BIOLOGY
LIBRARY

G

THE

SYDENHAM SOCIETY,

INSTITUTED

MDCCCXLIII

LONDON

MDCCCLVH.

MANUAL

ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE PARASITES

ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE PARASITES

HUMAN BODY,

A MANUAL

OF THEIR

NATURAL HISTORY, DIAGNOSIS, AND TREATMENT.

BY

DR. FREDERICK KUCHENMEISTER,

PHYSICIAN TO HIS SERENE HIGHNESS THE DUKE OP SAXE MEININGEN ; CORRESPONDING MEMBER

OF THE ISIS SOCIETY AND OF THE NATURAL HISTORY AND MEDICAL SOCIETY OF

DRESDEN ; THE IMPKRIAL SOCIETY OF PHYSICIANS AT VIENNA, ETC. ETC.

TEANSLATED FBOM THE SECOND GERMAN EDITION, BY

EDWIN LANKESTER, M.D., F.R.S.

VOL. I.

ANIMAL PARASITES BELONGING TO THE GROUP
ENTOZOA.

WITH -EIGHT. COPPER-PIATFF.

LONDON:

PRINTED FOR THE SYDENHAM SOCIETY.

MDCCC LVII.

[ The right of Reproduction and Translation is reserved.]

F

BJOLOGY

PREFACE TO THE GERMAN EDITION.1

THE knowledge of Parasites, a knowledge which interests the
medical practitioner, as well as the pathological anatomist, is
usually treated of either in larger or smaller fragments, both in
manuals of pathology and therapeutics, as well as text-books of
pathological anatomy. The conviction that, notwithstanding the
admirable contributions of various writers, much still remains
to be done; the attempts of recent pathological anatomists, as,
for instance, Forster, to get rid of this branch of science entirely
from the text-books of pathological anatomy; the necessity
which has been felt at different periods for special works upon
the human parasites, such as have been produced by Bremser,
Delle Chiaje, and others ; the opinion, which is certainly shared
by all, that these last- mentioned works are antiquated; and,
finally, the individuality which this branch of natural history has
acquired of late years, induce me to furnish the public, whether
interested practically or theoretically in the subject, with a text-
book and manual treating of the parasites of the human body, in
a manner corresponding to the requirements of the present day,
and illustrated with explanatory plates.

The plan of the book itself is as follows : — In the first division
I shall treat of the Animal Parasites, and this will be founded, as
far as it was possible in my native country, upon my own investi-
gations; I shall begin with the Cestoidea, upon which I shall

1 This preface appeared in the first German edition of the work, and was published
with the first part of the first half of the work.

240063

vi AUTHOR'S PREFACE.

communicate in more detail those observations which I sent at
the time, in nuce, to the Academy of Sciences in Paris, and in
consequence of which the academy decreed me an " honorable
mention," together with a medal of the value of 1500 francs,
whilst I was requested by the French savants to proceed with my
communications. At the same time those experiments will be
reported upon, which the Saxon ministry of the interior, at my
request, allowed to be made at its expense, by Professor Haubner
at the Veterinary School at Dresden, under my instructions ; as
also the experiments made, principally with materials forwarded by
me, at Berlin, Copenhagen, Giessen, Louvain, Stuttgart, Vienna,
Weyhenstephan, and recently by M. Kind, of Kleinbautzen, and
myself, at the charge of the Agricultural Society of Saxon Lusatia.

This will be followed by the section on the Trematoda, with
views as to the mode in which man and animals are infected with
these parasites, and with this the first half of the first division will
conclude.

The second division will contain the natural history of the
Nematoidea, with ideas and experiments upon the progenitors of
the Trichinae ; that of the parasitic insects, such as Linguatulce
(Pentastoma), Mites, Lice, and Fleas, in which an examination of
the eggs (nits) of the lice upon Peruvian mummies and the heads
of New Zealaixders will be referred to ; and that of the pseudo-
parasites. An appendix, consisting of an account of experiments
not yet concluded, and other recent materials, with a catalogue of
works upon the subject, will conclude this part of the work.

A second independent division will be formed by the Vegetable
parasites ; with these I shall give a few special introductory
remarks.

In each separate chapter I shall give both the treatment and
the scientific description of the parasites. Most of the figures
have been made from specimens prepared by myself; but when
perfectly good figures existed, and 1 could make no preparations
myself, I have given copies, always naming the author. I have,
however, omitted giving copies of those parasites which have only

AUTHOR'S PREFACE. vii

once been found by others, or which, in other respects, are defi-
cient in interest.

The animals employed in experiments by myself and at my
own cost were, rabbits, cats, dogs, and a few sheep. The greater
part of the pigs and sheep employed, were procured at the expense
of the Saxon ministry of the Interior, by Professor Haubner ; a
great number of sheep . were also provided at the expense of the
Agricultural Society of Saxon Lusatia, and by the kindness of
individual agriculturalists. Larger animals were not at my com-
mand, and I was obliged to console myself by the advice of Saint
Francis Xavier, who thought that the wisdom and greatness of
the Creator might be recognised even from the consideration of
the " pecora minora :" — " si thure non licet, farre litandum est."

Larger animals (oxen) were employed for rearing Ccsnuri by
Professor May, in Weyhenstephan, who has had the kindness to
inform me of the favorable result.

It still remains for me to return my public thanks for kind
assistance in my endeavours, to the Saxon Ministry of the Interior ;
to the Agricultural Society of Saxon Lusatia; to MM. Kind,
Von Magnus, Baron von Uckermann, of Lutteritz, Von Mucke,
of Niederrennersdorf, and Pastor Karmsen, of Drausendorf, for
furnishing me with animals for experiment, and for sending me
all sorts of materials for investigation with regard to several
animal parasites; to Dr. Gurlt, of Berlin, for forwarding two
female Strongyli for examination, as well as for other desirable
Helmintha ; to Professors Luschka and Richter, for sending me
Trichina spiralis ; to Professor Griesinger, for Distoma haemato-
bium ; to Professor Leuckart, of Giessen, and Dr. G. R. Wagener,
of Berlin, for preparations of T&nia, which have been made use
of in part on PL IV ; to M. Kinne, apothecary of Herrnhut, for
the communication on the Tcenia from the Cape of Good Hope;
and to Madame Heller, of Hamburg, for furnishing me with
several specimens of T&nia mediocanellata and Bothriocephalus
latus ; also for literary assistance of various kinds to Dr. von
Ammon, body-surgeon to his Majesty the King of Saxony,

viii AUTHOR'S PREFACE.

Professor H. E. Richter, of Dresden, and Dr. A. von Graefe, of
Berlin. But above all, I must thank my friend Dr. F. A. Zenker,
of Dresden, for sending fresh specimens of Trichina spiralis, fresh
intestinal mucus, with living males and females of Oxyuris
vermicularis, and spirit specimens of Trichocephalus . Lastly, I
may also express my best thanks beforehand to all those who will
have the goodness to assist me by forwarding rare parasites,
especially living Trichocephali, which may be sent long distances
in white of egg, and will remain alive for six or eight days ; I
must also beg all who are interested in this branch of science, to
assist me by sending me rare parasites, especially those found on
the human body (in spirit or white of egg), for examination and
future use, either as loans or gifts.

Finally, I shall be thankful for any sound criticisms or correc-
tions founded upon personal study.

And thus I present to the public this book, with its preface
(vorreden), which deserves the name of a preface more than most
productions of the kind which, in homage to the fashion of the
day, are written after works have been published in parts, and
which might rather be called postscripts (nachreden). The post-
script I leave to others, — may it be a good one.

THE AUTHOR.

TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.

IN introducing a translation of Kiichenmeister's work on the
Parasites affecting Man to the members of the Sydenham Society,
I wish to say first a few words on the history of the undertaking ;
and, second, to make some remarks on the general scientific theory
involved in the history of the creatures treated of in this first
volume. In offering to translate the work, I was induced to do
so by the interest I took in the subject from a natural history
point of view; and as I had not been unused to translation,
I hoped to have found time to complete the task myself. I
had not got far with my work before I found that it would be
utterly impossible for me, without assistance, to accomplish the
translation in the time desired by the Council of the Sydenham
Society, I therefore secured the services of my friend, Mr. W. S.
Dallas, whose acquaintance with the German language, and com-
petent knowledge of natural history, rendered him peculiarly
qualified to aid me. And I would here express my thanks to
that gentleman for his advice and assistance in overcoming the
difficulty of translating a large number of new terms into the
English language. The work was placed in my hands in March,
1856, and by the following December the whole of the first
volume, and the greater part of the second were translated, and
ready for the press. About this time, the Council of the
Sydenham Society were informed by Dr. Kiichenmeister that he
was preparing a second German edition, and that he was willing
to place his notes and alterations at the disposal of the Society
for the use of his translator. This offer was gladly accepted, and

x TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.

the manuscript and alterations of the author were placed in my
hands. The additions and emendations were so numerous as to
extend in the first volume alone to eleven sheets of the translated
work. The labour of translating this quantity of new matter was,
of course, considerable, but this labour was greatly increased from
its having to be done from the author's manuscript. Nearly the
whole of the already completed manuscript had also to be revised,
for the insertion of the author's corrections. Whilst this labour
was going on, in the' spring of thg year, an attack of illness
compelled me to forego for some weeks all literary labour.
These circumstances will explain the delay that has occurred in
bringing out the first volume of this work.

I had at first wished to have added notes and explanations ;
but, as the work progressed, I found these might be made very
numerous, and would not only increase the size of the work, but
delay its publication. I have, however, added some matter in
the form of an Appendix, relating to the subject. For this
matter I am indebted to several friends. Mr. Rainey, Lecturer
on Anatomy at St. Thomas's Hospital, has kindly forwarded to
me a proof of his unpublished ' Memoir on Cysticercus celluloses /
from which I have made several extracts. Professors Busk and
Owen have kindly permitted me to use their manuscripts in the
cases recorded in Appendix B. I am also obliged to Mr.
Curling for his communications on the subject of the worm
referred to in Appendix C.

As is usual, I have left all Latin descriptions as in the original.
I have also done this in the case of prescriptions occurring where
the treatment is referred to. Some of the abbreviations, as well
as the remedies, will undoubtedly be as puzzling to the reader as
to myself, but I preferred allowing them to stand rather than to
run the hazard of giving a wrong interpretation to that which
laid out of the province of the translator.

I now turn to the scientific theory involved in some parts of
this book. Although written by a medical man, engaged in
practice, and with a thoroughly practical aim, some of the most

TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. xi

practical parts involve questions of the highest scientific interest,
and of a purely theoretical character. They afford, indeed, a
beautiful illustration of the fact, that there are no questions so
profound and theoretical in the physiology and natural history of
man, that are not intimately connected with the efficient per-
formance of the daily duties of the medical man. They teach,
that though scientific theories may be sometimes barren of im-
mediate practical results, they cannot fail to disencumber the
mind of those prejudices which lead to erroneous practice by the
medical man, and disastrous results to the patient. On this
ground I may, perhaps, be excused for referring to some of the
least apparently practical parts of this volume, not with a view
of adding any new matter to that already accumulated with so
much labour by the author, but with the hope of assisting the
reader to understand those generalisations which the subject of
the book involves, but which are necessarily not brought promi-
nently forward by the author.

The history of the Entozoa has ever been supposed to involve
some of the most interesting questions relative to the generation
and reproduction of organic beings. Although it was easy to
account for the presence of worms in the stomach and intestines
by the ready explanation of the swallowing of the eggs, a difficulty
always presented itself in the case of those creatures called
hydatids, which evidently had an independent animal existence.
They exhibited no sexes, they produced no eggs, and the readiest
theory was that of spontaneous or equivocal generation. Even
as this theory was successively driven from every other part of
the animal and vegetable kingdom, it found a refuge amongst the
strange and paradoxical creatures imbedded in the tissues of man
and other animals, far removed from any external influences.

The time has, however, at length arrived, when it can be de-
monstrated, that the cystic worm is no longer to be regarded as
the result of a " fortuitous concourse of atoms," but that it is the
offspring of the tape- worm, undergoing one stage of its growth,
through which it must pass before it can attain to the more dig-

xii TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.

nified development of its parent. From this point of view we may
compare the cystic worm to the caterpillar, or chrysalis stage in the
development of the insect. It differs, however, in this, that in
many cases the cystic worm has the power of developing, at this
stage of its growth, a large number of creatures resembling itself,
and these have, each of them, the power of developing themselves
into tape-worms, as though the caterpillar had the power of pro-
ducing in its interior any number of young caterpillars, each of
which would grow into a perfect butterfly.

It is here that the history of our Entozoa becomes interesting
from another point of view. They are illustrations of Steenstrup' s
theory of the " Alternation of Generations." The cystic-worm —
let it be an Echinococcus — has originated from the egg of a tape-
worm, the embryo of which has found its way from the stomach
and intestines through their walls, into the tissues of the body.
This worm consists of a vesicle, or bag, to which is attached a
head, called the " scolex."1 In Cysticercus, the hydatid of the
pig, there is but one scolex, but in Echinococcus there are many
scolices. Now this scolex, or scolex-head, as it is sometimes
called, is the stock or germ — the head — from which all the
segments of a tape- worm proceed. The cyst of Echinococcus,
then, has the power of producing a large number of these heads,
each of which may grow into a tape-worm. The cyst, the
original cyst of the worm, is, in the language of Steenstrup, " a
nurse." Kiichenmeister and the Germans call it a mother-cyst.
But this cyst will not only produce scolex-heads, but other cysts
like itself. These are " daughter-cysts," and these secondary
cysts will also produce scolex-heads. They are also " nurses •"
and in virtue of their existence the mother-cyst becomes, in the
language of Steenstrup, a " parent-nurse." The second cyst

1 This word " scolex" was originally employed by Miiller to designate generically some
imperfectly developed forms of tape-worm. The head was the most characteristic part
of these creatures, and gradually the term "scolex" was applied to the heads of all
forms of cystic and tape-worms. The term scolex has now no generic signification, as
the creatures to which it was applied were immature forms of other genera.

TRANSLATORS PREFACE. xiii

may contain, as it frequently does in the Echinococcus altrici-
pariens of Kiichenmeister, a third cyst, a " granddaughter- cyst,"
which is also a " nurse," and thus on.

Another curious point about all these creatures is, that they
are sexless. Neither cyst nor scolex-head has any sex. Nor do
they acquire sexuality as long as they remain in the flesh in the
hydatid condition. It is to this condition of the worm that Professor
Huxley proposes to apply the term " Agamozooid." The objection
to this term is, that it is equally applicable to all sex] ess forms of
reproduction amongst animals as to those to which Steenstrup
has applied the term " nurses."

In order to acquire the conditions necessary to the development
of sexual organs, the cystic, or asexual form of the worm must
be swallowed and digested by another animal. The scolex-head
then becomes in its turn truly a "nurse," and this of a most
prolific kind, for the cyst below being displaced, the numerous
segments (" proglottides," as they have been called) begin to
make their appearance. The conditions are now such, that sexes
appear; each segment is merely a capsule containing a male and
female generative apparatus, and nothing else. Eggs, the result
of the union of sperm-cells and germ-cells, are now produced in
myriads. These pass into the external world, and being swal-
lowed and digested, set free the embryos, which again become
cystic worms as above described.

Now these phenomena are not peculiar to Entozoa. Steenstrup
pointed out that they had been observed in the Medusa, the
Claviform Polypes, the Salpse, and the Trematode Entozoa.1
Professor Owen, in the exposition of his views on " Parthe-
nogenesis,"2 a general term he applied to the phenomena of
asexual reproduction, has also given a large number of cases of
the same kind. One of the forms examined by Professor Owen,

1 ' On the Alternation of Generations,' by J. J. S. Steenstrup, translated for the Ray
Society by George Busk.

2 ' On Parthenogenesis ; or the successive production of procreating Individuals fronr
a single Ovum,' by Richard Owen, F.R.S.

xiv TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.

in his work, is peculikrly interesting, on account of its occurring
in a family where such phenomena were regarded as highly
exceptional. This case was first pointed out by Bonnet, and was
the production of young aphides for several successive generations
without any union of the sexes. The virgin- aphides, however,
thus producing viviparous young, were not true females. These
eventually appear, producing eggs, from which proceed the
virgin generation. These virgin- aphides are truly " nurses/'
according to Steenstrup's theory. • But a further development of
this strange history remains. Not only have we the lower
animals in their various stages of development, capable of pro-
ducing buds, or individuals like themselves, without sexual union,
and embryo-bearing eggs, but we have also amongst the Articulata,
both in Crustacea and Insects, females producing eggs, which
proceed to the development of perfect animals without any sexual
intercourse or union of sperm-cells and germ-cells.1 Such a
phenomenon is so opposed to the universally accepted dogma of
the necessity of sexual intercourse for the development of the
embryo, amongst the higher animals, that many physiologists of the
present day have not hesitated to express their unqualified dissent.
Regarding, however, the phenomena of reproduction from the
point of view afforded us by the Entozoa, and other forms of
lower animals, we must receive the facts in both cases equally
cautiously, and judge according to the evidence. Von Siebold,
in his work on f True Parthenogenesis/ affords good evidence
for believing that the queen-bee deposits two kinds of eggs,
the one of which has come under the influence of the sperm- cells
of the male, and the other not. A very curious point in this
history, is the fact that, whilst both eggs produce young bees,
the impregnated eggs produce worker or female bees, whilst the
unimpregnated eggs produce male or drone bees. In a recent

1 ' On a true Parthogenesis in Moths and Bees ; a contribution to the History of
Reproduction in Animals,' by Carl Theodor Ernest von Siebold, translated from the
German by William S. Dallas, F.L.S., London, 1857.

TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. xv

communication1 read to the Royal Society, Mr. Lubbock has
shown that species of the Entomostracous crustaceous genus
Daphnia produce living young in all respects like their parent
without any sexual intercourse. It would appear, then, that up
as high as the most developed forms of articulate animals, we
have evidence that there is no real difference between the func-
tions of reproduction and generation.

If we turn now to the vegetable kingdom, we find perfectly
analogous phenomena presenting themselves. In fact, the modi-
fications of the reproductive function, which have recently excited
so much surprise, in the animal kingdom, are the normal forms of
the function among plants. In the roots and branches of a tree
we have a gigantic (t nurse," and the buds are its progeny.
Just as we find the same secondary products called " gemmae,"
in animals either remaining adherent to their parent- stocks, as
in the Sertularian and other Zoophytes, or floating off, as in
Hydra and many others, so we find the buds of plants remaining
attached to the tree, or becoming separated from it. Just too
as we find a different form assumed by the secondary offspring
of the " nurse," as in the scolex-head of the cystic-worm, so
we find in such cases as those presented by the ee bulbillus," the
' ' bulb," and the ' { sporule," different forms assumed by parts
having the same relations in the plant as in the animal. So
likewise in the plant we find a greater change of the secondary
offspring taking place, when sexes are developed and flowers are
produced, and the hermaphrodite flower with its stamens and
pistils is the representative of the segments (proglottides) of the
tape-worm, with its male and female apparatus in a common
envelope. We may go yet further with our analogies in the
vegetable kingdom. Here also we have numerous cases, in
which the germ-cell, the ovule, is produced,2 and developes
within itself an embryo, quite independent of the influence of the

1 'An account of two methods of Reproduction in Daphnia, and of the structure of
the Ephippium,' by John Lubbock, Esq., F.G.S. Read January 29tb, 1857.

2 See ' Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science/ p. 228; also Lubbock, loc. cit.

XVI

TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.

sperm-cell — the pollen. The cases seem to me to have a strict
analogy, and no more simple way could be found of mastering
the details of the reproductive phenomena of animals, than by
studying those in plants.

Perhaps these general remarks will be better understood by
the aid of the following diagram :

GENESIS.
Growth — Reproduction — Generation.

HOMOGENESIS

(Reproductive force acting through
similar cells.)

It is represented in —
A. Plants by Phytoids.

1. Isophytoids.

Buds.

2. Allophytoids.

Bulbilli.
Bulbs.
Sporules, &c.

B. Animals by Zooids.

1. Isozooids.

Gems, or buds.

2. Allozoids.

" Nurses " (Steenstrup).
" Agamozooids " (Huxley).
" Virgin Aphides " (Owen).
"Agamic eggs" (Lubbock).
" Drone bees " (Siebold).

HETEROGENKSIS

(Reproductive force acting through dis-
similar cells, sperm-cells and germ-cells.)
It is represented in —

A. Plants by

1. Gynophytoids.

Female flowers.
Pistillidia, &c.

2. Androphytoids.

Male flowers.
Antheridia, &c.

3. Androgynophytoids.

Hermaphrodite flowers.

B. In animals —

1. Gynozooids.

Females.

2. Androzooids.

Males.

3. Androgynozooids.

Hermaphrodites.

8, SAVILE Row,

August 24th, 1857.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME I.

PAGE

Author's Preface . . . . . . . v

Translator's Preface . . . . . . ix

Introduction . . . . . . . • 1

ANIMAL PARASITES.

First Group. — Parasites whose muscles exhibit no transverse striae . . 2

First Class.— INFUSORIA . . . . . .2

Trichomonas vayinalis . . . . 5

Denticola hominis . . . . , .8

Second Class.— VERMES, HELMINTHA . . . . 11

A. PLATYELMIA . . . . . .12

First Sub-class. — Cestoidea . . . . 12

Historical summary . ... 12

i. The mature animal or proglottis . 37

n. The six-hooked brood . . . . .40

in. Destiny of the six-hooked brood . . . 48

iv. The scolex passing into activity . . . .80

v. The strobila = the tape-worm colony . . 84

SPECIAL PART . . , . . • .95

First Order. — Bothriocephali . , .95

Bothriocephalus latus ... .96

xviii CONTENTS.

PAGE

A. Mature state .- . . . 96

B. Ova and embryos . . . . .100

Second Order. — Taeniae . . . . . 106

I. Taenise which occur in the mature state . .106

1. Tcenia solium . . . . 106

A. Tsenia matura . . . 108

B. Scolex of T. solium = Cysticercus cellulosa . . .113

2. Ttenia mediocanellata . . .133
Taenia from the Cape of Good Hope * . 139

3. Tcenia nana . . . . . .141

Phenomenology and diagnosis . . . . 142

Treatment of tape-worm . .147

II. Immature Tenise . • 177

1. Cysticercus cellulose (p. 113.)

2. Cysticercus tenuicollis . .177

3. EcMnococci ... .189

a. Echinococcus scolicipariens = E. veterinorum . . .192

b. Echinococcus altricipariens = E. hominis . . . 205
Appendix. Acephalocysts . . . 229

4. Cysticercus vesica hominis . . .232

Appendix. On the liydatid disease of Iceland . . . 233

Supplement to the Cestoidea . . 240

Table of hooks ... . 242

Second Sub-class. — Trematoda ..... 244

Fam. I. Monostoma . . . . . 244
1. Monostomum lentis ..... 244

Fam. II. Distoma . •. . . , 246

1. Distoma hepaticum . . . . .247

2. Distoma lanceolatum . . . . . . 273

3. Distomum heterophyes . . . . .276

4. Distomum hcematobium . . . . 277

5. Distomum ophthalmobium . . . . .287

B. NEMATELMIA . . . . . 288
GENERAL PART ...... 288

1. Trichocephalus dispar . . . . . . 321

Trichina spiralis ...... 333

2. Oxyuris vermicularis , . . . . , 355

CONTENTS. xix

PAGE

3. Strong ylus gigas . . . . 376

4. S. longevaginatus . . . . . .381

5. Ancylostomum duodenale . . . . . 384

6. Ascaris lumbricoides » . . . .410

Appendix to translation . . . . . 428

Appendix A. Mr. Rainey's researches on Cysticercus celluloses in the pig . 428

Appendix B. Additional cases of the occurrence of species of Distoma in the

human body ...... 433

Appendix C. Case of the occurrence, and description of a nematoid worm,

Dactylius aculeatus, and account of Spiroptera hominis . . 438

INTRODUCTION.

PARASITES are independent organized beings, descended from
peculiar animal or vegetable parents, which require, in order that
they may be enabled to complete their development, growth, or
reproduction, to take up their abode either constantly or tem-
porarily in or upon a second animal or vegetable organism of a
different kind, from which they also derive their nourishment.

Human parasites are those which select the human body as
this second organism.

These parasites are usually divided, according to the place
to which they attach themselves, and the kingdom of nature
(Animal or Vegetable) to which they belong, into animal
and vegetable parasites — Epi- and Ento-zoa, and Epi- and Ento-
phyta. We shall adopt the division into animal and vege-
table parasites, and endeavour to give a natural historical descrip-
tion and classification of the different species, leaving it to the
reader himself, from the description of the habitation of these
creatures, to determine whether those under his consideration be
Ento- or Epi-zoa, or Ento- or Epi-phyta.

The meaning of the term pseudo-parasites is easily understood
from the foregoing. These are animals or plants, which, either
in a living or dead state, reach the intestinal canal in consequence
of impurities in food or drink, or get into the air-passages, or
upon the surface of the body ; but, even when this takes place
during the life of the animal, can only continue their existence
for a short time on the human body, are soon subjected to the
laws of organic decomposition, and are never capable of con-
tinuing their species there.

ANIMAL PARASITES.

" WHENEVER an animal/' say8 Leuckart,1 "is too small and
too imperfectly armed to overcome and destroy another living
being upon which its instincts direct it to seek for nourishment,
it must be contented with robbfhg it, by feasting upon its blood,
juices, and solid parts." The only animals which occur as para-
sites in or upon the human body belong to the classes of Insects
and Worms, and perhaps also to the Infusoria. As far as
we yet know, these parasites of man are not subject to the
attacks of secondary parasites. Many of them are common
to Man and other Mammalia, whilst others are peculiar to him.
From the presence or absence of transverse strise in the muscles
they may be divided into two large groups.

FIRST GROUP.

PARASITES WHOSE MUSCLES EXHIBIT NO TRANSVERSE STRIATION.

This group, with the exception of the still questionable Infu-
soria, is composed of the true Helmintha of authors. We will
first take into consideration the peculiarities in the mode of life
of these animals in general, and afterwards in detail.

The Infusoria are destitute of all high organization. They
are simple, vitalised, membranous structures, which live by mere
endosmose.

The other parasites of this division also, or the true Helmintha,
are destitute of many of the organs possessed by the higher
animals. Thus, they have no separate respiratory organ, and
the oxygen necessary to their existence, as to that of all organized
beings, must always be taken up in a dissolved state, simultaneously
with their fluid food. Hence they are enabled to exist within
the human body, either in its closed or open cavities, or in its
tissues. They constitute the true Entozoa, and furnish no repre-
sentatives to the series of human Epizoa, although some of them

1 Vierordt's 'Archiv,' 1852, article "Parasiten und Parasitismus."

ANIMAL PAEASITES. 3

may be destined, in the course of their development, to pass a
portion of their lives in water, or perhaps (as in the case of the
Cercarue) as Epizoa upon other animals. Sexual organs may
always be detected in those specimens of these animals which have
attained their last grade of development. Although Oscar Schmidt
states that he has recently discovered a production of the six-hooked
brood in the Tcenia dispar of the frog, without being able to find
sexual organs in the segments of this animal, yet this statement
requires a more careful revision, especially as these organs, and
particularly the male ones, are so delicate that they are very
easily overlooked.

The senses of sight, smell, and taste are wanting to all these
animals, but their general sense of touch appears to be highly
developed, although no undoubted proof of the existence of a
special nervous system in the Helmintha has yet been obtained,
except in the Oxyurides, in which George Walter has recently dis-
covered a highly developed nervous system. The intestinal canal
is wanting in the Cestoidea. In the Trematoda it forms a csecal
canal, in which the mouth also performs the functions of the
anus ; whilst in the Nematoida it becomes a complete alimen-
tary canal, with a mouth, oesophagus, stomach, intestine, and
anus. In the tissues of the Cestoidea the tendency to the for-
mation of a bony envelope makes its appearance, in the deposition
of calcareous salts, which have been recently regarded as siliceous
by Eschricht, but certainly incorrectly ; in the Trematoda we
generally look for these in vain, and in the Nematoidea they are
always deficient. If we bring together the particulars which are
characteristic of all these three kinds of true Helmintha, we find
them to comprise (besides the greatly developed general sense of
touch] the vascular system, consisting, in the Cestoidea, of four
longitudinal, lateral canals, and in the Trematoda of a fine net-
work of vessels, which is less distinctly marked only in the
Nematoidea; the muscular system, composed of transverse and
longitudinal muscles, without transverse striae; the structure of
the epidermis, which consists of a homogeneous, more or less
finely checked substance, which is, perhaps, composed of
chitine, but at all events of a substance which closely ap-
proaches chitine in its chemical reactions ; the property of
sooner or later giving off a strongly refractive, albuminous sub-
stance, in oleaginous drops, when in contact with water, and the
circumstance that they can scarcely ever effect their development

4 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

without a passive and active migration of the embryos and imma-
ture young.

This migration itself is passive during the embryonal state,
and as long as the embryos are still enclosed in the egg-shells or
egg-envelopes, during which period they usually emigrate once,
passively, into the external world, generally with the excrements
of the hosts,1 of their parents, and then again, passively in general,
into the intestinal canal of the animal in which they are to acquire
a higher development. From the latter moment commences
their active migration, by whicfy they seek the situations, usually
exterior to the intestinal canal, in which they are to undergo
their metamorphosis into the next higher step or steps of deve-
lopment, which is generally accompanied by an encysting process.

Finally, as a general rule, at least as regards the trematode and
cestoid worms, they must afterwards migrate passively once more
into the intestine of the animal in which they are to attain
maturity ; that is to say, they must pass with the food of their
new and final host into its intestine.

The general etiology proves that a spontaneous generation
(generatio cequivoca} never takes place, but that there is always a
reproduction from sexual parents, either directly or by indirect
channels.2

The general pathology shows that the worms do not effect their

1 [" Host" is a literal translation of the German " Wirth," and although not perhaps
previously used in the above sense in the English language, I have adopted it to prevent
a somewhat tedious circumlocution. E. L.]

8 Very recently we have obtained much new information relating to the theory of
reproduction. In the first place, the discovery of the male generative organs in the
earth-worms by Hering, of Leipzig, has proved these animals to be hermaphrodite; and
we have perhaps some reason to hope that we may find this hermaphrodism more widely
diffused over other sections of animals than has hitherto been the case ; for example,
amongst the insects. Whether there really are creatures amongst insects which pro-
duce young without any sexual union, in the manner of nurse-production, is a question
of the day raised by Von Siebold's theory of Parthenogenesis in Psyche helix, Solenobia
clathrella and lichenella, Bombyx mori, and Apis mellifica. However, even in this case
it will be seen that there is no reference to &generatio cequivoca. (See Hering, in Siebold
and Kolliker, ' Zeitsch. fur Wiss. Zool.,' viii, p. 400, and Von Siebold's ' Parthenogenesis,'
Leipzig, 1856, transl. by Dallas Van Voorst, 1857.) Czenkowsky's statements, which
amount to a true generatio cequivoca, however, appear to us to be quite incredible ; he
professes to have seen swarm-spores furnished with two cilia produced by a peculiar
metamorphosis from the starch-grains of decomposing potatoes. Must not this isolated
fact be a mistake ? For our part, we believe that the theory of the generatio cequivoca
cannot be considered as supported or proved by this statement.

ANIMAL PARASITES. 5

active migration without some irritation of the regions of the
body through which they pass, whether this migration is per-
formed by the youngest brood, which is the usual course, or by
the mature or nearly mature animal, which takes place but
rarely, and that amongst the Nematoidea. Nature, with rare
exceptions, endeavours to render those immature grades of
development, which are passed through by these animals out of
the intestinal canal, innocuous, by the process of encysting, and
in these stages symptoms of pressure especially prevail. The passive
migration, however, of all still-immature parasites into the human
intestine takes place without any perceptible morbid symptoms.

The general prognosis follows naturally from the observations
just recorded, and it is easily seen that the most dangerous indi-
viduals for the moment are the young animals engaged in their
migration. Next to these the migrating, mature individuals,
which inhabit the intestinal canal, produce the most dangerous
symptoms. The encysted states, or those in which the
animals reside in closed cavities, can only become dangerous to
life by their presence when they attain an enormous size, but
when smaller may be present without doing any mischief.
Lastly, most of the mature individuals are more accessible to
curative processes than those of the lower stages, which live out-
side the intestinal canal.

The general therapeutics will have to keep a double object in
view :

1. The removal and destruction of the mature individuals with
their progeny.

2. The observation of the mode of life and migration of the
immature individuals ; and, in places where such plagues are
endemic, of the habits and mode of life of the people, which
facilitate this migration-— so as to found a rational prophylaxy
upon these observations.

First Class — INFUSORIA.

As the Vibriones (PI. I, fig. 1) and their allies, such as Bur-
saria, Monades, and Bodones, are a peculiar attribute of fer-
menting and putrefying fetid animal substances, or always pre-
suppose a half-dead soil, and do not derive their nourishment so
much from living substances as from matters which the living

6 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

body has expelled, or is in the course of expelling as foreign to
it, they are properly only to be regarded as indirectly parasitic
upon the human body. We shall, therefore, refer to them super-
ficially here, and only devote a closer attention to two species.
How widely diffused they are in the body is shown by the fact
that Ficinus, for example, found sluggish, bean-shaped Infusoria,
•~m — ^ inch, and sometimes double this size, of a globular form,
in the perspiration of the feet, on the places where the epidermis
separated in caseous crumbs, as well as in the moist walls of the
folds of skin in little children^ and that others have met with
them in purulent and foul secretions from the vagina, urethra,
and bladder, putrescible urine, &c.

1. Trichomonas vaginalis. (PI. I, fig. 2.)

Diesing has placed this animalcule in his Subclassis I, Achae-
thelmintha ; Sectio 1, Ach. mollia ; Ordo I, Prothelmintha ; Sub-
ordo, Aprocta ; Nibus, Atricha ; Familia II, Monadineae ; Sub-
fam. Ill, Cercomonadinea ; Genus XIV, Trichomonas (Duj.) ; and
described it as follows :

Animalcula solitaria, libera. Corpus nudum, loricd destilutum,
subglobosum} brevicaudatum, mollitie sua mutabile, hyalinum, d't-
visione spontanea simplici bipartitum v. indivisum. Os (?) obliquo-
terminale, limbo ciliatum. Flagellum simplex, terminate. Ocellus
nullus. Endoparasita.

Trichomonas vaginalis : Corpus nodulosum (gelatinosum) lac-
teum ; cauda brevis ; flagellum corpore triplo longius. Motus
vacillans. Longit. ^.'" (Duj., ' Hist. Nat. Inf./ 300 tab., iv,
fig. 13.)

Notwithstanding that Dujardin, who also describes a Tricho-
monas in the intestine of Limax agrestis, recognised the animal
nature of this structure, it has hitherto been unable in Germany
to establish its title to a place amongst the true independent
parasites of man. Some regarded this parasite as ciliated
epithelium (compare Ecker's figure of the ciliated epithelium of
the auditory organ of Petromyzon marinus, in Muller's ' Archiv/
1844, Taf. xvi, figs. 1, 2). Others considered the animal as a
mite. Recently, however, Kolliker and Scanzoni (see Scanzonr's
' Beitrage zur Geburtskunde/ &c., Band ii) have confirmed
Donne's statements (' Rech. microsc. sur la nature du Mucus/
Paris, 1837; and ' Cours de Microscopic/ Paris, 1845, pp. 157 —

ANIMAL PAEASITES. 7

161, fig. 33). Trichomonas vaginalis only occurs in women with
gonorrliceal discharge, or with an abundant vaginal secretion
mixed with mucus- and pus-corpuscles; never in a normal and
healthy vaginal secretion, but only in pathological conditions.
The mucus, however, need not be frothy, as Donne supposes, so
long as it is not quite normal. Kolliker and Scanzoni found it in
the vaginal (never in the cervical) mucus of both pregnant and
unimpregnated women, especially in the yellowish, creamy, and acid
mucus ; sometimes in neutral, but never in alkaline mucus. From
their granulated appearance, their form, size, and structure, the
mucus-corpuscles closely resemble this Infusorium ; they both also
generally lie in masses together. All these things, with the
very sluggish movements of the parasite, have caused it hitherto
to be very commonly overlooked, and confounded with the mucus-
corpuscles. The prolongation at the anterior end, which is even
sometimes drawn out into an elliptical form, and furnished with
a delicate, long filament (flagellum], distinguishes the parasite
from the epithelium. The body of the parasite is O01 millim.
(Duj.), or 0-02—0-04 millim. = 0-008— O'OIS'" (Koll. and Scanz.),
in length; the flagellum, 0-028— 0'033 millim. (Duj.), or 0'04—
0-08 millim. = 0-015— 0-030'" (Koll. and Scanz.), in length,
sometimes double or triple, and furnished with several (7 — 8
according to Dujardin, 4 — 5 according to Donne) short cilia in
continual movement, which greatly facilitate the recognition of
the animal. A mouth, which Donne states he saw under the
flagellum, was found neither by Dujardin nor by Kolliker and
Scanzoni, who sometimes saw, beneath the cilia, a delicate furrow
running obliquely. The vacuoles observed by Dujardin in the
body of the animalcule were only seen by Kolliker and Scanzoni,
during its contact with water or weak sugar and water, in which
the animals swell up into a globular form and soon become motion-
less, and then closely resemble ciliated cells. When examined in
pure vaginal mucus, the parasites exhibit a very lively infusorial
swarming; and those who speak of similarity to ciliated epithe-
lium must have made use of water in their investigations.
Kolliker and Scanzoni observed no leech-like movements, true con-
tractions and expansions of the body, or adhesion by the so-called
posterior extremity, which is produced into a delicate, but still
rather thick, stiff, immoveable, and rather long process. Unfor-
tunately they did not attempt to transfer vaginal mucus with
Trichomonads to the healthy vagina of women which were not

8 ANIMAL PARASITES.

infested by Trichomonas, so as to obtain information as to their
capability of infection. According to this, the statements of
Donne,, Dujardin (' Infusoires/ Paris, 1844, p. 299), Leblond,
(' Traite Zool. et Physiol. sur les vers intestinaux de Phomme'),
and Froriep (fNeue Notizen/ ii, p. 40), are correct. But those
of Yon Gluge (' Untersuchungen/ Heft i, ciliated epithelium),
Valentin, Julius Vogel (' Pathol. Anat./ i, p. 104, and ' Erlau-
terungstafeln zur path, Anat/), Von Siebold (Wagner's ' Hand-
worterbuch der Phys./ ii, p. 660), Rokitansky (' Pathol. Anat./
3 Aufl., i, p. 367), Lebert (' Ptysiol. Pathol./ Paris, 1845, i, p.
230), Raspail (' Nouv. Syst./ ii, p. 102, according to which the
animal is identical with Cercaria syrinus), and Ehrenberg and
Froriep (1. c., p. 88, by whom Trichomonas is referred to the
Ascarides), are to be corrected.

We have above referred to the slow movement of these
parasites. Movements of this kind, or the formation of pro-
minences, processes, &c., occurring in the lower sections of
the animal kingdom, are called amceboid movements. From
these we must distinguish the movements of individual micro-
scopic constituent parts of the human body, which we may
denominate pseudo-amoeboid. Such movements are met with,
according to Lieberkuhn (Tab. I, fig. 3), in the tenacious fluid
of dropsical ovaries, in the colourless blood-corpuscles of animals
and of man (Tab. I, fig. 4), for which reason they are met
with most frequently in leucaemia of the human subject, and
in the isolated cells of the human liver (Leuckart). All
these corpuscles with amseboid motion are diaphanous, homo-
geneous globules, which by slow movement give off all sorts of
processes, sometimes like tails. These last are not animals ; some
of them, perhaps, are lymph-corpuscles, consisting of Ecker's
contractile substance. The true Ama>b<e} according to Wagener
and Lieberkiihn, stand in a certain developmental connection with
Psorospermice and Gregarin&j of which we cannot speak here.

2. Denticola hominis (Ficinus) ?

Genus valde dubiosum (Tab. I, fig. 2').

In 1772, in his ' Arcana Nature detecta/ p. 40, Leeuwenhoek
figured animalcules resembling Bacillarice, which he had discovered

ANIMAL PARASITES. 9

in the mucus of the teeth. Lebeaume described the tartar of
the teeth as the habitation and product of these Infusoria, and
considered the tartar as a polypary ; and Mandl even (' Comptes
rendus de TAcad, des Sciences/ tome xvii, p. 213) supposed the
tartar to be produced by the aggregation of calcareous remains of
bacillar Vibriones (Leeuwenhoek's Bacillarias) from the mucus of
the mouth. The latter were said to occur in large quantities,
especially in the coating of the tongue, when the diet was hard
and non-stimulant, as well as in cases of deranged digestion, but
to be destroyed by heat, muriatic acid, and spirituous beverages.
R.Ficinus makes the following statement (•' Journ. der Chirurgie
und Augenheilkunde von Walther und Ammon/ Bd. 36, or new
series, Bd. 6, 1847, p. 4) regarding the animal structures in the
dental mucus. In the yellowish-white dental mucus, amongst
the peculiar filaments of Leeuwenhoek and Biihlmann (Mullens
1 Archiv/ 1840), closely aggregated, very small granules, epithelial
cells, and mucus-globules, make their appearance in various
quantities, arid sometimes single Infusoria which have accidentally
got into the mouth with food and drink. In the interstices re-
maining between the granular substance, especially on the addition
of water or saliva, we see an extraordinary quantity of small,
roundish, and longish corpuscles, which are only visible with high
magnifying powers, which move about briskly with a revolving
motion, remain restlessly on particular granules or filaments, or
move about upon them, lay themselves on one side, or vibrate,
attaching themselves by one end, and acquire a conical form.
These are automatic movements of an animal nature, independent
of currents or molecular movements, and perfectly resemble
movements in search of nourishment. The form of the body of
these animalcules appears to be an ellipsoid, divided in the
middle by a slight constriction, like a bean. Their trans-
verse diameter amounts to O'OOOOS — 8, and their longitudinal
diameter to 0*00016 — 20" Par. The animalcule is met with par-
ticularly in the vertical position, when it appears as a globule
°f iJoo — T^OO'" Par., and on account of this figure it was regarded by
Eisenmann as a Monas Lens. More rarely it is seen in a horizontal
position. When moving quietly the form of its body may be
more distinctly recognised, when it has approached objects which
offer it nourishment. Then we sometimes see, in the constriction
at the middle of the body, a lip-like elevation, below which
Ficinus supposed the oral opening to be situated, if the animal-
cule be not destitute of a mouth.

10 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

The animal is an aciliated Infusorium, with the mouth on the
ventral surface, and probably furnished with a carapace, resem-
bling the Paramecia and Kolpoda, but which Ficinus prefers
regarding as a distinct genus, standing near the Monades and
Vibriones. The species, according to him, are numerous, as
almost every mammal has its peculiar species. Dogs and horses,
which, next to man, suffer most from tartar, exhibit these Infusoria
in abundance, and the species are particularly like those of man.

Ehrenberg also referred to these Infusoria, but could not con-
firm Leeuwenhoek's statements..

Ficinus found his Denticola in all persons having teeth,
especially in the interstices of the molars. He met with it
more rarely on the mucous membrane of the mouth, scarcely at
all in the saliva, but especially when the teeth were neglected,
and in immense numbers in hollow teeth. In teeth which are
kept moist, and between glass plates, the animalcules live for
days. In spirituous and acid fluids, and fluids mixed with cigar
smoke and spices they do not live in the superficial strata, but
exist still in the lower ones.

Two, three, four, or more of these animals adhere together by
their longitudinal axis, become more sluggish, then push them-
selves about from place to place, and, lastly, penetrate with one
end into a mass of Buhlmann's filaments, and become motionless,
when, according to Ficinus, these filaments, which appear darker,
are produced from them. The satin-like surface of the tartar of
the teeth is closely set with these filaments. If fragments be
prepared in muriatic acid, the groups of filaments, arranged
in the form of mucedinous fungi, are seen in them ; by
concentrated sulphuric acid these are broken up into the
above-mentioned small, bean-shaped corpuscles; that is to say,
into DenticolfK. Where the parts are quiet, as on the edges of
the gums, and especially in the lower jaw, these filaments are
deposited, and gradually increase in number; they constantly
cake together more and more firmly, cover the lateral surfaces
of the teeth, push back the gum, penetrate between this and the
cement of the roots of the teeth, destroy their union, and loosen
arid ruin the teeth. To cure this disorder the incrustations
must be removed, and fresh deposits and the access of the
Infusoria must be prevented ; this is effected by aromatic, spiri-
tuous remedies, cleaning the teeth with lamp-black, washing the
mouth with vinegar or dilute mineral acids, from time to time,
and fastening the loose teeth to their neighbours.

ANIMAL PARASITES. 11

It appears to me that there is a confusion here of the animalcule
with the buccal Algae, their spores, &c. An error has certainly
slipped in with regard to the production of Biihlmann's filaments
(buccal Algse) from Infusoria. This metamorphosis is impossible.
Nevertheless I do not venture to decide whether this particular
Denticola exists amongst them.

Second Class — VERMES, HELMINTHA (Diesing).

The animals of which we have now to treat belong to Diesing' s
first sub-class, — Helminlha achcethelminthica .- animalia evertebrala,
inarliculata (i. e., exlremilalibus arliculis nullis prcedita), nunc
mollia, aut elaslica, ebranchiala, setis relraclilibus nullis ; whilst
we find no representatives of Diesing's second sub-class, the
Helminlha ch&lhelminlhica, i. e., animalia everlebrala, inarliculala,
nunc mollia, ebranchiala, vel branchiis exlernis munila} setis re-
tractilibus inslrucla.

In the consideration of the different classes, however, we prefer
following, as Virchow has done, Vogt's division into —

A. Plalyelmia = Flat worms.

B. Nemalelmia = Round or Thread-worms.

And, like Vogt, again dividing the first section into two sub-
divisions. At the same time we would put it for consideration
whether it would not be better to adopt the new denominations
added at the end.

A. 1. Cesloidea, Vogt = Cephalocolylea, Diesing = Flat- worm
colonies, or Plalyelmia colonias exhibenlia, Kiichen-
meister.

2. Trematoidea, Vogt = Myzelminlha, Diesing = Isolated
Flat-worms, or Plalyelmia isolala, Kiich.

It will scarcely be possible to do anything further towards the
union of these two subdivisions than is here done, that is to say,
placing them together in the system in one great division.
Virchow represents Van Beneden as referring all the cestode
worms to the Trematoidea, and I myself felt compelled to attribute
to Van Beneden the same views, judging from the hitherto im-
perfectly known opinion of that illustrious naturalist ; but his

12 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

replies to my inquiries, expressing doubts as to the existence of
a transition from the cestode to the trematode worms, have
enabled me to come to the conclusion that Van Beneden does not
appear to aim at much more than what Vogt and Virchow have
done, namely, to show that Rudolphi's classification of the worms,
founded merely upon differences of form, and not upon the
history of the development, was no longer tenable, and to intro-
duce a division into the system, which should place the relation-
ship between the cestode and trematode worms in a clearer
light. I shall hereafter comba^the belief in an actual transition
between the Cestoidea and Trematoidea, and have endeavoured
to give here a classification which may perhaps furnish a more
exact representation of the affinities of these two kinds of worms,
and reconcile the contradictory statements of authors, and which
closely approaches the views maintained years ago by Valisneri
and others, and more recently by Eschricht, Leuckart, &c.

A. PLATYELMIA.

Entozoa solitaria aut composita, androyyna. Corpus depressum
vel teretiusculum, molle, organis ad fixandum aptis prceditum.
Anus nullus ; canalis cibarius aut divisus (rarissime simplex], aut
nullus. Cavitas corporis non distincta. Metamorphosis in pie-
risque ; larvae gemmipara aut sporuliparae. (Leuckart, in Van der
Hoeven.)

First Sub-class.

Cestoidea = Cephalocotylea (Diesing) =Bandwiirmer ( = Tape-
worms) = Platyelmia composita3 aut colonias exhibentia =
Plattwurmcolonien (milii), Flat-worm-colonies (incl. Cysticis}.

Animalia tomotoca, per longum plerumque tempus larva
nutrici juncta et una cum ea corpus elongatum, articulatum,
polymorphum formantia. Larva (Scolex, vulyo caput) pyriformis,
foveis aut osculis suctoriis 4 vel 2 instructa, scepissime uncinala.
Proles sexualis (Proglottides, vulgo articuli) organis externis desti-
tuta, embryones nucinulis armatos gignentes. Canalis cibarius
nullus. (Leuckart, in Van der Hoeven.)

ANIMAL PAEASITES. ]3

5-varia inveniuntur in Us metamorphoses : 1. Animal maturum
(proglottis) . 2. Embryones uncinulati (Grand-nurse; Grossamme).
3. Scolex passivam vitam ay ens sub forma vermis cystici sen
Cysticerca, sub forma Platycerca et sub forma Acerca. 4. Scolex
activam vitam agens (Nurse, Amme). 5. Strobila.

Before proceeding to the closer examination of this subject in
detail, I will here give a historical summary of the remarkable
attempts which have been made at its explanation. We shall
thus see that it is only very recently that the Cystici have been got
rid of as a distinct family amongst the Helmintha, and united
with the Taenice.

The embryos were seen and figured, but not explained by
Goeze as early as 1782. The correct recognition and signification
of these structures commences with Von Siebold (Burdach's
< Physiologic' ii, p. 201).

The most important steps of development, in a historical point
of view, are the cystic worms (vermes cystici), and we therefore
begin with their history.

The explanation of these hydatid structures has undergone
the most varied treatment. As I have mentioned in another place
(see my book, 'Ueber die Cestoden im Allgemeinen/ Zittau 1853),
it is not improbable that the Mosaic prohibition of swirie's-flesh
has been caused by the circumstance that the measly disease of pork
which appears to be particularly rife in the East, even in the
present day, was very well known to Moses. To the naturalist,
at least, it must appear remarkable that in Lev. xi, verses 5 to 7,
Moses has mentioned as unclean, immediatelyafter each other, thres
animals, the pig, the hare, and the shaphan, which are still univer-
sally known as bearers of Cysticerci. Even if we do not consider
the animal " shaphan" to be the rabbit, as the old commentators
have done, yet hitherto in all attempts at explaining this word in
modern times only animals have been referred to which belong to
families particularly characterised by their harbouring Cysticerci.
From the point of view above indicated it is a matter of perfect
indifference to us whether, in this passage of Scripture, we have
to do with a Mus or Scirtetes Jaculus, or with a species of Pedeies
(of which as yet only one species, Pedeies Caffer, the Jumping Hare,
is known), or with Hyrax Syriacus (a species of the family Lam-
nunguia). All that matters to us is, that both the Rodentia} to
which the first two species belong, and the Pachydermataj to

14 ANIMAL PARASITES.

which, like the pig, the Hyrax belongs, as is universally known,
harbour Cysticerci in particular abundance.1

This view finds further support from the fact that Aristotle, in.
his ' Historia Animalium/ lib. viii, § 21, speaks of the Cysticerci of
the pig (^aAafo = grando) as a disorder of the pig which had been
known for ages, and which he mentions, together with two other
diseases in swine, namely, the scurvy in the gums (fipayyov) and
inflammation of the spleen (? /cpovcrai'). Of the animal nature of
this disease nothing was known either amongst the Ancients or iu
the Middle Ages. Even before^ Aristotle, Hippocrates regarded
the Cysticerci as hydatids, and the example of both was followed
up to the time of the celebrated Redi, surgeon to Cosmo III, in
1684-, and the Konigsberg surgeon, Hartmann, in 1685. What-
ever produced a swelling similar to the cystic worms was men-

1 In attempts at the zoological determination of the animal " shaphan," the following
particulars must be taken into consideration :

1. The uncloven hoofs.

2. The rumination, or a movement of cutaneous and muscular parts of the face
similar to rumination; as it is well known that many Rodentia have the habit of clean-
ing themselves sitting up on their hind legs, whilst at the same time they distort the
face (the upper lips and cheeks), or as we say " make faces," a movement which in such
animals may easily be taken for rumination by those who only judge by appearances,
and do not inquire into anatomical structure.

3. The occurrence of Cysticerci or encysted Helmintha of other kinds in the liver, the
abdomen, or the muscles of the animal in question, and —

4. The occurrence of this animal in Egypt, Syria, &c., but especially in the vicinity of
and upon the mountains Iloreb and Sinai.

The linguistic knowledge of the author, who was once destined for the theo-
logical profession, is not sufficient to enable him to determine whether in the words
nin nbVD~^ the word PHD might be taken not merely in a passive sense, as

T •• ••-:(.- T»

" that which is bitten, or the morsel," but also in an active sense, as " that which bites ;
the masticating organs, or the lips and cheeks," so that these verses might also be trans-
lated " nam ascendens facit id, quod disserat," i. e., " by the movement of the upper lip
and the cutaneous and muscular parts of the face it makes faces," whilst, according to the
ordinary translation, they run, " nam ascendens facit id, quod jamjam dissecatum erat."
Although in a linguistic point of view there is nothing to object against this attempt to
restore the ancient Moses in inteyrum, yet M. Michael, teacher of Hebrew in the Gym-
nasium of Zittau, from whom I made inquiries on this subject, thought that the words
HI]) T13. by which the statement in the previous verses is paraphrased in verse

T •• "" T

7, as well as the parallel passage in Deuteronomy, chap, xiv, v. 8, were in opposition to
this attempted interpretation. In the latter place we should not then read " it cheweth
not the cud" (that is, " rumination is not given to it"), but, "ruminating organs are not
given to it," by which the possession of lips would be denied to the pig. Whether my
attempted interpretation be possible may be decided by linguists ! If it be impossible,
we must suppose that the making of faces has been confounded with rumination.

ANIMAL PARASITES. 15

tioned at that time under the name of hydatids, which were then
considered sometimes as enlarged and degenerated glands
(Ruysch) ; sometimes as accumulations of pus and mucus mixed
with serum (Piso, Malpighi, Boerhave, Haller) ; sometimes as the
ends of blood-vessels which had changed their nature (Spiegel,
Bartholin, Diemerboock, Portal, Brandes, Grashuis) ; sometimes,
soon after the discovery of the lymphatic vessels by Aselli in the
seventeenth century, as enlarged lymphatic vessels or varices of
these vessels (Wharton, Bidloo, Nuck, Lettsom, Cruickshank,
and down to Sommering and Hufeland) ; and sometimes as
tumours produced by the accumulation of serum between the
laminae of the cellular tissue, which obliterated the vessel lying
in their vicinity by pressure (Ruysch and Schacher) ; and lastly,
as degenerated mucus-sacs (Tode). Although it may generally
be difficult from these opinions amongst the learned surgeons of
the Middle Ages to know, when they speak of hydatids, whether
true hydatids or cystic worms were observed by them, yet in
some cases it may be proved with certainty that the old surgeons
really had cystic worms before them. Thus according to Moller
(see 'Bibliothek for Laeger/ July, 1856; 'Ueber die Entwickelung
der Blasenwiirmer zu Bandwurmern im Allgemeinen und iiber
die Entw. des Cystic, tenuicoll. zu T. tenuicoll. im Besonderen/
&c.) Aretseus speaks of vesicles which, in paracentesis of
the abdomen, stopped up the punctured opening and hindered
the operation (a circumstance which would indicate the puncture
of an Echinococcus-sac with daughter-vesicles). R. Leuckart,
however (see ' Die Blaseiibandwiirmer und ihre Entwicklung/
Giessen, 1856), has above all taken the trouble of collecting some
of these very scattered materials. For this purpose, according to
him, we should consult the celebrated compilation of Bonetus
(' Sepulchretum sive Anatomia practica/ Geneva, 1697), especially
lib. iii, sect, xx, de cachexia, anasarca, &c., and sect, xxi, de ventri
tumore, hydropse, and lib. iv, sect, iii, de tumoribus. There we
shall find the case of a soldier infested with Cysticercus celluloses
from Wharton (1. c., p. 1541), who was covered with Cysticerci
(glandul. adventitia, plane sance) under the skin of the arms and
thighs (a case analogous to that observed by Stich in the
Hospital of Romberg). Here also, as in Platerus (Obs., lib. iii,
p. 635), we find indications of cases of Cysticercus tenuicollis in
the liver and peritoneum of dropsical human bodies, and the
occurrence of these tumours (Cyslicerci] in apes and pigs was

16 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

very well known to Plater, as also in the latter to Bartholin
(' Hist. Anat. rar./ sect, ii, obs. 67) as early as 1653, and in Plater's
time even to the butchers as something very common. Bartholin
(1. c., obs. 49) was aware of their occurrence in goats ; and lastly
Steno (' Act. Barthol. med./ i, p. 135), and Harder (' Apiai/ obs.
3), recognised their occurrence in Ruminants almost as a matter of
course. Besides the above-mentioned cases, others of Echinococcus
hominis (nutricipariens , Kiich.) are also known as occurring at this
period, namely, that of Riverus (Bonetus, 1. c., lib. iii, sect. 21, p.
1505), in which, after the opening of an abscess in the liver, more
than 200 vesicles fell out, and a cure followed ; that of Joachim
Camerarius (' ibid./ p. 1532), in which, after the abscess was opened
below the processus ens\formis> an immense number of vesicles,
of the size of hens' and pigeons' eggs and smaller, passed out, and
the patient lived for a year. Pallas (' Neue Nord. Beitr./
i, p. 84) also subsequently reported a case of Echinococcus hominis.
Even at this early period it was known that the hydatids, as they
were called, presented certain pecularities. Bartholin speaks
of a " substantia flava in the interior of the vesicle," Steno of a
"grisea qusedam materies pisi mole" (by which, in both cases,
the head retracted into the sheath is indicated), and Harder lastly
mentions " Hydatides in duplicatura omenti libere fluctuantes,"
and also of those which adhere to the neighbouring parts of the
body by cellular tissue and blood-vessels ; but, as already observed,
the animal nature of these hydatids remained entirely unknown
until the years 1684 and 1685.

In 1684, Redi first united these hydatids with other encysted
animal parasites, as " glaudulette o vesichette verminose/' and
mentions (' Opere di Redi/ Venezia, i, p. 21), as examples of
such worm -sacs, a Cysticercus of the marten (Cyst, cordatm ?
Leuck.), and at p. 110, the Cysticercus pisiformis of the rabbit.
Redi's "lumbrichetto" is the retracted neck of the C. cordatus;
but in C. pisiformis he distinctly recognised the connection of
the " lumbrichetto" (from the time of Pliny " lumbrici" was the
common denomination of all intestinal worms) with the caudal
vesicle. Redi, indeed, gives no further reasons for the animal
nature of these hydatids, but speaks of the independent move-
ments of these animals, and regards them as probably the
embryos of the Distoma found in the liver of the rabbit. Appa-
rently, independently of Redi, the surgeon Hartmann, of Konigs-
berg ('Misc. cur. seu Ephem. Acad. Nat. Cur./ decur. ii, aim.

ANIMAL PAEASITES. 17

iv, p. 152, with a plate), speaks, in the year 1685, of the Vermes
vesicular es sea hydatidodes from the peritoneum of the goat (Cys-
ticercus tenuicollis) • in 1688 (1. c., decur. ii, ann. vii, p. 58), of
the animal nature of the Cysticercus of the pig, as two years
afterwards Wepfer did that of the Cysticercus fasciolaris. It is
true that the head, the suckers, and the circlet of hooks were
unknown to Hartmann, but he very distinctly saw the movements
of the worms in warm water, regarded the caudal vesicle as
" corpus utriculare," the imperfectly exserted neck as an append-
age (proboscis), and called the bands proceeding from the neck
in the interior of the vesicle the " frustulum."

In 1688, when he discovered the Cysticercus fasciolaris,
Wepfer at the same time recognised its similarity with the tape-
worms (latis lumbricis intestinorum), and he was the first author
who did this. Even in 1675, Wepfer had also discovered the
hydatids in the brain of vertiginous sheep (' De apoplexia/ p. 56),
without, however, recognising their animal nature, which seems
to have been first done by Leske.

These opinions as to the animal nature of cystic worms re-
mained unknown to authors, as, for instance, Peyer and Brunner
in 1689 and 1694 (< Misc. Cur./ dec. ii and iii), and for this
reason, Tyson, who in 1691 again discovered the animal nature
of the Cysticercus tenuicollis (' Phil. Trans./ No. 193, p. 506, and
' Act. erud./ Lips., 1692, p. 435), is often regarded as the original
discoverer of this fact. Tyson considered the caudal vesicle as the
stomach, to which the nourishment flowed from the mouth through
the joints, but he added nothing at all to Hartmann's statements,
except perhaps the unfortunate name of "Lumbricus hydropicus/'
instead of Hartmann's "Vermis vesicularis = hydatidodes/' or
in English, " cystic worm." Besides Tyson, Malpighi (1694) is
also often mentioned as the discoverer of the animal nature of
the cystic worms, but certainly unjustly ; his merit consists in
having admirably described the Cysticercus of the pig (' Oper.
posth./ edit. Londin., 1698), and spoken of the head of the
cystic worms ; and he also speaks of a prohibition of the flesh of
the " Sues verminosi = Lazaroli."

Up to the sixtieth year of the eighteenth century this theory
stood still, or even retrograded ; Ruysch, Frysch, Ouymos, with
Doeveren, and Daubenton, with Buffon, like Wepfer, only regarded
the Cysticercus fasciolaris as an encysted tape- worm.

In 1760, Pallas (' Dissert, inaug. de infest, vivent. intra viven-

18 ANIMAL PARASITES,

tia') went over the statements of the ancients, and gave a
natural history of these creatures as different species of the Tccnia
hydatigena (1766, < Misc. Zool./ p. 157) ; in 1769 (f Stralsund.
Magaz./ \, p. 64), he described the Cysticercus tenmcollis from
the abdomen of Ruminants, and remarks that the watery vesicles
in question all agree in structure with the common tape-worms,
especially in the head, circlet of hooks, and sucking pits. They
are only less developed in the joints following the head, and they
also bear a larger or smaller vesicle of water at the caudal
extremity. According to him all cystic worms are forms of
tape-worms, and belong to a single species, " Tcunia hydatigena =
Cystic tape-worm," which only presents some differences, espe-
cially in the caudal vesicle, according to the animal it inhabits.
He was also aware of the agreement of the head of the Cysticercus
of the mouse with that of the Taenia crassicollis of the cat (his
Teenia cucumerina, tab. ii, fig. 2). But neither Pallas nor Tyson,
by the denominations Tcenia hydatigena, or Lumbricus hydropicus,
introduced by them for the cystic worms, washed to express
any opinion as to the genesis of these worms, or their derivation
from the ordinary tape-worms, however much we may be inclined
to suppose so. The originator of the unlucky theory of the
dropsical degeneration of the vesicular worms — a theory which
Pallas does not once mention — must have been Hartmann, who
appears to have referred to a dropsical degeneration from other
intestinal worms (Lumbrici) when he says, " An natura loci, non
sinens lorigos formari lumbricos, corpus reliquum ob abundaritiam
alimenti non concoquendam in utriculos extendit ?"

As regards Pallas, he considers the Ccenurus of the sheep,
which was well known to him as a many- headed tape- worm, and
the Echinococcus, as nearly related to, if not identical with it ; and
at the same time thinks that the heads of Coenurus in the former
case are only a further development of the globules observed in the
Echinococcus. Pallas also (' Neu. Nord. Beitr./ i, p. 58) states
that he introduced the small red eggs of the Tcenia cucumerina of
the dog through a small wound into the abdominal cavity of a
young dog, and after the lapse of a month found there small tape-
worms less than an inch long, and with very short segments.
This is very improbable, and, I think,a complete mistake.

Besides Pallas, Statius Miiller and Otto Fabricus, to whom
the discovery of the animal nature of the Cysticercus of the pig
is sometimes erroneously ascribed, introduced more system into

ANIMAL PAEASITES. 19

the observation of the intestinal worms in general. But the
most powerful stimulus to the development of helminthology in
general, and for some time to that of the theory of the cystic
worms, was given to science by the proposition, in the year 1780,
on the part of the Academy of Sciences of Copenhagen, of the
following prize essay : " Ueber die Samen der Eingeweide-
wiirmer; ob die Tsenien u. s. w. den Thieren angeboren sind,
oder ob sie von aussen in sie kommen. Diess ist mit Erfahr-
ungen und Griinden zu beweisen, und es sind Mittel gegen sie
vorzuschlagen." In his prize memoir, 'Abhandlung von der
Erzeugung der Eingeweidewiirmer/ Berlin, 1782, Bloch esta-
blished a peculiar genus, " Vermis vesicularis," which rather
approached the Echinorhynchi than the Teenies, but Bloch's work
did no other essential service to the elaboration of our problem.
For the most important contribution to this object we are in-
debted to Goeze, although the observations scattered through his
works have remained up to our own day neglected and even mis-
understood. Goeze, although he still believed in the zoological
independence of the cystic worms, nevertheless reckoned them
amongst the Ttenite, distinguished them as T, viscerales from the
intestinal tape-worms, T. intestinales and referred to several
species of his T. vesiculares hydatigenos (Cysticercus, Zeder j Vesi-
caria, Schrank ; Hydatula, Abilgaard), such as T. hydatig. orbi-
cularis (Cystic, tenuicollis, Rud.), T. hydatig. pisiformis and
utriculenta (both probably C. pisiformis), T. hydat. fasciolaris
(C. fasciolaris, Rud.), T. hydat. vesicul. multiceps, from the brain
of the sheep (Coenurus cerebralis, Hud.), and T. visceralis socialis
yranulosa (Echino coccus, Rud.) He was thoroughly aware of the
similarity of the heads of the cystic worms and Teenies, which
he was the first to discover with regard to Echinococcus, and like
Pallas he recognised the perfect similarity of the head of T.
crassicollis (his T. serrata of the cat) with that of Cysticercus
fasciolaris. This appeal's most distinctly from a passage in his
* Versuch einer Naturgeschichte der Eingeweidewurmer/ 1782, to
which Eschricht first called attention. At page 340 of this work,
he says, " The size, form, and structure of its head are perfectly
identical with those of the head of the articulated cystic tape-
worm in the liver of the mouse; for this also has no neck,
but its head sits immediately upon the first segment. But who
can say why these two species are so similar as regards the head,
and so heterogeneous in the rest of their economy ?" — and also,
at p. 222, in the description of his " large-headed, band-

20 ANIMAL PARASITES.

like, jointed cystic tape-worm from the liver of the mouse "
(i. e., Cystic, fasciolaris), he says, " It has no inarticulated
neck at all ; it may elongate itself as much as it likes, but
the first segment is immediately attached to the head, &c.
The size of its head agrees perfectly with that of the tape-
worm with notched segments (T. serrata)." The passage just
quoted has been so completely ignored that Von Siebold regarded
himself as the person who had called attention to the identity of
these two animal forms, which was already known to Pallas and
Wepfer even before Goeze's time, and commenced his article,
" Ueber die Umwandlung des Cysticercus pisiformis in Tania
serrata" (' Zeitschr. fur Wiss. Zool./ iv., 1853), with the words,
" As early as the year 1844 I first called attention to the simi-
larity of the head of the Cysticercus fasciolaris of rats and mice
to that of Tcenia crassicollis," &c. The above passage had fallen
into such complete oblivion that others also admitted this priority
of Von Siebold's without dispute ; amongst others, Kolliker writes,
in 1850, in the report of his travels, to Von Siebold, " Lastly,
Thompson, of Glasgow, and his prosector, showed us drawings
from which it appears that these savans had also observed the
conformity of the Cysticercus of the mouse and the tape-worm of
the cat, and that they have arrived at the same result with your-
self, without knowing anything of your observations." Goeze's
most important contributions, however, are his statements
regarding the development of Cysticercus fasciolaris (1. c., p. 245).
He says, " On the 13th March, 1780, I found in the liver of the
mouse two clear, crystal vesicles, in each of which there was a
pisiform vesicle, but on this as yet no body. I believe that as
regards the production and development of this kind of worm, I
have surprised nature in the act. In the interior of the inner
vesicle there was a small white process or body of about V" in
length. This was firmly attached by its base to the interior of
the vesicle, and the white point at which it was affixed could be
seen from the outside. When the vesicle was placed in such a
position that the white point to which it was attached was at the
bottom, it stood upright in the interior of the vesicle, like the
light in a lantern, reaching about to the middle of the vesicle,
so that it was completely surrounded by the vesicle. From this
it follows —

1. That this was the first stage of growth of the cystic tape-
worm in its proper vesicle.

2. The first thing that coraes out of the egg must therefore be

ANIMAL PAEASITES. 21

the caudal vesicle, and this because the worm must first care for
its habitation, and prepare this in proportion to the growth of its
caudal vesicle.

3. In the vesicle the body sits, but internally, and, as it were,
turned inside out. It must therefore live upon its own juices in
the vesicle, until it is time to reverse itself, because it already has
the four suckers and the circlet of hooks upon the head. (See his
figure, tab. xix.) The caudal vesicle thus serves it as a reservoir
of nourishment.

4. When its body has attained the necessary degree of deve-
lopment, and the vesicle over it is large enough1 for its habitation,
the body reverses itself by the agency of its folds and segments,
from within outwards, and then constantly grows until it reaches
its perfect form and size, such as we procure it from the cysts of
the liver.

5. The body here sits still in the vesicle, exactly in the same
way that the numerous bodies of the cystic tape-worm of the
sheep sit in the interior of their common vesicle in the manner of
a colony"

Goeze, or, more correctly, his friend Wagler, also proposes
(1. c., p. 292) that the Tcenia of cold-blooded animals should be
transferred (by feeding) into cold- and warm-blooded animals,
and those of warm-blooded animals into warm- and cold-
blooded ones, and watched to see whether they remained the
same or became degenerated, and acquired other properties from
the difference of their host, from what they had in their original
situation, like certain cultivated plants. Lastly, like Pallas, he
recommended the administration of the eggs of Tteni<p to animals
(1. c., p. 290). The views of Pallas and Goeze were also followed
by Steinbuch and Fischer.

With this the progress of the theory of the cystic worms
ceases for more than half a century, and with Zeder and Ru-
dolphi a general retrogression commences. Zeder, in 1803, in
his ' Naturgeschichte der Eingeweidewiirmer/ formed a distinct
family of the cystic worms ; Eudolphi constituted them a
separate order (' Entoz. Synops./ 1819, p. 536), and thus,
although he pointed out the resemblance between certain species
of cystic worms and the Tanice, separated them in point of

1 This seems to be a misprint ; it should probably be " the vesicle is no longer large
enough."

22 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

fact from the Tceniae, against which, as an unnatural separation,
Nitzsch (' Ersch and Gruber's Encyclop./ art. Ant /weep/talus),
F. S. Leuckart, and F. Miiller (' Archiv/ 1836, p. cviii) contended
in vain, in opposition to the great authority of Rudolphi. This
long interval only furnished the knowledge that even in cestode
worms, which were generically distinct from the Ttem<e, states
resembling vesicular worms occurred, namely, the vesicular genus
Anthocephalus, Rud. (= Floriceps, Cuv.), which, as was subse-
quently ascertained, belonged to the Tetrarhynchi, and the Cysti-
cercus Lucii, Zeder, which the fitter states he has found with the
remains of the caudal vesicle, and which was subsequently found
to belong to Tricuspidaria nodosa (Rhytis tricuspidata, Zeder).

At last, in 1812, Steenstrup's theory of the Alternation of
Generations made its way here also. Steenstrup , conjectured
that the cystic worms were early steps in the development or
generations of Helmintha which were unknown to him (Redi had
erroneously supposed that they belonged to Distoma of the
liver, and Tyson had also raised the same supposition, but only
to contradict it), and that they must be banished from the
system as a peculiar group, just as much as the asexual Trema-
toda (e. g., Cercaria, Leucochloridion, &c.) It is the more
remarkable that the Helmintha appertaining to the cystic worms
should have remained unknown to this distinguished zoologist, as
from the statements of Pallas and Goeze the relationship of
Ttenia crassicollis to Cysticercus fasciolaris was easy to be seen,
and Nitzsch, F. S. Leu ck art, and F. Miiller had already re-
commended the abandonment of the separation of the cystic
worms from the tape- worms, because it was unnatural. It
appears to have been a peculiar fate which prevented the earlier
solution of this zoological problem • naturalists either could not
correctly comprehend the true direction of progress, or, for
reasons which it is difficult to perceive, they ignored the labours
of their predecessors, which perhaps can only be realised when
we consider how universally the recognition of the truth takes
place slowly, and before it " a thousand years are as one day."

In 1845, in consequence of Steenstrup's discovery, Dujardiii
(' Hist. Nat. des Helm./ pp. 544, 633) first asserted that the
cystic worms were undeveloped animal-forms and young states of
tape-worms ; and, indeed, that they were produced from those
germs of tape-worms, which, instead of the intestine, had got
into the parenchyma of the body of their host, and under the

ANIMAL PARASITES. 23

influence of this unusual dwelling-place, had advanced to the
abnormal state of development which we call "a cystic worm/'

Simultaneously with Dujardin (whose work, as Leuckart says,
was frequently made use of in Von Siebold's article " Parasiten,"
in E. Wagner's ( Handworterbuch der Physiol./ Band ii, which,
although it bears the date 1844, did not appear until 1845), Von
Siebold expressed the same opinions in Germany, which were
supported by Dujardin on the other side of the Rhine. At
first, however (see l Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Anatomic,'
p. Ill), Von Siebold inclined towards Steeristrup's view, and
said, " In its form, its suckers, and its circlet of hooks, the head
of the asexual cystic worms possesses such a striking simila-
rity to the heads of certain tape-worms, that one is tempted to
believe that the cystic worms are nothing else than undeveloped
and larvae-form tape- worms." Had Von Siebold adhered to this
view, had he not allowed himself to be led, probably by Dujardin's
suppositions, to give up this simple idea, he would have saved
himself and science from a most unpleasant dispute. As he
himself says (art. " Parasiten/' pp. 650 and 676), however, he
subsequently arrived " at the most decided conviction that the
cystic worms are strayed tape-worms which have remained undeve-
loped and become degenerated, and of which the body grew out in
the foreign soil into a vesicle, without developing sexual
organs/'

Independently of the authority of Dujardin, in France, and
of Von Siebold, in Germany, this view obtained the more ac-
ceptance, because Von Siebold, in proving his opinions, employed
as an example the fact, already known to the old helmintholo-
gists, of the identity of the Cystic, fasciolaris of the mouse with
the Tcenia crassicollis of the cat, and (as Creplin had previously
observed a metamorphosis of the asexual Schistocephalus dimor-
phus from the intestine of the stickleback, or from the liver of
the pike (Zeder's Cystic. Lucii, vide supra), into the sexual
Tricuspidaria nodosa in the intestine of certain water-birds) ex-
pressed the opinion that the cystic worm of the mouse, which,
according to him, was a strayed and degenerated tape-worm of
the cat, would be transformed into the T. crassicollis in the
intestine of the latter animal. " It is certain/' says he (1. c.,
art. " Parasiten," p. 650), " that single individuals of the brood
of Tania crassicollis frequently stray into rodent animals, and
here degenerate into Cystlcercus fasciolaris, but when their

24 ANIMAL PAKASITES.

host has been devoured by a cat, and they themselves thus
transplanted to their proper soil, they may cast off their degene-
rated segments, return to the normal form of T. crassicollis,
and arrive at sexual maturity. By a similar degeneration, young
individuals of the Tcenia plicata, when they stray from the intes-
tine into the abdominal cavity of the horse, become deformed
into Cysticercus fistularis.1 I am also convinced that the vesicu-
lar worms, referred by Rudolphi to the genus Anthocephalus,
are nothing but Bothriocephali or Tetrarhynchi which have strayed
in their migrations and becom^ degenerated/'

Subsequently also (' Zeitschr. fu> wiss. Zool.,' 1850, p. 220),
in the revision of the Tetrarhynchi, Von Siebold repeatedly says,
" that the cystic worms are really only (strayed) tape-worms,
engaged in their migration, which have remained undeveloped
and become dropsically degenerated, but which, on getting into
favorable circumstances (i. e., into the intestine of an animal),
become perfectly healthy and mature, and are even destined to
wait for this act of swallowing." At last he even breaks out
into the words, " I have reason to believe that, with the excep-
tion of the Cysticercus fasciolaris, and perhaps the C. crispus, no
other cestode-nurse which has degenerated into a cystic worm
can so far return to its normal condition, from its dropsical state,
as to become fit for the production of sexual individuals. This is
shown by the fact that the high degree of dropsical swelling causes
such a great extension of the body, that, even from this, we may
conclude that these tape-worms can no longer acquire the faculty of
producing sexual individuals by the formation of segments, and the
cestode-nurses, which have become degenerated into Cysticerci,
perish without descendants, as is proved by the empty Cysticercus-
cysts with their remains. }) This proposition was refuted by
experiments in the administration of cystic worms of all kinds,
and the principal evidence upon which Von Siebold supported
his opinion was destroyed, but the proposition itself was still
upheld by him, as we shall soon see.

The production of the cystic worms, according to Von
Siebold and Dujardin, does not take place directly from the
embryos, but in this way, — that tape-worms already developed^

1 It is only possible to place together the T. plicala and Cystic, fistularis, and thus
regard them as belonging to one and the same species, if we regard the mode of life of
the animal infested, as of no value at all in the discrimination of species amongst the
TcenicB (' Leuckart, Die Blasenbandwiirmer,' p. 38).

ANIMAL PARASITES. 25

that is to say, furnished with the armature of the head of mature
Tcenice, and also with the commencement of segmentation, have
reached some place exterior to the intestine of a certain animal,
and become dropsical by the accumulation of water in the
posterior, otherwise jointed part of the body. R. Leuckart
himself calls his views put forward in 1848 in Wiegmann's
'Archiv' (xiv Th., i, p. 7), and subsequently in 1852 (in Vierordt/s
' Archiv fur physiol. Heilkunde/ xi, p. 401, art. " Parasiten und
Parasitismus"), nothing but a paraphrase of the assertions of
Dujardin and Von Siebold. In his most recent work (' Die
Blasenbandwiirmer/ p. 21) he regrets having supported this
theory, from ignorance, both of Goeze's statements with regard to
the production of Cysticercus fasciolaris (vide supra) and of Guido
Wageiier's discoveries (' Eothelminthica, Dissert, inaug./ Berol.,
1848, p. 30), by regarding the flat bands (frustula of the older
writers) which hang down freely into the vesicle of Cysticercus
tenuicollis as the remains of the previous body of the tape-worm,
separated by the increasing dropsical disease.

In 1850, the celebrated Belgian zoologist, Van Benedcn (' Les
Vers Cestoides ou Acotyles/ Bruxelles, pp. 83 and 84), declared
the vesicular worms to be larva-like young states (scolices) of
T&nia, and compared them with the larvae of Tetrarhynchus
(that is, with the Anthocephali of the older writers), without
supporting this assertion empirically. According to him, the
head of the tape-worm (scolex) is produced from the egg of the
tape-worm. If an egg of a tape-worm reaches the intestinal
canal of an animal in which it may be further developed without
interruption, the jointed mature tape-worm (strobila) immediately
grows from the egg in uninterrupted succession ; but if it does
not reach an intestine of this kind, a longer or shorter period of
rest ensues in the further development, as soon as it has arrived
at the evolution of the head of the tape-worm (scolex) ; in this
case the anterior part of the head (scolex) then sinks into its
inflated hinder part, and it becomes a Cysticercus, or a cysticercal
animal-form.

Here, however, we find two errors — 1, it is by no means
proved that a tape-worm can pass through all the separate phases
of its development in the intestine of its host; 2, and just as
little as the caudal vesicle is produced subsequently by dropsical
degeneration (Dujardin and Von Siebold) does the ready-formed
head sink into its inflated hind part, in order to become a Cysti-

25 ANIMAL PARASITES.

cercus, a view which has also been erroneously supported by
Huxley, in the ' Annals of Natural History/ vol. xiv, p. 383.

This was the aspect of affairs when, in the year 1851, the
thought already expressed, although with other views, by Goeze,
which, however, was still unknown to me, suggested itself to
my mind, of purposely administering various cystic worms to
different animals. For this purpose, I selected one of the most
easily accessible cystic worms, which Von Siebold had expressly
omitted from amongst those which he supposed to be capable of
becoming converted into matuj-e Teenies, or, as he said, " again
becoming healthy," namely, the Cysticercus pisiformis of the
rabbit, and also the C. fasciolaris (' Prager Vierteljahrsschrift/
1852, " Ueber die Umwandlung der Finnen in Tsenien"). In
this way I succeeded in rearing Tanice, rapidly approaching
maturity, from Cysticercus pisiformis in the intestine of the clog,
and from C. fasciolaris in that of the cat. Supported by these
facts, I expressed the following opinions with regard to the nature
of the cystic worms (f Ueber den Cestoden im Allgemeinen/ &c.,
Zittau, 1853).

1. If the caudal vesicle were a morbid structure, this would
say little for the wise arrangement of Nature, in undertaking
nothing without an object.

2. The similarity of the dwelling-place of millions of cystic
worms indicates a general plan, and the idea of a systematic
infliction of disease is too unnatural to be admitted.

3. The caudal vesicle occurs in all individuals, of all species of
cystic worms, even though they live in the most various zones and
different animals. Even in the greatest epidemics and epizootics
some individuals and districts are spared, but here none.

4. The universal loss of the caudal vesicle has its analogue in
the metamorphoses of many animals.

5. It would be a forced assertion to say that the dropsy is
cured simply by casting off the caudal vesicle ; something like
curing ovarian dropsy by extirpation.

6. In the cystic worms, there is no nutritive fluid between
the worm and the cyst, which, however, is never deficient in
encysted Helmintha of other classes. (See Luschka, ' Ueber
Trichina spiralis.')

7. All cystic worms, in the earliest period of their existence,
have the head constantly inverted towards the caudal vesicle.

8. The state of rest in which the cystic worms must live

ANIMAL PAEASITES. 27

in the interior of their caudal vesicle, in order to their develop-
ment, would be inconceivable, if they had to collect the nutritive
fluid for themselves, and did not contain it in them.

9. Dropsy in its nature is an anomaly of secretion and excre-
tion ; the cysticercal vesicle is the product of resorption.

10. We introduce artificial separations where science must and
will unite, and thus disturb our comprehension of the process of
development in the Tanice.

11. The cystic worms are not strayed dropsical tape-worm
nurses, but tape- worm larvae furnished with a provisional organ
(caudal vesicle), probably acting as a reservoir of nourishment,
and incapable of sexual multiplication, for which there is neither
room nor sufficient nutritive material.

12. The cystic worms constitute a necessary step in the develop-
ment of the T&nite.

13. We cannot speak of dropsy or degeneration (for, as I
afterwards pointed out, we can only speak of degeneration, and
I might add of disease, when we are acquainted with the different
normal or healthy states), and not even of straying, because we
do not yet clearly perceive how the blood could get to the
dwelling-place of the cystic worm. (Leuckart has recently put
forward the opinion with regard to the straying hypothesis, that
in this case we must also regard the young brood of a frog, in a
pond which is drying up, as strayed.)

At the same time, I proved that the Cysticerci adminis-
tered, when transferred to the intestines of other animals (as,
for instance, the Cysticercus pisiformis in the intestine of the
cat, &c.), did not become developed into jointed tape-worms,
but bore behind the head a long, inarticulated appendage,
and died in a short time, without being any further developed ;
and that every species only thrives in a particular species of
animal.

In the course of the year 1852 Von Siebold had repeated these
experiments, partly himself and partly by his pupil Lewald ; and
was thus, as he said, convinced of the possibility of the conversion
of the cystic worms into T&nice. In the first supplement,
No. 200, of the ' Breslauer Zeitung/ of the year 1852, he reported
upon the experiments proving this metamorphosis with Cysticercus
pisiformis, C. fasciolaris, and Cosnurus ; and upon the commence-
ment of experiments with Echinococcus veterinorum, and by
Lewald, in his dissertation ' De Cystiscercorum in Tsenias

28 ANIMAL PARASITES.

metamorphosi/ Wratislavise, upon the conversion of Cysticercus
pisiformis into Tcenia seriata ; lie also amplified these confirmatory
observations in his ' ZeitschrifV for 1853, Band iv, p. 400.1

At the same time Von Siebold had administered the Cysticerci
of rabbits to rabbits, and reared in their intestine a developmental
form similar to that which I had obtained by the administration
of the Cysticerci of rabbits to cats, which I have just mentioned.
The forms with band-like, inarticulate appendages, reared, accord-
ing- to Von Siebold, from the Cysticerci of the rabbit in the
intestine of that animal, were made use of by myself to transfer
them through an incision into the abdominal cavity of rabbits, in
order to test the opinion of Von Siebold and Van Beneden as to
the production of the vesicular worms from the ready-formed
tape-worm heads. The result was, that I could not confirm the
opinion of these two zoologists, as the worms thus transferred
into the abdominal cavity retained the form which they possessed
at their introduction, or, if any change could be said to take place,
instead of an inflation of the abdomen, a diminution of the band-
like appendage was rather observed.

Subsequently, I also obtained a peculiar tape-worm (T, ex
Cysticerco tenuicolli) by the administration of Cysticercus tenuicollis
to dogs. This is probably the same which Von Siebold supposed
he had reared from Cysticercus celluloses in the dog ; but I
never succeeded in rearing a mature Tcenia from the latter
cystic worm in dogs, which, however, as we know by expe-
rience, must take place in the human subject, and which, indeed,
did take place according to an experiment of Leuckart's.

In the meantime Von Siebold, who appears to have felt per-
sonally injured and affronted because I had attacked his notions
upon the nature of the Cysticerci in the ' Prager Viertel-
jahrschrift/ and at the same time made an ironical remark about
the theory of dropsy and recovery, was led to make personal
attacks on me, in the ' Breslauer Zeitung/ and, amongst other
things, was induced to remark that if he had not come to my
assistance by his determination of the species, the whole theory
of the process of metamorphosis would have been thrown by me
into a state of confusion which could hardly be corrected, as I
was not in a position to determine the particular species of
Teenies and Cysticerci. I of course admitted this, but at the

1 [See a translation in ' Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science/ vol. ii, p. 255.]

ANIMAL PAEASITES. 29

same time I cast back upon Von Siebold the reproaches which
he had made against me. Immediately after I stated in
various places, especially in some numbers of Gurlt's ' Magazin
fur Thierheilkunde/ for the years 1854 and 1855, that I had dis-
tinguished a T. serrata vera (Cystic, pisiformis), a T. Ccenurus
(Ccenurus], a T. ex. Cystic, tenuicolli (Cystic, temticollis), a T.
solium (Cystic, cellulose), a T. medio-canellata (.bookless Cysti-
cercust), a T. litterata (cysticercal state?), a T. crassiceps, Rud.
(Cystic .? subsequently recognised by Leuckart as Cystic, longicollis) ,
a T. crassiceps, Duj. = T. polyacantha, Leuckart (Cysticercust),
and a T. intermedia (Cysticercus?). I certainly, up to that
time, did not know how to distinguish these Tcenite correctly, but
had learnt to do this. Von Siebold, as he himself was not
in a position to determine and discriminate the species, had done
me an injustice in that reproach ; and whoever admits the dis-
tinction of species in zoology would be obliged to agree with my
statements, when he had had some little practice in the micro-
scopical examination of the heads of tape-worms. I had preserved
the principal proof of the correctness of my specific distinctions,
partly on Plate IV of this Text-book, and partly in my prize
essay, ( Ueber die Entwicklung der Blasenwiirmer zu Baridwiirmern
im Allgemeinen und die des Cysticercus tenuicollis im Beson-
deren.'

In the first volume of Moleschott's 'Untersuchungen' for 1856,
the attempt to answer this question was laid before the general
public.

During the last five years the most celebrated German zoolo-
gists have made valuable investigations upon this whole subject,
and these, with the exception of Von Siebold, have only fur-
nished a confirmation of my statements, extended them, and
given them a better foundation.

G. R. Wagener proved (Froriep's ' Tagesber. Zool./ iii, p. 65,
1852, and < Verhandl. der Kais. L. C. Acad./ xxiv, Suppl., 1854),
that every cestode worm, and not merely the Tanice, pass through
a cysticercal state ; that the cysticercal larva lives in various
parenchymatous organs, and the free scolex (strobila) usually in
the intestine of a different host ; and lastly, that the tape-worm-
head (scolex) is produced in the interior of the previous embryonic
body (i. e.} the caudal vesicle), and remains enveloped by this until
it gains the situation for which it is ultimately destined.

Stein (' Zeitschrift fur wiss. Zool./ iv, p. 211) still clings to

30 ANIMAL PARASITES.

Von SiebokPs views_, just as Von Siebold himself has done re-
peatedly. In the fourth volume of his ' Zeitschrift/ p. 407, the
latter let fall the expression, " cystic worms are diseased drop-
sical tape-worms," but only in order to maintain the more firmly
that they are degenerated tape- worm larvae, and he also persevered
in the same course in his memoir, ' Ueber Bund- und Blasen-
wu'rmer/ 1854, p. 64, in which he at the same time throws
together nearly all the large-hooked tape-worms of man, the dog,
the fox, and the marten, and regards them as different races of a
single species.

After the greater part of the zoologists of Germany and
other countries, with the exception of Von Siebold, Diesing
(' Ber. der Wiener Acad./ 1853, p. 421), Valenciennes (' Comptes
rendus/ 1855, xl, p. 1000), and, amongst others, even the Com-
mission for the examination of the Danish prize essay (Eschricht,
Steenstrup, and Hannover), had acceded to my views; R.
Leuckart especially, in his most recent work, confirmed all that
I had said on the production and nature of the cystic worms,
as well as on the metamorphosis of the T&nice. Leuckart
recalls his previous statements, and shows that Von Siebold
differed from me only in words, but not in any real dif-
ference of opinion and facts ; that Von Siebold's views had
become essentially different in the course of the year, and, as
Von Siebold said, not a little modified, as he supposes that
the cystic worms are of an embryonic nature, that their caudal
vesicle is founded in the plan of development of the cestoid
worms, and not produced by a pathological process. In short,
Leuckart agrees essentially with all my statements and
views.

But to place it beyond all doubt that the cystic worms were
necessary steps in the development of the Teenies, it was also
requisite to prove their production from the embryos of the
tapeworm-brood. It is true that the six characteristic embryonal
booklets have not yet been detected upon true vesicular worms,
but we shall shortly see that the laws of analogy, as well as
experiment, afford us a glance into this process. Thus Stein
(Siebold and Kolliker's ' Zeitschr./ iv, p. 203) saw the embryos
of a species of tape-worm, after their transfer to the intestine
of an animal (the mealworm-beetle), break out of their egg-
shells, penetrate the walls of the intestine, become encysted, as
he erroneously says, with the loss of their six booklets, outside

ANIMAL PARASITES. 31

the intestine, and, increasing in size, give origin in their interior
to the head of the tape-worm (scolex), whilst the portions of the
embryonal body which were not employed in the formation of
the head, remained attached to the head in the form of a caudal
vesicle. With him, therefore, the cysticercal state is the second
stage of development immediately following the embryonal state.
Meissner also afterwards found (Siebold and Kolliker's 'Zeitschr./
v, p. 380) the six embryonal booklets on the Cysticercus ofArion
empiricorum, but did not explain the nature of the caudal vesicle
correctly. Without discovering the much smaller embryonal
booklets of those tapeworm-embryos which pass through a true
vesicular state, Goeze (loc. cit.) had already seen how the future
tapeworm-head is developed in the interior of the caudal vesicle ;
G. E. Wagener (loc. cit.) had proved the occurrence of this pro-
cess within the enlarged embryonal body (caudal vesicle) ; and I
myself had set about the experimental solution of this problem, by
the administration of the ova of tape-worms. In order to arrive
at a peculiarly convincing result by these administrations, 1
selected the dog as an experimental animal, in July, 1853, and
even previously, — and this may, at the same time, serve the
reviewer of my book, ' Ueber die Cestoden im Allgemeinen/ in
Schmidt's ' Jahrbuch cler Medizin/ as an answer to his astonish-
ment on this account, — and administered mature segments of
Tcenia solium to several of these animals. Gurlt had previously
stated that he had found a dog with Cysticercus celluloses, and I
thought that, from the rarity of the occurrence, the experiment
would be most convincing in case I succeeded in infecting the dog
with Cyst, cellulosce. In this, however, I did not succeed, any
more than in infecting rabbits with the same Cysticercus by the
administration of T. solium. The attempt, also, to produce
cysticercal forms in the meal-worm, by the administration of
Tcenia angulata of the missel thrush, and of a Tcenia from the
starling, — an experiment upon which I have hitherto forgotten
to report, — did not succeed ; but for about four years I have been
unable to find the Tcenia of the rat and mouse, which I regard as
the Tcenia belonging to the cysticercal forms of the meal-worm.
In the meanwhile I resolved to resume these experiments with the
Tcenia Coenurus, in order to obtain the remarkable phenomena of the
vertigo in sheep. On the 15th of May, 1853, I at last obtained
the cystic Ccenuri ; on the 25th of July mature proglottides of this
Tcenia were passed by the dog to which the Ccenuri were adminis-

32 ANIMAL PARASITES.

tered, and these, in order to make the experiment under the most
unfavorable circumstances, were administered to a perfectly
healthy two-year-old wether, a description of sheep which is
usually free from Ccenuri. On the 10th of August the sheep was
affected with vertigo ; on the 13th the disorder had advanced so
far as to necessitate the killing of the animal. Herr Karmsen, of
Drausendorf, near Zittau, a very intelligent agriculturist, who had
furnished the animal for experiment, unfortunately only sent me
the head for examination ; the rest of the hody was kept to be
eaten by the people on the fcrm, so that I was prevented from
observing the immigration of the brood of the Taenia into the
other parts of the body. In the brain I found yellow striae from
exudation-passages, at the ends of which small vesicles of the
size of a grain of millet were situated. I found fifteen young
vesicles of Ccenurus, partly on the surface of the brain, which was
reddened by inflammation, partly in the substance of the brain,
and even in the ventricles. I then reported this result to the
Saxon Ministry of the Interior, from which Professor Ilaubner, of
the Veterinary School of Dresden, was commissioned to test my
results ; but I communicated the result of this first experiment to
the scientific public in the November number of Giinsburg's
' Zeitschrift fur Kliuische Medizin' for 1853. By a mistake of the
editors, a heading was given to this article from which it appears
as if the first experiment was made under the commission of the
Saxon Government, whilst the text itself shows that only a sub-
sequent commission could be spoken of. The impossibility of
immediately obtaining a mature Ccenurus cerebralis delayed the
making of the experiment at the cost of the Government, and it
was only in the middle of November that I procured a Ccenurus
cerebralis, with which I fed a dog. I killed him on the 9th of
January, 1854, and immediately afterwards six lambs in all were
fed with the T&nice, both by myself in Drausendorf and by
Professor Haubner in Dresden. Of these, five became vertiginous
in about eleven days. The experiment has since been repeated
so frequently, that this conversion of the brood of Tcenia Ccenurus
into Ccenuri in the brain of the sheep is an ascertained fact. I
shall only remark, that vertigo was produced with proglottides of
Tania Ccenurus sent by me in white of egg, in lambs, by Gurlt
in Berlin, by Eschricht in Copenhagen, by Van Beneden in
Louvain, by Leuckart in Giessen, and by Roll in Vienna, and in
young cattle by May in Weishenstephan. The Agricultural

ANIMAL PARASITES. 33

Society of Saxon Lusatia, also, has repeatedly tested this subject
by experiment, especially the Society at Klix, and its president,
M. Kind, of Kleinbautzen.

Four months after I had made my first experiment, Leuckart
fed a colony of white mice with T. crassicollis. This appears to
have been in October, 1853. His experiment was forgotten until
the results obtained by Haubner and myself, in January, 1854,
were communicated to him by letter. When, upon this, he
examined his white mice, he found them infested by cystic worms.
(See Siebold and Kb'lliker's 'Zeitschr. fur Wiss. Zool./ vii,
p. 139.)

It still remained to be tried whether it was possible also to
produce the other cystic worms artificially, and Haubner and
myself, as well as Leuckart subsequently, employed the experi-
ments made with this view, for the purpose of proving at the
same time the specific determinations undertaken by me. I
myself also proved that, by the administration of the above-
mentioned mature species of Taenia as far as they were accessible
to me, to suitable animals, only the cystic worms belonging to
these species can be reared, but not any kind of cystic worm at
pleasure. In his most recent and excellent work Leuckart has
proved that every one of these species presents such essential
differences, even by the first processes in the conversion of the
brood into the forms in question, that we can only speak of
their identity if we are willing to give up altogether the idea of
species in zoology, or not to see the differences.

Very recently, in Gurlt's ( Magazin fur Thierheilkunde/
Professor May, of Weishenstephan, has made known some expe-
riments from which it might appear as if such specific distinctions
did not exist. But an exact criticism, such as I have given in
the appendix to the work upon Cysticercus tenuicollis, proves the
inadmissibility of May's statements, the deficiency of his know-
ledge of systematic determination, and the faultiness of the mode
in which his experiments were made, To cite only one cir-
cumstance in support of these assertions, I may mention that
May believes he reared Taenia solium in the intestine of the dog,
from Cysticerci celluloses which he had preserved for ten days in
water at a temperature of about 10° ft. (=48° F.) Although I
regarded this experiment as contradictory to nature, merely
because the infected mouse which a cat is about to devour, or the
rabbit which a dog is going to eat, is not laid by these animals

c

34 ANIMAL PARASITES.

in water for ten days, but is usually devoured by them at once,
I nevertheless undertook the direct investigation of this question.
I laid Cystic, pisiformes with their enveloping cysts in water, and
as the temperature was that of a hot summer I placed them in
an ice-cellar, in which an average temperature of 8° R. (nz45° F.)
was shown by the thermometer. A stay of a few days in this
place was sufficient to render all the Cysticerci pisiformes inca-
pable of development in the intestine of the dog, although this
vesicular worm thrives in that situation much more readily than
the Cysticercus celluloses employed by May, even if this ever finds
a suitable dwelling-place in the intestine of the dog.

From the concordant experiments of Haubner and myself, of
Leuckart, Van Beneden, and Moller, this much is established :

1. Mature Tcenic? have hitherto been reared successfully from
all vesicular worms administered when a suitable host was se-
lected ; thus from Cysticercus pisiformis the Tcenia serrata vera
was obtained; from Cyst, tenuicollis the Tcenia ex Cyst, tenuicolli
(erroneously named T. tenuicollis by Moller and the Danish
committee of examination, this name having been already em-
ployed by Rudolphi for a Tcenia of the marten and weasel, the
Cysticercus belonging to which I found in the liver of the field-
mouse and mole == Cysticercus innominatus Hyperdcei, Leuckart) ;
and from Cosnurus cerebralis the Tcenia Ccenurus, all three in the
intestine of the dog j from Cyst, fasciolaris the Tcenia crassicollis,
in the intestine of the cat ; from Cyst, celluloses the Tcenia solium,
in the human intestine ; from Echinococcus veterinorum (scolici-
pariens, Kiich.) a Tcenia Echinococcus, in the intestine of the
dog ; and from Cysticercus longicollis Hyperdcei, the Tcenia
crassiceps, Rud., in the intestine of the dog (Leuckart). Moller
in vain swallowed Cysticerci tenuicolles with the view of infecting
himself with a Tcenia, and Zenker and myself administered
Echinococcus altricipariens to dogs ; in the latter case, however,
it is possible that the individual scolices were already dead.

2. From the eggs of Tcenia solium in pigs, from those of
T. Cwnurus in sheep and cattle, of T. serrata vera in rabbits, of
T. crassicollis in rats and mice, of T. ex Cysticercus tenuicolli
in sheep and lambs, the corresponding vesicular worms have
been reared. The experiments with the eggs of the Tcenia of
Echinococcus have hitherto remained unsuccessful.

The phenomena which occur after the different administra-
tions are so constant that we may almost predicate by days and

ANIMAL PAEASITES. 35

weeks what state of growth will be found. I should advise any
one wishing to repeat the latter experiments to administer the
eggs of T. serrata vera to young rabbits, even from motives of
economy.

It only remains now to refer to the opinions which have
been entertained regarding the developed tape-worm-chains, as
they are called. Up to a very recent time it was the most
general opinion, still entertained by some, that this tape-
worm-chain was a simple animal, with numerous segments.
But, nevertheless, even some of the older physicians and
naturalists correctly perceived that the tape-worms were not
simple but compound animals. By many of the older medical men
the isolated segments of tape-worms were regarded as separate
individual worms; and what Dujardin has recently called pro-
glottideSj are described by them in the tape- worms of the human
subject as " Vermes cucurbitini" Valisneri and Coulet, who
were subsequently followed by Blumenbach, to the horror of his
age, even described the tape-worms as animals composed of these
" Vermes cucurbitini. >} At the same time they fell into
the great error of not regarding this chain as produced by a
successive formation of joints placed one behind the other from
the head, but expressed the remarkable opinion that the tape-
worm was produced by the adhesion of the individual " Vermes
cucurbitini" one after the other, by which means the many-
jointed body of the tape-worm was formed. The idea that the
tape-worm was a compound animal was so completely repudiated
that S. Leuckart only ventured to express himself in the follow-
ing words : " I was almost inclined to think that I must also
regard the jointed tape-worms as organisms in which each joint
was to be considered an individual animal, and the whole,
therefore, as an 'animal compositum/ as indeed was previously
supposed by many distinguished zoologists." Eschricht first,
and after him Steenstrup, expressed this opinion more distinctly ;
and Van Beneden proved it more clearly by examples and
figures; after Dujardin, as already observed, had described the
segments of tape-worms which occur isolated as peculiar animals
under the name of Proglottis. The Trematode-like appearance of
these last had already introduced errors in regard to their
signification. Thus Diesing described a proglottis of the Tcenia
fimbriata of the Brazilian deer first as a Trematode, under the
name of Thysanosoma actinoides. Pallas, who had seen an

36 ANIMAL PAHASITES.

isolated proglottis of T. serrata creeping upon the wall of a room
at a height of several feet, named them Ovaria ambulantia.
When they still contain eggs the presence or absence of the
six-hooked embryos in these renders it easy to avoid error and
distinguish the proglottides from the true Trematoda. From the
considerable similarity of form of the two animals, it has
recently been attempted to regard all these proglottides as
Trematoda ; nay, many have even expressed the hope that it would
some day be possible to prove that the final destiny of the pro-
glottides was to become converged into Trematoda. Against this
notion I declare myself unconditionally, and even Van Beneden
appears only to intend to call attention to the mere relation of
form of the two animals, which, even in the time of Rudolphi,
must have sufficed to caucel the separation of the two forms into
Cestodea and Trematoda in Rudolphi's system. The experi-
ments of De la Valette upon the production of the Trematoda,
which will be mentioned by me hereafter, and the observation
that in the outer world, as in the intestinal canal of other
animals, the proglottides die rapidly, support the above refutation
of an intimate relationship between the Cestodea and Trematoda,
founded upon their development and not merely upon form.
By the advice of J. Miiller, I administered to three different
young dogs mature proglottides of the characteristic T. ex
Cysticerco tenuicolli. But on dissecting the animals eight, ten,
and fourteen days after the different administrations, I never
found the slightest trace of these proglottides, or of any trema-
tode forms. The proglottides had totally disappeared (by diges-
tion), and the very same thing had taken place in the intestine
of the rabbit when I had administered proglottides of T. serrata
to rabbits. Moreover, if we look more closely at the
essentially different anatomical structure of the two kinds of
animals, for, besides the different form and colour of the
eggs, and the different form of the embryos, the want of
calcareous corpuscles, the presence of a pair of lateral aqui-
ferous vessels with a pulsating tube at the posterior extremity
of the body in the Trematoda, in opposition to the four
lateral longitudinal vessels of the Cestodea, the pulsating
tube (communicating vessel) of which, should rather be sought
in their cephalic than in their abdominal extremity, and the
want of an alimentary canal in these animals, will prevent
us unconditionally from placing these two animal forms

ANIMAL PARASITES. 37

together, and from supposing that there is anything more than
an affinity of form between them. Even the proglottides of
the Bothriocephali, which are, perhaps, still more similar to the
Trematoda in their form, cannot constitute an exception to this
rule. If we would regard the Cestodea and Trematoda as
creatures standing in an intimate developmental connection, we
must finally inquire also from what species of cestode worm a
certain trematode worm is derived ? What cestode proglottis
have we before us in any particular trematode worm ? With
those Trematoda which dwell in the blood (Distoma Immatobium,
Bilharz), it would be difficult to discover what mature cestode
proglottis had been able to penetrate into the vascular system
of the human subject, and there become transformed into a
Distoma. All that we can regard as justifiable in this case is a
union of the Trematoda and Cestodea as two independent sub-
classes in the class of the flat worms (PLATYELMIA), as we have
done in the Introduction.

After this historical, critical, and systematic summary, I turn
to trace the subject in its details.

I. The mature animal, or the Proglottis.

From the moment when the hindmost segment or segments
of a tape-worm colony have become so far developed as
to contain the six-hooked brood ready formed and enclosed
in the egg-capsules, this segment seeks to break loose
either by itself or in company with several others, in order
to continue an independent existence, either in the same
place (the intestine of its previous host), or in a different
one (in the external world). All this varies according to the
species. In Tania, Tetrarhynchus , &c., each joint usually breaks
loose; in Bothriocephalus a series of joints. In those cases in
which no regular formation of segments occurs, (in Tries-
nophoruSj there are merely lateral notches representing the com-
mencement of segmentation, in Ligula nothing but groups
of hermaphrodite brood-places occur,) no single proglottides or
series of segments can break loose, but only single brood-places
or fragments of the body of the cestode worm with such brood-
places ; or the eggs must escape singly. In the same way, as
Moller has strikingly pointed out, in certain polype-stocks the
mature individuals separate from the parent, sometimes in a more,

38 ANIMAL PARASITES.

sometimes in a less independent form. It is only in a few spe-
cies that the eggs, whether singly or enclosed in the segments,
must escape outwards in a state in which the formation of the
embryo is not yet completed, so that it exists for a time in the
external world, as in other Helmintha.

Some Bothriocephali, which are themselves unarmed, have hook-
less embryos. In this case either the formation of the booklets
must take place subsequently outside the intestine of the animal
infested, or the brood (II, p. 40) is never capable of active migration
into another host. Perhaps thsy may pass through their further
development behind the villi and in the more sheltered pyloric
appendages of the same animal, or in those of lower animals of
the sea and land, and find in such situations the repose necessary
for this purpose. As a matter of course, when the brood bears
the same form of head as the mature cestode worm whilst still in
the egg- shell (for example, that of Phyllobothrium tridax, Van
Ben., with four bothridia and an unarmed rudimentary bulb
between them), the intestine of the same animal would be
sufficient for its dwelling-place, and such brood would require no
migration for its development. The latter two forms, however,
do not come under our consideration amongst the Cestodea of
the human subject. The proglottides to be noticed here have,
for the most part, a flat, quadrangular form, very similar to the
Trematoda, and usually a white, or yellowish, rarely a reddish or
brownish colour (caused by the coloration of the eggs) ; they
have neither mouth, anus, nor intestine. With regard to the
vessels, nerves, muscular system, and skin, the description of the
strobila form may be consulted. Of the sexual organs referred
to in the same place, some of the parts have undergone a retro-
grade metamorphosis, and we can only distinctly find the genital
pore situated on the lateral margin in the middle of the segment,
with the seminal cord and the male genital opening towards the
anterior end of the proglottis, and with the vagina towards its
hinder margin, and lastly the uterus, with semen, eggs, and six-
hooked embryos.

As the eggs possess a much greater diameter than the vagina,
they cannot pass through this; they cannot, therefore, be depo-
sited in this way, but can only escape out of the proglottis when
the latter acquires a larger opening in some way, by tearing, &c.
The latter takes place sometimes even in the intestine of the
first host, and the eggs escape separately into the outer

ANIMAL PARASITES. 39

world with the excrements, which then appear as if sprinkled with
fine white sand; or immediately without the intestine, where, as
was even stated by Dujardin, the progress of the proglottis is
seen indicated by a white, milky streak. Sometimes the pro-
glottis does not burst in either of the above-mentioned places, but
gets uninjured into the intestine of a new host, in which case it
only distributes its brood after it has been destroyed by digestion.
According as the eggs reach the intestine of their host in this
way separately, or enclosed in the proglottis, and therefore in a
mass, solitary or numerous specimens of a cystic worm, or of
the analogous state, are produced within one and the same host.
With regard to the duration of the existence of the proglottides,
which are passed sometimes with, and sometimes without, faecal
matter, we know nothing ; moist soils, upon which they creep about,
keep them alive longer than dry ground, and they live more than
eight days in carefully-renewed white of egg. The capability of
evolution of the enclosed brood is of longer duration than the
life of the proglottides, as the putridity and mouldiness of the
proglottides do not destroy this faculty in the brood.

In consequence of their power of independent motion, they
quit the places iri which they have been deposited with or with-
out excrementitious matter, creeping away from the dung upon
all sorts of moist objects in the meadows (such as stalks of grass,
clover, low plants, roots, salad, windfalls, &c.), and upon the
foliage of trees, when they have been dropped upon the latter
with the excrements of birds. In this way they are devoured by
vertebrate and invertebrate animals which feed upon grass,
raw fruit, roots, leaves, &c. If they get into water they burst
and disseminate their brood in that fluid, where it may reach
the stomachs of other animals with their drink. In cess-
pools and drains the T&nia of the human subject evacuate their
eggs, and are then thrown upon salad, grass, roots, &c., as
liquid manure, or swallowed by pigs which wallow in such filth.
In predaceous fishes which live upon their own species, the mature
Cestodea of the smaller specimens get into the stomachs of the
larger ones, when they disseminate their eggs, and thus infect
the latter with Cysticerci. On a dry soil their vitality may only
last for a few hours.

The proglottides, therefore, in the first place, perform an active
migration from within the intestine of their previous host and are
thus passively transferred into the intestinal canal of a new host.

40 ANIMAL PAKASITES.

Arrived in the stomach, they are entirely or partially digested, diffuse
their brood there, and sometimes even pass in a half-digested state
into the intestine. With this the functions of the proglottides come
to an end, even if this be not the case previously, on their escape
into the outer world and the dissemination of their eggs there.
That proglottides cannot pass the stomach of an animal without
being digested, has already been stated. But even if particular
proglottides, after bursting in the intestine of an animal, should
be capable of healing up again and living for a longer period, it
would certainly be impossible t^at such proglottides should again
produce brood as the genitnlia for the production of germs are in
course of retrogression. With the dissemination of the brood
their function ceases.

II. The six-hooked brood, enclosed in separate egg-capsules.

These are called eggs, although their developmental history differs
greatly from that of ordinary eggs. The embryos enclosed in
the egg-shells are globular, naked vesicles, unlike their parents ;
the smallest of them measure only 0*022 mill., and the largest as
much as 0*05 ; they are destitute of any organs, scarcely fur-
nished with an oil-drop, possess an epidermis with a double out-
line, and usually bear six, but in the Tetrarhynchi only four, very
small, microscopic booklets, on their anterior extremity, so that
they carry their destination, that of boring forward through the
tissues, as it were, written upon their foreheads. The bodies
of these small, but very dangerous vesicles, whether armed or
unarmed, are always capable of motion. The embryos which are
destined to migrate into cold-blooded animals are in general
larger, possess larger hooks, and exhibit tolerably-distinct move-
ments, even at the ordinary temperature of a room. Those des-
tined to migrate into warm-blooded animals are much smaller,
have smaller booklets, and only exhibit pretty-distinct movements
at an elevated temperature (at the temperature of the stomach).
We may easily suppose that according to the greater or less size
of the vesicle which is to move forward through the tissues the
boring apparatus of the vesicle will also be larger or smaller.
Perhaps, some day, we shall discover some small, constant dis-
tinctions in the embryonal booklets of the different species; but
in general these distinctions are hardly to be called essential, and
in the embryos with very small booklets they disappear entirely.

ANIMAL PAEASITES. 41

These smallest forms are not only similar in all the species in
which they occur, but all the six hooklets are also similar to
each other. In the smaller vesicles these hooklets are about
0'0095 millim. in length, and have a crescent of 0*0038; in the
larger ones they are about 0-020 millim. long, with a crescent of
0-009. They are placed in pairs (two pairs laterally, and one
pair in the middle), with all their points directed outwards ;
there are no muscles at their base, their movements are produced
by the displacement of the neighbouring parenchyma of the body,
and take place in the same direction with all the hooks, as may
be seen distinctly in the Teenies of birds. The embryos generally
have a small clear space between them and their envelope.

The shells or envelopes of these embryos (egg-shells) are very
different in the different species ; they are larger or smaller,1
simple or multiple, smooth or rough, clear or dark, round or oval,
or furnished with appendages, &c. The eggs of the Tcenice of the
human subject, like those of the others which pass through a
vesicular stage, are brown or yellow, thick and firm, rough exter-
nally, or, as was formerly said, beset with pits (foveoli). Leuckart,
however, shows that, according to Welcker's statements regarding
the microscopic relief- picture, we must admit the existence of
numerous, perpendicular, stiff bacilla or hairs which are separated
by confluent crevices or chinks. In those cases in which, as in
Tcenia solium, it has been supposed that a concentric stratification
and radiate arrangement is to be seen in the shells, an optical
illusion takes place. The supposed radii are strongly refractive
bacilla ; the concentric strata are the optical product of the
projection of particular bacilla ; nothing of them is seen in
isolated fragments of shells. The clefts between the bacilla
appear sometimes even to have penetrated through the inner
layer. The size of the bacilla varies according to the
species ; the shortest are those of T. Echinococcus. Both the
bacilla and the inner smooth layer of the shells are chitinous.
The former appear to be destined partly to give the shells greater
firmness and partly to increase the surface exposed to digestion.

1 The smaller the eggs the more easily will they, on the one hand, escape the
dangers to which they are exposed in the outer world, and the forces which may act
upon them ; whilst, on the other hand, we may suppose that a greater number of them
may be destroyed without any injurious effect on the continuance of the species ; as also
that, for the latter reason, nature has endeavoured to produce the smallest, or, according
to the proportions of space, the most numerous eggs in the largest proglottides.

42 ANIMAL PARASITES.

The thinner the shells are the more readily do the eggs alter
their form. Thus the eggs of T. solium acquire a funnel-shaped
or cup- like hollow when placed in strong spirits (by extraction of
water) ; this I had overlooked in previous investigations, as
Leuckart has pointed out. The mode of formation of these shells
will be subsequently described.

We have now, in the first place, to speak of the subsequent fate of
the egg-envelopes or shells and the embryos enclosed in them, and for
this reason refer to what has been said (Section I) with regard to
the migration of the proglottide* and their subsequent fate in the
outer world, and respecting the exclusion of the eggs from the
intestine and the eggs which occur isolated in nature. The next
thing that happens to the eggs, whether enclosed in the proglot-
tides or freely disseminated, is that they are swallowed with the
above-mentioned grasses, with roots and fruits which are eaten
without peeling, or lastly with drink, by different herbivorous
or omnivorous animals (including man). They thus pass the
mouth and oesophagus, and then reach the stomach, in most cases
certainly uninjured; here the egg-shells, which have become
softened in the digestive fluid, partly in consequence of the
digestive process, which acts first of all and principally upon the
inner stratum of the egg-shell, and partly in consequence of
friction, burst against other solid alimentary substances, by which
means, of course, the embryo is set free. Artificial experiments
made by Leuckart on the digestion of proglottides and eggs, by
introducing them into the stomachs of animals kept at a hatching
heat, gave, as their ordinary result, after the digestion of the
proglottis itself, only a greater brittleness of the eggs ; it was
very rarely, and only in a few eggs, that Leuckart saw a breaking
up of the egg-shell ; but he only observed this once in greater
abundance in eggs of the Tcenia crassicollis, which he had exposed
to a hatching heat in an emulsion of the mucous membrane of
the stomach. But, on the contrary, if we examine the contents
of the stomach of a rabbit four or five hours after the adminis-
tration of proglottides or eggs (the animal should have fasted
previously for more than twenty-four hours), we find amongst the
contents of the stomach, uninjured, but extremely brittle eggs,
together with various remains of broken egg-shells, and, under
favorable circumstances, perhaps a free embryo here and there.
The rupture of the egg-shells, therefore, appears to be, as already
remarked, a consequence of the chemical action of the fluids of

ANIMAL PARASITES. 43

the stomach, and -consequently of digestion; but also, at the same
time, of the mechanical influence of the friction of the walls and
contents of the stomach, in consequence of its peristaltic move-
ments. It is to be observed at the same time that the processes
last described may be produced not only in the stomach of the
rabbit, but also in that of any other animal experimented on, and
with the proglottides or eggs of all species of Tania. The latter
at least applies to the Tanics, which pass through a vesicular state
and to the stomachs of the Mammalia.

We have now to discuss the question whether the stomach is
the only place in the alimentary canal in which the rupture of
the eggs and exclusion of the embryos takes place, so that every
embryo set free must once have passed the stomach of an animal
before it can attain a higher development, I have formerly ex-
pressed the opinion that I regarded such an exclusion of the
brood as possible, in consequence of the mastication and rupture
of proglottides and eggs which had just entered the mouth of the
animal, observing at the same time that it now appeared to be
established by observation that the brood may sometimes escape
in the upper part of the alimentary canal and before reaching the
stomach, as in the pig we met with the Cysticerci very abun-
dantly in the tongue and oesophagus, although I freely admit
that the brood may reach these parts from the stomach.

That the animal heat alone is insufficient to cause the exclusion
of the brood is proved by an experiment made upon a pig at
my request by Haubner. Uninjured eggs of Ttenia solium were
introduced beneath the conjunctiva of a pig, without producing
Cysticercus celluloses in the eye. It is true that to arrive at a
definite result in this case the experiment must be made again
with crushed eggs, from which the embryos have been completely
or partially set free. For as the fresh eggs of Tanice, when
placed in large numbers between two glasses, may be crushed, so
as to set free at least some of their embryos, without the latter
being destroyed, or even injured in any way, the egg-shells, not-
withstanding the minuteness of the eggs, may just as easily be
crushed during mastication by the teeth of the pig, without the
necessary occurrence of any injury to the embryo. I am per-
fectly convinced that an embryo which has been set free in any
part of the alimentary canal of a warm-blooded animal, will com-
mence its migration even from this spot, the animal heat exciting
its activity. Therefore, until I am convinced of the contrary by

44 ANIMAL PAKASITES.

the last-mentioned experiment, I must maintain this opinion in
opposition to Leuckart, who seems to think that when the eggs
are masticated the embryo must necessarily be always destroyed,
or else that, from their small size, all the eggs must pass uninjured
through the teeth. It appears that eggs which have passed the
stomach and reached a portion of the intestine below the stomach
in an uninjured state, may still give issue to their six-hooked
embryos, from the discovery by Leuckart of a free embryo in the
intestinal mucus of a part of the small intestine ; and I also
consider that this view is supported by an experiment of
Leuckart's, which will be mentioned hereafter, according to
which the caudal vesicle of those Cysticerci which are left for a
time in contact with the fluid of the stomach in experiments in
artificial digestion, and then enclosed in a piece of the small
intestine, is readily digested ; whilst when the Cysticerci are
enclosed at once in the small intestine, no digestion of the
proglottis takes place. We may consequently suppose with some
probability that the temporary sojourn of the eggs in the stomach
of an animal at least facilitates the exclusion of the brood
materially. This question is especially important for the theory
of the production of Cysticercus celluloses in the human body.
If we consider, on the one hand, that it cannot be denied that
Tcenia solium is the producer of the germs of Cyst, cellulose ; and
on the other that, in many cases of Cysticerci in the human
body, the simultaneous or previous existence of T. solium in the
same subject has been established beyond all doubt (as in the
case of Cyst, celluloses in the brain of a person of weak intellect,
from whom Giinsburg had previously expelled a Tcenia solium ; in
one of the cases of Cysticercus celluloses in the eye, described by
Von Graefe, in which the woman suffered from T. solium ; and in
the case narrated by Moller, in which a woman who had been
epileptic for many years, and who had, twenty years before,
visited the hospital at Hamburgh, to get a tape- worm expelled,
and who exhibited Cyst, celluloses in the brain) ; and if at the
same time we do not forget how often the patient is quite una-
ware of his being infested by a tape-worm, we may certainly
come, without much reflection, to the idea that it is by no means
improbable that in such a case the bearer of the tape-worm may
have infected himself with the Cysticerci.

There are various ways in which this infection may take place.
The infested person, when the proglottides have fallen into his

ANIMAL PARASITES. 45

clothes, wishes to remove these moist, cool bodies, and if he does
not go about this in a peculiarly cleanly fashion, but seizes the
proglottides with his fingers, he might have contaminated the
latter with eggs. Or in the examination of the Tania expelled
by medical treatment, in pulling away those hanging down from
the anus, or in touching the vessels in which the tape-worms lie,
and on the margins of which their white eggs are very often found,
the patient, or those around him (servants), may contaminate
their fingers with these eggs. This I have seen only too often,
and always warned those interested against such an occurrence.
Now, if the last-mentioned individuals have not washed their
hands perfectly clean, or if they have forgotten to wash them
altogether, and then incautiously put them to the mouth,
their infection with eggs, and consequently with Cysticerci,
is rendered possible. In the examination of freshly-expelled
Tanice, especially T. solium, I have always made it a rule
to take the most anxious precautions; in seeking the heads of
the expelled worms, I always disentangle the latter by means of
two pairs of forceps, of which I hold one in each hand, at as great
a distance from their tips as will still allow me to hold objects
firmly. On the other hand, I by no means hesitate, when pressed
for time, to disentangle Tania which have been long preserved in
spirits, even with my fingers in case of necessity, and I regard the
fact mentioned by Moller, that Cystic, celluloses have been reared
in Paris from eggs of Tcenia solium preserved in spirits, as quite
impossible, and evidently a mistake. ( Vide ' Gazette Medicale/
1854.) Moreover, a transfer of the eggs of tape- worms into the
mouth might take place unconsciously with persons infested with
these worms, or their bedfellows; such persons grasping with
their hands whilst asleep after the proglottides moving about upon
their bodies, and producing an unpleasant sensation in consequence
of their moisture ; or scratching themselves on the places passed
over by the proglottides, and then carrying the hands thus em-
ployed to the mouth. In all these cases, however, the infection
would take place by the introduction of the eggs from without
into the mouth and stomach, and therefore in the ordinary way.

But the person infested by Tcenice may also infect himself with
Cysticerci, without the previous escape of the proglottis from the
intestine, when the proglottis itself, instead of progressing down-
wards, passes upwards in the intestine, and therefore towards the
stomach ; or when it is carried there forcibly during vomiting, by

46 ANIMAL PARASITES.

the antiperistaltic movements of the intestine. That this passage
of the proglottides from the duodenum into the stomach is
possible is shown by those cases in which (as is not unfrequently
the case in dogs and cats) tape-worms are vomited,, and hang out
from the mouth ; and perhaps, also, by the occurrence, which does
not appear to be rare, of Cysticerci (e. g. in the eye) at a period
when the individuals are suffering remarkably from vomiting.
Thus, two of Graefe's patients complained, during pregnancy, of
the appearance of Cysticercus celMosae, and women in general
appear to suffer particularly from this Cysticercus, and indeed from
T&nia solium. If we admit this mode of self-infection of tape-
worm patients with Cysticerci, the exclusion of the brood would
only take place when the eggs arrive in the stomach of the host,
exactly as in other cases.

The question still remains, whether, when the eggs are set free
in the small intestine by the rupture of the proglottis, the
embryos can escape from them, so as never to pass through the
stomach of an animal. In this case, also, I am firmly convinced,
that if an embryo be freed from its egg-shell anywhere in the
small intestine, it must migrate forward, although this case will
certainly be of very rare occurrence, as Leuckart has only met
with a free embryo once in the duodenum and once in the
small intestine, but never with uninjured eggs or numerous
remains of egg-shells. Leuckart denies the possibility of the
exclusion of the brood from eggs thus set free immediately in the
small intestine of their host, and, at the same time, thinks that
if the intestine possessed the faculty of setting free the brood,
there would hardly be a tape-worm patient without Cysticerci.
Unfortunately, Leuckart did not succeed in testing this question
by experiment, in the way recommended by me. Thus, the
establishment of fistulas in the small intestine, and the subsequent
introduction of the eggs of Teenies through these into the intestine,
did not succeed for a sufficiently long time, as all the animals
experimented on died immediately. As soon as I have sufficient
material by me, I shall again test this question experimentally,
by tying up a portion of the small intestine in the living rabbit,
and introducing eggs and proglottides of Tcenia serrata into this
portion of intestine. The result will show whether an exclusion
of the brood will take place, or whether this is effected only when
the brood has passed once through the stomach. Until then,
however, I must, in opposition to Leuckart, regard the supposition

ANIMAL PAKASITES. 47

of a direct exclusion of the brood in the small intestine as possible,
and not as, a priori, improbable.

As to how long the eggs can be preserved free externally, with-
out their embryos losing the faculty of life, we do not yet possess
any certain evidence. It appears to me that there is a certain
limit, and that not a very wide one ; at least I am convinced by
my own experiments, which are confirmed by a statement of
Leuckart's, that when the eggs of Tcenia Ccenurus and T. serrata
are preserved in water, the vitalizability of the brood is extin-
guished in two months. I do not know whether a constant
renewal of white of egg may preserve their vitalizability for a
longer period, but such a preservation in white of egg is of but
little value in practice, or even in itself. It is, consequently, at
present an hypothesis quite destitute of proof, to think, as I did
formerly, that the eggs might lie through the winter in ice and
snow, be carried about in the waters for months by the stormy
weather of spring, and yet, at the expiration of this period,
develop their brood as soon as they arrive at a suitable intestine.
A moderate humidity is certainly favorable to the brood. Desic-
cation kills the embryos pretty quickly. After 14 — 24 days
Haubner and I did not succeed in producing the evolution of the
brood of Tcenia Coenurus, and Leuckart is even of opinion that
complete dryness for twenty-four hours is probably sufficient to
destroy the vitalizability of the brood.

With regard to the fate of the brood of tape-worms, therefore,
we now know — that the six-hooked brood contained in the
swallowed eggs of Tsenise is set free in the alimentary canal of
animals after the rupture of the egg-shells ; that this rupture, and
of course the simultaneous exclusion of the brood, takes place prin-
cipally in the stomach, and therefore the egg of the tape-worm has
usually once passed the stomach of the animal in question, either
from the pyloric or cardiac orifice.

A question still open is, whether this rupture and exclusion
is possible before reaching the stomach by the assistance of the
masticatory organs, or whether it may occur even in the interior of
the small intestine in which the brood was produced ? even when it
had never reached the stomach. There is a possibility, but no
certainty of the two latter. That segments disseminate their
eggs, even in the small intestine, appears from the occurrence of
those shrivelled segments of a tape-worm colony, furnished with
scars, which are followed posteriorly by still uninjured segments.

48 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

With this we come to the end of the passive migration of the
eggs of the Cestodea, and of the brood in the eggs.

III. The destiny of the six-hooked brood when set free.

This subject must be divided into two sections :

1. What is the fate of this brood until it reaches its settled
dwelling place external to the intestinal canal ?

2. What becomes of it in this dwelling place ?

1. As soon as the embryo ha*s become free in any part of the
body (especially, therefore, in the stomach) of an animal which
suits it, the instinct of active migration awakens in it. For this
purpose, according to Van Beneden, it brings together the
central pair of its embryonal booklets like a wedge (Tab. I,
fig. 5), and at the same time, by thrusting and twisting, begins
to force them forward. Having in this way made a little pro-
gress, it assists itself further with the two lateral pairs of hook-
lets, and pushes itself forward therewith, just as a person who
wishes to spring out of a low window rests his elbows against the
window-frames, and drives himself forward with a swing.

According to Moller, the central spines, which are the longest,
and also straight, move exactly as described by Van Beneden ; they
lay themselves together in the form of a stile and only move
forwards and backwards. The other two lateral pairs have small
hooks at the apex. All the six have their roots directed towards
the same point, by which means they pretty nearly touch each
other at the base. Moller, however, compares their movements
with those of a watch, on the face of which he imagines three pairs
of hands all pointing to twelve. The central hooks are driven
directly forwards, whilst the other pairs go back, the one to three
and the other to nine, so as at last to form a right angle with the
central ones. I have always described the movements of these
booklets according to Van Beneden, but I have never been able
to arrive at a perfectly clear idea of the movement of those
embryos in which the central spines do not form straight stiles,
but are also curved in front in the form of a claw, although
perhaps somewhat less strongly than the lateral hooks. Such
spines occur especially amongst the large-hooked Tania of birds,
as well as in the small-hooked embryos of the Taenice of the
human subject. Leuckart is of opinion that the movements are

ANIMAL PAEASITES. 49

by no means effected right and left in all the hooks in the same
direction, but that " whilst the two lateral pairs move downwards
from the vertex in the lateral plane nearly simultaneously, this
movement only takes place somewhat later in the central pair,
and then in the median plane." Thus, sometimes one pair of
hooks (the central one), appears to rest, and to hold the embryo
firmly in its place whilst the other two lateral pairs are in
motion, and sometimes the cental pair appears to be active whilst
the other two pairs hold the embryo and preserve it from slipping
back, which certainly appears to be most in accordance with nature.
By its boring movements the little embryo then penetrates with
considerable rapidity through the tissues in its vicinity, and conse
quently through the walls of the alimentary canal, and especially
of the stomach. This act is the same in all embryos, but as
soon as the walls of the alimentary canal are penetrated the case
becomes different. The embryos which effect their further
development in cold-blooded animals, may probably arrive at
once and directly by their boring activity (active migration), at
the place where they propose to take up their abode, in order to
pass there into the next higher stage of development. But those
embryos which are to effect this in warm-blooded animals present
a complication of conditions. First of all the migration, as in
the former, is an active one, but it must soon become passive,
although probably, in most cases, only for a time. Leuckart's
careful investigations certainly appear to contradict the assump-
tion made by Haubner and myself as regards the greater part of
the embryos which subsequently take up their abode in the
abdominal cavity and the organs there situated; namely, that the
migration of most of the embryos of Tcenice takes place through
the ductus choledochus. Leuckart never succeeded in finding
free embryos in this canal. It may perhaps even be disagree-
able to them, because in it they would have to struggle against a
stream of bile flowing down, and not only to bore, which, accord-
ing to the previous observations, they like to do, but also by
alternately adhering and letting go their hold, to move along by
creeping. I now admit that what appeared to me to be the
easiest, as it offered an open way to the embryos, would rather
be very difficult to them. The passage by the ductus chole-
dochus, therefore, can be selected by them, if ever, only in very
rare, exceptional cases. I believe also, that (as these animals do
not appear to be particularly fond of creeping without boring)

50 ANIMAL PARASITES.

the immigration of the greater part of them into the liver, &c.,
probably takes place very rarely by their first of all piercing
through the walls of the stomach, then moving upon the serous
coat of the peritoneum in the free abdominal cavity, and only
penetrating through this into the parenchyma of the organ
selected, for example, the liver. It is true, the latter has not as
yet been completely refuted by the fact that Leuckart found no
embryos upon the serous coat of the liver. From the size
of the surface under examination, he might have overlooked
them.

I also return again to my original supposition, which I after-
wards gave up, that the active migration is probably followed by
a passive one in the stream of the blood. By the careful inves-
tigations of Leuckart, who found free embryos four times in the
main branch of the vena porta at its entrance into the liver
(whilst he never succeeded in discovering free embryos in the
meseriteric and gastric veins, in the lacteals, or on the serous
coat of the stomach and liver), I feel convinced that the
brood is introduced into the circulation of the blood by the
active penetration of the tissues, and then a passive migration
with the blood is commenced. In this way the immigration of
the brood into the liver would be easily explained, the embryos
getting into the vena porta, and remaining fixed in the finest
ramifications of the capillary system of the liver ; and into the
brain and other parts situated more peripherally, by the
embryos making their way into blood-vessels (e. g., the vena cava,
the capillaries of the liver, and especially those of the lungs),
which conduct the blood, and with it the brood, towards distant
regions of the body. Nay, I even go a step further, and per-
ceive in the small size of the brood of the last-mentioned T&niae,
as compared with the size [of that] of the allied Cestodea in
the bodies of cold-blooded animals, an indication of the fact that
nature has positively prepared this smallest brood for migration
through or into the capillaries, and destined them to this purpose.
Lastly, it is perhaps not venturing too far, if, in the pigment on
the heads of certain Cysticerci, we should recognise an additional
proof of the previous migration of these specimens through the
blood of man, or of certain mammalia.

Moreover, I also subscribe to Leuckart's assumption that,
in the choice of its dwelling-place in the body of its new
host, the immigrant embryo is not driven to it by a certain

ANIMAL PAEASITES. 51

instinct. But when Leuckart goes on " where the embryo can-
not go further, there it remains seated/' I only adopt this view
if we add "for the present, for an indeterminate (probably
very short) time." Here, indeed, I must for the present
differ from Leuckart, for various reasons. I suppose that as
soon as the embryo becomes fixed [in the capillaries], it, as it
were, awakens again, and again sets about migrating actively
through the walls of the capillaries, or if it remains stuck in
the capillaries, it rather dies, or by thrombus-formation and
thrombous diseases thereby produced, very rapidly causes the
death of its host. Every one will admit that the extraordinarily
speedy death of the animals experimented on may be best
explained by the supposition that death is produced by the
tearing away of blood-coagulum (Thrombose). The immediate
active exit of the little brood, appears to me to be supported by
the circumstance that the desire of active migration in these
little creatures, as is shown by the formation of passages upon the
liver and in the brain, still exists at a period when they have
already become developed into vesicles which may be very clearly
perceived with the naked eye, and is proved by the fact that even
ten or eleven days after administration, such visible Ccenurus-
vesicles are found free upon the convolutions of the brain. From
the considerable extensibility usually possessed by the walls of
vessels, we may well suppose that with this bulk these walls would
not be burst, but that a greater dilatation of the vesicle would
be necessary for this purpose. It is also remarkable that we
do not usually meet with effusion of blood so much as mere
plastic exudations. All this is most easily explained by the
supposition that the smallest brood, when scarcely or incon-
siderably dilated, emigrates at once directly from the blood-
vessels. Moreover, Leuckart has not succeeded by his experi-
ments in injection, in proving that the Cystic, pisiformes remained
fixed in the interior of the finest ramifications of the vena
porta. As he says himself, the mass of the injection only
reached the position of the Cysticerci after the rupture of the
capillaries. The question can only be finally settled by the re-
discovery of the six small embryonal booklets upon the Cysti-
cercus. If Leuckart's statement — that these six embryonal hook-
lets are discoverable upon Cysticerci pisiformes seated free in the
liver — be confirmed, these booklets, by which "its destiny to
wander is written upon the forehead of the embryo," furnish

52 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

us with an important support for the assumption of a new active
migration of the brood from the capillaries.

If the Cysticercus bears no embryonal booklets, and loses them
in the current of the blood, as a matter of course it cannot escape
from the blood-vessels unless the vessel in which it is seated
bursts at last. At any rate, the fact that the embryos still
possess their booklets at the commencement of the vena porta
does not prove that these booklets are not subsequently lost by the
friction of the stream of the blood in the narrower vessels, and
then these bookless creatures wo^uld remain seated in the interior
of the vessels. As regards those Cysticerci or Echinococci in the
walls of which the histological constituents of vascular tubes are
recognised, no one will doubt that we have to do with embryos
which have remained sealed in the interior of the vascular tubes ;
but when these indications are wanting (and this is certainly the
general rule, with extremely few exceptions), we must suppose
that there is a further emigration out of the vessels, either
indirect and secondary, or primary and direct; the latter, how-
ever, especially, if the six booklets still exist upon the young
vesicular worm.

To sum up the whole briefly, the migration of the young of
the Cestodea to the places where we meet with them as vesicular
worms, or in analogous states, takes place in the following way :

1 . A portion of the six-hooked brood in all species of Cestodea
(whether they take up their abode in cold- or warm-blooded
animals, whether they possess small or large embryonal booklets,
and whether they do or do not pass through a true vesicular
state,) may reach their dwelling-place directly and by active
migration.

2. Another portion, after a longer or shorter active migration,
reaches the vascular system of the new host (the blood-vessels, and
perhaps also the lymphatic system, as, according to Virchow, is
the case with the Echinococci), is subjected to a passive migration
here with the fluid, remains fixed in the smallest ramifications,
and —

a. Becomes further developed in the vascular tube, making use
of the walls of the vessel as an envelope (cyst), so as to remain
there permanently, or —

b. Migrates passively into the neighbouring tissues, after the
rupture of the walls of the vessel, in consequence of the suielling of
the body of the embryo, or—

ANIMAL PARASITES. 53

c. After sticking in the finest vascular ramifications, enters anew
upon an active migration by means of its six small hooklels, passing
through the walls of the vessels into the neighbouring tissues, and
often continuing its wanderings for some time in closed cavities of the
body or in the soft parenchyma of organs, even when it has already
attained a certain size, so as to be visible to the naked eye.

In the vicinity of the dwelling-place preferred by it the young
embryo becomes stationary, after the completion of an active, or an
active-passive, or an active-passive-active migration, and establishes
its habitation there, or wanders through the selected organ for a
time. By these active migrations, which undoubtedly take place
at a certain time, in the interior of the selected organ of the host,
the organ is irritated by the intruder, brought into an inflamma-
tory condition, and excited to produce exudations, which, by their
yellow colour, indicate the course of the wanderer, and form pas-
sages (streaks), either in the interior or on the surface of the
organ, which is also disturbed in its functions ; nay, if the
number of the immigrants be very large, or the organ selected of
great importance to life, the whole organism sympathises, and
functional disturbances, and more or less dangerous disorders are
produced in organs of particular importance to the individual.

The question, what further takes place with the embryos when
they have come to rest in their new dwelling -placet leads us to
the consideration of the —

Third stage in the development of the Cestodea. — This consists
of the so-called vesicular worms and their analogous asexual
forms, which, in accordance with the alteration which the em-
bryonal vesicle undergoes in the different species of tape- worms,
and with the different animals infested, may be divided into
cysticercal (vesicular worms), platy cereal (forms with a flat, inar-
ticulate, tail-like appendage), and acercal (or tail-less) forms.

It is a common peculiarity of all the three forms here men-
tioned, that they are cestode-heads produced from the embryonal
vesicle, which occur still in the interior of the embryonal vesicle, or
upon it in a state of rest. We may therefore best comprehend
this step under the name of resting scolices.

It is true that on account of the extremely small size of the
embryonal booklets in the species of Cestodea with which we
are here especially occupied, we have not yet succeeded in proving
the direct transition from the embryos to the resting, and usually
cysticercal scolices, by the re-discovery of the six embryonal hook-

54 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

lets, if we except a single case by Leuckart ; but we may never-
theless regard this metamorphosis as proved, partly by experiment
and partly by analogy with the platycercal cestode-forms of this
stage of development in cold-blooded animals, as Stein and
Meissner have actually seen on the latter forms, the pretty large
booklets of the embryos of the mature Cestodea in question.

The details of the processes of this metamorphosis are as
follows : the embryo, still furnished with its six booklets, begins
to swell by the reception of fluid (liquid nourishment), which is
secreted from the place in which* it has established itself; this is
at first a fluid similar to protoplasm ; but after the formation of
the enveloping cyst, or after the cessation of inflammation, when
the creature lives free in the interior of serous cavities, it does
not agree so much in its composition with the serum of the
blood, as with the ordinary products of the secretion of serous
membranes (Luschka).

" By carefully stripping off the inner surface of the cyst of a
Cysticercus tenuicollis from a he-goat," writes Luschka, " I
obtained objects, amongst which numerous roundish cells of an
average diameter of 0*016 mill, were remarkable. These con-
tained, in their interior, clear, roundish, larger or smaller por-
tions of fluid, which were partly separated by a fine molecular
mass (PI. I, fig. 10 a, b], and partly converted for the most
part into a clear mass of the same nature (fig. 10 c). In
certain of these cells I was able to convince myself of the escape
of hyaline drops from their walls, and of their coagulation on
the addition of acetic acid. For my own part I entertain no
doubt that these cells are of a secretory nature, and that by
their complete fusion, or by the escape of their contents through
the uninjured walls, the fluid which surrounds the worm within
its cyst is produced. I have recently found exactly similar
cells in the Graafian vesicles of man and various mammalia,
and attribute to them a similar connection with the formation of
the liquor folliculorum Graafii. In true epithelial lamina? I have
only seen scattered roundish and polygonal cells, of which some
were without nuclei, whilst others possessed a distinct nucleus.
It is more than probable that these secretory cells are nothing
but metamorphosed epithelial formations." From this it appears
distinctly that Luschka has observed the same processes in this
case that he had previously noticed in the production of the
fluid of serous cavities, and we must accordingly suppose that

ANIMAL PARASITES. 55

the fluid contents of the caudal vesicle of the cystic worms also
is not a direct ready formed transudation from the blood-vessels,
but that it corresponds with the normal secretion of serous
cavities. This also explains how the worm can thrive, living
freely in closed serous cavities of the body, as well as when
enclosed in cysts, which, as we have said, are to be regarded
as analogous to these serous cavities, and also why this fluid
should not be so rich in albumen as is commonly supposed.
I have convinced myself that the nature of the fluid scraped off
the inner surface of the enveloping cyst exactly corresponds with
that of the synovia furnished by the serous synovial membranes.

Besides the larger clear bodies, of which Luschka speaks, I
also found a considerable number of small, clear, pellucid bodies,
which resemble the calcareous corpuscles of the Cestodea. Are
these structures a regular product of the serous membranes,
which, if we bear in mind the occurrence of calcareous con-
cretions in the articular cavities, must at all events be rich in
lime?

In the Echinococci, in the fluid of which Heintz found succinic
acid, the process is not so readily intelligible, as in these a very
intimate and nearly organic connection takes place between the
worm and the cyst. In this case we must suppose either that
the inner wall of the enveloping cyst continues imperceptibly to
perform the functions of a serous membrane, or that the inner-
most layer of the Echinococcus itself takes the place and per-
forms the function of a serous membrane. It is true that the
structure of the walls of this cystic worm gives no support to this
view, to which, however, Eschricht's statements upon the struc-
ture of the innermost layer in Echinococcus scolicipariens may,
perhaps, have some relation. Perhaps the fact here referred to
may furnish us with a further explanation of the circumstance
that cystic worms do not occur so much in cold-blooded as in
warm-blooded animals, when we have acquired some more certain
knowledge of the functions of the serous membranes in these
two groups of animals. I must, therefore, request that in the
discussion of the question why cystic worms only occur in warm-
blooded animals, besides the reasons which I have endeavoured
to adduce in my little work, ' Uber die Cestoden im Allgemeinen
und die des Menschen im Besonderen, Zittau/ 1853, the fact
here mentioned may also be tested. In this way the swelling of

56 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

the young embryo is materially facilitated and its further deve-
lopment favoured.1

As soon as it has in this way rather rapidly enlarged to
a certain size, and arrived at a state of repose, the round
vesicle thus formed, when it does not project freely into a serous
cavity of the body and has not fallen into one, surrounds itself
with a peculiar envelope, which protects it from external pres-
sure, and assists it in procuring its necessary repose. These
enveloping cysts, as is proved even by the relations of the finer
structure of the cyst, constitute an absolute new formation,
which commences around the germ of the vesicular worm from
the same masses of exudation which are deposited around the
youngest brood during its migrations ; this new formation acquires
a structure analogous to that of the subjacent tissues, in this case,
therefore, analogous to that of the serous membranes, and con-
stantly increases in size with the growth of the young Cestode
vesicle.

These enveloping cysts always exhibit the same chemical re-
actions as other serous membranes ; they dissolve in caustic
potash, with the exception of a very small rolled up membranous
film, which, however, is not chitine, as may be ascertained by the
employment of Von Bibra's method for the detection of chitine.

As regards the histological structure, we very clearly find all
those elements which Luschka describes and figures, (' Ueber
Structura der serosen Haute/ Taf. I, fig. 4), which make their
appearance with particular distinctness after treatment with
cold caustic potash. Besides the elastic fibres and cellular
fibres, we find those formerly called by Luschka " serous fibres/'
but subsequently denominated by him " plastic fibres of the
areolar tissue." It is indeed in these enveloping cysts that we
may trace the various steps in the development of the cells of
ligamentous tissue into fibres, and the formation of the so widely
diffused plastic fibres by the direct splitting of plastic striae.
Thus we see — 1. Cells of ligamentous tissue which pass from an

1 It may also be possible that besides the structure, a difference of function may also
occur in the enveloping cysts in cold and warm-blooded animals. It is a universally
admitted observation that in warm-blooded animals the secretion furnished by the serous
membranes is reabsorbed by them with great difficulty. Should this take place with
greater ease in cold-blooded animals we should have in this a further explanation of the
variations of the caudal vesicle in true cystic worms.

ANIMAL PARASITES. 57

oval through a spindle-shaped form, to the complete cellular
fibre. 2. Plastic fibres, partly still in the form of broad plastic
stria3, partly as very fine fibrillae, repeatedly crossed, but at the
same time always attaining a considerable length. 3. Elastic
tissue in all phases of development, from the so-called liga-
mentous corpuscles of Virchow, up to fully developed elastic
fibres (Luschka). For my own part I have never been able
clearly to detect epithelium. Of the secretory cells of these
serous cysts and their product, I have already spoken in the pre-
ceding pages (PI. I, fig. 10).

When, however, the brood of a cestoid worm gets freely into
serous cavities, it either never attains to this formation of an
enveloping cyst, as already remarked, or does so at a rather
late period, and at a time when the young embryo has become
a vesicle of very considerable size, and often exhibits the
Tsenia-head in an advanced state of development. At any rate,
in these cases, and in places where the young cystic worm again
falls into repose, a fresh exudation of plastic masses adapted to
the formation of cysts, takes place. The walls of the cyst, more-
over, are rich in blood-vessels.

Having disposed of this subject, we turn, without further
interruption to the consideration of the subsequent development
of the brood.

It might have been quite impossible to prove definitively the
metamorphosis of the brood, had not Stein succeeded in dis-
covering the six booklets of the young embryo, together with the
armature of the head, upon the embryos when increasing in size
by the reception of fluid nutriment, arid also on the cestoid
vesicle when developed to the vesicular stage. This has been
done with perfect certainty hitherto only in the Cestodea of the
cold-blooded animals, and once, although doubtfully, by Leuckart
in Cysticercus pisiformis. For the history of the earliest days of
the development of the Cestodea, therefore, we must refer espe-
cially to those of the cold-blooded animals, and of these the
following may be said. By the reception of the secretion of the
serous membranes the young Cestoid vesicle swells up. At its
anterior end, and therefore at the point where the six embryonal
hooklets are situated, a funnel-shaped pit is probably formed
first of all, and this gradually penetrates more deeply into the
parenchyma of the embryonal body. In the bottom of this pit
the first traces of the head then make their appearance, whilst

58 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

the lateral walls of this impression become converted into the
body (central body) of the future cystic worm, and the remain-
ing portion of the embryonal vesicle, which is not inverted, or
which is not implicated in the individual metamorphosis, becomes
the so-called caudal vesicle. That the inversion and the first
formation of the head must frequently commence at the anterior
surface of the vesicle, is seen distinctly in the Cestodea of Arion
empiricorum, for in these the six small hooks are placed in pairs
at the point of transition of the body or central body just men-
tioned into the caudal vesicle pf the worm, and indeed at a
distance of 0'02 millim. from each other. Their apices are
often turned away (Leuckart).1 But for this very reason, as
these booklets are situated upon the central body, and this is
lost during the conversion of the cystic worm into a tape-
worm, they will necessarily be sought in vain on the last segment
of the future tape-worm colony, which Meissner supposed would
be the case. The central body and the head are always de-
veloped in the interior of the embryonal vesicle, and during the
whole period of the vesicular state the head always has its apex
directed towards the caudal vesicle, even when the central body,
which encloses the head in the form of a hollow canal, has not

1 Although this description and mode of comprehension differ from those adopted by
Stein and Meissner, yet I even previously understood the processes in the way just
indicated, which has now been confirmed by R. Leuckart's independent observations upon
the Cestodea of the lungs of Arion empiricorum var. ru&ra, which I have sought for in
vain in my locality. Stein supposes the embryonic booklets to be lost and taken up by
the formative materials of the enveloping cyst, but Meissner had already ascertained
that they remain. It is true that Meissner misplaces them on the last third or fourth
part of the body. But at the same time we must bear in mind that in all Meissner's
investigations the true caudal vesicle was usually torn away by pressure, and entirely
overlooked by him. According to Leuckart, when the entire worm, freed from its
envelopes, is laid in water, it is observed to protrude its head. The head, central body,
and caudal vesicle are then preserved; the latter is spherical, pisiform, very thick, rich
in fat-corpuscles, and very clearly distinguished from the central body. Lastly, Von
Siebold has also understood Stem's Cestodea from Tenebrio molitor in a different way
from Stein. He regards the so-called cystic tail, spoken of by Stein, as belonging to the
body of the embryo. I might also adopt this notion. If we do this, we must assume —

1. That Stein has erroneously described the enveloping cyst instead of the caudal vesicle.

2. That the agreement in the histological nature of the enveloping cyst with that of the
parenchyma of the body of the Tenebrio, described by Stein, cannot be so remarkable as
he supposes ; and 3. That there are also cestoid embryos which produce the taenioid head
on their hinder and not on the anterior part. As matters stand, no definite opinion can
be formed, and a new investigation of the cestoid worm of Tenebrio molitor would be
very desirable.

ANIMAL PARASITES. 59

sufficient room in the embryonal vesicle, but is pushed out of
it. The same thing is seen in the Cysticercus fasciolaris of the
mouse, except that in this the central body is jointed. However,
I will by no means assert that there may not be cestoid embryos
which proliferate at the hinder part. It is possible, as we saw in
the preceding note, that Von Siebold's notion of Stein's cestoid
worm is correct, and then, in this case, the embryonal booklets
would not have been cast off, but have remained seated upon the
anterior part of the body, whilst the development of the head
would have taken place at the posterior extremity, and the
anterior part of the body of the embryo become converted into
that sterile appendage which we usually denominate the caudal
vesicle. In this case, it is true, the embryo must have turned
itself round, and, after taking firm hold, have pushed its abdomen
forward towards the ventral cavity, and retracted the anterior
part of its body towards the intestine. However, even in this
case, the booklets would not be transmitted to the tsenioid period
of existence.

Proliferation on the posterior part of the body of the cestoid
embryo will, however, be regarded as impossible by no one who
takes into consideration the multiple proliferation of the Ccenuri
and Echinococci. The latter takes place on such various parts,
that we cannot say it occurs on the anterior or on the posterior
part, but it takes place everywhere in the body of the embryo,
which consequently cannot arrive at the formation of a true
caudal vesicle.

Unfortunately, we can state nothing more definite regarding
the spot in the embryonal vesicle on which it proliferates the
T&niae, called by Leuckart bladder-tape-worms, in which we are
here especially interested. The booklets are so small that
they are overlooked, or small folds of the skin easily imitate
them. Even here, however, it is most probable that they are
not cast off and imbedded in the enveloping cyst. If Leuckart's
statement, that the small booklets could be found in the vicinity
of the anterior extremity of the body, at a distance of Ol millim.
from the cephalic pit, in a Cysticercus pisiformis of 2 millim. in
diameter, should be confirmed, then the Cystic, pisiformis, and
perhaps the other true Cysticerci, would belong to that first kind
in which the proliferation takes place at the head.

If, from the experiments made by Haubner and myself, by
Leuckart, Roll, Van Beneden, Eschricht, Gurlt, May, and others,

60 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

with the most various Tceniae which pass through a vesicular con-
dition, and which succeeded with all species, with the exception
of the Tanite of the Echinococci, where an unfavorable accident
may have prevailed, we sum up what we know of the development
of these species, the following appears to be the case. According
to Leuckart, at least in experiments with T. serrata, we find,
twenty-four hours after administration, the six-hooked embryos
in the blood of the large abdominal veins (especially the vena
port a), and, on the fourth day, in the livers of rabbits to which
they have been administered, .small, white, clear vesicles, of
0'3 millim. in diameter, but rapidly increasing in size, which, on
the sixth, are already 1 millim. in diameter, and can only be
isolated with difficulty. They consist of white masses of areolar
tissue, deposited in strata, with bacillar and fusiform nuclei, and
of the embryo, which is only Ol millim. in length, and O05 millim.
in breadth. On these masses we distinctly see the above-described
conversion into areolar tissue and serous cysts, and in them the
formation of fatty aggregations (probably from decomposed cells),
which subsequently become calcified. But these masses are by
no means secreted only on the spot where we finally meet with
the vesicular worm. The very distinct yellow streaks, or passages,
formed of soft, yellow, exudation-mass, which, during the first
fortnight after the administration of the Taenice, give the surface
of the infested organs (for example, the brain and liver), an
appearance as if microscopic field-mice or moles had been bur-
rowing through them, prove clearly that the brood, at all events
of many species, undertakes a further active migration in or upon
the organs in question, which of course cannot be effected without
irritation, inflammation, and functional disturbance, as has already
been remarked. I pass over the particular symptoms thus pro-
duced. Every one will know in what they consist, by remem-
bering that they coincide with those of an inflammatory irritation
of the organs in question. Lastly, at the end of such streaks or
passages, which become filled by injections from the principal
veins, in consequence of the occurrence of rupture, according to
Leuckart, the embryo makes its appearance in the form of a clear
vesicle. In T. serrata the actual embryo, after the lapse of
fourteen days, measures 1*5 millim. ; in Ccenurus it is about the
size of a grain of millet, at this period. The small vesicle (the
worm), after it has begun to grow clear, acquires, in its interior,
numerous large, clear, enucleate vesicles, which, according to

ANIMAL PARASITES. 61

Leuckart, are similar to sarcode drops. In the parenchyma we
recognise a cortical layer, which gradually becomes thinner, and
the cells of which are converted into muscular envelopes by
fibre-formation ; and a medullary layer, in which elastic vesicles
or cells occur in great quantity. From the appearance of the
medullary substance the growth of the little worm, which is
capable of motion even before the muscular layer makes its ap-
pearance, advances with particular rapidity. Even in the first
fortnight, and shortly afterwards, the form of the young cestoid
worm varies according to the species. Some, such as the youngest
Ccenuri, and Cystic, celluloses, tenuicollis, and fasciolaris, are
spherical ; others, such as Cystic, pisiformis, and probably also
Cystic, longicollis and fistularis, are more oval. Many of those
which are seated upon the surface of organs that project into
closed, serous cavities, continue to wander for a time in the organ,
until they finally fall into these cavities ; the oval forms appear
to have a greater desire for wandering than the round ones,
although this circumstance varies in itself, according to the dif-
ferent species, as we also observe such a wandering in the round
brood of Ccenurus. Up to the period above mentioned (about
fourteen days after administration), the changes here described
take place pretty universally, and in all places. But now, in all
those individuals which have reached situations in which they do
not find a favorable soil for their further development, there com-
mences a retrograde metamorphosis to the state of caseous, gra-
nular, tubercular, or atheromatose masses, in which we may
generally seek in vain for any remains of the embryo, although
this is certainly present. Many cases of miliary tubercular
disease of particular organs may indeed consist in nothing else
than the dead, fatty, and calcified young of worms.1 As regards
the mode of disappearance of the above-mentioned passages, we

1 As regards Cysticercus pisiformis, Leuckart places the escape of the Cysticerci into
the abdominal cavity in the third and fourth week ; and in this case the worm and the
enveloping mass are said to fall together into the cavity. But when this passage only
takes place about the fifth or sixth week, the worm escapes into the cavity of the
abdomen without its enveloping mass. All observations agree in showing that after the
expiration of eight weeks the second encystation in the abdominal cavity has taken
place ; and then the Cysticerci seated in the pelvic cavity and in the rectum, are sup-
posed to have escaped as Cysticerci from the liver into the abdominal cavity and passed
further on ; whilst I still believe that at least a part of them migrate there directly in
the form of young six-hooked embryos.

62 ANIMAL PARASITES.

know nothing with certainty. Only this is ascertained, that
during the first fourteen days after the administration the yellow
streaks are extremely large and numerous in all those organs
which constitute the favorite dwelling place of one of these
cestoid worms in its second stage of development, but that in two
or three months they have generally disappeared so completely
(probably by absorption) that it is difficult to discover any traces
of them.

In the third or fourth week, when the young brood of
Cysticercus pisiformis measures about 2 millim., and that of
Ccenurus is about the size of a large pin's head or small lentil,
we may see, according to Leuckart, beneath the structureless
epidermis a layer of annular, transverse, and another of longi-
tudinal, muscular fibres. The longitudinal fibres are parallel
and tortuous, and may subsequently be isolated in band-like
streaks about G'0019 millim. in breadth. Then follow fatty
structures, and then the medullary substance. The latter con-
sists of clear vesicles, combined with a tenacious albuminous
substance, fat and molecules, to form a layer. At the point
where the head is to be formed (therefore usually at the anterior
end) a turbidity or condensation is now produced, by the aggre-
gation of small nucleated cells, in great quantity, in the interstice
between the muscular and medullary layers. This is the first
foundation of the head of the tape-worm (PI. I, fig. 8, a — g).
Opposite to this turbidity or inflation a pit or impression (a sort
of perforation) is observed externally, the inner wall of which
is formed by the inverted epidermis, and which passes through
nearly the whole depth of the globular foundation of the head.
The latter appears like a peg firmly attached to the inner wall
of the worm, and hanging down into the vesicle, sometimes per-
pendicularly, and sometimes more obliquely (Cyst, cellulose), to
which a flask-shaped cavity, with a short neck, passes through the
perforation. Goeze compared this position of the head to the
light in a lantern. In the cell-mass of the tubercle of the head
two layers are now found : 1, a peripheric layer, which grows into
a fibrous, muscular pouch (receptacle of the central mass of the
foundation of the head, the true receptaculum capitis, under which
name, however, Von Siebold understands the caudal vesicle);
and 2, a central layer, or the central mass of the head.

In the latter, and especially in its upper half, calcareous
deposits make their appearance but sparingly at first. Two or

ANIMAL PARASITES. 63

four vessels rising in a tortuous form through the upper part of
the lobe, and passing over on the external sac-like envelopes, are
also observed ; but nothing is known of their ramifications.

The vesicle now constantly becomes larger and clearer, its
contents becoming more fluid, and the medullary layer displaced
as far as its peri ph eric layers, the epidermis and muscular layer
grow thicker, whilst vessels and calcareous corpuscles1 make
their appearance, especially in the circumference of the anterior
part of the body, in the stratum between the muscular and
epidermic layer, but not in the muscular layer, as stated by
Wagener, in some cases before, in others after, the formation of
the cephalic process. The vessels of this stratum, formerly re-
garded as a net of muscles by Pallas, and overlooked until the
time of G. R. Wagener, are very strong, and surround the caudal
vesicle with dendritically ramified stems (thin- walled tubes),
uniting directly with the vessels of the head, which probably
originate from them. In the vessels, which probably serve for
the purpose of excretion, circulates a colourless, limpid fluid,
which is set in motion by cilia. The latter are either whip-like
hairs, or semicircular lobes, with a free margin, moving from one
side to the other, which cannot be decided easily ; according to
Leuckart, they are situated only in the smaller vessels, although
I believe I have seen them also in the larger branches, in points
of curvature, and especially where one vessel opens into another.
These ciliary structures were discovered by Lebert, and afterwards
particularly described by Virchow and Wagener. That these
vessels unite into a pulsating tube, opening at the end of the
caudal vesicle (Wagener), could not be detected either by Leuckart
or the author. Neither could Leuckart find any openings of the
large vessels of the head towards the interior space of the caudal
vesicle, but he sometimes found two openings on the neck, by
which the longitudinal vessels are supposed to lead outwards.

1 Even the calcareous corpuscles have their own proper fragment of history. Once
they were regarded as eggs ; subsequently their calcareous nature was discovered, and it
was agreed that they consisted principally of carbonate with a very small proportion,
perhaps, of phosphate of lime. Some, such as Eschricht, regarded the corpuscles which
dissolve with difficulty in acids as siliceous globules, but all believed them to be a
normal phenomenon, and the first indication of the formation of a skeleton in animals.
Huxley now suddenly declares them to be of a morbid nature ('Annals of Nat. Hist.,'
xiv, 1854). There is equal reason, as Leuckart says, to call the calcification of the
skeleton morbid.

64 ANIMAL PARASITES.

Of the intermediate stratum containing the vessels, it still
remains to be remarked in general, that it is finely granular,
tenacious, and of a cloudy, and, here and there, brownish ap-
pearance ; sometimes blended into a continuous layer, sometimes
into flakes, and that it bears cleft fibres, which are swelled up,
and contain fat-granules at the points of cleavage. The inner-
most stratum, the residue of the medullary layer, has its previously
clear vesicles filled with fat, even with fat-drops. It is probable
that in this way is brought about a peculiar morbid process,
which I have met with in a single instance amongst several
hundred Cysticerci tenuicolles which I have examined. The
caudal vesicles were completely set with small white points, per-
fectly visible to the eye, which, under the microscope, presented
nothing like calcareous corpuscles, but rather a fatty mass en-
closed in a tolerably firm tissue, whilst at the neck of the vesicle
a second small vesicle made its appearance, which contained fluid,
and was not separable from the tissue of the neck. In this dis-
covery I recognise the morbidly degenerated embryonic body of a
Cysticercus tenuicollis, and, at the same time, a fresh support for
my statements regarding the normal and healthy nature of the
ordinary caudal vesicle of the Cysticerci.

From the moment when the formation of the cephalic process
commences, the caudal vesicle ceases its activity in the true
Cysticerci ; its functions are then only passive, serving as a reser-
voir of nutriment, as a protective organ for the head, which
requires repose for its further development, and as an organ
which may at the same time also preserve sufficient room for the
undisturbed development of the head.

The case is certainly different in the cystic worms with
multiple proliferation. In these, as already remarked, besides
the last-mentioned function, the embryonal vesicle constantly
executes the proliferation at repeated intervals, and on the
most various parts, both in the Ccenuri and Echinococci. Here,
therefore, we can no longer speak of the remains of the
embryonal vesicle as a true caudal vesicle. On the hollow
cephalic process itself, various metamorphoses commence at dif-
ferent times in the different species, but at any rate not before
the fourth week after administration. In the process which is,
as it were, introverted in the caudal vesicle, and which, with its
flask-shaped cavity represents, as already observed, the first foun-
dation of the head of the tape-worm, and, indeed, in the lower

DEVELOPMENT OF EMBEYO. 65

inflated end, and upon the bottom of the cavity, the foundations
of the circlet of hooks are formed, and somewhat higher, on the
broadest part of the cavity, the sucking discs. The formation of
the hooks takes place, according to Wagener, in this way ; a
broad, annular fringe of small points or hairs is formed, with
their bases seated upon the epidermoidal coat of the cavity.
Only the lower ones are permanent, and become converted
into an alternating double circlet of conical claws, like the horns
of antelopes, of which the inner become the larger and the
outer the smaller; the others fall off. As the point of insertion
of the hooks forms a narrow annular ridge, a limitation and
appendicular pouch is produced in the entire cavity of the cephalic
process ; this is the future rostellum. The points [of the hooks]
are slightly curved outwards, and directed forwards. As soon as
they have attained the size of the future uncini, their softness
and alterability under pressure disappear, their walls become
thickened by internal depositions in irregular stride, and at the
base the new parts are then formed, especially the radical pro-
cesses, the upper surface of which is a direct prolongation of the
claw. The internal cavity of the claws or uncini is shut off
by a peculiar formation, which is at first separated from the
rest of the mass of the hook, has usually a horseshoe-like form,
and represents the first foundation of the dental process. In the
year 1852 I figured a circlet of hooks in the ' Prager Yiertel-
jahrschrift/ which is certainly to be regarded as a malformation.
If it be allowable to draw conclusions from these structures to
the normal ones, we might feel tempted to suppose the occurrence
in the formation of the shaft of a union of separate horny struc-
tures, but I believe, as a general rule, that in the formation of
the shaft nothing but a production of the hinder wall of the claw
takes place, and the attachment of peculiar structures to the
ready-formed parts of the hooks only takes place on the spot
where the dental process occurs. Moreover, no new formation
of the hooks takes place, and they are evidently of equal develop-
ment throughout.

The mode of attachment of the hooks in the skin is not so
easily understood. Sacs are very common in the large-hooked
T&nifje ; this is easily perceived in preparations in which the hooks
have been removed by maceration, after they have been dried.
But this sac-formation is very imperfect in the Cysticerci, in com-
parison with the Tanice.

E

66 ANIMAL PAKASITES.

As soon as the uncini ? are formed, four hemispherical sacs,
blind appendicular cavities, make their appearance above them,
and on the broadest part of the cephalic process : these are the
four sucking discs (bothria). Internally, they are still at first
connected with the central cavity of the cephalic process, and
clothed with small deciduous hairs. By the conversion of the
parenchyma surrounding them into radiate and annular muscular
layers, they become completely shut off, and muscles are also
developed round the fifth appendicular cavity, and close it up as
a rostral cavity, on which an prifice is still to be found occa-
sionally, for a short time, but rarely for a permanency, and which
mav even become a median sucker on the vertex.

The formation of the apparatus of hooks, &c., is usually com-
pleted towards the sixth week. At the same time calcareous
corpuscles collect, and the vessels become developed. We
observe four lateral stems, which form a ring round the suckers
and rostellum, and give off branches, occurring between the
suckers, ascending and descending therefrom, and exhibiting some
small variations in the number and arrangements of the ramifica-
tions situated towards the suckers. From this time it is easy to
cause the protrusion of the head.

The life of the cestoid embryo might close with this stage of its
development, as the head is so far developed as to be ready at any
time for its evolution into a tape-worm. But the opportunity of
doing this usually occurs only after a considerable time ; arid the
cestoid worm employs his long interval to exhaust the rest of its
formative faculty and power, in the formation, on the neck and
the remains of the embryonic body (caudal vesicle), of the so-called
tape-worm body. This consists in a simple elongation of the
tubular neck, and if, from the slight extensibility of the recep-
taculum capitis, there is 110 space for this, in a bending to a lateral
position, and in a coiling up and conglomeration of the growing
body, the histological structure of which cannot be ascertained on
account of its richness in calcareous corpuscles; the length of
the body produced is variable. If it becomes so large as to be
unable to find room in the caudal vesicle (as in Cysticercus
fasciolaris), the body, with the head, issues entirely from the
caudal vesicle. But as through the whole period of cysticercal
existence, the hooks are retracted into the head ; this is the case
also even in Cysticercus fasciolaris.

From the above metamorphosis, which is principally taken from

DEVELOPMENT OF EMBKYO, 67

Cysticercus pisiformis, but which may serve as a general scheme,
there are certain variations according to the species. In
Cysticercus celluloses the processes are exactly the same as those
just described, but the cephalic process does not hang down
perpendicularly, but obliquely, into the caudal vesicle; and in
this the formation of the vessels and caudal vesicles are recog-
nised from the first production of the foundation of the head.
The latter also applies to Ccenurus, in which each individual head
is formed in a separate inverted portion of the general embryonal
vesicle, to which a sort of perforation leads from the outside.
I have sometimes thought that I could perceive, in this case, the
same mode of formation of the head as is above indicated occurring
here in the anterior thickened end of the little body enclosed in
the inverted portion of the vesicle, — consequently, an inversion
of the cephalic process towards the interior of the structure
contained in the inversion. Frequently, I might say in most
cases, I could not detect any such inversion of the cephalic
structures in the above-mentioned internal body; but I observed,
at the anterior end of the internal body, only a retraction of
the rostellum with its hooks. The position of the hooks was
as in the other vesicular worms, that is to say, the extremities of
the shafts turned forwards and outwards, and the apices of the
hooks inwards and backwards; and for the same reason the
suckers were here also on a level with the circlet of cilia, and
placed laterally from them, whilst in the other vesicular worms
the suckers do not stand on one side of, but behind the rostellum,
as long as the head is still inverted (PI. I, fig. 9).

In Cysticercus fasciolaris the same formation occurs, at first, as
in Cysticercus pisiformis, but subsequently the head and body
are protruded from the caudal vesicle.

In all other species, even when there is no formation of a
caudal vesicle, as in the platy cereal and acercal forms, especially
of cold-blooded animals, the formative process is fundamentally
the same. For even in these the true tape-worm head is developed
in the interior of the embryonal vesicle, at all events originally,
in the form of a process, which is produced from the walls of the
top cavity of the embryo, or from its hinder part. The form
under which most of these formations have been hitherto observed,
is not so much the primary as a secondary form, analogous to that
which we have seen in Cysticercus fasciolaris. At the same time
the head has already more and more attained the aspect of the

68 ANIMAL PARASITES.

mature tape-worm (especially in Tetrarhynchi and other species
of Cestodea), as it has gradually turned itself over from behind,
by which it rises more and more in the bottom of the vertical
cavity, so that in opaque preparations it appears as if the head
were formed by the elevation of a proper mass. Leuckart thinks
that this apparent elevation may perhaps partly arise from the
different form of the rostellum in true Cysticerci and the allied
forms.

The heads of hookless Tcenice may be developed from the eggs
in the same way as the forms jiist mentioned, but, as a matter of
course, with the omission of the hook-formation. The most
characteristic point in these cestoid scolices, would be the forma-
tion of the sucking apparatus.

Although certain Tetrarhynchi exhibit an isolation of the
head, this may also be often produced originally in the above
manner, and the isolation be a secondary phenomenon. Leuckart
compares the occurrence of these forms with the phenomena
presented by Echinococci. It appears to me that these forms
may be best understood by a comparison with Stein's cestoid
worms from Tenebrio molitor (Sieb. and K611. Zeitschr., iv, Taf.
20, fig. 12 — 14). Thus, regarding the vesicular caudal ap-
pendage as proper to the Cestodea, as we have done, if we sup-
pose the constriction placed behind the body to advance so far
as to produce a complete separation, we have a scolex enclosed
in one segment of the embryonic body ; and by this division an
isolated caudal appendage (caudal vesicle), and an isolated head
with its envelope. It is also possible, in the last place, that there
may be embryonal vesicles, which do not become larger than is
necessary to form and enclose a single scolex in their interior;
the walls of which, therefore, approach so closely to the scolex as
almost to touch it, so that there is very little fluid between them.
Of the existence of these latter forms, Van Beneden has furnished
numerous proofs; the separation by constriction is supported by
Zeder's observation on a cestoid worm of the pike.

Peculiar conditions are exhibited by the Echinococci, of
which we may undoubtedly distinguish two great groups, to
which I have given the names of Echinococcus altricipariens, and
E. scolicipariens. In them, even more than in the Cwnuri, the
passive function of the residue of the embryonal vesicle as caudal
vesicle falls into desuetude, and its independent morphological
destination as a mother-vesicle becomes still more prominent.

DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO. 69

Even in its structure it differs essentially from the other ordinary
embryonal vesicles. In the Echinococci, the epidermis of the
embryonal vesicle adheres quite firmly to the enveloping cyst,
and forms several concentric layers. The muscular layer which
usually follows upon this is wanting, and instead of it and the
true interstitial and medullary layers, there follows a layer of a
granular vesicular structure, with vessels and calcareous cor-
puscles. It is probable that the villous, obconical elevations or
thickenings, which occur on the innermost vascular layer, become
converted into new vesicles or brood-capsules, which are, of
course, destitute of the six small embryonal booklets, and which
produce the individual scolices, but which are seldom directly
developed into scolices, united for some time with the mother-
vesicle by a stalk through which pass 2 — 4 vascular stems, con-
nected with the vascular system of the head. Even the individual
scolices are probably in general produced in the interior of such
capsules; and from the preceding statements it is not difficult on
the whole to understand this process, as the scolex-formation com-
mences in accordance with the type of the Ccenuri and Cysticerci
by the production of cephalic processes in the interior of the
separate brood-capsules. This formation of cephalic processes is
not, however, effected in a place produced by the inversion of the
mother-vesicle, which may be reached from the outer wall by
means of the above-mentioned perforation, but on the peduncu-
lated vesicle, and indeed on the end of this vesicle which stands
opposite to the peduncle. Thus, there only appears to be the
following distinction between the two principal forms .of Echino-
cocci above-mentioned. In Echinococcus scolicipariens the brood-
capsule remains adhering to the mother-vesicle by its peduncle
and proliferates in this way; in Echinococcus altricipariens the
brood-capsule, with its peduncle, separates from the mother-
vesicle, becomes thickened in its walls like the latter, and then
proliferates independently. In the latter species both forms of
production go on together in one mother-vesicle, and it also
happens that brood-capsules separate not with, but from the
peduncle, when their margins roll round, and the brood projects
outwardly in groups into the fluid of the mother-vesicle, the
everted inner surface becoming the outer surface, or any separated
brood which may occur free in the daughter-vesicles, is emptied
out into the fluid of the mother-vesicles. A single, separated
scolex can hardly ever become converted into a brood- capsule

70 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

(daughter, or granddaughter vesicle), as was supposed by Von
Siebold and Delle Chiaje.

From these considerations we cannot regard Echinococcus as a
many-headed Cysticercm, like the Coenuri, especially as we can
never press out the Echinococcus-scolex from the true embryonal
vesicle by the application of pressure to the vesicle from without,
so that the scolex may afterwards bear about the remains of the
embryonal vesicle behind it as an appendage. It is only when
we have cut up the mother-vesicle, that a similar appearance is
presented to us on examining it from the inside. We find the
individual scolex on the brood-vesicle of the scolices, bearing
behind it the remains of the embryonal vesicle on a peduncle.

The formation of the hooks, suckers, and vessels takes place
here in the same way as in the other Cestoidea. The thick,
opalescent, epidermic walls present particular difficulties in the
detection of the vascular system in general, and especially
that of the daughter- vesicles.

As we have shown in the historical portion, the statements
here made have been established by the most multifarious experi-
ments. I will not go over this subject at length, and can only
again remind the reader that the cheapest and quickest means of
convincing himself of the truth of what has been said consists in
the administration of Taenia serrata vera to rabbits.1

1 On account of the general interest possessed by progress of the experiments, I shall
here refer particularly to some experiments in the administration of T. ccenurus to
lambs, sheep, &c. After I had informed the Saxon Ministry of the Interior of the
above-mentioned results of my first experiments (vide supra}, with the request that they
should allow these experiments, which come rather dear to the private medical man, to
be repeated at the cost of the state, and on a larger scale, experiments were made, in the
year 1854, at the veterinary school at Dresden, under the direction of Professor
Haubner, by that gentleman and myself. On the 6th January, 1854, I had at last
obtained mature T. ccenurus, and administered them to two lambs in Drausendorf,
which had been purchased at. the expense of the government. On the 7th January I
carried T. ccenurus, protected from the cold, in my clothes to Dresden, and with
these four other lambs were fed in the veterinary school in the presence of the collected
students. On the 19th January, five of these six animals were affected with appear-
ances of irritation and inflammation of the brain, and cerebral convulsions. According
to Professor Haubner, who was able to watch the animals in his establishment, the
heads, the base of the horns, the eyes, and the visible mucous membranes of the cephalic
region were heated, and the latter reddened; the beatings of the pulse and heart were
excited and increased (to 130 — 135 strokes in a minute) ; the temperature of the body
was varying and unequal, and the evacuations were diminished. Dullness, stupefaction,
loss of appetite, and, to a certain extent, a neglect of rumination, were also observed,

DEVELOPMENT OF EMBBYO. 71

In the progress of the metamorphosis of the six-hooked cestoid
brood into scolices, just treated of; we have also seen that a portion

with tremulous movements of the ears, twisting of the eyes, convulsive writhings, and
bendings of the head and neck to one side or the other, fallings to the ground, twitching
of the limbs, gnashing of the teeth, foaming at the mouth, and, in short, all the
signs of cerebral convulsions resembling epilepsy, in which, moreover, several of the
animals twisted the head principally towards one side or in a circle.

The first dissection, made on the 22d January, 1854, again showed the small vesicles
(i. e. my young Cosnuri) observed in my first experiments, as well as the channels of
exudation, at the end of which there was sometimes a vesicle, surrounded by a more
abundant exudation. Besides these, innumerable minute particles of the size of a grain
of sand occurred in the most various situations in the lamb under examination ; for
instance, in the oesophagus, heart, diaphragm, peritoneum, &c. In the subsequent
dissections the same small vesicles were met with in the latter situations, but it was
distinctly seen that instead of growing they had diminished perceptibly in size, in com-
parison with those just described, and were, therefore, further advanced in degeneration,
so that the organisms situated in these parts may justly be regarded as strayed and
arrested young Cest ode worms, On the 17th February, forty-two days after the admi-
nistration, the vesicles were more deeply imbedded in the brain, as large as small peas,
and exhibited the first turbidity, or the commencement of scolex-formation. In the
other dissections similar results were obtained.

On the 5th May, 1854, Professor Haubner again administered mature Tasnia cosnurus
to eight sheep. On the eighth and tenth days after administration two lambs were
examined in vain for the migrating brood. On the twelfth day, a sheep, which was pre-
viously chlorotic and ill with vertigo, exhibited the well-known vesicles in the brain; a
second died of vertigo on the twentieth, a third on the twenty-first, and a fourth on the
twenty-fifth days. Two animals escaped. Of the Tcenia ccenurus sent to me by
Professor Haubner on the 5th of May, I forwarded some specimens in white of egg to
M. Gurlt, Director of the Veterinary School in Berlin, and here also vertigo made its
appearance with exactly the same appearances and results on the eleventh to the four-
teenth days after administration. Gurlt also found the strayed brood in thediaphraghm
and other places. On the 24th of May mature Tcenia ccenurus were taken from a dog
on the farm of M. Kind, of Kleinbautzen, who has taken a lively interest in the experi-
mental elaboration of this question, and administered to two lambs and one full-
grown ewe, of which the latter was not affected, one of the lambs was only slightly
touched with vertigo, and presented no Cxnuri when dissected eight weeks afterwards,
whilst the other, which had apparently escaped, exhibited developed vesicles of Ccenurus
at the same period. Encouraged by the success of my consignment to Gurlt, I for-
warded from Kleinbautzen, on the 24th of May, mature Tceniee cosnurus in white of egg
to Van Beneden at Louvain, Leuckart at Giessen, Gurlt at Berlin, and Eschricht at
Copenhagen. The worms arrived safe and sound at these places, on the 26th,
21st, and 27th May, and twelve, fourteen, and sixteen days after administration the
disease showed itself at all these stations, and indeed with the greater rapidity and
intensity the longer the road which the Tcenia had to pass, and therefore the later they
were administered.

When, on the llth June, 1854, I sent fresh Tcenia ccenurus to Professor Roll, at the
Veterinary School at Vienna, he allowed the proglottides to lie for several days in the
rain, and become covered with mould, and only administered them when they began to

72 ANIMAL PAKASITES.

of the Teenies pass through a true cysticercal (bladder-worm) state,
whilst the other part, without ever arriving at this state, furnishes

grow mouldy. The rapidity and intensity of the result was extraordinarily increased, so
that he absolutely regards putridity as a means of assisting the infection.

As the vertigo always makes its appearance in sheep at a definite time after the
administration of Tcenia ccenurus, and with some practice in the experiment, one may
previously state pretty exactly in what stage of development and of what size the
expected vesicular worms will be found, the experiments on the production of the
cystic worms satisfy the requirements of the most rigid analysis ; at least I will bind
myself as regards Ccenurus, Cystic, cellnlpjce, and Cystic, jmiformis, to determine
pretty exactly how large and how far advanced in development these forms will be,
after the administration of T. ccenurus, T. solium, and T. serrata. As regards" the
experiments in the administration of T. crassicollis to mice, I have never, like
Leuckart, been able to rear Cysticercus fasciolaris [in this way], as the white mice
of my colony acquired such an appetite for flesh, from the day on which I began to
feed them with T. crassicollis, that they devoured each other, which was also observed
to be the case by Leuckart.

With regard to the other species of cystic worms, all experimenters who are in a
position to determine the species of Tcenia and cystic worms will regard my state-
ments, confirmed by Haubner, Leuckart, Van Beneden, Eschricht, Roll, Moller, &c., as
correct, in opposition to those of Von Siebold and May, and admit with me —

1. That we can never rear all the known kinds of cystic worms infesting our domestic
mammalia from one species of Tcenia.

2. That from the eggs of Tcenia serrata only Cysticercus pisiformis, from those of
T. solium only C. celluloses, from those of T. ex Cysticerco tenuicolli only C. tenuicollis,
from those of T. crassicollis only C. fasciolaris, from those of T. Ccenurus only Ccenuri
are produced, and from those of T. crassiceps (Rud.) of the fox, according to Leuckart,
only C. longicollis ; and

3. That each of these species can be developed only in a limited number of animals.
Thus hitherto we have succeeded in rearing the Cyst, celluloses only in the pig after the
administration of T. solium ; the Cyst, tenuicollis, from T. ex cyst, tenuicolli, onlv in
goats and sheep; the Ccenuri, from T. Ccenurus, only in sheep and cattle; and the
C. pisiformis, from T. serrata, only in rabbits ; whilst the brood of all these Tcenice,
when administered to other animals than those mentioned with the particular species,
always strayed, and soon died without becoming further developed in the unsuitable
dwelling-place.

How important these experiments are in the determination of the species ofTaenial and
cystic worms, will be perceived at once by every one. They complete the attempts to
determine the species of Taenial and cystic worms according to their hooks, which,
however, is not so difficult as Von Siebold supposes. I appeal to the words of Pro-
fessor Roll, in an article ' On the result of the administration of the mature segments of
a species of Tape-worm (T. cxnurus) of the Dog,' &c., p. 11: "These three species
(T. ccenurus, T. serrata vera, T. ex cystic, tenuicolli,} of which I have received spe-
cimens from Dr. Kuchenmeister, may be easily distinguished from one another, both
from the form of their bodies in general, and also especially with reference to their cir-
clet of hooks, when they have once been carefully examined ; and Von Siebold therefore
appears to be in error when he states, in his very recent publication, ' Ueber die Band-

DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO. 73

exactly the same structures (cestoid Leads = scolices). The latter
I have divided, in opposition to the Cysticerti, into platycercal
and acercal forms. Without flattering myself that I can conclu-
sively settle the question, "whether we have any external means
of predicating ivhat Tsenia must and will pass through a true
cysticercal, or a more or less cystercoidal state" I may be allowed,
nevertheless, to call attention to the following points, and, at the
same time, I take little notice of the fact that true Cysticerci
only occur in warm-blooded animals, especially mammalia, and
cysticercoid structures principally in cold-blooded animals.

1. The eggs of all Taenice which pass a true cysticercal stage
in the bodies of mammalia, are distinguished, not only by their
small size and the small size of the embryo and its six hooks, but
also by their brown, hard shell, beset with asperities externally,
which, in a certain position of the microscope, give the egg-shell
the appearance of a kind of concentric stratification, which, how-
ever, is only an optical appearance. The eggs of the Tceniac, with
only a cysticercoid phase of development, have softer, colourless,
transparent shells, are much larger, and contain a much larger
embryo, furnished with larger hooks.

2. The Teenies with a cysticercal phase of development are
inferior to the platycercal and acercal forms in regard to the
length and cylindrical form of the rostellum.

3. The Tcenice with a cysticercal stage all possess during this
a highly-developed receptaculum capitis, which forms a part of the
future neck, in which, as long as this stage lasts, the head is
introverted, and which must not be confounded with Von Siebold's
receptaculum scolicis, the true caudal vesicle. The allied platy-
cercal and acercal forms are destitute of the accumulation of
water, and of the receptaculum.

If, now, a cestoid vesicle which has immigrated into a suitable
host, and which originates from a Tcenia which passes through a
vesicular state, being disturbed or entirely stopped in its pro-
liferation by any cause, remains sterile, it becomes converted
into an Acephalocyst. Such as were destined to become true Cys-
ticerci then possess in their walls the structure of the cysticercal
caudal vesicle ; and those which should have become Echinococci
exhibit in their walls the concentric structure of the Echinococcus-

und Blasen-wiirmer/ Leipzig, 1854, "that he has obtained T. serrata by the administra-
tion of Cosnurus cerebralis to dogs. But these three species also differ in respect of the
results of administration."

74 ANIMAL PARASITES.

vesicle. Up to this time only Acephalocysts which belong to
Echinococci, and one which probably belonged to Cysticercus
tenuicollis, have occurred. They become destroyed at last in the
body of their host, in the same way as the corresponding pro-
liferant forms.

If the six-hooked cestoid-brood gets into animals which are
not suitable to it, or into such organs in an animal otherwise
suitable, as are not adapted for the particular species of cestoid
worm, it is destroyed in a very short time, usually even in the
few first days after its immigration. The form which they
acquire we have already referred to, and indicated that a con-
fusion of them with miliary tuberculose disease of the organ
is not only possible, but may frequently have occurred. If any
one wishes to obtain a knowledge of truly strayed cestoid
embryos, he has only to administer mature proglottides to
various animals, and he will then find that he meets with
a greater number of strayed individuals in an animal the sooner
it is dissected after an administration, and also the narrower
the limits of the normal diffusion and thriving of a species
in the body of an animal. Thus, in Ccenurus, which is so
extraordinarily limited in its dwelling-place (the brain, and
perhaps the spinal marrow), we find the most frequent wan-
derings, but far more rarely in Cysticercus cellulosce, destined to
dwell in the cellular tissue, which is distributed through the whole
body, and in Echinococcus which is also widely diffused in the
body. But it is quite unjustifiable to call those cystic worms
strayed which have arrived at full development, like other crea-
tures of their kind, but which occur in places with regard to
which we cannot easily understand how the cystic worm could
get from them into the intestine of the animal in which it
becomes converted into a Tatnia, of which we shall speak here-
after. I will not indicate, with Leuckart, that in this case the
brood of a frog which has got into a puddle which has dried
up before its evolution, is also to be called strayed, and will not
devote any space to the above question. But I cannot sup-
press here, that I am firmly convinced that we do not yet
know any species of Cestodea which becomes developed to the
second stage in one species of animal, unless this animal — except
where civilisation may have introduced here an artificial, insur-
mountable hindrance — can be devoured by the animals in whose
intestine these vesicular worms are capable of becoming mature

DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO. 75

The law of nature nevertheless exists, although, for-
tunately for man, it may have fallen a sacrifice in his case to the
advance of civilisation.

1 I may mention here that the Cyst, celluloses occurring in the human body, the
Echinococci, and any Cyst, tenuicolles which may be found in the same situation, are
called strayed by Von Siebold, because they could never reach the intestine of other
mammalia which they usually infest. It is true that in support of this assertion he
raises no objection with regard to these worms and the Trichina spiralis, except
the following exclamation : " That these parasites should be originally intended to take
up a temporary abode in the human body, that they should here lie waiting for an
opportunity to migrate, which can only present itself if the man harbouring the well-
known asexual parasites were to be devoured by a particular beast of prey, is an opinion
which every reader of these pages will certainly reject as incompatible with the dignity of
man, and in place of it readily admit that these parasites could only have strayed into
the interior of the human body when some opportunity presented itself." The untena-
bility of a natural history hypothesis must have made great progress when mystical
reasons must be seized upon, and an appeal made to novices on peculiar notions of
human dignity. With such delicate references to the dignity of man, how long will it
be allowable to call man a mammal ? Is not this too a profanation of this dignity ?
But what is the use of dwelling upon such things? If we pass to the examination of
this subject without too high notions of the dignity of human nature, we may suppose
with regard to the Echinococci that dogs and cats, for example, have the opportunity of
devouring Echinococcus-vesicles of man which have been evacuated by expectoration, by
vomiting, or with the faeces or urine. Moreover, in countries such as Iceland, in which
these parasites are endemic, and the human inhabitants live in constant intimate contact
with their dogs, we must also take into consideration that in the puncturing or removaj
of such vesicles by the surgeon, they may easily be thrown to the ground or fall there
unawares. If the dogs, which only wait until something to eat is thrown to them by their
masters, should be in the vicinity at this time, they would devour these animal vesicles
with their contents as a welcome booty, before the surgeon or the patient and his
people had time to allow a doubt to rise in their minds whether this behaviour of the
dogs towards the vesicles taken from their masters could be compatible with the notion
of the dignity of human nature. Are there none of my colleagues \\ho have already
found their bright ideas of the dignity of human nature injured because a mother who
wished to show the doctor the caseous stool, or the caseous vomited masses of her child,
has found the vessel in which these masses were, or the dirty clothes, quite empty, and
on the cat, cleaning herself in the vicinity, distinct indications of how well this animal
has relished the evacuations of her child ? In this case what is the use of all high
notions of the dignity of human nature ! With the progress of civilization the devouring
of human bodies has certainly been diminished; such deep interment of human bodies
has been introduced, that if hyenas occurred with us they could not so easily get at them ;
wolves and other carnivorous animals have been driven so far from the vicinity of man,
that the latter can rarely become their prey; and lastly, in order to maintain the species,
Nature has even taken care that not merely one, but several species of animals occur as
the hosts of these cestoid Iarva3 (e. g., man, with the pigs and apes, for Cyst, celluloses ;
these and the ruminants for Cyst, tenuicollis and Echinococcus scolicipariens ; man,
and sometimes also the ruminants, for E. altricipariens). But all this is no contra-

76 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

Just as in Leuckart's example of the brood of the frog, we
should have to speak of straying only when such cestoid scolices
reached a suitable intestine at a time when they had not yet
perfectly developed hooks and suckers. With these I could
never rear mature Tceniae. In this case those cystic worms
which have arrived in their normal position would have to be
denominated strayed, because the animal infested by them was
destroyed by a predaceous animal before they had become so far
developed that on being placed in favorable conditions they were
capable of a higher development^

A deformity (or, as it might be called, a morphological degene-
ration,) must also be referred to here, and again amongst the
Teenies ; I mean the scolices of tape-worms which instead of four,
possess six suckers, arid when they are armed boar a propor-
tionately larger number of hooks than the greatest number pos-
sessed by other creatures of their species, and which also,
when in the mature form, constitute triangular instead of flat
colonies (strobilce). Thus, according to epistolary communica-
tions, Rokitansky has seen a Cyst, celluloses of the human subject
which bore six suckers; and I have indicated that it would be
of great importance for the proof of the conversion of cystic
worms into Tosnice, if we were to seek for such deformities in
Coenuri, and administer them to dogs, in which I have twice
accidentally found triangular T. ccenurus after the administration
of the scolices. From the triangular Teenies, if any, we should
again endeavour to rear Cosnuri, and in this way we should at the
same time obtain an enlarged knowledge of the laws of here-
ditary characters in the animal kingdom. To speak in Von
Siebold's sense of a degeneration of all cystic worms is cer-
tainly unjustifiable. The only degenerated forms are those above
mentioned, those with morbid deposits in the walls of the vesicle
(Cyst, tenuicollis] , and sterile acephalocysts. Or some day we
may make use of this expression for all cystic wrorms, if we
can discover the individual worms in great quantities and con-
diction of our primary law that the animal infested by cystic worms is the regular, or
perhaps also only the exceptional prey of that infested by the Taenice, and even man,
as a bearer of cystic worms, may infect other predaceous animals with Tcenice. The
dignity of human nature and the laws of civilisation must consent to allow themselves
to rank below the universal laws of Nature ; and, when we regard the individual beings
in their general relations to the Creation, only make their appearance in the second
place.

DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO. 77

stantly repeated in other species of animals, in a form resembling
that in which we are acquainted with the platycercal and acercal
Cestodea of the cold-blooded animals; or, for example, if we
meet with Cysticercus celluloses in some animal in a form similar
to that of Stein's cestoid worm of Tenebrio molitor, or that of Von
Siebold's worm of Arion. Until this is the case we cannot place
the cysticercal Cestodea in opposition to the other only cysti-
cercoid forms in the relation of normality and degeneration.

In conclusion, we have still to refer here to the circumstance
that a great number of the cestoid embryos which become
developed to the scolex state, die and are destroyed, either by a
natural or a pathological death. Of a natural death of the
cystic worms caused by the weakness of age, we could only
speak if we were acquainted with the extreme limits of the
existence of these Cestodea, which is not the case at present.
We only know that their life in the cystic state may pro-
bably extend to several years. They die a pathological death
when primary or secondary inflammatory processes and altered
conditions of secretion are set up in the enveloping cyst (in
consequence of inflammatory actions in the organ inhabited by
the worm). It may easily be that previous phenomena of
the same kind, but of a lower degree, occurring during the
development of the embryonal vesicle into a scolex may lead
to the formation of acephalocysts, and that the similar phe-
nomena of a higher degree occurring subsequently, after the
development of the scolex, may not merely arrest, but actually
destroy, the life of the individual. In such cases we see the
enveloping cysts thickened with layers of exudation, the vessels
increased in number and size, and beset on their inner surface
with small red excrescences (such as are also found elsewhere in
serous cavities), amongst which calcareous masses and masses of
cholesterine are sometimes deposited. Their fluid contents are
no longer limpid and thin, but bloody, dingy yellow (from
decomposition of the colouring matter of the blood), and more
tenacious. The walls of the cystic worm also become turbid,
yellow, dingy, and opaque. Up to this time the phenomena
are the same in all vesicular worms, but subsequently differences
occur in the details, according to the species to which these
animals belong. Those which are known under the names of
Ccenurus and Cysticercus, from the moment when the nutritive
fluid contained in them acquires the nature just described, allow

78 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

this previously absorbed fluid to pass mechanically through their
walls, and fall together, so that their sides come in contact over
larger or smaller spaces, and gradually in their whole extent.
If such a cyst be opened, we meet first of all with free fluid of
the nature described ; and on one of the walls of the cyst, or
most commonly at its base, with the collapsed and compressed
cystic worm. The scolices (whether one or more) of these cystic
worms are found to have extended their necks, heads, and jointed
bodies, whether deprived of their hooks or not. At the same
time, in accordance with the law^ to which inorganic fluids are
subjected, the fluid deposits a calcareous layer round the dead
cystic worm on its outer and inner walls, and this may easily be
broken off in large pieces. The cystic worm acts, in this case,
like a rough body, or a crystal which is laid in a mother-liquor,
and from which the crystallization or precipitation of the salt
proceeds. Chemical decomposition gradually extends further
and further in the contents of the cystic worm. The proteina-
ceous fluid is continually deprived of its aqueous constituents by
absorption on the part of the walls of the cyst, and a sort of
precipitate is formed of that well-known fatty, caseous, greasy
mass, which, being rich in calcareous matter, at first forms a
sort of lime-soap, but finally becomes converted into a complete
calcareous deposit, exactly such as we observe in the so-called
old apoplectic cysts in process of cure. During this process,
any of the hooks which may have still remained adherent to the
heads of the scolices, become completely detached, and at the
same time imbedded in the calcareous mass. In all the cases
above mentioned, with the exception of the last, the collapsed
cystic worm may be very easily displayed and recognised with a
little practice, even after it has been dead for years. This
process goes on somewhat differently in the Ecfiinococci. In
these, the true primary vesicle, originating from the six-hooked
embryo, never detaches itself from its enveloping cyst, so that
no accumulation of fluid takes place between the vesicle and
the enveloping cyst. Although a few purulent points between
the cyst and the worm appear to indicate that a similar
process may occur here as to a greater extent in the Cysticerci,
this, however, is never general. The contents of the Echinococcus
vesicle, after its death, consist of the same mass that we have
seen above to occur between the enveloping cyst and the outer
wall of the caudal vesicle of the compressed cystic worm. Now

DEVELOPMENT OF EMBRYO. 79

can the inner wall of the Echinococcus-vesicle give rise to the
same phenomena as are elsewhere exhibited by the serous inner
wall of the cysts? The latter certainly appears improbable, and
we may, perhaps, corne nearest to the truth if we suppose, either
that after death the wall of the Echinococcus allows the passage
of the purulent mass secreted by the serous wall of the cyst, or,
which appears to me most probable, that the Echinococcus-vesicle
is ruptured in particular places, that the pus passes through
these into the cavity of the vesicle, that from its contents pro-
teinaceous detritus, calcareous matter, and cholesterine are
deposited, and that the scolices and hooks which have been set
free are enveloped in these masses. In the pig, at any rate,
I have found pus-globules between the cyst and the vesicle, in
places where these had separated from each other after the death
of the worm. Whoever knows how difficult it is to separate
the worm and its cyst during life, and how rarely this is done
without tearing, will not consider that I am going too far with
my supposition of the secondary entrance of the pus into the
inner cavity of the worm after its death through the cracks
produced during its collapse. The daughter- and granddaughter-
vesicles appear to be capable of continuing their existence
after the death of the mother-vesicle, and the latter are usually
without pus, calcareous masses, and the like, when they are in
good preservation and have no openings. The enveloping cyst
presents the same phenomena as that of the Cysticerci, especially
of Cyst, tenuicollis.

In referring to pathological death we have still to notice the
artificial pricking of the embryonal vesicle which has become
developed into a cystic worm. We are aware, from the experi-
ments in the cure of Ccenurus by puncture, that the thin-walled
forms, after their vesicles have been punctured, become com-
pletely collapsed and destroyed in consequence of the injury.
In Echinococci, for example, in the kidney, in which I have seen
daughter- and granddaughter-vesicles pass off, and then again an
entire cessation at various intervals, a cure appears to be capable
of taking place. Mb'ller has very recently seen the undisturbed
growth of a punctured Echinococcus.

We now come to the question of what further becomes of the
resting scolex of the cysticercal, platycercal, and acercal Cestoid
forms of the third stage of development ? In answering this ques-
tion we are led to the consideration of —

80 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

IV. — The Scoleoc passing into activity.

In the year 185 1, as lias already been observed, I had come to
the notion of testing the opinion formed by Von Siebold upon
the identity of the hooks of T. crassicollis and Cyst, fasciolaris,
which was previously known to the older writers, and of the ex-
ceptional conversion of this cystic worm into a particular tape-
worm in the intestinal canal ofwa certain predaceous animal, by
the intentional administrations of cystic worms to certain mam-
malia. By these investigations I arrived at the conviction that
all the cystic worms which I could obtain passed into this
metamorphosis, and that the cystic worms occurred in those
animals ivhich serve as the prey of the predaceous species which arc
capable of developing the cystic worm into a tape-worm in their
intestine, or, in other words, that the animal infested by cystic
worms is usually the source of food, or the prey of that infested by
tapeworms. These laws have been confirmed by the most
various observers; for example, by Von Siebold, Lewald, Haubner,
Gurlt, Roll, Eschricht, Van Beneden, Moller, and especially by
Leuckart, and enlarged by the latter as regards Cyst, longicollis,
so that this subject may be regarded as set at rest. It is now
our task to describe the processes which occur more particularly.

The host of the cystic worm is devoured by a carnivorous
predaceous animal, and by this means the cystic worm arrives,
together with his previous host, in the stomach of the carnivorous
animal. During the process of digestion, the enveloping cysts in
which the cystic worms were enclosed, or, if the worms lived
free in cavities, these latter, perhaps both (cysts and cavities), are
digested, or even opened previously by the teeth of the pre-
daceous animal, when the cystic worm escapes freely into the
cavity of the stomach. Here the worm extends itself, its caudal
vesicle collapses, from the escape of the fluid through some opening
which has been made in it, and perhaps also, in extremely rare
exceptional cases, from its escape through the uninjured walls,
in accordance with the laws of exosmose. On the caudal vesicle
and the middle of the body of the cystic worm, digestion
begins to act perceptibly. The body at the same time elongates
and extends itself, but the head, together with the short neck, is
still inverted, as during the cysticercal period of existence. But

THE ACTIVE SCOLEX. 81

now the head with the neck seeks to extend itself, and this takes
place somewhat in the following way. The head, the hooks of
which still exhibit the position of cysticercal existence, that is,
with their apices directed backwards towards the suckers, and
their shafts towards the apex of the head, draws itself as it were
outwards through the neck, by turning itself inside out.
As a matter of course the whole worm is at the same time
as it were turned inside out ; and the margins of the head
and neck which were previously turned in, become the free
outer sides of the worm. At this moment, if we wished
to make a section through the anterior extremity of the
worm, we have to cut through not only two, but three
layers of the parenchyma of the body, the caudal vesicle, a layer
of the middle body, and the neck. During this turning the hooks
have generally retained their position, or have begun to acquire
that position of which I shall speak hereafter. From Leuckart's
experiments, in which he placed naked, but otherwise uninjured
cystic worms in a piece of the stomach of an animal at blood-
heat ; it appears that at the first, and indeed within five or
ten minutes after its introduction into this stomach, the worm
extended its head, feeling about as it were for a short time, whilst
it maintained a lively action with its suckers, and rapid peristaltic
movements with its caudal vesicle ; but immediately afterwards it
contracted it again within the neck and middle of the body, which
remain extended. In artificial digestion, this takes place until
the caudal vesicle is dissolved, which is done in from eight to
ten hours. In experiments by feeding, the worm is usually found
in the small intestine five or six hours after its administration ;
its head again extends and it attaches itself to the wall of the
intestine. The body and the collapsed, or more or less digested
caudal vesicle,1 are now separated from the neck and head, and it is
often seen within the first twenty-four hours that the adhering

1 When Leuckart enclosed a naked but uninjured Cysticercus in the small intestine of
an animal, he certainly saw the caudal vesicle collapse, but it was never digested, for
which a sojourn of one or two hours in the stomach was always necessary. If then a
Cysticercus be very rapidly driven through the stomach to the intestine, and espe-
cially if it be still enclosed in its enveloping cyst, similar circumstances may occur.
This was the case, at any rate, in those specimens described by me in the ' Prager
Vierteljahrschrift,' which I found in the intestine of a dog that died two hours and a
half after feeding, and which had a collapsed caudal vesicle, but had extended and
attached themselves, and still bore the enveloping cyst upon the collapsed caudal vesicle.

I

82 ANIMAL PAKAS1TES.

scolex bears behind it the middle-body, and the caudal vesicle on
a fine filament, (that is a rudimentary transverse fold, or so-
called segment). Nothing more than the scolex-head and neck
of the third stage of development remain, and these alone are
transferred into the new one. The length of the remaining
parts varies, first with the different species, and then with the
various individuals of the different species, according to the
duration of their existence in the vesicular stage, and according
to the length which their neck had attained during this stage.

On the abdominal extremity, of the Cestoid worm, which is
now, after casting off" the body, greatly shortened, we now see
shreds and flakes hanging, together with a funnel-shaped con-
striction. These are the rudiments of the receptaculum capitis,
which was also extended during the changing of the Cysticercus
which has become a Ttenia, and formed the boundary between
the head and body. A portion of this receptaculum is then
always cast off with the body and the caudal vesicle, and a
portion wraps itself into the funnel-shaped constriction of the
young Tania. The shreds remain for two days, and then a
cicatrized notch is observed. It leads, according to Leuckart,
into a cylindrical cavity, passing through the whole body as far
as the rostellum ; its walls grow greatly, by which means the
scolex is converted into a solid and not inflated body. At various
times, sooner or later, according to the evolution and age of the
cystic worm, (in Cyst, pisiformis, for example, in two, or at
the utmost four days, but not as Lewald supposed in fourteen
days), the formation of segments commences, and with this,
consequently, this stage of development is concluded.

I repeat here that Teenies cannot be reared from such scolices as
do not exhibit perfectly developed hooks. They die immediately.

The first transformation of all cystic worms introduced into
the intestine of a warm-blooded animal takes place in the same
way, but the process stops before the commencement of segmen-
tation in those cases in which the intestine of the animal in
which the vesicular worm has arrived is unfavorable for it and its
further development. All the subsequent growth in this case
becomes an inarticulate, tail-like appendage, and such a Cestoid
worm in an unsuitable intestine remains stationary half-way
between the fourth and fifth stages of development. Moreover,
in this condition, it lasts only for a short time, and at the
end of a fortnight there is usually no trace of it to be found.

THE ACTIVE SCOLEX. 83

The transformation of the platycercal forms into mature Ces-
todea takes place exactly like that of the cysticercal forms ; in
the acercal forms no casting off of a portion of the former
embryonal vesicle takes place, but the whole of it is retained,
and the formation of segments commences immediately upon
it.

However, it is as well (if it be desired to obtain various
results from the administration), to remove the worms from
their envelopes, and to make an incision into those which possess
very large vesicles, as when uninjured they are very easily vomited.
The teeth of the predaceous animal are sure to injure the larger
vesicular worms, such as Echinococcus and Cysticercus tenuicollis.

In nature we only find the tape-worms in question in animals
which live in freedom, and which can get freely at the animals
infested with cystic worms. Animals kept constantly chained
up, or in rooms, stables, &c., and fed only with boiled, baked, or
dry food, do not bear in their intestines even the tape-worms
which occur in free animals of their species, any more than the
vesicular worms which are found external to the intestine in the
latter. The circle of animals in the intestine of which a par-
ticular species of vesicular worm thrives, is not usually large.
When experiments in the administration of cystic worms are
made, any diarrhoea which makes its appearance in the animals
experimented on must be quickly stopped by opiates. Irritation
of the intestines, and especially diarrhoea, destroy the results.

From the moment at which the extended cystic worm has
attached itself in the intestine — and begun to derive its nourish-
ment therefrom, when at the same time certain changes take
place in its body and caudal vesicle, which, for example, is rup-
tured— commences the transition into the last stage, and a crea-
ture of this kind may certainly be called a young Tania. Thus
we speak at once of a butterfly when the animal which was
previously inclosed in the pupa case bursts its envelopes, and
issues into a new medium, the open air. Freedom in an open,
free space, change of medium, and the altered and more active
vital phenomena of the animal, which it acquires in order to seek
voluntarily for its own nourishment, constitute the change from
a pupa to a butterfly, and the same things render a cystic worm
a true young T&nia, whether it still bears behind it its caudal
vesicle for the moment, in the same way as the young chick its
egg-shell, or has already cast off this and commenced its further

84 ANIMAL PARASITES.

development. Von Siebold has objected to this nomenclature,
and thinks that, " in this case all that is necessary is to press out
the head of the vesicular worm, and the transition to Tsenia-life
is effected." I am no friend to sophisms and word-siftings, but
I think that when a comparison is to be made, the cardinal
points of the comparison must be retained, and whether I or
Von Siebold have missed the analogy, I shall leave to others
to decide. We have seen that the cystic worm keeps its head
still retracted whilst in the stomach, or if it is protruded it is
soon retracted again, and the books are not turned out so as to
adhere, but retracted, and their apices directed backwards and
inwards, and their shafts forwards and outwards. As long as
the worm keeps its hooks in this position, no one will call it a
Tcenia, even if it should have elongated its body and neck.

We have still the last question to consider — How does the
scolex, after entering upon its activity, become converted into a
tape-worm colony = Strobila ? and for this purpose we must regard

V. The Strobila = the so-called tape-worm colony.

Immediately after the healing of the cicatrix on the neck, and
on the former receptaculum capitis, there commences, between
the posterior end of the head and this cicatrix, a budding forth
of the body, produced without sexual propagation, and which
becomes constricted into segments by transverse furrows or
wrinkles. By the constant production of new masses on this
place, that previously formed is continually pushed further back,
so that this cicatrix is at last removed to a considerable distance
(varying according to the species) from the head. During this
time the individual divisions and segments increase and grow in
the same ratio as their removal from the head ; they at the same
time acquire sexual organs, male and female, in each seg-
ment, and which are very rarely (if O. Schmidt's observation
on the Tcenia dispar of the Frog1 should be confirmed, and
the spermatozoids have not been overlooked), and probably
never entirely wanting in the colony. Finally, when they have
attained a sufficient size and maturity, they produce the embryos
(Section II), and last of all cast themselves free in the form of the

1 'Ueber den Bandwurm der Frosche, Tcenia dispar, und die geschlectslose Fort-
pflanzung seiner Proglottiden,' Berlin, 1855.

STRUCTURE OF PROOLOTTIDES. 85

proglot tides (Section I). With the first separation of segments, the
segment which bore the above-mentioned cicatrix, and which is also
usually characterised by its being aborted and more or less sterile,
is lost. We might perhaps more correctly say that this cicatrix-
bearing segment is therefore the first fragment which separates from
a mature tape- worm colom^. On it, at least in the species which
behave like Siebold's cestoid worm from Arion, we should neces-
sarily find the embryonal booklets, if these were not too small.
The want of this aborted cicatrized segment is a proof that the
strobila has already given off fragments or segments.

If we were to give a definition of the strobila, it is a
series of separate joints, individuals, which is produced from the
active scolex in the space between the part of the latter which
must be called the head par excellence and its citatrized ex-
tremity by a sexual reproduction, which remains in direct union
with the scolex which forms its point of support, and which, when
examined from the anterior to the posterior part, presents asexual
segments, half and fully-developed sexual segments and segments
engaged in sexual retrogression, of which the last have become
truly independent individuals.

We have still to refer to the anatomical structure and to the
development both of the sexual organs and of the brood.

As regards the structure, we find, in the first place, no digestive
apparatus in the whole colony, nor up to this time have nerves been
detected in it.1 The most important points of structure in the tape-
worm colony appear to be a dissemination of calcareous corpus-
cles and the formation of the vessels. Of the vascular system of
the head we have already spoken under the development of the
scolex, and at the same time seen that a union of the four lateral
principal vessels takes place in the head ; that even in the head
smaller branches are given off from these main stems ; that these
vessels probably open outwards at the spot where the receptaculum
capitis (a portion of the so-called neck, as already remarked,)
passes over into the caudal vesicle, without uniting into a pulsa-
ting tube, as in the Trematoda; that these vessels certainly differ
in their arrangement from those of the Trematoda, which they
may resemble in their function ; and that the homologue of the
pulsating tube in the Cestodea may be placed, not at the hinder

1 "A single ganglion has been discovered situated in the axis of the head, and
sending off nerves to the suckers in some Tseniadaj." — Huxley. ED.

86 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

part of the body, but probably in the ring uniting the four
vessels, which runs round the rostellurn of those Cestodea which
possess a rostellurn,, or in the simple transverse uniting branch,
which occurs in the anterior part of the head of those Cestodea
which have no rostellurn. In favour of this view we have not
only the absence of a strong communicating branch or ring of
this kind in the anterior part of the body in the Trematoda, but
also the well-known observation, that in the microscopic examina-
tion of uninjured Cestodea the cephalic vessels may be very
easily recognised by the employrnent of only a moderate pressure ;
that this also succeeds very well when the colony is wrapped
round like the renverse of a bandage, and cut off behind this
part. The vessels of the head also and those of the anterior
part of the body immediately become empty, and thereby less
distinct when the worm is cut through its anterior part, but
subsequently, and in the posterior segments, the fluid cannot be
driven back from the tail towards the head by pressure, which
would be possible if there were a pulsating tube at the hinder
part.

There is certainly no doubt that the vascular formation in the
head, especially as regards the anastomoses formed about the
suckers and rostellurn, differs according to the species. This can
be better explained by figures than by words. In order to study
the system of cephalic vessels, I recommend the reader to ad-
minister vesicular worms, and to kill the animal experimented
on from forty-eight to sixty hours after administration. With a
little pressure we then obtain with the microscope a very distinct
view, especially when the young Ttenice are examined in their proper
medium, that is, in a little intestinal mucus. The four lateral
longitudinal canals already mentioned are direct continuations of
the four longitudinal canals already existing in the scolex (head).
Besides these there is a system of very small, numerous capilla-
ries, although they may not be met with in the way represented
by Blanchard, after his injections. According to Wagener,
whose statements are confirmed by Meissiier, a considerable
number of small vessels, destitute of walls, issue from the larger
vessels, which possess proper walls. In both kinds of vessels,
especially in places where vessels communicate, ciliary formations
are observed, which, however, are wanting, according to him, in
the four vascular trunks ; these I think I have seen, at least at
the points where the smaller vessels open into the larger ones.

STRUCTURE OF PROGLOTTIDES. 87

In the upper part of each segment a vascular ring is formed,
from which smaller vessels issue. The vessels themselves are
structureless tubes. According to Wagener, a pulsating tube
might be proper to them, but only during the period of their
existence in the vesicular state ; this, however, neither Leuckart
nor I have seen, and, as always remarked, I rather look for its
analogue in the communicating branches of the cephalic vessels.
Nevertheless, this vascular system may be an excretory organ.
In the Bothriocephali, and in Tanice without a rostellum, the
vessels communicate without forming a ring.

The muscles consist of transverse and longitudinal fibres,
which may be best recognised in the neck. Immediately
under the skin lies the thick layer of longitudinal fibres.
The suckers, peculiarly muscular parts, are with radiate fibres
uniting in the middle of the sucker upon which lies a layer
of circular fibres, and the rostellum. The latter exhibits a
predominance of longitudinal fibres, which at the end of the
rostellum often spread themselves in the interior of the body
in the form of a tuft. The rostrum itself is filled internally
with structureless mass or fluid. Whether small muscular fibres
run to the little booklets of the embryo is still a question in
dispute.

Position of the hooks in the Tania. — I have already spoken of
the position of the hooks in the cystic worms, and also of
their attachment to the skin, and at the same time remarked
that no muscular fibres run to the apices of their shafts. The
hooks rather ride upon the skin, and indeed in small impres-
sions or pits, which in the large-hooked species, and especially
in age, acquire the form of actual sacs, of which, as a matter of
course, from the quite different position of the hooks during the
vesicular period of existence, we find only slight indications at
that time. The elevation and depression or spreading of the
hooks are not even now effected by peculiar muscles, but by
changes in the movement of the parts of the head, particularly
of the rostellum, and especially by the pressure of the tenacious
fluid contents of the rostellum to and from the roots of the
shafts, and by the rostellum itself being at the same time
pushed forward and retracted. The movements cannot pro-
perly be compared with simple lever-movements. We may come
nearest to the truth if we compare them with the action of those
metal hooks made use of by packers in moving bales. But the

88 ANIMAL PARASITES.

hooks differ even from these instruments, as in the middle
where the handle passes into the hooks, they have a process
which is certainly intended for unhooking, and which I formerly
called the hypomochlion. This denomination, to which I will
by no means adhere, is quite correct for the act of unhooking,
if we suppose the hook to be an imaginary double-armed lever,
which it resembles at the moment of adhesion, and at the same
time regard as the point of support, not the apex of the shaft
but that of the spine (hypomochlion), upon which, in unhooking,
the apex of the claw and the sjiaft as it were move up and
down. If we omit this ideal view, the apex or root of the
shaft can alone be regarded as the fulcrum of the hook acting as
a one-armed lever, to which the force is applied, as it were, by
the skin of the rostellum and head and the contents of the
former. The spine which effects the loosening of the immersed
hooks supports itself in this act against the wall of the intestine
of the host, exactly as the packer, when he wishes to remove his
hooks from the bale, presses against it with the knuckles of the
hand grasping the handle. The knuckles of the hand, in this
case, exactly take the place of the spine in the hooks of Tcenice,
and in a great number of hooks the free surface of the spine
corresponds with the space which is formed between two knuckles
of the hand. We have two elevations which press against the
bale, or, in the hooks of the T&nia against the intestine, and
between them a valley-like pit, into which the outer wall of the
bale, and with the hooks of Taeniae the wall of the intestine,
presses; by which means, in the latter case, the spine obtains a
firmer support. From this mechanism it is evident that the
spine furnishes at all events a temporary and subsidiary fulcrum,
and probably in the immersion of the hooks prevents their sink-
ing too deep, and consequently their breaking away during
removal, at the same time facilitating the latter. If we now
consider the circular arrangement of the hooks, it follows there-
from either that the adhesion takes place at once in a circular
surface, which is certainly admissible in the yielding walls of the
intestine, or that a spiral advancing movement of the head of the
worm is possible on and in the walls of the intestine, so that the
worm must at the same time twist itself partly upon its longitu-
dinal axis. It is difficult to ascertain with certainty whether
both or only one of these two kinds of movements of the hooks
occurs.

STRUCTURE OF PROGLOTTIDES. 89

In our Tania the positions of the hooks are so extraordi-
narily various, that we scarcely know how to indicate them satis-
factorily. This much is certain, before the hook of the cystic worm
buries itself in the intestine, as the hook of the young Tania,
it has first to elevate itself perpendicularly about a quarter of a circle
from behind and below, anteriorly and upwards, and afterwards
to turn itself round about a quarter of a circle in the horizontal
plane. In order to retract its hooks as a tape-worm, the animal
must also elevate these hooks a fourth of a circle, at the same
time turning itself round about a quarter and retracting itself,
and on again immersing the retracted hooks, it must push these
forwards and, allowing the hooks to turn one fourth round upon
themselves, describe a quarter of a circle in the horizontal plane.
This at least applies to the hooks situated on the side of the
circle. These movements will be best understood with a wax
model.

The sexual organs consist — 1. Of a symmetrical lateral yelk-
stock (vitellogene), placed to the right and left ; that is, a perpen-
dicular canal, filled with yelk-masses, with dilatations and blind
sacs, which run outwards and inwards. Between these, and quite
posteriorly, lies — 2. The germ-stock (germigene), which is usually
double, rarely single, with its clear, cellular egg- germs; and above
this — 3. The uterus, with developed eggs of various forms, and
furnished with a germinal vesicle. At the point in the posterior
third of the segment where 2 and 3 meet, and where 5 also appears
to come, 4. The posterior end of the vagina is to be found. It forms
a long narrow passage, which leads, in a curved form, from the
point of union just mentioned to the middle of the segment,
and thence outwards horizontally beneath the sac of the
penis. Between all these parts, and especially above the
uterus, lie, 5. The testis (Hodenschlauche Schultze), which Van
Beneden called " cellules transparentes," with seminal cells or
long seminal filaments. Sometimes we can only detect upon it
a pointed prolongation, sometimes small canals (vasa efferentia],
collecting in, 6, a common seminal duct, which, runs in trans-
verse and parallel convolutions, and, with the vagina, opens into
7, the sac of the penis, which opens outwardly above the vaginal
orifice in 8, the genital pore, sometimes isolated from the
female vaginal orifice, sometimes united with it in a sexual
cloaca as in the Tcenice with which we have to do.

This is briefly the general type according to which the sexual

90 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

organs of the Cestodea are formed. It may be recognised par-
ticularly well in Bothriocephalus rectangularis of the barbel,
when the parts are pressed together by means of a compressor
between two glass plates.

The structure of the T&nice with which we are particularly
occupied here is best recognised when some of their anterior
segments, exhibiting the first foundations of sexual organs
are pressed between two glass plates, and the whole is held
up to the light for examination. Posteriorly and laterally,
in the median line, lie the two wijig-like clear germigenes ; above
them is the dense testicular tube, and between the two the first
formation of the uterus, (a perpendicular clear canal, particularly
dilated above). The vitellogenes lie in the form of opaque bands
partly on the outside of the longitudinal canals. All these
parts are very firmly imbedded in the parenchyma; the
vagina and seminal ducts scarcely exhibit a double muscular
wall. As already remarked, they possess a beaker-shaped sexual
cloaca closely surrounded by muscles, in which the cirrhus and
vagina open in common ; this occurs in most Tanice, but not in
all (for example, not in T. elliptica}.

At the bottom of this space, which is furnished with tumid
margins, we see above the distinct orifice for the male sexual
apparatus, and below it the smaller vaginal aperture into which
the male organ, which is protruded from the first-mentioned
orifice, in the form of a small papilla or of a longer cylindrical
filament (cirrhus s. lemniscus], enters during copulation. The
male organ is pyriform, and exhibits internally transverse and
longitudinal muscular fibres, and externally a structureless epi-
dermis. The penis lies in a peculiar pouch, which may be called
the cirrhus-pouch (sac of the penis). In its interior runs the vas
deferens, the inner membrane of which turns outwards during the
protrusion of the penis, and then gives the exterior of the penis
an appearance as if it were beset with fine retroverted hooks.

In the vagina no internal, direct connection of the male and
female sexual organs takes place, and this is also denied by Van
Benedeu in the Trematoda. At its entrance into the lower part
of the uterus it becomes enlarged into a true seminal receptacle,
and the combination of the structures necessary for the formation
of the ova undoubtedly takes place in the vicinity of this point at
the lower part of the uterus.

The large germigenes lie right and left, close to the descending

STRUCTURE OF PROGLOTTIDES. 91

vaginal branch, and more towards the middle of the segment, in
the form of lobate glands, with csecal tubes and a transverse
efferent duct ; they do not, however, contain the ordinary con-
tents of germigenes, but small, refractive, displaceable, homo-
geneous vesicles, destitute of both nucleus and membrane. They
are, consequently, only places for the production of germinal
vesicles. We find as many pairs of germigeues in one segment
as there are vaginae and porigenitales. The vitellogenes (cuta-
neous glands of Van Beneden), which are situated more peri-
pherally, are smaller or larger, transverse, csecal tubes, united
by a central longitudinal stern, with fine, coherent, fatty granules
and efferent ducts, which cannot be traced as far as the uterus.

The uterus is a simple, median canal, which is gradually de-
veloped from below upwards, where alone it exhibits dilatations,
which become elongated and branched, and are developed at the
expense of the other sexual organs. The testes, which are readily
recognisable in the younger segments, are clear, roundish vesicles,
reaching O15 millim. in diameter, placed at the side of the
uterus, especially in the upper part of the body, close to and
beneath the germigenes. Vasa efferentia, which are probably
present, although perhaps only temporarily, are never distinctly
visible. When the seminal duct begins to fill, the testicular
vesicles dehisce. The seminal duct, a repeatedly contorted canal,
running transversely through the middle of the segment, has
already been referred to. Care must be taken to avoid regarding
empty branches of the uterus as testes. The contents of these
branches are small, clear, seminal cells, and afterwards simple,
very long, capillary seminal filaments.

The maturity of the segments commences at various distances
from the head in different species. We first of all see a trans-
verse streak in the middle of the segment (vagina and penis) ;
then the separation of this streak into two c;>nals ; then the
commencement of the testes and germigenes; then that of the
vitellogenes; afterwards that of the uterus; and lastly, the
seminal filaments, after the transfer of which the development of
the embryo begins.

As regards the development of the eggs and embryos, we shall
follow Leuckart's statements. Before him nothing had been
made known on this subject, except by Kolliker ( Miiller's
' Archiv/ 1843, p. 91), and also by Van Beneden, who speaks of
a segmentation of the vitellus. Before the filling of the seminal

92 ANIMAL PARASITES.

receptacle (fertilization), there are in the uterus numerous clear,
round corpuscles, like the germ-granules, but somewhat larger,
and bearing on their outer surface a small aggregation of grains
(vitellus). Round both a delicate substance is seen deposited.
Thus the germinal grain (a sort of germinal vesicle) and germinal
corpuscle form a common oval mass. An egg-membrane, and a
germinal vesicle furnished with a germinal spot, and surrounded
by a vitellus, such as we usually find in the eggs of animals,
are therefore deficient in the eggs of the Cestodea.

After the filling of the seminal receptacle, the germ-grain of
the cestoid egg breaks up by continual division into a mass of
small, round, clear vesicles or cells, which at first resemble the
germ-grain, and subsequently exhibit a paler envelope with a
nucleus. There is therefore no endogenous or new formation of
cells round nuclei in the egg, but division or segmentation.
The spheres of segmentation measure, after the first division
0'0095 millim. ; after the second, which occurs rather towards
the poles than in the middle of the egg, two larger and two
smaller spheres are formed, and we also subsequently find
unequal spheres, which at last become unmeasureable. Finally,
the aggregation of cells, which was previously blackberry-like,
becomes globular, and nearly homogeneous, and increases con-
siderably. The granular, vitellus-like mass, placed close to the
germinal grain or germinal vesicle, which lies beside the latter
like a cone or little roof, does not take part in this division ; the
enveloping mass is more distinct. There is consequently a
division analogous to the segmentation of the vitellus, which,
however, does not occur in the entire primitive egg, but only in
the gerrn-grain or germinal vesicle, and in which the small
aggregation of granules on the outer surface of the germ-grain is
not included. It has certainly been generally admitted of late,
that in the process of the segmentation of eggs, not only the
vitellus, but also the germinal vesicle divides. Moreover, in the
eggs of other animals also, the vitellus is sometimes deposited
not around, but beside the germinal vesicle, for example, in
Lizzia and Oceania. The principal distinction consists in the
want of the vitelline membrane, and the envelope round the
mature embryo is a new formation. The aggregation of cells
formed by division, and the granular vitelline mass, now
remain for a time unchanged in the common envelope ; some
cells then disappear, and numerous .nucleus-like granules remain.

SUMMARY. 93

The envelope then becomes firmer and more membranous; its
contents draw together inwards, and become converted into a
small, spherical corpuscle, which is surrounded by a separate
membrane, and on the outer surface of which (4 — ) 6 small
hooks are attached, which afterwards grow inwards to a greater
depth. This is the embryo. At the same time, the external
envelope is frequently covered with asperities or tubercles,
as in our Tania, and becomes converted into the egg-shell,
which is truly not an egg-shell, but an embryonic structure (a
sort of amnion). The small vitelline mass remains outside this
so-called egg-shell in the form of a crumbly mass, envelopes
itself in an albuminous enveloping membrane, or becomes a
second, internal envelope, which, however, would be erroneously
regarded as a proper egg-envelope.

Thus we have seen how the segments, with their embryonic
structures, are developed, and, when they have become the hind-
most in the colony, cast themselves loose. Their destiny has
been already described (sections I and II), and thus the subject
has been concluded, but which we will again sum up briefly.
The developmental history of the Cestoidea is best understood if
we consider it from the following points of view :

I. The mature sexual animal, which is produced by asexual
gemmation, separates from the colony as soon as it has attained
its maturity, migrates actively from the intestinal canal of its
host into free nature, and thence passively into the stomach of
another usually herbivorous animal. It bears within it —

II. The grand-nurses or embryos produced by sexual, and
perhaps by asexual reproduction, furnished with four or six
hooks, which are destined to enter passively into the stomach of
a herbivore, and thence to migrate through the body of the latter,
either actively or by the intervention of the vessels, active-
passive-actively. (The asexual propagation of the brood in the
Cestodea is rendered improbable even by the fact that in the
whole developmental series of these Cestodea, a sexually mature
animal has never been met with).

III. The resting scolex (nurse) produced by asexual gemmation
in and by the enlarged, six-hooked embryo, still concealed within
this embryonal vesicle, or lying beside it enclosed in peculiar
cysts, or in closed serous cavities. In its non-gemmiparous part
the embryonal vesicle acquires, according to the species of cestoid

94 ANIMAL PARASITES.

worm, and according to the different hosts (cold or warm-blooded),
sometimes the form of a globular vesicle, sometimes that of a flat,
band-like strip, and sometimes is only just sufficient to cover the
scolex, lying quite close upon it, when it really forms nothing but a
receptaculum, capitis. Thus we obtain three forms allied to each
other in their degree of development ;— the cysticercal forms
(Vermes cystici, including Coenuri and Echinococci) ; tlie platycercal
(similar to Stein's cestoid worm of Tenebrio molitor, and Von
Siebold's from Arion empiricorum] • and the acercal (certain
embryos of Tetrarhynchi). Everyone of these is a normal form;
even the cysticercal forms are neither morbidly degenerate, nor
become dropsical, nor strayed. The formation of vesicles is settled
by the species of worm, and by the animal infested (warm-blooded).
The species of cystic worms have never yet been found in any
animal without the vesicular structure, and in an acercal or
platycercal state the caudal vesicle does not occur in the very
succulent forms living in cold-blooded animals, from which the ces-
toid worm can constantly and readily derive fluids. As was known
by Goeze, the caudal vesicle is a reservoir of nourishment. The
embryos of all the Cestodea which pass through a vesicular state
are extraordinarily small, possess very small embryonal hooks,
and are enclosed in brownish yellow envelopes, which are uneven
externally. All three forms are undeveloped immature forms,
and must therefore be struck out of the system as genera, and
further must be arranged with the Cestodea.

IV. The resting scolex transferred into the intestine of an
animal becomes converted into the scolex passing into activity.
The latter is distinguished from the resting scolex by the extension
of the entire body by the altered position of the adherent
apparatus (suckers and hooks), by the attachment in the intestinal
canal, and in the cysticercal and platycercal forms by the casting
off of the barren portion of the embryonal vesicle and the
formation of a cicatrix on this spot. In the acercal forms nothing
is cast off, nor is there a cicatrix-formation.

V. The strobila = the tape-worm colony, budding immediately
from the scolex which has become active, by asexual propagation
(gemmation) is more or less distinctly jointed, and becomes sexually
mature posteriorly. Its last segments, which are cast off and lead
an independent existence, are called proglottides (I), and bear
within them the embryos produced by sexual reproduction (II).1

„ ' Appendix A.

BOTHRIOCEPHALL

SPECIAL PART.

The Cestode worms occur in man either only in the mature
state, and then in the human intestine (Bothriocephalus latus ;
Tcenia mediocanellata ; T&nia nana ; and if the Tcenia of the
Hottentots, mentioned under 3, is not a mere variety of Tcenia
mediocanellata, probably this also) ; or only in the larva or scolex
state (Cysticercus visceralis autorum seu tenuicollis, according to
Eschricht ; Echinococcus veterinorum seu scolicipariens and
E. hominis seu altricipariens) ; or lastly, in all known stages of
development (Taenia solium and Cysticercus celluloses).

First Order — Bothriocephali = Dibothria.

Cestoidea 2 osculis suctoriis aut 2 foveis marginalibus, oblongis
aut longitudinalibusoppositisinstructa. Capite subtetragono}depresso,
arliculato plerumque, inermi. Pori genitales omnium articulorum
in linea mediana animalis et in ejus superficie abdominali siti.
Scolices extra tubum intestinalem in cystidibus peculiaribus ad
vermium platycercorum modum, aut in tubo intestinali animalium
minorum aquaticorum statu immaturo viventes ; Strobilse in tubo
intestinali animalium aquaticorum rapacium, avium maritimarum et
mammalium viventes ; Proglottides verae interdum absunt, interdum
adsunt, stepissime in longa articulorum serie conjunct^ dehiscentes.
Embryones sex hamulis armati ; ovulorum testae s&pissime
coloratce.

Of this division, which is particularly abundantly represented
in predaceous fishes, and more sparingly in piscivorous birds,
especially the marine Raptores, examples occur in but few
mammalia. Thus Creplin once saw two young, small Bothrio-
cephali in the intestine of a cat in Greifswald ; Natterer found
them in Brazil in Felis malivora and Procyon lotor ; Fischer in
Phoca monachus ; and Schilling in Phocafcetida. Of the terrestrial
mammalia inhabiting inland situations, only man harbours
Bothriocephali.

96 ANIMAL PARASITES.

1. Bothriocephalus latus = Diboihrium latum.
PI. II, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.

Caput oblongum, inerme, 2 bothriis-foveis marginalibus, formam
rimce aut fissures (fente) adoptantibus ; collum subnullum ; articuli
numero circa 2000, maturi omnino latiores (ad 27 millim.), quam
longi, socialiter decedentes ; port genitales in linea mediana siti,
masculus major et superior, ex quo penis laevis et brevis prominet,
femineus minor, posterior inferiorQue. Scolex quiescens ignotus ;
scolex activus cum strobila in hominis tubum intestinalem incolens,
longitudinem 7 — 8 ulnarum, secundum Dujardinum ad 20
" metres" (?) exhibet.

Embryones 6 uncinulis (?) armati, in ovulis 0-028-32 mill, longis
et 0*002 mill, latis, ellipticis, flavo-fuscis, operculo dehiscentibus in-
clusi.

Synonyma. — Tenia a anneaux courts, ou a mammelons ombili-
caux ; T. large ; T. & epine ; T. lata, T. grisea, T. vulgaris,
T. membranacea, tendla, T. dentata, T. humana inermis, T. de la
premiere espece (Plater and Andry). Halysis lata or membra-
nacea, the broad tape-worm, Nelaken, Lindworm, Baandworm,
Baeudelorm, Brimike mask, the tape-worm, jointed worm ; Kosso ;
Luig ditg ; the short-jointed worm.

It would be unnecessary and superfluous for the practical man
to clear up the confusion prevailing here. The names given are,
to a great extent, common, popular names for tape-worms in
general. A portion of the names referred to, however, applies
most remarkably to the hookless T. mediocanellata. Since the
time of Bremser, who first correctly determined this worm, it has
borne the name of Bothriocephalus latus ; but it is not advisable to
retain the names of Swiss tape-worm and broad tape-worm as
synonyms, as this nomenclature gives rise to a confusion of this
parasite with T. mediocanellata.

The exact knowledge of this worm has scarcely been at all
advanced since Eschricht's classical work, for which reason we
have depended upon Eschricht, except in the consideration of
the scolex of the Bothriocephali and their prophylaxis.

A. Mature state.
It is only this grade of development that occurs recognisably

BOTHRIOCEPHALU8 LATUS. 97

in the human body, and therefore especially interests the medical
man.

Colour of the living worm bluish-white. Specimens preserved
iii spirits change greatly in colour. Thus I possess Bothriocephali
which appear quite white on the sides of the ovarian organs, and
others of a dingy brownish-yellow colour. Eschricht proved that
the colour arises from the pigment which colours the egg-capsules
being dissolved in alcohol, arid it is at the same time very pos-
sible that the browner or whiter colour may in part be owing to
the degree of concentration of the alcohol employed in their pre-
servation.

Active scolex, or head. — The five heads hitherto examined by
me, of which I could only obtain one tolerably fresh, at the end
of March, 1855, were obtusely conical. The two lateral pits
(the analogues of the sucking discs of the Taenice) are fissuriform ;
they appear, like the sucking discs on the feet of flies and mites,
on leeches, Sec., rather to effect the adhesion in accordance with the
well-known laws of partial or total vacua, than to have anything
to do with the nourishment, which is probably introduced through
the entire skin. An actual opening on the head of Bothrio-
cephalus could not be detected any more than in other Cestoidea.
As a matter of course, the head must acquire many various forms
during life, and in spirit, specimens will retain the form which
the worm possessed at the moment of its death ; on which account
I must call such figures as Clerc's, and their copies (as for instance,
in ' Seeger-Wundt/ pi. ii, figs. 5 and 6), mere playthings.

The neck is more distinct in young than in old individuals,
in which transverse wrinkling, i. e., segmentation, commences
immediately behind the head.

The strobila, or jointed body. — The name of ventral surface is
given to the side on which the sexual apparatus opens • the oppo-
site one is called the dorsal surface. Each segment has four
margins — two slightly undulated, free lateral margins, and an
anterior and posterior margin, by which the segment is articu-
lated to its upper and lower neighbours in the colony. Although
the breadth preponderates over the length (in the proportion of
3:1), the form is nevertheless very variable, according to the
predominating contraction of the longitudinal or transverse
muscles. In the central line the segments are more or less
thick (up to 1'") and darker brown, according to their various
degrees of maturity and the charging of the ovaries and uteri

98 ANIMAL PARASITES.

with ova ; the lateral margins are flatter and whiter. In the
latter, Eschricht describes seven layers — 1 . Skin. 2. Ventral
granular layer, or, more properly, calcareous granular layer.
3. Parenchymatous, transparent layer. 4. Central granular layer,
also consisting of nothing but calcareous corpuscles. 5. Repeti-
tion of layer 3 ; 6, of layer 2 ; and 7, of layer 1, on the dorsal
side.

When Eschricht speaks of only four layers in the central
parts, this is no essential difference of structure, but he can only
mean thereby that on these parte the calcareous granular layers
(as above, layers 2, 4, and 6) are wanting ; these are incorrectly
described by Eschricht as nutritive organs, under the denomina-
tion of smallest granules (O001 — 5"' in diameter) and nuclear
bodies (0-0075— 0-012'" in length and 0-007 — 010'" in breadth).
"We may easily convince ourselves of the calcareous nature of
these bodies by treating them with acetic acid, in which they
dissolve with effervescence, whilst they remain unchanged in
alkalies. Moreover, Eschricht has given up his previous opinion,
but still appears to think that the calcareous corpuscles of the
Cestoidea contain silica, although I cannot find the chemical
reasons for this supposition in his works. As a matter of detail
it is to be observed that the skin is divided into a cuticle and
corium, that it is inverted at the generative openings, and
sprinkled throughout sparingly with calcareous corpuscles, which
are abundant in the neighbourhood of the pori genitales and on
the hinder margins of the segments. These have been taken by
many authors for cutaneous glands (folliculi compositi). A por-
tion of the so-called cutaneous follicles may also have been loose
terminations of certain parts of the sexual apparatus (vide supra).
The parenchymatous layer exhibits contractile cellular tissue
(organized sarcode), which consists of threads running at right
angles, forming a wide network, and interrupted by the deposi-
tion of the calcareous corpuscles, and contains very weak trans-
verse and stronger longitudinal muscular stria3, which, however,
are less dense than in the Tcenice.

Vascular system. — Whoever has an opportunity of examining
my fresh specimens, will certainly find, as in all Cestoidea, those
lateral longitudinal cords, which, as is well known, contain a
limpid fluid. What network this vascular system may form, we
cannot tell at present. Unfortunately, we have no means of
rendering these vessels again apparent in spirit specimens, or of

BOTHR10CEPHALUS LATUS. 99

making successful injections. Eschricht saw these vessels lying
more towards the middle than towards the margins.

No nervous system has yet been detected. Visual organs, and
special organs of touch are wanting, as is also a respiratory
system.

Genitalia. — Although the genitalia generally lie singly in each
segment, they are sometimes seen double.

Female sexual organs : — a. Vulva, or vagina : a small opening
on the hinder margin of the porus genitalis, just over the penis. —

b. Uterus, five, six, or seven alternating horns on each side in.
the median line. The uppermost horns are the thickest; then
follows a pair of thinner, but very long horns; the rest are thin
and small. I call this the uterus, because mature ova are found
in this region. In it we distinguish an external cutaneous
layer, the capsule of the egg-receptacle, and the inner mem-
brane, i. e., a thin sac, twisted round into itself. — c. A pigment
capsule, = Eschricht's coil (knauel), which secretes the brown
colouring matter, and perhaps the shells of the ova ; it is 5 — 6'"
in length, enlarged like a sac in the middle, and opens into the
uterus directly at its commencement. Inasmuch as this pig-
ment-mass penetrates outwardly through the walls of the
capsule, it may, perhaps, be able to give a yellow colour to
the agglomerations of calcareous corpuscles, which has led
Eschricht to think that these yellow bodies are a peculiar
glandular system. — d. The true ovaries, with vitellogenes, fyc.,
are sacs studded on each side of the pigment capsule. They are
better recognised in specimens preserved in alcohol than in
fresh specimens, and appear to form a convolution of numerous
varicose caeca.

Male sexual organs. — a. The opening of the penis is situated
on the borders of the first and second quarters of the segment,
on the elevation produced by the vesicle of the penis and the thick
horns of the uterus, which is flatter in front and more swollen
behind. — b. The penis, which easily projects from the anterior
portion of a, is of equal thickness throughout (i'"), and usually
protrudes i//x beyond the margin of a ; the waved margin of the
skin forms its prceputium. The glandula praputii of Eschricht
are calcareous corpuscles, which are here collected in masses. —

c. Sac of the penis, a vesicle situated in a proper capsule, J'"
in length, £'" in breadth, between the uppermost thick horns
of the uterus, and in which the penis is suspended to a strong,

100 ANIMAL PAEAS1TES.

twisted stem, J'" in length. — d. The seminal ducts, placed on the
dorsal side of the capsule of the uterus in the interspace between
the lateral horns, are ¥'•— ^'" in thickness, but have no per-
ceptible connection with the vesicle of the penis or the testes. —
e. The testes, according to Eschricht, are a layer of white
granules (0*030 — O'OSO'"), placed in a corresponding network,
and containing in their interior, fine, spiral filaments (sper-
matozoid capsules).

B. Ova and*Embryos.

The ova, of which we have already spoken in the definition of
the species, exhibit an external hard, brittle shell, which is only
broken up by a very strong pressure into polygonal fragments
with sharp edges, but frequently breaks in such a way that they
represent operculated ova, exactly like those of the Trematoda.
If MM. Seeger-Wundt only describe the former, they cannot
have made an independent examination. With a little practice,
especially with the employment of caustic potash, we may easily
discover the degree of pressure necessary to cause the operculum
to open. From the opercular opening a limpid vesicle then
emerges, in which, however, I have not yet found the six
booklets, probably from want of skill.

Although Von Siebold allows these booklets to possess a
similarity with the hooks in the circlets of the Tcenice, it is
certainly going too far to expect to find in these resemblances or
differences such as are seen in the mature species. It is, how-
ever, a question whether at least a part of the eggs of the
Bothriocephali are not produced with undeveloped embryos, so
that the latter are only perfectly formed free in nature, as in the
eggs of the Ascarides. The mechanism of the immigration of
the embryos, if they are really furnished with six booklets, will
be found in the Introduction.

Resting scolex. — In order to trace this gradually in its course,
it is undoubtedly most advisable to explain exactly the behaviour
of these organisms when we meet with them in other parts of the
animal kingdom. In the intestines of fishes, especially marine
fishes, certain cestode worms live, which are furnished with a
band-like, inarticulate appendage, but still exhibit no commence-
ment of sexual development, and which, as was first ascertained
by Creplin, and as we have already mentioned, become converted

BOTHRIOCEPKALTIS LAt^} :/i ^ \ /-- 101

into mature Bothriocephali in the intestines of higher fishes, or
of the marine birds of prey which live upon these fishes. Whether
these creatures in the intestine of the fish have been developed
there, or whether they only reached the intestine with one of
the animals on which the fish feeds (as, for instance, a crab,
a mollusc, or an insect), in which they had become converted
into a scolex, after the animal had swallowed the eggs of the
mature Bothriocephalus to which they belong, is still unde-
cided. There may, therefore, be two possible ways for the pro-
duction of the mature Bothriocephali. Either the lower animal,
which harbours the scolex in the same way that the host of the
Cysticercus bears those creatures, is devoured by an animal
(such as a large predaceous fish, bird, or mammal), in the
intestine of which the scolex, being set free, immediately
developes itself; or the first-mentioned animal is first of all
swallowed by another, in the intestine of which it certainly passes
through the same preliminary changes which occur when a
Cysticercus gets into a suitable alimentary canal, but is unable
to develope these to maturity. It is only when this second
animal is devoured by another belonging to a higher species, that
the scolex attains the conditions by which it can become deve-
loped into a mature Bothriocephalus. At present, certainly we
cannot say whether in particular species of Bothriocephali only
one or the other of the above-mentioned direct or indirect
processes takes place, or whether both paths are followed by one
and the same species, as if nature wished to secure to each
individual the broadest possible base of probability for the
preservation of its species. It is true that, in the latter case,
we must suppose that the host of the mature Bothriocephalus
can obtain the first animal which harbours the scolex outside its
intestine, as well as the second, which contains it within the.
alimentary canal, and use them both as food.1 Here, unfor-

1 Von Siebold, as I have already mentioned, was the first to produce artificially in
Tteniae a grade of development, which, in its nature corresponds with the scolices
belonging to the Bothriocephali. Thus, if rabbits be fed with Cysticerci of the rabbit,
or dogs and cats with Cysticerci which do not find a favorable soil for their perfect
development in the intestines of those animals, but gradually become abortive therein, a
form is obtained which bears, instead of an articulated Cestode body, a simple, inarticu-
lated, band-like, flat, massive appendage, not furnished with a caudal vesicle. Such
animals attain a length of 10 to 20 millim., and are the perfect analogues of those
scolex structures which are met with in the intestine of the sticklebacks and other

102 ANIMAL PAKASITES.

tunately, we are completely in the region of conjectural zoology ;
but I am firmly convinced that my colleagues, who live in the
districts infested by Bothriocephalus, and especially on the sea-
coasts, will not be long before they give us the explanation.
The first thing to be done is to administer the mature ova of
Schistocephalus dimorphus (Creplin), from the intestinal canal
of certain marine predaceous birds, to sticklebacks, or other
small sea-fishes kept in a confined space, in order to see
whether or not numerous immature Schistocephali are developed
in the intestine of the fish itsetf. If not, we are certainly
justified in supposing that the stickleback first derives the
scolex from one of the animals on which it feeds. If Sc/iis-
tocephali are produced, we must suppose that the active migra-
tion of the young does not take place in these animals, but that
there is only a passive transportation from one intestine to
another, and that this is sufficient for development. In such
cases the young must certainly be bookless, and similar in form
to the mature animals, in which latter case it would also be
conceivable that species of cestode worms may pass through their
entire development in the same alimentary canal.

If we apply what we have just discussed at length to the
Bothriocephalus latus of man, we must admit that we have no
data as to the production of this worm in the human subject ;
we do not know what migration the youngest brood makes, or
when it becomes converted into a scolex. In the obscurity pre-
vailing here, all attempts to furnish hints will certainly be

fishes. These forms were employed by me to demonstrate the untenability of Dujardin's
and Von Siebold's opinion, that the Cysticerci were formed subsequently from developed
cestoid heads. But I also administered these Cestoidea obtained from the intestine of
the rabbit to dogs, in order to see whether Tannia scrrata may be raised from them, or,
in fact, to ascertain whether, after this second transference, these creatures continued
their transformation in exactly the same way as the true Cysticerci of the rabbit. I fed
a dog with five of these young Teenies, which I had bred in the intestine of a rabbit from
Cysticerci of the same animal. In eight days the dog exhibited no Tcenia serratce.
Whether subsequent experiments will furnish results, I must leave for further informa-
tion. It will be seen from this, that I endeavoured in this way, per analogiam, at once
to solve the question whether those band-like scolices of the fishes had probably been
first in another animal, and might have been produced from scolices which had already
been exposed to a migration into an unsuitable intestine. I say expressly, only " might
have been produced," and not "must have been produced " as I only offered a substitute
for an experiment, but must leave the direct proof to experimenters living on the sea-
coast.

BOTHRIOCEPHALUS LATUS. 103

excusable, and even the following one must be mildly criticised.
What there is good and tenable in it will be seen in the future.

When Crepiin found Bothriocephali — which, as is well known,
are extremely rare in all terrestrial mammalia — in the cat at
Greifswald, the answer to the question, how the cat obtained
them, is easily given. This cat certainly got them in the same
way as the marine birds of prey, by devouring sea-fishes found
upon the shore, or the intestines of fishes, which, especially
in sea-port towns, are often left in large quantities by the
fishermen, in places where they gut the fish in preparing them
for salting or smoking, and which, even in the kitchens of private
houses or hotels in those districts which abound in fish, are fre-
quently thrown to the expectant cats. A similar process cannot
be proved with regard to the Bothriocephalus latus hominis ; for
from the intestinal canal of what fish could man derive the
Bothriocephalus, as he eats nothing of this kind ? Perhaps the
geographical distribution may give us a little clue. I will not
discuss the question, whether I have a right to think that the
Bothriocephali followed the great expeditions of the migration of
peoples from the east, and whether they were introduced by the
Mongols and Tartars into Russia and Poland, and thence spread
into East Prussia, Finland, Sweden, and Norway ; and by the
Arabs and Moors into Africa (Abyssinia and Algeria) and Spain,
and thence into the South of France and Switzerland ; but also by
the great, and, as it were, local migrations into large commercial
towns and emporia (Hamburgh, Rome, Naples). But, never-
theless, the present geographical conditions of all these places
allow them to be looked at in a common point of viewr. They
all lie in low situations, on large marshy districts, on the shores
of rivers and lakes, or of the sea, and especially in places exposed
to inundation. Could the scolex live in a low aquatic or marsh
animal, as, for instance, in snails of the smallest kind ? arid could
men swallow the latter in any way whilst eating raw salad, raw
cucumbers or melons, raw fruit which has lain upon the ground,
or raw roots, such as turnips, onions, &c., without either peeling,
or, as is frequently done by country people, after peeling them
with the teeth ?

Carl Vogt has stated that we infect ourselves with Bothrio-
cephalus by using sewage water, in which the ova from the pro-
glottides of this worm which have passed off with the human
faeces exist, as a manure for salad. Here the ova remain ; we

104 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

eat them with the salad,, and thus introduce the germ of the
Bothriocephalus into our bodies. We certainly, as we have
already stated, adopt this mode of infection for the cystic worms
which occur in the human body, as, for instance, for Cysticercus
cellulose and tenuicollis, and perhaps for the Echinococci (to
which, however, Vogt does not ascribe this course), but certainly
not for mature Cestoidea. For even with the Bothriocephali we
must assume a migration of the embryos into other animals, and
not a development of all the stages in the same intestinal canal.
I willingly admit, however, that^so long as the six embryonal
hooklets are not found with ease and certainty in Bothriocephalus
latus — and this I have not succeeded in doing, although I have
spent hours in the examination of both fresh and spirit specimens —
we have no incontrovertible proof that the embryos of Bothrio-
cephalus must perform an active migration through the tissues of
their host. But even if there were no six hooklets attached to
the young of this cestode worm, the above-indicated passive
migration of the embryos into the intestine of another animal,
and their conversion in this intestine into an asexual band-like
scolex, seems to me at present much more probable than the
development of all the grades in the same intestine, on account
of the dissimilarity which exists between the embryos and their
parents. For these reasons I must, for my own part, admit
that Vogt's hypothesis is still equally untenable, with all the
others which have been set up regarding the production of Both-
riocephalus.

Physiology. — According to Eschricht, the vital manifestations
of Bothriocephalus, and its reactions with chemical and mechanical
irritants, are more sluggish than those of Tcenia solium. I have
never, myself, seen a perfectly fresh Bothriocephalus. The
adhesion is always effected by the two sucking pits, although
Seeger-Wundt also states that this takes place by means of a
small umbiliciform depression (Saugflache) of the apex of the
head, which is certainly possible if a frontal sucker could actually
be detected in this little pit. The small number and less perfect
development of these sucking organs, as compared with those of
the TGUIG, at once explains why Bothriocephalus latus is expelled
with such remarkable ease.

Eschricht and others have already proved the power of im-
bibing fluids possessed by the bodies of the Bothriocephali and all
Cestoidea. Transudation takes place distinctly by contact with

BOTHRIOCEPHALUS LATUS. 105

water, and at the same time small, pellucid, oleaginous drops
(sarcode) issue from the body. Whilst the Nematoda and Echino-
rhynchi swell up considerably, even to bursting, by imbibition, the
stronger transudation in the Cestoidea compensates for this imbi-
bition ; and, on the whole, only a slight swelling is produced.
This explains the circumstance, that in violent watery diarrhoeas the
Nematoda, deprived of their power of adhesion, excessively swelled,
pass away much more readily than the Cestoidea, which usually,
at the utmost, are rendered sickly by the contact with water,
and throw off more of their last segments, which are more exposed
to swelling in comparison with the first joints of the colony, but long
resist the most violent diarrhoeas (not excluding even cholera).
It is a general observation, that in the Bothriocephali whole
series of segments pass off spontaneously, but never single
segments, as in the Tcenice. Reliable data as to the duration of
the life of a single individual are wanting. The statements of
authors as to Bothriocephali of from fifty to sixty feet long are
incorrect. Where the coil of worms expelled is carefully examined
we shall find several specimens, even in smaller ones of from ten
to twenty feet in length. At least, this was the case with a coil
of worms of twenty feet long, given to me as a single worm, but
from which I could unfold a worm of fifteen and another of five
feet. Madame Heller and others have not very rarely seen
several specimens of Bothriocephali together.

Prognosis. — The removal of Bothriocephalns latus is effected
more easily than in any other human Cestoidea.

Therapeutics. — For the present, as is evident for the reasons
just given, there is no means of prevention (prophylaxis). But
we may recommend in our neighbourhoods, that all passed
or expelled fragments of this worm should be burnt or preserved
in spirits, so as to destroy their embryos.

Direct Therapeutics. — See the methods of treatment for Tania.
In this case, the ordinary treatment with Filios mas is sufficient,
and certainly that with extract of pomegranate root.

Literature. — Besides the bibliography on Cestoidea to be given
at the close of the book, consult especially the work of Eschricht,
and that of Van Beneden, " Sur le developpement des vers
Cestoides."

106 ANIMAL PARASITES.

Second Order — T<eni<e.

Caput subglobosum aut tetragonum ; acetabulis-osculis suctoriis 4,
rarissime 6, muscularibus, orbicularibus, symmetries oppositis, valde
contractilibus ; rostello imperforato, retractili, in scolicibus quies-
centibus inverse, in activis s. T&niis maturis propulso, hamulorum
simplici, duplici, aut multiplier corona armato ; corpore plerumque
albo, piano, depresso, bilaterale aut fcriquetro, articulato (strobila} ;
articulis maturis androgynis, aut non sexualibus (?), sponte et olio
post alium dehiscentibus , Trematode caidam similibus (Proglottides] ;
systemate vasculoso perdaro ; poris genitalibus later alibus, plerumque
alternantibus, masculo majore et anteriore, femineo minore et pos-
teriore ; genitalibus perfectis. Scolices quiescentes et immaturi
formam cysti-, platy- aut a-cercam ineuntes. Scolices activi cum
strobila longitudine et latiludine valde variantes. Embryones 6
hamunculis armati, parvuli, pervivaces ; ovula in illis qui formam
cysticercam ineunt, minima, pileata, flavescentia, in ceteris majora,
laeviora et clariora.

I. T&ni(R which occur in man in the mature state.

1. Ttenia solium, and its scolex-nurse= Cysticercus celluloses.
Tab. Ill, figs. 1—10, and Tab. IV, hooks iii.

Tsenia matura = Scolex activus cum strobila ; longit. 4 — 5
metres = 6 — 8 ulnarum, latit. ad 13 millim. Caput = scolex sensu
strictiore, breve, antrorsum planum, 0'56 — 0'75 — I'O mill, lat.,
acetabulis validis,prominentibus 0-J92 — 231///=0'434 — 0*521 mill,
long., et 0*182 — 224/x/= 0-410 — 0-505 mill. lat. ; rostello parvulo
0'4 mill, ad latera nigrescente ; hamulorum 22, 24, 28, 30, ple-
rumque 26, duplice or dine, longit. 0-167 quoad major -es, O'll mill.,
quoad minores hamulos (secund. Leuckart), 0'18 et 0-12 secund.
meas mensuras, unque et stylo hamulorum ex longit. fere similibus,
forma hamulorum omnino vastd ; loculis hamulorum perclaris,
nigrescentibus ; collo perparvo, fere nullo ; corpore antrorsum
maxime attenuato, deorsum ad 10 — 14 mill, lato, articulato, poris
genitalibus alternantibus, inter dum irregulariter ; utero ramis 6 —
10 — 13, irregulariter alternantibus, denuo ramificatis instruct o ;

SOLIUM. 107

corporibus calcareis in capite rarioribus (0"004/" = 0>009 mill. long,
et lat.), in corpore crebrioribus et mojoribus (0-005'" =0-012 mill.)
Proglottides ad 16 mill, longa et ad 6 latae, ad inferior em partem
crassiores, margine muyis toroso et angulis magis prominentibus,
quam ad superior em partem, ut in aliis T&niis, ovulis Q'QI6'" =
0-036 mill, long., Q'016'" — 19/x/ = 0-036 mill, lat.; testa ovulorum
crassiore (0*0063 mill.). Embryonibus 6 hamulis ornatis, 0-028 —
0-032 mill. long, et lat., migratione indigentibus.

Habitat. — Solitarie aut sodaliter (ad 40 usque) in tubo intes-
tinali hominis, inque terris diversissimis ; vix in Cane domestico.

Scolex quiescens = Cysticercus cellulose, vesicd caudali hand
magnd (ubi plurimum 15 mill, in diametro) transverse ellipticd ;
corpore inverso, transverse rugato, 8 — 10 mill, longo. In tubum
intestinalem translatas intra 3 menses maturescit. Habitate in teld
cellulosd totius corporis et nonnullis corporis cavitatibus clausis
(oculis cerebro, fyc.) imprimis in homine, Sue scrofd domesticd,
rarius ferd, Simid, Cervo, Capreolo, Cane domestico (Arachnoid, et
muscul.) ; valde dubiosus in peritonea Canis domestici et Muris
Ratti. Per injuriam a nonnullis Coenurus cerebralis hominis
nominatus.

Synonyma (vide Seeger). — Tatvmt (Aristotle) ; TrAaraa eXjuii'c
(Hippocrates) ; Lumbricus latus (Pliny) ; T&nia solium (Linrie,
and most authors) ; T. cucurbitina (Pallas, Bloch, Goeze, Batsch,
Schrank) ; T. vulgaris (Werner) ; T. dentata (Gmeliii, Nicolai) ;
T. osculis marginalibus solitariis (Linne, Bradley) ; T. armata
humana (Brera) ; T. lata (1) (Reinlein) ; T. fenestrata (Delle
Chiaje) ; Halysis solium (Zeder) ; Pentastoma coarctata (Virey) ;
T. stigmatibus later alibus (Bonnet) ; T. secunda (Plater) ; Vermis
cucurbitinus (Plater) ; T. solitaria (Leske) ; T. articulos demittens
(Dionis) ; Kiirbiswurm ; langgliedriger, Kiirbisformiger (Goeze,
Batsch, Jordens) ; geziahnetter (Batsch) ; bewaffneter Bandwurm
(Brera) ; Kettenwurm (Bremser) ; T. a longs anneaux (Bonnet,
Cuvier) ; T. sans epines (Andry) ; T. de la seconde espece (Andn7);
Le solitaire, Ver solitaire, T. bandelette, arme, ^ epines ; Catena
de cucurbitini (Vallisnieri) ; Vermi cucurbitini (Cocchi) ; Chabb al
Kar' (pumpkin-grain) of the Arabs.1

1 Ibu 'Adart gives the following narrative in the * Al-Bagan al migrib,' ed. Dozy
i, p. 295 : " Then God tried him with a disagreeable disorder, which is called Chabb
al-Kar' (pumpkin-grain), and which consists in a worm (fixing itself) at the issue of his
anus, which gnawed the intestine and the neighbouring parts. Then large rams' tails

108 ANIMAL PAKASITES.

The following names are given to it in common with Bothrio-
cephalus latus and Taenia mediocanellata : le Yer Plat ; Tape-
worm ; Jointed worm; Bandelorm ; Brinicke-mask ; Lingditg
(Turmale, in Africa) ; Kosso (Abyssinia).

The worm presents five known steps of development, which we
have not exactly separated in the special description, but will
mention here : 1, the sexual animal = proglottis ; 2, the grand-
nurse = six-hooked embryo ; 3, the resting scolex — Cysticercus
celluloses in the parenchyma, areolar tissue, and cavities of the
body ; 4, the active scolex = nurs^e, that is, the Cysticercus cel-
lulosce, which will become a Tcenia solium in the intestine ; and 5,
the strobila, the series of segments of Tcenia solium produced by
gemmation from 4 = Tcenia solium.

A. Tcenia matura.

That the name of Tcenia solium has been incorrectly applied to
this worm, which so very frequently occurs in society, we have long
been convinced. I have very frequently seen expelled 2 — 3 from
one person ; my colleague, Dr. Pfaff, 7 ; Madame Heller, 30 ; and
Dr. Kleefeld, of Gorlitz, once counted 40 worms expelled from
one patient ; and I have found 10 in a criminal (vide infra, where
the reasons for the companionship of these worms will be found).

The Strobila — Head: Although this varies somewhat in size,
it is rarely larger than the head of a common pin. It bears
a tolerably abundant, dingy, blackish-brown pigment, which is
deposited in particular abundance around the base of the short
rostellum, and in the sacs round the stalks of the hooks ; after
this, it is in the greatest quantity on and around the sucking
discs, decreases in density and intensity of colour posteriorly,
and terminates in an undulated, pretty clear line between the
head and neck. I saw this pigment in great abundance, and
very black, in two Tcenice expelled by M. Rose, in Genadedal, at
the Cape of Good Hope, and which he sent to me. It pene-

were brought, in order that he might insert them into him, so that the worm (or worms)
might gnaw these instead of him, and he might thus obtain a little rest. When these
were again drawn out, they were all gnawed to pieces by the worm, and new ones were
then applied to the anus. The worms, however, did not cease to gnaw until his genitals
fell off, and he in consequence died." The case undoubtedly refers to a cancer of the
rectum in a patient, who at the same time suffered from tape-worm, and is interesting
even on account of this complication.

SOLIUM. 109

trates gradually into the interior of the whole 22, 24, 26, or 28
hook-sacs of our Tcenia, between these and the hooks, and may
perhaps, when collected in very great abundance, elevate the
hooks and finally push them out altogether. I cannot state
whether this., as is usually said, is a mere indication of age, or
whether it may not also take place in consequence of a hyper-
genesis of the pigment itself, without being connected with age.
Moreover, we must not forget that a great number of the cases
in which the falling out of the hooks by age is mentioned, are to
be attributed to the fresh heads having remained too long in
water or in the evacuations, or to decompositions when the dis-
sections have been made after a considerable interval. Placing
them in too-concentrated spirit, in time causes the hooks to
leave their sacs. Virchow states that the pigment is molecular,
granular; sometimes, on the front of the head, crystalline, and
like melanine ; and that it is sometimes also imbedded in vesicles.
I have also sometimes thought that I have found such crystals, both
in mature Teenies and in Cysticercus celluloses, even that of the pig.

The hook-sacs, which, as well as the hooks, are placed in a
double circular series, may be best compared, as to form, with
the beaker-glasses of the chemists. Even when the hooks have
fallen out, they are very distinctly visible, from their black
coloration by the pigment. Their length corresponds pretty
exactly with that of the stems of the hooks in both series.
Their breadth for the first series is, in the middle, 0'021 — 28'" =
0-047 — 0-063 millim,; for the second series, 0-017 — 21"' =
0-039 — 0-047 millim. For the base of the first series, 0-010 —
0-017'" = 0-023 — 0-039 millim. ; and for that of the second,
0-010'" = 0-023 millim.

The upper orifices, through which the stems of the hooks issue,
measure, in the first series, about O'OIO— 0-017'" = 0-023—
0-029 millim. in length ; and 0 007 — 0-010'" = 0-019—0-023
millim. in breadth. Those of the second series do not appear to
differ greatly from this, but are more difficult to measure, from
their greater softness.

In number and position the hooks correspond with the sacs
just mentioned. As in all T&nia, the points of all the hooks
fall in the same circle ; their spines, which appear to act in the
manner of hypomochlia, also fall nearly in a common circle, or,
at the utmost, in two circles lying very close together ; the roots

110 ANIMAL PARASITES.

of all the stems lie in two circles at a considerable distance from
each other. The form will be best seen from the figures. (PI. IV.)
The most essential criterion of this species lies in the stem, espe-
cially in the root of the stem of the hooks of the second series,
which presents on its posterior surface a small lunate notch, and
also in the tuberculiform curvature on the same side of the stems
of the first series. The size of the hooks will be found in the
table of hooks.

From the centre of the hook a small hood- or cap-like ros-
tellum, round the base of which fche sac stands, often projects.
It is perfectly clear, destitute of pigment at its apex, and has no
calcareous corpuscles.

The sucking discs (ventousen) are nearly circular, frequently
somewhat oval, and surrounded by a circular collateral branch of
the longitudinal canals, by which a sort of large vascular net is
formed. By maceration the sucking discs may be procured,
isolated in the form of round balls or discs, in which no perfora-
tion is perceptible. By the inversion of these discs in the form
of a cup, or in the manner of the finger of a glove, towards the
middle line of the animal, they are converted into effective
suckers.

Close behind the sucking discs, and near the head, the vessels
collect into four main branches, which are united quite at the front
of the head by a common transverse branch, as thick as, or thicker
than themselves. Oscar Schmidt has very recently expressed the
opinion that anastomoses are effected between the vessels of the
two sides, in the fully developed segments (proglottides), by
means of transverse branches.

In the vessels of various Cestoidea, Virchow, Wagener, and
others have seen with the microscope a sort of ciliary epithelium
projecting into the vessels, and moving in the fluid. It appears then,
as I have convinced myself, as if we saw a short luminous flash
pass across the field of vision. To recognise this, it is best to
work alternately with direct and transmitted light. In many
Teenies, but especially in T. solium, I have thought, when employ-
ing the highest magnifying powers, that I saw, in the interior of
the oscillating contents of the vessels, very small, dark, molecular
corpuscles, the nature of which I do not venture to explain.
Might not these be pigment molecules, which are deposited from
the vessels in the head ?

T^ENIA SOLIUM. Ill

Tlie calcareous corpuscles1 reach about to the middle of the
sucking discs ; they are few on the head, usually very small, and
appear as if composed of two or three concentric layers. To
obtain a clear view of them the focus must be altered in various
ways. As a general rule, it may be admitted that the head of
cestode worms in the second stage contains more corpuscles,
and these of larger size, than that of the mature Taenia. In
examining, on the head of a Ttenia, a space as large as the field of
my PlossPs microscope (eye-piece 1 ; object-glasses 1+2 + 3),
I counted 60, 70, to 110 calcareous corpuscles in this space.

The slender neck, of about 6"' in length, exhibit 110 traces of
transverse striation or segmentation. The calcareous corpuscles
are somewhat more abundant, and also in general larger than in
the head.

Behind the neck commences the true, jointed body of the
Taenia, in which I counted 825 segments in one case, and in
which the specimen was ten feet two inches in length. The
proportionate size of the segments, which gradually increase
posteriorly, will be best seen from the following statements :
First, a space of 4"' contained 50 transverse divisions, and after-
wards the same surface showed 32, 27, 22, 14, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6,
5, 2J, 2, 1§, 1, |, f, |, \ segments. In length the segments in-
creased gradually from ±£" to 1"' ' . In this species, as in all
Cestoidea, contact with water causes the emission of Dujardm/s
sarcode in oleaginous drops.

Sexual organs. — From the 280th segment onwards, there is
seen, in the median line of the Cestoidea, a simple brownish-
yellow canal, with short, lateral offshoots, towards which two
transverse, slightly coloured lines (seminal cord and vagina) run
from the sides. At the 317th segment commence the first indi-
cations of the alternating port genitales, in the form of promi-
nences; at the 350th the pores themselves become distinct.
Between the 280th and 400th segments, an accumulation of small,
yellowish, loose aggregations of corpuscles lying in the parenchyma
is seen gradually becoming more distinct; from the 420th seg-
ment onwards, the upper end of the median canal (uterus] becomes

1 Von Siebold certainly lays too much stress upon these in the determination of
species, which is much the same as if we were to impute to carbonate of lime the pro-
perty of acquiring as many forms of amorphous, uncrystalline deposition, as there are
species of animals and their respective Ttenice.

'112 ANIMAL PARASITES.

enlarged and clubbed, and the first commencement of the so-
called ova collect in the lateral offshoots, which at first appear to
stand more closely in the upper than in the lower half of the
segment. From the 500th segment, the lateral shoots exhibit
a tendency to give off smaller shoots or excrescences towards the
sides, but these always appear to be larger and more numerous
in the upper half of the segment, and never reach directly to the
main stem. From the 600th segment is seen one-shelled, clear
ova, which move readily in the offshoots of the uterus after the
preparation has been treated with acetic acid. From the 625th
we find two-shelled ova, which constantly become thicker and
darker coloured, until in the 650 — 700th segments they nearly
resemble the mature ova, although still mixed with an abundance
of immature ova, and then exhibit the little embryo with its
six booklets.

The structure of the generative organs is as follows : Male
organs. — The penis is sickle-shaped, light yellow, smooth, and
perforated, so that the outer skin of the penis is seen to turn
inwards at its apex; it is about 0'122///=0>276 millim. in length,
0-035'"= 0-071 millim. in breadth behind and 0-017'" = 0-039
millim. in front. When retracted, it is received by a peculiar
bell-shaped organ (a sort of praepuce], which is 0- 175'" =0-395
millim. in length, and from the hinder end of which springs a
strong, blackish-brown seminal cord, which takes a tortuous course,
turning at a right angle towards the uterus, and running nearly
to this, in which it forms convolutions of 0-014'" = 0'031 millim.
in breadth. I have not yet been able to obtain a testis and
spermatozoa, such as AVundt states he has seen and figured.

Female organs. — The vagina lies on the side of the sac of the
penis, which is turned towards the hinder end of the worm, and
opens into this near the penis with a funnel-shaped aperture,
0-028/x/ = 0-063 millim. in breadth. At first it runs parallel to
the seminal cord, but quits it about the middle of its course, and
then bends in sharp curves towards the main stem of the uterus,
into which it opens with a small swelling. The vagina appears
to be an inward prolongation of the chitinous epidermis. Its
lumen measures 0-007'"" 0-015 millim., and its diameter is there-
fore only about half that of the individual ova. This diameter
can hardly be so much increased by the abbreviation of the
sheath, as to render it equal to that of the ova, so that we might
suppose that the eggs could pass out through this vagina from an

SCOLEX OF T^NIA SOLIUM. 113

uninjured proglottis. At its junction with the uterus, also, 'the
vagina forms a small funnel-shaped swelling.

The uterus forms a tortuous median stem, into which open
numerous dendritic lateral branches placed opposite to each other,
and alternating irregularly. Their number is usually uneven,
9, 11, 13, 15, rarely as many as 20.

As ovaries, including the organs for the formation of the germ,
vitellus, and egg-shells, we may perhaps indicate some small caeca,
which are only perceptible in semi-mature segments, and which
appear to have an outlet towards the median stem.

Upon the formation of the embryos in the egg, I have no
direct observations, and I must refer to what Van Beneden has
stated with regard to other Cestoidea.

The structure of the individual joints, when cut through, is as
follows, passing from the exterior to the middle.

1 . Epidermis without calcareous corpuscles, consisting of a
chitinous mass.

2. Longitudinal muscular fibres, with an abundance of calcareous
corpuscles.

3. Transverse muscular fibres, with a few calcareous corpuscles.
4v Uterus and its branches, with ova.

I am acquainted with no secretory organs in the skin, although
Van Beneden thinks there is a secretion of a " mucus destine a
labrifier la surface du corps'' In examining the skin, care must
be taken to avoid being deceived by the sarcode, which issues on
the contact of water.

B. Scolex of Toenia solium = Cysticercus cellulosa, its seat, the
mode of its transference, and production, and its nature.

This scolex is the Cysticercus celluloses of authors. This is
evident from the similarity of its head with that of Tcenia solium,
and the consideration of the general as well as the particular
circumstances under which T. solium occurs, and from the possi-
bility, by experiments in feeding, of converting Cysticercus
celluloses into Tcenia solium, and the eggs of the latter into Cyst,
celluloses (vide infra}.

Ordinary habitation of C. celluloses. — The ordinary habitation
of this vesicular worm is, as is well known, the flesh of the pig,
and we find that Tcenia solium is almost entirely unknown where
the use of this flesh is avoided, as, for example, amongst those

H

114 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

Jews and Mohammedans, who live strictly according' to their reli-
gious precepts, and who are not deprived of the opportunity of
procuring their meat from "clean" butchers' shops in which pork
is never sold, and also amongst the Abyssinian Carthusians referred
to by Reinlein,1 who keep a strict fast and only feed on fish, or
where, in consequence of the breeding of pigs being given up,
these animals are almost entirely absent, as Eschricht tell us is
the case in Iceland, where, in consequence, Tcsnia solium is very
rare. But, on the other hand, we find this Tania very abundant
wherever the breeding of pigs flourishes, as in Poland, Hungary,
England, Pomerania, and Thuringia,3 and especially amongst
those engaged in trades which bring them in contact with raw
pork and therefore with raw Cysticerci (as butchers, cooks, eating-
house keepers, &c,), or in people who obtain portions of ready
cooked or smoked sausages and hams from the butchers' shops.
The most direct mode in which the transference may be effected
is, as experience has shown, the habit of eating raw pork
(Kleefeld's patient ; Professor Merbach's observations ; Thuringia,
especially Nordhausen, Russia, Abyssinia). Hence also, perhaps,
arises the more frequent occurrence of Tcenia solium in temperate
zones, and especially in Central Europe.

The importance of the subject may excuse the prolixity of the
following remarks : The reason why we find Taenia solium so
plentifully in butchers and their families is, that the butchers
contaminate their own hands in sausage-making and also the
blades of their knives in cutting up and selling meat. When
they now wipe their mouths with the hands thus contiiminated,
or place the knife bedaubed with Cysticerci in their mouths, or
lastly transfer these Cysticerci from the knife to the bread or
sausages which they cut up for themselves, their families, or
servants, the insignificant and scarcely perceptible Cysticerci are
introduced into the mouth and swallowed. Cooks and even
housewives who cook and who have much to do with raw pork,
infect themselves, partly by means of their hands or utensils, and
partly by tasting the mixed masses of meat prepared from raw
pork and other uncooked meats for the making of puddings before

1 Reinlein, ' Bemerkungen iiber des Ursprungs des breiten Bandwurms,' Wien, 1812 ;
and Riippel, ' Reisen in Abyssinien.'

2 We unfortunately bave no reports as to tbe occurrence of T. solium on tbe Sandwich
Islands and similar places, where the breeding of pigs has prospered since the time of
Cook.

CYSTICEKCUS CELLULOSE. 115

they are put into the frying pan, or in the preparation of home-
made sausages before drying.

But we also see the possibility of the Cysticerci being intro-
duced into private houses with the articles of animal food pro-
cured from the butchers1 shops to be eaten without preparation,
such as raw hams, and blood arid liver sausages, especially when
these articles of food are purchased by retail in small portions,
when the Cysticerci have been transferred to them by the knife
used in cutting them up.1 Thus, for example, my wife found
Cysticerci in the water used in washing sausages, which must have
been adhering to the hands of the butcher when filling the
sausages, and thus have been transferred to the external surface
of the gut. Lastly, the direct proof of these assertions has been
furnished by myself, in making the following experiments upon a
murderer condemned to death. 72, 60, 36, 24, and 12 hours before

1 Several mistakes have lately been made with regard to the manner in which
T. solium is communicated, and these have been referred to me. Thus, according to
Thompson (' Uber die Krankheiten und Krankheitsverhaltnisse auf Island/ Schleswig,
1855, p. 72), I have stated that " Tcenia solium is very general in certain districts where
the common people eat raw bacon upon bread." As the Cystic, celluloses never
occurs in the fat, but only in the flesh, I have spoken of the use of raw meat. More-
over, further observations are constantly being made known, that the use of raw meat
generally disposes to Teenice. In seven anaemic children brought up upon raw flesh,
Scharlan, of Stettin, found tape-worms, and these were said to have had no raw pork.
But whether these children had not once had raw pork, or whether raw beef does not
also frequently contain the germ of the common tape-worm, is a matter for further investi-
gation. To return to Thompson, I do not blame him greatly for his statement, as I con-
sider it as an error of a verbal nature. But we have not to do with a verbal error, but
with ignorance of what I have said, and the presumption of criticising a work without
taking the trouble of reading the original, as in the note of Dr. Behrend, the editor of
Ilenke's ' Zeitschrift fiir Staatsarzneikunde,' which is appended to page 71 of Riecke's
article, in which the latter calls attention to the importance of my investigations to
police-officers. " But the Jews, probably because Moses was already acquainted
with Kiichenmeister's metamorphosis of the tape-worms, in consequence of his pro-
hibition, did not eat pork at all, for the Asiatic Jews still live strictly according
to their religious laws and precepts. If this link in the chain is wanting, the explana-
tion falls to the ground." If M. Behrend had read the original, he would have seen
that I regard the occurrence of Cystic, ee/Mos#, both in the roe and in other ruminants,
as especially possible in the east. The link in the chain therefore is not wanting.
M. Behrend continues — " Should not the kind auxiliaries of 1813 — 1815 rather be
taken into account by Herr Kiichenmeister ? " These auxiliaries have nothing at all to
do with the matter, except that perhaps during their sojourn in Germany, a greater
number of segments of T. solium may have passed off from human subjects on German
soil, more pigs may have become measly, and from these again more men may have been
infected.

116 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

execution 12, 18, 15, 12, and 18 specimens of Cystictrcus celluloses
were administered to the criminal partly in rice or vermicelli soup
cooled to a blood heat, and partly in blood-puddings from which
the fat was removed and replaced by Cysticerci. The Cysticerci
had already lain seventy-two hours in a cellar before I discovered
them by chance, as I have stated further in ' Wittelshofer's neuer
medic. Wochenschrift/ No. 1, 1855, and before I could administer
them. The last administered had consequently lain about 130
hours out of the living organism. I hardly believe that those
Cysticerci which had lain more ttian 80 hours were still capable
of development, any more than I can believe this to be the case
with the Cysticerci contained in smoked sausages and hams.1

' Here we have also a couple of similar assertions, which Von Siebold has put forth
to the world without taking the trouble of submitting them to an experimental proof.
Just as, without experiment, he asserts that the sheep infect themselves with Ccenuri by
devouring the dried eggs of tape-worms (' Uber die Band- und Blasenwiirmer,' p. 107),
" that these eggs possess a great tenacity of life, and can long resist injurious external
influences (cold, heat, dryness, &c.) ;" he also maintains (p. Ill) that " boiled or roasted
measly pork can never give origin to a Ttenia solium in the intestinal canal of man, as
by the degree of heat necessary in the cooking of such meat, the Cysticerci in it will be
completely destroyed ; but the case is different with smoked sausages, for which many
butchers use measly meat. How easily, with the present artificial and rapid method of
smoking, may a sausage stuffed with measly meat be consumed so soon and so fresh, that
one or another of the scolices of the concealed Cysticerci may retain its vitality, and awaken
from its apparent death, in the intestine of man, when the development of the tape-worm
would not fail." The following kind of dried meats are smoked : 1. Various sorts of blood-
sausages. — As these are boiled before smoking, they cannot come under consideration.
Here also belongs the smoked-tongue sausage, so called par excellence. 2. The Cervelas
sausage. — This is prepared with the strongest spices — pepper, ginger, salt and saltpetre,
and is also, like hams, often pickled before smoking. 3. Smoked sausage. — The last two
kinds are certainly often made without pickling or boiling. 4. Hams. — If Von Siebold
thinks that the artificial smoking with wood-vinegar is still employed in those districts
from which we are principally supplied with smoked meats, he is very much mistaken.
I have made exact inquiries on purpose, from butchers who are just returning from their
journies, and who have themselves established large warehouses for smoked meats.
According to their statements, the quick smoking is quite given up ; and, in my opinion,
it would be difficult to give the Westphalian hams their delicious flavour if they were
to be smoked with wood-vinegar, instead of smoking them with juniper sticks, as is
usually done in Westphalia. It is a remarkable thing to assert, that an animal which,
during life, bears its nourishment about within a vesicle (caudal vesicle), can continue
its existence when deprived of this reservoir in a half smoked state, as in a half smoky
torpidity (Rausch- Winter schlafe). Such an assertion would certainly only be put for-
ward from that side which regards the caudal vesicle as a morbid organ. Had Von
Siebold experimented with such half-mummied Cysticerci, there might have been some
reason, as the result of observations made, for putting forward assertions so improbable

CYSTICEKCUS CELLULOSE 117

On dissection, forty-eight hours after execution, I found ten
young Tcenice, of which indeed six were deprived of their hooks,
but four distinctly showed the hooks of T. solium. The little
Tcenice were 4 — 8 raillim. in length, had exserted their hooks
and proboscis and attached themselves therewith to the intestine,
and possessed a small band-like appendage, some 2 — 5 millim.
long, which was notched or inverted at the extremity, as it is seen
in those individuals which are found, for example, in the intestine
of a dog three days after the administration of the Cysticerci of the
rabbit.

Subsequent experiments of the same kind will certainly give us
the means of tracing the progress of this Tcenia as it increases in
age, according to the various times of administration of Cyslicercus
cellulosce. In the meanwhile the preceding experiment is a
sufficient proof of this conversion of the cystic worms into Tcenice
in the interior of the human intestine, and also of the mode of
infection.

I take this opportunity to mention that I have never yet
been able to find Tcenia solium from Cyst, cellulosae in the intes-
tine of the dog. Von Siebold only bred immature and generally
stunted specimens. Many of the Tcenia solium which authors
supposed they have found in the intestine of the dog, must
have been T. ex Cyst, tenuicolli. As in small towns without a
common slaughter-house, the Cyst, cellulosae is usually concealed
by the butchers, I have had a difficulty in obtaining Cysticerci
celluloses, three, four, or more days old and always cut open,
and thus I have convinced myself, by various experiments,
that the scolex of a Tcenia only retains its power of development
in its dead host as long as no putridity occurs, which happens
within three or four days in summer. The six-hooked young
resist longer.

Other habitations of Cysticercus cellulosae, and other modes of
infection with Taenia solium, caused thereby.

With the exception of the doubtful Cysticercus cellulosce
of the peritoneum of dogs and rats, the Cysticercus occurs

and contradictory to nature. It appears, however, from my experiments with the
criminal, that the intestine presented no traces of those Cysticerci which had lain more
than five days in the air with the caudal vesicle uninjured.

118 ANIMAL PARASITES.

with certainty in the muscles of the dog, and in those of
the roe, and it is also met with, though more rarely, in bears,
rats, apes, and men. Dog-killers, therefore, may infect them-
selves with T. solium by means of measly dog's flesh, and other
men by eating the measly flesh of the animals mentioned;
amongst which, especially with the oriental nomadic people,
cattle stand in the first rank ; as from the close, mutual inter-
course between the man and his herds, the latter might easily
contaminate themselves with the eggs of Tcenia solium. For
this reason we see that the immunity of the Jews and Moham-
medans is by no means absolute, and, on the contrary, that the
occurrence of T. solium, even amongst them, is not impossible.

Theoretical proof of the identity of T. solium and Cysticercus
cellulosse. — The latter, like all cystic worms, forms a vesicle
of the size of a pea or very small bean, with a little, white head
in its interior, from which the true scolex may be evolved by
pressure. This scolex bears a head with four, and sometimes
six sucking discs, (the latter especially in the human brain),
round which the vascular system runs, and afterwards collects
into two longitudinal canals 011 each side. The short rostellum
bears from twenty-two to twenty-eight hooks placed in a double
crown. Besides these, the head exhibits a sparing brownish-
yellow, or blackish-brown pigment,1 and under favorable circum-
stances, by pressure, five sacs round the stems of the hooks.
The neck is very short, poor in calcareous corpuscles, opaque,
and colourless ; the body, which follows, is wrinkled, richly set
with calcareous corpuscles, and the head is inverted into it as
long as the caudal vesicle is alive and uninjured ; after the death
of the worm the head becomes everted. The caudal vesicle
consists of contractile tissue, which forms circular, parallel rings
when contracted. It is homogeneous, destitute of vessels, and
calcareous corpuscles, and consists of an organic substance, which
belongs to the class of the so-called mixed protein substances,

1 Leuckart thinks, because he found the black pigment in Cyst, celluloses and Cyst,
tenuicollis of the pig, but never in Cyst, celluloses of the human subject, that the pigment
is not produced by the worm itself, but by the animal infested. That Cyst, cellulose
hominis bears pigment, is proved by the observations of Virchow, Giinsburg, Moller, and
others. It will then probably come to what I formerly stated in opposition to
Virchow, when he derived the pigment-crystals solely from the haematosine of man. I
supposed, that this property of forming pigment-crystals and molecules belonged not
only to human blood, but also at least to that of the pig.

CYSTICERCUS CELLULOSE. 119

and is nearly allied to chitine, but dissolves, when boiled in
caustic alkalies, rather more easily than the latter. The addition
of iodine produces no reaction of cellulose, although this is not a
rare constituent of the envelopes of the lower animals, as, for
instance, of the Tunicata. The vesicle contains a fluid con-
taining albumen, fat, and calcareous matter, upon the pro-
duction and nature of which we have already spoken. I will
also dwell no further upon the object of this vesicle, which is
only the enlarged six-hooked embryonal vesicle, and which at
any rate fulfils the double office of a reservoir of nourishment,
and a proliferous organ, as I have already spoken at length upon
it in my book on the Cestoidea, and also in the general portion
of this Manual. Our scolex never lives in the true fatty tissue,
but only in the muscles, in the cellular tissue, the brain and its
cavities, within and between the membranes of the eye, and in
the orbits. In the serous cavities of the body, such as the
brain and the orbits, it lives free ; in the other parts of the body
it is enclosed in cysts which originate from the host, and the
walls of which present the microscopic composition of those parts
of the body in the neighbourhood of which the cestode worm
has its habitation.

The above-mentioned characteristic marks, which are presented
by the everted head and the short neck, agree exactly with those
of Tania solium, and we should only have to repeat what we
have said as to the head of T. solium, or in the general part
upon the greater abundance of calcareous corpuscles in the cystic
worms, and the gradual disappearance of these structures during
Tsenial life. Only this one circumstance may be mentioned, that
during the scolex period the hook-sacs keep in the background,
and only become more distinct, and, at the same time, more
resistent, at the period when the black pigment is deposited in a
larger quantity on the head, and especially round and in the
sacs. A figure of the most essential parts, such as is given in
PI. Ill, and a comparative measurement of the sucking discs
and hooks, which will follow at the close of the section " Ces-
toidea," will render the matter more intelligible than the most
exact description. But to complete the proof of the identity of
Cysticercus celluloses, we must not only succeed, as above recorded,
in converting Cyst, celluloses into Tcenia solium, but reversing the
matter, we must also be able to breed Cysticercus celluloses by

120 ANIMAL PAKASITES.

the administration of the eggs of Tcenia solium. And in this
also we have succeeded.

Experimental proof of the conversion of the six-hooked embryos
enclosed in the eggs of Tsenia solium into Cysticercus cellulosse.

After I had made experiments on the production of Cysticercus,
in the year 1851, by the administration of the eggs of Tcenia
solium to rabbits and dogs, and expressed the opinion that the
pig infects itself with Cysticercus celluloses when it meets with
the eggs and proglottides of Taenia solium upon the pastures, and
after I had published in Giinsburg's 'Zeitchr. fur Klin. Mediz/
for 1853, my observations on the production of staggers in sheep,
by administering to them the young of T. ccenurus, Van Beneden
at the close of the year 1853, set about administering T. solium
to two pigs. He actually succeeded, in this way, in rendering
one pig measly, and upon this he has reported to the Academies
of Sciences in Paris and Brussels.

Amongst the experiments already mentioned as instituted in
common by Professor Haubner and myself, by order of the Saxon
ministry of the Interior, was also the experiment upon the pro-
duction of Cystic, celluloses. Five pigs and one sheep were fed,
by Professor Haubner, with segments of Toenia solium, partly
furnished by Professor Richter, of Dresden, and partly by me.

1. On the 30th of March and 5th of April a pig received a
number of mature segments of Taenia solium which had been
expelled the day before by medicines. The experiment gave no
result, as appeared from dissection on the 15th of May.

2. On the same days a second pig was fed with the same
T&nia, and also on the 20th May with fragments of T&nia
solium which had passed off spontaneously. It was killed on the
13th September, but in this case also there was no result.

3. On the 7th, 24th, and 26th of June, and the 2d of July,
three sucking-pigs were fed with segments of tape-worms, partly
given off spontaneously and partly artificially expelled, arid on
the 13th July they were again fed with artificially expelled
segments. One of these pigs was killed on the 26th of July,
and exhibited young Cysticerci corresponding with the days of
administration, of which the largest individuals formed vesicles

CYSTICERCUS CELLULOSE. 121

of the size of a hemp-seed, with a central turbidity, i. e. the
commencement of the head. The second pig was killed on the
9th August, when thousands of Cysticerci were found in all
parts of the body ; the largest individuals were as large as peas,
and exhibited a distinct head, whilst the smallest were only of
the size of a hemp-seed. The third pig, which was killed on the
23d of August, was uniformly set throughout all parts of the
body with Cysticerci of various degrees of growth and develop-
ment. The largest were almost perfectly developed ; others re-
sembled those last described. I undertook the examination of
a weighed piece of the flesh, and found 133 Cysticerci cellulosa in
4J drachms of it. If we calculate from this quantity the number
of Cysticerci which would have existed in 1 stone or ^th cwt. of
the pork, we obtain the great number of 88,000 individuals in
this weight. A fourth pig, of the same litter, to which no Tania
had been administered, exhibited no traces of Cysticerci on
dissection.

A fragment of a Tcenia solium which had passed off sponta-
neously, was given, almost by mistake, to a sheep, but it did not
succeed in making the animal measly ; nor have Professor
Haubner and I been more successful in rendering dogs measly
by the administration of Tcenia solium, as was previously done in
the year 1851.

It is of no consequence to us at present why the first two pigs,
as well as the dogs and the sheep mentioned, were not rendered
measly. We do not yet know the circumstances exactly, which
facilitate or hinder the production of cystic worms in general,
still less in one particular case ; nevertheless it is evident that
the causes of this might lie either in the animal experimented on,
(in its age, its feeding, or its personal immunity from cystic
worms), or in the tape-worm administered, (whether its young
were perfectly developed and healthy, or more or less weakened,
or perhaps even killed, by the medicines). Especial interest
attaches to the third series of experiments, which refers to these
examined pigs of one litter, to which the same Tania were
administered and which all became measly. It is to this last
circumstance in particular that Professor Haubner thinks, and I
agree with him, that we must lay the most weight. The occur-
rence of Cysticerci in all the animals fed with the same material
is the main point, and is of the greatest value and interest to us.

122

ANIMAL PAEASITES.

We think that we have a certain right to judge that the pro-
duction of measles from the eggs of Tcenia solium is now placed
beyond a doubt by the experiments of Van Beneden and our-
selves.

Leuckart, who has also repeated and confirmed this experi-
ment recognised in the mode in which Cysticercus celluloses is
developed from the embryo of T. solium, exactly the same type
as that above described as the type of the formation of the so-
called Cysticerci in general. It is, however, worthy of note, in
regard to Cyst, celluloses, that this worm acquires the vesicular
form, and also becomes covered with a vascular net, rather early, at
a time when no trace of the future head can be observed (fig. 1).
The first foundation of the head commences in Cyst, celluloses,
not before, but probably soon after the seventh week, at which
time the embryo is about 2*5 millim. in diameter. The first
trace of the head appears in the form of a lens-like thickening
0-07 millim., which shows itself as a white, turbid spot on the
clear and transparent wall of the vesicular worm, and consists of
Fig. i. roundish and fusiform cells with a

small (0-0017 millim.) oval nucleus
and some calcareous corpuscles in
their vicinity The head at the
same time does not hang perpen-
dicularly but in a diagonal direc-
tion from the wall of the vesicle
into the cavity ; it is very slender,
with thin walls, and in Cysticerci
of 3-5 millim. is about 0*4 millim.
broad and 1 millim. long.

In Leuckart's experiments all
parts of the organism with the exception of the chambers of the
eye were affected with Cysticerci, and amongst others the cavities
of the skull, lungs, subcutaneous areolar tissue, orbits, conjunctiva,
optic muscles, &c. With regard to Cyst, celluloses in the brain
they were the smallest (2| — 5 millim. in longitudinal diameters,
in other places as much as 8 millim.), and lay in great numbers

(40 50) like the young Ccenuri free upon the surface of the

brain and between the convolutions in the substance of the
brain, in the ventricles, and between the lamellae of the dura
mater, forming projections from the surface of the brain and

CYSTICERCUS CXELLULOS/E. 123

impressions in the lining of the skull. Affections of the brain
during the immigration of the brood, and the growth of the Cysti-
cerci, were not observed, or were perhaps overlooked ; according to
the keeper's statements the animals were remarkably stupid. Ir-
regular forms caused by excrescences and constrictions, belong only
to the cyst and not to the worm. According to Leuckart, Cyst, cellu-
lose could not be reared in sheep and rabbits from eggs of T. solium.
An experiment made by Dr. Von Ammon and Professor
Haubner, in which incisions were made in the conjunctiva of
the eye of one of the pigs, and after eggs of Taenia solium had
been introduced into them, the eye was kept closed for some
time with strips of sticking plaster, unfortunately led to no
result. In my opinion, however, the embryos should have been
set free by crushing the eggs between two glass plates, and the
free and hooked young introduced into the eye ; but this experi-
ment was not tried, as the funds granted to the agricultural
section were exhausted, and the most interesting questions for
the agriculturalist were settled. In this way we now survey the
whole cycle of the development of T&nia solium and Cysticercus
celluloses, and we at the same time see, by accurate microscopic
examination, that the development of these Cysticerci, takes place
in exactly the same manner as we have described in the general
part of this work, for which reason we shall forbear from dwelling
further upon it here. Unfortunately hitherto the six embryonal
booklets have entirely escaped us, and we do not know whether
they are taken up by the surrounding exudation which is fur-
nished by the host, and becomes converted into cellular tissue,
and thus imbedded in the walls of the newly formed enveloping
cyst, or whether they remain attached to the animal itself and to
its caudal vesicle. Nor do we know how this is with the Cysti-
cerci, which occur m closed cavities (in the eye and brain), whether
in these cases the booklets fall to the bottom of the cavities which
replace the cysts, or whether they remain adherent to the so-called
caudal vesicle. Nay ; we do not even know whether six-hooked
embryos occur freely in water, and whether, which is very pro-
bable, they do not then easily lose their booklets and become
unfit for migration. Only this is certain, that the acts of immi-
gration are accompanied by irritation and inflammation of the
organs selected for passage, and that we do not possess any ac-
tive remedy for the destruction of the embryos at the moment
of immigration. That the greatest cleanliness be observed in the

124 ANIMAL PARASITES.

preparation of fruits, herbs, and roots which are to be eaten raw,
and that everyone who harbours a Tcenia solium should get it ex-
pelled as soon as possible, are the only preventive means that
we know of. Should some experiments which I am now institu-
ting lead to any result, I will give them to the readers of this
work in an appendix. As we are writing a text-book of the
diagnosis and treatment of the parasites of the human body, the
occurrence of Cysticercus cellulosae in man concerns us particularly,
and although the Cysticercus celluloses belongs to the section of
immature Cestoidea, in order to a^oid separating what is inti-
mately connected by too great a space, we shall add here what we
have to say —

Upon the occurrence of the Scolex of Tsenia solium = Cysticercus
cellulosse, in the human body.

The Cysticercus celluloses has hitherto been found in the most
various parts of the most various muscles, especially in the mus-
cles of the hearty in the cellular tissue, in the brain, and in the
eye of man.

In all these regions of the body it acquires various forms and
sizes, according to the space which is afforded for its development ;
and in the ventricles of the brain and the eye especially its caudal
vesicle attains even the size of a walnut, and the most remark-
able forms. Von Siebold, speaking of the production of these
remarkable forms in the vesicle of the Cysticerci, says (p. 64)
" the excess of nourishment will give rise to exuberant growths
and degeneration of the body of the embryo;" and he then
treats (p. 68, and in figs. 27, 28) very diffusely of this very simple
process, which may be summed up in the following few words so
that every one may understand it. It is not only the excess of
nourishment that, in the first place, determines the size and form
of the Cysticerci, but rather the softness, yielding nature, and
looseness of the tissues in which the Cysticercus occurs. Wherever
a vacant space or a yielding spot occurs, the cystic worm, in its
endeavours to increase in size, penetrates, and this may give it
and its cyst a hernia-like appearance. With these forms, how-
ever, we have little or nothing to do ; the nature of the worm
remains the same.

According to the various positions occupied by the worm, the

CYSTICERCUS IN THE EYE. 1*25

symptoms which it produces also vary. It is quite harmless in
the subcutaneous cellular tissue, where it was observed by Uhde
(who, in describing his results, has made some frightful reflections
upon the generaiio aquivora), by A. von Graefe, in a patient also
suffering from Cysticercus in the eye, by Romberg, and by Stich,
who has long treated the patients in question in his hospital. In
the muscles, perhaps with the sole exception of the muscles of the
heart, it also causes little inconvenience or injury. When situated
in the muscles of the heart, and especially in the papillary mus-
cles, it may lead to softening of the muscles, and during the
period of its retrogression, shrivelling, or calcification, to abbrevia-
tion of the papillar muscles, to defects in the valves, and to the
formation of diverticula and aneurisms, with their consequences.
Whether a rupture of the cyst, occurring during the period of
retrogression, when this has proceeded to the greasy, fatty degene-
ration by setting free the greasy masses into the blood, may
give rise to the formation of thrombus in the vessels, and to
the consequences of this, so beautifully indicated by Virchow,
we have no observations to show. There is no diagnosis for it in
the deeper muscles of the living man, not even when seated in
the muscles of the heart.

Its influence when situated in the eye is of more importance.
Since Sommering discovered this parasite in the human eye, it
has been found by Mackenzie, Baum, Esthlin, Horing, Sichel,
A. von Graefe, and others. Since the discovery of the ocular
speculum by Helmholtz, A. von Graefe has done the most
service to this branch of ophthalmology; and what follows is the
description given by him, partly in the first volume of his
'Archiv' (p. 453, &c.), and partly in friendly communications
to me by letter.

When, as in the cases of Baum, Esthlin, Horing, and Sichel,
the parasite is between the conjunctiva and the sclerotica, it is riot
very dangerous, sometimes exciting no injurious action at all upon
the power of sight, and may easily be removed by operation. But
even in this position it may become dangerous to the eye, inas-
much as it causes the absorption of the subjacent structures of the
bulb, and, consequently, injures the whole structure of the eye
and indirectly the visual power. The phenomena are as follows,
according to the different positions inhabited by the worm —

a. When it is situated in the anterior chamber of the eye, in
which it was first seen in the living subject by Sommering and

126 ANIMAL PARASITES.

Schott, the symptoms were the frequent recurrence of ophthalmias,
subconjunctival injection, coating of the hinder wall of the cornea,
as if writh a fine exudative vapour, chronic, but particularly local
iritis, which was exacerbated periodically by the constant accom-
paniment of rather violent, symptomatic ciliary neurosis, and which
made its appearance at the very commencement of the affection.
By this the visual power is of course dimmed, at least at times.
The diagnosis can only be furnished by the recognition of the
worm, which assumes the most various forms. Sometimes the
vesicle lies quiet at the bottom, ajid sometimes it rises up and
thus covers the pupil entirely, sometimes only partially when the
worm has not yet become large and has perfect freedom of motion.
A portion of the vesicle may, also, even pass through the pupil
towards the posterior chamber of the eye, and thus close up the
pupil. The Cestode worm may even appear to be amalgamated
with the eye, but this is only an illusion, as this union would be
formed not by the worm but by its enveloping cyst, the tendency
to the formation of which we find indicated, according to Graefe,
in the exudative cloudiness on the hinder wall of the cornea and
on the iris, as well as in the adhesion of a circumscribed spot in
the vesicle to the lower margin of the pupil by means of yellowish
exudation, and in the cylinder described further on. In Graefe's
case, a round, milky, somewhat transparent vesicle, of the size of
a pea, made its appearance in the anterior chamber of the eye ;
on its lower part sat a perfectly opaque, white knob, on which
several lateral swellings (sucking discs) were detected even with
the naked eye, but better with the lens. The movements of this
body were of a peculiar constrictive character, proceeding from
the fundus of the vesicle, and diffusing themselves in an undula-
tory manner over the lateral portions ; they increased during
rapid movements of the eye with simultaneous protrusion
and retraction of the head, but were not augmented by increased
irritation from light, as Graefe ascertained by the worm remaining
quiet when very strong rays of light were allowed to pass through
the pupil, greatly dilated by atropine. Even when the axis of
vision was perfectly fixed, the animal constantly moved. As to
the growth of the vesicle, one of the patients stated, that she first
observed it five months previously, and that it attained its full
size in fourteen days. Graefe has attached a note of interrogation
to this latter statement, but, as I believe, unjustly ; for, in the
first place, it follows from Graefe' s statement that the woman had

CYSTICERCUS IN THE EYE. 127

already suffered for ten months from remittent ophthalmia of the
right side, that at least five months must have elapsed since the
immigration of the six-hooked embryo before the woman observed
this vesicle ; in that case five months are sufficient for perfect de-
velopment, which was certainly completed when the woman first
noticed the vesicle ; and, lastly, it is certain that if the space be
not too much limited the vesicle thus far developed increases ex-
tremely rapidly in size, as Leuckart and I can affirm by reference
to the rapid growth of Cystic, tenuicollis.

b. In the posterior chamber of the eye. — The consequences are
always the same as in a. I had myself had the opportunity of
seeing a case which was regarded as Cysticercus protruding for-
wards through the pupil ; but I could not ascertain this positively
either by the examination of the uninjured eye or by that of the
portion of the pseudo -formation removed by operation and sent to
me. Unfortunately, nothing could be discovered of hooks or
sucking discs, but on a large spot of the part removed the micro-
scope certainly showed granular structures, which disappeared
with acetic acid, but was not altered by caustic potash, and which
were analogous to the calcareous corpuscles of the Cestodea. I
must leave it undecided whether this had anything to do with a
Cysticercus. An undoubted case of the occurrence of Cysticercus
cellulose in this position is reported by Von Graefe (' Deutsche
Klinik/ No. 45, 1856 ; < Sitzungs-bericht der Ges. fur wiss. Med.,'
August llth, 1856). The Cysticercus lay upon the hinder wall of
the eye, and was so distinctly perceived by the patient himself
that he was able to draw the shadow which the animal produced
upon his retina. In this case the rapid development of the animal
at first was remarkable.

c. In the vitreous humour. — The detection of Cysticercus in the
deeper parts of the eye in the living human subject has only been
possible since the introduction of the ocular speculum of
Helmholtz into surgical practice. It is necessary, however, to be
careful in these inquiries, and to know how to avoid illusions.
Dr. A, von Graefe was the first to recognise this parasite in the
vitreous humour of the living human subject, and he has most
kindly communicated what follows, at my request. " A mem-
branous cylinder of about one millim, with transparent mem-
branous walls, is observed in the retina, near the dingy, brownish
optic nerve ; it is directed forwards, so that it runs through the
vitreous body nearly in the direction of the axis of vision. In

128 ANIMAL PARASITES.

this cylinder tlie Cysticercus lies. The posterior end of this
cylinder reaches to the retina, but the fundus of the vesicle of the
Cysticercus separates distinctly a little before it. Anteriorly the
longish vesicle diminishes in calibre, and runs, somewhat con-
stricted in the middle, into the neck region in front. The head
itself is situated about in the centre of the eye, and appears as a
whitish swelling, the true relations of which are concealed by the
enveloping cylinder, and from which various streaky, pseudo-
membranous rays run forwards and towards the lens." Still in
front of the body just described, #nd on the hinder wall of the
lens, lies a second body similar to a Cysticercus, as to which Von
Graefe was not perfectly clear at the time, but which might
possibly be a dead Cysticercus. Even in the first case, movements
could not be distinctly perceived, a circumstance which must be
explained by the position of the structure exactly in the axis of
vision, and by the fact that the sac referred to is itself in a con-
stant state of rocking motion, and consequently it is very difficult
to get a clear view of the independent movements of the worm.
Nevertheless, Graefe believed he recognised the undulatory con-
traction of the hinder portion (caudal vesicle) of the worm.

During the continuance of the malady just mentioned, the
patient, who was afflicted with strabismus, arid on that account
sought Graefe' s advice, could still distinguish fingers at a distance
of several feet, but during fixation, the axis of vision was diverted
considerably inwards from the object. The patient could not
decypher the largest print even with magnifying glasses. The
other eye was sound. Tcenia solium was present ; but there was
no Cysticerci in other parts of the body.

In No. 45 of the ' Deutsche Klinik' for 1856 (Sitzungsbericht
der Ges. fur wiss. Med./ July 21st and August llth, 1856) Von
Graefe reported upon a moveable Cysticercus celluloses in the
vitreous humour, which already began to exhibit turbidity in con-
sequence of the irritation to which the animal gave rise in it.
Von Graefe established a coloboma in the sclerotic coat, and after-
wards extracted the Cysticercus with great difficulty by incision of
the sclerotica. In this operation the caudal vesicle was torn off,
and the head and neck, which were seized by a serre-tete} could
only be got out after several attempts. Of the cyst only a
portion was removed. The suckers of the Cysticercus continued
to move for twenty minutes, under the microscope. The visual
power of the patient improved ; he could read large print, count

CYSTICERCUS IN THE EYE. 129

fingers, go out, &c. ; but at the time when Von Graefe made his
report, all dread of chronic chorioiditis was not got rid of.

d. In the retina. — In one case the patient observed, three
weeks before his visiting Graefe's hospital, a cloud in front of the
left eye in the middle of the field of vision, and diffusing itself
thence towards the sides, so that the patient only had a perfect
sensation of light from the sides, whilst in the piddle of the axis
of vision only large and strongly illuminated objects glimmered
as if through a thick cloud. In course of time, however, the
sensibility to light was entirely extinguished in this eye. The
lens and vitreous humour were clear, but in the middle of the
retina a shining greenish body was seen, which was bordered by
convex circular margins and lay a little outwards from the centre
of the retina on the outside of the optic nerve. The rest of the
retina was healthy. Examined in the reversed image, the body
appeared as a perfect, roundish, greenish vesicle, four times larger
in diameter than the entrance of the optic nerve. It was firmly
attached to the retina, and projected with its anterior wall into the
vitreous body,in which was perceived a white, button-like, projecting
appendage, distinctly marked by its greater opacity and its colour,
which shifted its place, although no separate parts could be per-
ceived upon the knob, and over which a pair of vessels ran
forwards. On this account Graefe supposed that the worm had a
fine enveloping membrane. When the axis of vision was com-
pletely fixed, the walls of the vesicle exhibited flattenings or cup-
like impressions in several places simultaneously, together with
movements which diffused themselves in an undulatory manner.
In three weeks the vesicle had increased about one third in
diameter and reached to the optic nerve. The head had passed
from the centre to beneath the upper margin, and appeared to
have grown like a small vesicle out of the previous one, that is to
say, the enveloping cyst had probably burst, and a small vesicle
protruded which sat upon the former. On the head distinct
swellings and a neck-region, sometimes extended and sometimes
retracted, were now seen. Ten weeks after the first observation,
the vesicle was not remarkably enlarged, but less greenish and
more transparent. The above-mentioned vessels appeared to
be obliterated cords. The small appendage was nearly as large
as the original vesicle and covered the optic nerve entirely. The
rest of the retina had lost its colour, and was covered with
irregular, blended, pale spots, of which Graefe did not know

130 ANIMAL PARASITES.

whether they lay in or behind the retina. In five months tiie
first vesicle was completely collapsed, and instead of it a folded,
transparent, membrane, without determinate outlines, was to be
seen waving up and down, and the second vesicle also was less
distinctly detected with indeterminate outlines. The animal,
however, was still alive, and its head lay towards the nose.
Cystic worms appeared on no other part of the body, nor did the
patient suffer from tape- worm.

In a second case, in which no Cysticerci appeared on other
parts of the body, but in which segments of Teenies were passed,
glimmerings, cloudy vision, and complete dimness of sight appear
to have established themselves gradually in the right eye, in
which inflammation had from time to time been set up, accom-
panied by violent attacks of headache on the right side, until at
last only a slight appearance of light remained. By means of the
speculum, a round, vesicular body, with the before-mentioned
uudulatory movements, was seen above the place of entrance of
the optic nerve. Its fine, bluish-green colour was deadened by a
slight veil (enveloping membrane). As if inverted in the vesicle,
a white head was seen, which alternately extended and retracted
a neck. In this case also the above-mentioned greenish spots
were seen upon the retina. In course of time the shining colour
gradually disappeared ; but there was no change in the form and
size of the entozoon. In nine months instead of the vesicle,
only a colourless membrane, or a system of such membranes,
which covered the greater part of the hinder surface of the eye,
was seen floating in the vitreous humour. The sensibility to light
had entirely disappeared. Although, as already remarked, there
was no external appearance of Cysticerci, Graefe thinks that the
previous weakness of one arm, the violent headaches, the
glimmering, and the subjective appearance of light in the other
eye, must be referred to a simultaneous existence of Cysticerci
in the brain.

In a third case, Graefe saw the vesicle shining immovably to
the right in the outer part of the back of the eye, through a
septum of translucent membranes, which penetrated the hinder
part of the vitreous body ; he saw the movements of the vesicle
and the neck distinctly, but the sucking discs indistinctly. This
eye was quite blind ; the other was healthy. There was no trace
of a tape-worm, or of Cysticerci, in other parts of the body.

In the latter cases, at the first glance, the greenish colour,

CYSTICERCUS IN THE EYE. 131

which Graefe does not explain any further, must strike one.
The explanation appears to me to be simple. The Cysticerci
themselves are translucent and bluish. As, in employing the
ocular speculum, we examine the eye by lamp-light, the bluish
tint thus in the first place acquires a greenish appearance. But
then, in this case, the colour of the vitreous humour and its
changes, in consequence of the inflammation of the retina, and
the complementary colour of the exudation and of the lamp-light,
must also be taken into consideration.

In a fourth case Graefe saw the Cysticercus lying on the retina,
projecting very far into the vitreous humour, and enclosed in a
system of folded, floating, but tolerably transparent membranes.
This also was observed by the patient, probably by chance, in the
first period of pregnancy. The consequence was a complete
amaurosis, except a feeble glimmering of 'light beneath and on the
outside. The other sound eye participated consensually with sub-
jective appearances of light and a diminution of the power of
vision without perceptible material changes. T. solium not men-
tioned. I cannot omit to call attention to the fact, that in the
eye of the pig, also, Cysticercus celluloses prefers the vitreous
humour and the retina for its habitation. Thus Von Nordmann
in one case found six Cysticerci in the vitreous humour, and, on
the posterior wall of the same eye, beneath a membranous coat,
six other Cysticerci close together.

e. Under the retina. — In this situation Von Graefe (' Deutsche
Klinik/ No. 45, 1856 ; * Sitzungsber./ August llth) has seen a
Cysticercus, the removal of which, with the aid of the speculum,
he thinks might be possible.

/. In the brain. — Here we should require to be very prolix, if
we wrere to describe the particular symptoms according to the
position occupied by the cystic worm. The general observations
on the formation of tubercles in the brain are of use here, and we
refer to the pretty well established facts upon this subject, which
will be found laid down in every text-book of pathological
anatomy and pathology, upon pseudoplastic deposits in the brain.
In the general section upon the migration of the Coenuri into the
brain, we have represented pretty exactly the consequences of the
migration of Cysticerci into the brain, and only the vertiginous
movements need to be excepted from amongst the symptoms in
the human subject. Where these symptoms occur, a rapid

132 ANIMAL PARASITES.

growth and quick increase of the disorder is remarked, which, in
the course of a few months or years, may come to a stand-still or
end perhaps in convalescence. The diagnosis of the parasites is
generally impossible during life, and we can only speak of a
probable diagnosis in those cases in which, simultaneously with
cerebral symptoms, Cysticerci occur in other and superficial parts
of the body, and the presence of T&nia solium, at the same time
or at an earlier period of life of the patient, can be ascertained.

The general prognosis of this cystic worm varies according to
its position. Favorable when the worm is situated in the general
envelopes of the body, or in any of its superficial parts, it becomes
more doubtful in proportion to the depth at which the cestode is
seated in an important organ, the number of Cysticerci present, and
the size of the individual cysts. The prognosis is, therefore,
favorable in the anterior chamber of the eye, but becomes un-
favorable in the retina and in the brain. With the lapse of
time the Cysticercus is certainly destroyed, becomes calcified
aud shrivelled, which of itself may produce an alleviation of the
symptoms caused by it.

Treatment of Cysticercus celluloses. — There is no prophylaxis
for the prevention of the production of this parasite, the embryos
being too small to be seen and recognised, unless we place in this
category the destruction of the proglottides of T&nia solium by
fire, desiccation, or spirits. If the brood have once got into the
stomach, we do not yet possess any means of destroying their
power of development and killing the brood in the stomach. All
my attempts at feeding rabbits or sheep with powder of Filix mas,
pomegranate-root pills, turpentine pills, oil of rosemary pills, and
an old secret remedy of the shepherds, before, simultaneously
with, or some time after the administration of eggs of T. serrata
or T. Ccenurus, in order to prevent the exclusion of the brood, gave
no results. Even pills of insect-powder (Pyrethrum roseum) did
not entirely protect them, although the number of Cysticerci
found appeared to be less than is usually the case after adminis-
trations. The indications of treatment are essentially easy with
regard to this cystic worm.

1. If it can be reached by the knife, it may be removed.

2. If this be impossible, the means of killing the worm, in
imitation of nature, must be practised.

3. And further, we must endeavour to expel T&nia solium as

T.ENIA MEDIOCANELLATA. 133

quickly as possible from those who suffer from this worm, so as to
cut off this possible constant source of the production of Cysticerci
in one individual.

The Cysticerci in the subcutaneous cellular tissue and in the
anterior and posterior chambers of the eye which are within reach
of the knife, or the couching needle may be removed by cutting,
or broken up by the couching needles ; but this last process is
less advisable, as the chitinous structure of the vesicle does not
disappear by absorption, When the Cysticerci are in the vitreous
humour, we must, according to Von Graefe, endeavour to remove
them by incision of the sclerotica.

With the Cysticerci living on the retina and in the brain, our
endeavours must, ex theoria, be directed to causing their death as
soon as possible, after which, as observation shows, fatty
degeneration, calcification, and shrivelling take place in the worm,
which may be accompanied by an alleviation of the symptoms in
consequence of a partial diminution of pressure, just as we see
this takes place after apoplexy. Unfortunately, however, we have
no means of effecting this object, and even in the eye, into
which, according to Donders and Graefe, certain remedies applied
externally can penetrate by absorption, experiments by dropping
in filicate of potash and preparations of santoin were of no use,
according to Graefe. We must, therefore, wait quietly until the
parasite is destroyed by the favorable action of the organism, or
by time. How long a cystic worm may live in an organism, how-
many years it may wait, without suffering injury itself or becoming
destroyed, or be converted into a Tcenia when it gets into a
suitable intestine, are points unknown to us. If we knew these
things it would be possible to predict at what time the death of
the worm might take place, or a remission of the disorder be
expected. In short, there is no active treatment for the latter
purpose, although, according to Von Graefe, with those which are
seated beneath the retina, it might perhaps be possible to under-
take the operation by the employment of the speculum.

2. Tcenia mediocanellata (mihi). PI. Ill, figs. 11 — 13.

Up to the time of Bremser a second species of Tania made its
appearance from time to time in the system ; it was probably
known to Pallas, Brera, and Andry. Since Bremser's time,

134 ANIMAL PARASITES.

however, people began to think that the broad tape-worm of
previous authors was only Boihriocephalus latus, and that there
was no second large species of Taenia inhabiting the human body.
Opinions, such as that of Schmidtmiiller, who, I am sorry to say,
gave me no information in answer to my inquiries on this subject,
and that of Nicolai, who mentions this Tcenia in the following
words,1 " capite inermi aculeato sessili, articulis dilataiis brevioribus,
marginis utriusque medio latiore, alternis osculato, majoribus
transverse striatis, emarginatis" met with just as little attention
as the hints which occur in various reports of travels with regard
to this Tcenia. Thus Tutschek (in the < Ausland/ No. 2, for
1853) mentions the occurrence of a broad tape-worm (Tcenia
lata = ndaJcan) in Turn ale, in Africa. Four years ago I found
this worm in Zittau, and saw it myself in five patients amongst
others ; I also saw it in a woman from Bremen and a man from
Lubeck. Twice I had the opportunity of seeing fragments of it,
through Professor Richter, of Dresden, and three times through
Dr. Zenker. I saw mai^ examples at Madame Heller's, in
Hamburgh, and afterwards received two perfect specimens from
her. Gurlt, of Berlin, received a specimen through his son from
LangenbecVs Hospital, and Professor Leuckart saw another in
Giessen. In short, as to the existence of this species, which Van
Beneden, Eschricht, and J. Miiller have recognised from my
preparations, there can no longer be any doubt amongst those
who institute exact comparisons and examinations. If any doubt
should still prevail in the determination of the species, it is as to
whether a third large species of Taenia, besides T. solium and
T. mediocanellata does not inhabit the human intestine. So
much for historical introduction. If the head of this Taenia did
not resist attempts at expulsion with such extraordinary obstinacy
it would long since have been recognised.

Tsenia matura. — Species longissima (ad 12 — 14 ulnas longa]
latissima, crassissima. Capite inermi, permagno, ad 2 millim. lat.,
valde nigrescente, acetabulis 4 permagnis (ad 0'367//x = 0*829
millim. long, et O259"' = 0*711 millim. usque lat.)

Systemate vasculoso : in capite simpliciore, quam in T. solium ;
corpor. calcar, ad 0'012 millim. in capite, ad 0'018 millim.
inarticulis magnis, magisque numerosis} quam in T. solium.

1 Neuer Zeitscbrift fur Natur und Heilkunde, Von Ammon, Choulant und Ficinus, i,
p. 464.

T^ENIA MEDIOCANELLATA. 135

Rostellum nullum. Collum perbreve, sed distinctius, quam in
T. soliura. Articuli posteriores latissimi, ad 17 millim. lat. et ad
9 — 14 millim. long, crassi, poris genitalibus irregulariter alter-
nantibus. Proglottides permagrwe et pervivaces, scepissime sponte
et sine faecibus humanis ex ano demissce, cegrotumque valde
perturbantes ; in maxima sua extensions. 25 — 30 millim. long, et
ad 7 millim. lat.

Uterus permultos ramos (ex utroque latere usque ad 30), in
margitie libero clav&formes , non amplius dendritice, ad summum
bifurcatim divisos, inter se paralltlos.

Ovula magis ovalia, laeviora et clariora, quam in Tsenia solium,
ad 0-036 millim. longa et 0-028 — 33 lata ; testa crassd} uti in
T. solium. Embryones 0'028 — 32 mill, longi, 0*023 — 26 lati.

Scolex quiescens ignotus. Fortasse in Sue aut Bove, fortasse in
animal, inferior, ordinum.

The epidermis of this animal is thick and very distinct, of soft
structure, consisting of delicate lines crossing each other, and
without calcareous corpuscles. The epidermis is followed by a
layer of longitudinal muscles, which run through the whole body
of the animal, and form bundles of 0-245'" = 0-545 millim.
These, as well as the next layer of transverse muscles, contain
the calcareous corpuscles imbedded in them. The fasciculi into
which the layers can be split are about 0-070'" = 0-158 millim.
in diameter; they pass nearly to the upper and lower margins of
the segments, but always disappear at a short distance from these
margins.

The size of the sucking discs, which are quite black, gives the
head of this T&nia a considerable bulk, and it is easy to under-
stand how the older authors spoke of four large black eyes in
this animal. I have seen, in all, seven heads of this Ttenia ; two
of these are in Paris, and were given with my prize essay; one
is in the possession of Van Beneden ; I possess two myself;
I have seen one with M. Gurlt, and the other was left with the
patient. From their size, they were all of different ages ; the
segments were of different sizes, but the heads of all were in the
same state, and only that expelled in Travemiinde was paler,
because more sparingly furnished with pigment.

The very simple vascular net-work consists of a transverse branch,
running through the free space between the four sucking discs ;
from this a branch runs to and around the sucking discs, until
the four well-known longitudinal vessels are developed from them

136 ANIMAL PARASITES.

in the neck. I did not detect any anastomoses between the
individual branches of the sucking discs. The longitudinal branches
constantly become thicker as the segments increase in size, and,
when cut through, show a distinct lumen, each two lying close
together. I could not detect the anastomosing tran verse branch
on the posterior margin of each segment, which should always
occur in the Teenies. On the other hand, at these points I found
small enlargements of the vessels, distinguished by a kind of
valvular apparatus, which appeared to open before the fluid
streaming from the head, but closed itself against that running
back towards the head. When an air-bubble accidentally occurs
in these swellings, the action of this vascular cone may often be
easily recognised by a little pressure, especially in spirit-spe-
cimens softened again in caustic potash. When the segments
are held against the light, these dilatations are particularly well
shown, projecting half into the upper, and half into the lower
segment. Hence we can only hope to make successful injections
by operating from the head backwards.

The segments, which have a great tendency to increase in
breadth, are at first 1 millim. in length, and about 3 in breadth.
Afterwards, also, the breadth predominates over the length for a
long time, for the segments are 10, 14, 15, 17 millim. broad, by
9 — 14 millim. long. But this proportion does not remain con-
stant, and segments of 1 — l|in. in length, and only 3 — 4 lines
in breadth are met with. By this means the first half of the
segments acquire the appearance of segments of Bothriocephalus,
with lateral genital pores. The change of form is explained by
the circumstance that only the longitudinal muscles reach from
the upper to the lower margin of the segments, whilst the trans-
verse muscles cease at a greater or less distance from the margins.
That the last segments, or proglottides, have a tendency to pass
away without faeces, is beyond a doubt, but this also takes place
with T. solium, although more rarely. The segments pass when
the patient is standing quietly, and, falling into the trowsers, he
suddenly has a moist and cool feeling about the legs, and when
he seeks to free himself from this unpleasant sensation, he finds
a single proglottis attached to or creeping about his leg. When
this T&nia is expelled, it breaks off with remarkable ease close to
the neck, and then the first segments form series of joints, which
hang one after the other like the pearls of a necklace upon a
thread. These are the segments erroneously regarded by Seeger-

TYENIA MEDIOCANELLATA. 137

Wundt (Taf. ii, figs. 19 and 20) as degenerated, hypertropic seg-
ments of T. solium, arranged one after the other in the manner
of a rosary. After the lapse of about ten weeks from the time
when one of these Tceniae has been expelled up to the neck, a
fresh passage of proglottides always takes place. From figs. 13
and 14 of Bremser's first plate also, but especially from the half
untwisted, fig. 14, it is clear Bremser, unknown to himself, had
a T&nia mediocanellata before him.

Although the passage of proglottides without faeces occurs
sometimes, even with Tcenia solium, it is not the case to such an
extent, or so constantly, as in Taenia mediocanellata ; from which
we must conclude that its reproduction and growth is extra-
ordinarily rapid, and that the animal must even be more injurious
to its host than T. solium, as indeed is proved by experience.
The passage of the segments without faeces is a constant annoy-
ance to the patient. The proglottides adhering to the naked
body in the trowsers, or under the petticoats, being disagreeable,
from their clammy coldness, disturb the patients greatly; and
women especially are afraid lest the proglottides should fall un-
perceived upon the ground when they are walking or standing.
How really terrible the passage of these proglottides may be,
appears from the statements of one of my patients, who wrote
to me at the end of June as follows : " On the 6th of
April I observed the first passage of proglottides, and since then
they pass nearly every day, sometimes more, and sometimes
fewer. On the 24th of May, from the morning to evening, 21
passed spontaneously; on the 17th of June, seven within fifteen
minutes, and later on the same day two at once." If I reckon
20 proglottides daily, from the 6th of May to the 26th of June,
this gives in all 10 pieces, and if we calculate the proglottides
only at 1 inch long, which is very little, we get 83 feet 4 inches.
If we reckon only 15 proglottides daily from the 6th April to the
26th of June, when an expulsion takes place, this would give
80 x 15 = 1200 proglottides, or 1200 inches = 100 feet of tape-
worm passed in the course of 2§ months, and we must calculate
that in the course of one day 1, foot of tape-worm had been
passed and regenerated. This is certainly an enormous quantity,
when only a single specimen was present, which, however, was
proved to be the case by the last successful expulsion.

The troublesome tickling on the sphincter muscle from within,
when the segments forced their passage, and the clamminess on

138 ANIMAL PA11ASTTES.

the legs, upon which, in the patient here referred to, they imme-
diately deposited their eggs, which appeared like white, damp,
sand, plagued the patient most.

Besides those which passed spontaneously, 5 — 15 proglottides
passed daily with the faeces from this patient. As these also
immediately laid their eggs, the faeces looked as if sprinkled with
white sand. With such quantities, it is perfectly justifiable to
assume the number 20 as the daily average passed.

Genitalia. — The port genitales are extremely large and swollen,
so that it is very difficult to discover the penis. In this, how-
ever, we may succeed sometimes by carefully removing the
swollen part, and then trying to press out the penis. It is
thicker and shorter than that of T. solium, and passes posteriorly
into a very thick seminal cord, which may be disentangled from
the segment for a long way, and does not lie in such close con-
volutions as that of T. solium. The sac of the penis resembles
that of the other Teenies, but is of very large size, namely 0-019'" =
0-1 millim.in breadth at the widest, and 0-028'" = 0'063 millim.
at the narrowest part, and 0-175'" = 0*395 millim. in length.
The separate convolutions of the seminal cord are 0-010 — 0-017'"
= 0-023 — 0-039 millim. in thickness. The penis itself is 0-140'"
= 0'316 millim. in length; at its apex, about 0-014'"= 0'031
millim. in breadth, and at its base about 0-028"' =0-063 millim.

Female generative organs. — The vagina, which is enlarged
(0-031'" = 0'071 millim.) at its external orifice, arid diminishes in
its further course to 0-017'" = 0-039 millim. is strongly pig-
mented, and opens in the lower third of the segment into the
uterus, with a dilatation of 0-033'" = 0W079 millim.; it runs at
first along the lower side of the seminal cord, and parallel to it,
until it suddenly bends downwards. The lumen of the sheath in
its middle measures 0-037"'= 0'015 millim.

The uterus is a thick-walled, straight, median canal. In
spirit preparations, especially, with thick specimens, the canal,
when observed in its whole extent, forms a kind of pearl neck-
lace-like string, or a continuous tube, round which the sides of
the worm enfold themselves. This tube, which appears to be
continuous, and which I regard as a canal, induced me to call
the species T. mediocanellata.

The numerous lateral branches of the uterus spring opposite to
one another, and run parallel and perfectly undivided nearly into
the margins of the segments, when they either terminate in a

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE TAPE- WORM. 139

csecum, or, at the utmost, become bifurcate, but never, as in
T. solium divide dendritically.

The ova, 0-016'" = 0-036 millim. in length, and 0'012— 0-014'"
= 0*028 — 0'033 millim. in breadth, are on the average rather
smaller, of a lighter brown colour, smoother, more oval, and less
globular than in T. solium. The egg-capsules exhibit only two
consecutive layers, and are more easily broken than those of
T. solium.

Tiie scolex in unknown. In Dresden it cannot be rare, as the
Taenia occurs there not uncommonly. Unfortunately our mate-
rial extends no further, and pigs have not been fed with the eggs
of this Tcenia. It is not improbable that the cystic worm
belonging to this species may occasionally occur amongst the
specimens pronounced to be Cysticercus cellulosae. A very intel-
ligent patient, from whom I at last expelled a Tcenia by means of
my extract of pomegranate root, writes me that he had observed
his Tcenia from the time when, during a long absence of his wife,
he had dined from home at an eating- house, and frequently ate
raw beef-steaks and green salad and radishes. The scolex was
either seated in the beef, or in mollusca, which might have been
in the salad or on the radishes.

The embryos resemble in size and structure those of T. solium.
Their migrations are unknown.

Habitat. — Its residence is not so limited as one might perhaps
suppose, for it appears to occur in Europe and Africa. As some
persons have found fault with my previous geographical diagram-
matic statements, I pass over them here, and refer to my work
on the Cestoidea.

Variety — Tcenia from the Cape of Good Hope.
PI. Ill, figs. 14—16.

Nihil notum, nisi Strobilse pars posterior. Articuli per toium
corpus, cristd longitudinali pr&diti, crassi, et longi. Pori genitales
marginales, alternantes. Uterus et ovula simillima illis Ta;nia3
mediocanellatse. Verisimillimum est, strobilam mihi notam pro-
liferatam esse a Tsenise mediocanellatse scolice quodam 6 osculis
ornato.

By the kindness of Dr. Rose, surgeon, at the Cape of Good

140 ANIMAL PARASITES.

Hope, I have received a considerable number of segments of this
worm, unfortunately destitute of neck and head. It was expelled
by pomegranate-bark, and appears, like Taenia mediocanellata, to
be difficult of expulsion.

What we know of it at present is as follows : Its total
length must be at least 6 — 10 yards. Its segments are very
thick, white, and fat ; in the mature state more than 1 inch in
length, 3 — 5'" in breadth, and extremely massive. They are dis-
tinguished by having a longitudinal ridge running along the whole
of the mature and immature segments. The genital pores are
irregularly alternate ; the penis so much concealed behind the
thick, inflated margins of the genital pore that it is hardly dis-
coverable. The uterus is formed by a thick median stem, into
which 40 — 60 lateral branches open ; these resemble those of
T. mediocanellata, or perhaps still more those of Tcenia ex Cystic,
tenuicolli, especially when we consider the arrangement of the
branches like the teeth of a rake at the upper and lower margins
of the segments. The ova are oval, rather roundish, uneven,
and 0-013 - 0'015'" = 0-030 - 0*034 millim. in breadth by 0-017
- 0-019'"=:0-038 -0-040 millim. in length. They allow the six-
hooked embryo, which is 0*01 0"^ 0-024 millim. in diameter, to
shine through them distinctly. I never saw such remarkably
developed embryonal booklets in any other human T&nite ; the
central ones resemble stilettoes. The inner booklets were 0-0031
-0-0038'" =0-0069 - 0-0071 millim.; the outer ones 0-0021"'=
0*0046 millim. in length. The calcareous corpuscles were as
large and numerous as in T. mediocanellata. This T&nia is par-
ticularly rich in cholesterine, for very large and numerous flakes
of the substance made their appearance in the deposit which I
obtained from the sediment at the bottom of the bottle in which
this tape-worm came from the Cape.

The migrations of the six-hooked embryos and of the scolices
are unknown to me. Rose writes that it is impossible that the
latter should live in the flesh of pigs, as the worm was obtained
from a Hottentot, and the Hottentots, like the Jew and Moham-
medan, eat no pork ; a thick Tania occurs in Abyssinia, amongst
the Mohammedan inhabitants. It is known at the Cape of Good
Hope that the Hottentots brought this tape-worm with them
from the Caffer wars, in which they enjoyed themselves amongst
the cattle of the Coffers. The scolex, therefore, appears to live in
the cattle, and perhaps, also, in the sheep of the Caffers, and it

NANA. 141

may be a question whether the scolex might have been Cysticercus
tenuicollis.

Very recently the Teeniee with continuous ridges passing through
all the segments of the colony have attracted my attention in a
remarkable degree, because I have twice found Teenia Ccenurus
with six sucking discs and a three-cornered body, one angle of
which resembled the longitudinal ridge of our Teenia. Hence the
question rises whether the Teenia, No. 3, is not a variety, with six
sucking discs, of a species already known either in man or some
other mammal (T. mediocanellata, T. ex Cysticerco tenuicolli).

3. Teenia nana (Bilharz, Von Siebold).

Corpus filiforme, depressum ; caput antice obtusum, collum versus
sensim attenuatum, acetabulis subglobosis, rostello pyriformi un-
cinulorum bifidorum corona armatum. Articuli transversi ; cirri
unilaterales, ovula globosa, testa leevi simplici (?) instructa ^"
magna. Longitudo totalis 6 — 10'". Patria Myyptus, in hominis
intestino tenui semel reperta numero permagno.

The small filiform Teenies have broad and perfectly developed
segments, and a large quadrangular head, at the angles of which
the round, sucking discs are placed upon globular elevations ; the
head is flat in front and gradually diminishes in breadth and
passes into the long slender neck, which is followed by segments
which constantly become broader, until at last, at the hinder end
of the body, they acquire three or four times the width of the
head. These Teeniee only occupy a limited space in the ilium.

The ova are globular, with a thick, yellowish capsule, which is
probably double, for Bilharz speaks of a capsule and perhaps a
kind of thin vitelline membrane, as the contents of the ova con-
tract under the influence of alcohol. The six booklets of the
embryo Teenies are distinctly seen in the fresh ova. Although
Von Siebold himself received specimens, he has contented himself
with a very superficial figure of this Teenia, and has not even
thought it worth while to give the number, measurement, or a
good figure of its hooks, so that the fig. 18 in PI. V of the 4th
volume of his ' Zeitschrift ; might just as well have been
omitted by him as by us in this place ; the hooks are probably
very small. From the number of the Teenies found, and their

142 ANIMAL PARASITES.

evident small size, I have been induced to express the opinion
that this worm might be a Tania Echinococcus. It is to be hoped
that we shall soon see whether this Tcenia be anything like T.
Echinococcus altricipariens.

PHENOMENOLOGY AND DIAGNOSIS

Of all the mature Cestoidea occurring in the human intestine} both
Bothriocephali and Tsenire.

Of the symptoms produced by Tcenia nana we know nothing,
but in general the larger Cestoidea inhabiting the human intestine
agree in the following particulars.

The stronger an individual is in himself, the less the irritability
of his nervous system, the fresher his colour, the more regular
his appetite and nourishment, the better his food, and the less he
is inclined to diarrhoea ; in one word, the less tendency he has
to chlorotic phenomena the less does he complain of his symptoms
when he suffers from tape- worm. It has been universally
attempted to attach the greatest importance to the accom-
panying chlorotic symptoms, which are only increased in pejora
by the great consumption of food on the part of the tape-
worm, or to suppose that, by the great appetite of the tape-
worm for proteinic substances, calcareous salts and fat, chlorosis
itself may be produced. According to the degree of this
chlorosis, the more will the patient complain. Seeger gives
the following statement with regard to the frequency of particular
symptoms from a statistical table of 100 patients with tape-worms.
Sixty-eight times there were cerebro-spinal affections and partial
or general convulsions (for example, epilepsy, hysteria, melancholy,
hypochondria, abdominal spasms, dyspnoea, and convulsive
coughing) which may even rise to maniacal attacks and mental
weakness ; forty-nine times nausea even with vomiting and
fainting ; forty-two times various pains in the abdomen ; thirty-
three times disordered digestion and irregular evacuations; thirty-
one times irregular appetite and voracity ; nineteen times
periodical, habitual headache, usually on one side ; seventeen times
sudden colic ; sixteen times undulatory movements in the abdomen
up to the chest ; fifteen times dizziness or delusions in the senses

ANIMAL PARASITES. 143

and defects in the speech ; and eleven times shifting pains
in various parts of the body. All these symptoms, however, are
deceptive, if we should ascribe them to the presence of the
tape-worm. Very often, when they are present, they do not
disappear even when the worm has been expelled, a proof that
the latter is not their first cause. Meyer Ahrens, and before him
Bruce and Riippell, mention that, according to the belief of the
Abyssinians, the tape-worms only thrive in a healthy intestine,
so that they regard it as a sign of illness when they harbour no
worm. It is clear that this faith has some foundation ; but it is
equally clear that exceptions occur. All that has been said,
therefore, furnishes no absolute data for the diagnosis, not even
though the mode of life of the patient, his residence in certain
districts particularly notorious for Cestoidea, his trade or certain of
his habits might have furnished favorable moments for the
acquisition of tape-worms. Under all circumstances there is
but one certain diagnostic phenomenon, that is to say, the
emission of segments, or series of segments, of cestode worms.
This issuing of the segments may take place in several ways, by
the anus or the mouth, or through abnormal openings in the
walls of the intestine and abdomen. The way per anum is taken
by the worm either simultaneously with the fasces, especially
when these are diarrhoeal, or without this accompaniment. This
is the commonest way. The second, per os, is an extremely rare
way, but it may occur in violent vomiting, especially with intus-
susception. It may, perhaps, be explained by the circumstance,
that the segments cast off prefer to proceed towards the side to
which the posterior part of their body is directed. This may
perhaps be concluded from those dissections of animals in which
we find the head nearest to the anus and the hinder extremity of
the body nearest to the mouth, and perhaps also freely cast off
segments on the way towards the stomach. I saw the latter, for
instance, in a Tom-cat, from the mouth of which proglottides
crept a few hours after death, and in which the head of the worm
was situated towards the anus and the hinder extremity towards
the stomach, whilst free segments were moving about between the
stomach and the hinder end of the worm. The last course,
through abnormal openings in the walls of the intestine and the
abdomen, has often been doubted by authors, and was described
by the ancients as the passage of the tape-worm through the
navel, &c. When the bearer of a tape-worm has a wound in the

144 ANIMAL PARASITES.

abdomen, which communicates both with the intestine and the
outer world, as for instance when an intestinal fistula exists in
him, the passage of individual segments, or series of segments,
through the fistula is rendered possible. Whilst I am writing,
there is in Dresden a patient, belonging to a good family,
from whom proglottides passed through an intestinal fistula
in the neighbourhood of the navel. The surgeon who had
the dressing of the wound soon found repeatedly elongated thin
organisms, which moved about in the matter on the bandages.
He brought some of them to P^fessor Richter, who recognised
these extraordinary productions as proglottides.

Nay, there is even another way by which it is possible that
the segments may pass outwards, which, rare as it may be, was
certainly known to the ancients, namely, the passage of the seg-
ments through the urinary bladder. This course also would be
intelligible in exceptional cases, as, for instance, if an individual
suffering from tape-worm had recto-vesical fistula.

The passage of the mature segments of tape-worm is not physio-
logically connected with any certain time, and if, notwithstanding,
they pass more frequently at certain times than at others, neither
the moon and its phases, nor any other periodical times, have any
influence upon it, but it always depends upon periodical external
or internal causes. Thus, for instance, in the case of T&nia
solium, it cannot be a matter of indifference that pork is eaten
especially at certain times (from October to March). And as
the Cysticerci are thus more frequently swallowed by men at this
period, and must have become developed three or four months
afterwards into Tanice, which are giving off their segments, the
months from January to July must also be the favorite months for
the passage of the fragments of tape-worms. On the other hand,
however, these months are by no means the only ones in which
pork is eaten, and therefore segments of tape-worms may also
make their first appearance from an individual in other months.
To this we must add the circumstance that when once a tape-
worm has become mature, it constantly forms segments which
are destined to pass out, and this may continue through the
whole year. For how many years this may be possible cannot
be stated, as we do not know how long any tape-worm is capable
of existing in the same human intestine. That this may possibly
be for a considerable number of consecutive years, is a supposi-
tion necessitated by the practical experience that we constantly

PHENOMOLOaY AND DIAGNOSIS. 145

see fresli series of segments produced from a remaining scolex or
head of the same tape- worm.1 It is also unknown to us how
often this total regeneration up to the head can be repeated by
one specimen of a worm. If we bear in mind this regeneration
of the worm from the remaining head, and consider further that
in 3 — 4 months after the expulsion of the previous colony, a new
one, which gives off its segments, has grown up, we have before
us an additional reason for the occurrence of a fresh emission of
segments at certain periods of the year. As it may also be
proved that after eating certain fruits, such especially as straw-
berries, cranberries, bilberries, grapes, and black currants, raw
and green fruits, especially plums, melons, cucumbers and other
salads, and after " sauerkraut," a giving off of larger or smaller
pieces of tape-worms takes place, often extending to whole colo-
nies up to the neck, we have a further reason why at the time
these fruits are eaten, and especially at the period of the ripen-
ing of strawberries, bilberries, grapes, and black currants, which
expel whole colonies, the segments of Tacnice pass off with par-
ticular readiness ; and also why a more abundant passage of the
segments seems to take place annually at certain times. Even
in the use of herrings, pickled herrings, herring salads, and strong
beer, there is a variation according to the time of the year, and
generally at times a total cessation in the consumption of par-
ticular articles of food. From this point of view exact statistics
may hereafter perhaps be prepared, but this must be carefully
framed with as wide a margin as possible. To drag in the
seasons of the year otherwise than as they regulate certain con-
ditions of nourishment is unjustifiable, and those who speak of
the influences of the moon's phases upon the tape-worms in any
way should be regarded as nothing less than moonstruck.

If we have thus seen that the diagnosis of the presence of
tape-worms is only possible when we see their segments pass off,
we may, by the close examination of the mature segments, and

1 Von Siebold asserts of Tania serrata and other Tonic? of the dog, that the single
individual Tania only live a very short time in the intestine after the first period of
their maturity, and then perish hy age. This, a priori, contradicts the observations
upon the Cestoidea of the human intestine, and also my own observations upon the
TcBnia of the dog. For I have kept dogs chained up without any fresh administration of
Cysticerci, and seen them give off proglottides for 5 — 6 months together, when, upon
dissection, the Tcenia have been found in good condition. I have not continued the
experiment longer.

K

146 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

especially of their uteri and collections of ova, at once distinguish
the four large species from the human intestine, and predicate
what species of cestode worm are to be expelled.

The mature segment of a Bothriocephalus latus is characterised
by the collection of its dark-brown ova in the middle of the seg-
ment, and by the separate opening of the vagina and penis in
the middle of its ventral surface ; the ova are oval, and, when
pressed, open with an operculum.

The mature segment of T&nia solium has a uterus with a tor-
tuous median stem, from which *the lateral branches, which rarely
exceed 9 — 15 in number, are given off in an irregularly alter-
nating manner; the branches are dendritic, but often only on
one side ; the porus genitalis is simple and lateral, and the ova
are roundish, and rough externally.

The mature segment of Tcenia mediocanellata has a straight
median stem, from which numerous (30 — 50) regularly opposite
lateral branches are given off; these are undivided, or at the
utmost bifurcated, and run horizontally through the segment,
and usually parallel to each other. The porus genitalis is lateral
and simple, and the ova are rough externally, and rather more oval.

The mature segment of the Tcenia No. 3 — the Tcenia of the
Hottentots — has a median stem and branches, very similar to
T. mediocanellata, but the lateral branches at the upper and
lower margins run more obliquely from above downwards, or
vice versa. The branches which approach most closely to the
upper and lower margins acquire a form which nearly resembles
that of the teeth of a rake ; the porus genitalis is lateral, and the
ova resemble those of T. mediocanellata, but the embryo is
armed with more distinct booklets than in the other Ttsniae of
the human subject. The most distinctive character, however, is
formed by the ridge which runs through the whole body of the
T&nia. The rest is best explained by the figures on PI. I and II.

The general prognosis is favorable, with the exception of
T. solium. Thus, as long as it is not proved that the embryos of
this last Taenia cannot make their escape in the intestine and
become converted into Cystic, celluloses in the tissues of the same
man, its presence in the intestine is always a subject of fear and
apprehension. For this reason these animals, when they do not
trouble their host, may be left to themselves, with the exception
of T. solium} against which I always operate, on precautionary
grounds, whenever I meet with it. ^Bothriocephalus latus is the

TREATMENT OF TAPE-WORM. 147

most easily expelled, and next to this T. solium ; T. mediocanellata
is difficult, and so, apparently, is the Tcenia of the Hottentots.
It is only those who expel the last two species with certainty,
or totally in many cases, that can claim to be able really to expel
tape-worms. For T. nana, which escapes diagnosis, we have
also no prognosis and no therapeutics.

Treatment. — If the multitude of remedies recommended for
any disorder is an evidence of their want of power against it,
we must say that the therapeutics of the tape-worm is ex-
tremely defective. And, in fact, it leaves much to be desired, at
least as regards the pleasantness of the remedies, and the dis-
agreeable secondary effects which sometimes accompany the best
remedies and destroy their action.

I pass over the particular remedies which Seeger reproduces in
detail (pp. 89 — 198), such as cold water ; or the popular remedies,
such as a quantity of water in which green flax has been steeped
for ten days, taken early every day, mare's milk, sea water or
solution of common salt ; and also sal ammoniac, flowers of
sulphur, the Oleum nucum Juglandium, the Amara of the Schools,
the Semina Sabadillte, the Cicuta, hydrocyanic acid (two drops
every half-hour), bitter almonds (6 — 8 daily), opium, the Semina
Santonici or Cma>, the Rad, Valeriante offidnalis, camphor,
assafoetida, petroleum (20 — 30 drops on three consecutive days,
with a purgative on the fourth day), or the Tinctura Assafcetidce,
3vj, and petroleum, together (forty drops four times a day, increased
after two days to a tea-spoonful every three hours — a tedious
method), the uncertain 01. anim. rectif. sive Dippelii (5 — 6 drops
daily in broth), the 01. anthelm. Chaberti (also recommended by
Bremser; close 5 — 10 drops, rising to sixty drops, which requires
great caution), the bark of Geoffroya Surinamensis and G. inermis,
the bark of the root of the black mulberry tree, Morus nigra
(a popular remedy much in vogue in Asia Minor), the root of
Pteris aquilina and the drastic purgatives, such as tartar emetic,
calomel, castor oil, croton oil, jalap, gamboge, and elaterium : and
I also pass over the numerous new remedies which have been
recently mentioned by Dr. Walpers in the 'Pharmac. Centralblatt'
for 1851, p. 618, as Abyssinian remedies for tape-worms, namely,
the Radix Ogkert = Sasari, from Silene makrosolen (dose 5iiiss) ;
the Radix Habbe Tphokko = Habba Dchoggo = Madjamedjo =
Mitschamilscho, that is, the bulbs of Oxalis anthelmintica (dose
3xv) ; the Radix Adaudasch from Euphorbia, depauperata (dose

148 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

57 gr.) ; the Herba Haudukduk, a Euphorbiaceous plant (very
juicy, dose 18 gr.) ; the Cortex Tambusch, from Rot tier a Schimperi ;
the Herba Buffafala, from Bryonia scrobiculata ; the Folia
Aule = Woira, from Olea chrysophylla ; the Herba Zelim = Habbe
Zelim, from Jasminum floribundum (never given alone, but always
with Kousso) ; the Radio? Ternacha or Jernacka, from Verbascum
Ternacha or phlomoides (dose 70 gr., often mixed with Kousso) ;
the Herba Madder e, from Buddleia polystachya ; the Herba et
Flores Belbilda or Bilbilta, from Celosia trigyna (gss).

I have tested a great many oi" the remedies here mentioned by
placing living tape-worms in a mixture of the particular remedies
with white of egg, and determining the time in which the Tanice
died by the assistance of the rotation apparatus, the two poles of
which I introduced into the mixture.

In castor oil the Teenies lived about 7 — 8 hours and about an
equal time in a salad made with unwashed herrings, potatoes,
large pieces of onion and garlic, vinegar, and a large quantity of
oil; in Cuprum oxy datum nigrum (Rademacher) they lived for
days. After the administration of castor oil for four days, the
Tceniee of a dog were also quite lively. Stizolobium Mucuna, or
Dolichos pruriens (cow-itch) administered internally to dogs with
honey, produced violent diarrhoeas, accompanied by punctiform
spots of extravasation in the intestine, by which means fragments
of Teenies, but few entire ones, passed off. The decoction of
the pods of this remedy only produced diarrhoea; and the
Teenia lived uninjured for twenty- two hours in a mixture of the
hairs of these pods with white of egg. Tin behaves in exactly
the same manner. Electricity has no destructive action upon Teenice.

It is otherwise, however, with Kousso, in the infusion of which,
mixed with milk, the Teenies died within half an hour of their
introduction, and with oil of turpentine, in a mixture of which,
with white of egg, they died in 1 — 1^ hour. In a decoction of
the Brayera = Kousso, mixed with white of egg, the Teeniee died
in IJ — 3 hours; in a decoction of Rad. Punicee granatorum,
mixed with white of egg, in 3 hours, and with the same
decoction mixed with milk in 3 — 3J hours. In a mixture of
Extract, filicis marls aether., with white of egg, the Teenies died in
3J — 4 hours. The so-called filicine (filicic acid of Lutz), mixed
with white of egg, also has an energetic action upon the Teenies,
which die therein in the course of a few hours, and exhibit
oedematous swellings in various parts.

TREATMENT OF TAPE-WORM. 119

After these remarks I will give the particular methods of
expulsion which have been put forward, arranged according to
the remedies, and for this purpose I make use of that portion of
the work of Seeger-Wundt which refers to this subject, arid
of the historical treatise by Dr. Meyer, of Coswig (pp. 104 —
136) who, under the title of ( Die Wurmkrankheiten, eine 1830
in Berlin gekronte Preisschrift/ has just published a book, which,
being written without the least knowledge of modern helmin-
thology, contains nothing useful, except the enumeration of
methods, which, however, are thrown together in as disorderly a
manner as by Seeger. I shall also add something from my own
experience with other remedies.

1. Spigelia ant helminthic a. — In Martinique, according to Noverre,
they do not make an infusion, which has but little action, but a
syrup from specimens of this plant, which they collect at the
period of its weakest vegetation. The dose is three table- spoonfuls
for grown persons and one tea-spoonful for children of three years
old, administered on three consecutive days ; and on the fourth a
gentle aperient of manna, calcined magnesia, or castor oil, to
remove the dead worm. A little cold water and lemon juice are
added to each spoonful of the syrup at the moment of adminis-
tration. For two hours after taking it nothing should be eaten ;
but children are allowed a little bread or cake. A peculiar
secondary effect of the remedy is that it produces an instantaneous
amaurosis and bloated appearance when it is taken either in the
sunlight or in artificial light, for which reason it should be
administered at bedtime and the light immediately removed.
In cerebral affections alone this remedy is not to be given. This
method is one that could not easily be brought into use in
Europe.

2. Sabadilla. — Schmucker gets the yellow, elongated capsule,
with the blackish sabadilla seeds and the partitions in which this
pointed seed lies, reduced to a fine powder. After the patient
has been relaxed on the previous day with rhubarb and Glauber's
salts, half a drachm of the sabadilla powder is given to him in
the morning, with the same quantity of fennel sugar, and he
afterwards drinks 1 — 2 cups of chamomile or elder-flower tea.
Vomiting may easily be produced by this, and, according to
Schmucker, if there be worms in the stomach they are thrown
up. On the second day the same dose of sabadilla. If no more
of the worm makes its appearance, the patient takes half the

150 ANIMAL PARASITES.

quantity of sabadilla on the third and fourth days in the morning
and evening. On the fifth morning, whilst fasting, an aperient
is administered, and the living or dead worm is purged away.
Then follows, according to Schmucker, a long treatment for the
worm-mucus, which may last for twenty days, and which consists
in giving the patient three pills, each consisting of five grains of
sabadilla powder, made into a mass with honey, and every fifth
day an aperient. Children from 2 — 4 years old receive only
two grains of sabadilla powder. Moreover, Schmucker has seen
garden- worms and living Asca^ides quickly die with convulsive
movements when he sprinkled them with sabadilla powder.
(This method should not be entirely forgotten for the Ascarides.)

3. Sulphuric acid. — Weigel dissolves |ss — j of Glauber's salts
in 2 Ib. of well-water, and gives a cupful of it every night ; and
twice a day 30 drops Elix. Vitriol. Mynsicht., or 10 drops Elix.
Acidi Halleri, in half a cup of sugar and water. This is to be
continued even for months. (It is certainly now quite obsolete.)

4. Drastic purgatives and mercurials. — a. Drastics with Oleum
Chaberti, or Bremser's method. — Of an electuary made with Pulv.
Sem. Cinse, 3»SSJ Rad. Valer., 5ij • Rad. Jalapp., 3iss — i j ; Tart.
Vitriol., ^iss — ij ; Oxym. Squill., q. s. ut f. elect.; a tea-spoonful
is taken 2 — 3 times daily. Two tea-spoonfuls of Oleum Cha-
berti are then given every morning and evening in a mouthful of
water; water is taken after it, and a clove or a little cinnamon
may also be chewed, but no substances which produce eructation,
such as candied orange-peel. When sickness is produced by
taking this fasting, the remedy is administered 1 — 1| hour after
breakfast ; when giddiness follows it the dose is diminished ; and
when there is burning at stool or scalding urine, milk of almonds
or oil emulsion is given. Thus the patient in ten or twelve days
consumes %\] — iiss, after which he takes a gentle aperient, for
example: R Pulv. Rad. Jalapp., 3 j ; Pulv. Fol. Sennse, ^ss;
Pulv. Tart. Vitriol., 53. M. f. pulv., div. in 3 part. seq. D. S.
1 powder every hour. The oil is then again taken, and the
patient is allowed to use %iv — v, or even vj — vij, in all. I do
not think that at the present day any one will bring this method
into use. The worm is never expelled in toto, but rots away ; it
is no wonder that any one who expels tape-worms in this fashion
should never, any more than Bremser, learn to distinguish the
Teenies of the human intestine. I advise that Oleum Chaberti
should be given up at once.

TREATMENT OF TAPE-WORM. 151

b. Drastics, amongst others calomel, or Schmidt's method. —
A method which, probably only on account of its violence, is still
famous, and is employed in cases in which all others have failed.

Preparation. — To ascertain positively the presence of the tape-
worm, the patient is directed to eat no meat at dinner ; at night
he receives a herring-salad without potatoes, but with large quan-
tities of onions and sugar, and after it drinks much sugar and
water. The next morning he takes the following powder with
syrup: R Rad. Jalapp., gr. xv ; Sem. Santon., 9ss ; Gi Gutti,
Calom., aa gr. vj ; Ela3os. Tanaceti, 5! ; and afterwards drinks
black coffee, with a great deal of syrup, or very rich meat broth.
Upon this fragments, and sometimes even the whole, of the worm
pass away ; when, on the suspicion that another worm may still
be there, the expellent pills are immediately given.

B: Assafoetidse, Extract. Gramin., aa $ij ; Gi Gutti, Pulv.
Rad. Rhei, Pulv. Jalapp., aa 313 ; Pulv. Ipecac., Pulv. Hb,
Digit. Purp., Antim. Sulfur. Aurat., aa 9ss ; Calomel, 3ij ; Ol.
Tanaceti, Ol. Anisi, aa gtt. xv. M. f. pill. gr. ij, consp. Pulv.
Lycop. S. Six to be taken every hour. Between the first and
second doses the patient takes a table- spoonful of castor oil, and
afterwards weak black coffee, with plenty of syrup, between the
doses. In the afternoon the worm passes off. If this takes place
slowly, a little more castor oil is given in the meantime, and by way
of precaution the six pills are administered three times on the fol-
lowing day. (For my own part, I think that this method ought
not to be again employed immediately, when one whole worm
has been passed. My own observations have shown me that when
several worms inhabit the same intestine, one of them, in passing
out, always tears away so much of the others, that the medical
man, who certainly must make a careful examination, may see
whether there be only one or several tape-worms.)

If this total expulsion of the worm does not take place after
the herring-salad, but there is only an expulsion of single seg-
ments, the patient on the following day takes the following mix-
ture, from the morning until seven o'clock in the evening : IjL
Pulv. Rad. Valer., 3vj ; Fol. Sennse, 3iij ; fiat Infus. Colat., $vj,
adde Natri Sulfur., 3iij : Syrup. Manna3, Jij ; Elseos. Tanaceti,
3ij. At noon a thin gruel, with herring, and about eight
o'clock in the evening a herring-salad, with raw ham, &c. Sugar-
water to drink.

I consider this method as too exhaustive, arid explain the neces-

ANIMAL PAEASITES.

sary subsequent treatment of at least two months, the cause of
which is, " that nearly always for 4 — 6 weeks after the cure more
or less worm-mucus passes off" in this way, that the worm-mucus
is nothing but a chronic diarrhoea (catarrh, intestinal, artificialis
aut traumaticus) caused by the strong purgatives. Gottel also
saw two relapses, and Schmidt himself speaks of nests of small
worms — a proof that even this method is not infallible.

c. Hufeland's method is too tedious, uncertain, and exhaustive,
to render it necessary to mention it.

d. Ritscher's method. — The patient drinks several cups of
water-gruel, and then, if a grown person, takes 3ss of Dover's
powder, and, two hours afterwards, a table-spoonful of castor oil,
which is repeated hourly until operation. This is all repeated, if
necessary, the next day.

e. Ettmiiller's method. — At seven o'clock in the evening the
patient takes Calom., gr. xij ; Lapid. Cancror., 9j ; and, about
nine o'clock, Ol. Amygd. Dulc., 3iss j which usually operate twice
during the night. At seven and nine o'clock the next morning
the patient takes a powder of 12 gr. Gi Gutti and 4 gr. Had.
Valer. and Sem. Cinas, when the worm is entirely expelled.

/. Lagine's method. — In the evening the patient takes a
clyster of decoction of figs, and the next and two following
mornings, whilst fasting, a glass of white wine, with — R Had.
Valer. syl. rec. pulv., 3J ; Putam. Ovor. calcin. et prseparata,
gr. xx; when the patient should lie in bed, lightly covered, and
perspire. For three hours he neither eats nor drinks ; then he
gets some soup, and observes a strict diet. On the fourth day
the following aperient is given : R Merc. Dulc., gr. x ; Panaceas
Mercur., gtt. iv ; Diagryd. Sulphurat., gr. xij ; Syrup. Flor. Per-
sicorum, q. s. ut fiat bolus, D. S., to be taken in the morning,
fasting. Two hours afterwards the patient receives a glass of
the following tisane : R Fol. Senn. mund., ^ss, infunde in
Aq. ferv. libr., ij, adde Sal. Tartar, fixi, gr. viij, digere per
noctem et col. ad usum. An hour after the first glass of the
draught, some meat-broth is given. According as the bowels are
opened, the draught is continued or not. In the evening ano-
ther clyster as above described. When pain in the stomach is
present, the treatment is commenced with an emetic. The
treatment is repeated once or several times in the same course,
from the powder to the aperient.

g. Lieutaud's method. — R Diagryd., Cremor. Tartar., aa 9ss ;

TREATMENT OF TAPE- WORM. 153

Antira. Diaphor., gr. xij; Pulv. Rad. Filic. Mar., Pulv. Rad.
Mori Fructu Nigro, aa 9ss. M. D. S. at once. And R Pulv.
Sabin., Semin. Rutse, aa gr. viij ; Mercur. Dulc., gr. iv ; Ol.
Essent. Tanaceti, gtt. vj. M. fiat cum syrup, persicorum bolus,
D. S., to be taken at once, and a glass of an infusion of peach-
kernels in wine to be drunk after it.

h. Desault's method is almost ludicrous. He rubbed mer-
curial ointments into the abdomen, and between the rubbings in
administered strong doses of calomel. By this means it is cer-
tain the worm will very rarely be expelled, but we may make
pretty sure of producing salivation.

i. The method of Clossius. — As soon as the presence of the
Tccnia has been ascertained by means of turpentine, the patient
is kept for four weeks upon a diet entirely consisting of pungent,
salted and smoked food, and cheese. With this the patient must
drink more wine than usual. For a few days before the adminis-
tration of the purgative, the patient takes, every evening, a grain
of opium or Laud. Liquid. Lyd. Frequently only a single
administration of the purgative is necessary. R Mercurii
dulcis, Lapidum Cancrorum prseparatoruro, aa gr. xij. M. f.
pulvis, S. No. 1. — R Ol. Arnygd. dulc., gss. S. No. 2. —
R Gi Gutti, gr. xxxvj ; Rad. Angel., gr. viij ; Pulv. Card,
bened., Pulv. Epilept., aa 3j. M. etc., divide in partes sequal.
No. 3. — About four or five o'clock the patient takes No. 1 in a
little water, takes only half a supper at night, and No. 2 at bed-
time. The next morning, if possible whilst still in bed, he takes
one of the three powders in a little tea, or in a wafer. In two
or three hours, vomiting and liquid evacuations usually occur, and
this is to be assisted with tea or thin broths. If the worm has
not passed in two hours, the second powder is administered, and,
after again waiting for two hours and a half, the third, after
which the worm is always expelled. The worm either passes in
a living state on the same day, or on the following day dead.
The remedy is rarely unaccompanied by diarrhoea and vomiting,
so that the worm itself passes out with a natural stool. For the
reasons already given in the general section, I can never approve
of this method with T. solium, as the long preliminary treatment
may easily give rise to a dissemination of the embryos in the in-
testine, and to Cysticercus celluloses in various parts of the body.
Tcenia solium, above all, requires quick methods.

151 ANIMAL PAftASITES.

Methods with some newer and rarer remedies.

a. Schebdi = Phytolacca dodecandra or abyssinica, Zatze. Pro-
fessor Martius, of Erlangen, had the kindness to send me some of
this medicine. I gave ten pieces of this fruit to a child, although,
according to prescription, nine of them should be sufficient for an
adult. Only a few fragments of the worm are expelled, the rest of
the tape- worm remained, and has again shown itself, according to
the statements of the parents. This remedy probably acts only
by the sharp angles of its coat, ajid the small spines or hairs on
its outer surface.

b. Fructus Saoria, according to Martius Soarite, Sauarjae, the
fruit of Moesa picta, Hochstetter (vide ' Med. Neuigkeiten/ 1854,
No. 13, p. 101). Walpers describes the medicine as follows:
" The fruits are berry-like, measuring li'" in diameter above the
middle, with the tips of the calyx persistent, and containing
about twelve reddish-brown, nearly tetrahedral seeds. " The
powder of the seeds is taken in pea-soup. According to the ex-
perience of Walpers and myself, the medicine acts harmlessly.

Dose, 3j — 3^ss- I Save ^ OIlce ijl a frdl dose (5J) to a weak
woman-cook, who, according to the statement of the medical man
attending her, was suffering from T. solium. He had been mis-
taken, and it proved that the patient had suffered from Ascaris
lumbricoides , and the remedy, a present from Professor Martius,
had been administered to no purpose. The consequence of its
administration was slight diarrhoea. A boy of ten years old
received 3ss of the remedy in pea-soup. About three yards of
worm passed off the next morning, still alive. Several attempts
to expel segments were made five months after the administration
of the medicine, without producing any result. No portion of
tape-worm was expelled. Nevertheless, at Christmas, after he had
eaten carp cooked with gingerbread sauce, the boy was imme-
diately attacked with vomiting and stomach-ache just as at the
time when he harboured his tape-worm. He could not be per-
suaded, therefore, for the time that he did not still suffer from
tape-worm. Nevertheless, it is quite possible that the worm was
really dead and had passed off gradually unobserved. Dr. Ziirii
gave the remedy once with and once without result.

Dr. Strohl, of Strasburgh, in an article in the ' Gazette
Medicale de Paris/ for 1854 (Des principaux Tasnifuges
actuellement employes, et de deux nouveaux medicaments de ce

TREATMENT OF TAPE-WORM. 155

genre importes d'Abyssinie, le Saoria et le Zatze), and in the
' Deutsche Klinik/ No. 48, for 1856, has reported upon some
experiments made with the Suoria. Notwithstanding the facility
with which the remedy is taken, it appears not to be advisable, as
its action is too uncertain. I may give a summary of StrohFs
results as follows :

1. In two cases in which the remedy was administered where
Taenics were really present, the worm was never expelled up to
the head, but always in fragments, which frequently reached
nearly to the head.

2. These fragments were usually expelled alive ; they were
only dead in one case.

3. It was hoped that the remedy would have such a poisonous
action that the worm would be destroyed by it, which the
Abyssinians indeed suppose to be the case with this remedy,
but not so much as with Kousso ; this, however, is by no means
proved, as all further check is wanting.

4. Violent actions only occurred three times, and these are
attributed to the sickly state of the persons experimented on in
other respects.

5. The remedy was easily taken ; its taste is less repulsive
th ,n that of other remedies; nausea, vomiting, and a little pain
in the abdomen are usually the only consequences.

6. After taking the remedy the urine is always of a violet
colour, like a dilute solution of a persalt of iron to which a few
drops of a solution of tannic acid have been added.

7. Strohl prescribed the remedy in the following way : The
night before the cure only broth ; the next morning 3J of freshly
powdered Saoria in one or two pints (for adults) of an aromatic
infusion, sweetened as much as possible, and taken in two doses.
In 2 — 3 hours the bowels are usually acted upon; should this
not be the case, Oleum Ricini. On the day of the cure a light
diet is to be observed. If the operation on the bowels be but
slight, purgatives are given on the following day to remove the
remains of the worm, and the remedy is repeated in a few days
if there be reason to suppose that the head remains. (This was
always the case.)

8. For Ascarides and Oxyurides this remedy appears to be
deserving of recommendation.

There are, however, two essential errors into which Strohl has
fallen, and which I must correct. 1. His assertion that even by

156 ANIMAL PAEASTTES.

other methods the worm is usually expelled in fragments, and
without the head, is untrue. This does not apply to my methods,
and I require that, with a good remedy for tape-worm, the entire
worm with its head should be expelled. 2. Strohl could not
account for the origin of a tape- worm in a child of two years old.
After long inquiry, he found that there were numerous cats in
the house, with which the child often played ! He continues,
" Should we not suppose in this case that the child had swallowed
the worm of a cat, which had then become developed in her
body ? In our district, however^it is the butchers that furnish
the greatest number of tape-worms." I think it is unnecessary
to reply to such zoological opinions, as they are expressed without
any knowledge of the natural history of the individual species of
Tcenice. Their contradiction will be found in the preceding pages.
c. Mucenna = Cortex Musennce, Abusenna, Besennce, from
Besenna ant helminthic a, a leguminous plant. It forms cylin-
drical pieces of bark, 5 — 10'" in length, with a smooth, green
epidermis. The bark of old stems is useless. The ordinary dose
is 5vj, as Pruner states in his ' Diseases of the East/ The remedy
is administered stirred with honey into a stiff paste. I have
given this agent, also received by the kindness of Professor
Martius, without any result. Single fragments of worm were
indeed given off, but the worm remained, and it was only in the
following year that I freed the patient from his two Tcenicp by
means of pomegranate bark. Perhaps the medicine had lost its
power by long keeping.

Methods with Tin.

a. Richard de Hautesiark's method. — R Gi Gutti, gr. x ; Sem.
Coloc., gr. iij ; cum Amyg. amar. Triturentur et cum Syrup.
Absinth, f. boli ij. To be repeated every eight days.

R Aloes Socotr., Assafcetid., aa gj ; Hb. Abysinth., gss. ;
Ol. Ror. Mar., ^ij, cum Elixir, purg. f. pillul., gr. x, pond. S.
Two pills morning and evening, and six ounces of a decoction of
fern root to be taken after them.

R Stanni. puriss., Mercur. vivi, aa 3J ; Stanno liquefacto,
adde Argent. Viv., postquam mixtum refrixerit, in pulverem cum
Conch. Prsep., 3Jj redigatur.

R Ejusdem Pulveris, Conserve Abysinth., aa ^ij, fiant c.
Syrup. Abysinth., q. s. S. D. Two drachms twice a day.

By far too energetic a prescription.

METHODS WITH TIN. 157

b. Matthieu's method. — Preliminary treatment : For some
days the patient is to keep a sparing, light diet, such as a
herring diet, and then for two or three days to take the follow-
ing electuary : R Limatur. Stanni Anglici puri, 3J > Filic. Maris
pulverisat., 5vj ; Semin. Cinse Pulveris, gss ; Pulv. Rad. Jalapp.,
Sal Polychrest., aa $j ; Mellis comm., q. s. ut fiat elect. ; a full
teaspoonful every two hours. As soon as the worm makes
itself felt [which may very often be the tin filings making
themselves felt], a tea-spoonful of the following electuary is
given every two hours : I£ Pulv. Had. Jalapp., Sal Polychr.,
aa 3ij ; Pulv. Scammon., 9j ; Pulv. Gi Gutti, 9ss ; Mellis com-
num., q. s. ut fiat elect. ; or a little castor oil, or a castor-oil
clyster, until the worm passes off.

c. Mayer's method. — 3j tin is made into an electuary with
honey, and the dose is gradually increased to ^ss of tin.

d. Autenrieth's method. — A powder composed of 3j Stann.
Hasp., or more properly of the less irritating granulated tin and
Eilix Mas, is administered six times a day for three days, followed
by a purgative, of which the best is a decoction of gamboge
with the addition of castor oil.

e. Alston's method. — On the Thursday before a change of the
moon (!) an aperient is given; on the following Friday, in the
morning, fasting, a syrup with Jj °f tin ; on Saturday and
Sunday, 3SS of tin; and on Monday an aperient. I think this
method must be quite obsolete. Even Bremser found it in-
sufficient. Even in three months segments of Teenies were being
given off again.

/. Dupuis's method. — For those who will not give up the
irritating tin filings, this appears to be the best mode of adminis-
tering tin. Without any preliminary treatment, the patient takes,
at six and half-past six in the morning, each time a powder of
Stanu. Rasp. Angl., 9ss ; Tannini Puri, Gi Gutti, aa gr. v, and
Elseosacchar. Cajeput, gr. iiss; and after each dose drinks two
cups of black coffee. In two hours the worm passes off, usually
with colicky pains ; on the occurrence of which, strong black
coffee is immediately given. For the subsequent treatment a
tincture of iron.

g. The process is still better when, as Becker recommends, the
chemically precipitated tin is used. According to Becker, it is
certain in its action, does not irritate the intestine mechanically,
and is to be recommended in doubtful cases; it is, however,

158 ANIMAL PARASITES,

difficult to be obtained in the shops. However, once for all, I
protest against the administration of tin filings,, and I believe
that no one can have much pleasure in giving this remedy, who
lias seen the ecchymotic irritation of the intestine after its
administration to living animals, and heard them whining, or
seen them twisting about during life.

Recently I have twice made use of tin, prepared by precipita-
tion from chloride of tin, in an extremely finely divided powder,
by making it into an electuary with honey, a little Extr. Punic.
Granat., Extr. Filic. Mar. j3Ether.,«ind Gi Gutti, or jalap. Even
young and weakly children support this remedy very well. On
one occasion the entire worm passed, dead, on the second day.
In the other case, in an adult, several yarcls passed after the
administration of this remedy, but the remainder of the worm
was only expelled by my ordinary mixture. The remedy is
uncertain, and only to be recommended for children and indi-
viduals who are much reduced.

Methods with Oil of Turpentine.

The dose of this remedy is %'\j at once, in the morning, fasting,
and if no stool results, another 3J — ij afterwards (Fenwick and Cope-
land); or, 5J Ol. Terebinthinsft made into an electuary with honey,
in two doses, at night before going to bed (Thompson): or, ^ij — iiss
(Schmidtmaun); or, with an addition of Ol. Filicis Maris (Mayor).
Or the patient for three days is only allowed to eat water gruel, with
small portions of white bread, three times a day ; and on the next
day, whilst fasting, takes the following mixture : R Ol. Terebinth.,
3J, c. Vitell. Ov., ij, subact. Sacchar. alb., Jss, M. D. ; and if the
worm is not expelled on this day, the dose is repeated on the
following day (Merck). Some also give ^\j — iiss, one half in the
morning and the other at night. This is one of the most
effective agents against tape-worms, as Lange, of Konigsberg, has
repeatedly found recently in his own experience. In turpentine
mixed with white of egg, tape-worms which I had laid in the
mixture died within one hour and three quarters. As has already
been remarked, the touchstone of a remedy for tape-worms is not
whether it expels Bothriocephalus latus or Tcenia solium, but
whether it is also capable of effecting this with T. mediocamllata.
That oil of turpentine is efficacious in the latter case, I can prove at
any time ; for the finest specimen of Tcenia mediocanellata that I
ever saw, was expelled by it. In general, also, it acts pretty rapidly.

OIL OF TU11PENTINE. 159

Lastly, it also has the advantage, that it expels the worm entire
and in one piece, which I regard as a requisite of a good vermifuge
for tape-worms; partly for reasons of medical polity, and partly
upon purely scientific zoological grounds. For reasons of medical
polity I advise this, because the patient requires, and justly, to
see the result; and the same must be the case with the medical
man, in order to form his opinion as to the value of his method.
Many worm-expellers may perhaps save themselves, by always
having the head of a tape-worm in store, which they may slip
quickly into the fluid in which they wash the worm itself, or into
which the washed worm is brought to him — a manoeuvre which
medical polity would approve as readily as the manosuvre of
that famous surgeon, who advised his pupils, in a case of
lithotomy, always to have another stone conveniently at hand,
which they might pretend to take out of the wound, when there
had really been no stone in existence. I regard such manoeuvres
as dishonorable, and always admit it quite openly when I can
find no head. I advise it upon pure zoological grounds, for it is
only thus that we can easily obtain materials for a certain deter-
mination of species.

But notwithstanding these properties, the present remedy has
its weak points, dependent on its secondary effects. The principal
thing is not to give too small doses, which readily produce
sickness, inclination to vomit, ulceration of the mouth, griping
pains, and suppression of urine; nor too large ones, as these,
especially when they do not produce bilious stools, readily cause
tenesmus, and bloody stools and urine; and as the remedy, when
taken fasting, readily causes sickness even in large doses. Accord-
ing to some writers, its action varies with the season of the
year and the climate. Thus, Thorn. Schmidt (see 'Clarus's
Arzneimittellehre/ p. 703) says that it should never be given alone
as a purgative in large doses in winter and in moist cold weather,
because under such circumstances it has only a heating and not
a purgative action. In conjunction with other purgatives, espe-
cially castor oil, it assists their action in doses up to half an ounce.

Lastly, according to Copeland, when turpentine is administered
after a purgative, or the oil itself does not act as an aperient,
tenesmus and bloody urine occur most readily, so that the remedy
must then be stopped, and we must endeavour to act upon the
bowels with castor oil. Taking everything into account, I regard
it as the best method to administer this medicine at bedtime, as

160 ANIMAL PARASITES.

Thompson recommends, and in a dose of gj ; but triturated
with gj of castor oil, or 1 — 2 drops of croton oil, 2 — 3 yolks of
eggs, and gj of honey; and to give it in 2 — 3 portions in the
course of 1 — 1-^ hour. For children, half the quantity. Thus
given, it is certainly one of the most energetic remedies for tape-
worm, and justly merits fame in those cases in which pomegranate
root has produced no result.

Clossius employs turpentine only as a test for the presence of

a tape-worm.

Method witfy Kousso.

Kousso = Flores Kousso = Kosso = Habi, i.e., the dried and
powdered flowers of Bray era anthelminthica. This remedy,
which is making a great noise at present, is adulterated in
many ways. J. Clarus found Kousso obtained from Jobst to
be adulterated with sawdust. I have already indicated that
the sawdust might be probably the dust of a medicine for tape-
worms, and, indeed, of the coarser stalks and twigs of the
Brayera. It is still more probable, however, that these woody
fibres or chips might come from the root of Verbascum Ternacha,
which, as well as the leaves of Jasminum floribundam (Herba
Zelim), is as is well known, often added to Kousso, and is even
administered alone, in doses of 70 grains, as a remedy against
Taenice. In other respects, it acts as a pretty strong narcotic on
lower animals, as, for example, when thrown into water it
stupifies fishes. For these reasons I should in this case say, not
so much that the agent is adulterated, as that it is often adminis-
tered in combination with other Abyssinian remedies for tape-
worm. According to my experiments, even the thick T. crassi-
collis of the cat died very soon in white of egg mixed with a
decoction of Kousso flowers. The T&nice were dead within an
hour. The dose of the powder of Kousso is ^vj to gj. For my
own part, I have always been more or less unlucky with this
remedy, which, in the ordinary mode of administration, shares all
the defects of the other remedies for tapeworms, and easily pro-
duces sickness and violent pains in the intestines. In my own
experience, I have generally seen the worm expelled in innu-
merable fragments after the use of this remedy or its preparations.
I have only seen larger or smaller portions of the worm, or, at
the utmost, the worm up to the neck expelled by it ; but have
never found the head. In one case 1 certainly detected frag-
ments of tapeworm in the evacuations for three months. Once

METHOD WITH KOUSSO. 161

I saw the worm passed up to the neck in the morning, but the
head was expelled only after the patient had,, of his own accord,
at once taken a second dose of Kousso, and thus brought upon
himself no slight pains in the bowels.

Very recently, Professor Martius, of Erlangen, and Professor
Von Raimann, of Vienna, have done particularly good service with
regard to the mode of employing Kousso. According to Martius,
the powder of Kousso always killed the worm, but in no case did
the head pass away. He therefore endeavoured to isolate the
active constituents of the resin. A red resin obtained from
Kousso had no action. It was otherwise with a soft resin of the
Kousso, of which 9ij were obtained from 5vj of Kousso, but in
which there was certainly still some red resin and a waxy sub-
stance. This soft resin, or, more correctly, resinous mixture, was
dissolved in alcohol at 36° R. (= 113°" F.), and filtered- the
alcoholic solution was dropped upon sugar. As soon as the
alcohol was evaporated, the solution was again poured upon the
sugar, the whole was well dried, and reduced with sugar to the
finest powder, sugar being added until with 3ij of soft resin the
whole quantity weighed 5SS* This very finely divided resin was
mixed with ^j of honey, and the whole administered in a period
of twelve to sixteen hours, commencing at four o'clock in the
afternoon. The next morning an aperient was given (castor oil
or a salt). In this way, with this resin most kindly sent to me
by Martius, I treated three patients in September, 1854 ; one of
them being a very weakly boy of 14 years old. In all three
cases the worm was expelled up to the neck, but in such a frag-
mentary condition that it was impossible to find the head. This
will be the more easy to believe when I mention that the smallest
of the expelled fragments towards the neck were scarcely two
to three lines in length. One of the patients again passed
segments of tape-worms at the end of December.

Perhaps the more favorable result depends upon some small
practical precaution, of which I am not yet aware ; but although
I must admit the efficacy of the remedy, and the more willingly
from the ease with which Martius's resin is taken and endured —
as I have never seen any bad secondary effects, — at the same
time, the extremely fragmentary state in which the worm passes
prevents me from giving the remedy a preference over turpentine
and pomegranate root. Quite recently, Professor Raimann, of
Vienna, has employed the following method : $vj of Kousso are

L

162 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

macerated for twenty-four hours in cold water, arid then boiled for
half an hour. This infuso-decoction is then taken whilst fasting
in two portions, without straining, and, therefore, with the flowers
in it ; and two hours afterwards, 3J to grj of castor oil. From the
report in Hebra's ' Zeitschrift' for 1854, it appears that the
remedy was very well borne, and acted with certainty.

Method with species of Aspidium.

A. With Aspidium Filial mas (Male Fern). — This remedy, which
will always maintain its renown against the Bothriocepliali, appears
hardly to maintain its reputation with regard to Taenia. Buchheim,
of Dorpat, employs a soft resin obtained from this drug, with good
results, against Bothriocephali. Filicine (filicic acid of Lutz) has as
yet found but little acceptance in practice. The most efficacious
preparation appears to be the etherial extract of Filix mas, and
it would not, perhaps, be unadvisable to administer the powder
of Filix mas, mixed with the etherial extract, so as to in-
crease the surface of contact of the medicine as much as possible.
For my own part, I prefer adding the extract to pomegranate
root. As regards the most favorable season for collecting the
root, authors are not yet agreed.

a. Wawruch's method. — Preliminary treatment : 3 — 4 days of
low diet, consisting of strong beef tea, with white bread, three
times a day, with the employment, at the same time, of the fol-
lowing resolvent: Ri Had. Taraxaci et Cichorei, aa %j, fiat
decoct, per - hor. ; Colaturse, 3vj > adde Ammoii. Chlor. prsep.,
9j ; Syrup. Cichorei cum Kheo, 3ss. M. D. S. Two table-spoonfuls
every two hours. With this daily laxative clysters of milk, lin-
seed, Hb. Alth., Flor. Verbasc., and Flor. Papav., are ordered,
and, on the evening before the expulsion, a very rich gruel
(i pound of water and 2 — 4 ounces of butter and wheat bread).

Expulsion. — In the morning, fasting, the patient takes a thick
gruel ; and about five, six, and seven o'clock, a clyster of linseed
and milk ; about eight o'clock, two table-spoonfuls of castor oil ;
at half-past eight, Pulv. Had. Filic. Mar., 9ij — 9iv ; at nine o'clock,
two table-spoonfuls of castor oil ; at half-past nine, the Fern powder
again ; at ten o'clock, two table-spoonfuls of castor oil ; and at
half-past ten, the third powder. After each dose, the patient
washes his mouth out with tea made from Flor. Tilia3 and Summit.
Millefolii, and, in the intervals, he chews Flavid. Cortic. Aurantior.,
of which a dose of Jss is prescribed. At one o'clock, the patient

TREATMENT BY MALE FERN. 163

takes a powder of Gi Gutti and Calomel, aa gr. v — vj, with 9ss
Sacch. alb., and puts softening poultices upon the abdomen. If
the worm be not expelled, castor oil is again given in half an hour ;
in a second half hour, gamboge powder ; then castor oil again ;
and possibly, if no traces of inflammation make their appearance
in the abdomen, the powder of gamboge and calomel is given
again at half-past four. At the same time a clyster is adminis-
tered every hour.

The subsequent treatment has for its object the removal of the
inflammatory state of the intestines, by mild diet, leeches, &c.
The treatment is said always to fail at the time of full moon
(Wolfring).

b. Weisshaar' s method is a modification of that of Wawruch.
His preliminary treatment lasted at first only one or two days,
but afterwards three clays. On the second, third, or fourth day,
follows a herring diet ; and on the following day the expulsion in
the manner of Wawruch, except that Weisshaar gives the castor
oil in meat broth, and, instead of orange peel, candied calamus.
Instead of the large quantities of fern powder he only gives
xv — xx gr. pro dosi, with 15 — 20 gtt. Ol. Filic. Mar., and even
the latter alone to irritable subjects. Recently Weisshaar gives
60 — 80 drops Ol. Filic. Mar. with 3ss Ol. Ricini; in half an hour,
two table-spoonfuls of castor oil ; in an hour, the first powder of
gamboge and calomel ; in half an hour, oil again ; in another
half hour, the second powder of gamboge and calomel, and so
forth. According to the account given by Weisshaar to Seeger,
he easily expels T. solium by this means; T. mediocanellata (mihi),
according to him, requires strong doses of oil of turpentine.
Weisshaar's subsequent treatment I omit altogether, inasmuch as
it presupposes the reproduction of the worm in the intestine, and
no longer agrees with our present knowledge.

c. The so-called Wurtemberg method, purchased by the State
from Bechler and Rapp, consists of the following treatment.
Expulsion ; One ounce of fern root is boiled for an hour with
three pints of water, in a covered pot ; one drachm of cut, fresh
Cort. Mezerei, is added to the hot decoction, which is strained in
ten or twelve minutes through a cloth, and then mixed with two
or three drachms of finely powdered fern root. The patient takes
this at once in the morning, fasting; or in three portions, at
intervals of an hour. In three or four hours sickness and
disorder of the stomach cease, and then calomel, freshly pre-

164 ANIMAL PARASITES.

pared sulphate of iron, aa 5iv — 3j, according to age, are adminis-
tered, and repeated in case of vomiting. The worm is generally
expelled in the evening ; when this is not the case, a rich gruel
is given on the same evening, and on the following morning,
fasting, rhubarb and Rad. Jalapp., aa gr. x — xv — 9ij.

d. Alibert-'s method. — On the first day, R Had. Filic. Mar.,
^iv, coq. c. Aq. Font., Ib.iij, usque ad remanentiam, Ib. ij ; Cola-
tune adde Syrup. Helminthochort., %\j. M. D. S., to be drunk in
cupfuls during the day. After three hours of repose, Alibert
administers Calomel and Cornu Cervi Ust., aa gr. iij, made into a
bolus with Conserv. Rosar., q.s. ; in the evening ^ j of oil of sweet
almonds, and, on the second day, the following purgative :
R Scammonii, gr. xviij ; Rad. Fil. Mar., Jj; Gi Gutti, Calomel,
aa gr. xij, to be taken in three portions, in sugar and water.

e. Bicking's method. — This method commences with a sort
of cold-water cure ; with drinking and clysters of cold water, and
a strong diet, such as we meet with in hydropathic establishments,
in which also a cold bath every evening, with a douche upon the
stomach and liver, and in summer a shower bath is employed.
When the tape-worm is very troublesome, the Neptune's girdle
of these establishments ; and lastly, animal magnetism must
not be forgotten. With this diet a saturated decoction of
3ss of fern root is drunk cold after every meal, when the worm
will be expelled in from three, six, eight, to fourteen days.
If this treatment be prescribed for nervous patients, as Seeger
has done, without the cold water appendix, there is nothing to be
said against it. Seeger's modification of it appears to me still
deserving of trial and recommendation with very irritable, sensi-
tive, and weak individuals.

/. Nuffer's method, which has also been adopted by Odier,
with a slight alteration. — The evening before the treatment the
patient takes a thin gruel (two ounces of butter to a pound and a
half of water) ; a quarter of an hour afterwards, a glass of wine,
and, if necessary, a clyster. The next morning, fasting, 3iij Pulv.
Filic. Mar. in Jiv — vj Aq. Tilise. In case of vomiting, the remedy
is repeated ; and if a little sickness be felt, black coffee is ad-
ministered. Two hours afterwards, the following aperient pill is
given: R Calom., Scamm., aa gr. x — xv; Gi Gutti, gr. v,
vij — viiiss ; Confect. Hyacinth., q.s. M. D. With weak patients,
and children, to be given in two doses. If the bolus should be
thrown up, or should it not have operated in four hours, or if

MALE FERN. 165

the worm hangs out of the anus, 3\-j — ^j of Epsom salts, dissolved
in warm water, are given. If the worm be not expelled by this,
the gruel and powder are repeated at night, but the next morning
Epsom salts are given instead of the bolus. Instead of the latter,
Odier gives a table-spoonful of castor oil with meat broth, every
half hour. This is extolled as a very certain method against
Bothriocephali.

g. The method of Blossfeld and Rapp, which is very much ex-
tolled.— On the previous evening, a thick paste of bread and milk.
In the morning, 3J Pulv. Radic. Filic. Maris is given every hour,
in an ounce and a half of nutmeg tea (Muskat-Lunel). After six or
eight doses the worm is expelled. Rapp advises the root to be
always procured fresh, and administers 3vj — ^j of it in one dose.

h. Dubois' method. — After a preliminary treatment of eight
or nine days, consisting in a scanty diet, to which garlic roasted
under the ashes is added, he prescribes rubbing of the abdomen
several times a day with a liniment made of camphor, balsams,
and nut oil, and also with crushed bulbs of garlic; also a ptisane
of Helminthochordon and Filix mas, and a nightly clyster of marsh-
mallow water. After this has passed off, a clyster of milk ; and
early in the morning, 53S Filix Mas in broth, and, every half hour,
a portion of the following mixture : R Res. Jalapp., Scammonii,
Gi Gutti, aa 3ss; Syrup. Rhamni cathart., q. s. ut f. Boli, gr. vj.

i. Wolffheim's method. — On the day before the cure the
patient has a scanty diet and herring salad ; on the next
morning, fasting, 3188, Rad Filic. Mar. in a little tea; in half an
hour the same dose; in another half hour, one table- spoonful Ol.
Jecor. Aselli, with a little lemon juice, until ^iij are consumed.
Then, after the last dose of cod-liver oil, three or four ounces of
Epsom salts are drunk until the worm is expelled, which gene-
rally takes place in ten or twelve hours. In case of thirst, black,
sweet coffee is given, and in case of vomiting, this is stopped.
According to Bockling this method answers equally well without
the cod-liver oil.

k. BecVs method. — About four or five o'clock in the after-
noon the patient takes a powder. R Mercur. Dulcis, 9j ; Cornu
Cervi ust., Cinnabar. Antimon., aa gr. x, in a table-spoonful of
water or gruel. At night he takes gruel, and afterwards $\j of
oil of almonds. The next morning, fasting, he takes a powder
of the following composition in a table-spoonful of syrup : R Rad.
Filic. Mar., 33 ; Rad. Jalapp., Gi Gutti, Hb. Cardui Bened., Ebur.

166 ANIMAL PARASITES.

ust., aa 5§st M. fiat pulvis, divide in partes sequales 3. For
drink, tea, made from peach kernels. In two hours, vomiting
usually occurs two or three times, and the patient drinks weak
broth or tea. The evacuations are carefully examined. If the
head of the worm be still wanting, the second, and, finally, the
third powder is given. If this does not answer, a clyster of
decoction of bitter herbs with Sal anglicum is administered, and
if the worm should not be expelled even then, the following
powder is given within three hours: ft Pulv. Had. Jalapp., Hb.
Gratiol., aa9j. M. f. p. doses 3.» According to some authors, as,
for instance, Meyer, the combination of Filix with purgatives
does not answer at all.

/. Mayor's method. — Mayor, of Geneva, who regards the root
of Filix mas as specific against Bothriocephalus , but tin and
pomegranate root against Tcenia solium, states that the powder of
the fern root should appear quite green, as otherwise it is ineffi-
cacious. He gives 3iij — iv in a mixture of balm tea, and gj of
gum syrup. This draught is to be taken at night, and the
next morning giss of castor oil.

Mayor gives the Oleum Filicis Maris in the form of pills,
30 — 50 gtt. in twenty-four pills, of which twelve are taken
at night and twelve in the morning, and an hour afterwards
giss of castor oil. He gives the fluid oil pure or mixed with
castor oil, in doses of 3ss — j, but usually gives the castor oil
afterwards.

m. Herrenschandt's method. — According to Herrenschandt
himself, when the stomach of the patient is in good condition
he gets, in the morning, fasting, and at night, after a light
supper, for two consecutive days, a drachm of Pulv. Had. Filic.
Maris or Femin., in water or in wafer. The roots should be
collected in the autumn and dried in the shade. On the third
morning, fasting, the following powder is given : ft Gi Gutti,
gr. xij ; Sal. Abysinth. Neutr., gr. xxx; Sapon. Starkei, gr. ij.
In two or three hours this is followed by slight vomiting and
frecal evacuations once or twice, during which the patient drinks
lukewarm, water or tea. Three hours afterwards he takes gj of
castor oil in meat broth, and again in an hour ; and if, after this,
the worm is not expelled within two hours, he takes another
ounce. If this does not succeed, a clyster of water, milk, and
giij of castor oil is administered.

n. O. Bang's method. — For three days the patient takes

MALE FEEN. 167

only one basin of meat broth, with white bread. At night he
has a clyster of warm milk. On the fourth day he takes also
eight cups of black coffee with plenty of sugar, and 2 — 3 large
herrings in the form of salad with plenty of vinegar, pepper, oil,
and onions. On the fifth day he takes, alternately, every two
hours, one third of a herring, and a heaped-up tea-spoonful of
Pulv. Had. Filic. Mar., and with this 2 — 3 cups of coffee. At
night a milk clyster and a dessert -spoonful of American castor
oil. On the sixth morning, fasting, two tea-spoonfuls of Filix
powder; an hour afterwards two table-spoonfuls of castor oil, and
the same quantity every two hours until the worm is expelled.
During this he drinks tea, and, lastly, for the subsequent treat-
ment, iron is used.

The fern poiuder alone is given by («.) Ullersperger. — Without
any previous treatment he gives ^iij — iv of the roots freshly
peeled, treated with alcohol the day before, and lets the patient
lie in bed. When no vomiting takes place within two hours,
an aperient of 6 gr. Calomel and 9j Sapo Jalapp. in pills is
given. This is a very celebrated, rapid method.

b. Mayer. — On the day when fragments pass off spontaneously
the patient takes a herring salad at night. At six o'clock the
next morning ^iij of Filix powder, with 5vj Aq. Flor. Tilia3, is
given in tea-spoonfuls without stopping, and immediately after
this a table-spoonful of castor oil, and then a cup of thin broth.
The oil is then continued every half hour until $\j are consumed.
For any sensation of fulness and nausea hot black coffee is
given. About twelve o'clock the greater part of the worm is ex-
pelled, and the head passes at one or two o'clock. For subsequent
treatment an Amarum.

c. Karsten. — A mild aperient and scanty diet the day before.
Early in the morning ^iij of fern root in tea-spoonfuls. In case
of sickness, thin broth is given. Between eleven and one o'clock
the worm is expelled without any further treatment.

Besides the methods just described, other medical men have
also employed the Extractum Filicis. Thus, Peschier gives the
following prescription : R Extr. Filic. Mar. ^Eth., 9j — 3ss ;
Pulv. Had. Filic. Mar., q. s. ut fiant pill. 20. D. S. in two portions,
half an hour before bedtime, after fasting from five o'clock in the
evening; next morning an aperient. Tott, Schoenemann, and
Von Haselberg also gave the remedy before bedtime with good
results, in the same way as Peschier. Nicolai also has given 9j

168 ANIMAL PARASITES.

Filic. Mar. ^Etli. twice at bedtime, and the next morning an
aperient. Kieser and Hiller gave the extract for several days
together to the total amount of 3iij, with good results.

After several days of sparing diet, Mosing gave fifteen of
Peschier's pills to the fasting patient at nine o'clock, and again at
half-past nine ; his prescription is as follows : B: Extr. Filic. Mar.
^Eth., 3iss ; Pulv. Had. Filic. Mar., q. s. ut fiant pill. xxx. Soon
after the administration of the last dose he gave 3"j Infus. Senn.
compos, at once.

Funk gave the extract, night, and morning, with syrup and
a little gum, and then gave castor oil every hour until it
operated.

Noss gives an aperient on the preceding day, and then gives
the extract to the fasting patient with syrup ; 9ss — 353 of the
extract twice, with an interval of an hour. He then gives castor
oil every hour.

Friedrich, on the day when segments have passed spon-
taneously, lets the patient eat a herring salad at night, and after-
wards drink a glass of wine with a biscuit. He then gives 533
of the extract at bedtime. The next morning, from six o'clock,
he gives every hour two table-spoonfuls of castor oil, or a table-
spoonful of a mixture of 3 gr. Ol. Crotonis and $\j Syrup,
commun. If the patient has a tendency to vomit, croton oil
must be avoided. In the intervals between the purgatives the
patient may drink a cup of broth or chamomile tea. If the worm
be not expelled by nine or ten o'clock, he abstains from all
attempts at expulsion by aperients.

Albers makes the patient observe a strict diet for 1 — 3 days,
and on the day before the cure relaxes him with Glauber's salts.
On the following morning the patient takes 333 of extract of
fern whilst fasting, and the same quantity an hour afterwards ;
1 — 2 hours afterwards he takes castor oil.

Rayer gives 72 drops of Peschier's thin extract of fern, made
into pills with the powder of the root, of which eight are to be
taken at night and eight in the morning. Two hours afterwards,
castor oil.

Magendie prepared a tincture from the buds of the fern, and had
pills made from it, each containing a drop of the tincture. From
eight to thirty pills were sufficient for expulsion.

B. With Aspldium athamanticum (Kunze) = Panna. — In
his 'Prodromus Florae Capensis/ p. 306, published in 1850,

ASPIDIUM ATHAMANTICUM. 169

Dr. Pappe mentions the Ucomocomo-bark as an anthelraintic
used by the Zulu Caffres at Port Natal, which was particularly
employed for Teenies. He refers to it as Aspidium athamanticum
of Kunze. It is probably identical with the Panna. As France
and England have had their Kousso-mania, Germany must also
go through its Panna-mania. For this remedy, which, according
to Dr. Berg (' Deutsche Klinik/ No. 46, 1856), is certainly an
Aspidium, perhaps A. alhamanticum (Kunze), but probably not a
distinct species — A. Panna, as Dr. Lucanus of Quedlinburg,
thinks — we are indebted to a brother of Dr. Behrens, of Quedlin-
burg, who is living in Southern Africa. It has given rise to a
lively dispute, since Dr. Behrens called attention to this won-
derful remedy in No. 53 of the ' Berlin Nationalzeitung/ for the
llth of March, 1853. The ' Magdeburger Zeitung' for the year
1856 again sang the praises of this remedy, the origin of which
was kept to a certain extent in obscurity, and the ' Deutsche
Klinik ' for the 26th of July, 1856 (No. 30), reported that out of
90 cases, Dr. Behrens had expelled the worms with the head in
83 ; that in two cases the worm was not found ; twice nothing
was again seen of it ; and that the remedy produced no result
in three cases, because it was thrown up. At the same time the
remedy was sold at a price of three dollars, for a dose of 5133 at the
utmost, which ought certainly to have given a very fair profit.

In the three cases in which I administered it, or saw it given,
it did not fulfil the expectations which one would form of so ex-
pensive a remedy. One patient took the remedy early on the
19th of February, 1856, and as no passage of the worm had taken
place at noon, he took a second dose, besides Panna clysters.
The Tcenia mediocanellata, from which this patient suffered, again
threw off proglottides on the 22d of November, 1856. The
worm was then expelled by my extract of pomegranate root.
A second patient suffered with two Teenies mediocanellatce.
A drachm of the remedy and a Panna clyster brought to light
two Teenies, completely broken up, in twelve hours ; on these, not-
withstanding careful examination, no head was to be found.

A third patient, who suffered, from T. solium, which is so
easily expelled by extract of pomegranate root, certainly lost
fragmentary series of segments, but without the head, which
would probably grow afterwards.

But if any one wishes to employ this medicine, which scarcely
possesses any advantage over Aspidium Filix mas, unless it be its

170 ANIMAL PAEAS1TES.

expensiveness, which also shares all the disadvantages of Kousso,
especially that of expelling the worm in fragments, and which,
lastly, from its extraordinary slowness of action, from the neces-
sity of a tedious preliminary treatment, produces sickness, vomiting,
&c., as well as other remedies — if any one will nevertheless
employ it, then, according to Dr. Behrens, the following rules
are to be observed :

1. Preliminary treatment. — For three or four days before the
cure, nothing but easily digestible food is to be taken ; all sorts
of flour gruel and cakes are to»be avoided, as well as potatoes,
and all spirituous liquors ; because in dogs to which the latter
were administered, the Panna produced no result (!). For
habitual costiveness, Carlsbad salts or lavements are to be
administered.

2. Day of cure. — In the morning, fasting, every quarter of an
hour, 20 — 30 grains of Panna powder in as little water as pos-
sible, or in light beer, until 3J — 3iss have been consumed,
according to the age and condition of the individual. If the
bowels are not moved, castor oil is given some time after the
last dose. Too early an administration of castor oil tears the
worm away, according to Behrens, in consequence of the too
early occurrence of peristaltic movements ; if it be administered
too late it is also injurious; it should be given when the worm
has arrived in the colon, which is easily to be ascertained, as the
patients (by hoaxing the surgeon,) may indicate how the worm
passes down. It is best given two hours after the last dose.
When the bowels are violently moved, and too much of the medi-
cine has been given, the worm passes in fragments (which it cer-
tainly does even with doses of only 5J.) When the worm
hangs out, Panna clysters are administered (which are also of no
use, K.)

Disagreeable circumstances soon disappear — they are, vomiting,
especially in men, which, however, may be suppressed by the
will, and is not injurious when it does not occur for an hour
after the taking of the remedy ; and congestion of the head for
about an hour and a half. Pregnancy is no counter-indication,
any more than lactation and menstruation. Hysteric patients
may take 2 — 3 grains daily for a considerable time, which stops
the passage of the segments for some weeks (but certainly will
not kill the worm.)

Of course the remedy which furnishes such extraordinary

POMEGRANATE BARK. 171

curative results is also a remarkable tonic, acting for a long time
after the cure (!).

Methods with pomegranate bark.

Dioscorides (B.C. 50), and after him Celsus and Pliny, mention
the Radix Punicce Granat. as a vermifuge. In the Middle Ages
the bark was neglected as a vermifuge, although Michael Hero
(1553) and Ad. Lonicerus (1609) make mention of it. In the
East Indies, however, its fame in this respect has remained the
same from time immemorial, and from thence it was brought
into Europe by the English physician, Buchanan, and has since
always maintained its celebrity. Amongst the Germans,
Bremser refers to Buchanan's method ; Flemming, in 1810, pub-
lished the first observations. On the introduction of the remedy,
Breton in England, Gomez in Portugal, and Merat, the trans-
lator of Gomez, in France, did good service. Seeger, who
deserves credit for the statistics of this medicine, states that of 419
cases treated with it up to 1852, 371 are reported as complete
cures, 24 as doubtful, and 24 as unsuccessful. I could conside-
rably increase the number of successful cases, partly by my own
observations, and partly by those made by others according to
my method, but Seeger's statements are quite sufficient here.

The pomegranate tree (Punica granatum) grows in the East
and West Indies, in the South of Europe, especially in Spain,
and in our greenhouses. It grows to a height of 16 — 20 feet,
and has beautiful red flowers. The bark of the roots is collected
in the spring, before flowering, and dried in the shade. It forms
tubular or rolled pieces, 2 — 6'" long, ^ — lx// broad, and J— 1'"
thick, with externally uneven, wrinkled tubercles, and a grayish-
yellow spotted epidermis, a yellowish parenchyma, and a fibrous
greyish-brovrnish-yellow inner layer, which is here and there
dingy green, and to which pale-yellow alburnum often adheres.
The rest will be found in every Materia Medica. Attempts have
been made for a long time to find the active principle of this
bark in some particular alkaloid. But all experiments have been
in vain. Latour de Trie's granatine was only mannite. Tannic
acid ; arid, amongst others, gallic acid, giving a green colour with
iron, are the principal constituents ; and with these are resins and
a body resembling piperine (Landerer), the existence of which,
however, is not yet determined with certainty.

In my opinion, besides the adulteration of the commercial

172 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

bark with that of Euxus sempervirens , Berberis vulgaris, and
Capparis spinosa, and its impurity from an abundance of alburnum,
the only things that concern the practical man are the following :

1. The fresh bark — of which, however, more is used (giij = gij
of dried bark) — acts more gently than the dried bark (Breton).

2. The bark of the root is more active than that of the trunk ;
giv of the latter = %uj of the root. The bark of the branches
has no action (Schmidtmuller).

3. After maceration for at least 12 — 24 hours, the bark is
well boiled, and, according to £enedella, it is better made in
earthen than in metallic vessels ; it is filtered whilst hot, as on
cooling active substances appear to be thrown down again. The
decoction was formerly most generally used, but I prefer the
extract. The best method of preparing this is as follows : ft Cort.
leviter contusi Had. Punic. Granat., Jiv; maceretur per horas
xxiv, cum Aq. Distill., Ib.j, posthsec coque in leni calore per
horas xij, ad remanentiam gvj, col. D. S., to be taken in
3 — 4 doses at intervals of from half an hour to one hour.

4. According to both Schmidtmuller and Gomez the East
Indian bark — and which, according to Dr. Wiggers, is thicker — is
to be preferred to the European.

5. Schmidtmuller always gave the fresh bark, or advised the
use of the extract prepared in the East Indies from the fresh
bark by Waitz. According to German medical men also, the
fresh bark, even that cultivated in Germany in gardens and
greenhouses, is more efficacious than the dried bark, and Waitz's
extract is very active. The dose of the latter is gj — 3U-

6. The fresh extract which is sent to us from the East Indies
acts in the same way as an extract prepared from the dried bark
in the steam-apparatus. 1 prescribe as much of it as is obtained
from giv — vj of the dried bark.

7. The most efficacious form under all circumstances is the
solution of the extract in a certain quantity of water. The
method of administering the bark in powder (gr. xij — 9j for
children, 9ij for adults, every half hour or hour, until six
powders are used) is certainly the least advisable of all. The
extract itself, made into an electuary with honey, or administered
in pills, is to be recommended when there is great tendency to
vomit, but on the whole its aqueous solution is the best.

8. An alcoholic extract is also recommended by Deslandes,
and recently by Martius, and an etherial extract has been pre-

POMEGRANATE BARK. 173

pared by Waitz in Java. Of the latter giij — iv are administered
in gv of fennel water with Syrup. Cortic. Aurant., gj, in three
doses, at intervals of half an hour. The alcoholic extract, very
carefully prepared in the " Johannisapotheke," in this place, I
have seen only once given.

9. Although, for the preparation of the active substance of
the bark, which must consist especially in a resin, boiling water
is to a certain extent sufficient, the addition of caustic potash or
soda, or of a little white wine, to the water employed in the
maceration, and afterwards in the decoction of the bark, greatly
increases the efficacy of the extract.

10. Old bark which has remained long in the warehouse is to
be rejected as inefficacious, and not to be employed in the
preparation of the extract.

Seeger narrates that Breton and Gomez poured a decoction of
pomegranate bark over living tape-worms, when they curled them-
selves up, became contracted, hard, and twisted, appeared to
experience pain, and died within five minutes in convulsions.
Whoever takes the trouble of repeating this experiment, will see
how artistic, but at the same time how untrue, this description is.
In the experiments made by me, as already described, with
pomegranate bark, I obtained satisfactory proofs of the energy of
this excellent remedy.

Of the particular methods of administering the decoction I
may mention the following as the best known :

a. With fresh bark — Buchanan's method. — gviij of fresh
Cortex Radicis Punic. Granat. are boiled with three pints
of water until two pints remain, and drunk in cupfuls at
short intervals until the worm is expelled. By this violent
vomiting, colic and purging are produced.

Breton's method. — gij of the fresh back are boiled down
from gxviij to gix or, according to Gomez, from Ib. iss of water to
Ib. j, and the decoction drunk by cupfuls.

Herat's method. — At night gij of fresh bark are infused in
Ib. iss of water, and left to macerate through the night, and
boiled into Ib. j in the morning. It is then filtered and well
pressed. This decoction is to be taken by the patient in three
equal parts in two hours. The treatment is only discontinued
in case of too great heat or cold. If vomiting occur after the first
dose, we are not to be deterred from giving the following doses ;
but if the patient vomit these, we must desist from the treat-

174 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

ment. The worm may even be expelled from pregnant women
without injury, in the fifth and sixth months.

Schmidtmiiller's method. — After one day's fasting and the
administration at night of 5>j of castor oil, $\\j °f fresh bark,
after macerating for twelve hours in 5xiJ °f water, are concen-
trated to 5vj °7 a gentle heat, and this fluid is taken in three
doses within an hour.

In all these methods evacuation takes place without purga-
tives, as the fresh bark usually acts as an aperient itself; and in
this lies the great advantage of the fresh bark, and a principal
cause of the great uncertainty of most of the previous methods,
in which the dried bark was employed. To produce the aperient
action with certainty, the dried bark needs the addition of pur-
gutives. According to my experience, the neutral salts and the
true drastics, such as jalap, are greatly to be preferred to the
oils. But they all have something to be desired; but I regard
it as the most natural plan to imitate the purgative action of
the fresh bark by the addition of some other agent which acts
as a purgative. To refer to particular methods here would
be superfluous, as they all agree. At the utmost they vary in
the dose of the bark and the preliminary treatment with castor
oil.

As regards myself, I prefer the Extract. Radic. Punic. Granat.,
prepared according to the prescription above given, to all other
remedies for tape-worm with which I am acquainted. As the cases
scattered through medical literature and my own experience have
shown me, the Kousso loses much of its value, because the worms
are expelled so much broken up in the region of the neck,
whilst in almost every case of expulsion effected by the pome-
granate bark we find it stated, " The worm was passed in one
piece with the head/' or " The entire worm passed unbroken, and
in a single coil ;" reason enough for our taking trouble to make
the administration of this remedy more agreeable, and by which
we can render its results still more certain.

b. Combined methods with pomegranate bark and Filix mas. —
One of the first who combined the etherial extract of fern
roots (9ij) with the decoction of commercial pomegranate bark,
was Von Klein, of Stuttgart.

I myself combine the aqueous extract of pomegranate bark,
prepared as above, with Extract. Filic. Mar. ^Ether., in the fol-
lowing manner : R Extracti Radic. Punic. Granat. aquosi,

POMEGRANATE BARK. 175

quantum acleptus es ex rad., Jiv — %vj. Solve in Aq. destil.
fervidse, gvj — viij. Adde Extract. Filic. Mar. ^Ether., 9j — 388:;
Extract. Tanaceti vulgar., ^ij ; Gi Gutti, gr. iv, vj, ad. x. M.
D. S. To be shaken. A cupful to be taken in the morning
(six or seven o' clock) fasting. A similar dose in three quarters
of an hour. The third is kept in reserve. If the worm should
not be expelled in an hour and a half after the second dose, the
last portion is also to be taken. I formerly gave Natr. Sulf. ;
now I administer immediately Gi Gutti, gr. iv — vj, with good
results, If vomiting occur, a table-spoonful of the medicine
is given every ten minutes.

To alleviate the tendency to vomit, the patient should gargle
after every dose with fresh milk, but without swallowing any
of it. Between the doses also he may take as much Elseo-
sacchar. Citri as will lie on the point of a knife as often as he
likes. If no evacuation have taken place three hours after the
first dose, and the worm have not been expelled, an aperient is
administered. With Tcenia solium castor oil is usually sufficient,
1 — 2 table-spoonfuls every half hour or hour ; or, R Gi Gutti,
gr. vj — viij ; Pulv. Had. Jalapp., gr. x — xv ; to be repeated
again in case of need in two hours. With T. mediocanellata I
have found the best results with a stronger aperient : I£ Calo-
melan., gr. iv — vj ; Pulv. Jalapp., gr. x — xv. M. D. S. at once.

Subsequent treatment. — None, except tonics in cases of great
weakness.

Preliminary treatment. — At the season of fresh strawberries*
and grapes I give half a pint of the fresh fruits every morning,
fasting, for 6 — 8 days, and on the evening before the expulsion
a herring salad, with plenty of vinegar, onions, raw and boiled
ham, and plenty of oil, and to very costive persons gj of castor
oil ; after which the patient may drink a large glass of light
Rhenish wine, or a glass of bitter beer (Bavarian, Waldschlosschen-
hier, &c.) If these fresh fruits cannot be had, the salad alone
must suffice.

In very obstinate cases of Tcenia mediocanellata, I let the

1 I take this opportunity to mention the methodical strawberry treatment, which I
have adopted in various cases, without having a tape-worm to treat. I have employed
strawberries taken fasting for three or four weeks together in cases in which whey and
mineral waters could not be borne, but in which regular mineral-water treatment should
have been prescribed from the presence of abdominal stoppages, chronic cramps of the
stomach, and similar disorders.

176 ANIMAL PARASITES.

patient take so much of the ordinary Electuar. Lenit. of the
English Pharmacopoeia, with the addition of Extract. Tanacet.
vulgar., 3ij, to the ounce of electuary, as is necessary to produce
a couple of soft motions daily ; he then takes the mixture, and
not before. Fasting the night before the cure is bad. The
medicine does not agree well with a perfectly empty stomach.

Another method is as follows : 1^ Had. Punic. Granat., 3vj '>
Pulv. Khamni cathart., Jj > Aq. Destill., Ib.ij ; Liquor Kali caus-
tici concentrati, gtt. x. Macera per horas 12 — 14, coque leni
calore in balneo vaporat. per hgras 24, ad remanentiam extracti
M. D. S. as above. As a matter of course, no Natr. Sulfuricum
is to be added in this case, and the woody parts are to be re-
moved by washing and pressing some time before the conclusion
of the evaporation, the washing water employed being evaporated
with the rest. As this extract may be kept as well as the
preceding one, all that is necessary, when it is kept in store, is
to discolour a portion corresponding with the dose of pomegranate
root prescribed, in 3vj — v"j °f nofc water, and before adminis-
tration to add to it 9j — 353 Extract. Filic. Mar. JEther. The
keeping of the extract cannot injure the action of the medicine
even in case of fermentation, as, according to Latour de Trie
and Ferrus, the remedy when undergoing fermentation is still
more certain in its action.

I have no experience of the Extract. Had. Punic. Granat.
spirituosum. I administered it once combined with Kousso,
and Extr. Filic. Mar. JEther., made into an electuary with honey,
in a very obstinate case of Tcenia mediocanellata ; the only
result was that I expelled two of these Tceniae up to the neck, al-
though I gave after it an infusion prepared from %vj of mace-
rated Kousso (Raimann). I must, however, observe, that the
employment of the aqueous extract, prepared according to the
above prescription in a honey electuary, appears to be less
advisable than its solution in water.

To sum up everything in a few words, I may give the follow-
ing general counsel :

1. For the expulsion of the Bothriocephali, simple methods
with Filix mas, and especially with its etherial extract, are
sufficient.

2. For the expulsion of Taenia solium, the methods just re-
commended of administering the aqueous extract of pomegranate
bark with the addition of Extract. Filic. Mar. Jjlther., are the

CYSTICERCUS TENUICOLLIS. 177

most advisable. It lias appeared to me lately that the addition
of Gi. Gutti, gr. iv — viij, to this mixture, was better than that
of Natr. Sulf.

3. This method is often sufficient even with T. mediocanellata,
especially when the above-mentioned calomel powder is given
afterwards as an aperient.

4. In obstinate cases with one or more T. mediocanellata, the
method recommended by Thompson, arid not essentially modified
by me, which will be found at the close of the section of
" Methods with Turpentine/' is better than any other, except,
perhaps, the method employed by Becker with tin precipitated
by galvanism, the latter in such a manner that Dupuis's plan,
mentioned under b of the methods with tin, be modified by
giving, instead of Stann. Rasp. Angl., 9ss, the same quantity of
Stannum galvanice pra3cipitatum.

5. Kousso has never answered with me so well, that I could
prefer it, when given alone, to the other remedies. It is, how-
ever, probably capable of giving good assistance.

6. The other methods, but particularly Schmidt's, as also the
long fasting cures, deserve to be struck out of the resources of
the medical art.

7. If the worms depend from the anus, a cup of strong black
coffee with plenty of sugar is given immediately, and, if neces-
sary, also an aperient of calomel and jalap.

II. Immature Tcsnice inhabiting the human body exterior to the
intestine; Cystici and Acephalocystides of the older
authors.

1. CYSTICERCUS CELLULOSE.
See the article Taenia solium, where this is treated of at length.

2. CYSTICERCUS TENUICOLLIS (Eschricht) = CYSTICERCUS
VISCERALIS, autorum. PI. II, figs. 6 — 10.

[Tsenia matura : Corpore crasso 4 ad 6' sen 6 ad 1200 millim.
long., Taenise solium corpori simillimo. Capite globoso-sphcerico ,

M

178 ANIMAL PAHASITES.

parvulo ; osculis sutoriis et rostello perparvis (0*34 millim.) collo
tenuiore, quam in T. serrata et Coeuuro ; hamulis duplice ordine
positis (32, 38, 40 ad 42), ex Leuckartii mensuris 0-178 et 0'114
mill.j ex meis 0*175 — 215 et 0'117 — 126 lortyis, proceris, minus
aduncis, spind (Doru, Tap, dental process) in hamulis majoribus
perlongd, tenui et recta, in hamulis minoribus etiam longiore et
bipartita et stylo, qui unguis magnitudine super atur, instructis.
Strobila ex articulis composita, quorum postremi longit. habent
]0 — 15 mill, et latitudinem 4 — 5 mill. ; pori genitales irregulariter
altcrnantes ; uterus trunco mgdiano perbrevi, ramis later alibus
majoribus perpaucis (9 — 11) et perbrtvibus, wide ramificationes
in turtnis positce emittuntur. Ovula 0'039 mill. long, et lat. ;
testa crassiore (0*0057 mill.) et embryonibus 0'02 long, et lat.
Proglottides perlongce et procerce.

Habitat in Cane domestico et Cane Lupo (Tcenia marginata,
autorum).]

Scolex quiescens = Cysticercus tenuicollis. Vesica caudali
tenui permagna (1, 2, 4, 6" et ultra), corpore 14 — 30 mill, et
ultra longo, 5 — 10 mill, lato, cylindrico ; collo 8 — 15 mill, longo,
capite uti in Tcenia filis 2 gelatinosis, pone collo ex receptaculo
capitis aut scolicis in vesicte cavitatem emissis. Metamorphosis
in Taeniam 10 — 12 hebdomates post pastum peracta.

Habitat: Rarius in hominis abdomine (mesenterio et hepate),
saepius in Ruminantium} Equi, Suis Scrofce, Sciuri, Simice, &c.,
cavitate abdominali.

The mature Tania from which this cystic worm is derived
lives in the intestines of dogs, especially sheep-dogs and
butchers' dogs, and also, no doubt, in those of the wolf.
According to Leuckart, it is identical with Kudolphi^s Taenia
marginata of the wolf, In size it most resembles T. solium,
from which, however, it is distinguished by the form, number,
and size of the hooks, by the degree of dilatation of the uterus,
the great development of the lateral longitudinal vessels, and by
the structure of the neck. Although the hook- sacs and pig-
ment are more distinct in T. solium, traces of them may, never-
theless, be discovered in this species. This worm grows to a
length of about 2 — 3 yards; its mature segments are essentially
distinguished from those of all other large-hooked Tanice of the
dog by their size, equalling or even frequently exceeding those
of T. solium in this respect. I shall err little from the truth,
in expressing the opinion that the Tcenia described as T. solium

CYSTICEKCUS TENUICOLLIS. 179

in the intestines of the dog by the older authors, generally be-
longed to this species. For the determination of the species
the table of sizes given at the end of this section, and the
figures of the hooks on PL IT, figs. 7 — 9, are sufficient.

The rather slender and less strongly curved hooks are re-
markable by the extraordinary length of the spine (Dorn, Tap,
Zahnfortsatz) in both series, and at the same time stand nearly
at a right angle, with the apex rather directed a little downwards.
The spine of the second series is, in its greatest length (see table
of hooks, p. 242, second series, d,a), nearly equal to the stem, which,
especially in the hooks of the second series, is very small, short,
weak, and slender. In both hooks, the stems are only about
0'02 mill, longer than the claws or sickles.

In tolerably firm specimens the neck is drawn together
in spirits, so that it appears to form a strong curve or noose.
With this appearance it is difficult to see the justice of the
application of the name "tenuicollis" to this Tcenia, which
has been adopted for it by Dr. Moller and the committee
of examination in Copenhagen, even without taking into con-
sideration the fact that the name " Tcenia tenuicollis" has already
been employed for a Tcenia of the martens and polecats, the
Cysticercus belonging to which I have found in the liver of the
field-mouse. The marginal genital orifices are irregularly
alternate. The uterus is formed by a short, thick, dilated
median branch, from which a very few principal branches are given
off towards the sides. Of the latter I have counted as many as
eleven. They divide into numerous short diverticula, which are
at first undivided, and only fork near the margins of the seg-
ment, towards which they are generally directed perpendicularly,
In consequence of this arrangement, the uterus acquires the ap-
pearance of a garden-rake, at the upper and lower margins of
the segment. The different short diverticula, usually stand per-
pendicularly upon the last principal transverse branch, and at its
lower extremity even the stem of the uterus divides in the form
of teeth. I regard this form as very characteristic, and venture
from this to distinguish the segments of this Tcenia from those
of T. soliwn, T. Ccenurus, and T. serrata vera. It follows as a
matter of course, from what has been said, that the isolated seg-
ments, when thrown off (the proglottides), considerably exceed
the segments of the other large-hooked Tcenice of the dog in
size, and in this respect equal those of a Tcenia solium which

180 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

has not had a too abundant supply of nourishment. In the
human subject it has not yet been found, and, indeed, there can
very rarely be an opportunity for a man to acquire this Tcenia, as
its scolex from its size attracts the attention of the butcher, so
that it is cut out, thrown away, and swallowed by the expectant
dogs. An experiment made with Cystic, tenuicollis on the mur-
derer referred to under T. solium gave no certain result, and it
must remain for futurity to determine whether this T&nia thrives
in the human intestine or not. Dr. Moller, also, who swallowed
several Cysticerci tenuicollis, di^l not acquire any Teenies ex Cyst,
tenuicolli. I have often bred it in the intestine of the dog ; it
becomes mature in 10 — 14 weeks. It is as well, in the artificial
administration of the cystic worm to dogs; to cut the caudal
vesicle, as uninjured vesicles are easily vomited by dogs. More-
over, this cutting is the most in accordance with nature, as,
when the butcher throws such a Cysticercus to a dog, the latter
chews and injures it before swallowing it, which is not the case
when we push the cystic worm down the throat of the dog.

The six-hooked embryos live enclosed in eggs of 0-039
millim. = 0-0176'" in length and the same in breadth.

The capsules of these eggs have a much lighter colour than
those of the other large-hooked Tcenia of the dog, and they are
smoother on their outer surface. The embryos themselves pre-
sent the well-known six embryonal booklets pretty distinctly ;
these are of the following size : 0-003 millim. = O'OOl'" in length,
the embryo being 0-02.2 millim. = 0-004'".

That these eggs must be at some time or other in the human
intestine, and that the embryos must be found for a time
free in the human body, is a matter of course ; but our means are
not sufficient to discover the migrating embryos with our present
instruments.

The scolex state of this Tcenia forms the Cysticercus tenui-
coins, which, having been frequently seen in man by the earlier
authors, was mentioned by them as Cystic, visceral, hominis ;l
but having become more rare in modern times, or at least
amongst us and the civilised nations of Europe, has therefore
been entirely struck out by modern authors, or placed amongst

1 In domestic animals the Cysticercus tenuicollis was known (vid. sup.} to Hartmann
and Tyson : Peyer, in 1689, also described it, but only as a hydatid, and it was known to
Bartholin (1653), Steno, and Harder.

CYSTICERCUS TENUICOLLIS. 181

the doubtful Helmintha, as by Diesing and Virchow. Rudolphi
certainly does not venture to deny its occurrence, but says
of it, " res valde ambigua, mihique in cadaverum humanorum
aliquot millihus nunquam visa." It is to Eschricht that we are in-
debted for having proved that this worm really occurs in the human
subject. Eschricht, moreover, thinks that many cystic worms of
this species have occurred encysted in the liver of the human sub-
ject, and I add to this that they may also probably still remain
in museums of pathological anatomy in unopened cysts, having
been regarded hitherto, as for instance by Diesing, as Echinococci,
or perhaps even as Acephalocysts. Although I have formerly
seen in the livers of domestic animals many cysts which simulta-
neously harboured Echinococci and Cysticerci tenuicollis } it happened
only very recently — when I was about giving to a dog a number
of cysts cut out of a pig's liver, which had all the same appear-
ance, and nearly the same firmness of the walls of the enveloping
cyst, were uniformly imbedded in the tissue of the liver, and one of
which, when opened and examined with the microscope, was proved
to be Echinococcus veterinorum — that I nearly allowed myself to be
deceived by appearances. And although the pig contained six
cysts with Cystic, tenuicollis in the mesentery, I had, nevertheless,
from the similarity of their external appearance, regarded the
cysts employed in feeding my dog only as Echinococci, and I was,
therefore, not a little astonished when a healthy Cysticercus
tenuicollis escaped from one of them. In fact, when the envelop-
ing cyst is unopened there is sometimes hardly any external dif-
ference to be found between Echinococcus and Cystic, tenuicollis,
especially when the latter has its habitation in the liver ; and I
call the attention of pathological anatomists to this circumstance.
We have already seen that a case of Cysticercus tenuicollis must
have been referred to by Bonetus and Platerus (' Observ./ lib.
iii, p. 635). In the historical portion of his interesting report,
Eschricht shows that the case observed by Kolpin, on the mesen-
tery of a man, and reported by Bloch, is the first certain case of
Cystic, tenuic. hominis. Kolpin himself compared his discovery
with the cystic worm figured by Pallas (' Microsc. Zool./ xii),
which is a true Cystic, tenuicollis.

Treutler's case of Cystic, visceralis, which is copied by Jordens,
is also deserving of a closer examination, for in this also, accord-
ing to Eschricht, a badly reproduced rudiment of Cyst, tenuicollis
must be referred to.

182 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

Zeder's case also appears to have been one of true Cyst,
tenuicollis, so that all the cases do not deserve the negative
criticism of authors, down to Virchow. Eschricht, who has
done such good service in reference to the Cestodea, mentions,
as cases of true Cystic, tenuicollis, two cases which occurred at
a very recent period, and which are both to be met with in
Schleissner' s 'Nosography of Iceland/ I am sorry that I must here
contradict the respected Danish naturalist, and acknowledge that
I can only regard the case observed by Schleissner himself as a
true Cystic, tenuicollis, whilst llhorstensohn refers to an Echino-
coccus hominis autorum, or more correctly Echinococcus altrici-
pariens (mihi), from the liver. Thorstensohn's case, according to
Schleissner, is as follows : " A boy of four years old had suffered
for several months from a swelling of the right side of the abdo-
men, with subsequent dropsy, and at the same time also from the
passage of Lumbrici and Ascarides through the anus. On the
right side there was a fluctuating swelling as large as a child's
head, which, when opened, gave issue to a quantity of fetid, thin
matter, with a number of hydatids as large as pigeons' eggs."
That this case refers to an Echinococcus will be admitted by every
one who has ever seen one with daughter- and granddaughter-
vesicles of every grade of development in which the cyst-walls of
the daughter-vesicles possess the thickness and elasticity, and, in
consequence, the property, caused by imbibition, of moving in
lukewarm water in an undulating manner. This is also shown
by the fact that the cyst of a Cysticercus, even if it should
attain the bulk of a child's head, never contains more than one
scolex, in, or rather on, the vesicle which it encloses. What-
ever number of Cysticerci may exist in the abdomen, there
is always the same number of separate enveloping cysts, even
when, as I saw in one case in a pig, which had not been artifici-
ally infected, their number on the mesentery alone amounted to
eighty. Even here I did not see the absorption of the walls of
two approximated cysts, so far advanced, that one cyst might
have enclosed two Cysticerci. If therefore we pierce such a cyst,
masses of uninjured hydatids cannot flow out, as in Thorstensohn's
case, but this refers to another kind of worm, which can only
be an Echinococcus. Thus an uninjured vesicle never issues from
the pierced or cut cyst of a Cysticercus, but only an injured one.
Eschricht has probably allowed himself to be led to the supposi-
tion that a Cystic, tenuicollis is treated of by Thorstensohn, by

CYSTICEECUS TENUJCOLLIS. 183

his having once found two free, non-encysted Cyst, tenuicolles in
the abdominal cavity of an ape. Eschricht, probably supposing that
in the production of ascites, these vesicles, if free, might escape
from the abdominal cavity, has forgotten, in the interpretation of
Thorstensohn's case, that this referred to the puncturing of the sac-
culated swelling (Echinococcus-c\st of the liver), which, moreover,
was in articulo mortis and becoming purulent, and that the punc-
ture in question did not give issue to vesicles living freely in the
abdominal cavity, but to the contents of the swelling of the right
side, after which operation the secondary ascites caused by the
swelling also gradually disappeared.

But although we must cancel this case, Es'chricht still retains
the undiminished merit of having first proved by description and
very well executed figures, that Cysticercus tenuicollis really occurs
in the human abdomen, and that in the case described by
Schleissner himself, this Cysticercus is referred to.

The symptoms agree in all essential points with those of
Echinococcus, and we may, therefore, pass over them here.

As regards the structure of this cystic worm, its frequently
enormous caudal vesicle, which in animals may attain the size of
a child's head, is rendered remarkable by the concentric wrinkles
or rings, visible externally, which pass round the worm, and which
are crossed by very fine longitudinal striae, so that, when the
worm is laid flat upon a plate, and the eye placed horizontally
towards the surface of the worm, the whole has a very finely
chequered appearance. Even in dead Cystic, tenuicolles, in-
crusted with calcareous matter, these concentric rings may be
recognised, and the calcareous deposit often forms a true, I might
say, plaster cast of the form and structure of this cystic worm.

It is also to be observed that the wall itself, when the transverse
section of the dead Cysticercus is examined, presents a structure
consisting of concentric strata, analogous to that which we shall
describe in the Echinococci. Here, however, it is so extremely
fine and delicate, that we have some trouble in finding it, and
can only succeed by examining the transverse sections upon a dark
ground, after we have had some practice in discovering it in the
Echinococci. Compare also the article on Acephalocysts, with re-
gard to which I believe I have proved that they partly belong to
this species.

Prognosis. — A small number of these worms, or one of them, if

184 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

not of very large size, cannot generally be very dangerous, but
their general prognosis agrees with that of the non-animal hyda-
tids in the human body, and is to be judged according to the
organ of the abdomen attacked. The position of the Cysticerci
in the mesentery is undoubtedly more favorable than in the liver.
I should not, however, suppose that these parasites, if they oc-
curred in larger numbers, would be as indifferent and harmless in
man, as is often the case when we find them in our domestic ani-
mals ; because from the upright position of man, they much more
readily produce inconvenience from pressure in him than in the
lower animals, in which swellings of this kind are constantly being
drawn towards the* anterior wall of the abdomen by their own
weight, and prevented from pressing upon the vital organs and
upon the large blood-vessels which lie more backward. For this
reason, I think, we must not push the analogy between cystic
worms occurring in man and animals too far; and we may expect
that injurious consequences, such as dropsy and other phenomena,
may occur much more readily in man than in animals, a circum-
stance which, as far as I know, has been hitherto but little taken
into consideration in comparative pathology.

Therapeutics. — The indications are of two kinds — 1. Prophy-
laxis. 2. Direct therapeutics. Recent observations have con-
vinced me that even in animals it is not a matter of indifference
when a large number of them are present in one animal.

1. The prophylaxis is easy in theory, as it can only con-
sist in the counsel not to infect ourselves with the eggs of
Tcenia e Cysticerco tenuicolli ; but difficult in practice, as we
cannot easily state the mode in which we can best protect our-
selves from this infection. That Cysticerci tenuicolles are pro-
duced by swallowing the eggs of the above-mentioned Tcenia, is
as fully proved by experiment as the production of Cysticercus
cellulosa from the eggs of T. solium. I first administered the
eggs of this Tcenia to three old sheep, without their exhibiting
any Cysticerci. One of these sheep became vertiginous, but, as
appeared on dissection, not in consequence of the migration and
development of the embryos of Cestodea in the brain, but in con-
sequence of an Oestrus Ovis in the frontal sinus. I then fed two
lambs, and found in one of them an irritation of the brain and
spots of exudation in various places, but no trace of a cystic
worm, although the dissection was performed four weeks after the

CYSTICERCUS TENUICOLL1S. 185

administration of the eggs. If the embryos had migrated here,
they had been aborted and destroyed immediately after irri-
tation of the brain took place. The second lamb had only a
single developed Cystic, tenuicollis.

At the same time the observation was made, that in the fold
in which these lambs were left without isolation, several lambs
became sickly, and contained Cysticerci in the mesentery, although
these vesicles had not previously been observed in this fold.

Professor Luschka informs me that after administering the
eggs of one Taenia to a young he-goat he found a Cystic, tenui-
collis, and Professors Leuckart and Roll have also affirmed
that in many experiments upon sheep and goats, which they fed
with eggs of Tcenia ex Cysticerco tenuicolli sent them by me,
Cysticerci tenuicolles had been bred. The most convincing expe-
riments must be the two following, instituted by me (vide ' Ueber
die Tcenia ex Cysticerco tenuicolli,3 &c., Moleschott's ' Unter-
suchungen/ Bd. i, p. 352) : On the 9th of April, 1855, two sucking
lambs of 28 — 30 and 20 — 22 days old, which had never been on
the meadow, received mature segments of the Tcenia ex Cysticerco
tenuicolli. In April and May they sickened, and lost their appe-
tite and vivacity. The stronger and older sheep soon recovered ;
the younger and weaker one became violently affected with peri-
tonitis, but yet recovered so far in June as to be able to stand
up, move about, and seek its mother in order to suck. At the
end of May an umbilical abscess opened in the animal, and from
this period its recovery advanced rapidly. On the 1st — 8th
June, a shepherd's preservative against the staggers was admi-
nistered to the lambs, and afterwards, on the 9th and 10th of
June, they received Taenia Cosnurus. On the 23d of June the
stronger sheep showed indications of vertigo, and on the 25th the
weaker one. When the animals were dissected, on the 26th of
June, the ordinary appearances after the administration of Tcenia
Coenurus were met with, and also immense numbers of Cysticercus
tenuicollis, corresponding with the time (seventy-nine days) after
the administration of the Ttenia ex Cyst, tenuicolli. The pheno-
mena were exhibited in the greatest intensity in the younger
lamb, which presented more Cysticerci than the older one, espe-
cially on the convex surface of the liver, on the side wall of the
ductus choledochus, on the mesentery, and on the spot where the
base of the uterus, the arch of the vagina, the rectum, and the
bladder lay ; and also in the pleura, the pericardium, and the

186 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

diaphragm. The latter and the convex surface of the liver
were firmly united, and in other places, between the liver, the
stomach, and the intestines, there was union by fibres and false
membranes. At the same time the entire convex surface of the
liver was covered with a thick rind of exudation. After the
separation of the diaphragm from the liver, 4 — 5 parallel super-
ficial streaks were observed, which resembled swollen hepatic
ducts with Distoma, and contained the cystic worms. The walls
of the ductus choledochus were swollen, rigid, and dirty yellow,
as were also the walls of particular cysts in the liver (remains of
inflammation), whilst the cysts in the mesentery and intestines,
on the pericardium, and in the lungs, were without traces of
inflammation. On the stomach remains of inflammation showed
themselves as morbid growths, and the bladder was thickened,
rendered turbid, and discoloured. That the mode of production
of this scolex is hereby proved, is perfectly evident. In sheep
the Cysticercus usually occurs single. The pig offers a far more
congenial soil for the development of the brood, in which, as
before remarked, I found as many as eighty living Cysticerci,
without reckoning the dead ones. I have hitherto not had pigs
at command for this purpose. It need not trouble us for the
present that the experiment is not always crowned with success ;
it is sufficient that it has repeatedly succeeded in different
places, especialty in my last case, and that we may admit that,
under particular, favorable circumstances, such a cystic worm is
developed from the eggs of this Tcenia even in man. Above all
things, however, we may suppose that, as this Tamia dwells espe-
cially in the intestines of the dog, its eggs must occur most
plentifully in those places where sheep-dogs and butchers' dogs
are most numerous. Thus, as I found this T&nia accidentally in
dissecting a sheep-dog on the property of M. Kind, of Kleiri-
bautzen, and not long since repeatedly in butchers' dogs in Zittau.
From this we may presume that it is also abundant in other places
where there is an extensive breeding of sheep. Now, as in
Iceland the sheep-dogs and the breeding of sheep (vide infra)
play an important part, a frequent opportunity will be offered
in that land for the escape of the eggs of the Taenia into the ex-
ternal world, and for their getting into drinking-water, and with
this, or with raw articles of food grown in moist places, into the
human stomach. For the prophylaxis, therefore, it is in the
first degree necessary, that the dogs, as soon as they are seen to

CYSTICERCUS TENUICOLLIS. 187

pass large, slender, white proglottides,1 should be freed from their
Tanice in closed spaces, and the expelled tape-worm rendered
harmless by fire or spirits ; then that the shepherds and butchers
should be counselled and instructed to give their dogs no bladders
out of the mesentery, liver, and abdomen generally, and that,
where this disorder is endemic, particular care should be taken
in the use of drinking-water in free nature, and of those articles
of food which are consumed raw, and which, standing upon a
moist soil, had an opportunity of coming in contact with the
floating eggs of this Tcema. Local usages and customs in the
mode of life must furnish further data. See also the prophylaxis
of the Echinococci. The destruction of the brood of the cestoid
worms, when introduced into the stomach and just immigrating,
by the administration of anthelmintics, has never succeeded with
me. The object which I had iu view in these experiments is
perfectly clear. Had I succeeded in discovering a remedy which
would prevent the further development of the brood, then, in
countries where these parasites are endemic, this remedy would
have to be administered daily to the inhabitants. The same
thing would also be done with the domestic animals. It would
be interesting in this respect if agriculturists could tell us
whether those farms are permanently free from Coenuri, &c., in
which species of Pyrethrum occurred on the meadows. It is also
to be taken into consideration, as already indicated, that these
vesicular worms, as well as the Echinococci, have become rare in
the same proportion that the diet of the inhabitants has become

1 As it lies beyond the purpose of this text-hook to give the specific distinctions more
exactly, I must confine myself to the description of the nature of the proglottides just
given. The white proglottides passing with the excrements of dogs can only helong to
T. Ccenurus, T. serrata, T. ex Cyst, tenuicolli, and T. solium ; the latter of which, how-
ever, I doubt. The form of the proglottides is sufficient for their distinction. Those of
T. Ccenurus are very narrow and slender ; those of T. serrata broad and somewhat
shorter; and those of T. ex C. tenuicolli are nearly of the size of the segments of
T. solium. If the proglottides be pressed between two glass plates, we see the further
distinctions above mentioned between T. solium and T. ex Cyst, tenuicolli. T. Ccenurus
has a very slender uterus, with unramified and not very long lateral branches, of which
about twenty may be counted on each side ; T. serrata vera has a uterus with broader
lateral branches, which are ramified, and form diverticula on all sides, and also very
commonly emit a large transverse branch to the porus genitalis. Besides the reasons
for the distinction of the species given here and formerly, it may also perhaps be pointed
out that, as I have shown in Moleschott's ' Untersuchungen,' Band i, p. 270, etseq., the
hooks are produced in all the species upon very different models. For more details as
to this difference, I must refer to the work quoted.

188 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

more regular and more careful in the choice and preparation of
food, and perhaps even still more that these cystic worms decrease
in a district in the same degree as the number of free dogs
becomes less, which they may, in consequence of dog-taxes, &c.

2. Direct therapeutics. — If the embryos be once introduced
and developed, our art possesses no remedy, except the puncture
and complete removal of the cystic worm itself, for, as we shall
see in the Echinococci, it is by no means impossible that injured
cystic worms may again recover themselves. Vesicles, at which
we cannot get with the trocar, remain inaccessible to treatment.
Whatever number of cysts there may be, the same number of
punctures must be made in the different places where they are
situated, if a cure be desired. Next to puncture with the
trocar, the galvanic acupuncture might be worth a trial.

There is no doubt that the Cysticercus tenuicollis sometimes
decays spontaneously, and that in this case an alleviation of
any symptoms may take place by the simultaneous diminution
of the swelling caused by absorption. In the pig, at the bottom
of those cysts which contained dead Cysticerci, I have repeatedly
found the latter more or less covered with a calcareous crust,
with their walls collapsed, their caudal vesicle empty and con-
tracted, the rest of the cyst filled with a chalky, fatty mass,
containing cholesterine, the walls of the enveloping cyst shrivelled,
and, when the cyst is situated in the liver, its walls thickened.
There is no doubt that the therapeutist must constantly endeavour
to discover how Nature conducts this process, which brings
about the death of the Cysticerci. Inflammations of the en-
veloping cysts usually appear to cause the death of the worm,
and the question arises, whether, besides puncture, we can by
any other means induce inflammation of the enveloping cyst, arid
by this the death of the worm. At present, we are acquainted
with no such therapeutical agent. See also Graefe's observa-
tions on Cysticercus celluloses.

Literature. — ' Bonetus Sepulchr./ 1. c. Kolpin and Block, in
' Biblioth. nova/ pp. 393 and 394. Treutlin, ' Observ. pathol.
anat./ pp. 14 — 16, tab. iii, figs. 1 — 4. Jorden's ' Helminthol./
p. 56, tab. v, figs. 8 — 11. Gmelin, ' Syst. Nat./ p. 3059, No. 5.
'Zeder Naturgesch./ p. 458, No. 11.' Wepfer in < Biblioth./
No. 390. Leuckart, ' Die Blasenbandwiirmer und ihre En-
twicklung/ Giessen, 1856, p. 4, et seq. (Historical). Principal
work, — * Undersogelder over den i Island endemiske Hydatide.

CYSTICEKCUS TENUICOLLIS. 189

sygdan/ by Eschricht, separately printed from the ' Bibliotliek
for Laeger/ January, 1854-, and Schleissner's ' Nosographie
Islands/

3. ECHINOCOCCI.

The Echinococci have long furnished a point of dispute for
helminthologists. Some only admit a single species of Echino-
coccus ; others two; and others that there is a still greater num-
ber of species, — such as Leuckart, who regards an Echinococcus of
the camel and that of the peacock as distinct from the other
species. The Echinococci are usually divided (and amongst
others even by Yon Siebold) into Echinococcus hominis and E.
veterinorum. This is incorrect, for Haubner and Creplin have
ascertained the occurrence of Echinococcus hominis in cattle, and,
on the other hand, Von Ammon has found E. veterinorum in
the human eye ; and from Eschricht's description of the Echino-
coccal disease in Iceland, it appears also, that in that island,
both species occur in the human subject. That the latter two
species are really distinct, further proofs will be furnished in the
following remarks. We shall pass over here the differences by
which the Echinococci are distinguished from the Cysticerci and
Cwnuri, and only mention in passing that the Echinococcus-
cyst proliferates almost throughout its whole extent, and that
we cannot speak of it as a caudal vesicle ; that the Echinococcus-
cyst is firmly attached to the enveloping cyst ; that the walls
are composed of lamellae ; that no muscular layer follows upon
this stratified membrane, as in the Cysticerci, but that it is imme-
diately followed by a layer of a gran ulo- vesicular structure, with a
vascular system and calcareous corpuscles. All these points
will be referred to in detail hereafter. But the differences in
the developmental history of the two species will be more ex-
actly detailed. From the internal vascular layer of the Echino-
coccws-vesicle, spring small buds, which, forming conical or
villus-like elevations, sometimes measuring 0*4 mill., become con-
verted directly into Jte^a-heads, in the formation of which
there is not usualty an immediate conversion of the processes
into heads ; but first of all a transformation of the processes
into small brood-capsules, 0*7 — 2 mill, in diameter, and it
is only in these that the scolices are produced or budded
forth. The process, which at first adheres by a tolerably broad
base, becomes in this way cleared, its contents more fluid,

190 ANIMAL PARASITES.

and a small globular vesicle, adhering to the inner wall of
the Echinococcus } is formed, presenting an external structure-
less epidermis and an inner granular layer. In the granular
layer of these processes which have been dilated into vesicles,
we observe vessels, which are connected with those of
the Echinococcus-vesicle, and, subsequently, when the small
vesicles have attained a certain size, again lead to the formation
of processes in themselves. Thus, from these new (4 — 10) pro-
cesses the scolices of the Taenia are produced, with a general
increase in the size of the capsule. This occurs essentially in
accordance with the same type as in the Cysticerci, with the
sole difference that, as Leuckart has pointed out, the cephalic
processes become hollow from the inner end, which is turned
towards the cystic worm, and not from the wall of the vesicle.
The immediate neighbourhood of this cavity is also contracted
with the rest of the parenchyma of the cephalic process, with-
out ever forming a caudal vesicle, which would be cast
off during the transition into the strobila. The wall of
the vesicle, in which the head is inverted, afterwards forms
the hinder part of the young Tcenia. If anything is lost in
this transformation, it can only be the rudiments of the stem
which occurs in all individual scolices of Echinococcus, and
contains 2 — 4 vessels, originating from the vascular system
of the brood-capsule. When the Echinococcus-liends are deve-
loped in the interior of the process which has become converted
into a vesicle, which always takes place uniformly, the brood-
capsule bursts, and its walls, and with them the inner layer with
the individual heads, turn inside out. Lastly, the groups of
Echinococci, which often swim about freely in the Echinococcus-
sac, detach themselves, and the individual scolices fall separately
into this sac, where they die, whilst new generations are produced.
Moreover, the histological structure both of the mother- vesicle
and of the daughter-vesicles (vide infra) shows that the formation
of the heads never takes place on the outer wall (Huxley), but
on the inner one. Up to this period the process of formation is
the same in both species of Echinococcus; but now a new
mode of generation makes its appearance. This consists in
the production of the so-called daughter-vesicles, which are
vesicles swimming about freely in the fluid of the Eckinococcus,
and which exactly resemble the mother-vesicle in their structure
and in their proliferaut activity. Their mode of production is

CYSTICERCUS TENUICOLLIS. 191

not quite clear. The observation of Lebert, who sometimes
found a rudimentary peduncle upon them, is in favour of their
having been primarily pedunculated processes similar to those to
which we have just referred, with only the single difference that
they do not remain attached and burst in that condition. A
third mode of generation, which only occurs in Echinococcus
altricipariens , has been observed by Virchow and Luschka in the
human body. It occurs, however, only in those specimens of
this Echinococcus which intrude themselves into vacuities in the
tissues and the interior of vessels (blood-vessels and lymphatics)
in the form of cylindrical tubes. Within these narrow cylin-
drical tubes various vesicular appendages, furnished with filiform
peduncles, are formed, which then probably become separated by
constriction and form closed vesicles. These appendages, or
vesicles separated by constriction, can then proliferate again, or,
which appears to be the most usual occurrence, they remain
barren, and become Acephalocysts. The colonies are mixed,
actually proliferating in the mother-vesicle, and in certain
daughter-vesicles, but usually sterile in the parts separated by
constriction ; although I do not believe it to be impossible for
the latter to proliferate. In them, therefore, we have, — simple
scolex-formation, ordinary formation of daughter-vesicles, and
regeneration of so-called daughter-vesicles by the constriction of
particular buds or by a sort of fission. The latter, however,
is only a slower and more distinct process, occurring in the
cylindrical diverticula of an Echinococcus-colony, of that mode
of formation by which the daughter-vesicles are produced, and,
according to Lebert, frequently pedunculated. The most im-
portant distinctive indication of this mode of generation lies
in the products which sometimes thus originate. Such
vesicles, when completely constricted, may again become inde-
pendent colonies (Echinococcus- or Acephalocyst-sacs), which
are totally unconnected. It would, therefore, be erroneous to
suppose that when several Echinococcus-colomes occur isolated
in an organ, the same number of the six-hooked embryos of the
Tcenia of the Echinococcus must have arrived at development.
Even Virchow has indicated, that all such colonies in one organ
may originate from a single embryo. In the appendix to the
second part of the German edition of my Text-book, I called
attention to this production by constriction or fission, which has
recently been pointed out by Luschka. The importance which
the mode of generation and life here mentioned possesses for pa-

192 ANIMAL PAEASTTES.

thological anatomists, on account of its having been confounded
with alveolar colloid, will justify us in treating of this subject
more in detail hereafter.

Although it will have been seen that two distinct models may
be distinguished in the mode of production of the Echinococci,
it is, nevertheless, difficult to find a suitable nomenclature for
the two species thus formed. The denominations —

a. Echinococcus scolicipariens, and

b. Echinococcus altricipariens ,

may, perhaps, appear the most proper, and I shall employ them
in the following pages.1

a. ECHINOCOCCUS SCOLICIPARIENS = ECHINOCOCCUS VETERINORUAI
of the earlier authors.

Synon. : T&nia visceralis socialis yranulosa (Goze) ; T. granu-
losa (Gmelin) ; Vesicaria granulosa (Schrank) ; Hydatigena granu-
losa (Batsch) ; Hydatis erratica (Blumenbach) ; Polycephalus
hominis (Goze) ; Polyc. granulosus (Zeder) ; Polyc. humanus
(Zeder) ; Polyc. Echinococcus (Zeder) ; Echinococcus veterinorum
(Rudolph! et plurimi autores) ; Echinoc. Giraffae (Gervais) ;
Echin. Simla (Rudolph! aliique) ; Echin. granulosus (Rudolph!) ;
Echinoc. Infusorium (Leuckart) ; Echinoc. polymorphus (Diesing).

[Tsenia matura : Ttenia minima, ad 3 mill. longof corpore 3- aut
^-articulato ; capite subgloboso, 0*3 mill, lato ; rostello parvulo,
rotundato, 0'125 mill, longo ; osculis suctoriis magnis (0'13 mill.} •
animalis in duplice ordine positis 28 — 36, quorum majores ex
Leuckarlii mensura 0*045, minores 0*038, ex meis mensuris 0*034 et
0'028 habent ; collo longiusculo ; articulis 3 — 4, quorum ultimus
toto corpore longior (2 mill, long., 0*6 mill, lat.) est. Utero
mediand loculis et stolonibus nee ramis propriis instructd ; ovulis
ovalibus, 0*034 long, et 0*030 lat., testa 0*0019 mill, crassd, cavitate
internd 0*027 lat. et 0*030 long.

Habitat : In Canis domestici, imprimis in Canis lanii fortasse
etiam in Canis Lupi tubo intestinali.']

Scolex quiescens=Echinococcus veterinorum sen scolicipariens :
Vesica minus pellucida, membranacea, in pariete ad 1 — 2 mill,
crassa, ex pluribus 0*005 — 0*01 mill, crassis lamellis concentricis

1 See, on this subject, a paper by Professor Huxley " On the Anatomy and Develop-
ment of Echinococcus velerinorum" in ' Proceedings of Zoological Society of London/
December 14th, 1852.— ED.

ECHINOCOCCUS SCOLICIPARIENS. 193

composita, parvulas gemmas (brood -capsules) stylosas gignens, in
quibus scolices singuli proliferantur, magnitudinem 30 mill, et ultra
exhibens. Scolices sociales gemmis diruptlo libere in vesicam
emissi, parvuli, capite Taenice modo dicta. Metamorphosis in
Taniam post 7 — 8 hebdomades peracta.

Habitat : Interdum in homine, plerumque in aliis animalibus
plerumque domesticis ex ordine Ruminantium et Herbivoracium.1

Tania matura. — This Tania has not hitherto been found in
the human subject, but it was known to Rudolphi, and was
found by him accidentally in the intestine of a pug-dog (a breed
•which is now extinct according to Vogt). Rudolphi regarded
them as heads of Tcenia cateniformis (cucumerina) produced by
spontaneous generation. (See ' Entoz. hist, nat./ i, p. 411.) Roll
afterwards found it in Vienna in two dogs; and Von Siebold and
I, without knowing anything of each other, simultaneously
ascertained that Roll's Tcenia was not T. serrata juvenilis, but a
peculiar species of Tcenia, derived from Echinoc. veterinorum.
Haubner and I also found this Tcenia in great quantities in dis-
secting a sheep-dog in Kleinbautzen, and I found it myself again
in a batcher's dog. As far as I am aware, no one has yet bred
this Tcenia by the intentional administration of its Echinococci,
except Von Siebold in 1852, and myself shortly afterwards, as
my plates sent to the Academy of Sciences in Paris will prove.
Since that period I could obtain no Echinococci for administration,
until, at the end of the month of December, 1854, I obtained
two vesicles, which were given by me to two dogs, and one by
Haubner, in Dresden, to a third. Since then I have frequently
given them. This Taenia always occurs in society, prefers taking
up its position in the upper parts of the small intestine, is
hardly 3 — 4"' in length, and becomes mature even in the third
segment ; it requires for its perfect development a period of
about eight or nine weeks, according to Von Siebold only seven ;

1 Many who are not exactly acquainted with the subject may be puzzled because in
the figures of this and the following species different parts of one and the same worm
occur in one figure very unequally magnified. I must admit that I did not know how to
do otherwise without adding to the number of the plates, which are in themselves very
expensive. 1 shall be thankful for any hint in connection with this, and beg those who
may only become acquainted with the subject from this book, to bear in mind that for
the purpose of diagrammatic representation an error in regard to proportional size has,
perhaps, been made.

N

194 ANIMAL PAEASJTES.

in which time, however, I have always found it immature. For
the size of the hooks vide infra.

Eggs and six-hooked embryos. — There can be no doubt that
these little creatures must occur at some period in the intestines
of man, getting there with drinking-water, or with raw articles
of diet, which have been derived from a damp soil, and which
we have already mentioned several times, such as salad, straw-
berries, roots, turnips, and fallen fruits, especially such as
have been collected after a wet day and eaten raw with the
peel on.1 Like the embryos of. the other T&nia, however, they
escape the human eye on their entrance into the human body.
Their migration itself is certainly performed like that of the
other embryos of the Taenice, by their perforating the intestine
and getting into the abdominal cavity, where they prefer attaching
themselves to the liver or the kidneys, or to the organs lying in
the thoracic cavity. A portion of them, however, may migrate
along the ductus choledochus to the outer surface of the liver. In
the spot which they select they take up their position in the
same way as the other Cestodea, and the envelopes formed round
them have the same properties as with the latter, but are, never-
theless, distinguished by the thickness of their walls.

Scolex. — I have never had an opportunity of seeing this scolex
with certainty in the human subject, although I have repeatedly
seen it in pigs and sheep. It has certainly been seen by Gescheidt
in the eye, and by Eschricht. I shall therefore treat of this
worm here in accordance with Eschricht' s interesting communica-
tions, with additions which I shall take the liberty of making
from my own observations on this creature when found in animals.
There can be no doubt that Eschricht has seen it, and I here quote
from his memoir already cited, all that refers to a consumptive
Danish miller's man (1. c., pp. 15 — 16) who suffered from Echino-
coccus. Schleissner's two Icelandic cases belong to b.

The scolex forms a vesicle which can hardly exceed the size of
a large apple. According to Eschricht, it measures 2i — 3 inches,
and forms a firm attachment to the organ in which it dwells.
The anatomical elements are the same as those of all enveloping

1 The common people, as is well known, say that tape-worms are acquired by eating
apples, and especially the so-called bloom on ripe apples. I have already shown the
impossibility of this supposition, but I must admit that an infection with cystic worms
of all kinds by eating raw windfalls with the skin on is certainly possible.

ECHINOCOCCUS SCOLICIPABIENS. 195

cysts, only they are more concealed and more abundantly per-
meated by proteinous unorganized substances, by which the walls
themselves become thickened, and the mode of secretion of the
fluid by which the worm is to be nourished becomes more diffi-
cult to understand. The thickness of the walls is not the same
in all parts, but in one of Eschricht's cases it was about £"' on
the free side looking towards the peritoneum, but nearly 4'"
in the interior of the liver. In this envelope, distinctly separate
layers or strata could be detected and partly separated ; the in-
nermost being J — 1 millim. in thickness. The innermost stratum
is also smooth, like the surface of a serous cavity. It is to be
observed also that the enveloping cyst is seldom regularly round,
but has various excrescences in the part which lies in the paren-
chyma of the organ in which the vesicle is imbedded, which there
correspond with similar excrescences in the cystic worm living in
it. 1 repeat, what I have already stated once, namely, that such
excrescences are not essential; that we do not know how they
are caused, whether by the inhabitant, or by the impulse of
organization in the enveloping cyst, which appears to me to
be the most probable ; and, lastly, that these excrescences only
occur in those individuals of all the cystic worms which live im-
bedded in the parenchyma or the cellular tissue of parerichymatous
organs, but never in those which live in free, simple cavities of
the body — a distinction to which attention has not hitherto been
directed, and which, nevertheless, satisfactorily and distinctly
explains everything.

A second vesicular body fits exactly to the inner surface of the
innermost layer — this is the true cystic worm, the so-called
mother vesicle of the Echinococci, that is, the six-hooked
embryo, which, continually increasing, has attained an extra-
ordinary size. It is a matter of difficulty in general, at least my
attempts for several years have never been successful, to get the
cystic worm uninjured out of its cyst, although I have sometimes
been able to loosen a greater or less portion of the vesicle from
the inner wall, to which, however, it adheres rather firmly. To
manage this, I advise that the unopened cyst should be left for
some days in spirits, and then that a short cut should be made
with blunt-pointed scissors in a thick part of the cyst, and nearly
passing through its walls. The margins of the somewhat gaping
cuts in the cysts are then seized with two pairs of forceps, with
which the walls of the cut are gradually drawn asunder, when the

196 ANIMAL PARASITES.

inner vesicle gradually separates from its enveloping cyst. If such
a cyst be cut through, the gelatinous, very elastic wall of the cystic
worm separates from the cyst at these cut places, and rolls itself
up, when with a forceps it may easily be separated in its whole
extent from the inner wall of the cyst, in which case the worm
furnishes a true representation of any inequalities in the outer
cyst.

As regards the structure of the walls of the true Ech'mococcus-
vesicle, it is characterised by the following circumstances, which
must be accurately estimated, on» account of Acephalocysts :

1. The walls are extraordinarily elastic, and tremble, like
jelly, when touched, even after they are empty, which we do not
see in the walls of a Cysticercus.

2. The walls of such a vesicle never collapse entirely, as is
the case in the Cysticerci, nor do they lie, like these, after
death, flat at the bottom of the envelope-cyst, but even when
dead they still adhere to particular spots in the envelope-cyst,
in which case an adhesion takes place between the latter and
the worm as if by plastic exudation.

3. The cut margins of such cysts roll themselves up, which
gives them a gaping appearance.

4. The transverse section of the walls of such a cystic worm
distinctly shows a structure consisting of more or less numerous
consecutive circular strata, varying according to age, which we
find merely indicated in dead Cystic, tenuicolles, and in so low a
degree that it requires considerable practice to detect even very
slight indications of such lines.

With regard to the structure of this Cestode, Eschricht says
that the walls consist of two similar membranes, which are only
loosely connected, and of which the outer one is of a cartilaginous
nature, and the other, which is thin and smooth, has the texture
of a mucous membrane, is large enough to bear an epithelium
(which Von Siebold, as I think rightly, denies), and beset with
small elevations of a size up to J'" ', which are partly very young
scolices in the act of development, partly further developed
scolices of TO'", and partly, according to Eschricht, representing
the points on which such scolices formerly sat. In the fluid con-
tained in these vesicles there are also free scolices, part of which
are still furnished with the remains of the stalk, and which, on
the application of pressure, form flat discs with, the outline of an
apple cut down the middle; from the hinder third of this,

ECHINOCOCCUS SCOLICIPARIENS. 197

towards the stalk, a circlet of 30 — 34 hooks, in a double series,
shines through, and from its anterior extremity the four sucking
discs appear in the same way (as Wedl has correctly per-
ceived and figured, and as Eschricht supposed, but, as he says,
did not actually see), and in these discs the well-known roundish
calcareous corpuscles, measuring O'Ol — 0*02 millim., are imbedded
(vide infra). If the Echinococci be left uncovered to roll about
upon the field of vision, we see that, as Eschricht states, they are
not really round vesicles, but flat discs (or depressed sacs), on
one surface of which, towards the anterior portion, there is a
blunt elevation. These scolices of Echinococcus are the ana-
logues of those structures M-hich Van Beneden has figured on
pi. viii of his work already quoted, and in other places; so that in
speaking of the individual scolices we can hardly call them
cystic worms.

The calcareous corpuscles have but slightly marked sides and
angles, and rather a round, cellular appearance. Eschricht, who
thought he saw a nucleus in them, has probably been deceived,
either by the deposition of the calcareous matter in concentric
layers, as is sometimes the case, or by the glimmering of a
small corpuscle through a larger one behind which it lay. He
thinks also, that although the calcareous corpuscles occur in
various parts of the skin, they have, nevertheless, a certain regu-
larity in their distribution. Thus they form a distinct circle
close to the outline of the body, another round the hooks, and a
series along the middle line, whilst a lighter space occurs between
the poles and the circlet of hooks, that is to say, about the posi-
tion of the sucking discs, the neighbourhood of which is generally
free from a deposition of calcareous corpuscles. I can confirm
these latter statements from particular cases of Echinococci
in animals, but here I rarely saw it in this manner. The
number of calcareous corpuscles — which Eschricht, however,
regards as cells containing silica — is often small, and often much
larger, as for instance, more than a hundred in one individual.
The younger an individual is the smaller and less distinct are the
corpuscles, and the fewer of them are there in the animal ; the
older it is, the more abundant are the corpuscles. The size of the
hooks, according to Eschricht, is O02 — O022 millim., or about
O'Ol'", a statement which, as we shall show further on, is not
quite correct, as the hooks of the first and second series vary
amongst themselves.

198 ANIMAL PARASITES.

Symptomatology. — Single cysts of this Echinococcus will
scarcely produce any symptoms during life, as the growth of this
species appears, on the whole, to be rather limited. I have never
yet seen a cyst of this species, in an animal, which had attained
the bulk of a large apple, or of a goose-egg. The vesicles are
generally of the size of a walnut or a duck's egg, and they project
but little, or scarcely at all, above the level of the liver. For
this very reason their diagnosis in man presents the greatest dif-
ficulties. The disturbance in the functions of the liver will in
general be small, and only beqpme more considerable when a
great number of such vesicles inhabit the liver, their injurious
influence becoming more striking by their increased numbers.
The right hypochondrium and the cardia are sometimes painful
on pressure, and rather more dulness is exhibited over the liver
as far as an inch and a half and more below the false ribs and
over the cardia, with irregular evacuations and symptoms of
jaundice.

Pathological anatomy. — The liver is swollen, particularly behind,
pale, of a uniform, grayish-brown colour. On its surface it presents
larger or smaller spots of a whitish-yellow colour, and of a more
or less regular form, generally but slightly raised in this species
above the surface of the liver, although there may be exceptions
to this in the case of very much enlarged vesicles. On the
whole, therefore, the resistance to the pressure of the finger and
the feeling of fluctuation are but small, and I also believe that
the sensation of the so-called hydatid -buzzing is never to be felt
here. This species, as will have been seen already from this
description, has its seat too deep in the parenchyma of the liver
to project above the level of its surface.

By closer attention hereafter, we shall certainly often meet
with this species of Echinococcus in the human subject, and con-
vince ourselves that many of the cases described in literature up
to this time referred to this species. But what \vould be the
use of attempting to criticise the old materials in this manual ?
It is sufficient for us to have called attention to the occurrence of
this species in the human body, and to bring forward from the
literature of the subject the two interesting cases, namely, the
case observed by Von Ammon-Gescheidt, of the occurrence of
Echinococcus hominis between the choroid coat and the retina,
which refers to this species, and Holler's case.

a. Von Ammon's case. — The eyelids and the parts surrounding

ECHINOCOCCUS SCOLICIPARIENS. 199

the bulb were in the normal state, the right eyeball was strongly
convex, slightly hardened, tense, and staring; the sclerotic coat
and the cornea were normal, the iris brown, coated in isolated
spots with yellow exudations of lymph, the pupil distorted, the upper
segment of the lens somewhat turbid, and deeper down presented
a dingy yellow and widely diffused turbidity. The left eye-
ball, which resembled the right one in form and hardness, had a
pale-blue iris, with small superficial vessels. The obscured lens
was pressed downwards, the place where the lens ought to have
been was filled with a yellowish-brown mass, and only the upper
segment of the lens was perceptible. Dissection : When the
eye was divided into two segments by a transverse incision, it
was found that a fine white membrane pressed into the incision,
between the cut choroid and sclerotic coats. The choroid itself
was brownish, destitute of pigment, and rich in varicose vessels ;
the retina appeared to be shrivelled up with the vitreous body
into a white, reddish-brown mass, was quite cord-like at the
entrance of the optic nerve, increased in breadth and circum-
ference anteriorly, became folded, and was intimately amalgamated
with the corona ciliaris and processes ciliaris. In the space
between the retina and the choroid sat the white vesicle, of
which it has already been stated that it pushed itself out through
the incision. When the external, white, firm, and slightly trans-
parent envelope of this vesicle, which sprang from the middle of
the lower surface of the retina and spread itself in a circle round
the retina, with its two sac-like extremities meeting above,
was carefully opened, a little serous fluid issued, and at the
same time a delicate bluish-white membrane appeared enclosed
within the first-mentioned envelope. When this was torn open,
a serous fluid also issued from it, which contained a quantity of
small, round, oval or olive-like vermiform corpuscles, and the
latter were, as perceived, attached to the inner surface of the
delicate membrane. On some of them four small suckers were
distinctly seen, but no circlet of hooks was detected. They
formed a perfectly homogeneous mass without perceptible internal
structure, and were regarded as an Echinococcus.

From the description just given it follows distinctly that this
was an Echinococcus of the first species, or scolicipariens, and
that I am certainly in the right if I do not refer it to our second
species.

It is, however, to be regretted that not a single one of these

200 ANIMAL PARASITES.

small attached bodies was examined, from a desire to save the
very rare, nay unique preparation. Although Yon Ammon has
hitherto looked in vain for the hooks, they would certainly have
been found at that time ; arid even now, a great number of those
in this position must certainly have the circlet of hooks still
inverted.

|3. Mailer's case. — In November, 1853, a soldier came into
the hospital with an extraordinary swelling of the abdomen ; he
was very anaemic and cachectic, had taken part in the war in
Schleswig-Holstein in 1848, ami had the ague in 1850. On
examining the abdomen it was found to be filled and extended
to such a degree by sacculated swellings that the circumference
of the belly above the navel was twice as much as the whole
length of the body. Distinct undulating movements were felt
in the tumour 011 laying the hand upon the abdomen. The
disease had commenced shortly after his dismissal from the army,
at the conclusion of the war in Schleswig-Holstein. There were
two cicatrized wounds in the right hypochondrium, caused by the
punctures which had been made by surgeons out of the hospital.
The patient died, completely exhausted, on the 1st of December.
A post-mortem examination showed innumerable Echinococcus^
vesicles in the abdomen, in the spleen, liver, and psoas muscle,
from the size of a man's head down to that of a small micro-
scopic vesicle. Unfortunately no administration of these Echino-
cocci was made. (Moller, ' Bibliothek for Lagger/ 1856, p. 58.)

I must, however, in reference to the first interesting case, call
attention to one observation which differs directly from all pre-
vious observations, namely, the issuing of a quantity of serous
fluid (which is certainly described as small) on the incision of the
outer membrane, whilst the true mother-vesicle of the Echinococcus
was still uninjured. This can only be explained by the fact
as we shall see in dead Acephalocysts, the vesicles produced by
Echinococcus can also separate from the enveloping cyst in par-
ticular parts, although never completely or in all parts. In
Von Ammon's case the worm had probably separated in one
place whilst lying in the eye, a little fluid had collected in this
spot between the Echinococcus and its cyst, and it happened that
this was exactly the place cut into in the dissection. As a
general rule, the connection between the enveloping cyst and the
Echinococcus appears to become more intimate with time, but to
be less firm in the earlier periods.

ECHINOCOCCUS SCOLICIPAKIENS. 201

In general the contents of the fresh and vigorous living
vesicle are the ordinary, limpid, proteinaceous fluid, which
in the Echinococci contains also succinic acid ;T and after
death the same phenomena occur in it as in that of the
Cysticerci, namely, turbidity, pus-formation as it is usually
called, fatty degeneration, and calcification, which, however, as
follows from the results described, go on, not between the enve-
loping cyst and the Echinococcus, but within the Echinococcus
itself. As regards the statement that a formation of pus takes place
in the interior of the Echinococcus-\7esic\es, I will not directly
deny the possibility of such an occurrence; but I do not exactly
see how the process of pus-formation can go on with the en-
capsuled fluid, enclosed by an Echinococcus. The ovarian cysts
can certainly not be brought in here as analogous cases, in
which these processes take place, as in these we have to do with
the tissues of the human body, but here with a fluid separated
from the human body by a worm. If we examine the purulent
mass in the cysts of Cysticerci, we certainly find a quantity
of large granulated corpuscles, resembling pus-corpuscles, and
smaller molecular granules. And this is no wonder, as the worm
not firmly connected with its enveloping membrane, and this has
the power and opportunity to act on a great part, like the in-
flamed inner wall of a pus-forming ovarian cyst. I have no
experience of Echinococci in the human subject, but we find
authors speaking of purulent Echinococci in every text- book.

1 The detection of succinic acid, which, as is well known, is produced, amongst other
ways, by the action of nitric acid upon fat or fatty acids, and is also formed in the
spontaneous decomposition of certain organic substances in the presence of much water,
is best effected, according to Heintz ('Lehrbuch der Zoochemie/ p. 239), in the
following way : The fluid of the Echinococcus is evaporated ; the syrupous extract is
mixed with a little muriatic acid, and repeatedly agitated with water and ether, free
from alcohol, until the ether can take up nothing more. On the evaporation of the
etherial solutions impure succinic acid remains. This is purified by dissolving it in
water, evaporating the filtered solution, washing the residue with cold alcohol, and
repeated recrystallization from the alcoholic solution. Succinic acid may also be
detected in other animal substances in this way unless hippuric or benzoic acid be
present at the same time, in which case some precautions would have to be employed,
which will be found in Heintz, 1. c., p. 232.

When we consider how easily a great many organic lime and potash salts, which are
readily converted into carbonates, become transformed into succinates, we are, perhaps,
justified in thinking that a part of those calcareous corpuscles of the Cestodea, and
especially of the Echinococci, which do not effervesce when dissolved in acids, may
contain succinic acid instead of carbonic acid.

202 ANIMAL PARASITES.

The preceding will be sufficient to incite the pathological
anatomists to a fresh and more exact investigation of this cir-
cumstance, so as to let us know whether the dead vesicle of an
Echinococcus can take on the functions of a true serous mem-
brane of the human body and replace it functionally in every
particular. In dead EchinocoGci of the liver of the pig I saw
the following processes : turbidity of the contents, bloodiness,
absorption of the fluid through the walls of the cyst, flaccidity
of the walls of the cyst, and conversion of the contents by long
absorption into a tough, syrupouj, dingy coloured fluid, but there
were no pus-corpuscles.

If the mother-vesicle of Echinococcus be extracted from its
enveloping cyst, we find, between the inner wall of the cyst and
the outer wall of the vesicle, plastic exudation, which is thicker
in some places than in others. This probably serves both for
the enlargement and thickening of the walls of the enveloping
cyst, which is strengthened from within outwards, and for the
agglutination of the cyst and worm.

Each individual scolex when alive in its mother-vesicle usually
has its head retracted, and only protrudes it after death, when it
generally loses its hooks. The scolices, still attached by their
stalks to the inner wall of the Echinococcus, may also be brought
to protrude their heads when the mother-vesicle is cut open and
left for 12 — 24 hours lying in its fluid. Whilst at first we only
find scolices with inverted heads on scraping them off, we now
meet with numerous scolices with their heads protruded, and of
these the majority still bear the whole or a part of their hooks.
The four sucking discs of the scolices are also distinctly seen.

The experiment of raising Echinococci from the eggs of its
mature Tcenia, was made once upon one of the animals already fre-
quently mentioned as having been purchased for this purpose at
the expense of the Saxon government. Professor Haubner fed a
pig with the T. Echinococcus found in Kleinbautzen, and found, on
dissecting it several months afterwards, immense numbers of
small vesicles, resembling young cystic worms, in the most various
organs and parts of the body. Unfortunately none of these
vesicles had attained to further development, but we are certainly
justified in concluding, per analogiam, that these vesicles were
really young Echmococci} which, however, from some unknown
reasons, had remained stationary in their development, or had
been brought to destruction in consequence of a peculiar indi-

ECHINOCOCCUS SCOLICIPARIENS. 203

vicinal immunity of the animal experimented on, or perhaps
of too violent a reaction shortly after the immigration of the
embryo. (See Appendix.)

Therapeutics. — The indications are those which have already
been frequently mentioned.

1. Prophylaxis. — We have seen that the mature Tcenia be-
longing to this species occurs in the intestine of the dog, or
perhaps, more correctly, in those of the species of the genus
Canis. We can easily understand how dogs, especially shep-
herds' and butchers' dogs, and perhaps also wolves and foxes,
where the latter, as in Iceland, feed upon sheep, may get at this
Taenia. In districts where the breeding of sheep, cattle, and
swine flourishes, the above-mentioned species of dogs, and espe-
cially the shepherds' and butchers' dogs, have plenty of oppor-
tunities of devouring vesicles of this species of Echinococcus, and
it is consequently not difficult to make conjectures as to the
entrance of the eggs and six-hooked embryos into the human
body, which can only be the same as those which we have pro-
pounded regarding the production of Cysticercus tenuicollis, and
which must have acquired a very high degree of probability from
the experiments of Professor Haubner and myself.

The first prophylactic injunction must consequently be directed
against the scolex occurring in the above-mentioned animals, — the
Echinococcus scolicipariens of the domestic animals. According
to our observations and experiments, butchers and shepherds
who slaughter for themselves, or horse-slaughterers, should
not be allowed to throw the cystic worms, or what is more
intelligible to such people, bladders^ which occur in the livers
and other organs of the above-mentioned domestic animals, to
dogs as food. We must endeavour to show the people what
injustice they do in this manner, as unintentionally, and without
knowing anything about it, they may become the cause (certainly
remote) of one of their fellow-men becoming infected with an
Echinococcus-vesicle, because by this administration they produce
the Taenia Echinococcus constantly in fresh quantities, and thus
favour the passage of the eggs and embryos of this Taenia into

1 It will be the best plan with people of this kind to frame the ordinance in the above
universal fashion. The man of science will certainly understand the difference, and
here it requires the special limitation. But what does it signify if a vesicle is thus
indicated as suspicious to the laity, which, in reality, may be regarded as innocent ?

201 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

the external world, by which the human subject may be infected
in the way indicated. Butchers, slaughterers, and shepherds
should be instructed to destroy the bladders wherever they meet
with them, either by burning them, or, if they choose, putting
them into spirits; and this destruction might be ordered under
threat of punishment.

In districts where these Echinococcm-vesicles are plentiful in
the domestic animals, and where we may therefore suppose that,
notwithstanding the counsel just given — as the mode of pro-
ceeding of the butchers and slaughterers with such vesicles,
having become a regular custom, will be rooted out with difficulty —
the TaenifB still occur in the free dogs of these localities, so that
these eggs will also constantly be escaping, the people should be
careful about drinking unboiled water, and using raw roots, salads,
and fallen fruit. I know very well that it would be Utopian to
expect that the opinions here expressed will be quickly diffused
among the people; but this must not restrain me from
expressing them, and urging on governments to have proper
instructions disseminated amongst the people, in the popular
schools, by societies of which the object is the publication of
popular works of instruction. From the microscopic size of
the developed Tania we can direct no treatment against it; in
fact, we cannot tell what dog suffers from it, and even if we
had expelled it, we could hardly find it in the dung.

2. A direct treatment of the Echinococcus is only possible
when we can get at the vesicle.

Literature. — Gescheidt, in Von Ammon's e Zeitschrift fur
Opthalmol./ iii, pp. 437 and 446. Eschricht, in ' Undersb'gelser
over den i Island endemiske Hydatidesygdom/ Von Siebold
upon Taenia Echinococcus, in Siebold and Kolliker's ' Zeitschr.
fur Wissenschaftl. Zool./ 1853, iv, p. 409, et se.q. Roll, in
' Verhandl. der Phys. med. Gesellsch./ in Wiirzburg, iii, 1852,
p. 55. Kiichenmeister, ' Ueber Cestoden im Allgemeimen und
die des Menschen im Besondern/ To this species belong PL III,
fig. 17 a—d} and PL IV, figs. 1—9, of this text-book.

ECHINOCOCCUS ALTRICIPAEIENS. 205

b. ECUINOCOCCUS ALTRIC1PARIENS = ECHINOCOCCUS HOMINIS

autorum.
(PL III, figs. 18 a—g, 19, and PL IV, fig. 10 a— e.)

Synonyma. — In the confusion which prevails, it is no wonder
that this species has been everywhere mixed up with the pre-
ceding one ; compare, therefore, the preceding species.

Tcenia matura : Hucusque ignota.

Scolex = Echinococcus altricipariens ; sen E. hominis (autor.)
Vesica animata Echinococco scoliciparienti similis, sed omnino eo
multo major (ad i ped. in diametr.) Scolices singuli quiescentes
majore hamulorum minorum numero (46, 52 et ultra] armati
parantur a, aut ex modo E. scoliciparientis ; /3, aut in gemmis
aut capsulis a vesicce matris superficie interna solutis, in quibus
iterum scolices et vesicce secundaria scolices gignendi si pr&diice
gignuntur (mother-, daughter-, and granddaughter-vesicles); y, aut
fortasse in vesicis, qua divisione quadam aut sectione ex vesica matre
in vasibus animalis hospitis repente et serpente formantur. Vesica
mater nihil aliud est nisi vesicula embryonalis 6 hamulis armata
et valde amplificata ; vesicula filia et neptis hamulis 6 destitutes ,
quia ex vesicula embryonali recta via non exortce sunt.

Habitat : Non solum in homine, sed etiam, autoribus Haubnero
et Creplino, in mammalibus majoribus domesticis, et quidem in
diversissimis et hominis et illorum animalium corporis regionibus.

Ovula : Hucusque ignota.

Taenia matura. — I should not wander far from the truth if I
were to assert that this Tcenia may probably occur in the human
intestines, and indeed in the intestines of those individuals who
suffer, or have suffered from the species of Echinococcus belonging
to it in some part of their bodies, and in whom such a colony of
Echinococcus has opened towards the intestine. Perhaps, as I
have already said, the T<enia nana of Bilharz and Von Siebold
had such an origin, and was a Tcenia Echinococcus altricipariens.
This Taenia may also be enabled to develop itself in the intestines
of domestic carnivorous animals, especially dogs and cats, as well
as in man ; and I shall presently, in considering the circumstances
of Iceland, endeavour to show how these animals may acquire

206 ANIMAL PARASITES.

this Tcenia from Echinococcus-vesicles dwelling in the human
subject, and not merely from those which occur in animals. A
first experiment, made in the year 1853, to breed Tamce from
Echinococcus-vesicles passed from the living human subject, was
unsuccessful, and I have unfortunately only the same report to
give of a second experiment made with vesicles passed from the
same individual. Dr. Zenker also was unsuccessful in a similar
administration. Pathological anatomists and hospital surgeons
may do what they can further, and should not omit to administer
such Echinococcus altricipariens io dogs.

That the eggs and embryos must occur at some time or other
in the human body is a matter of course, but from their small
size they are overlooked, in the same way as those of the other
Tcenice, of which we have already treated.

The Scolex = Echinococcus altricipariens, occurs not only in
man, but also, as Haubner and Creplin have proved, in the
larger domestic mammalia, especially the Herbivora.1 The his-
tories of patients scattered in literature all belong to this form,
inasmuch as they refer partly to enclosed daughter-vesicles of
Echinococcus found on dissection in Echinococcus -sacs, partly to the
spontaneous passage of such daughter- vesicles through the urinary
passages, through the rectum, through the stomach in vomiting,
or through the lungs, and partly to a similar passage through the
punctures or incisions made for surgical purposes. From these,
however, we see how widely this species is diffused over the sur-
face of the earth, and we may also see from the accounts of
cases and dissections given by Schleissner, in his ' Nosography of
Iceland/ that this form not only occurs in Iceland, but that it
must be the predominant species there, and the one which makes
its appearance epidemically ; and Eschricht's observations made
on an Icelander also refer to this species. Dr. Thorstensolm's
case at Reikjavik, in Iceland, mentioned by Schleissner, refers to
this species no less than the majority of Schleissner's cases, of
which, however, one certainly belongs to Cysticercus tenuicollis,
as Eschricht has shown.

To what a degree of endemic diffusion this species has arrived,
especially in Iceland, appears from the fact, that during his
residence in that island, Schleissner saw fifty-seven human
patients suffering from Echinococcus. In Iceland this disorder

1 See also Huxley, in ' Proc. Zool. Soc.,' on Echinoc. veterin. in liver of Zebra.
(Loc. Cit.— ED.)

ECHTNOCOCCUS ALTRICIPARIENS. 207

occurs more frequently and extensively inland than on the
coasts, so that, for example, in Sandfell-sogn, Dr. Schleissner
found 2 — 3 members of each family suffering from. it. On the
whole one eighth of all the cases of illness occurring there are
referable to this plague, and Thorstensohn thinks that every
seventh living human being in Iceland suffers from Echinococci,
which even according to Schleissner is no exaggeration. More-
over, the female sex is much more liable than the male to be
attacked by this disorder, and the abundance of the Echinococci
increases with age, men being most frequently attacked by
Echinococcus between their thirtieth and fortieth, and women
between their fortieth and fiftieth years.

A very interesting case is that communicated by Thorstensohn
to Schleissner, and given by the latter in his work. I shall
reproduce it here, almost as a model of a history of a case of
Echinococcus altricipariens }

" Case from Dr. Thorstensohn, of Reikjavik. — A boy, of four
years old, had suffered for several months with a swelling of the
right side, and afterwards became dropsical. He had frequently
evacuated worms, both thread-worms and ascarides, and also
others of a less common form. On his visit, Thorstensohn found
a considerable anasarca, so that the whole body weighed sixty
pounds. In the right side there was a fluctuating swelling of
the size of a child's head. This was opened, when there issued
from it a quantity of thin fetid matter, as well as a great
number of hydatids of the size of a pigeon's egg. These were
roundish, with a tail towards one side. (This was certainly the
remains of the stem on which the vesicle had been sitting.)
When they were put into lukewarm water they exhibited
a distinct movement, especially as they contracted and ex-
panded themselves, nearly as the Stincus marinus moves in the
sea. After a purgative of calomel and rhubarb, a number of
thread-worms and ascarides were removed, together with some
gray worms rather more than an inch long, and thicker
than the common ascarides (probably, Anchylostomum duodenale,
Kiich.), besides some hydatids. The wound was kept open,

1 I am indebted for this to the kind intervention of Professor Eschricht, of Copen-
hagen, who had the goodness to write, on purpose, to Dr. Thomson, who is just
engaged in the translation of Schleissner's work, ' Island fra et laegevi deuska beligt
Synspunkt,' and who, in return, was so good as to translate it and send it to Professor
Eschricht for my use.

208 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

the issue gradually diminished, and in a fortnight the boy
had recovered. The same patient had also a fluctuating boil on
the lower lip. When this was opened with the lancet, a thin,
watery matter flowed out, and besides this a living worm of the
colour, form, and size of the common maggot. Thorstensohn
explains this by supposing that the egg of a fly had got into a
crack in the lip, and that the latter had then closed up before
the egg was hatched."

An interesting account of a case, which may serve as a model
for Echinococci in the lungs, is given by Vigla, in the c Archives
generales/ for September, 1855.

It is true that the celebrated blow (" Stoss"), in this case from
an ox, still plays its part, but in other respects it is very well
described. The symptoms were, pain in the breast in the neigh-
bourhood of the right mamma, especially during motion, difficulty
of breathing, absence of cough and expectoration, emaciation,
ansemia, and impossibility of lying on the left side — the patient
could only lie on the right side or on the back ; the voice weak
and altered, as in compression of the trachea, or nervi recurrentes ;
the right side of the chest much arched, and the intercostal spaces
and cutaneous veins dilated. The left side of the chest was only
more developed behind in consequence of the coexistence of
scoliosis.

Centim.

Circumference of the right half of the chest at the level of the 7th dorsal vertehra 43

left „ „ 7th „ 39

„ right „ under the axillae . . 41

left „ ... 39

Percussion over the whole anterior portion of the right side
of the chest, with the exception of the uppermost intercostal
space, and down on the right side to the navel, throughout
a length of 28 centimetres, was dull. The dulness also passed
backwards to the angle of the right shoulder-blade, and even a
little beyond this towards the left. The lobes of the liver, which
were pushed obliquely upwards, had displaced the heart, and
pressed it up into the left axilla, where the sounds of the heart
were audible. The respiratory murmur was absent throughout.
In front, fluctuation was felt in the right intercostal spaces.

ECHINOCOCCUS ALTRICIPAEIENS. 209

The characteristics of this species of Echinococcus, as dis-
tinguished from the preceding, are as follows :

1 . The enveloping cyst, and the mode of annexation of the
inner wall of this cyst to the primary vesicle of the Echinococcus
derived from the six-hooked embryo, are similar in this and
the foregoing species, but the cyst formed by E. altricip. is much
larger than that of E. scolicipariens, and for this reason projects
far above the level of the organ in which the colony sits.

2. From its much greater size results a proportionately in-
creased interference with the functions of the organ attacked,
and eventually of the whole organism.

3. With regard to the animal itself this distinction occurs,
that we not only find single scolices or a single vesicle in such a
colony, but that we have here to do with the constant production
of fresh vesicles with young (daughter- and granddaughter-
vesicles), sometimes with, and sometimes without, the production
of separate scolices adhering directly to the walls of the vesicle.
That the hydatids occurring in Iceland exclusively exhibit this
structure appears from the case furnished by Thorstensen to
Schleissner, as well as from the following remarks which are
quoted from Schleissner. " The hydatid-sacs are formed not only
in the human liver, but in very many parts of the abdomen,
and are often of enormous size. Hundreds of hydatids are
frequently evacuated through the external opening of the sac,
or with the stool, and in vomiting. They do not, however, occur
only in the interior of the body, but also very frequently in the
skin, where they appear like large saccular swellings. The
course of the disorder is very chronic." In this description I
have purposely avoided the words " production of similar vesicles
in themselves," as the vesicles produced do not, like the original
mother-vesicle, bear six embryonal booklets, which these secon-
dary and tertiary vesicles certainly never possess at any period
of their existence, as they never have occasion for them. More-
over, it is unnecessary for me to state particularly that the six
booklets may be sought for in vain even on the mother-vesicle,
as although they are certainly present, they must, from their
extreme minuteness, escape the eye on such a large vesicle, or
in its enveloping cyst. The smallest of the granddaughter-
vesicles are but just visible; they are about half the -size of a
pin's head, and enclose four, five, or more scolices, which adhere
peripherally, by a small stalk, to the inner wall of the common

o

210 ANIMAL PAKASITES.

cyst, but converge with their free ends towards the centre of the
cavity of the small vesicle. (See PI. Ill, fig. 18.) In very
large daughter-vesicles individual scolices also swim about
freely.

4. The individual scolices produced or nursed by the mother-,
daughter-, or granddaughter-vesicles, are in general more slender
than those of the preceding species ; they have the head, with
its double circlet of hooks, more frequently protruded during life,
at least within the larger daughter-vesicles, exhibit distinctly
marked sucking- discs, and bearc, much greater number (46 — 52
— 54) of hooks, which, on the whole, appear much more slender
than in the preceding species. From this we see that Livois'
statements regarding the number of hooks, &c., are perfectly
correct.

5. The dwelling-place of this species is by no means limited,
indeed we may say that there is scarcely a part of the body in
which it may not be found ; thus it occurs in the liver, the
lungs, the kidneys, the sheath of the testicles, the spleen, the
ovaries, the breasts, the throat, in the subcutaneous cellular
tissue, in the bones, &c.

6. With the augmentation of the secondary and tertiary cysts
in the mother-cyst, the latter, and with it the swelling increases
in size; the more rapidly this takes place, the more does
the swelling increase, which facilitates the recognition of the
disorder and its natural cure, inasmuch as the mother-cyst is
burst in this way, and in most cases probably becomes destroyed.
"We must not, however, always depend upon this last issue, for
the burst colony appears to heal again in a remarkable manner,
and then to be in a condition to recommence its production of
fresh daughter-vesicles. At least the remarkable case of a
patient observed by Jiittler and myself is in favour of this last
opinion. In this case, daughter- and granddaughter-vesicles
passed off through the urinary passages for a twelvemonth, but
after a very strong evacuation they at last ceased. After this
had lasted a year, the patient again suddenly observed an abun-
dant passage of daughter- and granddaughter- vesicles in the latter
part of January in this year. It is certainly possible that a
second colony may have existed close to the first, and that this
was now full-grown and burst, but we may still adopt the supposi-
tion of a healing of the first colony.

7. In general the prognosis of this disorder appears to me to

ECHINOCOCCUS ALTEICIPARIENS. 211

be more unfavorable than that of the preceding species, although
its diagnosis is easier on account of the more rapid growth and
greater bulk of the swelling, the occurrence of the hydatid-buzzing
and the more distinct sensation of fluctuation.

The structure of the walls of the mother-vesicle is the same in
both species, and is characterised by the numerous parallel con-
centric layers in the substance of the walls, which appear more
distinctly marked in the daughter-vesicles, and make their
appearance with remarkable clearness after treatment with caustic
potash with the addition of a drop of common red ink.

Very recently (' Verhandl. der phys. med. Gesellsch. zu
Wiirzburg/ 1855, pp. 84 — 95) Virchow has proved that the
so-called alveolar colloid of recent authors, such as Buhl
(Rubener's illustrirte medicinische Zeitung, 2 Jahrg.) and
Zeller (f Inaugural-abhandl. unter Luschka's Vorsitz/ Tubingen,
1854), is nothing but a number of emptied Echmococcus-\esicles.
This pathological product roust, therefore, by no means be con-
founded with cancer, as indeed Zeller proved ; but this disorder
must necessarily, I think, be regarded as the consequence
(Virchow) of Echinococci ; and it 'must not be supposed, as Zeller,
(who has given very good figures of the Echinococci) found, he
would have it, that we have to do here only with an accidental con-
currence of Echinococci. I refer the cases here treated of to
Echinococcus altricipariens s. hominisj and shall describe them
first after Zeller and then after Virchow.

In Zeller's case the liver was studded throughout with hollow
spaces of various form and size, which were covered with a per-
fectly transparent, glassy, colourless, or slightly yellowish, gelati-
nous film. Larger cavities of this kind occurred, with others of the
size of a pea or a grain of millet, of which the smaller ones were
situated towards the periphery. But between the small alveoli
there were sinewy, granular, dull-white strise and partitions, which
were irregularly divided, but became more thickly deposited to-
wards the outside. The alveoli were roundish, elongated, irregu-
larly sinuated, communicating by larger or smaller openings with
the neighbouring cavities, and were coated on the smooth inner
surface, which was free from epithelium, with a crumbly mass,
which was sometimes softish and orange yellow, forming a round or
angular finely granular matter, soluble in acetic acid and potash,
entirely filling the cavities of the smaller vesicles which contained
oil-drops, gall-pigment, crystals of hsematoidine, phosphate of am-

212 ANIMAL PAKAS1TES.

monia and magnesia, and a small quantity of cliolesterine and
crystals like dumb-bells, which might be easily taken out of the
cavities. Between the gelatinous matter and the inner surface
of the alveoli there were, sometimes, calcareous deposits, which
often completely surrounded the former. The gelatinous mass
itself, to which the inner wall of the alveolus exactly fitted, was of
a roundish elongated form, folded, and beset with ridge-like
processes internally, or with indentations externally. The so-
called colloid-vesicles, which were of various sizes (0*012 — Imill.),
consisted, especially the smaller ones, of colourless, transparent,
structureless, soft, elastic, extensible masses (0-004 or O'Ol to
0-016 or 0-020), with tolerably thick walls, furnished with a fine
concentric striation. In these, in Zeller's case, there were
young Echinococci in the interior of the alveoli, placed in one
series, or, more correctly, in the interior of the colloid-vesicles
which were situated in these alveoli, which were placed more
towards the periphery of the liver. The colloid-mass formed the
clothing of all the alveoli, and formed a perfectly clear, thin, soft
layer, which was easily torn into shreds. The Echinococcus-vesicle
(daughter-vesicle) lay free in the cavity enclosed by this colloid-
mass, that is to say, notwithstanding Zeller's process, by the
mother-vesicle of the Echinococcus. This Echinococcus-ves\c\e was
collapsed, yellowish, folded, might easily be taken out whole, and
when cut open exhibited the little Echinococci sitting upon its
inner surface, like fine white sand. The walls of the daughter-
vesicles were of a brownish colour, and sprinkled with corpuscles
of O'OOS — 0'04 millim. in diameter. These corpuscles were oval,
globular, pyriform, kidney-shaped, or flattened laterally, some-
times with an indistinct, sometimes with a regular and distinct
stratification into 2 — 3 or more layers, which were generally
0*0013 millim. in thickness, rarely radially striated, colour-
less, yellow, or even of a fine green colour. They became
clear in the mineral acids, and in acetic and tartaric acids, some-
times with an abundant evolution of carbonic acid (carbonate
of lime), sometimes without evolution of gas for a long time ; the
latter also sometimes commenced very suddenly after the long
action of the acids, but was very rarely entirely wanting. When
treated with sulphuric acid, crystals of sulphate of lime shot out
in tufts of needles, in single, well-formed crystals, lying on one
another in four-sided tables, or in swallow-tail-like twin crys-
tals, so that we must suppose that the corpuscles consisted of

ECHINOCOCCUS ALTBICIPABIENS. 213

phosphate of lime, and an intimately intermixed organic sub-
stance.

The scolices produced in such a daughter-vesicle had the usual
form. The calcareous corpuscles measured O008 — O016 millim.,
were very dissimilar in form and colour, and exactly resembled the
structures just described in the walls of the mother-vesicles. On
the addition of sulphuric acid, crystals of sulphate of lime were
formed, but there was decidedly no evolution of carbonic acid. No
fibrous structure could be detected in the larger vesicles. Some-
times individual vesicles were soldered together, their walls were
in conjunction and could not be separated by pressure; others
communicated by an opening, which was generally narrow, pro-
ducing all sorts of remarkable forms (elongated series of vesicles;
a disorderly heaping together, with a communication of many or
all of the vesicles with each other ; a large vesicle with apparent
or real excrescences, or a combination of small vesicles with a
large one, from without ; perhaps, a constriction of the large
vesicle in particular cases.) The walls of this Echinococcus-
vesicle (that is, the so-called colloid-mass) were insoluble in
cold and boiling water, in alcohol, ether, and acetic and phos-
phoric acids; they acquired a yellow colour with nitric acid,
and dissolved in hot acid with a straw-yellow colour, which
was quickly rendered orange yellow by ammonia or potash ; they
dissolved in muriatic acid with a gentle heat, forming a dark
brown fluid with a tinge of violet ; with concentrated sulphuric
acid they formed a dark brownish-red fluid, and dissolved readily in
potash to a clear, colourless fluid, which remained unchanged after
the addition of acid ; with Millon's test (pernitrate of mercury,
with protoxide and nitrous acid), they acquired, like white of egg,
an intense red colour, even in the cold. In an alkaline solution,
neutralized by acetic acid, tannin produced a slight precipitate,
acetate of lead no precipitate. The latter produced a turbidity in
the solution in nitric acid, which was again soluble in an excess of
acid ; ferrocyanide of potassium gave no precipitate. Tilanus
and Schraut assert the identity of the colloid-mass with mucus
(Schleimstoff). At all events these bodies are very similar.

Virchow admits that he has scarcely anything to add to the
description given by Buhl and Zeller, especially the latter. On
the surface of the liver, thick, necklace-like, white cords were
seen running, like roots, for a certain distance. On making
a section through a callous wall of 8 — 10 millim. in thickness, a

214 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

cavity of the size of a fist was discovered, the contents of which
were a granular,, fatty, purulent matter, and mixed with
shreds. The inner surface was tubercular, as though cleft,
with secondary cavities at the bottom, which were separated
from the large cavity by tumours. This cavity exhibited a
yellow, coherent coating on the lower and hinder portions,
and also globular, vesicular, projecting bodies, as large as hemp-
seed, in a greenish-white' mass. Its walls consisted of sinewy
ligamentous tissue, and internally of an aggregation, be-
coming gradually thicker, of small gelatinous vesicles lying in
very small cavities (alveoli}. Where the wall was thinner, flat
pits were met with instead of these small alveoli. All the
alveoli contained small gelatinous masses, generally of a yellow
colour (the collapsed Echinoco ecus -vesicles). In Virchow's case
the true tumour-mass, which was nearly as large as a child's
head, extruded through a very large space of the parenchyma of
the liver, and exhibited everywhere an alveolar tissue, although
the alveoli were mere points. The above-mentioned necklace-
like alveolar cords of the surface were in connection with the
portions of this tumour which lay towards the periphery, and
round the tumour there were large numbers up to the size
of a walnut, isolated in the parenchyma of the liver. From the
larger tumour similar masses extended continuously towards the
porta hepatis, thence to the capsula Glissonii, and with it for
6 centim. into the immediate vicinity of the intestine, in the
form of a hard, tubercular, sausage-like cord, about 2' 5 centim.
in thickness. In short, throughout the whole extent of this
tumour, necklace-like canalicular lines were seen running close
to the gall-ducts and branches of the portal vein, compressing
them and inflating them in a corresponding degree in other
places, so as nearly to cause rupture and perforation of the
walls. The individual ampullae of these necklaces were of vari-
ous sizes, up to 1 centim. in length, and 3 — 4 millim. in
breadth; they had sinuated walls, and contained gelatinous,
membranous, folded or vesicular formations, in a slimy, greenish
paste.

All the canals of the liver, the gall-ducts, portal vein and
hepatic veins and arteries were compressed and irregular here
and there, in consequence of the intrusion of the knots of the
tumour. The ductus choledochus and hepaticus were displaced
and laterally compressed, leading to a stoppage of the bile :

ECHINOCOCCUS ALTKICIPAEIENS. 215

tlie ductus cyslicus was still partly permeable, and the gall-
bladder was very full, and projecting beyond the margin of the
liver; posteriorly the gall-ducts were dilated into sacs, with thin,
bilious or clear contents, with calcareous, bilious concretions,
whilst the liver was strongly jaundiced, or even of a deep
greenish-yellow colour. The parenchyma was normal, although
very poor in cells in some places.

On the microscopic examination of the tumour in question,
sections of it showed thick fibrous stroma with numerous fusiform
and reticular cells, partly under fatty degeneration and partly
with a large quantity of yellow and brown pigment. Between
the bundles of fibres normal parenchyma was sometimes found in-
serted. In the midst of the connective tissue lay the gelatinous
masses, in round, longish, dilated, and contracted cavities (0*03 —
16 or 0-3 — 0-4 millim.), which became considerably enlarged
(6 millim. in length, 2 — 3 millim. in breadth) towards the middle
of the liver, especially in the porta and externally to it. The
gelatinous mass in the smaller cavities regularly consisted of walls
of several strata, furnished with parallel strise and finely granular
contents; it was rarely spherical, generally folded internally,
furnished with indentations externally, and, according to the size,
0-025 — 0-05 or 0'06 — 0-08 millim. in thickness. In proportion
as the vesicles increased in size, they approached more closely to
each other, and the larger gelatinous masses, which dilated in
water into distended membranes, and gave exit to small withered
vesicles (daughter-vesicles) up to the size of a hemp-seed, could
be drawn out. All the membranes exhibited the above-described
structureless, equally striated texture, with here and there ex-
ternally an amorphous coating of fragments and small lumps, and
internally a turbid granular lining, which I have above described
as caused by the scolices of Echinococcus. The larger membranes
exhibited the well-known process of vitrification o£ the Echinococcus -
membranes, stellate or granular moniliform scattered bodies, of a
fatty lustre, resembling the similar cells of the mucous membrane,
the processes of which, increased to broad, canalicular, connecting
threads, formed a larger body and resembled lymphatic vessels in
course of development. In the interior of the body a fine folded
membrane was recognised, forming a longish or roundish sac
furnished with the above-mentioned shining deposits ; this
gradually became spherical, and after the thickening of the
previous stellate body formed a capsule analogous to the young

216 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

Echinococci, which, however, only exhibited two parallel layers
(an outer one of 0-04 and an inner one of 0-0.25 millim. in thick-
ness). Yellow, granular, and diffused pigment, and beautiful
small crystals of hsematoidine, were also deposited. The sacs
thus closed frequently remained long in connection with the
processes.

From the surface of the membrane also, small, yellowish,
knobbed appendages were given off, containing a cavity in the
knobbed extremity.

Around and between the membranes lay in groups concentri-
cally stratified bodies, consisting of calcareous salts with organic
basal substance, measuring from 0*025 — 0'03 millim., held to-
gether by granular connective tissue. The fluid of the cavities
in the interior of the alveoli contained acicular, caraway -like, and
probably fatty crystals, and besides these the scolices of Echino-
coccus made their appearance both on the inner wall and free in
the contents of the alveoli, generally with the circlet of hooks
retracted, some larger (0*23 — 0'33 millim. in length and 0*12
millim. in breadth behind) with the head protruded but mostly
destitute of the circlet of hooks, and others hookless and so small
(0'12 millim. long and 0*07 millim. broad) that Virchow thinks
they had not attained to the formation of hooks. Their cal-
careous granules measured up to 0-006 millim. The hooks, un-
fortunately, were not measured.

After this description, Virchow sums up his views as to this
structure as follows :

"1. These tumours have nothing to do either with cancer or
with alveolar colloid. The distinctions from the latter consist in
the composition of the tumour out of isolated animals becoming
developed close together, in the passage of the tumour into central
ulceration by retrogressive metamorphosis of the animals and the
stroma, and in the regular progress of the animals from the
surface of the liver towards the intestine and porta, on which the
largest and fullest vesicles were placed, whilst only small and
collapsed vesicles occur on the surface.

" 2. The Echinococci of the liver do not take up their abode in
the gall-ducts (Schroder van der Kolk), but the gelatinous masses
follow the portal system and form aggregations, more or less con-
nected, as though situated in a system of canals, close to the
biliary and blood-vessels. They are placed therefore in the
lymphatic vessels. Perhaps the great resistance of the walls

ECHINOCOCCUS ALTRICIPABIENS. 217

of the lymphatics is the cause of their rapid diffusion in certain
directions, and of their slight development in comparison with
Echinococci in other situations.

"3. As only transparent membranes occurred in the greater
part of the tumour, the animals had probably long been dead,
and their vesicles collapsed, after their contents had been absorbed.
However, this membrane alone is sufficient for the diagnosis, ac-
cording to Virchow.

" 4. Virchow wonders that he found no hooks of Echinococci in
the larger superficial vesicles, as it is well known that these are
not absorbed. This can only be explained by the fact that these
vesicles had been converted into the true sterile acephalocysts, so
that sterile Echinococcus-veslcles must also occur in man, produced
from immature, hookless animals.

" 5. Apparently the process here referred to cannot be explained
by an extensive immigration of the embryos of EchinococcuSj
but only by the production of the young in the liver itself.
Perhaps we shall find data for the explanation of the production
of Echinococcus-huds, in the peculiar, stellate, anastomosing, and
probably cellular nets, from which a larger system of canals is
formed, in which coarsely granular bodies were developed into
large vesicles, surrounded by a thick capsule.

" 6. In the process here described we meet not only with several
vesicles lying in the same cavity, but with an actual nesting of
one vesicle within the other."

In Virchow's ' Archiv fur pathol. Anatomic/ &c. (x, pp. 206 —
209, 1856), Luschka communicates another case of this multi-
locular, ulcerating Echinococcus-tumour. The liver, which was
swollen up to nearly twice its natural size, only contained paren-
chyma in the right lobe, and this was very dry and permeated by
an abundance of thinly fluid bile of a strong yellow colour ; the
hepatic lobes were at the same time sharply separated, not by
vessels, but by ligamentous partitions. The left hepatic lobe,
which was converted into a sac of the size of a man's head, con-
tained a yellowish-green, flocculent, pus-like fluid ; its inner
surface had the appearance of a dingy-green felt, and exhibited
larger and smaller tubercles and innumerable roundish openings.
The wall, 0'5 to 2 centim. in thickness, consisted of the greatly
thickened peritoneal coat, and a pale-yellow, cartilage-like solid
mass growing exuberantly against the cavity and the parenchyma
of the right lobe ; in this there were innumerable smaller and

218 ANIMAL PARASITES.

larger roundish vacuities or alveoli (sections of a system of canals
opening by many mouths into the sac). In the porta hepatis,
and in the quadrangular and Spigelian lobes, there were knots of
the size of a bean to that of a walnut, and along the lig amentum
suspensorium hepatis there were knotty cords corresponding with
the branches of the lymphatic vessels, of the same composition
and appearance as the wall of the sac. The system of canals
containing the gelatinous mass diffused itself, starting from the
porta hepatis , not only into the lymphatic vessels, but also
especially into the ramifications fff the left branch of the portal
vein. The passage of the mass from the larger into the smaller
vessels could be traced ; but it could not be stated with certainty
where its primary seat had been, whether in the ramifications of
the portal vein, or in the lymphatic vessels, or in both together,
or in the interstitial tissue of the capsula Elissonii — as perforations
had evidently taken place, which, to a certain extent, interfered
with a definite conclusion. The gelatinous mass consisted prin-
cipally of readily pliable lamellae, of various thicknesses and a glassy
transparency, and with a more or less distinctly stratified arrange-
ment ; in the cavities referred to it contained larger and smaller,
spherical or much branched, uninjured, hollow structures, with
exactly the same kind of lamellar walls (Echmococci furnished
with diverticula). The contents of these hollow structures con-
sisted of a fatty granular mass, sometimes with colouring matter
of the bile and crystals of hsematoidine, and only in extremely
rare cases with very small embryoes of Echmococci filled with
granules, and, as it were, in progress of decomposition, with an
inverted, imperfect circlet of hooks.

Some vesicles of about the size of a hemp-seed, existing singly
or several together in the ramifications of the left branch of the
portal vein, were especially remarkable. These vesicles, with the
walls 0 08 mill, in thickness, had the well-known concentrically
stratified, glassy structure of Echinococcus-vesicles. From the
inner layer of substance small elevations arose on many places ;
these were prolonged into delicately outlined peduncles, scarcely
0-004 mill, in thickness. The peduncles formed diverticula of
various forms, the smallest of which were only 0*04 mill, in length,
and clavate, and formed a cavity with finely granular contents
and a delicate structureless wall. Other excrescences were larger,
lobed (2 — 4 lobes) or simple, and at the same time variously con-
stricted, often to such a degree that the individual segments of

ECHINOCOCCUS ALTRICIPARIENS. 219

tlie excrescence were only connected as if by the finest threads.
Particular segments of the larger excrescences, however, already
exhibited the lamellar structure of Echinococcus with the granular
contents. Together with these bud-like excrescences there were
also, in the above-mentioned vesicles, isolated, smaller vesicles
already separated by constriction ; these were spherical, biscuit-
shaped, and otherwise variously formed, being especially furnished
with pedunculiform appendages. No hooks, suckers, &c., were
ever found in these formations.

I have myself been for years acquainted with the process here
described with reference to Echinococcus scolicipariens, although
only in domestic animals. It would also have long since been
known to surgeons, and the whole confusion as to the question of
alveolar colloid now set aside by Virchow could never have been
produced, if more attention had been paid to the comparative
pathology of the domestic animals. I regarded the affair as so
simple that I only referred to it in a few words in a previous part
of this work.

Had I anticipated the necessity of giving a more exact account
of the processes which take place when the cystic worms, by
entering into every possible neighbouring vacuity in the tissues,
form runners and appendages, and these organisms with their
appendages become destroyed, or become separated by constriction,
I would have done so. However, I see how necessary Virchow's
corrections were, and for this reason I may be permitted to refer
to the subject here. It will be easily seen where I differ from
Virchow, and I may be allowed to call the attention of patho-
logical anatomists to the livers of pigs, sheep, and cattle in con-
nection with the study of this process (although without nesting
and the formation of daughter-vesicles), and to advise them, in con-
nection with the course of development or the sterility of such
colonies, to make experiments on the administration of the eggs
of all sorts of Teenies, which pass through the intermediate state
of cystic worms.

With regard to the first point I must agree unconditionally
with Virchow.

With regard to the second point, however, we must not pro-
ceed so exclusively as Virchow has done. As it was in the
blood of the portal vein that Leuckart found the embryos of
Taenia serrata, as Luschka met with the larger diverticula in
this vein, and these extended from the larger branches into

220 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

the smaller ramifications of the portal vein we may certainly
conceive it possible that although the majority (vide supra,
in the general section) might migrate actively out of the vessels,
yet an embryo might exceptionally become further developed
within the interior of the vessel. It is certainly possible,
at the same time, that in rare cases only, a subsequent pene-
tration of the ready-formed Echinococcus-colouy into the in-
terior of the vessels and an advance of them might take place.
For wherever an embryo is capable of closing the passage of the
vessel, wherever it can resist the force of the current of blood
pressing against it in such a way as to be enabled to continue
its individual being and life, it will become further developed,
although its external appearance during growth must certainly
be modified by the local anatomical circumstances. What is
described by Buhl, Zeller and others, as alveolar cancer and
alveolar colloid, is certainly, as Virchow states, as well as his
own case, an Echinococcus of the lymphatic system of the
liver. Probably all cases of Echinococci of the liver, of similar
anatomical structure, both in man and animals, are also Echino-
cocci of the lymphatic system. It is of no consequence to
the increasing vesicle, which, as is well known, penetrates
into all vacuities in the tissues, so long as it only can find
room.

Thus, then, it forms a larger vesicle in the lymphatic vessels,
probably as a sort of centre or colony from which runners
penetrate towards all the lateral branches of the lymphatic
system ; these go off exactly like the fingers from the palm of a
glove, and send off radiating runners in every direction where a
lateral branch of the lymphatic system enters. Thus a very
great part, nay, perhaps the greatest part, of the lymphatic system
of a liver may be penetrated by such runners from one centre, and,
strictly speaking, become obsolete. The penetrating branches of
the colony, however, will be constantly dilating the lymphatic
vessels into which they have penetrated, as they meet with no
very great resistance from the soft parenchyma of the liver, and
at the same time also thicken their own walls, which, however,
also puts an end to the dilatation of the walls of the vessels
themselves. Thus, at all events theoretically an Echinococcus-
embryo may permeate the whole liver, or at least a very great
part of it, if it has penetrated into the lymphatic system.

But, nevertheless, the walls of the vessels will present obstacles

ECHINOCOCCUS ALTRICJPAEIENS. 221

to the development, at least in this case it will never attain to
the size of the mother-vesicles of Echinococcus which we meet
with in other places. The fluid will therefore be reduced to a
minimum, and the development of the young will be more
sparing. Moreover, Echinococci usually only proliferate on cer-
tain places; others remain quite barren. It appears to me that
the former takes place usually more towards the bottom of the
tumour than at its upper part. Then in each particular case
the same mode of development certainly occurs, which is proper
to the species of Echinococcus. In the domestic animals we
usually find in the gelatinous masses the simple formation of
scolices (Echinoc. scolicipariens}. In the cases of Zeller and
Virchow we see the complicated scolex-formation, namely, the
simultaneous production of scolices and nurses (Echinoc. altrici-
pariens). But within these lymphatic vessels a peculiar process
of constriction appears to go on sooner or later. Individual
runners may be separated by constriction from the main vesicle
by the contraction of the lymphatics in particular places, and
then continue to grow on their own account. They are fre-
quently still attached to the parent-vesicle by a scarcely per-
ceptible thread (vide Zeller) ; perhaps even this thread is cut
off by constriction, and we have isolated, or apparently isolated,
separate vesicles, which perhaps may still betray a connection
with the main vesicle on close examination. But if this constric-
tion has taken place, and the separated vesicle continues its
proper life, it will probably retain the degree of proliferation
belonging to it during its life in connection with the main vesicle.
If the space of the mother-cyst cut off were proliferant, it will
continue to proliferate, and if not it will probably not do so.
Thus we may explain why the vesicles placed towards the peri-
phery are without scolices, daughter-vesicles, and hooks, as the
upper part of the main cyst, from which they are separated by
constriction, is rarely proliferant. In this way also we may
easily explain the occurrence of sterile cysts in other parts of
such livers. A single six-hooked embryo, therefore, may be
the cause of many isolated Echinococci of the liver, or acephalo-
cysts. This gives us the best key for the explanation of Virchow's
second, third, fourth, and fifth points. I agree with Yirchow,
therefore, also when he speaks of a multiplication of Echinococci
from a single vesicle in such cases, but only if he understands a
constriction of this kind in that case. In no other way can we

222 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

speak of the origination of the original vesicles from a single
germ, and all other isolated vesicles must certainly be accounted
for by an equal number of separate germs. Whether all the
Echinococcus-vesicles of the liver referred to were produced from
a single germ, is therefore questionable — embryos may, pro-
bably, have immigrated directly into many places. With regard
to the colour of the folded Echinococcus- vesicles (gelatinous
masses of the alveolar colloid) we have still to mention that many
of the membranes of the vesicles presented so white, fresh, and
delicate an appearance, that it might be supposed that they and
their germs were still alive. If I am not mistaken, I have once
bred Tania Echinococcus scolicipariens from a folded, gelatinous
mass, beset with scolices, taken from the liver of a pig. How-
ever, Virchow's assumptions, as far as they refer to the produc-
tion of acephalocysts, agree exactly with mine.

Symptomatology. — The general and partial functional derange-
ments, the objective phenomena, and the subjective sensations
vary according as the position of the Echinococcus is more super-
ficial or the reverse, according to the organ which it has selected
for its dwelling-place, according to the size which it has attained,
the pressure which it exerts, arid the vicinity of large nervous or
vascular trunks. The phenomena produced by it agree exactly
with those caused by other equally large tumours in similar
situations, upon which every text-book of special pathology
and therapeutics, or surgery, will furnish information. In
order to avoid too great prolixity, I pass over the symptoma-
tology, and shall only mention that when the organ inhabited
is one containing air, auscultation and percussion furnish
important information, which we shall refer to in the diag-
nosis.

Diagnosis. — The most certain evidence of the presence of a
colony of Echinococcus in the body of a patient is the pas-
sage of the gelatinous vesicles already described from open
cavities of the body, which occurs after the bursting of such a
colony, or the similar passage of such vesicles from the punctures
or incisions made into tumours. At the same time, hoivever, the
little scolices of the Echinococcus must be found in the vesicles ;
part of these retain their hooks, whilst others want them, and when
their sucking-discs are indistinct they resemble (at least I know no
better comparison) very small dolls inclosed in cradles} or have
the form of little swaddled children.

ECHINOCOCCUS ALTRICIPAEIENS. 223

When the vesicles passed have an opening, the little scolices
slip out only too easily, and if we do not find the structures just
described, we do not know whether we have not before us a
sterile colony or acephalocyst. I will answer for it, and every
one who has experience will confirm this, that even where the
hooks are wanting, the little Echinococci are easily recognisable
by the above form. In this way we may recognise the Echino-
cocci of the kidneys when the vesicles pass out with the urine
(J. Miiller, Frerichs, myself, and others) ; when they pass through
the mouth, by coughing, from the thoracic viscera, especially the
lungs, although the colony may at first have its station in the
pleura j1 and the colonies of the liver and spleen when the vesicles
are seen to pass from the mouth during vomiting, or from the
anus. But even here it is always possible that we may be in
error as to the position of the colony, and we only acquire
a certainty as to the existence of Echinococci in the body. Thus
no doubt Echinococci of the ovaria may perforate towards the
anus, and also through the vagina or the bladder, nay, even
Echinococci of the liver may pass through the bladder when they
are of enormous size. In the examination of such cases we
must carefully consider whether we can discover the original seat
of the swelling which was formed by the colony, thence trace its
growth further by the diminution of the swelling existing before
the bursting, and obtain a further foundation for our opinion by
the comparison of the former and actual conditions. Every
thinking practitioner will be able to form the differential
diagnosis for himself easily with the assistance of auscultation,
and especially of percussion, and combination of auscultation and
percussion. We shall only indicate this in a superficial manner.
Thus, after the perforation of a cyst has taken place in the direc-
tion of the intestine, it may easily happen that, where shortly
before there was a circumscribed swelling which gave dull tones
on percussion, a very distinct air-tone may be suddenly observed
in consequence of the entrance of the gases of the intestines,
just as we often see these phenomena occur in ovarian tumour,

1 A very credible teacher of surgery mentioned a case to me in which a gelatinous
vesicle was thrown up by a patient whilst coughing, and fell into the spittoon, when a
cat came and ate up this gelatinous body. This could only have been the daughter-
vesicle of an Echinococcus or an acephalocyst. However, the story of the cat is no
longer to be regarded as a fable or an absolute impossibility, since our experiments in
feeding have shown how greedy dogs and cats are after cystic worms.

224 ANIMAL PARASITES.

when perforation takes place into the intestines. If we employ
auscultation and percussion simultaneously 011 this spot, we may
also probably succeed, if the perforation be narrow, in hearing the
air escape through this opening into the intestine with a whistling
or hissing sound. Similar results may also be produced by a
perforation of the Echinococcus-colony in the direction of the
bladder, in consequence of the entrance of the atmospheric air
into the sac of the Echinococcus through the urethra. In case
of the perforation of an Echinococcus -colony of the liver into the
lungs, or of the lungs themselves into one of their bronchi,
the clear drum-like percussion-tone w^hich takes the place of the
previous dull tone, will guide us in the establishment of our diagno-
sis, and we shall be further assisted by combined auscultation
and percussion by the signs just described ; and lastly, by simple
auscultation, the whistling entrance of the air into the Echino-
coccus-sac, and the amphoric noise of respiration diffused through
the sac, or, when there is free fluid in the sac, even associated
more or less with a formation of bladders (either large or small).

When such a perforation has not taken place of itself, but we
have before us a tumour of considerable size (recognisable by
percussion or palpation), and especially when there is a sensa-
tion of fluctuation, when aneurismal symptoms are wanting,
and the general health is good and less injured than would be
expected from the size of the tumour in cancer, the diagnosis is
best formed by an explorative puncture, and the microscopic
examination of the evacuated fluid for Echmococcus-scolices, or for
the albuminous gelatinous shreds of the Echinococci, as was done,
for example, by Robin in Vigla's case. Dr. Pockels, of Holz-
minden, has also informed me of two cases in which Echino-
coccws-vesicles were expectorated. One patient recovered, the
other died.

These are the only cases in which we can with certainty esta-
blish the diagnosis of Echinococci during life. All other cases
in which unopened swellings are characterised positively as
Echinococci during life, are to be classed more or less in the
series of diagnostic tricks, which may succeed with the most prac-
tised hand nine times, and fail him on the tenth. The diagnosis
can never be brought beyond one of probability, and the surgeon
must be contented to make his diagnosis for a sacculated swelling
filled with fluid or cystic swelling, and merely endeavour to dis-
tinguish the swelling from solid, parenchymatous tumours, as to

ECHINOCOCCUS ALTRICIPAETENS. 225

which every one can obtain information for himself in the ordinary
manuals of surgery and special pathology and therapeutics.
The most useful objective symptoms are, the existence of a sac-
culated swelling, which is elastic to the touch and of a peculiar
consistency and form, in places where swellings do not usually
occur, but where, when these do make their appearance, they are
generally Echinococci. The highest degree of probability, we
may almost say certainty, that an unopened swelling belongs to
a colony of Echinococcus, is attained by the diagnosis, when a
swelling occurs in places such as the liver, spleen, kidneys, heart,
lungs, breast, throat, or testicles, where Echinococci usually take
up their abode, in an individual from whom at the same time
Echinococci are otherwise brought to light, either artificially or
naturally. We may then with tolerable certainty regard any
existing tumours, which also possess the properties of sacculated
cysts, as colonies of Echinococcus. One of the most important
symptoms for the diagnosis is furnished, although only in
particular cases, by percussion. Piorry, as is well known, was
the first to call attention to a sensation which is felt by the
finger employed in percussion or the hand when pressing, the
swelling — a sort of trembling (fremissement) which resembles
the sensation produced by the clang of a repeater, or a spring-
sofa, in the finger that taps it, and which, for the sense of touch,
nearly resembles the oscillations detected by the eye when
coagulated jelly is set in motion by any cause. This symptom
has sometimes been perceived, sometimes not, but it appears
certain to me that it can undoubtedly be observed in particular
cases, the nature of which, however, is unknown. An attempt
has been made to explain this trembling by the fact, that the
individual Echinococcus-cysts which swarm about in the mother-
vesicle are brought into collision within the latter by the shaking,
and this causes the trembling experienced by the finger. In
consequence of the confusion which prevails amongst practical
surgeons with regard to hydatids and Echinococci, I mvst
dwell upon this symptom longer than will perhaps appear jus-
tifiable, and I will endeavour here to give an explanation of the
hydatid-trembling. In my opinion —

1. This hydatid-trembling can only occur when several gela-
tinous, tremulous cysts, which are inclosed within a larger vesicle,
also capable of gelatinous trembling, are in any way set in
motion.

226 ANIMAL PAHASITES.

2. The sensation which is thus produced by touch, not only
reminds one of the oscillations perceived by the eye when
coagulated jelly is set in motion, but by the percussion of
coagulated gelatine inclosed in glass, the same kind of sensa-
tions, recognisable by the touch, are actually perceptible. We
may easily convince ourselves of this by filling a small glass
bottle (of about 5SS — 3J) w^tn gelatine dissolved in hot water,
such as is employed for microscopic preparations, leaving it to
set, and then tapping upon the outside of the bottle, laid hori-
zontally. By this means we Shall easily perceive that this
trembling is not only recognisable by the eye, but also by the
touch, and further that, according as the bottle is or is not
closed with a cork, and according as more or less air is left in
the bottle above the gelatine, different degrees of trembling are
experienced.

3. For the perception of such a sensation it is by no means
necessary that the individual cysts should come into collision (as
has hitherto been supposed) ; but this trembling may certainly be
produced by the circumstance that the walls of one or several
cysts tremble in themselves by percussion, and communicate this
motion to the nearest cysts, which are still in a quiescent state,
without touching them directly, and thus the addition of the
trembling of the whole of the cysts at last becomes perceptible in
our hand. Of this faculty of the animal walls of the Echinococci
every one may easily convince himself, when he is in possession
of daughter-vesicles of Echinococcus. If such vesicles be laid
upon a glass plate, they will continue to vibrate for a long time
after the application of a moderate force to the glass plate, even
when they have been long kept in alcohol.

4. From this it follows also, that the cysts of Echinococcus
scolicipariens will exhibit no hydatid-trembling, but, at the utmost,
a simple fluctuation, because they contain no daughter-vesicles
capable of trembling.

5. We also see at once that the hydatid-trembling can only
occur in colonies of E. altricipariens, and even here only under
certain favorable circumstances. First, a certain number of
daughter-vesicles, which must not be too small, so that the
quaking may communicate to several neighbouring vesicles,
and a greater action may be produced by addition. Second, a
certain consistence of the fluid surrounding the individual vesicles,
with regard to which, as appears from the laws of the trans-

ECHINOCOCCUS ALTKICIPAKIENS. 227

mission of undulations of concussion, the fluid must be the better
adapted for the production of this phenomenon when it has a
certain degree of viscidity, but not so high as to impede the
tremulous motion of the walls of the vesicles themselves; and,
lastly, a particular position of the daughter-vesicles at the moment
of trembling. With regard to the latter, we should certainly
take into consideration the circumstance whether one or more of
the daughter-vesicles are attached to the mother-vesicle, which is
shaken by percussion, or swim freely in the fluid ; and perhaps
even the circumstance whether or no such daughter-vesicles are
attached to the spot agitated by the percussion.

6. For this very reason we have also indicated that the
phenomenon of the hydatid-trembling will neither occur in all
cases of E. altricipariens, nor uniformly at all times in the same
case ; that it may sometimes occur and sometimes be absent in
one and the same case, but that, where it occurs, it is one of the
most important symptoms, and often alone raises the diagnosis to
one of probability.

7. For the less experienced even this symptom will not be
absolutely infallible, as it requires practice to distinguish it from
the sensation of fluctuation or trembling occurring in gelatinous
pneumonia or in tumours.

8. Acephalocysts being only barren Echinococci, as we shall
show in the following Appendix, what we have said of the
two species of Echinococcus applies equally to them ; but in
other respects an acephalocyst is not of particular importance
to us.

In reference to all other symptoms, such as the objective
symptoms of compression of the organs caused by the size of
the swelling, swelling of the extremities by pressure, &c., and the
subjective symptoms produced by the swelling, the reader may
consult the text-books of special pathology, therapeutics, and
surgery.

As to the etiology of this disorder, no one now-a-days will
believe in its production by a blow or fall upon the organ where
the Echinococcus is situated, or in any conjectures of that kind.
As the only cause, remains the swallowing by the patient, at
some period of his life, of one or more eggs or six-hooked em-
bryos of the Taenia Echinococcus allricipariens. Neither is it
allowable to refer to telluric influences; but, nevertheless, we
must remember that the mode of life of men in particular locali-

228 ANIMAL PARASITES.

ties may be generally favorable to the introduction of the eggs of
the Taenia in question into the stomach, and that, on the other
hand, it is a general observation that certain Cestodea frequently
have a very limited habitat.

The duration of the life of the Echinococci does not appear to
be very short. According to Eschricht, one patient must have
borne his colony eighteen years.

The prognosis of the Echinococci varies according to the situa-
tion of the swelling, the accessibility of the organ attacked for
operation, and according to the* primary or secondary injury to
important organs and the whole system ; but the prognosis is
more favorable than is generally supposed. The tumours, when
they are accessible, are amongst the number of curable tumours ;
they may cure themselves by bursting, and when they are once
got rid of, relapses in the same colony are rare and exceptional
cases, and every new Echinococcus produced usually owes its
existence to a new immigration of embryos. But for this very
reason the continuance of the mode of life in endemically
affected places furnishes a more unfavorable prognosis. The
natural cure by the bursting of the colony and the passage
of daughter-vesicles may be accompanied by symptoms dan-
gerous to life, or, if it takes place in the direction of the
larger bronchi, by difficulty of breathing, or may even lead to
actual suffocation.

The therapeutics in this case are prophylactic and direct.
The prophylactic agree with those of the other cystic worms,
but, as the Taenia belonging to it, and its host, are still unknown,
we can only give indications, which I shall detail in a separate
Appendix of " Reflections on the endemic occurrence of the
Echinococci in Iceland."

The direct therapeutics lie entirely in the province of surgery.
The reader may consult surgical manuals for the treatment of
innoxious, sacculated swellings, according to their various posi-
tions. We must attempt to get rid of the accessible ones either
by the galvanic acupuncture, by incision or puncture, employing
the necessary surgical precautions; in other respects all internal
treatment and every cure with ointments or salves are to
be avoided, let them bear what name they will. What is the use
of the treatment with iodide of potassium, or the rubbing in of
mercurial ointments ? In the most favorable cases the worm may
perhaps be destroyed and die. But what is gained by this, when

ACEPHALOCYSTS. 229

the violently irritated enveloping cyst must be only too ready to
continue secreting fluid, by which, therefore, the increase in
volume of the swelling is not prevented. Such medicaments,
like the employment of pressure, could only promise some results
in the earliest periods ; subsequently, and when the development
of the cyst has proceeded far, we probably produce the formation
of pus, a process which is never indifferent to the general or-
ganism, or, at the best, causes a partial reduction of the swelling
and a remission of certain symptoms, but never a cure.

That an active surgical process is possible even in Echinococci
of the lungs is shown by Vigla^s case. As the patient supported
the explorative puncture well, the half of the following fluid
(iodine, iodide of potassium, aa 3iiiss; alcohol, $v ; distilled
water, 3xvj) was injected and sucked out again with the syringe ;
the wound was then closed. In an hour an iodic intoxication was
produced, and lasted for several hours, when it disappeared ; the
heart approached the median line ; more resonance was present
under the collar-bones and in the left part of the chest, with
increased respiratory murmur, and in the course of several days
and weeks cellular respiration was set up. The movements of
the diaphragm appeared to go on equally well on both sides, and
the intercostal spaces exhibited mobility even on the right side,
although more strongly on the left. The heart beat in the
fourth and fifth intercostal spaces, a little outwards from the
nipple. In about a year nothing remained but a prominence of
the bony framework on the right side, and the patient had been
constantly at his business, but throughout the right side cellular
respiration was audible.

Appendix?. — Acephalocysts.

These structures, which were introduced into science as long
ago as 1804 by Laennec, are independent animal organisms,
notwithstanding all the demonstrations made in opposition to this
view, especially by Siebold. I even allowed myself to be led away
for some time by Von Siebold's great authority, to assert the same
opinion ; but I am now converted from this view, in consequence
of my administrations of the eggs of Tania, and retract what I
said as to the non-independent animal nature of these structures
in a note in Vierordt's f Archives/ Now however, we may be

230 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

brief in treating of these creatures; and it is sufficient to re-
mark, that acephalo cysts are six-hooked cestode embryos, the
growth of which has proceeded without hinderance, but which
nevertheless have remained barren, or, more correctly, which have
never attained to proliferation and the production of scolices. If
such acephalocysts occur in places where normally developed
Echinococci usually take up their abode, we cannot call them
strayed cestoid embryos, but only embryo Cestoidea which have
been disturbed in their normal development and remained barren.

For my part I regard as the characteristic marks of acepha-
locysts— 1. The presence of a vesicle adhering to the inner
walls of a larger cyst, from which it is capable of being detached,
or from which it is already detached in particular spots, but
never all over, and collapsed in wrinkles, and which presents very
sparing calcification in its white, scarcely discoloured walls them-
selves. 2. The transverse section exhibits walls consisting of
very distinctly developed, parallel, concentric layers. 3. The
walls have a peculiar, gelatinous, elastic trembling. 4. The
contents consist of a watery fluid, or of a substance whioh has a
purulent consistence, and contains the microscopic elements of cal-
cifying encysted proteiue masses in the act of resorption. Lastly,
the vesicle sometimes conceals, in its interior, secondary cysts
with gelatinous walls, in which, however, we seek in vain for
scolices of Cestodea or their remains, especially their hooks.
The acephalocysts which are referred to here belong to the fol-
lowing three species of TaenicB ;

1. Acephalocysts derived from Tania Echinococcus scolici-
pariens. — Many of those acephalocysts which bear no daughter-
vesicles in their interior must be referred to this species.

2. Acephalocysts derived from Taenia Echin. altricipariens.
— These are acephalocysts with a formation of daughter-vesicles.
With regard to these, however, I would observe that many
examples may probably have slipped in as acephalocysts, which
in reality were true Echinococci, in which, from the want of
good instruments, or of practice in investigation, or from other
causes, the scolices could not be detected. The symptoms,
progress, prognosis, etiology, and treatment are the same as
with the Echinococci. The only remarkable thing, perhaps,
is the circumstance that the enveloping cysts of acephalocysts
with clear, watery contents, and of a small size, are thicker
and more cartilaginous than those of the true proliferant

ACEPHALOCYSTS. 231

Echinococci, in which a similar structure of the cyst usually
occurs only in large colonies, or in those which contain the
remains of dead scolices and purulent grumous masses.

3. Acephalocysts derived from Taenia ex Cysticerco tenuicolli.
— What Eschricht regarded as possible has since proved to be
the case; in one administration of eggs of T. ex Cyst, tenuicolli
to a lamb (vide Cysticercus tenuicollis) , I found a sterile Cysti-
cercus tenuicollis in the midst of hundreds of other, equal-sized
and fully developed Cysticerci of this species. This sterile
individual bore perfectly distinct indications of life. I do not
know whether other specimens of Cysticercus or Ccenuri have been
met with in a living but barren state, but there can be no doubt
that this is possible.

I have seen dead, barren Cysticerci and Coenuri of this kind.
These, however, are distinguished from the dead acephalocysts
derived from Echinococci ~m that the intimate contact of the cyst
and the worm has ceased, and the latter lies collapsed at the
bottom of the former; its walls are of a dingy yellow colour;
the fluid has escaped from its interior between it and the enve-
loping cyst, but sometimes a firm calcareous mass, sometimes
a more fatty mass, is deposited upon it in a dense, detachable
stratum. If there be a whitish turbid spot, or in the Ccenuri
several of these, in one or several parts of the vesicle, forming
the indications of the incipient processes of scolex-formation,
which was interrupted immediately at its commencement by
unknown causes, probably produced by death, we cannot cull
these structures acephalocysts, because a proliferation had just
commenced. All structures which are really to be called acepha-
locysts, and which are living, sterile specimens of Cysticerci and
Coenuri, are distinguished from those derived from Echinococci in
that the walls of the latter consist of very distinct concentric
layers, tremble like jelly, and are extraordinarily elastic, whilst,
as I have convinced myself in one living acephalocyst from
Cystic, tenuicollis, the walls of the analogous structures derived
from Cysticerci are considerably thinner, by no means exhibit the
elastic consistence of jelly, and consist of such fine and delicate
concentric layers, that indications of them can only be detected
by great care and practice. Lastly, the latter exhibit, although
but sparingly, a deposition of calcareous corpuscles, in particular
spots within their walls, in greater abundance than the Echinococci.

232 ANIMAL PARASITES.

CYSTICERCUS VESICLE HOMINIS (Creplin).

In Miiller's ' Archiv/ 1840, p. 149, Creplin reports that, in the
f SanitatsberichtedesKb'nigl.Medic-colligiuffiSvonPommem' (1835,
2 semest., p. 52), Dr. Weitenkampf, of Earth, mentions the case of
a young woman, twenty-two years of age, in whom, after taking
cold, loss of voice, pains in the bronchi and in the larynx, &c.,
occurred, and from whom hydatids, from the size of a pea to that
of a hazel-nut, were evacuated with strangury in considerable
quantities every five or six days, for several months. As Creplin
supposed these to be hydatids, he made inquiry of Weitenkampf,
and received for answer, " that each of the vesicles, of which he
had examined a hundred specimens, only contained a single
worm (Tcenia hydatigena), the head of which was furnished with
tolerably large oscula, and a coronet composed of many hooks.
The fluid of the vesicles was clear lymph, and no small corpuscles
were swimming about in it." Creplin now thinks that these
were Cysticerci. Dr. Weitenkampf, to whom I have applied for
further information, sending him some of the vesicles from my
patient referred to before, has, I am sorry to say, given me
no answer, notwithstanding my repeated request. I cannot,
however, help saying here, without circumlocution, that I regard
the structures here described as Ecldnococcus altricipariens from
the human kidney.

HYDATID DISEASE OF ICELAND. 233

APPENDIX.

REFLECTIONS ON THE PRODUCTION OF THE HYDATID DISEASE
ENDEMIC IN ICELAND, IN AS FAR AS IT IS CAUSED BY
ECHINOCOCCI.

When we find that the Echinococci, and especially Echinoc.
altricipariens, are an endemic disease in Iceland, and from the
travels of Von Troil, and the " Voyage en Islande, fait par ordre de
S. M. Danoise, traduit par Gauthier de Lapeyronie," that a sort of
vertigo (Hoved Soften) occurs there endemically in sheep1 and
cattle, which is curable by the trocar, on the employment of
which a watery fluid is evacuated from the brain, it is very
evident that Coenuri are not of rare occurrence in Iceland,
and that they are a great plague to breeders of cattle, and we
must conclude that Iceland is a land which presents a more
favorable soil for the development of the cystic worms in general
than many other countries. From analogy we may assume that one
reason of this lies in the fact, that the places where these cystic
worms are particularly plentiful, that is to say, the districts in the
interior, must be humid, as it is well known that Coenuri rarely
thrive in dry districts. The numerous hot wells in those
districts of the interior of Iceland favour the production of
this humidity of the soil, in part directly, by the water flowing
from them, and in part from the vapours which rise from them
into the air in considerable quantity. In this, therefore, we
have a confirmation of the general observation as to the production

1 The Icelandic sheep have pointed ears and a short tail ; sometimes they have two,
three, or four horns, which are sometimes straight, sometimes bent forwards, and some-
times backwards, and sometimes no horns. One animal gives four pounds of wool,
•which falls off in the spring without shearing.

234 ANIMAL PARASITES.

of cystic worms, and it is certainly obvious that in such districts
double care is necessary. But moisture alone cannot be the
cause of the cystic worms — for this we require the eggs of
particular Tanice with their six-hooked embryos. As regards
Echinococcus scolicipariens, the inference founded on analogy is
easy. We know that with such an extraordinary development of
the breeding of cattle and sheep, for which dogs are required, it
cannot be difficult for the dogs to infect themselves with those
Taenice belonging to the cystic worms of the sheep, which are
slaughtered in great numbers in Iceland — such as Tcenia Coenurus,
T. Echinococcus veterinorum of authors, and T. e Cysticerco tenui-
colli. Man, also, may easily acquire an Echinococcus scolicipariens ,
from the eggs which have escaped externally, as we have
already seen, and as we shall soon see more distinctly ; and the
more numerous the dogs are, the more will such Tarn® be
present, and their eggs escape into the outer world. The more
frequently also will the opportunity be given for these eggs
to find their way into the human subject, if no hinderance of
any peculiar kind exists. But it requires a further explanation,
and a deeper investigation of the local conditions, to discover
how Echinococcus altricipariens is produced in the human subject,
and how it can propagate itself.

Where, we may ask, in the first place, does the mature Tsenia
belonging to this species take up its abode ? Its dwelling-places,
in my opinion, can only be two, namely, the intestine of man
himself and that of the dog; in the latter of which situations,
indeed, most of the cystic worms which occur in the larger
domestic mammalia, can develope themselves into Tanice. As a
matter of course, a man suffering from Echinococci may infect
himself with T. Echinococcus, by the bursting of his Echinococcus-
colony in the direction of the intestine, where the scolices con-
tained in the daughter-vesicles are poured out, and become
Tcenice. But, after what we have already said upon Ttenia solium,
it is equally evident that just as a person who harbours a
T. solium may infect himself with Cysticercus cellulosce, the bearer
of Tania Echinococcus will also be in a condition to infect him-
self with Echinococci. In such cases we should easily explain
the increase of the Echinococcus-tumours with age in certain
individuals, and their constant new formation. Besides, the views
here laid down agree with our further observations in Iceland,
where, according to the few known exact histories of patients,

HYDATID DISEASE OF ICELAND. 235

such cases are certainly not wanting in which the Echinococcus-
colonies open towards the intestine. The process might also
take place by the eggs of those Ttenia which have become
mature in the human intestine, escaping externally, and being
swallowed by other men, after the eggs had been driven
about.

It is now a problem for the surgeons of Iceland, in the dissec-
tion of those individuals who had suffered from Echinococcus,
and especially those from whom Echinococcus-vesicles had passed
off externally, to see whether a Tcenia occurs in the intestinal
canal of the Icelanders, agreeing in the form of its head
and in its sucking discs with the second species of Echinococcus.
Moreover, it is desirable that the surgeon who is treating a
patient from whom Echinococcus-vesicles pass off, either per
anum or by vomiting, should submit him to treatment with
the remedies for tape- worms, so as to destroy the young
embryos before they attain maturity.

But this cannot be the only source of infection of the
Icelanders with Echinococci, there must still be a further mi-
gration of the embryos externally as well as another place
in which the scolices of the Echinococcus-colony may become
mature Tceniae. It is at present unknown to us whether the
sheep, cattle, and larger graminivorous domestic animals in
general, in Iceland, suffer generally from Echinococci, arid then
from what species ; and it would be worth while for Icelandic sur-
geons to tell us what species of Echinococcus occur in the last-
mentioned domestic animals, or to send the vesicles which occur
in the liver, the peritoneum or other abdominal viscera, the
lungs, the kidneys, &c., of different sheep, cattle, and horses, to
the continent of Europe, for examination with good microscopes.
Many cases of dropsy in sheep may belong here. If it were
possible for a sheep-dog here and there to infect himself in
this way with one or other of the two species of Tania Echino-
coccus, this would still only be a rare case, at least as regards
the second species.

There still, however, remains another way in which the dogs
may obtain the scolices of Echinoc. altricipariens directly from
man, without any occasion (to remove Von Siebold's fears) for
giving so much offence to the dignity of man as to suppose that
in order to obtain this worm the dogs in Iceland are compelled

236 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

to devour their masters. Even here the proof lies more at hand
than we should perhaps have supposed. It is a well-known fact,
as already observed, that colonies of Echinococcus evacuate their
daughter- and granddaughter-vesicles with the fseces, by vomiting
and coughing, and with the urine, or that these vesicles are set
free by the incision or opening of such Echinococcus-cysts by the
trocar or knife of the surgeon. Hitherto, no doubt, these vesicles
have been too inconsiderately dealt with, — they have been
allowed to lie just where they fell, as, for instance, with the
faeces,1 or the vesicles removed Ify the trocar have been thrown
upon the open dung-heaps. As a matter of course dogs can
easily get at all these places, and, especially in the half-wild
state in which these animals live in Iceland, they will greedily
fall upon and devour these vesicles upon the dung-heaps, or those
evacuated in the immediate neighbourhood of the patient by
coughing, vomiting, or with the urine, and thus easily infect
themselves with immense numbers of T&nia Echinococcus altrici-
pariens, if these vesicles, as is frequently the case, are passed
uninjured. In order to give a further support to this hypothesis
of the passage of the vesicles into the intestine of the dog, we
must certainly first of all consider the question whether so many
free dogs do really occur in Iceland, that they may easily get at
these evacuated vesicles. All travellers agree as to the number
of dogs possessed by the Icelanders, and I borrow the following
remarks partly from the works already referred to and partly
from the travels of Olavius.

The Icelanders in all districts keep the following three kinds
of dogs in considerable numbers.

]. The sheep- or cattle-dogs (Faar houndar), of which there
are two sub-varieties. The smaller of these two races has long
hair, short and weak legs, a pointed snout, and a curly tail ;
the other has curly and coarse hair. The Icelanders employ
them in seeking for lost animals ; as the sheep, as well as cows
and horses, in Iceland, usually seek their food for themselves,
often without herdsmen, the whole year round, and thus, of
course, may readily stray upon the pastures and in the rnoun-

1 I find no account, in the descriptions of travels, of the Icelanders making use of
closed privies ; everywhere nothing but open dung-heaps are spoken of. Besides, the
Icelander may also deposit his dung in the open air, just when the necessity comes upon
him, and indeed it cannot be otherwise with fishermen and shepherds.

HYDATID DISEASE OF ICELAND. 237

tains. The shepherds, however, who have the care of larger
flocks, employ these dogs to drive down those sheep which have
clambered upon projecting rocks where the shepherds cannot
follow them, and thus prevent them from straying. A sign from
the shepherd with his finger towards a projecting rock is suffi-
cient to tell the dog what he has to do, and to drive the sheep
quietly back to the flock without danger.

2. Hunting dogs (Dyr houndar). This variety has smooth
hair and long legs, and greatly resembles the common Danish
dog. In a land where the flocks of sheep are the principal
riches of the people, they must also have the means of freeing
themselves from the numerous enemies of these flocks. In
Iceland these enemies are especially the large species of foxes
(white and brown) ; the eagles, which prey upon the lambs ; and
the raven, which is fond of picking out the eyes of the sheep,
arid attacks the sheep which have just lambed and are prevented,
by the pains of labour, from defending themselves as well as the
new-born lambs. The hunting dog is employed in chasing the
foxes, helping in following the fox, and in digging him out ;
he may frighten away the ravens, and probably call the attention
of the shepherds to the place where an eagle approaches the
flock.

3. A kind of house-dog (Dssery houndar), which appears to be
like the preceding, but has a tail of only two or three inches in
length ; he serves for watching the house and goods.

Thus we see the Icelanders are everywhere accompanied and
surrounded by free dogs, and what we have just said will have
sufficiently indicated that these animals, continually going about
in the vicinity of man, have the opportunity of acquiring the
Taenia Echinoc. aliricipariens from the Echino coccus -vesicles
evacuated from man.

From this it appears that the duty of the Icelandic medical
man is, —

1. To examine the Icelandic dogs for the occurrence of this
Tania, or, if serviceable microscopes are wanting there, to send
the intestines of sheep-dogs which have lived in the neigh-
bourhood of a family from which such vesicles are or have been
given off, to Copenhagen, for examination, and I would also
thankfully receive consignments of this kind.1

1 No further precaution is necessary except to tie up the intestine cut off at the

238 ANIMAL PARASITES.

2. To give instructions that the vesicles in question, wherever
they may be evacuated, either artificially or naturally, should be
burnt, but never to allow them to be thrown upon dung-heaps,
or places where they can be got at by the dogs.

As soon as the dogs have developed the Taenia Echinoc. altri-
cipariens to maturity in their interior, they escape externally
with the dung, and get into the water, and also on the
pastures and vegetables, as we have already often seen. In
Iceland, also, the following circumstances may concur. Not
only the humidity of the soil ki the districts in which the
Echinococci are endemic, of which we have already spoken, but
the warm temperature, remaining the same summer and winter,
of much of the running water1 which is used for drinking,
caused by the entrance of the numerous hot wells into the water,
may, perhaps, not be entirely without influence, as the luke-
warm temperature appears to agree particularly well with all the
lower animals, and therefore, probably, also with the cestode
embryos in question. For the rest, the mode of life of the
Icelanders affords the following peculiarities which may, possibly,
be regarded as the principal causes of the communication of the
infection of the eggs of Tasniae.

Possibility of infection by drink. — In Iceland there are six
kinds of drinkable natural waters made use of.

1. Glacier- water, — a water which reaches the valleys in a
milky state, and is only drunk in case of need.

2. Rain-, and 3, brook-water, which do not come from
glaciers, and are very fresh and wholesome.

4. Spring-water, which is still more frequently used, and is
considered as very wholesome, but generally has a styptic action
upon the intestinal evacuations.

5. A very cold water proceeding from springs which never
freeze, and —

6. Cooled thermal waters, when these have not too mawkish
a taste.

It is evident that the waters mentioned under 2, 3, and 4,
and perhaps 5, may be especially the agents in the transport
of the eggs of the Tanice into the human intestines. The

pylorus and at the passage of the small intestine into the colon, and send it, in spirits,
to its address. The stomach and rectum are unnecessary for this investigation.

' I may refer, for example, to the River Reykedal, which, in spite of its warmth, is
overstocked with extremely fat trout and salmon.

HYDATED DISEASE OF ICELAND. 239

drinking-water most proper for the prevention of this trans-
portation would certainly be the cooled thermal water mentioned
under 6, or other water boiled and cooled in imitation of this
process.

Artificial beverages. — The commonest beverage is acid whey
(Blanda), which is mixed with the ordinary drinking-water. As
a matter of course the same may apply to this, that we have
said of the natural drinking-waters just referred to. I
cannot omit to remark, also, what a necessary dietetic, or popu-
larly medicinal beverage the acid wheys are in Iceland, as they
are proper to neutralize the too energetic action of the styptic
waters to a certain extent, in the same way as their substitute, —

Sorrel water. — In the summer the leaves of Rumex acetosa are
laid in the water and left there until all the juice is extracted.
This beverage is employed for some time during the summer,
but not freely until the winter. What we have said of the
dilute wheys applies also to this. All depends upon the water
added to it. Water with one twelfth of old whey (Syre], forming
a sort of intoxicating beverage, is also drunk. I do not know
its amount of alcohol, and have, therefore, no means of judging
whether the embryo T&nice are capable of living in this beverage.

Raw food. — The Icelander, belonging to a race of people
amongst whom the sciences still nourished in the sixteenth
century, and who had already their own printing establishments
in 1522, never eat raw flesh; even edible mussels and oysters
are used by him only as baits in his fisheries, but not for eating,
except in seasons of the greatest scarcity.

Vegetables are rare upon this island, although the Government
has taken the greatest trouble to introduce at least the oleraceous
vegetables. Our green salad is only cultivated in the kitchen-
gardens of certain personages, and a few of the higher people.
This, therefore, can hardly come into consideration. Instead of
this, however, we may lay a suspicion of transferring the eggs of
tape-worms into the human subject upon —

1. The herb of Rumex acetosa} the common sorrel, the raw
leaves of which the Icelanders are fond of eating.

2. Bilberries, the fruits of which they employ in the pre-
paration of bilberry jelly, with cold milk, and the herb of which
they use in various ways, without eating it, as they collect it for
the purpose of dyeing.

3. Strawberries.

240 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

4. Angelica, the freshly collected stems of which are eaten
raw, without any preparation, or at the utmost washed a little
before use, whilst the roots are not used in many places, and left
for the foxes, which, in consequence of the want of sweet grapes,
cool their desire for dainties upon the sweet roots of the angelica.

At present we cannot discover any other causes of the trans-
ference without appearing to go too far. The Icelander is not
partial to green vegetables, and even leaves the water-cress, so
much esteemed in other places, untouched.

By the method of distributing the dung upon the pastures,
the eggs of Tcenice may very easily get to the above-mentioned
raw articles of diet, and the dogs, which run about and deposit
their dung upon the rocks, may also be the cause of the trans-
portation of the eggs of Teenies by the agency of rain to straw-
berries and bilberries.

The principal prophylaxis is the destruction of the Echino-
coccws-vesicles wherever they come to light, and the prophylactic
treatment of those patients from whom Echinococcus- vesicles
pass off through the intestines, must be by means of our most
efficacious remedies for Ta>nice administered in small doses and
through a long period, in order to kill or expel the Tcenice.
With regard to the destruction of immigrating embryos, see the
experiments in the Appendix at the end of the book.

SUPPLEMENT TO THE CESTOIDEA.

After the first half of the section Cestoidea was already
printed, the following notes reached me ; they appear to me to
be sufficiently interesting to find a place here. Dr. Ficinus, of
Stolberg, supported by abundant observations, regards habitual
cephalsea in the crown of the head, with simultaneous alopecia on
the crown, as dependent upon tape-worm. He found this
symptom almost always accompanied with tape-worm, although
only in women. This would be a confirmation of Sibert's suppo-
sition that in disorders of the small intestine (the seat of the
T&nid}) the cephalsea extends to the vertex. (' Centralzeitung/
xxiv, No. 39.) This symptom has not occurred to me.

Dr. Pockels, of Holzminden, on the Weser, has informed me
by letter that in his native place tape-worms occurred in extra-
ordinary abundance in the human subject, and that an acquaint-

CESTOIDEA. 241

ance of his, who was born of German parents, and had never
travelled far, had scarcely left his dwelling-place, which was free
from traffic, when he suffered at once from Tcenia and Bothrio-
cephalus latus. He administered Kousso with Filix mas, and
relaxed the bowels carefully, some hours previously, with castor oil.
I have stated above that I had found it impossible to protect
animals from infection with cystic worms, by giving them pills of
Fllix mas and extract of pomegranate root, when the eggs of
tape- worms were administered to them at the same time. The
foresters about Holzminden state that they have never found the
wild swine of that locality infected with Cysticerci, but it \vas
remarked to Dr. Pockels that they were particularly fond of
ferns.

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242

ANIMAL PARASITES.

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SIZE OF HOOKS. 243

Average size of the hook- sacs of T&nia

First series — In the middle, 0-025'" = 0-055 mill. ; at
the base, 0-018'" = 0'045 mill. ; at the opening,
0-015'" =0-05 mill.

Second series — In the middle, 0'02'" = 0'045 mill.;
at the base, 0-010'" = 0-023 mill. ; at the opening,
0-010'" = 0-023 mill.
Size of the sucking discs in —

a. Tania solium, 0-22'" = 0-498 mill, in length, 0-2'" =
0-45 mill, in breadth.

b. T. mediocanellata, 0-367'" = 0-829 mill, in length,
0-3'" = 0-678 mill, in breadth.

The sucking discs of the Echinococci are scarcely 0-008'" =
0 02 mill, in diameter.

Eggs of T. solium, 0-016'" = 0-036 mill, in length, 0-017'" =
0-039 mill, in breadth.

Eggs of T. mediocanellata, 0016'" = 0-036 mill, in length,
0-013//x = 0-032 mill, in breadth.

Eggs of Tania from the Cape of Good Hope, just as in
T. mediocanellata, scarcely larger.

Eggs of T. Echinoc. scolicip., 0-0145 F" = 0-0148 W"' =
0-03.28 mill, in diameter.

244 ANIMAL PARASITES.

Second Sub-class.

Trematoda = Myelmintha (Diesing) = Egelwiirmur — Platyelmia
isolata = Isolated Flat-worms (Kiichenmeister).

Animalia solitaria, plerumque hermaphroditica, rarissime sexu
distincto et poris plerumque suctoriis, medianis aut lateralibus
instruct a. Canalis cib arms fur catim divisus aut ramosus, rarissime
simplex. Evolutio fit plerumque metamorphosi et sapissime
generatione alternante, rarissime sine illis. (Leuckart, in Van der
Hoeven.)

Although Leuckart does not place the Monostoma as a distinct
order beside the Distoma, but as a subdivision of the latter,
I still allow them to stand here as a distinct family, as this is the
general practice, and no important error can result from the
retention of this division. Any one who does not agree with
this has only to place the section upon Monostoma after that
which treats of the Distoma.

Familia I. Monostoma = Tribus II. Monocotylea ;
XVIII. Monostomum (Diesing).

Synon. — Cucullanus ; Festucaria ; Fasciola ; Amphistoma ;
Distoma et Monostoma.

" Corpus depressum vel teretiusculum ; caput continuum vel collo
discretum. Os terminate vel anticum} ut plurimum acetabuliforme,
integrum, crenulatum, inerme v. armatum. Apertura genitalium
perclara, duplex ; mascula infra os} interdum, acetabuliformis} pene
protractili ; feminea pone masculum, minima, ut plurimum incon-
spicua. Porus excretorius supra caudae apicem anteri margine
caudali. Animalia mammalium, avium, amphibiorum et piscium
corpora, i. e., prater tractum intestinalem organa varia inhabitantia,
libere aut folliculis inclusa." (Diesing.) Metamorphosis et
generatio alternans inter evolutionem, uti in Distomis. The ventral

MONOSTOMUM LENTIS. 245

sucker is therefore deficient, and Diesing gives a warning,
" Cave, ne Bothriocephalidearum articulum solitarium pro ' Mono-
stomum' habeas, aut porum genitalem, interdum callosum, cum
acetabulo confundas."

1. ? Monostomwn lentis (Von Nordmann).

In the month of May, Professor Jiingken extracted a lens
which was not quite obscured and was still soft in its substance
(incipient cataract), in the upper strata of which there were eight
Monostoma. They were -L'" in length and moved, although but
slowly, when they had lain in warm water.

This is all that we know of this trematode worm, and all my
endeavours to get sight of a specimen have been fruitless.
Professor Jiingken writes me that he handed over the animals
to Von Nordmann, and that he unfortunately does not know
what has become of the preparation. All my further in-
quiries also as to what has become of Nordmann's preparations
have hitherto been unavailing. I can therefore only give a
general opinion upon the case, and at least, as it appears to me, it
is very possible that Von Ammon's Distoma and the Monostoma
lentis of Nordmann are identical, that is if a trematode worm is
really in question here. If, on the one hand, Diesing warns us
against taking the porus genii alls of separate segments of
Bothriocephali, which is sometimes callous, for a sucking cup, and
thus making Monostoma out of structures which are nothing of
the kind, the following words of Dujardin also show that even
distinguished observers (amongst whom Von Nordmann is un-
doubtedly to be placed) have deceived themselves, and declared
things to be Monostoma, which were rather Distoma. Thus
Dujardin, speaking of the Monostomum ocreatum of the mole in
his ' Hist. nat. des Helminthes/ p. 344, where he describes this
as identical with Distoma lorum, says, " de mon cote, en cher chant
ce Monostome a Rennes, fai trouve non un Monostome, mais un
vrai Distome filtforme, que fai reconnu etre le meme helminthe,
en comparant trois exemplaires envoyes de Vienne au Museum de
Paris."

It is only from the want of opportunity of examining for
myself that I have still allotted Nordmann's entozoon a separate
place here. Diesing also appears to think that the Monostomum
discovered by Nordmann is identical with Von Ammon's

246 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

Distomum. But how he could have referred to the place where
Von Amraon speaks of Distoma ophthalmobium under Monostomum,
and alleged under Monostomum lentis that the Distoma treated of
by Von Ammon might perhaps be a Monostomum, must be difficult
of comprehension by any one who compares Von Ammon' s plates.
It would have been more correct had Diesing cited the passage
in Nordmanii under Distoma ophthalmobium, and written amongst
the literature of this animal, " Monostoma, Von Nordmann (?)."
It is also a question, as I have observed above, whether in the
case of this Monostomum we hav% to do with a trematode worm
at all, and not rather with a young Cysticercus celluloses. As
long as 1848 or 1849 I found in the cyst of a large Cysticercus
of the rabbit, a small worm with a single structure resembling a
mouth at the anterior extremity of its body. Even then I
regarded this organism as a young Cysticercus, although Von
Siebold assured me that from its form the worm could only be
regarded as trematode. Since that time I have examined
hundreds of spontaneously bred young Cysticerci, and observed
that before the hooks and sucking discs grow in them, and before
the well-known collection of nutritive fluid takes place in their
interior in larger quantity, they form organisms, which bear an
inversion at the anterior part of the body, possessing a deceptive
resemblance to a mouth, so that we might well think that we
had a Monostomum before us. Whoever has repeated the experi-
ments of breeding Cysticerci will admit that I am right with
regard to the possibility of this illusion.

Literature. — Von Nordmann, ' Mikrograph. Beitrage/ Heft ii,
Vorrede, p. ix.

Familia II. Distomea = Tribus II. Monocotylea ;
XIX. Distomum (Diesing).

Corpus depressum, vel tertiusculum, armatum vel inerme.
Caput continuum, vel collo discretum. Os terminate, vel anticum,
ut plurimum acetabuli forme. Acetabulum unicum ventrale sessile,
vel pedicellatum medianum, ab ex tr emit ate postica plus minusve
remotum. Aperture genitales approximate, scepissime ad eocitum
conjunct^ (cloaca instructs), supra vel infra acetabulum sitae.
Animalia plerumque hermaphroditica, rarissime sexu distincto.

DISTOMA HEPATICUM. 247

Ovula embryones parentibus rarissime similes , plerumque dissimiles
out fimbriatos, aut fimbriis destitutes continentia, quare evolutio
fit metamorphosi et generations alternante.

Statu immature aut libere in natura vagantia, aut in orga-
norum parenchymate, imprimis in animalibus inferioribus inclusa.
Statu maturo entoparasita animalium praprimis vertebratorum, aut
libere in variis organis et cavitatibus apertis et clausis viventia,
aut in folliculis inclusa (Duj. and Dies.)

1. Distoma hepaticum = Distomum hepaticum.
Plate V, figs. 1—10.

Corpus planum, armatum, saltern in juventuti ; estate magis pro-
fectd adkuc in collo. Individua junior a 4'" = 9 mill, longa,
!£'" = 3-3 mill, lata; adulta 8— 14/x/ = 18—31 mill, longa;
3J— 6"' = 8 — 13J mill. lata.

Collum subconicum, breve. Os hand nodulosum, terminate,
triangular e, 1*4 mill, latum.

Acetabulum 1-5 mill, latum, ore majus superum ad colli basin,
aperturd triangulari, 3 — 4 mill, pone os situm,

Orificia genitalia fere contigua, media in parte inter os et ace-
tabulum sit a. Penis cylindricus, 3 mill, longus, 0-5 mill, latus,
falciformis, prominens, uncinulis parvulis armatus. Testicul imasci-
ma ex parte media in corporis posterioris parte siti, ex trunco
mediano et ramificationibus, ad finem coeds, compositi.

Organa .vitellina ad latera animalis sita, inter se horizontals
quodam et transverso ramo conjuncta et statim in uterum sim-
plicem, magnitudine crescentem, multifarie volutum transeuntia.

Ovula flava, mitra quadam parvula aut obteculo dehiscentia,
0-056 — 0-063//r (V. et Par.) = 0-126—0-144 mill, longa, et
0-035— 0-038r// = 0-079—0-086 mill. lata.

Embryones, Cercariarum utriculi aut Redice, nee minus Cer-
carise liberse, si omnino hcec forma prcebetur, ignota. Migraiionum
modus nondum cognitus. Distomum juvenile immaturum semel
subcute humana inventum.

la. Distomum hepaticum maturum in hominis hepate.
Skin and parenchyma. — Our knowledge of the skin of the

218 ANIMAL PARASITES.

Trematoda in general, is very imperfect. Von Siebold takes
no particular notice of it in his ' Manual of Comparative
Anatomy/ (pp.. 114, 115), so that we can only cite here the general
remarks : " The strong membranous cutis allows a delicate, homo-
genous epidermis, and a tolerably firm corium, to be distin-
guished." Upon Distomum hepaticum, Von Siebold does not once
treat more at length in the notes appended to the text. From
the difficulty of examining this thick bodied species of Trematoda,
I hope that 1 shall be fairly criticised, both here and in the
description of the other parts of the* animal, and I only venture to
give what I found in an examination of this worm continued for
months, whilst at the same time I may remark that I have been
principally assisted in my investigations upon the internal struc-
ture of the Distoma by comparison with the work of Dr. Aubert,
of Breslau, upon Aspidogaster conchicola. It will be of the most
serviceperhaps,if, for the purpose of comparison with our Trematoda,
I prefix a short description of the trematode skin from Aubert.

" That the outermost skin of the Trematoda is very thin and
transparent and apparently homogeneous, is best seen where it
forms folds, where it is torn and has turned over, where it has
folded itself strongly in consequence of contraction and death,
which also occurs most distinctly in torn fragments, or where the
skin is raised up from the parenchyma after long immersion in
water, and during, or after, the death of the animal by a sub-
cutaneous accumulation of water. The want of action of reagents
upon it is in favour of its chitinous nature. It covers the whole
body, and also enters into the oesophagus and genitalia, appearing
to cover the latter both within and without." The greater part
of what is here said also applies to Dlst. hepaticum.

Although, by laying these Distoma in water for days I never
could detect any formation of vesicles or elevation of the epi-
dermis in a vesicular form, I nevertheless succeeded very well
occasionally in detaching separate strips of the epidermis with
the forceps. The structure of this skin was very finely granu-
lated and quite homogeneous, as was seen in places where the
skin was folded. Immediately after this layer follows an extremely
finely striated layer, in which the longitudinal fibres appear to
exceed the transverse ones. No pores or vacuities in the skin
could be detected anywhere. The hairy or spinous coat had nearly
fallen off from the skin of the mature Distoma, or was only still
to be detected on the portion between the mouth and the sucking

DISTOMA HEPATICUM. 249

cup. In young Distoma which are still immature, I have always
found it, and generally diffused over the sides of the whole body.

With regard to the parenchyma of the Distoma, Aubert says,
" The parenchyma, which is rendered more finely granulated,
darker, and more brittle by acids, and very slowly dissolved by
alkalies, and which probably consists of two substances — a gra-
nular mass (perhaps analogous to the stearine tablets of the
Infusoria), and a transparent, homogeneous mass (sarcode) con-
taining these granules — is tough, and slowly extensible and con-
tractile in all directions, so that from the want of direction in its
structure it exhibits contractility in all directions."

The consistence of the parenchyma of D. hepaticum also
very closely resembles that above described. A variation prevails
here only in regard to the muscular fibres, which is of the more
importance, as by this means a circumstance may be explained
which has given origin to several different interpretations.

If a fragment of the parenchyma of a Distoma be moistened
with a little dilute sulphuric acid, and the latter be allowed to
act only until the edges of the preparation have become white
and opaque, and the preparation be then washed quickly with a
little water, the following clearly distinguishable muscular layers
are perceived :

1. A layer of longitudinal fibres, running straight and not
very strong.

2. A layer of very thick and long transverse fibres, but little
twisted.

3. A layer of short, often fusiform, thick transverse fibres,
often very strongly bent into an S-form, and —

4. A layer of short, thick fibres, uniting into an obtuse cone,
placed at more or less regular intervals, and inserted between the
previous layers rather in an oblique or perpendicular direction.
This layer is particularly remarkable for the change which it
undergoes in water. Thus, if we examine individuals kept in
water, these obtusely conical bundles of fibres have disappeared,
and we find in place of them small quadrangular structures, very
obtuse towards the apex, on which an extremely fine striation
is now to be observed. The same structures are also detected
after the treatment of such individuals, preserved in water, with
dilute sulphuric acid ; but a similar appearance is never observed
in animals which have been taken directly out of the gall- ducts,
and examined without any preliminary treatment with water.

250 ANIMAL PARASITES.

These structures resemble the squares (Felder) in the foot or in
the sucking cup of Aspidog aster conchicola, figured by Aubert,
I cannot help thinking that the structures seen by me are the
same which have led Keber and others to speak of pores in other
Trematoda. I regard the squares or spaces in question as
vacuoles, which become inflated and filled with water by con-
tact with that fluid, but are not so easily perceived when the
animals are treated without water. They appear and disappear,
therefore, according as the interior of this obtuse muscular cone
is full or empty of fluid, according as its inner walls are in con-
tact or kept asunder.

Nervous system and organs of the senses are wanting.

Alimentary apparatus, — This apparatus is composed of a mouth
placed at the anterior point of the body, that is the so-called
anterior sucker. This is followed by a sort of constriction
(oesophagus), and this by a goblet-shaped pharynx, the larger
opening of which is directed forwards, but backwards when
broken. The pharynx consists of two layers of contractile sub-
stance. According to Aubert, in Aspidogaster the inner layer is
longitudinally and the outer transversely striated, without its being
a true transversely striated muscular substance. The case is
exactly the same in D. hepaticum. It is only to be observed,
that the anterior margin of the pharynx appears as if notched.
For this reason it may be thought to be composed of several
pieces ; I always believed that I could count three such segments.
The pharynx is followed by a very short, simple, somewhat nar-
rowed portion of intestine, which runs to the level of the sac of
the penis, where it divides into two large stems, which, making
a small excursion, run round on the sides of the sac and
ventral sucker, and again approach each other behind the ventral
sucker, without, however, uniting by anastomoses, and finally
run parallel and near to each other to the hinder margin of the
Distomum, where they terminate in caeca. This intestine is dis-
tinguished from that of many other Distoma, in that a quantity
of variously dendritic branches are given off laterally from the two
main stems, the finest ramifications of which run to the lateral
margins of the animal, where they terminate in cseca without anas-
tomosing. All these branches of the intestinal canal contain bile
in our Distomum, and by this means, when they are full, their
course may be very clearly traced. In large Distoma I have
counted 14 — 15 lateral branches on each side, given off from the

DISTOMA HEPATICUM. 251

two main stems above mentioned. Besides these, on the space
between the month and the base of the ventral sucker, there are
on each side five very short, slightly branched stems, which run
forwards and laterally. This structure of the intestine is an
essential point to furnish us with data in any inquiry after the
young of this Distoma dispersed amongst the lower animals. We
may expect, a priori, that amongst the cercariform creatures, those
alone can belong to D. hepaticum which exhibit a similar ar-
rangement of the intestinal canal. By continued pressure from
behind forwards, the entire contents of the intestine may be
expelled. The intestine is soon freed spontaneously by long
keeping of the animal in water or bile. Sometimes, also, we find
the larger Distoma, when wedged into the narrow ducts of the
liver, deprived of their biliary contents. As regards the position
of the intestine, I think that we shall come nearest to the truth
if we place it about the middle of the parenchyma, and neither
nearer to the dorsal nor to the ventral surface.

Excretory organ. — Under this denomination we combine, what
particular authors have treated separately under the names of
respiratory and circulatory systems and excretory organ, or
aquiferous system and excretory organ. But in the first place
there is no respiratory system, either in the Trematoda in general,
or in our Distomum in particular. Neither can we speak, either
of distinct circulatory and excretory organs, or of a separate
aquiferous system and excretory organ. Both are only parts of
one and the same system. It is to Van Beneden that we owe
the first discovery that the aquiferous system passes into the ex-
cretory organ, and where this takes place. Aubert has recently
confirmed Van Beneden's observations as regards Distoma tere-
ticolli, and has positively seen one of the granules of the aquiferous
system, of which we shall speak presently, slip into the excretory
organ and return again from this into the aquiferous system.
This transition is also certain in Nordmann's Diplostoma, and in
the Diplost. rachi&um of Henle, so that Aubert thinks that we are
perfectly justified in applying these observations, per analogiam,
also to the other Trematoda, and regarding the whole of the
organs here treated of as one and the same ; namely, as an
excretory organ.1 For the investigation of the structure of this

1 In Von Siebold and Kolliker's ' Zeitschrift,' vi, pi. xiv, fig. 3^, the passage of the
so-called water-vascular system into the excretory organ is very beautifully represented

252 ANIMAL PARASITES.

organ in our Distomum young individuals, sexually immature,
are the best adapted, and especially those whose intestine con-
tains little or hardly any bile. In these we clearly see light,
contorted canaliculi, branched towards the margins, collecting
in the middle into a straight sac, which is dilated in the form
of a bell near its extremity. In adult individuals the sys-
tem in question becomes more distinct when the intestine is
emptied, and the Distomum has been kept for some time in bile or
water. It forms an immense number of small branches, which
penetrate into the furthest portions of the body, sometimes collect
into larger stems, and pass into a tolerably strong terminal stem,
which runs in the median line of the hinder portion of the animal,
and becomes dilated and bell-shaped at the extremity of the body,
where it opens occasionally, and gives issue to molecular contents,
mixed with larger, lighter bodies. I could not discover any
sphincter muscle at this part of the end of the body. As re-
gards the contents of this whole system, they are characterised
by their limpid colour, and by small, diaphanous globules,
such as we find in all Trematoda. By direct light these bodies
shine out of the vessels with a chalky white colour. According
to Von Siebold and most authors, these bodies, which possess a
tolerably firm consistence, are regarded as calcareous corpuscles,
analogous to the well-known calcareous corpuscles of the Cestodea.
I have not succeeded in effecting the destruction of these bodies
in Dist. hepaticum with acetic acid so rapidly as in the Cestodea,
nor have I observed a similar evolution of bubbles of carbonic
acid. It is therefore by no means clear to me whether these
globules are to be regarded as carbonate of lime, or whether they
may not perhaps be earthy salts of another weak acid, which dis-
solve slowly, and without evolution of gas, under the action of
acetic acid. Many of these corpuscles may, perhaps, also belong
to the masses which we denominate Barcode. For my part, there-
fore, I believe that the true nature of these structures has not yet
been ascertained, however many of our first authorities upon this
subject may regard the affair as settled.

by Aubert. It is only to be regretted that in the explanation of the figure on p. 374 K,
we read "Origin (Ursprung] of the water-vascular system from the excretory organ."
The word origin (Ursprung} is adapted only to produce confusion as to the nature of
the organ. It would be much better, and more suited to the description given, if we
read instead — " Point of transition (Uelergangsstelle) of the water-vascular system into
the part of the system which has hitherto been called the excretory organ."

DISTOMA HEPATICUM. 253

Whether ciliated lappets occur in this excretory organ in our
Disiomum, I cannot say, as the Dist. hepaticum is too massive
and thick in the body. It is well known that they are deficient
in one species and present in another, and they appear as a
general rule to possess no great functional value.

Organs of reproduction. — 1, The female sexual organs lie more
towards the ventral surface of the animal, and consist of a
germ-stock with its efferent duct, two vitelligenes, a short ovi-
duct, a sac- like uterus, and a vagina.

a. For a long time I could not quite make out the germ-stock
in our Distomum. I regard as this organ a round body which
lies behind the cordate point of union of the two vitelligenes in
the median line of the body, and a little way behind the last
convolutions of the uterine sac. This is the same structure that
others have taken for a testicle. In spite of all the trouble that
I have taken to unriddle the nature of this round body, I have only
succeeded in coming to an approximate understanding of it. I
sought in vain in this body for spermatozoids, which would have
rendered it a vesica seminalis interna. But as often as I isolated
it and examined it in this state, I could only detect in it, with
the highest magnifying powers, a great number of very clear,
oval, empty, capsular structures ; for which reason I have been
tempted to regard this organ as the germ-stock, but without
venturing to give this interpretation as the only correct one.
This structure at any rate opens into a common canal with the
efferent duct of the vitelligenes, in which true egg-structures
immediately make their appearance, and which at the same time
contains immense numbers of spermatozoids, which are agglome-
rated together in masses in the midst of and around the indi-
vidual eggs which are still transparent. From here onwards, the
union of the germinal vesicles and yelk-globules, as well as the
formation of the egg-shell, certainly goes forward.

b. The vitelligenes (yelk-sacs) form two organs placed at the sides,
consisting of blind sacs, forming repeatedly branched, beautifully
dendritic or racemose figures, which reach anteriorly into the
level of the cirrhus, and posteriorly into the caudal extremity,
where they are only separated by the excretory organ, and thus
prevented from passing into each other in this close point of
contact. They collect on each side into a common and tolerably
strong stem, running parallel to the lateral margins of the
animal, from which, at about the point where the anterior third

254 ANIMAL PAKASITES.

of the animal passes over into the central one, a straight branch
runs horizontally towards the median line of the animal, and
unites with the branch of the opposite side. Rarely (about once
in fifty examples), instead of one main stem coming from the
side, we meet with two which unite at an acute angle, but
always before the middle line, to form a single branch, which
then runs horizontally towards the branch of the other side,
and behaves just as we have above described. The point
of union of these two stems is the only anastomosis which the
two vitelligenes form throughout.* By this union a cordate dila-
tation is produced at this spot, from which a very narrow canal
issues anteriorly in fine, scarcely visible convolutions. Soon after-
wards this canal becomes somewhat wider, and we meet with
separate pale eggs, surrounded by true egg-shells, which are pro-
bably produced by the conjunction of the structures of the vitelli-
gene, and those furnished by the organ mentioned under «, after
the ducts of the two organs have united. The contents of these
yelk-sacs are yelk-corpuscles, yelk-globules or vitelline cells,
which during their passage through the efferent duct above
described acquire all sorts of forms, fitting themselves to the
passages through which they must pass. Each of these vitelline
agglomerations consists of single yelk-globules, measuring
about 0-0018 mill. = O'OOS"' Par. or Vienna. In the cordate
dilatation the agglomerations have about the following size :
0-028 mill. = 0-012'" in length, and 0*014 mill. = O'OOG'" in
breadth, and they consist of from 30 — 50 individual yelk-
globules. When quite fresh the yelk-sacs appear white or pale
yellow, but when the animals are allowed to lie for a good while in
bile, they acquire a darker-yellow colour. They lie in the midst
of the parenchyma of the body, but nearer to the ventral than
the dorsal surface.

c. The oviduct, which follows these, is very short, forms some
very wide spiral turns, and passes without any perceptible
boundary into the uterus; indeed it might, perhaps, be deno-
minated a uterus even from its commencement.

d. The true uterus is turned more towards the ventral surface
of the animal. At first, the dimensions of the convoluted simple
uterus are small, the eggs lie in a single layer, and still possess
white, or rather colourless shells, through which shine their con-
tents, similar to those of an egg in process of segmentation ;
subsequently, the convolutions gradually become wider, and the

D1STOMA HEPATICUM. 255

layers of eggs closer in the interior of the canal, whilst the
colour of the egg-shells themselves constantly becomes darker
and yellower, and their contents less uneven and granular.
I have never yet succeeded, however, either in D. hepaticum
or in the Bothriocephali, in recognising the exact form of an
embryo, or been able to free it by pressure or breaking the eggs.
The difference in the colour of the eggs, in different convolutions of
the uterus, causes the colour of the uterus itself to be different
also. The last convolutions situated posteriorly are white and
clear, the anterior ones dark yellowish.

e. The vagina is a tortuous and rather narrow canal, just wide
enough to allow of the passage of an egg moving in the direction
of its longitudinal axis. It runs at the margin of the ventral
sucker, and beneath and behind it to the place where the penis
protrudes from the skin, where it is enlarged in the form of a
funnel. Here it has a common opening with the penis. It is
hardly possible, or very difficult, to exhibit this part in the living
D. hepaticum ; but the arrangement of the parts here described
may be very easily seen by pouring boiling water over a living
Distomum and scalding it, and then crushing the animal com-
pletely, but slowly, between two glass plates.

2. Male sexual organs. — a. Testicles. — The two testicles (ante-
rior and posterior) differ entirely in our Distomum from those of
most other Distoma, and as the only object has been to find the
ordinary conditions again, a great number of mistakes have been
published, but the true state of matters has long been overlooked.
The testicles of Distoma are neither oval nor round, but they
are amongst the multifariously lobed and notched testicles, and
from their nature they must come nearest to the testicles of
Amphistomum subtriquetrum giganteum and Distomum hians, which
in consequence of a number of very deep incisions, form a tuft
of blind canals. Thus, in the middle of the whole hinder two
thirds of the animal, we see a complication of repeatedly en-
twined, csecal, intestinal convolutions, reaching immediately to the
inner borders of the lateral yelk-sacs, and ceasing pretty exactly at
the above-mentioned part of the latter. Hence it happens, that
these structures may be taken almost uninjured out of the
body, when we cut away, with a fine knife, the lateral margins
of the animal as far as the yelk-sacs extend inwards. In front,
from the ventral sucker, this organ extends in a pair of small,
lateral shoots, which, to choose a readily accessible figure for

256 ANIMAL PAKASITES.

comparison, present the greatest resemblance to the terminations
of Burnett's fungus (PL V, fig. 2, of the Vegetable Parasites, vol. ii),
or those of the Hanoverian Leptomitus (PL I, fig. 8, vol. ii), to the
level of the hindmost four or five convolutions of the tubular uterus.
They appear to replace the vesica seminalis internet or anterior,
which is deficient here, and which in form usually resembles the
other segments of the testes. The lobate form of the latter is to
a certain extent to "be recognised in our Distoma, even in the
form described.

In their position, therefore, tliese structures agree with a great
number of the testicles of Distoma, that is to say, they lie in the
abdomen behind the ventral sucker, but they occupy an enormous
space in the abdomen, in fact the entire space which is left free
by the yelk-sacs. The further anatomical structure of these
organs is as follows : The above-mentioned convolutions collect
into two principal stems, which in general are scarcely thicker
than the lateral convolutions. One of these stems lies more
in the posterior, the other more in the anterior half of the
body. The former ceases therefore in the posterior half of
the body, but the latter a little way behind the point of union
of the yelk-sacs. This is effected without any particularly
marked boundary, without the formation of a clubbed end,
or anything of that sort. Quite in front, two more stems
are given off right and left, which run on the sides of the animal
nearly to the middle of the uterus, are extended and spread out
at their extremities, and thus resemble the form of the above-
mentioned vegetable parasites. This termination is very well
shown by Mehlis in his plate viii, especially on the side which
lies to the left of the spectator. The separate stems of the two
testicles can hardly be isolated, as each testicle sends out its
branches towards the side of the other. We must regard as the
anterior ends of the testicles, the points from which a thin
filament or efferent duct, ductus spermaticus, springs and runs
forwards. These filaments are very thin, of the same colour as
the mass of the testicles, and run round the sides of the structure
which we called the germ-stock in the female genitalia, at first
in a parallel direction, but unite subsequently at an acute angle ;
they run directly through their whole course, make no lateral
digressions, and pass forwards at the dorsal surface of the animal,
concealing themselves behind the convolutions of the uterus,
and sometimes making their appearance when the animal is

DJSTOMA HEPATICUM. 257

pressed in the spaces of the parenchyma left free by these con-
volutions. As soon as they have arrived at the level of the
ventral sucker, behind which they lie, and by which they are
concealed when the animal is examined from the ventral surface,
they converge still more, until at last they unite a little way
from the base of the sac of the penis, or vesica seminalis exterior,
forming a short, thick stem, opening into the last-mentioned
organ, and filling it with spermatozoids, which may be easily
effected merely by the help of the muscular contraction of the
abdomen. I have repeatedly been able to trace the course
of the two seminal filaments, from the point where they origi-
nate from the testicles to the vesica seminalis exterior. One
of these filaments is longer, and extends into the hinder half
of the Distomum ; the other usually originates a little way
behind the point of union of the yelk-sacs of the two sides, that
is to say, at the point of transition of the anterior third of the
whole Distomum into the middle third. From this doubling of
the filaments, follows the above-mentioned doubling of the testi-
cles, as we suppose that a testicle has only one efferent duct.
Taking into consideration the points to which these funiculi
spermatici may be traced, we spoke above of a posterior testicle
i. e., the one with the longer funic. spermat.), and an anterior
one (i. e., that with the shorter funic. spermat.) The point of
origin of each of these two filaments sometimes forms a sagittate
point, namely, when the last two or three lateral convolutions of
the penis, which are situated posteriorly or lateral, unite at a
very acute angle.

The question still remains, whether, besides the above-men-
tioned outlets of the testicle, there may not be another communica-
tion with the egg-preparing organs, so that, as in other Trematoda,
self-impregnation might be possible without self-copulation, and
without an immersio penis. In Mehlis's figure viii we see the
foremost branch of the left side of the testicle opening into a
vesicular organ, which lies between the two funiculi spermatici}
and behind the point of union of the two yelk-sacs. I have also
seen this repeatedly, and it was not going too far to regard this
vesicular structure as a vesica seminalis interior, destined for self-
impregnation without copulation. But, as already observed, I
can only regard this vesicle as the germ- stock ; but I must con-
sider the anterior branch of the testicle just mentioned as the
substitute of the ves. sem. interna. If others succeed in detecting

R

258 ANIMAL PARASITES.

spermatozoids in the vesicle a, I shall regard it as a ves. sem.
internet, although I confess that even from the colour of this
structure, I can hardly suppose that it is a vesica seminalis interior.
As regards the colour, all the seminiferous organs, and therefore
even the ahove-mentioned dilatations of the testicles, are brownish-
red, and, in fact, lighter or darker according to the calibre and
number of the free filaments.

It still remains to furnish the microscopic proof that the
convolutions already described by Mehlis as testicles are really
those organs. If we make a»fine transverse incision in the
middle of the animal and far behind the point of union of the
vitelligenes, we shall also have removed therewith some of the
upper convolutions, and may easily isolate them. But at the
cut surfaces of these convolutions innumerable seminal filaments
flow out, and I have attentively observed this singular spectacle
for a long time. Thus we observe simple, hyaline cells; then
stellate ones, consisting of five cells ; then some in which caudated
cells, as it were, protrude from these cells, and also free bundles
of fine long seminal filaments and individual isolated filaments.

For the last investigations I of course made use of fresh, living
Distoma, and, as the medium in which I examined them, sugar
and water. For the investigation of the anatomical arrangement
of the separate portions of the genital system, I employed the
process, above described under the section " vagina," of scalding
the animals with boiling water — a process which merits being
more brought into use in the examination of various lower
animals.

b. The sac of the penis (cirrhus-pouch) itself, and the whole of
the reproductive organs connected with it, lie immediately on the
anterior surface of the ventral sucker, and open towards the ven-
tral surface. Here we clearly distinguish the oval, or, more cor-
rectly, retort-shaped end, formed by the true penis-sac, a swollen
white mass when examined with the naked eye, dingy blackish-red
under the microscope, and containing immense numbers of sper-
matozoa, which, when they can be examined in a more isolated
condition, exhibit a lively swarming. Anteriorly this penis-
sac passes into a distinctly recognisable, contorted, ductus
ejaculatorius, with a double outline, in which I once observed
distinct peristaltic movements for several minutes after taking the
whole apparatus out of the body of the living animal. Thus,
sometimes one wall contracted at the bending of the canal, and

DISTOMA HEPATICUM. 259

the opposite wall expanded, or vice versa. Sometimes this move-
ment proceeded from behind forwards, sometimes from before
backwards. Anteriorly the ductus ejaculatorius opens into a
membranous, sickle-shaped, very thick penis, perforated through
the middle, beset, especially towards the apex, with concentric,
close layers of very distinct points or spines, which generally fall
off easily. The spinous external skin of the penis is an inversion
of the general cutaneous covering, of which a fine layer also
enters into the inner opening of the penis. When the back of
an ordinarily fine scalpel is placed perpendicularly upon the
anterior margin of the ventral sucker, and pressure is applied
with a second scalpel directed obliquely from before backwards,
from the buccal sucker towards the first scalpel, it is always easy
to cause the protrusion of the penis. If it be then cut away at
the ventral surface of the animal with a pair of scissors, we shall
easily detect the coating of spines, which, however, appears to be
very easily lost. In this way every one may readily convince
himself of the existence of the spines. This coating of spines
appears to me to furnish an argument in favour of the statement
of some authors, as; for instance, Dujardin, that the epidermis of
Dist. heputicurn is beset throughout with spines. As this spinous
coat of the skin certainly always occurs normally, and pretty
evenly diffused in the earliest portion of the life of our Distomum,
but in course of time is lost by the movements of the animal,
without leaving any traces, this may also probably be the case
with the penis ; and it is only the rare use of this organ, and its
inverted position, that preserves it from having its spines rubbed
off. Thus the spines of the penis remain, as it were, the last
traces of the previous very general spinous coating of the epider-
mis. As regards the act of protrusion of the penis itself, it is
most probable that this takes place voluntarily in the Distoma in
the following manner. The parenchyma of the animal in the
vicinity of the penis, or, as Mehlis thinks, the membrane enve-
loping the anterior sexual apparatus (i. e., the penis-sac), con-
tracts circularly, and thus presses from the sides upon the root of
the penis, whilst at the same time the skin is undoubtedly
in a certain state of expansion, but not of contraction. This
appears from the simple consideration that the root of the penis
is pretty thick, and measures at least i'" in diameter. The
opening from which the penis protrudes through the skin is not
usually perceptible, or, at the utmost, forms a cleft-like inversion,

260 ANIMAL PARASITES.

but, as may be seen from the diameter of the penis, it is capable
of considerable dilatation. According to Aubert, there are
two muscular layers in the penis of other large Trematoda —
" Longitudinal, elastic, circular, and, perhaps, transverse fibres,
although we cannot speak of a true transverse striation of
the muscles, as the substance, when crushed, loses its striation
and breaks up into irregular fragments/' It is the same in this
case also.

I will also mention here a simple method by which the portion
of the sexual organs of which* I have last spoken may be best
isolated. From the firm consistence of these parts, we may
easily succeed, with a fine needle, in laying them bare and
isolating them entirely. It was in. a penis-sac, with its ap-
pendages, removed in this way from the living animal, that I
saw the before-mentioned peristaltic movement of the ductus ejac-
ulatorius most beautifully. The relative positions of the external
opening of the retracted penis and the vagina, are as follows, as cor-
rectly described by Mehlis : Near the anterior margin of the ventral
sucker we observe a small oblong, or obtusely triangular, pit or
cleft. If this be drawn asunder, two openings make their
appearance, of which that situated posteriorly, and towards the
left, is the vaginal orifice, and the other that of the penis.

If we glance once more at the sexual conditions of our Dis-
tomum, we find, with the compound microscope, in the interior of
the hindermost convolutions of the uterus, reddish-brown aggre-
gations or masses of spermatozoa, which exhibit the most lively
swarming on their free margins, and may be isolated as moderate
agglomerations. To the naked eye these spots appear white ;
they project posteriorly beyond the level of the other convolu-
tions of the uterus, and in attempting to isolate these white
spots, we are sure, with some practice, to find immense numbers
of aggregated spermatozoa. As some of these formations appear
to lie in the uninterrupted canal of the uterine convolutions,
we may perhaps assume that they have reached this spot in
consequence of a self-impregnation accompanied by copulation ;
but, on the other hand, as the testicle undoubtedly also opens
here directly towards the true dilatations of the uterus,1 they
may be the consequence of a self-impregnation without copula-
tion. The Distoma are therefore hermaphrodites, with the fol-

1 Recently I succeeded in pressing spermatozoa out of the testicles through the
funiculus spermaticus into the sac of the penis, under the microscope.

DISTOMA HEPATICUM. 261

lowing sexual actions: self-impregnation with and without
copulation, and impregnation and copulation with a second
individual.

Action of this parasite upon man, its phenomenology and
pathological anatomy.

Mehlis mentions as observers of this parasite in the human
subject —

1. Malpighi, who found it both in man and animals.

2. Chabert, who expelled them in great numbers with his
empyreumatic oil from a girl of 12 years old.

3. Bauhin, who, however, according to Bremser, had no true
Distoma before him.

4. Biddloo, who was well acquainted with the alterations which
these parasites produce in the livers of animals, and met with
them also in the human liver.

5. Wepfer, who often found the gall-ducts of the liver filled
with " hirudinibus"

6. Pallas, who found Distoma fixed in the gall-ducts of the
liver in a female subject in the Anatomical Theatre at Berlin.

7. Brera, who met with them in the liver of a man suffering
from scurvy and dropsy.

8. Mehlis himself. He narrates the following history of a
widow, of 31 years old, living in Clausthal. From her appear-
ance Mehlis had long suspected that her liver was disordered, when
one day, in the year 1821, she brought him nine specimens of
D. hepaticum, which, as frequently before, she had thrown up
on the same day, still living and moving, together with a large
quantity of bloody coagulum, with repeated fainting fits. Gentle
purgatives, to remove any worms that might be in the intestine,
brought no more to light, and the patient felt well. Fourteen
days afterwards, when collecting sticks in the woods, she was
suddenly seized with tenesmus, and numerous worms were passed
agglomerated into a lump with mucus, but without faeces. In the
next year there occurred frequent yellowness of the face, slight
dyspnoea, which compelled her to sit still, short cough, uneasiness,
inflation of the abdomen, tension and pain in the hypochondria,
great weakness of the limbs, and with various convulsive appear-
ances and fainting fits, vomiting of thin mucus and blood, with
consequent alleviation. The general health, appetite, and digestion

262 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

were unimpaired ; but potatoes and hard fare disordered her
stomach. In June, 1823, the tightness of the chest, the short-
ness of breath, the short dry cough, and the weakness of the
joints increased. Suddenly there occurred all sorts of opistho-
tonic phenomena with aphonia lasting for several days, very
frequent violent cough, difficult respiration, great pain in the
hypochondria and the chest, and extreme pain of the distended
abdomen. After several remissions and exacerbations repeated
vomitings then took place, when, besides the food taken, some
corrupted bile, a membranous s'ubstance, and a great quantity
of coagulated blood, many worms were again evacuated, still
in a living state, according to the reports in the vicinity. Of
these a portion were thrown away. Mehlis now had every-
thing that was passed collected in a spittoon. The patient
vomited three times more, and passed several uninjured D.
hepaticum, as well as a great number of fragments of Distoma and
fifty specimens of D. lanceolatum. Distoma never presented
themselves in the stools. From this time the patient slowly
recovered ; but still suffered frequently from similar disorders iri
the following year, so that Mehlis believed the old guests still
held their post.

The whole history of the case looks like a mystification by a
hysterical patient. For, notwithstanding his requests, Mehlis
was never present when the worms were vomited, and the only
passage of worms through the anus took place in the wood, when
no one was present. It appears to me to be very suspicious that
the patient complained that, although she was in general in good
health, potatoes and heavy diet did not agree with her, which
appears as though she had speculated on obtaining better fare, from
the compassion of her neighbours, and medical men who took
such particular interest in worms. Under these circumstances,
it is to be regretted that from the lamented early death of Mehlis
he could not subsequently dissect the patient, who is perhaps still
living, and must now be sixty-five years old. The principal reason
of my doubts lies in the period at which the case occurred. It was
then the fashion to vomit lizards, frogs, eels, and fishes, which
were supposed to have been borne in the body. Mehlis's patient
might have made use of Distoma obtained from the butcher, and
thus have deceived her doctor and relations.

9. Very recently, according to Dujardin, Duval has found this
worm in the vena portce of the human subject at Eennes. The

DISTOMA HEPATICUM. 263

«

size given only agrees with a young D. hepaticum, but still
better with a D. lanceolatum. But whatever it may be, this
Distomum could only have reached the venaportce, after it had been
injured by cutting, from a gall-duct which must also have been
injured. The mode of life of our Distomum could not allow of
its dwelling in the blood, and Duval might have found a correction
of his error at page 7 of Mehlis.

Since this I find no further proof of the occurrence of this
worm in the human liver, and even in Rokitansky's rich expe-
rience, which is also made use of by Wedl, there is no other
example.1

I have omitted Bucholz's case, as, from the figures given by
Bremser, it belongs to D. lanceolatum. Bucholz found his
Distoma in the body of a prisoner who died of putrid fever.
During a visit of the Grand Duke of Weimar, Bremser asked for
a pair of these Distoma, which were preserved in the Museum at
Jena, and from the figures given by him they are specimens of
D. lanceolatum. To ascertain whether, besides these Distoma,
D. hepaticum was also present in the liver of this prisoner, I
applied to Professor Oscar Schmidt with the request that lie
would go through Bucholz's Distoma again, and inform me
whether the bottle in question contained only D. lanceolatum,
or whether D. hepaticum was also present. My letter did not
reach Schmidt, who was already gone to his new destination.
Any results which may be obtained by fresh inquiries in Jena
will be found in the Appendix.

Whoever is acquainted with the devastations which this
Distomum is capable of producing in the livers of our herbivorous
domestic animals, will rejoice, with Bremser and Wedl, that these
animals occur so rarely in the human subject. However, it
is certainly necessary for the complete understanding of the
malady produced by Distoma, that we should give close attention
to the changes which these parasites cause in the livers of our
domestic animals when inhabited by them, as indeed has already
been done by Mehlis and Bremser. In the course of the last
winter I have been able to obtain a very abundant harvest of
Distoma, as these parasites have been extremely plentiful during
the last moist years, and especially in the autumn and winter of

1 Rokitansky's last edition was not in my possession when I wrote this. Any correc-
tions that may be necessary will be found at the end of the book. [See Appendix B for
further information on this subject. — TRANS.]

261 ANIMAL PARASITES.

1854-55, and have caused great devastations in many flocks of
sheep.

The gall-ducts are frequently unaltered by these worms ; but
are generally considerably dilated, and then often resemble cords
of the thickness of the finger. At the same time their walls are
remarkably thickened, callous, cartilaginous ; the inner walls of
the vessels are dingy, rough, uneven, and beset with bony, cal-
careous concretions (phosphate of lime and magnesia), often
coloured by bile, which adhere firmly to the walls and even close
up the smaller branches. Thtse phenomena extend to the
smaller gall-ducts, and these are seen of the thickness of a goose-
quill, and often filled with a yellowish, dingy, slimy matter,
resembling pus in its external appearance. The secretion of bile
in the vessels thus destroyed constantly suffers more and more,
nay, it may even cease entirely, or we only find as much bile in
the larger ducts as may have been poured into them from the
smaller lateral branches uninhabited by Distoma. The bile itself,
which is found in the gall-bladder, is altered in its colour ; instead
of greenish yellow it has become dingy grayish yellow, and it has
an unusual consistence, as it is mixed with a very considerable
quantity of mucus. However, it is usually found in tolerably
large quantity in the gall-bladder. This last circumstance cer-
tainly appears at the first glance to be very contradictory to what
has just been said, and also to the fact that the enormous size of
the gall-ducts, and the hardness of their walls, has caused
death, by mechanical pressure, on a great part of the tissue of the
liver and rendered it useless ; but it is easily explained by the
circumstance that when the Distoma are present in great numbers,
they close up the ductus choledochus almost hermetically, so that
the bile behind them and in the gall-bladder is kept back. To
sum up the symptoms here described in a few words, we must
regard as the first consequences of Distoma in the liver, dilatation
and catarrh of the gall- ducts, and destruction by pressure and
disappearance of large portions of the parenchyma of the liver in
the vicinity of the enlarged gall-ducts.

Further consequences of these morbid circumstances are,
although perhaps rarely and only temporarily, icteric phenomena,
which, however, quickly disappear after the removal of the
stoppage in the efferent biliary duct. Whether actual symptoms
of incarceration, such as we find with tightly wedged gall-
stones, may occur in consequence of the passage of the worms

DISTOMA HEPATICUM. 265

through the ductus choledochus and during the time of the resi-
dence of the Distoma in this canal, at least at the commencement
and when the first Distoma are about to pass outwards, and then
only temporarily and with a rapid change, we have no exact
reports or observations on the sheep, and certainly none as to the
human subject.

Towards the periphery and in the finest gall-ducts the eggs of
the Distoma often collect in quantities ; they appear half dried,
form a greasy but granular mass, and are capable of effecting a
total obliteration of the gall-ducts attacked. In particular places
we find a biliary deposit upon or surrounding the isolated eggs ;
this is the first attempt of nature to make use of these eggs as
the nucleus of future biliary concretions. The same masses of
eggs occur in the greasy masses of the gall-bladder, and here
generally floating about freely, so that, without exaggeration, we
may speak of the occurrence of millions of eggs in such livers.
There is also no doubt that gastric symptoms of various kinds will
occur in a secondary series, and that the general nourishment
must suffer. How far permanent or temporary obstruction is
produced by the temporary retention and diminished secretion of
bile, I cannot say. It is certainly more essential that digestion
ceases from the disturbed secretion and flow of bile, whence
results a high degree of that chlorotic state, which,' according to
the statements of experienced farmers, shepherds, and veterinary
surgeons, at once characterises the animals suffering from Distoma,
by a turbidity, great want of lustre, and a rather greasy appear-
ance of the eyes, so that the above observers can detect the exis-
tence of the Distoma from the eyes. This seems, however, a
very deceptive symptom.

Diagnosis. — The local circumstances, the endemic occurrence
of Distoma in a district, the great humidity of preceding years,
and the moist soil of the meadows may perhaps, with the above-
mentioned circumstances, furnish the sheep-breeder and the
veterinarian with data for the diagnosis of the presence of
Distoma ; but for the surgeon these last-mentioned circumstances
are certainly quite valueless, and the first-mentioned ones, as they
associate themselves with other liver-complaints, are of such
doubtful significance, that it is quite impossible to found upon
them even a diagnosis of probability. There is only one possi-
bility of establishing the diagnosis of Distoma in the living

266 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

human subject ; that is, the passage of Distoma with the faeces
or matters vomited. How this is possible every one will perceive
who has seen, in the warm liver just taken out of the freshly
killed animal, the ductus choledochus stuffed full of these animals,
or who has found flukes in the intestines, on killing or dissecting
the animals in the spring, about the time of their first going to
the meadows, the occurrence of which is well known to all
observant sheep-breeders and veterinarians, and was also proved
to me by Professor Haubner. Nay, credible sheep-breeders have
assured me that they have often found these worms in the spring
upon the droppings of the sheep. The passage of the Distoma
upwards or downwards is therefore the only pathognomonic indi-
cation of their presence in an animal or individual.

As regards the prognosis the Ztooma-malady, although not
dangerous, is generally unfavorable, because at present our know-
ledge of remedies which pass to the liver and act upon the gall-
ducts is very scanty ; our knowledge of true anthelmintic remedies
is still more so ; we know nothing at all of remedies which can
reach the gall-ducts, or of any certain means of prophylaxis.
We must consequently leave everything to external circumstances,
and involuntarily throw ourselves upon the goodness of Providence.

Therapeutics. — In this case, as with the preceding worms, the
therapeutics are divisible into prophylaxis and direct treatment.

If we commence for once with the latter point, the general
laws of therapeutics will show that, after the detection of the
malady, calomel must be recommended, and perhaps still more
those mineral waters which appear to act upon the gall- ducts and
on the formation of gall-stones, such as Carlsbad, Marienbad,
Kissingen, and similar springs. Together with these remedies
we might have the greatest expectation from Durand's medicine
for gall-stones, the well-known mixture of oil of turpentine with
sulphuric ether, on account of the turpentine, that chief remedy for
worms. Experiments with santonine were made without result
in a sheep-fold, the proprietor of which is an extremely intelligent
agriculturist. By the administration of gypsum it was thought
that the disorder was cured, at least the sheep became less chlorotic,
more vigorous, fresher in appearance, and better in appetite.
For my part I regard the action of the gypsum only as sympto-
matic. The worms were probably but little touched by it, and
the beneficial effect of the process probably lay in the improve-

DISTOMA HEPATICUM. 2G7

ment of the secondary, chlorotic symptoms by the salt of lime.
Another experiment was made in the same sheep-fold by lining
the troughs with lamp-black. The result was unsatisfactory.

Lastly, upon my recommendation, the principal remedy of
Durand's mixture, turpentine, was administered to several sheep,
and followed by a purgative. The result of the remedy, which
has long been in high esteem amongst sheep-breeders, upon the
sheep set apart for the experiment, was still unsatisfactory, pro-
bably because the quantity of castor oil administered as an
aperient was too small. We have not given up the further prose-
cution of the affair, and if anything useful should be discovered
by us, we shall not omit to report upon it subsequently.

Bremser put the greatest reliance in Chabert's oil, a remedy
which has passed gradually out of use in the present day, on
account of its dangerous qualities.

The most important thing to obtain would be a rational
prophylaxis, founded upon the developmental history and mode of
life of these Distoma. As we are here acquainted only with
general outlines, and our knowledge of the details with regard
to the different species is still deficient, we will first of all give a
brief summary of the general subject according to Steenstrup,
De Filippi, G. Wagener, &c.

From the eggs of the Distoma, which usually escape externally,
there issues either an infusorial ciliated embryo, which swims
about for a time and becomes converted by a change of skin
into a nurse (grand-nurse, Steenstrup), or, according to G.
Wagener's investigations, the nurse (grand-nurse) itself. These
nurses (grand -nurses, Steenstrup) are often completely organized
animals (Redia, De Filippi), possessing a mouth, an intes-
tine resembling a csecal tube, and a single or double opening
for the exclusion of the young, or they are simple, oval, or
elongated sacs without any traces of internal organization and
without motion (the Gf6rc«n#-sacs of the older writers). In the
interior of these Redice or Cercaria-sa.es, but not by external
gemmation, the young Trematoda are now produced from the
germ-granules existing there ; these are rarely destitute of a tail
(for example, Distomum holostomum, Von Siebold), usually possess
a tail-like caudal appendage, sometimes cleft, which enables them
to swim about in the water, but which they lose on immigration.
The Trematoda, which are furnished with a tail (Cercaria), must
first pass through a multifarious metamorphosis ; penetrating from

268 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

•without through the skin into other animals (especially aquatic
mollusca and insects, and perhaps also other higher animals which
occasionally visit standing water), so as to get from thence into
higher animals, where the Trematoda finally become mature.
The account to be given hereafter of Distomum hepaticum in the
sole of a man's foot, makes it appear very probable that even
D. hepaticum is one of those species which pass through a Cercaria-
form and bore through the skin of other creatures with loss of
the tail. However, I do not hesitate to call the specimen of
D. hepaticum here referred to aft individual which had got into
an unsuitable place. The second tailless form of the young
Trematoda above mentioned appears to get at once, and whilst
enclosed in the nurse, into the intestine of higher animals with-
out any active migration. Although, up to the year 1855 there was
no certain evidence of the mode of transformation of these young
Trematoda, yet, after the great discovery of Steenstrup, it was not
difficult to conjecture that sheep, rabbits, men, &c., might infect
themselves with D. hepaticum by their devouring small mollusca
inhabited by the brood of the Distomum in question, which were
living upon the grass of the meadows, or by swallowing small
aquatic mollusca, or free broods of Distomum, when drinking
from stagnant, marshy waters. As a matter of course, the pos-
sibility of this mode of infection was stated openly by public
teachers of the veterinary art and of zoology, and also by myself
in lectures to the agricultural societies of my native country,
although I received epistolary correction for this idea from one
of the first German helminthologists. But the priority could not
have been ascribed to any one but Steenstrup himself; and neither
Leuckart, Haubner, nor myself, nor others will claim any priority
in this respect. According to Gerlach, the eggs of D. hepaticum
were administered to lambs without result, and from this, it
appeared clearly that a further development of the eggs of
Distoma passing out with the dung of the sheep, exterior to the
body of the sheep, is necessary.

An essential proof of the truth of these views regarding the
production of D. hepaticum has been furnished by De la Yalette
St. George. In his Inaugural Dissertation, which is adorned
with two admirably executed plates and is entitled ' Symbolse ad
Trematodum evolutionis historian! ' (Berlin, 1855), De la Valette
enlarges upon the developmental history of the Trematoda. In
the embryos of a Distomum from the intestine of Sterna Cantiana,

DJSTOMA HEPATICUM. 269

which are furnished with cilia, but at the same time also with a
mouth and the commencement of a ventral sucker, we may, just as
in the similar embryos of Aspidogasta conchicola described by
Aubert, find an example of the form above described, which, like
the tailless young Distoma enclosed in the nurse, pass directly
and without any active migration into the mature form, when
they are introduced into other animals. We must not, however,
allow ourselves to be misled into regarding embryos formed in
this way as being always young Distoma which become converted
directly into the mature form ; they may also be nothing but the
earliest stages of the Redice, and this circumstance must be well
borne in mind. That D. hepaticum bears a brood of this kind
certainly does not appear to me impossible, according to the
observations hitherto made, but it is very improbable, and, in
accordance with the results given above, I regard it as most
probable that the young brood of D. hepaticum possess a tail.

When De la Valette set about administering the tailed, free-
living forms, that is to say the Cercariae, the result of a meta-
morphosis of these forms into mature Distoma did not occur.
He then directed his attention to the forms originating from the
Cercarice just referred to, which are enclosed in cysts, and although
still asexual, are already in other respects somewhat further
developed. Such enclosed young Trematoda are found partly in
the bodies of mollusca and aquatic insects, and perhaps also —
if we may draw conclusions, per analogiam, from the Monostoma
to the brood of Distoma — partly free in the water. At least, De
la Valette saw, under his own eyes, young Monostoma free in
the water surround themselves with a cyst, certainly by the
solidification of a fluid secreted by the Distomum.

The further development of such enclosed Cercarice, when they
have reached the stomach of an animal, takes place in the follow-
ing way : The Cercaria, which has become converted into a
young Distomum} escapes from the cyst with either the head or
the tail foremost. The nucleated cells of the Cercaria have
already disappeared ; in the armed species the hooks are seen
distinctly, and in all we see particular systems, such as the
system of excretory vessels and the ciliary vessels with thin
hyaline globules. The contractile sac of the excretory system
is elongated ; the foundations of the testes and germ-stock make
their appearance. When administered in this state, the young
Distoma are quickly provided with germ-stock, testes, and ovaries ;

270 ANIMAL PARASITES.

the excretory organ, which is filled with globules, emits regular
transverse branches over the sucking disc.

In order to determine the mutual relations of the Cercarice,
enclosed and tailless Cercaricp (young trematode larvse), and
mature Trematoda, we have as data, as in the Cestoidea, in the
armed species the spinous ring and the anterior part of the head,
in the unarmed the simple boring spine in the same spot and
the dilatation of the intestine. According to De la Valette's ex-
periments, it is certain that the Cercaria echini/era is converted,
very rapidly in the intestine <Jf warm-blooded animals, and
slowly in cold-blooded species, into D. echini/era (Val.) ; that Cere,
flava of the Ephemera becomes transformed into Monostomum
flavum of the finches and sparrows ; but that C. echinata is con-
verted into D. echinata Anatis Boschadis (Zeder.)

From these experiments we also see, when we run through the
animals experimented upon by De la Valette, which are partly
cold-blooded, and partly warm-blooded animals (e. g. Coluber
natr'ix, Rana temporaria, Fringilla domestica and F. montana,
Columba domestica, and Lepus cuniculus), that the diffusion of the
Trematoda in the animal kingdom is by no means confined within
such narrow limits as that of the Cestoidea.

If we apply what has thus been established by experiment, per
analogiam to Distomum hepaticum, the following may appear to be
most probable with regard to the mode in which the Distoma
reach the liver of man, and domestic animals of the classes
Herbivora and Omnivora. Although it is still unknown to us
how the embryo becomes metamorphosed, and into what Cercaria-
sacs or Redia it is converted, and where these Cercaria-sacs or
Redice live ; although we do not know whether the brood of D.
hepaticum is tailed or tailless, and where it encysts itself, whether
free in the water in the manner of Monostomum, in aquatic mol-
lusca or insects, or in higher animals which occasionally visit
stagnant waters — yet there is much probability that the herbivorous
or omnivorous domestic mammalia infect themselves with free
encysted young Distoma either by devouring snails which adhere
to the grass of the meadows, especially in moist pastures, or by
drinking from impure, stagnant waters (marsh or pond water).
Exactly the same thing would then take place in man, by means
of snails adhering to salad, fallen fruits, radishes, turnips, and
other roots. Nay, such small snails might even be introduced
with dry fodder into the stomachs of our domestic animals during

DISTOMUM HEPATICUM. 271

the winter, by their eating the small species passing their winter
sleep in their closed shells or the shell-less slugs adhering to roots
protected from frost in warm cavities or cellars. Whether the
production of D. hepaticum in the human liver may take place by
drinking impure water, must remain quite undecided. The find-
ing of a young Distomum in the sole of a woman's foot appears
to be in favour of an immigration, and a mode of existence
similar to the Cercariae.

For the benefit of those who may wish to trace the mode
of production of D. hepaticum more closely by experiment, I
may remark that De la Valette found no trematode brood in
Limn&us auricularis, Planorbis carinatus, Cyclas cornea, Succinea
amphibia, Helix pomatia, Limax agrestis, Anodonta anatina, My-
tilus polymorphic, and in the bivalve mollusca about Heligoland ;
but met with them in Paludina vivipara, P. impura, Limnaus
stagnalis, and Planorbis corneus.

1 b. Distomum hepaticum, juvenile, immaturum sub cute humana.

In No. 45 of the ' Mittheilungen der Naturforschenden Gesell-
schaft in Zurich/ 1850, Bd. ii, pp. 89 et seq., Giesker and Frey
report that the former was consulted, on the 20th December, 1848,
about the wife of an overseer in a silk-factory near Zurich. Since
the middle of August, a surgeon had been treating this woman
for an inflammation in the middle of the sole of the right foot.
A somewhat elevated swelling, usually about 1 — 1J" in diameter,
had made its appearance, sometimes towards the outer, sometimes
towards the inner edge of the foot, and this, without ever breaking,
usually disappeared again in six to eight days. Nevertheless, the
middle of the sole always continued somewhat swollen and pain-
ful, so that the woman could only tread upon the point of the
foot, and was hindered in her occupations. All attempts to
cause the separation or breaking of the tumour were vain.
In December, 1848, the sole of the foot presented a pale-red
swelling, which extended from the inner side of the calcaneus
obliquely outwards to the metatarsal bone of the little toe, but
which could not be in connection with the bones, the periosteum,
or the muscles of the sole of the foot, as the toes were perfectly
moveable. It was situated rather in the areolar tissue, beneath
the fascia plantaris, was not painful to the touch, yielded longitu-
dinally, and appeared to belong to a deep-seated hollow passage.

272 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

There was no fluctuation. A little above the margin of the foot,
directly under the malleolus internus, there was also a circular,
slightly elevated swelling, of an inch in diameter, exhibiting a
pseudo-erysipelatous redness. Upon this there was a small black-
ish-red spot, somewhat larger than is seen on the inflamed stings
of bees and other insects. No opening could be detected in the
epidermis. No splinters of wood, nails, or fragments of glass
had entered the foot. From the outside of the ankle the swelling
had gradually extended over the lower part of the leg and the
sole of the foot.

Dr. Giesker considered that the disorder originated from a
foreign body, which would be separated by the occasional inflam-
mation of the edge of the foot. He therefore opened the
swelling by an incision in the inner edge of the foot, and then
observed that the black spot in the centre of the swelling led to
a small canal, which was in connection with a larger one in the
sole of the foot. This, which corresponded with the position of
the second swelling, was also opened. It ran under the
fascia plantaris, between this and the flexors of the toes, termi-
nated in a csecal extremity at the ball of the little toe, and con-
tained no pus, or other foreign body, but only coagulated blood,
and separated, discoloured areolar tissue. After the bleeding
was stopped, lint was introduced into the wound, and the bandage
was left without being renewed for eight days. On the removal
of the bandages for the first time, and the application of strong
pressure from below, a worm-like animal, which moved in water,
issued with the pus. The house-surgeon regarded this as an
illusion, and took hold of a second similar body, and unfortunately
crushed it between his fingers, supposing it to be areolar tissue.
On the llth of February the cure was completed.

The animal could not have been introduced into the diseased
spot by the lint of the bandage. Everything indicates that the
animal had been in the body long before the opening of the
swelling, and that it had produced the passage and the varying
inflammation. The animal was recognised as a young D. hepati-
cum, of six lines in length, by Frey, and also by Von Siebold.
It is most probable that it had penetrated directly in the form
of a Cercaria into the sole of the foot. The woman may have
given opportunity for this by washing linen in the more stagnant
parts of the Lake of Zurich, or by bathing her feet or her whole
person iu the lake.

DISTOMA LANCEOLATUM. 273

2. Distoma lanceolatum (Mehlis).
PI. V, figs. 11, 12.

Corpus laevi, lanceolatum, pldnum aliquid pellucidum, aut ovulis
flavofuscum, 4*5 — 12 millim. seu 2 — 6/x/ longum, 2 ad 2'2 millim.
aut 1 — 2'" latum in anteriore parte tenuius, acetabulo finitum,
in posterior -e aliquid obtusum. Collum continuum, conicum, planum,
longius, quam in D. hepatico. Os fere terminate, globosum, 0'48
mill, latum, acetabulum orbicular e, 0*48 mill, latum, 1*1 mill, pone
os situm, ore majus. (Esophagus 0'48 mill, longus, bulbus oeso-
phagi (HO mill, latus ; intestinum bifurcatum, rectum, simplex,
non amplius ramificatum, 0*04 mill, latum.

Genitalia inter os et acetabulum ventrale sese aperientia, inter in-
testini bifurcationem sita,

Vesica seminalis exterior = cirrhus claviformis ; funiculus sper-
maticus flexuosus ; penis longus, cylindricus, plerumque rectus ;
testiculi 2 majores et tertius minor vesicam seminalem inter nam
exhibens ; unus pone alterum et pone acetabulum ventrale siti, vix
lobati. Organa vitellina multo minor a, quam in D. hepatico,
albida, lateralia, ramificata, 1 — 1^ mill, longa, in ovarium et uterum
intrantia, longiora quam in Dist. hepatico et tenuiora, sed colore
obscuriore prtedita, multifarie voluta. Ovulo multo minora, quam
in Dist. hepatico, 0-041 mill. = 0'018'" Par. = 0-0185'" Vienna
longa et 0*0246 mill. = Q'OIQ&" Par. = 0'QlI'" Vienna lata, sed in
statu maturo multo obscuriora quam in D. hepatico et nigro-rubra.

Systema excretorium : Vasa lateralia, ad collum usque promi-
nentia, ibique recurrentia et intumescentid minore, ad animalis
apicem sit a, finita.

This parasite was seen in the human subject by Bucholz (vide
supra], and apparently by Chabert and Mehlis (vide supra, under
D. hepaticum), unless, as already remarked, Mehlis's case was a
mystification of the surgeon.

After the above we have but little of a general nature to add.
The animals are narrow and elongated, and are particularly dis-
tinguished by the long neck, by the want of any spiuous coat,
and by the female sexual organs especially occupying the abdo-
men, and the testicles the anterior part of the body. This last
circumstance alone should have been sufficient to separate
this species from D. hepaticum, and to prevent their being

274 ANIMAL PARASITES.

regarded as young individuals of that species. I shall speak a
word as to the necessity for the separation of the two animals.
Whoever compares the annexed figures, and also takes the
trouble to examine young D. hepaticum of about the same size
as D. lanceolatum, will be convinced that Schaeffer, Rudolphi
in his earlier works, and Mehlis were right in establishing two dis-
tinct species, and that Goeze, Bloch, Zeder, Bremser, and Rudolphi
at a later period, were quite in the wrong in regarding D. lan-
ceolatum as a young D. hepaticum.

As to the structure of the -separate parts of the Distoma,
there is still the following to be said. The buccal sucker is
much larger in proportion than that of D. hepaticum. Ac-
cording to Walter (Siebold and Kolliker's ( Zeitschr./ viii), the
long, tortuous efferent ducts of peculiar glands, which are some-
times isolated, sometimes united, permeate the buccal sucker on
its outer wall, and open in this way in its innermost wall. These
efferent ducts, which carry the finely granular contents of the
glands towards the buccal sucker, with distinctly visible lively
movements, serve as the efferent canals of the glands which act
as salivary organs. The pharynx, which in D. hepaticum forms
a sort of cup in very good proportion to the size of the buccal
sucker, is very small and globular in D. lanceolatum. The
round pharynx is followed by a short common oesophagus, and at
the level of the apex of the sac of the penis there commences a
bifurcation of this intestinal canal, which runs simply and without
any ramifications on each side at the sides of the uterus, nearly
to the hinder extremity of the latter, where it terminates in a
C8ecal and somewhat clavate end. Its contents are a dark,
finely granular, molecular mass. As nutriment, this parasite
makes use of the bile from the finer gall-ducts, but also, perhaps,
the blood which circulates in the walls of those vessels, as I have
seen most of the gall-ducts inhabited by this Distomum filled
with thinly fluid contents of a blood-red colour.

The testicles lie one behind the other, and in the anterior part
of the animal, immediately behind the ventral sucker. They are
lobed by lateral indentations; the anterior one is smaller than
the posterior, and each has a funiculus spermaticus which opens
anteriorly into the penis-sac. Immediately behind the larger
posterior testicle, and about at the level of the point of union of
the yelk-sacs, lies a very small retort-shaped body, bent back-
wards, with an efferent duct opening posteriorly, which appears

DLSTOMA LANCEOLATUM. 275

to lead nearly up to an organ which may represent the germ-stock
of the Trematoda.

The female genitalia consist of a pair of very small dendritic
yelk-sacs, placed at the sides of the animal, in the middle of its
length, and united by a straight branch running transversely
across the animal. Immediately behind this point of junction
lies an organ with clear, white, globular structures, which may
be the germ-stock. It is probable that the spermatozoa coming
from the internal seminal vesicle, the vitelline bodies, and germ-
cells here meet together, for behind this spot we soon meet with
the true eggs in course of formation. These structures occur in
the convolutions of a very long oviduct, which is repeatedly
twisted into loops, and which passes directly into the uterus.
The further these convolutions pass backwards, the yellower they
become, until at last they are quite of a dark yellow colour when
they arrive in the neighbourhood of the caudal extremity of the
animal. From this point the loops turn back again, and continue
forming loops in the same way as before, often covering the loops
of the first series, either entirely or partially. When this con-
voluted tube has returned about half its way forwards, the eggs
acquire a dark-brown colour, and these brown convolutions are
seen to pass up to the level of the anterior extremities of the two
yelk-sacs, and at last end in a very long vagina, which is at first
convoluted, but afterwards runs straight, and opens, with the
penis, on the anterior margin of the ventral sucker. In the full
condition it is very easy to detect this last circumstance.

The system of excretory vessels consists of a pair of longi-
tudinal canals, which run quite at the sides of the animal,
reaching in front nearly to the pharynx, where they bend round,
and become thicker posteriorly to their extremities. At the
apex of the abdomen these two stems open into a common
dilated portion, and allow their contents to escape through a
cleft opening in the middle of the abdomen of the Distoma.
This canal is often seen produced externally in the form of a
bell, and only then opening.

The pathological anatomy is much less characteristic than in
the case of D. hepaticum. There are properly no perceptible
great injuries to the liver. The diagnosis is only possible when
the worms pass of; the prognosis is better than with D. hepa-
ticum ; the etiology is unknown ; and the therapeutics are the
same as with D. hepaticum.

276 ANIMAL PA11ASJTES.

3. Distomum heterophyes (Von Siebold). Found by Bilharz.
PI. IV, figs. 11, 12.

Descriptio : Dist. heter., hermaphroditum.

Corpus ovato-oblongum, depressum, subtus planum, supra leviter
convexum. Acetabulum oris subapicale, infundibuliforme, parvum.
Acetabulum ventrale paululum ante medium situm, magnum (acetabu-
lum oris decies et ultra super ans}?globosum. Pharynx muscularis,
globosa; canalis cibarius ante acetabulum ventrale in 2 partes caecas
divisus. Cirrhus post acetabulum ventrale situs, et oblique cum
sinislra ejus parte coalitus, globosus, acetabuliformis, circulo incom-
pleto setarum 72 minutissimarum, ramulis 5 secundis instructarum
coronatus, testiculis organoque germinifero globosis. Longitudine
1— r"j loot.*?".

Patria : JEgyptus ; in hominis intestino tenui bis repertum,
numero permagno.

On the 26tli of April, 1851, and once subsequently, Bilharz
found a great number of small red points in the intestine of a boy.
These were small Distoma, with mature, reddish-brown eggs
shining through them. The Distomum is oval, obtuse behind,
more acute in front. The buccal sucker is small and funnel-
shaped, and opens rather towards the lower surface than ante-
riorly. Behind it commences the short, narrow, membranous
oesophagus, which is followed by an oblong muscular pharynx,
and then by a narrow cibarian canal, which divides as usual, in
front of the ventral sucker, into two lateral intestinal tubes,
terminating in csecal extremities in the hinder part of the body.
The muscular ventral sucker lies before the middle of the belly,
and is twelve times as large as the buccal sucker. Behind this
lies the penis-sac, which is itself not unlike a sucking disc upon
superficial examination, and exhibits on its surface a circle of
seventy-two small, peculiarly formed horny filaments (analogous
to the fish-basket-like horny ribs of the penis-sac of Polystomum
and Octobothrium} Von Sieb.), which present towards the sides
five small branches of equal length, placed one behind the other,
and set on at an acute angle. At the spot where the penis-
sac is coalescent with the ventral sucker, the horny filaments
are wanting. In the hinder end of the body lie the two roundish

DISTOMUM H^EMATOBIUM. 277

testicles ; between these and the penis-sac the small, round
germ- stock, and behind this a blind sac (vesicula seminalis
inferior) in which a lively spermatozoid-swarming could be
detected. In the midst of these organs lie the oviducts in many
convolutions, and externally, quite at the sides of the body, the
branched yelk-sacs. The excretory organ also opens here in the
middle of the abdomen, and evacuates the well-known charac-
teristic corpuscles. The skin is beset with small spines directed
backwards, which are particularly numerous and distinct in front.

Bilharz collected some hundreds of this Distomum in one
case, and still left a great number in the body. Its influence
upon the animal economy is unknown.

Therapeutics. — Where the existence of these animals is
ascertained, from specimens passing off with the faeces, I consider
it would be advisable to expel them with the ordinary anthel-
mintics (see the treatment of Tanice and of Ascaris lumbri-
coides}. Castor oil with oil of turpentine, and calomel alone or
with jalap, are particularly to be recommended.

The following two Distoma live in closed cavities or organs.

4. Distomum hamatobium (Bilharz).
Plate VI, figs. 1—13.

Descriptio vermis secundum Bilharz.

Distomum hcematobium, sexu distinct o.

Maris corpus molle, albidum, filiforme, parte anteriore totius
longitudinis octava vel nona (" trunco") depressa, lanceolata, subtus
plana vel concava, supra leviter convexa3 superficie l&vi, reliqua
corporis parte (" cauda") terete, margine corporis ab acetabulo
ventrali retro utrinque versus faciem ventralem conflexo, eoque
modo canalem " gyncecophorum" efficiente, apice postico, attenuate
superficie externa tuberculi spiligeris conferta, superficie canalis
interiore linea mediana laevi et partibus lateralibus aculeis minu-
tissimis scabra. Acetabulum oris apicale subinferum, triangulare.
Acetabulum ventrale sub finem f(trunci}) insertum, orbiculare
eadem magnitudine cum acetabulo oris. Superficies utiiusque
acetabuli granulis crebris minutissimis scabra. Canalis cibarius sine
pharynge musculari ante acetabulum ventrale in 2 paries divisus, in

278 ANIMAL PAEASTTES.

posteriore '* caudce" parte denuo unitus, ccecus. Porus genitalis
inter acetabulum ventrale et canalis " gynaecophori" oriyinem
situs.

FemincE forma dissimilis, tenerrima, gracillima ; corpus teenies-
forme, Iceve, hyalinum, antice sensim valde attenuatum, cauda canali
nullo apice angustata. Acetabula et canalis cibarms, ut in mare.
Porus genitalis cum margine posteriore acetabuli ventralis coatitus.

Longit. 3 — 4 tin. ; mas feminam latitudine multo superans.

Patria : ^Egyptus in hominis vena portarum ejusque ramifica-
tionibus et in vesicce urinarice parietibus. In venis meseraicis
reperiuntur mares feminam in canali gyncecophoro gerentes, in venis
intestinalibus et hepatitis, in vena lienali semper vidui.

On the 1st of May, 1851, and still further subsequently,
Bilharz wrote to Von Siebold, stating that he had found in the
blood of the portal vein a new, white, elongated entozoon, re-
sembling a nematoid worm when examined with the naked
eye, which was a Distomum with a flat body and a cylindrical
tail ten times as long as the body. This tail was no loosely
attached, deciduous portion of the body, as in the Cercarice, but a
continuation of the substance of the body of the worm itself,
which was flat and rolled round towards the ventral surface, at the
sides forming a semi-canal, and somewhat sinuated at the apex,
and into which the bifurcated csecal intestine, which contained
blood-corpuscles throughout its whole extent, passed very dis-
tinctly. In the veins of the uninjured mesentery, when held up
to the light, specimens of the worm were soon found, which
harboured a gray filament, moving to and fro, in the furrow of
their tails. This filament resembled the animal first described in
form, only much more delicate and fine ; its posterior extremity,
however, was not rolled into a canal, but band-like and complete,
inclosed by the above-mentioned furrow of the other animal like
a sword in its sheath, but in such a manner that it could easily
be drawn out of this furrow. The first animal was now clearly
recognised as the male, and the second as the female.

Besides the structure already described, the male presents the
following peculiarities : It has a smooth, soft skin on the
anterior part of the body, and its tail is sprinkled with numerous
small tubercles beset with short hairs. Each of the two sucking
discs is beset with innumerable, extremely small, apparently flat
granules, as is also the inner coat of the canalis gyncecophorus ;

DISTOMUM H^EMATOBIUM. 279

these, however, appear to be little projections which give these
spots the appearance of a shagreened surface. The middle line
of the canal is free from these granules.

The male sexual organs lie between the body and tail, behind
the ventral sucker. Here, where the two lateral margins double
downwards to form the canal, 5 — 6 roundish or oval organs are
perceptible, of which the 4 — 5 posterior are testicles, and closely
filled with delicate cells, whilst the foremost has transparent con-
tents ; its walls also exhibit double outlines, and pass in front and
beneath into an efferent duct, which opens freely externally, with
prominent lips.

Bilharz detected no swarming of spermatozoa.

With regard to the penis we know nothing, and it is also
unknown to us whether those asperities and granules occur only,
or in particular abundance, in those males which are embracing
their females, or whether they are only found in places where we
meet with sexually united animals.

Description of the female. — The intestine, which is forked
before the ventral sucker, unites again posteriorly in the female
to form a large grayish-brown tubular sac, which winds about
down the middle line of the abdomen, and terminates in a caecal
extremity a little way from the end of the tail. This simple
portion of the intestine is surrounded on both sides up to its
furcate division by ramifications of the yelk-sacs, which at that
point unite into a single efferent duct. Here also lies the
germigenous organ with its delicate cells, which occur in the
other Trematoda, and from this a long, thin-walled oviduct, of
nearly equal diameter throughout, runs forward between the two
branches of the intestine ; it contains perfect eggs furnished with
germinal vesicles and shells, and opens at the hinder margin of
the ventral sucker.

Eygs. — These are oval, strongly pointed towards one end,
which is always directed backwards in the uterus and oviduct,
and they occur in great quantities, and in every possible degree
of development. They have generally a delicate, thin membrane,
to which, as already observed, a pointed process is attached, and
they contain in their interior a transparent mass without distinct
outlines, but furnished with variously grouped small granules.
These eggs were found, as we shall shortly see, in the action of the
parasite upon the human subject, deposited in great masses, and
quite in heaps, on various parts of the inner surface of the intes-

280 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

tines and bladder ; part of them were opaque, and filled with yelk-
mass ; in part the embryo shone through the yelk-mass, which
was for the most part absorbed ; and part of them contained,
together with a few yelk-corpuscles, mature embryos contracted
into a globular form, or extended and elongated, moving in every
direction, or even in the act of bursting the egg-shell. In
the latter case they extended themselves in length, and with a
strong jerk ruptured the egg-shell towards the side, which always
took place with a longitudinal slit under the inspection of Bilharz,
although he also met with egg-shells which were slit transversely
and obliquely. The vitelline membrane was torn at the same
time, and the little animal escaping, according to Bilharz,
with its hinder end first, began to work slowly with its ciliary
coat, and endeavoured to free itself from the egg by lively move-
ments in all directions, which often occupied a considerable time.
The little animal, after its escape, had a longish cylindrical form,
thicker in front and obliquely conical behind ; at the anterior end
was a proboscidiform projection, with a sucker-like impression,
and over the whole body a ciliary coat, by the aid of which it
moved, revolving in the water, and alternately extending and con-
tracting itself. Through mucus, egg-masses, &c., it crept in the
manner of a worm. In the anterior end of the body two pyriform
corpuscles were seen lying close together, from each of which a
thin stalk ran to the proboscis ; in the hinder part were numerous,
small, globular bodies. No reception of nourishment took place.
After remaining for about an hour in water, the animal ac-
quired superficial vesicular (mulberry-shaped) projections, lost
its power of motion, and became dissolved.

The next step in development was seen by Bilharz in 1851,
but not further comprehended or indicated. The best de-
scription and figure is due to Griesinger, whose memoirs I
make use of here, arid on which I shall also depend in the patho-
logical portion.

The further development of the above-mentioned, infusorial
embryos, is as follows :

Griesinger and Bilharz often found, in the midst of the cal-
cified eggs which had allowed their embryos to escape (— egg-
shells), deposited in various parts of the liver and of the mucous
membranes, peculiar, husk-like, doubly compressed, or round,
bi-convex, sharp-edged, lougish, brownish-yellow bodies, furnished
with a toothed excrescence, which were of the same size as the

DISTOMUM ILEMATOBIUM. 231

eggs. These were also found by Bilharz, bat only once, in the
interior of the oviduct of the female, the further course of which
contained ordinary eggs. The excrescence was conical, and
placed on one side, near to the more obtuse extremity, and
was situated on the above-described sharp margin. In these
structures, in which Bilharz only found a few small bodies accu-
mulated towards the process, Griesinger discovered living crea-
tures on the 29th of March, 1852. These moved by contractions
and extensions, until the thin shell, which Bilharz says was
clothed on the inside with a (vitelline) membrane, suddenly
tore, and the animal slowly crept out. For many hours it
underwent several changes of form by elongation of the neck, but
was then lost in the intestinal mucus. The figure given by
Griesinger exhibits distinct cilia, the presence of which, according
to Bilharz, at first was doubtful, until, in the summer of 1852, he
also recognised the same cilia distinctly. According to the latter,
these embryos were in nowise distinguishable from the true embryos
already mentioned. Griesinger also saw similar animals living
free in the intestine. On the addition of a large quantity of
water their movements ceased ; and, to speak zoologically, they
gradually acquired a different form, with escape of sarcode
globules or drops. Once Bilharz observed positively, that a
body of this kind, furnished with a process, reached the interior
of a vessel.

Bilharz now thinks, according to his last communications, that
these capsules which occur in the liver, in the mucous membrane
of the bladder, and in the ureters, remain after the evacuation of
their embryos, becoming partly enveloped by calcareous deposits,
and partly filled with calcareous matter, in the same way as the
empty egg-shells themselves, and give rise to the process shortly
to be described. According to Bilharz, however, when situated
upon the mucous membrane of the intestine they are much
more completely got rid of.

In explanation of these structures, to which Griesinger
paid particular attention, Bilharz expressed himself pretty de-
cidedly in the appendix to his first communications, to the effect
that they are not true eggs, although he once found one of these
capsules furnished with a spine quite in the anterior part of the
oviduct of a female, but probably a higher grade of development,
such as a sort of pupa-case of the animal already escaped from
the egg. Subsequently he thought that these capsules pro-

282 ANIMAL PAEASTTES.

vided with a spine formed the envelopes of the embryos in the
act of migrating out of the human body, and that this structure
in the oviduct had only passed through its metamorphosis at an
abnormally early period. Finally, Bilharz expresses the opinion
that these capsules cannot be destined to protect the embryos in
their outward migration, as they, (but never true eggs,) were
found in many places in the tissue of the mucous membrane,
and that they remain fixed in the tissue and become calcified,
just like the empty shells of the true eggs. If we combine all
this, we see at once that Bilharz* is not in a position to explain
the signification and importance of these structures. We shall
not be any more successful. The only thing which might,
perhaps, give us data for an explanation, is a comparative
glance at the class Infusoria. That the embryos of the Tre-
matoda, and especially those of our Distomum, resemble Infusoria
is well known. That the Infusoria are not only subject to a
change of skin (Ehrenberg), but also to a simple encysting process,
is known to us from the works of Stein and Cienkowsky, only to
mention one or two; and we even know from Guanzati that such
an encysting process is necessary in certain kinds of Infusoria, if
they are to retain the faculty of returning to life after drying
upon being moistened with water, or of supporting a high degree
of cold. These circumstances are, at all events, adapted to make
us think, that as no change of skin is in question, no pupa-case
can be spoken of, but that these spinous capsules are the cases
of the embryos of Distomum formed by themselves, within which,
like the six-hooped cestode embryos in the cysts formed by
their host, they pass to a higher grade of development, and at
the same time increase in size, as we see from Griesinger's
figures. Unfortunately, however, we have now got to the end
of our knowledge of the history of the development of our
Distomum, and the question remains whether the mature Dis-
toma are at last formed by the intervention of an outward
migration, with or without an intermediate step analogous to
the Cercaria, notwithstanding the continuance of Griesinger's
last stage in the body.

Action of D. ha3matobium upon man, according to Griesinger.
— This parasite is extraordinarily abundant in Egypt, for in 363
dissections its occurrence is noted 117 times by Griesinger,
and he even thinks that the lower stages may have been over-
looked.

DISTOMUM HyEMATOBIUM. 283

Alterations of the bladder by the presence of this worm. — The
lowest degree of the disorder in the mucous membrane of the
bladder is presented by the more or less circumscribed spots,
upon which is observed strong hypersemia, much bloody ex-
travasation, swelling and inflation of the mucous membrane, or
tenacious mucous, grayish-yellow masses of exudation in which
the eggs are imbedded. There are generally only small spots
varying in size from a lentil to that of a shilling, especially on the
hinder wall of the bladder. It is rare that the whole inner
wall of the bladder is injected and ecchymosed. The urine is
mucous, but pale and clear, and Bilharz found eggs in the urine
passed. In subsequent stages grayish-yellow, yellowish, dis-
coloured elevations, mixed with many pigment spots, are found,
covered with a very smooth, tenacious raucous membrane, as if it
had been kept in spirits. These elevations frequently form a
soft coat, sometimes a line in thickness, mixed with bloody
extravasations, and peeling off in small fragments at the surface,
which is so firmly attached to the mucous membrane, that, in de-
taching the former, the uppermost layer of the latteris separated
with it. Sometimes the calcareous incrustations of the egg-
shells, the deposition of the salts of the urine, and the aggre-
gations of eggs give the whole a sandy texture. Very rarely this
coat covers true ulcers with loss of substance. Frequently nothing
is to be seen but dingy red, gray, or black, somewhat elevated
pigment spots, together with fresh injection and apoplexy of the
healthy mucous membrane.

All this is the consequence of the Distoma getting into the
smaller vessels, arid laying their eggs, which at last escape from the
ruptured vessels in these situations. My friend Reinhard, of
Bautzen (to whom I had transmitted a portion of the bladder
of the negro boy referred to by Griesinger and Bilharz, and
which Professor Griesinger kindly handed over to me), saw,
hanging out of a vessel accidentally opened by me, one of
these Distoma, which bore his female within him, but in other
respects allowed nothing more to be detected.

At other times we find, on the mucous membrane of the bladder,
single or aggregated excrescences or vegetations, varying from the
size of a pea to that of a bean, and of a yellowish colour, or ecchy-
mosed with blood. They are 1 — 3X// in height, verrucose, fungous,
cleft into separate points above, like cockVcomb or raspberry-like
condyloma, and narrowed or pedunculate at the base. They are

284 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

generally found in the soft, yellowish-gray, tender, crumbly, mar-
row-like, firm, pulpy, infiltrated, submucous tissues, permeated by
coagulated blood or pigment, above which there is a normal,
but thickened, mucous membrane, only deficient on particular
spots, when the submucous tissue then peels off in small pieces ;
or they are placed between the mucous and cellular membranes
in the form of a grayish-yellow layer of exudation, like fresh,
typhous, Peyerian flakes. At the base of isolated, very firm
and solid excrescences, the section shows a cellular stalk, and a
sort of radiating framework, whieh is only a continuation of the
normal submucous tissue. Between these different forms there
are all sorts of transitions. The muscular membrane of the
bladder is, at the utmost, slightly hypertrophied ; and on one
occasion only did the serous membranes and the nearest portions
of the parietal lamina of the lining membrane of the abdomen
exhibit the same darkly pigmented cock's-comb excrescences.

In the smooth-edged spaces of these excrescences, sitting in
the submucous tissue, formed by the diverticula of its vessels,
and only constituting productions of the vessels, Bilharz first
found the Distoma, and in the mucus and exudation over these
spots their eggs. We may from this conclude that the Distoma
congregate there to lay the eggs which are to be passed out.

Action of the Distoma in the ureters. — Not only the mucous
membrane of the bladder, but also that of the ureters, or the
latter alone, and in rare exceptional cases even that of the pelvis
of the kidney, is attacked by the same process. In the ureters we
then see irregular, insulated, grayish-yellow, slightly elevated
plates, with a soft, tender, firmly adherent coat, of dark urinary
gravel, sandy to the touch. This gravel is nothing but a
mixture, in molecular masses, of imbedded eggs of Distoma,
either empty or containing embryos, with blood, exudation-
corpuscles, and crystals of uric acid. Individual embryos also
occur free, but Griesinger only found these in a dead state.
In consequence of the thickening of the submucous layer, stric-
tures of the ureters, with partial or total dilatations above them,
take place, as well as retention of urine and its consequences,
especially when hypertrophy of the muscular coat occurs at the
same time. The kidneys are generally somewhat swollen and
filled with blood, and the mucous membrane of the pelvis of the
kidney injected. By long duration of the affection the kidneys
are subject to fatty degeneration. Pyelitis, and fan-like dilata-

DISTOMUM H.EMATOBIUM. 285

tion of the pelvis and calyx, with complete atrophy of the
substance of the kidney, also occur. The aggregations of eggs of
the Distoma are not unfrequently the nuclei of deposits of gravel
and stones, consisting principally of crystals of uric acid, in the
kidneys, ureters, and bladder, and thus give rise to the well-
known consequences of stone and gravel. This is the lithiasis of
the Egyptians, already described by Prosper Alpinus in his
1 Medicina Egyptiorum/

That these uropoetic disturbances have an injurious action
on the whole organism in time is a matter of course. They
lead to general illness, and finally death, which, after the
complete destruction of the constitution, usually results from
pneumonia (perhaps that kind of mechanical pneumonia indi-
cated by Virchow, in which the coagulum and similar insoluble
bodies borne along by the circulation, stop up the capillaries
of the lungs), diarrhoea, or other disorders. Inasmuch as
these animals live upon the blood, they might probably cause
chlorosis, but no case appears to Griesinger to show that the
Distoma alone could be the cause of this.

Action upon the intestinal mucous membrane. — In the large
intestine changes not unfrequently take place exactly similar to
those described in the bladder. We find apoplexy, deposits in
and upon the submucous and supra-mucous tissues, verrucose and
lobate fungous excrescences, and also the aggregations of the
eggs of the Distoma in the vessels of the mucous membrane,
where the eggs are often fixed in rows in the tissues of the
mucous and submucous membranes, in and beneath the croupous
exudations upon the intestinal ulcers, and, lastly, after the
rupture of the vessels, upon the free surface of the mucous
membrane. For a moment the thought might occur to us that
this Distoma bears the same relation to the endemic, acute, and
chronic dysenteries of the large intestine in Egypt, as the
Acarus to the itch (Bilharz) ; but Griesinger, and afterwards
with him Bilharz, convinced themselves that this is certainly a
coincidence, but a purely accidental one, standing in no relation
of cause and effect, as in very many dysenteries the Distoma are
entirely wanting.

Action upon the liver. — The entire trunk of the portal vein is
sometimes found filled with mature animals, with eggs in the
substance of the liver, and it is not impossible that the Distoma

286 ANIMAL PARASITES.

situated in these places may give rise to a tough, dry, ansematous
consistence of the liver, or perhaps even to abscesses.

Symptomatology with reference to diagnosis. — The direct indi-
cations of the disorder are to he sought in the uropoetic system,
especially in the urine itself. Causeless hsematurias are sus-
picious, especially in consumptive individuals. Perhaps the
essential hsematuria of tropical countries, such as the West
Indies and British India, are due to this cause. The diagnosis
can only be made perfectly certain during life when eggs are
found in the bloody urine, and in other evacuations, as was
done by Bilharz. Data are also furnished for the diagnosis
by the not uncommon pyelitis, or other disorders of the blad-
der, by the acute exacerbations of certain disorders of the
bladder and kidneys, as well as by an indefinite illness, with
occasional disturbances in the urinary secretion, and, in severe
cases, perhaps even enlargement of the kidneys. Frequently the
Distoma may of themselves produce a severe, acute disorder, or
catarrh of the pelvis of the kidney, accompanied by a uniform,
blackish-red hypersemia of the renal substance, without any
other change. The most usual disturbances, however, belong to
the province of chronic disturbances in the urinary system, such
as ursemia, &c. But we may also suppose a putrescent infection
of the mass of the blood in consequence of the death of Distoma
in the blood of the portal vein, or a transference of the eggs and
embryos into the most remote vessels, amongst which we may
even mention the left ventricle.

The seasons of the year appear to be not without influence
upon the frequency of the worm ; it is more abundant from June
to August, and more rare in September, October, and January,
which is, probably, connected with the quality of the food, &c.,
at different seasons.

Therapeutics.— According to Griesinger, the medical man has
to bear in mind and answer the two following questions :

1. How do the Entozoa penetrate into the body ? and what
articles of diet facilitate this ? Griesinger thinks that in
this respect three descriptions of food are particularly sus-
picious : «, the unfiltered water of the Nile ; bf the bread, grain,
and dates; and c, probably to the greatest extent, the fishes
which are used in a half-putrid state =Physich.

2. To administer anthelmintics against this disorder. These
must be of a nature to cure the complaints mentioned, and

DISTOMUM OPHTHALMOBIUM. 287

especially the chlorosis. Griesinger therefore prescribes calomel
or turpentine as a remedy, the latter especially, because it was
absorbed without alteration from the intestine, and found again in
the urine passed from the form of drops. The use of onions,
garlic, &c., would, perhaps, also be efficacious.

Possibly nothing but great hygienic regulations, which are
still a pium desiderium, will lead to a rational prophylaxis in
these cases.

The discoveries here detailed remind us that without helmin-
thological knowledge the study of the diseases of tropical and
warm climates, cannot be successfully entered upon. We may
still look for many new discoveries in this department.

5. Distomum ophthalmobium (Diesing).

PL IV, figs. 13, 14, 15.

Corpus ovato-lanceolatum depressum, variabile. Collum breve
subcylindricum. Os terminate orbiculare. Acetabulum ore i majus,
subcentrale apertura circulari. Longitud. \—~^" ; latitud. J'".
(Diesing.)

" In the eye of a child five months old, born with cataracta
lenticularis cum partiali capsules suffusione, which died from
the well-known atrophy of infants under Von Ammon's treat-
ment, Gescheidt found four specimens of Distoma between the
lens and its capsule. Even with the naked eye these animals
were recognisable as small turbid spots on the anterior wall of
the lens. The little animals, \ — g'" in length, were enveloped
by an opaque, veil-like, white mass, and presented themselves
in various positions. One specimen, which lay free and motion-
less, was rather elongated, with the sucking disc turned towards
the lower surface of the wall of the capsule. Two others had the
caudal portion contracted, and a vial-like form, and still exhibited
slight indications of vitality on dissection thirty-six hours after-
wards. Thus a cruciform figure was formed, with obtuse, rounded
angles, where the head and tail were elongated, whilst the body was
contracted and increased in its breadth. The fourth specimen
lay extended on its side; it was white, lanceolate, and motion-
less. The anterior sucking disc was about one third smaller
than the central one, semicircular, with scarcely perceptible ridge-

288 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

like^ margins and radiating fibres; the oesophagus was short and
narrow, and soon passed into the nearly uniform intestine, which
was bifurcated a little above the central sucking disc, and ran
down on each side of this towards the caudal extremity, where,
being covered by the ovaries, it could be traced no further.
The ovaries were indistinct, and their cotyledons appeared to
be arranged irregularly transversely."

Such is the account given by Gescheidt in his memoir (Von
Ammon's ' Zeitschrift/ iii, No. 4). Von Ammon, who has in
vain endeavoured to find the preparations referred to in the
Pathological Collection of the Academy of Dresden, in order to
send them to me, has represented these Distoma in his fine
work upon the congenital defects of the human eye, from which
the figures are copied. l

B. NEMATELMIA=NEMATOIDEA=THREAD-WORMS or ROUND-
WORMS.

General Part.

The worms here to be treated of were referred to by Rudolph!
as Order I, " Nematoidea ; corpore elongato, tereti, elastico ;" but
by Diesing, in his ' Systema/ as Sub-class I, Achathelmintha ;
Section n, Ach. elastica ; Order VI, Nemaloidea, and described
in the following terms : " Corpus elasticum, cavum, subcylindricum ;
tractus cibarius simplex ; caput in proboscidem hand protractile.
Endoparasita, tandem rarius extus libere vagantia"

We make use of the name NEMATELMIA here, in order to
maintain a greater uniformity for the two divisions.

Corpus teres, elasticum, scspe attenuatum, Jiliforme, ore centrali
vel subcentrali ; canalis cibarius aut distinctus, aut obsoletus, anoque
destitutus. Metamorphosis in paucissimis. Migrationes actives
aut passives in permultis.

In the human subject we meet with the mature Nematode
worms, partly in open cavities of the body furnished with mucous
membranes (intestinal canal, lungs, kidneys, &c.) ; partly in the
subcutaneous cellular tissue, with an artificial external communi-
cation ; and lastly, during their youth and in an immature state,
encysted in very various muscles, especially primitive muscular
fasciculi. The study of the individual worms belonging to this

) See Appendix B.

NEMATELMIA. 289

class has not yet advanced so far that we can undertake an
exact division of them into genera, as Dujardin and other helmin-
thologists suppose. There is no doubt that both Dujardin's
attempted division into seven sections, although this recommends
itself strongly by its simplicity, and the extraordinarily elaborate
division of Diesing, in course of time, and the more they are
worked out according to Von Siebold's views, will certainly
undergo more and more alteration. Above all, Diesing's treat-
ment of the nematode worms leaves much to be desired, whether
with regard to the indication and estimation of anatomical facts
(see, for example, the section Trichinae, in which the primordial
lines of the genitalia are certainly to be found), or to the classifi-
cation of the round-worms, and the establishment of the separate
species (compare the divisions, Gordius, the 118 species of which
are to be reduced to 3, according to Von Siebold, or Mermis, the
17 species of which are to be reduced to 2, according to the same
authority ; or the section Nematoideum hominis No. 2, which is a
Pentastomum). For these reasons I shall not adhere to a strict
classification. I shall select the names most generally employed,
and shall not observe any fixed order in the enumeration of the
particular species, but rather review them in accordance with
their dwelling-place in the human body.

The distinct presence of a digestive apparatus, divisible into
mouth, oesophagus^ stomach, intestine, and anus, the separation
of the sexes into two individuals, the certain detection of a ner-
vous system in some of them, and the apparently jointed structure
of the round worms, brings them near to the Articulata. In the
human subject we must take into consideration : I, the Tricho-
cephali and Trichina ; II, the Oxyuri ; III, the Strongyli and
Ancylostoma ; IV, the Filarice ; and V, the Ascarides.

It is not very long since it was thought that the Nematoidea
were the most accurately known of Entozoa, but now-a-days we
must admit that we have more positive knowledge of the history
of the development of the cestode worms, and even with regard
to the Trematoda possess a conjectural zoology, which has as
much if not more claim to probability than is the case with the
developmental history of most of the round worms.

The nematode worms, or at least a great part of them, appear
only to be able to reach maturity when they undertake various
immigrations and emigrations during their youth ; one species of
round- worm occurring in the human body, however, as we shall

T

290 ANIMAL PAKASITES.

soon see, must be to a certain extent capable of a migration also
in the mature state.

The migration in the young state consists in the escape out-
wards of the eggs of these worms with the human faeces, with
which they get into dungpits, cesspools, and sewers, as Richter
and Von Siebold have already stated. Here they are surrounded
with water, and have to bear the most various temperatures, but
are transferred with manure and by the rain to the fields,
meadows, and drinking-water. The tolerably hard shells of the
eggs protect the germs contained in them with the yelk from all
external injurious influences, and permit the latter, as appeared
from the investigations of Newport and Bischoff, and has now been
ascertained by Verloren and Richter, to become further developed,
and allow of the completion of the process of segmentation out
of the uterus of the worm, or they envelope the embryo which is
ready formed in the uterus of its mother on its going forth into
the external world. The latter, however, appears to be of rarer
occurrence in man, and we may, perhaps, admit that the
nematode worms occurring in the human subject rarely produce
and harbour the young in their uteri, which already resemble
their parents in external form, although they are only of a
microscopic size. This probably only occurs in the Filarice ; the
other species are mostly oviparous. I will here treat at once
of the process of the formation and development of the eggs and
seminal corpuscles in the nematode worms.

With regard to the formation of the eggs of the nematode
worms in the ovigerous tubes, particular credit is due to Bagge,
Kolliker, and, above all, to Meissner ; with regard to the formation
of the seminal corpuscles, to Nelson and Meissner; for the obser-
vation of the entrance of the latter into the vitellus, whether
through an actual micropyle of the vitelline membrane, or in
consequence of a mechanical pressure into the egg whilst still
destitute of a vitelline membrane, and the changes of the vitellus
which afterwards take place (which had been ascertained by
Barry in the mammalian ovum, and by Newport in that of the
amphibia), to Nelson, who has been violently attacked in various
ways, but with exactly the same injustice as Keber ; and, after
him, especially to Meissner, and Thompson of Glasgow, and also
to Bischoff and Leuckart; and with regard to experimental
investigations on the eggs of nematode worms in water and other
fluids, to Verloren, and, independently of him, to H. E. Richter.

DEVELOPMENT OF NEMATOIDA. 291

Even before the last-mentioned authors, some of the English
writers and Bischoff had ascertained that the segmentation of the
eggs of worms takes place and advances in various, even strong,
chemical fluids.

The literature of this subject is as follows : ' Report to the
Royal Society of London on Nelson's Memoir upon Ascaris
mystaoc, made by Thompson, in May 1851 / Bischoff, ' Wiederle-
gung des von D. Keber bei den Naiden und D. Nelson bei den
Ascariden behaupteten Eindringens der Spermatozoiden in das Ei,
Giessen 1854 / and l Bestatigung des von Dr. Newport bei den
Batrachiern und von Dr. Barry beim Kaninchen behaupteten
Eindringens der Spermatozoiden in das Ei, Giessen, 25th May,
1854/ with additions by Leuckart; Meissner, in Siebold and
Kolliker's ' Zeitschrift/ Band vi, p. 208 ; and Bischoff, in the
same journal, vi, 377 ; and, lastly, Thompson ' On the Seminal
Corpuscles, the Eggs, and the Fecundation of Ascaris mystax*
in Siebold and Kolliker' s ' Zeitschrift/ viii, p. 425, in a letter to
Kolliker.

To furnish the development of the creatures to be treated
of here in as connected a manner as possible, we shall, fol-
lowing the observers just mentioned, give a preliminary summary
of some things which properly belong to a subsequent place and
indeed to the special examination of the sexual organs.

The first foundations of the ovigerous tube of the nematode
worms are formed, according to Kolliker, by the occurrence at the
extreme apex of the future tube of a series of cells, the contiguous
walls of which become dissolved, so that their communicating
cavities gradually run together to form the ovigerous tube, which
increases by new formation of cells at its apex. The production
of the lowest parts of the ovary is unknown, according to Kolliker.
I do not know whether the large globular cells which I found
throughout the middle of the body on both sides of the intestine
in a young immature Ascaris lumbricoides of li inches in length,
are those which, gradually approaching each other, become
amalgamated to form the generative sac, this would not be
improbable from their position.

In the fully developed female organ (ovigerous tube), which
forms a long, simple, partially double or multiple tube, twisting
about the whole intestinal canal, we may distinguish, according
to Meissner, the following six parts :

1. The Germ-stock (Eierkeimstock), is the exceedingly small

292 ANIMAL PARASITES.

extreme portion of the ovary, formed only of a tunica propria
without an epithelial coat. It is analogous to the germ-partition
(Keimpach) of the insects, generally smooth on the outside, some-
times constricted at its anterior open end by a sort of delicate
sphincter (for example, in the Mermites, which are nearly allied to
the Nematoida), and dilated in the middle. In this, again, are
found the female germ-cells, cells circumscribed by the most deli-
cate lines, exactly analogous to the male germ-cells, and with a
vesicular nucleus and nucleolar corpuscles (see these structures
further on). The nucleus divide? into daughter- nuclei (nucleolar
vesicles), and these again into 8, 10, or more nuclei (new nucleolar
vesicles), which, becoming affixed to the walls, each push out the
walls of the germ-cell individually. These projections constantly
become more independent, and grow into daughter-cells, which
represent the young ova with their nuclei, daughter-nuclei, and
germinal vesicles in which the germinal spot is afterwards
developed, but always remain in open communication with the
mother-cell until the maturity of the contents, the yelk ; they
then become pyriform and provided with a stem, which, forming
an open canal, connects the lateral cells with the mother-cell.
As soon as they begin to fill with yelk, they are called egg-
racemes (Eiertrauberi).

According to this view of Meissner, therefore, the germinal
vesicles are formed several together, in separate mother-cells
by endogenous increase. At the same time the mother-cells
become converted, by a sort of bud-formation, into a group
of smaller cells, each of which possesses a germinal vesicle and a
separate membrane (a rudimentary egg). These young are also
united by a peduncle to the remains of the original mother-cell ;
but the remains of the mother-vesicle, always lying in the centre
of the ovigerous canal, as in the Gordiacei and also in the Asca-
rides, form a central axis, which is often very distinct (but some-
times indistinct), and around which the ova themselves are
arranged like radii.

Neither Bischoff, nor Nelson, nor Thompson, can coincide with
this view, and Thompson especially objects, certainly not unjustly,
that Meissner has been too quick in extending his observations
on the Gordiacei to the other nematode worms. The above-
mentioned observers never found a union of the eggs in groups,
for example in Ascaris mystax. The germinal vesicles were
always free in a granular fluid, which gradually collected round

GENERATIVE ORGANS OF NEMATOIDA. 293

each of them, without the individual formations ever being united
in any way by a solid axis. They do not yet possess a vitelline
membrane, as this only makes its appearance after fecundation.
The above-mentioned authors, therefore, certainly admit the
possibility that the first germinal vesicles might perhaps increase
in a mother-cell in the interior of the blind extremity of the
ovarian tube, but assert that the individual germinal vesicles,
whether isolated or grouped several together, do not become
enclosed in a vitelline membrane till a very late period, and that
the latter is by no means a residue of the mother-cell, and the
cause of the production of the bunches of eggs of which Meissner
speaks.

2. The Vitelligene (Dotterstock). — It is rather long, and when,
as in the Ascarides for example, its walls are tolerably thick, it is
smooth externally ; but when, as in Mermis, it has yielding walls,
it is alternately pushed out in a racemose form and constricted.
In the first kind, which we find in the Ascarides, the groups or
racemes of ova which are arranged in the form of flat, circular,
stellate discs, furnished with as many rays or sectors as the
mother-cell has daughter-cells, are pressed against one another
like layers, in such a manner that they exhibit the disposition of
a galvanic battery, or of the pieces in a roll of money. InAscaris
lumbricoides, the mother-egg, with the daughter- eggs, has the
appearance of a wind- mill, looked at from the front ; regarded
separately, each daughter-egg forms an isosceles triangle, like the
sail of a wind-mill, and communicates at its apex with the mother-
cell or mother-egg. In the so-called vitelligene, or yelk-producing
organ, on the inner surface of which, according to Nelson
and all subsequent observers, there are ridges of a finely granular
appearance, running longitudinally in a slightly spiral direction,
the vitelline mass is added to the eggs. According to Nelson,
Thompson, and Bischoff, the vitelline mass is deposited from
without upon the free germinal vesicle. The small, dark, vitelline
granules, which constitute the most striking part of the vitellus,
appear first of all as a deposit on the outer surface of the ger-
minal vesicle, and even subsequently, the vitellus, wherever it
may be produced (whether from the peculiar projections of the
vitelligene, or from the fluid surrounding the germinal vesicle),
is nothing but an accumulation from without, which is by no
means held together by a peculiar membrane, but only by a
gelatinous, clear, connecting substance, as is the case also, accord-

294 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

ing to Leuckart, in a certain number of other animals. The
clear, non-granular boundary line of the yelks of young eggs
may easily be taken for a membrane, whilst the true vitelliiie
membrane is only produced subsequently according to Thompson,
probably by the condensation of the limiting zone. Neither
Nelson, Bischoff, nor Thompson, believe in the existence of a
micropyle on the spot where the eggs, according to Meissner,
have separated from their stem.

Meissuer, indeed, describes this process otherwise, and con-
siders the vitelline substance to* be deposited within the ready
formed vitelline membrane. He describes this as follows : — In
the vitelligene the central mother-cell first becomes filled with a
granular mass (vitelline granules). When the mother-cell is
quite full, the vitelline granules pass through the open peduncles
or through the apices of the above-mentioned triangles, into the
interior of these triangular bodies (daughter-cells, daughter-eggs),
the delicate walls of which become the vitelline membrane. The
mother-cells or mother-eggs, as the centres of the stellate discs, fall,
at the same time, into a common axis, which, however, is no true
axis, but an axial line (rhachis), which really only occurs in the
Strongyli. The daughter-eggs are arranged in a radiate form
round and upon this axis. The eggs are seated, like currants,
singly upon a longer or shorter stalk, which passes directly into the
vitelline membrane of the mother-cell. Towards the germstock
the rhachis and eggs gradually become smaller and more delicate:
but towards the albuminigenous tube thicker, larger, and more
mature. In the albuminigenous tube this arrangement of the
eggs, and with it the rhachis, ceases. The young eggs may con-
sequently be regarded as diverticula of the rhachis itself, on the
walls of which the individual, ready-formed germ-cells, therefore,
probably attach themselves, and become gradually surrounded by
it. If the rhachis could be traced into the germstock, we
should have to regard it as the germigene itself; but as it only
occurs within the vitelligene, and a distinct germigene exists in the
Strongyli, we must now give up the idea that this actually existing
rhachis is the germigene, however plausible this supposition might
be. Individual ova, on separating, pass in a triangular form into
the albuminogene.

3. The albuminogene (Eiweissschlauch}.-*-\t begins with a con-
siderable dilatation where the vitelligene is narrowed by a
sphincter formed by a small layer of annular muscular fibres, and

GENERATIVE ORGANS OF NEMATOIDA. 295

is usually tolerably long and without epithelium ; it corresponds
with Nelson's oviduct. At the point of transition from two into
three, the lateral daughter-eggs separate from their germ-cells.
In the Nematoidea, at least in the Ascarides, it presents the
peculiarity that very large nucleated cells, with granular tenacious
contents, are placed upon the inner surface of its proper tunic ;
each of these forms a tubercular, very decidedly villous, tongue-
shaped ridge, projecting far into the interior of the tube. These
villi, bursting, scatter their contents, which are then employed
for the formation of the egg-envelopes, as we shall see further on,
amongst the processes which go on after fecundation. In the
nearly allied Mermis, this tube consists of alternating Haustris
(like the large intestine of a rabbit), and of small chambers,
along the whole length of the tube, which are caused by circular
folds projecting into its interior. The latter constantly become
more and more rare towards the Tuba, cease at length, and
become changed for a net of polygonal cells. Instead of the
epithelium, we observe here in the walls, scattered, very large,
clear, delicate, longish cells, with one or two small dark nuclei,
never reaching beyond a neighbouring chamber ; besides pale,
large, tenacious, and adherent globules, (probably, albumen-
globules). The eggs found in this tube are still for the most
part triangular, but round in some species (Mermis), and at first
furnished with an opening in the vitelline membrane, (that is,
the still uncicatrized remains of the stem), to which Keber has
given the very suitable name of the micropyle. However, the
mutual cohesion of the whole contents of the albuminigene in
the Ascarides, is a serious hindrance to the tracing of the process
here described, for which the Mermis albicans is especially
adapted.

4. The Tuba. — It is short, narrow, the thinnest part of
all, but may be greatly thickened by the deposition of mus-
cular fibres (longitudinal and annular fibrous layer), destitute
of epithelium, and in Mermis furnished with folds, which pro^
bably contribute to its dilatation. As in the albuminigene, each
egg enters here separately. In consequence of the pressure of
its wall against the long sides of the eggs, and the pressure upon
their poles, we usually find in it a more quadratic form of egg,
which often acquires the round form quite suddenly under the
eye of the observer on entering into the fundus uteri. In the
portion of this division nearest to the albuminigene, as also some-

296 ANIMAL PARASITES.

times in the lowest portion of the latter, the eggs, already
fertilized and in progress of development, are pressed extremely
closely, one behind the other, the germinal vesicles make their
appearance in the middle, and as they all lie in the middle, they
acquire the appearance of a string of figs, or still better, that of seg-
ments of Bothriocephali. At the point of transition of the narrow
tuba, we see a peculiar sphincter.

5. The Uterus. — It exhibits externally a pretty strong mus-
cular layer (mostly annular fibres), and internally a coating of
regular, hexagonal epithelial cellc, with small dark aggregations
of granules (certainly oil-drops) in the middle, often detaching
themselves in greater quantity behind the eggs, and, as horny
structures, probably contributing to the formation of the chitine
membrane of the chorion. It widens pretty rapidly at its com-
mencement, that is to say, where the tuba passes into it. An-
teriorly the uterus narrows rather quickly, and when it is double
or multiple, the branches unite at an acute angle quite in front,
towards the vagina. The function of the uterus, in which the
eggs acquire their round form, is certainly in part the enveloping
of the eggs with the chorion, and in part to allow them to pass
through that well-known remarkable process of segmentation,
which we shall mention particularly at the conclusion.

As regards the coating of the eggs with the chorion, this takes
place in the following manner. A solidifying mass, secreted from
the side walls of the uterus, is deposited in concentric and con-
stantly increasing layers round the vitelline membrane, which
often adheres to them in little folds as the innermost layer. By
this means the egg-shell constantly becomes thicker and more
resistent. This outer egg-membrane or chorion is usually smooth,
rarely tubercular, thick, less transparent, and always round and
without appendages, as in the human Nematoida. In particular
species, however, the chorion only remains for a short time in its
simple form, and acquires a sort of process of very various form,
sometimes at the anterior end, sometimes at the posterior one,
and sometimes at both. Of the human Nematcida, only two
deserve especial mention on account of this chorion. The eggs
of the Trichocephali, like those of the Trichosoma, are distin-
guished by a short diverticulum, as it is called, which is certainly
produced by the deposition of the secretion producing the chorion
only upon the sides, and not upon the ends, probably in conse-
quence of a structure still undiscovered, and of peculiar move-

GENERATIVE ORGANS OF NEMATOIDA. 297

ments of the egg in the uterus. I have also seen a peculiar
condition in those eggs of Oxyuris vermicularis, which pass last
out of the uterus in artificially produced oviposition (which never
succeeded with me except when the Oxyurides were put quickly
upon an object-glass, covered with a small glass, without turning
them at all upon their axes, and only then covered with saliva).
At one end, probably the hinder one, they bear a light hood or
cap, which, as it afterwards disappears, is probably nothing but
the expression of the fact, that in them the deposition of the
chorion is not yet complete. In the uterus, during the deposi-
tion of the eggs, we see the most beautiful peristaltic move-
ments, of alternate undulatory constriction and dilatation.

6. The Vagina. — It is covered with an epithelium of the form of
that of the uterus, which, however, is usually smaller, and appears
sometimes more or less, and sometimes not at all, swollen and
thickened at its external orifice. At its outer extremity it is
dilated into a campanulate form, and has a transverse cleft in
the middle. It appears to be closed by a pair of lobes or valves,
which rest together in the middle. When a number of eggs has
collected in this bell, they force the lobes asunder, the cleft
opens, and the eggs are laid by jerks, in Oxyuris always several
together.

The principal question now is : Where are the eggs fecun-
dated, and what subsequently takes place in them? With
regard to this process we are still very much in the dark ; and
the following four views come into opposition with each other.

1. NELSON first asserted that the peculiar seminal corpuscles
press themselves into any part of the surface of the vitellus, or
become pressed into it by the contraction of the oviduct, but
that they do not penetrate of themselves into the vitellus, and
that the chorion is only formed subsequently around this vitelline
mass. According to Meissner, fecundated eggs are always cha-
racterised by an irregular, as it were ruptured, surface, and this
appearance is not to be regarded as accidental, or produced by
mechanical action.

2. BISCHOFF denies that there is any penetration of the
seminal corpuscles, and thinks that the structures described as
seminal corpuscles were epithelium, which had accidentally
attached themselves to the vitellus, or had penetrated into it.
W^edl also represents them as epithelium. Nelson has recently
stated that he is very well acquainted with the large nucleated

298 ANIMAL PARASITES.

cells lining the oviduct, which represent the epithelia, and have
nothing to do with seminal corpuscles. Consequently we must
not regard the seminal corpuscles as epithelium, as the same
changes are never exhibited by such epithelial cells, as are
described in the seminal corpuscles, and vice versa. This asser-
tion of Bisschoff only had a passing success, and must be
regarded as controverted.

3. MEISSNEJI, who describes the seminal corpuscles as pene-
trating into the vitellus through a particular opening (micropyle},
states, that the fecundation takes^place, at least in the Ascarides,
in the alburninigene, in which the eggs arrive naked, without
chorion, and with an open micropyle. The production of the
micropyle would be easily explicable according to the above
statements of Meissuer. The egg remains open at the point
where it was attached to the mother-cell by means of the stalk,
where it exhibits a canal-like process, and allows the vitellus to
escape on the application of a gentle pressure. The eggs which
stood in the form of a circular disc around a germ- cell in the
germ-stock behave in the same way. There are also eggs
produced singly from the germstock, which are connected with
the walls of this canal. The orifice of the stem, after separation,
takes the place of the micropyle. Through this the seminal cor-
puscles enter the egg. Its lumen is usually turned towards the
tuba from which the seminal corpuscles advance. The seminal
corpuscles may also reach the micropyle by the pressure of the
egg-tubes, which exhibit peristaltic movements, and by the
agency of friction between the eggs.

4. THOMPSON found in all females of Ascaris mystax, and at
all times when males were simultaneously present in the intestine
of the cat, seminal corpuscles mixed with eggs in the female
efferent organs, and in the upper parts of the oviduct (albumini-
gene), appearances similar to those which Nelson describes and
figures as the penetration of the seminal corpuscles. On the
passage of the eggs from the so-called germ-stock into the true
oviduct they changed their consistence, became soft and ex-
tremely yielding to pressure, and in passing through the narrow
parts of the oviduct they altered in their form. At the same
time the eggs acquired the uneven appearance described by
Nelson, and single or numerous seminal corpuscles adhered to
their surface ; such seminal corpuscles were far more rare on the
smooth parts of the eggs. They sat upon the vitellus, sometimes

FECUNDATION IN NEMATOIDA. 299

with the side, sometimes with the closed, and sometimes with the
open flocculent end, and were partially imbedded in the egg, but
never entirely, as stated by Meissuer and Nelson. According to
Thompson, the seminal corpuscles probably assist in the softening
of the vitellus, but we do not know whether the irregular, and,
as it were torn, appearance of the surface of the vitellus depends
upon the action (adhesion) of the seminal corpuscles, or whether
the latter attach themselves by preference to sections of the
vitellus which are naturally uneven. Thompson does not, like
Nelson, regard the ragged surface of the egg, and the adhesion
of the seminal corpuscles at that point, as unconditionally neces-
sary for fertilization, but as partly accidental to a certain extent,
and caused by the softness of the surface of the vitellus. The
fact advanced by Nelson is established with certainty, that the
seminal copuscles come in contact with the eggs of Ascaris, at
a time when they possess no true vitelline membrane, and when
they have become so soft and delicate, by the reception of a
peculiar fluid, that they can take up seminal corpuscles into
themselves and unite with them.

If we sum up what has been said in a few words, it is certainly
established that there is a (more or less complete or only partial)
penetration of the seminal filaments into the vitellus, but the
disputed point round which everything turns is the question
whether the egg, at this time, is still destitute of a distinct vitel-
line membrane, as the English authors and Bischoff assert, or
whether a peculiar membrane with a micropyle exists, as Meissner
supposes.

Now, before taking into consideration the final purpose of the
seminal corpuscles, we must go a step backward, in order to
glance over the whole history of the development of the seminal
corpuscles. Thompson observed this process to take place in
Ascaris mystax in the following way :

The blind extremity of the tubular testis consists of a delicate
membrane, in which isolated, elongated granular nuclei are
imbedded. In the interior of this part of the testis we see
4 — 5 convolutions of a peculiar tube, apparently situated in the
interior, which, however, according to Thompson, is a consequence
of the action of water. In the blind extremity of the testis, and
in the neighbouring parts, there are delicate, nucleated cells of
3^5" and T^o" in diameter, and besides these numerous smaller
and more simple corpuscles and nucleoli. The smaller cells have

300 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

a single central spot or nucleus, but the larger ones contain
several internal cells or nuclei of various sizes, and are probably
the mother-cells of the smaller cells, which are undoubtedly the
germs of the seminal cells. Meissner also states that limpid
cells, with a vesicular nucleus and nucleolar body, are produced
as male germ-cells in the blind extremity of the testicular tube.

As the smaller cells mentioned by Thompson advance into the
next darker portion of the testicular canal, each individual cell
surrounds itself with the soft granular mass contained in the
canal, and increases about three times in size. In this way are
produced oval structures, slightly pointed at the two ends, which
are at first without an enveloping membrane, but are subse-
quently provided with one. They become clear on pressure, or
by the application of acetic acid, and then exhibit the nucleus or
nucleolar body distinctly. Thompson regards the granular mass
in the testicular tube as an analogue of the vitelline mass, and
thinks that the granular mass, which is probably a product of
secretion of the tube, is deposited from without upon the cells,
and not produced in their interior. Meissner describes these
cells as filling themselves with a granular mass, analogous to the
vitelline granules, and therefore from the interior. At the same
time the nucleus disappears, and the cells become polygonal by
pressure.

The seminal cells thus formed now advance into the lower
constricted portion of the section of the testis, which is filled
with a granular mass, when they are, according to Thompson,
jjjj — FJo" in diameter, round, and surrounded by a distinct ex-
ternal membrane. According to Meissner the granules now draw
back on all sides from the cell-wall, and cease to be homogeneous.
According to Thompson they experience two different changes,
divide into several segments, usually four (BischofF and Thomp-
son), but according to Meissner, erroneously, into eight, and then,
in each of these segments, short, linear, radiating structures are
formed, the granules, according to Meissner, arranging themselves
regularly, in a radiate form, around a clear, enucleate centre.
The centre also divides into small nuclei, which unite with the
above-mentioned segments, and thus are produced cells with
daughter-nuclei, which however do not advance far in segmenta-
tion. The daughter-nuclei form the foundation for the produc-
tion of the development-cells of the seminal corpuscles ; these
nuclei, advancing at regular distances apart to the periphery of

FECUNDATION OF NEMATOIBA. 301

the cell- wall of the germ-cell, and becoming affixed to the wall,
by which they drive out the cell-wall before them, and give the
germ-cell a biscuit-like tetrahedric form. The diverticula of the
cell-wall gradually becoming constricted around these daughter-
nuclei, the latter become independent development-cells of the
seminal corpuscles (brood-cells of the seminal corpuscles, according
to Reichert), like the mother-cell. Immediately after the con-
striction a small, strongly refractive nucleolar corpuscle appears
in the middle of the nucleus. The whole development-cell
now represents a large, clear vesicle, with a lenticular nucleus
affixed to the wall, consisting of granules elegantly arranged in
a radiate form, which have a small nucleolar corpuscle in the
centre. Meissner observed this process in several Ascarides,
and thinks that in the end he entirely agrees with Reichert's
observations on Strongylus. The only difference between them
is that Reichert allows a cell-gemmation to precede the first
gemmation of male germ-cells. Reichert did not see the division
of the germ-cells, but speaks of endogenous cell-formation of the
development-cells of the seminal corpuscles, around the contents
of the mother- cell, which, according to Meissner, may occur not
only in species of Mermis, but also in true nematode worms.
According to Meissner, the seminal elements, during their stay
in the testis, usually remain in the last-mentioned stage of deve-
lopment (in the form of vesicles or globules of —" in diameter),
and in this state they reach the female vagina. From this glo-
bular form results the mode of action of the penis of the Nema-
toida in copulation, which will hereafter be described. More-
over, according to Meissner, the seminal corpuscles are found in
this state in the vagina, in the uterus, and in the albu-
minigene, but rarely in the tuba, from which they are quickly
evacuated.

Thompson describes the formation of the seminal corpuscles
from the individual segments of the seminal cells in the following
way : In the vas deferens we find an immense number of nucleated,
granular cells, of various forms, but equal size (-J— — TMO")> w^tn
their contents for the most part uniformly granular, and rarely
exhibiting a radiate arrangement. These cells are the freed
segments of the seminal cells. Their outer part is indistinct,
very finely granular, and only allows an envelope to be detected
on the application of water. The more strongly refractive inner
part or nucleus, which makes its appearance ^jstinctly on the

302 ANIMAL PARASITES.

application of water or acetic acid, occupies two thirds of the
entire cell, and possesses a small, dark, nucleolus. These struc-
tures are exactly like those which are met with in the vagina of
fecundated females ; but the corpuscles found in the vagina are
somewhat clearer in their outer part, and have a distinct hemi-
spherical nucleus or body in their interior. Both with and with-
out the use of reagents we find that the similar structures taken
out of the vas deferens, and out of the lowest parts of the vagina
and uterus of newly impregnated females, exhibit exactly the same
conditions of form and structure. Their size, their general
appearance, their molecular external layer, and the peculiarly
curved form of the nucleus or inner portion, with a granular mass
around the nucleolus on the open side, agree so much, that
we cannot avoid admitting that the structures in question, occur-
ring in the female generative organs, have been transferred there
from the male organs, and are therefore seminal elements, which
only arrive at their higher development in the female organs.
We may say, therefore, that the male nematode worms deposit
their semen in an immature or half-mature state.

The changes undergone by these structures in the female
organs are, according to Meissner, the following : The nucleus
attached to the wall of the development-cell becomes clearer, and
loses its radiate structure. At the periphery of the nucleus is
formed a sharp, refractive line, or a dark seam, the substance of
a portion of the nucleus, and indeed that adhering to the
cell-wall, becomes condensed, whilst the portion lying towards
the interior of the lumen of the cell, remains unaltered and finely
granular. Whether in certain other Nematoida, as in Mermis,
the entire nucleus is condensed, so as to become converted into a
bacillar corpuscle, is still unknown. In the Ascarides, the last-
named structure acquires the appearance of a flat, watch-glass or
saucer-like corpuscle, which gradually encloses the portion still
remaining granular, and endeavours to push its extremities
together from the periphery, but without ever entirely closing.
At the same time it thickens somewhat, so that we see double
outlines, and it has acquired the form of a bell-shaped beaker,
open at one end, and somewhat turned outwards at the edge,
with finely granular contents. The process either closes with
this, and the seminal corpuscle becomes free, or the beaker
extends still more and becomes thinner, like a small test-glass;
the closed end uiwally thickens in a clavate form, and then bends

FECUNDATION OF NEMATOIDA. 303

semicircularly in accordance with the dimensions of the cell-wall,
because it has no room when extended.

According to Thompson, the outer part of the seminal cell,
which in the male forms a nearly homogeneous, finely molecular,
layer, becomes clearer and thinner on the side where the seminal
corpuscle afterwards lies, but at the opposite side, that is, the
one situated nearer to the open end of the future seminal cor-
puscle, the molecular contents accumulate in greater quantity.
On the application of water, or even of saliva, the finely granu-
lated outer layer becomes converted by imbibition into a large,
clear, vesicular mass, like sarcode. The granular envelope, which
gives occasion for the formation of this clear mass, is a perfectly
natural formation, and is, in fact, the residue of the original
radiate, but afterwards granular substance, which occurs in the
segments of the original seminal cells.

The nucleus, that is to say the inner, strongly refractive part
of the seminal cell, becoming gradually converted into a flask-
shaped or bell-shaped structure, forms the seminal corpuscle.
According to the side from which this seminal corpuscle, which
is bounded by a dark, double outline, is examined, its appearance
varies. "When seen from above or below it is nearly circular;
from the side and in profile (the usual position) it appears in its
earlier stages semicircular, as if open on one side and furnished
with a finely granular, sarcode-like mass, which swells up in
water, extends into the interior, and contains a distinct point or
nucleolus. In water, and also, although rarely, even without
the application of any fluid, this sarcode-like mass issues in the
form of a vesicle or drop from the open side of the seminal cor-
puscle. A seminal corpuscle unaltered by imbibition occupies
somewhat more than the half of its development-cell, and is,
therefore, cap-shaped, or semicircular. Perfectly developed
seminal corpuscles, which occur in the upper parts of the ovary,
have lost all traces of envelopes and resemble an elongated tube
closed at one end, and furnished at the other with a somewhat
enlarged mouth ; they have become flask-like or glove-like. They
still possess the dark, double outline, but it is somewhat thinner,
and the finely granular mass with the molecules also exists at
the open end of the seminal corpuscle. Intermediate steps
between the two forms are met with. The ordinary form of the
seminal corpuscles occurring in the female generative organs is
that of a cupola or bell. They are certainly the product of the

304 ANIMAL PARASITES.

male organs, but not, as Bischoff, Wedl, and others asserted,
epithelial structures of the female organs. The less-developed
forms occurring in the female genitalia, are also seen in the vas
deferens ; the development of the seminal corpuscles within the
female organs increases from below (vagina) upwards (uterus and
albuminigenc}, and here the sequence of the stages of develop-
ment may be very well studied. The seminal corpuscles always
move freely in the latter places, and, according to Thompson,
never adhere to the inner surface of the female genitalia. The
seminal corpuscles of the nematode worms have no filaments,
and are motionless. In the nematode worms and all motionless
seminal corpuscles of other animals, the filament is replaced by
the open space, at which the granular substance has collected,
together with the nucleolus.

When the seminal corpuscles have become mature, their deve-
lopment-cells, according to Meissner, often acquire various forms ;
hence the pyriform or wedge-shaped seminal corpuscles of Bagge,
Keichert, and Von Siebold. By the bursting of the elementary
cell, the corpuscle which was previously lying bent in the cell
suddenly acquires an extended position, and the cell-membrane
is broken through at the point where it is succeeded by the finely
granular substance at the open flocculent, thicker end of the
seminal corpuscle. With this flocculent end the seminal corpuscle
slips forth, but the whole does not follow.1 The cell-membrane
remains sitting like a cap upon the bell-shaped, closed portion of
the seminal corpuscle. The thickness of the flocculent end of
the seminal corpuscle now stands constantly in a corresponding
relation to the opening of the vitelline membrane (Keber's
micropyle), fixes itself to this and penetrates into it, during
which the cap-like, revolute, cell-membrane becomes a pre-
liminary adhesion of the seminal corpuscle to the egg, although
the flocculent end of the seminal corpuscles is sufficient for
the actual adhesive attachment to objects (as is proved, for in-

1 Amongst the seminal cells in the male generative organs, and, although rarely, in
the lowest parts of the female organs, we find, together with the true seminal corpuscles,
smaller oval corpuscles of ^-Q" in diameter, without distinct nuclei or nucleoli; they are
pretty strongly refractive, have a smooth surface, and — except in the absence of the
nucleolus — are tolerably similar to the nuclei of the other original seminal cells.
Bischoff, certainly erroneously, takes them for the true developed seminal corpuscles ;
Thomson, ou the contrary, regards them as abortive corpuscles, which is more pro-
bable.

FECUNDATION OF THE NEMATOIDA. 305

stance, by the seminal corpuscles sometimes attaching them-
selves with this end to the inner surface of the albuminigene),
and therefore to the vitelline membrane and its micropyle, whilst
the opposite smooth end of the seminal corpuscle can never effect
any such adhesion. Such an egg, with its seminal corpuscle
adhering to the micropyle, looks like a pear with a stalk,
the latter being represented by the seminal corpuscle. At
first, indeed, before the seminal corpuscle has fixed itself, only
contact may take place. As soon as the flocculent end of the
seminal corpuscle is firmly fixed in the micropyle, whilst the
upper extremity still projects freely, movements may be detected
in the egg which are communicated to it by the seminal cor-
puscle, whilst the further penetration of the seminal corpuscle
into the interior of the egg, consists in a flowing in. Auxiliary
momenta in the advance of the seminal corpuscles towards the
micropyle, are to be found in the direction of the micropyle
within the albuminigene towards the tuba ; the peristaltic motion
of the tube, which may be seen very well, as I have already
stated, in all parts of the egg-tube in Qocyuris vermicularis, and the
action of the external muscular layer upon the albuminigene, and
the movement thereby produced, so that the eggs gradually
become rounded in the albuminigene. The entrance of the
seminal corpuscle into the egg may take place pretty rapidly, for
in the lower part of the albuminigene we usually find eggs with
seminal corpuscles in the periphery of the yelk, between it and
the vitelline membrane. The number of seminal corpuscles
which enter varies ; as many as ten of them have been observed in
one egg. As soon as the seminal corpuscles have performed their
function, they enter upon a retrograde development, namely, a
gradual conversion into fat. This is the case, however, not only
with those which are lucky enough to get into the eggs, but
also with the great number of unemployed ones, which are thus
again excluded from the female organs, and lastly, also with
those which have missed their object by being prematurely deve-
loped, and remain in the testis or vesicula seminalis. The
fatty metamorphosis shows itself in this manner : the outline of
the bell-shaped portion of the seminal corpuscle begins to grow
sharper and darker, acquires a peculiar fatty lustre, has greater
refractive power, and a rounder form, whilst the lower extremity
gradually contracts to form a simple, clavate, thickened end,
having its nucleolar corpuscle in the middle, or the seminal

306 ANIMAL PARASITES.

corpuscle resembles a little bell, from which the clapper peeps
out below. On the seminal corpuscles which have not reached
an egg,, the cell-membrane which partially covers the corpuscle is
still well preserved, whilst the fatty metamorphosis goes for-
ward in the other parts. In the seminal corpuscle penetrating
into the egg, the cell-membrane does not appear to penetrate
with it, but to remain upon the egg as an empty mem-
brane. What becomes of the nucleolar corpuscle is un-
known. The finely granular, flocculent mass, at the lower
extremity of the seminal corpuscle, does not pass through the
fatty metamorphosis, in which, however, the most important, and
essentially fertilizing part of the seminal corpuscle participates.
In this process the seminal corpuscles sometimes form elongated
and narrow, and sometimes short, thick, and bacillar, strongly
refractive corpuscles, both in the egg and the albuminigene,
and at last become rounded off into oil-drops soluble in
ether.

In animals in which the micropyle is very small and narrow,
the seminal corpuscles have a filiform shape in a state of maturity;
this they sometimes acquire even within the testis, in which case
the penis, like that of the Trematoda, forms a closed, hollow
canal, but sometimes only after reaching the female sexual organs,
when the penis is imperforate. Circumstances similar to the
latter occur in the Mermides, which are nearly allied to the
Nematodia. Here the seminal corpuscles have the appearance of
a thin bent rod, which remains fast with one end in the develop-
ment-cell, and forms a sort of thick head upon the rod. If it
loses this head, or if the latter remains seated outside the micro-
pyle, the true seminal corpuscle can certainly reach the yelk
through the micropyle. Whether similar processes take place
in the human Nematodia is a question. The first kind of seminal
corpuscle and the larger micropyle, are the usual forms amongst
them, if not the only arrangements that occur.

When the egg is fecundated in the albuminigene by the
entrance of the seminal corpuscle, and has gradually acquired a
more distinctly ovoid form, it surrounds itself with the contents
of the villi of the albuminigene, which solidify upon the vitelline
membrane in constantly increasing layers. These tough, albu-
minous contents, which are set free by the bursting of the villi,
do not mix immediately with water, and at first form clear
reddish drops ; afterwards they dissolve in water, and frequently

FECUNDATION OF THE NEMATOIDA. 307

also, as in Mermis, cake together in lumps. At first we only see
the external outline of the rounded egg, sharper and darker, and
sometimes we may still detect the micropyle, which is frequently
furnished with a vesicle, the remains of the membrane of the deve-
lopment-cell; the micropyle becomes closed by the thickening of
the envelopes, and we observe that a peculiar alteration commences
in the interior of the yelk. The germinal vesicle has by this
time disappeared ; at the periphery of the vitellus there are struc-
tures resembling fat-drops. According to Meissner, these are
the seminal corpuscles which have become converted into fat-
drops, which, however, according to Thompson, is by no means
proved, although he is not in a position to state what finally
becomes of the seminal corpuscles. Thompson — who is very well
acquainted with these clear, round or oval, strongly refracted
globules, which are apparently surrounded by a peculiar mem-
brane, but who could never detect their production from the
conversion of seminal corpuscles — regards them as an indication
of a change in the intimate constitution of the vitellus, which is
in itself connected with fecundation. These (fat) globules after-
wards fuse directly with the vitellus, which again changes its
chemical nature, and loses its emulsion- like condition. From
the vitelline granules which are particularly accumulated in the
middle of the egg, very clear, reddish, shining drops issue, and
attach themselves at its periphery like a wreath, and regularly,
close to the vitelline membrane ; processes which take place pretty
rapidly. This gives the egg a spotted appearance, and Nelson
calls it the spotted state of the vitellus. The vitelline granules
dissolve, and the contents of the yelk are a pale yellowish mass,
with a few larger and smaller granules, different from the previous
vitelline granules. During the same period the whole mass con-
stantly becomes more and more condensed ; the periphery is
coated with homogeneous contents ; the yelk draws back from the
vitelline membrane, diminishes in volume almost one half, and
swims as a transparent mass in the interior. In this interval
the egg has passed down into the uterus, .and become enveloped
by a chorion. At the same time small folds frequently appear
in the vitelline membrane, -which assumes the contour of the
egg-envelopes. After this, a small clear space forms in
the middle of the yelk, surrounded by granules more densely
pressed together at its edges, and with the appearance of this
space (the first embryonal cell, according to Kolliker,) commences

808 ANIMAL PARASITES.

the remarkable action of the segmentation of the yelk. This
small space (first embryonal cell) passes through the process
which has been represented by Bagge. It is only when
the small, clear, central space has divided itself into two
parts, that the actual segmentation begins, the vitelline
grains accumulating around the two small cells thus pro-
duced. But when once the clear centre in the egg is divided
into two, then the first furrow is formed at the periphery of the
yelk. Now the process goes on in the way described by Bagge,
Von Siebold, Kolliker, &c. By ^his first furrow, two globules,
similar both in size and colour, have been formed. In the middle
of one of these globules, a small cell is now again produced in the
first place, before any further division takes place, the globule
itself becomes more densely crowded with granules, and darker
and more opaque towards the margin. A new line of segmen-
tation is produced in it, sometimes in the longitudinal axis, some-
times in a divergent direction, and by this means a new globule
of segmentation. But before a further segmentation takes place
in the globules formed, one or several of these clear central spaces
are always first produced, and then only new lines of segmen-
tation shoot up, and new globules are produced, which in their
number exactly correspond with the number of the globules of
segmentation just formed. To continue the first description, we
observe that a new line of division immediately goes off obliquely
from the second line towards the periphery, and consequently
four globules of segmentation are produced. From this point
onwards the strict order of the formation of new globules of seg-
mentation in a progressively increasing series of numbers ceases ;
the globules of segmentation, which are pretty equal in size
amongst themselves, become rounded off towards the periphery.
At the same time, the globules constantly become smaller, more
similar and numerous, by the progress of division, until in this
way they have acquired the appearance of a mulberry. Upon
this the globules arrange themselves into a beautiful and very
regular oval, and almost all round this we perceive a light border
between the globules of segmentation and the vitelline membrane.
The oval then bends in the middle ; the two poles (cephalic and
caudal extremities) endeavour to approach each other, and the
creature acquires the rough form of a worm without any internal
structure. The two poles then pass by close to one another, and
the cylindrical form of the embryo constantly becomes more dis-

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEMATOIDA. 309

tirict, the formation of the future head being always preceded by
that of the caudal extremity. With the extension in length, the
thick club-like creature becomes constantly more slender, the
globules smaller, the skin as if covered with granules, the interior
filled with similar globules, and, finally, a perfectly worm-like,
moving creature, the perfectly formed embryo, is produced from it,
which at last perforates the egg-shells (vitelline membrane and
chorion), and then swims freely about upon the field of vision. In
many species of worms, but not in all, the vitelline membrane is
extended by the growth of the embryo, and with it the enveloping
stratum of albumen and the chorion. How long a period elapses
between the fecundation and this moment cannot be stated, but
in many species the process is only concluded after a long time
(in Ascaris lumbricoides about twelve months). The structure of
the young worm, which resembles its parents, is usually very
simple. We only observe a granular mass (remains of vitelline
globules). The empty oesophagus, the interior of which is
indicated by two lateral lines, with the appended empty stomach,
the cavity of which is often triangular, and the first commence-
ment of the intestine behind the stomach, can be distinctly
recognised. The space from this to the caudal extremity is filled
with fine grains, and forms the foundation for the intestine. An
anus is not yet visible; even the mouth appears still to be
deficient at this period. In the round-worms furnished with
weapons on the head, these organs are of course formed simul-
taneously, and are ready before the embryos quit the egg-shells
arid start on their migrations.

We might still mention here the question of the embryologists,
whether the globules of segmentation just referred to, with the
enclosed nucleated embryonal-cells, are to be regarded as com-
pound cells, analogous to the ganglionic globules, or to the un-
fecundated egg, and to be explained in the manner of cell-
formation ? Kolliker and others have shown that this is not the
case, because the cell-formation always precedes the former as the
causative momentum, although the enveloping of the embryonal
cell with the yelk presents a very important momentum of
development. According to Kolliker, therefore, we are compelled
to suppose that the remarkable phenomenon which we call
segmentation, is the expression of an attraction which is exerted
by the embryonal cells upon the surrounding yelk-mass.

The metamorphoses just described take place partly even in

310 ANIMAL PARASITES.

the body of the mother (for example, in the Filarice), and partly
outside the uterus of the female worm. The latter, again, may
occur within the body of one and the same host, which may, pro-
bably, very seldom or perhaps never be the case ; or, as usually
happens, outside the body of the previous host in the open
waters. That the latter is a very general occurrence we know
from the investigations of Verloren and Richter.

In the early part of the month of August, 1853, Verloren1
put a fragment of a mature female Ascaris marginata of the dog
into water, so as to preserve the eggs in the water by the pre-
vention of evaporation. Of these he examined specimens from
time to time under the microscope. The segmentation of the
vitelli and the development of the young immediately com-
menced. In about fourteen days the process was completed, and
perfectly developed young worms made their appearance; these
moved briskly within the egg-shells, but did not break through
them, as Verloren expected, from similar successful experiments
by Schubart. With the decrease of temperature towards
autumn and winter, the mobility of the embryos within the egg-
shells also diminished, until at last it entirely ceased in the
winter, but recommenced in the following spring, and again
became very distinct in the summer months. During the whole
course of the experiment a spontaneous exclusion of the em-
bryos from the eggs never took place. In these eggs, therefore,
the following remarkable peculiarities may be observed. The eggs
of other animals may, indeed, lie for a long time before the young
make their appearance; as, for example, in many insects, but
this always takes place within a year ; the eggs of many animals
may also be delayed for a long time in their development, but
then the development of the young cannot have commenced at
all. But if this be once the case, and the young be developed,
it must either be excluded soon, or it dies in a few days ;
whilst, in the present instance, the ready formed embryo lives
more than a year in the egg-shell, like other worms in an
encysted state, which live enclosed in their cyst. Both are,
probably, enabled to live for a certain time unchanged in the
egg-shells or cysts, both, as is well known, agreeing in being

1 Aanteekingen van het verhandelde in de vergadering der Seotie voor Natur — en
Geneeskunde van het Provinciaal Utrechtsch Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetens-
chappen, — Gehonden den 9 Septembre, 1854.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEMATOIDA. 311

asexual, and therefore their species difficult to determine; this
condition is only changed by other favorable circumstances,
and the animals thereby carried on towards their development.
Lastly, it is certain that the embryos of the nematode worms
may pass the winter in a sort of torpid state in the open
waters.

When Verloren set free the embryos artificially by crushing
the eggs, they soon died, partly stifled by the fungoid structures
growing about them, and partly from their becoming the seat
of fungoid growths.1 Independently of Verloren's investiga-
tions, arid at a period when the experiments of that savant could
not have been known in Germany, H. E. Richter, of Dresden,
had also put the eggs of an Ascaris lumbricoides into water
(on the 15th November, 1854). The eggs, which were all
without living embryos, and which had not even exhibited
globules of segmentation, were not examined by Richter for
some time after their being placed in water; but on the 15th
October, 1855, (consequently after the lapse of eleven months,)
he found living embryos in all the eggs, of which he sent a
considerable number to Haubner, Leuckart, and myself. These
were employed in experiments, which unfortunately furnished no
result.

When I examined dry eggs of the same worm, which Richter
had sent to me, I had only the opportunity of confirming
Richter's statement, that on the 15th November, 1854, the eggs
had hardly commenced any development.

All this shows that a portion of the eggs of the nematode
worms issues, in the first instance, passively from the body of
their previous host into the external world, and first of all passes
the stage of its development, up to the formation of embryos, in the
open water. The details with regard to the different species will
be found in the following pages. Now according as the ready
formed embryo is, or is not, furnished with a boring apparatus,
will the mode of its migration vary. The unarmed species are,

1 I here pass over Verloren's other experiments. The attempt to rear freed embryos
in meat or in bread and water always failed. Moreover, I see no reason why any growth
should have been expected in this case. At the utmost, if they still exerted an
active faculty, they might encyst themselves, when they would not have become more
highly developed, but would have been asexual in the manner of the Trichinae. A final
explanation of this subject can only be obtained by the administration of such eggs to
various higher and lower animals.

312 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

probably, contented with a passive migration from intestine to
intestine, and it is, perhaps, sufficient for this purpose that the
egg of a worm should pass out into the water, undergo segmenta-
tion, and form the embryo there, arid that the embryo should
be swallowed with drink, and become directly further and more
highly developed in the intestine of its new host, which must
usually belong to the same species as the previous host; but
in the armed species, on the other hand, a mixed, passive-
active-passive, migration will take place. We may, perhaps,
draw conclusions, per analogiam* as to the migration of the
armed brood of nematode worms, from what has been said
by Von Siebold with regard to the brood of Mermis albicans,
and by Meissner, with regard to Gordius, and the destiny of the
brood of these animals.

In the case of the so-called Filarice of insects, Von Siebold
convinced himself these round-worms are no true Filarice, but
that they belong to the peculiar genera of round-worms, which
are usually called Gordius and Mermis. In their fully mature state
they wander from their previous dwelling-place, and perforate the
walls of the body of their host in any soft place, in the same way
as the larva of the horse bot-fly, which finally quits the stomach
and intestine of the horse, or in the manner of the larva of the
gadflies, which, at a certain time, bore their way out of the
cutaneous excrescences of cattle. A peculiar instinct impels
them, in the perfectly developed but still asexual state, to such an
emigration, in consequence of which they leave their previous
dwelling-place for a new phase of existence, which brings them to
their sexual developments, and we find them in the open water
or in moist spots in the ground, in digging up beds, or making
drains in the fields, or in drinking-water. Von Siebold then
succeeded further in ascertaining how the immature but almost
completely developed worms taken out of the caterpillars of the
small ermine moth (Yponomeuta evonymella), immediately bur-
rowed with their heads into the moist earth of the flowerpot
upon which they were laid, and in the course of the winter
became sexually mature in this flowerpot, which was kept moist,
developing eggs in their interior, which were afterwards deposited
in the earth, to the number of many hundreds. In the first
days of spring the embryos were completely developed in the
interior of these eggs, and embryos, which had left their egg-
shells, were then soon found. When Von Siebold had noticed

MIGRATIONS OF NEMATOID LARVA. 313

this, he took a number of very small caterpillars of the small
ermine moth which had just been enticed out by the spring sun,
and threw thirteen specimens of these caterpillars, which, as he
had ascertained by the microscope, contained as yet no young
thread-worms upon a watch-glass containing moist earth from
the above-mentioned flowerpot, in which, as he had convinced
himself, lively young of the matured thread- worm (Mermis
albicans] occurred. In 18 hours 5 of these caterpillars con-
tained embryos of Mermis. In a second experiment, made in
the same way with 33 caterpillars, there were, in 24 hours, 14
individuals with embryos of Mermis; each of these caterpillars con-
tained 1, and 2 of them even 3 embryos. In experiments made
in the same way with the caterpillars of Pontia Cratmgi, Liparis
chrysorrlma, and Gastropacha neustria, the same result also
occurred. On the day after the experiment, embryos of Mermis
were found in 10 out of 12 such caterpillars ; 5 of them con-
tained 2, and 1 even 3 embryos. (Vid. Von Siebold iiber
die Band- und Blasseriwiirmer, nebst einer Einleitung iiber die
Entstehung der Eingeweidewiirmer, pp. 9 — 12.1) Still more
interesting are the results which Meissner has obtained with
regard to the migrations of the Gordii, and from their im-
portance in relation to the theory of the production of Triclinia,
I shall refer to them further on. From what has just been said,
and from what we shall mention hereafter, about the Trichina,
we may certainly come to the conclusion, that " many Entozoa,
and certainly those which remain parasitic in their last, i.e. sexually
mature stage, do not migrate into the animal appointed for their
habitation, in order to become further developed in it, until they
have elsewhere attained a certain development and bulk." (Vid.
Von Siebold, 1. c., p. 13.)

Amongst the round-worms of the human subject, the brood of
Filaria medinensis may, perhaps, behave most like the Nematoida
just referred to. It is true that in the other human Helmintha
we have not yet seen an exclusion of the brood from the egg-
shells when laid in water : it is true that such an exclusion
would be necessary if the brood of Filaria should enter the body,
as is generally supposed, by adhering to the feet of those men
or animals that wade in marshy or stagnant water; but we
know, at least from Malgaigne and Robin, that the brood lives

' Translated into English, and published with this volume. — [TRANS.]

314 ANIMAL PARASITES.

for several days in water, and that it may be dried up and
again brought to life by water. Accordingly there would cer-
tainly be a possibility of infection by direct immigration from
without ; but it is just as possible that the brood may only be
set free after a passive immigration into the stomach of a human
individual, and then bore onwards into the blood-vessels, and
reach its future habitation through these.

With regard to the developmental history of the other species,
we are still equally in the dark. The little that we know
positively at present may be sumrSed up as follows.

1. The Oxyurides (thread- worms) are apparently capable of an
active migration, even when mature and sexually developed ; they
prefer performing these migrations at night. Any one who
inquires in his practice will hear his patients complain that
little worms creep out of them by the anus, causing a violent
itching. Thus a shoemaker came to me for advice, as the
Oxyurides disturbed him at night. As soon as he went
to bed and got warm, the Oxyurides began to march out of his
anus, with violent itching, and wander about in the anal folds,
and even, in his opinion, attempted to free themselves by biting.
Once, when he did not know what to do with himself, he
wakened his wife and begged her to see whether she could not
discover what it was that troubled him so much. By means of
a light the woman found the little white worms, and picked
them off, and since then, whenever he was again troubled, she
always did him the same service. Moreover, that Oxyurides
creep from the anus into the vagina, in little girls, is a fact
known to the oldest surgeons. It may also be taken for
granted that the worms found were females, and indeed preg-
nant females, as the males are far too small to be detected,
although we may also suppose that the males may sometimes
emigrate. However, the emigration of a single pregnant female
is sufficient to explain the infection of whole families with
Oxyurides. From what has just been said, the following hypo-
thesis may be deduced as to the active migration of mature
females of Oxyuris from the intestine of one human being
to that of another. The sleeping of a married couple, one of
whom is affected with Oxyurides, in the same bed, which is
especially the case amongst the poor who only possess one bed,
the sleeping of these parents with their children, or of several
children together, one of which is troubled with Oxyurides} is

DEVELOPMENT OF OXYURIS. 315

sufficient to infect whole families with these worms. For if only
a single female which emigrated at night, has wandered into the
intestine of one of the bedfellows who has hitherto been free
from Oxyurides, the perpetual infection is established in con-
sequence of the abundant reproduction of this parasite. In this
process we have an analogue to the immigration of certain
Cercari&j which, swimming freely in the water, creep directly
into the rectum of the frog. What becomes of the young
Oxyurides which pass out with the fceces I know not. After
keeping the eggs for six months in water I could discover
neither mature embryos, nor a distinct segmentation. I usually
saw in the interior of the egg, at a considerable distance apart,
two rather large hyaline globules, and round about finely
granular detritus, and I do not know whether in this case there
was a decomposition of the vitellus in accordance with the laws
of putrefaction, or with those of development. The former
appears to me most probable, and then perhaps the development
of the embryos would only be able to take place in the animal
body with the aid of animal warmth.

2. The mode in which we become infected with Trichocephali
may be the same as that by which, as we have already shown,
the infection with Tania solium is effected. That pigs contain
Trichina exactly like those of man, is evident from the ob-
servations of Leidy, in Philadelphia, described further on ; he has
therefore given the name of Trichina affinis to the encysted
round- worm discovered by him. We shall hereafter attempt to
prove the probability of a relationship between Trichina spiralis
and Trichocephalus dispar. It is therefore sufficient that we
should eat raw " trichinous" pork, to bring Trichocephali
upon us, and all that is necessary is to refer to the mode of
infection with T&nia solium by the use of swine's flesh already
indicated. Unfortunately the experiment of administration to
dogs has not succeeded (vide infra), and it is also to be regretted
that at present we possess no statistics as to the occurrence and
diffusion of the Trichocephali with reference to the trades and
occupations of their human hosts. After preserving the eggs of
Trichocephalus for six months in water, no embryos appeared, but
only numerous, clear, but pretty regularly arranged globules,
in the place of the vitellus, which certainly presented the
same appearance as the processes in the segmentation of the
vitellus.

316 ANIMAL PARASITES.

3. The mode in which the human subject is infected with
Trichina spiralis, from the preceding indications, must be analo-
gous to what we have already stated with regard to the infection
of man with Cysticercus celluloses. Here, also, we may suppose the
following things to be possible. The most probable supposition is,
that the female of the worm appertaining hereto (Trichocephalus)
scatters her young in the intestine of her human host ; and
these, after escaping from the egg-shells, bore through the walls
of the intestine, and further on through the body, especially
towards the primitive fasciculi of fhe muscles, where they encyst
themselves, like the Cysticerci, being incapable of becoming
developed immediately to mature worms (Trichocephalus) within
the human intestine. In this case it would certainly be neces-
sary that the embryo, which is to become a Trichina, should
either possess a boring apparatus, or be capable of bringing its
oral organs to a point in such a manner as to adapt it
for boring. However, it is still an undecided question whether,
with the brood of nematode worms, as with that of the
Cestoidea, it is necessary for further development, that
the eggs, with their brood, must first have passed the stomach of
a host.

Man might consequently swallow the brood of the species of
worm belonging to Trichina (Trichocephalus} with drink ; or, if
the mature animal dwells in the human intestine, it might be
carried back to the stomach by tendency to vomit, escape here,
bore through the alimentary canal, and establish itself in the
muscles of the body. From the great number of Trichinae
which occur, their introduction with drink is perhaps the least
probable.

Whether the brood swims freely in the water, and bores its
way into the human body from without, is a question which
may certainly be proposed, but which can hardly be answered in
the affirmative.

In this way it would almost appear as if the immigration of at
least some of the round worms inhabiting thehumari intestines takes
place in the same manner as that of Tania solium by the use of flesh
which is impregnated with the immature germs of the round-
worms in question, whilst the immigration of those which occur
in the muscles is sometimes direct and active from the outside
(Filaria medinensis) , probably connected with the season of the
year, and sometimes passing from the exterior (Trichina spiralis),

DEVELOPMENT OF ASCARIDES. 317

or a self-infection, analogous to the infection of the sufferers from
tapeworm with Cysticerci (Trichina spirulis).

4. In the examination of the question how we become in-
fected with the different species of Strongylus, I find myself
totally without data. I mentioned at the time, in Virchow and
Reinhardfs ' Archiv./ that I had found in nodules of the lungs of
the sheep the young of a nematode worm, which was probably
that of a Strongylus, although I have not hitherto known how to
apply this fact to the advancement of the question of the pro-
duction of the species of Strongylus in the human body, especially
those which occur in the kidneys or in the lungs.

5. With regard to the production of Ascaris lumbricoides also,
we are destitute of any certain knowledge. " In Europe," says
Bilharz, 1. c., " as far as I remember, they ascribe the Ascarides
and Oxyuri to bad flour and bread ; and in Egypt the common
people, who feed principally on vegetables, and indeed for the
most part on raw leaves and roots, are especially troubled with
round-worms," whilst, for instance, in Egypt, the use of raw meat
is correctly enough set down as being the cause of the production
of tapeworm. How far this supposition is correct, or how far the
infection in this case also is produced by the consumption of
animal substances, is a question which still needs a close exa-
mination. Thus we might suppose, that small snails, caterpillars,
larvse of insects, or small beetles and mature insects, may adhere
to the leaves and roots which are eaten raw, and which creatures may
harbour the progeny of round-worms, most probably in the encysted
state. They thus get accidentally into the human intestinal canal
with the raw leaves and roots, and there acquire a higher develop-
ment. These worms would consequently reach man as a herbivorous
animal, but only in the above-described, indirect, accidental way.
In the aetiology of the Ascarides, we must not forget, that the
localities in which they most generally occur, are usually moist
low grounds. Thus the valleys of the Nile, in Egypt, as also the
provinces Smaland, Halland, and Schonen, in Sweden, are favorite
districts of the Ascarides, and are peculiarly moist coast districts.
They are also found in Germany, in the neighbourhood of Zittau,
which is exposed to the overflowings of the Neisse and Maudan,
and in the vicinity of Glauchan (according to communications from
Dr. Pause), which is subject to be overflowed by the Mulde.
We have now, however, said all that can call for our attention
here at present, and I only mention as a matter of curiosity that

318 ANIMAL PARASITES.

the youngest Ascaris lumbricoides which I have seen, is a specimen
which I expelled from myself in July, 1853, in treatment for
tapeworm, which is nevertheless nearly two inches long ; of this I
shall speak further on. Opinions, such as those expressed
not long since by A. Beauchair and P. Vignier in the
' Gazette de Paris/ 1853, Nos. 29 and 30, are certainly an-
tiquated in Germany, and may be passed over in silence.
The times are past in which the generatio aquivoca made
its appearance, with a peculiar predisposition to worms ;
although this view may hide itseM" behind an extremely plausible
account of the remaining of the acids in the blood, the formation
of neutral salts, dealkalization of the blood with production of
weakness, and acid intestinal mucus, or behind fine-sounding
theories of the actions of remedies. What is there positive in
words like the following? "In the predisposition to worms, the
thick mucus of the intestine comes under our consideration in the
first place, as, being acid itself, it cannot purify the blood from
acids. From a portion of the mucus the worms are produced by
generatio cequivoca, with the assistance of asthenia and adynamia.
The worms produced, as the analysis shows, are still more acid
than the mucus, from which they are produced. Emetics, drastic
purgatives, mercury, antimony, and arsenic, certainly kill the
worms, but weaken the constitution, and thus actually rouse the
generatio aequivoca into activity, and thus cause the formation of
worms, &c." This sample will suffice to show how little tenable
there is in these last French attempts at the explanation of the
mode of production of the Ascarides.

Unfortunately here we are not even assisted by Bichter's
experiments. By his means, indeed, we know that the eggs of
Ascarides become further developed, free in the water, and that
the embryo is formed here; but hitherto all administrations of
these eggs to dogs, pigs, and other mammalia, have been unsuc-
cessful. It is true that no human individual has been experi-
mented on, and yet the direct transfer of the eggs with the
embryos may be sufficient for the perfect development of Ascaris
lumbricoides in man. On the other hand, however, it is also
possible that there is a previous migration through animals used
as human food.

What more we have to say upon the round-worms in general,
may be summed up in few words. The rest follows with the
consideration of the species. The general cutaneous covering is

GENERATIO ^SQUIVOCA. 319

a chitinous substance ; the muscles are principally formed of lon-
gitudinal fibres, whilst transverse fibres are never wanting;
the parenchyma appears to be rich in vacuoles, whence results the
great inflation of these worms in water ; on the sides there are
sometimes a few longitudinal lines, upon the signification of which
we shall speak under Oxyuris vermicularis ; a nervous system cer-
tainly occurs in them, although it had hitherto been overlooked,
and has recently been detected with certainty only in certain
Oxyurides, and I believe I have found parts of it also in Tricho-
cephalus ; the alimentary canal is divided into a muscular reso-
phagus and stomach, a thin-walled intestine partly furnished with
epithelium, and an anus; the sexual organs are divided between two
different individuals ; the orifice of the vagina lies rather anteriorly,
and that of the male sexual organs more towards the posterior
end. Peculiar clasping organs are found in the species of Strongy-
lus. A ventral sucker, which occurs in certain Oxyurides, appears
not to be possessed by 0. vermicularis. The penis is sometimes
simple, sometimes double, and sometimes lobed. It is not per-
forated, as in the Cestodea and Distoma, and if it had been per-
forated, it would have required a much greater lumen, and conse-
quently a much greater calibre, on account of the nature of the
spermatozoa. For whilst, in the Distoma, for instance, the
spermatozoa are always seen moving in the form of simple threads,
in the Nematoida they are observed to be of a more or less
globular form. To transfer these globular structures into the
vagina, all that is required is a hollowed furrow, in which the
seminal globule, if I may express myself so, rolls forward, just as
the ball is rolled back in a skittle-alley, from the person who
attends to the setting up of the skittles, to the players. In this
it is of no consequence whether the ball runs on a furrow which
is formed out of one piece, like the channel on the gable of
a house, or between two longitudinal laths directed obliquely
towards one another, but do not completely touch at their point
of greatest convergence, as may be seen, for example, if we allow
a billiard-ball to roll forward upon two cues, or in a furrow com-
posed of several laths, placed together in such a way that they
actually form an angular, but yet a nearly semicircular space, in
which the ball rolls forwards. The first of these three kinds of
furrows occurs in the worms with a simple penis (Oxyuris, Tri-
chocephalus) ; the second in those with a double, non-lobate
penis (Ascaris and Filaria) ; and the third in the Strongyli and

320 ANIMAL PARASITES.

their allies. With regard, to the latter, however, I do not know
whether each of the two lobate penes forms a furrow, or whether
the two together only form a single furrow. From this it will
be seen that in general I adopt Creplin's opinion, according to
which the penis of the Nematoida acts in the same way as the
ovipositor of many female insects. At the same time the penes
appear of themselves to effect the dilatation of the vagina of the
female, at least in soft-walled worms ; the simple ones, which are
conically pointed in front, but widened above and behind, must
act in the same way as simple uterine specula ; the double ones
like Ricord's speculum, and the lobate ones like those furnished
with several arms, such as that of Segalas. Sometimes, however, this
action is effected by peculiar organs entering with the penis into the
vagina, which we must certainly distinguish from sucking sur-
faces and structures like sucking lobes, and which we shall meet
with and describe amongst the Tricocephali1 and also in the
males of Oxyuris and Strongylus.

After this general introduction, I turn at once to the conside-
ration of the particular species.

I. Trichocephalus. Synon. — Trichuris (Roederer) ; Ascaris
(Linne) ; Mastiff odes (Zeder).

The name of Trichocephalus proposed by Goeze in 1782 has
since met with general acceptance, and Zeder's attempt in the
year 1803 to substitute that of Mastiff odes for it, must be
regarded as a complete failure.

In Diesing's system, the Trichocephali are placed in the Sub-
classis I, Achcethelmintha ; Sectio II, Achath. elastica ; Ordo VI,
Nematoidea ; Subordo II, Proctucha (ano instructa) ; Tribus III,
Gamonematoidea (tractus cibarius proprius simplex liber; organa
genitalia segregata) ; Sectio II, Acrophalli (penis in exlremitate
caudali e bursa protractilis) ; Familia I, Trichotrachelidea (collum
longissimum capillare ; penis in vagina tubulosa) ; XL III Tricho-
cephalus. Dujardin treats of the Trichocephali in the first class,
— Nematoidea, of which they form the sixth genus. The exact
systematic description to be given, with the assistance of Diesing's
and Dujardin's works, is as follows :

Corpus longissimum, ex 2 partibus formatum, quarum anterior,
tenuior filiformis posterior crassa, organa sexualia continent.

' The corresponding auxiliary organ in Trichocephalus dispar is precisely like a three-
armed uterine speculum.

1.

TEICHOCEPHALUS DISPAE. 321

Mas : tenuior quam femina ; penis simplex ; organou copula-
torium auxiliare spinosum, ex 3 branchiis compositum.

Femina : mare major et crassior ; vagina musculosa in abdo-
mine sese aperiens ; uterus simplex ; ovarium simplex. Animalia
ovipara, vix aut rarissime vivipara.

Ovula oblonga, subfusca, in utroque extremitate collo quodam
parvulo prominente ornata (en une sorte de goulot court,
Dujardiri) .

Trichocephalus dispar, with its progeny known as Trichina
spiralis (Owen and Luschka).

As we shall endeavour to show in what follows that the
Trichocephali and Trichinae are related together, we have first of
all to indicate the various places in the system to which these
two Entozoa are usually referred. Diesing in his ' System' treats
of Trichocephalus dispar in the place just referred to, — XLIII,
Trichocephalus, Species 1 ; and Dujardin, as Species 1 in his
sixth genus. Trichina, however, is placed by Diesing in the
Subordo II, Proctucha ; Tribus II, Agamonematoidea (tractus
cibarius proprius simplex liber. Organa genitalia nulld] • IV,
Trichina, Owen (corpus capillare tereliusculum], as No. 1, Tri-
china spiralis, whilst the meritorious Dujardin places it, and
certainly with perfect justice, in his first appendix to the nema-
tode worms (Nematoides vrais, qui ne peuvent etre classes sure-
ment dans les precedentes sections des Nematoides), as a genus
unprovided with a number. Although the conviction has been
constantly gaining ground that the encysted, asexual nematode
worms are only the young of known species of Entozoa in course
of migration (a circumstance entirely ignored by Diesing in his
classification, which is founded rather on the external form than
on the embryology and development), very few attempts have
been made to arrange these asexual round-worms with their
mature parents, or, to speak more correctly, to discover the
mature parents of these nematode worms, and thus to free the
classification of these Entozoa from unnecessary names, and
entirely get rid of superfluous genera. The course to be adopted
in this case is the same as that which we have already
followed with the Cestodea, and which we have indicated as
necessary to be followed with the Trematoda. In the attempt to

322 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

get Trichina spiralis into its place, we have consequently three
things to do.

Can we undertake such an arrangement — 1, by a strict exami-
nation of the anatomical peculiarities in the structure of the
worms to be compared ; 2, supported upon the administration of
the living, encysted round-worms in question to different animals ;
and 3, supported upon a similar administration of the mature
eggs of certain round-worms. In the present attempt at
arranging the Trichina with the Trichocephali, I have laid
this triple course clearly befofe me, and followed the first
and second of the paths indicated, but have been obliged to
omit the third from want of material. As we shall see further
on, the administration of Trichina spiralis to dogs led to no
result, and I have at present to undertake this arrangement
of the Trichina spiralis of Luschka and Owen with Trichocepha-
lus diftpar only upon the similarity of the anatomical structure.
This being done, I must also at once bring together the synonyma
of the two forms.

Synonyms of Trichocephalus dispar (Goeze). — Trichuris
(Hoederer and Wagler, 1761, 1762; Wrisberg, 1767; Bloch,
1782; Lamarck, 1816, who calls the worm Trichure in the
French, and Trichocephalus in the Latin text) ; Ascaris (Linne) ;
Mastigodes (Zeder, 1803).

Synonym of Trichina. — Cysticerci species (Hilton) ; Filaria
(of most authors).

Systematic description of Trichocephalus dispar. — Cutis trans-
verse striata, marginales rugas ad anum versus magnitudine ad-
ductas exhibens. Caput 0-02 mill, latum, retractile, obtuso-acumi-
nalum, interdum per parvd papilla instructum. Fractus intestinalis
constituitur ex wsophago ab initio recto, angustissimo, paullo post
toruloso, sensim per totum collum intumescente ; ventriculus pyri-
formis, ad latera sua glandulas 2 perparvas aut appendices alosas
aut nervorum ganglia gerens. Animalia f&cibus humanis pro
nutrimento utentia. Mas : omnino colore clarior, fusco-albior ;
circiter 37 mill, longus (caput et collum 22 ; truncus aut abdomen
15) ; in trunco 0'5 mill. — I'O mill, latus ; formam spiralem amans.
Testis et funiculus spermaticus simplex, ad intestini teuuis formam
volutus ; und cum tubo intestinali ante anum in cloacam communem
apertus. Penis simplex ; 3*35 mill, longus ; 0*042 mill, ad ex-
tremitatem infundibuliformem, 0*027 mill, ad apicem versus latus ;

TEICHOCEPHALUS DISPAR. 323

vagina laevi cylindricd instructus. Extremitas caudalis organo
copulatorio auxiliario, spinis armato, subcylindrico ornata, cujus
lonyitudo 0-451 mill = 0-198'" Par. = 0-203'" F, latitudo in
parte libera 0-090 mill. = 0-039'" Par. = 0-Q40"' F, in parte op.
posita fere 0'049 mill. = 0'0216'" P. = 0'022/// F. est. Cloacae
communis musculosas in maribus longitudo circiter 4 mill. — 2'" P. ;
latitudo 0-261 mill = 0-116'" P. = 0-119'" F ; latitudo foraminis
cloacae ipsius = (the lumen of the canal formed by the cloaca)
0-130 mill. = 0-058'" P. = 0'059'" F. Spermatozoidia globuli-
formia ad 50 mill, longa.

Femina .- in trunco rectior, minus curvata, mare aliquid latior,
minusque elastica et flexibilis, obovulorum in utero et ovariis
copiam, eaque de causa colore magis fusca ; extremitate caudali
obtuso acuminata.

Ovula fusca cum generis speciminibus ; 0'054 mill. =• 0'022//x
P. et F. longa; media in parte 0'025 mill. — 0-01127" P. et V.,
in apicibus O'Ol mill. = 0'0048/// P. et F. lata. Embryonum miora-
tioncs adhuc ignotce. VerisimiUimum est, Trichinas, quas dicerunt
spirales, Trichocephali disparts embryones esse.

Description of Trichina spiralis .- corpus plerumque in spiras 2 re-
tortum, ad anum versus crassius et obrotundatum, ad caput attenu-
atum ; tubus intestinalis, uti apud Trichoc. disparem, ab initio
multifarie retortus, ventriculus pyriformis cum lateralibus 2 appen-
dicis alosis (lobulis aut glandulis aut nervis), intestinum rectum
post coarctationem quandam iterum incrassatum, rectdque via ad
anum in extremitate posterior e edque crassiore apertam profectum.
Funiculus quidam secundus in utraque extremitate ccecus et semi-
lunaris genitalium primordia format (?)

Longit. vesicularum 0'2 — 0*5 — 0'77// = 0-4 — 1-0 — 1'5 mill. ;
latitudo fere mediam partem exhibet.

Longitudo vermiculi ex cystide liberati et evoluti secundum,
Luschka J — ^" ; secundum meas mensuras 1-115 mill. = 0*50//x
P. = 0-518''7 F. ; latitudo in capitis apice 0-008 mill. = 0'0036W
p. = 0-0037r// F. ; latitudo extremitatis posterioris seu ani 0-024
mill. = 0-01087" P. = O-lll"' F

The Trichocephalus dispar was first discovered by Morgagni in
the csecum and vermiform appendage of typhous patients, and is
mentioned in his ' Epistolse Anatomicse.' Subsequently, in the
year 1761, it was found by a student of Gottingen, who regarded
it as a young Ascaris lumbricoides, or a very large Oxyuris ver-
micularis, although Roederer and Wagler immediately recognised

324 ANIMAL PARASITES.

it as a distinct worm, which they found abundantly in the epidemic
"Morbus mucosus" observed by them, admitting it to be produced
by generatio cequivoca during this disease, of which they regarded
it as a pathognomonic indication. For a long time, indeed, it
was supposed that this worm only existed in the intestine of
typhous patients, but it has now been found that it has no par-
ticular relation to any disorder of the human intestine. The
physiological zoologist is compelled to conceive the affair in the
following way. The dwelling place of our worm is the lowest
region of the small intestine, near about the ileo-csecal valve, and
the large intestine with its appendages ; in short, that region of
the intestine in which the chyme is just becoming of a rather
thicker consistence. From the dingy colour of the worm, which
is principally caused by its feeding upon human excrement,
it probably escapes the eye of the observer in general, and is only
detected with ease when the intestines are free from the thick,
dark-coloured contents (the true refuse of the food). This will
be the case especially in disorders associated with diarrhoea of
long duration, or with recent, violent, very watery diarrhoea.
Thus probably it happened, that the worm was at first
found only in typhus and typhoid disorders, whilst it was
overlooked in the dysenteries accompanied by stagnation of
the faeces in the large intestine. But if we were to soften the
contents of the large intestine in water, and pass the faeces thus
softened through a fine sieve, as some people do in seeking for
the heads of tape-worms after attempted expulsion, we should
meet with the worm much more frequently. By a process of this
kind we should also certainly convince ourselves that authors
who say that these worms usually inhabit the human intestine
only in small numbers, or even singly, are very much in the
wrong, and that the numbers found by dissection are usually so
small only because the diarrhoea has already removed most of the
worms, and only the stragglers, certainly the most vigorous
marauders of the troop, are still to be found. Moreover, cases
are known in which the Trichocephali were found in considerable
number. Thus, even Rudolphi says, " Trichocephalus dispar in
hominis cceco et colo vulgatissimm, in tenuibus rarior" and further,
in the third observation, "in omnibus fere cadaveribus humanis
a me examinatis offendi Trichocephalos, semel ultra 1000 specimina
in femince intestinis crassis vidi.}) Bellingham also once found
119 specimens in the cascum alone of an individual in Dublin.

TKICHOCEPHALUS DTSPAE. 325

This worm has been found in Europe and Africa in children and
adults, and probably occurs also in other parts of the world.

Anatomy and physiology of the worm. — Of the form of the
body we shall speak presently ; we commence with the
skin. In both males and females it consists of transverse
rings (Wedl) passing into each other, which are formed of the
well-known chitinous substance, colourless, and, to a certain
extent, elastic. On the free margins these are somewhat pointed,
or appear rather rounded when seen from the surface, by which
the worm acquires sometimes a more undulated, sometimes a
more serrated appearance. Moreover, fine, small elevations, some-
times round (like warts), sometimes acute (like spines), run
round the animal upon the epidermis, which Wedl has indicated
in his figure 191 h} and which I also think I have seen in some
specimens, especially on the anterior part of the body, but
which I have omitted to figure, both on account of their indis-
tinctness, and because they would easily have destroyed the
clearness and intelligibility of the figure. As far as I could
make out, these little warts and spines are only retained in
patches upon the worm, and very readily fall off from spaces
of considerable extent. However, any one can easily form an
idea of them for himself, if he imagines the whole body covered
with the same coat of booklets, which we find upon the copu-
latory organ of the male. Here they remain longest, and
perhaps are more persistent in this part because this organ is
retractile, and therefore much less exposed to external friction,
&c., than the general epidermis of the animal. Here, therefore,
we have an analogue of what we have seen in the Trematoda,
when speaking of the penis of Distoma hepaticum.

In treating of the skin we have still to speak of the longitu-
dinal streak which runs down on each side of the worm, and which
is particularly distinct upon the anterior part of the body, but is
also present upon the abdomen, and which has had very various
significations given to it by different authors. Dujardin refers
to it in these words : " Tegument strie transversalement, avec
une bande longitudinale herissee de petites papilles." The little
papillae are an attribute of the entire skin, as we have seen •
but certainly, by their falling off in groups, may also occur in
band-like streaks. Wedl speaks of a band-like streak, and
inquires whether it is not a structureless layer. In my
opinion this streak is nothing but an optical phenomenon, caused

326 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

by the cessation, at tins spot, of the parenchymatous contents
of the animal (intestine and muscles), and the rapid
approximation of the two empty layers of the epidermis of the
animal. As the worm is round, and a small space still remains
between the complete fusion and the closest possible approxi-
mation of the lamellse of the skin, and the shadows of these two
lines do not fall exactly in one. level, the whole presents the
appearance of a band. If, as appears to be the case, Wedl
intended something of this kind by the expression " structureless
layer/' I perfectly agree with him in his opinion.

Body. — As the Trichosoma consist of a thin filiform, and
thick, catgut-like portion, so also do the Trichocephali, only that
in the former the anterior, and in the latter the posterior, part of
the body is the thickest. Only the mature females are distin-
guished by their external form from the males. Thus, the male
coils up both the anterior part of the body and the abdomen in
spiral turns, in the same way as the other nematode worms.
Hence we always meet with the male more or less in the form of
a spiral or of a repeatedly twisted cord. It would be difficult to
judge from this how the worm could have been characterised by
the name of whip-worm (Peitschenwurm), if we were not obliged
to admit that this name is very suitable to the females, and
these, being larger, were probably first discovered. Thus the
abdomen of the latter may be very well compared to the straight,
thick, stiff, short, stick or stem of a whip, to which the slender
body is attached like the lash of the whip (as in a dog-whip or
sledge- whip). The anterior thinner part presents no further dif-
ferences in the males and females. The head is pointed towards
its anterior extremity, but always terminates somewhat flattened.
Even when the worm is treated with white of egg, and in fluids
whose contact with the worm does not usually cause the emission
of sarcode globules, we often perceive, at the extreme tip of the
head, the protrusion of a small, hyaline, onion-like structure, which
passes off in an obtusely conical form anteriorly, and which I rarely
saw wanting. This appears to me to show that we have to do in
this case with a peculiar structure, capable of eversion and inver-
sion, belonging to the worm, and not with a drop of sarcode. This
apex of the head of the worm is perforated by a mouth, which is
followed by a long, straight, rather cleft-like apparatus. After run-
ning about 0-8 mill. = O4"' in the male, the digestive apparatus
becomes enlarged, and forms very narrow dilatations and coustric-

TKICHOCEPHALUS DISPAE. 327

tions on the sides. This latter at least takes place, undoubtedly,
in the portion of the intestinal canal which is situated more
towards the end of the so-called neck ; previously, and in the
anterior part of the neck, a similar arrangement seems rather to
be apparent ; and the similar appearance seems to be produced
by the narrow intestinal canal forming very narrow turns from
one side to the other. The further the intestinal canal proceeds
backwards, the broader and thicker does it become, until at the
point where the anterior part of the body passes into the
abdomen it is again narrowed to a slender thread. At the sides
of the whole of this region of the intestine there is a tolerably evi-
dent layer of muscles or contractile parenchyma, which penetrates
into all the vacuities of the convolutions of the alimentary canal,
and forms a mass of small triangles, with their apices turned
towards the intestine, and the apices of which appear, as it were,
to hold the alimentary apparatus stretched towards the sides.
At the base of the hindmost dilatation of the alimentary appa-
ratus in the anterior part of the body, and at the place where
this passes into the above-mentioned thin thread which leads to
the pyriform stomach, there are two wing-like appendages directed
forwards, which in general are of a much lighter yellowish colour
than the alimentary canal itself, and which appear, in Trichina
spiralis, to turn back again. I regarded these as glands, or small
caeca, or appendages of the alimentary canal, but have become
doubtful of the correctness of this interpretation, since I have
been acquainted with Walter's investigation of the nervous system
of Oxyuris. They may, perhaps, be portions of the cesophageal
ring which occurs in the Nematoida. Unfortunately, I have
had no opportunity of examining fresh Trichocephali with this
view, so that I must leave the signification of these wings an
open question. The inner wall of this entire apparatus appears
to be clothed with a round, granular, sparing epithelium, which,
however, Wedl regards as verruciform elevations, and therefore as
a kind of gland or villi, looking towards the lumen of the
alimentary canal. This part is followed by the pyriform stomach.
At this point, also, the thin anterior body ceases, and with the
point where the stomach is found we arrive at the point of
transition of the anterior part of the body (collum) into the
abdomen (truncus, abdomen), which there presents essential differ-
ences in the two sexes, which are well worth close attention.
Upon the pyriform dilatation of the stomach follows, first of all,

328 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

in both sexes, a narrow, short tube ; which, however, very soon
acquires a greater diameter, so that the intestine in these places
is about 0'2 mill, in breadth. In the male, the intestine then
runs down in a tolerably straight, or, at the utmost, simply con-
torted course, and with its diameter remaining nearly the same,
on the inner side of the worm ; that is to say, on the side
towards which the caudal extremity of the male bends round.
About the point where the penultimate third of the abdomen
passes over into the last third, this intestine again narrows itself
into a very thin tube, which runs obliquely across the worm as far
as a little beyond the middle, and near to the outer side, where
it opens and projects a considerable piece into a large, strongly
muscular, tubular sac, near a second canal, which is also very
narrow, and runs more directly downwards. The two narrow
canals are closed at their points of opening into the large mus-
cular sac, with loop-like or valvular contrivances, by which the
retrogression of the contents of the large sac into the canals
opening into it, is certainly prevented. This muscular sac
forms an apparatus which serves the male sex as a common cloaca
and seminal efferent duct, of which we shall speak again under
the sexual organs. In the male, consequently, the intestinal
canal ceases some distance before the caudal extremity, and the
excrements pass out through the cloaca just mentioned. In the
female the intestine runs in simple contortions, directly, and in a
straight line, into the anus, and is of the same calibre throughout
as far as the anus itself, which usually presents the appear-
ance of a cleft, produced by the assistance of muscles or con-
tractile tissue occurring in that place.

The sexual apparatus of the male consists of a simple penis, a
funiculus spermaticus or testicle which opens into the above-
mentioned tubular sac, and an appendix copulatorius. I was
unable to find the commencement of the organ which forms the
semen, as it conceals itself behind the penis and the common sac
just referred to; and I could not follow it any further than to
the point indicated on PI. VII, fig. 1, between i, A1, and e, which, how-
ever, we may perhaps consider as the blind extremity of the testicle.
From this point the organ for the preparation of the semen rises
upwards, gradually becoming wider behind, and beneath, and close
to the intestinal canal, in undulatory curves, up to the short, canal-
like, contracted part of the intestine, which lies between the an-
terior extremity of the stomach and the csecal, yellow appendages

TRTCHOCEPHALUS DISPAR. 329

of the last intestinal convolution of the narrow anterior part of
the body. Here the seminiferous organ bends round in a loop,
passes over the intestine towards the other side of the worm, and
then runs downwards for a considerable space, with its margins
undulated, and at its broadest places is about twice as thick as the
intestine, or about 0*4 mill. Afterwards, at the same turn in
which the intestine of the male was described as becoming nar-
rower, this seminiferous organ contracts into a very short, narrow,
straight tube, which opens into the dilated, muscular cloaca,
with tolerably thick uniform walls, close to the portion of the
intestine already referred to, and is also closed with a valve at
this point. This discharging canal of the testis, or funiculus
spermaticus, appears to be the same part which Wedl figures as
the cascum-like commencement of the testis. As the walls are
thicker here, and therefore the interior of the canal, when empty,
must be distinguished more clearly, and by its paler colour, it is
easily explained how Wedl was deluded into supposing that these
pale lines were the efferent ducts of the caecal testicle, whilst they
are nothing but the simple lumen of the anterior extremity of the
long testis, which opens by an efferent duct, overlooked by Wedl,
into the tubular sac serving as a common efferent canal for the
excrement and semen. The seminal elements themselves are
quite correctly described by Wedl, and consist of a granular
mass provided with light, round bodies (the ringed spermatozoa,
or, more correctly, the seminal globules of the nematode worms) ;
they may be very distinctly traced into the sac just described as
serving in common for the cloaca and sexual apparatus. About
at the same level where this repeatedly mentioned, thick-walled
cloacal tube commences with a knobbed dilatation, or a little more
anteriorly, originate, on the inner side of the wall, two band-like,
elastic stripes or bands, which in a short time unite into a sort of
light case or tube, which receives the penis in its interior (the
retractile sheath of the penis). The penis itself is simple, en-
larged in the form of a funnel at its root, becoming constantly
more and more pointed towards its free extremity, where it ter-
minates in a bluntly rounded point, like the end of a hollow
sound, and it is hollowed out throughout its course in
the same way. The sheath of the penis just described opens
into the lowest third of the cloaca, so often referred to, by
penetrating through that wall of the cloaca which is turned
towards the side of the worm designated as the inner side,

330 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

and the walls of the sheath appear to coalesce with the wall
of the cloaca just mentioned. The elastic sheath of the penis,
formed, as already remarked, of elastic bands, by its contractility
enables the penis to project or retreat into the cloaca. It appears
to me to be most probable that during coition the infundibuli-
form root of the penis itself is pushed forward to the point at
which the above-mentioned elastic envelope of the penis opens
into the cloaca, and at this point takes up the seminal filaments
or globules, which are then conflucted forward to the vagina in
the furrow of the penis. The kind of mechanism by which the
transfer of the seminal globules to the female vagina is effected
has already been referred to.

In the act of copulation, the male is assisted not only by the
possibility of bending his caudal extremity into a semicircular
form, arid thus embracing the female, but also by the existence
at the very extremity of the cloaca, of a cylindrical protrusible
and retractile appendage,, which is certainly intended to enter the
vagina. This appendage (bursa, gaine renflee ou vesiculeuse of
authors) forms a tube, the basal substance of which is the general
skin of the body. On its surface it possesses small warts or
spines, which have already been mentioned under the general in-
tegument, which have their points directed upwards and outwards,
and certainly assist in the fixation of the male in the vagina of the
female during copulation, and remain longest upon this part of
the body without falling off, because this tube itself being re-
tractile within the abdomen of the male, and on the whole but
rarely used, is less exposed to mechanical injury or friction
from without. This appendage, moreover, has several excisions
at its extremity, by which the whole acquires an appearance as
though it were composed of several branches, which separate in
a gaping manner at their free end. I can compare this appear-
ance with nothing better than with that of the anterior extremity
of an expanded uterine speculum with several arms. The number
of branches formed by these tubes, is not so easily ascertained;
there are certainly three, if not four, which I have several times
thought I counted. By this structure also the act of copulation
itself is essentially assisted and facilitated. Thus, in the
first place, the free ends of the tube must lie together in the
form of a cone, and open the somewhat thick-walled rigid
vagina. As soon as the tube enters the vagina, the branches
probably separate; and, as it were, throw themselves outwards,

TEICHOCEPHALUS DISPAK. 331

like the tips of the branches of a Ricord's uterine speculum, by
which the vagina is kept expanded and the entrance of the penis
is rendered possible ; this, from its small diameter, certainly
requiring a means of support during its stay in the vagina. This
tube can never act as a sucking apparatus for adhesion.

With this we quit the description of the male, and beg the
reader to compare PI. VII, figs. 1 and 1'. The serrated
denticulation of the lateral walls is omitted ; compare the
female, fig. 2.

In the female the intestine, after it has become widened again
suddenly behind that contraction which follows upon the portion
of the intestine which is furnished with cseca, runs in the form of
a strong tubular sac, entirely or partially covered by the oviferous
organs, and remaining tolerably straight, and of nearly the same
diameter, directly to the extremity of the abdomen, when it
becomes narrowed into the form of a cleft, by a muscular closing
apparatus a little way from the caudal extremity ; but at its point
of issue forms a tolerably broad anus, appearing as a circular
orifice, which projects in a verrucose, nearly square excrescence
in the centre of the extremity of the abdomen.

The disentanglement of the finest terminations of the female
sexual apparatus is a matter of great difficulty, but the following
may be detected with ease.

Between the little cseca above-mentioned and the anterior end
of the pyriform stomach, in the same place where the semi-
niferous organ of the male bends over from the inner side out-
wards, a twisted, tolerably thick tube runs directly over the
intestine, transversely towards one side (the outer side) of the
worm, where it opens with an orifice of about 0*08 mill.
=0-036'" Par. =0 037'" V. in diameter in the lumen. The.
vagina possesses no appendage projecting outwards, as is the case,
for example, in the vagina of many Trichosoma. This is the
opening of the vagina. Its commencement quickly makes
some narrow convolutions of equal calibre posteriorly, and then
becomes dilated into a pretty large, simple, uterine, tubular sac,
which runs straight backwards immediately upon and over the
intestine, and which after it has passed through about six-sevenths
of the length of the entire abdomen of the worm, turns back
upon itself and runs forward, then again backward, and still
nearer to the anus, without, however, quite reaching it, runs back,
coiled and complicated in convolutions, which gradually become

332 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

thinner, passing in the most various directions, sometimes forward,
sometimes backward, up to the level of the vaginal opening,
and thence again runs backward, and also passes once more to
the other side over the contracted part of the intestine already
referred to. At this spot the tube has already become very thin
and filiform, but its finer extremity can be traced no further.
The convolutions last described form the ovary, and as far as they
could be traced, they only present the same phenomena as those
of the other nematode worms, of which we shall speak further
under the Strongyli. I shall only add a few words upon the
eggs themselves. The eggs of both kinds of worms have an
external, brownish, tolerably thick shell, distinctly bordered by
two outlines, of a longish oval form, or more correctly of the form
of a small longish cask, or of a large fish-basket. This shell,
however, does not reach to the poles of the oval, but ceases a
little from the commencement of these, and from the poles
of the egg protrudes a small, light, wart-like body of a roundish
shape, which forms, as it were, a sort of cap on the poles.
JDujardin says of these eggs : — " Les ceufs d'une forme oblongue
sont revetus d'une coque resistante, qui se prolonge aux deux
extremites en une sorte de goulot court, a travers lequel la mem-
brane interne plus diapharie parait faire saillie." Mayer has
described this little cap under the name of a " short diverticulum,"
and this certainly depends upon the formation of the eggs in the
fleshy oviduct. They contain sometimes only yelk in course of
segmentation, sometimes ready formed, young embryos. The
fate of these eggs, with the brood, is undoubtedly to pass
outwards, then either to be swallowed probably by various
species of animals, which man employs as food, in the bodies of
which the brood then migrates onward, and fixing itself in their
muscular layers becomes encysted there, or perhaps also to wan-
der directly from without into the bodies of their hosts, which,
however, appears very improbable to me. That even this question
will be cleared up in time by experiment, I am firmly convinced,
and I only regret that, from want of material, it has hitherto
been impossible for me to administer the mature eggs of
Trichocephali. Perhaps my request expressed in letters to
the Imperial Medical Society of Vienna, and to two of the
most celebrated German pathological and physiological anato-
mists, to undertake experiments of this kind, may have a
result. In the institution of experiments of this kind, I had

TBICHINA SPIRALIS. 333

originally the dog in my eye, but perhaps wrongly, as this animal
appears to be better adapted to further the development of
certain further advanced, encysted, but still immature entozoa in
his intestine, than to produce the encysted forms from the
embryos which have migrated through the walls of his intestinal
canal. I advise any one who may have the means for this expe-
riment at command, to make it upon sheep, rabbits, or, above all,
upon pigs. For without at all believing that all the hitherto dis-
covered, encysted, immature nematode worms belong to one and
the same species, I think that Diesing's Trichina affinis, which
Leidy found in Philadelphia in the extensors of the thighs of a
pig, and which can scarcely be said to be larger, may be identical
with our T. spiralis. For this reason, therefore, I advise the
administration of the eggs of Trichocephalus dispar to the pig,
which is moreover the victim of a Trichocephalus within its
intestine, which we know as T. affinis, and which is regarded by
many as identical with T. dispar.

This last announcement of the occurrence of Trichina
affinis in the flesh of the pig, however, gives us a hint as
to how man may possibly infect himself with Trichocephalus
dispar. This would take place in the same way as we
have described under Taenia solium ; that is to say, by the
consumption of pork which is beset with Trichina. Upon
the unsuccessful experiments in the administration of the true
Trichina spiralis to dogs, the reader may consult the following
remarks.

Trichina spiralis,Owen andLuschka, as the brood of Trichocephalus
dispar engaged in migration. (PI. VII, figs. 5 — 8.)

This asexual worm, first described by Owen in 1835, was
first seen, according to Diesing, by Tiedemann in the year 1822,
at least he first found the cysts of the worm. Subsequently,
the worm was seen by Hilton and Wormald in 1833, by
Paget and Knox, and also by Kobelt and BischofF in 1841, and
in Denmark by Monster and Svitzer in 1843. In Germany
it has been seen and described repeatedly. But, nevertheless,
the descriptions of the worm have been very imperfect, until that
given by Luschka and Herbst in 1851. Luschka's anatomical

334 ANIMAL PARASITES.

description, with the exception of a few small errors, leaves
little to be added, for which reason we shall here examine
the worm, its mode of life, and its other peculiarities, in accord-
ance with Luschka's communications in the third volume of
Siebold and Kolliker's ' Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaftliche Zoologie/
pp. 69 — 79, at the same time making use of the facts demon-
strated by Meissner with regard to the migration of the young
of the Gordii in the seventh volume of the same journal, and also
weaving in our somewhat different views as to the structure,
mode of immigration and derivation of Trichinae. The
seat of the worm is, as is well known, the muscles of volun-
tary motion, and it is sometimes so diffused in these, that even
the smallest muscles, such as those of the tympanum, the internal
muscles of the larynx, of the eye, and of the tongue, the mus-
cular fibres of the alimentary canal down to its middle, the
diaphragm, the constrictor cunni, the sphincter ani interims, &c.,
are not spared. In the heart and the sphincter ani externus,
however, no traces of this worm have yet been found. The
muscles inhabited by Trichina are, as it were, found throughout,
both on the surface and in their depths, with small, dingy-white
granules, resembling grains of sand. The arrangement of the
capsules of the worms within the muscular tissue is irregular;
sometimes they lie in groups, sometimes singly, sometimes
arranged in a line one behind the other, but do not usually touch
each other with their ends, as both Luschka and I can prove,
although this contact, described by Owen, may easily take place
in other cases. In the places where the capsules of Trichina are
seated, fatty tissue is constantly inserted, and indeed, generally
at their anterior and posterior extremities ; this, which is
collected together in large globules or cells, is placed about
the Trichina which occur singly, in such a manner that the
layer of fat is thickest in the neighbourhood of the ends of
the capsule, but thence gradually diminishes in a conical form
towards the surrounding spot of muscle which has remained
free from Trichina, so that we see distinctly that the fat is only
deposited to fill up the space which must necessarily be produced
after the Trichina has penetrated between a couple of muscular
fibres, and pressed these apart. A discoloration of the muscle
inclining towards a pale red, or a greater degree of softness, can
hardly be a consequence of the worm itself. In Luschka's

TRICHINA SPIRALIS. 335

case, for instance, even the muscle of the heart, which was free

from Trichinae, was tender and exhibited fatty degeneration, and

in other muscles also entire moniliform longitudinal series of

fatty vesicles were deposited. Such phenomena are to be

ascribed to accompanying diseases, as in Luschka's case to

clyscrasia alcoholica, and at present we do not know at all whether

any particular texture of the muscles preeminently disposes them

for the flourishing of Trichina. The development itself may be

as follows : When a human being swallows in any way the

eggs or the youngest brood developed into ready-formed embryos

which occur in the eggs, or perhaps also when any female

Trichocephali residing in the small intestine of a man scatter

their eggs with the ready-formed embryos in them, which may

not be of very rare occurrence, within the human small intestine,

arid also probably as far as the stomach, and when in either

case the egg-shells are burst and the embryos set free in

the intestinal canal, the desire of migration proper to them

awakens in them, and they set out, like the embryos of many

other Nematoida, in the shortest and easiest way towards the part

of the tissues which they particularly prefer as their dwelling

place. Whilst the brood of the Gordiacea, which are deposited

in the water, free themselves from their egg-shells, according to

Meissner, by boring through it with their twelve hooklets, and

then pierce directly through the articulating membrane of the

tarsi of the larvee of Ephemera during the night into the feet of

the latter, and then advance between the primitive fasciculi of

the muscles through the foot into the body ; in the case of those

young round worms, whose brood is neither deposited in the

water nor escapes there, but which reach the intestinal canal in

the interior of their egg-shells, the bursting of the latter may take

place with the assistance of the digestive process, and then the

migration may go on through the thin walls of the intestinal

canal, and they further advance in the body, by pushing forward

between the displaced muscular fibres. That in this case, as in

that of the Cestodea, the intestinal canal may furnish a point ot

immigration from the exterior, is best shown by the fact that the

muscles of the tongue, pharynx, and oesophagus, as well as the

Sphincter ani internus, are visited by the Trichinae. In some cases

also the blood may be the bearer of the migrating brood. Meissner

not unfrequently found the young within the blood-vascular

system, and, for example, often attached to the inner walls of the

336 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

heart, and once even to a valve of the dorsal vessel, so that the
little animal was shaken to and fro with the valve, and in the
same way Leuckart, according to communications by letter, has
also found the brood of the cestode worms so abundantly in
blood-vessels that he thinks the blood is the most usual course of
migration, and furnishes the readiest explanation of the widely
diffused occurrence of analogous grades of development of other
parasites in the same body. For my own part, I believe that
both courses of migration are followed simultaneously, but I do
not venture to give an opinion as to the greater frequency of one
or the other. With regard to the possibility of a self-infection
in the case of those who harbour Trichocephalus dispar, the
reader may compare what has been said respecting self-infection
with Cysticercus cellulose. But however this may be,
after the immigration, which may certainly often occur in
this manner that a second, third, &c., embryo follows the
line of march struck out by its predecessor and remains
stationary behind it (linear arrangement) or in its neighbourhood
(arrangement in groups), the further process is certainly the
following, with which we have already become acquainted amongst
the Cestodea, and which Meissner has distinctly traced in the
larvae of Ephemera. When the embryos of the Gordiacea reach
a spot which they recognise as suitable, they resign themselves to
repose, lie still, contract their head and proboscis, bend the
abdomen again sharply round, so that the caudal extremity comes
to lie close to the anterior extremity, without presenting any new
organ, or throwing off any other, and then surround themselves
closely with a clear thin wall, sharply limited externally and
produced by secretion from the Gordius itself, whilst the muscular
fasciculus surrounding it loses its structure, and a granular,
fragmentary mass lies around it, frequently also indicating the way
by which the Gordius came ; or in other parts of the body, the
host forms a cyst closely adherent to his tissues, consisting
of concentric layers of a fibrous or lamellar substance with
imbedded cell-nuclei. The processes in the encystation of the
TricJiince may take place in this last-mentioned manner. The
brood, when it has arrived at the desired place, comes to a
state of repose, approximates the head and caudal extremity in
spiral turns, without however contracting a part of the head, and
is then perhaps surrounded even on the part of the worm with a
peculiar layer, but certainly enveloped, on the part of the host,

TRICHINA SP1KALIS. 337

witli a capsule and cyst in which the worm increases in size to a
certain extent, and besides the intestinal canal, developes the
primitive foundations of an organ which we shall hereafter find
to belong to the generative apparatus. In this case also no
organ of the worm is cast off in the metamorphosis, as is the
case, for example, in the Cer canoe. The structure of the en-
veloping membranes of the young Trichina which occur in the
muscles of the human subject has not yet been observed, but
from what Meissner says on this subject and what we know of
the Cestoidea, we may certainly draw some definite conclusions.
The immigration itself will hardly take place without inflammation
of the tissues passed through, to which the human organism
answers by exudation, which also furnishes the material for the
capsule enveloping the Trichina, of which, making use of
Luschka, we give the following description :

The cyst, which varies greatly in dimensions (on an average
0*32 mill, in length and O038 mill, in transverse diameter), is
sometimes oval, sometimes circular, sometimes exhibiting elon-
gated extremities on both sides, sometimes only at one end. In
Luschka's case the latter formations were extremely rare, and the
oval forms were the most common ; by other authors, those with
a process on one side are said to be the more ordinary forms,
and these were also the most abundant in the case observed by
Zenker, and presented to me to make use of, and indeed so
abundant, that Zeriker in sending me the fresh muscle with
Trichinae, called my attention at once to this variation from
Luschka's observation. Besides the forms with a process on one
side, I also had the opportunity of detecting processes on both
sides. Luschka very rarely found tubular or gourd-like cysts.

According to the time which has elapsed since the immigration,
the cysts are sometimes transparent and sometimes opaque, and
then white by reflected and dark by transmitted light, rich in
sharply defined, larger and smaller elementary granules, which
are placed more or less close together, always less close towards
the periphery (leaving lighter spots and a lighter periphery
of 0-024 mill, in breadth), and which give the capsule a tole-
rably rigid texture, so that it grates when cut. These struc-
tures, which imitate the form of the elementary granules, are
probably nothing but carbonate of lime, or lime salts combined
with an organic substance. That this deposition of lime salts in
the walls of the cysts increases with the time which has elapsed

Y

338 ANIMAL PAEASITES,

between the immigration and the moment of dissection, must he
self evident ; however, it is also to he observed, that the deposition
of the lime salts depends also upon the age of the host. Thus,
for example, in Zenker's case, which was also investigated by
me, the cysts were firm, but in general very transparent, the
patient was of middle age ; in Luschka' s case all were calcified,
the patient being about eighty years old. But if once the cal-
careous deposition referred to has taken place towards the walls
of the cysts, no transparency can be produced either by solution
of potash or acetic acid, nor any change by boiling with ether,
or keeping in that fluid. The addition of concentrated muriatic
acid, however, appears to reestablish the solubility of the carbo-
nate of lime by the destruction of the organic compounds, as,
after the application of this, abundant air-bladders are evolved,
and even the darkest cysts become clear and transparent, and
allow the worm to be perceived in their interior.

According to Luschka the cyst of Trichina exhibits two
layers, different both in their composition and signification.
"The outer layer, which especially determines the form of
the cyst, where peculiar processes exist, forms these as solid pro-
longations, into which the inner envelope is rarely continued and
only in cases of great dilatation. The tissue consists of irregu-
larly arranged, very fine fibres, which, crossing each other re-
peatedly, form a narrow-meshed net, and behave towards caustic
potash and acetic acid like ligamentous tissue, except that the
fibres do not entirely disappear, but offer a partial resistance."
The last circumstance was referred by Luschka, in 1851, to the
age of the particular fibres ; but according to his more recent,
admirable investigations, we see in this reaction a proof that in
this case we have to do with the same fundamental formative
material, which we also meet with in the cysts of the Cestoidea,
that is to say, "protoplastic fibres of the cellular tissue," to
which Luschka, before he was aware of their mode of produc-
tion and nature, had given the name of serous fibres, and to
which I also, following Luschka, gave the same name, in my
book upon " the Cestoidea in general and those of man in par-
ticular." A true lamellar structure cannot be recognised in this
layer, although it can be broken up into separate band-like struc-
tures. In older cysts it is difficult, in young ones easy, to bring
the inner layer into view, after tearing the outer one. The
outer envelope is at the same time the bearer of a very distinct

TEICHINA SP111ALIS. 339

vascular net, which may be particularly well traced by direct
light, and which probably effects the conveyance of nutriment less
by direct transudation, than by similar processes to those with
which we have become acquainted amongst the encysted brood
of the Teenies.

The inner, nearly homogeneous, or but sparingly fibrous or
granular layer, which is always roundish, resists the action of
caustic potash, acetic acid, and muriatic acid ; it is very rich in
calcareous corpuscles, and belongs rather to the Trichina itself,
but is probably rather agglutinated, than truly coalescent with
the outer envelope, as may be seen from perpendicular sections
which show a distinct separation of the Iwo layers, and from their
partial separation in consequence of treatment with muriatic acid.
That this enveloping layer is derived from the animal itself, I am,
for my own part, as firmly convinced as Luschka, and I only
regret that I could not detect the same in those capsules of
Trichinae which enclose two or more worms in common, that
Meissner has done for analogous cysts of Gordii with twins.
Thus, according to the latter, each young Gordius is enclosed iu
a cyst formed by the worm itself, within the cyst formed by the
host. In Meissner's fig. 36, PL VII, we distinctly recognise
the outlines of these separate envelopes formed by the worm,
especially at the spots between the two worms where these cysts
cover each other. Perhaps it is owing to my clumsiness that I
could not find these separate cysts, and others will perhaps suc-
ceed in furnishing this proof; or they may not exist at all or at
any time in this Trichina, or, lastly, they may be absorbed again
in the places between the worms, in most, and especially in the
older cases, which is by no means improbable.

Gairdner found Trichina in all the transversely striated
muscles (' Monthly Journ. of Med. Science/ May, 1853, p. 473).
Sanders and Kirk state that there are around the worm' — 1,
an external fibrous envelope ; 2, a tolerably thick layer of a
white, transparent, homogeneous substance ; and 3, an internal
round capsule. These observers frequently saw a small cyst
lying upon a large one, and in two cases a small round vesicle
at the narrow end of the cyst.

The contents of the cysts consist of one or more animals, and
a small quantity of fluid, which keeps the inner envelope extended.
The fluid is sometimes clear, as in Kobelt's and Zenker's cases,
because the Trichinae in these were comparatively young; some-

340 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

times, in cysts with worms which had not long been dead and
destroyed, it showed traces of organic retrogression and decompo-
sition. Luschka observed in them either the well-known molecular
granulations or larger corpuscles, measuring on an average
0-008 mill., partly round, partly elliptical, perfectly translucent,
and homogeneous, or but rarely delicately granulated, sometimes
isolated, sometimes deposited in groups, united by fine molecular
corpuscles (fat), not converted into polygonal forms by mutual
pressure, quickly soluble in caustic potash, but unalterable by
acetic acid, and with a distinct nucleolus measuring 0.00013 mill.
In cysts with worms which had long been dead, or in those which
contained no worms, these corpuscles were entirely wanting.
The wormless cysts are rare, according to Luschka. Amongst
several hundreds, scarcely ten occur ; and I do not at all remember
having found any such. According to Luschka, they contain a
clear, thickish fluid, with small formative elements, or only a few
elementary granules, but they exhibited two distinct layers, whence
he assumes that the Trichina must have perished by arrest of
development in its earliest period, and therefore soon after the for-
mation of the inner membrane, but that the cyst itself cannot
become empty by the death of a fully-developed worm within it,
because the remains of the dead worm might be plainly discovered
in other cysts. I cannot entirely agree with this opinion of that
frequently mentioned and highly esteemed savant, because I do
not find it stated by him that the wormless cysts were at the
same time the smallest, scarcely recognisable or measurable cysts.
For, if we suppose in general, that the inner layer of the cyst is
a product of the worm, and that its formation is commenced at
once by the worm in its earliest period, and almost simultaneously
with the moment of encystation, which is also my opinion, and
which we have seen to be the case, according to Meissner,
amongst the Gordii, we must also further admit that the new
formation of the inner layer ceases with the death of the worm,
and that therefore, if the worm have died in its earliest youth, as
Luschka thinks, the inner layer must also have stood still in its
growth. This last circumstance must, then, necessarily lead to
the result that the cysts either remained quite small, or that, if
the outer layer increased in size, and the inner could no longer
increase with it, the latter would adhere in pieces to the inner wall
of the larger cyst. Of neither of these occurrences do we find
any mention by Luschka, and we cannot consequently suppose

TRICHINA SPIRALIS. 341

that any cyst of this kind may have been subsequently broken in
some way, either of itself or by mechanical causes, so that the
ready-formed worm mny have wandered into the vicinity of a
capsule, and there again inclosed itself and become encysted
by the organism. It appears to me as though we must
suppose, that these wormless cysts have previously inclosed
a further developed Trichina, and that a complete solution
of the worm must have taken place. The chemical possi-
bility cannot be denied, a priori) and I only regret that the
material for investigation was not within my reach, and, from my
scientifically isolated position, never can become so. The histo-
logical nature of the cyst, no less than the analogy with the
Cestoidea, indicate that in the cysts of Trichina we have to do
with structures which are analogous to the serous cavities. We
may therefore, on the one hand, assume that the fluid surrounding
the Trichina is furnished by the serous enveloping cyst as the
destined nutritive material for the Trichina, and, on the other
hand, that this serous product is subject to the same changes and
transformations as other serous products. As we here see a fatty
calcareous metamorphosis prevail, we meet in others, for example,
with a metamorphosis of the serous contents into thickish, honey-
yellow (Meliceris-Iike) , or sizy masses. Now, as we know by
experience, that in the fatty calcareous metamorphosis the out-
lines of the worm are preserved, and its rudiments remain in the
position occupied by it during life, it becomes a question whether
the sizy or Meliceris-\\ke transformation of t\e serous contents
(to which transformation the circumstance that the fluid of worm-
less cysts of Trichina appeared to be thickened, seems to point),
may not perhaps be capable of dissolving the chitinous skin of
the Trichina. Had an ovarian or other cyst with size or meliceris-
like contents, been at my disposal, I should have taken the
chitinous skin of some freshly killed nematode worm, and left the
two in contact for a time, at the temperature of the human body,
to see whether the skin of the nematode did or did not dissolve
in the fluid. As I did not possess this, I must leave the experi-
ment to others. As regards the worm itself, we find, as has
already been observed, en passant, sometimes two or three, but
generally only one specimen of the worm in a cyst. What
Luschka and others say of the tenacity of life in the Trichinae
I can only confirm. Although I could not observe that the
Trichina could even support a freezing temperature, still I dis-

342 ANIMAL PARASITES.

tinctly saw the worm alive in putrefying muscle. Luschka never
remarked movements of the worm as long as it is inclosed in its
cyst; and I only succeeded in seeing the free Trichina move,
which they did very briskly. There is a very simple means of
setting the worm free easily, which 1 do not find referred to by
others, and which I will therefore describe here. All that is
necessary is to remove one or both poles of the capsule of
the Trichina by a perpendicular incision with a fine scalpel,
and the expulsion of the worm may then easily be effected by
pressure. The fear of injuring the worm by this incision is un-
founded, because the worm always occupies the middle of the
capsule, which, at the same time, presents the greatest diameter,
and is still in the coiled-up state whilst within the capsule.

The skin of the body is glassy and transparent, but composed
of a great number of rings, the limits of which, as already stated
by Luschka, are marked by fine circular lines, which give the
worm a transversely striated aspect, and on the concave margins
of its curvatures a very finely serrated appearance. Besides the
transverse striae, we also find a few longitudinal strise in the
skin. Moreover the articulated or ringed appearance just
described, is observed still more distinctly in incrusted and
even in dead individuals, on which account this appearance is
no product of the preservation of the worms in spirit, as Henle
formerly stated.

From the further statements of Luschka, and the figures
given by him, wln'ch, with the exception of the deficient anus,
are perfectly true to nature, and which are, consequently, copied
by me, only corrected by the insertion of the anal orifice, it has
become easy to trace the anatomy of the animal, and both by
tearing the worms with needles, and by the application of pres-
sure, I have perfectly produced that interesting and instructive
form which Luschka has figured to render the alimentary
apparatus intelligible. The head is represented, not, as the
observers before Luschka supposed, by the thicker extremity
of the body, but on the contrary by the thinner one. I have
observed, also, as Luschka states, that the animal performs, as it
were, movements of examination with the thinner extremity of
the body, and that a protrusible and retractile pedunculated
papillae sometimes projects from this thin end, which also
remains after death. From this pointed head there runs, in
the first place, in the median line of the animal, a line, which

TEICHINA SPIRALIS. 343

according to its movements, is longer or shorter, sometimes straight,
sometimes undulated, thicker or thinner, and marked by two
dark lateral outlines; this is the narrow commencement of the
alimentary canal. This is followed by a canal which constantly
increases in width posteriorly, with a simultaneous gradual
enlargement of the Trichina ; this occupies the anterior two
thirds of the worm, and sometimes reaches nearly to the lateral
margins of the worm, but is sometimes further removed from
them, so that a vacant space occurs between the lateral margins
of the worm and the margins of the nearly spiral intestinal tube,
which at first forms undulatory curves nearly touching each
other, and in their further course form a series of constrictive sac-
like dilatations, which are probably capable of enlargement and
contraction. Besides this, transverse striae run across the worm,
which give it the appearance of consisting of ring-like joints
pushed one into the other.1 The contents of the intestine
consist of finer and coarser elementary granules, often with the
outlines of the roundish or elliptical bodies contained in the
cyst. At the passage of the second into the last and thickest
third of the body, the intestine, which has hitherto presented a
rnoniliform appearance, forms a pyriform or infundibulate figure
with smooth outer walls, which presents a very short narrow
neck, followed by an intestine which is again enlarged to a
certain degree, and runs, without dilatations, in a slightly uu-
dulatory course, through the end of the abdomen nearly to its
extreme obtuse apex. The contents of this portion of the in-
testine are paler than those of the upper tube ; larger elementary
corpuscles with dark outlines are perceived, and in the living

1 The clear round points, which, according to Luschka, lie under every transverse
line, but the import of which he could not discover in any way, do not in reality exist,
but are optical appearances, which probably depend upon the circumstance that the
contents of the intestinal canal, which are tolerably clear in themselves, are thinnest in
the middle of the intestine behind the constrictions, as this very point in each con-
stricted portion of the intestine forms the highest and foremost point, but the contents
undoubtedly pass more backwards and towards the dilatations. If the intestine of a
Trichina were as full as it could hold, the light would be deficient, as also if the con-
tents were dark-coloured throughout, as is the case, for example, in subsequent stages of
existence with the Trichocephali which live upon the dark-coloured paste of the intes-
tines. These points may also perhaps be owing to the convolutions of the intestine,
which at first are very close together, leaving, nevertheless, small vacuities where the
convolutions do not quite touch each other. The parenchyma shining through these
vacancies forms the light points.

344 ANIMAL PAKASITES.

animal the contents of the intestine are seen moving towards the
apex of the abdomen. The relations become more distinct when
the worm is torn to pieces, and I have had the opportunity of
confirming Luschka's statements with regard to the ordinary
nature of the intestinal canal. At the base of the pyriform or
infundibuliform body which is formed by the anterior part of the
canal at its passage into the hinder third, we always observe a
pair of lateral pedunculated vesicles, which, according to my
observations, hang more loosely behind, or depend from the sides
perpendicularly upon the intestine. I regard them either as a
kind of caecum, or as glands.

The hindermost part of the intestinal canal always exhibits,
according to Luschka, an epithelium -like layer, without any
perceptible second layer serving as a foundation. The rest of
the intestine presents a homogeneous membrane with scattered
elementary granules.

Lastly, Luschka refers to an occurrence with regard to the
intestine, which Bischoff and Farre also appear to have observed,
but which I could not succeed in seeing. Once, namely, after
artificial preparation, the intestine appeared as though its wider
portion consisted of two lateral halves, between which a thin
canal led into the funnel-shaped structure, and passed at once
into the thinner end. Bischoff, in connection with this, speaks
of a longitudinal vessel; for my part I regard this discovery
as the result of preparation, and do not think that it re-
presents an ovigerous organ which passes into the anterior
part of the worm, as Luschka appears inclined to think. I will
pass immediately to the organ which represents the first founda-
tions of the genitalia, and speak hereafter more particularly
upon the presence or absence of an anus. Besides the intestinal
canal, running directly from the mouth to the extremity of the
abdomen, and furnished with a pyriform or infundibuliform
stomach, of which we have just spoken, a second tube, which is
always distinct, may be detected in the hinder third of the body.
In the description of its course and the indication of its desti-
nation I differ to a certain extent from Luschka. The latter
states that the tube commences with a csecal portion at the
place where the intestine acquires the infundibulate form, and
proceeds, without any bending, nearly to the end of the tail.
Here the rounded extremity of this tube is seen, without any per-
ceptible opening, although this must exist, according to Luschka.

TKICH1NA SPIKALIS. 345

To prove the existence of this orifice Lusclika appeals to the
fact that he once succeeded by pressure in evacuating contents
out of both tubes, which first poured into the cavity of the
lower part of the body> and, by further pushing forward of the
object, passed out by the opening of three valves at the blunt
extremity, without any indication of a rupture being perceptible.
At the same time, according to Luschka, there is almost always
near the upper end of this tube, a body of a roundish or
polygonal form, composed of 18 — 20 dark elementary granules,
which has been regarded by all observers as belonging to the
generative system. Its contents are scattered formative elements,
most frequently perfectly clear, roundish bodies, which differ
greatly from the contents of the intestinal canal of the Trichina
and from the structures swimming in the fluid of the cyst.
Luschka regards this second tube as the male generative organ,
and the dark body referred to as the testis, but, as the place of
formation of the eggs, the wider tube in the anterior half of the
body, which perhaps stands in such close union with the nutri-
tive canal, that a separation, such as was seen by Luschka in the
single case already mentioned, is rarely possible.

There is certainly no doubt that Luschka has fallen into an
error in this case. Even the simple observation that this thicker
tube was always seen even by Luschka, and that the appendage
indicated by him as the testis was always visible, must suffice to
render Luschka's view doubtful. For either all the Trichina
were destined to become males, as the tube was absent in none of
them, or the males occurred in an enormous majority as com-
pared with the females, of which we can hardly have a further
example amongst the Nematoda, or lastly, according to Luschka' s
supposition of the simultaneous existence of an ovigerous organ,
these Nematoda must all be hermaphrodites.

In my opinion, this tube, which is certainly closed before and
behind, is the first foundation of the genitalia, and indeed of
both the male and female internal sexual apparatus. In all
cases, we observe at the level of the tubular portion of the
above-described infundibulate organ (stomach) the csecal tube
already referred to by Luschka; but I could also see it on the
other side of the worm, bending over or under the commence-
ment of the stomach. At the hinder extremity it always ceased
a certain distance from the anus. In both sexes the first founda-
tions of the generative organs are similar ; in both we find the

346 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

anterior and posterior ends of the canal ending csecally during
the stage of Trichinal existence ; in both, the sexual orifices must
be subsequently produced by an external dehiscence of the tissue.
The future funiculus spermaticus and testis grow at the anterior
csecal extremity distinctly over to the other side of the intestine,
and here always terminate csecally; the other, ready-formed branch
of this apparatus dehisces towards the walls of the intestine, a
little way from the extremity of the abdomen, so that, from this
point, the male seminiferous organs and the intestinal canal form
a cloaca with a common orifice.

The foundations of the female genitalia are similar. Here,
also, the anterior csecal tube passes over to the other side,
and reaches the neighbourhood of the chitinous lateral wall.
At this point the canal must dehisce simultaneously with the in-
tegument also at the level of the anterior part of the stomach, or
but a little way behind it. The other end of the cascal tube,
which is near the extremity of the abdomen, also bends over to
the other side, and runs forward, whilst between these parts all
sorts of convolutions grow out, and lastly the ovary, the uterus,
and the vagina are formed from them. At no period of Trichinal
existence does this tube open outwards, but the Trichina exhibits
only a single orifice at the extremity of the abdomen, namely,
that of the anus. The complete, distinct fusion of the organs in
question could certainly only happen at that period of the life of
the animal when it had arrived in a place (in an intestine)
adapted for its further development, and in which, consequently,
the formation of the genitalia is completed. As I cannot think,
even from the teleological grounds above stated, that the Trichina
are only male individuals, we must assume that the tube referred
to may subsequently become developed and converted in the way
described by me into the internal sexual organs of both sexes,
and afterwards form any sexual organs which may still be wanting,
and that, therefore, it is almost impossible to determine, during
the Trichinal existence, to which of the two sexes the mature
animal would belong. Therefore, I agree with those authors who
regard this tube as the primitive foundation of the sexual organs
in general.

The abdominal extremity of the worm, that is to say, its
thicker portion, is perforated in its middle by the anus, into
which the above-described intestine directly passes. Luschka
says " that, at the extremity of the abdomen, we find three dark

TRICHINA SPIRALIS. 347

lines of 0'016 mill, in length on an average, which have usually
been described as a little cleft, but have also been regarded as a
mouth. From the cylindrical form of the worm, we certainly
only see one cleft, but if the worm be allowed to move, or another
position be given to it during examination, by shifting it about,
we are convinced of the existence of three clefts. These three
clefts, however, are the expression of the presence of three valves,
which the animal can open and close at pleasure. If these valves
bend back, a portion of the tube protrudes, and produces an
appearance as if the worm were torn, until the valves close and
the ordinary form returns." Finally, Luschka concludes with
the following leading sentence, which is even rendered particu-
larly prominent by the mode of printing : " It is quite indubitable
that in Trichina all the tubes in the cavity of the body have free
extremities, and that their contents are only separated outwardly
by the opening of these valves."

I have not been able to come to this conclusion. The pressure
employed by Luschka, which was often very strong, certainly led
him here to mistake the true state of the case. There is no
doubt that the intestine passes directly, through a sort of simple
cleft, into ths anus. The authors who speak of this cleft are
perfectly in the right. But at the extreme end of this cleft there
is an apparatus, which might certainly be called valvular. At all
events, in the mature state, these valves may probably still be
indicated in the females, and form that button-shaped process at
the extremity of their abdomen in which the anus opens, and
which I have represented in Plate VII. From these valves in
the male, however, might probably be developed the spinous
copulatory appendage, which still plainly bears at its extreme free
end the traces of a previous lobate organ, as it appears to be
composed of several leaves. Although I thought I usually
observed four segments in the copulatory appendage, I may have
been under a mistake. At least I could not make out clearly
whether this organ consisted of three or four leaves, although I
adopted four as the more probable number.

Luschka supposes the intestine to hang freely in the interior
of the membranous cylinder formed by the worm, and sometimes
to lie close to the inner wall of this cylinder and sometimes at a
distance from it, which then essentially alters the appearance of
the object, and also confirms this view by the circumstance that
it is easy to strip off the skin partially or wholly when tearing or

348 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

crushing the worm. This latter fact can certainly not be denied,
but nevertheless I do not believe in a free suspension of the
internal parts within the membranous cylinder which is formed
by the external envelope of the worm. On the contrary, I
believe that there is always an extremely delicate, elastic,
structureless parenchyma between the walls of the intestine and
the envelope of the body, which yields and allows itself to be
displaced, dislocated, or compressed on the lightest pressure, and
only becomes converted into a more highly organized and more
resistent parenchyma, which may be recognised as composed of
muscular fibres, during the subsequent development of the
animal. One proof of the existence of a tissue of this kind is
afforded by the two dark, but very fine lines, recognisable in every
position of the animal, running from the head to the caudal ex-
tremity ; even according to Luschka, these indicate the existence
of contractile fibres, which have to do with the abbreviation and
elongation of the animal, and, as has already been stated under
the Trichocephali, they are the optical expression for the boundary
lines to which the parenchyma extends within the membranous
cylinder.

Further destination of the Trichinae.

There is no doubt that a great number of the Trichinae, if not
all those specimens which occur in the muscles of man, become
abortive and die. The latter then lie in their cysts in the midst
of the cyst-fluid, which is in course of sebacification, desiccation,
and calcification, rolled in spiral convolutions, in the same way as
the Trichina met with in a living state. These spiral struc-
tures are broken up into a number of fragments, which partly
lie loosely together, partly still have some connection, and, as
Luschka further states, are marked in their separation by dark
transverse lines. This arrangement, as also the ringed appear-
ance of the fragments, which resemble minute portions of glass,
weighs with me as a further proof of an indication of the seg-
mentation of the body of Trichina, which, in breaking up,
separates in the direction of the rings and in particular places of
this kind. Acids and alkalies have no action upon these remains,
the intestines of which at all events have undergone fatty
degeneration and passed over into the mass surrounding the
worm, together with which they then pass through further
changes which go on in it.

TRICHINA SPIKALIS. 349

But how these encysted nematocle worms, with our present
state of civilisation, can reach, before the period of their death —
which, however, only occurs very late, perhaps in 30 — 40 years,
or after a still longer period in particular cases — places in which
they are in a position to pass through their further and higher
development, is beyond my power to divine. Even the adminis-
tration of these Trichinae to dogs gave no result, either in the
experiments made by me or those made elsewhere ; in about six
weeks I found nothing of Entozoa which resembled the Trichina.
In my experiments I certainly made two great mistakes. In
the first place I fed the dog with muscle in a state of incipient
putrefaction ; instead of which it would have been more judicious
to have scraped off the individual capsules of the Trichina, and
perhaps, in order to facilitate the escape of the worm, to have cut
them at one end. As usual in dogs confined in a room, a
brisk diarrhoea took place in this case after the administration.
I fell into a second error by not examining the csecum and
large intestine of the dog with sufficient care. To avoid this
error, I advise future experimenters to soften the excrement of
the large intestine of the animal employed in the experiment in
lukewarm water, and pass it through a fine cloth or hair sieve,
by which means they will more easily find the worms, and none
of them will be lost.

The experiments of Zenker and Leuckart terminated as un-
successfully as my own. The latter had the kindness to inform
me with regard to his experiments that he sought in vain in the
intestine of rabbits, cats, and dogs for Ascarides which might
have been produced from the Trichina administered. In the
intestinal mucus of mice, however, he found young Trichina two
days after administration, and Trichina might perhaps be dis-
covered in the intestinal mucus of other animals. All further
expectations, however, unfortunately remained unfulfilled, as the
three other mice experimented on had acquired an appetite for
flesh by the administration, bitten each other on the third day,
and were thus destroyed on the fourth. This latter fact is not
isolated, for my colony of white mice also killed each other by
gnawing, which manoeuvre commenced from the time when I
had fed them with fat pieces of Tania crassicollis. In experi-
ments of this kind we must, therefore, keep the mice separate.
However, none of us found Trichina in the muscles of the

350 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

animals experimented on, as might have been expected from
Herbst's experiments.

It now remains for me again to sum up the reasons which
determine me to regard the Trichina of Owen and Luschka, and,
I repeat, only this species, for the young brood of Trichocephalus
dispar, and both these nematode worms, hitherto placed
separately, as belonging to one species.

1. As regards the skin, both Trichocephalus dispar and
Trichina spiralis have a peculiar "ringed and jointed structure,
which presents itself more distinctly than in many other
Nematoda.

2. In both a longitudinal stria runs down the sides, indicating
the limit to which the contractile parenchyma of the worm, in
which its internal organs are imbedded, reaches. Above these
striae we only meet with the layers of the skin free from all
parenchyma. These striae are certainly at the same time the
points of attachment of the parenchyma to the inner wall of the
integument of the Trichina.

3. The alimentary canal is organized in exactly the same way
in both. Thus in the first place the mouth and anus are
situated exactly in the centre of the two extremities of the body,
the anterior and posterior. Even this simple circumstance
excluded the whole of the Ascarides, Oxyurides, and Strongyli,
and a great number of Filarice, from any relationship with
the Trichina spiralis of Owen and Luschka. Of the Nematoda
occurring in the human subject, the Trichosoma and Trichocephali,
from their form, still remained for comparison. The Trichosoma
are distinguished by the extraordinary thinness of their bodies
and the scarcely perceptible increase of the circumference of the
animal at the abdomen, whilst the Trichocephali and Trichinae
have a distinctly acuminate, thin anterior end, and a thicker,
blunt posterior extremity. It was this circumstance that first
led me to suspect the identity of the two latter worms, and we
shall see that the further comparison only lends new support to
this identity. In Trichocephalus dispar and in the Trichina
spiralis of Owen and Luschka, there is at the thin anterior
extremity of the body a small, globular, button-shaped structure,
capable of being protruded from and retracted within the mouth,
which is wanting in other Nematoda. Immediately after this
mouth follows a spiral-like portion of intestine (commencement of

TEICHINA SPIEALIS. 351

the oesophagus), which becomes dilated after a short course and
forms a portion of intestine, which, increasing constantly in
thickness posteriorly, considerably exceeds the thicker abdomen
in length, and at first by various close convolutions, but after-
wards by constrictions and dilatations, resembles the appearance
of a necklace, in which the beads become larger posteriorly.

At the spot where the thinner portion of the body of our
worm passes into the thicker and posterior portion, this monili-
form intestine ceases in both worms, and passes into a pyriform
or infundibuliform muscular portion, which may be called the
stomach. At the point of transition of the anterior part of the
intestine into the stomach there are a pair of small pedunculate,
alary appendages or glandules, which appear to be little caeca,
and which hang down rather flatly during the Trichinal existence,
whilst in Trichocephalus they rise forwards and upwards, close
to the mouthpiece of the funnel. In Trichina they are filled
with colourless contents, in Trichocephalus certainly with coloured
masses, which however are distinguished from the rest of the
intestine by a much lighter colour. These wing-like, csecnl
appendages, furnish one of the principal supports of the sys-
tematic diagnosis of the two worms. Hence the intestine im-
mediately behind the tube of the funnel passes over again into a
dilatation, and then runs backwards in a tolerably straight or
scarcely undulated line, towards the extremity of the abdomen,
in the centre of which it opens more or less directly.

4. Lastly, the second tube which occurs in the abdomen
together with the intestinal canal, speaks above all in favour of
the identity of the two worms. Its anterior blind extremity
reaches, in Trichina, up to the level of the stomach, and looks
towards the other side, to which it actually crosses, and may
subsequently become the vagina by dehiscence, whilst the pos-
terior blind end grows out from the spot to which it reached
during the Trichina-Mis, forming all sorts of ovarian convolutions,
by which female Trichocephali are produced. But when male
Trichocephali are to be formed from Trichinae, the anterior ex-
tremity of this tube certainly runs over the intestine at the same
place, but not to the margin, but it passes backwards on the
other side of the intestine, and at the same time conceals itself
beneath the intestine. The posterior blind extremity of the
canal dehisces here into the intestine, a certain distance from the

352 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

anus, and both these pass outwards together, whilst the structures
regarded by Luschka as valves may unite to form the tube, beset
with spines, which serves as the copulatory organ.

In this way the probable developmental history of the worm
presents sufficient data for the placing together the two worms,
although hitherto experimental evidence cannot be furnished either
for the production of Trichinae from eggs of Trichocephalus dispar,
or for the conversion of Trichinae into Trichocephalus dispar.

For these reasons, however, I regard the Trichinae as the brood
of Trichocephali engaged in migration, by swallowing which we
infect ourselves with the Trichocephalus dispar of both sexes. At
the same time, however, I may also observe, that if experiment
should in any way prove that the Trichinae are only converted
into male Trichocephali, I would immediately accept this view,
improbable as it is a priori. At any rate, I only hope for a
decision of this question by experiment, although, determined by
zoological reasons, I already regard the relationship of the
Trichinae and Trichocephali as certain. But the migrations of
the Trichinae are also of great importance for the theory of the
nematode-like animals described by authors as Haematozoa, which
have always hitherto appeared to be asexual worms. As far as
they have been referred to in the human subject, we might
perhaps think that, if worms at all, they must have been in most
cases the youngest, migrating brood of Trichocephalus, before it
had yet fastened itself, and become encysted and converted into
Trichina. That the brood of the Nematoda, like that of the
Cestodea, may get into the blood during its migration has already
been stated.

By the opinion just announced, as to the production of the
Trichinae, I have come into opposition with that of Herbst
expressed in the ' Nachrichten von der G. A. Universitat, &c.,
zu Gottingen/ No. 19 for 1851, and No. 12 for 1852, and which
has recently found much acceptance.

Herbst distinguishes the following species of Trichinae ;

1. The Trichinae of the hawk, the owls, the crows, and the
woodpecker, regarded by him, notwithstanding their different
sizes, as identical, and which are derived from Filaria attenuata,
just as the species occurring in other birds will be derived from
such Filariae as are peculiar to these birds.

2. Those occurring in man, which, at the same time, are very

TRICHINA SPIEALIS. 353

similar to those of the cat. At the same time, Herbst leaves it
undecided, with regard to the former, whether it is derived from
an indigenous species of Filaria or from the Filaria medinensis.
The latter appears to him to be inadmissible, on account of its
comparatively frequent appearance in England ; an opinion in
which Herbst will have but little support amongst zoologists and
surgeons.

3. The Trichinae of the mole and frog, which, according to him,
are identical, and with regard to which Herbst himself states that,
whilst the Trichina of the frog might be derived from Filaria
neglecta and rubella, no one has yet found a Filaria in the mole.

It appears to me that it would have been better, recollecting
Reinhardt's observation upon the spleen of the mole, to con-
sider the Trichinae of the mole as the descendants of a species of
nematode worm, which, according to the form of the egg, must
be ascribed to the Trichosoma as Von Siebold thought, or to the
Trichocephali. This only furnishes a fresh support to my opinion
expressed above, that it is certainly incorrect to regard the Trichinae
exclusively as the young brood of the Filarice, whilst they may
equally be descended from other Nematoda. Besides the form, a
circumstance which determined me, with regard to the collocation
of the Trichinae and Trichocephali, is the fact that hitherto no
Trichosoma which might come in question here, besides and
together with the Trichocephali, have been found in the human
body ; this, certainly, ought to be further inquired into.

It remains to mention that Herbst adopts a triple mode of
life for the Trichinae. 1, in the encysted state; 2, quite free,
which are regarded by Herbst as living free and having escaped
from eggs borne by the blood; and 3, half-free, in sacs of the
peritoneum, and much larger than the first and second forms.

Experiments in the administration of Trichinae gave Herbst
the following results :

Three dogs, to which the flesh of a trichinous dog was given
as food, all became trichinous.

In pigeons fed with trichinous mole's flesh, Herbst found many
free Trichinae, eighteen days after the feeding, in the muscles of
the neck, wings, and thighs. A young daw exhibited free
Trichinae in all the voluntary muscles, eleven days after feeding
with the same flesh. After feeding several weasels with frogs
and moles which had not been examined for Trichinae, their
muscles also exhibited Trichinae.

354 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

Herbst also introduced capsules of Trichinae under the skin
of dogs and cats. The Trichina in them were aborted in a few
weeks.

According to him, Trichinae living free cannot encyst them-
selves.

I did not like to leave unmentioned these views, which are in
opposition to my own, but are also only provisional, although I do
not believe that anything essential can now be gained from the
above statements with regard to* the Trichina of the human
subject, in so far as the form described by Owen and Luschka is
concerned.

More recent experiments made by Leuckart, by administering
encysted Trichinae to mice, led to no further information. The
Trichinae certainly escaped in the alimentary canal of the
mice, but that was all. My experiments in administering Tri-
chinae to frogs and rabbits produced no results. In the frogs
the capsules acquired a green colour, which gave very pretty
preparations.

Prognosis. — Good. Even the immigration of the brood of
Trichina appears to take place without any general reaction, as
it is also borne without injury for many years.

Therapeutics. — Unknown. Perhaps as regards Trichoce-
phalus we must observe great precautions in the use of raw
meats.

2. Trichocephalus affinis (?)

Although this worm, which is stated to have been found at
Fort Pitt in a sphacelose tonsil, is rather a beard or awn
of some graminaceous plant according to Diesing and Von
Siebold, and we have referred it amongst the doubtful worms
by the appended note of interrogation, we will still reproduce the
determination of the actual species according to Diesing and
Dujardin, for the purpose of an independent examination of the
subject.

Caput latitudinis 0*019 — 0'022 mill., duabus lateralibus, vesi-
culosis et alatis intumescentiis instructum ; cutis transverse striata,
cum ligamento longo, papillari, papillis majoribus et per endosmosin
intumescentibus ornato ; collum longissimum, capillare ; truncus
(corpus, Diesing) crassiusculus, in maribus spiraliter involutus, in
feminis subrectus vel parum curvatus.

Mas : 80 mill, seu 25'" V. longus ; collum 53 mill vel ad 17' "

OXYUKIS. 355

longum, 0-19 mill, vel i'" ad basin latum ; truncus 27 mill, vel
7 — 8'" lonaus, O78 mill, vel f"' latus ; extremitate caudali obtusa ;
penis vagina cylindrica, tubulosa, 1*55 mill, longa, 0'07 mill, lata,
spinis parvulis aut lamellis triangular ibus, retroversis, 0*005 mill,
longis armata, antice dilatata ; penis simplex, 6*75 mill, longus ;
0*025 mill, ad 0'038 mill, latus, cum lamella pellucida insiructus.

Femina : 60 — 70 mill. v. 24'" longa ; collum 42 — 49 mill,
v. 18'" et J"' latum; truncus 18—21 mill. v. 6'"; 0'94 mill,
aut v. f'" lata ; subrecta vel parum curvata ; cauda obtusa ; ovula
navicularia, 0-061 mill, longa ; in ovulorum extremitatibus duo
nodule pellucidi magnitudinis 0-008 mill., unde longitudo totalis
0 077 mill.

Its usual locality is almost exclusively the caecum of the
ruminants. The characteristic mark of the species is the consi-
derable length of the penis and its sheath.

II. Oxyuris.

As we have already seen to be the case with the name of
whip-worm (Peitschenwurm) for the Trichocephalus, so is it here
with the Greek name first introduced by Rudolphi. The deno-
mination Oxyuris = Sharp-tail (from o£ug and oupa) only applies
to the female, but by no means to the male.

The worm is placed by Dujardin as the 16th genus of the
first class of the Helmintha ; that is to say, the Nematoda.
Diesing has separated it from his Oxyurides, and placed it with
the Ascarides. Thus, whilst he treats of the Oxyurides, in the
Order VI, Nematoidea ; Suborder II, Proctucha ; Tribe III,
Gamonemaloidea ; Section I, Hypophalli (penis infra extremitatem
caudalem), as Genus XVIII (corpus capillare, extremitate caudali
marls subrecta, alata vel exalata ; pene in vagina bipartita. Os
orbiculare], he has placed the Oxyuris vermicularis in the same
tribe and section as Genus XX, Ascaris ; A, Gymnoascaridse
(corpus inerme] ; Division I, Apterocephal® (caput non alatum) •
Subdivision I, Oxycerca, (a) macrura, (a) caput epidermide inflata,
1, Ascaris vermicularis. The introduction of a vox hybrida like
Oxycerca is enough of itself to make this above all measure
artificial classification, appear but little acceptable. With
Dujardin and most other authors, we treat the Oxyurides as a

356 ANIMAL PARASITES.

peculiar genus of the Nematoda separated from Ascaris, and give
the following description especially from Dujardin.

Corpus cylindricum aut fere fusiforme, sublongum, in feminis
retrorsum subulatum ; caput inerme ; os rotundum (in stalu con-
tractionis) aut triangulare (in statu actionis), trilabiatum ; oeso-
phagus musculosus, cylindricus aut claviformis et canali triquetro
perforates ; ventriculus globosus cavitate triangulari ; intestinum in
feminis ante apicem cauda acutce, in maribus in centro cauda
apertum.

Mares ; fere microscopici ; plerumque spirales in fine pos-
teriore obtusi ; penis simplex, uncinatus.

Femince : cauda acuta ; vagina semper in parte vermis anteriore
sita ; uterus bilocularis cum ovariis 2. Ovula l&via, oblonga, non
symmetricay multo longiora) quam latiora omnino magna : 0'064
mill, ad 0*136 longa.

1. Oxyuris vermicularis (Bremser, Deslongchamps, Dujardin,
Von Siebold).

Synon. ; Ascaris vermicularis (Linne; Goeze; Rudolphi;
Schmalz ; Creplin ; Diesing) ; Fusaria vermicularis (Zeder)
= Kinder-, Mastdarm-, Madenwurm = Arschmade = Aarsmade
= Darmschabe = Smaa Spolorme = Borncorm = Barnmask = Bots
(Thread-worms).

Bremser first separated this worm from the Ascarides, and
certainly with perfect justice, notwithstanding the great au-
thorities opposed to him. I place the worm as an Oxyuris,
partly for the reasons already given by Dujardin, because
oesophagus and pharynx are triangular, and the mouth is some-
times round, sometimes triangular, according to the degree of its
contraction; because the lateral, wing-shaped appendages at the
mouth are simply a uniform inflation of the head, and no true
membranous wings ; and because there are only three lips to the
mouth ; and partly on account of the nature of the male, which
Dujardin himself never appears to have seen. The males are very
much smaller than the females, as is usually the case with the
males of the true Ascarides. Then the caudal extremity of the
male Ascarides usually forms a small face resembling the leaf of
Sagittaria sagittifolia, whilst the caudal extremity of Oxyuris
vermicularis presents a round surface, which is capable of taking
the form of a sucking surface. But, in the last place, the simple

OXYUEIS VERMICULABIS. 357

penis is completely and essentially distinguished by its small size
and its form, from the penis of the Ascarides, which is usually
double.

Having thus justified ourselves with regard to the name and
position of the worm in the system, we may pass to the closer
examination of the worm.

Corpus album; cutis transverse striata, in margine utroque
cum duplice ordine dentium acutiorum et obtusiorum secundum
Dujardini mensuras 0*018 — 0-023 mill., secundum meas infeminis
0-024—0-030 mill. = 0-0108— 0-014'" P. = 0-011— 0-015'" F,
in maribus autem 0-008 mill. = 0-0036"' P. = 0-0037'" F., inter se
distantium; caput 2 appendicibus later alibus, vesiculosis epidermidis
duplicaturd ; os rotundum, antice margine trilabiatum et angustum,
oesophagus carnosus, musculis longitudinalibus ct transversis, canali
triquetro ; ventriculus strictura ; cesophago sejunctus, globosus,
cum cavitate interna triquetra, et valvularum apparatu ; epithelio
polyedrico cum nodulo pellucido sparsim instructus.

Mas : 2-05 mill. = 0-90'" P. = 0-95'" F. ad 2-5 mill. adS'Wmill.
longus (si caudam semper curvatam tanquam lined recta extensam
mensus es) ; in capite una cum appendicibus 0*094 mill. = 0-041"' P.
= 0-042'" F., sine appendicibus 0'024 mi//.= 0-0108'" P. = 0-011'"
F, medio in corpore 0-123 mill. = 0-054'" P. = 0-055'" F., in
cauda 0-023 mill. = 0'0144'" P. = 0-0148'" F. latus. (Esopha-
gus a 0-024 mill. = 0-0108'" P. = O'Oll'" F. ad 0-041 mill.
= 0-0108'" P. = 0-011 F. ad 0-041 mill. = 0'018W P. = 0-0185"'
F. latitudinis intumidus est circiler 0'311 mill. = 0'137/x/ P.
= 01141/// F. longus. (Esophagum sequitur brevis tubi intesti-
nalis strictura 0-008 mill. = 0-0036" P. = 0-0037'" F. longa et
0-016 mill. = 0-0072X// P. = 0'0074X// F. lata. Postea sequitur
ventriculus ; 0-115 mill. = 0-050//x P. = 0'052X// F. longus et
0-065 mill. = 0-0288/x/ P. = 0-0296/x/ F. latus cum valvularum
apparatu cognito ; iubus intestinalis paulo post ventriculum lati-
tudinis 0-057 mill. = 0-025'" P. = 0-026//x F. est, ad anum vero
0-008 mill. = 0-0036'" P. = 0-0037X// F. Penis simplex 0-057
mill. = 0-025W P. = 0-026/x/ F. longus, ad basin 0-008 mill.
= 0-0036/7/ P. = 0-0037X// V., in apice vero semper ad hamuli
instar recurvato, latitudinis (adultinum 0'003 mill. = 0-001/x/ P.
et F) . Funiculus spermaticus et testis simplex ; spermatozoidia
epitheliorum imaginem simulantia. Caudae apex in foveam
suctoriam mutabilis.

Femina : 7'84 ex aliis ad 10 mill.= 3-48, ex aliis ad4>'337"' P.=

358 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

3*57, ex aliis ad 4-56'" V. long a ; incapitis apice cum appendicibus
0-196 mill.= 0-087'" P.= 0-089'" V. ; sine appendicibus 0-065 mill.
= 0-029'" P.= 0-0298'" V. ; in medio corpore 0'49 ad 0'59 mill.—
0-21 — 0-26'" P.= 0-22 — 0-27'" V. ; extremitas caudalis acutissima.
Longitudo caudce (i. e., partis, inter anum et apicem) 1-798 mill.
= 0-797'" P.= 0-819'" V.; latitudo cauda ad anum ipsam 0'26
.= 0-116'" P.= 0-119'" V., inde diminuta. (Esophagus 0'65
.= 0-29'" P. = 0-298'" V. longus, in capitis apice 0-065 mill.=
0-029'" P.= 0-0298'" V., in par te posterior e 0-098 mill = 0-043'"
P. = 0-044'" V. latus. Strictura tubi intestinalis pone cesophagum
uti in maribus perbrevis et 0-028 mill, seu 0"128'" P. et V. lata.
Ventriculus 0-172 mill.= 0-0768"' P. et V. et longus et latus, inter-
dum latitudine aliquid minor. Vagina ex Dujardini mensuris
1*8 mill, ex meis ad 1*64 mill.= 0-7'" pone caput sita ; in vivis 1 -06
— 1-2 ?w//.= 0-46 — 0-54"' longa et O'il mill.= 0-049'" lata; cum
foramine latitudinis 0*13 mill.=: 0'06'", longitudinis 0*15 mill.=:
0*07'"; uterus duplex, cujus ramus posterior 20 mt//.==0'9//', cw/w*
anterior 1*35 mi//.= 0-6'" longus ; ramosurn ovulis impletorum lati-
tudo ad 0-4 wz//.= 0-18'" 6tf ^^//rfl ot?w/w expulsis, 0-2 mi//.= Q-09'";
ovarium duplex, in transitu uteri in anum 0-03 m^/.=0'015///
latum.

Ovula fere oblonga, non symmetrica ; ex Dujardini mensuris
0'055 mill, lata et 0*064 mill, longa, ex meis media in parte
ovulorum 0-029 mill. = 0-012"' P. = 0-015'" V., in apicibus
circiter 0'012 mill. = 0-005'" P. = 0-006"' V. lata et 0-05 mill. =
0-022"' P. et V. longa. Embryones viventes in ovulis nondum

In regard to size, three forms are met with.

1. The mature females, which are remarkable from their size,
thickness, and whiteness, as well as by the fine, acute, capillary
tail, with an obtuse, broad head.

2. The young immature females, which as regards colour are
to be distinguished by nothing from the pale gray males, or at
the utmost by their somewhat larger size, but which are easily
recognised by their acute tails, and exhibit the female sexual
organs in various grades of development, according to their age.

3. The mature males, which are rendered remarkable by their
pale silver- gray colour and their obtuse anterior and posterior
extremities, as also by the penis.

I pass over the form of the immature males, as they have not

OXYUKIS VEEMICULAEIS.

359

r. 2.

k

yet been discovered, but can scarcely exceed the size of a visible
point. They will be recognised by their obtuse anterior and
posterior extremities.

From WedPs description it appears that he saw the first and
second forms. All the three forms occur abundantly together in
one and the same intestine.

The skin, head, oesophagus, and intestine are similar in both
sexes, of course with the exception of the comparative size.

The nervous system of the Oocyurides is, according to Walter
extraordinarily developed, but has hitherto
been entirely overlooked. According to
him, the nervous system of Oxyuris
ornata is as well developed as in Mermis,
except that a separate intestinal nervous
system is wanting. We have in the
Oxyurides a central (cerebral and caudal
ganglia) and a peripheric nervous septum.
The brain = the cephalic ganglionic mass,
in O. ornata is an aggregation of large
ganglia destitute of a membrane, on the
sides and in the middle of the oesophagus,
and an aggregation of smaller ganglionic
masses lying transversely under the brain.
The latter sends out filaments on each side
to the oesophagus, and upwards and down-
wards to the lateral ganglionic masses;
the former to the muscles and fat-
canals (Fettschlauchen) to the mouth and
the four ridges of corium, in which they
distribute themselves in fine ramifica-
tions (organs of sense), and downwards
on each side a broad cord transversely
inwards on the back of the oesophagus,
where the two branches unite, and
together with the ganglia form the
cesophageal ring. From this ring, rami-
fications pass to the lowest parts of
the lateral ganglia, transverse branches
to the muscles and fat-canals, and a

Fig. 2. Young female of Oxyuris ornata, in which the generative organs are unde-
veloped, viewed from the ventral surface ; magnified 1 76 times, a. Oral aperture with

360

ANIMAL PAEASITES.

Fig. 3. Fig- 4.

..r

broad branch to the stomach, which divides into a central branch
and a smaller lateral one. The broad branch runs round the

the surrounding three-cornered enlargements (organs of taste), b. (Esophagus.
c. Stomach, d. Intestine, e. Anal aperture with its circular sphincter and oblique
muscles and sucking-disc. gl and g*. Two tubes proceeding from the same and running
down by the side of the alimentary canal, h. Sarcode-tubes containing cellular drops,
reddish vesicles (nuclei), and in these transparent corpuscles, i. Female generative
opening with the cleft uterus proceeding from it. k. Epidermis of the anal and oral
aperture covering the corium. I. Lateral fat-canals, m. The three-pointed tail.
Nervous system: o. Upper lateral cesophageal ganglion, p. Lower ditto; both are
united in the middle by a transverse ganglion, q. Encircling of the ventral cord
around the female generative aperture, r. Lenticular anal ganglion. *. Last ganglion
of the tail. t. Union of the cesophageal ganglia with the inner fibres of the common
ventral cord.

Fig. 3. Cerebral ganglia (brain), o. The upper lateral cesophageal ganglion,
o'. Ganglion lying on the ventral surface under the oesophagus, p. The lower lateral
cesophageal ganglion, p'. Ganglion supplying the sucking-disc, t. Union of the two
lateral branches of the ventral cord. h. Sarcode-tube. /. Lateral fat-canals.

Fig. 4. Caudal ganglia, r. Lateral pyriform ganglion, r'. Transverse band uniting
the two ganglia upon the dorsal surface, r". Globular enlargement of the lateral
ganglia, r"'. Reniform transverse ganglion, s. Last caudal ganglion. #. Single

OXYURIS VEEMICULAKTS. 361

stomach, unites with that of the other side to form the largest
peripheric stem in the ventral line between the intestine and fat-
canals; in the female this divides at the vaginal orifice, runs
round the latter, and then re-unites. Consequently, three peri-
pheric stems issue from the brain, the last-mentioned central one
and two lateral ones, which soon become unrecognisable. They
send off branches (which rarely anastomose), at right angles to the
muscles, fat-tubes and genitalia, especially the vagina. The
oesophagus, stomach, and intestine, receive branches from them
and the neighbouring ganglia. The whole of the nervous trunks
consist of longitudinal fibres placed at a greater or less distance
apart ; the transverse branches are produced by the union of a
small branchlet coming from above and below, and disappear on
entering the organ, in the form of small, homogeneous triangles,
without further division. Neurilemma and cellular bodies are
wanting on the ramifications of the nerves. Whether a dorsal
nervous cord exists is still a question. The ventral nervous cord,
by dividing at the dilatation of the intestine, before the com-
mencement of the rectum into two large, but very short trunks,
becomes converted into a large, pyriform, ganglionic mass,
covering the intestine, or even exceeding it — the principal caudal
ganglion ; a transverse branch passing transversely therefrom over
the rectum, gives origin to the formation of a moderate anal ring.
Besides these nervous masses, two small globular ganglia lie
laterally near the anal orifice, and a large, reniform ganglion
transversely at the lower end of the anus, from which issue
downwards two strongly converging branches, formed by the union
of several filaments. Here also, lies the last fusiform ganglionic
mass, which, at the commencement of the tail sends numerous
fine, lateral filaments to neighbouring organs (muscles, fat-
canals, male genitalia), and tapers to a fine point, which, after
giving off numerous lateral branchlets disappears in the corium.
It was seen and described by some authors, as Goeze and
Dujardin, as a ligament, but has always been misunderstood, or
overlooked.

Method of investigation. — The cerebral ganglia are difficult to
find, as everything depends upon the arrangement of the mirror,
management of the light, &c. For this purpose the older males

isolated ganglion with several nervous cords. [The woodcuts and description are from
Dr. George Walter's paper on the Anatomy and Physiology of Oxyuris ornata, in the
eighth volume of the ' Zeitschrift fiir Wissenschaftliche Zoologie,' 1857. — TRANS.]

362 ANIMAL PARASITES.

are best fitted ; they are to be cut through in the region of the
stomach. The animals should be examined as fresh as possible,
without water, rather with the application of turpentine. The
caudal ganglia are best found in young females, after the animal
has been cut through above the caudal ganglia, and the uterus
with its eggs has been removed. The sarcode globules in the
penis and its muscles in the male, readily obscure the investiga-
tion in that sex. The peripheric nerves, especially their trans-
verse branches, are more easily detected, especially in animals
which have been cut through and deprived of their contents.

As regards the form of the ganglionic cells, unipolar cells
with large nucleoli are seen, especially in the pyriform ganglion,
in the ganglion placed about the lower margin of the rectum, and
the middle of the cerebral ganglion; bipolar cells, which are
longer and narrower, are seen on the margin of the cerebral
ganglion, and in the fusiform ganglion, which is entirely com-
posed of them. Apolar cells are wanting, as are also multipolar
cells, of which, however, a few may, perhaps, occur in males, on
each side of the pyriform caudal ganglion. The bipolar cells
consist of a delicate membrane with finely granular contents and
a nucleolus, sometimes double, with a delicate outline, usually
situated in the middle.

The primitive nervous filaments are produced from the pro-
cesses of the ganglionic cells (which are particularly visible on
the marginal ganglion of the brain, and in the fusiform caudal
ganglion) ; by the union of several primitive filaments of this
kind, narrower or broader branches are produced (these are
particularly visible on the upper and lower cerebral ganglionic
masses).

I have unfortunately not succeeded hitherto in detecting the
nervous cords in Oxyuris vermicularis.

The following is an abstract of the characters as they are
given in Walter's beautiful investigations upon Oxyuris ornata
(Siebold and Kolliker's ' Zeitschr./ viii, pp. 163 — 201, tab. v.
-vi).

The skin of the Oxyurides consists, according to Walter,
of an external layer of epidermis, and beneath this, a delicate but
densely fibrous corium.

The epidermis, in young individuals, forms a delicate boundary
line, which does not separate in water, but is not, as in Mermis,
composed of hexagonal cells but simply by exudation. At the

OXYURIS VERMICULARIS. 363

oral extremity and on the tail, the epidermis and corium are
firmly united, and both turn inwards at the natural openings.

During the motion of the animal broad folds are formed in
the corium, which at the same time compel the epidermis to
fold, as may be best detected when old, mature animals are cut
through before the anus and behind the pharynx, and the contents
of this part of the body are pressed out under the microscope. On
the corium we see four seams running through the whole length
of the animal (one on each side, and one along the dorsal and
ventral surfaces) and between them a fibrous layer. In Oxyuris
ornata, the latter sometimes consists of two layers, one transverse
and the other spiral, but in general we only see parallel fibres,
crossing each other at acute angles.

In Oxyuris vermicularis, the skin of which is colourless, the
transverse strise which are especially distinct during the contrac-
tions, are at the above-mentioned distance apart, and the skin
projects on the lateral margins in a serrated form. These serra-
tions form a double series on each side, the outer of which is
more rounded and blunt, the inner more acute and sharper,
especially in the males.

The parenchyma of the body does not extend into the tail,
and in the anterior extremity in the neighbourhood of the mouth
the lateral surfaces are free from parenchyma, so that when the
worm is pressed flat, we see in that part two transversely ribbed,
wing-like appendages, which are obtusely rounded off in front,
but taper away gradually behind, and become amalgamated with
the epidermis of the middle part of the body. They are indi-
cated by authors as two lateral, wing-like appendages, composed
of broad, band-like, hyaline lobes. The transverse ribs in these
appendages, correspond either with the spots, when an intimate
contact of the two inner surfaces of the epidermis forming the
appendages takes place (either a constant contact, or only a tem-
porary one in consequence of the transverse wrinkling occurring
during movement), or with transverse nervous branchlets, which
I could not ascertain clearly.

The muscular system of Oxyuris, according to Walter, is
very highly developed. Thus, in Oxyuris ornata, close beneath
the corium, we find several (4) longitudinal muscles regulating the
general movement, and then smaller muscular groups in the
interior of the body on various organs, and extremely seldom
(only in the male sexual apparatus) muscular fibres running

364 ANIMAL PARASITES.

transversely. Four tubiform longitudinal muscles originating
from the ridges of corium, at the mouth are peculiarly interest-
ing. They pass down to the tail, forming two ventral and two
dorsal muscles, which diminishing anteriorly and posteriorly and
becoming amalgamated with the corium, leave free band-like stripes
between them. The muscular canals consist of a longitudinally
striated, or, more correctly, longitudinally folded sarcolemma,
which separates in water and by coagulation, of an inner, tena-
cious, fluid substance with peculiar fround, biscuit-shaped) corpuscles
(of a fatty lustre, moveable by pressure, and becoming converted
into transverse plates by coagulation), and of a somewhat dark,
homogeneous basal substance (ligamentous substance, muscular
fibrine) which forms a solid cylinder in the interior of the muscle.

In the earliest period the four longitudinal muscular canals
were four sarcode canals, which become converted into muscu-
lar canals from the apices towards the middle. At a later
period, the sarcode is entirely deficient in the muscles, and dis-
appears generally from the moment when the nerves show them-
selves. As long as they are still sarcode canals large cells are
seen in them on contact with water ; these possess a nucleus which
is reddish by transmitted light, and one or two round or biscuit-
shaped nucleoli, which finally, by long contact with water become
pale and decrease until there is nothing of them but a shiny cor-
puscle in a delicate membrane. Without the application of water,
large acellular, albuminous drops are found in them; these flow out
when the animal is cut through, and acquire all sorts of amseboid
forms, which, however, always revert to the round or oval form
and exhibit the clear contents with a reddish nuclear vesicle.

We must again revert to the four free, band-like stripes
which exist between the muscles, and of which there are two on
the sides, one on the ventral surface, and one on the back. In
the young state they form canals filled to overflowing with fat.
With the advancing development of the animal, the fat gradu-
ally disappears ; and in fully developed individuals, only single
drops are seen from time to time, and the canals are generally
empty and folded, and have become wrinkled, empty whitish
cords. They run from the head to the caudal extremity, and
become united like the muscles with the corium. The branch
running along the ventral surface bends round the various ori-
fices occurring on this surface. There is certainly no doubt
that these four fat-canals assist in the development of the animal,

OXYUEIS VERMICULAEIS. 365

perhaps especially in the formation of its generative organs.
Walter was unable to detect any efferent duct to these four
canals. As far as I can glance over the whole arrangement, it
must be the principal object of further investigations to ascer-
tain whether a union of each pair of these canals in the apex of
the tail to form a common canal does not take place. Thus
Walter observed from the apex of the tail to the sucking disc
placed in the upper part of the body, in the middle of the
ventral surface, two canals, which are extraordinarily delicate
towards the apex of the tail, running in innumerable convolutions
around the intestine and laterally from it, becoming stronger to-
wards the orifice of the sucker, having exactly the same contents
as the fat-canals, and also, like these, losing themselves in the
corium of the apex of the tail. Consequently, no information
can be given at present as to whether these six canals are actu-
ally produced as six, or whether there are only four canals
with two efferent ducts. We only know that these canals all
bear the same contents during the youth of the animal, and that
they also retrogress simultaneously, so that they probably have
one other same function. Whether these organs are produced
in the same way in the young state of Oxyuris vermicularis as in
O. ornata, whether a perforated ventral sucker exists here,1 and
becomes retrograded at a subsequent period of existence into a
cleft which is easily overlooked; and whether these are not con-
ditions which occur in all nematode worms, are points on which
we are still in the dark. It appears to be very probable, how-
ever, that such circumstances occur in very many, if not all,
nematode worms. Thus Bagge found a fine transverse cleft in
the median line of the belly in Ascaris acuminatus ; others have
found a similar organ in Strongylus hypostomus and a ventral
sucker in Ascaris brevicaudatus. Dujardin and Von Siebold met
with two canals opening in the median line of the belly in
Ascaris dactyluris and paucipara, and it is probable that these
authors had old worms before them, in which these organs had
already become retrograde.

1 Walter is of opinion that such a ventral sucker is, perhaps, necessary to the
nematode worms during the early part of their existence, in order that they may adhere
by sucking with it to the walls of their habitation during the period of their metamor-
phosis, and thus pass through this stage in greater quietness. The sucker would then
resemble other caducous organs occurring during the larval condition of animals ; but
such individuals would then be, as it were, larvae of nematode worms.

366 ANIMAL PARASITES.

In Oxyuris vermicularis I have not yet found this orifice ; but
it is very probable that I have overlooked it. With regard to
the four lateral cords see also Ascaris lumbricoides.

The alimentary apparatus consists of the following parts :

The mouth, reaching to the apex of the head, which is rendered
very broad here by the wing-like appendages, is on the whole
narrow and very muscular. In the Oxyuris ornata it terminates
anteriorly with four ridges (Wiilsten) of corium, in which a nervous
dilatation, broad in front, pointed ^behind (a sort of tactile organ),
is observed. Wedl mentioned three, or perhaps four, retractile
papillae in Oxyuris vermicularis ; these are nothing but Walter's
ridges of corium. The conditions which prevail in O. vermicu-
laris are not very easily reviewed ; but in this case also it is most
probable that we have to do with four ridges of corium, although
it may usually appear that there are only three such ridges. At
any rate the ridges are unequal, and whilst two of them each
measure about 0'025 — 0-028 mill., the other two ridges, which
cover each other, measure together about the same, which is cer-
tainly possible only if the ridges of corium (lips, papillae) differ
in size amongst themselves. The notches between the individual
ridges measure about O'OOIS mill, in the male, and twice as much
in the female. I asserted formerly that the number of ridges
(papillae) must be three, and upon this supported my assumption
of the triangular form of the oesophagus, but I have since seen,
from Walter's investigations, that this triangular form of the
oesophagus has nothing to do with the ridges of corium, as the
oesophagus does not reach to the mouth, and the pharynx is
round, and not composed of three pieces.

Between the mouth, the breadth of which is about 0'039 mill.,
and the oesophagus, there is a muscular pharynx (rich in annular
muscles), which increases in thickness posteriorly ; at the hinder
extremity of this there is a constriction, which corresponds with a
small intumescence in front. The skin of the pharynx in the
Oxyurides, according to Walther, is firm externally, structureless,
and without folds internally. Between the pharynx and the
cylindrical oesophagus there is a sort of diaphragm, a chitinous or
cartilaginous lamella. Towards the stomach a new constriction
occurs, which separates the oesophagus from the stomach. The
cavity of the oesophagus itself is prismatic and triangular, as far
as the stomach. The angles of this prism are formed by three
firm cartilaginous seams, which occur in the interior of the

OXYUKIS VEEMICULAEIS. 367

cavity of the oesophagus. Externally there are three strong
muscles, which determine the prismatic form ; and inwards from
these angles the skin is seen to be furnished with broad folds,
covered in the earliest periods with distinct, delicate epithelium,
which afterwards becomes firmer. All this is surrounded by a
firm, structureless envelope, a continuation of the epidermis,
which afterwards becomes the peritoneum.

After the oesophagus and behind the constriction follows the
strongly muscular stomach, with a peculiar dental apparatus,
according to Walter. The cavity of the stomach is also prismatic
at first, but dilates immediately after a second constriction. The
folds are wanting here, but instead of them three converging
cones are seen which are firm, acute, and chitinous, originating
in the walls of the cavity, and are furnished with points pro-
jecting freely into the cavity. Superficially they are covered
with small diverging folds, and in consequence have an undulated
appearance. According to Walter, an epithelium is only ob-
served in the Oxyurides in their earliest youth. On the outer
surface of the walls of the stomach there are radiating muscular
fasciculi issuing from a second membrane which exists between
the stomach and peritoneum. On these circular muscles,
between the above-mentioned membrane and the peritoneum,
there follows a new strong muscular layer. Immediately behind
the stomach there is another constriction, with which the intes-
tine commences; the course of the latter is somewhat different
in the two sexes. After the constriction, which is followed by
the corresponding dilatation, the intestine makes a turn forward,
and afterwards runs, always maintaining a nearly equal diameter,
in a pretty straight line, and only making a few convolutions, in
the female more in the middle of the worm, but then passes to
the inner side and opens into the somewhat narrowed anus, about
1-798 mill. = 0-797'" P. = 0-819'" V. from the apex of the tail
on the inside of the worm, and indeed in its lateral margin. In
the male the circumstances first mentioned also take place, only
here the intestine always runs on the outer side of the worm into
the caudal extremity, where it opens on the outer side of the
penis, by a cleft-like orifice, or perhaps by a common orifice for
the penis and anus. Wedl has erroneously regarded the seminal
chord as the intestine.

The anatomical structure of the intestinal canal is as follows :
The peritoneum of the stomach is continued into the peritoneum

368 ANIMAL PARASITES.

of the intestine, and the inner membrane of the stomach into the
epithelial membrane of the intestine. The epithelium consists of
a simple layer of large, delicate-walled, hexagonal cells, flattened
against each other, with a pale nucleus and a distinct nucleolus.
They resemble pavement epithelium, such as Luschka has figured
in the intestine of Trichina spiralis. What Wedl figures as
epithelium are seminal corpuscles. Between the epithelium and
the peritoneum, we find, as a continuation of the muscles of the
stomach, fine longitudinal muscles, and an intermediate layer of
cells. The latter, merely on account of its cells, is, according to
Walter, an analogue of the liver (bile-producing organ), for
which, however, it seems to me, he has forgotten to furnish the
proof.

The rectum, according to Walter, does not present these three
layers, and is destitute of the longitudinal muscles, but possesses
annular muscles to close, and a strong transverse muscle to open
the anal cleft.

The tail of the male has an obtuse extremity, apparently
capable of conversion into a sucker, but this must not be con-
founded with the above-mentioned ventral sucker.

Sexual relations of the Oxyurides.

The males were discovered by Sommering in the evacuations
from an oil-clyster, with which the celebrated father had expelled
the Oxyurides from his son, and sent to Bremser, who also found
them subsequently, although but sparingly. Wedl also only met
with them in small numbers, and Von Siebold, curiously, never
saw them, which also appears to have been Dujardin's case. And
yet Dr. Zenker has shown that they may be discovered with
great ease.1 He has allowed me to state, that according to his
experience, males occur abundantly wherever we meet with the
females in great numbers. All that is necessary is, to scrape off
the mucus from the walls of the large intestine with a scalpel,
and place the mucous mass upon the object-glass. The collection
of males is particularly successful when the excrement is evacuated
from the intestine by diarrhoeas. In this way Dr. Zenker collected
about a drachm of diarrhoeal mucus from the large intestine of a
lying-in woman, who died in Dresden from puerperal fever, and

[' I have found no difficulty in discovering males. They are generally much fewer
in number. — TRANS.]

OXYURIS VEKMICULAEIS. 369

sent the bottle filled with it to me, with the observation that I
should find a sufficient number of males therein, together with
mature and semi-mature females. In this fluid, both M. Reinhardt,
of Bautzen, to whom I sent some of it, and myself, have obtained
an abundant harvest (at least from forty to fifty) as regards the
males, so that the old notion, diffused by many a text-book,
as to the rarity of the male Oxyurides, is to be regarded as com-
pletely set aside by Zenker's means. Even with the naked eye,
but still better with the lens, we may, according to Zenker, and
as I can confirm, detect the males in the form of small, trans-
lucent filaments or curls, when the diarrhoeal fseces and mucus,
spread upon a glass plate, are held up against the light. They
vary greatly in size. The addition of water is not advisable, as
they then easily burst, and suffer a prolapsus of the intestines.
In the male generative apparatus we perceive, —

1. A simple seminigenous organ, in which particular parts can
hardly be distinguished from one another, and which forms a
canal of almost continuously equal calibre. The blind extremity
of this organ, which would correspond with the testis, commences
at the inner side of the worm, about in the posterior or middle
third, and rises here in the space between the skin and the
intestinal canal upwards to the level of the bulb of the
oesophagus, bends round it, passes over towards the other side
of the worm, and runs down a little on the other side of the
stomach, on the outer side of the worm, between the skin and the
intestine, towards the hinder extremity. Here it opens on the
inner side of the tail, immediately beside, perhaps even together
with, the anus. At its lowest extremity we find —

2. The so-called penis, which is simple, and in which the bands
described in the Trichocephali passing to the sheath, as well as
the sheath itself, are wanting. The penis has a funnel-shaped or
button-like swelled root, and then presents a tubular part, running
pretty straight, and at its hinder extremity a small, hook-shaped,
obtuse point, the concavity of which always looks towards the
side which is turned away from the intestine, and therefore
towards that indicated at the inner side of the worm.
Moreover, the penis, which is imperforate, and only hollowed
out into a channel, acts like the penis of the other Nematoida, as
a sort of ovipositor. In the interior of the seminiferous organ,
and escaping through the posterior genital orifice by the agency
of the penis, are seen —

A A

370 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

3. The seminal cells. These are large, round bodies, which
present an extraordinary resemblance to the epithelium of higher
animals, and have even been taken for epithelium by Wedl. At
the same time they appear granulated. To the male sexual organs
belongs, lastly —

4. A sort of sucking-pit at the extremity of the abdomen,
which must serve as an auxiliary apparatus for the attachment of
the male, and as an assistance to the voluntary twisting of his
abdomen. In the textbooks we find nothing about this apparatus,
and yet it actually exists, although perhaps it assumes many
forms, in different positions of the worm. At the obtuse caudal
extremity of the male we see not unfrequently the whole
of the free margins projecting as light outlines, and from these
margins anteriorly and towards the tissue of the worm, a small,
cap or hood-shaped, hollow structure takes its rise, presenting the
complete form of a sucking disc engaged in action. Whether
this arrangement is produced by valvular seams or processes of
the integument, or, as it appears to me, by simple contraction of
the obtuse caudal extremity of the male, cannot be stated with
certainty. It is certain that it is possible for the obtuse tail to
acquire a sucker-like form, and that this assists the adhesion
of the male in coitu. At the same time I may remind the
reader of the valvular apparatus in the stomach. This apparatus
effects the complete prevention of the regurgitation of air and
nutritive material forwards, and thus renders the intestine a com-
pletely closed tube. This circumstance must of course assist the
action of the caudal extremity as a sucker.

The females, whose comparative size varies according to the
state of maturity, are, under ail circumstances, larger than the
males. In the mature state they catch the naked eye, both by
their size and their white chalky colour, which is caused by our
seeing the pale, closely packed eggs shining out of the abundantly
filled uterus. The vaginal orifice lies on the same side as the
anal opening, and about as far behind the mouth as the
anus is distant from the caudal extremity, as is shown by the
measurements already given. It is situated before the middle
of the female, longish oval, and recognisable externally by no
remarkable fleshy protuberance. The tolerably long, slightly
twisted vagina is followed by the uterus, which, as well as the
ovary and Tuba Fallopii, is double in the Oocyurides. On the
simple vagina follows the uterus, one branch of which, the

OXYUEIS VERMICULAKIS. 371

longest, runs straight backwards, often a short distance beyond
the anus, whilst its anterior and shorter branch runs, also straight,
as far as the region in front of the bulb of the oesophagus, always
supposing that the uteri are full. The branch which runs back-
wards, and at the same time gradually diminishes, covers the
entire intestine, and lies upon it, so that only the spot where
the anus is situated remains free; if it be empty, the dark
intestine shines through it distinctly. In the neighbourhood of
the anus the uterus bends round towards the other side and
runs forwards in the form of a considerably diminished finally
linear chord, filled with granular yelk-masses, terminating in
narrow convolutions behind the vagina. The branch which
passes forward runs not so much upon, as close to, and on the
inside of, the intestine, stomach, and oesophagus, pressing these
organs more towards the outer wall of the worm. It also
bends round at last quite anteriorly towards the other side,
passes consequently to the outer side of the intestinal canal,
and then runs backwards beneath it to just in front of the
vagina as an ovary, terminating here in five convolutions, like
the other branch. It is difficult to see this in mature indivi-
duals, and I could not succeed in it, until at last I hit upon
the idea of taking these worms out of my own faeces, with which
one or two Oxyurides pass off daily. These I laid immediately
upon a glass, covered it with a glass cover, and added some of
my saliva. In about three hours the animals had deposited all
their eggs, with peristaltic movements of the uterus, which expelled
the eggs, 5 — 12 at a time, by jerks, at intervals of about 5 — 10
seconds. At the same time the margins of the uterus became
crumpled, and the uterus appeared quite empty and without
epithelium. These movements of the uterus lasted for some
hours after the last eggs were laid. Professor Von Wittig, of
Konigsberg, who happened to be visiting me, was able to observe
this oviposition with me. Pressure sometimes causes the
vagina to open again when it has closed. The eggs, the form
and size of which we have already described, are present in
immense numbers, and are formed in the same way as the ova of
other Nematoida, and contain the most various steps of develop-
ment, from the segmentation of the yelk up to the filiform
coiled up embryo within the egg-shell. The eggs which pass
last out of the vagina have a small light point at one pole,
probably the remains of their attachment and of their place of

372 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

formation. During deposition they came from tlie vagina,
sometimes singly and in the direction of their length, sometimes
several together, and even in the direction of their transverse
diameter.

General physiological remarks.. — The locality of these worms
is the lower part of the intestinal canal, especially the rec-
tum, but they also pass further into it, and even into the
small intestine, at least into its lower regions. Certainly such
statements as those of Wulf, Brera, and Bianchi, who profess
to have found them in a sac between the membranes of the
stomach, in the oesophagus of a woman who had died from linger-
ing nervous fever, and in one of the ventricles of the brain, are,
as Bremser has already said, observations which no one will
believe who has not seen them with his own eyes. Their
further wandering within the intestinal canal itself, when the
worms are otherwise found living free in it, will surprise
no one, as the worms notoriously even wander out of the anus
and into the vagina of females, in which, however, they must
find a nourishment rather different from the intestinal mucus.
Whether they can wander into the urethra of boys or men
I do not know. It is a superstition to ascribe them alone or
principally to childhood. I was myself consulted by a very old
Saxon general on account of these tormentors; a second subject,
the most troubled of any of my patients, was between forty and
fifty years of age ; and I myself still suffer from them in
my thirty-sixth year, and only two years ago expelled from
myself a young Ascaris lumbricoides . In short, thread-worms are
limited to no age, and to no particular part of the world. They
have the privilege over other Helmintha, of being the tormentors
of every age and every people.

The mode of their migration into the human intestine has
already been referred to.

Action, diagnosis, and prognosis. — According to the number
of individual worms present, and their position, their actions are
various. A few worms scarcely produce any symptoms; nu-
merous worms, especially when they are situated in the lowest
part of the rectum, make themselves observable by an extremely
troublesome itching in the anus and its external neighbourhood.
Certain foods, especially carrots, onions, fruits, &c., render the
worms particularly restless, and they are then troublesome during
the whole day with the itching referred to. In many cases this

OXYUEIS VEEMICULAEIS. 373

itching is laid to the account of the Molimina h amor rhoid 'alia,
whilst it is a purely mechanical phenomenon. If the worms be
not disquieted by any particular cause, the annoyances cease
during the day but come on all the more violently when the
patient goes to bed. For this reason I am inclined to regard
the Oxyurides as nocturnal animals. Then they wander out of
the anus, keep off sleep, and make it restless, especially in
irritable children ; although adults, and even old people, are also
troubled in their sleep by this cause. The consequences of the
constant itching are not only a general disturbance of the nutri-
tion by the prevention of sleep, but it leads, after the age of
puberty, to increased sexual irritation, onanism, &c., in both
sexes. The latter phenomena occur especially when we have to
do with the female sex, and the worms wander into the vagina,
which takes place not very unfrequently, and give rise to mecha-
nical irritation of the vagina, leucorrhcea, pruritus, &c.

The diagnosis can only be established with certainty when
worms are observed in the evacuated fseces. The quickest way
of getting a clear diagnosis is by a clyster and the examina-
tion of the freces.

The prognosis is unfavorable, as although the disorder may
certainly be relieved, it is only got rid of with difficulty, even
with age.

Treatment. — I may be excused from enumerating here all the
remedies which have been recommended for these worms. In-
ternal remedies are in general but little to be recommended.
Whoever has had to do with the expulsion of Tanice will, how-
ever, have had the opportunity of seeing that when the anthel-
mintics administered have been carried rapidly through the
bowels by the addition of purgatives, they frequently remove a great
number of Oxyurides. This applies especially to those which are
administered in the form of powder, or in that of a difficultly
soluble extract; for example, my extract of pomegranate-root,
the powder of Kousso, Panna, Filix mas, &c. Thus Dr. Pockels,
of Holzminden, gives Filix powder and Jalap in some sweet
juice. With me, the long-continued use of a tea made from
Flores Verbasci proved to be of good service. The flowers are
left in the infusion, and used with it. The fine hairs of the
flowers appear to irritate and disturb the worms mechanically.
Violent diarrhoeas, as well as violent purgatives, only diminish
the numbers of the worms, but never entirely destroy them.

374 ANIMAL PAKASITES.

Clysters, with various matters added to them, are the most
advisable remedies.

Sb'mmering expelled the worms from his son by a clyster of
olive oil; others praise garlic-, wormwood-, or valerian-clysters,
or clysters with an addition of Oleum Chaberti, or Oleum animale
Dippelii. Dujardin saw an abundant discharge after an addi-
tion of aloes. For my own part I believe that simple cold water
clysters effect just as much as those just mentioned, but those
of salt-water with oil still more. Very recently I have admi-
nistered clysters of Natron santonicum (4 — 8 grains to a clyster
for adults, for children one half), with the addition of two drops
of oil of anise, with good results. In the less obstinate cases
these clysters are sufficient even when only the ordinary short
mouthpiece of the clyster-syringe is introduced into the anus.
Qui§t sleep is obtained by ordering the patient a clyster daily
before going to bed. Cure can only be attained by long-con-
tinued nightly lavements, and in obstinate cases by making
use of an elastic mouth-tube or catheter which has lately
been recommended, especially by Griesinger, and which is in-
troduced as far as above the flexura sigmoidea. In this way the
stream of the enema reaches to the Oxyurides above the flexura
sigmoidea, which is a principal point. Unfortunately a great
number of those specimens of the worm which conceal themselves
behind the folds of the rectum escapes the action of the clyster.
To those who are sent to the baths on account of Molimina
htemorrhoidalia, to use alkaline aperient waters, and who observe
Oxyurides in their fseces, and are also annoyed by them, espe-
cially at night, I would earnestly recommend the use of these
waters in the form of lavements. It is also salutary, in order to
remove the specimens which have wandered into the small
intestine, to administer Natron santon. internally for a couple
of days, and afterwards strong purgatives, in order to remove
or destroy the worms, which easily swell up and burst in
water.

This is not an unsuitable place in which to refer to the time
when anthelmintics should be administered. Popular belief
places the most suitable time when the moon wanes; the same
thing was taught by the old physicians, and even at the present
day, surgeons who have much to do with worm patients say that
at the time of the wane of the moon the greatest number of
patients come to them to complain about their annoyance. As

STEONGYLI. 375

I suffer myself from Oxyuris vermicular is, it came into my mind
to attain certainty upon this point by the daily examination of
the faeces for Oxyurides, for some time. The results of these
investigations, which were not made without some self-sacrifice,
and which I continued from the 27th August, 1855, to the 25th
July, 1856, were published by me in the ' Wochenblatt der
Zeitschrift, der K. K. Gesellschaft der Aerzte zu Wien.' In
the 329 days of observation, 93 Oxyurides passed spontaneously
on 49 days during the wane of the moon ; and during the in-
crease of the moon, in all, 57 worms on 36 days. In the time
from the full of the moon to its last quarter, there were 19 worm-
days, with 41 worms ; in that from the last quarter to new moon,
27 worm days, with 46 worms; in that from the new moon to
the first quarter, 15 worm days, and 23 worms ; and in that
from the first quarter to the full moon, 22 worm days, with
38 worms, so that the week from the last quarter to new moon,
and after this, the week from the first quarter to full moon,
would be the best adapted for the expulsion of worms. It
would, however, of course, not be right to confine ourselves to
these periods, when time presses. These periods are only to be
used as a means of supporting our attempts at cure ; good anthel-
minthics expel the worms at any time. The particular days of
the phases of the moon have no essential influence upon the spon-
taneous passage of the worms, any more than days on which an
eclipse of the sun or moon occurs. Of the particular days, it
would appear that the most favorable for expulsion would be
September, with 16; December, with 11; and November and
February, with 9 days on which worms passed spontaneously;
next to these, January and June, with 8, and July and October,
with 7 such days; the least favorable are April, with 5, March,
with 4, and May, with 2 days.

III. Strongyli and their allies.

A. Strongyli veri.

Corpore subcylindrici, utrinque attenuate ; capite nudo, rarius
alato, 2 appendicibus later alibus armato ; ore terminali, nudo vel
sex papillis instructo, vel orbiculari ; cesophago triangulari, mus-
culoso ; cute tenui. Mas : appendice multilobata aut radiata ;
penis simplex, vel duplex, multilobatus, ad digitorum instar.

376 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

Femina : caudd obtusd, recta ; ano in parte caudali ; vagina
antrorsum slid; utero simplici aut biloculari ; ovulis maynis
(0-06 — 0-12 mill.) Animalia ovi- aut vivipara.

Dujardin treats of the Stronguli veri as the fourteenth genus
of his Nemato'ides. Diesing has treated of the two species here
referred to in different places, and placed the Strongylus gigas
in his Genus LIV, Enstrongylus , of which he gives the following
description : " Corpore subcylindrico, utrinque sensim attenuate,
capite corpore continue, ore termiiHili, orbiculari, papilloso ; bursa
maris terminally Integra, pene filiformi longo, hand vaginato ;
vagina aut antrorsum aut retrorsum sitd ; systemati gangliorum
distinctissimo. Animalia ovi- aut vivipara, extra tubum intes-
tinalem habitantia."

1. Strongylus gigas. Tab. VIII, figs, a, b.

Synon. : Enstrongylus gigas (Diesing) ; Lumbrici in renibus
(Blasius) ; aut renalis (Redi) ; Lumbricus sanguineus in rene canis
(Hartmann) ; les vers sortis des reins et de Purethre (Mouhlet) ;
Ascaris visceralis aut renalis (Gmelin) ; Asc. canis et Mustelas
martes (Schrauk) ; Dioctophyme (Collet-Meygret) ; Fusaria vis-
ceralis aut renalis (Zeder).

Corpore rubro, cylindrico, longissimo, utrinque attenuate, striis
aut annulis transversis interruptis et 8 fasciis fibrarum longitudina-
lium instructo ; capite obtuso, truncato ; ore orbiculari 6 papillis
aut nodulis planiusculis, appropinquantibus ; ossophago 15 — 22
mill, circiter longo, tenui et angustiore, quam canalis intestinalis .

Mas : corpore antrorsum magis attenuate, 140 ad 140 mill. =
10" — 1' longo, 4 — 6 mill, lato ; caudd obtusd cum bursd membra-
naced patelliformi, circa 3 mill, laid, truncatd ; pene tenuissimo
simplici.

Femina : corpore utrinque attenuate, 2 decim. ad 1 metr. =
5" — 3' longo, 5 — 12 mill, lato ; caudd magis recta, obtuso-rotun-
datd ; ano triangulari, oblongo, sub extremitate caudali sito ;
vagina antrorsum sitd ; utero simplici ; ovulis fere globulosis.

Bremser has already shown that this worm, which occurs,
although rarely, in the abdominal cavity, the omentum, but
especially in the kidneys and urinary bladder, more rarely in the
lungs and liver, and only when strayed in the intestinal canal of
martens, dogs, wolves, seals, otters, oxen, and horses, is still more

STKONGYLUS G1GAS. 377

rare in man, and that a great number of those accounts which
speak of worms passing off through the urinary passages are
delusions, and consequently belong to the section of Pseudo-
parasites (Pseudohelmintha). A portion of the older histories
of cases may also, perhaps, refer to Ascarides or Oxyurides,
which passed outwards in consequence of the production of
intestine-vesicular or vesiculo-vaginal fistula?, or to membranous
and polypous blood-concretions, which from their round form
were regarded as Strongyli, and which had probably obtained this
form from the ureters, and when they were smaller from the
tubuli uriniferi.

Since the knowledge of the fibrinous casts in the urine of
patients suffering from Bright' s disease in the kidneys, one source
of the errors into which our forefathers fell, in stating that they
had seen worms pass off with the urine, is certainly abolished.
Bremser has already proved, that the worm of Tulpius was only
a coagulated fragment of blood ; and also doubted the cases of
Paullin and Barry ; and with regard to Decerf's case, maintained
at the same time with Dumeril, that about fifty worms, of 6 — 8
inches long and of the thickness of the stem of a feather, as well
as the thinner worms, 18'" in length, which were evacuated from
a man suffering with bloody urine in two months and a half, were
only coagulated fibrine, whilst he certainly does not regard it as
quite improbable that the body first passed, 14" 8'" in length,
and of the thickness of a quill, which was covered with blood, and
was said to have been thrown away, was really a Strongylus. The
cases of Lawrence and Barnett also belong, according to the
common investigations of Bremser and Rudolphi, to the fibrinous
coagula. What Bremser here still found doubtful, and regarded
as Entozoa, of which he says that it is not improbable that in
the smaller specimens, which were only passed once, out of the
800 — 1000 structures evacuated within a year, we have really
young Strongyli, as may be seen from his figures, tab. iv,
figs. 6 — 10. These, in my opinion, resemble at the utmost rolled-
up Trichocephali, but might have been equally well fibrinous
coagula, as the woman suffered from pain in the loins and bladder
with retention of urine, and therefore probably from Bright's
disease. How long such coagula retain their elasticity out
of the urine and in lukewarm water, varies according to
size, and other conditions. Dr. Wagner writes me, that he not
long since saw such cylinders keep very well for eight days,

378 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

at the ordinary temperature of a room. It is therefore by no
means improbable that coagula of the size figured by Bremser
might certainly keep, and retain their elasticity for forty-eight
hours in warm water, so that I regard this case also as one of
B right's disease, associated with an abundant effusion of fibrine.
Bremser regards the following cases as undoubtedly true.

1. That of the Archduke Ernest of Austria, who died in 1595,
as governor of the Netherlands, and in whose kidneys Hugo
Grotius found a stone and a still living worm, which had gnawed
the neighbouring parts, i. e., had eaten into them.

2. The case of Ruysch, who was already acquainted with this
worm in dogs.

3. The case of Blasius, who once found two of the "red
worms, which often occur in dogs," of the length of an ell, in the
kidneys of an old man.

4. The case of Albrecht, who saw a soldier, after seven days'
retention of urine, pass a worm of three fingers long and of the
thickness of a quill through the urethra, with immediate relief.

5. The case of Raisin, in which a worm of three inches long
passed from a man of fifty years old, after two years of renal
colic with bloody urine, when a cure took place (a case which
does not appear to me to belong to Strongylus gig as, on account
of the small size of the worm, as even males of two years old are
usually larger).

6. The similar case of Duchateau.

7. The case of Rhodius, who saw a round living worm of a
span long passed with the urine, without any previous or subse-
quent urinary disorder, from a man prostrated by a violent fever,
on the fifth day of illness (a case which also appears suspicious
to me, as an Ascaris lumbricoides may have been in question here,
which had voluntarily wandered out of the anus, and might have
fallen accidentally together with the urine into the nightstool or
chamberpot, whilst these were being used for making water).

8 — 12. The cases of Chapotain, Monceau, Holler, Renner,
and Scheuk, in which worms were evacuated with the urine.

13 perhaps. The case of Hahne, in which a specimen occurred
in the thoracic cavity. And —

14. One of the most certain cases, that of Moublet. A boy
who had been freed from a calculus in the bladder, in his third
year, by Moublet, was attacked in his tenth year by a violently
painful swelling in the region of the loins, with scanty secretion

STRONGYLUS GIGAS. 379

of urine. Much pus flowed from the opened tumour, and
the wound healed up. The disorder was renewed repeatedly
for three years, and the operation was repeated. At last a
worm, five inches long and of the thickness of a quill, came out
of the wound, and finally a second worm, four inches long, but
then complete retention of urine occurred, until two similar
worms passed shortly after each other, and a perfect cure was
the result.

Diesing enumerates only the cases of Blasius, Ruysch, and
Moublet, and adds to them a case of Bobe Moreau (' Journ. de
Med./ xlvii, Mai), and one of Stratton in the year 1843, which,
however, he has furnished with a ?.

These are about all the cases in which true Nematoida come in
question at all, and which might be regarded with some probability
as Strongylus gigas} But nevertheless some of the cases here
referred to may not so much have concerned this species of worm
as the Ascaris lumbricoides . If therefore there is no doubt that
Strongylus gigas is to be reckoned amongst the Entozoa found in
man, we must undoubtedly be astonished that the worm has
remained almost entirely unobserved since the time when the
pathological anatomy of man raised itself to the rank of a science,
so that even Diesing refers to no certain case of recent occur-
rence. A case recently observed by Dr. Schenten, and repeatedly
referred to in the ' Deutscher Klinik/ for 1855 (for example in
No. 39), which was at first described with much certainty as
Strongylus of the kidney, consisted, according to Gurlt's investi-
gations, only of a blood-coagulum from the tubuli of the kidney.
In animals also it appears to have become and to be becoming
more and more rare, and it is not difficult to suppose that in a
short time we may have to do only with a historical and extinct
species of worm.

For this reason it cannot be expected that I shall be able
to make any essential addition to what the few authors who
have dissected this worm have observed. What I ascertained
from a specimen kindly furnished to me for examination by
M. Gurlt, and already dissected by him, and from another female
specimen, the investigation of which was not permitted me,
but the dissection of which could not have been of any use to
science, relates merely to details of size.

[' There is a fine specimen of this worm, taken from a human kidney, in the
Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons of England. — TRANS.]

380 ANIMAL PARASITES.

When fresh, according to the statements of all authors, the
worm has a red colour, which, I believe, only differs a little from
that of very fresh, un watered Ascarides, by its deeper red tint ;
in spirit this colour bleaches, and the worm becomes of a leaden
greyish-blue. Four longitudinal stripes may be counted upon it.

The total length of the female, in the uninjured spirit prepa-
ration at my disposal, was 19 Saxon inches ; the vaginal orifice
was fully 2 inches from the thinner extremity, which I have
taken for the mouth. Dujardin sftys that the vagina opens about
1 — 2 inches from the caudal extremity, according to the size of
the individual. To me the vaginal opening appeared to lie per-
haps 2 inches from the mouth, at least to judge from the dissected
specimen. In the dissected specimen the empty uterus measured
5| inches in length, and was ±" broad ; but the vagina was 1 inch
in length. The ovaries disentangled as much as possible, and
measured by the inch rule, with an approximative calculation of
their terminal convolutions, gave a length of 83 inches. These
ovigenous organs ran backward to the thicker end (anus) to within
2i inches from this. The oesophagus was rather thin, muscular,
widening posteriorly in a clavate form, and almost 1| inches in
length. Diesing ascribes a distinct nervous system to this worm,
saying, " in hac saltern specie sy sterna gangliorum manifestissinum ;
and Blanchard also, as well as Von Siebold and Otto, speak of such
a system. Blanchard, namely, has indicated two chords running
down along the animal, and cerebral ganglion-like swellings in
their course, as nervous branches, whilst the other two last-named
authors only regard as a nervous end that visible longitudinal
line which is to be seen along the middle of the ventral surface,
which commences with a swelling in the head, and also terminates
in the head, and during its progress gives off filaments right and
left without exhibiting ganglionic dilatations, and the finer struc-
ture of which differs essentially from that of the transverse mus-
cular fasciculi. The ganglionic enlargements of Blanchard are
nothing but puckerings in the course of these chords, which cer-
tainly occur usually in spirit specimens, but are only found in
fresh and living Strongyli, where the worms are met with in a
contracted state. Only when we shall know something certain
with regard to the analogous longitudinal chords occurring
in Ascaris lumbricoides, will the explanation of these be possible.

Symptoms, diagnosis, progress, prognosis, and therapeutics. —
Without prejudice to any author, we may assert that we know

STRONGYLUS LONGE VAGINA TUS. 381

nothing either of one or the other. If several worms, or one
large female be present, the kidneys will be enlarged and
an enlargement will be detected by palpation, percussion, and
perhaps by inspection; bu*t the cause of this swelling, of any
flow of blood from the urinary passages, or of any existing
retention of urine, would only be recognisable when worms have
actually passed from the bladder. Therapeutics can only inter-
fere after the passage has taken place, and then only to alleviate
irritation, by mucilaginous or oily remedies, which pass into the
urinary passages, such as emulsions and mucilaginous decoctions,
and tea.

2. Strongylus longevaginatus (Diesing) = Filaria hominis bronchi-
alls ( Rudolph!) , seu Hamularia subcompressu (Treutter and
Rudolphi). PL VIII, fig. 2 a and b.

In the year 1790, Treutter, on opening the emaciated body of
a man of 28 years old, weakened by onanism, venereal excesses,
and mercurial treatment, with a hereditary predisposition to
dropsy and consumption, found in the unnaturally enlarged
bronchial glands small worms measuring more or less than an
inch, which were elongated, roundish, somewhat compressed
laterally, blackish-brown, sometimes spotted with white, somewhat
diminished towards the anterior extremity, semi-transparent
towards the posterior extremity, and incurved at both ends after
death. According to him there were two moveable, projecting
booklets on the head. The indistinct caudal extremity was
obtuse. Of this Treutter made a peculiar genus, with the fol-
lowing description : " Corpus lineare, teretiusculum, caput obtusum,
infra 2 hamulis prominentibus instructum." But Bremser with
perfect justice disputed the independence of this genus, proved
that the worms in question must be distinguished from the
Filarice which occurred, for example, in the thoracic cavity of the
shrikes, and reckoned amongst those worms which Rudolphi,
Olfers, and Leuckart, as well as Natterer had found in the
lungs of the species of Mustela. He also supported this
opinion by the circumstance, that, according to Treutter, these
worms were attached by the proboscis with such extraordinary
firmness to the mucous membrane, that they could only be
removed from it with extreme care, and scarcely without tearing
them to pieces, as is the case in the Entozoa of the Mitstelte.

382 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

Bremser also indicates the two booklets, as the pair of prominent
penes, and consequently what Treutter calls the anterior part
of the body, as the abdominal extremity, and the specimens
found as males. Diesing has adopted this latter idea, and has
also placed the worm, found in 184<5, by the army-surgeon
Jortsits, in Klausenberg, in Liebenbiirgen, in the substance of
the lungs of a boy of six years old, living partly free in the lung
and partly adherent to the substance of the lung, along with
Treutter's Hamularia subcompresm. We accede to this opinion
the more willingly, as the occurrence of Treutter's worm in the
bronchial glands, which was doubted by Rudolphi, can furnish
no reasons for separating these two Entozoa, as it is proved that
Strongyli not only dwell willingly in open cavities (bronchi, in-
testines), but also in neighbouring glands (glandule meseraica
et br one/dales). The young worms also, found by me in the lung
of a sheep, which lived in tuberculous nodules and glandular
swellings of the lungs, appear, according to Von Siebold, to have
been the brood of Strongyli. Diesing has treated of this worm
in the Genus LI, Strongylus ; Sub-division ** os limbo papilloso.
•\Caput hand alatum, 2, bursa maris biloba, as Species 22, Stron-
gylus longivaginatus, and described it as follows :

Caput truncato-conicwn hand alatum : oris limbo papillis (labiis
mihi) 4 — 6.

Corpus subaquale rectum albofuscum, maris antrorsum, femina,
utrinque parum attenuatum ; ext remit ate caudali maris inflexa ;
bursa subcampanulata bilobata, lobo singulo 3-radiato ; vagina
penis bicruri, cruribus longissimis linearibus, dimidiae fere corporis
longitudinis, aurantiacis, transverse tenuissime striatis ; feminae
apice mucronata, apertura genitali supra caudte apicem. — Vim-
parus. Long, maris 6 — 7"' ', crassit %" ; femince longit ad V" ,
crassit, ^~" .

I regret that I am unable to furnish any better figures of this
worm. Rokitan sky's stock contained only fragments of it. The
bottle belonging to it had been plundered by an unknown hand.
Diesing gave a denial to my request for a couple of specimens, or
a figure, although I offered him preparations in exchange, " be-
cause his new species and genera would be illustrated by figures
in the Memoirs of the Imperial Academy."

With regard to the consequences of worms in the lungs
of animals, see ' Annales de Med. Vet./ 1855, p. 653, and

ANCYLOSTOMUM. 383

Hering's ' Report/ 1855, xvii, p. 147, as also Gurlt's ' Mag.
Supp./ 1855. A worm-cough was observed in the form of a
chronic bronchitis, for which Assafoetida, %j, with Ol. Chaberti,
^ij — ^iv, and mucilage, was prescribed; a tea-spoonful daily.
In some young geese which were dull, and troubled with agi-
tation of the head, opening of the beak, and efforts to vomit, with
a croaking voice, and froth on the beak, Przibijlko found red
coils of worms in the air-passages and their branches.

B. Ancylostomum.

Synon. : Anchylostoma (Dubini) ; Ancylostoma (Creplin).

According to Von Siebold, the description of Diesing, who re-
fers to this worm as his Genus LII, is to be altered in the fol-
lowing manner, with the aid of Dubinins description.

Vermes subcinerei, vivipari, corpus cylindricum ; caput aliquid
•iltenuatum ; pharynx infundibuliformis, colors subfusco, parietibus
I'esistentibus. Os acetabuliforme, subcorneum ; aperlura oris ampla
drcularis subdorsalis ; denies in fundo oris intra aperture mar-
ginem abdominalem 4 uncinati (os in altitudine infundibuli 4 uncinis
intus recurvatis munitum et in fundo cum eminentiis conicis, in
tabularum explicatione " punguli tegumentarii" nominatis, inuncinos
versis, utrique generi communibus, Dubini) ; oesophagus carnosus,
qui ad clavte instar inter descendendum laryitur ; cutis transverse
striata, unde 2 eminentics conica prominent, una alteri opposita,
inter seoctam anteriorem partem longitudinis vermiculi totalis et
inter reliquas posteriores vermiculi paries, qua quinquies sextant
longitudinis totalis partem exhibent ; anus lateralis et aliquid ab
extremitate caudali remota. Extremitas caudalis maris bursam
terminalem integram, subtus ex cisam multiradiatam ex appendi-
culatam ; penem duplicem longissimum exhibens ; femince obtusa,
aperturam genitalem retrorsum sitam prtebens.

This worm, found by Dubini, in Milan, in the year 1838,
in the human duodenum and upper part of the jejunum, and
subsequently also by Pruner, Bilharz, and Griesinger, in the
countries watered by the Nile, but which, according to Von
Siebold, has never yet been found in Europe, on this side of the
Alps, but may, perhaps, as it appears to me, occur also in

364 ANIMAL PARASITES.

Iceland, was established by Dubini, as a separate genus, Anchy-
lostomum, and exhibited by Von Siebold to the meeting of
naturalists at Gotha in 1852 as Strongylus quadridentatus , but
this name has recently been retracted by him, as Dujardin had
already employed the name of Sclerostomum quadridentatum for
the Strongylus tetr acanthus (Mehlis).

With regard to Dubinins proceeding in establishing a new
genus, Ancylostomum, Von Siebold mentions that, from the horny
nature of the capsule of the mo*th, this worm might certainly
have been arranged in the genus Sclerostomum, but that, never-
theless, the genus Ancylostomum, established by Dubini, may
very well be allowed to remain, as the parts of the mouth of
this worm are distinguished from all other Strongyli by the
asymmetrical arrangement of the dental apparatus.

Of the genus Ancylostomum, we are at present only acquainted
with the single species — >

1. Ancylostomum duodenale. PI. VI B, fig. 16 — 29.
The synonyma of which have just been spoken of.

The description of A. duodenale runs as follows, according to
Diesing's description as improved by Von Siebold.

Caput apice rotundatum ; oris limbi papillis conicis incequalibus,
duabus minoribus, uncinis papillis imposilis apicibus convergentibus.
Corpus subrectum v. parum curvatum, anteriore parte transparent,
ventriculo globoso nigrescento, posteriore flavido-fuscum} maris
antrorsum attenuatum, extremitate caudaii inflexd ; bursd cyathi-
formi bilobd l\-radiatd} cujus radii ita sunt posili, ut triplicem
eorum ordinem conspicere possis, in utroque enim latere ordinem
quatuor, media in parte trium radiorum (radiis later alibus utriusque
5 simplicibus : Diesing) ; radio dorsali apice furcato ; femince
evtremitate posticd acute conicd. Longit ; mar. 3 — 4'" ; fern.
4— 5/x/ ; crassit. ad ix//.

As soon as the attention of Bilharz had been called by Von
Siebold's letters to this worm, which had already been found in
Egypt by Pruner, he found it in nearly every corpse, sometimes
in small numbers, sometimes in hundreds of specimens, less in
the duodenum than in the jejunum, between the transverse folds
of the mucous membrane. One male is found to three females. At
the oral end we observe a large, obliquely truncated, horny capsule,

ANCYLOSTOMUM DUODENALE. 385

furnished with four strong teeth on the projecting portion of the
upper margin. The oral orifice is turned towards the dorsal
surface; that is, towards the surface opposite to the sexual and
anal orifices. The animal attaches itself with its mouth so
firmly to the mucous membrane, that the mouth is easily torn
away when it is detached by force. Its nourishment is blood, as
the intestine filled with this fluid proves. In the region of the
middle of the oesophagus, the secretory organ first found in the
Strongyli by Von Siebold opens outwards, and forms behind the
orifice an ampulla, produced by the union of two sacs, which
pass backwards in a somewhat tortuous form, and a little way
behind the commencement of the intestine become converted into
fusiform (glandular) bodies. The contents of this organ are
thickly fluid and finely granular, with a clear and apparently
rather solid nucleus, of a perfectly homogeneous appearance in
the middle of the two glandular bodies. The double penis is
very long and slender. In a pair once found in coitu, the male
was firmly adherent to the vagina of the female, by his caudal
valve.

Primer, as well as Diesing, has misunderstood the parts of the
mouth in Ancylostomum. The former says, it fixes its four-fold
sucking proboscis, with forty hooks, upon the mucous membrane.
Von Siebold says upon this, that, as the spacious oral cavity of
this worm is bent round with its wide aperture towards the back,
the lower margin of the oral aperture is more strongly produced
than the upper, as we perceive in a lateral view of the worm.
Now within this lower margin, but not upon the upper one, and
consequently at the bottom of the oral cavity, stand the four
teeth bent round backwards, springing close together from four
elevations of the horny walls of the oral cavity, but not arranged
in the manner of a cross, as Diesing has it, and as is the case in
Strongylus tetracanthus.

The two conical projections are cutaneous papillae, which
project from a small cavity in the skin in the middle of the cla-
vate oesophagus. They are processes of the transparent general
integument, in the middle of which there is a small acute process
of the substance situated under the skin. According to Von
Siebold, they are perhaps tactile organs, employed by the worm
when adhering by suction to the human mucous membrane.

EvenDubini spoke of corpora fusif or mia, and also figured them.
They make their appearance in both sexes, and are analogous to

B B

386 ANIMAL PAKASITES.

the secretory organs discovered by von Siebold in Strongylus
auriculatus, and other Nematoda.

Pathological anatomy, symptoms, and therapeutics. — This worm
is by no means of so little consequence to the individuals
attacked by it, as one might perhaps think, and this depends
particularly upon the number of the worms. We give the fol-
lowing, after Griesinger, who is the best clinical observer of this
disorder.

The worm attaches itself firmly by biting into the mucous
membrane and submucous tissue ; the spot on which a worm sat
is indicated by an ecchymosis of the size of a lentil, in the middlle
of which a white spot of the size of a pin's head appears, which
is pierced by a hole of the thickness of a needle penetrating into
the submucous ligamentous tissue. From these wounds the
blood often enters freely into the intestine, and then we find such
a piece of intestine entirely filled with blood which has flowed
out of the punctured places. Frequently, however, the mucous
membrane of the intestine is beset with flat, livid, brownish red
elevations of the size of a lentil. This is the case when the blood
collects in a small cavity between the muscular coat and the
mucous membrane. In this case, a specimen of the worm,
having penetrated the walls of the intestine, often lies within this
cavity itself, covered with blood, with which it has also com-
pletely filled itself.

One consequence of this disorder is anaemia; and Griesinger
concludes that the chlorosis, so generally diffused in Egypt,
which he had previously described as the " Egyptian
chlorosis," and which in a greater or less degree attacks at
least one fourth of the population, is produced by this
worm.

Lower degree of the disorder. — Paleness of the general integu-
ment and mucous membranes, a gurgling noise in the jugular
veins, tendency to palpitation of the heart, habitually quickened
pulse, slight bodily lassitude without emaciation, often with a fat
and heavy appearance, arid occasional slight disturbances of
digestion (Gastro-enteritis, or more correctly Catarrhus intestinalis]
occur. If this condition remains uncured for a long time, it
passes through many intermediate steps to the higher degree of
the disorder, which closes as chlorotic marasmus. Emaciation
often commences rather late, oedematous swellings are formed
on the lower extremities, on the eye-lids, &c. ; the skin, which

ANCYLOSTOMUM DUODENALE. 387

was previously strongly pigmented, becomes dingy pale yellow,
yellowish, or greenish white, paler and grayer even in negroes,
and at the same time very withered, flabby, dry, peeling, and
cool ; the conjunctiva bluish white, the lips and all visible mucous
membranes almost as pale as death. Great dulness and apathy
in every movement, general weakness and exhaustion, come on
with vague pains in the joints, constant palpitations of the heart,
with enormous intensity of its beating, returning upon the least
movement, and frequently also pain in the region of the heart.
The second sound of the heart is sometimes audible even at a
distance of several paces ; in auscultation, either both sounds
are equally loud, or the first sound is short and weak, not clear,
diffused, or combined with systolic, vesicular, whistling murmurs ;
the pulse is very frequent and small ; there are murmurs in all
the larger arteries, and a loud rushing is audible in the
jugular vein, with a purring which is sensible to the touch.
In individual, very rare cases, all the signs of an organic disease
of the heart or aorta are met with. The patients complain of
giddiness, frontal and temporal headaches, and rushing sounds in
the ears; the respiration is frequent and short, and the respiratory
murmurs weak ; after a few days dyspnoea occurs ; in many the chest
is emphysematously enlarged. The urine is abundant, pale, and
very rarely contains albumen. Besides these, constant hunger,
singular appetites, occasional status gastricus, with slight febrile
movements, slimy coating of the tongue, and sensibility of the
lower part of the abdomen, are exhibited. The spleen is
occasionally a good deal enlarged, the liver frequently diminished
in size. In short, a high degree of anaemia and hydraemia is
perceived. With indulgence and good fare, this state often lasts
for years, in many cases its progress is very acute. But even with
great care the individuals remain pallid, sickly, and miserable ;
slight acute diseases which make their appearance, are very
serious, and at last dysentery carries off the patient. Only
occasionally a patient recovers by a change of climate and all other
conditions of life. Fatiguing labour and debilitating antiphlogistic
treatment hasten the end. Or the patients die from diarrhoea,
general dropsy without albumen in the urine, &c., in spite of
all the iron and wine.

In the bodies we find, watery infiltration in various places,
flabby pale muscles, great anaemia of all parts, especially the
brain, the lungs, the stomach, and the intestnal mucous mem-

388 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

brane ; the substance of the heart, especially the inner layers of
the muscles are very pale and even fatty ; the heart is generally
large and thick, hypertrophied and dilated, especially on the left
side ; the endocardium and the valves often irregular and
thickened ; the veins empty ; the heart contains small, soft, brown
coagula with a little fibrine; but frequently both in the heart and
in the larger veins, there is only a fluid of the colour of serum,
with a few pale, large blood-corjpuscles ; the spleen and kidneys
like fatty wax. The liver, and, more rarely, the spleen exhibit
general uniform atrophy. All these circumstances usually make
their appearance in Europe in persons suffering from chronic
haemorrhage, as, for instance, in consequence of perforating
ulceration of the stomach, although dysentery and bilious typhoid
often bring the melancholy scene to an end sooner.

Therapeutics. — Unacquainted with the real cause of this dis-
ease, Griesinger had alternately administered iron, quinine, and a
Calcaria phosphorica, and frequently produced considerable relief
but never a cure, in slight cases, whilst in severe cases he effected
nothing. During one of his last dissections in Cairo, however
(17th April, 1852), a sudden light broke in upon him on this sub-
ject, when he found the duodenum, the jejunum, and even the
upper half of the ileum entirely filled with fresh, red blood, only
coagulated here and there, and thousands of Ancylostoma on the
mucous membrane of the small intestine, each with its little
ecchymosis resembling the bite of a leech. Although he thus
left Egypt, and could collect no further clinical observations, he
cried to the Arabian prosector, " You must now employ calomel
and other anthelmintics against these Ancylostoma and the Dis-
toma of the portal vein, in short, against the tropical chlorosis,
as well as against haematuria, stone, dysentery, abscess of the
liver, and all the undetermined diseases of tropical countries,
perhaps even some of the tropical fevers, and investigate the
latter illness itself, with reference to the most recent Helmintho-
logical discoveries." Above all things, Griesinger praises calomel
and oil of turpentine a priori, the latter, indeed, especially for
the Distoma of the portal vein, above all, for the Ancylostoma}
as it certainly reaches the worms situated in the uppermost
parts of the intestine ; in substance, worms die in it very
readily, and it also acts as a styptic upon the injured, bleed-
ing vessels. This last remedy when mixed with castor oil, or
with castor oil and a few grains of santonine, or the natron san-

FILARIA MEDINENSIS. 389

tonicum, to which vegetable purgatives are added, must prove
particularly efficacious. None of our colleagues working in the
tropics should forget that tropical chlorosis is the consequence of
the repeated, small intestinal bleedings, which scarcely betray
themselves externally, caused by intestinal worms, especially
Ancylostoma.

IV. Filaria.

With Dujardin the Filaria form the seventh genus of the
first class " Nematodes" or the first genus in the second section
of the Nematoda (Nematodes ore rolundo, triangulari, aut cum
aut sine papillis, sed sine lobis prominentibus ; mares spiculis 2
intequalibus) . Diesing refers to them as Genus XL of the
Order VI (Nematoidea) . This genus he has arranged in his
system in the Sub-order II, Proctucha ; Tribe III, Gamonema-
toidea ; Section I, Hypophalli.

Diagnosis : Vermes albi, subfusci, aut rubri, corpore filiformi,
elastico, cylindrico, utplurimum longissimo, capite corpore continuo,
inermi aut spinulis rectis et cornels (dentibus, seu papillis promi-
nentibus Autorum] armato ; ore terminali non labiato, vel labiatoy
rotundo, aut triangulari ; cesophago brevi, tubuloso, reciiore quam
intestinum ; ano terminali aut ante caudce apicem sito ; cute
IcEvi aut leviter oblique striatd.

Mas ; caudd plerumque obtusa, interdum membranam accessoriam
alosam exhibente ; spiculis filiformibus in vagina tubulosa aut
ligulaformi, ex Dujardino inaqualibus, curvatis (?). Femina :
vagina antrorsum, proxime ad os sita, plerumque duplici (Filaria
rigida) aut multiplici (exc. quinqueloculari in Filaria labiatat
Nathusius) ; ovulis ellipticis aut globosis, laceribus. Nunc ovi- nunc
vivipar&.

From the Gordii they are distinguished by their structure, mode
of life, and the nature of the youngest brood, and also, according
to Diesing, by the circumstance that they readily burst in water
like other Nematoda, which is not the case with the Gordii.

1. Filaria medinensis.
PI. VIII, fig. 3; and PI. VII, fig. 9.
Mares ommino ignoti aut potius ab auctoribus neglecti et omissi,

390 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

quia ob minorem magnitudinem minores efficiunt et molestias et
dolores et vix unquam major es tumor es ; sed, uti Diesingius ipse
enarrat, a Clellandio in ' Calcutta Journ. of Nat. Hist/ i, 359,
PL X, fig. 1, delineati.

Femincp : corpore longissimo (ad 3 ulnas et aliquid supra)
subalbo, filiformi, subcequali, secundum Dujardinum antrorsum, sed
secundum Diesingium, et quidem, quod ipse affirmare possum,
retrorsum seusim attenuato} ad V" sen ad 1 — 2J mill, lato ; ore
orbicularij spinulis 4 cruciatint oppositis ; caudd ad apicem
uncinata, subacuta, in apice O065— 0'082 mill. = 0 028 — 0-036"'
Par. : = 0 029 — 0'0377// V. laid, inter dum in vermis ipsius cute
ita affixd, ut vix apicem liberum facere possis ; vayind ; ovulis ;
embryonibus V longis, vix i'" latis. Species vivipara.

The Filaria medinensis, which was first placed by Graeliu
amongst the true Helmintlia, was first mentioned, according to
the usual statements of authors, by the geographer and philosopher
Agatharchides of Cnidus, who was the teacher of Ptolemseus
Alexander. It is to him, at least, that Plutarch refers in the
ninth question of the eighth book of his ' Symposiacon^ (Table-
talk) where he makes him narrate " that the people taken ill on
the Red Sea suffered from many strange and unheard-of attacks,
amongst other worms, like little snakes, Spa/co'vna /ujtpa (in the
edition of which I make use, it says only • amongst others little
snakes') came out upon them, which gnawed away their legs and
arms, and when touched again retracted themselves, coiled them-
selves up in the muscles, and there gave rise to the most
insupportable pains ; but that this evil has only been found then,
and neither before nor since amongst any other people." In this
description the addition that the evil never occurred amongst any
other people is especially accidental, and is certainly an addition
of Plutarch's, who lived at a period in which the intercourse
of the Greeks with the East, and especially with its more remote
regions and the coasts of the Red Sea was so rare that the
Greeks never came in contact with the countries in which the
worm is endemic, and consequently could neither see patients of
the kind in these countries themselves, nor the worm brought
into Greece by those who had visited those regions. Moreover,
it is not clear, as only fragments of Agatharchides are extant,
whether he had himself visited those regions and seen the disease
or had only obtained a knowledge of it by hearsay in Egypt, on

FILAKIA MEDINENSIS. 391

tlie southern and eastern borders of which the worm still occurs.
But however this may be, it is certain that Agatharchides knew
very well that there was a disorder in those districts which owed
its origin to a snake-like structure, which we now know as a
worm, and indeed as Filaria medinensis. Many authors, led
astray by the last addition " that these creatures have never
occurred anywhere else, or subsequently" have thought, certainly
erroneously, that the narration of Agatharchides, quoted by
Plutarch, was nothing but the altered tradition of the fiery
serpents which the Lord sent upon the children of Israel during
their stay in the neighbourhood of the Red Sea (Numbers xxi, 6).
At the same time it was supposed either that this Mosaic
narrative had been explained erroneously and arbitrarily by
Agatharchides himself, or that it had come to his ears in a
mutilated form, by hearsay.

If we have thus ascertained that Agatharchides really intended
the true Filaria medinensis, we are at once led to a repeated
examination of that Mosaic passage, which has in fact rendered
it not improbable to us that Moses is the first writer who has
referred to our worm, and that he has really meant the Medina
worm by the fiery serpents D^SnitfJl D^JTDn. From the article
before Seraphim it appears (to which M. Michael called my
attention) that a particular species of Nachasch (serpents) is
referred to. All the translators (the Polyglott bible and the
septuagint) have rendered both words by o<£«Cj and in the
parallel passages also (Book of Wisdom, xvi, 5 ; and 1 Cor. x, 9)
we also read only o^?ic- It is clear that the translators took no
trouble about it, and only translated the word Nechaschim, but
left the word Seraphim quite untranslated. Had they been
exact they must have written at o^gtg ai a^fa^x/i. From them,
therefore, we learn nothing, and we must go back to the primary
signification of the word Seraphim, which the commentators
render by draco, serpentulus venenatus or comburentes dolores
faciens. In itself, Seraphim, derived from the word Saraph, can
signify nothing more than is, qui comburit, and it is clear that a
species of animal is referred to which is distinguished by the
inflammability of its bite, or generally by the inflammation which
its presence causes. On this account Laborde thought that
scorpions are referred to in this passage, an opinion which I
cannot allow to pass, because in the first place the scorpions have
nothing in common with the serpents in their external form or

392 ANIMAL PARASITES.

in their movements, but resemble the crabs and spiders; 2d,
because the old Hebrews knew very well how to distinguish
serpents (Nachasch) and scorpions (^Jp?) and lastly because
those bitten by scorpions quickly die ; but although " much
people" of the Israelites certainly died, yet a great number, who
looked upon the brazen serpent, were saved.

Data as to the mode in which the Nechaschim Seraphim an-
noyed the Jews is to be found in the seventh verse, where it
says : ^pviKD "ID'TT " that Jehova may allow to be taken away
from upon us." The by in Mealeun literally indicates a disorder
occurring upon the Israelites, but might also, according to M.
Michael, indicate its lying upon them like a burden. Now it is
certainly known that at the Cape, snakes creep in the night into
the trowsers of the sleeping Boers, and that scorpions also crawl
into the clothes, but they do not trouble or wound man when
he does not strike, press, or otherwise irritate them. Moreover,
when snakes inflict wounds, they do it without remaining upon
the person; come to him unseen, but not upon him. But if we
understand the by literally, it suits the Filaria very well, as it
occurs immediately beneath the skin and produces boils and tumours
upon its surface. That in ancient times the Filaria was reckoned
amongst the serpents on account of its snake-like form, is proved
at once by the Greek name £pa/coimov = dracunculus, that is to say,
a species of snake, which had something fabulous and inexplicable
about it, which might certainly from its form be regarded as a
serpent, but which from its nature could not pass as a snake with
quite so much propriety. The inflammatory pain and swelling,
which occurred with the breaking out of the worm, are certainly
very well expressed by Seraphim, the mortality amongst the
Israelites is easily explained by their ignorance of the treatment,
and the dangerous symptoms occurring in consequence of the
breaking of the worm, which, according to the statements of
some authors may be immediately fatal. Thus, for example,
Avenzoar expressly narrates, that, in his native country, " csger
in continenti post dolor em vehementem in parte affect a exortum
moriatur." At the same time, we must not forget that the
disorder being endemic in that place of sojourn made its
appearance as an epidemic, as frequently occurs, and that en-
demic disorders raised to epidemics, always proceed with more
dangerous symptoms than as endemics. Hence the great mor-
tality of the Israelites.

FILARIA MEDINENSIS. 393

Shortly after the death of Aaron, which took place on the
first day of the fifth month, of the fortieth year after the Exodus
from Egypt, and whilst the Israelites passed round the land of
the Edornites, from Hor towards Oboth on the way from the sea
Suph (which was probably that part of the Red Sea indicated
on the maps as the Sinus Aenalites, or, in the present
day, the Bay of Akaba), they were attacked by the fiery
serpents. Consequently, both from the geographical position and
the known observations which we possess upon the time of in-
cubation of the worm, which lasts from two, three, six, to twelve
months, this agrees very well with the explanation, that the Filaria
medinensis is here referred to. On their long march from Egypt,
which they had left in the neighbourhood of Atakeh and Suez,
the Israelites had passed probably by Ayun Musa, upon the
Asiatic territory, and thence moved towards the south as far as
Mount Sinai, along the east coast of that part of the Red Sea
Sinus Heroopolites, which is now known as the Gulf of Suez.
Here they turned again directly to the north, through the midst
of the land, until at last they had arrived a certain distance to
the north of the extreme apex of the Gulf of Aenala = Akaba,
where the Edomites compelled them to return towards the south-
east. Only in the last portion of the way through the desert
of Zin towards Mount Hor, but especially on the way from Hor
towards Oboth, and round the territories of the Edomites, for which
journey they certainly required several months, did they come into
the true district of the Medina-worm, namely, the central and
eastern portion of Arabia Petraa, the plain which stretches away
towards the coasts of the Bay of Aenala. This entire march
from the wilderness of Zin to Oboth they would undoubtedly
have passed over within the period of incubation of the Medina-
worm (two months to one year). Here the Filarice first broke
up, with violent, inflammatory pains. Thus then, with their
further progress towards the north-east through Arabia Petrsea,
the Israelites contracted the Filarice which are still indigenous in
Arabia Petrsea, and this worm-province may consequently be of
importance and interest to the geographers in the determination
of the course of travel in the fortieth year of the Israelites'7
wanderings. We are convinced that a careful investigation of
these facts on the spot will completely confirm our opinion ; and
we hereby thank M. Michael for his assistance in the investigation
of this question.

394 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

As regards the cure, which Moses contrived, we can expect
nothing else but that from its direction it must have been a
theosophical, mystical one. " And Jehovah commanded him to
make a Saraph, and he made a Nachasch Nechoscheth (a brazen
serpent) which he commanded the Israelites to look upon, if
they would live." This comes to the same thing as the
mode of serpent-charming still in use in the East, and, perhaps,
the method still employed, if I am not mistaken, at the Cape of
Good Hope, to drive away certain snakes by the sight of other
serpents. It is possible that Moses had a similar idea, but also
possible that another therapeutical signification lies hidden in the
background. Thus, we may suppose either that Moses wished
by the figure of the serpent to give warning against the perilous
breaking of the worm, and to indicate that only those could
become sound, who had extracted or got extracted a creature like
the uninjured serpent, or it is an indication that in this case a
brazen instrument, perhaps a sort of circumcising knife (which
even then was formed of metal, whilst the Egyptians used
knives of flint) or a hot iron, which is still in use amongst
the people in Abyssinia for opening the boils of Filarias,
might be of use, and that, by means of the brazen serpent,
Moses desired to make his countrymen more patient under
the operation.

I think, therefore, that there is great probability that the fiery
serpents of Moses were the Filarice, and that Bartholin, the only
commentator who has seemed to understand the Filariae thereby,
is in the right. No importance is to be attached to Sennert's
opinion that the fiery serpents fell upon the Jews from without,
and did not grow in them, after what I have said above with
regard to Mealenn. The worm may grow for a long time upon
and in the individual, before it becomes large enough to produce
pain, and break up with inflammation and dangerous symptoms.

If we return once more to Agatharchides, we find, in the first
certain traces of acquaintance with the worm, after him, amongst
the Arabian surgeons, who, according to Bremser, call it Ark,
Aerk or Irk Almedini, which is rendered Vena sen Nervus medi-
nensis by the Greek and Latin translators in the middle ages,
who, having no opportunity of seeing the worm, and as it was
not introduced into Europe even by the crusades (because the
crusaders at the utmost advanced to the neighbourhood of Jeru-
salem, and did not penetrate into the territory of the Filaria),

FILARIA MEDINENSIS. 395

disseminated all sorts of nonsensical opinions about it. Thus,
some regarded it as a tumour and abscess from heated blood, or
a boil (Pare, Aldrovandi, Montatms and even Larrey), or as an
apostheme (La Faye), an elongated vein (Gui de Cauliac), a corrupt
nervous substance (Soranus, Pollux), as black bile (Tagentius),
and as tumours and glands of the skin (Fielitz). The names Vena
saniosa, by error in writing (printing?) Vena famosa, and. further Vena
meden, medeme, civilis, medinensis> cruris sive exiens, egrediens, me-
diana,&i\& Vena Eudimini, are all synonyms produced in this fashion.
As I am unacquainted with the Arabic language, I sought for
the Hebrew root analogous to the Arabic Ark, I found the
\vord p"JJf, which is the same as corroded or " to corrode, or gnaw
away." The notion of corrosion obtained from this agreed
very well with our worm, which is described by Agathar-
chides as having such an action, and I therefore applied to
Dr. Zenker, of Leipzig, with the inquiry whether the Ark alme-
dini of Avenzoar and Rhases might not probably be translated
" the Medinian gnawer, or id quod corrodit Medinenses" regard
being had to the Hebrew Arak. Upon this inquiry I received the
following communication, to use as I pleased. " As regards the
signification of Irk, Ark or Arak almedini, a certain judgment
can only be given after an inspection of the text, which, how-
ever, only exists in manuscript, and is not accessible to me.
Your supposition, however, that it must be rendered te the
Medinian biter or gnawer** is quite correct. The Arabic
Arak ;->c,=p")^ originally signifies "to gnaw, to gnaw away,"
namely, the flesh from the bone, hence Ark of the bones. The
substantive (nomen actionis) of arak is ark or irk and signifies
especially gnawing, gnawing away, as an action, a signification
which is very well adapted for the name of a worm. The
explanation would be still more easy, if we read ; fifr arek, with
a long a. This would correspond with the Arabic participle
(nomen agentis], and would have to be rendered the gnawer or the
gnawing one. The question is now, which of the two words
stands in the Arabic text. The translation nervus medinensis
leads us to conclude that it is • r and corresponds with the voca-
lization irk, (vein)." In order to obtain information as to the
mode of writing in the original text, I applied to my friend
Dr. Hille, junr., well known as the editor of the Araban Oculist,
who sent me the following kind answer.

396 ANIMAL PAKASITES.

Unfortunately, in consequence of the revision of the royal
library no original was at the command of my friend, and his
numerous copies of Arabic manuscripts only relate to ocular
subjects. According to Dr. Hille, however, our views may
correspond with the rendering " the Medinian biter, or the
Medinian bite/' all translators, nevertheless, are against it.
Avicenna and Rhazes say, " that the worm occurs everywhere, in
the hands, in the sides, but especially on the lower part of the
thighs." The vena, as the translators say, issues from the
vesicle, produced with violent pain and formation of abscess. Of
the old translators, Christ. Godofr. Gruner, treats most circum-
stantially of our worm, and says : " alii earn (i. e.} venam med.,}
pro pedesellis habent, alii negant" Moreover, it is not to be
confounded vitibus sen tortura vena, which are varices of the
crural vein, or with morbus bovinus, a common disease of
cattle, regarded as a worm living on the skin, or with the
measles of pigs. At the same time he places this disorder with
the Dracunculus of the ancients. According to Dr. Hille, the
following passage from Gruner, page 219, of the ' Morborum
Antiquitates/ sectio II, x, removes the difficulty of the explana-
tion of the word used in the Arabic text. " Sequitur inflam-
matio, tumor, abscessus vesica3 in modum elatus atque demum
inde egreditur, Alsaharavio teste, vena admodum subtilis chorda,
aut ut Albucasis expressit, quasi sit radix planted out animal, ant,
secundum Avenzoar, aliquid ad similitudinem nervi, aut denique
ex Avicennse descriptione, quiddam rubeum, ad ingredinem declive
et quasi ramus villi nervi." Thus Dr. Hille arrives at the
conclusion that in the Arabic text it must mean, ^ "*=Irk=radix
— vena = vas ; that the worm is named from its superficial simi-
larity to the root of a plant, a nerve, or a vessel, and that the
Arabian surgeons themselves had false notions of the worm Irk.

For my part, I willingly admit that even the old Arabians
may not have recognised the nature of the disease, with the
exception of Albucasis, wlio possibly suspected that it was an
animal. But before I can quite fall in with the opinion of my
learned friend, I must remark, that the Arabian surgeons may
have found the word already in use, and that the people might
have given the thing in question its name from the root Ark
= biting. That the word is also still employed by other peoples,
which have either sprung from the Arabs or come in contact
with them, is shown by the name of the worm in the

FILAKIA MEDINENSIS. 397

interior of Africa, namely, Arkin, and I beg to call the
attention of linguists to this. They may see whether the Arabic
word in question does not consequently merit this vocalization
rather than, Irk.

Besides, I have still to mention that Galen had a substantive
Dracontiasis, in which it is not so much the agent as the action
that furnishes the idea from which the word is named. Accord-
ing to this, the superscription in ' Rhazes/ lib. vii, cap. 24, may
run, " Upon the Medinian gnawing, or Medinian gnawing
disease."

The Arabic word halaluachalaid, which is also employed for
the worm, has been rendered by Yelsch : serpens pulposus sen
musculosus medinensiSy telce aranea in modum convolutus. The
old Greeks, as already observed, called the worm SpctKoWtov,
from which the Roman surgeons formed dracunculus tibiarum, and
Galen the worm-disease, Drakontiasis. In Persia, the worm is
called Pejunk, Naru, Farentit ; on the African coast, Ikon ; in the
interior of Africa, according to Tuschek, it is called, according to
the kind haling, or h'alin, from hali, a tumour or abscess ; (which
is the more plentiful and readily removed worm, i — £"' in thick-
ness, usually V long, snow-white, tough, sinew-like, difficult to
tear, inarticulate, with no distinction between the head and caudal
extremity, but in other respects has the same position, produces
the same phenomena on breaking through, and requires the same
treatment), or arkin, the more malignant form, which according
to Tuschek's reports, is said, ridiculously enough, to root itself in
the abdomen, extending its arms towards the periphery in the man-
ner of the polypes, and when an arm is broken off anywhere, to
come again on some other part of the body. The root of these
African names is identical with the two above-mentioned Arabic
names, and both names are nothing but differences of degree.
Haling indicates worms occurring singly in the human body, perhaps
partly males, or immature, unimpregnated females; arkin} adult,
large females, which occur at the same time in several places.
In India the worm is called Naramboo, or Nurapoo chalandy ;
in Bucharia, Irschata ; by Kampfer, it is called Dracunculus
Persarum ; by Linne, Meyer, and Jordens, Gordius medinensis,
(which it is not at all, as our more exact knowledge of the
anatomy of the Gordii has shown us, and as was known even
to the older writers, such as Loffler and Lind, who never saw a
Gordius in the water in the native districts of our worm, and to

398 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

Pallas, who never saw so many Gordii as in the Russian Walder
Lake, although a Filaria medinensis had never occurred amongst the
inhabitants.) Amongst the Germans, it is known as the medina
worm, the Guinea thread-worm (Guineischer Fadenwurm), the
skin-worm (Haut-), leg-worm (Bein-), and Pharaoh/s-worm (Pha-
raohswurm) ; the Guinea dragon (Guineische Drache) ; by
Warenius it is called Sehnadernspulwurm;- by the Dutch, Huid-,
Been-, traadworm, guineiscke Draakje; by the English, the
Guinea hair-worm ; in French, le Dragonneau, le ver de Guiuee,
le ver cutane, la Veine de Medine; by the Portuguese in
America, culebrilla, (probably a diminutive of coluber) ; by the
Swedes, Onda-Betet, Tagelmatk.

Besides the errors disseminated by translators with regard to
the position of the worm, we have still to mention that many
describe it as the larva of an insect; even Brera inquires
(: au haeruca ;" and Jacobson, of Copenhagen, regards it as an
asexual germ-sac.

Our knowledge of the natural history of the worm is at pre-
sent very deficient. It is of the thickness of packthread, its
anterior extremity obtuse, the mouth circular, without lips, but
beset with four hooks, or, more correctly, with four styles, as the
weapons on the head of the Filarice form acute, straight spines;
the vagina opens in the neighbourhood of the mouth, and the
vagina and uterus are probably double, as in most Filarice, I
have not yet examined the head myself.

The length of the worm varies from several inches to three
yards. Statements of greater dimensions are probably founded
in error. In such cases; several worms must have been taken
for one.

With regard to the Filarice, we find, in the ' Gazette Medicale
de Paris/ No. 23, 1855, p. 365, the following report from the
Proceedings of the Societe de Biologie for March, 1855.

The Filaria medinensis removed by Malgaigne, on the 13th of
July, 1854, from the lower part of the thigh of a man, was,
according to Robin, still filled with eggs. Beneath the general
integument of the worm, which forms a long, thin tube, there
was found, at this period, no trace of other organs or intestines,
but only a very thin sheath on the inner surface of the former,
which was filled with eggs, i. e., the uterus. The young con-
tained in this were almost all rolled up together, or with the tail
springing outwards. They lived for several days in water at the

FILARIA MEDINENS1S. 399

ordinary temperature, dried up, and moved again when moistened.
The body is rather flat than cylindrical, 0'755 mill, in length,
0-026 in breadth, and 0-019 in thickness. The head, 0-010 mill,
in breadth, is narrowed ; the mouth exhibits thin, small, round
warts, which are scarcely visible at this period of existence (as
they are also represented by Birkmeyer, so that it is questionable
whether we can speak, with Diesing, of four warts). Behind the
mouth the body becomes enlarged, and diminishes gradually pos-
teriorly, until it forms a distinct tail, 0-250 mill, long, very finely
pointed, contractile, very flexible, but not curled, and very different
from that of the adult individual, in which it is 1 centim. in length.
After death, this tail quickly bends round at the level of the anus.

The whole surface of the worm and its tail exhibit the well-
known fine rings, placed at a uniform distance (about 0'003 mill.)
apart. The thickness of the walls of the body is 0*007 mill., and
surrounds the digestive apparatus. The substance of the body is
homogeneous, finely granulated, and exhibits no trace of mus-
cular fibres. The thick-walled, contractile, and rather straight
oesophagus, which is rarely beset with varicose enlargements, and
measures 0*179 — 0*183 mill, in length, does not entirely fill the
substance of the body, although it appears to do so, and the in-
testine does not adhere to the walls of the body, but between it
and the latter there are fine, fatty granulations, floating freely.

The true intestinal canal originates from the cardia, where it
is rather more inflated than the cardia, and is, throughout, like
the body, somewhat flat. The substance of its wall is homo-
geneous, without striae or fibres, but sprinkled with numerous
granulations. From the cardia to the anus its length is
0-284 — 0-288 mill., whilst the whole length of the alimentary
canal, from the mouth to the anus amounts to 0*463 —
0'467 mill. Behind the anus the intestine is produced into a
small, pale, very contractile caecum of 0'03 mill, in length, into
which, however, the contents of the intestine do not enter, and
which is followed by another portion of the body of the length of
several hundredths of a millimeter, which contains a colourless
fluid. The anus is transverse, 0*006 — 7 mill, in breadth, sur-
rounded by a little ridge, or a prominent contractile lip, and
allows the intestinal mass to escape.1

The worm is indigenous only in the hot zone, and even when
it is transported into colder climates, does not appear to propa-
[' See also Busk in ' Transactions of Microscopical Society/ — TRANS.]

400 ANIMAL PARASITES.

gate itself further, there, or to have an infectious action upon the
vicinity. But even in the hot zone it does not occur everywhere,
but only in particular districts, like all the Helmintha, and is
entirely wanting in certain places in affected countries, as, for
instance, in Gambia, Angola, Coulabah, &c. Particularly noto-
rious places are — Senegal. Gaboon, the East Indies, Bombay,
the peninsula of India, Persia, Arabia Petrsea, the coasts of the
Red Sea (especially towards the south), the shores of the Ganges,
the Caspian Sea, Upper Egypt, Abyssinia, Nubia (especially in
Sennaar, Schendi, Skordofan, Darfu), and Guinea. In America,
where it was introduced by Negro slaves, it had already become
a native in Curayoa, even in Jacquin's time. Throughout these
regions it attacks aborigines and foreigners without distinction of
country, or race.

The disorder frequently becomes an epidemic, according to
Pruner, in years of heavy rain, and especially in marshy dis-
tricts. It also appears to occur especially at certain seasons of
the year. According to Bremser, it is particularly abundant in
the East Indies from November to January (the rainy season),
and in Upper Egypt, according to Bilharz, shortly after the
regular inundations of the Nile.

The mode of production of the worm in the human body is
still enveloped in obscurity. Although the opinions of those who
supposed the worm to immigrate by means of bad water (Bernier,
Bruce, Niebuhr to Tuschek; the negroes in Schendi, for which
reason the water is strained through linen before drinking, or
drawn up from a depth of eighteen fathoms in the sea [Arthus],
or Gallandat, who says that those who drink no water in Guinea
escape), are now being gradually abandoned, and the views of
those authors are obsolete, who say that the worm is produced by
the use of palm wine, Indian grain, and bread (Kaukiens), of certain
fishes or of locusts (confusion with Gordius], or that the eggs and
young are brought upon the body by the land wind and evening
dew, or by rain and wind, they must nevertheless be referred to on
account of their general diffusion. The most convincing proof
in opposition to the assertion that the worm is introduced into
the body by drinking water, was furnished by a companion of
Jacquin, who, when in Cura9oa, did not drink a drop of water,
which, as a lover of spirituous liquids, was not very hard upon
him. But he was attacked by the worm, whilst Jacquin, who
drank much water, remained free from it. A Dutch gencml in

FILARIA MEDINENSIS. 401

Angola ate and drank nothing but food and beverages brought
with him from Europe, and yet he acquired the worm.

It is an important circumstance that English officers, who
never went about with the feet and arms uncovered, remained
free from the worm. Pruner even thinks that very probably the
germ of the worm is an independent marsh animal, and at the
same time speaks of a conversion of this animal by an alternation
of generation (certainly ill understood), into a Dracunculus
within the human body. Forbes thinks he found the brood of
the Dracunculus free in the red, ochreous mud of the drying
marshes ; a fact which certainly requires a closer investigation
and confirmation. However, the aborigines think that it comes
from the marshy grounds into the skin. The ordinary seat of
the worm is the subcutaneous cellular tissue, especially of the
extremities, and of these again especially the lower ones, round
the ankle. It may, however, occur under the skin and muscles
in all other parts of the human body, even under the tongue.
Thus, Kampfer removed a living worm from the scrotum ; Baillie
saw it iu a sac on the testicle; Pere on the head, neck, and
body; Bajon under the skin on the eye-ball. M'Gregor gives
the following table of 172 cases : 124 times in the feet, 33 times
on the lower, 11 times on the upper part of the thigh, twice in
the scrotum, and twice in the hands. Pruner found a specimen
behind the liver, between the layers of the mesentery; the pos-
terior portion was but little altered and readily recognisable ; the
anterior portion reached down over the duodenum as far as the
csecum, enveloped in a sort of cartilaginous capsule. Sometimes
the worm lies coiled up in a small space, sometimes ex-
tended; and in the latter case, if it lies on the surface, feels
like a varicose vessel. Thus, Pere saw it lying in a snake-like
form under the whole of the skin of the abdomen and a part of
that of the chest ; Kampfer saw it come forth under the knee,
and the great toe move painfully, as if by a sting, during the
extraction of the worm ; another worm broke through the leg
with one end, its middle lay round the ankle, and its other end
came out through the sole of the foot. Thus the scene changes
according to its seat. These examples will suffice to give a clear
idea of the worm, of which, moreover, as many as twenty-eight,
thirty, nay, even fifty specimens have been observed on one
man.

Diagnosis and therapeutics. — If the worm occurs in superficial

c c

402 ANIMAL PARASITES.

places with a hard substratum, its growth is seen to take place
with extraordinary rapidity, according to Pruner. From 4'" it
becomes several inches long in a couple of days. It is then easily
killed by poultices of boiled garlic, after which it is absorbed
without any injurious consequences, or when it lies quite on the
surface, the latter is cut, and the worm pulled out with a hook.
The slave-dealers rub in civet and musk at the first appearance of
symptoms. Frequently, however, the worm produces no annoy-
ance for a long time. Dampier and Isert had already quitted
the native district of the worm for 6 — 8 months, and Wengler's
patient for 4 — 6 months, before the worm betrayed itself by any
troublesome symptoms. According to others, this may last 12—
15 months, and according to Kampfer even until the third year.
At other times the patients become emaciated, notwithstanding a
very good appetite, and freedom from fever, and at last die of ex-
haustion. When the worm is ready to come out, a small pustule
appears at the point where it will break through, sometimes without
any preliminary annoyance, sometimes with uneasy sensations, head-
ache, pain in the stomach, nausea, fever, and formation of vesicles
at the point of breaking through, inflammation, swelling, and suppu-
ration for several days previously ; and also, if the worm lies at
a joint, with prevention of the use of the limb affected. In
Drummond himself stiffness and slight pain in the biceps femoris
first set in, without preventing his walking ; in a few days there
was swelling without pain, and alteration of colour. A few days
afterwards a reddish swelling, with a black point in the centre,
was formed an inch above the inside of the ankle; and at the
same time he felt with his finger a firm, round, catgut-like, twisted
substance under the skin. Two days afterwards (about three
weeks after the first sensation of stiffness) Drummond awoke at
night with sudden insupportable itching over the whole body,
general febrile symptoms, violent colic, vomiting, and purgation ;
after which shivering without perspiration followed. In the
mean time the swelling had burst, and in its place there appeared
a hard white substance, but so deep that it could not belaid hold
of, because the animal had buried itself deeper amongst the
muscles in the night. Nothing more was now to be felt at the
surface of the firm, catgut-like swelling. In the following night
the neighbourhood of the ankle became inflamed, and on the
second day afterwards walking was impossible. Three days after-
wards Drummond passed a thread round the animal, and then a

FILAEIA MEDINENSIS. 403

bloody ichorous discharge flowed for 6 — 7 weeks out of the wound,
which gradually healed up to a small point. At this time the
worm again came forth, and was fastened with a thread, rolled
upon a stick, and drawn out twice a day ; in twenty days the
extraction was completed. This last case illustrates the history
of the worm very well. Two or three days after the for-
mation of the vesicles these open up, or are opened with a
lancet, when matter, blood, or sanies, and two or three inches of
the anterior end of the worm come forth. This end is carefully
pulled, when several inches more frequently follow. All this is
coiled round a little roll of linen, a small stick, or a fragment of
lead (Aveiizoar, Rhazes), which, however, as even Paulus .ZEginetus
observed, is less advisable, and this is fastened over the wound
with sticking plaster, and a compress. A cleft stick to fasten the
worm into, and Velsch's armoury of peculiar copper instruments,
are of no use, according to Bremser. The extraction is repeated
twice a day, until the worm is entirely wound out, which usually
takes three or four, but in Africa generally several, months. The
worm rarely comes away in the first operation ; if several worms
be present, it may probably be months before the wound, which
is to be treated as a simple tumour, heals up; but this generally
takes place easily.

According to Loftier, M'Gregor, Indian surgeons, Bruce, and
Pere also, when the worm is felt on the surface of the skin, it
may be laid bare, by taking hold of a fold of skin with forceps,
making an incision of several inches long, down to the worm, and
removing the worm in a loop, or wedging it into a bit of wood,
and then pulling alternately now on the one side, now the other
side of the worm ; whilst, at the same time, the patient is always
kept in a position in which the muscles are relaxed as much as
possible. In this way only half the time is employed; according
to Pere, only a sitting of four hours.

But if the worm is seated in the fleshy parts, if the inflamma-
tion, swelling, and pain are great, if the worm resist dragging or
breaks off, further assistance from art is necessary. According
to Pruner, who also reports that if the worm is not absorbed or
encysted, it is removed by suppuration, the aborigines, in the latter
case, apply cow-dung, open the tumour or vesicle with a hot iron,
and sprinkle over it a vegetable powder (Sattala). To administer
internal anthelminthics I regard as absurd ; all that is to be done
is to combat the general febrile phenomena, but in other respects

40 A ANIMAL PAKASITES.

to use local treatment. For this purpose the following applica-
tions are particularly recommended : Soft poultices of the Aloe
littoralis, as relaxing the skin and facilitating the creeping forth
of the worm ; binding below the limb, with fomentations of laurel
berries and oil (Aetius) ; rubbing in of mercurials (Bajon), or
when the worm comes away with great difficulty, with Tinct.
Myrrh., Aloe, or Aqua vulneraria; or a poultice of onions and
bread, boiled in milk (after which the worm is said to roll itself
up into a coil, and, according to Bancroft, Griffith, and Hughes,
may be easily removed by the addition of a worm -mixture, which
is also especially extolled by Hillary) ; or a poultice of the burnt
leaves of the cotton-tree, with Aouara oil; the pouring in of
tobacco oil (Barere), and tobacco powder (Dampin), and the
blowing in of tobacco smoke (Ludw. Frank), An assafcetida
mixture internally, and oil of sesamum externally, have also been
strongly recommended. That mercurial pills administered in-
ternally, even until salivation is produced, are of no use, has
already been stated by Gallandat. Nevertheless, corrosive
sublimate given internally, and mercurial rubbings in, which,
according to Loffler, are quite useless, play a great part. The
passage of electrical shocks through the worm is useless. Isert
ran about much in the water even after the opening. Kampfer
recommends cold douches or cataplasms, and also the application
of roasted onions (popular remedy). Linschot recommends the
application of butter, Leiter that of sprouting onions boiled in
milk, and Loffler that of Linimentum volatile with Laudan.
liquid. But according to Paulus ^Egineta, and Bremser, the
best remedies appear to be soft poultices, with the addition of
aloes and roasted onions, which accelerate the suppuration.

Although at present I possess no personal experience on this
subject, the most advisable process appears to me to be the follow-
ing local one, to which bleedings might be added in case of very
violent inflammation.

To relax the skin, let it be rubbed on the spots attacked with an
ointment of Belladonna and Digitalis ; the patients should be put
once or twice a day, for three quarters to one hour or longer, in a
general tepid bath, or when the worm has its seat in one extre-
mity, in a local bath of soap and water, or of common salt or sea
salt, and attempts made in the bath at extracting the worm.
If it be found that the worm comes away very quickly by this
process, the bath and the manipulation in it are repeated. In the

FILAEIA MEDINENSIS. 405

interval, soft poultices with onions and aloes should be applied
to the affected organ.

If, from any reason, no baths can be given, tepid injections
of a solution of Natron samtonic. gr. iv — vj, at a time, or of a
solution of common salt in water with a drop of oil of anise, or
of a solution of this salt in a thoroughly strained infusion of anise
or valerian, should be made through the wound and close to the
worm by means of a syringe with a very fine capillary pipe; the
extraction of the worm should be then attempted, and the ex-
tracted portion well fastened. The process of cure must be
assisted in general by cutting the skin over the worm, in Loffler's
method, and also by gentle rubbing and kneading of the places
where the worm has formed knots.

From the most ancient periods the tearing of the worm has
been regarded as a very bad accident, although, as observation
has shown, not for the reason stated by Dujardin, that the living
brood disseminated in the wound immediately give origin to new
Filarm. This takes place frequently in consequence of rough
pulling, but also in the most careful treatment. According to
Pere and Kampfer, the worm, when torn or cut emits a white
juice, which must be seminal filaments or eggs, according to the sex,
and as we only know the females correctly, probably the latter.
If the patient does not usually die suddenly in consequence of this
breaking, as Avenzoar says, mortification and death may easily
follow in a short time (Bancroft, Chardin, Gallandat, &c.), or
shortening and deformities of the legs occur (Dubois), or especially
lingering fistula, which only heal slowly and with violent pain
after they have been opened (as, for example, in Bruce himself).
The latter was mentioned by Rhazes, but Gallandat contradicted
it, as the worm makes its way out with remaining fragments, even
by empirical treatment with cataplasms. According to the ob-
servations of most authors, such as Hemmerson, Lister, and
Cramer, who had themselves suffered from the worms, and whose
worms had been broken away, violent swelling, fever, and sleep-
lessness occurred, and were only cured when the worm was killed,
which, as Gallandat, certainly incorrectly, states, is the most
dangerous thing of all. However, the diagnosis must be care-
fully made, and great attention must be paid to distinguishing
between mere furunculi and furunculi caused by the Filaria. In-
cautious surgeons and unprofessional people may very probably
have drawn out sinews and nerves under the idea that they were

406 ANIMAL PARASITES.

the worms, from which, as a matter of course, violent nervous
attacks, contractions, stiffness of the limbs, &c., must result.
Bremser even upbraids Larrey with only having an ordinary
furunculus before him, because the worm does not occur in Lower
Egypt. The latter statement is untrue, for Griesinger and others
have treated the worm in Cairo.

The prophylaxis is at present unknown. It appears, however,
to be most probable, that in the regions where the Filaria is
endemic, its youngest brood n5ay live free in the water, or in
damp grass, or in the moist soil, and that the brood gets upon
the naked parts of the body in wading through the rivers, pools,
marshes, or tanks with naked feet, sleeping without clothes upon
the bare ground, or with the water which flows over the naked
upper parts of the body, &c., when carrying water-vessels upon
the head or back. Pruner's observation also, that the Filaria
occurs especially in the feet of carnivorous animals, such as dogs
and gulls, and rarely or scarcely ever in those of the herbivora, is
well worth consideration. Perhaps it may yet be proved that
besides the higher Carmvora, the water-birds and wad ing- birds
are also attacked. We certainly know nothing further as to
whether the immigration is connected with a certain time of the
day, as the young Gordii with the night, and whether any particular
care must be taken in the morning, in the heat of the day, or at
night. But however this may be, it is for the present advisable
that every one, in the native country of the worm, should be on.
their guard against bathing, wading through streams with naked
feet, with torn boots, with shoes over which the water rises, &c.

It must also be mentioned, that as only females appear to have
been found (except by Clelland), some people suppose that the
migrating brood must be already impregnated before immi-
gration.

The controversy as to whether or no the worm is so far infec-
tious that it is transferred from a patient attacked by it to other
people in his vicinity, is regarded as decided by Pruner, who
says, that it is proved by numerous facts that even in those
tropical regions where the worm is riot endemic, an actual transfer
from one man to another, or to dogs and horses, takes place.
The clearest proof of this, on a large scale, is furnished by Bremser
in the statement that, even in his time, the worm had become
naturalised in Cura9oa by the importation of negro slaves. This
leads necessarily to the prophylactic precept, that no one should

FILABIA MEDINENSIS. 407

use the same vessels that are employed by the patient in
bathing, washing, or washing the feet, and that great caution
should be observed with the bandages of such patients. As
regards the prevalence of infection with the worm at particular
seasons of the year, people are accustomed to seek the reason for
this in certain conditions of climate and season, but as far as I
know, they have entirely overlooked the causes which lie in the
nature of the worm itself. The principal question to be cleared
up here is, whether the maturity of the eggs, that is to say the
development of the living embryos, like their parents, is not con-
nected with particular seasons of the year and with certain
months. In the mean time double caution is to be observed in
the native country of the worm at the periods which have been
found by general experience to be most dangerous for infection.

There are still the cases in which Filaria medinensis has been
seen under the conjunctiva, which are deserving of particular
consideration. Of these, that of Mongin in St. Domingo, and
that of Bajon in Cayenne, are the most authentic. Mongin's
patient complained for twenty-four hours of a violent pain without
inflammation. A worm appeared to creep across her eye. When
Mongin wished to seize this worm with the forceps, he observed
that it was between the conjunctiva and the albuginea. If the
cornea was approached from without, violent pain was produced.
He then opened the conjunctiva and drew forth a worm 1~ inches
long, of the thickness of the E-string of a violin, thicker at one
end than at the other, but punctured at both ends. This case
serves as a rule of action when the seat of the Filaria is in this
place.

2. Immature species of Filaria found in the human lens.

Besides the Filaria medinensis a second species has been
found in Europe in the human eye, which been mentioned by
authors sometimes as Filaria oculi humani, and sometimes as
Filaria lentis (Diesing). All my endeavours to obtain the original
specimens have been in vain. M. Jiingken, who had the cour-
tesy most readily to permit my inquiries, informed me that he
had handed over the specimens found in a first case, to the well
known deceased helminthologist, Von Nordmaun, and given the
Filaria found in a second case to another student of helminthology.
The Filaria> of Yon Ammon and Gescheidt, which Von Ammon

408 ANIMAL PAEAS1TES.

most kindly wished to procure me a sight of, were also no longer
to be found. Consequently I can only communicate what I find
on this subject in literature. To what species this Filaria
belongs, I do not know ; it is probably a European Filaria
of the domestic animals (either the Filaria lachrymalis of horses
and cattle, or the Filaria obtusa of the swallow, most probably
the former species, from the size and the region in which it
usually dwells).

Os orbiculare, inerme. Corpus breve subcequale, spiraliter

involutum, extremilate caudali maris ; feminte clavata

apice mucronata (?). Longit.\ — 5J'" / crassit : vix1^". (Diesing.)
In one case of Jiingken and Nordmann, two fine and extremely
delicate coils were perceived in the Morgagnian fluid of an
extracted lens suffering from gray cataract ; under the microscope
these were found to be coiled Filaria. One, as stated, was in-
jured ; the other, uninjured one, was of the same thickness
throughout, perfectly filiform, |"" long, very thin, coiled up in a
spiral, and dead. The intestine was distinct and simple, the
mouth without visible papillae, and dark corpuscles were deposited
in convolutions round the intestine. The anus protruded in the
form of a pad.

In a lens obscured by Cataracta viridis lenticularis, extracted
from an aged woman, the same authors found a living Filaria,
5i'" in length, and apparently moulting. 9

(The other, second case cited by Nordmann, which is men-
tioned by Larrey and Meckel, certainly relates to Mongin's
Filaria medinensis under the conjunctiva mentioned under
species 1.)

In the case operated on by Von Ammon, and observed by
Gescheidt, the tolerably large lens was yellowish-brown, and
rather pulpy externally, and furnished internally with a hard,
stellate, whitish-yellow nucleus; its fibres, which were arranged
in regular striae, were distinct, entangled, and not unfrequently
crossed. On the inside of the lens, three Filarice seated upon
the lens were seen ; of these, one lay more upon the surface, and
was, as well as the second, about 2'" in length, and of a white
colour; the third was scarcely f"' in length. The two larger
ones were females, according to Gescheidt, but it is not said
whether they were perfectly mature. They lay tolerably straight,
with the tail a little bent inwards ; only the anterior part of the
body was slightly tortuous. The third, and smallest specimen,

ASCAEIDES. 409

was more of a reddish-white colour, arranged in a spiral form,
and Gescheidt leaves it undecided whether it was a male or a
female. The worms were very thin, of the same thickness
throughout, more acute towards the head, and more clubbed
towards the tail, but had always a thin, short, crooked point.
The mouth was small, tolerably circular, without papillae (lips).
The intestine was yellowish, straight, without curvature, and
without dilatation, and opened into a simple, round orifice, with-
out any prominence. The ovaries were delicate, spiral cylinders,
running close to the intestinal canal, and, according to Gescheidt,
opening at the same place as the anus. For my part, I cannot
admit that proof is given that we have to do here with females
and ovaries, or that the opening of the ovaries into the anus, as
above described, could have taken place (a circumstance unknown
in the females of Filaria, and indeed in all the females of nema-
tode worms with which I am acquainted). They were undoubtedly
quite immature animals, and the opening of this cylinder into the
anus was certainly a mistake of Gescheidt's. The tubes termi-
nated in blind extremities at both ends, as in the Trichina, which,
indeed, as already remarked, are said to be produced from FilaricR,
and in the case of certain species of Trichinae may really originate
therefrom.

Progress. — The reaction connected with the immigration and
growth of the Filaria is probably but small in general, but such
guests may very easily give the first tendency to cloudiness of the
lens and cataracts. Their diagnosis in the living subject must
be rendered possible by the assistance of the ocular mirror ; their
prognosis falls under that of cataract ; their therapeutics are those
of cataracta lentis, with the limitation, however, that when these
worms occur in the lens every one must consider that the extrac-
tion but never the mere depression of the lens is indicated ; when
situated in the cornea they are removed, like foreign bodies, by
simple incision.

V. Ascarides.

These worms, described by Dujardin as the nineteenth genus of
the Nematoda, and as the fourth genus in the fourth section
(Ascaridia), are treated of by Diesing as Genus XX in Order VI
of the Achcethelmintha elastica, but the Oxyuri are also introduced
into this genus. The true Ascarides stand, according to Diesing,

410 ANIMAL PARASITES.

in the Subdivision II, Euascaridte, and these again in Division I,
Apterocephala (caput non alatum), and in their principal sec-
tion A, Gymnoascaridce (corpus inerme}. Dujardin, to whom I
adhere here, and who has separated the Ascarides from the
Oxyurides, describes the former as follows :

Ascarides ; cor pore albo aut subflavo, subcylindrico, utrinque
attenuate, fusiformi, 4 striis lonyitudinalibus subalbis, opacis,
linearibus, instructo ; cute transverse striatd, capite tubus, valvulis
(labiis) converts aut semilunaribus , interne finestratis, o?sophago
valde musculoso, cylindrico aut clavaformi ; ventriculo cavitutum
triangularum praebente.

Mas minor, quam femina ; extremitate caudali aliquid curvatd
et involutd, nunc nudd, nunc membrand alatd duplici, aut duplici
tuberculorum et papillarum or dine aut rarissime acetabulo instructd ;
caudd breviore, obtusiore quam in feminis ; spiculo aut pene duplice
plus minusve longo et arcuato.

Femina caudd rectiore et longiore ; vagina slmplici antrorsum
sitd ; utero bi- aut multiloculari ; ovariis filiformibus, longissimis,
duplicibus aut multiplicibus ; ovula elliptica aut globulosa, extus
laevia. Species aut ovi~ aut viv'tparce, plerumque in tubo intestinali
viventes.

The only species to be referred to here is,

1. Ascaris lumbricoides.

It is placed by Dujardiri as the first species in his first subgenus.
Ascarides vera (uteris 2 brachiis paralleliter ad caudam versus
directis instruct a], Sectio prima >' Ascarides O2sophago simplice aut
cum aut sine ventriculo, sed sine appendicis pyloricis. With
Diesing one species stands as above, A. Gymnoascarida, c. corpus
utrinque cequaliter attenuatum. 49. Ascaris lumbricoides, Linne.
With the sole exceptions of Goeze, who calls the worm Ascaris
gigas, and Zeder, who names it Fusaria lumbricoides, authors have
retained the Lirinean name Ascaris lumbricoides for this worm.

Vermes albi aut rubro- pallidi, cylindrici, in extremitatibus
attenuati, fusiformes, elastici ; cute transverse subarticulata striis
transversis O02 mill, inter se distantibus, ex duobus stratis com-
posita, 4 lineis lateralibus longitudinalibus subalbis majoribus capite
distincto, parvo £0*7 mill, lato), tribus valvulis semilunaribus ,
prominentibus, ad margines hyalinis armato, interne denticulatum
musculorum stratum ad galli jubce modum prcebente ; ossophago

ASCARIS LUMBRICOIDES. 411

musculoso, 6 — 8 mill, longo, filiformi, triquetro, ventriculo clava-
formi (0'7 mill, lato, 2 — 3 mill, longo") parvulo, intestino simplici
valvulis aut villis et epithdio polyedrico sparsim instructo.

Mas : 150 ad 170 mill.= L ad 6"' long., 3'2 mill, lat., cauda
aliquid depressa, conica, infleoca ct curvata, spiculis 2 planis, sub-
ensiformibus, fere rectis, 1'8 mill, ad 2-12 mill, longis, 0-18 ad
0 23 mill, latis. Organo spermaiico simplici, 1200 mill, longo,
testiculo cceco perparvo, retortiformi, funiculo spermatico albo-intu-
mido, ductu ejaculatorio angustiore ad ani latus sese aperienli. Sper-
matozoidiaglobuliformia,granulosa, infemince vagina maturescentia.

Femina : 200 ad 275 mill, et supra longa = 8 ad 18"; media in
parie 4 ad 5'5 mill, lata ; caudd conica obtusd ; aut aliquid ante
caudce apicem sito (1 mill, circiter] ; vagina simplici ante corporis
dimidium sitd, ex magnitudine feminarum variabili (ex. c. 85 mill,
pone caput in femina 245 mill, et 103 mill, in femina 214 mill,
longa] ; utero ab initio simplici, bipartita aut biloculari. Ovaria
jiliformia, sensim attenuata, retrorsum usque ad anum, et an-
trorsum supra vaginam aliquantulum pergentia. Totalis utriusque
ovarii longitudo ad 44" Lips.

Ovula immatura subtriquetra, numero 4 ad 8 conglomerata,
matura isolata, rotunda, ad 0'087 mill, lata, cum testa tenui, laevi ;
in natura libera sensim embryones evolventia.

As regards the head of this worm, we find it to be distinctly
composed of three papillae which can undoubtedly be spread out
upon the intestine, in a broad, circular, sucker-like surface in
the sucking-act of the worm. Their moveability is shown not
only by the lighter notches at their base, which indicate that
the papillae or lips move as it were in a sort of hinge, but also
by the cock's-comb-like structures in their interior which are no-
thing but muscular fibres, connected by means of a thin stra-
tum running through the hinge just described, with the general
muscular system of the body. Bremser has seen the
opening and closing of these papillae, and described the me-
chanism. He even reports that at the moment of opening, he
saw a little tube protrude from the centre, which is the true oral
orifice. Wedl thinks this the cleft proboscis, which is everted
from the oral aperture for the reception of nourishment. I can-
not give the name of oral aperture to this everted cylinder ; the
true oral aperture is formed by the opened lips or papillae ; the
small tubule in the centre represents the Introitus faucium. Its
protrusion is perhaps as much an active one by its own

412 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

muscular structure, as a passive one by the contraction of
the general muscular system of the body. As regards the
four whitish streaks on the sides of the worm, of which
two are broader than the others, I have already stated, that
these streaks prove to be cylindrical cords, in the interior of
which a sort of hollow canal is detected, which appear to present
almost dendritic diverticula. There is no doubt that these cords
are hollow canals, and in fact the remains of the fat-canals.
In Ascaris lumbricoides these cor*ds may be recognised as hollow
canals throughout the whole subsequent period of life. The
peculiar dendritic appearance in the interior of this streak is
certainly due to the unequal contraction and the collapsing of
the walls of these retrograding canals.

The males and females may be distinguished during life, even
by their form and external appearance. The female has the
abdomen slender, fusiformly pointed : the male is bent round like
a hook, and sometimes exhibits, at a short distance from the tail,
a pair of white, delicate, projecting hairs, which are the protruded
penis. The female shows two ; but frequently, when one ovary
runs rather further back than the other, only one thick, white
cord, usually somewhat thinner posteriorly, which terminates
about | — 1 inch, or 1^ inch from the caudal extremity, and is
surpassed posteriorly by a brown cord, the intestine. The male
exhibits a simple, white, tubular sac, constantly becoming wider
posteriorly, which reaches to the anus, lets nothing more be seen
of a brown intestine, and may be traced nearly to the extremity
of the tail, as it opens here with the anus. If the female be
pressed upon the body, or allowed to swell in water, a prolapsus
of thin tubes (ovaries) and a discharge of a milky mixture (eggs)
takes place in the anterior half of the animal from the vaginal
orifice. If a male be pressed, a milky juice (the seminal globules)
flows out in the neighbourhood of the anus, without the occur-
rence of a rupture or prolapsus, which are only produced very
late, if at all, when the male is laid in water.

There is an error of Werner's to be mentioned here, which Wedl
quotes ; he says the penis may swell up into a club, because it
stands in connection with a thick seminal duct. This could only
be the case if the penis of our Ascaris were perforated, and
seminal corpuscles could pass into it. That this is impossible
I have already mentioned. The matter is very easily explained.
In Werner's case, the apex and the base or root of the penis were
still within the external orifice of the sexual organs/ but the

ASCAEIS LUMBKICOIDES. 413

middle (end) had protruded in a hemispherical form through the
sexual aperture.

Of the intestinal canal \ve have only to say, that its commence-
ment is whitish and muscular, and that the oesophagus, which is
composed of thick layers of longitudinal and transverse muscles,
passes rapidly and without any particular constriction, into the
intestinal canal, which is thin-walled, coated with epithelium
internally, and shines through of a brownish colour, from the
brown excrement. This intestine is also furnished with a mus-
cular layer, which is connected by fine ramifications with the cuta-
neous muscles (longitudinal and circular layers).

Between the two layers of the cutaneous muscles, which send
fine, fungous excrescences towards the skin, vacuoles occur,
which give issue to a pale-reddish, oily, albuminous substance,
and this is the bearer of a peculiar odorous matter, which adheres
to the Ascaris lumbricoides in spite of the most careful washing,
is very distinct from that of human excrement, and in course of
time communicates to the spirit in which such worms have been
preserved this peculiar odour, which is possessed by no other
entozoon. I can, however, state nothing more exact with regard
to this matter.

The external integument, according to Czermak, consists of six
layers. It is formed of bandlike transverse rings, which do not
run back into one another, but are frequently cleft dichotomously,
and, with few exceptions, are suddenly interrupted at those places
which correspond with the lateral lines of the animal. Between
the outer layer and two layers of fibres crossing each other
obliquely, and two laid at a right angle over each other, Czermak
saw a sixth homogeneous layer, exactly like the membrane of the
so-called mother- vesicles of Echinococcus. It appears to contain
the oily, reddish, strongly odoriferous fluid just referred to, which
exhibits the following phenomena of refraction : the membrane is
doubly refractive, and in such a manner that the directions of
oscillation, which cross each other at right angles, are parallel to
the longitudinal and transverse axes of the animal. These obser-
vations are confirmed by Wedl, who makes the phenomena
analogous to those seen in the substance of the lens.1

Symptoms, diagnosis, and prognosis of theAscarides. — Although
I cannot say that I agree entirely with the words of De Filippi,

1 Appendix C.

414 ANIMAL PARASITES.

when he says, " Posservazione dimostra die ospitanti ed ospitati
vivono in perfetta armonia ; gli uni non disturbano il regolare
procedirnento delle favi vitali negli altri ;" I nevertheless express
the opinion, that, as a general rule, in the case of Ascarides, the
host and his guests agree very well together, and give one another
very little mutual trouble. Notwithstanding their size, the
Ascarides, in themselves, when staying quietly in the intestine,
and when they do not occur in too great numbers, bring but
little danger to the constitutioif. They probably do not live at
all upon ready-formed juices, but, for the most part, upon un-
elaborated chyme. A good appetite is almost the whole injury
they do, and thus they are much less noxious than, for example,
the much smaller Ancylostoma. An abnormal aggregation
of Ascarides in the intestine, and a very firm coiling of them
amongst themselves into an inextricable knot, may cause mecha-
nical obstacles in the interior of the intestinal canal, which
may degenerate from simple, temporary stoppage, especially
after certain foods, with congestion towards the brain, and
all sorts of reflex phenomena caused thereby, to actual ileus.
This may be easily understood, when we know cases, for example,
in which the body of a child harboured between 300 and 400
Ascarides, or in which 103 of these worms were expelled from a
child. But in general these phenomena are extremely rare, and,
when they do occur, are usually transitory. All kinds of dis-
turbances and perversions in alimentation, such as flatulency and
tendency to diarrhoeas, are especially produced after certain
articles of food, and frequently only occur after offences against
proper diet. It is only the worms which have been disturbed in
some way, which renders the doctor necessary, whether the dis-
turbances are produced by causes in or out of the worms. Internal
causes of agitation, that is to say, those which are seated in the
worm itself, are perhaps only to be found in the sexual actions.
But here we find ourselves upon a field of which we are totally
ignorant, as we do not know whether a periodical maturity
connected with particular seasons, and a periodical seeking of the
females by the males do or do not take place. The smallest
Ascaris which I have seen, and which I still preserve as a micro-
scopic preparation in my collection, I expelled from myself, at the
end of July. It is the sexually immature worm already men-
tioned, of about li inch long. We must therefore quit this
subject, by openly confessing that the causes of excitement to

ASCARIS LUMBKIC01DES. 415

wandering and restlessness seated within the worm, are entirely
unknown to us. Causes whose seat is external to this worm, are
those which act disquietingly upon the worm from the intestine
and in its interior, the first cause of which is sometimes to be
sought in changed and irritating nourishment, as is the case,
apparently epidemically, at the period of the great general change
of diet towards the spring, autumn, and winter, and sometimes
in morbidly altered anatomical or functional conditions of the
intestinal canal. If, then, the worm be disquieted by any causes,
it begins to wander about in the intestine which it inhabits, pro-
ducing all kinds of disorders, which may even lead to death.
According to the irritability of the individual, the number of the
wanderers, the place to which they have wandered, and lastly,
according to the power of the worms themselves of asserting their
vital activity, so varies the danger to which these wanderers give
rise. The irritations which cause the worms to pass out per anum,
are not only innocent, but even curative. This is the case
especially when the worm has been disquieted. Sudden,
very watery diarrhoeas carry it away mechanically, after swelling
it up, and destroying its adhesive power. We see this par-
ticularly in cholera. But if the worm passes to the gall-ducts,
in which it can continue its life, say at least for some days, it
may produce all kinds of hepatic disorders, as, for instance,
catarrh of the gall-ducts, nay, even abscess, and phenomena
which are otherwise the consequences of the incarceration of
gall-stones. As the oil of turpentine in Durand's mixture is also
salutary against this worm, in such cases a treatment analogous
to that of gall-stones alone would be salutary. If the worm gets
into the ductus pancreaticus, or the vermiform appendage, inflam-
mation and obstruction of these parts, perityphlitides, &c., may
follow. If it passes into the air-passages it may become the
cause of violent spasm of the larynx at the moment of its
immigration, and, by a longer stay in the bronchise, of violent
catarrh, of fits of coughing, nay, even of pneumonia, which either
lead to death, or to a rapid cure, by removing the intruder by
coughing and retching. If the worm remains fixed in the
stomach, or on the way from the stomach towards the mouth, or
the outer nasal aperture, it gives rise to disorders which are milder
or more violent, and of longer or shorter duration, according to
the condition in which it finds itself at the moment of its arrival.
If it reaches the above-mentioned regions by simply wandering

416 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

forward, without being carried upwards by watery vomitings, and
thus becoming more swelled, heavy, motionless, and inactive,
I have repeatedly seen it produce the most unpleasant disturbances,
such as constant retching, the most troublesome vomiting, irri-
tation in the throat, with fever, and even delirium, and, after the
evacuation of the worm, all disappear like a flash of lightning.
In jdoubtful and suspicious cases, therefore, it should never be
omitted to open the mouth of individuals suspected of worms
when suddenly attacked by fever, to see whether there is a worm
in the pharynx, which is immediately to be removed with the
finger or the forceps. If, however, the worm arrives in the
stomach, or in the portion of the alimentary canal between this
and the mouth or nose, in a dull and sickly state, without the
faculty of moving itself, and without strength to enable it to
adhere, the symptoms produced by it are much gentler and more
passive, as the worm is more easily removed as a dead foreign
body. Besides in these normal prolongations or appendages of
the intestinal canal, the worm can also pass to other regions
by pseudo-paths, through the external integument, or be met
with in closed serous cavities of the body. Such places the
worm reaches only when a breach (perforation) or an ulcer
yielding to the least force, for example to mere adhesion,
was ripe for perforation, occurred in the intestine, exactly
as we see Ascarides and T&nite, with or without hooks, wander
through the shot-wounds in the intestines of animals killed
by sportsmen, into the abdominal cavity, the lungs, or out
of the body. The cause of such perforations, therefore, lies only
in morbid ulcerating processes of the mucous membranes of the
intestine, which are certainly mostly of a dyscratic nature
(tubercular, cancroid, typhoid). They can only be caused by the
worms, when these, being present in great numbers, have led to
ileus, inflammation of the intestine, and adhesion of the intestine
with partial mortification. The prognosis is the same as in all
perforating ulcers of the intestinal canal. At the same time it is a
further question, whether the perforation takes place before or
after the occurrence of adhesion with neighbouring organs. Thus
are produced the so-called worm-abscesses, in which the worm
passes out through the general integument. At the same time,
however, before this takes place the previous perforated wound
may be already covered by exudation, and the worm occur com-
pletely shut off from the intestinal canal in a sacculated cavity.

ASCABIS LUMBRICOIDES. 417

In this case there is no formation of fistula. At other times the
fistula may still be produced, or the worm may arrive in the
bladder by vesico-intestinal fistulse, in the vagina by intestino-
vaginal fistula^ or in the ovaries by ovarian fistulae, and be found
in these places on dissection, or pass out from them. Lastly,
having got access to the free abdominal cavity, it may become
encysted there, and form an encysted abscess ; or it may reach
the cavity of the pleura by adhesions of the intestine and dia-
phragm, and the formation of a communication in this way, or
through abscesses of the liver which perforate towards the pleura,
just as well as by penetrating wounds. The experienced will know,
that the wanderings of the worms after the death of the patients,
must be well distinguished from this. Bat the worm can never
actively bore through the healthy intestine. For this it is rendered
unfit by the structure of its head and its thin lips, which are cer-
tainly adapted for suction, but not for boring. I express this
opinion without hesitation, although I stand again in opposition
to the authority of Von Siebold and that of Mondiere, who assert
that the worms are able to force asunder the fibres of the intes-
tine with their resistant heads, and agree exactly with lludolphi,
Bremser, llokitansky, and Bamberger.

Finally, let us refer to the symptoms which are produced by
the Ascarides whilst remaining within the intestine. Starting
from the above points of view, we shall be in a position to com-
prehend the whole series of the direct mechanical and reflex
symptoms; these are the phenomena of an ordinary catarrhal
affection of the stomach and intestine, from its lowest to its
highest degrees, with all its consequences upon the general health,
the general alimentation and the nervous system. For the phy-
siological practitioner it suffices for the prognosis and treatment
which will always be introduced when a conviction is obtained of
the presence of the worms by their passage out. Amongst the
reflex phenomena we have especially to mention, without
particular reference to the species of worm, the collection of
water in the mouth, yawning, hiccough, and snuffling in the
nose. Their presence is not to be denied, but the latter pro-
bably rather belongs to the issuing proglottides of Tanice and
Oocyurides, which tickle the anus, than to the Ascarides living in
the middle of the intestine. But in this case still more common
observations must be made. It is very difficult to say whether
Ascarides can produce intestinal catarrhs, or whether they only

418 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

find in them accidental favorable circumstances for thriving:,
maintain and increase them, and whether these catarrhs may
not still persist independently after the removal of all the worms,
in spite of all subsequent treatment, supposed to strengthen the
mucous membrane.

Lastly, many of the older authors, arid, very recently,
Zimmermann, have attributed to the worms a prognostic and
generally unfavorable import in certain febrile disorders of the
intestine, especially in typhus* Zimmermann never saw the
worms pass off in typhus before the seventh day. The passnge
of the worm only furnishes a doubtful, indirect, prognostic
indication. When it takes place in the latter period of typhus,
and after the patient has fasted long, it indicates simply that the
Ascarides which live upon the chyme in the human intestine are
hungry and pass off because they find nothing. The proof of
this is the state of fulness or emptiness of the intestines of the
worm. If it occurs in the early days of the typhus and with
general symptoms of serious illness and numerous diarrhceal
stools, it indicates that the attack of typhus is a severe one,
that the typhous ulcers may extend high up in the intestine, so
that the acrid secretions reach, irritate, and even expel the
Ascarides which live higher up. That there must be a con-
dition of the intestinal canal, which favours the thriving of the
worms, is clear. Whether, as is commonly supposed, this con-
sists in an accumulation of intestinal mucus is by no means
ascertained. Hence the after treatment is for the present a
purely empirical one.

Therapeutics. — 1. Prophylaxis. — The first thing to be done by
the surgeon in practice consists in destroying the eggs of the
Ascarides wherever he meets with them, and expelling every
female that he can get at. It was H. E. Richter's merit that he
first ascertained that the eggs remain uninjured in sewage, &c.
Recently, Barry. Bischoff, and others, have proved that the pro-
cess of segmentation of the eggs of Nematoida continues even in
very concentrated alkalies or salts. According to the experiments
of Verloren and Richter, already described, the eggs of Ascarides
only attain their full maturity when free in nature (in water),
and only undergo the process of segmentation in this situation.
In the various species of Ascarides, the time necessary for this
purpose may be different. For whilst, according to Verloren, this
is completed in one species of Ascaris within a few weeks, the

ASCARIS LUMBRICOIDES. 419

eggs of Ascaris lumbricoides require at least a period of 11 — 12
months for the purpose. Even Richter's first statement spoke
of such a period ; according to a communication from him in
January, 1857, embryos had then began to be formed in eggs
which had been put into water by him in February, 1856, but
they did not move. Eggs which I placed in water in July, 1856,
do not yet show any trace of embryos.

But as to what becomes of the ready-formed embryos we know
really nothing. Perhaps they get into our bodies with drinking
water, and perhaps this is sufficient for their development,
although the administrations of the brood reared by Richter, by
myself to dogs, by Haubner to pigs, and also by Leuckart, led to
no successful result. Perhaps, however, this is not sufficient,
and a further migration through other animal bodies must,
precede, although this mode is not very probable.

2. Direct therapeutics. — From the immense number of remedies
recommended as Vermifuga, we should have rather tedious work
if they were all to be referred to here by name. If we wish to
treat the anthelminthic remedies in accordance with the claims
which physiological medicine makes upon us, we may adopt one
of two ways, namely, we must either seek out remedies which
quickly kill and poison the worms, without attacking the organism
of the host itself too severely, or, as we usually see those worms
which apparently pass off spontaneously, come forth in a living
state, we must endeavour to discover by practice what remedies
there are especially, in consequence of which the worms begin
particularly to experience the desire of wandering outwards.

1. Experiments for the discovery of remedies which poison
and kill the worms quickly have already been made to a greater
or less extent by Redi, Baglio, Andry, Leclerc, Torti, Coulet,
Arnemann, and Chabert. I willingly admit that Bremser thinks
it is not advisable to make use of human worms, which have
passed off spontaneously, or which have been found on dissection
some time after death for these experiments; but this, as well as
his further objection, that all round worms quickly die when
removed from their natural place of abode, and especially in the
open air, may be very easily answered. All that is necessary,
namely, is to take intestinal worms from freshly-killed healthy
domestic animals, dogs or cats, and to put them into white of
egg, mixed with the medicament to be tested, at a temperature
equal to the normal heat of the intestine, or only a few degrees

420 ANIMAL PAEASITES.

above or below it. In experiments performed in the summer,
the ordinary temperature is sufficient, if the mixture be exchanged
for one of fresh white of egg, before putridity occurs. In winter
it is best to use the ordinary stove-heat, which does not exceed
blood-heat. In this way I have tested a great number of the
vermifuges of the schools, and have arrived at the following
results :

1 . In fresh white of egg, changed at least once a day, the most
different entozoa, when taken from healthy, freshly killed animals,
lived for days.

2. In normal saliva, I have seen Oxyuris vermicularis live
more than a day, it being understood that the worm was pre-
vented from drying by constant fresh additions of saliva.

3. Even in water round-worms can live a day or two, but their
vital manifestations are so weak and sluggish, in consequence of
mechanical turgescence, that they can only be detected by the
aid of electricity, one of the finest tests of the presence of life in
these worms.

4. Whey behaves exactly like water ;

5. Milk developes conditions analogous to the latter somewhat
less rapidly.

To have as serviceable a menstruum as possible therefore for
the experiments above indicated, employ white of egg or saliva.

According to my experiments up to this time, the following
table may be arranged, as to the time in which round-worms died
in white of egg, mixed with the various remedies.

1. Death took place in 1 — 2 hours in white of egg mixed with
creosote, and large doses of common salt and corrosive sub-
limate.

2. Death took place in 2 — 5 hours in white of egg mixed with
petroleum, cajeput oil, oil of turpentine, mustard, weaker solu-
tions of common salt and washed herring's milt.

3. Death took place in 5 — 15 hours in white of egg mixed
with garlic, onions, laurel, cloves, wood vinegar, Had. punic.
granat., Tinct. gallarum, sulphate of soda (concentrated solution).

4. Death took place in 15 — 24 hours in white of egg mixed
with camphor, anise, and infusions or decoctions of ginger,
gentian, elm-bark, kousso, and hops.

5. Death took place after 24 hours in white of egg mixed
with infusion or decoction of parsley, rue, milfoil, tansy, valerian,
chamoniile, wormwood, myrrh, quassia, oranges, calamus, ipeca-

ASCARIS LUMBRICOIDES. 421

cuanha, walnuts, china bark, willow bark, Spiraea ulmariat oak
bark, dragon's blood, catechu, kino ; and also with the vinous ex-
tract of oak bark (Radem.), assafcetida, gum ammoniac, Peruvian
balsam, Roob Junip., Extr. Thujse, Ol. Ricini, Ol. Chaberti,
Aq. picis, creosote water (weak), Fuligo splendens, and sulphate
of soda (in weak solution).

Lead, zinc, calomel, and copper, had no effect, as they lay un-
decomposed at the bottom of the glass.

Besides the remedies here enumerated, I have also tested the
Semina Cinse with their preparations. In a mixture of white of
egg with coarsely powdered seeds, the worms live for days ; and
in a mixture of white of egg with a strong Infusum semin. Cinse,
with repeated additions of unboiled powder, they also lived for
days. In a mixture of santonine with water and white of egg
the worms lived for days, and also in white of egg with santonine
and a little vinegar. At the same time, however, the almost
total insolubility of the santonine was proved, by suspending a
little linen bag, with shots and crystals of santonine in the fluid
taken out of the stomach of a cat, and slightly diluted with water,
at 80° F. (30° R.), without any formation of crystals of santonine
in the fluid subsequently.

In white of eggs mixed with castor oil and santonine, the
worms died, according to my experiments, within an hour.
Falck, who repeated this experiment, could not convince himself
of this, and I admit that the apothecary's assistant, to whom I
had left the watching of the experiment, made a mistake in the
regulation of the temperature, and allowed it to rise too high and
too quickly.

In a mixture of white of egg with Natron santonicum dissolved
in water, Ascarides lived more than twelve hours.

In order, now, in the second place, to try in practice which of
those methods, which appeared to me to exert an influence upon
the life of the worms, were best adapted for practical application,
and at the same time to test the mechanical irritants, I made the
following experiments with anthelmintics upon living cats and
dogs. I administered Stannum raspatum to living cats, and, on
dissection, found Teenies and Ascarides quite lively in the intes-
tine, but the canal itself much irritated, and numerous punctiform
spots of extravasated blood, in consequence of the wounding of
the intestine by the points of the tin filings. Exactly the same

422 ANIMAL PARASITES.

appearances followed the administration of an electuary of
Dolichos pruriens.

After administering the celebrated black protoxide of copper
of Rademacher for four days, the worms remained uninjured in
the intestine. On the contrary, when I administered castor oil
with santonine for several consecutive days, Ascarides always
passed off in abundance, but certainly with strong purging.

With this result, obtained by^experiments, I now passed to the
discovery of the remedy most to be recommended in practice, and
was directed to the preparations of santonine, as is especially
shown by the last experiment.

Before I describe my observations and mode of treatment, I
must, from the fame which the Semina Cinse have especially en-
joyed, even for ages, refer to these above all, as an introduction
to santonine. It must be confessed that the old practitioners
sometimes produced very definite results with their electuaries
of cina. The best known formula of these cina-worm-electuaries
are the following :

1. Bremser's. — I£ Semiuum Cinse vel Tanaceti vulgaris
ruditer contusorum, 3SS; Pulv. rad. Valerian., ^\j • Pulv. rad.
Jalappse, 9iss — ij ; Tartar, vitriol., ^iss — ij ; Oxymel Squill., q. s.
ut fiat Electuarium. M. D. S. A tea-spoonful to be taken two
or three times a day.

After taking two spoonfuls daily for three to four days, more
slime, and frequently also worms, pass off, as Bremser says, with
a more abundant stool. If the worms do not pass off, Bremser
either administers some more of the electuary twice, or gives
one spoonful three times. If the first pot of electuary does not
suffice for complete recovery, a second is taken, but, according to
Bremser, watery stools must never be produced. He never
allowed more than two potsful to be taken, and it did not matter
to him whether worms did or did not pass duriny its use.

To relax the bowels once in the midst of the treatment, he
administered a weak purgative, according to the following prescrip-
tion : R Pulv. rad. Jalappse, 3j ; Pulv. fol. Senna3, ^ss ; Tartar,
vitriol., 3J. M. f. pulv. divid. in iij vel iv part. seq. D. S. Half a
powder to be taken every half to two hours, until it operates.

If Bremser had leucophlegmatic individuals under him, he em-
ployed the OJeum Chaberti against relapses. This oil is prepared
in the following way. One part of stinking hartshorn oil is mixed

TREATMENT OF ASCARIS. 423

with three parts of oil of turpentine, and this mixture is left to
stand four days; it is then distilled in the sand bath from a glass
retort,, until three fourths of it has passed, and this is put into
bottles of about one ounce, which must be well closed. Of this
Bremser administered two tea-spoonfuls in a mouthful of water,
every morning and evening. With sickness, less at first. To those
who could not bear it fasting, he gave it half an hour after breakfast.

2. Storck's much esteemed formula. — R Sem. Cin., 5ij ;
Rad. Valer. min. pulv., 33 ; Rad. Jalapp. pulv., 535 ; Oxymel.
Squill., q. s. ut f. El. One tea-spoonful every three hours.

3. Sellers strengthening worm-electuary. — R Pulv. Sem. Cin.,
^vj ; Ferri sulf. cryst. ; Extr. Chin. fuse, aa., ^ij ; Syrup.
Cinnam., q. s. ut f. El. One tea-spoonful three times a day.
This may be the best when an after-treatment is to be observed.

4. Hufeland's : R Pulv. Cinse, 3ss; Rad. Jalapp., 33; Rad.
Valer. pulv., 3Jss ; Kali Tartar, depur., $ij ; Oxymel Squill, 5vj ;
Syrup, simpl. q. s. ut f. El. One tea-spoonful every 2 — 3 hours.

Who amongst us, who is getting on towards his fortieth year,
especially if he passed his youth in the country, and had the
benefit of the advice of a doctor who was already in years, has
not been furnished at least once, if not twice a year, with one of
the electuaries just mentioned, for the suspicion that he might
have worms? Who does not remember the joyful time when his
mother or tutor came before him with the spoon heaped up with
worm-electuary in the one hand, and in the other the honoured
birch, and compelled him, no matter whether with or without re-
sults, to swallow down the electuary, or at least to keep it in his
mouth until their backs were turned, and he could voluntarily
get rid of it, either with or without the help of his fingers? It
was, therefore, an indispensable requisite to see whether it could
not be contrived to administer the remedy in a more agreeable
form. The method of sprinkling the remedy, coarsely pounded,
npon bread, and spreading syrup or honey over it, and adminis-
tering 3ss — j several times a day in this manner, followed every
third or fourth day by a gentle aperient, must always be the
most advisable if the cina seeds are to be employed at all. J.
Clarus extols these cina-slices above all worm-electuaries.

Gradually, however, the cina seeds have been displaced by the
preparations obtained from them, and, in my opinion, with justice.
In practice we can only extol two of them, — santonine and san-
tonate of soda ; all the rest are unnecessary.

424 ANIMAL PARASITES.

1. Santonine the preparation of which according to Calloud
(See 'Pharmac.Centralblatt./ 1849, 413, and J. Clarus, 'Handbuch
der speciellen Arzneimittellehre/ 1852, p. 333), is best effected by
the employment of ammonia, must be tasteless, when pure, be-
cause it does not dissolve in the mouth ; dissolved in alcohol it
tastes bitter ; 'dissolves but little in warm water, but with ease in
fatty oils. It is at the same time inodorous, and has a very slight
acid reaction, combines readily with alkalies and becomes yellow
in the light of the sun. Whe*n impure it still contains resins
and essential oils, and is, consequently, nauseous to take.

It is the best plan to administer santonine simultaneously with
fatty oils, in order to bring it into solution as readily as possible,
and for this purpose I have preferred to give it sprinkled upon
bread and butter or in the yolk of an egg with sugar, and after-
wards to follow it every 3 — 4 days with a gentle purgative (Jalap
or the Electuar. Linit. Pharmac. Saxon.), or to administer it, to
those who can easily take oils, with castor oil (gr. ij — iv with ^j of
oil in tea-spoonfuls, until purgative action sets in). In this way
the remedy should be repeated, if possible, for some days, or every
other day, so that soft stools should be repeated several times a day,
rather than that actual purgative stools should be produced. The
use of milk at the same time, perhaps even the employment of the
santonine in butter-milk, may also be advisable, and butter-milk
may be substituted as a purgative in worm-treatment especially
with children. Amongst the santonine lozenges, those prepared
from cocoa undeprived of oil are most deserving of praise.

Since the commencement of the administration of santonine,
it has become, in consequence of certain subsidiary actions, a
subject of contest and strife, which is not yet concluded, and
which, perhaps, never will be quite settled, because the remedy
will possibly be displaced before the matter is ready for judgment
by Hautz's preparation, to which we shall immediately refer. The
most troublesome effects said to have been seen from this remedy
are spasms and obstinate obstructions with tenesmus, nay even
bloody stools, which are said to have been seen by some after
comparatively small quantities (gr. ij — iv once or twice a day)
of the remedy. For my part, with a careful employment of the
remedy (gr. ij — iv with 3J of castor oil) I have never seen bad sub-
sidiary actions, and when it is administered with castor oil, the
more obstinate obstructions are also wanting. The most terrible
symptom, to the unprofessional patient, is the yellow, or blue,

TREATMENT OF ASCARIS. 425

or even green appearance of all objects. As it appears to me,
the yellow is essentially the primitive colour, and all other colours
depend upon the objects, upon which the patient turns his eyes.
"With a cloudy sky, and when the patient turns his eye not to-
wards the window, but towards the dimly-lighted back part of
the room, he sees all objects pale yellow, as far as I could ob-
serve ; and also when he looks at objects strongly illuminated by
the sun. If the day be fine and the patient sits at the window,
looking at the blue sky, he thinks he sees everything green.
At the same time, in quick turning from blue objects or from
the blue sky towards objects differently coloured or illuminated,
the colour varies through green towards blue and yellow in many
ways. I think I have observed these appearances of colour,
when I have endeavoured to understand the complaints of the
patients. Frightful as these appearances would be to the patient
if his attention was not previously called to them, they disturb
him but little when we do not omit to inform him of them
beforehand. The medical man has nothing to fear from them,
these phenomena pass away of themselves within a few hours.

The physiologists have attempted to account for this phe-
nomenon, and it was supposed that there was a yellow colo-
ration of the serum of the blood, such as we meet with in
jaundice, especially as the urine acquires a similar yellow colour.
Zimmermann, of Hanover, gave a young man eight grains of san-
tonine from seven to eleven o'clock in the morning. Frequent
tears in the eyes soon followed, but ceased about eleven o'clock,
and yellow sight, which still persisted at half-past twelve, when
some blood was taken from the patient, on account of the occur-
rence of congestion of the head. The serum was colourless, and
remained so even when heated to 80° F. (30° R.), and on the
addition of urine. All other attempts to find a colouring matter
analogous to that of the bile have also been in vain, as far as I know.
The urine may even be red, or raspberry colour, which often gives
great anxiety to the parents, as they regard it as bloody ; it may
retain this colour as long as it has an acid reaction, and only become
orange-yellow afterwards, but the sclerotica never exhibits a yellow-
colour; the urine never presents the well known phenomena
of alteration of colour by nitric acid, nor do other appearances of
jaundice occur, such as white stools, of the colour of dog's excre-
ment. The yellow pigment treated of here, which must be
formed on its passage through the body, because santonine does

426 ANIMAL PARASITES.

not pass as such into the urine (Kletzinsky), must act quite
differently from the pigment causing jaundice. Kletzinsky
thinks he found that the yellow pigment which makes its appear-
ance in the urine after the administration of santonine, belongs
to the xanthine series of madder, without, however, finding a
trace of it in santonine, even in that which had become yellow,
reddish-brown, and finally dark brown, by lying. We must,
therefore, certainly for the present, suppose, with Zimmermann,
that the colour phenomena are actions which take place in the
brain, which is certainly affected for a time by the use of san-
tonine, by a transient alteration of the retina and the central
extremities of the optic nerve.

That it is necessary to be cautious in the employment of san-
tonine, follows as a matter of course, and I should never give
more than eight grains in two days, divided into doses of two
grains each, twice a day, and on the second day of its use admi-
nister an aperient.

One does not know, in fact, whether to join in the complaint
of J. Clarus, that this remedy has not yet been admitted into the
' Pharmacopoeia officinalis ' of Saxony, as serious errors and
mistakes certainly occur with regard to this remedy, and, at all
events, the remedy now to be referred to is a much more inno-
cent medicine, and yet produces the same effects.

2. Natron santonicum. — Both H. E. Richter, who first sent me
the remedy prepared by Hautz himself, and myself can testify to
the excellent action of this medicine. We have never seen inju-
rious subsidiary actions, and I have even administered doses of
gr. viij — x twice a day to adults. The remedy must be ad-
ministered alone, as every acid readily decomposes it, and it must
not be mixed with electuaries. If it is to be taken at the same
time with an aperient, the simple Aqua laxat. Vienniens is to be
preferred. I make use of the following method : — As it is
usually children that are brought by the parents with complaints
of their being troubled with worms, and I myself do not wish to
keep them, from school, even if the parents did not usually feel
the same desire, I let the children take a powder of Natron
santon., with sugar (2 — 5 grains, according to age), on a Friday
night, and repeat the same dose on Saturday morning (fasting)
and evening, and again on Sunday morning. On Sunday, half
an hour or an hour after the last powder, an aperient electuary
(Elect, lenitiv. mite or Londinense, according to circumstances) or

TREATMENT OF ASCARIS. 427

the necessary quantity of jalap, is administered, so that several
soft motions may follow. By this means the worms usually
pass off alive, of course if any were there ; or these remarkable
guests wander forth subsequently singly, and without motions.
In short, they wander out because we have made their dwelling-
place disagreeable to them. It only matters to us that they go ;
whether living or dead signifies little to us.

I shall be excused from giving individual cases. I may just
mention that I had to treat a woman in her fiftieth year who
had suffered for weeks with worm-vomiting and the most violent
disorders, when she came to me. The treatment immediately
commenced in the above manner, ameliorated the symptoms
almost on the spot after the first administration ; some worms
(of which I received four) passed off with the faeces, and all suf-
fering ceased. A fresh employment of the remedy in eight days,
in order to see if any stragglers were left, furnished no more
worms. The woman has since remained healthy.

Dr. Pockels, of Holzminden, who has observed a blackish colora-
tion of the tongue after the administration of santonine, praises,
as a remedy for Ascaris lumbricoides, the root of Aspidium filix
mas, in conjunction with purgatives. Panna and the flowers of
Kousso are also to be recommended.

END OF VOL. I.

APPENDIX B TRANSLATOR.

APPENDIX A.

Mr. Rainey9 s Researches on the Structure and Development of the
Cysticercus cellulosee in the Pig.

In the year 1855, Mr. Rainey presented to the Royal Society
of London, a paper on the structure and development of the
Cysticercus celluloses as constituting the " measled pork" of the
London markets. An abstract of these researches was pub-
lished in the ' Proceedings of the lloyal Society ' for December
13th, 1855. They were sufficiently important as dealing with a
period in the history of the development of Cysticerci which had
not been previously accurately observed. But since that time Mr.
Rainey has renewed his labours ; and on the 19th of March, 1857,
he presented a more complete account of his researches to the
Royal Society, which have been ordered to be printed, with
Mr. Rainey's illustrations, in the ' Philosophical Transactions/
Through the kindness of Mr. Rainey, I am enabled to give
those portions of his paper relative to the development of the
Cysticercus, which, with the materials added by the author
to the second edition of his work, will render this volume a
complete authority on all that has been done in reference to the
history of the Entozoa up to the time of its publication.

The Development of the Cysticercus cellulosse.

" The earliest indication of this species of Cysticercus, which admits of
certain recognition as a form of cystic entozoon, is the presence of a collec-
tion of reniform corpuscles of about ^g^th °^ an inc^ in length, and
in breadth, mixed with very minute, highly refractive molecules

DEVELOPMENT OF CYSTICERCUS. 429

of different sizes in the substance of a primary fasciculus of a muscular
fibre, or between its sarcolemma and the sarcous elements.

" Though such a collection of corpuscles has a moderately definite shape,
being somewhat fusiform, yet it has not a complete investment. It soon,
however, acquires a very distinct membranous covering, which is first
apparent about its middle, and afterwards at its extremities. Its dimen-
sions in this stage of its formation may be about y^oth of an inch in length,
and -5-3-^ 0th in breadth, but these are by no means regular. The ex-
ternal investment at first appears only as a bright line of homogeneous
substance, best defined on the side next the sarcous matter. It soon,
however, increases in thickness, and afterwards becomes converted into
short fibres, which increase in size and distinctness as the animalcule
grows larger. These fibres are peculiar; there is nothing that I am
acquainted with analogous to them. They have not the sharp and well-
defined outline of true cilia, nor are they pointed like setae, or curled like
cirri. They have somewhat the nature of white fibrous tissue, their dis-
tinctness being impaired by acetic acid. They are of different lengths
in the same entozoori, and generally longer, though not thicker, in
the large than in the small ones. Their length averages about ^o^h °f
an inch.

" The most remarkable circumstance connected with them is the great
uniformity of their arrangement in different Cysticerci. They cover the
whole of the outer surface of the investing membrane, and on opposite
sides of the same entozoon, their form, size, and direction are similar, so
that the two halves taken longitudinally are in this respect symmetrical.
If the direction of these fibres be examined about midway between the
two extremities of one of these animalcules, they will be seen to project
from the surface at right angles with the axis of its £ody ; but if traced
each way from this point they will be observed gradually to incline to this
axis at an angle which keeps diminishing as they approach the two extre-
mities, so that the fibres nearest to the two ends almost coincide in their
direction with that of the axis, and thus correspond in their situation to
the barbs situated on each side of the extremity of an ordinary feather.

" As the first position of these animals is in the very substance of a
primary muscular fasciculus, it is obvious that the mechanical action of
this apparatus will be to aid their longitudinal development whilst new
cells are in progress of formation in their interior. For it is scarcely
possible that the muscular fibrillse by which they are surrounded, can,
when in action, fail by their friction to urge the two extremities onwards
in opposite directions, whilst at the same time the fibres by which these
entozoa are covered are in consequence of their direction preventing the
separated ends from regaining their former position, and thus the two
ends being always carried in opposite directions without the possibility
of a counter movement, a general elongation must ensue. This apparatus
also, by splitting up the primary fasciculi, will serve a locomotive purpose
and thus enable these animals to reach the cellular intervals between the
muscular fibres, where their further development will be completed. That
such is the effect of the fibres in question is evident on a careful inspection
of some of the fasciculi in which these animalcules are contained, in
which a separation of the fibrillae can be seen to have been produced by
the pointed ends of the entozooh ; these fibrilla9 having been obviously
turned out of their original course, and some directed to one side and

430 APPENDIX.

some to the other. This explanation receives confirmation from the fact
of those Cysticerci whicli are developed in the muscular parietes of the
heart being of a different shape from those formed elsewhere, although
their structure in all other respects is precisely the same. These Cysti-
cerci, in the first or mermicular stage of their development, are very short
and thick, and of an oval shape. Their locomotive fibres, though per-
fectly demonstrable, are very short, and in many instances imperfect.

" After these Cysticerci have reached the spaces between the muscular
fibres, their subsequent development is the same as in other situations,
and the perfect animals formed in the heart cannot be distinguished from
those formed in other muscles. I tnay also add, that, while in the vermi-
cular stage, the Cysticerci developed in the short muscular fibres of the
tongue, are of a shape resembling very much those of the heart.

" The investing membrane which has just been described as covered with
cilia, is entirely filled with corpuscles, all of one kind, remarkably charac-
teristic, and differing only according to their states of development. The
perfect cells are best seen in the middle of an entozoon, but their mode of
formation, and the subsequent changes which they undergo, must be
examined in those parts which are increasing most rapidly, as in the
growing ends of an animalcule.

"The first appearance indicative of an increase in the length of an
animalcule is a thinning of the investing membrane, and a separation or
partial detachment of the cilia-like fibres at the growing end. Next, a
clear space, of the form of the part which is about to be added, is percep-
tible a litfcle in advance of this extremity, apparently the result of a very
fine membranous protrusion. This contains numerous dark molecules of
different forms and sizes mixed with granules more or less perfectly sphe-
rical : fche most perfect of these globular bodies are those which are
nearest to the perfectly formed part of the animalcule. These corpuscles,
when completely formed, have a bright oily-looking aspect, and a diameter
of about 3-^-5 yth of an inch.

" These corpuscles have the appearance of being formed by the coalescence
of molecules which had existed in the clear space before any corpuscles
were apparent, by which they are afterwards replaced. After a growing
end has become thus filled with these globular bodies, the terminal mem-
brane becomes more and more distinct, and the cilia-like fibres are after-
wards added, which are generally neither so regularly disposed, nor so
distinct as on other parts of an entozoon. Next, these corpuscles lose
their spherical form and become flattened, and lastly, they assume their
characteristic elliptical or reniform figure before mentioned, which they
retain as long as the entozoon remains in its primary muscular fasciculus.
This shape, however, is not essential to these corpuscles, but merely
results from the rounded form of the masses into which they are grouped
together, each corpuscle, by its convexity, forming a segment of the
circular outline of its respective group. These corpuscles contain verv
fine dark granules, so variously disposed in different ones, as to present a
variety of appearances, such as circular or oval spaces, which might be
taken for nuclei or nucleoli. These collections of corpuscles make up
nearly the whole of an animalcule, and they frequently give to it a
lobulated and sometimes an obscurely aynulose appearance.

" The entozoa, as long as they remain in the primary fasciculi, retain all
those characters which have so far been described ; but these character

DEVELOPMENT OF CYSTICERCUS. 431

gradually disappear after they have broken away from the cavity of the
sarcolemma, and gained access to the spaces between the muscular fibres.
" In this new situation they gradually lose their former membranous
clothing studded with cilia-like fibres, which can occasionally be seen
partially deprived of its corpuscular contents, though sufficiently perfect
to admit of demonstration. The reniform corpuscles before aggregated
together in circular groups now gradually lose their distinctness of outline,
and imperfectly coalesce into confused ill-defined masses, having an oily
aspect, so that, if in this state, one of these verrnicules be crushed under
the microscope, amorphous oily and granular matter will be seen to have
escaped from it, similar to that contained in the ventral part of the adult
animal. Here, too, the restraint to the lateral growth of these entozoa
being very much diminished, their breadth increases rapidly, and they
present globular projections extending out very irregularly from their
sides, giving them an irregular figure. These projections gradually take
on the form of those which were described on the ventral part of the
perfect entozoon. The largest of the entozoa which I have seen in this
stage is about -^th of an inch in length and ^th in breadth.

" The next facts requiring especial notice are those connected with that
stage of development which takes place after the animalcule has become
surrounded by an adventitious cyst.

" The first indication of the formation of such a cyst is, the turgescency
of the capillaries, or some of the smaller vessels in the vicinity of one or
more entozoa. Granular bodies, exudation-corpuscles, and fibres of
different shapes next make their appearance. These at first only partially
obscure the entozoon, but afterwards completely conceal it. When the
cyst is first formed, the animalcule can, by a good light and careful
examination, be obscurely seen within it, and by dissection under the
microscope it can be dislodged.

" The interior of a cyst being smaller than the animalcule contained
therein, it naturally follows that during its growth one portion must be
folded over another. By this means it is adapted to the confined locality
in which it is lodged during the period of its development. Hence the
ventral portions of all Cysticerci are, when first taken from their cysts,
very much plicated ; but these plicae disappear after the ventral sac has
become distended with the fluid brought into contact with its surface.

" Up to this point of the development of the Cysticercus, it is a simple
cyst growing by the assimilation of fluid imbibed equally by every part
of its surface, no one part differing sensibly in its structure from another.
No portion of this surface presents any indication of incipient booklets or
suckers. There is nothing either on its surface or in its interior analogous
to the structure of an ovum. Nor is there any other anatomical charac-
ter which would raise its organization above that of a simple acephalocyst.
However, this so exactly resembles in its structure that of the ventral
portion of a perfect Cysticercus, that it is impossible to doubt their
identity of character. Its size, too, is not much beneath that stage where
the suckers and booklets first begin to present obscure indications of the
part they are about to occupy.

" The first indication of the addition of the neck with the suckers and
booklets to the ventral part of a Cysticercus is the appearance about its
centre of a slightly raised body, depressed in the middle, with longitudinal
folds proceeding from each side of it towards the poles of the ventral cyst,

432 APPENDIX.

appearing as if at this part the parietes of the latter had been drawn
inwards. On two sides of this hollow there are dark transverse lines,
rather more distinct on one side than on the other, indicating the com-
mencement of the transverse rugse of the neck, mentioned in the description
of this part in the perfect animal, in which the laminated earthy bodies
are contained. About the central part of the cervical projection there is
an ill-defined oval space, having a granular appearance, and containing
some minute spherical particles of a dark colour, consisting apparently of
a highly refractive material. In this condition of the entozoon there is
nothing in this space which has the slightest resemblance to the parts
which are there about to be developed, namely, the booklets, suckers, and
earthy concretions ; and it is only by the comparison oi? these obscure
appearances with the other specimens in which the development of the
booklets is a little more advanced, that their true signification can be
learned."

The author here proceeds to describe the development of the
hooklets, and continues —

" From the facts that have just been mentioned, the hooklets of the
animalcule in question do not appear to be formed by cell-development.
For by the most careful examination of these organs, both recent, and
after the application of acids, I have not been able to distinguish anything
which can be looked upon as a cell or cell-nucleus, calculated to give the
idea of their being developed from previously existing cells, or in depen-
dence of cells ; but, on the contrary, all the various forms and characters
which they present during the process of their formation simply indicate
the coalescence of very minute spherules of an homogeneous material,
exceeding the number of a complete set of hooklets, into small globular
masses, and these again into larger pieces, and so on successively, until
recognisable portions of hooklets come into view, which, coalescing, build
up, as it were, an entire organ.

" It is worthy of remark, that if these structures had been produced
directly from the metamorphosis of previously existing cells, the circum-
stances connected with their formation would have been the most
favorable for observing both the original cells and the changes which
they passed through ; indeed, so much so, that is almost impossible that
they could have escaped notice. First, because these parts are of such a
size and degree of transparency as to admit of examination with the
highest powers of the microscope without the necessity of disarranging
them, or disturbing their position by manipulation. Secondly, because
the material of which they are composed is so dissimilar in appearance to
that forming the adjacent tissue, and so characteristic that it cannot be
confounded with the structures in their immediate vicinity. Thirdly,
because at one view, in a favorable specimen, hooklets can be seen in
every stage of their formation, from the first grouping together of the
masses of formative particles to the blending of them into perfect organs ;
and lastly, because it is not as if a mere thread of tissue were formed
amongst other threads, slightly differing in appearance, as fibres of elastic
tissue, for instance, in a mass of connective tissue, but the objects referred
to are perfect organs, which possess an arrangement of parts connected
together with order and remarkable regularity. So that, under such

SPECIES OF DISTOMA. 433

circumstances, if these organs had been preceded by nucleated cells, and
the cells had been transformed into booklets, neither these cells in their
primitive state, nor in their several stages of transformation, could have
escaped detection.

" The parts next to be noticed are the suckers. Indications of these are
visible as soon as the booklets. They appear as four circular spaces,
presenting a granular aspect about the size of perfectly-formed suckers.
The two sets of fibres next make their appearance, the radiating and
circular, which have not at first the sharp outline which they afterwards
acquire, but still appear obscurely granular. As the tissue of these organs
possesses nothing characteristic like that of the parts just described, the
progressive changes which they undergo during the different periods of
their formation can be but imperfectly distinguished ; and hence no further
description of them will be necessary.

" It has been observed in respect to the two sets of organs above
described that their size does not increase materially after once formed ;
exactly the reverse is the case in reference to the part called the neck,
and the quantity, though not the size, of the laminated bodies, which
increase in number as the cavity of the latter increases in size. These
bodies appear as soon as the booklets and suckers, and they are as large
when first formed as afterwards, but there are indications of the transverse
wrinkles of the neck before either booklets or suckers can be distinguished.
The neck afterwards continues to grow, so that its relative length in
respect to the ventral portion is some indication of the age of a
Cysticercus.

" It is probable that this part does not arrive at its full size until after
it has been protruded, which I have never seen to be the case in any
animalcules occurring in or between the muscular fibres, and which perhaps
is not effected until the entozoa quit their confined locality between the
muscular fibres, and gain access to the free surface of a mucous membrane,
there, as physiologists generally believe, to be further developed into a
higher form of entozoon."

APPENDIX B.

On the occurrence of species of Distoma in the human body.

In addition to the cases in which species of Distoma have oc-
curred in the human body, and mentioned by the author in the
text, the following cases will, I make no doubt, be interesting
to the reader.

Dr. Budd, in the second edition of his work on ' Diseases of
the Liver/ gives the following case :

" A few years ago a single fluke was discovered by my colleague (Mr
Partridge) in the gall-bladder of a person who died in the Middlesex Hos-

E E

434 APPENDIX.

pital. Mr. Partridge was present at the examination of the body, and
was struck with the appearance of the gall-bladder, which, instead of
being stained by bile, as is usual, was perfectly white. He took the gall-
bladder away to make of it a preparation, to show the natural structure,
and on laying it open discovered the fluke. He presented the fluke to
Professor Owen, who considered it to differ in no respect from the Dis-
toma hepaticum of the sheep. The gall-bladder and cystic duct, which
were perfectly healthy, are preserved in the museum of King's College."

I am not aware of any other0 recorded case of the occurrence
of this parasite in the gall-bladder in English practice. The fol-
lowing case, however, communicated to me by my friend Pro-
fessor Busk, appears to be an undoubted instance of the oc-
currence of Distoma hepaticum in the tissues of the human body.
Mr. Busk's attention was first called to the case by Mr.
Clapp, of Exeter, who detected the nature of the parasite when
shown him by the surgeon in whose practice it had been met
•with. Mr. Busk satisfied himself that the creature was truly
the Distoma hepaticum. The case occurred in the practice of
Mr. Fox, of Topsliam, Devonshire. The following are the parti-
culars of the case as given by Mr. Fox :

" Mr. L — , set. 39 years, of good constitution, and much marked with
the smallpox, had been a sailor for twenty years, sailing to the West
Indies, Mediterranean, South America, &c. For the last eight years he
has loaded to Cronstadt in the Baltic, and has also visited Amsterdam.
About fourteen months since, whilst at Cronstadt, he perceived a small
" pimple" about three inches behind the ear. This gradually enlarged to
the size of a small walnut. A solution of iodine was applied with a view
to dispersing the swelling, but unsuccessfully. After sometime, " while at
sea," it inflamed and burst, discharging a sero-sanguinolent fluid from two
small orifices. It then healed up again, and after a time was refilled with
a similar fluid. It was then laid freely open, and dressed with dry lint.
The next day, on examining the wound, I thought I saw something
moving, and, on taking it out, found it was a Distoma. When the wound
was dressed the following day, there appeared to be portions of another
worm, but in so softened a state that I could not be quite certain of it.
The colour of these worms was very similar to that of the surface of the
wound. The wound was afterwards dressed with Ung. Kesina3 and lint,
and healed very kindly, remaining sound ever since. The man is now at
sea, and I have not heard of his having any more tumours of the same
kind.

(Signed) CHARLES Fox,

Topsham, Devon."
February 2d, 1857.

The following correspondence, which has been kindly placed at
my disposal by Professor Busk, who received it from Professor

DISTOMA HEPATICUM. 435

Owen, relates to a case in which, although the evidence is not
complete, the occurrence of Distoma hepaticum in the tissues is
rendered probable :

Liverpool, Clarence Street, October 8lh, 1856.

Dear Sir, — I beg to forward you a specimen of an Entozoon — one of
six or seven which escaped from an abscess of the scalp in a child. The
particulars of the case are the following :

William Bridge, set. 25 months, of pale complexion, rather emaciated,
with some tumidity of the belly — otherwise healthy, appetite good.
About two months ago his mother observed a swelling on the upper part
of the occiput, the size of half-a-crown, which increased in six or eight
days to about the circumference of an orange, when it spontaneously dis-
charged a considerable quantity of pus. The abscess continued partially
to refill and discharge itself at intervals for about three weeks, when, on
the removal of the poultice and clearing away the pus, the mother ob-
served on the napkin used for that purpose, several of the animals in
question, but exhibiting no signs of life or movement.

I saw the child the following day for the first time, when the mother
showed me the entozoa. I examined the cavity of the abscess, but could
discover no more of them. The part is now healing under the continued
use of the poultice.

The child was never known to pass worms, which I have since looked
for under the use of anthelmintic remedies. It was weaned when eighteen
months of age ; its food since then has been chiefly farinaceous, of which
potatoes have formed a considerable portion.

I have not at present been able to find any analogous case in the several
medical works which I have consulted. As relates to the classification of
the animal, you would regard it as a species of the order Trematoda, as
it seems to bear much resemblance to the fluke entozoon found in the
liver of sheep, &c.

Any information in connection with the above, and especially as relates
to the generation of entozoa in so singular a situation, which you may
consider the case worthy of, will be particularly esteemed.

I am, yours truly and respectfully,
J. PEKST HAEEIS.

Professor Owen, F.R.S.,
&c. &c.

British Museum, October 10th, 1856.

Dear Sir, — The entozoon which you have forwarded to me is a fine
specimen of the Distoma hepaticum, a species common in the gall-bladder
and ducts of sheep, extremely rare in man, and then only so far as I
know or can find recorded by direct observation of naturalists and ana-
tomists, in the biliary or intestinal tract.

The value of the case is undoubtedly affected by your not being so for-
tunate as to witness the worm in, or its escape from, the abscess.

I would not impugn the good faith of the mother, but rather inquire
into and weigh the possibilities or probabilities of any dead fluke-worms
having got accidentally into the material of the poultice or on the rag or
cloth used for the purpose.

436 APPENDIX.

How had the mother preserved the entozoa; and how did she show
them?

How many have you preserved besides the one transmitted ; and how
many did you count or see ?

Excuse these questions ; but one must exhaust every vein of inquiry
before falling back upon the hypothesis of the development of the distoma
hepticum beneath an infant's scalp.

I am, dear sir, yours truly,

RICHAED OWEN.

J. Penn Harris, Esq.

Liverpool, October 26th, 1856.

Dear Sir, — I beg to offer you my best acknowledgments for your kind
and .suggestive reply to my letter enclosing the entozoon sent to you a
short time since.

I have inquired more fully into the case, which has not, however, tended
to strengthen the proof that the entozoa came from the abscess in the
child's scalp.

The mother's statement, viz., that she wiped them from the back of
the head on the removal of the poultice, is founded on very imperfect evi-
dence, as on inquiry I find on the removal of the poultice she washed the
back of the head with flannel and soap, at the same time gently pressing
the abscess to favour the escape of matter, which she did without observing
any of the fluke-worms. She afterwards took a cloth to dry the part
with, spreading it over the head and pressing lightly upon it ; she then
crumpled the cloth up without looking at its inner side, and placed it on
the table. About five minutes after, her daughter, on removing the cloth
from the table, observed on one of the upper folds five of the worms in
question, and on unfolding the cloth a sixth adhering to one of its corners ;
there was no pus about them. She immediately called the attention of
her mother to them, who immediately (and not perhaps unnaturally)
exclaimed " They must have come from the child's head ;" she placed them
in water, and afterwards put them into a pint bottle, which was of green
glass and not over clean, as when she showed them to me they were
mixed up with a soft, yellowish, shred-like material, which I did not
examine closely, but hastily separated the worms and threw it away.
I conclude the bottle must have contained some fungi which had escaped
the mother's notice.

I find that on the morning the entozoa were seen the daughter had
been to the butcher's and purchased a piece of beef, which she brought
home about the time the mother commenced washing the child's head.
I cannot, however, make out that the cloth in question and the meat ever
came in contact, or the latter was ever placed on the table on which the
cloth was.

I have since seen the butcher, who tells me that seldom a week passes
that he has not livers in his shop containing fluke-worms, and sometimes
in considerable quantities.

I have endeavoured to trace a connection between the visit of the girl
to the butcher and the appearance of the fluke-worms on the cloth ; but
at present I have not been able satisfactorily to do so, though I think it
probable their discovery will be found to have some such connection.

DISTOMA BUSKII. 437

The prejudice of the mother in believing the entozoa came from the
child's head is such as to require great caution in receiving her state-
ments. The above particulars I have obtained chiefly from the daughter,
who is rather more trustworthy.

I ought, perhaps, to apologise for troubling you with the above detail,
fearing that the interest of the case is such as not to justify engaging
your valuable time and attention.

Permit me to repeat my best thanks for your prompt and generous
consideration of the case.

I remain, yours truly and respectfully,

J. PENN HAEEIS.
Professor Owen,
&c. &c.

The following case, also related by Dr. Budd in the work
above mentioned, appears to have presented a species of Distoma
hitherto unique :

" In the winter of 1843 fourteen flukes were found by Mr. Busk in the
duodenum of a Lascar who died in the Seamen's Hospital. There were
none in the gall-bladder or gall-ducts. These flukes were much thicker
and larger than those of the sheep, being from an inch and a half to near
three inches in length. They resembled the Distoma hepaticum in shape,
but were like the Distoma lanceolatum in structure ; the double alimentary
canal, as in the latter variety, being not branched, and the entire space
between it towards the latter part of the body being occupied by a
branched uterine tube."

Two specimens of this fluke are now in the Museum of King's
College, and I have also one in my possession, presented me by
Mr. Busk. This fluke differs from all the other species found in
the human body, in its large size. It is not improbable that the
ordinary habitat of this species is some of the lower animals
inhabiting warmer climates, and that is was introduced into the
system of the Lascar in the same way as Distoma hepaticum in
other cases. In the absence of any other distinguishing name
for this species, 1 have called it, after the name of its discoverer,
Distoma Buskii.

438

APPENDIX C.

On Dactylius aculeatus, a worm inhabiting the human body,
described by Mr. T. B. Curling, and Spiroptera horninis.

Whilst the slieets of this translation were passing through the
press, my attention was called to a case related by Mr. Curling,
Surgeon to the London Hospital, in the twenty-second volume of
the ' Medico- Chirurgical Transactions/ As the history of this
case and the occurrence of the animal seems to have escaped
the attention of the author of this work, it seemed to me desi-
rable, in order to render this volume as complete as possible on
the subject of the entozoa, to reproduce it here.

" May 31st, 1839, 1 received from Mr. Drake, surgeon, of the Commercial
K,oad, a number of small worms contained in urine, which had been voided
a few hours previously by a little girl, his patient, accompanied with a
request to know their nature. The following is the account he gave me
of the case :

" The girl, who is five years of age, had enjoyed good health until June,
1837, when she had an attack of inflammation of the lungs in a sub-acute
form, attended by a peculiar hollow cough, and a deranged state of the
intestinal mucous membrane. She has been subject to this cough ever
since ; a slight cold or derangement of the bowels being sufficient to bring
it on. She has likewise been occasionally troubled with the small
ascarides. At the beginning of May she had an attack of measles, which
left her weak and much emaciated. A troublesome cough remained,
attended with fever of a remittent character, and her urine was high-
coloured and scanty in quantity. Under mild antiphlogistic treatment
the fever diminished, and the urine assumed a natural appearance.

" May 26th. — Some small worms were first observed in the urine this
day, and for several succeeding days, on rising in the morning, she voided,
from the urethra, seven or eight.

" June 1st. — Several Ascarides vermiculares were observed in her motions,
but no worms were discovered in the urine this day or the following one.
They were again observed, however, on June 3d ; and several have occa-
sionally passed since, in the morning.

" llth. — The cough has left her, and she is rapidly improving in health
and strength. She has never suffered from any affection of the urinary
organs.

" I found the urine in which the worms were contained high-coloured
and slightly acid. It was observed that when first passed they floated
separately in the urine, but in a short time they coalesced and coiled
themselves up together in the form of a ball, at the bottom of the vessel,
and it was with difficulty that they could be separated. When they
were disturbed their motions were often very lively ; and if allowed to
remain in the urine they lived for two or three days. They were very
transparent, so that the contents of the alimentary canal could easily be

DACTYLIUS ACULEATUS. 439

distinguished by the naked eye. On immersing them in spirits of wine they
soon became white and opaque. They were of two sizes ; the larger
worms being more numerous than the smaller.

" A slight examination at once convinced me that these worms could not
belong to any of the species of entozoa at present known to infest man ;
and, considering the period of the year, I was at first induced to imagine
that they must be the larva of some insect. On placing one in the field
of the microscope, I recognised a beautiful organization, and true nematoid
structure ; and, on reference to Rudolphi's ' Synopsis Entozoorum,' and
other works on this subject, I discovered that it was an entozoon which
had not hitherto been described. Having received several of these worms
from Mr. Drake, at different times, I have had an opportunity of making
repeated examinations of them by the aid of the microscope, in which
I have had the advantage of the kind assistance of Professor Owen and
Mr. John Quekett. The animals, being alive and active, formed very
interesting objects, as we could readily see and watch the curious actions
taking place in their interior.

" The worm is of a light colour, cylindrical in its form, and annulated,
and tapers slightly towards both the extremities, but chiefly towards the
anterior, which is the smaller. The female measures about four-fifths of
an inch in length ; the male, as is the case with most of the nematoid
worms, is much smaller, being about two fifths of an inch long. They
vary, however, a good deal in size, especially the males. The head of the
worm is obtuse and truncated, and has an orbicular mouth. The mouth
is generally not very apparent, and several worms were examined before
I succeeded in discovering it. The neck is distinctly annulated. The
tail is obtuse and also annulated, but not so much so as the neck. The
tegument is a delicate transparent structure, containing two layers of
fibres, one circular and the other longitudinal, both of which I believe to
be muscular. After the rupture of a worm which had been in dilute
spirit, these fibres were seen with great distinctness projecting at the
injured part. The tegument is armed with a number of sharp-pointed
spines, arranged in clusters of three or four, and sometimes five, in longi-
tudinal equi-distant rows. The intervals between the spines in each row,
measured by means of the micrometer, were found to vary from one
fiftieth to one seventieth of an inch. With the exception of a small part
of the body to be noticed presently, the tegument was completely defended
by these spines, which were detected as near the head as the third ring,
and also close to the extremity of the tail. It was generally observed
that, at the anterior part of the body, the spines were directed posteriorly,
whilst about the centre they projected outwards, and near the tail pointed
towards the head. On examining the worm slightly compressed between
two pieces of glass in the field of the microscope, I often obtained a lateral
view of the spines attached to the sides of the animal, and I could then
very distinctly discern their motions, the animal having apparently the
power of protruding and retracting them at pleasure. The spines are
attached to the external tegument, into which, when retracted, they are
received ; and they appear to be moved by a number of fibres radiating
outwards, in the substance of the tegument. The alimentary canal
appeared, on some occasions, of a light, vellow colour ; on others, it
presented a brownish hue. Upon examining a large female worm, the
alimentary canal appeared to commence at the mouth, by three small

440 APPENDIX.

convoluted tubes, which were shortly afterwards united into a single one.
The single tube, after proceeding for some distance in a tortuous course,
became sacculated, and, enlarging as it descended, it terminated at the ex-
tremity of the tail in a trilobular aperture, the anus. On one occasion
I saw very clearly the opening and closure of this orifice. The com-
mencement of the alimentary canal by three tubes was not always
apparent, and for some time I imagined that it began by a single tube.
The motions of this canal were extremely beautiful. It moved freely in
the interior of the animal, at one time becoming straight and at another
time convoluted, as the body of the worm was extended or diminished.
It also moved backwards and forwards in an extraordinary manner, and
the sacculi were seen to close and dilate by a sort of peristaltic action.
On each side of the alimentary canal, at its commencement, there is a
series of lobulated bodies, the structure and office of which I could not
make out. They were of a light colour, and accompanied the oesophagus
in its lively movements in the longitudinal direction. In several male
worms a band was seen running along the centre of the intestinal canal,
being lost near the anus.

" By the side of the alimentary canal, and sometimes crossing it obliquely,
I observed in many instances, especially in the female worms, a distinct
tube of a faint light colour, marked by transverse bands, which seemed to
have independent motions, somewhat of a pulsating character. It was
generally seen near the anterior part of the body, but it could be traced
for some distance towards the posterior. The pulsating character of this
tube was first determined by my friend Mr. Owen ; the pulsations occurred
at intervals of from eight to twelve seconds. This tube forms, in his
opinion, the analogue of the dorsal artery of the annelida. In several
worms I could distinctly perceive two light-coloured vessels twining round
the alimentary canal near the head, which gave off lateral branches, and
afterwards, joining, formed a single trunk, which also sent off branches
from its sides. Between the intestinal canal and external tegument
I could distinguish, on numerous occasions, an extremely rapid circulation
of minute globules, which passed in two contrary directions, side by side,
in a continuous stream. This was observed at intervals nearly the whole
length of the animals, being frequently obscured by the movements of the
digestive tube. I could also discern, near the tail, a number of globules
passing slowly in longitudinal and transverse currents, and crossing the
alimentarj' canal.1

" The structure of the female worm is much more complicated than that
of the male. The vulva is situated near the anterior extremity, about
one fifth of an inch from the head. It appears like a mamillated process,
is somewhat opaque, and can be discerned by the unassisted eye. The
animal swells at this part, the tegument is thicker, there are no spines,
and, for a short distance above and below the vulva, the body is encircled
by a series of regular, dark-coloured fibres. About mid-distance between
the head and vulva, and on opposite sides of the digestive tube, I inva-

1 The worm became so opaque after immersion in spirit, and decomposed so rapidly,
that much of the beautiful organisation that I have described became lost to the observer
shortly after death. I attempted to preserve some in salt and water, and in dilute
vinegar, but without any better result.

DACTYLIUS ACULEATUS. 441

riably found, in the numerous microscopic examinations which I made of
the female worms, two oval granular bodies or glands. Immediately
below these oval bodies there are two slightly convoluted tubular pro-
cesses. It was a long time before I could make out the structure of
these processes ; but after repeated investigation I found that each termi-
nated at one end in a free extremity, of a bell shape and brownish red
colour, which was beautifully fimbriated. This free extremity moved
about in the interior of the animal in various directions with great free-
dom ; and the difficulty of making out the structure of these bodies was
chiefly owing to the diversity of shape and appearance which under these
circumstances they presented. They probably had some connection with
the alimentary canal, as they accompanied it in its frequent movements in
the longitudinal direction. From the other extremity of each of these
bodies there appeared to proceed a small convoluted tube, and the two,
after running together for a short distance along the digestive tube, joined
the oviducts ; but this junction was not very clearly seen. The oviducts
consisted of two small tubes, which were distinctly traced commencing at
the vulva, and then twining in a very tortuous manner around the ali-
mentary canal, about as far as half way between the anus and vulva.

" I made many careful examinations of the smaller worms, but I could
distinguish neither penis nor any genital apparatus whatever ; though, in
some of the specimens, I observed, near the anterior extremity, dark-
coloured transverse lines, similar to those marked in the vicinity of the
vulva in the female. Can these be y.oung worms, the sexual organs of
which have not yet been developed, or are they not animals of the male
sex ? There is certainly not sufficient evidence to warrant any positive
conclusion ; but, inasmuch as in most of the nematoid worms there is the
same disparity in the sizes of the two sexes as in those of the worms in
this case, and, with the exception of the dark lines just alluded to, as the
smaller specimens exhibited no trace of the complicated structures re-
marked in the female, I have preferred considering them at present as
belonging to the opposite sex.

" From the above description, those conversant with the structure of the
entozoa will readily recognise a true nematoid structure. These worms
differ, however, from all the known genera of this class, not only in
wanting the characters by which they are distinguished, but in possessing
several peculiarities in structure, namely, a well-marked annulated body,
an anal aperture of a labiated form, and a tegument armed throughout
with spines. Referring, therefore, this entozoon to the order Nematoidea
of Budolphi, in which it would constitute a new genus, its character may
be thus described :

" Genus DACTYLius.1

" Corpus teres elasticum annulatum et utrinque attenuatum, caput 05-
tusum os orbiculare, anus trilabiatus,

" DACTYLITJS ACULEATTJS.

" Capite oltuso, toto corpore aculeorum serie multiplici armato, caudd
obtusd et annulatd.

Hob. in Hominis vesica urinaria.

1 From caKTuXioc, annulus.

442 APPENDIX.

" Spines are found attached to the head in many different species of the
entozoa ; but the existence of these curious dermal processes on the Lody
has been observed in only one worm of the nematoid class, the Strongylus
horridus, an animal found by Rudolphi in the oesophagus of the water-
hen. In this worm they consist of reflected booklets, and are arranged
in four longitudinal rows, but they are only continued for a short distance
along the body, and, in the representation given of them,1 appear to be
single instead of occurring in clusters, as in the dactylius aculeatus.
Professor Owen, in speaking of these epidermic processes, which he con-
siders serve as prehensile instruments to retain the proboscis and the
worm in its position, remarks, — " WRen they are spread over the surface of
the bodv they may have the additional function of aiding in the locomo-
tion of the species, analogous to the spines which arm the segments of
the oestrus, which passes its larva state, like any entozoon, in the interior
of the stomach arid intestines of a higher organized animal."2

Two specimens of this worm, are preserved in the Museum of
University College, and another in the Microscopic Cabinet of
the Royal College of Surgeons of England.

As the notice of the rarer forms of Entozoa may lead to their
more extensive observation, I am induced to add the following
notice of the Splroptera hominis from Professor Owen's article
" Entozoa" in the ( Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology/

" With respect to the following parasite of the human body, the Spi-
roptera hominis, Rud., considerable obscurity prevails. A poor woman,
who is still living in the workhouse of the parish of St. Sepulchre, London,
has been subject, since the year 1806 (when she was twenty -four years
old), up to the present time, to retention of urine, accompanied with dis-
tress and pain indicative of disease of the bladder. The catheter has been
employed from time to time during this long period to draw off the urine,
and its application has been, and continues occasionally to be, followed by
the extraction and subsequent discharge of worms, or vermiform sub-
stances, with numerous small granular bodies. The latter are of uniform
size, resembling small grains of sand: those which we have examined,
and which were preserved in spirit, present a subglobular, or irregularly
flattened form ; but when recently expelled, I am assured by my friend
Dr. Arthur Farre, that they are perfectly spherical ; they consist of an
external smooth, firm, diaphanous coat, including a compact mass of
brown and minutely granular substance. The inner surface of the con-
taining capsule presents, under the microscope, a regular, beautiful, and
minute reticulation, produced by depressions or cells of a hexagonal form.
These, therefore, we regard as ova, and not as fortuitous morbid produc-
tions. The vermiform substances are elongated bodies of a moderately
firm, solid, homogeneous texture, varying in length from four to eight
inches ; attenuated at both extremities ; having the diameter of a line

1 'Entozoorum Historia Naturalis,' vol. i, tab. 3, figs. 8 and 9.

* ' Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology/ Art. Entozoa, vol. ii, p. 127.

SPIKOPTERA HOMIN1S. 443

half-way between the extremities and the middle part, where the body is
contracted and abruptly bent upon itself. Some are irregularly trigonal,
others tetragonal. In the three-sided specimens one surface is broad,
convex, and smooth ; the other two are narrow and concave, and separated
by a narrow longitudinal groove, in which is sometimes lodged a filamen-
tary brown concretion. In the tetragonal portions the broad smooth
surface is divided into two parts by the rising of the middle part of the
convexity into an angle. The most remarkable appearance in these am-
biguous productions is the beautiful crenation of one of the angles or
ridges between the convex and concave facet ; which, from its regularity
and constancy, can hardly be accounted for on the theory of their nature
and origin suggested by Rudolph i : ' lymphamque in canalibus fistulosis
coactarn passimque compressam filum insequale efformare crediderim.' On
the other hand it is equally difficult to form any satisfactory notion of
these substances as organized bodies growing by an inherent and indepen-
dent vitality. We have not been able to observe a single example in
which the substance had both extremities well denned and unbroken ;
these, on the contrary, are flattened, membranous, and more or less jagged
and irregular. They present no trace of alimentary or generative orifices
on any part of their exterior surface, nor any canals subservient to those
functions, in the interior parenchyma. If subsequent observations on
recently expelled specimens of these most curious and interesting produc-
tions should, however, establish their claims to be regarded as Entozoa,
they will probably rank as a simple form of Sterelmintha,

" The existence of the Spiroptera Jiominis is founded on the observation
of substances very different from the preceding productions. The speci-
mens so called were transmitted to Rudolphi. in a separate phial, at the
same time with the ova and larger parenchymatous bodies above described,
and are presumed to have been expelled from the same female under the
same circumstances. They consisted of six small Nematoid worms of dif-
ferent sexes ; the males were eight, the females ten lines in length, slender,
white, highly elastic.

" The head truncated, and with one or two papillae ; the mouth orbi-
cular, the body attenuated at both extremities, but especially anteriorly.
The tail in the female thicker, and with a short obtuse apex ; that of the
male more slender, and emitting a small mesial tubulus, probably the
sheath of the penis : a dermal aliform production near the same extremity
determines the reference of this Entozoon to the genus Spiroptera.

" There are no specimens of this Entozoon among the substances dis-
charged from the urethra of the female, whose case is above alluded to,
which are preserved in the Museum of the College of Surgeons."

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE (TAB.) I.

Fig. 1. Vibrio nes, after Lebert.
„ 2. Trichomonas vaginalis, after Donne.
„ 3. Amaeboid corpuscles, after Wagner and Lieberkiihn.
„ 4. Colourless blood-corpuscles of man, after the same.
„ 5. Egg (a), and escaped embryos (b, c), of Tcenia dispar from the frog, after

Van Beneden. At d the middle hook for boring is dotted.
„ 6. Migration-passages of the brood of Tcenia Ccenurus in the brain of the sheep (a),

and a young Ccenurus attached (#).

„ 6 (below). Shedding of the hooks of the migrated brood.

„ 7. Migration-passages of Tcenia serrata on the surface of the liver of the rabbit.
„ 8. A suite of small Coenuri.
„ 9. Diagrammatic representation of the development of Ccenurus and its hooks.

PLATE (TAB.) II.

1. Bothriocephalm latus.

2. Uterus and egg-sacs of the same.

3. External, and 4, internal organs of generation, magnified, after Eschricht.

5. Eggs, closed and with embryo escaping.

6. Cysticercus tenuicollis.

7. Head of the same, after Eschricht.

8. Hooks of the second row, after the same.

9. Hooks of both rows, after the same.

10. Uteri of Tcenia ex Cysticerco tenuicolli.

11. Luschka's representation of the origin of the fluid of the caudal vesicle of

Cysticerci.

PLATE (TAB.) III.

1 — 3. Eggs and embryos of Tcenia solium.

4. Cysticercus celluloses in the flesh.

5. The same six weeks after feeding a pig with Tcenia solium.

6. The same in the retina of the human eye, after Von Grafe.

446 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Fig. 7. Head of Tcenia solium with its vascular system, which probably anastomoses

before and behind, as shown by the dotted line.
,, 8. Head of Tcenia solinm in front.
„ 9. Crown of hook-sacs on the head of Tcenia solium.
,, 10. Penis and uterus of the same magnified three times.
„ 11. Tcenia mediocanellata of Kucherimeister.
„ 12. Uterus and penis of the same (magnified Ig).
„ 13. Egg of the same.

„ 14. Tape-worm from the Cape of Good Hope.
„ 15. Uterus of the same.
„ 16. Eggs of the same.
„ 17. Echinococcus scolicipariens, Kiichenmeister = E. veterinorum.

a. With the stalk dependent and head drawn in.

b. Free, with the vascular system, after Wedl.

c. Hooks of the first row (magnified 400 times).

d. The same of the second row. The small free points indicate free moving

Echinococci, those attached to the sides of the cyst are the scolices (natural

size).
„ 18. Echinococcus altricipariens, Kiichenmeister = K. hominis (a cyst diminished).

a. Daugbter-vesicles of natural size.

a'. The same with Echinococci magnified.

b. The same with grand-daughter vesicle of natural size.

c. The same separated from its stalk in the urinary bladder (of natual size).

d. Exhibits the further process of nesting.

e. Isolated free Echinococci.

f. Hooks of the first row (magnified 400 times).

g. The same of the second row.

The dots indicate the small Echinococci which swim freely in the fluid of the cyst.
„ 19. A transverse incision through the walls of the mother- and daughter-vesicles.

PLATE (TAB.) IV.

1. Taenia Echinococcus scolicipariens magnified.

2 — 4. Hooks of the same of the first row, magnified 650 times.

5 — 6. The same of the second row.
„ 7 — 8. The same deformed.
„ 9. Egg of this Tfenia.
„ 10. Hooks of Echinococcus altricipariens magnified 650 times.

a, c, d. Hooks of the first row.

b, e. The same of the second row.
„ 11. Distoma heterophyes, after Bilharz.
„ 12. Prickle of the penis of the same.

„ 13. Distoma in the eye, after Von Ammon.
„ 14. Distoma in eye.
„ 15. The same isolated.

The diagram represents the hooks of various tape- and cyst-worms, according
to their relative size.

a. Total length.

b. Length of stalk.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 447

Fig. 15, c. Length of claw.

d. Total length of the lateral process, (spine, Dorn, Tap).

e. Breadth of the same.
/. Breadth of stalk.

i. Hooks (first and second rows) of Teenia serrata and Cysticercuspisiformis.

n. Ditto of Teenia ex Cysticerco tenuicolli and of Cysticercus tenuicollis.

in. Ditto of Teenia solium and of Cysticercus celluloses.

iv. Ditto of T. litterata, Rudolphi, and of Cysticercus.

v. Ditto of T. crassiceps, Dujardin, and of Cysticercus.

vi. Ditto of T. crassiceps, Rudolphi, and of Cysticercus.

vn. Ditto of T. intermedia and of Cysticercus.

vni. Ditto of Echinococcus scolicipariens.

ix. Ditto of E. altricipariens.

PLATE (TAB.) V.

1. Distoma hepaticum, with the ramifications of the intestinal tube, twice natural

size.

2. The same magnified twenty times.

a. Oral sucker.

a', a'. Cut ends of the intestinal tube.

6, b, b, b. Yelk-sacs which collect together in the lateral ducts, 6', b', which
communicate with a lenticular enlargement c', by a transverse branch
from each side, c. The convoluted uterine duct, d, d, d, proceeds from c',
becoming larger as it proceeds, and terminates in the narrow vagina, e, e.

f. The ventral sucker.

g, g, g. Convolutions of the testes.

h. The germ-stock lying behind c'. Continuation of g, representing a vesicula
seminalis interna, appearing to open into h', the commencement of the
uterus.

i, i. Funiculi spermatici proceeding from a tube Jc at the entrance of the sac
of the penis, which is seen to communicate with the male organ of gene-
ration.

The red lines indicate the organ of excretion which forms behind a
large efferent vessel which in the young Distoma is seen to contain
small transparent globules. The connection between this organ and
the vascular system has not been clearly made out.

3. The parts c' and h of the foregoing figure magnified.

a. Point of union of the yelk-sac.

b. Germ-stock (ovary).

c. Single yelk-cells (vitelline bodies), as they pass from a.
4 — 6. Eggs of the Distoma in various stages of development.

7. Tip of the penis magnified.

8. Portion of the spinous membrane (magnified 500 times).

9. Development of the spermatozoa.

10. Peculiar vacuoles formed by muscular layers.

11. Distoma lanceolatum.

a. Oral sucker, resophagus, and blind double intestinal tube.

448 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Fig. 11, b. Water vascular-system and organ of excretion.

c. c. Yelk-sacs.

d. Horizontal efferent duct of the same.

e. Uterus.

f. Point at which the eggs become brown-red.
ff. Vagina.
h. Ventral sucker.
i, i. Testes with efferent ducts.

k. Vesicula seminalis exterior (sac of penis, cirrhus-beutel).
/. Vesicula seminalis interior.
„ 12. Egg of this Distoma.

PLATE (TAB.) VI.

1. A male of Distoma hcematobium grasping the female in a gyno3cophoric canal.

a. Head of female projecting from the canal.

b, c. Tail of the same.

b. Spot where the two branches of the divided intestinal tube unite.

c. Spot where the united blind gut ends.

d. d. The body of the enclosed female within the male.

e. The chink of the gynoecophoric canal closed.
f. The same somewhat open.

ff. Base of the canal.
h. Seat of the male genitalia.
a. Oral sucker of the male.
k. Stomach of the same.

2. Anterior portion of the body of the male of Distoma hcematobium viewed from

the ventral aspect.

a. Oral sucker.

b. Ventral sucker.

c. Dichotomous intestinal tube.

d. Sac of the penis.

e. Testes.

3. Anterior portion of the female.

a. Mouth.

b. Ventral sucker.

c. Opening of the oviducts.

d. Division of the intestinal tube.

e. Eggs in the oviducts.
/. Oviducts.

4. Egg of the same from a calcified tubercle from the liver.

5. Egg from an open vessel in the intestinal mucous membrane.

6. Egg with the living embryo.

7. Egg with the escaping embryo.
8 — 9. Free embryos.

10—12. Empty egg-shells.

13. Young animal in larva-case.

14. Young animal, a quarter of an hour after hatching.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 449

Fig. 15. The same, after the action of water.
„ 16. A male Ancylostomum duodenale, of the natural size.
„ 17. The same, magnified, and seen laterally.

a. The long single penis.

6. Region of anus.

c. Opening of the two organs of secretion.

d. Lower broader portion of the organ of secretion, with a nucleus.

e. The convolution of the cysts.

„ 18. Female of Ancylostomum duodenale, of natural size.
„ 19. Lateral view of the same, largely magnified.

a. Oral aperture.

b. Anus.

e. Opening of both organs of secretion.
d. Vulva.
„ 20. Lateral view of the upper part of the body of Ancylostomum duodenale.

a. Lower portion of the ventral edge of the oral sucker.

b. Upper portion of the edge of the sucker, towards the back.

c. Muscular resophagus.

d. Intestine.

e. Secretory organ of left side.

/. Opening of the secretory organs on the ventral side of the worm.
„ 21. Posterior view of the upper part of the body of the same worm. The dental
apparatus is seen through the oral aperture above.

a, a. Lateral papillae.

„ 22. One of the four teeth from the oral aperture of the same worm.
,, 23. Anterior view of the same worm.

a, Lower arch of the oral aperture.

b, b. The lateral papillae. \

c, c. The two secretory organs.

d, d. Their nuclei.

e, Their openings.

„ 24. Lateral view of the posterior extremity of a male Ancylostomum duodenale.
a. The straight penis.
ft. Dorsal side.

c. Ventral side.

d. The middle single ray of the eleven parenchymatous rays projecting from

the open caudal vesicle.

e. Region of the anus.

„ 25. Posterior view of the same.

a. The right flap of the caudal vesicle.

b. The middle single parenchymatous ray.

„ 26. Male of Oxyuris vermicularis, magnified 230 times.

a. Winglike appendage to the mouth of the worm.

b. The pharynx, with club-shaped enlargement.

c. The head of the gullet, with a peculiar valvular apparatus in its interior

(a kind of gizzard).

d. Stomach.

e. e. Intestinal canal.

F F

450 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Fig. 26, /. Spermatic organ with the sperm-cells.
„ 27. Egg, with perfect embryo.

„ 28. A piece of the edge of the chitinous skeleton of the female, magnified 250 times.
„ 29, 30. Eggs.
„ 31. Female of Oxyuris vermicularis, magnified 40 times.

a, b, c, d, e, as in fig. 26.

/. Opening of the anus.

g. Opening of the vagina.

h, h, h, h, h. The organs preparing and carrying the eggs. They divide into an

anterior and posterior branch^, of which the first is seen at k.
„ 3 la. External termination of the vagina, with the eggs escaping.

(Figs. 11 — 15 after Griesinger, the remaining figures, from 1 — 25, after Bilhaiz).

PLATE (TAB.) VII.

1. The male of Trichocephalus dispar, magnified 120 times.

a. Mouth, with the papillae.
a'. (Esophagus.

b. Convolutions of the intestines, or oesophagus.

c. The two appendages on the anterior portion of the above.

d. Narrowing of the intestinal portion behind c.
d'. The special stomach.

d". Intestinal canal lined with epithelium (see fig. 8, d).

d'". Opening of the intestinal tube and spermatic duct into a common

cloaca, c. At this point there is a valve for the intestine, and another for

the spermatic duct.
/. Spermatic duct.

g. Contraction and subsequent terminal expansion of the duct.
h. Opening of the spermatic cord into the cloaca.
i. A band which covers the penis and its sheath.
k. Penis.

I. End of the penis,
rw. Radiating external copulative appendage attached to the end of the penis.

1. Trichocephalus dispar, of natural size.

2. Female of Trichocephalus dispar. The lower part of the body from the stomach

a. The stomach.

b. The intestine.

c. The anus.

d. The vagina.

e. Convolutions of the uterus.

The edges of this figure are notched, which is not the case in figure 1,
but the notching is always present.

3. The external copulative appendage of the male (fig. l,w), magnified.

4. Egg of Trichocephalus dispar, magnified 320 times.

5. Trichina spiralis in its capsule, after Luschka.

6. An isolated capsule with a pointed appendage.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES. 451

Fig. 7. An isolated Trichina spiralis, after Luschka.

a. The head.

b. The apparently articulated tube of the intestinal canal (oesophagus) ; it attains

its greatest size at the point 6, and is filled with elementary corpuscles.

c. Commencement of a blind tube in the posterior part of the animal, which

encloses another tube containing dark granules (d) ; these are perhaps the
primordial elements of the subsequent generative organs.
e. The caudal extremity, with, according to Luschka, a well-marked anus with

three valves.
„ 8. Trichina spiralis, dissected, after Luschka.

a. Expansion of the anterior part of the alimentary canal, imbedded in paren-

chyma.

b. The same, free.

e. The funnel-shaped stomach, with two lateral vesicles or appendages.

d. Continuation of the intestine below, with epithelial (flat) cells in the wall.

e. The second tube of the lower half of the body (primordial generative

structures). (Figures 5 — 8 after Luschka.)

PLATE (TAB.) VIII.

1 a. Male of Strongylus giaas, natural size, after Bremser.
1 b. The head, somewhat magnified, after Bremser.

1 c. Female of the same, of the natural size, with the eggs somewhat magnified.

a. Head and oral aperture.

b. (Esophagus and stomach.

c. Intestinal canal.

d. Vagina and commencement of uterus.

e. e. The longitudinal line along its edges.

2 a. Filaria hominis bronchialis, after Treutler. This is the Strongylus longevagi-

natus of Diesing.

2 b. A somewhat magnified view of the posterior part of the body of the male, with

the two projecting spicules.

3. Lower portion of the body of Filaria medinensis. The dark portion in the

middle is the intestine terminating in the anus.

3 a. Head of this worm with three papillae, after Birkmeyer.

4. Male of Ascaris lumbricoides, of the natural size.

a. (Esophagus.

b. Intestinal canal,
e. Spermatic duct.

d. Lateral longitudinal line. The spicules are seen at the end of the tail.

5. Female of the same worm, of natural size.

a,&,d. As in fig. 4.

e, e. The two uterine cords which run down to within one inch of the end of

the tail and anus, and open externally at the vagina.

6. The mouth, with its three hyaline flaps and comb-like muscles, with the retort-

shaped excavated entrance to the intestinal canal.

452 EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

Fig. 7. Mouth, with the flaps extended.
„ 8. Caudal extremity of a young female, with the anus and the undulating toothed

lateral edges, and projections of these edges.
„ 9. The two sword-shaped spicules of the penis, magnified.
„ 10. Epithelium from the uterus.

N.B. The remaining objects on this plate are described in the second volume
of the Translation, and are explained in that volume.

PRINTED BY J. E. ADLARD, BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.

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