t'STcal report shctr:^ NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHCOU MONTEREY. CALIFORNIA 9=i*«» NPS-58PA76051 NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL Monterey, California OCEANOGRAPHIC INVESTIGATION OF THE MARGINAL SEA ICE ZONE OF THE CHUKCHI SEA— MIZPAC 1974 by R. G. Paquette and R. H. Bourke A report submitted to Director, Arctic Submarine Laboratory Naval Undersea Center, San Diego May 1976 Approved for public release; distribution unlimited FEDDOCS D 208.14/2:NPS-58PA76051 NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL Monterey, California Rear Admiral Isham W. Linder Jack R. Borsting Superintendent Provost The work reported herein was supported in part by the Arctic Submarine Laboratory, Naval Undersea Center, San Diego, California under Project Order Nos. 4-0025 and 00080. Reproduction of all or part of this report is authorized. This report was prepared by: UNCLASSIFIED SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE (When Data Entered) REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE READ INSTRUCTIONS BEFORE COMPLETING FORM 1. REPORT NUMBER NPS-58PA76051 2. GOVT ACCESSION NO 3. RECIPIENT'S CATALOG NUMBER 4. TITLE (and Subtitle) OCEANOGRAPHIC INVESTIGATION OF THE MARGINAL SEA- ICE ZONE OF THE CHUKCHI SEA--MIZPAC 74 5. TYPE OF REPORT a PERIOD COVERED FINAL 6/10/74 to 6/30/75 6. PERFORMING ORG. REPORT NUMBER 7. AUTHORCs; Paquette, Robert G. Bourke, Robert H. 8. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBERfaJ PO-4-0025 PO-00080 9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS Naval Postgraduate School Monterey, CA 93940 10. PROGRAM ELEMENT, PROJECT, TASK AREA & WORK UNIT NUMBERS Element: 62759N;Work:902490< Project: F52-555 Task: ZF52-555-01Z II. CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS Arctic Submarine Laboratory Code 90, Bldg. 371, Naval Undersea Center San Diego. CA 92132 12. REPORT DATE May 1976 13. NUMBER OF PAGES iin Number of references 8 14. MONITORING AGENCY NAME A ADDRESSf// different from Controlling Office) 15. SECURITY CLASS, (of thla report) UNCLASSIFIED 15a. DECLASSIFICATION/ DOWNGRADING SCHEDULE 16. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of thla Report) Approved for public release; distribution unlimited 17. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of the abatract entered In Block 20, It different from Report) 18. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES Portions of this report were presented at the Fall Annual Meeting, American Geophysical Union, San Francisco, 10 DEC 1975. The data and some of the material in this report formed the basis of the M.S. thesis by LT A. E. Karrer, cited in the Reference section. 19. KEY WORDS (Continue on reverae aide It neceaaary and Identify by block number) MARGINAL SEA ICE ZONE UNDERSEA WARFARE THERMAL MESOSTRUCTURE CHUKCHI SEA PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY SOUND SPEED CIRCULATION MIZPAC ARCTIC OCEAN DYNAMIC OCEANOGRAPHY MICROSTRUCTURE 20. ABSTRACT (Continue on reveraa aide If neceeamry and Identify by block number) Continuous profiles of temperature and salinity (STD observations) were made in the shallow (^45 m) Bering and Chukchi Seas in July 1974 as part of the MIZPAC program. In addition to measurements in ice-free waters, seven closely spaced crossings of the sea-ice margin were made along with two crossings of the Alaskan coastal zone. In all, 111 STD stations and approximately 100 XBT drops were made for which graphs and tabulations were produced of temperature, salinity, density and sound speed. (contirmpH nn rMPrxe> sirlpl DD tJ FORM AN 73 1473 EDITION OF 1 NOV 65 IS OBSOLETE S/N 0102-014- 6601 | UNCLASSIFIED SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE (When Data Entered) UNCLASSTFTFn .LLUKITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS P AGEfWhen Data Entered) 20. (cont'd.) South of the ice the water is sharply layered with a warm fresh layer (8-10° C and ^10m thick) above a cold dense layer. At or near the sea- ice margin the layering gradually disappears with modification of isopycnals and isotherms extending to the bottom. Large scale temperature fluctuations of 0.5 to 2° C, termed mesostructure, were observed at 12-15m depth in the first three crossings, but were weak or absent in the other crossings. Meso- structure appears to be correlated with a relatively rapid melting of the ice, and hence, probably with a strong northward flow, or a diffuse ice margin. Mesostructure formation is believed to result from non-uniform lateral mixing of waters of different temperatures but the same density, possibly modified or controlled by a complex lateral pressure field near the ice. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES I. INTRODUCTION II. GENERAL PROCEDURE A. TECHNIQUES B. CRUISE PLAN C. REDUCTION OF DATA III. RESULTS A. GENERAL OCEANOGRAPHY B. MESOSTRUCTURE C. LATERAL MIXING PROCESSES NEAR THE ICE MARGIN IV. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS A. CONCLUSIONS B . RE COMMENDATIONS V. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS « VI. REFERENCES APPENDIX I. EXPLANATION OF HEADING CODES APPENDIX II. STD HEADING DATA AND PROPERTY PROFILES APPENDIX III. XBT HEADING DATA AND TEMPERATURE PROFILES APPENDIX IV. TEMPERATURE PROFILES AND TEMPERATURE AND SIGMA-T CROSS-SECTIONS FOR ICE MARGIN CROSSINGS 2-5 AND 7 xn LIST OF FIGURES Figure I. MIZPAC 74 STD station positions. Figure 2. MIZPAC 74 XBT station positions. Figure 3. Temperature-salinity diagram for the stations from Station 18 northward to Station 24. Figure 4. Temperature cross-section, Stations 72-75 across the coastal current. Figure 5. Temperature cross-section, Stations 89-94 and 102, across the coastal current. Figure 6. Map of maximum temperature in the water column. Figure 7. Nested temperature profiles for ice-margin Crossing 1. Figure 8. Nested temperature profiles for ice-margin Crossing 6. Figure 9. Temperature cross-section along ice-margin Crossing 1. Figure 10. Temperature cross-section along ice-margin Crossing 6. Figure 11. Sigma-t cross-section along ice margin Crossing 1. Figure 12. Sigma-t cross-section along ice-margin Crossing 6. Figure 13. Temperature-salinity diagram for selected stations in Crossing 1. Figure 14. Temperature-salinity diagram for selected stations in Crossing 6. Figure 15. Summary of processes occurring to form the temperature- salinity structure observed in Crossing 1. IV I. INTRODUCTION This report describes the results of a cruise, termed MIZPAC 74, conducted in the northern Bering Sea and in the sea-ice margin of the Chukchi Sea to examine the processes which lead to mesoscale temperature structure in the water column. The field work was carried out from the icebreaker USCGC BURTON ISLAND during the period 13-30 July 1974 using a continuously profiling instrument. These oceanographic investigations of the marginal sea-ice zone are part of a long-term program, Project MIZPAC, which is under the direction of the Arctic Submarine Laboratory, Naval Undersea Center, San Diego. Applied objectives of MIZPAC include development of arctic submarine technology and enhanced understanding of the complex acoustic environment of the MIZ. Personnel from the Applied Physics Laboratory, University of Washington (APL) also participated in MIZPAC 74 taking acoustic and biological and physical measurements. Their temperature and salinity data were taken concurrent with our observations using a different instrument, the conductivity- temperature-depth recorder (CTD) built by APL. This cruise was the third in a series of cruises conducted in the Pacific marginal sea- ice zone (MIZ) in which personnel from the Naval Postgraduate School have participated. Previous cruises in July and August of 1971 and 1972 in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas have established the presence of a thermal mesostructure near the ice edge which appears to be highly variable over short time and space scales (Paquette and Bourke, 1973). The primary purpose of this cruise was to obtain many closely spaced samples of the thermal structure over a large area of the MIZ to further establish the character of the mesostructure, its distribution and strength relative to its distance from the ice edge, and the probable oceanographic mechanisms which cause it to form. II. GENERAL PROCEDURE A. TECHNIQUES As in the previous two cruises in 1971 and 1972, the primary instrument was the Bissett-Berman Model 9006 STD kindly loaned by the Arctic Submarine Laboratory. This is an "Arctic" model because of the extended temperature scale to -2°C. However, the instrument has to be modified with the application of a 400 ohm resistive shunt to read salinities lower than 30 /0o» i-ts nominal lower limit. Two lowerings of the STD were therefore required for stations located in the immediate vicinity of the ice; the upper portion of the water column was recorded with the shunt, the remainder without the shunt. The effect of the shunt and the errors introduced due to the lag in the compensating thermometer of the salinity sensor are described in the report sum- marizing the MIZPAC 71 and 72 cruises (Paquette and Bourke, 1973). The manner of correcting these errors is described in Part C of this section. The STD was standardized at most of the stations by means of a Nansen bottle, just above the instrument, which was tripped at the maximum depth of lowering. The salinity and temperature offsets were found to be reasonably constant over long periods; during these periods constant additive corrections were applied throughout the water column. The standard deviations in the temperature and salinity errors approximated 0.04 C and 0.02 o/oo, respectively. Bucket samples of salinity and temperature were taken at most of the stations. They could not be used for standardization because of the large gradients between the surface skin and the approximate one meter depth of the STD. The bucket measurements were incorporated in the final digital data at zero depth. Later, it was found that the detail in the upper meter of water had a considerable effect on the dynamic heights. Data from the CTD measurements of APL were used to supply this detail where necessary. Shallow-water XBT's (Model T-10) were used to supplement the STD measurements. The XBT recorder was modified by replacing the chart- drive motor by a faster motor and using a chart paper calibrated for 200 m maximum depth. This has the effect of expanding the depth axis of the temperature trace. Mesostructure could be observed but the XBT has too rapid a rate of fall or, conversely, too slow a temperature sensor to reproduce the mesostructure faithfully and the features are therefore somewhat smoothed. The general observational technique was to make closely spaced measurements on a line normal to the ice edge starting 10 n mi outside and penetrating 10 n mi into the ice or to a distance where the structure vanished. Penetrations were usually 30 n mi apart. B. CRUISE PLAN Figure 1 is a map showing the positions of the one hundred and eleven stations occupied during MIZPAC 74. Equipment problems with the STD eliminated observations at Stations 1,3,4, 12, 13, and 41, but data from the APL's CTD are available for these stations. Data taken during the early part of the cruise (while transiting to the ice margin) were I 65« Figure 1. MIZPAC 74 STD station positions for the purpose of establishing the characteristics of the water flowing into the Chukchi Sea. A little ice was first encountered at Station 27; a better defined ice margin was at Station 29. The ice margin was initially quite diffuse and some trouble was exper- ienced in locating and defining the ice edge. There was no good distant overview to tell when the ice seen dimly ahead through the fog or on radar was a substantial margin or only a line of large floes. Therefore, the ice margin is sometimes poorly defined, and some crossings contain the complicating influence of isolated patches of diffuse ice well south of a denser margin. On 24 July, midway into the cruise, strong winds from the south developed, causing the ice margin to become compact and characterized thereafter by 8 oktas of ice. Seven ice-margin crossings were made during the cruise. These were the station sequences 24-33, 34-42, 43-52, 53-64, 65-71, 93-98, and 105-111. For convenience these are called Crossings Nos. 1 to 7 , respectively. In addition, two crossings of the warm coastal current and a transect along its axis were made. Nine XBT transects of 7-10 observations each were made, most of them while retreating from points of maximum ice penetration (Figure 2) . It was expected that this pro- cedure would give a more nearly synoptic picture of the temperatures in the cross-section and that there might be some advantage in ac- curacy and uniformity of spacing compared with the time-consuming STD stations during which the ship could drift. 7I°N 168' 166 I64c I60°W Figure 2. MIZPAC 74 XBT station positions. C. REDUCTION OF DATA The same data reduction techniques as employed previously (Paquette and Bourke, 1973) were used on the 1974 data with some minor changes. Basically the procedure was to trace the original STD plots with the Calma digitizer and to use a computer program, MIZ2, which converts the digitizer tapes to corrected temperatures and salinities, computes sound speed and sigma-t, and does a certain amount of editing prior to producing printed and tape outputs. Plots were then made of property profiles of each station. For the 1974 data we initially attempted to treat the spiking which routinely appears in the temperature and salinity traces in a different fashion than previously. In the past we had faithfully traced the temperature profile, but eliminated any spikes while tracing the salinity curves. This time we first tried including all the temperature and salinity spikes during our tracing operations and attempted to remove the anomalous spiking with a first order response equation. This procedure was only partially successful presumably due to the large proportion of second and higher-order response in the thermal compensator. We then resorted to hand- smoothing the salinity curves prior to tracing, being guided by the regions of the temperature curve where its slope was near zero and the salinity could be presumed to be undistorted. This technique eliminates the possibility of finding salinity inversions and density inversions, but we believe the inversions which might exist are slight. The plotting routines were modified to simplify data prep- aration and to obtain a more compact presentation. Property profiles from each STD station were plotted, four per page. These profiles along with the heading data for each station are in Appendixes I and II of this report. Both the shallow and deep lowerings are on the same plot. Occasionally, the overlap between the two lowerings is not perfect, causing a break to appear in the curves. The temperature trace is marked with crosses, and the salinity with dots every 20 depth increments, and we have occasionally introduced a small symbol (T, S, V, E) to help distinguish curves. The surface bucket measurements are marked on the abscissa by symbols, as above, but the curves are not drawn to them because of the resulting deterioration in legibility; property gradients in the top meter often are large. Nested temperature profiles for each XBT line are shown in Appendix III along with the station heading data. The temperature traces are normally spaced 1 C apart with the deepest temperature printed below each trace. Occasionally, to avoid confusion with overlapping traces, the temperature offset was increased by an integral number of degrees. The tick marks on the abscissa are 1 C apart. Vertical temperature profiles and temperature and sigma-t cross-sections were constructed for each of the seven ice-margin crossings. These are shown in Appendix IV. III. RESULTS A. GENERAL OCEANOGRAPHY The waters south of Bering Strait, as one might expect, were fairly warm at the surface, 6 - 8 C, and sharply stratified, the upper layer extending to a depth of 10 - 20 m. However, the upper layer had a salinity of about 32 o/oo, a fairly high value in view of the presumed northerly transport of water from the Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers. The lower layer was relatively cold, ranging between about 0 and 3 C, with salinity between 32 and 33 o/oo, only a few tenths of a unit more saline than the upper layer. In Bering Strait warm surface water is present as a thin layer of about 5 m thickness along the eastern side. Stations 13 and 14 show surface temperatures of 8-10 C, while 5 n mi farther westward surface temperatures are about 3 C. Below the warm layer, only at Station 13, and presumably eastward, is the water column fairly warm, remaining above 5.9 C at all depths. In the western portion of Bering Strait, Stations 14-16, temperatures are about 1-2 C. With the exception of the shallow surface layer, the water column across Bering Strait is nearly isohaline and isopycnal. This is similar to the results shown by the Naval Oceanographic Office (1958) or NORTHWIND 1967 (Husby, 1969). North of Bering Strait the water became more stratified again, at first only in temperature, at Station 22, but at Station 23 a pro- nounced decrease, in salinity developed in the upper layer and was main- tained farther north. The temperature of the upper layer rose toward the north, reaching a maximum of nearly 8 C at Station 23. At the next station, 18 nmi south of the then existing ice margin, the influence of the ice began to be noticeable. Not only was there pro- nounced surficial cooling, leaving a subsurface temperature maximum, but mesostructure began to develop and assumed various forms as the ship progressed through the ice margin at Station 29 and beyond. These relationships from Station 24 northward may be seen in Figure 7, and the development of the upper stratum farther south in the temperature- salinity diagram, Figure 3. The development of a two-layered system between Station 22 and the ice is an interesting phenomenon. The sharply stratified upper layer at Station 23 cannot be presumed to originate in Bering Strait even if the waters there were less saline at an earlier date because the mixing which goes on there makes a thick, low-salinity upper stratum unlikely. The diminished salinity in the upper stratum can only have come from the melting of ice which was present north of Bering Strait. The resulting diluted layer must then have been pushed northward by the northward- flowing waters. It is easy to demonstrate that the dilution is of the proper magnitude to correspond to the thickness of the ice cover. If one assumes an ice thickness of 140 cm, an ice salinity of 4 o/oo, and an ice density of 0.92, and computes the dilution of 12 m of a water column similar to Station 22 by the ice standing above it, the re- sulting salinity is 29.9 o/oo, very near the 30.2 o/oo observed for the upper layer of Station 23. Thus, the diminution in salinity is almost exactly as great as would correspond to the melting of a typical ice layer. The position of this low-salinity layer at a distance of 147 n mi north of Bering Strait thus suggests a mean flow northward in the surface layers of 147 n mi during the forty days between 7 June, the the approximate date at which the ice margin passed Bering Strait, and 17 July. This corresponds to a mean velocity of 3. 7 n mi/day or 0.15 knot. 10 SALINITY (%0) 30 31 32 li A more meaningful result is in terras of transport. During those forty days the flow would have filled a triangular volume about 200 n mi 3 wide by 147 n mi long by 26 fathoms deep, a total of 377 n mi or 2400 3 km . This corresponds to a transport of 0.7 Sv, assuming that the entire water depth moves at the same speed. This result is somewhat lower than the 1.2 Sv estimated by Mosby (1963) but agrees as well as may be expected considering the crude assumption that the latitude of Station 23 bounds the base of the triangular area and the likelihood that the transports through Bering Strait are highly variable. The low-salinity layer beginning at Station 23 is only 33 n mi south of the ice. This close relationship prompts the question, "Is the retreat of the ice margin somehow coupled to the flow rate through Bering Strait?". Certainly, the water cannot be advancing faster than the ice margin is retreating or the warm surface layer would be pushed under the ice. Perhaps the ice margin is retreating only as fast as the northward-flowing water melts it. The latter idea may be explored by computing the flow rate necessary to melt 140 cm of sea ice with a layer of water at 7.6 C, 12 m deep, as at Station 23. We assume that this water moves forward uniformly as a layer, with no backward diffusion. Such motion does not really occur and the waters to the south of the ice are cooled by the diffusion of cold melt water southward. Thus, for our simple concept of motion, it is necessary to pick the temperature of a source water from a station far enough south to escape most of the effects of diffusion. 12 The heat of fusion of sea ice depends upon the the assumed temperature of the ice and its salinity when melting begins. The conditions assumed are ice temperature and salinity, -2 C and 4 o/oo; terminal water salinity, 30 o/oo, whence the heat of fusion is 70.8 cal/gm. The resulting requirement for water flow to melt the ice is 0.82 times the rate of retreat of the ice. Therefore, there is sufficient heat in the advancing water near 68 - 30' N to melt the ice without considering the contribution of direct insolation on the ice sheet. Farther north (in August) the mean northward velocity of water would be expected to decrease as the Chukchi Sea widens. Yet the rate of retreat of the ice commonly is greater in August than in July, indicating that the effects of insolation, both directly on the ice and on the waters to the south, are becoming increasingly important. One would then expect the zone of melt water south of the ice to widen. The results of MIZPAC 71 and MIZPAC 72 seem to confirm this idea. It is conceivable that the ice margin controls the northward flow and some of the phenomena at the ice margin to be discussed later suggest this. The cause could be the lateral pressure of the considerable dynamic hill which develops between Bering Strait and the ice margin as a result of the melting of ice, about 6 dyn. cm. The bottom water on the east side of Bering Strait, rather imperfectly represented by Station 18, was at 0.05 C and 33.0 o/oo, saline enough but not cold enough to form the bottom water at Station 23. However, the water at Bering Strait likely was colder at an earlier date. But, it is not justifiable to conclude that because such water 13 was available that it was the source water for the lower layer in the Chukchi Sea. Between Station 23 and Station 30, only 13 n mi to the north, the temperature of the bottom water drops from -1.2 to -1.72 C, an abrupt change which destroys any continuity which might have been presumed to exist because of a regular flow of bottom water northward. Evidently, an abrupt modification of bottom water is taking place near the ice margin. The bottom water under the ice, with the temperature below -1.7 C and salinity ordinarily greater than 33.0 o/oo, must have been in place before the retreat of the ice margin began north of Bering Strait. It may have been supplied earlier in the year through Bering Strait or it may have been formed in situ by freezing and the resulting convective overturn. The freezing point of water with a salinity of 33.0 is -1.80 C. The slightly warmer water which is observed can have been formed by mixing between a more saline water at the equilibrium freezing temperature and a less saline water slightly warmer than the freezing temperature. The under- ice bottom water is near freezing, as one can see; thus it must have been formed by winter overturn, but that process can have occurred south of Bering Strait as well as in the Chukchi Sea. Before considering the processes at the ice margin it is appropriate to complete the discussion of general oceanography, prin- cipally with reference to the character of the coastal current, and to make some estimate of the comparability of the 1974 data with earlier data. 14 Two crossings of the coastal region were made, one the sequence of Stations Nos. 72-75, and the other, Stations 89-94 and 102. Tem- perature cross-sections along these two lines are shown as Figures 4 and 5. The warmth which was expected along the coast is lacking, and a warm core of water appears to be centered beyond the stations farthest seaward, which are 40 n mi from the nearest shore. However, water of intermediate warmth extends shoreward below the surface, essentially to the most shoreward station in both figures. Figure 6 shows the horizontal distribution of the maximum temperature in the water column. This figure also indicates that to the south the warm core is more than 40 n mi from shore in latitudes between 68 30' N to 70 N. In August 1971 Paquette and Bourke (1973) found the warmth closer to shore north of 70 30'. It will be seen in Figure 6 that evidence of a similar warmth, a pocket of 3 water, is present close to the coast near that latitude. Thus, considering the earlier dates and consequent more southerly extent of the ice in the present cruise, it would seem that 1974 is not grossly different in character from 1971. One cannot help being impressed by the westward extent of relatively warm water and question if this can all be supplied through the narrow eastern margin of Bering Strait. In view of the earlier calculations the answer to this is negative. Insolation must be the major cause for the warmth in the upper layer. The cold flow along the Russian coast also is strikingly narrow and seems to have a minor effect on the bulk of the Chukchi Sea water. While we have a tendency to identify the temperature maximum with the core of a current, the reader will realize that this need not always be so. Shorefast ice which was more prevalent in 1974 15 LU m o UJ O C/) o o O CJ ro *- (IN) Hld3Q c CD O 4-1 0) n3 0 u 0) X! 4-> to CO 0 U IT) r-- I CO c o ■H 4-> rd 4-1 o ■H 4-1 U Q) 03 I CO CO o u 4J rd M CD e 0) E-t cd ■H fa 16 (IN) Hld3Q 1 7 72°N 173 55°W Figure 6. Map of maximum temperature in the water column. 18 than 1971 could, for example, have cooled the shoreward side of a warm current to yield the kind of temperature distribution shown. There are a number of interesting questions related to the general oceanography of the Chukchi Sea, requiring more data or extensive analysis, which will be treated at a later date. These will be mentioned under Recommendations. B. MESOSTRUCTURE The character of the mesostructure may best be examined from the seven ice margin crossings. The first three of these contained moderate mesostructure below about 15-20 m depth whereas the re- maining four had temperature profiles dominated by a shallow warm subsurface maximum with weak mesostructure in and near it. Crossings 1 and 6, which are taken as examples of the two kinds of conditions, are shown as nested temperature profiles in Figures 7 and 8. The profiles are separated by an integral number of degrees and the station number and the deepest temperature are shown at the bottom. The ice concentration is shown at the top, either in oktas or in exponential form. Temperature profiles and cross-sections of tem- perature and sigma-t for the other crossings are shown in Appendix IV. Figures 9 through 12 are, respectively, temperature and sigma-t cross-sections along the line of stations in Crossings 1 and 6. The temperatures of Crossing 1 show on the left (south) the warm near-surface water typical of the area 10 or more n mi south of the ice. 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