$e 2 yp Class POASEY oe 5) NMED band! Aa Gommight NO COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT: “OUIL], JSOAIVFT 9B SUOTUG JO PPT ONIONS BY. RALPH W. JORDAN \\ WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA 1915 bx wry pee COPVRIGHT, 1915 BY WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY ALL RIGHTS RESERVED W-1 y fv? JUL -6 1915 ©r14401650 Ne, U/ PREFACE The author has written this book on the theories and methods of growing onions in a spirit of co-operation and helpfulness to those who are interested in the growing of this crop. It has been my desire to call attention to some of the more important phases of the subject which pertain to the growing of the crop in a commercial way. Details are dwelt upon in places where necessary to make the methods of culture and care of the crop clear to the begin- ner. Methods, however, differ widely, according to the locality. Local conditions often demand changes. The book is not an encyclopedia of facts, but a presentation of a few of the better methods. The encouragement and helpfulness of Professor Wendell Paddock, of Ohio State University, has largely made the book possible and I am especially indebted to him. Special acknowledgment is made to Stephen N. Green, of Ohio Experiment Station, for Figures 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 16, 17, 19, 24 and 26; to A. D. Selby, of Ohio Experi- ment Station, for Figures 33 and 34; to J. 8. Houser, of Ohio Experiment Station, for Figure 31; to F. H. Chitten- den, of the U. 8S. Department of Agriculture, for Figures 29 and 32; to H. C. Thompson, of the U. 8. Department of Agriculture, for Figures 27 and 28 and frontispiece; to C. G. Woodbury, of Purdue University, Department of Horti- culture, for Figures 13, 14 and 30. RALPH W. JORDAN Columbus, Ohio, March 27th, 1915. CONTENTS Chapter Page 1—The Onion LSE ISN0)G, Resteiees aac acl fr igen eae ee eae a ee RR CL SD 5 11 60] 211 nN 3 ek Ae ee i SNE GR cc im Say 12 ETE pOLVaMCe*.f.2) Nt es is POR 58 ne cee 12 Shindahic PequIneMeNtS ss ).f.). 0152). 02 lees 5 ee eee 14 II—Soil Requirements of the Onion DOMGPrehecOMGes fA 2t) ah dew. ad rt ct ed eee ee ee 18 LE Se VINCE! Ce oh eae a eae ee OREN UA mae nO NARs = on 19 IJI—Varieties of Onions Wellomawarretlest. sik 6 ks ee en eee ee Pall GG VATTCUNO Sy sek Sores aie Be tee ti ee eae a eS 22 NinGe “Are ICR are ert ns Ney ors Ee HE Se Rok 23 EO wWiUebte Ghee ey arcttn Wa ne ee a ose ait 0S utes as 24 IV—Good Seed All Important Niet MLO MMO SIECEL oss. a. Loo) oo eas Gre ene the ea elk cee 26 Mee ma AG MOU ECEU Ge) (Let aca ut. Fase ees oor CRO hoa 26 LISS SITE OS CI 70.8 a age i gag a SI gi PA air 26 Lone PRO WAM pSCOG =-.*, 70 Seg ord ek ease Cert as & am Be Sead oa 32 SLES CIPO TI le oe oh Re Ie ST 34 SU NENSS EU (edt eee ee oe re OR ae ie a A nr be 36 V—Fertilizers, Lime and Manure Womimercial MErGUBETS ses, ho ick --os' a Sank eee ho ee 40 | LAG Geet Read Oa ae le, gee en REN a) nace oe 43 IN ANIR ins i Seg GO ete Mare x77 55 Tee ae), SCaN eee 43 ViI—Preparation of the Seed Bed and Seed Planting PLE PALA nOnmeOrieMe SOU torso | ck sae. ene! wo ee ee ee 44 Dyruimimeune secret arr. oc. as staal Y Shee agen ena 47 VII—The Lesser Onion Crops OD OMGNSCLS Ae Oh sak oat SS ian Oe Le Ol eee Eee 48 istecn or DUMCh-ONIONS. 2... (0. ..c . s-.fe ess Pee Oe 48 Eee NEMEC Out) Ss 8) 025 Ge gw: 5-55 eat ee 49 Prana anGed GMONG 7 t.').. 2.2.5 el. vee Oe eee ee 50 8 ONIONS Chapter VIlI—The Culture of the Onion Crop Cultivation. o F255. 5 Bees Anos a ee ee Weeding. 4 25. tee ee ee Oe ee ee Trrigahiome ict sca Soca seas tae tance eee IX—The Matured Onion Crop Harvesting <0 225. 000 Bee beet Ret precio een oe ae Shor ooh See Cire ore 2 8 aera ne eee eee eo Marketing |: .o4 Meech ee As, beatae eae ees Vield and cost of @rowilig.1ncn2 5) ae eee ee X—Onion Pests data S05: Pan I RI Cac Nie MELANIE UY Pal Ia Nemes Sn aM Be a Diseases. oo nk ea ee ee eee eee ILLUSTRATIONS Frontispiece, Field of onions at harvest time. Chart 1, page 13—Production of onions by two-year averages. “2 “ 15—Acre production of onions by states. Figure 16—In the North the seed is sown in early spring. Chart 25—Germination test of onion seed. Figure ‘“« 26—Bottle type. 27—Onion variety and strain test. ‘* 31—Flat type. 33—Ideal shape of onion. 38—Onion seed crop. 42—Cornell fertilizer experiments. 45—Fertilizer spreader. 45—Planker for smoothing ground. ‘“¢ 46—Onion seed drill. 51—Onion plants ready to transplant. 52—Transplanting onions in the field. 53—A crop of transplanted onions. “ 12 “ §54—Ohio grown transplanted onions. “13 “ 56—Wire weeder. “14 “ 57—Double-wheel cultivator. 58—Single-wheel cultivator. “16 “ 59—Single-wheel cultivator with shovels. “17 “ 60—Height of onions at second weeding. “18 “ 61—An army of workers weeding and cultivating. “19 “ 63—Overhead irrigation of onions in the North. “ 20 “ 66—Pulling onions. “21 “ 66—Onions curing in stacks. “22 “ 67—Placing onions in a curing shed. “23 “ 68—Topping onions by machine. “© 24 “ 69—Onion screen. SOMNMOTMANRWERN WH nw nw nw nn pak feed — on Pay “25 “ 70—Topping onions by hand. “ 26 -“ 71—Crate ready for storage. “27 =“ 72—Onions in storage. “28 “ 72—Onion storage houses. Chart 6 ‘“ 73—The New York onion market in two-year averages. 9 10 Chart 7 “ 8 Figure 29 “c 30 ers “cc 32 <9 33 ffs “ ONIONS 77— Average Production, 1911-12-13. 78—A small crop is worth more than a large crop. 81—At left: onion plant attacked by maggots. At right: plant exposed slightly showing maggots. 82—Effects of attack by maggots. 83—Decayed bulbs scattered out form ideal breeding ‘ grounds for the larvae of the maggot. 86—Field infested with thrips. Defective bulbs com- pared with normal bulbs. 89—At left: onion plants infected with smut. Notice the infected layer in plants five and six. At right: healthy specimens. 92—Dry or black neck-rot. ON TONS CHAPTER. 1 THE ONION Historical. The onion takes its name from the city built by Onias (B. C. 173) near the Gulf of Suez. The onion has been domesticated a very long time and is one of the earliest of cultivated plants. Drawings of it are found on the Egyptian monuments. Its indigenous form, how- ever, is not well understood. Under long continued cul- tivation and selection the bulbs have developed into large shapely organs. It has for centuries found favor with the Egyptians and Israelites and is now cultivated and popular in almost every country of the world. The place of its origin is unknown; but it occupied a vast area in Western Asia during a very early epoch, extending, perhaps, from Palestine to India. Early historic records refer to it fre- quently as an article of food, also as a preventive of thirst while on the march or traveling in the desert. In olden times the growing of the crop was confined chiefly to the alluvial river valleys; but by improvement the different varieties have been adapted to a diversity of conditions. It is only within the last quarter of a cen- tury that rapid growth and development of the industry has taken place in the Northern and New England States. The past decade has witnessed the development of the Bermuda onion industry in Texas, until now we have our 11 12 ONIONS markets supplied during the whole year with successive crops from our own country. Botany. The onion belongs to the Allium cepa, a widely variable species forming a part of the botanical family which includes the lilies and the several forms of asparagus and smilax. It is generally a biennial, although some forms, such as the tree onion and multipliers, are perennial. The latter are used for bunching purposes. Usually, however, it is grown for bulbs as an annual. The bulbs are variable in color, being yellow, red, white and the intermediate shades of these colors. Now and then a bulb does not develop, and the neck, or stalk just above the bulb, remains relatively thick. Such onions are termed scullions, and they may be regarded as run down or re- verted forms. The seed stalks are slender and tall. The seeds are angular in shape and black, and are borne in a dense and compact cluster at the end of the seed stalk. Importance. The onion is one of the most important vegetable crops in the United States. It ranks third in commercial importance, the crop being valued at more than $10,000,000 annually. The shipping and keeping qualities of onions are excellent. The bulbs will stand con- siderable rough usage and keep a long time under unfavor- able conditions. These qualities are important factors and have helped to materially increase the demand for the bulbs. The old adage, ‘Keep onions in the house and you will keep the doctor away,” has borne fruit. Onions are more increasingly regarded as a healthful article of food. This fact together, with a better understanding of their palata- bility, has increased their use very widely. The industry of onion growing has been developed rapidly as is shown by the curve of production, Chart 1. This chart gives the production of the Northern and New England States IMPORTANCE from 1894 to 1914 and is based on two-year averages of crop production in mil- lions of bushels. The fig- ures were taken from the onion crop report of the American Agriculturist. Al-— most the entire crop is used within our borders, and im- mense importations are at the present time necessary to supply the demand. Spain, Egypt, Bermuda, and the South Sea Islands supply our country with more than a million bushels annually. Within the last decade the Bermuda onion indus- try has gained a wonderful impetus in Texas and the neighboring Gulf Coast States. The increased pro- duction from these quarters nas been more marvelous in the rapidity of the in- crease than that of the Northern and New England States. The onion from this district outranks its competitor from the Ber- muda Islands in quality and is found on the market at about the same time. 13 Production of Onions by Two-year Averages. Chart 1. 14 : ONIONS The Northern and New England States include New York, Ohio, Massachusetts, Indiana, Michigan, Illinois, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, Connecticut and Rhode Island, the states being named in their relative order of produc- tion as based on their average output of the last three years. Chart 2 shows the proportionate acreage by states. The crop is grown largely in a commercial way on muck soils in these areas, but numerous instances could be cited where the crop is profitablely grown on upland soils. The wide adaptation of the onion to all climates and soils from the Gulf to the 49th parallel and from Massachu- setts Bay to Puget Sound makes it a very useful product both as regards the home garden and from the commercial point of view. The demand on the market for a good article continues from January first to January first. Climatic Requirements. The leading varieties are us- ually planted under different climatic conditions. The most tender sorts, the foreign types, such as the Bermudas and Denias, are better adapted to the Southern latitude of the United States in California, New Mexico, and the Gulf States. They do very well in the North, if the season is lengthened by starting them under glass, and even under the most favorable conditions they produce fine crops when the seed is sown outside. The American types which are represented by the numerous Danvers and Globes are grown mostly in the North, but will likewise do very well in the South under proper care. The onion has adapted itself to the different climates through centuries of cultivation. In the warmer parts of Europe, such as Italy, Portugal, and especially Spain, the type of the large thick-necked, long season, short-keeping and very mild, sweet quality onion has been developed. Cultivation for hundreds of years in these parts without the introduction of outside strains has ACRES. 45002 4250= 4000= 3750= 35002 3250= 3000= 2750" 2500= 2250= — 2000= 1750= 1500= 1250= 1000= 750= 500= 250= 0= Ohio ACRE PRODUCTION Chart 2. Mass. Ind. Acre Production of Onions by States. Mich. Ill. Wis. nn. Conn. Rh. Is. 15 16 ONIONS produced this type. In the same manner the onions grown in California gradually acquire the characteristics of the slower ripening Southern European types. Vast quantities of seed used by Northern growers are raised in California, and. unless the stock be replenished from the North each season, the bulbs grown from the California seed will fail to mature at harvest time. Even in the North care must be exercised in the selection of bulbs for seed purposes, lest the thicker neck or bottle shape type predominate. This type requires a longer season in which to mature sufficiently, and, therefore, is likely to have poorer keeping qualities. A temperate climate without extremes of heat or cold is best for the onion. The industry is scarcely ever profitable where there is no winter and summer or rainy and dry seasons. Comparatively cool conditions at the time of seeding and during the early part of the growth, with plenty of moisture are necessary, and a dry soil with warmer tem- peratures prevailing is desirable during the time of bowling and ripening. In the North the seed is usually sown during the time of spring rains and the crop is harvested in late summer, when dry conditions may be expected to prevail. Figure 1. In the North the Seed Is Sown in Early Spring. CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS ity In the South the seed is drilled earlier, since the bulk of the growth must take place under comparatively cool condi- tions. The amount of rainfall necessary to produce a crop of onions will depend largely upon the soil and its drainage. Many of the muck soils in which the soil water remains near the surface will require very little rainfall; in fact, the best crops are produced on these soils with a smaller amount _ of rainfall, but very evenly distributed. Excessive rainfall sometimes causes thick-necks or scullions. In the southern part of the United States the climatic conditions are overcome by growing the crop during the late autumn and winter; early spring and summer being the time of cropping in the North. The period of growth of the onion in the North ranges between one hundred and thirty and one hundred and fifty days. If the seed is grown under glass and transplanted (a method not generally employed in an extensive way in the North) the crop may be grown from seedlings in about one hundred days. The farther North the onions are grown, the shorter the season in which they mature. That is to say, onion seed grown in the North will produce mature bulbs in a shorter time than seed from the warmer climates under like conditions. CHAPTER II SOIL REQUIREMENTS OF THE ONION Soil Preferences. Onions may be grown on practically any soil that is in good physical condition, well drained, and having plenty of humus. Heavy soils are not suitable, because they furnish a poor seed bed, in that the surface is likely to bake and crack, injuring the young onions; in that the bulbs are checked in growth with the result that scul- lions are produced; and in that weeding is rendered very difficult. The bed should be free from rubbish, stones and weed seed. Seeding and cultivation are thus made less dificult and the expense and burden of caring for the crop is materially reduced. Sandy loams or clays containing a considerable amount of sand are often well adapted to onions. Heavy applica- tions of manure should be made or leguminous crops should be grown, and plowed under so as to lighten the soil. More fertilizer will be required than upon ordinary muck soils, to produce a paying crop. Onions produced on upland soils are of excellent quality, firmer, and, therefore, good keepers. We are more concerned with the muck type of soil, since it is the one mainly used in the North. In most instances it has been reclaimed by draining swamps, not many years ago regarded as practically worthless, but now good onion land, and frequently worth from $3800 to $500 per acre. Peat and muck are two different terms and should be kept in mind as applying to distinct soil types. Peat is composed of a coarse fibrous residue of the original vegetation in the earlier stages of decomposition 18 DRAINAGE 19 and disintegration. It is yellow brown to dark brown in color. Even though having a permanent water table just below the surface, its capillarity is so poor that the crop producing powers are limited largely on account of the lack of moisture retaining capacity. An aerated peat soil is acted upon by micro-organisms and the processes of oxidation; the fibrous structure is lost and it becomes pul- verized; the color changes from a yellow brown or a dark brown to a dark brown and black material, known as muck. It represents peat in an advanced stage of decomposition or decay, ripening into‘its old age. The organic matter being in a finely divided state, its plant food constituents are rendered more available to growing vegetation. At the same time the soil has a more satisfactory relation to the moisture supply. Mucks vary in depth from a few inches to fifteen, twenty or even thirty feet. By analysis they are found to be ex- ceedingly rich in nitrogen, which, of course, if available in large amounts, would be wasted. It is not, however, rapidly converted for the use of plants. In physical appear- ance mucks are very fine and black. On account of the larger amounts of organic matter in mucks as well as their high state of fertility and ease of cultivation, these soils are most productive and profitable for onion culture. They are also well adapted to onions in that the black soil warms up rapidly in the spring, thus favoring early planting. Further, the mucks are retentive of moisture, and drought seldom curtails the growth. Drainage. Mucks settle to a considerable extent upon drainage, on account of the shrinkage caused by drying out. A tile system is soon rendered worthless by its own change in level, thus causing it to clog with sediment in low places. Occasionally the tile are laid on boards, or continuous 20 ONIONS wooden conduits are used, thus obviating the aforesaid difficulty. Open ditches are generally used at first, in this way permitting the land to settle for a permanent tile drain- age system later. Open ditches should be spaced at a distance of 150 to 200 feet apart. They should have a depth of three to four feet. A marginal ditch is usually dug around the edges of the marsh to carry away water from springs and the overflow from the surrounding higher lands. Based upon the examination of a large number of tile drained fields by A. R. Whitson, of the Wisconsin Station, tile drains should be placed from three to four rods apart on muck soils for truck crops, in order to produce the best results. As in the open ditch system, a marginal tile is usually laid to carry off the spring and surface flow. The onion is a Sshallow-rooted crop, consequently a tile at twenty inches depth would be satisfactory, were onions alone to be considered. For ordinary crops, however, the drain should be placed at a depth ranging from three to four feet. CHAPTER III VARIETIES OF ONIONS Varieties. Commercial varieties of onions may be dis- tinguished in general by the color of: the skin, shape of the bulb, and the size. 1. YELLOW VARIETIES. a. Yellow Globe Danvers. Also called Danvers’ Yel- low, Round Yellow Danvers, Yellow Globe, Danvers, and Ohio Yellow Globe. It is a selected strain of Yellow Dan- vers, not so perfectly globular as some other forms, skin yellow, flesh white, fine grained, solid, and of excellent quality, good for storage purposes, and grown more exten- sively than any other yellow onion. b. Yellow Danvers. Also called Round Danvers. It has a thin yellow skin, white flesh, is finely grained and firm, round and of good size, of excellent quality, a good keeper, and compared with the Yellow Globe Danvers, it ripens earlier. ce. Southport Yellow Globe. It has a yellow skin with white flesh, is globe shaped and of good size, being larger than the Yellow Globe Danvers, matures later, is a good keeper, and is widely grown. d. Prizetaker. The seed was first grown in California from Spanish onions. It is the best of the large mild onions, globular in form, having bulbs weighing from one to two pounds, with skin of a rich yellow color, of pure white flesh, finely grained, used largely as a transplanted onion, and a poor keeper. Only medium-sized specimens should be stored. e. Giant Gibralter. Very similar, if not the same as 21 22 | ONIONS the Denia, a Spanish onion, used for transplanting, and, compared with the Prizetaker, the flesh is milder. It is a poor keeper in storage. f. Bermuda. A foreign type grown largely in Texas. 2. REpD VARIETIES. a. Southport Red Globe. A globe-shaped onion, with skin deep red, and flesh of splendid quality, mild and fine grained, a good keeper in storage, and widely grown where- ever the red variety is cultivated. b. Red Wethersfield. This onion is rather flat in shape, grows to a good size, has deep purplish red skin and purplish white flesh, is of moderate to coarse grain, and a good keeper and shipper. ce. Early Red Flat. Also called Early Red. An early maturing onion of flattened form, which does well on a cold soil, and is a good keeper. d. Red Bermuda. A foreign type. 3. WHITE VARIETIES. a. Southport White Globe. A globe onion of good size, of pure white skin, of white flesh and of mild flavor, and a good keeper. It requires better care than the yellow or red varieties. b. Silver King. The bulbs are large, flattened, of white flesh, and have good keeping qualities. ce. Silver Skin. Also called White Portugal. A well known white variety, subject to the attack of the Dry or Black Neck-Rot. d. White Barletta. Also called White Queen, New Queen and White Pearl. An extra early yielder, with small, flattened bulbs of handsome appearance and mild in flavor, a good keeper, and excellent for pickling. e. White Bermuda. A foreign type. VARIETIES . 23 4. Brown VARIETY. a. Australian Brown. An early maturing variety, of dark brown skin, white and solid flesh, and is one of the earliest maturing onions we have. The soil, markets and climate should be taken into con- sideration in selecting the variety. The climatic factors have already been mentioned. The choice of markets and shipping qualities will be treated later. The soil, however, will be mentioned at this time. The yellow and red sorts are better adapted to muck soils. All kinds do well on sandy loams and light soils. Deep, rich alluvial soils of the river bottoms and delta regions are the best for the Egyptian, Spanish, and Bermuda types. CHAPTER IV GOOD SEED ALL IMPORTANT Seed. The seed is one of the most important factors in the growing of onions. In fact, there are few crops grown where good seed counts for so much as with the onion. Growers so generally neglect the matter of pur- chasing good seed that their negligence has become one of the limiting factors of production. There are just two 1m- portant losses that may arise from the selection of poor seed: (1) it may be too old, and (2) it may come from poorly selected bulbs. Vitality of Onion Seed. Experiments on the: longevity of onion seed have been conducted by the Connecticut Station with the results given in the following table:* Vitality of Onion Seed CALIFORNIA GROWN SEEDS. No. Per Samples | Cent. Seed stated to be less than one year Fe Met aa 208s 88.18 Seed stated to be between one and two years old. . 77.46 Seed stated to be between three and four years old. i 10.00 eel 4 sold....| 2 Seed stated to be between two and three years old. +. 2,023 57.34 | Plotted by curve in Chart 3, it will readily be seen that onion seed should not be used the second year. The best ‘of onion seed should run from 95 per cent to 100 per cent in germinating power. The loss in production from the best of old seed, no matter how thickly sown, will be greater * Connecticut Station Biennial Report, 1909-1910, part 12. 24 VITALITY -OF } SEED 25 JS 23 EP ERERSER SRSA SSS ASS ee ZYRRENMRERRALS OAD Seas in ey eee SEREREs “SE SASSE RELVES S = CO BREAKS S SReSn2R SER RAR SMASH. ER SEER lait eae EER RE SRR RSE ReE RRA ELLE RES 2 RARER SRAARESA SEARS peace eee re Eo Eee eet Chart 3. Germination Test of Onion Seed. than the cost of new seed; for, while the germination of old seed may run even as high as 80 per cent, a great many of the plants will die. Nine hundred and thirty-seven samples of Connecticut grown onion seed were also tested by the Connecticut Station during seventeen consecutive years. The seed has always been less than one year old when tested. The result showed that 75.1 per cent had germin- ating power, a rather lower per cent than we might expect. Of the fresh seed, 62 per cent was the lowest and 89 per cent was the highest test at any time during the seventeen years. Of course, the seed tested was of the market run and may not have been washed to take out the light stuff. All seed should be tested to ascertain its germinating powers. The desirable grade should run from 85 per cent to 90 per cent. 26 ONIONS Testing the Seed. Onion seed may be tested for ger- mination by counting out one hundred seeds from a repre- sentative sample or lot for the purpose of germinating. Several methods are in vogue. One good way, a fair test and yet severe, consists in planting the seeds in a box of moist soil. Place the box in a warm, light place. The seed must not only germinate but produce plants. Poor seed will often germinate, but the seedlings lack the vitality to ‘push -arp through the soil and make plants. Testing several lots of one hundred seeds each is, of course, more exact, but not necessary, unless the first test proves disappointing. In the lat- ter event, other tests should follow to prove the merits of the first trial. Trueness to Type. Chart 4, pages 00 and 00, with its key on pages 00 and 00, shows the result- ing crops from the general run of seed purchased on the American markets to- day. The key shows the strain or variety as well as the name of the seedsman. These experiments were conducted by the Ohio Figure 2. Bottle Type. Experiment Station in co- VARIETY AND STRAIN TEST 27 Chart 4. Onion Variety and Strain Test “No."|Globe! Gent | lions | Cont | Bottle] Gene | Flat | Gene | Col. | Cont 1 OO Te etit Seal swt bs ao |) -5.2 (7.18 2.8 (Sas is | 2 S807 98:8 12 fio .le aes: 48) |. 4.6. | AP ee fee 3 390 | 50.3 | 2 3 | 360 | 46.4 2 Ao eater 4 AMO NGA bc ca leles ac 230 | 35.9 2 a) 2 1.4 5) TAS 88.0, |, I 1 62. }, 128 6 sf 120 2e8 6 292 | 65.8 | 1 2. LhGy 2654 4 0 SR he 7 SOR Moats te. Mieco le tire lke awe es 90. | 22.5 )° 45 1) 3s 8 235 | 86.7 | 4 LO. 2a S80 3 Lt 6. | 22 9 GO 46:9 ote ce es LS LEE 4S «726 5 | 3.8 10 PSOE dO.) aea alee Sore 270 | 63.9 2 | euskal peehame 11 LOO | QO | osc eybo Patentites oa ea Oe 2 1.8 1 — 12 19| 63.4 | 3 10 3 | 10. 4 | 13.3 1 | &e 13 G404 89.4 eo. < Sheets mee U4 | MOSES. chestaise es 2 3 14 ASS i GA acc i race 26 | 5.2 1 oS irs ae eae eae Po ene eal ea MA mle ttle eee en tee Sees Ai WA hes Ay. oT Cake as 16 BES} SOG. hse: Aisa 1M ES Pe: ce ge ad Rca te 1 8 17 Re Oe Nhe rg esl ve ees 3 9 6 5) 2. Lh a 18 UE il ee Eee 1 ee eo 2 yan 7 Pe eae 4874 19 Ts )3 0 ire 0 bi) |e Cee 23 | 13.4 t 6.10. | &:8 20 MEAS Mole ctsavai[iahe eed 5) Ot | Fecha 1.6 21 LU A co 7-2 ee ee 50) | (6:44) 9b)| £23 | - 22 eh 3.1 Be ee eA Wieien. w elhiave aie 13 2 2 | 23 1.6 23 SOU Oea a ates. shins ns oe oh DIM tee Aa arorae's Penk oy ths 28 | 2.8 24 03) 0.01 fes 7 Ya RP 1 Dial ie) i beens at Wee a 3 3 rie ee es aN eet fe he ote ee ns oll seestseer ehes ayer Slain eu belle hat ore Ma eseal aE te oD) SF ES Rg REST I, SRE ciaaiyel Mena ea Cele pre LP S| AUER Da Mae Ere (ie (og eae 27 BDOrh TOS cls ts ahah ereaees 105 | 18.6 4 7 5) “S, 28 MOUS. oll ates ccs [raion DGPS 4 loc. cl eerie 3 3 | 2.6 29 235 | 59.5 |. gL eS Un a leer | md a 3 8 30 90 | 73.7 1 8 15 | 12.6 4 ao | 12 4 Oe 31 1G 0 P) 08 a i ie a 60 | 34.5 2 1.2 2 1.2 32 Barer nee |x Peal a + apes CS a Foe 2) SNe ated Ree 26 | 2.8 33 ZO Reagan Nhe. we ens 195 | 40.4 5) t toy 2S 34 BOR GT ode ba > RR A See a Apia DHOSDRALE ood so ac nve ce Geet AV OOU ee On ee ie aan INViiKabe Ol SOUGics 20k o eae ee © 500 “ 24,852 “ ee reck = A BE a ee he eee 19,824 ‘“ 15—Sulphate of potash. ............ 1,200) el ihe Sie cee 16—Raw ground rock phosphate. ....| 1,000 “ 16,211 -“ 17—Raw ground rock phosphate..... 2,000 “ 14,435 “ NC heeles 425 el in 4 OR ee ae Le Sea me 15,818 “ Cross Plot Treatment of Lime and Manure, Each Application across One Third of All Plots Per Acre Yields jae Sy et ce ee peg nee maede Hase mae he eral NALS Rene a) ees 15,100 lbs. Pe Aiea ek ee oR I oe 1,500 Ibs. CaO 16,900 “ (= Miamure se 50 ee po a 8 tons 19,300 “ Good crops of onions are grown with a smaller per acre application where onions follow other heavily fertilized crops or where manure carries a part of the elements of fertility. With large applications it is essential to have other crop growing conditions in the best possible shape, in LIME 43 order that returns may be realized sufficient to warrant application. Lime. As with upland soils, the fact that some mucks need lime cannot be disputed on good grounds. Further- more, the decomposition of large amounts of organic matter in mucks makes them especially subject to accumulative acid conditions. After the soil is well drained and aerated, unless neutralized by a natural supply of lime, an applica- tion sufficient to counteract the acidity of the surface soil is advantageous. Where the muck is underlaid by beds of marl or’ limestone, the content may be sufficient for an indefinite period. On ordinary mucks about 2,000 pounds of limestone per acre, applied from every three to six years, will usually be found sufficient. Limestone is to be pre- ferred to the quicklime. The latter has an undesirable caustic action upon the organic matter in mucks. Manures. Since mucks are made up largely of organic matter, some growers use no manure on their land. Many persons are not so favorably situated as to be able to cover large areas with manure. Other growers make occasional applications, perhaps once in three years. Whatever may be the practice, it is generally conceded that the bacteria found in manures are especially beneficial to the organic matter of new and raw muck soils. They assist in decom- position and prove invaluable in the way of adding benefi- cial organisms of decay. Manures should be applied to muck soils upon some previous crop, unless well composted. Coarse and raw manures are likely not only to contain large amounts of weed seed but to furnish a breeding place for the onion maggot. They also tend to keep the soil open, thus making it too dry for the crop. CHAPTER VI PREPARATION OF THE SEED BED AND SEED PLANTING Preparation of the Soil. The best results and the greatest yields are obtained .by caring for the work in a most thorough manner on a moderate acreage. More careful fitting of the land is required for but few other crops. The land is usually plowed in the fall, and, unless exceptionally well drained, is laid off in beds from sixty to eighty feet in width. These beds run the width or length of the field, as the local circumstances may demand. The plow furrows for the first few years are turned towards the center of the beds. This practice produces a slightly convex surface, or bed, causing any surplus water, especially that from spring rains, to run off rapidly. The general land however should be level, so as to prevent washing, since the seed is drilled rather shallow and the roots of the young plants are near the surface. It should not be possible for water to stand upon the onion bed any period of time after the seed is planted. All low or hollow spots should be filled, else the crop is likely to be partially or completely destroyed within the area having poor surface drainage. For the purpose of leveling, a plank set upon edge may be used. The plank which acts as a scraper, is equipped with thills for one horse and handles for the driver. The handles are used to press the plank into the soil, so as to catch up some of it, and are lifted slightly when the low places are reaches, thus dumping it. Some earth will be carried from the higher to the lower places. In this way a better level may be secured. 44 PREPARATION OF SOIL 45 Various kinds of disks, harrows, drags and smoothing boats are used to prepare the soil. Individual growers have their own preferences. The land is first disked, or harrowed, and then dragged. Fertilizers should be well worked into the soil. As the onion is a surface feeder, it is best to keep Figure 6. Fertilizer Spreader. the elements of its food in the top few inches. A spreader, like that shown in Figure 6, is necessary for this purpose. If the land is loose, a roller must be used to pack it down. Figure 7. Planker for Smoothing Ground. 46 ONIONS Over working muck soils may render them lable to drifting. A heavy wind upon a dry soil may prove fatal to the seed before it is out of the ground. The soil should be smoothed before seeding. Three or four planks, having their edges spiked together, are sometimes used. Figure 7 shows a Figure 8. Onion Seed Dril!. DRILLING THE SEED 47 planker made in this way. All horse tracks are filled in by its use, and the bed is ready for the drills. | Drilling the Seed. Hand sced drills, as shown in Figure 8, are used in planting onion seed. The drills are set in accordance with the germination test. If the seed is not too old and comes according to the test, the drills can be regulated so as to obviate the necessity of thinning. Test the drills by running over a long strip of paper marked off in feet. From sixteen to eighteen seeds-per running foot will be a sufficient amount. Onion seed is_ usually drilled in rows fourteen inches apart, and from four to five pounds per acre are used. The exception is in the ease of white seed, which is generally sown at the rate of six pounds per acre. Keeping the rows straight and at an equal distance apart facilitates cultivation. Several drills are sometimes hitched together and pulled by a horse. In heavy soil the seed should be drilled about one half an inch deep. In mucks it is put into the ground from three fourths of an inch to two inches deep. Ordinarily three fourths of an inch is deep enough, but since the muck areas are so flat and usually unprotected from the winds, a few days of dry weather will make it possible for a high wind to blow the seed out, if it is put into the ground only three quarters of an inch. Two inches may be too much, if the soil is heavy or well packed, but may be considered a right depth, if the soil is loose. A few plantings for wind- breaks are of decided advantages and are used in some places. Early seeding is of importance, since the bulbs make most of their growth before hot weather comes on. In northern regions seed is planted just as early as the ground can be fitted, the latter part of March or the first part of April. CHAPTER. VII THE LESSER ONION CROPS Onion Sets. The onion set industry has attained more importance around Chicago, Llinois; Louisville, Kentucky; and Chillicothe, Ohio, than perhaps in any other localities. Onion sets are merely partially grown or small sized onions, their diameter running not more than one half or three quarters of aninch. From forty to one hundred and twenty pounds of seed are used on an acre. The rows are spaced from seven to fourteen inches apart. The thickness of the onions and the consequent crowded condition produces a very small bulb. The difference in the amount of seed used depends largely upon the fertility of the soil and width of rows. With rich soils more seed will be needed to keep the plants crowded lest the onions grow too large. The seed is sometimes spread into the row about two inches wide by means of a speciala ttachment to the drill. It is sown about the same time, and the crop is cared for in about the same way as onions grown for bulbs. The crop is ready to harvest in about ninety days after drilling the seed. Onion sets are pulled just after the necks begin to dry up, but while the stems are still erect. At the time of pulling, the tops are twisted off. The bulbs are crated and either cured in covered stacks in the field or hauled to curing sheds. Bulbs over three quarters of an inch in diameter are screened out and sold for picklers. Green or Bunch Onions. Green or bunch onions are produced in several ways. The sets are usually planted in early spring and are pulled whenever they attain the desired 48 PICKLE ONIONS 49 size. Small sets will produce green onions in from six to eight weeks. The larger sets grow to proper size in less time. They are marketed by peeling the outer tissues off, washing, tying in bundles and trimming both roots and tops. Onions grown from seed in the ordinary manner may be used for green onions. The product grown from seed will not be ready for market as early as green onions grown from sets. The very earliest green onions are produced by fall planting of top onions, also called perennial tree onions, or multipliers, also called potato onions. Both of these onions differ from common onions and are distinct races. The multipler has two or more cores, which, unless they are pulled as a green onion, continue to divide, and produce large, ripe bulbs. The core of the bulb of the top onion also divides, if permitted to grow beyond the green onion stage; but, like the multiplier, it does not attain any con- siderable size. The top onion sends up a slender stalk which bears a cluster of bulbs at the tip in the place of seed. Both the top cluster and the bottom divided bulbs can be used for green onions. They mature a little after mid- summer and should go through a rest stage or be cured before fall planting. In the Northern states the multipliers or top onion bulbs are planted early in September in rows about fourteen inches apart. In milder climates they may be planted later. The bulbs produce some growth before winter sets in; but during a severe winter they should be covered slightly with straw, loose manure or leaves. A south exposure will help materially in advancing the crop in spring. Pickle Onions. Pickle onions are small sized onions produced by crowding. The seed is drilled at the rate of from twenty-five to thirty pounds per acre. White varieties are largely used. The rows are usually spaced 12 inches 4 50 ONIONS apart. Otherwise the crop receives the same general treat- ment as large onions. Pickle onions run larger than sets. They may be graded into three sizes: those smaller than 34 inches in diameter; those running from 34 to 114 inches in diameter; and those over 114 inches in diameter.