent-maximum layer (Horne et al, 1971, Ketchum et al, 1958). In the dump areas, concentrations are expected to be different. Sewer sludges disposed in the area are rich in certain nutrients. Concentrations of phosphorus (ortho, organic meta and total), nitrate, and chlorophyll-a, within this area, were determined in the Bight by SHL. Phosphorus, an essential nutrient in aquatic food chains, is abundant in the sludges, and can serve as a tracer in following the movement of con- taminated water. As expected,the concentration of phosphorus was higher in the dump area. SHL found concentrations of orthophosphorus up to 5.64 microgram-atom per liter (yg-at/1), while reference levels, outside the dumping grounds, ranged from 0.2-0.9 ug-at/1. Nitrogen, as reflected by N:P ratios, and chlorophyll-a concentrations, are greatly affected by phosphorus concentrations. In the oceans, phyto- plankton utilize both phosphates and nitrates and since the content of 35 OXYGEN (ppm) SURFACE DISSOLVED OXYGEN is < ° A 5256 SICK 27 AUG. 1969 Oc Nees = bugle) ie cof = Seas BOTTOM a) ‘eo e * SLUDGE AREA 5 MILES FROM N.J4. SHORE Figure 22. Dissolved Oxygen Content of Surface Water and Water 3 Feet off the Bottom in a Section Extending Seaward from the Coast of New Jersey (After Ketchum, et al., 1970) 56 these two nutrients varies in the same way, the N:P ratios remain fairly constant, with a few exceptions. Nitrate is usually the limiting nutrient. Near the dumping grounds, N:P ratios were considerably lower on the average than elsewhere in the Bight, ranging from 0 to 14.42 for surface waters, and from 0 to 7.70 for bottom waters. The low N:P ratios cannot be attributed to low nitrate concentrations, but to high phosphate con- centrations. In fact SHL found nitrate concentrations of up to 3.25 ug-at/1. Chlorophyll-a ranged from 0.38 to 33.3 ug-at/l. This ranges of nutrient concentration found in the Bight are summarized in Table 5. The effects of nutrients on water and sediment characteristics of the dumping grounds are discussed at another section of this report. d. Heavy Metals. Sewage sludges, dredge spoils, and other waste materials dumped in the ocean contain many substances, including heavy metals. Tables 6 and 7 show the major and minor elements found in the sewage sludges destined for the Bight dumping grounds (Gross, 1970). Table 7, shows the concentrations of these elements in sewage sludges as determined by spectrochemical analysis and the origin of some of these waste materials in the New York area. Sewage sludges and polluted dredge spoils from other heavily industrial- ized regions also contain certain heavy metals in high concentrations. The concentration ranges of such heavy metals are shown in Table 8 (Train, Cahn, and MacDonald, 1970). Table 9 summarizes relative quantities of certain potentially troublesome elements in wastes originating from the New York Metropolitan Region. These concentrations were determined by the SUNY-SB study (Gross, 1970). Particularly noteworthy are the re- latively high concentrations of lead, chromium, copper, zinc, and silver. The median concentration values of these metals in wastes and sediments from different locations are summarized in Fig. 23. Gross (1971) investigated the distribution of samples containing anomalously high total concentrations of heavy metals and compared this distribution to the distribution of carbon-rich deposits on the Continental Shelf of the Bight. Heavy metals were analyzed by emission spectro- scopy. Total lead concentrations in the waste deposits were over 10 times higher than the average lead content of marine organisms or shale. The distributions of the heavy metals, copper, chromium, lead, and silver of the sediments of the dumping grounds are shown in Figures 24 through 27. Other acid-extractable minor elements in wastes and waste deposits were determined by the SUNY using optical emission spectrochemical analysis. On the average, about 1 percent of the total metal concentra- tion was extractable by hydrochloric acid (HCl) except nickel (about five percent was extracted). A high correlation was found between total and extractable concentrations of copper, chromium, and iron, suggesting that these elements are well dispersed in the samples and generally occur in chemical states little affected by HCl treatment. No apparent corre- lation was determined between acid-extractable and total tin concentra- tions. Correlation between extractable and total lead concentrations was relatively poor. The study concluded that because of the low 57 Table 6. Abundance of Major Elements in Typical Sewage Sludge and Natural Sediments. Sewage Sludges Sedimentary Rocks as Element as Oxides | Carbon-free* Shale Sandstone (percent) (percent) (percent) (percent) (percent) i 10.0 | 21.4 63.6 il 58.1 78.3 0.25 1 0.4 il 0.65 0.25 DoD 4.8 14.3 15.4 4.8 1.3 lod 5.0 6.1 1.3 0.6 1.0 3.0 2.4 eZ, 1,5 Dol 6.2 3.1 DE.) OF/5 1.0 3.0 1.3 0.45 1.0 K,0 1 3.6 3.2 1.3 31.0 Organic 56.0 = 0.80 os 0.55 | BO, 1.2 a= [017 0.08 + Chomiell composition recalculated, and adjusted to after Gross, 1970 100 percent after subtracting carbon and phosphorus content. 58 Table 7. Spectrochemical Analyses of Sewage Sludges in the New York Metropolitan Region (sulfate ash) | 47.90 Element Wards Island Hunts Point Newtown Creek Bowery Bay Tallsmans Island L (percent) | (percent) (percent) (percent) (percent) Silicon 7.0 8.9 11.0 10.0 10.0 Iron 1.0 2.6 2) BP2ili 15) Aluminum ilod/ 25 2.5 Dell Dei) Calcium 12) 1.8 Bo0/ 1.6 1.4 Magnesium 0.63 0.69 0.59 0.84t 0.80 Copper 0.056 0.14 0.16 0.19 0.11 Sodium 2.0 1.2 1.3 od tail Titanium 0.17 0.38 0.23 0.56t 0.27 Chromium 0.050 0.11 0.080 0.25 0.085 Potassium 235) Doll it ily Dell 1.8 Phosphorus 0.29 0.91 0.65 0.77 0.70 Barium 0.040t 0.059 0.10t 0.071 0.042 Boron 0.0016 0.0024 0.0034 0.0020 0.0034 Lead TR <0.005 0.055 0.12t 0.12 0.056 Manganese 0.014 0.017 0.021 0.029 0.040 Nickel 0.0069 0.019 0.025 0.090t 0.033 Molybdenum 0.0011 0.0016 0.0033 0.0039 TR 0.002 Tin 0.021 0.034 0.028 0.048 0.022 Vanadium 0.0076 0.015t 0.0059 0.011 0.0080 Bismuth ND <0.002 Se TR <0.002 ND10% 5-10% 2-5% <= 2% x STATUTE MILES 5 5 KILOMETERS Figure 33. Loss-on-ignition (volatile matter) for Deposits from the New York Bight (After Gross, 1971) 7S LONG BEACH NEW YORK HARBOR TOTAL CARBON X0.16 i. B > 5.0% + 40°30 + a a DE -GOo; X0.16 + 05-25% x <05% STATUTE MILES 5 KILOMETERS + Xo20x 73°40" Figure 34. Total Carbon Concentrations in Deposits from the New York Bight (After Gross, 1971) 76 CARBON-RICH SILTS RAY LOW CARBON SANDS ESS} waste DEPOSITS € - RUBBLE S — SEWAGE M- " MUD" Figure 35. Distribution of Carbon-Rich Deposits in the Harbor and Carbon-Rich Waste Deposits on the nearby Shelf (After Gross, et al, 1971) 77 however, may have been made shortly after a dump. The surface, mid-depth and bottom iron concentrations in the water for the area are shown in Figures 36, 37, and 38. These plots have sharp contours to the south and southwest of the area of interest. The patterns of iron distribution suggest spreading of iron-rich waste along the bottom by bottom currents. A correlation has been suggested by SHL between the iron-rich water in the disposal area and an increase in turbidity. 4. Biological Characteristics A number of biological investigations of the Bight have been con- ducted (Buelow, et al, 1968; Jeffries, 1959; Redfield and Walford, 1951; Herman, 1963; Segal, 1970; Barber and Krieger, 1970). Biological studies were also undertaken by the Sandy Hook Laboratory which included investigations of benthic life, zooplankton, and finfish. Since August 1968, SHL began sampling (Figure 39) in the Bight with the intent to pay particular attention to certain commercially valuable forms, such as the surf clam, the American lobster, and the common cancroid, or rock crab. These benthic species, however, were not studied adequately. Additional studies of coliform and pathogenic microorganisms have been carried out by numerous investigations. (Atlas, 1972; Mahoney, 1972; Buelow, et al, 1968). The biological characteristics of an area of the Bight, within and outside the dumping grounds, are discussed in the following sections: a. Benthos. The study of benthic communities is considered the most direct approach in assessing the effect of ocean waste disposal, as most benthic organisms are immobile and their presence or absence reflects long- term change in the marine environment. The distribution of benthic species is related to many factors such as the sediment type, the presence of toxic materials, water quality, nutrients, and pathogenic organisms. Studies of benthic communities in the Bight and within the Harbor have been undertaken by the SUNY-SB and the SHL. The results of these studies are not in full agreement. A preliminary biological reconnaissance by SUNY found only a few groups of pollution-tolerant organisms, such as nematodes and capitellid worms, in abundance in the sediments of the inner Harbor. Numbers of benthic animals in most of the Inner Harbor, were either drastically diminished, or totally lacking. In the Lower Bay, benthic communities were apparently less severely affected. Near the harbor entrance, the Continental Shelf appeared to support near-normal communities of benthic organisms. The SHL study found populations of benthic animals in the vicinity of the dumping grounds severely impoverished. Nematodes, which are regarded as a pollution-resistant group, were found in reduced numbers within the dumping grounds. Areas peripheral to the sewage sludge dumping grounds were dominated by Cerianthus, a burrowing type of sea anemone. Species diversity of benthic organisms, which is often used as an index of 78 Figure 36. Figure 37. 0.7 0.6 J 73°30'w Total Iron (yg-at/1) Water Surface Average by Station AMBROSE © 40°20'W Total Iron (yg-at/1) in Water Bottom Average by Station (After SHL, 1972 ws) AMBROSE © 40°70'N 73°30 W Figure 38. Total Iron (yg-at/1) Mid Water depth Average by Station (After SHL, 1972) 80 ROCKAWAY POINT 6 66 e voooo T0000 ® AMBROSE re e e e voo e Yoo 40°10'N 74°00'w Figure 39. Stations Occupied by SHL for Biological Sampling 8| Table 12. “Species Diversity” at Sampling Stations Within and Outside the Disposal Grounds. According to SHL (1972) In I (the bottom line of boxes), the fourth entry from the bottom should read Capitellidae instead of Cirratulidae. Crangon septemspinosus Cancer irroratus Unciola irrorata Mytilus edulie Lunatia ep, Polinices duplicatus Nucula proxima Spiophanes bombyx Glycera\ap Lumbrineris fragilis Nereis sp. Phyllodoce ap Clymenella sp. Pherusa sp. Prionoapio ap Spio filicornis assariue trivittatus Neomysis americana Tellina agilis Cirratulidae Nepthys incisa Cerebratulus sp Cerianthus americanus Phoronis architecta Aricidea jeffreyaii Ninoe nigrives Ampharete sp Cirolana concharum Monoculodes edwardai Ampelisca macrocepha Crangon septemapinosus Cancer irroratus Unciola irrorata Spiophanes bombyx Glycera ap. Lumbrinerie fragilis Nereis sp. Phyllodoce ap. Clymenella ap Pherusa sp. Prionospio ap. Spio filicornis Neomysis americana Cirratulidae Nepthys incisa Cerebratulus sp bit Iv Sta, 59 Elasmopus laevis Mercenaria mercenaria Terebellidae Yoldia limatula Dorvilleidae Leptocheirus pinguia Paraonia (ulgens Harmothoe imbricata Cossura ap. Phoronia architecta Aricidea jelfreyaii Ampharete sp. Monoculodes edwardai Crangon septemspinosue Cancer irroratus Mytilus edul Nucula proxima Spiophanes bombyx Lumbrineris fragilis Nereis ap, Phyllodoce sp. Clymenella sp. Pherusa ap. Prionospio ap, Spio {ilicornia Nassarius trivittatus Neomyais americana Cirratulidae Nepthys meisa Cerebratulus sp. Cerianthus americanus Sta, 64 Holothuroidea Thyasira gouldi Pitar morrhuana Spisula solidiseima Melita nitida Arabellidae Onuphidae Sabellidae Eunicidae Arctica islandica Streblospio sp. Edotea triloba Yoldia limatula Paraonis fulgens Cossura sp. Phoronis architecta Aricidea jelfreyeli Ampharete ep. Monoculodes edwardai Crangon septemepinosus Cancer irroratue Unciola irrorata Nucula proxima Spiophanes bombyx Glycera ap. LumbFineris fragilis Nereis ap. Clymenella sp Pherusa sp. Prionoapio sp. Neomysis americana Tellina agilis Cirratulidae Nepthys incisa Cerebratulua ap, Cerianthus americanus vI Sta. 36 Eudorella truncatula Leptochelia savignyi Chiridotes tuftei Edotea triloba Unciola obliquus Amphiporela n. op. Haustorius ep. Enola directus Siliqua costata Magelona rosea Dispio sp. Sigalion arenicola Edotea montosa Parahaustoriue holmesi Trichophoxus epistornus Diastylis sculpta Acanthohaustorius millet Protohaustorius deichmannae Echinarachniue parma Spisula Mercenaria mercenaria Dorvilleidae Aricidea jeffreysil Crangon septemapinosus Polinices duplicatus Nucula proxima Spiophance bombyx Glycera sp. Lumbrineris fragilis Nereis ap. Clymenella ap. Neomysis americana Tellina agilis Cirratulidae Nepthys incioa Cerebratulus sp, vu Sta. 70 Littorina ep. Hippomedon serratus Aatarte castanea Unciola obliquua Ensis directus Trichophoxus epistomus Diastylis sculpta Holothuroidea Spisula solidissima Sabellidae Arctica \elandica Terebellidac Harmothoe imbricata Phoronis architecta Aricidea jeffreysii Ampharete ap. Cirolana concharum Monoculodes edwardai Crangon septemapinosus Cancer irroratus Unciola irrorata Nucula proxima Spiophanes bombyx Glycera ap. Lumbrineris fragilis Nereis sp. Phyllodoce aj Clymenella ep. Pherusa op. Prionospio ap. Spio filicornis Nassarius trivittatus Neomysis americana Tellina agilis Cirratulidae Nepthys inci Cerebratulus ap. Cerianthus americanus Sta, 48 Sthenelais lmicola Calliopius lacviuaculus Pagurus longicarpus Anonyx sarai Asterias forbesl Orbintidae Enaie directus Siliqua costata Magelona rosea Acanthohaustoriua millsi Protohaustor\ue deichmannae Spisula eolidisaima Aricidea jeffreyeii Ampharete ap. Crangon septemepinosus Cancer irroratus Mytilus edulis Polinices duplicatus Nucula proxima Spiophanes bombyx Glycera sp. Lumbrineris fragilis Nereis ep. Clymenelia ap. Pherusa ap. Prionosplo ap. Splo {ilicornie Nasearius trivittatus Neomyais americana Tellina agilis Cirratulidae Nepthye inciea Cerebratulus ap, vin Sta Pholoe minuta Hesionidae Oweniidae Polycladida Echiurida. Photis macrocoxa Orchomenella minuta Jason falcata Stomatopoda Cerastoderma pinnulatum Polydora ep. Dispio ap. Diastylis eculpta Arabellidac Sabellidac Arctica islandica Edotea triloba Yoldia Limatula Leptocheirus pinguls Paraonia fulgens Harmothoe imbricata Cosoura ep. Phoronie architecta Aricidea jeffreyait Ampharete sp. Crangon septemapinosus Cancer irroratus Unciola trrorata Nucula proxima Spiophanes bombyx Lumbrineris fragilis Nereis ap. Phyllodoce ap. Clymenella sp. Pheruea ap. Neomyais americana Cirratulidae Nepthys inciea Cerebratulus ep. Cerlanthus americanus Sta. 8 Petricola pholadiformis Heteromysis formos Hevionidae Orchomenella minuta Aatarte castamea Diastylie sculpta Holothuroidea Spieula solidissima Arabellidac Sabellidae Arctica islandica Edotea triloba Terebellidac Toldia imatula Leptocheirus pinguis Paraonis fulgens Harmothoe imbricata Phoronis architecta Aricidea jeffreysii Ninoe nigripes Ampharete ap. Crangon septemapinosus Cancer irroratus Unciola irrorata Nucula proxima Spiophanes bombyx Glycera sp. Lumbrineris fragilis Nereis ap. Phyllodoce sp. Clymenella sp. Pherusa sp. Prionospio Spio filicorni Nasearius trivittatus Neomysis americana Cirratulidae Nepthys inci Cerebratulus sp. Cerianthus americanus 83 Ammotrypane ap Cerastoderma pinnulatum Sthenelais limicola Pagurus longicarpus Astarte castanea \ Diastylie sculpta Holothuroidea Thyasira gouldi Pitar morrhuana Spisula solidissima Sabellidac Arctica {elandica Yoldia limatula Dorvilleidae Leptocheirus pinguis Paraonie fulgena Harmothoe imbricata Cossura sp. Phoronis architecta Aricidea jeffreysil Ninoe nigrip Ampharete ap. Monoculodes edwardai Crangon septemspinosus Cancer irroratus Unciola irrorata Mytilus edulis Polinices duplicatus Nucula proxima Spiophanes bombyx Glycera sp. Lumbrinerie (ragilis Nereis ap. Phyllodoce «p. Clymenella ep. Pherusa ap. Prionospio ap. Spio filicorn! Naesarius trivittatus Neomyais americana Tellina agilis Cirratulid Nepthys inci Cerebratulus sp. Cerianthas americanus Harpinia propinqua Corophium insidiosum ey Microdeutopus gryllotalpa Phoxocephalus holbolli Pontogenela inermie Arbacia punctulata Sealibregma ap Ammotrypane ap. Pholoe minuta Orchomenella minuta Ceraatoderma pinnulatum Aaterias forbes, Orbiniidae Hippomedon serratus Aptarte castanea Unciola obliquua Ensie directus Trichophoxus epistomus Diastylis aculpta Holothuroidea- Pitar morrhuana Spieula solidiseima Arabellidae Sabellidac Arctica islandica Edotea triloba Yoldia limatula Dorvilleidae Leptocheirus pinguis Paraonie fulgens Harmothoe imbricata Cossura ap Phoronis architecta Aricidea jeffreysil Ampharete sp. Monoculodes edwardal Crangon septemspinosus Cancer irroratus Unciola irrorata Nucula proxima Splophanes bombyx Glycera sp. Lumbrineris fragilis Nereis #p Phyllodoce sp. Clymenella sp. Pherusa sp. Prionospio #p Splo filicornis ariue trivittates Neomysie americana Tellina agilie Cirratulidae Nepthys inciea Cerebratulus ep Cerlanthus americanss environmental stress, was found to be generally lower within the de- signated dumping grounds. Table 12, taken from the SHL report, reported- ly compares the ''species diversity" of benthic communities for selected stations within and outside the dumping grounds. In this table, species which were found at the least "diversified" station (#82, dredge spoil disposal site) are listed at the extreme left of the table. Species common to the next least "diversified" station (#42, northeast of the dumping grounds) were listed to the right of the first column of species. Species common to the first and the second stations were listed in the second column (#42) and in addition, species which were found at station #42 but not at station #82, were placed in a new listing (Row II) above the previous stations. A matrix therefore was developed by SHL of vertical columns designated by station numbers, and horizontal rows indicated by Roman numerals, giving the ''species diversities" at dif- ferent stations. The percentage of the samples in which each species occurred at each sampling station is given after the species name. These numbers give an indication of species abundance, but may not be statistically valid since no information is given on frequency of sampling and sampling methodology. Some other discrepancies in interpret- ing the data of table 12 should be pointed out. According to this table, station #82 (dredge spoil disposal site) had a lower "'species diversity" than any other station. Station #42, however, northeast of the dumping grounds, had the same ''species diversity" as station #82 (23 species) while station #59 (the sewage sludge dump site) had greater "species diversity" than both #82 and #42, but considerably less than station #38, which is located south of the dumping grounds. The data in table 12 therefore, represents only data at random, and a speculative use of species diversity. A concurrent sweep of environmental parameters to- gether with biological sampling along a transect, would have been a better method of illustrating differences in environmental gradient. Some of the results on benthic communities of the SHL are not in full agreement with those of the SUNY-SB study. An assessment of the findings of both investigations is given in the discussion section of this report dealing with the effects of ocean dumping on the regional ecology. Similarly, in the same section, the use of species diversity as an index of environmental stress is discussed. In the following sections, a summary is given on some of the biological characteristics of benthic populations, as established by these preliminary investigations. (1) Meiofauna. Meiofauna is defined operationally as those animals that can pass through a 1.00 mm standard geological screen but are retained on a 63 micron screen. These organisms, especially foramini- fera, are near the base of the benthic food chain, and are the most common ecologically significant group of animals in the marine sediments of the New York Bight. Because of their abundance, intimate association with the sedimentary environment, and limited mobility, these animals should be the most sensitive to any degradation of the sediments and of the interstitial water. Therefore, studies of meiofauna, especially the 84 foraminifera, could be important in assessing the effects of ocean dumping. Such studies should be designed so that the obtainable data can be treated statistically to determine whether or not significant differences exist between stations, in space and time (SAC, 1972). The SHL studied infaunal meiofauna and identified 36 common meio- faunal taxa from the sediments of the Bight; 23 were living foramini- ferans. Rare forms, such as cumaceans and phoronids, were not included. Foraminifera were identified by species; the remaining groups were identi- fied to higher taxonomic groups such as nematodes, bivalves, etc. The composition of meiofaunal communities, at selected stations in and surrounding the sewage sludge and dredging spoils disposal areas, is given in Table 13. Stations F-3 and F-4 are within the sewage dumping grounds, station F-5 is at the outside perimeter, and station 11 is outside to the east of the sewage dumping grounds. Stations 59 and 82 mark the centers of the sewage sludge and dredge spoil disposal grounds, respectively. Station 39 is between the two disposal areas. Within the disposal areas, SHL found reduced species diversity of meiofaunal organisms, and concluded that meiofaunal communities are affected by the disposal of wastes. According to SHL, relative numbers of individuals representative of specific taxa were also reduced. Amphipods were generally absent from the dumping ground. Nematodes, which are reportedly a pollution-resistant group, were found in reduced numbers. Table 14 gives a comparison of the abundance of gammarid amphipod populations in the sewage sludge and dredging spoils disposal areas and at stations outside these areas. Table 12 compares the species diversity at sampling stations within and outside the disposal grounds. A reconnaissance study of the meiofauna in New York Harbor and adjacent waters by Smith (Gross, et al, 1971) is in disagreement with the results of the SHL. This investigation found foraminifera greatly depleted in the sediments in the Harbor area, but in typical abundance and diversity in the sediments of the Bight. Both studies, however, did not adequately sample meiofauna in time and space, and the results cannot be treated with statistical methods to assess and quantify the effect of waste disposal, if any. An assessment of the reliability of meiofauna investigations is given in the discussion section of this report. (2) Macrofauna. Benthic macrofauna are considered animals larger than 1 mm. The SHL investigation found at least 81 macrofaunal species which occurred with sufficient frequency in the Bight to plot their distribution in relation to type of sediments and the waste disposal Sites. The geographical distribution of such benthic macrofaunal species is presented in Figures 2-34 through 2-117 of the original SHL report to which the interested reader is referred. Because of its volume, this data is not reproduced in this report. Table 15, is a listing of these benthic macrofaunal species arranged in a standard phylogenetic order. The species marked with an asterisk were sampled in the immediate area of the dumping grounds. 85 Table 13. Composition of Meiofaunal Communities at Selected Stations in and Around the Sewage Sludge and Dredge Spoil Disposal Grounds. 23) || 2B |} 245) As || ZY | 740. || 20) |) 27/ 7X0) |) 1172 July | July | July Hn July | Aug. | Aug. | Aug.} Aug. ic Aug. | Mar. | 9 69) || 69 | 69 || 69) | 69) |) 70) | 69) || 69) | 7069) 74. Ere ane Ew IGE Se ER Da WN repipar pion sp ns fsa] aa] [se 0 [| as pas | FReopharscotd. —=SC=~=‘d | a|~*Y SSCS | 7a] | om | Een a ETC SPS TS Pagel advena [apa x, [a,x [sof sfap f rodamnimiotete | |_| | | sf | o| [| «| | |_ FSC Sl Ee UTE N TST Fr adveai hs ARIZ? [Quinguelocaina seminal |_| [Peeudopalymorphina nowangia [|X| | sf [> || |_| ame Recents ora al ada eid gS) cfc: Sau) Sd 2eI PM a Ae a Bolivina preudopleata | |p | 2t_) ||. 4) 1 Boliminellaclegisima J ||| | «| - || - | 1 Texts [ ScAaea| Pee Ao a |e a a [Akeslophragniumjetenat J | || | 1 — | 3)_} 11 ede J5UStgL nga Wa i ecko 0 7 e (Scare Sa OD 2G BEC NT ST [Nematoda __——_~*¢302 | 1298] 0 [24 | 100 [1735] ax | 266 984 | 79 | 91 | 4 Teajeieea ap] 2 ea ze Tintnni BBP BE ribet x ee the presence of a species from SHL, 1972 86 Table 14. Comparison of the Abundance of Gammarid Amphipod Populations in the Sewage Sludge and Dredge Spoils Disposal Areas and at Stations Outside these Areas. Present Survey Number of Stations Avg. No. of Number of Number of Amphipods Times ' Amphipods per Sample Sampled (0.1 m2) Dredge Spoil Area Dredge Spoil Margin Sewage Disposal Area Sewage Margin Remainder N.Y. Bight Nassau A, B, and C Transects D, E, F, and G Transects 87 Table 15. Benthic Macrofaunal Species Sampled at Dumping Grounds and Adjacent Areas. (*Species sampled within 2 nautical miles of the center of each particular disposal site. Arranged in a Standard Phylogenetic Order Cerianhus americanus Cerebratulus lacteus Ampharete sp. Arabellidae Cirratulidae Cossura sp. Dorvilleidae Pherusa affinis Glycera sp. Lumbrineris fragilis Clymenella sp. Nephtys incisa Nereis sp. Orbiniidae Aricidea jeffreysii Paraonis fulgens Phyllodoce sp. Harmothoe imbricata Sabellidae Pholoe minuta Dispio uncinata Prionospio malmgreni Spio filicornis Spiophanes bombyx Streblospio benedicti Copepoda Diastylis sculpta Edotea triloba Caprellidae Ampelisca macrocephala Ampelisca valdorum Leptocheirus pinguis Microdeutopus gryllotalpa Argissa hamatipes Calliopius laeviusculus Corophium insidiosum Unciola irrorata Unciola obliquua Pontogeneia inermis Elasmopus laevis Gammarus annulatus Melita nitida Dredge Spoils Site + t+ + + + + F HF HF FF F e+ F F F F FF F F HF F Sewage Sludge Site te FF FF F HF F FF HF HF KF HF FF HF HF HF HF HF HF KF F Acid Wastes Site % + + Table 15. Benthic Macrofaunal Species Sampled at Dumping Grounds and Adjacent Areas--Continued Arranged in a Standard Phylogenetic Order Acanthohaustorius millsi Amphiporeia n. sp. Haustorius sp. Parahaustorius holmesi Protohaustorius deichmannae Protohaustorius wigleyi Pseudohaustorius n. sp. Ischyrocerus anguipes Jassa falcata Photis sp. Photis macrocoxa Anonyx sarsi -Hippomedon serratus Orchomenella minuta Monoculodes edwardsi Harpinia sp. Harpinia propinqua Phoxocephalus holbolli Trichophoxus epistomus Dulichia monocantha Metopa alderi Syrrhoe sp. Neomysis americana Crangon septemspinosus Pagurus longicarpus Cancer irroratus Nassarius trivittatus Nucula proxima Yoldia limatula Mytilus edulis Astarte castanea Cerastoderma pinnulatum Cyprina islandica Ensis directus Mercenaria mercenaria Siliqua costata Spisula solidissima Tellina agilis Chaetognatha Phoronis architecta Echinarachnius parma Holothuroidea 89 Dredge Spoils Site OF eon oe ate cof Sewage Acid Sludge Wastes Site Site bit et tay + ie ke TP a RT + % et ue DEK. Dat UL, et, iit, a Extracted from SHL, 1972 Only the distribution and abundance of two economically significant species, surf clams (Spisula solidissima) and rock crabs (Cancer irrogatus ) are presented schematically in Figures 40 and 41, respectively. Table 16 gives the distribution and abundance of three dominant organisms (Cerian- thus, Cerebratulus and Nephtys) in the waste disposal areas. Of interest in this table is the reduced average numbers of organisms at stations 59 and 82, the centers of the sewage sludge and dredging spoils disposal areas, respectively. The SHL macrofauna survey is not complete in that it does not include the distribution and abundance of the commercially valuable rock clam, and ocean quahog, and there are no data concerning the lobster. SHL investigation found a small number of juvenile rock crabs within the disposal areas relative to the noncontaminated regions, suggesting that larvae of crabs do not readily settle in the area of the dumping grounds. On the basis of its investigations, SHL concluded that an area of about 2 miles in diameter was at each of the dumping sites, was devoid of what was considered normal or was characterized by greatly reduced macrofaunal populations. The reported decrease in species diversity was similarly attributed to environmental stress caused by the waste dumping activities. It should be emphasized, however, that SHL did not analyze its data statistically, and this conclusion is not obvious in the tables and figures summarizing the SHL results. An assessment of these results is given in the discussion section of this report dealing with the effects of ocean dumping on the regional ecology. (3) Coastal and Bottom-Dwelling Finfishes. In an effort to determine the effect of ocean dumping of sewage sludge on demersal or bottom-dwelling finfishes, SHL trawled in and outside the sewage sludge beds. No attempt was made by SHL to sample the area of the dredge spoil grounds, west of the sewage dump, because this area has a rugged bottom and a large section is closed to trawling because old mines are known to exist. Trawl samples and fish stomach analyses by SHL indicate that the local groundfishes frequent the area of the sewage dumping grounds. In fact their numbers were found to be greater in the center of the sewage dumping grounds than those found on a clear sand bottom, east of the dump site. From a total of 31 species of fish that were taken in and around the sewage sludge dumping area, 22 species were collected from the designated center of the dump. Of the species that were taken, whiting (Merluccius bilinearis), ling (Urophysis chuss), winter flounder (Pseudopleuronectes americanus), yellowtail flounder (Limanda ferruginea), windowpane (Scophthalmus aquosus), and longhorn sculpin (Muoxocephalus octodecem spinosus), occurred most frequently. Other species of fishes were taken, but usually in lower numbers. Occasionally large numbers of fish such as Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus), porgy (Stenotomus chrysops) and various herring were collected. A special series of collections of demersal fishes was made by SHL across the Hudson Canyon, immediately south of the dumping area. Two of 90 (eWISSTpt[os e[nstds) swe,[9 Jang Fo sduepuNqy pue UuoTINqTIA4STQ N,OZo0p MOfoe2 —---G =< — |< DWISSIP!OS djnsIdS (ZL61 “THS 103Zy) © ASOUENY "Op eansty M,00 ov N,O£00p M,00 obd i) N02 006 mOfokL (ZZ61 “THS 1°3435y) (snjelola—t Ledue)) qeiy YOY FO sduUepUNqy puUe UOT INGTZISTq Cee Caen "Ip emrnsty ge Table 16. Distribution and Abundance of Three Dominant Organisms in the Waste Disposal Areas. Species Station Cerianthus Cerebratulus Nepthys Number Range Average Range Average Range Average after SHL, 1972 93 the sampling stations were located on either side of the canyon, while the third station was in the center of it. Twelve of the 13 species collected occurred at all three stations. A total of 1,416 fish were taken from the station in the center of the canyon; only 207 were taken from the station closest to the New Jersey coast; 484 were taken from the station furthest away from it. The significantly higher number of fish taken at the canyon by SHL suggested that this is an area important to local fish populations. It is not known, however, whether greater numbers of fish frequent this area throughout the year or whether it is a seasonal occurrence. The role of Hudson Canyon as an important habitat for finfishes or as a spawning area should, therefore, be determined. b. Zooplankton. Zooplankton serve as link between phytoplankton (primary producers) and the larger organisms of the sea. They are, therefore, important in marine food chains. Extensive studies of zooplankton populations within and outside the ocean dumping grounds of the Bight were made by the Sandy Hook Laboratory. The samples of zooplankton were taken by SHL at different water depths (surface, middepth and bottom) using 1/2-meter-diameter nets with #8 mesh (.203 mm aperture) at different stations within and outside the waste dumping grounds, as shown in Figure 42. It is not known, however, whether the middepth samples were above, below or within the thermocline or pycnocline (the vertical gradient of density) which are known to vary in depth, seasonally. Flow meters were mounted in the mouths of the nets to allow calculation of the volume filtering through. The plankton nets were towed by SHL simultaneously at the three depths for 5-10 minutes, at intervals of 2 weeks, at six stations for which the data are recorded. A station in the sewage sludge disposal area and one in the acid-iron waste disposal area were included. Some of the sampling procedures and analy- tical methods used by SHL for this investigation have been questioned in the SAC review report. One criticism by SAC was that the counting technique used by the SHL, measured only a fraction of each of the total samples, and therefore is not considered adequate. According to the SHL method, a 1-milliliter subsample was counted and repeated until 300 cope- pods were included. One has no idea of the fraction of the actual sample counted. Many zooplankton specialists insist on counting the entire sample because, only then, can diversity indices be calculated, some- thing which was not done by SHL. Another criticism by SAC pertaining to the SHL zooplankton study is that no analysis of variability of counts was provided. Replicate sampling would have been important, because in coastal waters zooplankton distributions are very patchy. The SHL count- ing method therefore introduced additional variation, and one has no way to judge the reliability of the data, nor the statistical significance. The zooplankton data were often reported in settled volumes. These according to the SAC review are unreliable. The reason is that several hours or days are required for adequate settling of zooplankton, and not 5 minutes as in the SHL study. Furthermore, although the SHL method for determination of displacement volumes was found acceptable by the SAC, it is not the best method for biomass evaluation. Settled volumes are 94 N02 00b MOE of2 (ZZ61 “THS 1933y) THS Aq suoTIIET [OD uoZYUeTdooZ TOF suot}eIS FO suOT}eI0T S3LSVM Gov e SOL e cd 39qGN1S JOVM3S © OL e JSOuENV © 29 ‘Ty 9in3 Ty M00 ob 95 considered the poorest indices of abundance. In spite of such inadequacies of proper sampling and analysis, the SHL produced interesting qualitative and semiquantitative data for zooplankton populations endemic to the Bight. In these studies SHL emphasized copepods, which are present in the Bight the year round, and are usually the principal constituent of zooplankton. Copepods are small shrimp-like animals, which because of their abundance, are important in the marine food chain. This was the only taxonomic group fully analyzed by the SHL. The survey showed a general increase in total number of copepods from January until late June, then a decrease from July until October, after which, the numbers again increase. The average number of copepods per cubic meter ranged from a high of aD 000 to a low of 700. The oes number found was 87,000 copepods/m? and the lowest 100 copepods/m3, with most counts between 1,000 and 10 ,000/m3. The numbers of copepods/m3 found by SHL were wand the ranges reported by other investigators for other middle Atlantic coastal areas (Table 17). The numerical abundance of six copepod species and the total copepod numbers for each of the six stations and three depths sampled throughout the year, are given in Figures 43 to 48. Figure 49 gives the average zooplankton population in the water column for the dumping sites and adjacent areas. These data confirm the known seasonal variation of copepod distribution. A significant observation of SHL was that copepod counts in the sewage sludge disposal area were not different from other areas. Throughout the year the counts of copepods were different only five times. Two of these times the counts were higher than expected, and three times were lower. For the rest of the 93 samples that were analyzed, the counts fell within the expected range. : Besides copepods, other zooplankton organisms were found by SHL in the area of the dumping grounds in significant numbers. These included chaetognaths, polychaete larvae, bivalve larvae and pelagic gastropods. Seasonal zooplankters found in abundance were cladocerans, nauplii and cy- prid stages of barnacles, siphonophores, salps and echinoderm larvae. Although important constitutents of zooplankton, these meroplankton organisms are seasonal visitors in the waters of the area, and of limited value in zooplankton studies. Their occurrence however is useful in predicting the potential benthic communities. Bivalve larvae were abundant from January to April and from August through November in 1969, while in January through March of 1970 they were not as abundant. The highest concentration, 8,400/m? was measured in a bottom sample from an area southeast of the dumping grounds. Counts almost as high of bivalve larvae were taken by SHL in the sewage dumping grounds. The low adult population on the bottom suggested to SHL that settlement of larvae is inhibited. Polychaete larvae were found in the Bight in densities up to 600/m°, with highest concentrations near the bottom, from January to early June 96 Table 17. The Range in Number of Copepods per Cubic Meter Found by Various Investigators in the Coastal Waters of the Middle Atlantic Area. Block Island Sound Block Island Sound Montauk, N.Y. to Bermuda Long Island Sound Raritan Bay Sandy Hook Bay Patuxent River Estuary Patuxent River Estuary Range of No. of Copepods per m 100 to 8,000 5,000 to 30,000 100to 1,000 300 to 100,000 up to 200,000 50 to 600,000 100 to 7,000 1,500 ta 100,000 Net Aperture Size No, 2 mesh net; 0.366 mm aperture No. 10 mesh net; 0.158 mm aperture No, 2 mesh net; 0.36 mm aperture Nos, 2 and 10 silk nets No. 12 mesh net; 0.119 mm aperture Hensen silk tow net No, 2 mesh net; 0.316 mm aperture Nos. 10 and 20 mesh nets; 0.158 mm and 0.076 mm apertures 97 Reference Deevey, 1952 Deevey, 1952 Grice and Hart, 1962 Deevey, 1956 Jeffries, 1959 Yamazi, 1962 Herman, et al., 1968 Heinle, 1966 after SHL, 1972 AV (261 ‘IHS 1033v) IHS FO L9 uotzeVIS ye spodedop [eIOL “sy ernsTY udv uv aa ne 930 AON 190 das onv ane nae AWW 6961 UdV & oo! @-------- e wO1108 e————e H1id3d- = oe e eo es ae yi \ ---- y \ \ 7 \ yy y \ y \ ne \ 7 \ , \ i o00'o! \ 7 \ 7 \ 4 \ v \ wx y N \ ? 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' . ea, ’ (} % : \\ ff o 5, M “q Ai we [A 1 v 5 \/ = : \ ej 1 Q oM ‘ \ Bon \ é \ 1 s \ / é ® t., | ‘ 1 Nf 000‘o! 4 @ \ 1 ~ @: yO ry oY V7 \ reais] \o “ Qa 6 % 0oo'oo! 10| YUVA (ZZ61 “THS 1035y) 03d AON g@34 0261 NVe WO1108 1d30-dIW S9VSYNS @-------@ ——————o [ DOCCSSOOS ooo } $d0d3d09 W1Ol S92 NOILVLS THS FO SOL uote IS ye spodedoD [eI0OL “Ly SINSTyY 190 das onv a a ane -® 2S Nar VW udvV YVW 696! 934 - OS ool eW sd SIVWINY 000‘! 000‘oo! 102 g34 o2z6! Nr (ZZ61 “IHS 1935V) 93a AON 490 e-------@ WO1108 @———8 H1d30-diW ( eeeeonoeso @ g30vsyns $d0d3d09 WWLOl 82 NOILVLS @ / ‘S i we o 1 ek 1 “as “Se 4 a i f® 4 fe Uy / o, d x Cay df ~~ @ = d3s THS FO 8Z uotzeIS 3e spodedoy onv ant nner [e10]L AV "Sp o2n3TYy udV YVAN 696! 834 os ool $ : 00011 is * & Le aeeeeee @ : 6 OS va wT : "e iv * o/[2 ‘ F \ / i >a-o/ \ is e i \ Nee, \ 74 v o00'0! 000'00! eW Yad SIVWINY 103 (IZ61T ‘ouLOH 103FV) (squnoj wor20g pue ‘aTpptw ‘e0egansg fo eBeroay) uotze{ndog uozyueTdooZ “Gy oznsTYy . NNf 21 AVW 82 AVW €1 udv SI YVW 22 YVAN el YVNS @34 92 NWP 82 696! NV S| (0) SSS SSS) dWNG GISV SLSVM 4O 1SV3 Deseree sees ee eee V3aYV 1WSOdSIC GlIoV 3LSVM : LS dWNG GiovV ALSVM 4O LSSM = Ors === ='== -O VauV 1VSOdSId 390N1S Y3M3S IN PSS = / ss mS . Ov 09 os ool (o}x-4] 104 ¢W /spudsnoy) and late August to December. The concentrations of polychaete larvae in the waters of the sewage sludge disposal grounds were similar as those in other stations. Of the Cladocera, which are small crustaceans, three genera were found in the Bight; Evadne sp., Penilia sp., and Podon sp. Evadne was the most abundant of the three, present in densities of 50 to 7,000/m? from middle May until October. The other two genera were not as frequent, but during July and August, they dominated the zooplankton population. Maximum catches of Podon in the SVERE sludge disposal area was 23,941/m? in July and for Penilia was 62,570/m~ in August. Because of their infrequency of occurrence, however, Cladocera are not considered important constituents of the total zooplankton fauna. Chaetognatha (arrow worms) one of the most important constitutents of zooplankton because of their predatory habits, were found in the SHL study area throughout the year. Arrow worms were most abundant in the bottom waters and peak concentrations were found from May to July. The highest number taken from a station a few miles southeast of the dumping grounds, was 714/m?. There were no significant differences in occurrence or abundance, between stations. The pelagic gastropod, Limnacia sp., was present in the SHL study area throughout the year. Its numbers per cubic meter ranged up to 1,780 in- dividuals. The peak number occurred in October 1969, with peaks also in August 1969 and February 1970. Salps, siphonophores and echinoderm larvae were abundant from August to October. Other organisms, also taken sporadically in small numbers by SHL in- cluded larvae of crabs, shrimp, phoronids, barnacles, bryozoans and fish as well as mature forms of amphipods, mysids, pelagic polychaetes, tunicates and hydromedusae. c. Micro-organisms. Although bacteria in wastes dumped in sea water are rapidly killed, according to Greenberg (1956), certain enteric micro- organisms survive in marine muds. It has also been reported by Buelow (1968) that certain pathogenic micro-organisms survive sewage treatment, and could conceivably infect and harm marine life. Still, other micro- organisms have a beneficial effect because they induce a rapid and effici- ent enzymatic breakdown of complex, and possibly toxic, hydrocarbons pre- sent in the wastes. No studies have been made however, of micro-organisms in the marine environment of the Bight, other than coliform bacteria. (1) Coliform Bactéria. The distribution of coliform bacteria is a good indicator for delineating the impact areas associated with ocean dumping of sewage and sewage sludge. Their presence, however, may be temporary. Studies by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare in the vicinity of the dumping grounds indicate that shellfish in this area are bacterially contaminated (Buelow et al, 1968). Samples of shellfish collected peripherally were found to contain unacceptable levels of bacterial pollution. This contamination was attributed to disposal of raw sewage and partially digested sludge outside the prescribed locations, by violators "short dumping.'' Another 105 investigation of the same area however, at a different day, showed rever- sal of previous high bacterial counts indicating that "short dumping"! does occur, but sporadically. Based on a 1966 shellfish program study, undertaken initially by FDA, involving water sampling and the awareness of possible "short dumps,'' an area of 6-mile radius around the sludge dump site has been closed to shellfishing. Recently, other areas of the Bight have been closed by FDA to the harvesting of surf clams because of poor water quality. Whether the deterioration of coastal water quality is the result of ocean dump- ing has not been documented. Well planned analyses of the coliform bacteria content of shellfish from areas adjacent to the dumping sites is pertinent and should be continued (SAC, 1972). Buelow et al, (1968) took counts of coliform bacteria in stored sludge, prior to disposal. Such counts showed total coliforms in excess of 2.4 x 109 per 100 ml, and fecal coliforms varying from 4.3 x 10° to more than 2.4 x 109 per 100 ml. SHL surveyed for coliform bacteria in the Bight, and found dense populations of bacteria inside the sludge and spoil beds with decreasing numbers away from the disposal areas (Fig. 50). The source of these bacteria, according to SHL was ocean dumping rather than outflow of polluted Hudson River or estuarine waters. These values are high but considerably less than the values in stored sludge reported by Buelow, and considerably less than some counts taken in the Lower Bay of New York Harbor. The distribution of bacteria showed little seasonal variation within each disposal area, suggesting correlation with the dumping activities. The bacterial densities pre- sent a distribution consistent with the dumping activity and the mixing and dispersion patterns of the waters in this area (SAC, 1972). (2) Pathogens. SHL suggests that the existence of coliform bacteria in the sediments and the waters of the Bight means also the existence of pathogenic bacteria which may have a harmful effect on marine life. No attempts have been made by SHL or any other investigators to confirm and identify pathogenic bacteria in the area. Identification studies are time consuming and difficult, but necessary in establishing whether disease is transmitted in the marine environment of the Bight. (3) Other Micro-Organisms. Waste materials dumped in the Bight are suspected to contain a large amount of petrochemicals. In these petrochemicals, complex organic compounds may be included which may not be biodegradable. If such organic compounds, particularly the "heavy end" fractions made of large cyclic hydrocarbons, cannot be degraded and are uptaken in the food chain, serious marine biological damage could occur. Not only may these compounds be carcinogenic in character, but they may also be interfering with chemical signals that are often necessary in the marine predator-prey relationships. None of the investigations in the Bight has yet included studies of Penicillium, Nocardia, Microccoccus, 106 Rockaway Point Sandy Hook 0g = “ TOTAL FECAL 74°00 W Figure 50. 5,000 g 240 AMBROSE @130,000 2,800 109,000 110,000 24,000 ® 7,000 540,000 _ 542,000 49,000 e000 © 46,000 3,500 7,000 9,400 100 _ 920,000 4,900 Om ora °2,200 20 7,800 740 1,300 ee 140 © 330 220 ° 20 COLIFORM (MOST PROBABLE NUMBER, MPN) COLIFORM 73° 45'W 107 40° 30'N Analysis of Coliform in Sediment Through December, 1971 Candida or other hydrocarbon-degrading organisms. Such organisms are known to attack and break down, emzymatically, components of petrochemi - cals such as olefins, napthas, and other organic compounds. d. Food Chain Studies. To determine how toxic materials may be taken up by marine organisms, a better understanding of the marine food chain and basic predator-prey relationships of marine life in the Bight is necessary. Biological studies have not yet shown the extent of the temporal and spatial effects of ocean dumping on commercially valuable marine species in areas outside the dumping grounds. The results of the stomach content analysis of fishes performed by SHL indicated that yellowtail flounder, winter flounder and ling ingest primarily benthic organisms, such as polychaete worms, amphipods, and bivalves. Whiting appear to feed primarily on epibenthic and swimming organisms such as mysids, sand shrimp, and fish. Less than 5 percent of the fishes that were sampled in the area of the dumping grounds contain- ed in their stomach such sewage-sludge artifacts as hair, band-aids, and cigarette filters. Whether ingestion of these materials is selective or accidental during normal feeding, is now known. Yellowtail flounders sampled in the sewage dumping grounds contained in their stomachs up to 25 percent sand and gravel, and since these are not food resources, it can be assumed that fish ingest foreign materials accidentally. The number of fish ingesting such materials, however, is small and may not be too objectionable, except esthetically. More important, however, is ingestion of materials that include heavy metals and pathogenic micro- organisms. Whether such ingestion of harmful materials occurs, and to what degree, is not known with certainity. 108 SECTION IV. DISCUSSION 1. Dispersion and Movement of the Waste Materials The dispersion of waste materials, following disposal at the dumping grounds, is difficult to study because of the variable and complex hydro- graphic conditions prevailing in the Bight which were discussed earlier. A number of hydrographic investigations of the Bight have been made. Limited studies on rates and patterns of dispersion of waste materials dumped in the Bight have been conducted by Ketchum and Ford (1948), Red- field and Walford (1951), Beyer (1955), Saila (1968), Buelow (1968), and more recently, by the SHL (1972). None of these investigations has been synoptic or has considered adequately the total circulation effects on waste dispersion. Settling of waste material depends on many physical factors. Although most of the waste settles to the bottom rapidly, a large percentage of the finer material remains suspended in the water column. Saila (1968), in his studies of dredged sediment dumping in Rhode Island Sound, found that two slicks of fine waste material tend to form within an hour of dumping. One slick was at the surface and another at roughly mid-depth, at the density gradient of the thermocline. A thermocline, however, is not a permanent feature of the waters of the Bight. During winter, the thermo- cline is absent and the waters become vertically homogeneous. In winter, therefore, only one slick of very fine material may be observed in the surface waters. Depending on circulation and turbulence, this finer waste material may stay in suspension for a long time and may be trans- ported from the disposal area. Mixing and dispersion of the waste materials in the upper layer of the ocean (0-50 feet in thickness) is affected by wind driven and tidal currents. Also, fine material that has settled to the bottom may go into suspension as a result of storm waves or strong bottom currents, and move laterally. Knowledge of surface and bottom circulation is essential in assessing the dispersion and movement of the waste materials following disposal or settling. The SHL attempted to determine surface and circulation of waters in the general areas of the dumping grounds. To accomplish this objective, SHL utilized current meters and surface and seabed drifters. Unfortunately only three of the four current meters that were used in this investigation by the SHL gave satisfactory records, and then for only limited periods. The use of drifters is the most economical method of studying qualita- tively net water-mass movements. It is assumed that the reaction of the drifters to water movements closely approximates that of other small mov- able objects at the surface and near the bottom. According to the SHL report, drifter behavior provides the best estimate of the effect of water movement on the transport and dispersal of waste materials. This assump- 109 tion may be questionable since small grains of sediment cannot be expected to behave in the same manner as drifters of large surface area and vari- able buoyancy. As mentioned earlier, of 1,886 surface drifters released by the SHL, 497 (26 percent) were recovered. Of 2,190 seabed drifters released, 710 (32 percent) were recovered. The surface and seabed drift studies con- ducted by the SHL indicate qualitatively a general circulation pattern for the Bight. These data and analyses were summarized in the results section by reporting the percent drifter recovery from the various release locations, but not on the basis of specific shore recovery loca- tions. Such data would have been more informative (SAC, 1972). Based on recovery of its drifters, SHL concluded that there is a sub- stantial shoreward migration of surface and bottom drifters, since over 29 percent of all the drifters released found their way to shore. SHL also suggested that its data indicate a strong flow at the bottom along the axis of the Hudson-Ambrose Channel into the mouth of the Hudson Estuary. This pattern of circulation is partially supported by a drifter study of the middle Atlantic Bight area conducted by Bumpus (1965). This study indicated that nearshore, the tendency for the flow was in a westerly or southerly direction with a component toward the coast; but Bumpus con- cluded that the onshore-offshore component was difficult to distinguish from, more or less, isotropic dispersion because only those drifters carried onshore yielded any information. His study, like that of Harrison et al, (1967) indicated that there is a definite residual bottom drift towards the mouths of estuaries. According to the SHL report (SHL, 1972), such inflow to the Hudson Estuary mouth is expected as a normal consequence of estuarine circulation driven by fresh water outflow, and has been widely observed in other situations (Conomos et al., 1970; Gross, Morse and Barnes, 1969). As indicated earlier, under tidal circulation the ebb in the Lower Bay is generally stronger than the flood by 10 percent or more, and a net transport of water moves outward from the Hudson Estuary. The quantity of water entering Lower Bay is limited, and waste material in suspension in this water mass would be too diluted to be of concern. It is doubtful that ocean dumping affects significantly the quality of the waters of the Lower Hudson Estuary. Another conclusion of the SHL study is that there is a general clock- wise circulation in the Bight. Such clockwise circualtion has been also observed by Bumpus and Lauzier (1965). There is no basis however for the suggestion in the SHL study that this type of circulation can be associated with bifurcation in the head of the Hudson Channel. Finally, while surface drift patterns obtained by the SHL suggest strong seasonality, there was only mild seasonal variation in the bottom returns. During winter, surface flow in the Bight appears to be predominantly to the south- east, away from the coast. At other time flow tended northwards Long Island (SHE, 19172). Ke) According to the SHL report, patterns of circulation obtained from its drifter studies indicate a transport mechanism which can account for the distribution of organic material, coliform bacteria, and heavy metals found in the sediments and waters of the Bight. This claim, however, is disputed. According to the SAC review (SAC, 1972), the SHL study did not incorporate the findings of the water circulation patterns, preliminary as they may be, in an analysis of the distribution of important constituents of the discharged waste in either the water column or the benthos. The information on circulation, therefore, cannot be correlated with conclusions on quality conditions. The SHL water-circulation study, for example, can- not explain the existence of the area east of the dumping grounds which has carbon-rich sediments, but is separated with no continuums from the disposal area. Similarly it cannot quantify the degree of dilution and dispersion these waste constituents undergo, if indeed their transport is in the directions indicated by the drifters. The circulation data accumulated from the Bight is insufficient to per- mit quantitative studies of waste dispersion. Results with seabed and sur- face drifters, although of some value in indicating net surface and bottom movements of the water, are of questionably validity. The actual path of these drifters and time of travel are not known, and their net movement cannot be correlated to sediment transport and water quality. Return of drifter to shore is not necessarily proof that harmful pollutants will also end up on shore. The path of the drifters is not direct, and the time of travel is long. Even if pollutants are assumed to follow the same path as the drifters, the degree of dilution to surrounding waters will be great, reducing adverse effects on water quality. The dispersion studies of the SHL would have been more meaningful if the study of the hydrography of the Bight was supported by geostrophic flow calculations. Also a direct comparison of surface drift with magni- tude of the annual wind stress in different directions, would have been helpful. In a study of surface currents off the Oregon Coast (Wyatt et al, 1972), wind stress data was correlated effectively with surface currents and net water transport. Although the SHL studies of the water circulation have not been suf- ficient to correlate with waste dispersion following dumping in the Bight, the current measurements obtained, provide a basis for further study, such as a time series analysis. In conjunction with the drift studies, such an analysis (SAC,1972), would indicate, at least in a preliminary fashion, the circulation pattern of the area, and the significance of the various factors affecting the circulation. Specifically, it would help define the variance of the different inputs. This is important in respect to effects of transport processes of the system in distributing the wastes throughout the Bight. Additional analysis of these data would be an im- portant input to a preliminary hydrodynamic model of the area which could correlate effectively water circulation data with the temporal and spatial distribution and transport of waste constituents. Such a model should incorporate dispersion and advection terms, reactions that affect the concentration of waste materials, mass input rates, and pertinent bio- logical, chemical and physical characteristics. Finally, this model would help provide specific answers to such problems as long term accumu- lation and equilibrium, and would help assess alternate plans for the im- provement and maintenance of water quality in the Bight area (SAC, 1972). In summary, the extent of dispersion and movement of waste materials in the Bight is closely related to water circulation. Water circulation studies, such as those by SHL, using surface and bottom drifters are useful in indicating only the onshore component of net water transport and cannot be correlated effectively to isotropic dispersion, seasonal variances, or tranport mechanisms of waste materials. Similarly, drifter studies cannot help in quantifying dispersion of wastes or be correlated to water quality without considering travel time and degree of dilution of wastes. The apparent absence of a thick waste layer in the present dumping grounds suggests rapid degradation and assimilation of the organic constituents of the waste or a mechanism of transport operates for both organic and inorganic fractions. Lateral dispersion of the waste materials occurs to the north and to the south of the dumping grounds is evidenced from the distribution of carbon and heavy metals in the sedi- ments. The quantities, if any, of the fine waste materials which may reach the shore are not known with certainty. Their degree of dilution is such that no significant adverse effects on coastal water quality are expected. Chemical data indicate that waste materials are transported downward into the upper part of the Hudson Gorge. The quantities of waste material moving downward have not been determined. Bottom currents and gravity- induced turbidity currents may be transport agents. Better knowledge of the bottom and surface circualtion of this area is required to determine the dispersion patterns and the ultimate fate of waste materials in the Bight. 2. Effects of Ocean Dumping on Water and Sediment Characteristics It is difficult to assess the possible effects of ocean dumping on water and sediment quality because of the interrelation of the many key variables. A change in the concentration of any variable, may lead to subsequent change in many others in an attempt to restore chemical equili- brium. Similarly, biological cycles may affect many of the water and sediment quality variables in a non-linear and unpredictable fashion. It must suffice in this report to discuss only those water and sediment quality parameters that may be most readily affected by ocean dumping, and to compare them with desired water quality conditions or with natural or original characteristics of the undisturbed marine environment. Water quality criteria are based upon scientific determinations of the specific characteristics of water which would permit the appropriate uses agreed upon by the States and the Environmental Protection Agency. At present, these criteria are based on existing information, but are subject to change, review, and improvement as additional knowledge is obtained. Ie Water quality criteria may vary from State to State, and even within a single State, reflecting natural conditions and the intended use to be made of the receiving water. The standards include criteria for the physical and microbiological properties of water and the inorganic and organic chemicals. These water properties, constituents, and pollutants, are described by parameters such as turbidity, settleable and dissolved solids, temperatures, pH, coliform bacteria, dissolved oxygen, toxic sub- stances, chemicals, and 011. The desired standards vary according to the intended use of the water body, whether it is for recreation, navigation, fish and wildlife propagation, or drinking. No similar standards exist for the quality of sediments, even though cumulative effects may change this quality drastically over the long term. Chemical criteria should be used with care. Chemical properties are indicative of water quality at the time of sampling, and are not indica- tive of past or long-term conditions. Similarly, their use as indices of environmental stress may be misleading, since their presence is not static. According to Butcher (1955), environmental stress can be best judged by determination of biological conditions rather than measurement of chemical properties. The absence of eStablished criteria on water quality may necessitate the use of biological indicators. Such indicators may not be sensitive enough to respond to dynamic short-term water quality changes, and their use may be misleading. A combination, therefore, of chemical- biological indices may be more appropriate. In the Bight, it can be safely assumed, continuous ocean dumping has resulted in static water and sediment conditions, and the use of biological indices may be justified. Two basic differences between water quality standards and sewage effluent discharge limitations should be briefly explained. Water quality standards apply to the natural aquatic environment of, and con- ditions within, a body of waer; effluent discharge limitations apply directly to the characteristics of wastes at the point of discharge into a larger water body. Ocean dumping acitivies fall under the latter cate- gory. The dumping grounds of the Bight can be considered as a mixing zone which, (by EPA definition) is an area that may be unaviodably polluted by mixing of discharged waters with the receiving waters. Materials dis- charged at the dumping grounds are not all liquid, but the analogy holds. According to EPA, (EPA, 1972) mixing zones have defined and identifiable limits, and the waters outside of the zones must meet the standards for that particular body of water. No provision has been made for water and sediment quality limits within the mixing zone, but it is generally assumed that concentrations of certain chemical species far exceed permissible limits of other aquatic environments. Water and sediment characteristics of the Bight waste disposal grounds and surrounding water are influenced directly the the character of the waste itself. As expected, mechanical dilution and mixing of these wastes with sea water and sediments, significantly reduce concentrations of certain constituents. Even though the volume of the receiving waters far surpasses 3 the volume of the dumped waste, certain chemicals exist naturally in such minute amounts in the receiving waters, that their concentrations are greatly affected by the concentrations in the wastes. Additionally, sediment and water quality characteristics of the area may be affected, over the long term, by chemical reactions at the sediment-water interface. Such reactions could lead to temporal and spatial changes in the aqueous concentrations of various chemicals. Resulting changes would be difficult to assess with- out continuous and far more extensive studies than those completed in the New York Bight. The work by SUNY-SB and SHL on the chemical characteristics of the wastes following deposition should be regarded as preliminary and largely inconclusive (SAC, 1972). A large part of the water chemistry conducted by the SHL on phosphorus, nitrate, total iron, dissolved oxygen, chorophyll- a, and heavy metals, is presented in relatively undigestive form. Both the SUNY-SB and SHL studies show differences in the size and shape of the waste disposal areas, suggesting that the uses of total carbon distribution or percent organic content are inadequate to define the lateral extent of the waste deposits (SAC, 1972). The boundaries of the disposal areas are diffuse and are difficult to determine. A better method might have been used. Sediment particle size distribution, for example, would have been more helpful in mapping the disposal areas. An adequate coring program, and a study of the vertical distribution of heavy metals might have been more appropriate in defining the depth of the waste deposits. Regardless of the indicated limitations of the chemical studies in the Bight, it can be safely concluded, in qualitative terms, that ocean dumping has changed the water and sediment characteristics of the dumping grounds and adjacent areas, and that measured concentrations of certain variables, especially heavy metals, bacteria and organics, exceed EPA permissible limits. The adverse effect is more pronounced near the bottom-sea inter- face. In the following sections, individual water and sediment quality char- acteristics in the Bight are discussed in relation to the effects of ocean dumping in the area. a. Temperature. Temperature standards have been set to control man- made temperature changes in closed bodies of water. No maximum water temperature standards have been set for the open coastal environments, but the National Technical Advisory Committee of EPA (NTAC) in its report (EPA, 1972) recommends that monthly maximum daily temperatures, not be raised by more than 4°F from September through May and by no more than 1.5°F from June thorugh August. Waste disposal in the Bight has not created any known water-temperature problems. The relatively small volume of the wastes and rapid dispersion and dilution preclude any lasting tem- perature effects on sediment and water quality. b. pH. Water quality standards for acidity or alkalinity are expressed by an index of the hydrogen ion activity (pH) which is an indicator of these properties and not a measure of either. Il4 Acidity in the natural marine environment is caused by carbon dioxide, mineral acids, weakly disassociated acids, and the salts of strong acids and weak bases. Alkalinity on the other hand is caused by strong bases and the salts of strong alkalies and weak acids. In natural waters, the pH falls in a range between 6.5 and 8.5, but it is sometimes increased by photosynthesis. The permissible pH range for the coastal waters of New York and New Jersey, according to water quality criteria (EPA, 1972), should be from 6.5 to 8.5. The pH range observed in the vicinity of the dumping grounds of the N. Y. Bight, ranges from 7.10 to 8.40, and does not exceed the pre- scribed limits. The only drop in pH would be observed in the waters of the acid dumping grounds, immediately after an acid dump. The low pH value in this area would occur for brief periods. As discussed earlier, Redfield and Walford (1951), have shown that the pH of the water from the wake of an acid dumping barge was above 6.0 in all samples collected more than 3 minutes after dumping and a pH of 7 was reached about 3.5 minutes after dumping. c. Turbidity. The National Technical Committee (NTAC) of EPA has not set limits on turbidity for oceanic bodies. For lakes, NTAC recommends that turbidity in the receiving water due to a discharge should not exceed 25 JTU (Jackson Turbidity Units) in warm water lakes, and 10 JTU in cold or oligotrophic lakes. No provision for turbidities has been included in the water quality standards of the States of New York or New Jersey. Turbidity within the dumping area of the Bight is caused by fine sus- pended matter such as clay, silt, and finely divided organics from sewage Sludge, and dredge spoils. In addition, disposal of acid wastes in the acid dumping grounds results in a ferric hydroxide floc, observed as a stain in the waters, which also increases turbidity. This material even- tually settles to the bottom or is rapidly dispersed. A decrease in tur- bidity would be observed for the waters of the dumping area were it not for the continuous dumping. Turbidity would be expected to vary over the short term, depending on the quantities being dumped, frequency of dumping, and local and seasonal weather conditions. Over the long-term, turbidity would be expected to become static. Static turbidity conditions in the dumping grounds and adjacent areas, would reduce light penetration into the water and result in a reduction of photosynthesis by phytoplankton organisms and attached or submerged vegetation. This effect on primary productivity has not been quantified for the disposal areas of the Bight, but it does not appear to be significant. Other environmental variables such as nutrient addition, may be partially compensating for the loss in primary preductivity due to turbidity. Turbidity associated with ocean dumping does not appear to have an adverse lasting effect on the sediment and water quality of the Bight. Possible adverse effects on marine benthic life are discussed in a subsequent section of this report. d. Dissolved Solids. The water quality criteria report of EPA (1972) recommends that dissolved solid concentrations in the water should not Ke) exceed 500 milligrams per liter (mg/l). This is a. measure, however, applicable only to drinking water supplies. For the protection of fresh- water fish, the EPA criteria specify that concentrations should not exceed 50 TH A@STOIeS (the equivalent of 1500 mg/1 NaCL). No similar limits have been given for offshore bodies of water, such as the dumping area of the New You Biohte Natural seawater contains dissolved solids consisting primarily of chlorides, carbonates, bicarbonates, nitrates, phosphates, sulfates and traces of metallic elements. Concentrations or effects of these substances can sometimes be elevated or synergistically altered by the addition of chemical substances (such as those contained in the wastes) resulting in deterioration of water and sediment quality and local adverse effects on fish and other aquatic animals. The wastes dumped in the Bight, especially sewage sludges, contain dissolved organic and inorganic solids which may add materially to naturally occuring concentrations of certain substances already in solution, and also introduce some new ones. The quantities of such dissolved solids in the wastes have not been determined. However, not all the solids go into solution immediately after dumping as their solubilities are governed by a number of physical and chemical factors, such as temperature, pH, oxidizing or reducing conditions, and saturation limits. Furthermore chemical break- down of certain solids constituents of the wastes, over the long tern, could produce unknown water-soluble by-products. Reactions could be re- versed, and materials may be removed from the liquid state, returned to the solid state, and deposited as sediments. The chemical equilibria affecting such interactions are too complex to be quantitatively described. However, a general estimate of total dissolved solids in the waste materials dis- posed in the Bight could be obtained. Discussions of individual chemical species, such as nutrients, heavy metals and organic substances that may go into solution, and therefore affect water and sediment quality, are given in subsequent sections. e. Settleable Solids. Settleable solids include inorganic materials such as sand, silt and clay, and organic materials such as greases, oils, tars, animal and vegetable fats. Sewage sludges, dredge spoils and in- dustrial wastes fall within these categories. The NTAC of EPA (EPA, 1972) has recommended that no settleable solids be added to these waters in quantities that adversely affect the natural biota. The States of New York and New Jersey have similar descriptive restrictions (EPA, 1972). None of these restrictions apply to ocean dumping, even though ocean dumping con- stitutes the largest single source of solids entering theNew York Bight (Gross, 1970). Although the damage to the benthic biota due to the smother- ing effect of setteable solids associated with ocean dumping is evident, the dumping grounds of the Bight may be thought of as a trade-off area, or as a mixing area where settleable solids may be temporarily allowed to exceed permissible limits, until an alternate solution to the problem of waste disposal is found. 116 f. Dissolved Oxygen. The water quality criteria, used by EPA, recommended a minimum dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration of 5 milligrams per liter (mg/l) in open coastal waters, and 4 mg/1 in estuarine and tidal tributaries excepting waters with naturally despressed DO (EPA, 1972). Similarly, both New York and New Jersey have a lower limit of 5 mg/1 for ocean waters at any time, while the lower permitted limit for the waters of the New York harbor is 2.5 mg/l. These values however, do not differ- entiate between the DO of bottom and surface water and are average values for the water colum. Dissolved oxygen is a water quality property that can also affect the quality of the sediments. Dissolved oxygen enters seawater through atmo- spheric re-aeration and algal photosynthesis. Its concentration is in- fluenced by a number of variables, such as mixing conditions, primary production, the vertical and horizontal distributions of temperature and salinity, and the biochemical oxygen demand. Certain minimum concentrations of DO are required to support populations of aerobic organisms at all life- development stages. Oxygen is also important in the aerobic decomposition of organic materials. In the presence of oxygen organic matter undergoes biological decompisition to yield CO, and H,0 which are substances necessary to sustain life. Changes in the dissolved oxygen of the water may result in changes in photosynthesis and the primary productivity of an area. Re- duction in DO, for example, can result in the development of anaerobic conditions with associated water odor problems, and the destruction of aerobic marine animal life, such as commerically valuable finfish and shellfish. Decay of organic matter in the sea may release Hj, H2S, CH, and NH3, which are undesirable substances. The organic materials in the sediments of the Bight dumping grounds exert a biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) which reduces the DO near the bottom. According to Torpey (1967) oxygen depletion can occur in the following sequence. a. When oxygen demand of pollutants reaches 20 lbs 02/day/acre, instability develops, the oxygen level drops sharply, and fish migrate. b. When the pollution loading level demands 20 to 132 lbs 0)/day/ acre the dissolved 0, remains substantially constant at between 25 to 50 percent of saturation. This plateau is homeostatic because symbiotic algae and bacteria are able to maintain this 0» level. c. At extremely high loading rates when demand exceeds 132 lbs 02/day/acre, the 05 is exhausted and anaeorobic conditions develop. A BOD range from 16 to 330 gm 0,/kg of volatile solids has also been determined by Isaacs (1962). The BOD of highly polluted sediments can be, therefore, several orders of magnitude above the DO saturation level. More- over this demand can be continuous or deferred for some future time when oxygen again becomes available. Such demand probably removes all the oxygen from the interstitial water so that chemical reactions in the sedi- 7 ments below the surface proceed under anaegrobic conditions, while at the sediment-water interface, conditions may still be aerobic. This may have a significant influence on other water quality properties. Under aerobic conditions, some chemical elements exist in their oxidized states. Iron and manganese can be found as insoluble Fe 03 and Mn03; phosphorus as insoluble FePO,; nitrogen and sulfur as nitrate and sulfate. Under anaerobic reducing conditions, the ferric ion would be reduced to ferrous iron; phosphate may be released from the sediments; and nitrates and sulfates will be reduced to ammonia and sulfide. The chemistry of other chemical species may be also affected by oxidizing or reducing conditions. Temperature, salinity and turbidity also affect dissolved oxygen. The saturation levels of DO are particularly influenced by the vertical and horizontal distribution of temperature and salinity, and both fluctuate widely near the dumping grounds. During summer, the thermocline is more pronounced, and surface waters contain a higher concentration of oxygen, because of reaeration, wave action, and photosynthesis. Below the thermocline, lack of photo- Synthesis and the increased BOD of the wastes could significantly reduce the dissolved oxygen. Such a drop in oxygen content of near-bottom waters over the dumping area was reported by the SHL. Measurements of DO taken by SHL fluctuated between 2.0 ml/liter to 7.0 ml/liter; the lower values occur in bottom waters during summer. Based on these measurements, the SHL report suggested that oxidation of the organic matter of the wastes and bacteriological activity in the sludge beds periodically depletes the overlying water of its oxygen to levels too low for the support of life. Such low values occur for only limited periods of time not only in the dumping grounds but also in other parts of the Bight. The organic matter content of the Bight is extremely high, reaching values of 4.4 to 81.0 mg/l according to SHL. - This organic material precipitates eventually to the bottom and exerts a continuous oxygen demand on the overlying waters. According to Ketchum (1970), reduction in the oxygen content of bottom waters of the Bight dumping grounds has occurred recently. Horne et al, (1971) indicate that there is no evidence that oxygen depletion observed in the Bight extends into the water column for more than 5 meters off the bottom. It has also been suggested that periodic drops in DO in the Bight result from intrusions of offshore, oxygen-depleted waters which are generated below the well-developed summer thermocline. In contrast, Corwin and Ketchum (1956) point out that the Hudson River is a source of oxygen-depleted water, and that the oxygen content in the surface waters of the Outer Harbor can be as low as 1.8 to 2.0 ppm. River water, intruding into the Bight may be a more direct threat to the marine environment than the dumping. To assess adequately the DO concentrations in the Bight, measure- ments should be taken diurnally and seasonally, something that has not 18 been done by the investigations completed to date, (SAC, 1972) A bio- chemical oxygen demand (BOD) study should be conducted to determine the oxygen demand of sewage deposits and their state of digestion. On the basis of present data, it can be concluded that the DO con- centration of the waters above the dumping grounds may be reduced by the BOD of the wastes, but this effect has not been sufficiently substan- tiated or quantified. The DO concentration of these waters for short periods reaches values below water quality standards. On the basis of these conclusions, it 1s recommended that the natural seasonal variation of oxygen concentration in the dumping grounds and elsewhere in the Bight be determined. g. Nutrients. Nutrients, such as phosphorus and nitrogen, are im- portant properties of water and sediment quality of marine environments. Numerically defined criteria for nutrients, however, have not been established. The National Technical Advisory Committee (NTAC) of EPA in its Water Quality Criteria report (EPA, 1972) comments that the naturally occurring ratios and amounts of nitrogen (particularly N03 and NH,) to total phosphorus should not be radically changed by artificial means, but does not define permissible levels of phosphates or nitrates. Similarly, New York and New Jersey do not have specific criteria limiting the amount of phosphates and nitrates in interstate waters. (EPA, 1972) Phosphorus and nitrogen, occurring as phosphate, ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate are important nonconservative constituents of seawater, necessary bio-stimulants for algal growth, and therefore, intimately involved in the life processes of the sea. Nutrient-rich waters can Significantly alter aquatic systems, create algal blooms, and eutrophica- tion in estuaries and restricted bodies of water, but not in open marine environments like the Bight. The natural concentrations of phosphates and nitrogen compounds in seawater are relatively low, and areas in the ocean which are rich in such nutrients, are generally biologically productive. Phosphates are important in the process of photosynthesis which utilizes them while releasing oxygen. Phosphorus in the sea occurs in the form of dissolved INOS nee (HPO,2°), or in the more predominating form, orthophosphate (P0,° ) The natural flux of phosphorus through marine ecosystems is subject to complex processes involving many cycles and equilibria. According to Ryther and Dunstan (1971), there is no evidence that phosphorous is ever the limiting nutrient in marine estuarine systems. Its potential limiting character has been demonstrated only for fresh- water systems. The study of phosphorus flux (or any essential element) through a marine ecosystem, however, is a useful index in assessing metabolic processes of that system. (Mann, 1971) Nitrogen, in the form of nitrate, is also an important nutrient, and It is essential for photosynthesis. In the sea, nitrogen is introduced from decomposition of biomaterial, primarily as ammonia, NH3, which is then oxidized to nitrite, (NO>5), and finally to nitrate. ((NOs5)) Under natural conditions, nitrogen compounds are exhausted first from the marine environment, thus making nitrogen a limiting factor. Waste materials dumped in the Bight contribute significant amounts of nutrients. Decomposition of organic matter dumped in the area reduces complex protein molecules to nitrates, phosphates, carbon dioxide, and water. Nutrients exist in both the sediments and the overlying waters of the Bight dumping grounds in above-natural concentrations. Avail- able nutrients are dissolved in the water, absorbed on the pelagic particulate system, or are included in the sediments. The sediments of the dumping grounds collected for the referenced studies were not analyzed for nutrient content, but it is expected that these are in a state of dynamic equilibrium with those in the water phase, and could contribute to the available nutrient supply if other environmental variables were changed. Nutrient release from the sediments could depend on such factors as circulation of overlying waters, oxygen supply, and on the presence of rooted algae such as mycrophytes which are able to use these nutrients directly from the sediment phase. Waters of the dumping grounds were analyzed for phosphorus by SHL. They found concentrations up to 5.64 microgram-atom per liter (ug-at/1). Other nutrient values reported by SHL for the sewage sludge dump were often unusually high; the reported N:P ratio was unusually low. SHL use of phosphorus as a tracer of water mass movement was questioned by the SAC. The data presented by SHL appeared insufficent in time and space to allow proper tracing (SAC, 1972). According to the SAC, it would be necessary to analyze samples of water before, during, and after dumping to estimate the dispersion of nutrients. The high concentration of phosphorus observed in the area could be due to recent dumps. Concentration of more than 2 yg-at/1 orthophosphorus found in the surface waters of the Irsh Sea was considered extraordinary by Jones and Folkard (1971). Ketchum (1969) suggested an upper limit of 2.8 ug-at/1 for defining unpolluted coastal waters. The amount reported by SHL in the dumping grounds of the Bight is about twice the maximum value suggested by Ketchum for unpolluted waters. It has not been demonstrated that high concentrations of phosphate are particularly critical for open marine environments. Higher phosphate values which may be of concern, have been reported for closed estuarine areas of the N.Y. Bight. Ryther and Dunstan (1971) reported a value of 7.0 ug-at/1 inorganic phosphorus in Moriches Bay, Long Island, which was associated with pollution from nearby duck farms. The effect of additional nutrients on water quality can be better assessed by considering its direct effect upon primary productivity, and (more specifically) on chlorophyll production. It is expected that enrichment of the waters of the Bight in nutrients such as phosphorus, resulting from dumping of sewage sludge, could have a beneficial effect 120 in the area, and would enhance marine productivity. In their investigation of the Firth of Clyde Estuary dumping grounds, MacKay, Halcrow and Thornton (1972) report an increase in the productivity of that particular area which was attributed to nutrients in the waste. Similarly, Yentsch (Ketchum, 1969) plotted the log of inorganic phosphorus against the log of chlorophyll-a, and determined a linear correlation between the two. SHL, utilizing Yentsch's technique and its own data for the Bight, did not find a linear correlation. Other environmental factors therefore must affect the relationship between chlorophyl productivity and the phosphorus content in the waters in the disposal areas of the Bight. One factor, perhaps the most important for the area, is salinity. Tur- bidity may be another. SHL reported that the bulk of primary productivity occurred in waters of river oricin with lower salinity. SHL also stated that nutrification of the watei1 of the dumping grounds did not result in an extensive in- crease in the primary productivity of the area. Barber and Krieger (1970), suggested that phytoplankton cell division is retarded in water samples obtained from the sewage sludge grounds. They have given no reason for the suggested retardation, and have not related it to nutrient concentra- tions. h. Heavy Metals. Heavy metals which are often present in the sea and are toxic to man in varying degrees, include, mercury, silver, arsenic, chromium, cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc. The toxic effects of these metals may be persistent and cumulative over the long term. Minute quantities of certain heavy metals are known to be important in metabolic processes of man. Most heavy metals serve no known biological function in the marine environment, and can act synergistically with other chemical substances to increase toxicity. Marine animals, especially shellfish, are known to concentrate these heavy metals in their tissues, and (if eaten) may be a toxic source to man. Because of their toxicity and cumulative toxic effect, large con- centrations of heavy metals constitute perhaps the most dangerous chem- ical species in the marine environment. Heavy-metal criteria and limits for water vary widely from State to State. Neither New York nor New Jersey have defined specific criteria. The NTAC of EPA in its report "Water Quality Criteria," cites the U.S. Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards (EPA, 1972). According to these standards, desirable criteria for water place heavy-metals con- centrations near zero. These are for drinking water, and are completely unrealistic for coastal marine environments such as the New York Bight. Heavy metals are associated with ocean dumping in other areas. A study of the sewage sludge dumping in the Thames River Estuary, in England, found high concentrations of heavy metals in the sediments. (Shelton, 1971) High values of heavy metals have been reported for the Firth of Clyde, Scotland (Makay, Halcrow and Thornton, 1972), and for the coastal waters of California (Hlavka, 1971). 121 Sewer Sludge and dredge spoils dumped in the New York Bight contain especially high concentrations of lead, chromium, copper and other common industrial heavy metals. Table 8 (gn page 60) compares concentrations of some heavy metals found in sludges to natural levels in sea water and to concentrations toxic to marine life. In determining the reactivity of heavy metals, their uptake in the food chain, and their toxic potential, knowledge of the relative concentra- tions in the sediments is necessary, but not sufficient. Knowledge of the physical status of these metals following disposal is necessary. Do these metals exist in ionic form? Do they form organic ion complexes? Do they exist as relatively inert insoluble compounds in the bottom sediments? Are they included as colloidal suspensions in the water column? What are the mechanisms, or conditions, that may result in their transfer, deposi- tion or reactivity? Technology has not provided answers to these questions. Completed studies by the SUNY-SB and the SHL have helped determine the relative concentrations of heavy metals in the sediments of the Bight dump- ing grounds. Both studies found that sediments contained heavy metals in much greater concentrations than in other nonspoil areas. Higher heavy metal concentrations were found by SHL at stations north of both dumping Sites and south, along the length of the Hudson Canyon, suggesting possi- ble spreading of the wastes. -Concentrations of certain heavy metals given in the SHL report (Tables 2-2, 5-10 and 5-17) show large, temporal, within- Station, variations, suggesting a patchy distribution of sediments and a heterogeneous distribution of heavy metals within the disposal areas. Neither the SHL nor the SUNY-SB reports account for within-station varia- tions of heavy metals in their analysis (SAC, 1972), although the SUNY-SB report presents statistics on selected samples. SHL study concluded that the observed buildup of heavy metals is close- ly associated with waste disposal in the area. This is not a fully sup- ported conclusion. It cannot be denied that ocean dumping is primarily responsible for the high levels of heavy metals in the sediments of the dumping sites relative to other shelf sediments not covered by waste materials, but a buildup (in relative concentration) of heavy metals with- in the dumping grounds is not apparent from the SHL data. In fact the SUNY-SB study (Gross et al, 1970) shows that a diminution rather than a buildup, of heavy metals such as chromium, lead, silver and copper in the sediments of the dumping grounds has occurred relative to the parent waste material (inner harbor sediments and sewage sludge). The mechanisms for the diminution are not demonstrated and it is possible that a transfer occurs by lateral loss due to sediment transport, mixing with shelf sedi- ments, or flux to overlying water. The possibility that heavy metals enter the marine food chain is important, since the apparent decrease of heavy metals from these deposits is unexplained. However, Grass, et al., (1971) concluded that because of the relatively low extraction efficiency with hat hydrochloric acid, it seems unlikely that the metals would leach from the waste deposits and enter the overlying water. This was disputed by the SAC review (SAC, 122 1972) in that the fate of heavy metals in the waste deposits is not a question that can be answered with present knowledge. Similarly disputed was the SHL conclusion that heavy metals, such as copper, lead, chromium and mercury in the water, originate from the sewage sludge and dredge spoil dumping sites. The SHL data on the concentrations of certain heavy metals (Zn, B, Fe, Mo, Mn, Cu, Sr, Al, Ba) in water samples collected at only six stations (Table 5-11 of the SHL report) has been questioned by the SAC since a cause-effect relationship was not clearly established. The SAC felt that the techniques used by both studies did not clearly demonstrate the mobility or lack of mobility of heavy metals from the waste deposits of the dumping grounds. Determining the reactivity of heavy metals based on acid extractions was not possible because of the variability of extraction with different concentrations of acid. Neither study provided for the vertical distribution of heavy metals throughout the waste deposits. The SAC maintained that analysis of the heavy-metal content of interstitial water at selected depth in cores would aid in determining whether heavy metals are leaching from the waste deposits. Differences in the methods and analyses in the SUNY-SB and SHL studies make comparison of the chemical results difficult. No significance can be attached to differences in heavy-metal contents of sediments determined by SUNY-SB and SHL because uniform extraction procedures were not used. (SAGH eS 72) The method of sample collection using grab samples could also produce variations in the results of both studies. The grab sampler would have the tendency to disturb the sediment and not necessarily reflect in situ distribution of constituents. In conclusion, the results obtained to date indicate that high concentrations of heavy metals are found in the sediments of the dumping grounds. The fate of these heavy metals, their effect on water quality and their toxic potential have not been determined. i. Organic Fraction. Quantitative numerical limits have not yet been defined by EPA in its water quality standards for 0il, petrochemicals, or synthetic organic compounds. Existing restrictions are descriptive, and state that no oil or petrochemicals should be added to receiving waters in such quantities as to: "produce a visible film on the surface; impart an oily odor to the water and oily taste to the fish and edible invertebrates; coat the banks or bottom of the water course, or taint any of the associated biota; and finally, become effective toxicants.'' New York and New Jersey have similar descriptive restrictions on oil and petro- chemicals. (EPA, 1972) None appear to apply to the offshore marine environ- ment. The sediments associated with ocean dumping areas are usually characterized by high organic contents. The organic materials found in such areas may be natural, synthetic, or related to petroleum based 123 hydrocarbons. MacKay, Halcrow and Thorton (1972) in their study of the Clyde Estuary sludge disposal area in England reported the highest values of organic carbon near the center of the dump. Shelton (1971) reported a buildup of organic matter in the Thames disposal area, which he suggested may be the result of the normal traction load of organic matter usually found in the River Thames. Bottom sediments near the dumping grounds of the N.Y. Bight are also characterized by a high organic content in excess of normal values observed in nonspoil areas, (Figs. 33 through 35). Apparently this high organic content of the sediments has resulted from the dumping of wastes. Sewage sludge accounts for most of the organic material; dredge spoils are composed primarily of inert substances. However, toxic organic substances in polluted dredge spoils (even in low concentrations) may constitute a greater environmental concern than those of the sewage sludges. Organics in the sediments of the Bight dumping grounds may include natural organic materials, synthetic organic compounds, and petrochemicals. The relative contents or effects of each type have not yet been established by the studies completed. The natural organic materials in the sediments of the dumping grounds result from natural decomposition of marine plants and animals, or from organic constituents contributed by dredge spoils and sewage sludges. These materials are not harmful to the marine environment, and some- times their addition may be beneficial. The major problem of the organic fraction is their biochemical oxygen demand. Large concentrations in the sediments may consume the dissolved oxygen and result in anaerobic con- ditions at the sediment-water interface. Indirectly, reducing conditions caused by these wastes, could affect the chemistry of other compounds. The effects of reduction of dissolved oxygen were discussed on page 117. Another class of organic materials in the sediments of the dumping grounds may be synthetic organic chemical compounds. Their content in the sediments has not yet been adequately determined by any of the studies completed. These compounds may be accumulating in the sediments of Harbor, and thus be included in the dredge spoils dumped in the Bight. To a lesser extent, these compounds may also be in the sewage sludges. The origin of these compounds may be point sources such as industrial discharges, or sources such as atmospheric precipitants or runoff from agricultural areas. Examples of these types of compounds are pesticides such as DDT, or polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which have a cumulative toxic effect on marine life. Depending on the physicochemical characteris- tics of the marine environment, these synthetic organic materials may be found relatively undisturbed or may be broken down into other compounds. A pesticide such as DDT may be broken down by micro-organisms into DDE and DDD, both of which are insoluble in water. ‘These chemicals may be taken into the fatty tissue of certain marine organisms and be transmitted up the food chain. PCB's are toxic substances which, according to Gustafson (1970), present a real danger to marine life when accumulated in the sediments. 124 The third class of organic compounds known to be present in the dredge spoils of the Bight are oil, grease and other petroleum-based hydrocarbon materials. These probably accumulate in the sediments of certain polluted sections of the Harbor, which occasionally are dredged. As discussed earlier, material dredged from the Harbor contains on the average 8-10 percent organics (Panuzio, 1965), and Hudson River sediments have 5.5 percent (McCrone, 1967). A large part of this organic material is suspected to consist of petrochemicals. The presence of this class of compounds has been documented for other areas where dumping has taken place. Saila, et al, (1968) reported that dredge spoils disposed of in Long Island Sound were contaminated with hexane extractable petrochemicals. Petrochemicals in the water are known to adversely affect microfauna and flora and macro-organisms, and to interfere with the chemical stimuli which are essential for spawning or predator-prey relationships of marine animals. Both the SUNY-SB and the SHL studies have shown the presence of high concentrations of organic materials in the sediments of the dumping grounds and surrounding areas which correlates well with the distribution pattern of coliform bacteria and heavy metals. The SHL report states that the slowly settling sludge generally moves northward, resulting in the deposition of organic material for some distance to the north and northeast of the dumping grounds. A field of high organic material concentration in the sediments has been reported by SHL to the east of the dumping grounds but with no continuum. The organic material in this area is of mysterious origin, and cannot be related with certainty with the dumping activities. Observed changes in the distribution of organic matter in the sediments suggest (besides movement of suspended waste by water currents) the possibility of short dumping. The method of utilizing percent total carbon composition to deter- mine the distribution of the waste and the potential of contamination is erroneous. Loss on ignition is a more reliable method, but has its own limitations. Both percent total carbon composition, and loss-on- ignition methods do not specifically identify the origin of the carbon, although the SUNY-SB study shows a direct correlation between the two for sewage sludges. Does this organic material originate from carbo- hydrates, sugars or proteins of the sewage sludges? How much of this material represents petrochemicals or synthetic organic compounds? How much is the result of naturally occuring organic compounds or the result of increased biological productivity? These questions have not been answered. Incinerator barges have been dumping ashes in the Bight for many years. Ash residues contain relatively inert carbon compounds, and these substances would also add to the percent total carbon composi- tion of the sediments, making the SHL and SUNY-SB results questionable. Finally, the quantity and exact composition of organic materials in the sediments may be indicative of potentially hazardous substances such as petrochemicals or synthetic organic compounds, and may help differentiate 125 harmful from harmless or inert organic compounds. The data obtained by SHL on the petrochemicals and pesticide contents in the waste sediments are statistically insufficient, and can only be regarded as preliminary observations from which conclusive evidence cannot be drawn (SAC, 1972). Future research should focus on identifying organic groups and determin- ing the toxicity, residence time, degradation and uptake of some of their hazardous components. j. Bacteria. Data on bacteria distribution were presented in the sections dealing with the biological characteristics of the Bight and effects of dumping on ecology. Additional discussion of this important environmental factor is given here as it relates to criteria for water and sediment quality. Presently EPA gives permissible coliform levels of 10,000 per 100 ml and fecal coliform levels of 2,000 per 100 ml. Desirable criteria levels are given as 100 per 100 ml for coliform groups and 20 per 100 ml for fecal coliform groups (EPA, 1972). These microbiological limits are monthly arithmetic averages based on many samples. EPA, in its Water Quality Criteria report, states that "total coliform limits may be re- laxed if fecal coliform concentration does not exceed the specified limit." The New York bacteria criteria are established by the State's public health agency, and vary depending on the use of the water body. No reference could be found in the criteria for offshore waters. The State of New Jersey designates the ocean area beyond 1,500 feet from the coast as a secondary contact recreation area, and its permissible fecal coliforms geometric mean is given as 200 per 100 ml (EPA, 1972). Most bacteria in nature are essential to the marine environment, but pathogenic bacteria are potentially hazardous to the health of marine organisms. Bacteria, as the foundation of the food chain, are essential to life processes. Bacteria may act as anti-pollutant agents in breaking down and degrading organic matter. In sewage treatment plants certain bacteria are cultured for the purpose of breaking down wastes. Bacteria can be grouped into two major classes; aerobic bacteria that need free oxygen and anaerobic bacteria that thrive in its absence. Pollutants such as sewage sludge or dredge spoils dumped into the marine environment can promote the abundance of Saprophytes. The dumping of nutrients, such as those contained in sewage sludge, and other oxygen- demanding wastes can create favorable conditions for the growth of anaerobic bacteria resulting in the death of aerobic organisms. This is true for estuaries and other closed bodies of water where oxygen cannot be adequately replenished by circulation; it is not likely in an open marine environment such as the Bight. No data could be found in the literature for Saprophytes or other aerobic or anaerobic bacteria in the Bight. The emphasis of all in- vestigations was on total coliform or fecal coliform bacteria, because of the associated health hazards. As mentioned earlier, fecal coliform bacteria are used as indicators of the possible presence of pathogens in 126 the water. Inadequately treated and disinfected sewage could con- taminate receiving waters with bacteria such as Salmonella, Shigella, Escherichia coli, Leptospira, and Mycobacterium. Enteric viruses such as polio and hepatitis could also be introduced (ERAS 31972) =) (On «the basis of studies completed, there is no evidence indicating that these pathogens and viruses are introduced into the Bight or that their density of occurrence constitutes a health hazard. In fact, none of the studies completed to date has identified pathogenic bacteria. However, cases of infectious hepatitis in shellfish from Raritan Bay have caused the closing of this area for shellfishing. The distribution of bacteria, within each disposal area, as deter- mined by the SHL, appears to be high as a result of the dumping activi- ties. The pattern of distribution appears to conform with the mixing and dispersion processes in the area. High numbers of fecal coliforms suggest the introduction of pathogenic organisms into the Bight. The relative concentrations or types of these pathogens have not been determined and sampling has been inadequate. In view of the possible human hazard that could result from eating seafood that may carry pathogens, it is recommended that studies of pathogenic bacteria in the Bight be given a high priority. 3. Effects of Ocean Dumping on Regional Ecology The biological effects of waste disposal in the Bight have been difficult to assess over a short time. The SHL study (1972), is the only large-scale biological study of the Bight undertaken to date. According to SHL, a circular area encompassing each of the waste dis- posal sites is devoid of benthic life, and peripheral areas are either severly impoverished or dominated by certain pollution-resistant species. Laboratory studies on the response of various animals to waste con- taminated sediments, according to SHL, showed the development of several pathological anomalies. Although the benthic life investigations involved much sampling, several important questions remain unanswered. Some SHL conclusions have been questioned. The conclusion that important quantitative changes in the fauna have resulted from dumping should be further investigated. Future research should try to determine whether these changes result from dumping or from natural processes, or from estuary and upland pol- lution. Other research should study why groundfish venture into this area, and why the stomachs of fish caught in the dumping area contain large quantities of benthic, epibenthic and swimming organisms, when these species are considered to be absent or diminished in the dumping grounds. Apparently these food resources are obtained within, or on the periphery of the dumping grounds. The fact that many of the marine organisms are feeding in the area of the dumping grounds is a matter of concern. The Bight is actively fished, and possible health hazards should not be discounted. The wastes dumped in the Bight are known to contain toxic substances and harmful bacteria. The long-term effects of these hazardous materials have not been assessed. On the basis of present 127 knowledge, the short-term effects of waste disposal on different marine ecosystems are discussed in the following sections. a. Effects of Ocean Dumping on Benthic Organisms. Some studies on the effects of dumping or related activities in other coastal areas, have not found extensive damage to the marine environment (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1970; Kaiser Engineers Consortium, 1969; Allan Hancock Foundation 1965; Brehmer, et al, 1967; Harrison, 1967). The results of these studies are summarized in section II of this report. In all studies, the most marked effects and changes have been observed in benthic com- munities, because these are the most sensitive to environmental stresses due to their specialized adaptations and limited mobility. Studies completed in the Bight dumping grounds have found impoverished benthic populations. SHL found that both the benthic meiofaunal and macrofaunal organisms have been affected by the disposal of sewage and dredge spoils in the Bight. The presence of these wastes have significant- ly reduced the diversity of benthic communities, and this reduction in- dicates environmental stress caused by dumping. In the absence of adequate spatial or temporal base-line information, this conclusion is not fully supported. Even under natural conditions, species diversity varies greatly with natural stresses. A lowered species diversity index may not necessarily be a negative factor. Whether species diversity or reduction in the abundance of certain species should be used as the sole criterion of environmental stress, remains to be seen. Species diversity nonetheless is useful as an index to be used in con- junction with other indices of pollution. A study of the effects of dredging and spoil disposal in areas of San Francisco and San Pablo Bays indicated a significant reduction of numbers and species composition of benthic organisms and demersal fish. (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1970). A quantitative correlation of species diversity depression with waste water toxicity has been indicated by previous studies (Kaiser Engineers Consortium, 1969; Allan Hancock Foundation, 1965). These studies found a linear relationship may be an oversimplification, since species diversity may result from physical and chemical variables, some of which may have nothing to do with manmade pollution. A study of Rappahannock Shoal spoil disposal area (Brehmer et al, 1967) for example, indicated a greater species diversity and number of organisms in the spoil areas than in the natural ooze-covered substrate in the deeper parts of Chesapeake Bay. Wilhm and Dorris (1966, 1968); Wilhm (1967) and Gibson (1966), have discussed the use of species diversity as an indicator of stress due to natural physical factors and pollution. The use of chemical properties as indices of environmental stress may be misleading, since chemical measurements indicate water quality at the time of sampling and not past contamination or conditions prevailing over long periods. 128 Butcher (1955) states that in the presence of numerous and complex pollutants, environmental stress can be determined best from prevailing biological conditions rather than from chemical measurements. To a degree this is a correct approach, but maybe not the most reliable. Observation and analysis of species diversity of benthic populations, ales supported by sufficient base-line data, can undoubtedly help to assess environmental severity. Such base-line data does not exist for the N.Y. Bight. Use of chemical indices as a sole determining factor for water quality may not be sufficient or definitive, biological factors also should be considered. Biological methodology should focus on selected "key" species of fishes or invertebrates that could indicate environmental stress, rather than attempt to sample one entire group excluding all others. Disposal of wastes in the Bight presents a stress to the benthic communities of the area, but without base-line information, factors injuring benthic organisms are not completely understood. Reduction of species diversity may be the result of synergistic chemical-physical effects; some of these may be associated with dumping. No separation of individual stress factors, can be made because of the limited data. Furthermore, the N.Y. Bight dumping grounds have certain estuarine characteristics, and do not represent an open marine environment. Located at the mouth of a major estuary, this area experiences large variations of temperature, salinity and of other chemical -physical variables. Reducing sediments cause a reduction of the dissolved oxygen near the sediment-water interface. Reduction of oxygen and physical burial by continuous dumping, probably cause the most immediate adverse effect on benthic communities. Oxygen reduction, although an important factor, occurs only for brief periods in the summer, and it appears to be a widespread phenomenon in the Bight. Burial of benthic organisms depends on the quantity of waste, on the rate of disposal, on the settling rate of the waste, and on the areal extent of dumping and settling. A study of a dredge spoil dis- posal site in Rhode Island Sound (Saila, et al, 1971) concluded that most mollusk species could reach the sediment surface after shallow burial; less mobile forms were buried; fish and lobsters could withstand high concentrations of suspended sediment for short periods, and lobster- ing on the perimeter of the dump was good; quahogs were killed by burial near the dump center, but not on the perimeter; and amphipods were found throughout in great densities. Similarly in a study of a shallow-water dredge spoil disposal site in upper Chesapeake Bay, Cronin et al (1967, 1970) observed no significant losses of benthic organisms as a result of burial. Certain species began repopulation soon after deposition, and 1.5 years later were back to previous levels. In a study of a disposal site in the lower Chesapeake Bay, Harrison (1967) concluded that disposal of spoil had only a transitory effect on benthic populations. It should be pointed out that the quantity of 129 material dumped at these other sites is much less than the quantity dumped in the Bight. Destruction of benthic organisms, especially meiofaunal, by burial in the Bight is much greater at the dredge spoil site. Dredge spoils usually have greater bulk densities and settle to the bottom faster than sewage sludge or fine muds. Finally, the toxic effects on benthic life of waste being dumped in the Bight will have to be more thoroughly investigated. Heavy-metal analyses of some benthic organisms (including bottom-dwelling fish) collected in the Bight dumps, showed increased concentrations in some speciments. The long-term effects of heavy metals on the health of benthic organisms have yet to be investigated. (1) Effects on Meiofauna. The SHL study indicated that the meio- fauna, especialiy the Foraminifera, are the most ubiquitous and abundant animals in the Bight, and are important in the assessment of the effects of ocean dumping. Of the 36 meiofaunal taxa identified by SHL from the Bight, 23 were living Foraminifera. The data from 16 stations are given in the SHL report. Differences in the number of taxa between station 59 (in the sewage sludge disposal area) and station 39 (between the dredge spoil and the sewage sludge areas) are concluded to indicate impoverishment of the meiofauna. (Table 13). However, station 47, far from the dump sites, had fewer taxa than station59. Similarly, within-station differ- ence of data were observed, and no replicate samples were obtained at stations with spatial heterogenity. Limited data and lack of replicate sampling led SAC to conclude that only qualitative reliability can be placed on the meiofaunal study (SAC, 1972). Reconnaissance studies of the meiofauna in N.Y. Harbor and adjacent waters by Smith in the SUNY-SB report (Gross et al., 1971) differ with some results of the SHL. According to SUNY-SB, few living Foraminifera were found in New York Harbor, but samples taken in the Bight indicate an abundance and diversity typical of the open Shelf, with no apparent adverse effects from dumping. The results of both studies permit only qualitative evaluation of changes in abundance and diversity of the meiofauna. The low incidence of forams and ostracods in the Harbor suggests that higher concentrations of pollutants may destroy the meiofauna, and that meiofauna animals are not indefinitely insensi- tive to environmental deterioration. On the basis of present knowledge, the relationship cannot be quantified. Qualitatively, it can be con- cluded that waste disposal has had an adverse impact on the meiofaunal communities of the N.Y. Bight dumping grounds. (2) Effects on Macrofauna. SHL found that an area about 2 miles in diameter encompassing each of the dumping sites is devoid of macrofaunal benthic life. Areas peripheral to the sludge dumping grounds were domina- ted by large numbers of Cerianthus, a burrowing type of sea anemone. None of these benthic species, however, is of direct economical importance to man. Gammarid amphipods in particular are important; they are food for finfishes. The numbers of these species were also found by SHL to be diminished. Finfishes, however, have other sources of food besides 130 gammarid amphipods. The SHL conclusion stating that "The central portions of the disposal areas contain almost no normal macrofauna,"' cannot be supported. Exami- nation of SHL data summarized in Tables 12, 14, and 15 does not support this conclusion. The number of species within presumed affected areas for example, shown in Table 12,.varied from 23 (Station 82) to 38 (Station 70). (Fig. 39). Outside the disposal sites, the number of species varied from 23 (Station 42) to 56 (Station 38). Within the central part of the sludge dumping area, station 59 had 31 species and station 70 had 38 species. The lack of statistical analyses of the abundance of amphipods for stations within and outside the dumping grounds, as summarized in Table 14, precludes the possibility of interpretation of these data, or the conclusion that "normal" fauna is lacking in the disposal areas (SAC, 1972). Similarly, there are no quantitative data in the SHL report indicating that any station sampled is "devoid of life'' at all times (SAC, 1972). The SHL survey because of an inadequate sampling grid did not deter- mine the distribution and abundance of the ocean quahog or other com- mercially valuable resources such as surf clam, lobster and rock clam. Because of the limited sampling and lack of statistical analyses the SAC review found the studies of macrofauna inconclusive. According to the SHL report, adult crabs found on the disposal grounds were frequently diseased or near death. Since the disposal grounds are in the path of crabs and lobsters which frequently migrate from inshore to offshore waters, SHL concluded that waste disposal may result in mortality of these larger crustaceans. Mortality of these animals was attributed to the fouling and necrosis of their gill tissues which decreased the respiratory surface area, and to the low oxygen con- centrations in the bottom water. In an effort to simulate real life conditions, and determine histologi- cal changes, moribund crabs and lobsters collected from the dumping areas were used by SHL for controlled laboratory experiments using substrata of sediments similarly obtained from the dumping grounds. These animals developed ulcers and shell erosions. Other effects included fouling of the gills with granular material, a dark coating of the exoskeleton, and erosion of the chitinous covering of the filaments with subsequent necrosis of the living tissues. Eroded tissues of the animals appeared brittle, and on occasion surface layers appeared to be broken. It should be noted that these effects were observed for animals in the laboratory and not for animals under natural conditions. b. Effects on Finfishes. SHL assessed the effects of sewage sludge on groundfish, and found certain bottom dwelling finfishes frequent the area of the sewage sludge dump in all seasons and feed on dumped waste. It concluded that, because of such feeding, a heavy-metal concentration has taken place in the tissues of some fish. 131 From SHL data, it can be concluded that the density distribution of finfish within and outside the dumping grounds of the Bight, appears normal. Of the species taken, whiting, ling, winter flounder, yellowtail flounder, windowpane, and longhorn sculpin occurred most frequently. On occasion large numbers of such fish as Atlantic mackerel, porgy, and various herring were caught. Seasonal variations in the population density of finfishes in the sewage sludge dump area follow seasonal fluctuations of dissolved oxygen concentrations (SHL, 1972). It has not been demonstrated that such oxygen variations occur only in the dumping grounds and not elsewhere in the Bight. Similarly, attempts to relate fishery landings in the State of New York with adverse effects of pollution from ocean dumping operations have produced ambiguous results. While catches of certain species have declined, catches of other species have increased. Seasonal and natural variations, fishing by foreign vessels, and absence of effective con- servation measures, are some of the factors that make landing statistics for this type of study meaningless. SHL concluded that the dumping threatens many species of coastal fish such as weakfish, bluefish, fluke and croakers, and anadromous fish such as stripped bass, sturgeon, and shad. It was also concluded that ocean fish, such as tuna, could be driven away from present fisheries, and that migrating fish may spread contamination and disease to adjacent areas. These conclusions have not been documented. The effects, of any ocean dumping on the health of coastal fish, have not been positively assessed, and the SHL conclusions, according to the SAC review, cannot be statistically verified. The limited sampling design, the lack of temporal and spatial replication of samples, and the selectivity of fishing gear used, do not support the contention that a "representative picture of the fish population" was determined for any station or that concentration of heavy metals has taken place in finfish. A recent study of Philadelphia's sewage sludge disposal grounds by the Franklin Institute and the Philadelphia Water Department (Baxter et al., 1971) found the fish there to be unaffected and apparently in good health. Fish speciments collected at the disposal site included winter flounder, mackeral, stargazer, long-horned sculpin, and spiny dogfish. The quantity of sludge disposed by Philadelphia is much less than the huge quantity dumped in the N.Y. Bight, and the practice dates back only to 1961. Fine solids in suspension may adversely affect the gill epithelium of fish (Klein 1962), and can also affect invertebrates, especially filter feeders. Laboratory bioassays by SHL using incinerator ash residues (up to 10 percent by weight) did not produce significant size or weight changes on benthic organisms, but concentrations above 5 percent by weight killed winter flounder. Concentrations of acid waste greater than 1:600 (acid to sea water), in lab experiments, killed the white mullet (SHL 1969). As stated earlier the volume of acid waste disposed in the Bight is not great, and the rapid dilution and neutralization of the acid 132 probably excludes extensive mortality of these species. The study by Refield (1961) of the acid dumping grounds confirmed that the effects of acid waste disposal on fish populations and benthic organisms were in- significant. Of the bottom-dwelling finfishes sampled by SHL in the Bight only a small number of flounder collected from the sewage dumping area had black ened gills. In laboratory experiments by SHL, two winter flounder were kept in aquaria, one containing a substrate of sludge and the other a substrate of clean sand. A blackening of the gills occurred in the fish held in the aquarium with the sludge substrate, but the significance of this coloration was not established. Parasitic organisms were found by SHL in some species of flounder. Tapeworms were common in yellowtail flounder ranging in incidence from 7 to 32 percent. The incidence of tapeworms in the yellowtail flounder at stations outside the dumping grounds was about four times greater than in fish collected at the center of the sewage dump where tapeworm infestation had the lowest value (7 percent). No particular pattern is evident from this investigation linking ocean dumping to tapeworm incidence in flounder. No literature was found which describes normal levels of tapeworm infestation in the yellowtail flounder, but flounders generally have a rich parasite fauna. Polyanskii (1955) reported the incidence of the tapeworm Scolex polymorphus in the common dab (Limanda Limanda) from the Barents Sea to be 25 percent. The chief intermediate hosts for many of the parasites are amphipods which occur in low numbers in the sewage sludge beds and surrounding areas. This may account for the lower incidence of tapeworm infestation. Incidence of diseases such as fin-rot in bottom-dwelling finfishes was linked by SHL to waste disposal and associated pathogenic bacteria. This conclusion, however, cannot be fully substantiated, because the study did not identify nor measure the prevalence of pathogenic bacteria in the Bight. Besides, other causes of fin-rot disease have been mentioned in the literature, including high concentrations of mercury. According to Jeffries (1968), fin-rot infection can be caused simply by restricting the movement of the fish. Fin-rot is often observed in fin- fishes living in unpolluted marine environments. The SHL studies of pathogenic anomalies produced in finfish by sewage sludge were similarly questioned by the SAC. The inadequacy of the experimental design and consequent lack of adequate controls precluded the possibility of Statistical analysis of the SHL data. The SAC therefore suggested that further investigation will be required to establish definitely the incidence of fin-rot and the greater uptake of heavy metals by finfish exposed to the sewage sludge. It would be hasty to conclude, on the basis of present knowledge, that ocean dumping has had adverse effects on fish populations of the Bight. Introduction of possible toxic substances, such as heavy metals and com- plex hydrocarbons, is certainly undesirable, but long-term effects of such materials on fish are still unknown. 133 SAC recommended integrated field and laboratory studies to determine whether the potential threat of pathogens and toxins affecting fishes in the waste disposal areas can be verified. c. Effects on Zooplankton. The effect of dumping on planktonic life should be known, because zooplankton plays an important role in the food chain, and serves as the link between the phytoplankton and the larger marine animals. Any major disruption in zooplankton production will affect the fish and other larger animals that use zooplankton as a food source. Environmental changes are known to change the composition and seasonal distribution of certain local zooplanktonic organisms. Jeffries (1959) relates a large increase in the Pseudodiaptomus Sp., population of Raritan Bay to the abatement of a sewage discharge. However, signifi- cantly important changes in zooplankton organisms were observed in the New York Bight dumping grounds. Unusually high or low values of zoo- plankton numbers in the Bight, according to the SHL report, may be the result of an occasional influx of estuarine brackish water or an effect of major water mass movements and not the result of local disposal activities. Abnormal values were observed in July, 1969 indicating in- creased zooplankton patchiness during the summer months. SHL data have illustrated that the zooplankton species composition, density, and seasonal distribution in the Bight are similar to those of Block Island Sound, the waters off Delaware Bay, and other unpolluted coastal environments. It was impossible to find any short-term adverse effects on zooplankton populations resulting from the dumping of sewage sludge, dredge spoils, and acid wastes. The SAC review similarly found no evidence in the SHL data that indicates that ocean dumping in the Bight has had beneficial or detrimental effects on zooplankton populations. Although larvae of different marine organisms were abundant in the zooplankton, juvenile and adult populations of benthic species, were de- pressed in the sewage sludge disposal area (SHL). On the basis of this observation, the SHL study suggested that larvae either avoid settling in this area or that mortality occurs after settling, but this, has not been confirmed. Based on laboratory experiments with zooplankton, SHL concluded that the present practice of industrial acid waste dumping killed copepods in the immediate area of disposal. The quantity of acid dumped is about 220,000 cubic feet per day. The maximum volume of sea water affected has been calculated to be 900,000,000 gallons (3,400,000 m3) per barge load of wastes. This volume would contain about 2 cubic meters (displace- ment volume) of zooplankton biomass. This quantity of zooplankton, if indeed affected by dumping, is insignificant relative to total zooplankton population of the Bight. According to the SHL study, the killing of zooplankton is the result of the acid wastes, which consist of 8.5-10 percent HjS0, and 8-10 per- cent FeS0,. In laboratory experiments, SHL assumed a rate of dilution of one part acid to 200 parts of sea water disregarding time and space. 134 The SHL toxicity tests on copepod mortality, are inexact because they did not include the dilution effect of turbulence which occurs readily in the ocean, but is difficult to simulate in the laboratory. Redfield and Walford (1951) show, that the pH of water from the wake of an acid- dumping barge was above 6.0 in all samples collected more than 3 minutes after passage of the vessel; a pH of 7 was reached about 3.5 minutes after dumping, and that acid disposal was not an important factor in copepod mortality. They reported that the zooplankton exposed to samples of water from the wake of the disposal vessels were immobilized, but re- covered in a few minutes, except for a sample taken at 145 yards behind the barge only 42 seconds after discharge. Even these zooplankton re- covered when the wake water was diluted with an equal volume of non- contaminated sea water. The SHL data (Table 18) showed no copepod mor- tality in 2 minutes at pH 5.9-6.0 and no mortality in 60 minutes at pH values of 6.1-6.5. The dilution of the acid waste in the Redfield and Walford work shows that the organisms are not exposed to the high con- centrations used by SHL in its laboratory tests. The SHL data, therefore, do not support complete mortality, and no such mortality was detected in the Bight. The vertical migration of copepods is controlled by light intensity (Herman, 1963; Segal, 1970). Copepods are found in deeper waters during daylight and near the surface at night. On the basis of this, SHL con- cluded that the ferric hydroxide floc resulting from acid dumping, al- though not directly toxic to copepods, produces turbidity that changes light conditions and affects the vertical distribution pattern of cope- pods. While this conclusion may be true, changes in vertical distribu- tion of copepods may not be an adverse effect, and increased turbidity may not inhibit the abundance of these organisms. Reduced light in- tensity due to overcast skies could have the same effect. The ferric hydroxide floc either settles out or is dispersed rapidly. Refield and Walford (1951) reported the maximum time they observed a recognizable turbidity stain to be 8 hours. The ferric hydroxide floc is not toxic to copepods. In the laboratory, copepods held in water containing up to 500 times the concentration of ferric hydroxide found in the Bight survived several days.under starvation conditions. Similar laboratory experiments by SHL showed that copepods can live in sludge-contaminated water for over 24 hours under confined conditions. Death of some copepods in the experiments over extended periods of time probably resulted from a decrease in dissolved oxygen caused by the bio- chemical oxygen demand of the sludge. An aerated control in future experiments of this type would show whether there were any effects from sludge other than its oxygen demand (SAC, 1972). d. Effects of Ocean Dumping on Phytoplankton. No extensive phyto- plankton studies in the dumping grounds of the New York Bight have been conducted. Inhibition in the growth of phytoplankton in lab cultures of water from the sludge dump has been reported by Barber and Krieger (1970). 135 Table 18. Copepod Mortality at Different Acid-Sea Water Dilutions. Dilution Control 1:5,000 pH 7.7 to 7.9 ‘ 2.5 to 2.8 | 2.9 to 3.1 | 5.9 to 6.0 | 6.1 to 6.5 Approximate Percent Dead After: 2 min. 5 min. 10 min. 30 min. 60 min. after SHL, 1972 136 On the basis of limited data, SHL concluded that the cell growth and photosynthesis of phytoplankton collected near the bottom of the sewage sludge dump was inhibited. This inhibition in primary productivity can be attributed to reduction in light intensity due to turbulence induced by the dumping rather than to toxic properties, and is considered quantitatively insignificant. In surface waters, an enhancement of primary productivity would be expected due to the nutrification caused by the sewage sludge. Since no net reduction in zooplankton populations was observed, ocean dumping in the area has had little effect on phyto- plankton. e. Effects of Ocean Dumping on Bacterial Distribution. SHL con- cluded that existence of coliform bacteria in the sediments and in the waters of the New York Bight dumping grounds indicates the existence of pathogenic bacteria. This conclusion was not confirmed by identification of pathogens. Large populations of unidentified bacteria are found in the surface waters of the dredge spoil disposal areas (Atlas 1972). Mahoney (1972) relates the occurrence of coliform bacteria in the waters near Sandy Hook with three genera of bacteria which have been associated with pathogens resulting in fin-rot disease. The SHL study indicates that the nutrient-rich waters of the dumping grounds could enhance the presence of pathogens which could spread disease into uncontaminated and ecologically important areas. The marine environment is foreign and adverse to most bacteria found in sewage and sewage sludges. The rapid reduction in the number of coliforms after dumping, is probably illustrative of a rapid bacteria dié-off due to the disinfecting capacity of sea water. Not only is the mortality of bacteria high, but the rate of metabolism of the surviving bacteria is greatly reduced. Mortality of bacteria would be even greater if the disposed wastes were disassociated and dispersed. In his study at the Hyperion outfall in Southern California, Hlavka (1971) suggested that survival of coliform bacteria associated with floating particulate matter may differ significantly from that generally expected. Based on this hypothesis and the observation of floating particulates in the Bight dumping areas, SHL concluded that there may be a significant accumulation of bacteria at the water-air interface and in the water column as the particulates sink. Determinations of percentage floatable materials in wastes and rates of bacterial survival following dumping may be necessary to qualify this conclusion. Systematic analyses of sediments and samples from the water column should be ob- tained in the dumping grounds, the Hudson Canyon, and adjacent areas of the Bight to determine positively the existence of pathogenic organisms and the extent of bacterial contamination. Millipore filter techniques should be used to concentrate bacteria that may escape count by standard test techniques. f. Effects of Heavy Metals on Marine Organisms. Metals such as cadmium, chromium, cobalt, tin, titanium, germanium and bismuth are present in sea water in low concentrations, and are known to be [Sit concentrated by some marine organisms. Some of these elements may be important in the skeletal mineralogy of these organisms, others may be important for other biological reasons. Some marine animals may preferen- tially concentrate one element over another. The body fluids of many crustaceans, for example, contain copper as hemocyanin, a respiratory pigment. High concentrations of certain heavy metals in the marine environment may have a long-term adverse effect. The toxicity potential of heavy metals and the biochemical uptake mechanism of marine organisms depend on many physical and chemical factors which are not well under- stood. Total concentrations of heavy metals in the sediments, in the water colum, and in organisms, are of little value in assessing the impact on marine life. The concentrations of heavy metals, such as lead, chromium, copper, antimony, zinc, silver, nickel, in the area of the dumping grounds exceed concentrations of these elements in other undisturbed regions of the Bight. The effects of these heavy metals on the marine populations of this area have been difficult to assess. Demersal and bottom-dwelling finfishes sampled by SHL within and at the periphery of the sludge dumping grounds, come into direct or in- direct contact with various waste pollutants including heavy metals. The question is raised if any of the heavy metals contained in the Sludge are absorbed by the fish. Preliminary results of SHL indicate that some fish collected in the area of the dumping grounds have high levels of heavy metals in their tissues. Levels of nickel, chromium, and lead in fish and other organisms examined exceed those listed by the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (1968) as normal for marine animals. It has not been demonstrated that high levels of heavy metals adversly affect the health of fishes, although it is suspected. Pippy and Hare (1969) claimed that certain metals predispose fish to disease, but failed to show how. Of several hundred (bony fish) analyzed for mercury by SHL, weakfish (Cynoscion regalis) with fin-rot disease had the greatest amount of mercury in their tissues. Compared with healthy weakfish collected off the Virginia coast, which had an average of 0.31 ppm in liver tissue, diseased fish from the N.Y. Bight had an average of 0.62 ppm mercury in muscle tissue and 0.54 ppm in the liver. SHL data are insufficient to correlate incidence of fin-rot in some finfishes to the heavy metals of the waste disposal grounds. According to Jeffries (1968), the infection can be caused by restricting the movement of fish. Other bioassays in the laboratory have produced conflicting results. Wilder (1952) reported that in aquaria lined with copper, zinc and lead, marine organisms died in 1, 9 and 20 days respectively. SHL bioassays with lobsters (Homarus americanus), held on sediments from the sewage sludge area for 29 days, showed that these animals developed necrotic areas on their gills and died. Chemical analyses of 138 their tissues did not show a high concentration of heavy metals. Be- cause of such ambiguities, it is recommended that an intensive study be undertaken to determine the mechanism of heavy-metal uptake by planktonic and larger marine organisms. This is an important consideration in assessing possible concentration of such heavy metals in the food chain. Specific analyses should be performed on certain tissues of marine animals to determine if preferential concentration of metals in such tissues occurs, and the significance of such concentrations. g. Effects of Organic Materials on Marine Organisms. Both sewage sludge and dredge spoils contain large quantities of organic material. Sewer sludges are particularly rich in organic material, ranging from about 50 to about 80 percent of the dry weight. Most of these materials consist of soluble acids, sugars, proteins, fats and esters, which are not harmfulto marine life, and may be beneficial. Dredge spoils, al- though containing lower concentrations of organic materials than sewage sludges, may contain such dangerous constituents as pesticides and petrochemicals. These materials are known to be absorbed by the lipid and fatty tissues of marine animals, particularly by benthic organisms such as oysters and clams, and to interfere with the lipid metabolism and the enzymatic breakdown of fats into glycerids and fatty acids. None of the studies completed in the New York Bight treated this problem. A study of Penicillium, Nocardia, Micrococcus, Candida, and other microbial organisms would be useful. Such organisms are known to attack components of petrochemicals such as olefins and napthas, by generating certain enzymes. An attempt should also be made in the laboratory to identify chemically the harmful hydrocarbons, and to check on the efficiency of micro-organisms to degrade them. Data from such an investigation would be helpful in determining whether active biodegradation of the oil-polluted dredge spoils occurs. 4. Sources of Coastal Pollution in the New York Bight No evidence shows that ocean waste disposal is the most serious source of pollution in the Bight. Of equal concern should be other sources of pollution, such as sewer outfalls, river discharges, land runoff, vessel discharges and accidental spills on land and sea. Basic sources of coastal water pollution fall into two broad cate- gories: easily identified point-of-origin sources such as municipal waste treatment discharges and industrial plants, and waste from diffuse or non-point sources such as silt or fertilizers washed into streams during heavy rains as a result of agricultural and urban runoff. Additional sources may be atmospheric precipitants, thermal discharges, and accidental oil spills. It is difficult to assign responsibility to any class of pollutants or to single out and quantify their adverse environmental effects. In the Bight, the adverse effects of coastal pollution from sources other than ocean dumping have not been considered to date, even though coastal 139 wastes directly affect the immediate coastal environment. Up to 1972, at least 130 municipal waste outfalls discharged directly into the waters of the New York Bight (Table 19). The total flow was 1,843 million gallons per day. Of this flow, 16 percent received no treatment, 27 percent received primary treatment, and only 57 percent received more than primary treatment. It was estimated that the yearly biochemical oxygen demand resulting from municipal discharges of sewage directly into New York Harbor exceeded 200,000 tons, which is probably greater than the oxygen demand resulting from sewage sludge dumping at the ocean dumping grounds. Up to 1972, millions of gallons of poorly treated municipal wastes from 25 sewer plants were discharged along a 70-mile stretch from Sandy Hook to Beach Haven. These discharges have continued in New Jersey for more than 40 years in such municipalities as Asbury Park, Avon, Bay Head, Beach Haven, Belmar, Bradley Beach, Deal, Lavallette, Long Beach, Long Branch, Manasquan, Neptune City, Neptune Township, Ocean Grove, Point Pleasant Beach, Sea Bright, Sea Girt, Seaside Heights, Seaside Park, Ship Bottom, Spring Lake, Spring Lake Heights and Surf City. According to the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, which pro- vided the New Jersey newspaper ''Star-Ledger" (3 October 1971) with this listing, the daily capacity flows of waste treatment plants in these municipalities total nearly 33 million gallons. Other sources of wastes and pollutants that may reach New York Harbor are municipalities and industrial facilities up the Hudson River. It was estimated by Dole and Stabler (1909) that the "normal" sediment load of the Hudson River was about 400,000 tons per yr. around 1900. 1960 estimates by Panuzio (1965) gave the sediment load at 830,000 tons per yr. According to Gross (1970), between 1964 and 1968, about 700,000 tons per yr. of wastes were dumped into the river, and may have reached the Harbor. They were subsequently dredged up and barged to the ocean dumping grounds of the Bight. Although it is assumed that little suspended sediment in the outflows of the Hudson and Raritan Rivers may find its way to the offshore environ- ment of the New York Bight due to the configuration of the Upper and Lower Bays and other physical barriers, this may not be true under certain heavy rainfall and storm conditions. Under such conditions, a great load of suspended sediments may reach the entrance of the harbor and be deposited offshore in the Bight. Considering circulation and natural drainage patterns, such deposition probably occurs in the vicinity of the ocean dumping grounds and in the the vicinity of the now-buried upper head of the Hudson Channel. Al- though quantities of sediments resulting from such deposition cannot be calculated with accuracy, estimates of sediment discharges by some U.S. Atlantic Coast Rivers and other major rivers of the World, are given in the literature. Tables 20 and 21 list such estimates. It is possible, that because of natural sediment deposition and outflow of waters of 140 Table 19. Sewage Discharges in the New York—New Jersey Region of the Bight Receiving Water Number Total Flow* New York—New Jersey Metropolitan Area 57 1,682.0 Intracoastal Waters of Nassau County ¢ 8 76.0 Atlantic Ocean (New Jersey) 31 39.0 Intracoastal Waters of New Jersey Coastal Area § 34 46.0 Total 130 1,843.0 Ad Hoc Committee, 1970 * Million gallons per day + Includes the municipal wastewater discharges from New York and New Jersey to: the Hudson River from the New Jersey—New York State line; the Upper and Lower Bays of New York Harbor; the Raritan Bay; the Arthur Kill; the Kill Van Kull; the East River and Jamaica Bay. t Includes the municipal wastewater discharges from Nassau County, New York to the intracoastal waters along the southern Long Island shore. § Includes the municipal wastewater discharges from Monmouth, Ocean, Atlantic, and Cape May Counties to the intracoastal waters along the New Jersey eastern shore. 141 Table 20. Annual Suspended Sediment Discharge of Atlantic Coast Rivers North Atlantic Region | 10° Tons per Year | Tons per Year per km? of Drainage Basin (Rivers) Connecticut Hudson Raritan Delaware Susquehanna Potomac James South Atlantic Region Rivers Roanoke Pee Dee Santee Savannah Ogeeche Altamaha from Gross, (1969) after Dole and Stabler, 1909 Table 21. Suspended Solids Discharged by Major Rivers 10° Tons per Year} Tons per Year per km? of Drainage Basin Niger Amazon Congo Mississippi Colorado Rio Grande Rhine Yellow (Hwang Ho) Ganges Bramaputra Mekong 400.0 71.0 344.0 149.0 9.4 0.5 2,083.0 1,600.0 800.0 187.0 from Gross, (1969) after Holeman 142 lower salinity in addition to waste disposed, the area never supported large benthic populations. This however, cannot be ascertained since base-line data on benthic populations before dumping is not available. 5. Remote Sensing and Surveillance System for Ocean Dumping Operations Recent environmental legislation and concern over the environmental impact of marine waste disposal hastened the improvement and regulation of ocean dumping operations in the Bight. Accurate monitoring and surveillance of dumping is essential for effective discharge of this regulatory responsibility. It is important that the location and status of each dumping activity is known, and that dumping is restricted to the specified area. Presently, due to the large volume of waste disposal in the Bight, and because the number of patroling vessels is limited, not all opera- tions are supervised, and ocean dumping is believed to be occurring occasionally in localities other than the prescribed dump areas. The extent and type of such violations, termed "short dumps,'' is not exactly known. CERC contracted through the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers N.Y. District with Sperry Rand Co. to study, consider, and evaluate different combinations of navigational, dump detection, and recording subsystems, to create a reliable remote monitoring system. The work by Sperry was completed in 1971; the report is referenced in Literature Cited. Because of the report's specialized technical nature, no analysis is presented here and the interested reader.is referred to this original report. Only a summary of the Sperry findings are given. Specifically, Sperry Rand Co. considered and evaluated different combinations of navigational, dump detection, and recording subsystems. Navigational subsystems.such as differential omega, loran C., loran A, shore-based radar with onboard radar beacons, and shore-based radio direction finders with onboard transmitters, were coupled with dump- detection devices, such as draft-and events-sensors, and recording appa- ratus, such as onboard digital printers and shore-based recording equipment. Careful evaluation of candidate systems and of the Corps' require- ments by Sperry, indicated that the preferred system for monitoring ocean dumping operations should utilize loran A for position fixing, an electronically activated dump-detection subsystem, and an onboard digital printer subsystem. For self-propelled dumping vessels, the required System would be installed in one single "black box." This basic system is abbreviated as "LEPS'" (for Loran-Events-Loran-Printer-System). When the dump sensing occurs on a towed barge or scow, the equipment on the towed vessel would be called "SIDS" (for Scow, Indicating Draft System). Attractive features of the Sperry recommended System, are its containment in a single tamper-proof "black box," its portability, ease of installation and maintenance, high reliability, high legal effectivity, and simplicity of operation. 143 6. Alternate Ocean Dumping Sites In the absence of acceptable alternate methods of waste disposal, alternate disposal sites should be selected in areas where dumping can be controlled and potential environmental hazards can be reduced. Stopping dumping at the present grounds and starting dumping at another location in the Bight, cannot be presently justified. Before selecting an alternate dumping site; a comprehensive research program should be undertaken which should include, physical, chemical, biological, and geological studies of alternate dumping grounds. These preliminary in- vestigations should establish basic reference figures of biomass distri- bution before dumping, should furnish a detailed environmental description of the proposed grounds, and should provide guidelines for assessing the impact of dumping on the area. Disposal of wastes at alternate sites should only begin after careful consideration of the type of waste, the rates of disposal, and the capacity of the area to absorb the waste and restore itself. A strict monitoring program should be required to ensure that wastes are dumped at the prescribed location and in the prescribed manner. Selection of alternate dumping grounds in the New York Bight should be decided only after consultation with other Federal and State agencies and after thorough evaluation of many ecological, economic, political, geographic, and international considerations. 7. Alternatives to Ocean Dumping The Council on Environmental Quality, in its 1970 report to the President, recommended that ocean dumping of materials harmful to the marine environment or man should be stopped, that disposal of sewage sludge and polluted dredge spoils should be phased out as soon as possible, and that consideration should be given to alternate procedures of waste disposal. (Council for Environmental Quality, 1970). Alternative methods of waste disposal should be developed and evaluated. Research should be conducted on the recycling of wastes, and the technological development of processing facilities for the separation of toxic materials from municipal wastes. Analysis of the complex social, institutional, and economic aspects of waste management, will be necessary. To phase out the practice of ocean dumping and replace it with an untried alternate of questionable benefit and of increased expenditure does not appear logical. The ecological burden of alternate methods of waste disposal to other resources should be examined carefully. Air pollution and ground water contamination should be considered as an integral part of the effects of alternate methods on a larger environ- mental ecosystem. ; 144 Because of the economic and technical limitations presently imposed by alternate waste disposal methods, and though ocean dumping is con- sidered undesirable, it appears that this practice may persist until the transition to other alternatives can be effectively implemented. A detailed discussion of alternatives to ocean dumping is not within the scope of this report. Such methods of waste disposal have been described in the literature. These include farming to inland disposal areas, creation of artificial islands, land filling with diking, land reclamation, incineration, containerization and sea disposal, treatment and land disposal, deep well injection, recycling, and treatment and disposal in deeper waters. 145 SECTION V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Much data have been gathered primarily on the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of the waters and sediments of the New York Bight, as related to disposal of waste materials such as sewage sludge, dredge spoils and acid-iron wastes. The studies summarized in this re- port were supported by the Corps of Engineers under contracts with the Smithsonian Institution, the Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory of the National Marine Fisheries Service, the State University of New York at Stony Brook, the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, and the Sperry Rand Corporation. The studies completed to date, include hydrographic, geological, chemical, biological investigations, and a feasibility study for a re- motely controlled sensing system that could assist regulating agencies in detecting the location and dump status of waste disposal vessels operating in the New York Bight. Because of the specialized technical nature of this latter study, only the major findings and conclusions of the environmental studies on the effects of waste disposal are summarized below: Dispersion and Movement of Waste - The dispersion and movement of waste materials after dumping were correlated with general circulation patterns of the Bight deduced from surface and bottom drifter studies. These circulation data indicate a strong flow at the bottom along the axis of the Hudson - Ambrose Channel into the mouth of the Hudson Estuary. Under tidal circulation the ebb in the Lower New York Bay is generally stronger than the flood and there is a net transport of water outward from the Hudson Estuary. The data also indicates that there is a general clockwise circulation in the Bight. Surface flow shows a strong seasonality, while mild seasonal variation is indicated for bottom flow. During winter, surface flow in the Bight appears to be predominantly to the southwest, away from the coast. At other times flow tended northward. The preliminary studies did not incorporate the findings of water circulation patterns, in detailed analysis of the distribution of important constituents of the discharged waste in either the water column or the benthos. Evident, however, is that the extent of dispersion and movement of waste materials in the Bight relates to water circulation. The studies have shown the presence of high concentrations of organic materials in the sediments of the dumping grounds and surrounding areas which correlates well with the distribution pattern of coliform bacteria and heavy metals. The slowly settling sewer sludge generally moves northward, resulting in the deposition of organic material for some distance to the north and northeast of the dumping grounds. Circulation patterns in the Bight which were obtained by the use of drifters, although useful for indicating the onshore component of net water transport, cannot be correlated effectively to an isotropic dis- persion, seasonal variances, or transport mechanisms of waste materials of diverse physical properties. Similarly, such drifter studies cannot 146 quantify dispersion of wastes or correlate to water quality without con- sidering the wastes' travel time and degree of dilution. The absence of a thick waste layer in the present dumping grounds, indicated by the few cores which were taken, suggests rapid degradation and assimilation of the organic constituents of the waste, or lateral transport, or a down- slope transport into the upper parts of the Hudson Canyon. Improved know- ledge of the bottom and surface water circulation of this area, and use of tracers will be required to determine the dispersion patterns and the ultimate fate of waste materials dumped in the New York Bight. Effects on Sediment and Water Characteristics - Chemical studies provided data on the concentrations of important chemical substances in the sediments and waters of the Bight dumping grounds and adjacent areas. Determinations were made of the concentrations of phosphorus (ortho, organic, meta, and total), nitrate, total iron, dissolved oxygen, and chlorophyll-a in water samples. Temperature, salinity, turbidity and pH were measured. Sediment samples were analyzed for heavy metals and organic content. The chemical studies determined that waste disposal results in an increase in the nutrient concentration of the waters of the dumping grounds and that the biochemical oxygen demand of the wastes during summer reduces the dissolved oxygen concentration of bottom waters. The studies defined areas with high carbonaceous content in the sediments, and correlated such carbon-rich deposits with sewage and dredge spoils dumped in the area, and with anomalously high concentration of heavy metals such as silver, chromium, cadmium, copper, lead, nickel, and zinc. Within the dumping grounds, concentrations of heavy metals exceeded background values in other regions of the New York Bight. Heavy metal concentrations greater than background were similarly found along the upper part of the Hudson Canyon indicating movement of waste material by bottom currents. Chemical studies conducted to date, although qualitatively useful, can be regarded as preliminary. Variations between studies in the estimates of the size and shape of the waste-affected areas are attributed to different criteria used, limitations of sampling, and differences in analytical procedures. The data which have been produced, however, will be useful for further in- vestigations. On the basis of present data, it can be concluded, at least in qualitative terms, that ocean dumping has changed the chemical characteristics of the waters and sediments of the dumping grounds and adjacent areas, and that concentrations of certain parameters, especially heavy metals, bacteria and organics exceed permissible limits. The adverse effect is more pronounced near the bottom-sea interface. Effects on Regional Ecology - Benthic meiofauna and macrofauna, zooplankton, finfish and bacteria were studied. These studies reached the following general conclusions: 147 (a) Benthic fauna in the immediate area of the dumping grounds is directly affected by the dumping activities. The reduced number of animals suggest that ocean dumping may have an adverse impact principally on the meiofaunal communities of the dumping grounds which are food resources for some marine fishes. Some benthic communities are affected primarily by suffocation due to burial from the constant shower of waste materials, and by reduction of the dissolved oxygen concentration of bottom waters resulting from the wastes biochemical oxygen demand. The economic and ecological importance of benthic communities in the area have been difficult to assess. On the basis of data obtained, it is concluded that higher concentrations of pollutants may destroy the meio- fauna, and that meiofaunal animals are not indefinitely insensitive to environmental deterioration. On the basis of present knowledge, however, the relationship cannot be quantified. (b) No short-term adverse effects have been observed on free float- ing or swimming marine organisms. No effects were observed on zooplankton species composition and distribution. Reported inhibition in the growth of phytoplankton has not been substantiated. Similarly no apparent adverse effects on fish abundance or species diversity were observed, but due to physical limitations on sampling, such investigations are consider- ed inconclusive. (c) Coliform bacteria were found in high concentrations in the immedi- ate area of the dumping grounds. The pattern of distribution of such bacteria generally corresponded with that of heavy metals and organic materials in the sediments. The possibility of pathogenic damage to fin- fish, shell fish, and other important species, carries important impli- cations requiring additional extensive field and laboratory investigations. In view of the possible human hazard that could result from eating seafood that may carry pathogens, it is recommended that studies of pathogenic bacteria in the New York Bight be given high priority. (d) The adverse biological effects of heavily polluted dredge spoils may be more severe than those of sewage sludge. (e) The long-term biological effects of toxic materials remain un- determined. The biological studies, although comprehensive in some respects, have not answered many questions. The limited program of data collection has not permitted the statistical treatment necessary for the evaluation and quantification of the ecologic effects resulting from ocean dumping. The absence of ecological base-line data, the long history of disposal activities, and uncertainty concerning specific criteria for assessing adverse biological effects,in addition to the limited funding provided for these studies, have mitigated against drawing specific conclusions. Comprehensive Conclusions - The studies supported by CERC generated valuable data related to the disposal of sewage sludge, dredge spoils, and acid-iron wastes, and have helped provide a more detailed and accurate 148 environmental description of the New York Bight dumping grounds than had been available. These data suggest that the large volume of wastes being dumped in the Bight and frequency of dumping has changed the marine environment of the dumping grounds and adjacent areas. The possibility of pathogenic and chemical damage to finfish and shellfish from the disposal of waste materials, is a point which has not been answered but which carries health implications requiring extensive field and laboratory investigations. Complex physical, chemical, and biological processes and interactions, which are not completely understood, are at work and are responsible for the accumulation, dispersion dilution, biodegradation, or removal of wastes materials and their components from the marine environment of the New York Bight. Although preliminary research work has contributed to a basic understanding of the environmental impact of dumping in the present waste disposal grounds of the New York Bight, it has left many questions unanswered and has raised new questions. This work has assumed that most of the observed adverse effects on the marine environment of the Bight are the direct result of ocean dumping, while other important sources of pollution are known to exist. Although it is difficult to assign responsibility to any class of pollutants, untreated sewage from coastal sources, agricultural and urban runoff, atmospheric precipitants, thermal discharges, and oil spills may all be responsible for adverse environmental effects in the New York Bight. The areal extent and magnitude of change resulting from ocean dumping and from other sources of pollution in the Bight remain to be demonstrated, separated, and quantified. Due to the limited scope and funding of the short-term investigations completed to date, the long history of waste disposal, and the absence of base-line data, the basic mechanisms by which ecological changes occur in the marine environment of New York Bight remain essentially unknown. Comprehensive, long-term, interdisciplinary studies will be required to determine the extent of these changes. On the basis of data obtained to date, it is not recommended that the dumping grounds of the New York Bight be shifted to new locations on or beyond the Continental Shelf without adequately studying the long-term effects of waste disposal on the marine environment. When the use of present sites is discontinued, the sites should be studied thoroughly for several years to assess the degree and rate of changes. Such a program could yield much data on the recovery of the present spoil grounds, and provide information useful in managing waste disposal. 149 iy - a , eine ¥ me iy ly en ai in ai, Ah | iy earn na N ‘ rn 4 1 i ray ast " { ' 4 i 5, f } { 1 U ¥ i i Bie: a ‘ : Y Healy ie i } at ; fs = TE: Pail ee OL soy Se eu j te Eat aie [Mees veal ts a he Cyt , | 4 , ; My all Hi) ne Un wa Drea aee te aS gS i 1 Ob a yew are Wer at euneat Me Dale RRA plies a ahi nl mE Sa nen ET i bite aah pM ea LITERATURE CITED ADVANCED WASTE TREATMENT RESEARCH, "Advanced Waste Treatment,'' Summary Report, No. 19, 96, 1968. ALLAN HANCOCK FOUNDATION, "'An Investigation on the Fate of Organic and Inorganic Wastes Discharged into the Marine Environment and their Effects on Biological Productivity,"' Publication No. 29, California State Water Quality Control Board, Sacramento, Calif., 1965. 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WYATT, B., BURT, Wo, and PATTULLO, M., “Surface Currents off Oregon as Determined from Drift Bottle Returns," Journal of Phystcal Oceanography, Vol, 2, dwily 1972, jy, BELOS, 159 We Wea Erie ma ; f ah iF Sy fe UNCLASS IF IED Securit Classification DOCUMENT CONTROL DATA-R&D © (Security classification-of title, body of abstract and indexing annotation must be entered when the overall report Is classified 1. ORIGINATING ACTIVITY (Corporate author) 2a. REPORT SECURITY CLASSIFICATION Department of The Army UNCLASSIFIED Coastal Engineering Research Center (CERC) “lea Buaslidanicugae Fort Belvoir, Virginia 22060 3. REPORT TITLE OCEAN DUMPING IN THE NEW YORK BIGHT: AN ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 4. DESCRIPTIVE NOTES (Type of report and inclusive dates) 5. AUTHOR(S) (First name, middle initial, last name) George Pararas-Carayannis May 1973 = Ma 118 8a. CONTRACT OR GRANT NO. 9a, ORIGINATOR'’S REPORT NUMBER(S) b. PROJECT NO. Technical Memorandum ‘jo. 39 9b. OTHER REPORT NO(S) (Any other numbera that may be aselgned thia report) 10. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT Approved for public release; distribution unlimited. 11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES” 12. SPONSORING MILITARY ACTIVITY Department of the Army Coastal Engineering Research Center sean Building d Fort Belvoir, Virginia 22060 13. ABSTRACT Short-term studies on effects of ocean dumping in the New York Bight were contracted by CERC. Studies included hydrographic, geological, chemical, biological investiga- tions, and a feasibility study for a remote-controlled electronic sensing system to detect the location and dump status of waste disposal vessels. Circulation patterns were estimated by current meters and by seabed and surface drifters. Chemical analyses were made of the concentration of phosphorus, nitrate, total iron, dissolved oxygen, and chlorophyll-a. Temperature, salinity, turbidity and pH were measured. Scdiment samples were analyzed for organic content and the heavy metals; and biological samples for heavy metals and mercury. Included are studies of benthic meiofauna and macrofauna zooplankton, finfish and bacteria and disposal of sewage sludge, dredge spoils and acid-iron wastes. Findings are presented and analyzed for impact on ecology, water quality, and total environmental effects. « Rr 1473, | JAN 64, WHICH IS DD P1473 sects son smav ee nen Security Classification UNCLASSIFIED Security Classification KEY WORDS New York Bight Ocean Dumping | Sewage Sludge | Dredge Spoil } Acid-Iron Wastes Waste Disposal UNCLASSIFIED 25 90 4 Security Classification 6f°Ou WIATgsN’ ¢OZdL (settas) “eT TL *T ‘aspnts ademas *p ‘*ueas0 ayj ut [esodstp aqseMy “¢ *Tesodstp e3seM - IWYBtT_ YZOA MON *Z *TesSodstp Ttods - ayBtq yLOX mMaN “| “PeL9AOD St sjdeFFo [eJUSWUCTTAUS puke ‘SAATTeNb IaqeM *XB80T099 uo yoedwy *[esodstp aqsem pue et19q9eq ‘aFI] ouTIewW Jo satpnys ere papntoul “pazAyTeue otam satdues [eotZoTotq pue QuewTpas ‘apeu atem satdues 193eM FO saskTeue TeOTWAOYD ‘pauTWezap arom suIozqed uotj -B[NDITZ *sTassea Tesodstp 93sem Fo snjeqzs dwnp pue uotzed0[ 4D9I0p 03 TOsues ITUOTJIITS Ue LOZ pue SsuOTIeSTASaAUT TeITZo0TOTq pue ‘TedTWaYo ‘Teotsoroes ‘otyderZorpAy pepnyour satpnas *9yg9 Aq pa odert2UO. arom 2Y3Tgq YIOX MAN ay? uT Sutdump uead0 jo s3daFzZa UO satpnys wo 4-320yS (6¢ °ON umpueroMspy TeoTuysay *19}Ue) YOLeasey Butrssursuq Teiseoy *s*n) ‘snt{t *d EST “EZ61 ‘tequeD yoreesay BSut1eautsug Teqyseog *S*n ‘eturBITA ‘XTOATeg WOY ‘*satpnjs TeqUsUUOITAUS FO JUalissasse uy :3Y48Tg_ YLOX MON 9Yy UT Sutdump ueac9 a8ioeg ‘stuueXkele)j-seieieg 6g°Ou WITgsn* FOZOL (settes) *eTITL *] ‘aBpn[s eBemeg “fp °uead0 ayi UT [esOodstp aiseM °¢ °Tesodstp a3semM - 2Y8Tq LOX MeN *Z ‘*Tesodstp Ttods - qYBIg yIOX MAN *T “PeL9AOD ST SjdeFFO TeJUSUUOITAUS pue ‘AQTTeNb 103eM “80T099 uo joedwy *{esodstp a3sem pue etza}0eq ‘azTT euTLew FO sotpnys ere pepn{oul “pazkTeue elem soTdwes [eoT8oTo1q pue JUeWTpag ‘apew aiem sotdues 1a3em Jo sasXkTeue TeoTWeYy) *pouTuZeIep erem suraqied uoTR -B[NDIT) “*sTesseA Tesodstp a3sem Fo snjeqs dump pue uotIed0{ 4DaE20p 02 Tosues ITUOL}IaTa Ue TOF pue SsuoTesTAsSaAUT [BOTBOTOTG pue ‘[eoTWaYD ‘Tedts0T0e8 ‘otydexZo0xpAy papntout setpnjs *jyq9 Aq paider.UOD azeM 3Y3Tgq YLOX MeN oY2 UT BuTdump ueeD0 Jo sjdeFZo UO saTpnys wr9I-3Z0US (6¢°ON wnpueroWspy Teotuysey *198}Ue) YydIeesey Butteeutsug [eiseoy) *s°n) “snq{{t *d EST “EL61 ‘1eqUED yoreasey Butteoursuq [e4seoy °S°p ‘etuTBIIA ‘ITOATOgG 104 ‘satpnis Te USUUOITAUS FO JUOdUISSasse Uy :3YSTg YIOX MON oy. UT Zutdump ueacdg asi0e9 ‘stuueXkele)-seieieg 6g"ou wWITgsn* F£OZdL (satires) *aTatL *] ‘adpnts ademas *p ‘*uead0 oy ut Tesodstp oasem *¢ ‘*Tesodstp 93SemM - 14BTq LOX MON *Z ‘TeSOdstp [tods - ayBtq yxOR MON *T “PaLaaod st sjoazFzO [eUSWUOITAUS pue ‘AAT[eENb 193eMm ‘AB0[099 uo yoeduy *[esodstp o4sem pue et4aj0Rq ‘ayJl] ourzew Jo satpnis ele pepn[ouy ‘*pozkTeue atom satdues [edtso0T[oTq pue JUsWTpas *opeu atem satdues 1e3em Jo saskTeue [BITWOY) *pourutojop o10m suroz3ed uorq -B[NIIT) “STassaa [esodstp a3sem Jo snjeis dump pue uor.eI0T 4De10P 02 TOsuss ITUCLID9TS ue LOZ pue fsuoTIestysaAuT [eITBOTOIq pue ‘TedTWaYD ‘Teotsojoas ‘otyderZo1pXy popnyout satpnaig “oud. Aq poqoerzUOD al1aMm 1Y8tgq YLOX MeN ayy ut Butdump ueeds0 Fo s39azzo uo setpnis w193-j4z0yS (6£°ON unpurrouway TedTuyseL “Laue YdIvesey BuTLeeutsuq [eqseoy *s*p) “*sntT{t *d 6ST] "£L61 “tequeg yoteasay Sullooutsuq Teqseo) *S*pn ‘eturTsxt, ‘xtoATag 4104 *satpnis TeJUSWUOLTAUS FO JUauUISSasse Uy :1YBTg YO MON 942 UT BUTduMp Ue|DQ adioay ‘stuuekere)-seieie, 6g°ou waTgsn® ¢OZ0L (seties) *eTITL “I ‘aBpnts ademas *p ‘*uead0 ayy ut [esodstp aisey *s ‘*[esodstp e3Sem - IST YLOA MeN *Z “Tesodstp [Ttodg - ay3tg yLOA MON ‘T “PeL9A0D ST S}DeFJFO [eUSWUOTTAUS pue ‘AATTeNb I9qeM “XB0T099 uo 1Dedwy *[esodstp a4sem pue Bila j0eq ‘aFtT ouTew Jo satpnis ale pepntoul ‘“pazXkTeue etam satdues [eotZo[otq pue UeUITpas “ape alam satdues 1ajem Fo sask{eue [BITWSYD “pauTWIaIep arom suZaqied uot. -B[NIITD “sTessea [esodstp aisem Jo snjeqs dump pue uotzed0[ De1ap 03 ZTosuas JTUOI}IaTS ue OJ pue fsuoTest4saAuT [edTZo[OTq pue ‘TedTWAYS ‘TeoTs0T0E88 ‘atyderZ01pXy pepn[out satpnys °9udD Aq pa.de1}UOD 310M 1YBtq YLOX MeN oy UT BuTduNp uead0 Fo s3dazFa UO SaTpNys wI93-I410US (6¢°ON wnpuesrousy TeoTuysa, + *10zUeD YSLeasey ButLaautTsuq Teiseog °s*n) “sntiIt ‘d 6ST “EL61 ‘LeqUeD yoieesey Butlaautsuq Teyseo) *S°n ‘eTULSITA ‘1TOATag 3ZOYy ‘saTpnis Te UsWUOITAUS FO JUAaUIssasse uy :3Y3Tg YLOX MON 94} UT BUTdUNp UedDDQ a3i1oag ‘stuueXkeiej-seieieg 6g°ou WATEssN® sOZdL (setmas) *aTqTL *T ‘aspn—Ts esemeg “fp ‘*uead0 ay. UT TesOdstp oaseN *¢ ‘*Tesodstp a3seM - 2Y8tgq ALOR MON *Z “*Tesodstp Ttodg - 3YyBtg YLOA MON *T *peL9A0D ST sjd9FFO [BJUsWUOCITAUS pue ‘AZTTeNb I9qeM “XB80T099 uo Joeduy *Tesodstp a3sem pue et19a}0eq ‘aFTT auTIeW FO satpnis are pepn{oul “pazATeue atem satduwes [eotSo0[oO1q pue JUaWTpas ‘apeu atem satdues 10}3eM Fo sask{eue TeITWOYyD “pauTWtazap o10m sutezzed uot} -B[NDITD “sTassea Tesodstp ajsem Fo snjeys dunp pue uotzed0]T 4D920p 0} fTosues ITUOIJIATS ue oF pue fsuotestysaaut [eotsoToOTq pue ‘[eoTWAaYS ‘TeotsoToes ‘stydeisoipAy paepnypout setpnjg “*9yq9 Aq peqoeIUOD atom 3Yy3Tg YIOX MAN ay? UT Sutdump uees0 Jo szdeFzo uO satpnzs w1e.-IIOYS (6¢ °ON unpuetousy TedtTuyseay *19}UeD YIeesey Butiesutsug [eqiseoy *s*n) ‘*sn{{t ‘d 6ST “SL6T ‘Leque9 yoieesay Burleeutsug [Te seoy °S'n ‘eTUTBITA ‘ITOATOg YOY *satpnis TeJUSUUOTTAUS FO JUaWSSesSse Uy :1Y4STg YIOX MON OY} UT Sutdunp uedD9 as10a9 ‘stuueXkelej-seieieg 6g*Ou WIT8SN* LOZOIL (settes) *aT3TL “I *aBpn—Ts eBemas °p ‘*uesd0 ay ut [esodstp aqiseM *¢ °[esodstp aysem - WBTg YOR MAN *Z ‘*TeSOdstp Ttods - 3YyB3tTg YIOX MAN °T *peLaaod ST sjdaFFa [eUsWUOTTAUS pue ‘ATTeNb 19ajeMm “XB0TO99 uo yoedwy °Tesodstp o3sem pue eI1eq9eq ‘azt] oUuTIeW FO satpnys ete pepntouy *pezATeue atem satduwes [edtZ0TOTq pue USWIpes *apew elem sotdues 1a3em FO SaskTeue [eITWeY) *pauTWIeEp oem suteqqed UOT. -B[NDIT)9 “*sTasseA Tesodstp a4sem Fo snjeqs dump pue uoted0[ 39a270pP 0} ZTOsUssS ITUOIJIETO ue LOF pue fsuoTiesIAsaAUT [BOTSOTOTG pue ‘TedTWOYD ‘TeotBoToe8 ‘otydezsoipAy papntout setpnis ‘9yq) Aq pee12UOD oom 3ysTg YIOR MeN ey? UT BuTdump ueed0 Fo sjdeFJZa UO seTpNys wIe}-310YUS (6¢°ON wnpueLoUsy TestuyseL “19}UeD YyDIeesoy Bultaoutsuqg Teyseoy) *S°m) *sn{{t *d EST “EL61 ‘1032UED yoteesey BuTLeeutTsuq [eI seo) °S°n ‘eTUTBIIA ‘ITOATOg 3104 “*setpnys Te JUsUUOITAUS FO }JUdWSSesse uy :14STg YIOX MON 94 UT BuTduMp Ueed0 a8iloe9 ‘stuueXkelej-sereleg 6g°ou WaTgsn® f£OZdL (setios) *9TITL *] ‘adpn[s odemag *p ‘uea00 ay} ur [esodstp aqsem *¢ *Tesodstp a3seM - IYstg YLOA MON *Z “Tesodstp [todg - aYyBtTg yAOK MON *] “PeL9AOD ST SIaFFa [eUSWUOITAUS pure ‘AXT[eNb 193eM ‘XB0To99 uo jdedwy ‘[esodstp a3sem pue Bt1aqoeq ‘aFt[T aurrew JO satpnys ale papn[dul ‘*pezATeue atam satdues [eots0[otq pue jUsWtpes *opew elem satdues 1azem Fo sask{eue [BITWOY) “pouTueJOp o10m suLojjed UOT -B[NIITD ‘STassaa [esodstp ajsem Fo snjeqs dump pue uor,edI0T 19910P 0} Tosuas ITUOIAIaTO ue LOZ pue fsUuOTIesTISOAUT [eOTZOTOT pue ‘TeOTWAaYD ‘Teotsotoas ‘otyderZo1pky papnytout satpnag ‘*9yq9 Aq poqoezqU0D o10M 1y3Tg ALOK MeN ay? UT ButduMp uvad0 Jo sjd0zZa UO saTpnis W193-2.10y4S (6£°ON umpuPrtouay Teotuyse, ‘1aqUueD yoieesey Buttaautsug ~eiseoj *s*p) “*sn{{t “d 6ST "EL61 ‘tequep yoteasoy BuTLeautsuq [eiseo) *S*m ‘etuUIBsITA ‘ITOATOg YOY *saTpnis TeUSWUOTTAUS JO JUsWSSasse uy :3Y4sTg YLOX MON 942 UT BuUTduMp uedD9 ag10e9 ‘stuueXere)-seirese) 6g°ou WATgsn® ¢£OZOL (satzes) *eT3TL “I ‘aBpnts a8emas *p ‘uedd0 ayi UT [esodstp a3seMy °*¢ *Tesodstp aqsem - 1Yystq YOR MeN *Z “TesOdstp [todg - 3Yy3tTg yLOA MEN “T *palasAod ST S}deFFa [Te USWUOITAUS pue ‘AATTeNb I3a}eM “XB80T099 uo yedwy *[esodstp e4sem pue eT1aq0eq ‘azI{ auTIeW FO satpnys ale pepntouyl “pazATeue aitem satdwes [edtZ0[o1tq pue JUsWTpes ‘*opeUl aiem sotdwes 193em Jo sasXk[eue [eITWaYy) “pouTWIeIep azZam suzajjzed uoT -B[NIIT) “*stassaa [esodstp 93sem Jo snjeqs dunp pue uot.eI0T 49e1ep 03 Zosues ITUOLIIaTSa ue LOF pue fsuoTiedtIsSaAUT TedTZoTOTq pue ‘TedTWaYS ‘TeotsoToes ‘otydexrZ01pAy paepn{out setpnig °9ygq9 Aq peqoerqUOD alam qy8tq YLOX MON ay. UT ButduNp uead0 Fo sidazJZa uo saTpnjs w1a4-.I0US (6¢°ON wnpuerousy Teotuyse] “Le}Ua) yoIeasay ButLoautsuq Te yseog °S*p) “snTIt °d 6ST “SL61 ‘re}UED yoteasoy Suttaautsuq Teyseo) °S°p ‘eTUTBITA ‘ZIOATOg OY “*setpnys JeJUSWUOLTAUS FO JUdUIssesse uy :1Y43Tg YIOX MeN 942 UT BUTdWNp UeaDQ asioey ‘stuueXkeiej-seieied “ = x * , 5 ‘i ‘ ! ' 7 ie i “he i \ x : G &» : el