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naval postgraouate 9choou

MONTEREY. CMJtmOHIA 93940

NPS-58PA73121A

NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL

'' Monterey, California

OCEANOGRAPHIC MEASUREMENTS NEAR
THE ARCTIC ICE MARGINS

by

R. G. Paquette and R. H. Bourke

A report submitted to
Director, Arctic Submarine Laboratory
Naval Undersea Center, San Diego

December 1973

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited

FEDDOCS

D 208.14/2:NPS-58PA73121A

NAVAL POSTGRADUATE SCHOOL
Monterey, California

Rear Admiral Mason B. Freeman M. U. Clauser

Superintendent Provost

ABSTRACT:

Temperature and salinity measurements were made in and near the
ice in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas with a continuously profiling in-
strument in August of 1971 and 1972 as a part of the MIZPAC Program.
Warm water of Bering Sea origin was found south of the ice in all of the
area surveyed, layered sharply on top of cold water. Complex tempera-
ture and sound-velocity profiles were found near the Alaskan Coast
north of the ice margin, diminishing in intensity toward the interior of
the ice pack but still noticeable 30 miles inside the ice boundary.
West of the coastal zone, to 167° W, the phenomena were much milder
and more quickly damped by the ice. The coastal current was observed
to turn, perhaps branch, and flow along the Beaufort Sea slope, below
the surface at a depth of 25-50 m, to a longitude of 152° W. Other in-
formation indicates that it maintains its identity for at least another
100 miles eastward.

This task was supported by: Arctic Submarine Laboratory, Naval Undersea

Center, San Diego, California under Purchase
Orders Nos. 2-0054 and 3-0035

NPS-5 8PA731£1A
November 1973

TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES

I. INTRODUCTION

II. MIZPAC 71

A. INTRODUCTION

B. TECHNIQUES

C . REDUCTION OF DATA

D. RESULTS

E. CONCLUSIONS

III. MIZPAC 72

A. INTRODUCTION

B. TECHNIQUES

C . REDUCTION OF DATA

D. RESULTS

E. CONCLUSIONS

IV. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

V. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

VI. LITERATURE CITED

APPENDIX I. CODING OF THE HEADINGS AND MAGNETIC TAPE FORMATS
APPENDIX II. HEADING DATA FOR STATIONS OCCUPIED IN 1971 AND 1972

LIST OF FIGURES

1. MIZPAC 71 station positions.

2. Typical station listing, 1971.

3. Locations of vertical temperature sections.

4. Plan view of maximum temperature in the water column.
Temperature in C .

5. Ice concentrations in oktas (eights) from observations on station,
1971.

6a and 6b. Temperature in the longitudinal section A - A.

7. Temperatures in the section B - B.

8. Temperatures in the section C - C.

9. Temperatures in the section D-D.

10. Temperatures in the section E - E.

11. Temperatures in the section F - F.

12. Station 46 property profiles.

13. Station 42 property profiles.

14. Station 40 property profiles.

15. Station 50 property profiles.

16. Station 54 property profiles.

17. Station 56 property profiles.

18. Temperatures in the series Stations 61, 63, 65, 66 and 68 nested
with one-degree separations. The bottom-most temperature is
recorded at the bottom of each curve.

19. Time series at Zulu times: 2 August, 1630, 1800, 1900, 2005; 3
August, 0055, 0305, 0600, 0700. Station numbers as shown.

20. Time series at Zulu times: 3 August, 0800, 0905, 1000, 1100,
1200, 1300, 1430, 1530. Station numbers as shown.

21. Station 91 property profiles.

22. Station 138 property profiles.

23. Station 95 property profiles.

24. Station 87 property profiles.

25. Station 111 property profiles.

26. Station 129 property profiles.

27. Station 126 property profiles.

28. General types of sound-velocity profiles in the coastal current
of the northeastern Chukchi and southwestern Beaufort Seas.

29. MIZPAC 72 station positions.

30. MIZPAC 72 ship's track.

31. MIZPAC 72 surface temperatures.

32. Ice concentration (oktas) from observations on station. Two
Naval Weather Service ice reports also are shown.

33. Station 86 property profiles.

34. Station 19 property profiles.

35. Station 87 property profiles.

36. Station 76 property profiles.

37. Nested temperature profiles along the line of stations 106, 105
107-114. Spacing is 1°C .

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38. Nested temperature profiles, Stations 34-44. Spacing is 1 C .

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39. Nested temperature profiles, Stations 45-50. Spacing is 1 C.

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40. Nested temperature profiles, Stations 51-56. Spacing is 1 C.

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41. Nested temperature profiles, Stations 66-74. Spacing is 1 C

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42. Nested temperature profiles, Stations 23-29. Spacing is 1 C.

OCEANOGRAPHIC MEASUREMENTS NEAR
THE ARCTIC ICE MARGINS

by

Robert G. Paquette

and

Robert H. Bourke

I. INTRODUCTION

This report describes the results of two cruises in which the meso-
scale structure in the water column was measured near the ice margins
in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas. The cruises were part of larger opera-
tions directed by the Arctic Submarine Laboratory, Naval Undersea Center,
San Diego, and are named MIZPAC 71 and MIZPAC 72. The cruises took
place in July and August of 1971 and 1972. The basic measuring tool was
the Bissett-Berman salinity-temperature-depth recorder. The data were
reduced by tracing the recorder curves with a Calma Digitizer, correct-
ing, and computing sound velocity and sigma-t on the Naval Postgradu-
ate School IBM 360/67 computer. Computer-generated plots, listings
and magnetic tape records were produced.

The investigation had its origin in reports of severe deterioration of
sonar propagation near the ice margins. The effects were presumably
due to the existence of complex sound-velocity profiles and rapid changes
in propagation conditions with distance. The objectives of the investi-
gation were to describe the complex sound-velocity profiles and dis-
cover the oceanographic processes which cause and modify them.

A secondary responsibility was to supply oceanographic data for
other programs going on at the same time in the area.

The two cruises differed somewhat in nature. The first was strongly
committed to tending two drifting ice floe stations. This had a strong
influence on the area covered and limited the free choice of station posi-
tions for the oceanographic purposes. Nevertheless, interesting results
were obtained. This cruise also was faced by considerably greater equip-
ment problems than was the second.

The second cruise, although again committed to some other objectives,
was able to make a number of closely spaced crossing of the ice margin
and also do some exploration in the open water to the south. Equipment
problems were few and data was obtained from essentially all of the 114
stations occupied.

In the first cruise the ice margin was diffuse and generally located
in its normal position. In contrast, the ice margin in the second cruise
was relatively compact and was much farther to the north.

In the report which follows, the results of the two cruises are de-
scribed separately. The conclusions in the two separate sections are
sequential, the second set benefiting from the first set. The overall
conclusions from the two sets of data are then given in Section IV.

II. MIZPAC71

A. INTRODUCTION

In 1971 the research vehicle was the icebreaker USCGS NORTH-
WIND, the time was 30 July to 20 August and the area extended from the
northeastern Chukchi Sea to the southwestern Beaufort Sea, as shown in
Figure 1. The deepest penetration into the ice was about 30 miles. The
icebreaker had other commitments, particularly the shepherding of two
drifting ice stations and some search and rescue work. The latter led to
the long excursion to the southwest along the coast and resulted in a
better understanding of the coastal current than would have resulted had
the uninterrupted plan been followed. The manned ice stations required
fairly close shepherding by the ice breaker so they could be found and
rescued in case of emergency. Also, because the ice stations drifted
rapidly into the coastal current and then around Pt. Barrow into the Beau-
fort Sea, the area of coverage was shifted eastward from what had been
planned.

On this cruise the rapid changes in water structure near the ice
had not been recognized; therefore the closely spaced crossings of the
ice margin which were included in the 1972 cruise were not planned
specifically. There were opportunities for time series, which were done
in 1971 but not in 1972.

B. TECHNIQUES

The Bissett-Berman Model 9006 STD was kindly loaned by the
U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office. It was termed an "Arctic Model" be-
cause the temperature scale extended to -2°C. However, the lower end
of the salinity scale extended to only 30o/oo and the instrument would
produce neither temperature nor salinity outputs at lower salinities. This
left the instrument incapable of sampling the upper 10-15 meters of the
water column for roughly 3/4 of the stations. Therefore, the STD was
supplemented by a hand-lowered Beckman RS5 conductivity-temperature
meter which provided discrete readings. This meter is hereafter called
the RS5.

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Late in the cruise, between Station 105 and the last one at
Station 163, a calibrated shunt was introduced into the STD conductivity
cell. This brought most of the low salinities on scale. These stations
were then done in two lowerings which were labeled S and D (shallow
and deep) during data reduction.

The STD has a slow-acting analog conversion circuit to con-
vert electrical conductivity to salinity. Although the manufacturer
quotes a response time of 0.3 seconds for this circuit, it was measured
experimentally as 2.0 seconds. This slow response caused troubles,
as will be shown below. The marginal ice zone is full of sharp tempera-
ture gradients, some as great as 7°C per meter. The winch lowering
speed was basically 0.55-0.65 m/sec. Up to Station 40 the lowering
was stopped at fixed depth intervals, but thereafter the STD was lowered
and raised continuously at the above speed.

The salinity error due to lag in the compensating thermometer
may be roughly estimated in the following way. When the instrument
passes through a temperature gradient, the error in temperature will not
be greater than that resulting from a temperature ramp which continues
for several time constants of the thermometer. The first-order thermo-
meter response equation is easily solved for this case and the error is
found equal to the product of the time constant and the time rate of change
of temperature. Suppose one examines the extremes, assumes 3°/m as
a more common temperature gradient than 7°/m and assumes a winch
speed of 0.6 m/sec. Then the time rate of change is 1.8°/sec and the
temperature lag is 3.6°. This corresponds to 3.6 o/oo salinity error.
Actually, such sharp gradients do not continue for several time constants
and the error computed above is likely to be too large by a factor of 1 . 5
to 2.0. Therefore, one expects spurious salinity spikes of a magnitude
approximating one to two parts per thousand in the sharper thermoclines.
Elsewhere the errors are much more moderate.

The error resulting from a temperature ramp decays to zero when
the ramp ends. Therefore, an STD passing through a step-like tempera-
ture gradient creates an anomalous spike in the salinity, pointing in the
same direction as the temperature change. If the temperature profile con-
tains a one-sided oscillation, the salinity anomaly will be S-shaped.

Although these salinity transients made a messy record, they
eventually led to little difficulty; we merely ignored them in tracing the
records and little serious error seems to have resulted.

Scale changing on the STD proved to be a chore because the
gradients were so large that one could go through two scale changes in
a few seconds of lowering time. There was no low-sensitivity scale

and the individual scales had widths of 2 ppt starting at 30 o/oo and
increasing 1.5 o/oo per scale step through six scales. Beginning at
Station 53 the potentiometer of the potentiometer recorder was shunted
with a precision resistor to make it span 4 o/oo on each scale. There-
after there seldom was need to use any but Scale 1 (30-40 o/oo) , ex-
cept when the shunt on the conductivity cell was used. The temperature
range -2 to + 8 C was used exclusively.

The instrument was subjected to an unusual amount of electri-
cal interference from the search radar or some of the equipment involved
in helicopter launches. Useful data could not be obtained at a number
of stations because of this factor. At these times the instrument usually
was replaced by the Beckman conductivity-temperature meter.

The effect of the shunt was determined by finding the apparent
conductance change it produced in the STD in air. Tables of seawater
conductivity were then used to construct a table of equivalent salinity
change as a function of salinity and temperature. Over the limited tem-
perature range involved, this turns out to be a simple second degree
equation. A controlled calibration in seawater was not possible so a
check of the equation was attempted by comparing salinities where the
shallow and deep lowerings overlapped. This did not work well because
the depth of overlap was in a region of sharp temperature and salinity
gradients and the depth errors of the STD created substantial uncertain-
ties. There was a rapid change with time in this depth zone. For these
reasons it has not been possible to certify that the computed salinities
are any more accurate than ± 0 . 3 o/oo .

Similar problems are involved in the Beckman conductivity-
temperature meter. Its results were compared with the STD at points of
overlap where conditions appeared fairly stable. The mean temperature
error was -0.29° C and the salinity error -0.41 o/oo. The standard de-
viations of the mean were 0.04° and 0.06 o/oo respectively. The mean
corrections were applied but considerable uncertainty remains, particu-
larly because it could not be determined if there were non-random de-
viations .

It should be noted that temporal and spatial variations in
water properties are so great in the region in and above the thermocline,
where the shunt and the RS5 were used, that errors of the magnitude
cited above are unimportant.

The STD itself was continually standardized by means of a
Nansen bottle, just above the instrument, which was tripped at the
greatest depth of lowering. The salinity error averaged 0.09 o/oo with a
standard deviation of the mean o of 0.01 o/oo. The temperature error

was -0.07 and ct was 0.007 . Corrections were made for the mean

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errors; accuracies for the unshunted STD comparable to ±20'M therefore

may be expected in those parts of the water column in which the tempera-
ture gradients were small.

This instrument had pressure-sensitive recording paper which
traces a record which is difficult to read and makes it impossible to
differentiate the salinity and temperature traces by means of ink color.
The depth scale was approximately 30 m/in, which results in too con-
densed a record for shallow water, especially in the Arctic. These
factors and the requirement to derive sound velocity led to the decision
to trace the STD records with a Calma digitizer and carry out conversions
and plotting with a computer.

C . REDUCTION OF DATA

A relatively complicated computer program, MIZ1, was used
to convert Calma digitizer tapes to corrected salinities and temperatures.
The program also computed sound velocity and sigma-t, patched in RS5
data at the surface, filled small gaps between curve segments (where
scale changes occurred) and classified the results on 0.3-meter depth
increments for output in a continuous sequence. Wilson's equation was
used for sound velocity and Knudsen's for sigma-t. Missing data were
replaced with zeros, except for the temperatures, which were set to
-3°. The outputs were printed and punched on cards.

After editing the cards for minor errors and arranging the stations
in sequence, the cards were used as inputs to programs which produced
various plots and finished output on the printer and on magnetic tape.
Heading data were introduced on cards before the finished outputs were
produced. Missing data were excluded from the plots and were replaced
by blanks in the printed data; however, they still appear as zeros and
-3's on the tape.

Approximately ten other computer programs were written to do
various housekeeping jobs, produce T-S plots and nested temperature
plots, convert conductivities to salinities and produce compatible out-
put cards from Beckman conductivity-meter data.

The plots originally were produced in approximately 10 by 12-
inch size except for some nested temperature plots which were longer.
There was at first no capability for putting the shallow and deep portions
of a multiple lowering on the same plot except for the output of the
Beckman meter which routinely was inserted by MIZ1. However, there
were some Beckman lowerings which had large overlaps and were treated
separately. Therefore, 183 station plots were produced from the 163

10

stations, about 35 of them in two parts. About 15 stations are missing
entirely because of electrical interference, equipment problems, un-
readable records, and uncorrectable errors made on the digitizer.

In the 1972 data most of the stations had two lowerings. The
sheer volume of plotted data dictated that both lowerings be put on one
plot and that the plot be of a size which could be reproduced without
reduction. These results were so much more desirable than the first
that all of the 1971 data were replotted in this way.

Figure 2 shows a typical station listing, the output of MIZPRT.
The coding for the heading is detailed in Appendix I together with infor-
mation on the magnetic tape format.

D. RESULTS

Complete data sets (print-outs, plots, and tape) have been
submitted to the Arctic Submarine Laboratory. This report presents only
such data as is needed to describe and explain the observed phenomena.
A complete list of heading data for both 1971 and 1972 is given in Ap-
pendix II.

In the following presentation, the oceanography of the area will
be presented followed by and intertwined with the nature and distribution
of anomalous temperature and sound velocity structures and their causes.

The oceanography of the coastal region in the Eastern Chukchi
and southwestern Beaufort Seas is dominated by a warm current which has
its origin in Bering Strait. This current flows northeastward close to the
Alaskan Coast, rounds Pt. Barrow and flows eastward into the Beaufort
Sea. Although the southern portion of the current has been described pre-
viously (e.g. , English, 1963) and its continuation to the northeast in-
ferred, this is the first time that it has been well described north of about
70-30' N and the first time that a survey has followed its turn to the
east. Fortuitously, Hufford (1973) working independently at the same
time, followed it from our most easterly point near 152° W to about 147°W.

The course of the current and its structure may be seen in a
series of diagrams, Figures 3 to 11. Figure 3 shows the location of six
vertical sections of temperature. Figure 4 shows a plan view of the maxi-
mum temperature in the water column. This type of presentation is neces-
sary because the warm water does not stay at a fixed depth; it starts at
the surface at the southernmost end of the cruise and descends ultimately
to the depths of 30-50 meters or deeper beyond the break of the Beaufort
Sea Shelf. Figure 5 shows the ice distribution as it was found at the time
stations were occupied. Figures 6a and 6b show temperatures in the

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STATION NUMBER
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Figure 9. Temperatures in the section D-D.

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STATION NUMBER
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Figure 11. Temperatures in the section F - F.

22

longitudinal section A-A and Figures 7-11 show temperatures in five
cross -sections across the coastal zone.

The following phenomena are notable in the temperature
sections.

The sharp layering of warm water over cold water in the south.

The compression of the warm water against the Alaskan Coast of
the Chukchi Sea. This is probably due to geostrophic forces.

The cooling at the surface toward the north, due mainly to the
contact with ice. This process generally tends to form a warm
nose in the temperature profile which eventually is nearly elimin-
ated at the most northerly stations.

The disappearance of the underlying cold layer near Station 60.
This is believed due to the flow of this layer down slope to a
deeper equilibrium level in the Arctic Basin.

The turning of the warm water into the Beaufort Sea and its travel
eastward to near the limits of the survey area.

The descent of the warm layer to mid-depth in the Beaufort Sea
beyond the 10-fathom line.

The presence of meso structure in the temperature profiles is
usually not evident on these plots because the contour interval is too
large to resolve it. These phenomena will be evident in the individual
station profiles which will be presented next.

At the beginning of Figure 6 at Station 46 (Fig. 12) one sees
the warm water riding on the top of cold, denser, water with a very sharp
interface between the two. The upper layer is mixed at 6.3°C, and there
is little or no mesoscale structure in the water column. It should be
noted that the plotting program has automatically labeled the curves
T, S, SV, ST for temperature , salinity, sound velocity and sigma-t and
has marked the corresponding surface bucket measurements, if they
exist, with small T, S, V, and ZL If they do not exist, these marks are
clustered at the left zero-depth margin.

It may also be noted that temperature curve closely represents the
sound velocity profile. It will be seen that this is usually true except
near the surface when the salinity becomes very low. The pressure effect
is noticeable when the deeper water is isohaline and isothermal. There
are a few cases where the salinity makes interesting modifications to

23

the velocity profile. These will be noted as the description proceeds.

A caution at this point deals with the spurious salinity spikes.
These do introduce relatively small anomalies into the sound-velocity
profile. To determine if a salinity anomaly is spurious, it is useful to
look at the density curve which should be responsive principally to the
salinity. It is likely that only very small density inversions are real,
so notable density inversions are indicators of spurious salinity inver-
sions. Temperature-induced salinity errors also may exist without form-
ing inversions. These are not so obvious but they are of lesser conse-
quence because they have minor effects on sound-beam distortion.

Conditions like those at Station 46 continue through Station
44 with slight surficial cooling and perhaps through Station 43 ( no near-
surface data), but at Station 42 (Fig. 13) cooling at the surface begins,
mesocale structure begins to show above the thermocline and just below
the thermocline and a distinctive nose appears in the temperature profile
as a result of the surficial cooling. Station 41 is like 46, but at Station
40 (Fig 14) the thermocline has become thicker and less sharp and has
taken on some structure. The effect of being closer to the ice is seen
in Stations 50, 54, and 56 (Figs. 15-17): a weakening of thermocline
(in 50) , cooling at the surface with the formation of a nose (54 and 56) ,
and the development of a little structure.

In Station 54 is seen the result of patching in the data from the
RS5 near the surface. Near the top of the STD trace the salinity has been
distorted by the temperature gradient and the inversion in sigma-t is not
real.

The temperatures in the series of stations 61, 63, 65, 66, and
68 are shown nested in Figure 18. These are plotted with the curves
spaced 1 C apart and with north on the left because there is less cross-
ing of curves in that arrangement. The bottom temperature and the station
number appear at the bottom of each curve. The first two of these (Sta.
61 and 63) show discrete RS5 data and give little information about
mesoscale structure. Proceeding to the north into the ice several things
happen simultaneously. The surface cools and the cooling extends
deeper until the warm nose which first forms is only a residue of the
lower edge of the warm layer. A deep mixed layer at -1 . 1°C appears in
Station 65 and at Station 66 all of the deep water is colder than -1.5°C
and a still colder layer intrudes between 35 and 60 meters. At Station
68 the deeper water is notably warmer, -1.3°C; the intruding cold layer
with temperature as low as -1.67°C is still present, but thinner. Con-
siderable temperature structure is present at Stations 65 and 66. It
may also be present at Station 63 and in the upper portion of Station 68
whose surface temperature is recorded as 0.3°C, 1.4°C warmer than at
15 meters.

24

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There can be little doubt that this is a region which is ex-
ceedingly active oceanographically. The multiplicity of different layers
can come only from an interleaving of waters with nearly the same den-
sities but different temperatures. The melting of ice, cooling and dilut-
ing one type of water, must create these differences in relation to water
not so cooled.

That structures typical of Station 66 extend well into the ice
may be seen in Figures 19 and 20. These are temperatures from a 23-
hour time series at non-uniform time spacings ranging from 1 to 1.5 hours
with an average of 1 .3 hours. These are in the vicinity of the first ice
station on 2 and 3 August. Stations 17 to 35 are shown spaced 1°C apart.
These stations are in 6 oktas ice concentration about 30 miles inside the
one-okta contour.

It is surprising to find this much structure so far inside the
the ice. It is seen that the one distinctly stable feature is the warm
nose at about 10 meters depth. An S- shaped feature (a secondary mini-
mum-maximum-minimum) between 18 and 25 meters depth persists to
some degree between Stations 28 and 34, a period of 6.5 hours. There
also is a distorted step just above the top of the deeper cold water
which is just at the bottom of these traces. Other smaller features
generally do not last for an hour.

An estimate of size scale depends on relative water speed be-
tween the drifting ship and the water. Since the ship was tending the
ice camps at this time, the measurements of currents relative to the ice
reported by Garrison and Pence (1973) are appropriate. These authors
report relative water speeds varying between 0.5 and 0.8 knots at 20 m
depth and 0.25 to 0.75 knots at 10 m. One might estimate that the
speeds relative to the water near bottom might be as great as the speeds
of ice drift, which were as great as 1.5 knot. However, a cursory ex-
amination of the density structures shows no such currents distinctly
reflected in the geostrophy relative to the local near-bottom layers. The
currents near bottom therefore are probably of substantial magnitude and
it would be surprising if the speeds relative to the surface were much
greater than one knot.

From the present data , therefore , it may be concluded that the
warm nose has wide distribution and the secondary feature below it has
dimensions approximating 10 nautical miles. The smaller features which
do not persist from curve to curve must be smaller than one nautical mile
in extent and they may be much smaller.

On following the station plan to the points of deepest penetra-
tion into the ice, Stations 91 and 138 (Figs. 21 and 22), the residual

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nose of warm water is still seen. Station 138 has little mesocale
structure. Because of the discrete sampling at Station 91 the structure
is not visible but adjacent Station 95 (Fig. 23) has considerable
structure .

Station 138 is a good example of the appearance of the shallow
and deep lowerings on one graph. There is creditable agreement between
the salinities on the two lowerings, although some change in water
structure in the intervening time is evident. Agreement is not always so
good, due principally to depth errors, which are in the vicinity of ±1.5
meters. This also is an example of a case in which the salinity has made
the sound velocity profile somewhat different in shape than the tempera-
ture profile. The difference in the vicinity of the change of slope at 13 m
depth is evident. An interesting phenomenon is the appearance of a
broad but weak sound channel between 13 and 37 meters because the
salinity has become isohaline prior to the temperature becoming iso-
thermal.

Eastward in the Beaufort Sea the warm current has descended to
a deeper depth of equilibrium density and the temperature now increases
toward the bottom. Station 87 (Fig. 24) apparently is not far enough
north to demonstrate the core, but it shows 3 . 6°C water at 39m. At
this station the STD was out of operation and all the data is from the
RS5. Any mesocale structure is therefore obscured. However, Station
111 (Fig. 25) which is close by has a stepwise structure.

The last point at which notably warm water was found was at
Station 129 (Fig. 26) where the temperature at 24 meters was 3.3 C and
some structure was still present. The stations on the Beaufort Sea shelf,
of which Station 126 (Fig. 27) is an example, are cold, with low sali-
nity and little structure. The water does warm a little toward the bottom,
however, indicating that some of the warm water has found its way onto
the shelf from farther offshore.

Hufford's (1973) area of coverage begins at 154°W and extends
to 144° W. He succeeded in getting his outermost stations about 90 km
offshore, 18 to 55 km seaward of ours in the three degrees of overlap.
His findings complement ours neatly. He finds the warm water at depth
at his farthest seaward stations and his depths are great enough that the
core is clearly indicated as centered at about 25 meters depth with cold
water above and below. He finds warm water at least as far east as
147° W and it appears that the warmest water is on the most northerly
margin of his survey area. This suggests that the core may be still
farther to seaward and that it may continue farther east at a distance
farther from shore than it is practical to penetrate with icebreakers .
Hufford also shows that warm water was found in a number of previous

37

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42

summers, varying substantially in temperature. Its apparent absence in
some years may be due to station distribution.

The general situation in the costal area of the northern Chukchi
and the western Beaufort Seas may be summarized by means of a single
diagram. This time, sound velocity will be shown at Stations 46, 66, 74,
and 114 in Fig. 28. Detail may vary greatly with time and position.
Station 46 with two sharply interfaced layers is typical of the coastal
current distinctly south of the ice. There is little finer structure. Sta-
tion 66 shows the effect of considerable surface cooling. It is in the
Barrow Sea Valley, so shows the effect of cold high- salinity water near
the bottom. This station is fairly representative of all the stations
further into the ice except for depth. It has a residual warm nose,
deeper than the original warm-water layer and it has considerable finer
structure. Toward the south and southwest from Station 66 larger noses
exist caused by moderate surficial cooling of a structure like Station 46.
Station 74 represents the beginnings of the entry of the warm current
into the Arctic Basin. It is well cooled at the surface and has a tempera-
ture maximum at 20 meters where the core of the warm water has de-
scended to a deeper equilibrium density level. This station probably
has finer structure which does not show because the RS5 was used.
Finally, Station 114 is probably typical of the water along the Beaufort
Sea slope. The warm core has descended to 30 meters and colder water
is beginning to appear underneath. The fine structure is mild.

Although there are many stations at which only RS5 data are
available, often obscuring fine structure, there are enough continuous
temperature traces to strongly suggest that there is at least moderate
mesoscale structure throughout the zone of active interaction of the
coastal current and ice. This extends through the entire area surveyed,
from the southern boundary of the ice to the more northerly boundary
between Stations 91 and 103. In the Beaufort Sea the warm water is
no longer near enough to the surface to interact actively with the ice
and meso structure is mild.

E. CONCLUSIONS

The data taken in MIZPAC 71 are nearly everywhere dominated
by the warm coastal current having its origin in Bering Strait. This cur-
rent turns eastward just beyond the turn of the 10-fathom depth curve
about 25 km northwest of Pt. Barrow and continues to beyond 152°W, the
limit of adequate sampling. Hufford has shown it extending to at least
147°W and shows it present in historical data. It, therefore, is present
in the Beaufort Sea most of the time in the warmer parts of the summer.

Before encountering ice the warm water, at about 6 C, was a

43

(Vi) Hld3Q

44

layer about 13m thick riding atop a dense layer of cold relict water. On
contact with the ice the surface cooled, leaving a warm nose below.
This warm nose was colder and thinner, the farther into the ice the
station. Vestiges of the nose were still present 65-85 km from shore.

In addition to the warm nose there was notable mesoscale
temperature structure, difficult to describe generally. Typically there
were several sharp oscillatory deviations from a smooth curve, often
one-sided protuberances varying from ± 0.2°C to ± 0.8°C in magnitude
and 2-4 m in thickness, the smaller ones most common. Still smaller
deviations were more numerous. These mesoscale deviations were
absent in the deep cold water. However there was at times a second
colder or warmer layer causing a broad step near bottom where the water
was deeper than 40 m.

In the Beaufort Sea the warm layer had descended to 25-40 m
depth, its southern edge lay against the continental slope, its core was
at least 60 km off shore at the most northerly station. Judging from
Hufford's work, the core was perhaps 100 km offshore farther to the east.
One might speculate that the warm stream may have as much development
north of the core as to the south. This would suggest that warm water
extended another 40-60 km seaward to 100-160 km from the Beaufort Sea
shore.

In this part of the Beaufort Sea the principal major feature was
a warm bulge with temperatures as high as 4 C and thickness 25-30 m.
Mesoscale structure was less pronounced than it was before the warm
water descended to its mid-depth position.

III. MIZPAC 72

A. INTRODUCTION

MIZPAC 72 occurred at nearly the same time of year as MIZPAC
71, 31 July to 19 August 1972. The ship was USCGC BURTON ISLAND.
The cruise devoted attention exclusively to the Chukchi Sea and had
many of its stations farther west than the limits of the coastal current,
to 167° W. Closely spaced stations crossing the ice margin were
occupied in a number of places. It went farther north than in 1971 , to
73°-20' N.

Whereas 1971 was a "normal" year for ice, 1972 was a year
of more than normal melting. Also, in 1972, the ice margin was rela-
tively compact in contrast to the fairly diffuse ice margin of 1971.

Equipment problems were distinctly less serious. A better
STD was used and a shunt was in readiness to make recording possible

45

in the upper layers. One hundred fourteen stations were occupied, most
of them with two lowerings. The heading data for these stations are
listed in Appendix I. These headers differ from 1971 only in the pre-
sence of SORD in Column 69 and the addition of a negative exponential
description for ice concentration described in Appendix I.

B. TECHNIQUES

The STD was a Bissett-Berman Model 9006 supplied by the
Arctic Submarine Laboratory. It had a 200-foot depth scale, a 30-35 o/oo
salinity scale, and a -2 to +10 C temperature scale. There were more
expanded salinity and temperature scales but they were used only in a
few cases. The instrument was of the pen-writing type; on the expanded
depth scale it produced incomparably better records than in 1971. No
electrical noise was experienced, possibly due to the use of a line filter
in the a.c. power supply. It was not necessary to use the Beckman RS5.

Unfortunately, the temperature compensator for salinity was no
better than before. The characteristic time constant was measured and
found to have a dominant constant of 2.0 seconds and one of 17. 6 seconds
involving a smaller heat capacity. To alleviate the problem of spurious
salinity spikes as much as possible, lowering was done at the slowest
speed of the winch, 0.09 m/sec. This was about seven times slower than
in 1971 but still was not slow enough to eliminate spikes when the tem-
perature gradients were sharp. For this year, the oscillations of salinity
were traced faithfully with the digitizer because we expected eventually
to be able to correct the salinities and use the resulting densities in a
study of mixing processes near the ice margin. This correction has not
been carried out as yet.

We went prepared with a 270-ohm shunt for the conductivity
cell which was the value which was used in 1971. This did not permit
the entire salinity range to be covered because now there was only one
wide-range scale as contrasted with six ranging from 30 to 41.5 o/oo
after the recorder was shunted in 1971. This was quickly discovered
and a 400-ohm shunt Was constructed in the field and calibrated as
before. Most of the 114 stations were done in two lowerings as in the
latter part of MIZPAC 71 .

The STD was standardized as in 1971 at nearly every station.
At most of the stations surface salinities and temperatures were taken by
way of a bucket. Surface s'alinities are often much lower and tempera-
tures higher than the first reading of the STD. This is to be expected
because the uppermost reading of the STD is about one meter beneath the
surface skin.

46

C . REDUCTION OF DATA

The computer programs of 1971 were modified to record and
process data on magnetic tape. This was essential because the expanded
depth scale resulted in nearly five times as many data points per lowering,
Recording on cards would have required about 50,000 cards. The data
are on several files of a single tape with master card information as be-
fore, but the water properties are written in format F6.2, 2F6.3, F7.2,
F7.4, slightly different from 1971. Tape has its awkard aspects;
particularly, minor corrections and rearrangements are much more dif-
ficult to do. The final output tape may reflect this; the stations now
are not in perfect serial sequence and a few faulty outputs are inter-
spersed because it is too time-consuming to remove them. Details
of the tape output are given in the appendix.

The data listings are similar to those in 1971 but only every
fifth depth level was listed in order to keep the output to a reasonable
bulk. Data is stored on tape at the maximum resolution, 0.0644 m;
condensation by any integral depth factor is possible by parameter
changes for either listing or card punching.

The plotted station data usually shows both the shallow and
deep lowerings on the same plot. Occasionally, this is not possible
where the two lowerings ended up on separate tape files. The shallow
and deep lowerings are then presented separately or one is hand-traced
upon the other. There was at times an unfortunate tendency to make the
shallow lowering as short as possible with the result that there is
sometimes a gap between the lowerings. Where the records overlap
greatly, the curves may be difficult to separate. Hand-entered lettering
is then inserted to assist the reader. Also, the temperature trace is
marked with crosses and the salinity with dots every 20 depth incre-
ments. The overlaps will eventually make possible a more critical
analysis of the behavior of the shunt.

The effect of the shunt was at first computed according to
conductivity tables, based on its effect in air on the apparent salinity
of the STD already shunted with another shunt in air. Comparisons
were then made on the tabular data from the first fifth of the stations
and an empirical correction of +0.3 o/oo was applied to the theoretical
equation. This seems reasonable because the wire passing through the
core of the cell occupies a fraction of the cross-section and leads to
low results in water. A calculation of the resulting area reduction
agrees approximately with the empirical correction. However, there
has been no opportunity to check this conclusion with the aid of the
plots from all the stations.

47

D. RESULTS

A computer-generated station plan (with a simplified coast-
line) is shown in Fig. 29. The connecting lines are shown as a visual
aid; the actual ship track was considerably more erratic, as may be
seen in Fig. 30. The crosses indicate the ship's position at 0100Z and
1300Z. The ship track was used for a diagram of surface temperatures,
Fig. 31, which were measured approximately hourly. To a considerable
extent the 0°C isotherm marks the ice boundary except that in the
coastal current the surface temperature may be warmer in the presence
of 1-2 oktas of ice. Elsewhere it could be 0 C in the absence of ice
if the relative motion of ice and water were causing water and ice to
separate or if ice in low concentrations were drifting through. This
latter seems not to have been a frequent occurrence. Ice concentra-
tions derived mainly from observations on station are shown in Fig. 32.
Two ice reports are added to give some idea of temporal changes.

Several things about this year's data are notably different
than last year.

Warm water, up to 10 C, was found near 167 W well south of
the ice. When this water meets the ice, the warm layer seems to
be nearly destroyed within a short distance beyond the interface.
We seek to demonstrate this and find the dividing line between this
kind of behavior and the more strongly sustained warmth typical
of the coastal current.

Much less mesoscale structure is present far to the west.

Relict water or water not far from this state seems to fill the bottom
of the Chukchi.

The first task is to show how the coastal current compares with
last year. Station 86 (Fig. 33) with a surface temperature of 6.0°C is
remarkably similar to Station 46 of 1971 but is about 0.4°C colder. If
the slight surficial cooling were not present, it would be nearly identical
in temperature, layer depth and salinity. Station 19 (Fig. 34) farther
south but nearer to shore, is much cooler except for a thin skin near the
surface which gets up to 7 C. Station 87 (Fig. 35) is much like Station
86, but is slightly warmer, 6.8°C. The anchorage at Pt. Barrow was
different. There the temperature in 1971 was 5.3 C subsurface and
2 . 8° C on the surface because of the continual passage of drifting ice.
In 1972, free of ice, the temperature throughout 18 meters of depth was
7.9°C.

Station 76 (Fig. 36) which corresponds roughly with Station 138
of 1971 is only about 8 miles inside the ice margin, one fourth as far as

48

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in 1971, and is not greatly different than in 1971. The deep tempera-
tures are almost identical, -1.7°C. In 1972 the near bottom salinity is
33.00 o/oo, about 0.3 o/oo lower than in 1971. The surface salinity
is about 2 o/oo lower and the residual warm nose is less prominant.

There is some tendency to be misled in making comparisons
with 1971 because the 1972 survey covered so much larger an area and
is charted on smaller scale. In 1972 most of the stations in and near
ice were farther west and north than those in 1971. Most of them,
then, are not in the main core of the coastal current, which was found
flowing close to the coast. Perhaps the best group to examine for
similarities is the sequence 106, 105, 107-114 (Fig. 37). The sequence
106-110 is roughly comparable to the group 75-91 of 1971 with the
difference that ice is lacking up to Station 110, except for scattered
large isolated floes up to 1000 m in diameter at an over-all concentra-
tion less than one okta. During the travel northward there was ice to
the west at some unknown distance usually greater than 5 miles. The
number of miles inside the margin therefore is shown as "-10?" for the
stations concerned. Just beyond Station 110 the ice concentration be-
came about one okta. Even at Station 113 the ship was subjected to a
little swell apparently arising from fairly open water to the east. At
Station 114 the ice concentration was up to two oktas.

The entire region from Station 107 to 114 was one exhibiting
symptoms of large-scale break-up. The warm nose in the temperature
profile was present even as far north as Station 114, nearly 50 miles
farther north than the point of presumed eastward turning of the coastal
current into the Beaufort. This may be because it was a year of greater
melting than in 1971 or, conversely, the melting may have been a symp-
tom of greater northward transport of heat which might push the turning
point farther north. Still another possibility is that Brower's (1942)
observation that the coastal current branches at a point north of Pt.
Barrow has some validity and we are observing the northerly (or north-
westerly) branch.

The remainder of the survey area, outside the coastal current
was characterized by conditions similar to the coastal current as long
as the position was well outside the ice. The typical structure was a
warm layer, perhaps as warm as 10 C, often isothermal extending to an
exceedingly sharp thermocline which then rounded off to a constant
temperature of -1 .65 to -1.75°C at depths greater than 20-40 mi. In
the most westerly portions of the area, cooling at the surface progressed
steadily on approach to the ice even though there was little or no ice
present south of the ice margin. This situation is summarized in Fig. 38
which nests the temperature plots from Stations 34-44 with a 1°C spacing,
stopping just short of the ice. It is interesting that the typical stair-step

57

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structure maintains itself but the warm layer thins as cooling pro-
gresses. Wave action accounts for the mixing of the upper layer;
thinning of the upper layer appears to be due to thickening of the sub-
thermocline layer rather than to mixing of heat downward. Geostrophic
forces associated with an easterly current component could cause this
condition. We picture here the possible existence of a cyclonic gyre
in the northern Chukchi as suggested by Aagard and Coachman (1964)
and by the ice drifts reported by Garrison and Pence (1973) .

The cooling toward the north could be due to a loss of heat
to the atmosphere or to the presence of diffuse ice in the recent past.
In this connection note the long tongue of ice extending south along
this line of stations according to the ice report of August 2, one day
earlier, as shown in Fig. 32. One might also consider it possible
that the flow is toward the south or southeast and that warming takes
place as the water drifts southward. This must not be true or the ice
would drift southward in the presence of the predominantly westerly
winds prevailing at the time (See Appendix I for wind data) .

Figure 39 continues this series of Fig. 38 across the ice
interface. At Station 47, 3 miles inside the ice margin, most of the
near-surface warmth was gone. However, it is interesting that all
the profiles of this series, even to 18 miles inside the margin, were
warmest at the surface. There was little mesostructure.

Another crossing in the same area is shown in Fig. 40. The
conclusion is similar but, at and just within the ice boundary, cooling
at the surface was sufficient to produce a small "warm" nose. The series
of Stations 66 to 74, Fig. 41, another crossing of the ice margin in the
east-central part of the area, lead to similar conclusions.

The sequence of Stations 22-28, Fig. 42, 65 miles from the
coast is somewhat similar. The warm nose maintains itself a little
better, there is structure in the depth zone which was warm, but not
much warmth was retained at the 5-mile penetration, Station 28.

In the coastal current, the picture which developed in 1971
was one in which the warm layer maintained itself with little tempera-
ture decrease until it encountered ice. Then the remanants of the layer
were still maintained at depth after many miles of travel under the ice.
Mesostructure was frequent and sometimes prominent. The series,
Station 106-114, already illustrated, also adheres to this type.

The difference in the westerly stations may most easily be
accounted for by a difference in the rate of flow of the warm water.
West of the coastal current one sees a layer of warm Bering Sea water

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with about the same thickness and temperature as that which supplies
the coastal current. But it must flow more slowly, so it cools in a
shorter distance along its path, either by loss of heat to the atmosphere
or because of a sporadic macro-diffusion of ice southward. The local
density differences which result when large quantities of ice are being
melted at different but rapid rates are now much smaller and interleaving
of waters of different temperatures is a languid rather than a violent
process. Hence little mesostructure results.

One should not postulate that conditions still farther to the
west need be similar. The average ice conditions for late August
(U. W. Naval Oceanographic Office, 1958) show a deep lobe of melting
with its axis directed toward Wrangel Island. Our most westerly station
is on the eastern margin of this lobe. The size of the lobe suggests
that the melting occurring there is more extensive and perhaps as in-
tensive as along the Alaskan coast. Hence, the water flow may be
similar to those near the coastal current.

E. CONCLUSIONS

In 1972 the area surveyed was mostly well to the west of the
coastal current. However, enough stations were in locations similar
to those of 1971 to support the conclusion that the coastal current was
like it was in 1971, possibly a little warmer. Perhaps the higher tem-
peratures were due to the ice being farther north rather than to any
change in temperature at the source in Bering Strait.

The entire area south of the ice and westward to 167°W, which
is 140-190 miles from shore, was found to contain warm water, as warm
as 10° C, in a layer up to 20 m thick riding on what is apparently a
layer of relict water formed during the winter. This is similar to condi-
tions near the coast, though somewhat warmer, but the deep layer is
now colder than -1.65°C with few exceptions. The interface between
the two layers is sharp but there is often a rounding of the tempera-
ture trace before the deep isothermal layer is reached. There appears
to be no gap between the warm water in the coastal current and the warm
water seaward. Thus, the splitting of the northward-flowing water at
Pt. Hope which is mentioned by Aagard and Coachman (1964) does not
seem to result in a complete separation of the two branches.

Well away from the coastal current the phenomena associated
with interaction of warm water and ice are mild. Most of the warm
layer is usually gone within about one to three miles inside the ice
margin, leaving a residual slightly warmer nose at between 5 and 10 m
depth. Indeed, cooling of the warm layer toward the north occurred
even in the absence of ice. Mesoscale structure in the temperature

65

profiles is mild or absent in this region. When it does occur, it tends
to be in the depth zone of the warm layer and not in the layer below the
thermocline.

At a distance of 65 miles from the coast, intermediate condi-
tions occurred in the sense that the warm layer seemed better able to
maintain itself up to and beyond the ice boundary. There was more
mesostructure but it did not penetrate below the depth of the original
warm layer.

The milder nature of the phenomena in the region seaward of
the coastal current may be ascribed to a much weaker flow of warm
water toward the ice.

IV. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

1. The eastern Chukchi Sea, as observed north of 70 N and west to
167 W, is influenced by warm water flowing north from Bering Strait.
The warm water typically lies in a layer 10-20 m thick atop a cold layer
which, in much of the area, appears to be a relic of last winter's
freezing processes. The region within 30-50 miles of the Alaskan coast
behaves differently than the rest of the area because the water near the
coast is flowing rpaidly north-eastward. As a result, the interactions
with the ice are more productive of complex temperature and sound-
velocity profiles and residues of the warm water intrude farther under
the ice than in the region far from shore.

2. Near the coast, the result of warm water meeting ice is surficial
cooling and a formation of a warm nose in the temperature profile, just
beneath the surface. Mesoscale temperature inversions and irregulari-
ties complicate the profiles both above and below the thermocline.
West of the coastal zone similar but less marked phenomena occur.
Most of the heat is gone within a few miles under the ice, sometimes
even before the ice boundary is reached. Mesostructure generally is
mild and is confined to the region near the ice margin and above the
thermocline.

3. The warm layer near the coast gradually descends as it moves to-
ward the Arctic Basin. There, at least a portion of the warm water
turned east and flows into the Beaufort Sea to at least 147°W. The
core of the warm water is at a depth of 25-50 m and is mostly seaward
of the 10-fathom curve. In this region it does not interact with ice
directly and the mesostructure consequently is mild. The temperature
profile typically has a bulge to as much as 4 at the depth of the
warm core.

66

4. In 1972, phenomena in the coastal current appeared to be similar
to 1971 but the ice was much farther to the north. Temperature struc-
tures typical of rapid flow were found northwest of Pt. Barrow 50 miles
farther seaward than the point at which the current had been presumed
to turn to the east in 1971. This may be a seasonal difference or may
indicate a branching in the current.

V. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors are indebted to the officers and crews of USCGC
NORTHWIND and BURTON ISLAND. Assisting with observations in
1971 were Dr. M . Allan Beal of the Naval Undersea Center, San Diego,
Mr. Ernest Linger of the Applied Physics Laboratory, University of
Washington and U.S. Coast Guard Cadets J. F. McEntire, G. H.
Detweiler and B. V. Hunter. Also assisting were Marine Science Tech-
nicians Brown, Tate and Thompson and Marine Science Chief Meehan.
In 1972, those assisting with observations were Peter Benson and
Richard Bachman of NUC, Marine Science Technicians D. A. Frappier,
J. H. Doing, R. N. Green, W. R. Shepard and Toscano and MSC F. E.
Wiggins .

In 1971 the STD was supplied in excellent condition by the U.S.
Naval Oceanographic Office and the remaining ancillary electronic
equipment and a laboratory salinometer were supplied by Delco Electron-
ics, Santa Barbara Operations. In 1972 the STD was supplied by the
Arctic Submarine Laboratory of NUC and the ancillary equipment, as
before, by Delco Electronics.

VI. LITERATURE CITED

Aagard, K. and L. K. Coachman (1964). In U.S.C .G. Oceanographic
Report No. 1, Oceanographic Cruise USCGC NORTHWIND; Bering
and Chukchi Seas, July-Sept. 1962, 104 pp.

Brower, C. D. (1942). Fifty years below zero, New York, Dodd , Mead
& Co. , 310 pp, p 191.

English, T. S. (1962). Some remarks on Arctic Ocean plankton, Pro-
ceedings of the Arctic Basin Symposium, October 1962, (1963) ,
p. 184.

Garrison, G. R. and E. A. Pence (1973). Studies in the marginal ice

zone of the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas, Applied Physics Laboratory,
University of Washington Report APL-UW 7223, 31 January 1973,
224 pp.

67

Hufford, G. L. (1973) . Warm water advection in the southern Beaufort
Sea August-September 1971, J. Geophys. Res. 7_8 (15) 2702-2708)

U. S. Naval Oceanoglaphic Office (1958). Oceanographic atlas of the
polar seas, Part II, Arctic, H. O. Pub. No. 705, 149 pp.

68

APPENDIX I
CODING OF THE HEADINGS AND MAGNETIC TAPE FORMATS

The headings of both printed and magnetic -tape outputs use the
coding and format from NODC Publication M-2, August 1964, with a
few exceptions. The heading entries which are not self-explanatory-
are as follows. MSQ is the Marsden Square, water depth is in meters,
wave source direction is in tens of degrees, but the direction 00 indi-
cates no observation. The significant height is coded by Table 10
(Code/2 = height in meters). Wave period is coded by Table II (Code
x 2 = period in sec). Wind speed is coded as Beaufort force, Table 17.
The barometer is in millibars, less 1000 if more than 3 digits; dry-bulb
and wet-bulb temperatures are in degrees C, coded with a minus sign
rather than an overpunch. The cloud type is from Table 25 and amount
(oktas) from Table 26, with X in the first case and 9 in the second case
indicating that clouds cannot be observed because of environmental
conditions. The visibility is from Table 27 which is roughly in powers
of two with Code 4 = 1-2 km. The ice concentration is in oktas.

The entry CODE indicates the kind of data taken on the station as
follows:

1. STD in entire water column sampled.

2. STD in lower part of water column, no data from upper part.

3. STD and shunted STD used; two lowerings.

4. STD and Beckman RS5.

5. Beckman RS5 only.

6. 1971 only, Sta. 92-103, conductivity cell shunt inconveniently
low resistance. Sta. 104-163, shunted STD only .

Codes 7 to C (hexadecimal) . Same as above, but without surface
bucket observation. Codes 4, 5, 6, A, B, and C were not
applicable in 1972.

The magnetic tape output was written on 9-track tape in 40-digit
records blocked to 3200 digits at density 400 bpi. Each set of station
data is preceded by heading information occupying two 40-digit records,
nearly equivalent to the NODC header card. The water properties are
in the order depth, temperature, salinity, sound velocity (meters/sec),
and sigma-t in Fortran format 3F6. 2 , F8. 2 , F7 .3 . In 1972 the format is

69

1-2

3-<

[

5-9

10-

-15

16-

-18

19-

-20

21-

-22

23-

-24

25-

-27

28-

-30

31-

-33

34-

-37

38-

-39

F6.2, 2F6.3, F7.2, F7.4; in 1972 the stations are listed in several
files, presently only partly in serial order.

The heading is formatted as follows:

Columns

Nation code
Ship code

Latitude, degrees and tenths
Longitude
Marsden square
Year
Month
Day

Hour (Greenwich) and tenths, start of lowerings
Cruise No. (blank)
Station No.

Bottom depth, meters (called DPTH on header listings)
Depth at which STD starts, meters (called SDPTH on
header listing)
40 Blank

Forty is added to the column number of the second record below to
make comparison with NODC format simpler.

Columns

41-43 No.of sets of observations in the tabulation as inserted

by header card (on tape but not on header card in 1976)

44 CODE

45 Zero or blank in 1971. In 1972, a minus sign converts
the following ice concentration digit, I, to the sense of
10 exp(-I).

46 Ice concentration in oktas (labeled IC on header listing)
47-48 Wave direction (WVD on header listing)

49 Wave height code

50 Wave period code

51-52 Wind direction (WND on header listing)

53 Blank

54 Wind speed, Beaufort (V)

55-57 Barometer, millibars less the thousands digit

58-60 Air temperature and tenths (with minus sign, no over-

punches) . Labeled DRY on header listing
61-63 Wet-bulb temperature as above (WET on header listing)

64 Blank

65 Weather code (WTHR)

70

Column

66 Cloud type code (CL)

67 Cloud amount code

68 Visibility code

69 SORD, puts in the "S" or "D" for the Station No. (not
used in 1971)

70-72 Number of observations as counted by Program MIZ1 (on

tape but not on header cards in 1972)
73-75 Station number as produced by MIZ1

(Note that these last two are redundant and were used for checking)

76-80 Blank

71

APPENDIX II

HEADING DATA FOR STATION OCCUPIED
IN 1971 AND 1972

Heading data are listed on the following pages for 1971 and 1972
The coding conventions are those described in Appendix I.

72

u

,0 <o p. oo co oo oo
— iOcooooouoo

0» CO CO CO 00 00 CO

x p» p- p- p- p- p.
■r (M p- p- p- r— p.

comr\icommm.- <

»-< eg — » —I _| ~+ r*

o cj o co r— -o f-

— J *-l — 4 o o o — •

o o o o o o o

en rn rn en o o m

m (T) rri in in in m

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o o

o o

ro -r sj- *j-

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p- uj *u rjs m — 4 n-
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IT) CO U3

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91

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UNCLASSIFIED

SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGE (When Daia Entered)

REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE

1. REPORT NUMBER

NPS-58PA731£1

2. GOVT ACCESSION NO

READ INSTRUCTIONS
BEFORE COMPLETING FORM

3. RECIPIENT'S CATALOG NUMBER

4. TITLE (and Subtitle)

OCEANOGRAPHIC MEASUREMENTS NEAR THE
ARCTIC ICE MARGINS

S. TYPE OF REPORT ft PERIOD COVERED

Final Report
5/15/72 to 11/30/73

6. PERFORMING ORG. REPORT NUMBER

7. AUTHORfaJ

Robert G. Paquette and
Robert H. Bourke

S. CONTRACT OR GRANT NUMBER! •;

PO-2-0054 and 3-0035

9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

Naval Postgraduate School
Department of Oceanography
Monterey, California 93940

10. PROGRAM ELEMENT, PROJECT, TASK
AREA » WORK UNIT NUMBERS

11. CONTROLLING OFFICE NAME AND ADDRESS

Arctic Submarine Laboratory
Code 90, Naval Undersea Center
San Dieao . California 92132

12. REPORT DATE

13. NUMBER OF PAGES

96

U. MONITORING AGENCY NAME ft ADDRESSf// different from Controlling Office)

IS. SECURITY CLASS. <ol thlm riport)

UNCLASSIFIED

15a. DECLASSIFI CATION/ DOWN GRADING
SCHEDULE

16. DISTRIBUTION ST ATEMENT (ot thle Report)

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited

17. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT (of the abttract entered In Block 20, It different from Report)

18. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

19. KEY WORDS (Continue on revere* etde It neceeeery end Identity by block number)

OCEANOGRAPHY
CHUKCHI SEA
BEAUFORT SEA
MARGINAL ICE ZONE

THERMAL MESOSTRUCTURE
SOUND TRANSMISSION
VARIABILITY
CIRCULATION

20. ABSTRACT (Continue on reveree elde It noceeeary and Identity by block number)

Temperature and salinity measurements were made in and near the ice in the
Chukchi and Beaufort Seas with a continuously profiling instrument in August
of 1971 and 1972 as part of the MIZPAC Program. Warm water of Bering Sea
origin was found south of the ice in all of the area surveyed, layered sharply
on top of cold water. Complex temperature and sound-velocity profiles were
found near the Alaskan Coast north of the ice margin, diminishing in intensity
toward the interior of the ice nark but still notineahlp (nnntinnpri on barM)

DD ,^3 1473
(Page 1)

EDITION OF 1 NOV 68 IS OBSOLETE

S/N 0102-014-6601 I

95

UNCLASSIFIED

SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAOe (When Data *nt

UNCLASSIFIED

i'tCUKlTY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS PAGEfH7»«n Dmtm Enffd)

20. ABSTRACT (continued)

30 miles inside the ice boundary. West of the coastal zone, to 167 W, the
phenomena were much milder and more quickly damped by the ice. The
coastal current was observed to turn, perhaps branch, and flow along the
Beaufort Sea slope, below the surface at a depth of 25-50 m, to a longitude
of 152 W. Other information indicates that it maintains its identity for at
least another 100 miles eastward.

DD 1 Jan^ 14?3 ^BACK) UNCLASSIFIED

S/N 0102-014-6601 SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF THIS P*GE(Wh,n Omtm Bnffd)

96

U157952

°^L,EY KN°X LIBRARy - RESEARCH REPORTS

5 6853 01058114 3

i