TR-217
2 or ae TECHNICAL REPORT
OCEANOGRAPHIC SURVEY RESULTS
KARA SEA
SUMMER AND FALL 1965
VEE
/ NAVAL OCEANOGRAPHIC OFFICE
TYAS WASHINGTON, D.C. 20390
| nw TR-Al'] Price $1.10
ABSTRACT:
NAVOCEANO: made a survey of the Kara dues me the summer
and fall, of 1965.
Data were collected at 163 oceanographic Kiaasele stations and in-
cluded serial-depth temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, nitro-
gen, pH, reactive phosphorus, and reactive silicate measurements.
Six major water masses were found in the Kara Sea: Continental
Runoff, Atlantic Water, Arctic Water, Residual Water, Inflow from
the Laptev Sea, and Arctic Bottom Water.
Atlantic Water is brought into the Kara Sea both as a deep estu-
arine inflow from the Arctic Ocean compensating for the outflow of
shallower Continental Runoff and as a relatively shallow inflow from
the Barents Sea. This estuarine movement from the Arctic Ocean
raises the core depth of the Atlantic Water from 300 to 150 meters
where it then mixes with the inflow from the Barents Sea and Con-
tinental Runoff. The movementof Atlantic Water across the
Barents Sea and into the Kara Sea has largely been ignored by
American oceanographers.
Arctic Water is formed in the shallow peripheral seas adjacent
to the Arctic Ocean, e.g., the Kara Sea, by mixing of Continental
Runoff with the saline Atlantic Water. Salinity and density increase
as ice forms during the winter.
Residual Water was found in the deeper areas of the East Novaya
Zemlya Trough. This water, formed by cooling and gradual sink-
ing, had the coldest temperatures found on the survey.
Arctic Bottom Water was found in the deepest portions of the
Svyataya Anna and Voronin Troughs. It, like Atlantic Water, also
is probably brought into the areas as a countercurrent to the out-
flowing Continental Runoff.
Reactive silicate was an interesting new parameter for examining
Continental Runoff; noted especially were anomalously high meas-
urements recorded north of Ostrov Vize. Other parameters which
proved valuable in the study of water masses were pH and re- ~
active phosphorus.
DONALD B. MILLIGAN
Nearshore Surveys Division
(Now with Programs Division,
Office of the Oceanographer of the Navy)
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FOREWORD
The Naval Oceanographic Office conducted an extensive
oceanographic survey in the Kara Sea during the summer and
fall of 1965. Data from 163 ocean stations provided infor-
mation which allowed a detailed analysis of the marine
environment. The major emphasis of this technical report
is on the water masses which either enter or originate in
ED eure.
T. K. TREADWELL
Captain, U.S. Navy
Commander
the Kara Sea.
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2. Description of Rivers Emptying Into the Kara Sea.....16
3. Description of Water Masses Found in the Kara Sea....16
4, The Wust Core Method for Water Mass Determination....19
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SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS..... SOOO OC OR OOO CiGaVON GO Os O OD)
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FIGURES
NAVOCEANO Arctic Surveys from 1961 through 1965......ccccese 2
Chart Showing Relative Inaccessibility of Kara Sea........... 4
Track of NORTHWIND, July - October 1965........cseeecccccecee 4
Ice Conditions of the Survey Area........... boccDG00000000000 9
Oceanographic Station Locations in the Kara Sea.............. /
Bottom Topography of the Survey Area......cesecccrcesececeveeld
Temporal Changes at Certain LocationsS.......cceccccccseeees oo odk7/
Temperature/Salinity Curves for Selected Stations............18
Water Mass Determination Using the Wust Core Method.......... 20
Changes in Various Parameters at 24-Hour Anchor Station......22
Surface Temperature Distribution........-cccccccceccsereeseeede
Surface Salinity Distribution........ccccecccecces od00000000025)
Surface Salinity Distribution-Taken from Vize (1933)........ -26
Temperature Distribution at 10 Meters......-.ccccceeeers D000 0!
Salinity Distribution at 10 Meters...... p00000c0000000 o00000 Os
Dissolved Silicate Distribution at 10 Meters..........e.0ee0029
Phytoplankton Biomass Distribution Found During the 1934
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Temperature/Salinity Diagram for a Selected Line of Stations.34
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Salinity Distribution at 25 Meters......ceccscseesecs S600 000008
Salinity Distribution at 50 Meters..... oo0000000 selielisilode isl ej eveneneketo,
Salinity Distribution at 100 Meters...... GO0000000000CDDD O00 40
Temperature/Salinity Diagram for a Selected Line of Stations.41
Temperature/Salinity Diagram for a Selected Line of Stations. 43
Temperature/Salinity Diagram for a Selected Line of Stations.44
PHOTOGRAPHS Page
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TABLES
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Siberian Rivers Emptying Into the Kara Sea........seseecesee lO
Bottom Current Data at 24-Hour Station.......ccccccccesccccecll
APPENDIX
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I. INTRODUCTION
A. A Brief History of Exploration of the Kara Sea.
William Barents made the first known survey of the Kara Sea in
1594. Later, with the urging of Peter the Great in the early 1700's,
the Great Northern Expedition of 1733 to 1743 succeeded in mapping
the northern coast of Asia and Europe. Economic reasons, rather than
scientific, were the primary motivation for these early explorations
as attempts were made to find a water route over the top of Eurasia
between the eastern and western civilizations (Gordienko, 1961). In
1763, Mikhail Lomonosov wrote the first significant scientific work
on this area, "Brief Account of Travels in the Northern Seas." The
Swedish explorer N.A.E. Nordenskjold made the first passage from the
Barents Sea to the Pacific Ocean in 1878 and established the Northeast
Passage. Nordenskjold also explored the Kara Sea in 1875 and 1876
and published the first accurate chart of the area.
In 1893, the Norwegian oceanographer Fridtjof Nansen crossed the
Kara Sea in the historic voyage of the FRAM (Nansen, 1902).
The U.S.S.R. has undertaken an extensive oceanographic program
in the arctic peripheral seas; however, the data collected on these
surveys are not readily available to western scientists.
B. Narrative of the Survey.
The Naval Oceanographic Office (NAVOCEANO) conducted an extensive
oceanographic survey of the Kara Sea during the summer and fall of
1965. The survey was performed aboard U.S. Coast Guard Cutter NORTHWIND
(WAGB 282) (Photo 1) by ten NAVOCEANO scientists. The author was
chief scientist. This study of the Kara Sea is only a small part
of a continuing survey effort by NAVOCEANO in a relatively unexplored
and strategic area. Figure 1 denotes the NAVOCEANO Arctic surveys
from 1961 through 1965 and includes the Kara Sea survey.
In addition to the oceanographic program aboard NORTHWIND, Dr. N.
Ostenso, two graduate students, and one technician from the University
of Wisconsin conducted a geomagnetic and gravity program. Their program
was coordinated closely with the total effort.
Owing to the paucity of available information and the relative
inaccessibility of the survey area (Fig. 2), an effort was made to
canvass the scientific community before the survey to provide as much
needed data as time allowed.
Underway radioisotope water sampling began on 18 July en route
from Copenhagen, Denmark, to the Kara Sea, and oceanographic station
work started in the Kara Sea on 25 July. A temporary halt was called
on 5 August and a damaged starboard shaft was replaced while the ship
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LEGEND
NORTHWIND 1965
EDISTO 1965 ae
BURTON IS. 1964 je
EDISTO 1964
LABRADOR 1963
NORTHWIND 1963
EDISTO 1963
TANNER 1963
NORTHWIND 1962
ATKA 1962
EDISTO 196
STATEN IS. 1961
ex@oe@aAperxead
FIGURE 1. NAVOCEANO Arctic Surveys from 1961 through 1965
PHOTO 1. USCGC NORTHWIND (WAGB 282)
was drydocked in Newcastle, England. On 10 September, radioisotope
water sampling was continued, and oceanographic stations were occupied
from 12 September to 2 October. A track of the survey is presented
in Figure 3.
C. Ice Conditions in the Survey Area.
Oceanographic operations in the Kara Sea were not hampered greatly
by ice (Fig. 4). Close ice, found along the east coast of Novaya
Zemlya, apparently was due to prevailing winds (Photo 2). When NORTHWIND
returned to the area following the inport period, almost all the ice
had disappeared. Permanent arctic pack ice was not encountered until
NORTHWIND had penetrated north of Severnaya Zemlya. The northernmost
line of stations was taken in and just south of this pack. Along
FIGURE 2. Chart Showing Relative Inaccessibility of Kara Sea
FIGURE 3. Track of NORTHWIND, July-October 1965
ICE FREE
“WB OPEN WATER (<1)
> == VERY OPEN PACK (1-3)
We OPEN PACK ( 4-6)
MB CLOSE PACK (.7-9)
Wi VERY CLOSE PACK (1.0)
FIGURE 4. Ice Conditions of the Survey Area
PHOTO 2. Close Ice
this line, grease ice and pancake ice were encountered, and at 80°E,
the ice increased to close pack. However, the existence of polynyas
permitted oceanographic stations to be taken. Close pack also was
found along the southeast and southern coasts of Franz Josef Land.
D. Survey Accomplishments.
A total of 163 oceanographic Nansen stations was occupied in the
Kara Sea and adjoining Barents Sea (Fig. 5). At these stations, 1,814
serial-depth temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, nitrogen, and
pH observations were obtained. In addition, 1,797 water samples were
frozen and returned to NAVOCEANO for determination of reactive phosphorus
and reactive silicate concentrations. Also, bathythermograph lowerings
were made at 161 stations, 15 samples were taken in a program of
continuous air sampling, 25 nannoplankton samples were obtained, 6
plankton tows were taken while drifting on station, 35 thirty~gallon
water samples were collected for gamma-radiation analysis, 48 bottom
sediment grab samples were collected, and 95 gravity cores were taken
in areas of water depth in excess of 200 meters. A special piston
corer (Photo 3) was used to obtain six cores. These cores were collected
-
Sey SS le
WNava “zen
sa
eu e Pow gf
FIGURE 5. Oceanographic Station Locations in the Kara Sea. Stations 160 through
163 were located in the Barents Sea and are not included in this figure.
PHOTO 3. Modified Piston Corer
for gamma-radiation analysis ef the surface layers. A total of 12,000
miles of bathymetric profiles was recorded in the Kara Sea and adjoining
sea areas. These records will be used to revise present charts of
the area. Subbottom configuration was plotted along much of the ship's
track. The core and subbottom profiling data will be discussed in
separate reports. Two deep current stations were occupied, and five
shallow water areas were surveyed bathymetrically.
E. Observational and Analytical Techniques.
Serial-depth observations were made from the surface to the bottom
at all stations with a single cast of 13 or 14 Nansen bottles until
loss of a cast at station 143 necessitated a second cast at some
stations. The tin-lined Nansen bottles carried two and sometimes
three protected reversing thermometers. At depths in excess of 200
meters, two protected thermometers and one unprotected thermometer
were used. Due to the shallow water and the close proximity of ice,
the wire angle of the Nansen cast usually was less than 5 degrees.
On the shallow stations where an appreciable wire angle was encountered,
depth calculations were made by multiplying the cosine of the wire
angle by the wire out. Thermometers were allowed at least 6 minutes
to come to equilibrium before reversal. A check was kept of thermometer
performance, and when paired thermometers consistently failed to
agree by at least 0.02°C, one thermometer of the pair was interchanged
with a thermometer of another pair. This interchanging allowed determina-
tions of thermometer accuracy. Approximately 88 percent of the paired
thermometer readings agreed to within 0.02°C. Table I groups the
temperature differences between paired thermometers and gives the
number of readings in each group.
TABLE |. Thermometer Performance
0.00-0.02°C 0.03-0.04°C One Thermometer Greater than 0.04°C
Accepted or a Malfunction
3,092 168 200 62
Water samples were drawn and examined for dissolved oxygen and
nitrogen content using a modified Fisher Gas Partitioner (Photo 4)
equipped with an integrating recorder (Sullivan, 1963).
A Beckman Model 76 expanded scale pH meter was used for pH determina-
tions.
Salinity samples were analyzed aboard ship using induction~type
salinometers. Difficulties were encountered with the salinometers,
and as a check, salinity samples collected after station 57 were
returned to NAVOCEANO for a second analvsis. This check did not
produce the anticipated precision, and the best claim for this cruise
is +0.10 % . However, with the marked variations of salinity with
depth due to the large amounts of runoff from the Ob and Yenisey
Rivers, the salinity problems have not materially affected the results
of the survey.
y PHOTO 4. Modified Fisher Gas Partitionar
Water samples were frozen and returned to NAVOCEANO for reactive
phosphorus and reactive silicate analyses. The methods of Murphy
and Riley (1962) and Strickland and Parsons (1965) were used for
these analyses.
Bathythermograph lowerings were taken by ship's personnel using
a mechanical BT.
Plankton samples were taken while drifting on station and were
preserved in an aqueous solution of formaldehyde and returned to Dr.
N. Anderson of NAVOCEANO.
The continuous air sampling program consisted of mounting a pump
on the flying bridge and drawing air through a filter. The filter
was changed every 3 days and stored for return to Dr. J. H. Harley
of the Health and Safety Laboratory, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission.
Nannoplankton samples were collected for Dr. A. McIntyre of the
Lamont Geological Observatory for electronic microscopic analysis.
Surface water samples initially were sieved through a wire mesh to
remove all coarse material and then were pumped through a very fine
filter. The filters were stored and at the end of the survey forwarded
to Lamont Geological Observatory for analysis.
10
In shallow areas, 30-gallon water samples for gamma-radiation
analysis were collected while the ship was underway. These samples
were drawn through the ship's fire main system after first flushing
the fire main for 30 minutes. In the deeper trench areas, the gamma-
radiation samples were taken while the ship was lying-to using a Bodman
bottle (Photo 5) at 100-meter depth intervals. To indicate possible
PHOTO 5. Bodman Bottle
im
pretrips, a Nansen bottle was placed directly above the Bodman bottle,
and salinities of the two samples were compared. The Bodman bottle
samples were stored in 15-gallon containers and returned to Dr. Anderson.
The six core samples obtained with the special piston corer were
frozen immediately after they were collected and were forwarded to
Dr. Anderson for radiological examination at the end of the survey.
The 95 Kullenberg gravity cores, averaging about 1 to 2 meters
in length and 5 centimeters in diameter, were collected in plastic
(Tulox) liners, wrapped with Saran Wrap, and covered with a thick
layer of wax. These cores were divided between the University of
Wisconsin and NAVOCEANO. The cores, when opened at NAVOCEANO 3 to
4 months later, had suffered very little desiccation. They were analyzed
for specific gravity, moisture content, organic carbonates, bulk density,
porosity, lithology, and grain size.
The 48 bottom grab samples were taken using either a Shipek grab
or a weighted orange peel bucket sampler. These samples were divided
between the University of Wisconsin and the Smithsonian Institution.
The Smithsonian Institution samples were preserved with dilute alcohol
and sealed in pint jars for foraminiferal examination.
Two current stations were taken in the Kara Sea. The first, while
examining a shoal area, was of 4 hours duration. The second was taken
for 24 hours to obtain information for a full tidal cycle. The current
meter used (Photo 6) was a Hydro Products Model 460 current speed
sensor (Savonius rotor type) and Model 465A current direction sensor.
Both sensors were connected to deck readout modules and Rustrak recorders.
Continuous bathymetric profiling was done along the entire track
of the survey using an Alden Precision Graphic Recorder (PGR) Model
418. At half-hour intervals, the PGR record was annotated with the
date and time.
Using a Gifft transceiver in conjunction with the PGR, a continuous
subbottom profile was recorded along with the bathymetry for much
of the track of the NORTEWIND. Bottom penetration was possible due
to the variable pulse length of the transceiver and the shallow depths
of the survey area.
Ship positioning was unusually accurate due to the installation
of a Satellite Navigational System (SRN-9) designed by the Applied
Physics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University. The accuracy of this
system was about 500 feet.
F. Data Analysis and Presentation.
Oceanographic station data were checked, coded, and forwarded
to the National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC). Machine computations
12
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PHOTO 6. Hydro Products Current Meter
produced sigma-t, dynamic depth and specific volume anomalies, and
sound velocity values at observed and standard depths.
Although the figures in this report were prepared from manually
computed standard depth values, the discrepancies engendered by machine
and manual computations are insignificant.
13
Map views depicting salinity and temperature distributions were
prepared for depths of 0, 10, 25, 50, and 100 meters. Reactive phosphorus,
reactive silicate, and pH concentrations at 10 meters were chosen
because this depth seemed to best depict Continental Runoff. A map
view and a cross section of temperature and salinity, based on Wust's
Core Method, were prepared in an attempt to trace the deep Atlantic
Water movement into the Kara Sea. Map views delineating bottom topography
and ice conditions are presented. The topographic data were primarily
obtained from sonic depth soundings taken on oceanographic stations.
The ice map was modified from the map contained in the Cruise Report
of the NORTHWIND (NORTHWIND, 1965).
Temperature versus salinity (I-S) plots were drawn for four of
the longer cross sections, and a T-S plot was drawn to show the presence
of various water masses in different geographical areas.
Temporal variations were observed from data obtained at stations
reoccupied after a 6-week time lapse and by various data parameters
observed at the 24-hour current station.
Fifty cross sections are presented in the appendix, the majority
of which are of temperature and salinity.
II. OCEANOGRAPHY OF THE KARA SEA
A. General.
1. Physical Setting. The Kara Sea is a shallow sea enclosed
by the Franz Josef, Severnaya Zemlya, and Novaya Zemlya island groups;
the Russian mainland on the southeast; the Barents Sea on the west;
and the Arctic Ocean on the north (see Fig. 2). The sea is approximately
1,300km in length and has an area gf 883 ,000kni? , an average depth
of 118m, and a volume of 104, 000km® The Kara Sea overlies a portion
of the Asian continental einelies aansequencisy, in only three areas
do depths exceed 200 meters (Fig. 6). One of these deep areas, the
East Novaya Zemlya Trough, lies along the eastern coast of Novaya
Zemlya and is a miniaturized deep sea trench complete with outer
ridge development (Johnson and Milligan, 1967). The two other deep
areas, the Svyataya Anna Trough and the Voronin Trough located between
the Franz Josef Land and Severnaya Zemlya Island groups, have the
same geomorphological history as the East Novaya Zemlya Trough; these
troughs deepen to the north and provide ingress for deep Atlantic
Water which has transited the Arctic Ocean. They also provide egress
of Kara Sea surface waters into the Arctic Basin. The deepest depths
found in the Kara Sea area are in excess of 600 meters where the
Svyataya Anna Trough incises the continental slope. A majority of
the observed depths of the Kara Sea are less than 100 meters, and
a definite shoaling trend extends northward from the Ob and Yenisey
Rivers to the plateau between the Syvataya Anna and Voronin Troughs.
It is not likely that this plateau was formed depositionally as shown
14
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DEPTHS IN METERS
Contours are Based
on
Bottom Topography of the Survey Area.
on Sonic Depths at each Stat
FIGURE 6.
15
by the rough traces on the PGR record; however, the presence of a
smooth trace in the western portion is evidence of deposition of
particulate matter carried by the large rivers emptying into the
Kara Sea.
2. ‘Description of Rivers Emptying Into the Kara Sea. Some of
the major Siberian rivers empty into the Kara Sea (Table II). This
TABLE II. Siberian Rivers Emptying Into the Kara Sea and Vicinity (After L'vovich, 1953)
RIVER LENGTH (km) Drainage Area (km ) Annual Discharge (km )
TAYMYR 600 72,000 20
PYASINA 820 192,000 80
YENISEY 3,354 2,599,000 548
TAZ 779 108,000 47
PUR 256 67,000 29
OB 3,676 2,485,000 394
PECHORA __1,790 327,000 129
outpouring of warm waters, which occurs mainly during the summer
months and amounts to approximately 1,100km$/yr, entrains and mixes
with vastly more water to form a brackish water type that overlies
heavier and colder water. According to Antonov (1958), 213,000km?/yr
flow into the Arctic Ocean from all sources. Eighty-three percent
of this volume comes from the Atlantic Ocean as a submarine current
traveling between Greenland and Spitsbergen. Continental Runoff
constitutes approximately 0.5 percent of the water entering the Arctic
Ocean. Nevertheless, the small amount of Continental Runoff exerts
far greater influence on the currents and Arctic Basin water masses
than the volume of runoff would indicate.
Temporal changes in the water are seen by noting changes at stations
which were reoccupied after a 6-week interval (Fig. 7). At stations
37 and 59, which were near the mouths of the Ob and Yenisey Rivers,
surface salinity values increased from August to September. Conversely,
stations farther away from the river mouths showed decreased surface
salinity values in the same time span. These variations illustrate
the extreme changeability of surface salinity in this area. Figure 7
also shows that below about 30 meters, the salinity values did not
change significantly during the 6-week period. This consistency in
salinity of the deeper waters indicates that the variations were
primarily due to runoff and winds.
Ste WN Description of Water Masses Found in the Kara Sea. There
are six major water masses that either originate in the Kara Sea
16
S (*ee)
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
DEPTH (m)
DEPTH (ft)
© STATION 37 (1AUG.65)
% STATION 59 (13 SEPT. 65)
S (*e0)
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 H 32 33 34 35
© STATION 42 (2 AUG.65)
* STATION 58 (12 SEPT 65)
DEPTH (m)
=
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i
a
wW
(a)
S (*es)
DEPTH (ft)
© STATION 51 (3 AUG.65)
*% STATION 60 (13 SEPT. 65)
DEPTH (m)
FIGURE 7. Temporal Changes at Certain Locations
17
or enter the Kara Sea from adjacent areas. These water masses are
seen on T-S diagrams (Fig. 8). The near vertical sigma-t lines on
these T-S diagrams demonstrate that density of most Kara Sea waters
is controlled principally by salinity.
22:
23
(INDICATED DEPTHS ARE IN METERS)
200
ATLANTIC hal ‘et
J | 18 i
| 400
10
|
3I7
2600
TEMPERATURE °C
{e)
BOTTOM WATER
CONTINENTAL AS
RUNOFF
=| I
er |
Lo) 15
WATER
Se Yr
| 20 300
-2 ARCTIC WATER 75.46
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
INFLOW FROM |\~
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280 RESIDUAL
SALINITY %o
FIGURE 8. Temperature-Salinity Curves for Selected Stations
The six water masses are as follows:
a Continental Runoff. Relatively warm, fresh water that
originates from the Ob and Yenisey Rivers. This water was found
at station 36 from the surface to 10 meters.
b. Atlantic Water. Relatively warm, saline water entering
the Kara Sea through:
(1) The Barents Sea between Novaya Zemlya and Franz
Josef Land. This water was observed at stations 53 and 156 and had
a temperature of approximately 0°C and a salinity of 34%» at depths
of 15 and 18 meters, respectively.
(2) The two deep trenches between Franz Josef Land and
Severnaya Zemlya. This water has a temperature of approximately
1°C and a salinity of 34.8 %o and was observed at a depth of 200 meters
at station 114 and at 181 meters at station 156.
(3) The straits in the lower Kara Sea. A minor inflow
of a less saline, colder Atlantic Water. (This water was noted by
18
Nansen (1902).) Atlantic Water flowing through the straits in the
lower Kara Sea was evidenced by water warmer than 0°C in the southernmost
line of stations.
c. Arctic Water. A salinity of 33.5 to 34.5% and a temperature
of less than -1.5°C. This water mass is well developed at a depth of
50 to 75 meters in a number of areas, e.g., stations 114, 1, and 156.
d. Residual Water. Cold, highly saline, dense water found
in the isolated deeps of the East Novaya Zemlya Trough (200 to 300
meters at station 1).
e. Water entering from the Laptev Sea. Below 20 meters
at stations 89 and 90. This water had a temperature range of -1.2°
to -1.4°C, and a salinity range of 32.7 to 34.4%.
f£. Arctic Bottom Water. The densest of the water masses
found in the Kara Sea with salinities of 34.8% and temperatures
approaching -1°C. This water mass moves up the slopes of the trenches
which incise the continental slope. Arctic Bottom Water was observed
at stations 114 and 156 at depths of 600 and 317 meters, respectively.
4, The Wiist Core Method for Water Mass Determination. Wlst
(1964) attempted to trace water types based on maximum or minimum
values of either temperature, salinity, or oxygen "'...the spatial
spreading and mixing of the water types from their point sources
cannot be deduced from the normal temperature, salinity and oxygen
charts plotted for horizontal levels...because the core layers of
the various water types rise and fall. Therefore, they are only
fragmentarily manifested in such horizontal charts...". The method
used in this NORTHWIND study consisted of drawing a chart of the maximum
temperature values of the survey (Fig. 9). A vertical section of
temperature was then constructed along an axis of spreading of warm
water (Inset of Fig. 9). Due to shallow depths, no attempt was made
to calculate potential temperatures.
Examination of the water masses by the Wiist Core Method shows
the influx of Atlantic Water through the Svyataya Anna and Voronin
Troughs. Using the 0°C isotherm as the boundary of the Atlantic
Water, the slope of this rising water mass parallels the slope of
the bottom. The cold water mass found at a depth of 50 meters is
the Polar Water described by Nansen (1902), or in more recent terminology,
Arctic Surface Water described by Coachman and Barnes (1962). Figure 9
also shows the relatively warm shallow Atlantic Water brought into
the Kara Sea from the Barents Sea. Station 156 (Fig. 9) shows Continental
Runoff at the surface, cold Arctic Water at 50 meters, relatively
warm, rising Atlantic Water at 200 meters, and Bottom Water near
the bottom. Station 156 also shows (Fig. 8) that mixing of surface
water and Arctic Water at 46 meters could not form Atlantic Water
at 18 meters because the water at 18 meters does not lie on a straight
line between Continental Runoff and Arctic Water.
19
FRANZ JOSEF
LAND 9 5
x So - ‘,
0 g &)
a Rar
a
807% §
ff
DEPTH (ft.)
® < 100m. depth
pal
50° 55°
FIGURE9. Water Mass Determination Using the Wust Core Method
20
5. Current Data. Two current stations were occupied on this
survey. The first was a 4-hour station which was occupied during
an extensive shoal survey in the central Kara Sea. The second was
a 24-hour station located 30 miles west of the western entrance to
Proliv Vilkitskogo. Table III lists the bottom current data obtained
on the second current station. The bottom current at this station
TABLE Il. Bottom Current Data at 24=Hour Station
TIME Z | CURRENT | CURRENT | TIME Z
SPD. kn. | DIRECT. °T.
y = 30
45
z
17/1630
45
Oo
So
@o
8R8
0
0
0 d
0.20 0.
0.30 0.
0.24 0.
0.10 0.
0.32 0.
0.14 0.
0.12 0.
0.10 0.
0.06 0.30
0.06 0.20
0.10 0.24
0.02 0.20
0.10 0.24
0.12 0.26
0.10 0.20
0.10 0.18
0.20 0.16
0.14 0.18
0.28 0.12
0.14 0.18
0.24 0.10
0.12 0.18
0.14 0.12
0.12 0.08
0.10 0.10
0.12 0.08
0.10 0.04
0.02 0.04
0.10 0.14
0.14 0.08
0.12 0.04
0.14 0.04
0.18 ==
0.14 0.02
0.12 0.04
0.16 0.02
0.13 0.04
0.24 0.02
0.20 0.04
0.22 0.04
0.18 0.02
0.14 0.08
0.08 0.10
0.08 0.12
set slightly south of west and had a range of 0 to 0.3 knot with
an average speed of 0.2 knot. At the same time that subsurface currents
were being measured, surface currents were estimated by plotting
the tracks of icebergs. The surface current measured in this manner
set slightly north of west and had an average speed of 0.5 knot. A
15-knot wind from 130°T undoubtably was responsible for much of the
surface water movement, and rather than long term wind patterns,
21
local winds east of Proliv Vilkitskogo likely were responsible for
the movement of water through this shallow strait.
The water movement and the re- =
sultant changes in water character-
istics are shown in Figure 10. The
variations in values of observed
properties seem to have occurred
mostly above 25 meters with salinity
least affected. These observations
indicate that above 25 meters the
surface layers east of the strait
have values that correspond closely
in salinity to those west of the
pass. However, in the other param-
eters measured, e.g., reactive
silicate, reactive phosphorus, and
pH, the waters differ markedly.
S (ee)
“15 -14 -13 -12 -11 -10 -Q9 -08 -07 -Os8 26 27 28 2 30 H 32:33 44 35
° Q
B. Continental Runoff.
Continental Runoff is evident in oases se7eer q ae oe oo
all Arctic Ocean studies. Nansen 3
(1902) stated that Continental
Runoff "...is the chief factor in
forming the layer of North Polar
Water with low salinity, covering
the sea that was transversed by the
Fram...". Coachman and Barnes (1962),
in their study of the surface water
of the Eurasian Basin, noted that
most of the fresh water was spread
along the Siberian Coast before
entering the Arctic Ocean. Antonov
(1958) points out that the concentra-
tion of river discharge into the Kara
and Laptev Seas creates an intensive
summer runoff movement of surface
DEPTH (ft)
DEPTH tm)
8 $s 8 8 3 6
FIGURE 10. Changes in Various Parameters
waters directed mainly towards the GpladeHour Anchor Station
north and east. Antonov gives the Located Near the Western
volume of vearly discharge from the entrance to Proliv Vilkitskogo
Kara Sea Basin as 1,428 km® (this
figure includes the Pechora River) wnich is ugEe than one-half of
the total annual Continental Runoff (2,685 km®) into the Arctic Ocean.
In Figure 11, the 0°C contour indicates the extent of Continental
Runoff emptying into the Kara Sea. The warm waters spread almost
directly north from the river mouths across the Kara Sea to north
of 80°N. Surface movement in a southwesterly direction was indicated
by high temperatures along the southeast coast of Novaya Zemlya. Due
to the 6-week interval between the two phases of the survey, no attempt
was made to join surface contours of the separate phases.
2
TEMPERATURE (°C)
2% pel aa
O° \o
490
FIGURE 11. Surface Temperature Distribution
23
The surface isohalines (Fig. 12) show much the same picture as
the surface isotherms. The distribution of surface salinity shows
Continental Runoff extending north of 80°N and the movement of low
salinity water towards the northern tip of Novaya Zemlya with a south-
western component along the island. Figure 13, taken from Vize (1933),
shows certain features that correspond closely to the NORTHWIND data.
The movement of surface waters towards the small island of Ostrov
Vize, which lies between the Franz Josef Land and Severnaya Zemlya
Islands chains, is shown in both Figure 12 and Figure 13.
The depth of 10 meters, as compared to the surface, better indicates
movement of surface water because this depth is not obscured by melting
ice and other transient features. The 10-meter isotherms presented
in Figure 14 show high temperature values along the southeastern coast
of Novaya Zemlya due to the southwestern component of movement observed
in the surface values. High temperature values in the southwestern
end of the Kara Sea may be due to water movement through the Kara Strait
from the Pechora River. Nansen (1902) noted "'...eastward flowing surface
currents may be formed through the Kara Strait, as observed by Krusenstern
in 1860 and Sidoroff in 1869...".
At a depth of 10 meters, the warm lobe of water extending north
of Ostrov Vize is apparent; however, the orientation of the warm
water influx at this depth is both east-west and north-east. This
unusual feature will be discussed later. Salinity distribution at
10 meters (Fig. 15) indicates the movement of river runoff to be primarily
directed to the north with some movement southwestward along the coast
of Novaya Zemlya. Dissolved silicate concentration (Fig. 16) also
shows Continental Runoff moving in a northerly direction. Dissolved
silicate values were in excess of 34 mg-at/1 at the mouths of the
Ob and Yenisey Rivers. High dissolved silicate values were found
in the lee of Ostrov Vize.
Phytoplankton biomass distribution found during the 1934 SEDOV
Expedition (Zenkevitch, 1963) (Fig. 17) also shows anomalously high
values existing north of Ostrov Vize.
With both dissolved silicate and salinity, a marked variance
exists between the influx from the rivers and from other sources such
as the influx of Atlantic Water. The pH isopleths (Fig. 18) are
not as useable as the others in defining the movement of Continental
Runoff; however, pH clearly indicates movement corresponding to that
of the other parameters, i.e., the low values are related to the Continental
Runoff and the high values are related to Atlantic Water moving eastward
past the tip of Novaya Zemlya. The reactive phosphorus distribution
(Fig. 19) neither supports nor detracts from the pattern established
by the other parameters. A feature indicated on all of the 10-meter
distribution figures is the lobe of warm, fresh water moving northward
from the Ob River mouth.
24
FIGURE 12. Surface Salinity Distribution
25
OSTROV VIZE
FIGURE 13. Surface Salinity Distribution - Taken from Vize (1933)
Cross sections, Figures A-2 through A-23 (Appendix) ,- show in
sectional view the water types present in the Kara Sea. The surface
water runoff is particularly well depicted in sections A-A' (Fig. A-2)
through M-M' (Fig. A-14). In the sections lying between Novaya Zemlya
and the Siberian Coast, the runoff is found at very shallow depths.
This pattern remains true until section II-H' (Fig. A-9) where the
0°C isotherm dips steeply at station 42. This abrupt dip probably
has a number of causes rather than being due primarily to river runoff,
e.g., the surface movement of Atlantic Water around the tip of Novaya
Zemlya and the estuarine effect as deen Atlantic Water, sections J-J'
(Fig. A-11) and V-V' (Fig. A-23), moves into the Kara Sea from the
Arctic Ocean to compensate for the outflow of surface waters. Based
on older and less complete data, Coachman and Barnes (1962) went
into some detail in reporting on this estuarine effect "...Dynamics
similar to those in estuaries develop over the edge of the continental
shelf and in the canvons; the surface water moves off the shelf and
the deeper water moves toward the shelf and up the canyons where
it attains depths considerably shallower than it occupies in the
26
50°55° 60° 65° 70° 75"
S,
ARN
AS
ew a
FIGURE 14. Temperature Distribution at 10 Meters
27
50°55° 60° 65° 70° 75" ee
FRANZ JOSEF AN -
LAND Fa)
S,
AN
Wvava “ZEN
e ¢
we
BO BS
YENISEYSKIY ZAI
GQ
FIGURE 15. Salinity Distribution at 10 Meters
28
50°55° 60° 66° 70° 75°
DISSOLVED SILICATE ( wg-at/f)
ak oe
FIGURE 16. Dissolved Silicate Distribution at 10 Meters
29
\
VOLUME (g/c m?)
AFTER: USACHEV (1941)
FIGURE 17. Phytoplankton Biomass Distribution Found During the 1934
SEDOV Expedition
30
50°55° 60° 65° 70° 75° CO ¢
(5)
vaya Ne
FIGURE 18. Distribution of pH at 10 Meters
3]
50°55° 60° 6” 410° 19° ee ee
bs we
O W%e
N Caan se &
S af
RCO) Zs ie,
REACTIVE PHOSPHORUS
(yg-at/£) Ae Ome
(2)
FIGURE 19. Reactive Phosphorus Distribution at 10 Meters
32
deep-water basin...". Defant (1961) discusses the fact that river
water flowing into the sea gives rise to compensation currents along
the river bed "...the outflow of river water in the estuary was accompanied
by an inflow of sea water in the lower layers... .
C. Atlantic Water.
1. General. Waters originating in the Gulf Stream flow northward
along the Norwegian Coast. A division of this Atlantic Water occurs
between Bear Island and northern Norway where the flow approaches
the submarine slope at the entrance to the Barents Sea. Here, some
of the water in the shallow layers enters the Barents Sea under the
influence of Coriolis force, and despite many offshoots and countercurrents,
some Atlantic Water rounds the northern tip of Novaya Zemlya and enters
the Kara Sea. The majority of flow, however, does not enter the Barents
Sea but continues northward and enters the Arctic Basin between Greenland
and Spitsbergen. In the Arctic Basin, the mass of this water flows
eastward along the continental slope at depths between 200 and 900
meters. In transit, the water is modified so that when it reaches
the Kara Sea it retains about 40 percent of its original characteristics
(Coachman, 1962).
2. Inflow from the Barents Sea. Off the northern tip of Novaya
Zemlya, the Atlantic Water which has transited the Barents Sea continues
eastward and enters the Kara Sea as shown by the 10-meter isopleths
in Figures 14, 15, and 16.
Temperature and dissolved silicate in sections V-V' (Fig. A-23)
also show Atlantic Water enterine the Kara Sea at station 42 at a
depth of less than 50 meters. Since Continental Runoff and Atlantic
Water from the Arctic Basin were found to have high dissolved silicate
values, the shallower, low dissolved silicate water at station 42
probably is Atlantic Water.
-Using the data from section V-V', a T-S diagram (Fig. 20) was
constructed to further delineate the various water masses. At station
42, a temperature inversion existed in the upper layers. This inversion
was produced by Continental Runoff overriding warmer Atlantic Water
brought into the area across the Barents Sea. The influence of dilute
runoff is apparent at most stations. At stations 154, 147, and 143,
for example, the highly saline, relatively warm, shallow water mass
from the Barents Sea mixed with both a cooler, lower salinity Continental
Runoff from one direction and a cold, highly saline Arctic Water
from the Arctic Basin. At stations 42 and 53, Arctic Water was not
encountered because of intense mixing in this area.
Temperature and salinity map views (Figs. 21 through 26) also
depict the influx of Atlantic Water into the Kara Sea via the Barents
Sea. TIsotherms at 25, 50, and 100 meters (Figs. 21, 22, and 23) show
an east-west orientation, indicating an influx of water from the
(INDICATED DEPTHS ARE IN METERS)
TEMPERATURE °C
-1
“6 36
SALINITY Yoo
FIGURE 20. Temperature/Salinity Diagram for a Selected Line of Stations
(Cross Section V-V', see Figure A-1)
west. These figures also show three small vortices which commonly
form when friction arises from overlying and underlying strata moving
in different directions (Nansen, 1902). These vortices facilitate
mixing of water masses.
Tsohalines at 25 meters (Fig. 24) turn northward, corresponding
to a similar pattern of isohalines at shallower depths. These high
salinity values indicate that appreciable flow into the Kara Sea is
from the Barents Sea. At 50 meters (Fig. 25) and at 100 meters
(Fig. 26), the 34.5%0 isohaline also shows that high salinity water
enters the Kara Sea from the west, moves past the tip of Novaya Zemlya,
and then turns northward.
3. Inflow from the Arctic Ocean. Atlantic Water enters the Kara
Sea from the Arctic Ocean via the Svvataya Anna and Voronin Troughs
with the major flow passing through the deeper Svyataya Anna Trough.
Five cross sections, 0-0', P-P', Q-Q", R-R', and S-S' (Figs. A-16
through A-20) show the penetration of Atlantic Water into the Kara
Sea via the two troughs. The 0°C isotherm shows that Atlantic Water
fills most of the Svyataya Anna Tsough but does not fill the Voronin
Trough, despite the trough's sufficient depth. The salinity, and
therefore density, is essentially the same in both troughs. However,
the Voronin Trough does not appear to receive as much Atlantic Water
because either there exists some peculiar circulation patterns or
M4
50°56° 60° 65° 70°75 og
Sey
ANN
=
G< 25m. depth
TEMPERATURE (°C)
7 pl ae
50 40
FIGURE 21. Temperature Distribution at 25 Meters
35
50°55° 60° 65° 70° 479° of
W< SOm. depth
TEMPERATURE (°C)
7% pag RaW
O° °
49
FIGURE 22. Temperature Distribution at 50 Meters
36
50°55° 60° 65° 70° 45°
FRANZ JOSEF
B< 100m. depth }
TEMPERATURE (°C)
-_7
50 40°
FIGURE 23. Temperature Distribution at 100 Meters
37
50°55° 60° 65° 70° 75° gO oF
Sear N,
re eS PB
ir Os
-
< 25m. depth
SALINITY (°/.0)
75 pol afar
50 40
FIGURE 24. Salinity Distribution at 25 Meters
38
FIGURE 25. Salinity Distribution at 50 Meters
39
50°56" 60° 66° 70° 45" eC
G < 100m. depth
OA
50
-3
FIGURE 26. Salinity Distribution at 100 Meters
40
Atlantic Water which enters is modified by cooling as it moves to
the surface. In effect then, a water mass of similar characteristics
is present in both troughs with a sigma-t of 28, a salinity close
to 35%, but with a temperature below 0°C in the Voronin Trough
and slightly above 0°C in the Svyataya Anna Trough.
Cross sections 0-0', P-P', 0-Q', R-R', and S-S' (Figs. A-16 through
A-20) also show that the Atlantic Water entering the Kara Sea through
the Svyataya Anna Trough hugs the western side of the trough. This
feature probably is attributable to Coriolis force deflecting the
water to the right as it moves southward in the troughs.
In cross sections Q-Q', R-R', and S-S' (Figs. A-18 through A-20),
the isotherms and isohalines are seen to slope upward. This upward
slope is attributable to geostrophic balance which would tend to elevate
the eastern edge of the Atlantic Water.
Cross section V-V' (Fig. A-23) shows the extent of southern pene-
tration of Atlantic Water and shows the movement of water up the slope
of the Svyataya Anna Trough. Coachman and Barnes (1962) describe
this inflow as an estuarine effect as deeper waters are carried up the
slope compensating for the outflow of surface waters. This descrip-
tion was based on a Russian cross section located 20 miles west of
and almost parallel to cross section V-V'.
Both cross section J-J' (Fig. A-11) and Figure 27 show this estuarine
effect of Atlantic Water and the mixing and warming of the cold upper
TEMPERATURE °C
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
SALINITY %o
FIGURE 27. Temperature/Salinity Diagram for a Selected Line of Stations
(Cross Section J-J', see Figure A-1)
4]
waters. The Atlantic Water core entering the Kara Sea through the
two troughs rises from a depth of 300 meters to a depth of 150 meters
within 50 nautical miles as it encounters the continental shelf.
Above 150 meters, Atlantic Water loses its distinguishing characteristics
by admixture with other waters.
D. Arctic Water.
The primary source of Arctic Water found in the Arctic Basin
is Continental Runoff from the Arctic Ocean's peripheral seas (Cross
section 0-0', Fig. A-16). Coachman (1962) divided Arctic Water into
the following three sublayers: The shallow layer (0 to 25-50 meters),
a relatively dilute, generally cold layer formed primarily by summer
melting of pack ice; the subsurface layer (25-50 to 100 meters), a
cold layer which increases in salinity with depth (33-34 %0); and
the mixed layer (100 to 200 meters), a layer with increased temperatures
and a slight increase in salinity marking the approach to the Atlantic
Water core at 300 meters.
Coachman (1962) refers to these sublayers as Surface Water, and
Nansen (1902) refers to them as North Polar Water. The temperature/
salinity relationship is such that the water mass must be advected
into the Arctic Basin from some outlying area. The NORTHWIND survey
has allowed a re-examination of the questions of where the water
originates and what waters mix.
One explanation of the anomalously high salinities found in the
Surface Water in the Kara and Laptev Seas is intensive mixing of
the saline Atlantic Water brought via the Svyataya Anna and Voronin
Troughs with river effluent (Coachman, 1962)...this mixing results
in the formation of the subsurface layer of Arctic Water at 25-50
to 100 meters which overlies the Arctic Basin. Another explanation
for the high salinity is the sizeable amount of Atlantic Water entering
the Kara Sea from the Barents Sea as discussed above. Zenkevitch
(1963), on the other hand, states that the high salinity values can
be attributed to the formation of ice in winter.
Examination of the northernmost line of stations allows study
of this freezing process in action. It may be seen from the T-S plot
(Fig. 28) that Arctic Water is being formed at the surface in this
location. It should also be noted that the temperatures of the Arctic
Water mass approximate the freezing point of sea water for those particular
salinities.
The extent of Arctic Water in the Kara Sea can be determined
by examining three temperature cross sections, J-J' (Fig. A-11), 0-0'
(Fig. A-16), and V-V' (Fig. A-23). The core of Arctic Water in these
sections will be considered to be the -1.5°C isotherm. This isotherm
places the core at approximately 75 meters. The isotherms in section
J-J' show the pinching out of the Arctic Water at station 77 as Arctic
42
TEMPERATURE °C
FREEZING POINT OF
SEA WATER
26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
SALINITY %o
FIGURE 28. Temperature/Salinity Diagram for a Selected Line of Stations
(Cross Section O-O', see Figure A-1)
Water comes in contact with the warm, rising Atlantic Water, the surface
runoff, and the inflow from the Barents Sea. Arctic Water is found
at all stations between stations 140 and 77. At station 140, close
to Franz Josef Land, the cold Arctic Water is overlain by warmer,
less saline water which forces the Arctic Water to deeper depths.
The T-S plots for section J-J' (Fig. 27) show these water masses
in detail. The Arctic Water mass appears to form a tight locus of
points with a salinity of 34.3% at stations 149, 152, and 154. The
temperature isotherms of cross section 0-0' (fig. A-16) show a typical
view of the Arctic Basin with the Arctic Water mass overlying the
warmer Atlantic Water. The temperature isotherms of cross section
V-V' (Fig. A-23) show Arctic Water extending almost to station 53
at a depth of 60 meters. The cold tongue of water at 20 meters at
stations 31 and 41 closely resembles Arctic Water, but due to low
salinity values, this water will not be considered as Arctic Water.
Arctic Water extends southward from the northernmost line of
stations to the northern end of Novaya Zemlya. Eastward, this water
‘mass pinches out as the water shoals and becomes warmer.
E. Residual Water.
A cold, residual water which was formed in previous winters is
found in the East Novaya Zemlya Trough. This water is formed by
43
a gradual cooling and an increase in density which results in sinking.
This water is depicted by a T-S diagram (Figure 29). Residual Water
is exhibited at station 13 with a sigma-t of 28, a temperature of
-1.75°C, and a salinity of 34.76%. The isolated nature of the East
Novaya Zemlya Trough restricts mixing with other water; therefore,
the coldest temperatures observed on this survey were found in this
trough.
2
| 0 o n
18 f
a
1
©
@
w
oc
=
q I6
xo
Ww
a
=
W
=
-1
is
-2 oy
24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
SALINITY Yee
FIGURE 29. Temperature/Salinity Diagram for a Selected Line of Stations
(Cross Section C-C', see Figure A-1)
F., Water from the Laptev Sea.
Current measurements at the western entrance to Proliv Vilkitskogo
indicated a continuous inflow into the Kara Sea from the Laptev Sea.
The surface current, measured by ice movement, averaged 0.5 knot,
and the bottom current, measured by a current meter, averaged 0.2
knot with a range of 0 to 0.3 knot. Measurement of various parameters
(Fig. 10) at the start and finish of the current station allowed
an examination of this water; temperature at depth approached -1.4°C
and salinity was 34.4%. A T-S plot (Fig. 8) shows that the bottom
water at station 104 closely approximated that of station 90 indicating
inflow of similar water north of Severnaya Zemlya. Also, Russian
sources (Zenkevitch, 1963) suggest the Laptev Sea to be the origin
of fauna found in Proliv Vilkitskogo. Zenkevitch also notes that
the second route for the penetration of fauna from the central part
of the Arctic Basin into the Kara Sea "...passes...through the northern
deep part of the Laptev Sea and through the deep...Vilkitsky Strait
[Proliv Vilkitskogo]...".
G. Arctic Bottom Water.
The deepest waters in the Svyataya Anna and Voronin Troughs is
modified cold, saline Arctic Bottom Water. Coachman (1962) defines
Arctic Bottom Water as having temperatures colder than 0°C and salinities
between 34.93 and 34.99 %). The five east-west cross sections, 0-0'
to S-S' (Figs. A-16 through A-20), show Arctic Bottom Water, with
slightly lower salinity than that given by Coachman, to exist at
the deepest depths in the troughs. In addition, the Arctic Bottom
Water in both troughs is basically the same. The T-S plot of the
northernmost line of stations (Fig. 28) shows that the Arctic Bottom
Water at stations 107 and 108 has the same T-S characteristics as at
stations 113 and 114.
The Arctic Bottom Water in the Svyataya Anna and Voronin Troughs
is found at shallower depths than in the Arctic Ocean. The estuarine
effect (Coachman, 1962) is probably responsible for the rising of
this water mass although there might be some minor formation of bottom
water at the heads of the Svyataya Anna and Voronin Troughs which
would result in a northern flow counter to the above.
III. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
NAVOCEANO conducted an extensive oceanographic survey of the
Kara Sea during the summer and fall of 1965. Examination of samples
from 163 Nansen cast stations resulted in approximately 1,800 serial
depth measurements for each of the parameters of temperature, salinity,
dissolved oxygen, nitrogen, pH, reactive phosphorous, and reactive
silicate.
Six water masses were found which either entered or were formed
in the Kara Sea: Continental Runoff, Atlantic Water, Arctic Water,
isolated remnants of previous year's water, water entering from the
Laptev Sea, and Arctic Bottom Water. Atlantic Water was found entering
the Kara Sea from both the Barents Sea and from the Arctic Ocean
via the Svyataya Anna and Voronin Troughs.
Continental Runoff, principally from the Ob and Yenisey Rivers,
was traced northeastward along the Siberian Coast. Continental Runoff
also was observed to cross the Kara Sea towards Novaya Zemlya and
then to move southward along the island. Another mass moved north
from the Ob and Yenisey River mouths towards Ostrov Vize.
Reactive silicate was a most interesting parameter for examining
Continental Runoff. Runoff resulted in high reactive silicate measurements
north of Ostrov Vize. These high values north of Ostrov Vize were
also observed by the Russians in an earlier survey.
Atlantic Water enters the Kara Sea through the Svyataya Anna
and Voronin Troughs as a subsurface counterflow to the outflowing
45
Continental Runoff. This flow results in the movement of relatively
warm, saline water from a core depth of 300 meters at the arctic
continental slope to perhaps 150 meters at the head of the two troughs
where the water losses much of its distinguishing characteristics.
Atlantic Water also moves into the Kara Sea from the Barents Sea.
Using T-S diagrams, this water was shown to mix with Continental Runoff
and Arctic Water.
Arctic Water is believed to form in the shallow peripheral seas
adjacent to the Arctic Ocean, e.g., the Kara Sea. Here, the saline
Arctic Water is formed by the mixing of Continental Runoff and the
saline Atlantic Water brought into the Kara Sea. The salinity, and
therefore the density, is increased further in the winter with the
formation of ice.
Isolated remnants of previous year's waters were found in the
deeper areas of the East Novaya Zemlya Trough. This water is formed
by cooling and gradual sinking. It is therefore understandable that
here, at depth, were found the coldest temperatures of the survey.
Inflow from the Laptev Sea was recorded at the western entrance
to Proliv Vilkitskogo both at the surface and near bottom. The water
near the bottom is similar to waters at the same depth north of Severnaya
Zemlya.
In the Kara Sea, Arctic Bottom Water is found at the deepest depths
of the Svyataya Anna and Voronin Troughs and is probably brought into
the area as a countercurrent to the outflowing Continental Runoff.
This survey has provided the much needed oceanographic data for
study of the Kara Sea. The questions of where and under what conditions
Arctic Water is formed have been re-examined. The addition of appreciable
amounts of Atlantic Water via the Barents Sea to form this water is
suggested.
The parameters of reactive silicate, pH, and, to a lesser extent,
reactive phosphorus were valuable in distinguishing water masses.
The anomalously high reactive silicate values observed north of
Ostrov Vize is a feature which warrants further study. This feature
was observed 30 years earlier and is possibly a stable phenomenon.
Another interesting feature observed on this survey is the hugging
of Atlantic Water to the western side of the Svyataya Anna Trough
caused by Coriolis Force.
46
IV. BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aagaard, K., 1964. Features of the Physical Oceanography of the
Chukchi Sea in the Autumn. M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Wash., 41 pp.
Adrov, M. M., 1963. Further Developments in Investigations of the
Hydrological Regime of the Barents Sea. Soviet Fisheries
Investigations in North European Seas, 1960, p. 9-22,
(Translation).
Antonov, V. S., 1957. The Principle Causes of Fluctuations in Ice
Conditions of the Arctic Seas. Problems of the Arctic, Ed. l,
p. 41-50, (Translation).
,» 1958. The Role of Continental Runoff in the Current Regime
of the Arctic Ocean. Probl. Severya, vol. 1, p. 52-64,
(Translation).
,» 1963. Energy of the Siberian Rivers and the Northern Sea
Route. Priroda, no. 6, p. 25-33, (Translation).
Coachman, L. K., 1962. On the Water Masses of the Arctic Ocean.
PhD Thesis, Univ. of Wash., Dept. of Oceanography, 94 pp.
, 1963. Water Masses of the Arctic. In Proceedings of the
Arctic Basin Symposium, October 1962, p. 143-167.
Coachman, L. K. and C. A. Barnes, 1961. The Movement of Atlantic
Water in the Arctic Ocean. Arctic, vol. 16, no. 1, p. 8-16.
, 1961. The Contribution of Bering Sea Water to the Arctic
Ocean. Arctic, vol. 14, no. 3, p. 147-161.
, 1962. Surface Water in the Eurasian Basin of the Arctic
Ocean. Arctic, vol. 15, p. 251-257.
Codispoti, L. A., 1965. Physical and Chemical Features of the Waters
in the East Siberian and Laptev Seas in the Summer. M.S. Thesis,
Univ. of Wash., Dept. of Ocean., 35 pp.
Defant, A., 1961. Physical Oceanography. Pergamon Press, London,
vol. 1, 729 pp.
Fairbridge, R. W. (ed.), 1967. The Encyclopedia of Oceanography.
vol. 1, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York.
Gladfelter, W. H., 1964. Oceanography of the Greenland Sea, USS ATKA
(AGB-3) Survey, Summer 1962. IMR No. 0-64-63, UNPUBLISHED
MANUSCRIPT. U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office, Wash., D.C., 154 pp.
47
Gordienko, P. A., 1961. The Arctic Ocean. Scientific American,
vol. 204, no. 5, p. 88-102.
Harvey, H. W., 1960. The Chemistry and Fertility of Sea Waters.
Cambridge at the University Press, 240 pp.
Johnson, G. L. and D. B. Milligan, 1967. Some Geomorphological
Observations in the Kara Sea. Deep Sea Research, vol. 14,
Pp. 19-28.
Laktionov, A. F. and L. L. Balakshin, 1936. Hydrological Deep-water
Observations of the Expedition on the SEDOV in 1934. In Trudy
Arkt. Inst., vol. 64, p. 152-157.
Lockerman, R. C., 1966. Some Summer Oceanographic Features of the
Laptev and East Siberian Seas. UNPUBLISHED MANUSCRIPT, 62 pp.
Murphy, J. and J. P. Riley, 1962. Determination of Phosphate in
Natural Waters. Anal. Chim. Acta., 27:31.
Nansen, Fridtjof, 1902. Oceanography of the North Polar Basin. The
Norwegian North Polar Expedition 1893-1896, Scientific Results,
vol. 3, no. 9, 427 pp.
Sater, J. E., 1963. The Arctic Basin. Tidewater Publishing Corp.,
Centerville, Md., 319 pp.
Strickland, J. D. H. and T. R. Parsons, 1965. A Manual of Seawater
Analysis. Bull. 125, Fisheries Research Board of Canada.
Sullivan, J. P., 1963. Determination of Dissolved Oxygen and Nitrogen
in Sea Water by Gas Chromatography. IMR No. 0-17-63, U.S. Naval
Oceanographic Office, Wash., D.C., 40 pp.
Sverdrup, H. U., M. W. Johnson, and R. H. Fleming, 1942. The Oceans,
Their Physics, Chemistry, and General Biology, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, N. J., 1087 pp.
U.S. Coast Guard Cutter NORTHWIND, 1965. 1965 Arctic Cruise Report,
C.G. Pub.
U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office, 1958. Oceanographic Atlas of the
Polar Seas. H.O. Pub. 705, 149 pp.
Vize, V. Y., 1933. Scientific Results of the Arctic Expedition on
the SEDOV in 1930. Trudy Arkt. Inst., vol. 1, p. 1-174.
Wells, R. D., 1966. Surveying the Eurasian Arctic. U.S. Naval
Inst. Proc., vol. 92, no. 10, p. 79-85.
48
Wiist, G., 1964. Stratification and Circulation in the Antillean-
Caribbean Basins, Columbia Univ. Press, 201 pp.
Zenkevitch, L. A., 1963. Biology of the Seas of the USSR, Interscience
Publishers, 955 pp. (Translation).
49
cord tee ao é
rol
Pra 3. ‘ nie Dy wate
Te odirwin. Pte ee: a, Sea,”
tekesonoy, As Wi, waditey Si srarhdey 6. .
bamrea bong: of than Levediedor job the oH ae 8h
LSe<4. s7,,
Ps . oa re | 1
x aa
icckermen, TR’ C2, LOG, Some imma: Hesenowese
» Lecter emo Raat oie ey see Sone. | Ware eas
ts 4m eee: hp eb ine a eit hte sh camrnerdi
ores
; y 7 ie le
Race, ve made & Riley 299
_
&
lacuga Watees ARLE ws
, 7 Cant
— Aa
Pa
Reter ye is Bay Beas ea sc
Centervi lia, Mis .els pe
y's 5 . a ati i | 4) A ay 474 Ky a ye . rte aie A artis hi Mita es
4 t ‘ AS. ? 4 re rad . \ pet,
AREAS 2s ee het, Ptah ies. Meanie ce
RR Sy Rite ni Pky eS Ma paca @ Hh youn eddy GC ae
be Wen © yy Hs etna ane 1
) f sere
sank ipa Oe ‘ . Ny
Seeonidarange, WS hay Phy, a Wekeeme, aia hy ca eee
AN, blows @ en 5 mas aiee a2: Die Pea i
hy . a . wate n> well ew ;
"i 5 k ;
dict Gward Cottey NORTACT AD, Seba as 2
Wy
ise yd rors a ia OES Rowe 2 We ieee ch fee AE Le aie
* se } ’
tv) ‘iy vfut 4
beers g tt: RAR nang eae Acetic Pilate an
far EOS) Drude. ERE «ome vole Ry pa ore
hy aly Syipraeiy dee eve! tee LO Amete Bee Keen’
c. F iy Ken Dae RS ee RS Ss)
i ‘ nt
ae es
APPENDIX
GRIOS SHS SONGS
51
iat
KER A.
MN
OTST 22 ORR aes
50°55° 60° 65° 70° 79° og S
Oo Q
Oo
Ww
S
&y
SOE x
Ria
FIGURE A-1. Plan View of Cross Sections
53
STATIONS STATIONS
E
ac
=
oO
WW
(a)
DEPTH (ft )
H:V EXAGGERATION 750 X
TEMPERATURE °C SALINITY °oo
FiGURE A-2. Cross Sections of Temperature and Salinity Along Line A-A"
STATIONS STATIONS
DEPTH (m.)
DEPTH (ft.)
H:V EXAGGERATION 750X
TEMPERATURE °C SALINITY oo
FIGURE A-3. Cross Sections of Temperature and Salinity Along Line B-B'
54
STATIONS STATIONS
DEPTH (ft.)
£
ac
| mel
a
Lu
(a)
H:V EXAGGERATION 750 X
TEMPERATURE SALINITY °oo
FIGURE A-4. Cross Sections of Temperature and Salinity Along Line C-C'
STATIONS STATIONS
2/ 20 19
»eLe
DEPTH (m,)
H:V EXAGGERATION 750 X
TEMPERATURE °C SALINITY oo
FIGURE A-5.
Cross Sections of Temperature and Salinity Along Line D-D'
55
STATIONS STATIONS
25
>j2
ay
=
ac
=
a
LW
(a)
DEPTH (m.)
FIGURE A-6. Cross Sections of Temperature and Salinity Along Line E-E'
STATIONS STATIONS
DEPTH (m)
ve VY
TEMPERATURE °C SALINITY °oo
FIGURE A-7. Cross Sections of Temperature and Salinity Along Line F-F'
56
STATIONS STATIONS
37 36
mr)
gz 8
E
at
=
a
uw
(a)
DEPTH (ft.)
3
H:V EXAGGERATION 750X
TEMPERATURE °C SALINITY °oo
FIGURE A-8. Cross Sections of Temperature and Salinity Along Line G-G'
STATIONS STATIONS
DEPTH (m)
DEPTH (ft.)
H:V EXAGGERATION 750X
TT TEMPERATURE SALINITY °oo
FIGURE A-9. Cross Sections of Temperature and Salinity Along Line H-H'
STATIONS STATIONS
DEPTH (m.)
H:V EXAGGERATION 750X
TEMPERATURE ° SALINITY °oo
FIGURE A-10. Cross Sections of Temperature and Salinity Along Line I-I'
57
STATIONS
ol
DEPTH (m)
DEPTH (ft.)
TEMPERATURE °C
STATIONS
DEPTH (m.)
g
DEPTH (ft.)
SALINITY °/oo
FIGURE A-11. Cross Sections of Temperature and Salinity Along Line J-J'
58
STATIONS STATIONS
76, >008 73 >
E
x
=
a
WwW
(a)
H:V EXAGGERATION 750 X
DEPTH (ft)
SALINITY °/co
TEMPERATURE °C
FIGURE A-12. Cross Sections of Temperature and Salinity Along Line K-K'
STATIONS STATENS
DEPTH (ft.)
TEMPERATURE °C 5 cif SALINITY °oo
H:V EXAGGERATION 750X
FIGURE A-13. Cross Sections of Temperature and Salinity Along Line L-L'
STATIONS is STATIONS Po
ar 95 86 Tt)
H:V EXAGGERATION 750 X
TEMPERATURE °C_ |K Sia 3 SALINITY oo
STATIONS
6 71 HH WH 93
DEPTH (m)
/H:V EXAGGERATION 750 X
SALINITY °%oo
FIGURE A-15. Cross Sections of Temperature and Salinity Along Line N-N'
59
=—
STATIONS
STATIONS
vis 14 1 Ha tM Ho fey «108 fog loy 10s (06
DEPTH (m.)
DEPTH (ft.)
TEMPERATURE °C SALINITY ce
STATIONS
0 109 jot 107 STATIONS
no 19 =e
DEPTH (ft.)
E
x
i
a
WW
ay
REACTIVE SILICATE REACTIVE PHOSPHORUS
Ma-at/h pa-at/l
STATIONS
ie 10908
a
e 2 2 ow
goth 23800 Tnves
cunt
ey
DEPTH (ft.)
2°”
DEPTH (m.)
H:V EXAGGERATION 750 X
FIGURE A-16. Cross Sections of Temperature, Salinity, Reactive Silicate,
Reactive Phosphorus, and pH Along Line O-O'
60
STATIONS
STATIONS
“8 wW9 tao fas 182 723° 02d
oa
a
=
x=
=
a
W
fa)
DEPTH (m.)
H:V EXAGGERATION 750 X
SALINITY °oo
TEMPERATURE °C
FIGURE A-17. Cross Sections of Temperature and Salinity Along Line P=-P'
SUATIONS STATIONS
137? 136 1385 39 133 s3a 43) 1a¥
DEPTH (m)
H:V EXAGGERATION 750 X
SALINITY °oo
=
x=
—
o
WwW
a
TEMPERATURE °C
FIGURE A-18. Cross Sections of Temperature and Salinity Along Line Q-Q'
61
STATIONS
STATIONS
Ms ” Ted ws ay a
“ws ny as
ae axe
£
x
=
a
Ww
(a)
DEPTH (ft)
H:V EXAGGERATION 750X
TEMPERATURE °C s SALINITY oo
FIGURE A-19. Cross Sections of Temperature and Salinity Along Line R-=R'
STATIONS STATIONS
DEPTH (m.)
H:V EXAGGERATION 750X
=
x
-
a
vy)
a
TEMPERATURE °C c SALINITY °oo
FIGURE A-20. Cross Sections of Temperature and Salinity Along Line S-S'
62
STATIONS STATIONS
wa Ay
E
x
=
o
w
Ox
DEPTH (ft.)
H:V EXAGGERATION 750 X
TEMPERATURE °C jd SALINITY oo
FIGURE A-21. Cross Sections of Temperature and Salinity Along Line T-T'
STATIONS STATIONS
a ed
DEPTH (ft.)
H:V EXAGGERATION 750X
TEMPERATURE °C SALINITY oo
FIGURE A-22. Cross Sections of Temperature and Salinity Along Line U-U'
63
STATIONS
STATIONS
2
DEPTH (m)
Re Do
DEPTH (it)
TEMPERATURE °C SALINITY eo
STATIONS STATIONS
DEPTH (m)
H
DEPTH (tt)
bo
se.
oo
0
pe
8
REACTIVE SILICATE 3 REACTIVE PHOSPHORUS
uug-at/ Mg-at/|
STATIONS HV EXAGGERATION 750Xx
DEPTH (m)
dag
DEPTH (it)
FIGURE A-23. Cross Sections of Temperature, Salinity, Reactive Silicate,
Reactive Phosphorus, and pH Along Line V-V'
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UNCLASSIFIED
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2a. REPORT SECURITY CLASSIFICATION
UNCLASSIFIED
S ORIGINATING ACTIVITY (Corporate author)
U. S. NAVAL OCEANOGRAPHIC OFFICE
= IMSRNOR I WILE
OCEANOGRAPHIC SURVEY RESULTS OF THE KARA SEA —- SUMMER AND FALL 1965
I 4. DESCRIPTIVE NOTES (Type of report and inclusive dates)
Technical Report 18 July to 2 October 1965
- AUTHOR(S) (First name, middle initial, last name)
DONALD B. MILLIGAN
6- REPORT DATE 7a. TOTAL NO. OF PAGES
August 1969 64
8a. CONTRACT OR GRANT NO. 9a. ORIGINATOR’S REPORT NUMBER(S)
76. NO. OF REFS
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TR 217
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this report)
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U. S. NAVAL OCEANOGRAPHIC OFFICE
- ABSTRACT
NAVOCEANO made a survey of the Kara Sea during the summer and fall of 1965.
| Data were collected at 163 oceanographic Nansen stations and included serial-depth
|temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, nitrogen, pH, reactive phosphorus, and reactive
Silicate measurements.
Six major water masses were found in the Kara Sea: Continental Runoff, Atlantic
ater, Arctic Water, Residual Water, Inflow from the Laptev Sea, and Arctic Bottom
(Water.
Atlantic Water is brought into the Kara Sea both as a deep estuarine inflow from the
Arctic Ocean compensating for the outflow of shallower Continental Runoff and as a rela
[tively shallow inflow from the Barents Sea. This estuarine movement from the Arctic
cean raises the core depth of the Atlantic Water from 300 to 150 meters where it then
Imixes with the inflow from the Barents Sea and Continental Runoff. The movement of
Atlantic Water across the Barents Sea and into the Kara Sea has largely been ignored by
American oceanographers.
Arctic Water is formed in the shallow peripheral seas adjacent to the Arctic Ocean,
e.g. the Kara Sea, by mixing of Continental Runoff with the saline Atlantic Water.
Salinity and density increase as ice forms during the winter.
Residual Water was found in the deeper areas of the East Novaya Zemlya Trough. This
water, formed by cooling and gradual sinking, had the coldest temperatures found on the
survey.
Arctic Bottom Water was found in the deepest portions of the Svyataya Anna and
Voronin Troughs. It, like Atlantic Water, also is probably brought into the areas as a
{countercurrent to the outflowing Continental Runoff.
FORM
DD la73, (PAce UNCLASSIFIED
| S/N 0101-807-6801 Security Classification
7
Security Classification
KEY WORDS
OCEANOGRAPHY
KARA SEA
WATER MASSES
USCGC NORTHWIND (WAGB 282)
ABSTRACT (Cont'd)
Reactive silicate was an interesting new para-
meter for examining Continental Runoff: noted
especially were anomalously high measurements
ecorded north of Ostrov Vize. Other parameters
hich proved valuable in the study of water masses
ere pH and reactive phosphorus.
DD .°"..1473 (sack)
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UNCLASSIFIED
Security Classification
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